Transactions - American Fisheries Society

BINDING FT8"5°T 1 = 1992

a

Lith
‘ si

=

| e ‘
x

f JON,
wile WA
o

TRANSACTIONS

of the

American Fisheries Society

“To promote the cause of fish culture; to gather and
diffuse information bearing upon its practical success,
and upon all matters relating to the fisheries; to unite
and encourage all interests of fish culture and the fish-
eries; and to treat all questions of a scientific and eco-
nomic character regarding fish.”

VOLUME XLIV, NUMBER 1 *&
1914-1915

Edited by The Recording Seeretary

DECEMBER, 1914
go

122 4h
Published Quarterly by the Society Lei
NEW YORK, N. Y.

CONTENTS j

Par

Notes on the New Kansas Fish Hatchery and the First Year's Out-
put. LD. L. Dyche ...... :

The Feeding of Trout in Relation to Thyroid Tumor. M. C. Marsh

The Use of Copper Sulphate for the Destruction of Obnoxious Fishes
in Ponds and Lakes. John W. Titcomb hin eee wees

Suggestions as to Indices of the Suitability of Bodies of Water
for-Mishes! Veo SS NEON Lek) ce Se ee ene nee ee eee ne ee

Progress in the Propagation of the Diamond-Back Terrapin.
Tier Rade ets. 5 ae ANI Sete macs eA ae Se eS, Pee

Notes on some North Carolina Sharks and Rays. L. Radcliffe .....

Some Cases of Narrowly Restricted Parasitism Among Commercial
Species of Frgsh Water Mussels. 4. D. Howard 0...

A New Record in Rearing Fresh-water Pearl Mussels.
AD) TUOWOE ye ee Se ee

On the Seasonal Distribution of Fish Parasites. EH. Linton
Fish Meal as Food: for Trout. ° GC) Embody=. = Se
The Hisheries of the Pacitie Coast. Johnie Coo 0 eres
The Pacific Fisheries Society. John N. COBB 2...cecccccccccn Behan eee
Cath Basin Ponds. WO. Buck <a ee ete lg ee
An Experiment in Feeding Young Large Mouth Bass. FE. N. Carter
The Paddle-fish (Polyodon spathula). M. L. Alexander ...................

The Properties and Utilization of some Marine Animal Oils.
CR BE WTC a ea cectigttni

20

QT

33

37

41

45
48
51
61
65
67
11

73

79

NOTES ON
THE NEW KANSAS FISH HATCHERY AND
THE FIRST YEAR’S OUTPUT

By Pror. L. L. DYCHE,
State Fish and Game Warden, Pratt, Kan.

Since submitting our last report to this society, the
contracts for the building of the new Kansas Fish Hatch-
ery have been completed, and much other work has been
done to complete details of many parts of the work not
included in the contracts. Everything promised by the
plans and specifications seems to have been developed and
worked out in a satisfactory manner. The new Fish
Hatchery is now in working order. The first crop of
fish raised in 1913 has been distributed and the second
crop raised in 1914 is ready for distribution and is being
distributed.

THE EMBANKMENTS SODDED.

All the embankments near the waterline of the ponds
are now covered with swamp grass sod. The grass from
these sods made a good growth during the spring and
summer of 1913. The growth this summer (1914) has
been most phenomenal. At the present time the banks
near the waterline are densely covered with grass that
has made a growth of from three to six feet in height this
season. This heavy growth of grass mixed with some
semi-aquatic plants completely protects the banks against
the action of wind and waves. It also protects the shallow
water near the shores where the old fish spawn and the
young fish feed. We have never seen a better protection,
natural or artificial, for earth embankments of fish ponds.

WATER IN THE NEW PONDS.

All the 99 ponds are full of water and the supply has
been good all this year. A few of the ponds in the east

6 American Fisheries Society

part of the hatchery suffered some for water during July
and August in 1913. However, last year, (1918) was an
unusually dry season and the ponds were all new and
did not hold water as well as they do this year. It takes
some time for artificially scooped out ponds to seal their
own bottoms so that they will hold water in good shape.
This is especially true of such ponds as those constructed
for the State Hatchery where the soil in many places was
sandy and the ponds were not puddled.

No fish were lost at the hatchery during the summer
and fall of 1913 on account of dry weather and low
water. The fish were removed from a few ponds and
sorted and placed in other ponds where there was plenty
of water. What really bothered the Department was the
fact that the water in many of the good streams of the
State was so low that we did not think it advisable to
place fish in them, and many of the ponds for which fish
had been ordered were either dry or the water conditions
so bad that we did not think it wise to stock them. This
made it necessary to hold fish in the hatchery ponds that
would otherwise have been distributed. However, when
the water did come in the !ate fall and spring, the hatch-
ery had the fish to restock the waters of Kansas and, as
said in another place, distributed fish in the ponds and
streams of 102 of the 105 counties of the State.

PLANT AND ANIMAL LIFE IN THE PONDS.

We have stated before that the new ponds have been
stocked with good varieties of water plants. These
plants got fairly well started in some ponds last year.
This year they have done better and most of the ponds
have more or less water plants growing in them. By
another year we have reason to believe that all the ponds
will have a fairly good supply of suitable water plants.

Fish were placed in the ponds in the spring of 1913.
The ponds were new and there was no more food in them
than could be found in newly dug cellars, except what
was brought in the water through the 21-inch pipe that
supplies the hatchery from the Ninnescah River. How-

Dyche.—New Kansas Fish Hatchery 7

ever, a considerable amount of food was brought in from
this source. The water from the river carried various
forms of plant and animal life, and this life, in addition
to what was placed in the ponds by artificial processes,
soon established itself and furnished more or less food
for the newly hatched schools of young fish. We noticed
that various forms of insects and their larvae and many
forms of small worms, mollusks and crustaceans soon
appeared in the waters of the new ponds.

FISH IN THE PONDS.

The ponds were lightly stocked in the spring of 1913
with the common varieties of fish such as bass, crappie,
bluegill sunfish, bullhead catfish and goldfish, the latter
being put in as a food fish for other fish. These fish,
their relation to each other and the manner of stocking
the ponds are described in the Bulletins issued by the
Department. Owing to the fact that the ponds were new
and the supply of food scant, not more than from 1/4 to
1/6 as many brood stock fish were placed in them as were
placed in the older ponds where the food supply was
established and the spawning grounds well known.

THE OUTPUT OF THE NEW PONDS.

The output of the new ponds was good, all things
considered. During the fall of 1913 and the spring of
1914, twenty-nine carloads of fish were distributed.
Twenty-five of the twenty-nine carloads of fish, about
300,000, were taken from the new hatchery ponds. These
twenty-nine carloads of fish, together with about twenty
thousand large tadpoles —the kind that develop into
large edible bullfrogs—were distributed in 102 of the
105 counties of the State of Kansas. A carload of fish
such as we handle usually ranges from 500 to 14,000,
depending upon size, age and weather conditions. We
distributed many fish that might be called large for dis-
tribution. They would range from six to eighteen inches
in length and would weigh from three ounces to three
pounds each. We believe in the distribution of good sized

8 American Fisheries Society

fish,—for reasons see Bulletins published by the Depart-
ment.

GENERAL OBSERVATIONS.

It was very noticeable that the ponds that had the best
supply of vegetable matter were the ones that produced
the most and best fish. Ponds that had but little vege-
tation, and consequently but little food, furnished but
few fish. The fish taken from such ponds, if there were
many in them, were small, thin and poor. This was
especially true of the crappie. The bass taken from
such ponds were sometimes unusually large, but as a
rule there were not many of them and dissection showed
that they were cannibals. or were feeding extensively
upon other kinds of fish that might be in the ponds. In
fact the young black bass in all these ponds were large
for their age. Many of them ranged from five to ten
inches in length in October, November and December.
One bunch measured and weighed November 2, 1913, av-
eraged in length 7% inches and in weight 6% ounces. Most
of these young bass were taken from ponds that had been
stocked with bluegill sunfish and goldfish as food fishes
for the bass. The lengths of some of these young bass,
in inches, taken just as they came ran thus: 7.6, 7.7, 8.3,
7.8, 7.2, 7.4, 8, 7.3, 7.8, 6.9, 6.8, 7,6 and the corresponding
weights were, in ounces: 6.5, 7, 7, 8, 8, 5.5, 6.5, 8.5,
5, 4:5) 4:5, G:b:

It was very apparent that the ponds that had unfixed
and unsettled banks and whose shores were being cut by
the waves, produced but few fish. We are more con-
vinced than ever that it is necessary for ponds to have
suitable spawning grounds or they will not yield a good
supply of fish. What we call suitable spawning grounds
for the common kinds of fish such as we raise are de-
scribed in our Bulletins on fish culture. An unsuitable
spawning ground for the large mouthed black bass, for
instance, can be found in a pond where the waves cut
the banks and where there is little or no vegetation.

Dyche.—New Kansas Fish Hatchery 9

Even if fish are hatched under such conditions they seem
to disappear soon. To produce such a fish as the large
mouthed black bass, it is necessary to have not only
the proper spawning grounds but conditions that pro-
duce the proper food for both old and young fish. The
young fish when first hatched must have certain forms
of animal life, and as they grow, other forms must in
turn supply the young fish with food; and the time soon
comes when the young fish will devour each other, unless
young fish of other varieties can be had to fill their ever
hungry and expanding stomachs. From young bass less ©
than one and a half inches long we have taken young
crappy, young bluegills, young goldfish and young bass.
(A preserved specimen of a bass one inch in length that
was caught June 2, 1914, while in the act of swallowing
a young goldfish 5, of an inch in length, was exhibited.)

REMARKS.

Fish culturists are continually receiving letters from
people who want to know how to raise fish. Without
assuming to give advice to any one, we would like to
drop a long distance hint to such people. First we
would refer them to bulletins and other literature pub-
lished by fish culturists; and, second, we would say, that
in our judgment, if one desires to know how to raise
fish and become a fish culturist, it is almost necessary to
make an all day and all night—in fact, an all year and an
all life time study of the subject, and especially of the
spawning and food habits of the kind or kinds of fish
that one desires to produce.

DISCUSSION.

Mr. Lyvexz, of Michigan: I desire to ask Professor Dyche if the
fish introduced into the pond with the bass were blue-gills and sunfish
and whether he keeps any small-mouth bass?

Professor Dyche spoke of fish eating one another. We have found
that if our old bass are well fed all the time they do not bother the
young bass to any great extent. We endeavor to feed our bass in all
the ponds once a day and give them all they will eat, and we raise a
great many more fingerling bass in the pond with the old bass than
we would in a pond from which the old bass were excluded.

Pror. Dycue: I do not like to put blue-gills in with the bass when

10 American Fisheries Society

spawning. I put in goldfish, hickory shad, or any sucker-mouthed
minnow; but I prefer to spawn blue-gills in an adjoining pond and
have a screen between that will allow the young bass to go in where
the blue-gills are, or the blue-gills where the bass are. The blue-gills
are very bad about eating up the young bass, which are the most foolish
of fish when they are little and do not know how to take care of them-
selves at all. After they have attained some size the tables are turned.

We have no small-mouth bass at all.

As to feeding bass, I plan to raise all I want without feeding them
artificially at all. I furnish them with abundant food, just the same,
by planning ahead and having certain things grow in the ponds for
them to feed on.

Mr. Woops, of Missouri: We do not feed our large bass, but rely
on other fish and crayfish. We separate our breeders from the young
bass as soon as the latter are able to take care of themselves. Our
superintendent, Mr. Cochran, who has had thirty-two years’ experi-
ence, claims to have the most success by that method.

Mr. Fearinc, of Rhode Island: For twenty-eight years we have
followed the custom of placing the fry in ponds and feeding them.
When they are not provided with sufficient food they turn cannibals
and the larger ones eat up the smaller. The smaller ones may even
attempt to eat the larger. But ‘if they have all the food they want,
you can have both large and small trout in the same place and they
will leave each other alone.

Proressok Dycue: The problem of feeding depends on conditions.
I have ponds where hornwort, milfoil and other fine-leaved plants, com-
monly called “moss,” grow to such an extent that they form a solid
mass. On these plants are found large numbers of molluscs, crusta-
ceans, insects and larve, that furnish food for all kinds of fish to start
with, and some of those fish make food for the larger fish. I could not
seine one of those ponds to get the large fish without destroying all
the plants. So they all live there together, and in October or No-
vember I can get, when they do well, from 20,000 to 30,000 bass, from
four to six inches long, out of an acre pond, and in addition the old fish
are still there and in good condition.

Besides, those young fish must feed out of the way of the older
ones and fight for existence. Not only that, but they swim all around
the pond and learn to know food when they see it; they know the
different kinds of insects, the little goldfish, hickory shad and suckers,
and learn to feed on them. When you place such fish in a stream
they know how to find food. There are many things to be considered
in this business of raising fish to stock ponds and streams, and much
that we have learned this year may not be of much use next year be-
cause the conditions have changed and each pond or stream will have
its own peculiarities.

Mr. Granam, of Massachusetts: You spoke of losing fish in the
tanks by the larger ones devouring the smaller ones. Is that because
of underfeeding?

Proressor Dycne: Yes; I have had a four-pound bass swallow a
two-pound bass in a tank while the fish were being moved. I presume
it was because they were hungry. Young fish sometimes swallow each
other when held in small ponds or tanks a few days before they are
shipped.

Mr. Speaks, of Ohio: In some of our ponds which can be seined
readily the young fish are taken as soon as they come from the beds
and placed in brooding places. In other cases where seining is diffi-
cult, we placed a series of wire fences, to enable the young fish to
escape from the ia The young fish appear to know instinct-

r

y

Dyche.—New Kansas Fish Hatchery 11

ively that it is necessary for them to keep entirely away from the
old ones. Also by feeding the old ones well their appetites are re-
duced. We use a great deal of prepared food—meal and meat scraps
ground together with some preservative which keeps it indefinitely. By
these two methods we have for two years succeeded in raising a very
satisfactory number of fish.

In our state fishing has become apparently the prevailing pastime.
We estimate that we have now in Ohio nearly a million people who
are interested in hook and line fishing. We have succeeded in organ-
izing such persons into clubs for the protection of fish in the streams,
until now these clubs are common over the state. But we are put
to our wits’ ends to supply the demands. Last spring I got eighteen
carloads from the marsh districts of Lake Erie. We put out a num-
ber of carloads of bass weighing from two to four pounds. We got
them very early, so we had the benefit of the spawn in the spring.
I have found this so successful that in the future I expect to devote
a good deal of effort to restocking by this method. We are fortunate
in being able to get from the marsh district an almost unlimited num-
ber of small-mouth bass, rock bass and blue-gills. We put out eight
carloads of blue-gills in March when the streams would receive the
benefit of all the spawn. We are making provisions for enlarging our
reservoirs and contemplate adding a number of small systems in vari-
ous parts of the state. It may be better to follow Professor Dyche’s
plan of concentrating all effort at one point, but from experience in
the past three years with little wild ponds I am convinced that under
ordinary conditions such numbers of fry can be raised that it seems
unnecessary to go into a big scheme of pond propagation.

In one little pond, with an area of less than half an acre, we put
last fall, thirty pairs of breeders. I have seen it several times and
looked it over recently. We are just beginning to take out the young
and it looks as if there were from 50,000 to 100,000 of them. They
have had no careful attention of any kind.

We find, as Professor Dyche does, that the young are cannibals from
infancy, but it has been our experience, after five years close observa-
tion, that when we feed properly this is greatly reduced.

In Lake Erie waters it is interesting to note the difference in habitat
of the two species of bass. In Sandusky Bay one can get a carload
of small-mouth bass at one haul of the seine. As soon as the water
turns cold they all make for the deepest waters. I have been over
the bay during the winter season and have seen tons and tons of pickerel
and perch caught through the ice, but never a small-mouth bass, where
three months later they could be found at every point. In the marsh
district we take carload after carload of large-mouth and never see a
small-mouth bass. They do not frequent the same waters, yet we are
putting them into every stream in the state. It was a common notion
a few years ago that small-mouth bass would not live in our ordinary
Ohio streams, but we have disproved this by using them to stock the
streams, and this year our fishermen had remarkable success with them.

Mr. Titcoms, of Vermont: I wish to ask Mr. Speaks what he uses
for food and where he gets it, and to ask also for Mr. Lydell’s expe-
rience with prepared foods.

Mr. Speaks: It is meat ground with meal and some sort of pre-
servative added so that it will keep. It may be had from any of the
Chicago packing houses under the name of “prepared fish food.” Our
fish appear to relish this food and do well with it.

Mr. Lyvetz, of Michigan: We use beef liver, beef milt and beef
scrap. Last year I fed a lot of young perch on this diet and they
were four or five inches long by the latter part of August. They

12 American Fisheries Society

were in a cemented pool and there was nothing else there for them
to eat. I tried the same food on bass, but they did not grow satis-
factorily on this food exclusively. In the larger ponds where they got
a lot of natural food in addition to this, they did very well.

Mr. Speaxs: I wish to inquire as to the experience of the members
in placing some carp in bass ponds for food. Last year one of our
superintendents stripped two female carp, and in eight days had
400,000 young carp. If food that will suit the bass can be produced
in that way it would be a simple matter.

Mr. Granam, of Massachusetts: When you once put carp into a
pond it is impossible ever to get them out again. If you wish to
bring upon your head the condemnation of every fisherman, put the
carp in.

Mr. Speaks: I know from one or two experiences that if bass are
introduced into water completely stocked with carp, it will be only
a matter of time until the carp disappear. They eat up all the young
carp.

Proresson Dycue: I do not favor carp. They eat up much of the food
that the little bass should have and they grow too fast. In the same
period a bass will grow to weigh a pound and a carp three pounds.
I prefer goldfish for food for bass. Young and small goldfish make
excellent food for young bass and larger goldfish are good for the
larger bass.

But I do not want you to be misled by what I have said about feed-
ing. I have started out to found a hatchery where I will not have
to feed the fish and am working out every idea to make the ponds
self-sustaining. I have a great deal of vegetation in the ponds and
fish that will consume such matter and convert it into food for other
fish. I do not attempt to sort or remove small fish. Twenty thousand
of the larger fish eat up eighty thousand smaller ones, and that is all
right, as I get rid of the weaker bass that do not grow at a proper rate.
I have only 600 bass that I am feeding for a new stock of spawners.

A Memsper: What is the preservative used in the fish food?

Mr. Speaks: I do not know. It cannot be injurious because the fish
eat it every day and relish it. It is something to prevent the food from
becoming rancid.

Presipent Warp: How do they compare in growth with fish fed
on other foods?

Mr. Speaks: We used only this food in one pond last year, and
after the pond was frozen over we put lines in and took out bass
eight inches long, which is a rather remarkable growth in one season.

THE FEEDING OF TROUT IN RELATION
TO THYROID TUMOR

By M. C. MarsuH, State Institute for the Svudy of
Malignant Disease, Buffalo, N. Y.

The enlargement of the thyroid gland in various mem-
bers of the salmon family is familiar to most of you
either from the fish itself or various publications. This
enlargement is of the most various degree and produces
often a distinct, palpable swelling, or thyroid tumor. It
is a disease process whose various stages have been held
to include goiter and cancer, though we now consider
the whole process as really one disease. A more detailed
account is unnecessary here, extended reports having al-
ready been made. Some recent observations make it
desirable to offer to this society some brief remarks on
the relation of food to this growth.

The tumor occurs in both wild and domesticated trout,
but is everywhere rare in the former and very common
among the latter in this country. It has been supposed
that the raw meat foods so largely fed in American
hatcheries were an important factor in causing the tu-
mor growth. These foods, consisting of liver, heart,
lungs and other organs of various domestic animals,
often mixed with mush made from flour, make a diet to
which trout are quite unaccustomed in the wild state but
upon which domesticated trout have lived for many gen-
erations. However unnatural such foods, trout are able
to grow, fatten and reproduce by their use. This feed-
ing of mammalian flesh, however it may predispose to
and accentuate the disease in hatcheries, is not necessary
to the growth of thyroid tumors. This was inferred
from their occasional occurrence in wild fish, especially
f in a whitefish, which is a species whose natural food is
plankton. Now there is important additional proof of
this. In the aquarium at Naples, Italy, five among a few
hundred sea bass dying in the tanks have developed thy-
roid tumors. They were fed only upon fresh sea fish,

14 American Fisheries Society

mostly herring, and were, of course, themselves held in
sea water. These tumors were found by Dr. Paul Von-
willer, a Swiss student, working in Naples. Since hith-
erto no marine fish in sea water has been known to show
a thyroid tumor, and since iodine has a marked remedial
influence on such growth in fresh water, this find at Na-
ples is of unusual interest. The sea water contains ap-
preciable iodine, in amounts much greater than those
effective in fresh water. Yet the tumors originated and
progressed in the presence of this iodine content.

In Germany, trout culture is widely and extensively
practiced, but there the thyroid tumor is practically un-
known. Fish so affected are perhaps as often found in
the natural streams as in trout hatcheries. The Ger-
mans have, with respect to feeding, a régime quite dif-
ferent from that which obtains here. In the first place
sea fish as a food for trout is largely used. Second grade
codfish is cheap, and with other members of the cod fam-
ily has become almost a staple food among the hatcheries.
A small quantity of shrimp is added to the fish by some
breeders. In the second place it is almost or quite a uni-
versal practice to cook the food that is fed to trout, whe-
ther it consists itself of fish, or the organs and offal of ani-
mals. Sea fish, no doubt fresh water fish also, used as
a food, and the cooking of meat used as food, are both
practices having at least a tendency to prevent thyroid
disease. When both are combined the rarity of thyroid
tumor in German hatcheries ceases to cause surprise.
There are very few, if any, hatcheries in Germany where
artificial propagation of trout is based on raw meat food.
One may plausibly infer that these two practices are
wholly or chiefly the cause for the freedom of Germany
from thyroid tumor, and we may suppose that raw meat-
fed fish would there acquire the tumors as they do here
and in other countries, although this is not necessarily
true. I have recently heard that feeding tests which
should determine this question have been begun during
the past summer in Germany near Munich.

Marsh.—Food and Thyroid Tumor 15

Through control of the feeding of trout it is likely that
practically all of the enlargement of the thyroid giand
which is entitled to be considered a disease can be pre-
vented. It is a matter of a properly balanced ration, and
exactly what is effective and at the same time cheap
enough and procurable in quantity sufficient to meet fish
cultural requirements I think no one is yet in a position
to say. It is probable that such a food might contain a
considerable proportion of meat (liver, heart or lungs,
etc.), but that to this should be added a vegetable food |
(flour), and a smaller portion of fish. With little doubt
such a mixture would then be greatly improved by a
necessarily small addition of either shrimp, mussels,
maggots or insects, or similar animals. In Germany, for
instance, one hatchery uses a food consisting of about
one-third shrimp and two-thirds fish. Since the fish
cost less than a cent and a half per pound and the shrimp
about four cents, this is understandable. But in this
country shrimp are regarded as a luxury and not usually
as an available fish food. However, you will recall that
in a paper before the Fourth International Fishery Con-
gress convened in this city in 1908, Mr. Worth set forth
the abundance and availability of the fresh water shrimp
(Palaemonetes) as a fish food and even proposed its
culture for this purpose. I imagine that when this re-
source is properly exploited it will be found that it can
be harvested, or cultivated, or both, in quantities ade-
quate for practical use.

Having thus a rather complex mixture of foodstuffs
the whole mess should be cooked or at least heated
through to the boiling point. I think the basis or start-
ing point of cooking food for trout in Germany was to
kill the parasites so largely harbored by the fishes which
constitute the food, and which thus add to the danger of
the live trout becoming infested. The German Fisheries
. Research Station constantly advises the hatcheries to
cook the food as a general precaution against fish para-
sites, since the trout have difficulty enough getting away
from the direct attacks of parasites without swallowing

16 American Fisheries Society

them bodily and alive in food. Whether this cooking of
the food is further a physiological advantage perhaps
does not yet appear.

Now, it has been said that cooking, and the use of fish
as food for trout are each to an extent preventives of
thyroid tumor. But some recent observations make it
seem certain that neither alone is sufficient for this end.
One is the occurrence already mentioned, of such tumors,
in a small percentage, in the sea bass of the Naples
aquarium on a raw fish diet. The other is a practice at a
commercial trout farm in Pennsylvania which consti-
tutes a departure in brook trout feeding which should be
of much interest to this society aside from any bearing it
may have on the present subject. At this hatchery the
fry are fed for about two months on beef liver in the
usual way. Then a wheat flour mush is added in small
and very gradually increasing quantity until by the end
of the next four months all the liver is eliminated. After
this nothing but cooked flour mush is fed and the trout
are so reared to adults. The trout keep in fine condition,
resemble wild fish in color and activity and make a sur-
passing table trout, but they do not grow rapidly. The
object of the feeding is to produce a fish resembling the
wild trout in edible qualities and without the flavor of
liver fed fish. In this success has been achieved and the
adults reach a high-priced market. Trout so fed are
used as breeders and yield a good quality of eggs which
hatch out with excellent results, but it is not claimed that
this flour feeding has any advantages from the breeding
standpoint. It has been adopted solely to obtain a su-
perior table trout, and this result is achieved at consider-
able sacrifice of the rate of growth. By universal experi-
ence it appears to be demonstrated that rapid growth
requires meat or fish feeding.

From other sources, where trials have been made with
a purely vegetable food, opinion is for the most part
against the practice. Here it is necessary to direct at-
tention to the fact, often demonstrated in fish culture,
that the same methods do not work out alike in all hatch-

Marsh.—Food and Thyroid Tumor 7

eries. Feeding which produces certain results under the
conditions at one place will produce quite other results
at some other place, where the water supply and other
component conditions are different. It may also be said,
that in introducing or experimenting with vegetable
feeding, to break off abruptly the meat feeding of adult
trout is to invite failure. It seems necessary to begin
with fry and to make the transition very gradual.
Whether fry could be made to thrive upon flour alone
from the very beginning of feeding has perhaps not been
put to the test and the chances seem against it, but surely
some one ought to try it.

However well the feeding of flour serves the purpose
for which it was undertaken, neither the nature of this
food nor its cooking suffice to prevent the development of
thyroid tumors. The yearlings and the two and three
year olds exhibited growths typical of the disease both to
the naked eye and the microscope. The tumors, how-
ever, were very small and the percentage of fish affected
low, the progress of the disease being much restricted in
comparison with liver or other animal tissue feeding.
Since the tumors are so closely associated with liver feed-
ing, one might infer that possibly their origin in flour
fed fish is to be referred to those first few months of free
life, when they received the usual diet of beef liver paste.
But the tumor growth is progressive under the fiour
feeding, and changes of diet which affect the thyroid do
so rather quickly. The adult fish with tumors had been
without liver or meat food since their first half year of
life. Such an inference is opposed to the results of feed-
ing experiments, and can not plausibly be made.

It remains therefore to be proved just what are the
constituents of a balanced ration which will be efficient
to entirely prevent that relatively immense overgrowth
of the thyroid gland which shows as visible tumors, if
indeed there be any such combination of foods. Al-
though thus far among the salmonoids, marine fish as a
food has not produced any tumors, it has not been so
largely fed as other foods, and since sea bass in captivity

—~_ —- - — =~ - --

18 American Fisheries Society

under such feeding have developed such tumors, one
must be conservative in assuming that fish as food will
absolutely protect the trouts. This matter of the bal-
anced ration for trout in fish culture is fundamentally
important and rather difficult, as it is in human and
animal feeding. It is not more demanded as a preventive
of thyroid disease than against fish disease in general,
for when the diet is as exactly adapted as possible to the
needs of fish, the latter have a better defense against all
their diseases and parasites.

Thyroid tumor disease does not impress most trout
culturists as a very serious enemy to their operations,
and in this they have much justification, for even enor-
mous relative enlargements of the thyroid are yet so
small as not to force themselves on the attention. The
very large tumors are not common, and it is exceptional
when the mortality is high at any stage. The fish cul-
turist does not and need not give himself any particular
worry over thyroid disease, though we may assume he
would rather not have any of it in his ponds. That a
gland should become enlarged to hundreds, perhaps
thousands of times its normal size, is, of course, not desir-
able and indicates something is wrong. One can say in
general that the situation can at least be greatly im-
proved by diluting the liver and other mammalian food
materials used, with flour and especially with fish,
shrimp or any natural food available.

Since a thyroid tumor in a trout is a form of fish can-
cer, and there has always been some talk of the con-
tagiousness of cancer, it may be well here to insist on
making some common sense distinctions. Infectious
diseases are those caused by microbes, that is, micro-
organisms or minute parasites, and most of them may be
easily “caught” or passed from person to person. But
some of them do not transfer readily from person to per-
son, that is, they are not readily contagious. One can
scarcely “catch” them. Now cancer has not even been
shown to be an infectious, that is, a parasitic disease.
It can only be transferred from one subject to another,

Marsh.—F ood and Thyroid Tumor 19

and this with some difficulty, by transplanting a piece of
the actual cancer, as illustrated in the lower animals;
and it has to be into an animal of the same species.
While there is the widest difference of opinion concern-
ing the cause or causes of cancer, nobody at all—not
even those who think it caused by a parasite—thinks it
is contagious, or “catching,” after the fashion of our
known infectious diseases. It is proper to say that fish
cancer is not contagious. Careful experiments show that
they do not catch it from each other even by the closest
association. Of course, no one need hesitate to catch,
handle, buy, sell or eat fish of any kind on account of
cancer. Fish are always eaten cooked. I have eaten
trout with thyroid tumors, and the results were exactly
like those from eating trout without thyroid tumors.
They even taste exactly the same. I would eat the
tumors themselves and not without hope of finding a
new delicacy, were it not that they are too valuable for
other purposes.

DISCUSSION.

Mr. Titcoms, of Vermont: Mr. Marsh has covered the subject so
fully that there is not much opportunity for discussion, but I wish
to ask one or two questions. Is the food the cause of these tumors,
or is it in any way related? In what conditions as to other food, space
and water were these fish kept that were fed on flour? Could they
get any animal life out of the water?

Mr. Marsu: I would not say that the food is the cause of the
tumor, it is only the predisposing factor. It enables the real active
agent to act more readily and on more fish. The fish were kept in
ponds larger than the ordinary ponds used at hatcheries—perhaps half
an acre in extent. They were fed no insects, nothing but flour of a
low grade, not quite white. It is not whole wheat ground up, but it
has a small amount of the hull of the grain.

Mr. Trrcoms: Was the flour cooked, and do you think it would be
advisable to mix raw flour with liver?

Mr. Marsu: The flour is cooked. I asked the fish culturist about
mixing the food, but he thought there would be a mechanical difficulty
in giving the mixture the proper consistence to feed the fish.

Present Warp: It is probable that the raw flour would be abso-
lutely indigestible.

Mr. Hayrorp, of New Jersey: The newspapers have given so much
publicity to certain scientific articles that our correspondence files
show that there has been considerable alarm over the possibility that
fish might be cause of human cancer. Consequently it is pleasing to
be reassured that there is strong improbability that cancer of human
beings can be derived from hatchery-bred trout.

THE USE OF COPPER SULPHATE FOR THE
DESTRUCTION OF OBNOXIOUS FISHES
IN PONDS AND LAKES

By JOHN W. TITCOMB,
State Fish and Game Commissioner for Vermont.

In the early days of the State Fish Commission it was
found that black bass multiplied rapidly when introduced
into new waters and as a result the Fish Commissioners
in the various New England states, and particularly in
Vermont, proceeded to introduce black bass in trout
ponds and lakes where the trout fishing had become poor.
The bass thrived until the trout were all devoured, and
then, for lack of sufficient food and range, they were
forced to live on each other and in some instances, due to
environment, became a stunted race. Perch, pickerel,
bullheads and other coarse fishes were introduced either
by the Commissioners or by individuals. As a result
many cold water ponds and lakes have been ruined for
trout and furnish rather poor returns to the angler in
the warm water fishes which succeed them.

To illustrate conditions, attention has recently been
called to the fact that in one town there are fourteen
trout ponds ranging in area from ten to thirty acres, all
of which contain perch. The presence of this species
renders the waters almost uninhabitable for the trout
family, none of which is armed to compete with its spiny
rayed enemy.

Fortunately a remedy for these conditions has been
discovered which, at comparatively small expense, makes
it possible to restore some of the smaller lakes and ponds
to their original condition as trout waters.

*The use of copper sulphate for the destruction of alge
in municipal water supplies first led to experiments
to ascertain how strong a solution can be used without

*Kellerman, Bul. 76, and Bul. 100, part VII, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

Titcomb.—Destruction of Obnoxious Fishes 21

destroying fish. Advantage is now being taken of the
knowledge thus obtained to see how little copper sulphate
can be used to exterminate fish.

The first attempt in Vermont to exterminate the in-
troduced species by the use of copper sulphate was made
at Silver Lake in the town of Barnard in October 1915.
So far as the writer knows it is the first attempt of its
kind anywhere. It would have been more satisfactory to
begin with a body of water of less area and shallower,
but it happened that the lake was drawn down to an un-
usually low level this summer, thus reducing its area
from about one hundred to sixty-five acres or less and its
depth some six or eight feet. At low water level the
maximum depth was twenty-five feet. It contained pike,
pickerel (Hsox lucius), pike-perch, yellow perch and
horned pouts, all in limited numbers, and afforded rather
indifferent fishing.

The copper sulphate was administered by dragging it
over the surface in gunny sacks. Two launches and a
number of row boats were employed for the purpose. At
the first attempt, 2700 pounds of copper sulphate were
administered, but this was not sufficient to kill all the fish
and at a second attempt 3600 pounds were administered.
The copper sulphate precipitates quickly. On each occa-
sion it took about six hours to administer the poison.
Dead fish began to rise the evening of the same day. More
rose the second day and some on the third day.

It was hoped that all the fish in the pond had been
killed, but recent reports indicate that a few pike sur-
vived.

This is the beginning of a movement to restore some of
the trout waters to their primeval conditions.

With the changes rapidly taking place in the natural
conditions of our forest and streams, the trout streams
will naturally grow less in number. The ponds and lakes
will, if properly conserved, continue to afford recreation
and food supply long after many of the streams are dry
or are too polluted to permit of fish life. Upon these nat-
ural ponds and lakes, then, and upon artificial ponds and

22 American Fisheries Society

lakes must we look more and more for our supply of na-
tive food and game fishes.

The copper sulphate precipitates so rapidly that there
- is little danger of contaminating streams flowing out of
lakes while the poison is being administered.

As a result of the experiment at Silver Lake, the Lake
Tarleton Club in New Hampshire has undertaken the
extermination of pickerel in a forty acre trout pond with
a view of restoring it to its primeval conditions.

Laboratory tests indicate that twelve pounds of copper
sulphate evenly distributed to one million gallons of wa-
ter will cause the death of such common fishes as pike-
perch, yellow perch, and pickerel (Hsox reticulatus).
These are the species most commonly found in the trout
ponds of New England, but many such waters are ruined
for trout by the presence of black bass.

If the water contains an abnormal amount of lime a
larger proportion of copper sulphate must be used. As
it is impossible to know all of the subaqueous conditions,
variations of depth, spring holes in the bottom of the
ponds, etc., twenty to thirty pounds of copper sulphate
per million gallons is a safer solution to use, as the suc-
cess of the work depends upon the extermination of every
pair of fish of the species it is desired to kill. With pres-
ent knowledge it is impossible to tell what solution is
necessary to exterminate black bass, but it must be much
stronger than the one above referred to. No laboratory
tests have been made with the pike, pickerel (H'sox lu-
cius), but from the results at Silver Lake where thirty
pounds of copper sulphate were used to 100 million gal-
lons, it is evident that this species is in the class with the
black bass. There is no definite information as to the
resistant qualities of the rock bass which also infests
many waters in the northern states which were once
trout waters and which, but for the presence of some of
these fishes, would still be trout waters.

To persons undertaking to destroy fish in a pond or
lake the following suggestions are offered:

First ascertain the volume of water. This, of course,

Titcomb.—Destruction of Obnoxious Fishes 23

necessitates ascertaining the area and average depth. In
sounding for depth it would be well to mark with buoys
the deepest places. Note, if possible, any spring holes
under the surface of the lake and mark them. Note all
possible sources of water supply—even the smallest
rivulets.

Copper sulphate wholesales at around 51% cents per
pound and comes in barrels. It should be transferred to
bran-sacks or some form of bag of loosely woven material.
For rowboats, fifty pounds to a sack is sufficient. For
power boats, one hundred pounds is a convenient amount
to handle.

By the use of a 12-foot joist or bar equally strong
fastened crosswise of the stern of the boat, a sack may
be fastened at each end so that two bags may be drawn
through the water by each boat. The sack should be sus-
pended at the surface of the water with no more of it un-
der water than is necessary to dissolve the contents.

The copper sulphate should be thus distributed along
the entire surface of the lake at intervals not exceeding
twelve feet apart and the more quickly it is done the bet-
ter. In other words, the more boats that can be mustered
into the service the better, with a view to a general, si-
multaneous distribution. Each boat should move at about
the same pace as that of a fisherman when trolling.

The deeper portions and the spring holes should be
covered more thoroughly than the shallower portions. If
a definite boiling spring is found in the lake put a small
sack of the material over it so that the water will per-
colate through it.

After the surface of the lake has been covered as
thoroughly as possible and as near to the shore as boats
can take it, have men on foot drag sacks around the edge
of the shore line. Every stream or rivulet must be cov-
ered with the material as far up as objectionable fish are
known to go. A strong solution of the mixture may be
poured into the small streams at intervals with good ef-
fect. However, the dissolved copper sulphate precipitates
so quickly that there may be conditions in tributary

24 American Fisheries Society

streams where the introduction of lime would be more
far-reaching in its effect than copper sulphate.

To avoid the necessity of having each boatman return
to the source of supply one boat should be detailed to
carry a supply of sacks filled and ready to replace the
empty ones at any place on the lake where needed. This
is important.

Some of the copper sulphate will not dissolve readily
and the supply boat will find a few pounds remaining in
each sack when he makes the exchange. This can be
gathered from the various nearly empty sacks into one
and this may be dragged over the surface until dissolved.
To deposit a bag of the material at any one place will
have very little effect. It must be dissolved at the sur-
face of the water in ponds of ordinary depths. There
is too little knowledge of the subject to attempt to advise
how to exterminate fish in very deep lakes.

DISCUSSION.

Pror. Dycue, of Kansas: There are unquestionably tremendous op-
portunities for improving the productiveness of waters by getting rid
of surplus fishes and introducing finer species. However, you cannot
attempt to destroy a species of fish in a pond for the introduction
of others unless you destroy all of them. If more than a single indi-
vidual of the former species is left it will be only a question of time
till conditions are back where they were before. Unless the destruction
is complete the introduction of finer species must fail.

Mr. Granam, of Massachusetts: In New England and New York
there are numerous ponds that formerly contained trout and salmon,
which today contain only bass, perch, pickerel and such species. There
is a great demand for the planting of trout and salmon in these ponds,
but is almost impossible to establish them in the presence of the other
fish. This work of Mr. Titcomb’s is very important in showing how
we may be rid of the pernicious fishes. At the suggestion of Mr.
Titcomb I tried out this method on a pond belonging to a friend. The
pond was full of pickerel. We first drained it down till there was
only the stream running through, and then put in the copper sulphate
at the spring which feeds the pond. We kept this up for a week, and
at the end of that time it was impossible to find any living thing in
that stream except the bullheads—they seemed to thrive on it.

In a little pond in my back yard, about 12 by 30 by 2% feet deep,
in which I have a number of kinds of fish, I desired to get rid of the
alge. I used about a half pound of copper sulphate in a sprinkling
can of water and distributed it about over the surface. It was very
effective on the alge, which died and sank to the bottom, but there
was a secondary effect produced by the decomposition of the alge in
which there was a large amount of carbon dioxide liberated. The im-
mediate effect of this was that the fishes came to the surface gasping

Titcomb.—Destruction of Obnoxious Fishes 25

for air. The suckers came first, then the black bass, and later both
died. The perch and sunfish withstood it perfectly, but a number of
minnows were lost. The bullheads all came to the surface, but none
of them died.

Mr. Trrcoms: We must learn in all cases what proportions to use.
In one town we have ten trout ponds which, I believe, could be rid
of the yellow perch and pike-perch successfully, at a cost of perhaps
$400 to $500, and so restore them as trout ponds, together with the
streams tributary to them.

Mr. Bower, of Michigan: We have in Michigan thousands of lakes
containing undesirable fishes and we would be very glad to find some
method of destroying all the desirable as well as the undesirable fishes
in order to start in with a clean sweep, using only the best and most
desirable species. I wish to inquire whether there is any method of
reaching fishes in deep lakes, say down to 100 feet? Also I wish to ~
inquire whether it is feasible to destroy the carp, which bury them-
selyes in the mud? Perhaps the bullheads escape by burying themselves
in the mud, and so escape the toxic effects of the copper sulphate.

Mr. Tircoms: In Dr. Kalbfuss’s experiments he found that the carp
was one of the first to succumb. I think it is even more sensitive than
the trout and one can get rid of the trout without destroying the other
fishes by making the solution only one part in six millions. That is
getting it down to very small proportions and it is not easy to figure
the cubic contents of a lake. As to deeper waters, I think it is pos-
sible in any depth of water; but I have not tried it at a depth greater
than 25 feet.

A Memsper: How does this affect the fish? If they are stunned or
killed outright are they rendered unfit for food?

Mr. Titcoms: They die slowly and come to the surface. They do
not keep well after they are killed by this method, and I do not think
any one would care to eat them.

Mr. Marsu, of New York: I believe Mr. Bower could use copper
sulphate in lakes of any depth. It is merely necessary to sink the
bag to the depth you wish to reach and let the crystals dissolve there
where they will come into contact with the fishes you wish to kill.

Mr. Coss, of Minnesota: We had an experience with copper sul-
phate, but it is not as valuable as it might be, for we do not know
just what took place. In a small lake used for bathing purposes all
the fish were reported dying. I went out to it and found that all the
animal and vegetable life of the pond was dead or dying and discoy-
ered a substance on the shore that proved to be copper sulphate. The
work was evidently done in the evening by persons having access to
boats. One thing which interested me was that horses were drinking
from the lake the next morning and campers were getting their drink-
ing water there, and it had apparently no effect on any of them.
...Mr. Trrcoms: That brings out very clearly the fact that the copper
sulphate precipitates very rapidly. You can poison a lake very effec-
tively and feel perfectly sure that you have not destroyed the fishes
in a stream below.

A Memsper: How soon afterwards can a lake be restocked? If it
can be done soon it would be possible to clean out some of the desir-
able fish and hold them for restocking the pond after the others have
been exterminated.

Mr. Titcoms: That is quite feasible. After three or four days the
fish could be put back safely.

A Memper: If the fish were good to eat after being killed in this
way it might be a very dangerous thing in the hands of certain people
who make a practice of getting fish in any way they can. If they

26 American Fisheries Society

were to use this method our lakes would soon be depleted of all the
fish.

Mr. Trrcoms: They could kill the fish readily enough, but I think
they would not care to try it, since they would not want to eat fish
poisoned in this manner.

SUGGESTIONS AS TO INDICES OF THE
SUITABILITY OF BODIES OF
WATER FOR FISHES
By Dr. V. E. SHELFORD,

University of Illinois, Urbana, Ill.

The relations of fishes to environment are very com-
plex due to the great complexity of the environment it-
self. This complexity seems to grow greater as our
knowledge of it is increased and our perspective widened.
The decomposition of organic matter in water under the
action of bacteria yields many substances, even under
primeval conditions, the physiological effects of which
have been too little studied to make a statement of their
importance practicable at the present time. When we
look to the field of contamination and the products which
it yields the complexity is increased many fold. Still, in
spite of this, we believe that it is practicable to use the
presence of certain conditions as indices of the suitabil-
ity of an entire great complex for food fishes.

In such a discussion we must keep in mind the fact
that in fresh water the majority of food fishes deposit
their eggs on the bottom. The eggs of many marine fishes
rest on the bottom, but a considerable per cent. have pela-
gic eggs. It is to the bottom that the dead bodies of organ-
isms sink and decompose and, accordingly, at or near
the bottom the poisonous products of decomposition oc-
cur in greatest quantity. Decomposition of the bodies of
plants and animals results finally in gases such as am-
monia, carbon dioxide, hydrogen sulfide, methane, etc.,
which diffuse rather slowly to the surface and into the
atmosphere. Thus the extent to which they occur is de-
pendent upon the amount of decomposition and the circu-
lation of the water. It must further be borne in mind
that the same processes of decomposition which result in
these gases consume oxygen and as a rule there is insuf-
ficient oxygen for eggs and young fishes and in many

28 American Fisheries Society

cases for adult fishes where these decomposition products
are present.

Turning to the fishes themselves we note that their
presence or absence is controlled by (a), their ability to
recognize the presence of strange or deleterious sub-
stances and to turn back when they are encountered, and
(b), by their survival or death in situations where they
cannot escape the deleterious conditions. Their ability
to recognize strange or deleterious substances has been
shown (Shelford and Allee ’11; Shelford and Powers
714; Wells, unpublished) to be very elaborate and effect-
ive. Fishes recognize exceedingly minute quantities of
numerous substances and not only turn back upon en-
countering them, but are able to recognize and orient
their bodies with reference to increases and decreases of
such substances often present in water. Various workers
have shown that the products of decomposition are in the
main very poisonous to fishes, especially to eggs and
young fry (Wells ’13 and citations). It must further be
noted that all fishes young and adult require oxygen and
eggs require a large quantity of it for development.
Aside from the ill effects of the decomposition products
themselves, there is usually little oxygen in their presence,
especially in fresh water. From these considerations it
is readily seen that it is useless to expect the presence of
food fishes where the bottom of the waters generally con-
tain any quantity of decomposition products. Thus in
seeking indices of the suitability of bodies of water for
fishes we are concerned primarily with decomposition
products. The peculiar physiological constitution of the
fishes in question is, of course, a matter for consideration,
for the character of different species differs in this re-
spect. However, the difference between different species
is one of degree and special habits— The effects of the
various decomposition products are the same in a wide
range of species with only slight differences in degree.
Furthermore when we consider the best food fishes (we
believe both fresh water and marine fishes though our
experience with the latter has been limited), we find that,

Shelford.—Suitability of Water for Fishes 29

considering their behavior they are very sensitive to de-
composition products and their life and death resistance
to them is low. The less sensitive fishes are usually of less
food value. Food fishes usually live associated with or-
ganisms which, like themselves, are very sensitive to de-
composition substances, and these organisms are usually
absent when the fishes are.

Indices are then of three types (1), results of the in-
spection of bottom, (2), results of chemical tests of the
water for decomposition products, and (3), the presence
or absence of index organisms of a semi-stationary char-
acter, such as snails, etc. Here we will concern ourselves
with the first two types only. The third is doubtless the
basis of common though restricted practice in judging
the suitability of waters for fishes, being the result of ex-
perience of individual naturalists, but is not as yet organ-
ized for general purposes. This is to be taken up ex-
perimentally by the writer in connection with the work
of the Illinois State Laboratory of Natural History to be
reported on later.

Considering the first two we must comment separately
upon fresh and salt water. If a body of fresh water is
to support the most desirable fishes it should have an
area of clean sand, gravel or other terrigenous bottom
covered by from six inches to two feet of water and an
area of emerging and submerged vegetation to supply
food. It is probable that for the best results these three
areas should be about equal. The terrigenous bottom
should usually be free from blackened debris for this
usually accompanies decomposition. It should be borne
in mind, however, that there is nothing deleterious about
humus provided the material in it has passed the early
decomposition stages. Thus darkened bottom usually,
though not always, indicates decomposition. and bad con-
ditions. For many fishes an area of water more than
four feet deep is relatively unimportant. This much of
the inspection can readily be completed by a cursory
mapping of the different areas in the body of water.
Since most bodies of water contain sufficient vegetation

30 American Fisheries Society

to supply insects and other food for more fishes than can
exist there, the amount of terrigenous bottom up to one-
third of that occupied by vegetation may be regarded as
an index of the suitability of the body of water for food
fishes.

The second index is essential but must accord with the
first. The chemical character of the water must be such
that the fishes will not suffer from it or leave on account
of it. Carbon dioxide results from the decomposition of
organic matter. In the process oxygen is consumed so
that the presence of any quantity of carbon dioxide near-
ly always indicates lack of oxygen. Fishes are very sen-
sitive to carbon dioxide, turning back from increase of
one or two cubic centimeters per liter of the gas in solu-
tion. Their reactions are especially striking when car-
bon dioxide is accompanied by lack of oxygen (Shelford
and Allee ’12). Likewise low oxygen and high carbon
dioxide in combination are more rapidly fatal than any
other combination of these two factors (Wells 718).
While exact figures cannot be given it is probable that the
carbon dioxide content of water over breeding grounds
(terrigenous bottom) should not average more than one
cubic centimeter per liter, nor exceed 5 cubic centimeters
during the summer months. Such amounts are not usual-
ly accompanied by lack of oxygen. Thus the amount of
carbon dioxide may be taken as an index of the suitability
of the water.

In salt water the more complex conditions make addi-
tional indices necessary. As in fresh water, bottom con-
ditions are important to fishes which use them for breed-
ing. Clean rock, sand, or gravel bottom in one to six
feet of water (at low tide) and free from darkened de-
composing matter and foul odor is probably essential to
the eggs of many salt water species because of the poison-
ous character of decomposition products. Thus in gen-
eral the relative absence of decomposition products from
the shallow water of any bay or enclosure may be re-
garded as favorable to demersal fishes like the herring.

In the sea where such vast areas are connected the be-

Shelford.—Suttability of Water for Fishes 31

havior of fishes plays a most important role (Shelford
and Powers ’14) as is shown by the weil known erratic
and commercially important migrations of the herring.
These fishes recognize slight deviations from neutrality
with a precision not excelled by litmus paper, and turn
back very constantly from acidity such as is given in |
cubic centimeter of carbon dioxide per liter. Essential
neutrality is usually selected by herring. Twenty cubic
centimeters of carbon dioxide per liter in the presence of
oxygen to saturation is more quickly fatal to herring
than is the same amount to any number of fresh water
species.

Decomposition in the sea nearly always takes place in
the presence of certain bacteria which yield quantities
of hydrogen sulfide. This is often accompanied by car-
bon dioxide and lack of oxygen. In shallow shore waters
it may exist in the presence of abundant oxygen and es-
sential neutrality because of the use of the carbon di-
oxide by the plants and their production of oxygen in
the process of photosynthesis. Fishes not only turn back
on encountering hydrogen sulfide but it is more quickly
fatal to them than any other gas of common occurrence.
Thus we must add the amount of hydrogen sulfide as an
index of the suitability of sea water. A good sea water
should not contain more than a trace of this gas.

To summarize, we note that the amount of terrigenous
bottom and of free carbon dioxide serve as indices for
bodies of fresh water while the amount of clean bottom,
carbon dioxide and hydrogen sulfide serve in bays and
enclosures of the sea. The determination of these gases
is not difficult provided one has a chemist make the re-
quired solutions. Contaminations such as sewage, or-
ganic wastes from slaughter houses, etc., influence the
water much as does an increase in the natural organic
matter and the indices apply where the commonest forms
of contamination occur. The writer is familiar with
cases in which these requirements have apparently been
met and still the body of water proved unsatisfactory for
the production of fishes, but in spite of these exceptions

32 American Fisheries Society

he regards these indices a suitable working basis, in no
way preventing the proper investigation of such ex-
ceptions as exist.

Suetrorp, V. E., and Auteze, W. C. An Index of Fish Environments
"12 Science N. S. Vol. XXXVI., No. 916, pp. 76-77.

a1) The Reactions of Fishes to Gradients of dissolved Atmos-
pheric Gases. Jour. Expt. Zool. Vol. 14. No. 2.

Suexrorp, V. E., and Powers, E. B. Experimental Study of the Move-

"14 ments of Herring and other Salt-water Fishes. In prep-
aration.

Weis, M. M. The Resistance of Fishes to Different Concentrations

13 and Combinations of Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide. Biolog-
ical Bull. Vol. XXV., No. 6.

PROGRESS IN THE PROPAGATION OF
THE DIAMOND-BACK TERRAPIN

By LEWIS RADCLIFFE,
U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, Washington, D. C.

In 1904, Dr. K. Mitsukuri' made the following state-
ment:

“The place occupied among gastronomical delicacies by
the diamond-back terrapin in America and by the green
turtle in England is taken by the ‘Suppon,’ or the snap-
ping turtle, in Japan. The three are equally esteemed
and equally high priced, but the Japanese epicure has
this advantage over his brothers of other lands—he has
no longer any fear of having the supply of the luscious
reptile exhausted. This desirable condition is owing to
the successful efforts of a Mr. Hattori, who has spared no
pains to bring his turtle farms to a high pitch of perfec-
tion and is able to turn out tens of thousands of these
reptiles every year.”

During the ten years that have elapsed since that state-
ment was made, the Bureau of Fisheries has perfected its
experiments on the cultivation of the diamond-back ter-
rapin conducted at Beaufort, N. C., to a point where Am-
erican culturists may now expect to duplicate the work
of Mr. Hattori, and supply the market with thousands
of terrapin each year.

Previous attempts of buyers and others unfamiliar
with the requirements of terrapin culture, to propagate
terrapin have met with little success beyond the hatching
of the eggs in beds provided for the purpose. Last year
a company was formed at Beaufort, N. C., and plans fol-
lowing closely the methods perfected by the Bureau of
Fisheries were adopted for growing terrapin for market
on a large scale. This company has built an excellent
plant covering several acres and stocked it with about

1In Bulletin of the U. S. Bureau of Fisheries for 1904, vol. xxiv,
p- 260.

34 American Fisheries Society

4500 terrapin, of which 1800 are adult breeding females.
The adaptability of terrapin to artificial conditions was
well illustrated in this case in that breeders purchased
by the company during the laying season of 1913, con-
tinued their activities in captivity and from the eggs thus
laid over 700 young terrapin were added to the com-
pany’s stock. This year’s brood numbers over 3500 and
would have been considerably greater save for some mis-
takes in the management of the laying beds. The annual
brood at the Beaufort Laboratory has shown a marked
growth in numbers, beginning with 12 in 1909, there
were 460 in 1911 and over 1500 in 1913.

One of the factors that has seemed especially unfavor-
able to terrapin culture as a commercial proposition has
been the long period that it was expected would be re-
quired for the terrapin to reach a marketable size. While
the experimental results at Beaufort are still incomplete,
it now appears that this period may be considerably
shortened by improving on nature’s methods. You are
aware that during the winter months the terrapin hiber-
nate. It is believed that the young terrapin, as a rule, re-
main in the nest during the first winter and do not begin
feeding until the following spring, having increased very
little if any in size during this period. At Beaufort the
young are not allowed to remain in the nest but are dug
out shortly after hatching, placed in wooden tanks, and
soon begin to eat. At the approach of cold weather part
of them are placed in hibernating boxes and the rest are
transferred to the terrapin house, which is modeled after
the order of a greenhouse and is heated, the temperature
not being allowed to fall below about 75° F. The warmth
in this building is sufficient to keep the terrapin active
and feeding. The start which they thus acquire enables
them to grow more rapidly during the following summer,
increasing the lead they had in the spring over stock
which was allowed to hibernate.

New-born terrapin average slightly more than one inch
in length. This is the length of the flat plastron (bottom
shell} measured along the median line and, expressed in

Radcliffe.—Propagation of Terrapin 35

inches, is the standard of length used. The rate of in-
crease in length for terrapin allowed to hibernate each
year is about one inch, the growth of the males being
slower after the second year. A year-old terrapin of
average size that has hibernated the first winter should
measure a little over two inches. Of the remaining 500
young terrapin of the brood of 1913 belonging to the
Beaufort terrapin company and fed last winter, the larg-
est one now measures four inches, or nearly twice the
size of the average terrapin not fed during the first win-
ter, and 200 of this lot will measure three inches and
over. The rate of growth of terrapin is exceedingly
variable and the experiments with winter feeding are still
too incomplete to enable us to determine the time required
for the majority of the stock to reach a marketable size,
but results of the character mentioned indicate that win-
ter feeding may do much to hasten their growth.

After the first year of confinement, the loss of adults
is negligible. As an instance of this, of over 3000 ter-
rapin purchased by the Beaufort company in 1913, only
two have died during the active season this year. The
loss after hatching, of young terrapin from adult stock
held in confinement for several years, is also very small,
being about 5% at the Beaufort Laboratory. Aside from
the initial cost of pounds and breeders, in places where
fresh fish may be purchased cheaply, the running ex-
penses of a terrapin farm should be light. These factors,
added to the adaptability of this form to artificial condi-
tions, should make the subject of terrapin culture an
interesting undertaking to those of you who are fish cult-
urists and whose sphere of action lies within the natural
range of the species. Before undertaking to stock de-’
pleted waters, proper laws governing the taking of ter-
rapin should be required and a public sentiment that
will insist on their enforcement aroused. Stock grown
for distribution should be fed the first winter and plant-
ed late in the following summer.

Doubtless many questions relating to the construction
of breeding pens, selection of breeding stock, care of

36 American Fisheries Society

adults, eggs and young, will arise in the minds of those
of you who are interested in this subject. These subjects
are discussed in Economic Circular No. 5 of the Bureau
of Fisheries, issued June 24, 1913. This paper is en-
titled ‘Artificial Propagation of the Diamond-Back Ter-
rapin” and was written by W. P. Hay and H. D. Aller,
who have been most closely associated with the progress
of the experiments at Beaufort.

NOTES ON SOME NORTH CAROLINA
SHARKS AND RAYS

By LEWIS RADCLIFFE,
U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, Washington, D. C.

During the course of preparation of a report on the
sharks and rays found in the vicinity of Beaufort, N. C.,
the difficulties of the field man who secures one of these
monsters of the sea to determine its identity, have fre-
quently been felt. One cannot carry a 12 to 40-foot shark
with ease to his library or workshop, nor does he, as a
rule, have his library with him. In the majority of cases
I have found that if the jaws and a portion of the skin
from below the dorsal fin are saved, these will afford suf-
ficient material for determining the identity of the spe-
cies. I hope the specimens which will be shown you, and
a few notes regarding them, may prove of interest.

As you are aware, the teeth aid the mouth in seizing,
holding, cutting or crushing the various kinds of food
material. The diversity in form and arrangement of
these organs, developed according to the needs of the
particular species, is surprising. In the sand shark
(Carcharias taurus), the teeth are long and subulate,
well fitted for seizing and tearing to pieces smaller fishes.
It is said that the species is very voracious, that they
work together in schools and surround and attack schools
of other fish, even those imprisoned in the nets of the
fishermen. The teeth of the thresher shark (Vulpecula
marina) are similar in form. This species is also re-
ported to be very destructive to fish life, using its tail,
which is about as long as the rest of the body, to strike
and stun, or kill, the unfortunate members of the school
of fish who fail to get out of its reach.

In many species of sharks, some or all of the teeth are
triangular, with or without serrate cutting edges. This
is true for the man-eater (Carcharodon carcharias), the
blue shark (Galeus glawcus), most of the species of the
genus Carcharhinus and others. In the hammer head

SEES See eee

ae eS ee

38 American Fisheries Society

(Cestracion zygaena) a transition to the paved type of
teeth may be noted. The teeth of the two dogfishes com-
mon to our coast are very unlike. In the spiny dogfish
(Squalus acanthias), they are compressed, with a distinct
cutting edge; in the smooth dogfish (Galeorhinus levis),
they are blunt, in pavement.

Certain of the rays have powerful crushing jaws which
are capable of breaking the thick shells of clams and
other mollusks upon which they feed. The paved teeth
of the cow-nosed ray (Rhinoptera quadriloba) and the
spotted sting-ray (Aetobatus narinari) are well fitted for
this purpose, and the functioning teeth of these are usual-
ly very much pitted and worn by such use. The spotted
sting-ray, which reaches a length of 12 feet or more,
feeds almost entirely on‘ clams, which it digs from the
natural beds. The specimen from which the jaws, which
I will show you, were taken was 9 feet, 614 inches long.
The stomach of this specimen contained a considerable
quantity of the meats of clams without any pieces of the
shells. As much as a gallon of clams is stated to have
been taken from the stomach of a single individual and
no pieces of shell were found. A surprising degree of
specialization is revealed to us, as shown by the ability
of this species to dig the clams, to crush or open the shells
and separate the meat from the shells.

In some of the rays the teeth differ according to sex,
those of the female being blunt, while those of the male
are sharp pointed, in some cases almost needle-like. We
find such differences in the barn-door or smooth skate
(Raja stabuliforis), in some of the sting-rays, of which
Dasybatus hastatus is an example, and in the small devil-
fish (Mobula hypostoma).

A microscopic examination of the armature of the skin
of different species of sharks and some of the rays, will
disclose as great variation in the form of these defenses
as have been found in the teeth. When these calcified
papille are small and close set, they are referred to as
dermal denticles, and the skin is called ‘‘shagreen.” In
some cases they are larger, taking the form of tubercles,

Radcliffe-—Sharks and Rays from N. C. 39

bucklers or spines. As a rule, in the sharks the denticles
from a particular body region are very uniform in shape.
In many species this form appears to remain constant
through life, in others there is some modification with
age. Once we have learned the form and the variation, if
any, for a given species, these have an important classifi-
catory value.

One of the questions frequently asked regarding the
sharks is that of whether they will attack a human being.
On this subject we have very little positive information.

As an illustration of their ferocity I wish to relate an
incident that happened at Beaufort this summer. On
August 8, a small school of large tiger sharks (Galeocer-
do arcticus) appeared in the Fort Macon channel near
the Fisheries Laboratory, swimming around the Fisher-
ies Steamer “Fish Hawk.”

A baited shark hook thrown over the side was seized
by the largest of the school. The line offered little resist-
ance to this big fellow and he disappeared, taking bait
and hook with him. During the time that was required
to secure and bait another hook, the rest of the school
came up under the stern of the ship, showing no fear for
the men a few feet above them. Apparently they were
very hungry and prepared to grasp anything in the na-
ture of food that might fall to them. When the second
hook was thrown over it was seized by one of these. This
shark, which was 8 2% feet in length was killed and
brought on deck. For the second time the hook was
thrown overboard and soon another specimen, slightly
over 10 feet in length, was hanging from the boom with
its head out of the water. On the third cast another,
9 feet 2 inches in length, was hooked. At this time a
shark, larger than any of those taken, swam up to the one
hanging from the boom and, raising his head partially
out of the water, seized the dead shark by the throat. As
he did so, Captain O’Brien began shooting at him with
a 32-caliber revolver, shooting as rapidly as he could take
aim. The shots seemed only to infuriate the shark, and
he shook the dead one so viciously as to make it doubtful

Be ee ee eee

40 American Fisheries Society

whether the boom would withstand his onslaught. Final-
ly he tore a very large section out of the unfortunate
one’s belly, tearing out and devouring the entire liver and
leaving a gaping hole across the entire width of the body,
large enough to permit a child to crawl into the body
cavity. At this instant one of the Captain’s bullets hit a
vital spot and, after a lively struggle on the part of a
launch’s crew, a rope was secured around the shark’s tail
and the four were brought to the laboratory for examin-
ation. The last shark was 12 feet in length, and the liver
of the smaller one was still in its stomach,—the estimated
weight of this was 40 pounds.

DISCUSSION.

Mr. Fearne, of Rhode Island: Some years ago when I was going
around the world I was requested by Mr. Agassiz to make notes of
any absolutely authentic cases of sharks attacking human beings. He
believed that there is no shark known at the present time that will attack
a living man and there is no shark known whose jaws are capable of
biting a man’s leg off.

I inquired wherever I went. In Singapore, where the sharks are
thicker than in any other place I remember, except in Java in the very
warm waters under the equator, I approached the English captain of
the water police who had been there for over twenty years. He told
me that while he had seen thovsands of dead bodies that had been
mauled and torn by sharks, he had never known, in all his experience,
of a case where a shark had attacked a living person. In Aden I saw
a boy, who, it was said, had had his leg bitten off by a shark. On
careful inquiry, however, it developed that he was drunk and was
run over by an ox cart and injured so that his leg had to be ampu-
tated. That was the nearest to any actual case that I was able to
discover in a trip around the world! However, Dr. Chas. H. Townsend
has told me that he has absolute personal proof and that he has him-
self seen natives in the tropics grabbed by sharks and eaten.

SOME CASES OF NARROWLY RESTRICT-
ED PARASITISM AMONG COMMERCIAL
SPECIES OF FRESH WATER MUSSELS

By Dr. A. D. HOWARD,

U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, Fairport, lowa.

The U. S. Bureau of Fisheries has now carried on for .
some six years an investigation of methods of propagat-
ing fresh-water mussels.

The work has gone on beyond the experimental stage
and operations have been conducted upon a scale that it
is hoped will appreciably increase the supply for com-
mercial purposes.

While certain species of mussels have been successfully
dealt with by the methods first adopted, difficulties have
been experienced with other species. In a paper read
before the American Fisheries Society in 1912 I showed
that I had been able to propagate the Warty-back Mussel
on the catfish and that apparently they could not be
reared on other species. From my studies of natural in-
fection it looked to me at that time as if other cases of
restricted parasitism would be found. The subject of
natural infection has been made the object of special
study at the Fairport Station and some considerable data
published showing the species of fish on which the vari-
ous mussels have been found. The data thus obtained
have in some cases pointed conclusively to definite results
while in others the interpretation was less obvious.

The identification of the larve (glochidia) when im-
bedded in the tissues of the host is uncertain in some
forms, and accidental infections of a temporary nature
undoubtedly occur. This makes necessary some method of
proving out. In practice I have taken the indications
obtained from observation of natural infections as a
guide and made a test of the suspected species, comparing
other species as a control. As the object of the inves-

42 American Fisheries Society

tigation is to find a method of propagation, such a test
meets the ultimate requirements.

The results obtained from these artificial infections
are frequently very definite, giving conclusive support to
the indications obtained from natural infections.

The following cases are concrete illustrations of this:
Last May I undertook a series of experiments to de-
termine to what extent the common fishes could be
used in artificial propagation of certain mussels of the
family Lampsilinae (Ortmann). The species were the
Mucket, Lampsilis ligamentina Lam.; the Fat or Lake
Mucket, Lampsilis luteola Lam., and the Yellow Sand
Shell, Lampsilis anodontoides Lea.

The glochidia of these species were brought in contact
with some sixty fish of 12 different species in each ex-
periment. The infections with each species of mussel
were kept separate so that I had three separate experi-
ments. These IJ carried on under as nearly identical con-
ditions as possible, so that they were practically parallel.
The results summarized show what usually occurs in such
an experiment. The glochidia took hold more or less on
every fish, dropping off of some species in from 1 to 4
days without development, in other remaining on to the
full period, which was three weeks in each of these cases.
The muckets and fat muckets remained the full period
on the basses (Centrarchidx) ; sea basses (Serranide),
and perches (Percidxe). They dropped off of the cat-
fishes (Siluride), the sheepshead (Aplodinotus grun-
niens Raf.) and the gar (Lepisosteus platostomus Raf).
The yellow sand shells remained on the gars, and dropped
off of all the other species. We have here rather strik-
ing results. Chances of error were largely eliminated,
from the fact that the experiments were carried parallel.
As a further check I have repeated tests where there
seemed to be any possibility of doubt.

The mucket and lake mucket are indicated as mussels
having an extensive range of parasitism on several gen-
era of fishes, while the yellow sand shell, a closely related

Howard.—Restricted Parasitism in Mussels 43

species, is parasitic upon a single genera of fishes far
removed genetically from the hosts of the others.

My experiment will illustrate how a study of natural
infections was of assistance. The gar would not have
been included in this test ordinarily, as it is commonly
thrown away as a nuisance. I had found it infected with
glochidia which I identified with some uncertainty as L.
anodontoides. On this account when the opportunity
came to infect with the yellow sand shell I made a special
effort to bring in the gars with the other fishes.

The natural infections which I collected first on July
17, 1912, were upon the long-nosed gar (Lepisosteus
osseus Linn.).

The following year infected gills of the alligator gar,
(L. tristoechus Bl. and Schn.), were sent to the labora-
tory from Indiana by Mr. Ernest Danglade. These were
identified as the glochidia of the yellow sand shell. As I
used the short-nosed gar (L. platostomus) in my experi-
ments, we have a pretty clear indication that any of the
three species of gar is a suitable carrier for this mussel.

Definite results in a similar manner were obtained with
the Missouri niggerhead (Obovaria ellipsis Lea). Natural
infections of doubtful identification had been found on
the sturgeon (Scaphirhynchus platorhynchus Raf.). This
was an especially difficult case because the infections in
question were of an appearance and dimensions corre-
sponding to those of a group of glochidia which are much
alike, viz.: Lampsillis ventricosa Bar., L. fallaciosa Simp.,
L. higginsii Lea., Obovaria ellipsis Lea., and Quadrula
pustula Lea. In the experiments the glochidia of O. ellipsis
remained and passed through the parasitic stage on the
sturgeon while they were promptly shed by the black
bass, sunfish (Lepomis pallidus), sheepshead (A. grun-
niens), white crappie, black crappie, and channel catfish.
It will be noted that the sturgeon did not retain glochidia
in the other experiments.

The butterfly shell (Plagiola securis Lea.) I have found
in several instances of natural infection on the sheeps-
head (A. grunniens). In artificial infections I obtained

44 American Fisheries Society

development upon the sheepshead as expected and imme-
diate shedding by the black bass, the black crappie, and
the bluegill sunfish. Mr. Surber (1913)* reported the
host as unknown. Two other species of Plagiola have
been reported on this fish and one of them, P. donaci-
formis, seems to be very common here at Fairport on
the sheepshead, so that we apparently have three species
of one genus confined chiefly to one host, together with
other species of paper shell mussels which are at present
considered of little value.

The three fish, the gar, the shovel-nosed sturgeon, and
the sheepshead or grunter, which we find to be the car-
riers of these mussels have held economically quite dif-
ferent positions. The sheepshead and shovel-nose are
now esteemed food fishes, although it is not many years
ago that the latter was considered worthless. The gar
at present is well known, and as I intimated above
is considered a nuisance and, worse than that, a positive
menace to the welfare of other fishes. The discovery
then that it is practically the sole host for one of the
most desired of shells is perhaps not agreeable. As a
rule, however, we have to take nature as we find her, and
for those who expect always to find a raison d’etre for
each creature, this nursing of the yellow sand shell by
the voracious gar will satisfy the belief that things are
as they should be.

These results open up interesting problems as to de-
tails in the ecological relations of the associated species
and the nature of the specific reactions which control
them. These are applicable to all cases of specific para-
sitism and have been solved for some. It is of practical
importance to those interested in mussel propagation that
at least an answer be found for some of the questions
of this nature raised here.

*Surbur, T., 1913: Notes on the Hosts of Fresh Water Mussels. Bul.
Bureau of Fisheries.

A NEW RECORD IN REARING FRESH-
WATER PEARL MUSSELS

By Dr. A. D. HOWARD,
U.S. Bureau of Fisheries, Fairport, Iowa.

Last May, Mr. A. F. Shira, of the U. S. Bureau of
Fisheries at Lake Peppin, Minnesota, shipped to the Bio-
logical Laboratory at Fairport, Iowa, a number of gravid
mussels of the species called “fat mucket” Lampsilis lu- |
teola, Say. This mussel has a reputation for bearing
pearls and is of economic importance for its mother-of-
pearl used in the manufacture of buttons, etc.

At the time, I was engaged in a series of experiments
to determine to what extent the common fishes could be
used in artificial propagation of certain members, includ-
ing this species, of the family Lampsiline (Ortmann).
On May 21, 1914, I took the glochidia from these mussels
and infected a dozen different species of fish; of these,
six species proved susceptible and carried the young mus-
sels through their metamorphosis. As the young mussels
began to be shed by the fish, I placed a number of in-
fected black bass (Micropterous salmoides Lac.) in a
floating crate made for the purpose of catching the young
mussels as they fell off. The crate I devised to meet a
number of difficulties that had been experienced in at-
tempts to raise mussels under observation. In aquaria,
either balanced or with running water direct from the
usual habitat of the mussels, they do not thrive. The
majority are apparently eaten by predacious worms, or
those which do not fall prey to their enemies, stop grow-
ing, apparently owing to some lack of nutrition.

Among European investigators who have attempted to
grow young mussels are M. Brown, W. Harms and Karl
Herber.* The latter this year reports having carried the

*Brown, M.: 1889, Die postembryonale Entwicklung der Najaden.

Harms W.: 1909, Postembryonale entwicklungsgeschichte der Unioni-
den.

Herber, Karl: 1913, Entwicklungsgeschichte von Anodonta cellensis,
Schroét. Zeitschrift Wiss. Zool., Bd. 108.

46 American Fisheries Society

juveniles to a size of 3 mm., the largest which has been
recorded so far as I know.

Having had about the same indifferent results as other
investigators in such attempts, it seemed to me that a
promising line of attack for a solution of the problem
would be to find some way which would depart from the
natural habitat only so far as the necessity of mechanical
control demanded. In our situation, where we take the
mussels from the Mississippi, the most practicable solu-
tion that offered itself to me was a floating crate contain-
ing baskets of sufficient size to hold the fish and made of
small enough mesh to retain the microscopic mussels.

A crate thus held at the surface accommodates itself
to the frequent rise and fall of the river, is convenient
of access and removes the young mussel from many of
its enemies at the bottom. Another advantage of a sur-
face location is that the precipitation of silt is at a mini-
mum. The crate was constructed from a floating fish
car to which were added barrels to give greater buoy-
ancy. Four baskets of rectangular shape were made to
fit inside. These consisted of a frame work of galvanized
iron attached to a galvanized iron bottom tray. On the
frame was stretched copper cloth of one hundred mesh
to the inch.

Two or three weeks after obtaining the plant of young
mussels from the bass, I found evidence that they were
thriving in the crate. A small sample of sediment from
the bottom revealed some half dozen or more, and at va-
rious intervals during the summer, I readily obtained
specimens, making observation on rate of growth and
preparing material for anatomical studies. At the last
observation in September, the young mussels were about
an inch in length (twenty-five millimeters). This com-
pares very favorably with the length of 3 mm. secured
by Karl Herber.

For comparison, I put some of the rapidly growing
mussels from the crate in an aquarium of running water
and compared their growth for a period of three weeks
with those growing at the same time in the crate. I

Howard.—New Record in Rearing Mussels 47

found the rate in the aquarium one-third as fast as in
the crate. The rate in the crate was a constantly in-
creasing one, and in the aquarium apparently decreasing.
The growth of one inch gives us an actual observation on
the growth for one season and removes some uncertain-
ties as to what young mussels may do the first summer.

At this writing, without a study of the records, I am
unable to give the percentage of survivals from the orig-
inal plant, but an estimate of the number gave two hun-
dred living and rapidly growing mussels. All examined .
had byssi of about six inches length attached to some
base in the basket. Each juvenile had the anterior end
buried as commonly seen in adult mussels and none were
suspended in the current as some have supposed the con-
dition to be with byssiferous forms.

In this experiment we have succeeded in carrying mus-
sels under cultivation, we may say, through what are
apparently the most critical periods in the life history,
namely, the parasitic and early juvenile stages. Just
what bearing these results will have in practical arti-
ficial breeding of mussels, is still a question, but the in-
formation gained is of obvious value. Early in the
investigation of the subject Lefevre and Curtis suggested
the feasibility of raising mussels to this more hardy
stage and then distributing them. A point in favor of
such a method would be that results could be quite defi-
nitely measured. By the method of infecting fish and
letting them go at large, results are not as readily ascer-
tainable. The planting of mussels according to a definite
plan, in favorable locations, might have a distinct advan-
tage over the natural distribution by fish. The assump-
tion of an advantage in the more artificial method would
be based upon results with the analagous rearing of fish,
young lobsters, oysters, etc. This phase of the subject
requires investigation. The raising of young mussels in
a floating crate can doubtless be perfected and adapted
to many species. I fully realize that the result obtained
is only a beginning, but it is at any rate a start.

ON THE SEASONAL DISTRIBUTION OF
FISH PARASITES

By ProFr. EDWIN LINTON,
Washington and Jefferson College, Washington, Pa.

This paper is in response to an inquiry addressed to
the writer a short time ago. In substance it was desired
to know at what particular season one should expect to
find worms in the flesh and other parts of various named
marine species of food fish.

While satisfied at the outset that there is practically
no seasonal periodicity inthe occurrence of cases of par-
asitism among marine fishes, it seems to be worth while
to examine some typical cases, of which data are avail-
able, in order to set the matter in as clear a light as pos-
sible. My own period of investigation on the subject of
parasitism has been confined almost exclusively to the
months of July and August and parts of the months of
June and September. If my data, therefore, were limited
to what I have collected myself I would be in a poor posi-
tion to shed any light on the inquiry. Fortunately I suc-
ceeded some years ago in interesting that veteran and in-
telligent collector, Vinal N. Edwards, of Woods Hole,
Mass., in this matter, and, as a result, I have found each
season since then a large collection of material waiting
for me upon my arrival at Woods Hole for the summer’s
work. These collections of parasites, mainly from fishes
and fish-eating birds, usually requiring from 300 to 400
bottles and vials to accommodate them, have been col-
lected in the months from September to June. As a re-
sult of the preliminary study of these collections, I have
notes on parasites of many of our common fishes that
have been collected throughout the year. In this paper
I propose to summarize some of the results obtained from
an examination of the collections made by Mr. Edwards
and those made by myself in the Woods Hole region from

Linton.—Seasonal Distribution of Parasites 49

fishes which are taken there throughout the year or at
least during a considerable part of the year.

NEMATODA.

The parasitic helminths that are most commonly en-
countered belong to the order Nematoda, commonly called
round, or thread worms. It may be added that the mem-
bers of this order come the nearest to the popular concep-
tion of the word ‘‘worm.” In this paper I shall consider
only those Nematodes that belong to the family Ascaride,
which includes the most commonly occurring round
worms of fishes. Those who have had much to do with
the preparation of fish for the market and have been at
all observant can scarcely have escaped noting the not
unusual presence of worms of this order enclosed in mem-
branous coverings and distributed on the viscera, some-
times, as is often the case in the whiting, for example,
forming a tangled mass on the viscera generally, or, at-
tached to the mesentery. In the butterfish they some-
times occur in considerable numbers on the pyloric ceca.
Careful search will reveal the fact that scattering speci-
mens may be found in the mesentery or on the viscera of
a large proportion of the food fishes. In most cases they
will be found to be coiled in a flat spiral. They are
quiescent, although when liberated from the cyst which
the tissues of their host have built around them, may be-
come somewhat active. They will measure, as a rule,
from 10 to 20 millimeters in length. Whatever the pre-
ceding life-history of these worms may have been their
situation represents now, as a rule, the final stage of act-
ivity in the particular fish in which they are encysted.
They are invariably immature and must await the, to
them, happy fate of being eaten by a suitable host before
they can become sexually mature. This final reproductive
stage must be looked for therefore in the alimentary
canals of fishes, or of fish-eating animals. Many fishes
such as the cod, haddock, pollock, sword-fish, etc., harbor,
at the same time, adult nematodes in the alimentary can-

50 American Fisheries Society

al and immature, encysted forms in the body cavity. Oc-
casionally these worms will be found coiled up in the peri-
toneal lining of the body cavity, and less often they suc-
ceed in penetrating the flesh of their host. For example,
in a lot of codfish examined by Mr. Edwards in Decem-
ber, 1908, it was found that in about 2% of them a few
of these parasites had penetrated the flesh in the vicinity
of the back-bone. A few cases have been brought to my
attention where these parasites have been noticed in salt
codfish. For example, Dr. C. B. Wilson recently sent me
a piece of salt codfish with the request that an examin-
ation be made of it. I found in it three immature ascar-
ids, two of which had become lodged in the intermuscular
tissue while the third had burrowed into the muscle tis-
sue. Again, this past summer, a fish dealer brought to
my laboratory at Woods Hole some ascarids which an
agitated customer had returned to him from some salt
codfish which had been purchased from him. A more
disturbing case is furnished by a correspondent who made
the following inquiry:

“Incidentally may I also ask what the worm is which
is sO commonly met with in the muscles of the cod? In
those specimens which are caught in Mahone Bay (on
the south shore of Nova Scotia) proper, the worm is al-
most invariably found, while in the deep water cod, which
is gotten some miles outside, it is quite exceptional to
meet with the parasite.”

In discussing such cases I always attempted to show,
what I shall here also attempt to make clear, that the
occasional presence of such parasites should not be per-
mitted to arouse alarm. Of course when seen in the
process of preparing food for the table it would be no
sign of excessive fastidiousness to remove them, any
more than it is to reject the occasional caterpillar that
the cook may find in the lettuce that has come from the
market. Danger or damage to health or digestion is no
more to be apprehended in one case than in the other. In
short, when it is remembered that such forms will be
killed in the cooking, and will then be simply so much

Linton.—Seasonal Distribution of Parasites 51

cured meat in the salt cod, it may be easily understood
that there can be no such thing as infection following
their accidental introduction into the human stomach
along with the food. If there should chance to be one
who prefers his fresh-fish rare or underdone, I feel rea-
sonably secure, in the absence of experimental proof, that
his digestive juices will furnish unkindly cultures for
such forms as Ascaris clavata, adult in the alimentary
canal of the cod, and immature and encysted in the body
cavity of a large number of fish.

Upon looking over my records I note immature and en-
cysted nematodes in small numbers in the large sculpin
(Acanthocottus octodecimspinosus) in all the months in
which examinations were made, viz., January, February,
March, April, May, July, October, November and Decem-
ber. So far as my records go, therefore, there does not
seem to be any seasonal control over the source of infec-
tion in this case.

My records for the cod (Gadus callarius) are made
up, almost entirely from collections made by Mr. Vinal
Edwards. They show that examinations were made in
January, May, August, October, November and Decem-
ber. Again the record shows adult and young ascarids
appearing in each of these months, indicating that there
is no particular season when these worms are acquired.
When it is recalled that the adult ascarid in the intestine
of the cod was an encysted ascarid in the body cavity of
another host that was eaten by the cod, where it had lain
for months or even years, since one often finds them sur-
rounded by considerable accumulations of degenerate tis-
sue, it can easily be seen that the seasons can have nc
effect on the occurrence of such parasites so long as the
final and secondary host are associated throughout the
year. In cases of migrations, which do not accompany
migrations of food, conditions might arise which would
occasion a periodicity in the occurrence of parasites.

Whiting (Merluccius bilinearis) were examined in the
months of March, June, July, August, September, Octo-
ber and November. Immature nematodes were found in

52 American Fisheries Society

the body cavity of this species in each of these menths.

Tomcod (Microgadus tomcod) were examined in every
month of the year. Adult ascarids were found in each
month except July and August, and immature ascarids
in each month except June and September. It should be
stated that very few tomcod were examined in the months
of June, July and September.

Pollock (Pollachius virens) were examined in the
months of April, May, June, July, September, October
and November. Both young and adult ascarids were
found in each of these months.

The Hakes (Phycis tenuis and Urophycis chuss) were
examined in the months of May, June, August, Septem-
ber, October and November, and immature ascarids
found in each species in each of the months.

Goose-fish (Lophius piscatorius) examined in the
months of April, May, June, July, August, September,
October, November and December yielded immature as-
carids in each of these months and adults in all except
the months of April and June.

Toad-fish (Opsanus taw) examined in May, August,
September, October and November yielded both adult and
immature ascarids in each month.

ACANTHOCEPHALA.

Similar distribution throughout the year for the Acan-
thocephala seems to be shown as for the Nematoda. For
example, the species Echinorhynchus acus was found in
the Winter Flounder (Pseudopleuronectes americanus)
in every month in which examinations were made, viz.,
January, February, April, May, July, August, September,
October, November and December.

TREMATODA.

My record of Trematodes is not so full as that of the
other orders of helminths. So far as it reveals anything,
however, it gives no indication of seasonal variation. A

Linton.—Seasonal Distribution of Parasites 53

distome, recorded under the name Distomum simplex,
has been found in the tomcod in every month of the
year. Another small trematode, Gasterostomum incres-
cens, is recorded from the Barracuda (Sphyrzna bore-
alis) in the months of April, September, October and
November.

CESTODA.

A tetrarhynch, Rhynchobothrium imparispine, has
been found adult in the spiral valve of the winter skate
(Raja ocellata) in the months of April, May, June, Aug-
ust, September, October and November. The larval stage
of this cestode has a wide distribution among the fishes
of the Woods Hole region, where it is found encysted,
usually on the viscera, and not confined to any season
of the year. Another cestode recorded under the name
Dibothrium rugosum, is of frequent occurrence in the
cod, where it is usually found with the heads impacted in
the pyloric ceca. It has been collected in the months of
January, February, May, August, October, November and
December.

I have called attention in previous papers to the ex-
ceptional case of flesh parasites afforded by the Butter-
fish (Poronotus triacanthus). For many years, during
the months of July and August, I have been examining
a greater or lesser number of butterfish for flesh para-
sites. The parasite is a cestode, Otobothrium crenacolle,
whose adult stage has been found most frequently in the
spiral valve of the Hammerhead Shark, and less fre-
quently in the Dusky and the Sharp-nosed Shark. In
addition to the July and August records I have a few
also for the months of June and September. On account
of the large number of butterfish that have been exam-
ined it is worth while to scrutinize the statistics carefully
in order to see if there is any indication of an increase
in the number of parasitized fish as the season advances.
As a matter of simple observation it was obvious in the
earlier years in which this flesh parasite was studied

le A ne i

54 American Fisheries Society

that the proportion of parasitized fish was greater to-
wards the end of the season than it was at the begin-
ning. In some of the succeeding years this difference
was not so obvious. Now with data covering additional
years available, it will be interesting to see if the conclu-
sion from the observations of former years still holds.
A calculation of the percentage of fish in which no flesh
parasites were found, based on examinations made on a
considerable number of fish in the months of July and
August in the seven years from 1909 to 1914, inclusive,
shows a lesser percentage of nonparasitized fish for Aug-
ust than for July, thus indicating a greater degree of
parasitism for the month of August in five out of the
seven years. This is shown in the following table:

Year examined (petl guorystnia teat ||. o. esea need
July August July August July August

1909 | 149 49 14 6 0.094 0.122
1910 | 262 50 72 12 0.274 0.240
1911 58 342 23 63 0.396 0.184
1912 | 576 171 212 84 0.368 0.491
191s | 354 660 163 166 0.460 0.291
1914 | 235 395 116 184 0.493 0.465
| 2134 | 2565 600 515 0.281 0.200

The result of this calculation, which is based on a suf-
ficiently large number of fish presumably to overcome
the effect of the very considerable fluctuation in the de-
gree of parasitism indicated from year to year, seems
to be in accord with conclusions reached from observa-
tions on each year’s record. Furthermore something in
the nature of seasonal variation appears to be indicated.

The results of examinations of butterfish for flesh par-
asites by Mr. Vinal N. Edwards are of interest and are
here recorded:

Linton.—Seasonal Distribution of Parasites

or
Ol

1907 June 7 6 No record of cysts in the flesh.
Sept. 24 6 “Worms in flesh of each.”
1908 June 30 1 No record of cysts in flesh.
Oct. 10 15 “Flesh full of parasites.”
1909 Nov. 13 6 “Many cysts in flesh.”
1910 May 31 12 “Cysts in flesh of 9.”
1911 May 22 12 “No worms.”
June 17 8 “No worms.”
Sept. 29 100 “Cysts in flesh of all.”
Oct. 3 100 “All contained cysts in flesh.”

So far as this record of Mr. Edwards’s goes, it shows
a decided increase in the proportion of parasitized fish _
in the latter part of the year. It must be remarked, how-
ever, that conclusions should not be drawn from occa-
sional examinations, even if considerable numbers of fish
are examined. This may be illustrated by a single case
compared with others of its class. It was noted in the
earlier years of observation of the flesh parasites of the
butterfish that the smaller fish, 100 millimeters or less in
length, seldom had parasites in the flesh. This continues
to be the rule. Thus, in 1912 out of 220 fish, measuring
less than 100 millimeters in length, that were examined
for flesh parasites, only 3 were found with cysts in the
flesh, and but few in either case. In 1914, out of 76
small fish examined but one was found with cysts in the
flesh, and in that case very few. In September, 1911,
however, I examined 270 small butterfish, under 100 milli-
meters in length, 12 on the 9th, 36 on the 11th, and 223
on the 15th, with the following wholly unexpected and
exceptional result: Cysts were found in each of the 270,
distributed as follows: 23 with very few cysts, 36 with

few, 78 with many, 66 with numerous, and 67 with very
~ numerous cysts in the flesh. In this case it is evident
that a school of small fish had been exposed to a common
source of infection at the same time. I think that there
can be no doubt that, as a rule, the butterfish that are
taken in the autumn, or late summer, in the waters of
the Woods Hole region show a larger percentage that
have cysts in the flesh than is the case earlier in the sea-
son. I have interpreted this as indicative of a general
northward movement of the butterfish from the warmer

56 American Fisheries Society

waters of the coast farther south. At Beaufort, N. C., I
found this species of cestode which is represented by the
flesh parasite of the butterfish, the encysted stage, very
abundant in the submucosa of many species of fish, and
the adult in two species of shark other than the hammer-
head, which has thus far proved to be its most usual final
host. There is much reason for thinking, therefore, that
the chances of infection are many times greater in the
latitude of Beaufort than they are off the New England
coast. The method of infection, especially where many
cysts occur in the flesh, may be easily inferred, when it
is remembered that the ripe, egg-containing joints of the
adult worm, living in the intestine of a shark, continue
active for a long time in sea water, and when discharged
in the water along with the feces of their host, would
be greedily eaten by small fish. A single ripe joint may
contain many hundreds or even thousands of eggs. Each
of these eggs, when once it is swallowed by a fish, may
ultimately become an encysted larva. Thus in the ex-
treme case of parasitism of the small fish examined in
September, 1911, noted above, it is probable that the
school to which they belonged, happened to be in the near
vicinity of a shark, most likely a hammerhead, at the
time when a considerable number of ripe joints were
discharged into the water. The frequent possibility of
such happenings will be understood when it is recalled
that the chyle in the spiral valve of sharks is often lit-
erally swarming with the free joints of these small tape-
worms, each of them being the bearer of a large num-
ber of eggs.

CONCLUSION.

There does not appear to be evidence of any marked
periodicity in the occurrence of helminth parasites of
marine fishes, either adult in the alimentary canal, or
immature encysted in the tissues of their hosts, beyond
what may be expected where fishes are exposed to vary-
ing sources of infection in the course of their migrations.

FISH MEAL AS A FOOD FOR TROUT

By Pror. G. C. EMBoDy,
Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y.

The College of Agriculture of Cornell University, for
the past three years, has offered a Course in Aquiculture.
A part of the work of those students electing this course
consisted in hatching a certain number of trout eggs,
rearing the resulting fry to fingerlings and planting the ~
same in local waters.

Among the many problems which arose was the one
concerning fish food. It very early became evident that
the classic food, ground liver, could not be used satisfac-
torily. First, no refrigeration facilities were available,
making it necessary to buy only a small amount daily and
at a very high price. Second, the daily preparation of
this food consumed more of the student’s time than was
deemed expedient.

A food was desired which might be prepared before-
hand in large quantities and which might be kept for a
month or so. To this end, a few carp were cleaned and
passed through a meat grinder. The resulting hash was
boiled tender, passed through a fine sieve, some table salt
added and finally one percent boric acid was incorporated
in the mixture to insure preservation. The whole was
sealed in small wide-mouthed bottles under sterile con-
ditions. It was found that this food would keep for about
three weeks. Young rainbow trout were very fond of
it and grew satisfactorily. It was not long, however,
before the task of preparing the food and removing daily
the unconsumed waste from each trough, became so great
that a substitute was sought.

In the Transactions of this Society for 1911 (p. 183),
Mr. J. J. Stranahan gave an account of his success in
feeding bluegill sunfish upon a “Prepared Fish Food,”
supposed by him to have been made from fresh meat
scraps. Upon reading this article, the use of some such
dried and concentrated food for salmonoids was sug-

58 American Fisheries Society

gested to the writer. Accordingly, samples of dried
blood, fish meal and various grades of meat scraps were
obtained. Up to the present time only the first two have
been tried. All attempts to feed young rainbow trout
with the blood failed, so this was abandoned after a trial
of two weeks. On the other hand, the use of fish meal
was so successful that it has been continued for the last
two years.

Fish meal, as nearly as can be learned, is that residue
obtained after the extraction of oil from fish carcasses.
It varies considerably in texture and purity apparently
depending upon the place of manufacture. That which
was used by the writer was clean, dry, buff in color
and consisted of a mixture of fine meal and coarser
material, a few particles of which were as large as
small peas. By sifting through a screen thirty meshes
to the inch, a fine meal was obtained suitable for ad-
vanced fry. Passing the residue through a screen with
larger meshes, a coarser material fit for fingerlings was
obtained; while the last residue was of good size for
yearlings.

All sizes of this food have been used successfully both
in a dry condition and softened in water. For advanced
fry and small fingerlings the writer has merely sprinkled
the dry meal over the water surface. The young trout
rise and clean it up in a surprisingly short time. A very
small portion of the food will sink, but this is immedi-
ately seized by the less ambitious feeders. For larger
trout the food is first softened by placing for a period
of ten or fifteen minutes in sufficient water to cover it.
The water is completely absorbed, thereby preventing the
extraction of nutritive materials. It is then only neces-
sary to cast a handful at a time over the pond.

Rainbow and brown trout of all sizes will take the food
greedily. No trial has been made with brook trout or
other salmonoids. All minnows worked with, including
the horned dace and various shiners, immediately seized
the food without any coaxing. Success was attained also
in feeding yellow perch and common sunfish, although it

Embody.—Fish Meal as Trout Food 59

was found necessary first to introduce live minnows to
assist in teaching the former to take the food.

In order to obtain some definite idea of the effect of
this meal upon growth, one hundred rainbow trout just
beginning to feed were isolated May 26, 1914, in a hatch-
ing trough eight feet long by fourteen inches wide. They
were fed four times per day for the first two weeks, twice
daily for the next four weeks, and from then until Sep-
tember 26, once a day. The mean daily temperature of
the water during this period of four months varied from -
53° to 61° F.

Total weight of 100=283 gms., or 91% oz.
Weight of average individual=2.83 gms.

Length of largest fish =3 inches
smallest fish ntl ae
ie average fish ree oe
CONCLUSION.

Fish meal is a highly concentrated food containing
about 65% protein as compared to the 40 or 60% present
in the better grades of meat scrap. It consists not only
of the flesh but of the bones and scales of fishes, and,
therefore, possesses much of the mineral matter needed
by the living fish. It lacks the oil which has very little
value in the nutrition of fishes.

It is a dry food and, therefore, must be fed in smaller
portions than is the case with liver. Because of this dry
condition and high protein content, one pound of the
meal is equivalent to at least two pounds of liver in nu-
tritive value. And yet the cost is only about three and
one-half cents per pound in hundred-pound sacks.

Taking into consideration all of these facts, together
with the keeping qualities and the ease of preparation
and feeding, it seems to the writer that by its use a great
saving in the expense and labor of operating any trout
hatchery is possible. Some disadvantages may arise by
continued use, but such are not apparent to the writer

60 American Fisheries Society

at the present time. It is his belief that the product is
worthy of a fair trial by every fish culturist.

Author's Note, Dec. 5, 1914: It has been recently ascertained that the
“fish meal” referred to above was made from lean beef and not from fish
flesh. This error is regretted very much, and in justice to himself the
writer desires to say that the food was labelled “fish meal” by the com-
pany selling same and was sent to him in answer to a specific request
for a product made from fish flesh.

The general results given above are not affected by this mistake. But
the portion of the paper referring to the manufacture and composition
of the food applies to a meal made from fish flesh. The methods of
manufacture and analyses of several brands of true fish meal may be
learned from the following publication, namely, “The fish-scrap fer-
tilizer industry of the Atlante Coast,” by J. W. Turrentine, Bulletin
No. 2, Bureau of Soils, United States Department of Agriculture.

A meal made from the flesh of salt water fishes may be obtained from
The Flavell Company, Asbury Park, N. J.—G. C. Empopy.

DISCUSSION.

Mr. Lyvext, of Michigan: I wish to ask where this food may be
obtained and what is the name of it?

Pror. Emgopy: It has been used by poultry men for a good many
years. I procured the best meal from Darling & Co., Union Stock
Yards, Chicago. It is known by two names, “fish meal” and “fish food.”

Mr. Trrcoms: I had some of this stuff several years ago. It contained
about a pound of sand to five pounds of the so-called meal. This
looked to me more like ground meat scraps than fish. We used it
successfully with young perch, but with other fish it was a failure.

Pror. Emnopy: The Darlington Co. claims that this is ground fish,
and it is very clean. It is probably made from salt water fish, as most
of our fish scrap and fertilizer material comes from the Atlantic coast.

THE FISHERIES OF THE PACIFIC COAST

By JOHN N. Coss,
Editor of the Pacific Fisherman, Seattle, Wash.

But few persons except those intimately associated
with the fisheries of the Pacific coast appreciate their
magnitude. While the products prepared in other parts
of the country circulate widely in their own region, oc- —
casionally having a country-wide distribution (as in the
case of sardines), certain products of the Pacific coast
have a much wider distribution. Canned salmon, almost
all of which is packed on this coast, is one of the world’s
great staples, and the same may be said of salted salmon,
while the mild-cured and frozen salmon of the Pacific
can be found in all parts of the world except the more
remote portions where cold storage is not available. Of
the enormous quantity of fresh and frozen halibut con-
sumed in this country, more than nine-tenths come from
the Pacific banks, and this product is rapidly making for
itself a market in European countries. The most ex-
tensive cod banks in the world are to be found off our
Alaskan coast, and some day they will support even
greater fleets than do the Atlantic banks. At present
our Pacific. cod find not only a general market in the
country west of the Mississippi river, but large quanti-
ties are shipped to New England and other points in
the East, to the West Indies, Australia, Hawaii, and
various Asiatic ports.

Herring are to be found on this coast in immense num-
bers, while countless other species, some of which are
well known to the country at large, as smelt, sea basses,
albicore, flounders, sole, tomcod, whitefish, shad and
striped bass (both introduced from the Atlantic), are to
be found here in large numbers, while others which are
peculiar to this coast, as eulachon, black cod, Atka
mackerel, etc., are to be found here in great abundance.

Shrimp, crabs, clams, mussels, and scallops are abund-
ant, while both the eastern and the native oyster thrive

62 American Fisheries Society

well and with more modern methods of cultivation will
ultimately prove a very profitable industry. Heretofore
it has been a rare occurrence for the transplanted eastern
oyster to breed on this coast, but in August last Prof.
Trevor Kincaid, of the University of Washington, who
has been engaged in making an investigation of the
oyster fisheries of the state of Washington for the U. S.
Bureau of Fisheries, discovered in Wiilapa Harbor four
generations which have grown and thrived from the spat
of the eastern oyster. The importance of this discovery
will be patent when I state that heretofore our growers
have had to import eastern oysters in the seed and
depend upon their growth alone for their profit. A plant
for the canning of mussels was established on the north-
ern California coast last spring, and is one of the first
in the country to be put to this use.

An idea of the vastness of the Pacific fishing industry
may be gained when I state that the census report of
1908 (the last government report containing full data of
the fisheries of the United States) places the Pacific
coast division, exclusive of Alaska, second only to the
Atlantic coast division in almost every particular so far
as persons employed and the various items of investment
are concerned, while in the matter of quantity of prod-
ucts prepared the Pacific coast division leads all the
others, although second to the Atlantic coast division in
the total value of products as they leave the hands of the
fishermen. Had the fisheries of Alaska been included in
the investigation the Pacific coast fisheries would have
led all sections in everything except, possibly, in value
of products prepared.

The little table below shows the value of the principal
fishery products prepared on this cost, exclusive of Can-
ada, during the calendar year 1913. With the exception
of halibut, products sold fresh or in the shell are not in-
cluded, and the best estimate I have been enabled to ob-
tain of these indicates a value of about $2,500,000,
making the gross value of all the fishery products pre-
pared on this coast in 1913, over $41,000,000. During

Cobb.—Pacific Coast Fisheries 63

1918 the lower grades of canned salmon sold at figures
but slightly above the cost of packing same. This year
(1914), however, all grades have been advanced in price
from 10 to 40 per cent., and this increase, provided ap-
proximately the same pack is made as in 1913, will mean
an increased return to the packers of about $7,500,000.

VALUE OF PRINCIPAL PREPARED FISHERY PRODUCTS OF THE

PACIFIC COAST IN 1913.

Salmon, canned, salted, mild-cured and frozen,

$33,296,787
Halibut, frozen, fletched and fresh... 2,750,000
Fertilizer and Oil from Whales... ww... 700,000
Peruizer and Oil from Fish oo 250,000
Tuna, canned (77,500 full 48-lb. cases) ............... 500,000
iol Ory-saited, “pickled, Gt@s.2 2. 375,000
Sardines, canned (73,686 cases 1-lb. ovals)...... 350,000
Herring, pickled, dry-salted, frozen, etce............... 200,000
Clams, canned (69,040 full cases) 0.0. 200,000
Various canned (Trout, 820 cases; shad and
ABeO FOC, 8,552 CASCS, CbCry 52k 125,000
JT UN Rn a Re ce coe 8,146,787

Since 1908 there has been a great expansion of the in-
dustry on this coast, and as but a tithe of our vast pro-
duction is consumed locally, it has been necessary for our
producers to expand their markets throughout the world
sufficiently to take care of this production at a remuner-
ative price.

Most of my readers have doubtless during the past
year frequently had their attention called to the ener-
getic campaign which is being waged to induce our peo-
ple to eat more fish. This campaign had its origin in the
Northwestern section of this country, and is being sys-
tematically pursued not only through the Pacific Fisher-
man, the only journal representing the fisheries of this
coast, but in many other ways. One of the most ef-

64 American Fisheries Society

fective agents was Economic Circular No. 11, issued by
the U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, through the broad-minded-
ness of Commissioner Smith, and entitled ‘‘Canned Sal-
mon: Cheaper than Meats, and Why. Including Fifty
Tested Recipes.” This little pamphlet has been circula-
ted throughout the world by the Government and is now
being translated into various languages by steamship and
trading companies which operate to and in foreign coun-
tries, and it has proved the greatest “boost” ever given
to a food product by this or any other government. Dr.
M. E. Pennington, chief Food Research Laboratory, Bu-
reau of Chemistry, Department of Agriculture, has also
materially aided the good work by preparing a bulletin
entitled “Supplementing:Our Meat Supply with Fish,”
which was published in the 1913 Year Book of the De-
partment.

The fixing of an annual Salmon Day (occurring this
year on March 13), on which date all are asked to eat
salmon, has also aided in focusing the minds of our peo-
ple upon the wholesomeness and cheapness of this excel-
lent Pacific product. The Salmon Canners Associations
of this coast have also issued a number of booklets, leaf-
lets, ete., telling of the nutritious qualities, food value,
etc., of canned salmon, while the tuna, sardine and clam
packers have also done a great deal of work along these
lines.

This systematic work has been found to yield valuable
results to the producers of this coast, and I believe other
sections would achieve like results if they were to take
up the good work so far as their own special products
are concerned. The increasing scarcity of meat, with the
consequent high cost of same, is making our work easier
each day.

THE PACIFIC FISHERIES SOCIETY
‘By JOHN N. Coss, Secretary, Seattle, Wash.

The members of this Society will doubtless be inter-
ested in learning the details of the formation of a sister
society with a much more restricted sphere, viz., The
Pacific Fisheries Society.

On March 11, 1914, a meeting of those interested in
the upbuilding and perpetuating of the great fisheries of
the Pacific slope was held in Seattle, Wash., and it was
decided to form a temporary organization and to hold a
meeting later in the year for the purpose of making the
organization a permanent one. The constitution of this
Society, with the exception of a few slight changes neces-
sitated by the present smallness of the membership, was
adopted.

The following officers were elected to serve temporari-
ly: President, Carl Westerfeld, California Fish and Game
Commission, San Francisco, Cal.; Vice-President, Henry
O’Malley, Pacific Coast Superintendent of Hatcheries for
U.S. Bureau of Fisheries, Seattle, Wash. ; Vice-President,
Prof. Trevor Kincaid, Head of the Department of Zoolo-
gy, University of Washington, Seattle, Wash.; Secretary,
John N. Cobb, Editor of the Pacific Fisherman, Seattle,
Wash., and Treasurer, Russell Palmer, Seattle, Wash.

The first annual meeting was held at the University of
Washington, in Seattle, on June 10-12, 1914, and was at-
tended by over 50 of the 126 members on the rolls of the
Society on June 10. A number of interesting and in-
structive papers were read by the members, not the least
important of which was one by Dr. H. M. Smith, U. 8.
Commissioner of Fisheries, who came to the coast espe-
cially to attend this meeting, and who was unanimously
elected an honcrary member.

The Society voted to retain for another year the offi-
cers elected at the March meeting, and in addition the
following, to serve as an executive committee: Dr. Bar-
ton W. Evermann, Director of the Museum of the Cali-
fornia Academy of Sciences, San Francisco, Cal.; C.

66 American Fisheries Society

McLean Fraser, Director of the Biological Laboratory,
Nanaimo, British Columbia; Dr. Charles F. Holder, Pas-
adena, California; Leslie H. Darwin, Washington Fish
and Game Commissioner, Seattle, Wash.; M. J. Kinney,
Oregon Fish and Game Commission, Portland, Oregon;
Ward T. Bower, Pacific Coast Agent U. S. Bureau of
Fisheries, Seattle, Wash., and M. D. Baldwin, Montana
Fish and Game Commission, Kalispell, Montana.

It was also decided to hold the next annual meeting in
San Francisco in 1915, the date to be fixed later.

The geographical boundaries of the Society are re-
stricted to the states of Washington, Oregon, California,
Arizona, Nevada, Idaho and Montana, and the territories
of Alaska and Hawaii, in the United States, and the Prov-
ince of British Columbia in Canada.

CATCH BASIN PONDS
By W. O. BUCK,
U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, Neosho, Mo.

The Neosho, Mo., station of the Bureau of Fisheries
was planned to provide a water surface of about five
acres supplied from a spring yielding about 350 gallons
per minute and with a temperature of 57° F. at all sea-
sons. The water was brought to a distributing tank on
the highest part of the station grounds and thence to
the hatchery and in four other directions to supply sev-
eral series of ponds and pools and with provision for
overflow of surplus to another series of ponds. As this
surplus, though varying in amount, is likely to be small,
it is supplemented by overflow from four small pools sup-
plied direct from the tank. Overflow from the hatchery
furnishes the supply for still another series of ponds and
four of these series finally empty into a large pond at the
lowest point of the original grounds. All the ponds and
pools are arranged so that the overflow is of surface
water, the result being that in summer the temperature
rises from pond to pond while in winter the reverse is
true. Ice seldom forms in the upper ponds and is not
often more than three inches thick in the lowest and only
for a short time, while in summer an extreme water tem-
perature of 92 has been noted.

Omitting now the questions of evaporation and seep-
age, although both are important factors of the problem
here, it remains to consider the results of the arrange-
ment and to determine the proper use to be made of the
different ponds. The sorts of fish to be handled number
a dozen or more, the principal ones being rainbow trout,
large-mouth and small-mouth black bass, rock bass,
crappie and bream.

Rainbow trout spawn here from the latter part of No-
vember to early April, bass mostly in May and rock bass
and sunfish from April till September, so that the work
naturally divides itself into two periods, in winter with

68 American Fisheries Society

trout and in summer with bass. Trout are handled by
the usual method being allowed as much room as prac-
ticable in summer and confined in winter where they can
be conveniently handled for egg-taking. It will be recog-
nized that in summer they must be held in ponds or pools
near the supply tank and that a good flow must be pro-
vided to keep the temperature down. This can be accom-
plished by giving the trout the smaller upper ponds and,
by selecting those from which part or all of the overflow
can be diverted from the bass ponds below, it is practica-
ble to avoid sending too much water into the latter.
Before the station was built the spring had its outlet by
a small stream running diagonally across the present
grounds and deep enough so that all the ponds may be
drained into it and most of them cannot be entirely emp-
tied except into this stream. While this outlet must be
used for part or all of the overflow from the trout ponds,
with the other sorts it is necessary to keep it tightly
closed while the fish are small enough to pass the screens
or they will do so and be lost to the station. It may be
thought that the overflow from the trout ponds can
hardly be too great for the supply of the bass ponds, but
it is to be considered that for bass the supply of cold
water may easily be too great, not only because they
require a rather high temperature but because the small
life, on which they feed, is also greatly stimulated by
warmth. But besides this it has been found that the
young fish are much more easily held in the ponds when
the overflow is shut off or nearly so. It is well known
that the young fish move about the pond when so small
as to be able to pass through almost any screen that can
be maintained and that at this stage their tendency is to
go down stream. When they are larger and seek the
intake, a larger flow may be furnished as the weather is
then warmer and there is less likelihood of the water
being made too cool.

It is evident, therefore, that some provision must be
made to turn part at least of the overflow from the trout
ponds away from the lower ponds of their series and for-

Buck.—Catch Basin Ponds 69

tunately this can be done by locating the trout in ponds
having a drainage outlet other than to the ponds below.
The arrangement is such, however, that it is necessary to
supply part of the trout ponds through the hatchery or
through other trout ponds or pools. No harm appears to
result from this except the risk of communicating dis-
ease, but this risk is now an important matter and an
effort is being made to effect such a rearrangement that
each trout pond shall have its own supply, or better still
that each shall have two independent supplies. This lat-
ter is now possible since the flow of another and larger
spring has been brought to the station.

It is worth considering whether repeated use of water
has any causal relation to the appearance of the disease,
which has for years been on the increase in hatcheries
and the control of which is now a problem of prime im-
portance. But, however this may prove, it is reasonable
to avoid risk of infection so far as practicable and for
this reason the series or catch-basin plan seems undesir-
able for trout ponds.

It is also objectionable because aeration is less in the
lower ponds unless there is sufficient difference of level
to admit of a drop through the air from pond to pond,
which is not the case here in most of the series. The
other sorts of fish do not appear liable to infection nor to
miss the fresh aeration and, the disadvantages not apply-
ing, it remains to consider what advantages the catch-
basin system offers in their case. Two have been re-
ferred to above: (1) economy of water and (2) raising
of temperature, the latter being an advantage not only
directly to the fish but indirectly by promoting the in-
crease of the minute life necessary for their food. The
catch-basin system offers the means of saving and dis-
seminating this. Not that the diffusion from pond to
pond is likely to be great at most times, but because it is
practicable, when the ponds are drawn, to float it down
in great quantity to the pond below. This requires be-
ginning with the lowest pond and working up the series.

Although the pond fish are more adaptable than trout,

70 American Fisheries Society

it is still worth while to give each sort its proper location.
Thus it appears that small-mouth bass do better in rather
cool water and crappie are supposed to prefer theirs roily,
while sunfish thrive in the warmest locations, and the
catch-basin plan affords opportunity to humor these pref-
erences.

It is probably quite impracticable to prevent occasional
overflow in some direction in case of heavy rain and on
such occasions small fish are likely to pass the screens
to the pond below or even through the entire series and
into the stream. The chance of this last may be lessened
by holding the large lower pond at such a level that it will
not easily overflow and the size of the pond makes it un-
likely that small fish will promptly find their way around
it and out. It is, therefore, to be expected that this pond
will collect some fish, which escape from the ponds above
and it seems worth while to stock it with a sort as little
voracious as available. With this in mind crappie have
been bred there for the last few years and have yielded
a crop of young although black bass and sunfish have
drifted in. It may be of interest to mention that under
the plan described above trout are constantly fed and
that aquatic plants appear dangerous rather than useful
in the trout ponds while the other sorts are never fed and
thrive about in proportion as vegetation is made to
thrive.

By way of summary attention is invited to four results
of the catch-basin arrangement.

1. Economy of water.

2. Control of temperature.

3. Collection of stray fish.

4. Conservation of minute life.

AN EXPERIMENT IN FEEDING YOUNG
LARGE MOUTH BASS

By E. N. CARTER,
U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, Bullochville, Ga.

The result of an experiment in providing natural food
for young large-mouth black bass at the Cold Spring,
Ga., station of the U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, may be of -
interest to the members of this society.

Dr. Hugh M. Smith, in his very interesting book on
goldfish culture as practiced in Japan, tells of the methods
carried on there of manuring ponds for the purpose of
providing the minute life upon which daphnia, etc.,
thrive. ‘The essential point,” says Dr. Smith, “is the
fertilization of the pond, so that the growth of the min-
ute animals and plants that serve as the immediate and
ultimate food of the crustaceans may be greatly stimu-
lated.”

One of the methods, and the only feasible one at this
station, is the spreading of fresh horse manure over the
bottom of the rearing pond at the rate of about 100
bushels to the acre. This is left exposed to the sun for
about a week before the filling of the pond with water.
Dr. Smith writes: “In a few days the color of the water
becomes decidedly green from the presence of unicellular
algae in great abundance, and in 2 to 4 weeks the water
fleas exist in such numbers that they will support many
thousand young goldfish with constantly increasing ap-
petites.”

Having decided to give this plan a trial with young
bass, commencing May 19th, the writer had fresh horse
manure spread over the bottom of one of the rearing
ponds, Pond D, 32/100 of an acre in area. The manure
was spread near the outlet and in the deepest portion of
the pond. Each day thereafter, for four days, all manure
available at the station stable was spread in the same
manner over the balance of the pond. On the seventh

72 American Fisheries Society

day after the first lot was spread the water in the pond
was raised sufficiently to cover this lot and on each suc-
ceeding day it was raised until the pond was full and the
last lot of manure covered.

By June 10th, 3,000 young bass from an inch to an
inch and a quarter long, which had been collected from
other rearing ponds, were placed in this pond. From
it, up to August 31st, 2,800 fingerlings from 2 to 2%
inches long had been secured for distribution and during
September about 100 more 3 inches in length were col-
lected. All of these fish made excellent growth and were
in fine condition when shipped. They were given no
other food.

This experiment is considered eminently satisfactory
and will be repeated next ‘year.

In pond G, 45/100 of an acre in area, and which is sup-
plied largely from small, bottom springs, 7,000 bass from
an inch and a quarter to an inch and a half in length
were placed, within a day or two of the introduction of
fish into Pond D. Pond G had not been previously
manured but the natural food it contained was supple-
mented to some extent by occasional feedings of a ground
animal food purchased in Chicago and which is used at
this station for feeding young and old fish. From this
pond only 750 fingerlings were secured but they were
from 3 to 4 inches in length and, of course, fat and in
excellent condition. They had attained this condition by
feeding on the other 6,250.

Mention of the Chicago food has been made. Repeated
experiments at this station have proved that this is not
a satisfactory food for bass under 21% to 3 inches in
length, although they take it fairly well after that size
has been reached. Even at this 3-inch size, however,
they much prefer finely chopped mullet.

THE PADDLE-FISH
(Polyodon spathula).

(COMMONLY CALLED “SPOONBILL CAT.’’)

By M. L. ALEXANDER,
Pres. State Conservation Commission, New Orleans, La.

This is one of the most singular and interesting fish
occurring in American waters. Its range is said to be
along the Mississippi Valley from Texas and Louisiana
on the south to Minnesota and Wisconsin on the north.
It is not uncommon in the Ohio and its larger tributaries,
and in the Missouri basin it is found as far west at least
as western South Dakota. Its home is mostly in the
bayous and lowland streams.

In Louisiana these fish have been rather plentiful in
the past, but in recent years, through lack of protective
measures, are fast disappearing. They are found in the
fresh water lakes of the State and on its rivers and
bayous. They sometimes reach an immense size. One of
these fishes, a female, was recently taken from a small
lake near Angola, Louisiana, which weighed, when
dressed, 102 pounds, and contained 10 pounds of eggs.
These eggs were sold at $2.00 per pound for manufac-
turing into caviar, bringing a total of $20. The flesh was
disposed of at 10 cents a pound, or for $10.20, bringing,
therefore, to the fisherman a gross amount of $30.20.

Another fish of this species was taken from Lake Larto
in the northern part of the State, weighing approxima-
tely 140 pounds and bringing something over $40.

The spoonbill roe is converted into caviar by the same
methods used with sturgeon eggs; that is the fish is
opened, the eggs taken out and rubbed through wire
screens having a mesh slightly over an eighth of an inch,
thereby separating the eggs and removing them from the
egg sacs and other foreign substances. Sufficient salt is
then added and mixed thoroughly through the eggs, after
which they are placed on fine screens to drain. Then they

74 American Fisheries Society

are packed into cans with a capacity of 50 to 75 pounds
and shipped to the markets of the north, principally to
New York.

Fishing for this species is carried on in widely different
sections of Louisiana, but our principal investigations
have been made in White Lake, a body of water 22 miles
long and 18 miles across, situated in the southwestern
part of the State. The spoonbill cat fisheries of White
Lake are probably at present the most important in the
State, if not in the south. At one time during December
and January, 1913-14, there were ten large outfits oper-
ating in this body of water for taking this species exclu-
sively. I am told that four of these outfits netted their
owner each over $4000 during the season of three to four
months. Practically all of this money was paid them for
eggs from which to make caviar. It is said that all but
three of the ten companies operating in White Lake aver-
aged a net income of from $2000 to $4000 each; also that
the other three made a comfortable living for their owner.

Each outfit consists of two good gasoline boats of not
less than fifteen to twenty horse power each, and one
good, well-equipped seine of 600 feet in length. The
erew of each outfit generally consists of from four to
six men.

The method of operating seines in those waters has
only been in vogue about a year and is very unique. Its
efficiency was discovered quite by accident by some fisher-
men who were towing a seine across a small lake con-
nected with White Lake and, upon drawing it up, found
that a number of the spoonbill had become entangled in
its meshes.

Once on the fishing grounds each end of the seine is
fastened to a gasoline boat and is then dragged up and
down the lake by them all day without being hauled out.
About every half hour a fisherman in a row boat starts at
one end of the seine and pulls his boat along by the twine
which he raises sufficiently to remove each fish as he
comes to it, being able to detect the fish by its mild
struggles to release itself. As a fish feels the touch of

Alexander.—The Paddle-fish 75

the seine being dragged along, he shoots up toward the
top of the waters so close to the twine that its bill is
pushed through one of the meshes where it remains prac-
tically motionless until hauled up by the fisherman. We
know of the existence of no other species of fish which
are sufficiently docile to submit to this mode of capture.
To be sure, the paddle or bill conspires to make its cap-
ture in this manner easy, but if they possessed one-half
the activity of almost any other species of fish they could
not be taken in this manner, since their bill is so smooth ©
that it does not become entangled in the coarse twine of
which the seines are made. In spite of being so very in-
active, these fish cling tenaciously to life, and live a long
time out of water, probably fully as long as a catfish un-
der similar conditions. It is hardly necessary to say that
the seines, fished in this manner, rarely ever capture any
other species of fish, although catfish and the various spe-
cies of game fish are fairly numerous in White Lake and
are readily taken in seines when hauled out upon the
surrounding shores or up under a “round-up.”

The spoonbill cat taken from White Lake average much
smaller than those taken from other bodies of water in
that vicinity. The fish taken from this lake are also more
uniform in size and much lighter in color than those taken
from other waters of the State, even than those taken
from smaller lakes connected with White Lake.

We estimate the average weight of the fish taken from
White Lake to be from eight to ten pounds each, and
each female having eggs suitable for caviar will produce
from one to one and a half pounds of roe,—it being only
on rare occasions that one is caught which contains over
two pounds.

In the investigation by our Fisheries Department in
the study of spoonbill cat conditions in White Lake, about
the middle of February of this year, it was found that
very few females had already deposited their eggs. How-
ever, no fully matured milt was found in any of the
males captured. The roe from the fish found in this lake
is only suitable for caviar from about November 15th or

76 American Fisheries Society

December 1st until about March 15th or 30th, according
to climatic conditions.

In spite of the short season, it is admitted by fishermen
who are familiar with the present spoonbill cat conditions
in White Lake, as compared with a few years ago, that
they are fast disappearing from this lake and other wa-
ters of the State. The situation appeared so grave that
our Commission had introduced in the State Legislature
a bill, which was passed, making a close season on these
fish from January 1st to July 15th of each year. Not
that it is likely that spawning spoonbill cat will be found
in any Louisiana waters as late as July 15th, but this is
necessary to prevent the capture and sale of both catfish
and spoonbill cat during the close season on catfish.

In spawning season the spoonbill are seen in schools
on the borders of the lake close to the hard sandy bot-
toms. But little is known of the food of this fish; they
are bottom feeders and their chief food is probably min-
ute vegetable and animal organisms, found by stirring
the mud and vegetation with their spatulate snout.

Previous to last year large quantities of both species
were caught, dressed and sold as spoonbill during the cat-
fish close season, the flesh and appearance of both being
very similar when dressed and the heads removed.

It is more apparent that such valuable fish as the
spoonbill or the sturgeon should never be caught solely
for the purpose of selling their flesh at from four to ten
cents a pound and that these fish should be protected for
the great value of the eggs which they produce.

The fishermen in Louisiana are now being paid from
$1.50 to $2.00 per pound for the spoonbill cat roe. We
estimate that the value of this industry to the fishermen
of the State at the present time, would aggregate ap-
proximately $200,000 per annum.

We believe that every effort should be put forth, both
by state and federal governments, to propagate these fish
and to build up this industry which promises to be one
of unlimited magnitude. The State of Louisiana is now,
and will continue, giving it its closest attention.

Alexander.—The Paddle-fish 77

DISCUSSION.

Mr. Trtcoms, of Vermont: May I inquire if you have been success-
ful in propagating the spoonbill?

Mr. Arexanner: We have not made any attempt at propagating
this fish so far.

Pror. Dycue, of Kansas: I should like to know if you have suc-
ceeded in obtaining the eggs of the spoonbill? If you have, you have
found something entirely new to science.

Mr. Arexanver: [I am inclined to tuink you can locate the eggs of
the spoonbill in the waters to which I have called attention. We have
frequent reports of the small fish, measuring an inch or two up. In
the shallow waters of the lakes, and in the spawning season, these fishes
are seen in large schools around the borders of the lakes, which would
indicate that they are there for the purpose of depositing their eggs.

PrestipeNT Warp: There is only one case recorded in the literature
of anyone having had what is known to be a ripe female of this species.
Are you sure that these females are really ripe and ready to discharge
the eggs?

Mr. Arexanver: There is no question about that in the latter part
of February. Mr. E. A. Tulian, the head of our Fisheries Depart-
ment, told me that they had stripped a number of them. I do not
know to what extent scientific men have carried on their search for
these eggs, but I am inclined to think they have been making their
investigations in the wrong territory. I know of none made in our
waters. We will be glad to place every means within our power at
their disposal if they will come to us.*

The eggs of the spoonbill are manufactured into caviar, probably
sold as Russian caviar. We buy our own eggs back again in this form.

*On account of the importance of this discovery the Editor took
occasion to write to Mr. Alexander after the presentation of his paper,
for further data in regard to the eggs of this fish. Mr. Alexander
writes in part, “It is possible that only a limited number of eggs could
be secured and fertilized, owing to the apparent scarcity of ripe males
during the spawning season at White Lake. Our investigations there
covered only a few days during the latter part of February, the last
few of March and the first few of April, 1914. The operations conducted
by us at this point show that a very small portion of the total number
of females caught during February contained ripe eggs. Most of
these taken during the latter part of March and the first few days
of April had either partly or entirely deposited their eggs. However,
two or three females contained eggs which were not fully matured.
Only two or three nearly ripe males and no spent ones were taken
during our February operations, while we found only spent males the
last of March. Up to the present time, so far as we know, no ripe
eggs of the paddlefish have been found in any of the fish taken from
the rivers of our State to which they are indigenous, although the
young, not over five or six inches in length, are often seen in the Little,
Tensas, Ouachita and Black Rivers early in the spring, so we are told.
It is probable that these are hatched in Catahoula Lake. Our experi-
ments with this species were conducted by the head of our Fisheries
Department, Mr. E. A. Tulian.

In view of these and other facts I feel confident that IT have made
no claims that we cannot substantiate.”

Zoologists will await further information on this matter with interest.

; Eprror.

78 American Fisheries Society

We are laying down our opportunities and rights by neglecting to
take advantage of our resources and making something out of these
fish. I went before the legislature and had them pass a closed season
of over six months against the protest of the fishermen, recognizing
that it was necessary because these fish are disappearing from the
waters of our State.

Pror. Dycue: If the fishermen get such a high price for the eggs
it will be but a short time until you will have no fish. The lake stur-
geon were caught for their eggs and in a short time they were exter-
minated. You will have to have some restrictions regarding the
management of that business.

Mr. ALExANDER: We protect them six months out of the year, and
permit no fish to be taken under twelve inches in length.

Pror. Dycue: That is taking a long chance on saving them. You
might protect them nine or ten months, but if you allow them to be
caught at the spawning time the same result will follow.

PresipENt Warp: Professor Dyche is quite right in emphasizing the
danger in collecting fish for caviar. They must be taken at the time
when the eggs are nearly if not fully ripe and the consequent destruc-
tion is, of course, enormous. This might be met by providing pro-
tective measures through hatching, or otherwise, but it certainly fs
dangerous ground that the fishermen are treading on when they cap-
ture ripe fish for the eggs exclusively, and it is a fact that sturgeon
have been exterminated in certain regions of the earth by reason of
their pursuit for the eggs.

THE PROPERTIES AND UTILIZATION OF
SOME MARINE ANIMAL OILS*”

By Dr. GEORGE F.. WHITE, Clark College, Worcester, Mass.

(From the Laboratories of the U. S. Bureau of Fisheries,
Woods Hole, Mass., and Clark University
Worcester, Mass.)

The term ‘fat’? may be considered, for technical pur-
poses, to include all those substances which are glycerides
of fatty acids, exclusive of the lipoids, which may be
nitrogenous and phosphorized glycerides such as lecithin.
Fats are divided for convenience into solid and liquid
fats, the latter being classified ordinarily as oils. It
should be noted, however, that oils may become solid fats
by lowering the temperature and solidifying the con-
tained glycerides, so that the distinction is purely arbi-
trary. Oils, in turn, are either vegetable or animal, and
to this class belong the marine animal oils.

Fish, liver and blubber oils constitute the class of ma-
rine animal oils and show fairly distinct differences in
composition and behavior. Sperm oil is not included in
these as it contains a large amount of spermaceti, which
is a wax and not a fat, waxes being esters of other alco-
hols than glycerol. Some important and characteristic
differences between a vegetable oil (linseed) and marine
animal oils of various kinds, and of sperm oil and sperm-
aceti, may be best shown by the following table, compiled
from the results of experiments at Woods Hole.

It is not in the scope of this paper to discuss methods
of preparing oils. The methods of obtaining menhaden
oil are simple in principle, involving a digesting process,
pressing by one means or another, steaming out the oil

{Published by permission of Dr. Hugh M. Smith, U. S. Com-
missioner of Fisheries, Washington, D. C.

"For a fuller account of the industrial side of this topic, see
“Aquatic Products in Arts and Industries,’ C. H. Stevenson,
Part XXVIII, Report of the Commissioner, U. S. Commission of
Fish and Fisheries, p. 177, 1902.

80 American Fisheries Society

TABLE I.

CHARACTERISTIC PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL CONSTANTS OF
SOME VEGETABLE AND MARINE ANIMAL OILS.

ifi . : . ifi- .
Kind. of Oi). werty Get Jot en) oe
at 30°c. number

Linseed. eee 0.9251 0.1751 152.4 194.7 4.00
Menhaden: 6.27). 22225 0.9230 0.1727 143.3 itt teat 0.88
Doetfish:. <1. ee ee 0.9185 0.2135 1385.9 193.0 0.94
(Mustelus canis)
Squeteague.......... O29 0 ai7 0.2402 103.9 196.5 7.40
DCUD cis tens 2 amen ne 0.9168 0.2141 117.3 188.9 16.73
Batteriigh: 3-5-2 foe 0.9090 0.2092 suai 191.4 62.07
Hels cpepanspe ahve eee ec 0.9135 0.2026 117.4 ihe) teal 1.02
Dogfish liver... ......: 6.9164 0.1977 124.8 189.9 1.60
(Mustelus canis)
Doeetish liver’. &).)./5 5 <3 0.9187 0.2049 142.7 171.4 4.84

(Squalus acanthias)
Dusky Shark liver... . 0.9127 0.2386 118.2 185.2 0.81

Sand Shark liver..... 0.9262 0.1943 LS2e0 1.52
Hammer-head Shark

LiVveraee Miso tee 0.9245 0.2682 155.5 174.1 Seo
Torpedo; liver. ... «<. . 0.9044 0.2133 111.0 164.0 0.92
Godtlivers; 2.0 > se + 0-92.07 0.2001 142.6 185.8 1.82
Barn-door Skate liver. 0.9253 0.1970 155.8 184.9 0.38
Sea-elephant......... 0.9135 0.2452 1279 197.8 1.66
Sea-leopard..... Scere asda tase: 0.1858 ae 6 197.5 0.00
WHALeL tat aes cee 0.9192 0.1822 156.6 192.8 6.70
Blackfish’ head....... 0.9135 0.1132 33.90 277.8 0.81
Porpoise body....... 0.9221 0.1208 30.26 at 1.53
Horpoise? jaw. 2... 0.9176 0.1084 30.68 286.0 0.89
SPOMM See as eaten ee 0.1720 85.5 167.0 0.33
Spermaceti...... S cloue OLS Oat 0.1040 65.75 Ported 0.26

from the filtrate, and reclaiming some oil of inferior
grade by filter-pressing the gurry. Liver oils of good
quality are obtained by steaming fresh livers for a short
time and allowing the oil to rise. Extraction with sol-
vents may be resorted to where difficulties are encoun-
tered, as in reclaiming oil from digested dogfish, the
mushy character of which causes a poor separation in
the modern screw-presses. I have obtained good fish and
liver oils by steaming at brief intervals of time in an
autoclave at 5 to 10 pounds pressure. This process sug-
gests possibilities for the reclaiming of oil from dogfish.

Crude marine animal oils all have a fishy taste and
odor. They turn dark on long standing, and may deposit
a solid fat, which fat is composed of glycerides mainly

White-—Marine Animal Oils 81

of palmitic, together with some stearic and oleic acids.
This deposition of fat (roughly called “stearine” in the
trade, and used for soap-making) is of course markedly
hastened’ by cooling. It has been noted by the writer
that the liver oil of the smooth dogfish deposits much
larger amounts of ‘“‘stearine” than does that of the spiny
dogfish. Torpedo liver oil gave none even after one hour’s
standing over ice.

The specific gravities of the various marine animal oils
and of linseed oil are very similar, averaging about 0.92
at 30° C.

The viscosity, which is of great importance in consid-
ering the value of oils for paints and lubricants, varies
around the value 0.2 at 50° C. Viscosity values are
expressed in C. G. S. units. I have studied this phase
of the subject to a considerable extent and have devised
a viscometer requiring only five minutes for a determina-
tion and but five cubic centimeters for a sample of oil.
The accuracy of the instrument, method of manipulation,
and results are discussed in the original papers.’ It was
found that the viscosity of the oils is very characteristic
and constant even if the different samples of oils were
obtained under diverse conditions. Mixtures of oils were
studied, and it was observed that the fluidities (fluidity
being the reciprocal of viscosity) of the mixtures are
strictly additive; that is, from the fluidity the percent-
age composition of the mixture can be calculated. It was
stated that such a test of the character of an oil is not
of great value if taken by itself, but is well worth con-
sideration along with other physical and chemical tests.
The fluidities of fish and vegetable oil mixtures were
also shown to be additive.

Some marine animal oils have the property of drying
to a considerable degree, and this is a good reason for
the assumption that such oils contain large amounts of
unsaturated fatty acid esters. The nature of these is not
well understood as it is extremely difficult to isolate such

‘Journal of Industrial and Engineering Chemistry, vol. 4, pp.
106 and 267 (1912).

82 American Fisheries Society

unstable compounds without breaking them up. Ordi-
nary distillation decomposes the oils, changes their com-
position, and the almost hopeless mixture of glycerides
presents a very complex problem to the analytical chem-
ist. The drying power of the oils is shown by the iodine
numbers. ‘The iodine number is the percentage of iodine
absorbed by an oil, and is probably the constant which
tells more of the value of the oil than any other. While
many of the fish oils have iodine numbers nearly as great
as that of linseed oil, they do not necessarily dry in ex-
actly the same manner, a sticky gum being sometimes
obtained instead of a hard, dry film.

Many attempts have been made to refine fish oils and
rid them of their fishy odor, taste and color. Very few
of these attempts have met with any degree of success.
Physical methods may include washing with water and
drying either by allowing to settle, or drying with cal-
cium chloride, cooling to separate “stearine,” allowing
to stand over or filtering through fullers’ earth, infusorial
earth, or animal charcoal, and steaming under ordinary,
reduced, or increased pressure. As far as my observa-
tions go, the use of such agents as charcoal do not change
the character of the oils to any appreciable extent, espe-
cially if they are of fairly good quality to start. The
results of steaming oils will be considered later.

Chemical methods of purification may be used, al-
though very few of these attempts have met with any
degree of success. The oil may be treated with a small
amount of concentrated sulphuric acid and the slightly
charred product allowed to settle, the albuminous im-
purities thus being dragged down. I have found this
process practically worthless for marine animal oils.
Treatment with ozonized air, and chlorine generated in
various ways, have been tried, as well as very many other
processes. That process which seems at present to prom-
ise ultimate success is the so-called hardening of the oils
by hydrogen.

“The treatment of unsaturated oily bodies with hydro-
gen to obtain saturated derivatives is of great scientific
and technical interest. In the fat industry a most fas-

White.-—Marine Animal Oils 83

cinating problem has been that of the conversion of oleic
acid or olein into stearic acid or the corresponding glyce-
ride.’” Since fish oils contain large amounts of glycerides
of unsaturated acids, under proper conditions they should
add hydrogen directly, just as they take up bromine and
iodine. Hydrogen is very active in the presence of finely
divided nickel heated to a suitable temperature, and such
carefully prepared nickel will hasten the reduction of
any reducible substance.

Catalyzers are those substances which change the
rate of a chemical reaction without being noticeably af-
fected at the end of the reaction. ‘‘With a powerful cata-
lyzer the hydrogenation of oils becomes a rapid, simple
procedure; almost, as it sometimes seems, independent
of the hydrogenating apparatus.”

“Catalyzers recognized as useful for the purpose are
nickel and palladium, although platinum, copper, iron
and other metals have been used to a great extent... .
As nickel is probably the most important of these cata-
lyzers, in view of its efficiency and relatively low cost,
it will be first considered. The preparation of an effec-
tive nickel catalyzer requires considerable care. The ox-
ide or hydrate of nickel is first obtained by reduction of
nickel nitrate, or precipitation of nickel hydrate from,
say, a nickel sulphate solution by the addition of an al-
kali. Obtained in this or any other suitable manner, the
next step is the reduction to metallic nickel. For this
purpose the nickel is placed in a receptacle which may
be heated controllably, and hydrogen gas is passed over
the mass at a temperature ranging from 250° to 500° C.
or so, until water is no longer evolved.”’ Such a catalyzer
is very sensitive to outside influences, and is poisoned by
certain gases, loses its activity if exposed to the air, etc.
“Catalyzer made from the oxide without supporting ma-
terial, weight for weight, is hardly as efficient as when
the active surface is increased by the use of a carrier.
Hence we find many proposals for the production of cata-

1The quotations referring to the hydrogenation of oils are
taken from the article of C. Ellis, Journal of Industrial and
Engineering Chemistry, Vol. 5, p. 95 (1913).

84 American Fisheries Society

lyzers with a great diversity of carriers, ranging from
pumice stone and kieselguhr to charcoal and sawdust.”

“By hydrogenation, oils which formerly made soaps
only of soft consistency, now yield the more valuable
hard soaps. This has led to a very rapid development
of the art with respect to the production of soap-making
fats. In particular, fish and whale oils have been made
use of because these oils may be completely deodorized
by the addition of hydrogen. . . . When hydrogenated
down to an iodine number of about 50, fish oil has the
consistency of hard tallow and the odor of fish oil is
wholly absent. Even the fishy taste is scarcely in evi-
dence. For soap-making, this product is satisfactory as
it complies with the test for a deodorized fish oil suitable
for soap-making in that the odor of the original oil is
not apparent when ironing laundered goods on which
such soaps are used.”

In the consideration of the edibility of hydrogenated
oils, the presence of the catalyzer in the finished product
must be considered. ‘“‘Whale oil, containing 0.6 per cent.
fatty acid, yielded 0.006 per cent. ash and 0.0045 per
cent. nickel oxide. Such an amount of nickel presum-
ably would not be tolerated in a product intended for
edible purposes.”

MENHADEN OIL.

In the United States, menhaden oil obtained in the
south Atlantic waters is called “Southern” oil and is dis-
tinguished from “Northern” oil by its lighter color, and
by the fact that it contains more glycerides of higher
fatty acids, therefore depositing a greater quantity of
stearine when cooled. The oil is sold under several trade
names—“Prime Crude,” “Brown Strained,” ‘Light
Strained,” ‘““‘White Bleached” and “Yellow Bleached,” de-
pending on the degree of refinement. Sometimes the
grades are called ‘“‘A,” “B,” “C,” and “D,” the distinction
being based on the color, “A” grade being a very light
yellow, while ‘“D” grade is the very dark brown oil.

White.-—Marine Animal Oils 85

The condition of the market in December, 1913, may
be best shown by the following quotation: ‘‘Authorities
estimate this season’s yield of oil will come fully 40 per
cent. short of last year’s output. Crude Southern oil was
offered at 33 cents per gallon, f. o. b. Baltimore, but
there were no buyers at this price. Northern oil was
nominal at 36 to 37 cents per gallon, most sellers asking
the outside figure. The pressed grades were steady in
the face of a quiet demand. There was a moderate in-
quiry for the light pressed. Prices closed unchanged as
follows: light and brown strained, 40 to 42 cents; yellow
bleached, 42 to 44 cents; white bleached, 44 to 45 cents
per gallon.”

Menhaden oil is used in the leather industry for curry-
ing, in soap-making, and in the paint and varnish indus-
try as a substitute for linseed oil. Its use for rubber
substitutes, etc., is kept a trade secret.

“The oil that gives the best and most lasting results
for paint purposes is menhaden oil, and the winter
bleached variety is the one that should be recommended.’
This is an oil fairly pale in color, with an iodine number
of 150 or over, and with little or no fishy odor.... The
results I have obtained from the proper grades of fish
oil... warrant me in saying that fish oil in the hands of
an intelligent manufacturer, and used up to 75 per cent.,
produces excellent results for exterior purposes. For
interior purposes fish oil does not seem to be desirable,
for it gives off noxious gases for a long time.”

“Menhaden oil should, of course, be used with a drier,
and for that purpose the best results are obtained by
means of a Tungate drier. Tungate drier is one in which
tung oil or China wood oil is boiled with a lead and man-
ganese dioxide, and when the solution is complete, this
is then mixed with a properly made resinate of lead and
manganese. Such a drier becomes soluble in the oil at
temperatures over 100° C., and hardens the resulting

Oil, Paint and Drug Reporter, Vol. 84, p. 35, Dec. 15, 1913.

?Toch. “Fish Oil as a Paint Vehicle.’”’ Journal of Industrial and
Engineering Chemistry. Vol. 3. p. 627. (1911).

86 American Fisheries Society

paint very thoroughly. For fabrics, however, fish oil
must be heated to a temperature of over 200° C., and if
air is injected at such a temperature the glycerides are
expelled and thick oil is producd which, in conjunction
with the drier just named, is equally good for printing
inks. It is advisable, however, to add at least 25 per cent.
of either a heavy bodied linseed oil or a raw linseed oil
which does not break before the manipulation just re-
ferred to has begun.”

“Since last year some of the enamel leather and print-
ing ink manufacturers have adopted the use of fish oil
as a medium to replace linseed oil, with excellent results,
and the enamel leather which is produced, while not so
high in gloss as that made entirely of linseed oil, is much
more fiexible and possesses an unctuousness which pre-
vents it from cracking. But fish oil for leather purposes
shows a peculiar defect, and a campaign of education
will be necessary if ever this material is to be used for
the manufacture of shoes or auto tops, for fish oil, par-
ticularly when it originally has a high acid number, seems
to effloresce and gives an undesirable bloom to enamel
leather, which, however, can be removed from the sur-
face by the ordinary application of benzine or a mixture
of benzine and turpentine.”

“We are all aware that paint made from fish oil can
be applied to hot surfaces and will not blister or peel as
readily as that made from linseed oil, and for this pur-
pose—as a smoke-stack paint—it is very desirable.”

“There is great demand for baking japans which shall
be flexible and at the same time so thoroughly baked
that they adhere to the surface most tenaciously and
form an excellent enamel, and for this purpose we know
that the reasonable use of fish oil improves baking japans
very much indeed. We are also aware that along the
seacoast, where paint disintegrates very rapidly on ac-
count of the sea air, a fairly liberal use of properly treat-
ed fish oil serves a useful purpose.”

“When red lead is mixed 33 pounds to a gallon of lin-
seed oil it thickens up after a short time and becomes

White.—Marine Animal Oils 87

unfit for use. A properly neutralized fish oil prevents
the hardening or setting of the red lead in the package,
and a paste of this material can be transported a great
distance and will last many months in a fresh and soft
condition.”

COD LIVER OIL.

The production of a medicinal cod liver oil of good ~
quality requires considerable care. Such oil is now made
from selected fresh livers, those livers being discarded
which are at all discolored. The livers are subjected to
the action of steam at a fairly low temperature, (the
best oil is obtained when the temperature is not allowed
to exceed 70° C.) and the oil rising to the top is skimmed
off. This oil is of the first grade, and after filtering from
liver tissue, may be bleached by treatment with fullers’
earth or by exposure to the sun. Longer heating affords
a darker oil, and a brown oil may be finally obtained by
pressing the residues.

Good medicinal oil should be of very light color, slight
fishy odor and taste. It should have a small amount of
free fatty acids, of volatile acids, and its icdine absorp-
tion value should be high. Its medicinal value is very
probably not due to the amount of free acids, to the
small amount of iodine contained in all cod liver oil, nor
to the presence of any bases from the decomposed pro-
tein matter of the liver. Lewkowitsch’ thinks that “‘the
medicinal effect of cod liver oil . . . must be looked for in
the facility with which it is hydrolyzed or digested, and
it cannot be doubted that this property is caused by the
peculiar constitution of its unsaturated fatty acids. From
the medicinal point of view, that cod liver oil is the best
which has been prepared from fresh livers and kept pro-
tected from the action of light and air.”

There is on the market an oil called ‘‘cod oil’? which
is nothing but a crude cod liver oil. It is prepared in

“Chemical Technology and analysis of Oil, Fats and Waxes.”’
Vole Tip: 361:

88 American Fisheries Society

this country on the Eastern and Western coasts. Livers
of other fish than the cod help to increase the supply of
this oil. Cod oil, on cooling, deposits “stearine”’ which
may be used for soap-making, while the expressed oil is
employed in the leather industry. In December, 1913,
domestic cod oil was selling for 37 cents a gallon.

TORPEDO LIVER OIL.

The liver of the torpedo yields a large amount of oil;
one liver weighing 15 pounds gave one gallon of oil. The
unrefined oil obtained by steaming the livers is a very
light yellow oil, of slight fishy taste and odor, and de-
posits no stearine when cooled. Treatment of the oil with
bleaching powder seemed to improve the quality only
slightly, the physical and chemical properties remaining
practically unchanged. An exceedingly clear, light col-
ored and odorless product was obtained when the crude
oil was subjected to the action of steam. The oil was
heated by steam, a current of steam was passed through,
and drawn out under reduced pressure. Thus all vola-
tile aldehydes (the odor of acrolein was decidedly no-
ticeable in preparing the crude oil from the livers), free
fatty acids. of low boiling point, and all those products
causing the fishy odor, were removed.

The oil was hydrogenated at a temperature of 200° C.
in the presence of reduced nickel. Hydrogen was simply
bubbled through the oil which was placed in a vessel

TABLE II.

PROPERTIES OF CRUDE AND REFINED TORPEDO LIVER OIL.

Acid Saponifi- [odine ‘Viscosity _ Density
number cation number at 50°c, at 30°c.
number
Crude (ollsee <a 0.70 165.4 110.2 0.2097 0.9013
Oil treated with
bleaching powder... 0.73 ria} TOMO Me OaaO Ghats eas
Oil treated with
StOdIN. Wa See ae rte .e 104.6 0.2142 0.9049

Oil treated with
MY GTORED 20.20: cor nenenei te 0.91 Soe 97.2 0.2629 0.9066

White-—Marine Animal Oils 89

heated by an oil bath. The nickel was deposited on as-
bestos fibre. An oil of pleasant nutty odor was pre-
pared by hydrogenating for a few hours. It is hoped
that this problem may be studied to a greater extent.

While torpedo liver oil has been used to a small extent
by some fishermen for rheumatism, it has otherwise
been unutilized. It was applied to the bearings on
lathes, to the valve-stem of the steam engine, and else-
where in the machine shop at Woods Hole. The results ©
were very promising. It of course saponified readily on
the steam engine, and was found an excellent lubricant
as it did not gum, although the bearings on the lathe
heated up somewhat. It is too light an oil for such pur-
poses, as the viscosity is low, but it should serve well as
a spindle oil. The refined oil should be an excellent lubri-
cant for light machinery.

SPINY DOGFISH LIVER OIL.

Spiny dogfish livers yield 45 to 55 per cent. oil of good
quality if rendered properly. Prepared in the best man-
ner, the oil is light yellow in color, clear, and of slight
odor. Bleaching powder does not improve the oil to any
extent, nor treatment with charcoal or diatomacious
earth. By the steam treatment as with the torpedo liver
oil, a product of excellent character was obtained. The
following table presents the results of analyses:

TABLE III.
PROPERTIES OF CRUDE AND REFINED SPINY DOGFISH
LIVER OIL.
Acid —- S4PoNIfi- ogi Viscosity Density
n Sate Yr aan wel at sna! r at 50°C _ ae 20°C
PUGe OL. vas ae ote Cease 0.59 172.0 116.1 0.2171 0.9066
Oil treated with
bleaching powder... 0.62 171.4 eu oh O32 186. , 9 9 ee
Oil treated with
TUG On eee 0.59 172.6 112.7 0.2183 0.9083

While the character of the oil of the torpedo liver va-
ries but little, as evidenced by the two sets of constants

90 American Fisheries Society

given in Tables I and II, that of the spiny dogfish shows
considerable variation, especially in the iodine number.
Thus Thomson and Dunlop’ obtained an iodine value of
126.4, and 8.4 per cent. unsaponifiable matter. I found
the iodine value to be 116.1 in one case and 142.7 in an-
other, and 2.65 per cent. unsaponifiable matter. The oil
should be studied further to characterize it fully, par-
ticularly with regard to the volatile and soluble acids.

Lewkowitsch’ states that the dogfish “‘is caught on the
coast of Oregon, Washington and British Columbia in
large quantities. One hundred livers are stated to yield
6 to 8 gallons of oil. The oil is not generally kept sep-
arate from cod liver oil, and is sold in admixture with
the latter for currying purposes.” Dogfish liver oil care-
fully prepared may well be used for other than the above
purpose.

SPINY DOGFISH BODY OIL.

The oil in the body of the dogfish is retained exceed-
ingly tenaciously, and steaming under pressure does not
seem to be wholly satisfactory. Pressing in the contin-
uous screw presses yields a soft mushy product from
which it is difficult to obtain a good yield of oil. Extrac-
tion by solvents is being tried at some plants now in
operation for the manufacture of fertilizer and oil.

By extraction of the dry flesh with ether I obtained a
brown oil with the following constants :—iodine number,
128.3; saponification number, 182.4; acid number, 1.66;
density at 30° C., 0.9176; viscosity at 50° C., 0.1766. The
oil is of lower quality than the liver oil, although its dry-
ing power is fully as great as indicated by the iodine
absorption value.

SPINY DOGFISH EGG OIL.

The utilization of dogfish eggs for the tanning of lea-
ther is dependent on the quality of the contained oil.

—_—~

*Chemical Technology of Oils, ete. Vol. II, p. 370.
Ibid. p. 368.

White.—Marine Animal Oils 91

I found that in one sample of eggs there was 44.79 per
cent. water, and 22.37 per cent. oil as obtained by extrac-
tion with carbon tetrachloride. This makes 49.96 per
cent. oil in the dry yolk.

By extracting the dry yolks with ether, a rather vis-
cous, light brown oil was obtained, of slightly fishy odor.
This oil contained a solid fat which possibly consisted
largely of “stearine,” but probably was also composed of
“lecithin,” a nitrogenous and phosphorized glyceride -
which is found in egg yolk to a considerable extent. A
more intensive study of this oil will be made.

The constants of the oil are as follows :—iodine num-
ber, 124.1; saponification number, 176.0, acid number,
8.1; density at 30°, 0.9268; viscosity at 50°, 0.3610.

* * *

The other shark oils are of not enough commercial im-
portance on account of the supply, and the qualities of
the blubber oils mentioned in Table I are too well known,
to be considered here. From the interest in the skate
on account of its value for fertilizer and glue, the excep-
tionally high iodine value of the liver oil should be noted
(this value is exceeded sometimes) and its possible use as
a drying oil should be considered.

Che American Fisheries Society

Organized 1870—lIncorporated 1910

Officers for 1914-15

FV OPULCNG iy DANIEL B. FEARING, Newport, R. 1.
Vice-Presidenet............... JACOB REIGHARD, Ann Arbor, Mich.
Rec. Sec.....RAYMOND C. OSBURN, The Aquarium, N. Y. C.
Cor. Sec......CHAS. H. TOWNSEND, The Aquarium, N. Y. C.
Tredsurer 2 oe CHAS. W. WILLARD, Westerly, R. I.

Hice-Presidents of Sections
Fish Culture........... DWIGHT LYDELL, Comstock Park, Mich.
Aquatic Biology & Physics, HENRY B. WARD, Urbana, IIl.
Commercial Fishing............ J. F. MOSER, San Francisco, Cal.
RUIN i cee ok H. WHEELER, PERCE Chicago, II].
Protection and Legislation.....T. S. PALMER, Wash., D. C.

Executive Committee
GEO. W. FIELD, Sharon, Mass., Chairman; L. L. DYCHE,
Pratt, Kan.; N. R. BULLER, Harrisburg, Pa.; HENRY
O’MALLEY, Oregon City, Ore.; J. QUINCY WARD,
Frankfort, Ky.; ERNEST SCHAEFFLE, San
Francisco, Cal.; JOHN P. Woops,
St. Louis, Mo.

Committee on Forrign Relations
GEORGE SHIRAS, Washington, D. C., Chairman; HucH M.
SMITH, Washington, D. C.; E. E. PRINCE,
Ottawa, Canada; GEORGE W.
FIELD, Sharon, Mass.

Committee on Relations with National and State Governments
HENRY B. WARD, Urbana, IIl., Chairman; WM. C. ADAMS,
Boston, Mass.; M. L. ALEXANDER, New Orleans,
La.; Wm. L. FINLEY, Portland Ore; JoHN
W. TitcoMB, Lyndonville, Vt.

. Publication Committee
TaRLeTon H. Bean Basurorp DEAN JOHN T. Nicuous

-
Ms

TRANSACTIONS

of the

American Fisheries Society

“To promote the cause of fish culture; to gather and
diffuse information bearing upon its practical success,
and upon all matters relating to the fisheries; to unite
and encourage all interests of fish culture and the fish-
eries; and to treat all questions of a scientific and eco~
nomic character regarding fish.”

VOLUME XLIV, NUMBER 2
1914-1915

Edited by The Recording Secretary
MARCH, 1915

Published Quarterly by the Society
NEW YORK,.N. Y.

CONTENTS

PaGE

Taxonomic and Fish-cultural Notes on the Chars or Trouts of New
Pugland.W.. C.K endaly si. 5j: oe Sey os Mane s aoe eee 97

One year of protection at the Santa Catalina Fish Reserve.
COVE SAO 1d OP re ee aE OM ee Ree ic de LO See 109

Effects of Certain Metallic Salts upon Fishes. Adrian Thomas..... 120

A Description of the Young Stages of the Winter Flounder.
We BS ulpoatn one Oe Sek er oe ho FC Ee 125

Preliminary Investigations for the Systematic Stocking of State
Waters: D: 0. Belding . s.iine tins 5 si2cnciei eee tan es eee 137

Notes on the Rearing of Salmon. H. B. Torrey and D. E. Lancefield 150
On Some Diseases of Fishes. G. A. MacCallum .................. 154
Stray, Notes! from) Porto sRico:) J). TeeNachols yc doar eile eile 159

The Use of Salt in Separating Unfertilized from Eyed Eggs.

GA, STROM ON LSE Ea ee Se Rech a eee 161

Notice of Next Annual Meeting ....... SRA ACTRCE- . <ORE ERE 164

TAXONOMIC AND FISH-CULTURAL
NOTES ON THE CHARS OR TROUTS
OF NEW ENGLAND

By WILLIAM CONVERSE KENDALL,
Assistant, Bureau of Fisheries.

I have no formal paper to present, but should like to
call your attention to a few matters pertaining to the
chars or “trouts” of New England, which include the
“brook trout” as their best known representative.

Authorities differ regarding their geographical dis-
tribution, and whether or not the different forms should
be regarded as distinct species. They are mainly boreal
and of wide distribution in the northern hemisphere, as
a group extending entirely around the globe and north-
ward to even beyond the limits of open water. There are
southward extensions and more or less isolated occur-
rences as far as southern Europe and in the United
States to New England and northern California. The
brook trout, however, is found in the mountain sources
of some rivers as far south as Georgia and Alabama.

The typical char of Europe is Salvelinus alpinus, which
is nominally represented in Greenland by Salvelinus stag-
nalis and in the north Pacific by Salvelinus malma.
There are intermediate nominal species, however, which
are apparently so closely related that from descriptions
and scanty material it is difficult to decide where one
species leaves off and another begins. Some authorities
regard all or most of them as constituting one species
composed of various forms, each possessing character-
istics of merely local significance.

The first two pictures shown you (demonstration) are
of the common lake trout from a small lake in western
Maine. In Maine, it is known as “togue” and in New
Hampshire and Vermont as “lunge” or “longe,”’ and far-
ther west as “lake trout,” “Mackinaw trout,” etc.

98 American Fisheries Society

The lake trout has been regarded as a distinct genus
from the rest of the chars and for a long time bore the
generic name of Cristivomer. This genus was apparently
based upon the form of the vomer alone, but it has re-
cently been shown that this ground is untenable. There-
fore, according to the rules of taxonomy, this genus
Cristivomer has to be abandoned and the fish again falls
into the generic group designated as Salvelinus. How-
ever, while this character alone does not serve to gen-
erically distinguish it, there are indications that there
may be found some other quite tangible characters, or
even more than tangible—something that we can get hold
of and grasp—that will separate it as a distinct genus,
regardless of the character of the vomer. As a rule, we
cannot find one character alone that can be regarded as
of generic value. There must be a combination of char-
acteristics and each of these may alone be of little sig-
nificance or value but in combination wholly sufficient.
In regard to the lake trout, one apparently minor char-
acteristic is a permanently strongly forked tail, and an-
other is its general deep water habitat. Other chars have
forked tails in their younger stages and in some instances
the character is retained in later life, but this is irregu-
lar and inconstant in those fishes while it is constant in
the lake trout. The forked tail alone, however, will not
avail, so it must be associated with other characters
which investigation may quite probably reveal, for the
fact that the younger stages of other Salvelini have
forked tails and the lake trout a permanent one suggests
that the lake trout originated earlier in the line of ascent
or evolution than did the other chars from some common
fork-tailed ancestry. If this is true the lake trout must
naturally and necessarily be a distinct genus. However,
the combination of distinctive characters must be demon-
strated before the fish can be entitled to resume the title
of Cristivomer.

In this connection, I beg to refer to another matter
which bears upon this question but not directly upon
the New England chars. Mr. C. Tate Regan, of the Brit-

Kendall.— New England Chars 99

ish Museum, has decided that the generic name Onco-
rhynchus which has been adopted for the Pacific salmon
is no longer tenable because he found an individual of a
Japanese species, which was supposed to be of the group
formerly called Oncorhynchus, having as few anal rays
as the genus Salmo. One of the distinguishing marks of
the genus had been held to be the more numerous rays
in the anal fin than in that of the genus Salmo. How-

ever, besides some minor associated or combined differ- ~

ential characters, the Pacific salmon have one prominent
characteristic that sets them out as a sharply defined
group of fishes, and which, taken in combination with
predominant, if not defined, structural characters, I think
should be regarded as sufficient to distinguish it as a
genus. That characteristic is that the fishes composing
this group invariably die soon after having reproduced
once only in their life time.

Reverting to the New England trouts, the four pic-
tures following the lake trout are of the blue-back trout
(demonstration). For many years this fish was supposed
to be peculiar to the Rangeley lake in western Maine, but
was comparatively recently discovered in Rainbow lake,
the headwaters of a tributary of the West Branch of the
Penobscot river. The first published description of this
species was by Girard in 1853, from which time no other
species of the saibling group of chars was recognized in
New England until about 1885, when the golden trout of
Sunapee lake was discovered. A peculiarity of the blue-
back was that until comparatively recently they were
small fish, never over 9 or 10 inches long and never varied
from about one-fifth of a pound each. They were hardly
ever taken on a hook but were netted by the inhabitants
in large quantities as they ascended the affluents to
spawn, appearing in those places about the tenth of Oc-
tober. Finally they began to decrease rapidly in num-
ber, so rapidly that the Maine Fish Commission consid-
ered it necessary to prohibit catching them by any means.
The commissioners apparently ascribed the growing scar-
city to excessive and untimely fishing. But such fishing

100 American Fisheries Society

had been carried on for fifty, seventy-five or a hundred
years with no apparent reduction in the number of the
fish. Finally, however, they became so scarce that when
I was up there in 1901 we had a man on those brooks
night and day and failed to secure a single fish and none
was seen in any of their former spawing places. We did
manage to secure one fish, in Kennebago stream, weigh-
ing about three-quarters of a pound, which was much
larger than usual. I got several others in 1903 and 1904,
all large fish. Subsequently they appear to have become
extinct. The few that remained prior to their disappear-
ance increased in size. The cause of the extinction, I
believe, was the “successful” introduction of the land-
locked salmon, which, with the common trout, subsisted
to a great extent upon the little blue-backs. The blue-
backs disappeared down the maws of the salmon as it
were. It was not until 1891 that other food was afforded
them by the introduction of the smelt, which was too
late.

The later phenomenal increase in size of the blue-back
was probably attributable to the smelt, in the young of
which it found an increased and unaccustomed abundant
food supply, as the young smelt apparently go into deep
water while almost in a larval state.

The pictures following those of the blue-back are of
the famous golden trout, or Salvelinus aureolus of Suna-
pee lake (demonstration). It was not described until
1887. It is closely related to the blue-back, and it is
difficult to distinguish the preserved dead specimens
of this fish from blue-backs of the same size under
the same conditions. In fact, it was believed by many
to have appeared in Sunapee lake as the result of the in-
troduction of blue-backs. Some, however, maintained
that it was the introduced Europen saibling. Those who
advocated the blue-back theory would have been delighted
had they foreseen the increase in size of that fish in
Rangeley lake, as the principal argument of the oppon-
ents of the theory was that the Rangeley blue-back was
always a much smaller fish. Regarding this fish, I have

Kendall.—_New England Chars 101

fears, which, however, are not shared in by many who
are familiar with the conditions at Sunapee, that the
beautiful golden trout, unless the object of the utmost
conservative attention, is doomed to extinction in the
same way and for a similar reason as the Rangeley blue-
back.

After the pictures of the Sunapee trout you come to
the “peculiar trout” of Monadnock lake or Dublin pond,
New Hampshire, described and named by Mr. Samuel
Garman, of the Museum of Comparative Zoology, Cam-
bridge, in 1885. This fish (demonstration) was the sub-
ject of controversy for many years, to settle which speci-
mens were sent, from time to time, to different authori-
ties. It was sometime in the early sixties that Prof.
Louis Agassiz, having received some specimens, consid-
ered them closely allied to a form found in Switzerland.
Later, Prof. Baird pronounced it a variety of the com-
mon lake trout, after which, by others, it was denomi-
nated a color form of the common brook trout, and ap-
parently, subsequently to his description of it as a new
species, Garman regarded it as a color variety of the
brook trout. To cut a long story short, I will simply state
that the trout appears to be in its habits and general
appearance more closely allied to the golden trout of Sun-
apee lake and the blue-back of Rangeley than to the com-
mon trout. All that it seems to have in common with the
latter is the mottled dorsal and caudal fins.

The last picture (demonstration) is not a good repre-
sentative of the brook trout as we know it, but in respect
to its coloration there is an interesting fact. That fish
was artificially raised in a little pond in Falmouth, Maine.
You will notice that the colors of the ventral region are
brilliant orange or yellow. The trout from which the
eggs were obtained that produced the Falmouth fish were
from a pond in Hollis, Maine. They were of an intense
rose color, but in their progeny became the yellow trout
of Falmouth, indicating that color of this kind alone can
be of no specific value, at least so far as the brook trout
are concerned.

102 American Fisheries Society

There is another matter pertaining to these trout of
more fish cultural importance than what I have previously
said, which I wish to submit for your consideration.
Some ninety years ago a distinguished anatomist and em-
bryologist by the name of Rathke described the ovaries
of various fishes and amongst these were the Salmonoid
fishes, concerning which he mentions that while the Sal-
monoids have no oviduct and the ovaries are suspended
free without any covering in the abdominal cavity, there
extends back behind each ovary a narrow flat band which
commonly arises at the upper and posterior end of the
plate-like ovary, gradually diminishes in width backward,
and finally becomes lost towards the end of the abdomi-
nal cavity. In the salmon proper, he states, it disappears
upon the air bladder, opposite the commencement of the
last fifth of the abdominal cavity, in the fresh water trout
on the side of the intestine not far from the anus, and
in the Coregoni on the intestine close to its end. In all
these fishes, he says, the central abdominal cavity must
take the place of an oviduct, as it receives the eggs when
they are detached and allows them to make their exit by
a single opening at its posterior extremity.

In the smelt, however, which is a salmonoid fish, he
says that there passes from each ovary a band, one end
of which is attached to the dorsal, the other to the ab-
dominal wall, so that, in each lateral half of the abdomi-
nal cavity, there is a chamber which receives the eggs
when they are detached from the ovary; that the two
chambers ultimately unite above the anus; and in fact,
close in front of the place where, in other fishes, the
oviduct is situated.

In 1883, Huxley studied the smelt and reviewed
Rathke’s paper, confirming the statements Rathke made,
but in the case of the smelt going a little farther. Hux-
ley showed that in this fish there were oviducts formed
in this way: Each ovary has the form of a half-oval
plate, with the curved edge ventral and the straight edge
dorsal. The latter is suspended by a narrow mesoarial
fold of peritoneum from that part of the dorsal wall of

Kendall. New England Chars 103

the abdominal cavity corresponding with the ventral sur-
face of the air bladder. The ovary was stated to be cov-
ered on its inner surface by the peritoneum and that the
outer face gives rise to a great number of ovigerous
lamellae which are disposed transversely to the length of
the organ and perpendicularly to its body. Before going
further into this subject, it may be well to state that the
folds or projections of the peritoneum, the lining of the
visceral cavity, support and more or less attach to each
other the organs within the cavity. It may be likened to
a membranous sack with no opening which, placed in the
abdominal cavity, forms a lining of two coats and by pro-
jecting folds invests, or partly invests, or is attached to
some of the organs, forming their support. The fold
which proceeds from the dorsal area of the cavity and
supports the ovary is known as mesoarium or mesovar-
ium. In the Salmonoid fishes then, according to the au-
thorities named, this mesoarial fold covers the inner sur-
face and extends around the lower edge and for about
one-quarter or one-third of the height of the outer sur-
face of the ovary, thus leaving the laminae on this outer
side free or exposed without covering. However, in the
case of the smelt, it was shown that the inner mesoarial
covering continued, not in the narrowing band mentioned
by Rathke in the other salmonoids or as a dorso-
ventral partition, but a short distance back of the pos-
terior end of the ovary it folded over and became attached
to the lateral abdominal wall, thus forming a funnel-
shaped channel, the wide mouth of which was close be-
hind the ovary and the small end joining with the cor-
responding one on the other side in a common outlet at
the ovipore. The lower portion of this oviduct, therefore,
accordding to this idea, was formed below by the exten-
sion of the peritoneal or mesoarial fold and above by
the abdominal wall.

The idea that the eggs of these fish were deposited free
in the abdominal cavity has been handed down from
Rathke to the present day in all literature pertaining to
salmonoid fishes. Do not understand that I am going to

104 American Fisheries Society

try to controvert the statements of Rathke, Huxley, or
any of the great masters, for I am not. But, as Rathke
did not go quite so far as did Huxley in the case of the
smelt, I venture to suggest that Huxley and others did
not go quite far enough in respect to the other salmon-
oid fishes—at least that their application of the principle
laid down to all salmonoid fishes was too general, and
there may be exceptions similar to those shown by Hux-
ley in the case of the smelt.

Some years ago, for purposes of classification, I was
examining some chars in the National Museum and
wished to ascertain the sex of the fish. Upon opening a
Sunapee trout (Salvelinus aureolus) I was surprised to
find extending from each ovary what appeared to be a
tube exending nearly to the ovipore where it joined its
fellow of the opposite side, making a common outlet chan-
nel. These were what are termed spent fish. I do not
know whether they had been stripped or not, but there
were full-sized eggs in each of these tubes. Until I found
the second tube I thought it was an intestine. I also
found that the ovary appeared to be completely covered
with a membrane. Another specimen showed the same
apparent conditions. I have not those fish here, but they
are in the National Museum collection and, I have no
doubt, can be seen. However, I have a fish of another
kind.

This fish is the common brook trout, but there does not
seem to be any tube extending for the whole distance
from the ovary to the ovipore. Yet, if you will examine
it, you will observe that each ovary is completely invested
by a membrane with an opening at a shoort distance be-
hind the posterior end of the ovary. The fish, however,
is not ripe, but one that would have required perhaps
three months for it to reach that stage. Therefore, it
cannot be positively stated whether or not the whole
ovary is permanently completely covered. However,
whether it is or not, or whether other kinds of salmoni-
dae have their ovaries covered completely or not makes
but little difference in regard to the points I wish to

Kendall.—_New England Chars 105

make, although it would support my views and emphasize
those particular points if they were shown to be so.

In respect to the salmon and trout in fish culture, it
has been, consciously or unconsciously, assumed that
Rathke, Huxley and other anatomists following them were
correct and that as the eggs were deposited free in the
abdominal cavity all that was necessary to do was to get
them out and use them and that no harm would be done
to the fish. The abdominal cavity was regarded as a sort
of bag filled with eggs and in order to get them all that
was necessary was to use pressure and the eggs would
run out.

In stripping trout (Salvelini) it is well known that it
is necessary to press several times to get all of the eggs,
and it is customary for the stripper to try the fish to
ascertain if the eggs will flow. He presses along the
ventral surface from forward toward the tail and if he
gets no eggs the fish is returned to the car or pen for it
to ripen. When eggs are obtained by a light preliminary
pressure, he repeats the pressing or stripping movement,
a little harder each time, until all that can be expressed
are forced out and the process usually, I may say almost
invariably, results in some blood, fecal matter and mu-
cous coming with the last eggs, indicating that consider-
able force is used. If the eggs were all ripe, it should
not be necessary to exert much force. When naturally
depositing her eggs, the fish does not lose any blood, and
they are extruded, so far as we know, in an easy flow.
All of the ripe eggs are emitted but it takes time for the
process as the eggs do not all ripen at the same time.

The point that I want to make is this: That when such
undue force is used in stripping the fish, this very deli-
cate membrane may be ruptured or the ovary injured,
especially if the membrane completely covers the ovary as
has been suggested.

I ought to mention that at the thirteenth annual meet-
ing of this society, Mr. Charles G. Atkins presented some
notes on the landlocked salmon, regarding which, among
other things, he said: “Among the migratory salmon of

106 American Fisheries Society

the Penobscot, ovarian disease is very rare; but with the
land-locked salmon of the Schoodic lakes it is very com-
mon. In 1883, by careful observation, we learned that
18 per cent of the female fish were affected with some
disease of the ovaries, resulting in defects of the eggs
which were apparent to the eye, in some instancs involv-
ing the entire litter, but in general a very small number
of eggs. The phenomenon was observed before artificial
breeding began at Grand Lake stream, and does not ap-
pear to be influenced thereby.”

We do not know how extensively that phenomenon had
been observed prior to that fishery conference, because
not a great deal of anatomical study or many observa-
tions had been made on the land-locked salmon, but this
suggested to me that a rupture of the membrane or in-
jury to the ovary had possibly caused the ovarian disease.
I will mention further that I have seen a number of the
golden trout of Sunapee lake with distorted and diseased
ovaries, and hardened eggs in them. Taken together with
what I saw in the National Museum fish, this fact and
Mr. Atkin’s statement gave me a suspicion that those ab-
normal] ovaries after all were probably due to rough strip-
ping. I have not had time for thoroughly investigating
this subject, but hope that I or someone may soon settle
the question.

Even the small amount of evidence already presented
suggests that no harm and possibly much good can re-
sult from exercising more care in stripping the fish than
has been employed in the number of instances that have
come under my observation.

DISCUSSION

Mr. Trrcoms, of Vermont: Dr. Kendall has very properly emphasized
an important point for fish culturists, that we should use great caution
in stripping to avoid injury to the membrane around the ovary. Another
point to which I would call attention is, that if too much pressure is
applied in expelling the eggs, the undeveloped eggs of the next season’s
series may be injured. One often hears the argument made that we
should not catch trout before the breeding season, because to do so
means the destruction of the eggs. But no matter when you catch trout,
eggs will be taken because there is always a series developing. In
May you will destroy just as many eggs as you will in September.

Kendall_—_New England Chars 107

Mr. Neat, of Maine: The fish in my State are a conundrum, We
have tried different methods and have made numerous mistakes. Per-
haps if we had had more assistance from the scientists we should have
had better success. It is still a question with us whether it is possible
for us to stock our lakes permanently with land-locked salmon and trout.
We have about 2,300 lakes and ponds in Maine, most of them adapted
to these fishes, and they have been stocked. We have eleven hatcheries
and hatch millions of trout and salmon, but in some localities we have
been stocking lakes with salmon and trout for twenty years, and there
has never been a trout caught there. George’s lake, for example, has
been stocked extensively for the past fifteen years, but there has never
been a trout caught there, and only large salmon weighing over five
pounds. As soon as the ice goes out there is good fishing, but only the
salmon, and they run very large. At Swan lake, only fifteen miles from
there, stocked in a similar manner, there is excellent fishing of both
land-locked salmon and trout. Most of the salmon weigh from three
to five pounds and very rarely as much as ten, while the trout weigh
from a pound up and have been taken weighing eight pounds. We are
trying in every way to solve these problems, which puzzle us, and will
welcome any assistance the scientist can give us.

Mr. Grauam: The question of introducing fishes into different waters
is a very important one. As Dr. Kendall says, there is no doubt that
the introduction of the land-locked salmon into the Rangely lakes caused
the disappearance of the blue-backed trout. On the other hand the
land-locked salmon were introduced into Sunapee lake, and while they
thrived very well and were caught in large numbers as long as they
kept planting them year after year, the deep-water trout also kept
increasing, and I believe are increasing to-day. During the past four
or five years the Sunapee trout have been caught by the thousands.
But the smelts are very abundant in Sunapee lake, and apparently they
have kept the salmon from destroying the trout. It seems to me, then,
that any lake containing trout should be abundantly stocked with smelt
before the salmon are introduced.

Along this line I wish to make a few remarks about the western
salmon introduced from Oregon. These have been successfully established
in Sunapee and New Found lakes in New Hampshire, by which I mean
that they have been caught in large numbers, ranging in weight from
a pound up to sixteen or seventeen pounds, but whether they will ever
reproduce there we do not know. The Massachusetts Commission has
had a little experience with these same salmon. Two years ago we
planted in Lake Quinsigamond, in the city of Worcester, Mass., 10,000
young salmon from four to five inches in length, and last year 20,000
more. The lake had been carefully screened before stocking, and it is
full of smelts. Here are some of the results: The fishermen caught
this year in July, right in the city of Worcester, between 500 and 1,000
salmon, weighing from two and a half to five and a half pounds. Now,
judging by these results, it seems to me good business to introduce
these fish whether they will reproduce or not. This lake in Worcester
abounds with pickerel, yellow and white perch, and other fish of that
nature, yet we have introduced the western salmon, and in two years’
time they have grown to as great a weight as five and three-quarter
pounds.

Mr. Hayrorp, of New Jersey: Some of this discussion has had to
do with the Rangely lakes. I had charge of the station at that place
for five years and may be able to offer some suggestions concerning the
disappearance of the blue-back trout from my own experience. There
the brook trout spawn about the first of October and the blue-backs

108 American Fisheries Society

about the tenth of October. Then some ten days later, October 20, the
land-locked salmon go up the same streams and use the same spawning
grounds, and therefore destroy a great many of the trout eggs. On
account of the low temperature the eggs do not hatch until April, and
before that time the lumbermen come down these streams with their
logs and dynamite. Both these conditions no doubt have something to
do with the disappearance of the trout.

ONE YEAR OF PROTECTION AT THE
SANTA CATALINA FISH RESERVE

By CHARLES F. HOLDER, L.L. D.,
Throop College of Technology, Pasadena, Calif.

It may be of interest to the American Fisheries Society
to learn the attempts to protect the island of Santa Cata-
lina, California, a recognized spawning ground, from the
market fishermen. The writer has been in touch with
the conditions at the islands off the coast of Southern
California for about thirty years, and has had every op-
portunity to observe the effect of over-fishing as applied
to the great marine fishes of the Southwest.

Twenty-five or thirty years ago, before the introduction
of the gasoline launch, the waters about Santa Catalina
abounded in a most remarkable variety of large game
and food fishes, among which were the yellowtail, barra-
cuda, albacore, white sea bass, black sea bass, two species
of swordfish, the whitefish, many kinds of rock bass, and
many more too numerous to mention. In 1885-6, when
the writer first saw the island, nearly all these fishes
could be caught in large numbers, the supply being appar-
ently inexhaustible. So many were caught at this time
by anglers that the writer organized a little society, rais-
ing a fund to send the fish to Los Angeles where they
could be given to the poor and to various institutions. In
fact, there were so many that people would not trouble
themselves to carry them away, and on or about the year
1890, it was not an unusual sight to see literally tons of
food fishes thrown into the bay to feed the sea lions
and sharks. Such a supply of fine game fishes, as they
ranged up to one hundred pounds in weight, soon at-
tracted the attention of anglers from all over the world,
and in the year 1898 the writer caught a large leaping
tuna with a rod and reel. Soon after this the Tuna Club
was organized by the writer to prevent the over-slaughter
and over-catching of these fine game fishes, the work be-

110 American Fisheries Society

ing accomplished by inducing the public to fish with a
very fine line instead of the big hand-lines which they
had formerly used, a procedure that made it impossible
to land a fish of sixty pounds weight within half an hour;
previous to this these large fishes having been hauled in
with a hand-line in a very few minutes. In this way the
Tuna Club produced a remarkable change. Distinguished
anglers all over the country joined it and a great object
lesson was given in fair play and conservation; as a re-
sult, the over-catching and waste was absolutely stopped.

Very soon another element, menacing to the fishes.
came into the field. This was the introduction of the
gasoline launch. This enabled hordes of alien fishermen
—Greeks, Italians, Chinese and Japanese—to reach the
island, across the Santa Catalina Channel, in an hour or
two, haul their nets and return in a very short time. It
did not take many years for the effect of this to be appar-
ent, and conservationists in Los Angeles County, inter-
ested in sea fishing, took up the matter and began to in-
terest themselves in methods to regulate the catch. Every
attempt was made to induce the fishermen to observe
some care during the spawning season of fishes, and a
special attempt was made to protect the spawning sar-
dines in Avalon bay.

It was soon found that it was like “talking up the
wind,” as these men were out for fish and they proposed
to take all they could get on every trip, and if the market
was so over-loaded that there was danger of the price
being lowered, boatloads of the finest kinds of market
fish were thrown into the ocean and fed to the sharks.
Conservationists finding that they could not argue with
these men, sought the aid of the state legislature and the
county authorities, but here politics entered into the situ-
ation and it was evident that the market fishermen’s vote
was a decided factor in the situation. Various attempts
were made to secure laws and legislation, but for one
reason or another, they all failed until 1913. During all
these years the Tuna Club had led in these fights for the

Holder.—Protection at Santa Catalina 1 |

conservation of the fishes and bore the brunt of the bur-
den, which meant various attacks.

In 1913 the writer made a careful examination of the
situation, summed up the information from eminent au-
thorities, and decided that the fishes of Southern Cali-
fornia had decreased, since 1886, 75% or 80%, and that
it was emminently necessary that something should be
done. The claim which I made, which was based upon my
own observations and examination of the island by Dr.
David Starr Jordan and many other experts, was that
Santa Catalina and San Clemente islands were spawning
grounds for the great sea fishes of Southern California;
in other words, were sources of supply for market fishes
of all the region about, and I beg herewith to include a
letter received from Dr. David Starr Jordan bearing on
this point:

DecemBeER 5, 1912.
Dr. Cuarzes I. Hovper,
Throop College of Technology,
Pasadena, Cal.

Dear Sir: I trust that you may be successful in having Santa Cata-
lina and San Clemente islands set aside as game preserves. These two
islands and the smooth waters off their shores are the spawning grounds,
above all others, of the greatest game fish in the country. The white
sea bass, the great jewfish, the spearfish, swordfish, tuna, bonito, alba-
core, the Japanese tuna (yellow-fin tuna), all spawn on the rocky and
other places about these islands, as well as a multitude of smaller fishes
valuable to the angler or to the markets.

Many of these fish spawn in the kelp which surrounds these islands.
‘the netting carried on inshore disturbs these fishes at spawning time,
and it is said that there has been a very marked falling off of these
species. As Avalon, on Santa Catalina, is the great center of big game
fishing, the disappearance of any of these species makes a great loss to
the people who have investments there as well as to the visitors who
come there for fishing purposes.

It is desired to prohibit the use of seines and all nets for market pur-
poses within three miles of the shores of either of these islands. This
allows the professional fisherman the entire Santa Barbara channel,
Santa Rosa, San Miguel, and the rest comprising the Santa Barbara
group.

I trust that you and our friends will be successful in getting the
statute passed which shall protect these islands and set them apart as
spawning grounds for the great game fishes of southern California.

Very truly yours,
Davin Starr JorDan.

It was argued that the fish would spawn along the
shores of these islands in the summer months and that

19 American Fisheries Society

the young would return to these regions the following
year, and when large enough, would swim out into the
channel and become the legitimate market fishes of the
country. The peculiar methods of the market men of
Southern California were absolutely fatal to the carry-
ing out of a hypothesis of this kind, as they would fol-
low up schools of fishes, surround them with great purse-
nets, during the day time, taking from five to ten tons
at a haul, of spawning sardines, or the larger fish; as
this was carried on every day and every hour in the day,
whenever the fish could be found, it was absolutely fatal
to any method of protection. Not only this, every night
the Japanese fishermen would come in flocks to the island
and set their nets, generally in the form of gill-nets or
seines, fastening them to the shore or kelp, and run them
out from one hundred to a thousand feet into the ocean.
A report made to the writer from San Clemente Island
showed that there were fifty of these set-nets set in less
than a mile and a half on the east shore of this island in
one night. Besides this, there were other methods of tak-
ing the fish.

This was kept up day and night, in season and out, for
about fifteen years, and the end soon came to some of the
largest and most valuable of the fishes. Among these I
would mention the leaping tuna. Fifteen years ago this
fish was found in such vast numbers, within three miles
of Santa Catalina Island, that it became a valuable and
important source of income to hundreds of people and
bid fair to become one of the great economic fishes of the
State of California, and as valuable as the great tunny
fisheries which have been carried on in the Mediterranean
sea from the earliest historical times. The leaping tuna
in California had a peculiar habit of coming inshore to
feed at night or late in the afternoon, and I believe they
spawned within the five-mile limit at Santa Catalina. In
any event, these miles and miles of nets extending out
into the ocean into their natural feeding ground where
they pursued the flying fish, stopped them, just as in-
numerable hurdles would stop any animal, and had such

Holder.—Protection at Santa Catalina 113

an effect upon them that they were absolutely driven
away and for the last ten years there were less tunas
caught than in a single month ten or fifteen years ago.
In fact, the leaping tuna industry, attracting thousands
of dollars to the Pacific coast in the form of anglers from
all over the world, was absolutely ruined, and during the
present season of 1914, the first leaping tuna of over one
hundred pounds has been seen in years and but one .
caught.

Such was the situation in 1913, when I determined to
literally take the question to the country and if possible
induce the legislators to do something. I made a report
giving full particulars of the situation at Santa Catalina
Island showing the deadly decrease of the fisheries and
its relation to sport, the market man, and the State in
general. This was read to a Fish Protective Association
which had been formed as a sort of an organization
through which to work on the legislature. Finally, with
the assistance of many interested men, our bill was in-
troduced, calling for the protection of the fisheries of
Santa Catalina Island, on the grounds that it was, in the
opinion of Dr. David Starr Jordan and many other ex-
perts, the spawning ground, and asking that region with-
in three miles off shore should be called a spawning
ground and that all net fishing should be prohibited with-
in that region. It was specifically allowed in the bill,
that any one could fish with a hand-line. This was done
because at that time the Japanese were catching all their
albacore, which are canned as tuna, in this way. There
was, by any stretch of the imagination, no class legisla-
tion in this, as everybody was served exactly alike; even
the men whose fishing depended on netting for bait were
prohibited. In a word, all netting was stopped within
three miles of the shore, yet all the market fishermen and
all the anglers could fish within this region with either
the hand-line or rod and reel. This bill, then, did not
interfere with the men who caught albacore and canned
them, now one of the most important industries on the
coast, nor did it interfere with the angler, who was said

114 American Fisheries Society

to bring a million dollars to Southern California every
year. The only persons it interfered with were those di-
rectly aimed at—the market fishermen of Los Angeles,
who had hundreds of square miles of coast on which to
haul their nets, but who insisted upon despoiling the shore
line of this island which was known and demonstrated
to be the source of supply of their own business. This
bill was carried through both houses of the legislature
despite the protests of 3,000 market fishermen and their
friends of San Pedro, and other coast towns, and became
a law in August, 1913, the result of twenty-five years of
almost constant endeavor.

To those who had been working in this field of conser-
vation, it was a moment of keen gratification, and did I
have the time it would give me pleasure to mention the
names of the scores of distinguished men in America
who aided in this most important fight, among whom I
may mention Dr. Henry van Dyke, Dr. David Starr Jor-
dan, Mr. J. B. Burnham, president of the American Prop-
agation Society, Col. Theodore Roosevelt, Dr. George F.
Kunz, of Tiffany & Company, and many more through-
out the East. This was in 1913. In the summer of 1914,
for the first time in fifteen years, large numbers of tuna
were seen, and even in the fall of 1913, only a few months
after the passage of this law, more yellow-fin tunas were
seen in close proximity to the island than had been seen
within the past decade. I took the pains to interview
twenty-five or thirty of the professional boatmen at Ava-
lon, Santa Catalina Island, men who had constantly fished
the island from ten to thirty years, and it was their unan-
imous opinion that so many large fishes had not been seen
on the spawing beds of Santa Catalina Island since the
old days of 1890. In fact, a seeming miracle had been
performed even in one season, and at the end of the sea-
son of 1914, it is the belief of all those who are most
familiar with the situation, that if this spawning ground
could be relieved from the incessant netting of the past
twenty-five years, for at least five years, it could be re-
stored to its normal condition.

Holdei.—Protection at Santa Catalina 115

The average citizen might think that a measure of this
kind, advocated by all the great experts of the country,
would not be attacked. Again, it was so evidently a move-
ment in the interests of the marketmen themselves, that
it might be imagined that they would be sufficiently in-
telligent to appreciate it, but I was not one to indulge in
such a Utopian dream. They acted immediately and be-
gan to devise means to render the law ineffective. I ven- _
ture to say there has not been a week since the passage
of the bill that efforts have not been made to break the
law, and it has been necessary for the friends of conser-
vation to have the men arrested and see that their nets
were destroyed, all of which was very much against the
desires of conservationists.

In the spring of 1914 a society was organized in San
Francisco whose object was to enable the markets of San
Francisco and California in general, to place game on
sale. That this might be accomplished with dignity and
without creating any suspicion, it was given the euphon-
ious title of “The People’s Fish and Game Protective
Association of California.’”’ I am reminded in this con-
nection, of the statement of an old friend and missionary
in San Francisco many years ago, when we were dis-
cussing the “ways that are dark and tricks that are vain”’
of the heathen Chinese. He told me that to enable them
to purchase slaves and bring Chinese women into the
country and to sell them at high prices in San Francisco,
and to protect their criminals caught in carrying out
their nefarious projects, it was necessary for them to have
various organizations through which to work, and here
are some of the names which he gave me and which were
named by the most notorious highbinders in the San
Francisco region. Note, if you please, the high-sounding
names under which these desperadoes carried on their
affairs:

“The Chamber of Far-Reaching Virtue, or the Kwong
Tack Tong”; another the “Ping King Tong, or the Hall
- of Maintained Justice’; still another conveying the idea
of lofty sentiments, was the “Po Shin She, or the Guild

116 American Fisheries Society

’

for the Protection of Virtue,’ and what could be finer
than the “Kai Shin She, or The Guild of Hereditary
Virtue?”

What relation there could be between these high-sound-
ing names and the People’s Fish and Game Protective
Association, will be apparent when I tell you that the
founders of this society, claiming to be carried on in the
interest of the conservation and the protection of the
fishes of the State of California, were either marketmen,
market-hunters, or commission-men engaged in the sale
of wild game, or in some way identified with this business
which means extermination to the wild life of the State
of California. I am informed by President Newbert, of
the California Fish and Game Commission, that it has
been his painful duty to arrest some of them a number of
times and that all are regarded with suspicion by those
who are deeply interested in the non-sale of game.

This society proceeded at once to accumulate a large
membership and to raise a large sum of money among
those particularly interested in it in San Francisco—
hotel men, restaurant keepers, etc. They became so
brazen in view of their successes, that they decided to
entirely rewrite the game laws of California and arrange
them to suit themselves, notwithstanding the fact that
everyone knew that their work meant the extermination
of many of the wild animals of California. They invoked
the referendum which had for its object the placing of
wild ducks on sale in the markets, and to this they se-
cured, it is said, 33,000 signers, an amazing body blow
to the conceit of the conservationists of California, as it
was not supposed that 33,000 persons so absolutely ignor-
ant could be found in the state which prides itself upon
its culture and higher education. Encouraged by their
success in this direction these game bandits proceeded
to invoke the initiative, demanding that all wild game in
California be placed on sale in the markets. By this time
the people of California were thoroughly awakened to
the danger and in various ways, principally by publicity,
they succeeded in July, 1914, in making the market-men

Holder.—Protection at Santa Catalina TIT

and members of this society, surrender. They failed in
their petition by ten thousand votes. This leaves the Cal-
ifornians to vote on the referendum on the 3rd of Novem-
ber; there is still the danger that it may be carried and
that as a result an army of market hunters will arise and
the wild ducks will be a thing of the past on the Pacific
coast."

To illustrate the devastating nature of their brigandage
in making their political deals to accomplish their end,
the agents of this so-called Protective Association, when
they reached the Port of Los Angeles, promised to put in
their initiative a clause whereby the Santa Catalina Fish
Reserve law would be revoked. I merely mention this to
show that these men, all of whom were business men of
San Francisco, would not hesitate to strike down the in-
terests of another set of men or utterly repudiate the
opinions of the National Government and the various ex-
perts who have expressed their views on the subject. I
will, however, state that the secretary of this institution,
when I explained the situation to him, gave me his word
that he would remove it from the bill, which he did later
on, and then came the defeat of the entire petition owing
to the fact mainly, that the Hotel Men’s Association of
Southern California repudiated it and stood with us.

I have mentioned this as it seems to me it may be of
interest to the distinguished members of this society in
illustrating the point that there is a vital need in this
country of public education, on the subject of the eco-
nomic value of the fisheries. I mean by this that the
masses of the people are absolutely ignorant of the great
fundamental questions relating to this subject and that
only this can explain the fact that an association of this
kind could have secured 33,000 signatures to a petition

1They won by 8,000 votes, but we carried southern California by a
large vote—58,000.—C. F. H.

Nore: In 1914 the Santa Catalina Fish Reservation was again
thrown open to netters on the ground of class legislation, and the work
is being done all over again in the legislature of 1915, with the possibility
of defeat by the combinations of the fish market men of Los Angeles
and San Francisco.—C.F.H.

118 American Fisheries Society

which the experts of the Department of Agriculture said
meant extermination of the animals referred to by the
petition. I have been so impressed with this that dur-
ing the present season I have organized, with the co-
operation of many distinguished men and women through-
out the country, a society which we have called the “Wild
Life Protective League of America,’ one of whose ob-
jects is to see that lectures are given in the public schools
on the economic value of the fishes and the necessity of
game laws, that the great game and food fishes of the
country may receive adequate protection.

That I may not seem to be devoting this diatribe en-
tirely to California, I beg to call your attention to the
serious condition which holds in the Chesapeake bay
where I am informed by Mr. Linthicum, a distinguished
advocate of protection from Maryland, that the great and
valuable shad fisheries of that region are practically
doomed to extinction and that, despite the protest of the
United States Fich Commission and the officials of the
various adjoining states, these fishermen persisted in
hauling their nets to the very limit of destruction. The
enormity of this particular situation may be realized when
it is known that the men were told that if they would
permit ten per cent of the shad to pass up the river, its
normal condition would be preserved. The absolute dan-
ger of the situation may be appreciated when it is under-
stood that one day’s haul by these men fifteen years ago
produced more fish than the entire haul of the seasons
of 1913 and 1914. In a word, the mendacious ignorance
of the net-haulers is so extraordinary that it is evidently
the duty of every citizen to take the matter in his own
hands and encourage the Government to take charge of
the great fisheries of the country and see that they are
properly cared for and protected. Practically little is
known of the fisheries of the Pacific coast, but it is well
known that they are disappearing very much faster than
they should, and by the time Los Angeles has one million
inhabitants, the price of seafood will have become so high
that it will place fish beyond the reach of the poor man

Holder.—Protection at Santa Catalina 119

who has a right to include it among the cheapest of food
supplies.

To return to the thought that suggested this paper, if
one year’s protection of the island of Santa Catalina can
produce such interesting results, it is very evident that
all authorities should be invoked to give all our water-
ways adequate protection.

EFFECTS OF CERTAIN METALLIC SALTS
UPON FISHES

By ADRIAN THOMAS,
Clark University, Worcester, Mass.

Contribution from the United States Fisheries Biological Station,
Woods Hole, Mass.?

It is not the purpose of this paper to give details, but
simply to show certain general results which have been
obtained during the course of investigation.

In the experiments upon which this paper is based, the
small shore minnow or killie-fish (Fundulus heteroclitus)
was used. This is a hardy fish and is plentiful in the wa-
ters of the Woods Hole district. Because of the abun-
dance and hardiness of Funduli, they are well suited to
experimental work. The fact that these fish are killed
by certain salts is almost sufficient evidence that any
other, more delicate, species would also be destroyed by
them, only more rapidly.

Salts containing nearly all of the heavy metals have
been used in the course of these experiments, but only a
few will be dealt with in this article.

Conditions during experimentation were kept as nearly
normal as possible in the laboratory. From five to ten
fish were placed in battery jars of about two gallons ca-
pacity filled with sea water, to which was added sufficient
of the salts to give the desired concentration. A con-
stant stream of air was passed into the solutions, suffi-
cient to supply the amount of oxygen needed, but not
enough to super-saturate the media and cause the fish to
succumb to “air sickness.” The solutions were changed
at least every forty-eight hours to insure freedom from
products of metabolism, but experiments have shown that
the fish would live in a healthy condition even if the wa-
ter was changed only once a week, provided that no toxic
substances were present.

* Published by permission of the Commissioner of Fisheries.

Thomas.—Metallic Salts 121

The temperature of the solutions ranged from about
sixty-eight to seventy-four degrees Fahrenheit, which was
not greatly different from the temperature of the water
in the harbor. Records show the water there to range
from about sixty-four to seventy-four degrees, during the
period of the experiments.

The fish were fed during the experiments just before
the solutions were changed, and sea mussels were used as
food.

Experiments performed using copper sulphate showed
that the fish absorbed the copper. While still in a healthy
condition, the fish were taken from the solutions contain-
ing the copper, thoroughly washed, and water run
through the alimentary tract to insure the removal of all
copper not absorbed into the tissue of the fish.

After having been in a solution containing thirty parts
to the million for forty-eight hours, it was found that the
fish had absorbed .00079 per cent of their wet weight,

or .0035 per cent of their dried weight." The copper was
determined by drying the fish to constant weight after

washing, and then analyses for the copper made on the
dried sample. About fifty copper determinations were
made upon fish from varying concentrations of copper
sulphate, and it was found that the fish would absorb the
copper proportionally to the concentration of the solu-
tion, and also to the time exposed.

Copper chloride was used as well as the sulphate in
some of the experiments, but it appears that not as much
copper was absorbed in a given time from solutions of
copper chloride, as from solutions of copper sulphate con-
taining the same amount of copper. The sulphate also is
apparently much less toxic than the chloride. In solu-
tions of the sulphate, thirty parts to the million, it was
impossible to keep the fish for much longer than ninety-
six hours, but in solutions of the chloride of the same
concentration the fish succumbed in a much shorter
period.

*For detailed results see Jour. Biol. Chem., Vol X, No. 4, May, 1912.

122 American Fisheries Society

The question arises: Do these fish retain or eliminate
the copper after atime? This may be partially answered
by the following:

One hundred fish were placed in copper chloride solu-
tion containing thirty parts to the million, for two hours.
At the end of this time twelve were taken for immediate
analysis. The remainder were placed in running sea wa-
ter, and after fourteen days ten more were taken for
analysis. After twenty-five days had elapsed another
sample of ten were taken for analysis. The three analy-
ses agreed very closely, and seemed to show that even
though removed from the source of pollution the copper
content of the fish did not diminish.

During the experiment twenty-one fish died in the run-
ning water, the most of them( seventeen) during the first
four days. The copper seems to have an accumulative
effect.

Nickel chloride, ferric-ammonium-citrate, and potas-
sium-di-chromate were also used, and analyses of the fish
made after having been in various concentrations of
these salts in sea water for different periods of time.
None of these salts appeared to be toxic to the fish, how-
ever, and they could survive in concentrations of about
two hundred parts per million for a week or two. This
concentration was about the maximum used, and the
time the longest that the experiments were run. Analyses
showed that the fish had absorbed the metals neverthe-
less. That they were non-toxic may have been due to
the fact that the salts in sea water were antagonistic to
those employed. This is sometimes the case, as Loeb has
shown.

Among other salts used in sea water and found to be
non-toxic, were cobalt chloride, manganese chloride and
zine sulphate, but mecuric chloride, cadmium nitrate and
sodium arsenate were found to be highly toxic. Analyses
of the fish exposed to these salts, just mentioned, have
not been made as yet so it is impossible to draw further
conclusions.

Thomas.—Metallic Salts 123

An interesting point was found when a land-locked
pond was discovered to contain a large number of this
same species, Fundulus heteroclitus. The pond was lo-
cated on one of the islands near Woods Hole, and so situ-
ated that it was possible for a very high tide to wash into
it during a storm. Information that this happened every
two or three years, was obtained from Mr. Vinal Ed-
wards. It is highly probable that the Funduli were car-
ried into the pond in this manner, and gradually accus-
tomed to the fresh water. The water from this pond was
fresh enough to be nearly drinkable and showed a den-
sity of only 1.0008. The Funduli taken from this source
lived well in fresh water (hydrant water).

Although of the same species, these fish were more
delicate than those taken from salt water, which might be
expected; as they had less of the elements to resist than
if they had been in the open waters, where they would
be tossed about by the waves, and exposed to the rougher
conditions there found. The scales of these fish were
thinner and of a softer texture than those of the fish
taken from salt water, and the fish were somewhat smal-
ler than the average size of those used in the before des-
cribed experiments, which only seemed to indicate that
they were younger.

As might be expected the salts were much more toxic
to these fish in fresh water than to the same species in
salt water. This tends to the confimation of the belief
that the salts in sea water were antagonistic in the ex-
periments in which it was the basic media used.

Lead nitrate proved to be fatal within twelve hours at
a concentration of three parts per million ; aluminium sul-
phate, which is often used in the process of removing
suspended matter from drinking water, was fatal within
thirty-six hours at a concentration of fourteen parts per
million, and in five days at a concentration of seven parts.
It was impossible to use these salts in sea water on ac-
count of the insoluble precipitates which were at once
formed. Zinc sulphate was fatal within forty-eight hours
at a concentration of ten parts per million, but was non-

124 American Fisheries Society

toxic in sea water. Copper sulphate was fatal within ten
hours at a concentration of four parts; cadmium nitrate
within thirty-six hours at six parts, while nickle and co-
balt chloride were fatal within five days when as much
as sixteen parts were used, and manganese chloride in
six days at twelve parts per million.

It is needless to say that in these experiments dupli-
cates have been run which closely agree, and that control
experiments have also been made to eliminate doubt as
to the effect of confinement in the jars in which the ex-
priments were performed. The controls showed that the
fish would live almost indefinitely under the conditions
to which they were subjected, provided that none of the
toxic salts were added.

We see that many substances are toxic to salt-water
fish and many others to fresh-water fish. These contami-
nations may find their way into small streams and fish
ponds, also fish may be subjected to them during trans-
portation if the containers have these metals in their com-
position, for many kinds of waters have a great solvent
action upon them. Further work is being carried on
along these lines in which the effect of lime, coal-tar prod-
ucts, and factory wastes is being studied, and it is hoped
that sufficient work will be completed in the near future
to show the necessity of protecting our fish from these
pollutions, to which many are now subjected.

A DESCRIPTION OF THE YOUNG STAGES
OF THE WINTER FLOUNDER

(Pseudopleuronectes americanus Walbaum)

By W. E. SULLIVAN,

Assistant Professor of Anatomy, Marquette University,
School of Medicine, Milwaukee, Wis.

The winter flounder (Pseudopleuronectes americanus
Walbaum) is of interest for two reasons: First it is typi-
cal of the group of flat-fishes or flounders in its meta-
morphosis; second, it is a fish of great commercial im-
portance. The flounders, as is well known, undergo a
peculiar metamorphosis. The young, so far as has been as-
certained, are symmetrical and swim upright; the adults
on the contrary show a lack of symmetry, most marked in
the position of the eyes and in the distribution of the
pigment, and swim on their sides. These facts at once
make the flounders of interest, and have made them ob-
jects of observation for half a century or more. Their
commercial importance has resulted in the perfection of
methods for their artificial rearing, and this insures a
ready and abundant supply of material.

Review of Literature. This has been abbreviated as
much as possible and incorporated in the text. There are
some papers, however, that require special mention.

Agassiz’s papers are the first works of importance on
P. americanus. There are two things that have led me
to believe that in the second paper Agassiz was not deal-
ing with the winter flounder. The size of the fish at
metamorphosis, as given by Agassiz, is much greater than
I found to be the case and there are many inexplicable
discrepancies in the plates.

In the text we find “The young flounder has already at-
tained a considerable size before any signs appear of the
change of the position of the eye on the left side; * * *
and before the young fish shows the least tendency to

126 American Fisheries Society

favor one side over the other. Not until the young fish is
fully three-eighths of an inch in length can the firsi
slight difference be perceived in the position of the two
eyes (when seen from above), the left eye being some-
what in advance of the other.” In all the fishes that |
have examined the metamorphosis is practically com-
pleted before the fish has reached this size. The meas-
urements given by Wiliams correspond to my own, and !
think they may be taken as typical for this species.

Williams found a fish that metamorphosed at 14 mm.
and tentatively called it Limanda ferruginea Storer. This
may have been the species that Agassiz was studying. I
have not examined the young of this species and Williams
was not sure of his identification, and this is simply given
as a suggestion as to the species Agassiz was working
with.

When we turn to the plates we find that there is not
only a difference in the size of the species but also that
the time relations between the eye migration and the de-
velopment of the tail are different from the conditions in
P. americanus. In the species figured here the tail de-
velopment is relatively much more rapid. It is probable
that the development of the tail as described by Agassiz
(1) is for another fish. It would seem that the same er-
ror would be made in both cases. The value of the work
as far as it relates to the development of the tail is not
impaired but it is probably the tail of a fish other than P.
americanus.

Material and Apparatus. The sources of my material
were the Rhode Island Hatchery at Wickford and the
United States Hatchery at Woods Hole. The material
collected at Wickford is referred to as Lot 1 and Lot 2.
Lot 1 consists of fry that were hatched from eggs stripped
from the female and fertilized March 26. In this lot there
was also a small number hatched from eggs fertilized
April 7. The difference in the time of fertilization will
account for the differences in the rate of growth for this
lot. The fishes in lot 2 are from females that were al-
lowed to spawn and the eggs fertilized by males kept in

Figure 1.
Figure 2.
Figure 3.
Figure 4.

ss

So Ss

Fic.

Ny
a iN A NNN Jo .

ne en
Ss ;
08 % ares

EXPLANATION OF FIGURES

americanus at hatching (3.5 x 0.525 mm.).
americanus at twelve days (5.0 x 0.724 mm.).
americanus at six weeks (5.8 x 1.33 mm.).
americanus at eight weeks (6.5 x 2.75 mm.).

128 American Fisheries Society

the same car. The extruded eggs were observed for the
first time on April 15. The first of the fry appeared
April 22.

The conditions under which the fry were hatched and
reared approached very nearly natural conditions. The
apparatus and the principles involved have been fully de-
scribed by Dr. A. D. Mead in his papers on lobster rear-
ing. The larger lots were hatched and reared in the rear-
ing boxes in which the screens over the windows were
replaced by sand filters. This was made necessary by the
minuteness of the fry.

In rearing small groups for close observation a slightly
different type of apparatus was used. The young were
hatched and kept in cheese-cloth cylinders. The cylinders
were about two feet deep and one foot in diameter. These
were either fastened to the sides of the rearing boxes or
allowed to float free. The rearing box in either case sim-
ply served as a breakwater. These cylinders were first
designed by Mr. Barnes of the Wickford Hatchery. No
difficulty was experienced in keeping small numbers in
shallow dishes in the laboratory. The dishes were in all
cases covered to keep out the dust and the water was
changed every second day.

At Woods Hole the fry were taken directly from the
rearing jars and kept in shallow dishes in the laboratory
or in cheese-cloth cylinders in the harbor. In the latter
case storage cars were used as breakwaters.

In describing the young of the winter flounder, four
stages may be chosen that will show all the diagnostic
characteristics for the purposes of identification from the
time of hatching to the end of the second month. Stage
1 is the young fish at hatching and the description for
this stage would apply equally well to the earlier stages
in general. Stage 2 shows a fish of twelve days. It dif-
fers from Stage 1 in that the yolk is completely absorbed,
the fin rays are beginning to appear and the pigment has
a much wider distribution. Stage 3 is a fish of about
40 days and can be taken as representative of all fishes
in which the eyes have reached the position shown in

Sullivan.—The Winter Flounder 129

Figure 3. Stage 4 is two months old and shows the con-
dition at the end of metamorphosis.

Stage 1 (Figure 1). The length of the fish at hatching
is 3.5 mm.; the greatest depth is 0.525. It is so translu-
cent as to become almost transparent when placed in a
glass dish. Only the pigment spots and the eyes are in
evidence. It can be studied most effectively at this time
by placing it against a white opaque background, that is,
by the use of a white-enameled dish. The group of dark
pigment spots shown on the posterior half of the body
is characteristic for this fish. The only other patch of
pigment of appreciable size lies over the rectum just pos-
terior to the yolk. As in most young fishes at this stage
the notochord, the digestive tract, the heart, the brain
and the auditory vesicle can be clearly seen. The noto-
chord is present as a straight tube. The dorsal, anal and
caudal fins are represented by an unbroken finfold.

For several days after the hatching the external appear-
ance of the fish remains the same. The changes that one
observes first are the absorption of the yolk, the increase
in pigmentation and the modification of the finfold. The
even curves so conspicuous in the young stages become
replaced by angles and the appearance of the fish is al-
tered in consequence. The absorption of the yolk is very
gradual and the period involved varies with the water
temperature. At Woods Hole, where the average tem-
perature was 39.5 degrees Fahrenheit, it extended from
twelve to fourteen days. At Wickford with the higher
temperature the period was shortened perceptibly, never
extending over eight or nine days. The other processes of
development showed much the same relationship to the
water temperature, that is, in general the development is
much more rapid at the higher temperature.

Stage 2 (Figure 2). The fish represented by Figure 2
is twelve days old. By this time it has reached a length
of 5mm. The yolk is completely absorbed and the young
fish has come to depend entirely upon plankton for its
food. The boundaries of the finfold correspond very
closely to the boundaries of the fins of the adult, although

130 American Fisheries Society

as yet the caudal fin is not differentiated. There is a
slight thickening on the postero-ventral surface at a point
where the first of the fin rays are to appear. The noto-
chord is still straight and the eyes are still symmetrical.
The pigmentation as shown in the figure is quite different
from that at the time of hatching. The patch shown at
the angle of the lower jaw is very characteristic, as are
the four large pigment spots just ventral to the heart.
There is a line of pigment along the dorsal side of the
notochord and corresponding lines along the dorsal and
ventral borders of the body. The spots along the ventral
border are much more expanded than those forming the
other lines. The patches on the abdominal region and
over the heart are not as constant as the others men-
tioned. The dorsal finfold is either unpigmented or has
a few scattering spots with no constant arrangement.
In the ventral finfold the pigment is conspicuous and
fairly regular. Here the spots form two lines that are
practically unbroken. All the pigment so far described
is black or brown as seen with transmitted light. Mingled
with the black pigment of the ventral finfold are a num-
ber of small red asters of irregular distribution.

Between the second and third stages what we may call
the more critical changes take place. The external
changes are the migration of the eyes, the development
of the fin rays, and the differentiation of the caudal fin.
Accompanying the differentiation of the caudal fin is the
upward bending of the notochord. The migration of the
eyes is usually referred to as a very rapid change, con-
suming only a few days at the most. While it is only a
question of interpretation as to what should be included
in that period, I would favor including at least all those
stages between the end of. the second week and the end
of the eighth week. Properly I think it should include
the period extending from the time of fertilization to the
completion of the metamorphosis. To refer to it as oc-
cupying only a few days is entirely misleading if not
erroneous.

Sullivan.—The Winter Flounder 131

Stage 3. (Figure 3.) The type represented in Figure
3 averages 5.8 mm. in length. The fish from which the
drawing was made was six weeks old, but, due to the
variation in the rate of growth and development, there
are found between the ages of five and seven weeks many
fishes that have reached this stage. The features most
in evidence at this time are the change in the position of
the eyes, the well-developed fin rays, and the upward bend
in the posterior part of the notochord. The left eye has
reached at this time what may be described as a median
dorsal position. About half of it can be seen from the
right side. The right eye has taken a position slightly
ventral to its former position. The upward bend in the
posterior part of the notochord is very marked at this
time. This bending of the notochord seldom begins be-
fore the end of the fifth week in living specimens. It has
been pictured in younger stages, but I think this is due
to the fact that the drawings were made from preserved
material and that living specimens were not used for
comparison. Unless great care is taken in the killing
and fixing there is a distinct tendency for the posterior
part of the fish to bend upwards. This is also true of
fishes dying in dishes or rearing cars. Knowing that the
notochord does eventually bend upward one might be led
to interpret the upward bending of the posterior part of
the fish as the upward bending of the notochord or at
least indicative of it. The caudal fin rays are now well
developed and the original finfold is notched just dorsal
to the last caudal ray. The diphycercal fin of the early
stages has now reached the heterocercal type. The part
ventral to the notch is to become the caudal fin of the
mature fish. Otherwise the outer line of the finfold is
still unbroken and the fins are not entirely differentiated.
The pigment distribution is shown in the figure.

From this time on the changes simply accentuate the
processes already under way. After the sixth week the
pigment on the left side tends to diminish in intensity.

Stage 4. (Figure 4). The fish here represented is
about eight weeks old. At this stage the young fishes

132 American Fisheries Society

have an average length of 6.5 mm. and an average depth
of 2.75 mm. Most of the characteristics of the adult are
present. The eyes, as shown in the figure, have taken
the adult position; both are now functional on the right
side. The caudal fin is practically separated from the
dorsal and ventral fins but in most cases a slight remnant
of the old finfold can still be observed. The fin rays of
the dorsal and ventral fins are sufficiently developed to
give a broken margin to the fins. The pigment is much
more diffuse than in the earlier stages. The brain and
spinal cord are now distinctly outlined superficially by the
pigmentspotsoverthem. The fish is at this time very simi-
lar to the adult except for the asymmetry of the mouth.
The mouth at this stage is symmetrical and in fact re-
mains so for a considerable period. Only a slight degree
of asymmetry can be seen in a fish of several centimeters.

In the later stages there is a gradual loss of pigment
on the left side and a gradual increase of pigment on the
right side. In a fish 8 mm. long the upper or dextral
side is completely pigmented while the left side has lost
its pigment with the exception of a few scattered spots,
about twenty in number, in the region of the snout. At
what time these spots are lost I do not know. They are
entirely absent in a fish of 20 mm. and are probably lost
considerably earlier.

Behavior of the young fish. There has been much
speculation as to the cause of the turning of the flat-
fishes and the relation of the migration of the eye to the
question of turning. In regard to this I can only say that
I learned nothing in my study of the fishes through the
period of metamorphosis that threw any light on the
question. The study of the segmentation of the egg in
other genera has added nothing. I think it would be in-
teresting and possibly enlightening if the chemicals that
produce the Cyclopean eye in the ‘“normal-eyed”’ fishes
were applied to the flat-fishes. I am convinced that the
migration of the eye is but an external manifestation of
the turning and is in no way the cause of the turning.

Sullivan.—The Winter Flounder 133

Observations on the young fish at rest strengthen this
belief.

The fry are not strong swimmers, using “strong” to
convey the idea that they maintain themselves in motion
for long periods. It has often been remarked by those
handling the fry in the MacDonald jars that the fish are
found not only near the surface but throughout the en-
tire depth of the dish, due to the fact that their swim- -
ming is spasmodic. Observation shows that the young
fishes will suddenly cease swimming and sink to the bot-
tom of the dish. After a short rest they will swim toward
the surface again. We may use a typical case from a
series of observations to illustrate this point. A fish of
eight days was kept under observation for a period of
ten minutes. During that period it stopped swimming
twenty-three times. Five times it came to rest on the
bottom of the dish; the other times it resumed swimming
before reaching the bottom. After the observation the
fish was kept in continuous motion for thirty minutes and
at the end of the period showed no signs of fatigue. The
intermittent swimming is characteristic of the fry and
is not due to fatigue.

In the younger fishes, those under ten days, preference
is shown to neither side when they come to rest. Ex-
tended observations on a large number of fry, taken
either as individuals or in groups, showed that in a given
number of times they would come to rest on the right side
fully as often as they did on the left. This statement
refers only to the cases where a large number were ob-
served for a long period, a period of not less than an hour,
or where an individual was kept under observation for a
longer time. My first impression, gathered from casual
observation in isolated cases, was that the fry favored the
left side during this earlier period. After the tenth or
twelfth day there is a tendency to favor the left side, and
a fish of two weeks will come to rest on that side seventy-
five times out of one hundred. Even after the eye migra-
tion has proceeded for some time the fish will occasionally
come to rest on the right side. All of this, however, I

134 American Fisheries Society

regard as simply a number of interesting observations
that throw little if any light on the question of turning.

The young fry are strongly phototropic, and we should
expect to find, and do find, the greatest number near the
top and sides of the dish. Occasionally, when the source
of light is such that a ray will run from the top to the
bottom of the dish, the young fry cluster around this
ray in the form of an inverted cone.

Escape from the egg capsule. For a day or more be-
fore hatching the young fish has the power of movement
within the capsule. The movement is brought about by
a series of contractions comparable to a peristalsis. The
contractions are most marked in the posterior part and
tend to push the fish forward. Through this movement
the rupture of the capsule is brought about. The plane
of rupture as observed in a number of cases is at right
angles to the long axis of the body. The posterior half
of the capsule then comes to lie on the back of the fish,
dorsal to the head and body proper. The added weight
dorsally turns the fish on its side, and in this position
it struggles until freed from the capsule. This is usually
accomplished in a period extending not over ten minutes.

Food of the young fry. Until the yolk is absorbed the
young do not seek other nutriment. Indeed, for several
days after the absorption of the yolk was completed no
food was found in the gut of the fishes examined. The
absorption of the yolk after hatching is entirely through
the vascular system. At what time the direct connection
between the gut and the yolk is lost I am not able to say.
There is no trace of a connection at hatching. That the
young do not depend on outside food until after the yolk
is completely used up is further substantiated by the fact
that they may be kept in the MacDonald jars used at the
Woods Hole Hatchery for a period of two weeks, or the
period during which the fry are nourished by the yolk.
Beyond that time it is not possible to keep them. As is
well known, the mechanism of the apparatus and the size
of the jars are such as to prevent the admission of food
material in sufficient quantities to maintain life. The diffi-

Sullivan.—The Winter Flounder 135

culty referred to above is undoubtedly one of feeding.
In the fishes up to three weeks the only food found in the
gut is made up of diatoms. A little later the smaller
crustacea are found, and in the fishes that have completed
metamorphosis Isopoda were invariably present. That in
some cases at least the older fry eat the young is made
plain by the fact that those in stage 3 were seen eating
the younger fry.

RATE OF GROWTH

MEASUREMENTS FoR Lor 1

The length and greatest depth are given in millimeters. Both Lot |
and Lot 2 were fixed in Zenker’s fluid and preserved in alcohol. The
measurements are for preserved specimens:

May 4. May 11 May 18 May 25 June 5

4.3 x 0.50 4.7 x 1.25 5.4.x 1.46 5.0 x 1.66 5.0 x 1.75
5.0 x 0.63 5.0 x 1.25 5.5 x 1.25 5.0 x 1.90 5.5 x 1.90
5.0 x 0.75 5.2 x 1.00 5.5 x 1.60 5.3 x 2.00 5.5 x 2.10
5.2 x 0.80 5.2 x 1.66 5.6 x 1.33 5.4.x 1.70 6.1 x 2.00
5.3 x 0.75 5.5 x 0.80 5.8 x 1.50 5.7x 1.75 6.1 x 2.10
5.5 x 0.75 5.5 x 1.70 5.8 x 1.66 5.7 x 1.85 6.2 x 2.10
5.5 x 0.83 5.6 x 1.66 5.9 x 1.48 5.8 x 1.66 6.2 x 2.10
5.6 x 0.88 §.7x 1.75 6.0 x 1.25 6.0 x 2.00 6.4 x 2.10
6.0x 1.10 5.8 x 1.41 6.0 x 1.33 6.4 x 2.12 6.5 x 2.33
6.1 x 1.20 6.3 x 2.53 6.0 x 2.10 6.5 x 2.20 7.0 x 2.40

MEASUREMENTS FOR Lot 2

May 3 May 4 May 5 May 6 May 7
4.3 x 0.60 4.3 x 0.63 4.5 x 0.63 4.8 x 0.50 4.3 x 0.66
4.3 x 0.60 4.4 x 0.64 4.7 x 0.60 4.8 x 0.60 4.5 x 0.50
4.4.x 0.60 4.6 x 0.65 4.7 x 0.60 4.9 x 0.66 4.5 x 0.63
4.4 x 0.66 4.7 x 0.63 4.9 x 0.62 5.0 x 0.60 4.8 x 0.60
4.5 x 0.54 4.8 x 0.57 4.9 x 0.62 5.0 x 0.63 5.0 x 0.64
4.5 x 0.63 4.9 x 0.60 5.0 x 0.60 5.0 x 0.66 5.0 x 0.69
4.5 x 0.64 4.9 x 0.63 5.0 x 0.60 5.0 x 0.68 5.2 x 0.70
4.8 x 0.60 5.0 x 0.63 5.0 x 0.66 5.0 x 0.74 5.2 x 0.75
4.8 x 0.60 5.0 x 0.68 5.1 x 0.68 5.2 x 0.68 5.3 x 0.75
4.9 x 0.66 5.2 x 0.66 5.7 x 0.75 5.3 x 0.68 5.6 x 0.90

May 8 May 9 May 10 May 11 May 12
4.5 x 0.63 4.8 x 0.66 4.5 x 0.60 4.6 x 0.80 4.5 x 0.69
5.0 x 0.69 4.9 x 0.60 5.0 x 0.72 4.7 x 0.68 4.9x 0.75
5.0 x 0.78 5.1 x 0.70 5.0 x 0.75 4.9 x 0.84 4.9 x 0.80
5.1 x 0.66 5.3 x 0.75 5.0 x 0.78 5.0 x 0.75 5.0 x 0.87
5.3 x 0.76 5.3 x 0.90 5.1 x 0.70 5.0 x 0.81 5.0 x 1.00
5.5 x 0.85 5.5 x 0.72 5.2 x 0.87 5.0 x 0.85 5.0x 1.10
5.5 x 0.85 5.5 x 0.90 5.4 x 0.97 5.0 x 0.86 5.1x 1.10
5.5 x 0.90 5.8 x 1.00 5.4x 1.10 5.0 x 0.90 5.2 x 1.00
5.6 x 1.00 5.9 x 1.00 5.1 x 0.90 5.1 x 0.90 §.2 x 1.30
6.0 x 1.10 6.0 x 1.20 5.1 x 0.92 5.1 x 0.92 5.6 x 1.20

136 American Fisheries Society

Gr

May 14 May 15 May 29 June 5

4.5 x 0.60 4.8 x 0.70 4.7x 1.10 4.5 x 1.20
4.6 x 0.63 4.8 x 0.75 4.8 x 0.83 4.5 x 1.25
5.0 x 0.60 5.0 x 0.84 5.0 x 1.10 4.6 x 1.60
5.0 x 1.00 5.0 x 0.85 5.0 x 1.10 5.0 x 1.00
5.2 x 0.66 51x 0.91 5.0 x 1.20 5.0 x 1.12
5.2 x 0.83 5.1 x 1.00 5.1x 1.50 5.0 x 1.33
5.5 x 0.75 5.1 x 1.00 5.1 x 1.50 5.0 x 1.33
5.5 x 0.80 5.1 x 1.10 5.2 x 0.98 5.3 x 1.43
5.6 x 1.10 5.3 x 1.00 §.2 x 1.50 5.5 x 1.50
5.8x 1.10 5.6 x 1.34 5.2 x 1.52 6.0 x 2.17

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Acassiz, A.
On the Young Stages of Some Osseous Fishes.
I. The Development of the Tail.
Proc. Amer. Acad. Arts and Sci., Vol. V, p. 117.

Acassiz, A.
On the Young Stages of Bony Fishes.
I. ii. Development of the Flounders.
Proc. Amer. Acad. Arts and Sci., Vol. IV, p. 1.

Corse, F. J., and Jounstone, J.
Pleuronectes.
L.M.B.C. Memoirs, VIII, 1901.

Meap, A. D.
A Method of Fish Culture and of Transporting Live Fishes.

Thirty-ninth Annual Report of Commissioners of Inland Fish-
eries of Rhode Island.

Wituams, S. R.

Changes Accompanying the Migration of the Eye and Observa-
tions on the Tractus Opticus and Tectum Opticum in Pseu-
dopleuronectes Americanus.

Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool., Vol. XL, No. 1.

PRELIMINARY INVESTIGATIONS FOR THE
SYSTEMATIC STOCKING OF
STATE WATERS

By DAvip L. BELDING,
Biologist, Massachusetts Department of Fisheries
and Game.

Introduction.—This paper considers one phase of fish
propagation, that broad subject which forms the ultimate
aim of the activities of the American Fisheries Society.
Its purpose is to sound a note of warning, not necessarily
of alarm, to persons who are satisfied with the present
conditions and methods of fish propagation, by pointing
out certain important facts which have been overlooked
in the past, but which are essential for the best develop-
ment of our inland waters.

Although its nature renders the subject of general in-
terest, the facts are presented solely from the standpoint
of the State Fish Commission. The paper deals with the
selection of suitable grounds for stocking, and the text of
its message to each state is “know thyself.”’ Unless a
state fish commission has a thorough knowledge of its
waters, the environment in which the fry and fingerling
fish are to be placed, promiscuous stocking will eventually
lead to considerable loss. Extensive hatchery production
increases rather than decreases this error. A systematic
method of stocking, based upon an accurate knowledge of
the waters to be stocked and a satisfactory method of dis-
tribution are essential for the success of a state commis-
sion, and form the basis for the entire system of fish
propagation.

Several years ago it was evident in Massachusetts that
the haphazard methods of the past should be abolished
and that a definite system of stocking should be adopted,
in order to obtain the best financial results. Under intel-
ligent stocking, whereby fish are put into waters suitable
for their best development, it may be estimated that the
production of the inland waters of Massachusetts may

138 American Fisheries Society

be increased to at least tenfold over its past output. In
order to accomplish such a result, it was necessary to
obtain a new perspective, and in this paper the prelimi-
nary steps which led toward this goal are described. The
application of these facts is general, but ali the illustra-
tions, and specific examples are drawn from Massa-
chusetts. The writer is not familiar with the work of
other state commissions, particularly the investigations
not published in the annual reports. For that reason all
criticism, favorable or unfavorable, is directed to condi-
tions in Massachusetts, and applies only to other states
when similar conditions exist. ;

Natural Abundance.—Nearly every state in the Union
possesses many beautiful lakes, ponds and streams, capa-
ble of producing an abundance of food and game fish,
and in most cases, as in Massachusetts, but few of the
many thousand acres of waterways are producing any-
where near their maximum or even normal possibilities.
Therefore, it is important, both in the interests of sport
and as a source of food supply, that these latent assets
should be developed for the benefit of the public.

In Colonial days, when a relatively small population
was scattered along the sea coast, leaving the inland
waters in their primitive, uncontaminated condition, the
abundance of salt and fresh water fish was far in excess
of the needs of the colonists, thus giving rise to the fal-
lacy which has been handed down zealously to the pres-
ent generation, that “Nature would always provide an
abundance of fish.’”’ Even in this era of conservation this
mistaken idea is still deeply rooted, especially among the
marine fishermen of our shore towns, and it can only be
eliminated by the complete exhaustion of the natural sup-
ply, or by the education of the general public.

Decline-—With the advance of civilization great
changes have taken place in our waterways. Many times
the balance of nature has been overthrown and a new
equilibrium established. With the increase in population
the coastal streams were first invaded, cities were estab-
lished on the larger rivers, and various manufacturing in-

Belding.—Stocking State Waters 139

dustries were scattered along the smaller streams. In
order to supply water power numerous dams were con-
structed, in most instances unprovided with suitable fish-
ways, thus preventing the passage of such fish as the
salmon, shad, striped bass, alewife, smelt and white perch
up the coastal streams to their spawning grounds. In this
way not only the supply of these fish has been depleted,
but the commercial sea fisheries have been indirectly af-
fected by destroying a food supply which attracted the
larger predaceous fish to the shores. Manufacturing
wastes and sewage, particularly in central Massachusetts,
have totally ruined many streams, and have seriously de-
pleted the supply of fish in others by rendering the water
unfit for fish life. Numerous legislative measures have
been enacted in the past, but the decline has steadily con-
tinued, since these laws were either inadequate, or, as
was more often the case, not enforced. Likewise, over-
fishing has seriously depleted local supplies, and in Massa-
chusetts has accelerated the general decline which is so
marked in the Merrimac, Charles, Taunton and Connecti-
cut Rivers.

Soon after the establishment of the Massachusetts
Department of Fisheries and Game, in 1866, salmon and
shad hatcheries were located on the principal rivers as
long as any native fish remained; but during the last
twenty years brook trout have formed the main output
of the state hatcheries. These fish, reared in variable
quantities, were indiscriminately dumped into ponds or
streams at the request of individuals, who filled out brief
descriptions of the waters in question. Lack of funds
make it impossible to examine these waters, and reliance
had to be placed on the judgment of unskilled observers.
In many cases this hit-or-miss stocking was successful,
in others a failure, resulting in financial loss.

The chief objections to indiscriminate stocking may be
enumerated as folows: (1) Stocking private ponds and
streams from which the public are excluded. (2) Inten-
tional distribution of fish by the applicant in other waters
than called for by the petition. (3) Stocking badly pol-

140 American Fisheries Society

luted streams in which the young fish cannot exist. (4)
Putting fish in brooks which become dry in the summer.
(5) Introducing fry or small fingerlings into streams
containing large numbers of voracious fish, and con-
versely introducing coarse fish into trout waters. (6)
Stocking where conditions are unfit for the life and
spawning of the particular species, or where there is a
deficiency of food. (7) Utilizing poor streams to the
neglect of more suitable waters. (8) Lack of systematic
and consecutive stocking. (9) Financial loss from stock-
ing in unsuitable quantities.

The method of stocking in vogue in Massachusetts until
the last few years has been of questionable value, results
have been inconsistent, ponds and streams have been
stocked with wrong species of fish,and considerable money
has been expended without completely satisfactory re-
sults. The methods of propagation have not been en-
tirely adequate to offset the increasing causes of decline,
such as pollution, dams without fishways, illegal seining,
liming and dynamiting. Hand in hand with propagation
should go proper restrictive laws, which must be
enforced.

Stocking.—The stocking of inland waters has three es-
sential parts: (1) The rearing of fish at the hatchery
with its expense, labor and numerous attending problems
which have caused it to be considered the entire solution
of fish propagation. (2) The successful distribution of
the young fish, with the difficulties of transportation, and
resulting methods for the successful handling of large
and small quantities. (3) The selection of the waters
into which the fish are to be placed. In this regard our
perspective has been at fault, since first of all it is
important to obtain a thorough knowledge of the water-
ways as a ground work upon which to establish an in-
telligent system of stocking. The need is the same in all
states, and the results should approximate those expected
in Massachusetts.

The benefits derived from the proper development of
the inland waters are: (1) Increased facilities for sport

Belding.—Stocking State Waters 141

and recreation. (2) More business from vacationists.
(3) A larger food supply. (4) New cottages and pleas-
ure resorts upon our inland waters, developing taxable
property.

Biological survey.—The first step toward forming a
systematic basis for future stocking is a biological sur-
vey of the inland waters. A complete biological survey
would include a detailed study of each pond or stream
with its intricate correlation of plant and animal life ex-
tending not over one, but over several years. With the
state commission the extent and thoroughness of such a
survey is necessarily limited by expense and practical re-
sults. In Massachusetts the following plan of work has
been followed in order to obtain the necessary informa-
tion for practical stocking with the least expenditure of
time and money, and for this reason completeness has
been sacrificed. Nevertheless, a thorough biological ex-
amination of the important waters in any state is of spe-
cial value when carried on in a systematic way for a
series of years, especially when it is connected with ex-
perimental work upon fish in typical waters.

Three years ago Massachusetts began a survey of its
inland waters in order to obtain the necessary informa-
tion for systematic stocking. For this work a method of
obtaining a knowledge of the ponds and streams at a
comparatively slight expense was evolved. The work was
divided into four parts, and was carried on during the
summer months, when time and funds were available.
The first step, a study of the ponds and lakes, was fol-
lowed by an investigation of the coastal streams up which
the alewives, or branch herrings, once ran in large num-
bers, while the third was the classification and descrip-
tion of the smaller brooks and streams. The fourth, as
yet incomplete, comprised a study of the fishing poten-
tialities of the larger rivers, and was intimately con-
nected with that great bugaboo of anglers—pollution.

This preliminary study by no means completes the
problem. Succeeding it should come more careful and
detailed work, designed to ultimately increase the supply

142 American Fisheries Society

of food and game fish by: (1) A study of the food,
growth, spawning and habits of the different species of
fish inhabiting various waters. (2) The determination
of the species best adapted to certain classes of water by
an experimental study of typical waters. There are,
therefore, two parts—first, the preliminary general work,
consisting of an extensive biological survey of the waters
in regard to their general conditions to form a guide for
future stocking, and a classification of these streams and
ponds into certain groups, according to the similarity ot
the natural environment; secondly, an intensive study of
various typical waters, representing the groups above
mentioned, as regards the effects of the natural condi-
tions upon fish life. In such bodies of water records of
temperatures, amount of food (plankton) and generai
changes which concern the problem of fish life should be
followed for a number of years. The work on these typi-
cal waters should serve as a basis for interpreting the
conditions in other waters of a similar nature.

(1) Ponps.

The Massachusetts law provides only for stocking nat-
ural ponds over twenty acres in area, excluding all arti-
ficial ones. For this reason the survey was limited to the
natural ponds over twenty acres, in all about 800. These
ponds were examined in a rapid but comprehensive sur-
vey by representatives of the state commission. This
work was carried on during three summer months for
two years by four biological students. The entire cost
was less than two thousand dollars, the greater part of
the expense arising from traveling, owing to the inacces-
sibility of many ponds. Each man examined approxi-
mately one hundred ponds in seventy-five days, an aver-
age of one and one-third ponds per day. The size and
importance of the body of water made considerable
difference in the amount of time devoted to the examina-
tion, the small and less important receiving a rapid
survey. At best the examination was hurried and super-
ficial, but it achieved the practical object of providing an

Belding.—Stocking State Water's 143

inventory of the state ponds, and an available working
knowledge of the various bodies of water.

The field equipment of the surveyors consisted of a
rucksack, a net of silk bolting cloth for towings, hand
lens, bottles, vials, formaldehyde, maximum and mini-
mum thermometer, sounding lines and lead, and record
blanks. Reports were written at approximately two-
week intervals, while the towings and other material
were sent to a central laboratory for microscopical ex- ~
amination. As light an equipment as possible was given
the field worker, since in many cases he had to traverse
the ground between one pond and the next by walking.
Numerous difficulties, such as lack of boats, inability to
find the ponds, changes in the maps, and lack of transpor-
tation facilities retarded the work.

Certain ponds in various parts of the state, from
Berkshire to Barnstable Counties, were selected for type
study. The other ponds of the state were placed in these
representative classes, each pond falling into the group
for which its environment was best adapted. The types
under observation were large and small ponds, both deep
and shallow, in which the conditions, as regards the
species, growth and abundance of fish were quite differ-
ent. From the study of the type ponds, and from classi-
fication of the surveyed ponds, practical deduction as to
the species and amount of fish for the individual ponds
of the state could be made.

In the survey work the following information concern-
ing the physical characteristics of each pond was ob-
tained in order to insure the proper classification for
each type:

Name. The name of the pond is a variable and con-
fusing factor. Usually a pond has several names, accord-
ing to the various maps upon which it is recorded, and
often these listed names are unknown in the immediate
vicinity where local titles are in vogue. To facilitate
the identification of any body of water for public infor-
mation or for stocking, the primary essential is the re-
cording of all the names by which the pond is known.

144 American Fisheries Society

Location. The situation of the pond as to the ease or
difficulty of access from railroad stations or nearest vil-
lages, as well as the hotel and boating facilities, were
recorded for use in future shipment of fry or fingerlings,
and as a source of information to fishermen.

Area. No actual survey of the area of the ponds was
made, the size being measured from maps or taken from
old records.

Depth and bottom. Soundings were so made that the
contour lines, giving the depths, could be charted on dia-
grams of the ponds, and from these measurements, the
average and maximum depths were ascertained. The
sounding lead was equipped to take samples of the bot-
tom soil, but, unfortunately, on hard or mossy bottom
no soil could be gathered by this method, and the nature
of the bottom could only be estimated in shallow water
or from the character of the shores.

Water. The color of the water was listed as either
clear, green or brown. The turbidity was expressed in
feet, the number representing the distance below the
surface at which a white four-inch circular disc would
disappear from view. By means of a maximum and mini-
mum thermometer the temperature at the bottom was
taken in various parts of the pond to determine the pres-
ence of springs. In the deepest part a series of readings
were taken at intervals from two and a half to five feet
to determine the thermocline (described by Dr. E. A.
Birge of Wisconsin), or point where the temperature
drops rapidly. Deep ponds have three layers of water—
a surface layer, in which the temperature to a depth of
fifteen to twenty feet remains approximately the same as
at the surface; a middle layer, or thermocline, in which
there is a rapid fall, and a bottom layer of uniformly low
temperature. The extent and nature of these three layers,
which vary in different ponds and at different seasons of
the year, are of importance as regards fish life from the
standpoint of food and oxygen.

Shores. The shores around the pond were classified
as woodland, the kinds of trees being noted, and whether

Belding.—Stocking State Waters 145

fields were cultivated or uncultivated, such as pasture,
meadow and marsh land. The height and slope of.the
shores and character of the beaches were likewise noted.
Cottages, hotels, gunning stands, ice houses, etc., were
recorded as indicating the popularity of the pond as a
pleasure resort.

Inlets and Outlets. The inlets and outlets with the vol-
ume of water, temperature, amount of sediment and pol-
lution, such as manufacturing waste or sewage, were |
described. The presence of a dam at the outlet indicated
that the pond had either been raised above its original
area or that it was wholly artificial. In certain instances
it was practically impossible to definitely determine
whether a pond thus raised was originally a state pond.

Fish. Information concerning the different species of
fish was obtained from fishermen and people living in the
immediate vicinity, who were acquainted with the pond.
In the rapid survey it was manifestly impossible to obtain
this information in any other way, and for this reason
the question of the quantity of the fish and the present
production of any pond was only determined in a very
general way, as the term “good fishing”’ is but relative,
varying with locality.

Fish food. The study of fish food was undertaken in
two ways: (1) The examination of the stomach con-
tents of various species, both of the small and the large
fish, under various conditions, and at different seasons.
(2) The determination of the character and amount of
the floating organisms (plankton) in the different ponds
by means of a silk bolting cloth net.

(2) COASTAL STREAMS

The second step was a survey of the coastal streams
in connection with the alewife or branch herring fishery.
Formerly the alewives ran up these streams in great
numbers each spring to spawn in the fresh water ponds.
In this work the coastal streams and their tributaries
were examined by a representative of the state commis-
sion. Every dam, obstruction, fishway, cranberry bog,

146 American Fisheries Society

mill, or possible source of pollution was accurately
charted and described. The physical characteristics of
the streams, and the animal and plant life were recorded.
The method of catching the alewives, the history of the
fishery from old records, the possibilities of restocking
were studied for the purpose of formulating proper
measures for the development of this fishery.

(3) INLAND STREAMS

The third step in the survey of the inland waters com-
prised a record of the smaller streams. It was manifestly
impossible from the standpoint of time and expense for
any one man, or even several men, to attempt to person-
ally examine a large number of brooks. The solution of the
problem was achieved by enlisting the services of the
various state fish and game wardens, each covering a dis-
trict with which he was thoroughly familiar, especially
in regard to the streams. The employment of men, for
the most part not trained scientists, necessitated simpli-
fying the examination, but many practical points con-
cerning the various brooks were obtained. Many of these
wardens had been stationed for years in their districts,
and in the course of their duties had become personally
familiar with most of the streams.

Each warden was given typewritten instructions as to
the desired information, and the manner in which he
could co-operate was explained by a personal interview.
The warden, in connection with his regular duties,
gradually accumulated the necessary data, and after sev-
eral months was able to describe with the aid of a map
every stream in the district. Naturally more information
was available upon some brooks than on others, as certain
wardens showed greater aptitude in the work. In addi-
tion, many important facts were obtained from local rod
and gun clubs.

The information thus obtained was systematized and
recorded in the form of a card catalogue (8x6 in. cards),
in which the names of the brooks were arranged alpha-
betically. Each stream had two cards, one a record of

Belding.—Stocking State Water's 147

the various fish, with which it had been stocked in the
past, the other a typewritten description, comprising the
information obtained from the wardens.

Information upon each brook was compiled on the fol-
lowing plan:

(1) The collection of all names, general and local,
under which the brook is known, is essential for reference
to locate petitions for stocking, and answer requests for
information.

(2) The location of the brook by towns or sections of
a town is necessary for identification, as two brooks with
the same name often may be found in the same town. The
brook is then charted properly and named on the U. §S.
Geological Survey maps, which are cut into small num-
bered maps of a suitable size for filing with the cards.

(3) The source, whether in spring, swamp, bog, pond
or elsewhere is noted; likewise into what body of water
the brook flows.

(4) The length and direction of its flow; the width
and depth of the stream at certain places along its course;
the character of the land through which it flows, i.e.,
meadow, tilled land, pasture, swamp, hard wood, etc.;
the rate of flow, volume and clearness of water, the pres-
ence of springs and character of the bed.

(5) The abundance or scarcity of vegetation, with the
names of the various water weeds known to the examiner.

(6) The nature and character of any pollution,
whether sewage, sawdust or manufacturing wastes, and
a description of the source of this material.

(7) Itis important to know whether the land border-
ing the brook is posted and the public denied the right of
fishing, in order that no private brook may be stocked
by the state.

(8) Information as to whether the stream dries up
during the summer is an important consideration in
stocking.

(9) The species of fish in the brook, the results from
past stocking, if any, and the popularity of the stream
with fishermen.

148 American Fisheries Society

(10) The opinion of the warden as to whether the
brook is worth stocking, with what kind and size of fish,
and what places afford the most desirable points to liber-
ate the fish.

The method of obtaining information recommends it-
self for its cheapness, the entire expense consisting of
the salary and traveling expenss of the person compiling
the information, and for clerical services. Nearly every
state employs a force of deputies, who are available for
collecting this information, and a record of its brooks can
be conveniently and cheaply obtained in a similar man-
ner. Likewise, the same plan may be applied to the ponds,
instead of the more complete examination previously
described in this paper. In any event, it suggests a con-
venient plan for compiling practical information upon
public waters.

The records, it is true, show frequent errors, and in
many particulars are incomplete, owing to lack of detailed
information on certain streams, but these gaps can be
filled in the future, since each warden is supplied with
duplicate records in order that he may correct or add to
the information at hand. In this way he will know
exactly the information on file at the central office, and
can receive shipments of fish or definite orders without
any mistakes arising from a confusion of names. It is
believed that the compilation of these records will be a
great aid to Massachusetts in carrying forward a definite
and intelligent policy of stocking. Not only will the state
department be in a position to dispense information to
numerous fishermen, but it can more readily classify the
petitions for stocking.

But the program for the future considers a broader ap-
plication than a mere bureau of knowledge. It aims to
utilize this information so that a plan of systematic stock-
ing may be devised whereby the commission will no
longer wait, as is now often the case, until a petition for
stocking a stream is received, but will know for several
years ahead just what brooks are to receive their stated
allotments of fish. With the proper knowledge at hand a

Belding.—Stocking State Waters 149

system of stocking will be devised whereby the results
may be followed in different brooks, where the right
species and number of fish will be placed in suitable wa-
ters, and where every dollar of the state’s money will
yield its maximum value. When such results are accom-
plished state commissions may feel justified in increasing
the output of their hatcheries to meet a larger demand.

(4) POLLUTION.

The fourth step will be the examination of the rivers.
Since these streams are greatly polluted by sewage and
trade wastes, this investigation will be confined chiefly to
the pollution problem, and an effort will be made to stock
with hardy species of fish those streams which have not
become veritable sewers. Exactly how this problem will
be solved has not yet been determind, but it will be along
the line of least resistance, by first eliminating the un-
necessary pollution, which can be avoided at a slight ex-
pense. By cleaning up the single cases of pollution, and
preventing new sources, part of our streams may be
saved. Later areas of greater pollution may be consid-
ered, but the problem is difficult, and may never be satis-
factorily solved.

SUMMARY

This paper has endeavored to show:

(1) The need of a new viewpoint in stocking state
waters.

(2) How the defects of former methods may be
remedied by a proper selection of the inland waters, a
problem long considered of minor importance.

(3) The necessity of a preliminary survey of state
waters as a basis for future stocking.

(4) That such a survey may be made in a relatively
short time, and at a slight expense.

(5) That the future development of state waters de-
mands a definite program of systematic stocking.

NOTES ON THE REARING OF SALMON

By H. B. TORREY AND D. E. LANCEFIELD,
Reed College, Portland, Oregon.

I.
RAW VERSUS COOKED BEEF LIVER AS FOOD.

Finely ground beef liver has long been highly esteemed
by fish culturists as a food for salmon fingerlings, in
spite of its cost. The custom has been to feed it raw.
That this has been so is due partly to the widespread
belief that raw foods more closely approach the natural
food of the species in the wild state, and are accordingly
more satisfactory; partly because, in the absence of
definite tests, no good reason has appeared for assuming
the added expense of preparation which cooking would
entail. It is a common practice to soften refractory tis-
sues, such as the bones and cartilages of fishes, with su-
perheated steam. But this method of preparation would
be quite superfluous for beef liver, unless it could be
shown that cooking would actually increase the efficiency
of the liver fed.

We have attempted to find a definite answer for this
problem. Our experiments are not concluded, so that the
results so far obtained must be considered tentative.

The method of investigation consisted in dividing a
given lot of Chinook salmon that were just beginning to
take solid food through the mouth into two numerically
equal groups. These were placed side by side in separate
troughs, the flow of water, temperature and all other con-
ditions being as nearly as possible the same with the
single exception of food. One group was fed on raw liver,
the other on an equal daily weight of cooked liver. The
weight of twenty fish was taken at the beginning and at
the end of the experiment, the average weight per fish
obtained in each case and the average gain per cent. in
weight during the elapsed time. Four pairs of groups
are tabulated.

Torrey and Lancefield.—Rearing Salmon 151

Amount Average
and condition No.of Date of weight of
of beef liver feddaily fish weighing 20individuals Gain in weight
L/ 10. grams raw... 1800 Mar. 1 465 grams
Apr. 2 O20. 13 per cent.
a.) 10) cooked -..2 1800 Mar. 1 465 “
Apr. 2 090 “ 4 Wal
A Pa ape mre of \ ke 2000 Mar. Il 000)
Apr. 2 625 “ dN eh tide
4. 20 “ cooked ...2000 Mar. 1 pUONy en
Apr. 2 Sia “ DOS eee
MELO re LEW on 2000 Mar. 1 05 =
Apr. 2 395 ee
6. 30 “ cooked ...2000 Mar. 1 535“
Apr. 2 SCO ae 48 Get ni
TaD rawe, 7s:<3 345 Apr. 5 IS ae
Apr. 19 LS} oa
May 19 196) 4° USD yee oe
8. 40 “ cooked ... 345 INO Me US
Apr. 19 TAsT <
May 19 F365 FOS:854) Oe

It will be seen that in each case the fish fed on cooked
liver gained weight faster than the others. Excluding
from consideration Nos. 5 and 6 on account of the abnor-
mally small gain of the fish fed on raw liver, the fish
fed on cooked liver gained in weight from 1.48 (Nos. 7
and 8) times to twice (Nos. 1 and 2) and three times
(Nos. 3 and 4) as much as the others in the same time.
Including Nos. 5 and 6 the results would be still more
strikingly in favor of cooked liver as food.

To find the efficiency of the food per unit of cost, it is
necessary to take into account certain losses that took
place in the process of grinding and cooking, and in the
elimination of tough connective tissue unsuitable for food.
In ten weighings, the raw liver lost, in preparation, an
average of 33 per cent. of its original weight. Similarly
the cooked liver lost 43 per cent. of its original weight.
This means that for every 100 grams of raw liver avail-
able for food, but 85 grams are available after cooking.
showing a loss in weight of 15 per cent. in the cooking.

152 American Fisheries Society

Expressed in a slightly different way, cooking the liver
adds 1714 per cent. to its cost. This increased cost is
much more than offset, however, by the gain in results of
from 48 to 200 per cent.

II

FACTORS OTHER THAN FooD THAT INFLUENCE THE
DEVELOPMENT OF SALMON ALEVINS.

Seven uncovered glass dishes, each 9 cm. in diameter,
were each supplied with 150 ccm. of spring water. On
January 3rd Chinook alvins, just hatched, were distrib-
uted among them as follows: Dish 1, 3; dish 2, 5; dish 3,
10; dish 4, 15; dish 5, 20; dish 6, 25; dish 7, 30. All lived,
without change of water, until January 23rd, when all
the fish in dish 7 died.

On January 24, all in dish 6 died, several of them hav-
ing begun to show clear signs of diminishing vitality by
January 16.

On January 24, 3 individuals in dish 5 died, and the
others seemed so feeble that the water was changed. By
February 15, 19 had died, the rest two days later.

On February 2, 14 of the 15 in dish 4 died, the last dy-
ing the next day.

On February 1, the fish in dish 3 were observed to be
less lively than at first. On February 15, 8 died; on
February 17, the other two.

Of the fishes in dishes 1 and 2, all lived until March 28,
when they were killed by a rise in temperature of the
water, the dishes having been exposed inadvertently to
the sun all day. Up to this time they had been active and
healthy. A growth of algae in the dishes led to a change
of water in both dishes on February 21. It is probable
that they would have lived indefinitely had they not been
subjected to the abnormal rise in temperature on
March 23.

Notwithstanding their apparent health and nervous
activity, the individuals in dishes 1 and 2 were much

Torrey and Lancefield.—Rearing Saliion 153

behind those of the same age that had remained in the
hatchery troughs in running water. While the yolk sacs
of the latter had been absorbed by March 1, the yolk sacs
of the former were still prominent when they died, three
weeks later.

The water in the dishes used was 2.5 cm. deep, with a
surface 9 cm. in diameter, and a volume of 150 ccm.
Under these conditions 30 fish lived for almost three
weeks, in a quantity of water equal to 5 ccm. per fish.
With 30 to 50 ccm. per fish, the latter lived much longer ;
but their rate of growth was materially retarded in cor-
relation with a diminished rate of absorption of the yolk
sac—that is, a diminution in food supply.

The volume of water per fish is thus seen to be a factor
in development. It is also true that the amount of sur-
face exposed to the air per unit of volume, or the shape of
the body of water, exerts a definite influence upon the
result. Five fish in an open bottle filled to the neck with
55 ecm. of water with a surface 1 cm. in diameter died
over night, January 7-8. In troughs where the water is
being renewed several times an hour, we have compared
the rate of growth of fishes in water at depths varying
from 7 to 14 cm., but have found no significant difference
in the rate of their growth.

ON SOME DISEASES OF FISHES

By G. A. MACCALLUM, M.D.
New York, N. Y.

Through the kindness of the director, Dr. Townsend,
and his assistant, Dr. Osburn, of the New York Aquarium,
I have had the opportunity of performing several hundred
autopsies upon fish of many different kinds which have
died in the Aquarium during the last three years, and it
is at their request that I outline here the types of disease
encountered. A similar privilege has been granted me
by the director of the United States Bureau of Fisheries
Laboratory at Woods Hole, Mass., during each summer,
and it is instructive to compare the conditions found in
freshly captured, free-living fish with those occurring in
fish which have been for some time in captivity. Prob-
ably no statistical studies could be made in this way, be-
cause in the ocean diseased fish might not be taken in the
proportion in which they actually occur, either because
they fall out of the shoal, or because of their sluggishness
they are destroyed by other fish. On the other hand, for
the same reasons they might be taken in excess by other
methods of fishing. On the whole it is rare to find in free
swimming fish such extremely advanced diseased condi-
tions as are occasionally encountered in the protected
tanks of the Aquarium.

My attention has been directed throughout this work
especially to the worm parasites of these fish and reports
concerning the structure and systematic relations of many
of these with statements as to the damage occasioned by
them have already been published. In addition to a brief
review of their influence upon fish in confinement, the
present paper is intended merely to indicate the general
character of the other diseases met with, but not really
studied. This may be particularly useful in showing what
a great field for research lies there. Of the worm para-
sites, which include representatives of most of the groups
of trematodes, nematodes and cestodes, many have been

MacCallum.—Diseases of Fishes 155

found in small numbers inhabiting the intestines and
other internal cavities without producing any obvious dis-
ability in the fish. In cases in which this infection was
more external, however, the worms by their very numbers
and by their blood-sucking habits had a much more seri-
ous effect. This was particularly striking in the case of
the ectoparasites of the trematode group, especially in the
several forms of Microcotyle, which live on the gills of
such families of fish as the Chaetodontidae (Butterfly ~
fishes), and Angel fishes, 90 per cent of which in captiv-
ity die of Microcotyle infestation. The same may be said
of many of the Salmonidae which suffer from infestation
of Octocotylidae, etc. These worms, at any rate in those
fish living in confinement, increase in such numbers that
the gills are in many instances thickly covered with them
—and not only do they, with their surrounding slime, im-
pede the access of water to the gills but they drain away
the fish’s blood to an extent that generally ends in a fatal
anaemia. Another striking example of extreme infesta-
tion is found in the intestine of such fish as Roccus lineat-
us (Striped Bass), at times so infected with Echinorrhyn-
chus proteus, a nematode which embeds its hooked pro-
boscis in and through the gut wall in such numbers that
the whole mucosa is covered thickly with their hanging
bodies. Not only is an intense inflammation set up by
these embedded hooks, but the function of the mucosa is .
precluded. Still this seems to be less fatal than the infec-
tion of the gills. The occurrence of larval forms of vari-
ous digenetic trematodes and cestodes encapsulated in
the muscles and other tissues of fishes are well known
and sometimes productive of disablement of the host, al-
though at times the most extreme infection may exist
without obviously hurting the fish.

Of the diseases caused by the unicellular sporozoa of the
class Myxosporidae, so well known through the work of
Gurley and others, relatively little has been seen in this
series of autopsies, and of this disease very many more
cases have been seen in those fish taken fresh from the
sea.

156 American Fisheries Society

Evidently the tanks of the Aquarium have escaped in-
fection since it is well known that the most fatal epidem-
ics are from this cause, often leading, in the Great Lakes
to the death of countless fish. They commonly infect the
muscles and subcutaneous tissues, producing tumor-
like swellings which project under the skin and may break
down into great ulcerations. Sometimes they show only
in the form of small whitish nodules in the internal or-
gans, at others in large nodular masses like white tapioca
or sago which fill the abdominal cavity, being attached to
the peritoneum and the internal organs. The escape of
the parasites from ulcers and from dead and decomposing
fish spreads the disease and the most drastic measures are
necessary if this is to be prevented. The fish which I have
found to suffer most from this disease were perch, floun-
ders, alewives, smelts, hake, pickerel and some of the min-
nows.

Certain bacterial infections have, however, caused the
loss of many fish in the Aquarium in the course of the
past winter. In these there appeared peculiar ulcerations
of the skin, which in a short time so progressed as to
cause the death of the fish. They are sometimes numerous
and large and often burrow under the skin or even ulcer-
ate into and through the bones, including those of the
head. The ulcer usually shows a dirty gray slough which
discharges pus. The neighboring scales are loosened and
the skin discolored. Apparently these ulcers begin as ab-
cesses beneath the skin, and after death the liver, spleen
and kidneys show scores of small abscesses scattered
throughout their substance. Cultures were made by Prof.
Zinsser, of Columbia University, who found a bacillus
growing best at low temperatures, which, when inoculated
in pure culture into normal fish reproduced the disease
even to the extensive ulceration of the skin. In both the
original lesions and in those experimentally produced the
bacillus was demonstrated in smears and in sections. This
study is still under way and will be published when com-
pleted. As far as I know, this disease affects only the
fish in the Aquarium, not those taken freshly from the

MacCallum.—Diseases of Fishes 157

sea, and it seems obvious that rigid disinfection of tanks,
etc., would easily stamp it out.

Many of the fish in confinement show upon autopsy a
great distension of the gall bladder sometimes with gen-
eralized jaundice. It is usually found to be due to nar-
rowing of the common bile duct by inflammation of its
mucosa, although it is sometimes caused by blocking of
the duct by parasites. It is not easy to give an explana-
tion of this. A number of examples of the peculiar affec-
tion of the thyroid so much studied by Gaylord, Marine
and Lenhart came to my attention. As is well known, it
is even yet a matter of dispute as to whether this enlarge-
ment of the gland which may affect the isolated fragments
of thyroid tissue scattered so widely in the tissues of the
fish is to be regarded as a malignant tumor or not. It is
at least destructive of the lives of many fish in hatcheries
of trout, but Marine thinks it merely a modification of
the gland caused by unsuitable food and over crowding,
and especially by lack of iodine-containing food. Gaylord
thinks it cancerous.

A few more definite tumor growths have been encoun-
tered, one which produced a rounded protuberance on
each side of the dorsal fin of a Neomaenis griseus (Gray
Snapper). These proved on section to be a hard fibroma
composed of very dense fibrous tissue with relatively few
cells. Two fish, a red hind and a pickerel, died after an
affection of about three months during which the soft
tissues of the lower jaw and part of the tongue were
wholly destroyed leaving the bones completely bare as far
as the angle of the mouth. This was at first thought to
be an epitheliomatous growth but sections of the margins
of the tissue showed no tumor and the nature of the pro-
cess is obscure. A large snook (Centropomus undecimal-
is) was observed for a long time in the Aquarium with a
large tumor on the tip of its lower jaw, which may pos-
sibly have been of the nature of the thyroid enlargements.
Unfortunately it was not studied at autopsy. Another, a
black grouper (Mycteroperca bonaci) showed at autopsy
a firm nodular mass constricting the rectum which was

158 American Fisheries Society

greatly dilated above the structure. There were many
adhesions and inflammatory products in the neighbor-
hood. Again through an accident the tissue was lost so
that the exact nature cannot be stated. In large Cynos-
cion regalis (Squeteague) there was found a tumor of the
testis about 15 mm. x 15 mm. x 10 mm. This was sec-
tioned, but. not yet studied.

Fragmentary as these notes are, representing only in-
cidental observations of conditions not carefully studied
except in the case of the worm parasites, they are given
to indicate what an extensive field for study presents it-
self in the aes conditions found in the fishes at
the Aquarium.

STRAY NOTES FROM PORTO RICO

By J. T. NICHOLS,
American Museum of Natural History, New York City.

The writer has had the good fortune to spend the bet-
ter part of the past July studying the fishes of Porto Rico
in the interest of a biological survey of that island which
is being forwarded by the New York Academy of Sciences
and the Insular Government. The material collected has
not yet been studied, and indeed a discussion of the de-
tailed scientific results obtained would be out of place
here. Certain observations, however, he has had in mind
to talk over with members of the American Fisheries So-
ciety, and these are herewith presented.

The Silk Snapper, Neomaenis vivanus, is a deep-water,
yellow-eyed representative of the more familiar Red
Snapper. Evermann and Marsh in Bulletin XX of the
U. S. Fish Commission for 1900, speak of it as one of
the important food fishes of the island, but say that it
was not common in Porto Rican markets during their
visit, though Mr. Oscar Riddle found it quite common in
the San Juan market at certain times. On July 13 of this
year it was exposed plentifully for sale in the San Juan
market. As Evermann and Marsh were on the ground in
winter, the difference may be a seasonal one. The data
at hand are as yet quite insufficient to determine this. A
herring, Sardinella sardina, not listed in the U. S. Fish-
eries Bulletin referred to, but found abundant this sum-
mer at San Juan, also may be of seasonal occurrence.

The Barracunda or ‘‘Picunda’” is one of the more fa-
vored food-fishes in Porto Rico. The waters of San Juan
harbor are unfortunately badly polluted, and the fish from
near there consequently looked on with suspicion, this
species less so, because it is thought to feed exclusively on
active live food. In Cuba the Picuda is looked on with
much disfavor. Large individuals especially are consid-

160 American Fisheries Society

ered sometimes to be poisonous, but in Porto Rico nothing
detrimental was heard about the species.

The fresh-water fish fauna of Porto Rico is very scant
even considering the limited fresh waters of the island,
and it may be advantageous to introduce game or food
species as the demand for fish exceeds the supply and
much salt-cod is marketed. At Guanica a large shallow
lake, with edges plentifully grown with water plant and
containing Top Minnows, Poecilia, in abundance, has the
disadvantage that its waters at times doubtless reach a
high temperature. Near Guayama sizable lakes have re-
cently been made for irrigation purposes by damming
back the stream. One of these lakes visited seemed
notably barren of plant and animal life and probably
some food would have to be introduced before larger
fishes would thrive.

It is interesting that at one point on the island, Isabella,
the common aquarium goldfish is found. From there
some specimens have been brought to a small pond on the
Governor’s place in the hills above Guayama where they
are doing well and breeding. The goldfish is primarily a
cold-water fish and its introduction in the tropics is in-
teresting.

THE USE OF SALT IN SEPARATING UN-
FERTILIZED FROM EYED EGGS

By G. H. THOMSON,
Estes Park, Colo.

The use of salt for the separation of dead eggs has ~
been tried successfully in the Government salmon hatch-
eries on the Pacific coast, but I have never heard of this
method being applied to the eggs of the Brook Trout.
Any method that will avoid the tedious picking out of in-
dividual eggs, which is the usual way of getting rid of
them, is desirable to save labor and time. The results of
my experiments with the eggs of the trout may therefore
be of interest to fish culturists.

During the last winter the hatchery was filled with
brook trout eggs, and when these reached the stage when
the embryos began to show and the eggs could be handled
without danger, I began these experiments. When the
dead eggs have reached a certain stage and with the salt
solution at the proper density, the separation becomes a
very simple matter. As the living eggs settle to the bot-
tom while the white eggs remain at the top, the latter
can be removed in a dipnet by the hundreds instead of
one at a time. The live eggs may then be returned to
their trays without injury.

The white eggs cannot be separated by this method
when they begin to turn, for then they have nearly the
same specific gravity as the live eggs, but if they are
left for three or four days, according to the temperature
of the water, they will float readily.

With the aid of a hydrometer I found 36 degrees to be
about the right density for the salt solution and then by
making a preliminary test of a few eggs the water could
quickly be brought to the proper density for use. If the
salt solution is too dense all the eggs will float, but if the
density is too low they will all settle to the bottom.

162 American Fisheries Society

For the work of separating the eggs I use a wooden
bucket in which is fitted a wire screen on which the live
eggs can be quickly removed after the dead ones have
been skimmed off. When I have everything ready I re-
move the trays from the hatching trough and let the
water drain off so as not to dilute the salt solution. Then
with the aid of a feather I remove the eggs from the tray
into the solution. If the density is right, the live eggs
settle at once to the bottom while the dead ones remain
at the top and are quickly removed. The live eggs are
then returned to the tray. Three or four days before I
intend to use the salt I wash the eggs by shaking the
trays, in order to turn all the dead ones white that I pos-
sibly can. Even then there will be some that will not
turn at this time, so that after using the salt solution it
may appear that one is not getting results, but careful
observation will show that all have been removed that are
near the danger line of fungus.

The time consumed in handling the eggs is not deter-
mined by the number of dead ones removed, but by the
time required for handling the trays, putting the eggs
into the solution and replacing the good ones in the trays.
I found that nine trays of 5,000 eggs each could be
handled in 36 minutes. Where the condition of the fer-
tilization of the eggs required the removal of 66 2/3%
before the hatching was over, I proved that one man can
do more work in one day than six can accomplish by
picking the eggs out one at a time. And the eggs are
left in better condition, for all the sediment is removed,
even that which the shaking and washing will not re-
move, and the eggs are left perfectly clean and clear.

If a mistake is made in handling the eggs in the salt
solution, they cannot be handled again the same day, for
they will not separate again until they have been for some
hours in fresh water.

Care must be taken to have the salt solution the same
temperature as the water of the hatchery, to avoid in-
jury to the eggs.

Thomson.—Separation of Eggs 163

It may be asked if there are not many live eggs re-
moved with the dead ones. Only when I handled them
near the hatching period when the eggs could not be al-
lowed to remain in the solution for the time required for
proper separation. In this case I took a sample and found
two ounces of live eggs in a total of twenty-five ounces of
eggs removed. Even then I saved a vast amount of time
and labor by using the salt solution.

I have experimented a little with the green eggs, but
without satisfactory results.

All the eggs that I had in the hatchery last winter
were handled by myself, single-handed, in the eyed stage,
and this summer I have handled over 800,000 of the rain-
bow and black-spotted trout with equally good results,
so I no longer dread the work of picking out the white
eggs at the eyeing stage. The salt solution properly used
will save a great deal of labor and expense in the oper-
ation of a hatchery. There is no reason why we should
not progress in practical fish culture as well as in other
lines of industry.

NOTICE OF MEETING

The next Annual Meeting of The American Fisheries
Society will be held in San Francisco, California, on Sep-
tember 1-4, 1915. Members are urged to attend if pos-
sible, and are requested especially to keep the date in
mind in connection with the preparation of papers for
this meeting.

¥

1 z d .tP- vos = =
. Ea i led a el a en” ~
ere carat teen
7 nia a

Dopite mn oye gies l a

“TTI ‘VNVEUN ‘SIONITII JO ALISUAAINN ‘ONIGTING WOIUVAIA GASOdOUd JO NWTd

: ‘yon wuOUVT S ! <9 Reese atets : aioe f |
i : angel YS a
Apel |e ‘ : D ee

= alk; :

DNIATING ADIAYAS

TRANSACTIONS

of the

American Fisheries Society

“To promote the cause of fish culture; to gather and
diffuse information bearing upon its practical success,
and upon all matters relating to the fisheries; to unite
and encourage all interests of fish culture and the fish-
eries; and to treat all questions of a scientific and eco-
nomic character regarding fish.”

VOLUME XLIV, NUMBER 3
1914-1915

Edited by The Recording Secretary
JUNE, 1915

Published Quarterly by the Society
NEW YORK,.N. Y.

CONTENTS

PaGE

An Experimental Plant of Interest to Fish Culturists,
President: Henry B: Ward 22.200. ee Ce ee

Proceedings; of ‘the Meetings). is 42 4-2 a ee eee
Address of ‘Secretary RedBela) 2. (2 2. on oe ee ee
PVttend ance! Ue: 2 ve aes ae ey eee eee eee tee ee
New Members). 22232 07s | sees ee i a OR ee ee ee
Report of the, Recording. Secretary <. = ts ee
Report: of; the \Treasurer?ts* eS ee en
Address of the Hon: J.-Chas; Linthicum 2 ee
Report of Auditing Committee... 2

Report of Special Committee on Needs of the Bureau of
Pisheries) 226.0. ae eis a ee eee ee 208

Report) of (Committee on@Resolutions | te. ee OS
Report of Committee on Time and Place of Meeting 00... 210
Report of Committee on Nominations 0 eccennmninrmnnemmnne BZ

Election .of Officers 2. Se. Py Ae She ee ne

Im Merhoriam: (2202 6 ee ee

AN EXPERIMENTAL PLANT OF INTEREST
TO FISH CULTURISTS

HENRY B. WARD,

Zoological Laboratory, University of Illinois.

It is my intention to call to your notice a new move-
ment in connection with the investigation of problems
concerning fish culture. The plan has been formulated
at the University of Illinois, and it is hoped that it will
be carried to completion very soon. The prominence of
the fisheries industry and fish culture, the importance
of general problems involved in the life and habits of
fish, and the growing interest in fish conservation have
led to a consideration of the need of determining the
fundamental principles connected with the home life of
the fish, their reproduction, growth, and adult life under
normal conditions. Many years of study on fish problems
are recorded in the publications of national and state
commissions, bureaus, and societies of various kinds.
The greater part of this activity has been connected with
taking and guarding the spawn, and raising the young.
Between the United States government, and the various
state organizations, many experiment stations are devot-
ing their entire energies to the problem of obtaining fish
eggs, hatching young fish, and replanting them in the
various waters. The amount of work that has been de-
voted to this problem is enormous, and the total expendi-
tures for such purposes, if brought together and summed
up, would reach a figure calculated to astound even one
most familiar with the question, and with the actual
financial expenditures of these various stations.

Many have come to appreciate, and doubtless you in
this organization most of all, that these stations are doing
a rather one-sided work. I would not be understood as

170 American Fisheries Society

minimizing in the slightest degree the splendid results
that have come from their activity, or the ability and
care that a multitude of superintendents and helpers
have devoted to make their operations successful; but
they have thus far contented themselves with the consid-
eration of a single phase in the activity of the fish. They
have depended on more or less general, and often imper-
fect statements concerning the natural conditions of re-
production, while they have been entirely ignorant of
the other factors in the environment of the fish. So far
as I know, the consideration of other factors in fish life
has been limited to somewhat fragmentary and periodic
studies by individual men connected with various fish
bureaus and stations,—to the work of a few state surveys
(notably the Illinois Natural History Survey, and the
Wisconsin Natural History Survey), and to the work of
the United States Bureau of Fisheries. The latter de-
serves prominent mention in this connection. Under the
direction of the present efficient Commissioner of Fisher-
ies, the scientific work of the Bureau has been carried on
with increasing success for a long period of years; and
the results are augmented by the efforts of numerous
regular and special scientific investigators. These form a
substantial foundation for our knowledge of fish life and
habits. Certainly every member of this Society hopes
that the work of the Bureau may be continued and ex-
tended along these lines already so well inaugurated; and
that our national Congress may be favorable to granting
adequate sums for the prosecution of this work. Its
fundamental importance cannot be questioned; its bril-
liant successes cannot be doubted.

But, with all this, the situation is as yet rather poor
when we compare conditions as they exist in the fisheries
field, with those in agriculture. In every state one or
more agricultural experiment stations are maintained for
the continuous and exclusive investigation of agricultural
problems. Experiments on plants and animals are inaug-
urated and followed out for long periods of time, giving
opportunity for the study of complete cycles of existence,
and for the determination of the factors which influence

Ward.—An Experimental Fish Plant 171

favorably and unfavorably the development of all sorts
of living things. Such an experiment station has not as
yet been established to deal with the problems of the
fisheries. The famous Woods Hole Station, established
through the efforts of the distinguished United States
Commissioner of Fisheries, Spencer Fullerton Baird,
comes perhaps the nearest to meeting the conditions that
obtain in agriculture; yet the force of scientific investi- -
gators is at work there only during a portion of the year,
whereas the rest of the time the plant is utilized as a
hatchery.

In my opinion, the tendencies of our universities are
in a certain degree responsible for this neglect of aquatic
life. In the various college laboratories of departments
of natural history, experiments of the most diverse kinds
are being carried on constantly. Most of these experi-
ments concern problems of a rather theoretical character.
It is the effort of pure science to establish and analyze
conditions for existence in the broadest sense, and all
groups of animals serve only so far as they are adapted
for the testing of theoretical questions, or are related to
problems of economic importance to the community. The
agricultural interests are fundamental and their impor-
tance has served to direct the attention of scientific
men to the wisdom of determining the features that
they have desired to have investigated. Recently there
has been a movement in our universities to inaugu-
rate a more careful study of the conditions under
which animals and plants actually live and the impor-
tance of individual factors among these conditions for
the welfare of the organism. The Board of Trustees of
the University of Illinois has voted to spend a sum of
money in the construction of a plant for experiment work
on animals. Strictly speaking this is to be devoted to an
effort to solve all problems of animal existence, both such
as are related to terrestrial existence affecting prominent-
ly the land animals with which the agriculturist works,
and such as concern aquatic existence being thus of first
importance to the fish culturist. An examination of the
plan will show the general way in which these problems

LZ American Fisheries Society

are to be attacked, and the particular advantages for
such an attack that are offered by the proposed installa-
tion. (See Fronstispiece.)

A tract of land, about 180 x 350 feet, has been pur-
chased, on the edge of the campus. It is proposed to
erect in the center of this plot a vivarium building with
greenhouse wings and to construct on the land in front
of the house a culture pond for fish work. An examina-
tion of the sketch plan given here will illustrate the essen-
tial features in the construction of the house. It is a rec-
tangular structure with a hallway running through the
center, from north to south and opening into four labora-
tories, one at each corner. East and west from the main
house project glass houses of ordinary greenhouse con-
struction, which will be utilized for growing animals, but
will of course hold plants although these are introduced
only for the purpose of furnishing food and shelter for
the animals, or to give to the culture animals as nearly
as possible the same conditions as they find in the outside
world. A similar greenhouse construction projects from
the rear of the laboratory structure. Considering the
division of space, one may see that each of the four large
laboratories has a greenhouse directly connected with
it. This plan leaves the north one-third of the block,
which lies next the interurban railroad track, to be util-
ized as a university storehouse, for unloading freight,
receiving supplies, etc. It has nothing to do with our
project.

It is important to notice the general equipment of the
laboratories proper. Each one of them is to be supplied
with three sorts of water supply,—the city water (which
in this case is very hard), rain water which will be drawn
from a cistern constructed on the property near the build-
ing, and sea water from an enclosed salt water system,
entirely within the building. Each of the greenhouse
extensions communicating with a laboratory is similarly
supplied, but with less permanent installations for hold-
ing the water, so that it may be possible to modify the
conditions when demanded by any new experiment. The
laboratories and greenhouses have also a supply of cold

Ward.—An Experimental Fish Plant 173

brine for refrigeration, taken from a plant in the base-
ment. Direct and alternating electric currents are avail-
able in every room, but illuminating gas is kept out of
the main laboratories because in previous experimental
buildings, it has been found particularly fatal to the con-
tinued normal support of animal life. The number of
connections planned for each laboratory is ample to allow
of the installation of various electric and water appli--
ances useful in conducting experiments of any kind on the
animals under control.

The basement of the building is utilized for the neces-
sary machinery involved in the various installations.
This includes, in the first place pumping machinery to
run the salt water system, and a second system to drive
the city water or the rain water systems. The basement
also contains a refrigerating machine and some other in-
cidental machinery such as the compressor and regulator
for the air machine from which the compressed air is dis-
tributed to each of the laboratories under the proper pres-
sure condition. The cases and tables in greenhouses and
laboratories need no special comment. They are of the
usual laboratory type. The greenhouse wings are of
standard construction, but on the greenhouse benches are
placed either movable or fixed aquaria. Most of these can
be readily modified at will in position and size, but one
set of salt water aquaria and another of fresh water
aquaria on the other side are fixed installation. In plan-
ning for these the Supervising Architect, Professor J.
M. White, has utilized every possible means of securing
information concerning plants of recent construction;
and visits have been made to various city aquaria and
university plants where aquaria have recently been estab-
lished or have proved effective in operation. On the land
around the house, the plan shows a pond laid out. It
has the general shape of a dumb-bell, with a very long,
narrow neck. Each one of the enlargements at the end
of the connecting neck has an area that is precisely one-
tenth of an acre. Dimensions of such diminutive propor-
tions provoke a smile from the fish culturist. It is in his
opinion nothing but a “mud hole,’’—and yet let me assure

174 American Fisheries Society

you, without the mud. A weir and gate which can be
tightly closed is located at the central point in the neck
of the dumb-bell; consequently, the two ponds can be
operated together or modified independently, since the
water supply is absolutely independent. We can operate
one side with rain water and the other with city water.
We can modify water conditions of one without affecting
in the least those in the other; or if desired, the two may
be joined by an open connection such as to insure rela-
tive, if not absolute, uniformity in the two parts.

In one of these plants has been incorporated a sugges-
tion that we owe to the kindness of Superintendent
Dwight Lydell, of Michigan. In one of the two ponds
has been constructed a series of small islands. The area
and location of these have been planned so exactly that the
shoreline of the east pond is just twice as great as the
shoreline of the west pond, but the water area and the
water volume are substantially identical. A small bridge
thrown over the neck that joins the two ponds gives en-
trance to the experimental laboratory building. The
whole tract of land, including buildings and ponds, is to
be surrounded by a cat and boy proof fence, far enough
from the outer edge that no combination of bamboo pole
and bent pin can possibly prove successful in robbing
the experimental ponds of their treasures.

Each pond has a kettle with a maximum depth of 12
to 13 feet. The outlet from the kettle is surrounded by a
box from which a plank bridge extends to the shoreline.
An inlet is located in the communicating neck, and one
inflow point is located on each side of the gate separating
the two ponds. In this installation attention has been
paid to the fact that in this region it is not possible to use
water, lavishly. It is in one sense the dryest point in the
state of Illinois, for it lies on the height of land between
Chicago and the Gulf. Several of the rivers of this re-
gion originate as tiny streams, within a few miles, or less,
of the very point where this plant is located. There are
now in the county no lakes and very few permanent
streams of any size. Extensive drainage ditches have
eliminated surface moisture, but even before their con-

Ward.—An Experimental Fish Plant 175

struction the territory was without any permanent water
bodies. It is important to consider the bearing of this
upon the experiment under consideration. A fish pond
is being built where, within the knowledge of man, no
pond has ever existed before. A unit for existence of
water life is being constructed in a county where such
units have not existed under natural conditions. In a
region where temporary pools of water have heretofore
furnished only possibilities for aquatic existence, we are
constructing a permanent aquatic unit, and planning to
test in it the conditions of existence for various organ-
isms, especially the fish.

Because of the fact that no large supply of flowing
water is available, and what we use will come from tanks,
cisterns, or wells, we are compelled to use it continuously ;
and a plant will be installed to circulate the water. The
general plan in mind is to take the water from the outlet
box by means of a small pumping apparatus, and turn it
back again through the inlet. This inlet pipe will be
raised above the surface of the water, so that the water
inflow will be aerated in coming out and falling into the
pond, again. Starting absolutely from the beginning, it
will be possible to keep a record of the time at which each
addition is made to the pond, and of all the material,
either plant or animal, of perceptible size that goes into
it. Of course, it will be impossible to control the wind
and dust, and all of you are aware that the microscopic
life of the water is probably carried in the form of spores
or resting stages in the dust. No doubt many things will
be brought into this pond that will surprise the recorder,
and it is possible that in this way some information may
be gained regarding the stocking and restocking of water
bodies with the minute plant and animal life. It will also
be impracticable to control the insect life, but apart from
these, we shall be able to determine the origin of any ele-
ment and to know that all increase or decrease is depend-
ent on conditions which we fix. In other words, in a
new and definitely circumscribed environment the condi-
tions will be under control so far as possible, and all of

176 American Fisheries Society

those under control will be definitely measured and re-
corded.

Evidently the possibilities of experimentation are pres-
ent here as they could not be in a larger plant. They are
also to be attacked in a very different fashion. In one
sense, they are not at all the problems that concern the
practical fish culturist, who receives from state or na-
tional authorities a definite sum of money and is expected
to show the hatching and planting of a commensurate
number of young fish. The primary object of this plan
will be experimentation and that will be carried out on
a purely biological basis. Studies will be made on all the
various types of organisms with a view to determining
the most favorable conditions of existence. That means
as regards the fish the effort will be made to ascertain
what factors modify the number of fish, the rate of
growth, the rapidity and perfection with which they reach
the adult condition, how different kinds of food affect
them, how differences in the environment of temperature,
chemical constitution, and vegetation, as well as other
living things which are in the water, but do not constitute
a part of the food, will influence their welfare. In this
field, we are very fortunate at the University of Illinois
in having as a member of the staff Dr. V. E. Shelford,
whose valuable contributions to the study of the funda-
mental conditions of aquatic existence are very well
known. It is hoped that taking advantage of these im-
portant researches, it may be possible to determine their
relations in a practical way to the problems of the fish
culturist.

The general arrangement of the plant favors the easy
transfer of the fish at any time from the pond to the
aquaria within the greenhouse or the laboratory of the
vivarium, where they can be kept under a much more
limited environment and examined more closely and con-
stantly, as well as subjected to artificial influences and
the experimental environment of the laboratory. The
small size of the plant and the ease with which one of
the little ponds can be run off makes it possible to alter
the environment rather quickly, by changing the water,

Ward.—An Experimental Fish Plant 177

adding some chemical, or cleaning out some type of vege-
tation. In every way, it seems to furnish possibilities
of culture such as have not been given or utilized any-
where else, so far as I know.

Now, this has a very definite and practical bearing, and
I was much interested to see the way in which the Board
of Trustees of the University of Illinois treated the orig-.
inal discussion when the idea of such a plant was pre-
sented to them. One of the distinguished members of the
Board is a gentleman whose repute as a fisherman and
angler is very high. He is said to be able to tell more
stories than any other man in the state of Illinois, on the
subject of catching fish. He immediately seized this
pond as one of the things that would interest the state,
and became still more interested when I told him that this
pond of water was just what any farmer could have in
his front yard, precisely the same as he plants a garden
there, and if we could work out principles which would
show the man on the farm who wants a little lake where
lakes do not exist—I am not talking about Wisconsin, Min-
nesota, Michigan or Northern New York; I am talking
about a place where natural bodies of water do not exist,
—if we could tell the farmer how to establish a little lake
in his front yard, that would keep itself fresh and sweet,
and that would produce for him some fish out of which he
could derive pleasure and obtain perhaps some profit, we
would be doing him a real service. The support which the
mere outline of the report received from the Board of
Trustees, and from a conference of the State Agricultural
Society, which was in session at the University, showed
that if the plan could be worked out, there was no ques-
tion about the support of the state for more extensive
experimentation.

The objects of the plan, then,—as stated briefly, and
this lays before you the main points in the scheme,—are
(1) to establish a plant so simple that it can be dupli-
cated in every respect by any man, anywhere, (2) to work
out the proper environment for most efficient fish produc-
tion so that the individual anywhere may let the pond pro-
duce the fish itself, (3) to eliminate the work that a man

178 American Fisheries Society

in such a situation would not be able to perform, and then
(4) to combine with these, of course, the determination
of the fundamental conditions of existence that are favor-
able and unfavorable for fish life. Naturally this study
concerns not merely the fish, but the smaller animals,
such as insects, etc., that constitute the food for the fish,
and also still other forms, like the microscopic organisms
which are so abundant in the complex of life, and so
important.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE FORTY-FOURTH
ANNUAL MEETING

The Forty-third Annual Meeting was held in the New
National Museum at Washington, D. C., on Wednesday, ~
Thursday, Friday and Saturday, September 30 to October
38,1914.

Wednesday, September 30, 1914.

The meeting was called to order at 10:30 A. M., by
the President of the Society, Professor Henry B. Ward
of Illinois University, Urbana, Ill. Hon. Wm. C. Red-
field, Secretary of the Department of Commerce, was
then introduced. After welcoming the members of the
Society to Washington and presenting some interesting
reminiscenses, Secretary Redfield proceeded to discuss
some of the needs of the United States Bureau of Fish-
eries as follows:

ADDRESS OF SECRETARY REDFIELD.

“In the first place, our methods provide no easy way
of bringing before Congress and the public the needs of
the service. In this respect I think our government is
one of the most backward. I cannot go myself before
Congress to present these needs. If I were a cabinet
minister in England, France, Germany or Austria, I
could. In every country where they have a responsible
ministry, access is direct between the legislative authori-
ties and the executive department. I may write a letter
to the President asking him to transmit in his message
to Congress something that I wish to bring before that
body and the country, but the President’s message is
necessarily limited in scope, confined to important mat-
ters and must be brief. I might go before a congres-
sional committee, particularly the Committee on Appro-
priations, but their work is done under pressure, in very
limited time, without any opportunity for personal touch

180 American Fisheries Society

away from the committee table, and there is no time to
place before them long communications. The House Com-
mittee on Fisheries and the Senate Committee do all in
their power, but the House Committee is also the Com-
mittee on Merchant Marine, which is a very exacting
subject, so that the question of fisheries gets the small
end of it. It remains to take up the subject with the
individual chairmen, but they cannot give their whole
thought, nor even connected thought, for a long time;
or to take it up with individual congressmen or senators
and interest them in the matter, but they also have other
things to do. If our cabinet ministers had the privilege
of a place upon the floor, without a vote, and could
present their views and answer questions, we should
overcome, at a singe stroke, much of the difficulty that
stands in the way. If I could go before Congress on
behalf of the Bureau of Fisheries, and say that such
things should or should not be done for such and such
reasons, the knot which ties our hands would be cut,
but oftentimes the effort to get the facts before the
people who have to deal with them is a very real diffi-
culty.

“Now, coming to other matters of practical effect, the
Bureau of Fisheries has not the apparatus to do the work
which it ought to have. Any private concern equipped
as is the Bureau of Fisheries, would go out of business
in a very short time. Through the kindness of an all-
seeing Providence the building in which the Bureau is
housed continues to stand! It is a makeshift; a second-
hand outfit; not complete for the purpose; not suited for
the purpose; and that it gets along so well is largely due
to the splendid spirit of the men who operate it. They
work under a serious handicap.

“We ought to have an aquarium. We have only the
beginnings of one. Some day we may get an aquarium
commensurate with the dignity, power and usefulness to
the United States of this great service and thus afford
the opportunity for study which such an aquarium would
make possible.

“Do you realize that we do not get money enough to

Address of Secretary Redfield 181

buy new apparatus, but have to buy second-hand and
use it as long as it will last? Do you realize that no
private business would think for an hour of running on
such a basis as some of our services are compelled to
run upon? One of our vessels is a second-hand yacht.
It was a very good one, when it was built, for inland
waters, when it did not blow. But that vessel is sup- _
posed to navigate the rough waters of the North Atlantic
in Winter time. We have tried for three years to have
that vessel replaced, but cannot get the money. We have
another second-hand craft, one of the most agreeable
pleasure boats of her kind, but unfortunately, she, too,
has to goto sea. Why cannot we have once in a while the
privilege of a new ship? We would be content if we had
the price of one tenth of a battleship for the entire fleet!

“Come with me for a moment to the coast of Alaska.
There is not much of it,—only about twenty-six thousand
miles, a little more than Gulf, Atlantic and Pacific coasts
put together. For many thousands of miles of this coast
which we are supposed to inspect and for the inspections
of eighty-seven canals and a number of streams required
by law to be closed and which we were supposed to
keep closed, we had four men and no vessels. Now there
is a beautiful situation for a great and practical people!
We did not know, we could not know, and for years have
not known whether the regulations were violated there
or not, for we had no means of finding out. If you were
running a fish cannery there, this was the method of
inspection; you would get a letter from the inspector,
saying that he was going to inspect your cannery and
would you please send your boat and get him; and that
has been the only way in which access has been possible
to those places which we wished to inspect.

“Now I have put before you certain very plain pic-
tures. That is the kind of extravagance we have had in
the Bureau of Fisheries! Now we protest that this sit-
uation is wholly wrong. Scientific men, men of energy
and enthusiasm, cannot be expected to work with ineffi-
cient tools. It is wasteful to the highest degree. Wise
expenditure is the truest economy. There is no busi-

182 American Fisheries Society

ness man who does not know that to stint productive
investment is to lose money. I do not believe for an instant
that the American people care whether this government
spends a million or two more or less, by itself considered,
but I do think they care mightily whether that money
is productively spent so as to bring them what they
have a right to expect in economic and efficient service.
Productiveness arising from spending is the sole basis
of economy, and to send men to sea in unseaworthy ships,
to equip a great bureau with a building which is hope-
lessly out of date and to require it to do that which it
is ridiculously without the means of doing, may be mis-
erly, but it is not economy.”

Secretary Redfield further deplored the fact that all
attempts to secure an appropriation for the services of a
pathologist in the Bureau of Fisheries have been unavail-
ing, and continued; “‘I wish that copies of the papers on
the diseases of fishes presented here could be sent to each
member of the Appropriations Committee of the House
of Representatives with a personal letter from a lot of
you, indicating the seriousness of this matter and that
this means the adoption of measures of the same ordi-
nary common sense in treating this important article of
food, that have been already adopted with reference to
the examination of beef, or to looking after the health
of animals affected by tuberculosis and affecting the milk
supply. The adoption of such measures is a matter of
common sense.

“Tf an attitude of sympathetic consideration for the
great work in which you have a part, which we have at
heart and which it is our duty to perform, can be created,
much will be gained. I hope that out of this meeting
there may come something that will awaken a practical
sympathy on the part of men who are anxious and willing
to do what is right, but who do not know as well as you
what the circumstances require.”

At the completion of Secretary Redfield’s address the
regular business of the Society was resumed.

President Ward announced the Committee on Program
for the meeting, to consist of Dr. Geo. W. Field, chair-

Attendance:

man, and Messrs. Dwight Lydell of Michigan and Jesse

Mercer of Georgia.

New Members

REGISTERED ATTENDANCE.

The following members were in attendance at the

meeting, sixty-two in number :*

Adams, Wm. C.
Alexander, M. Leigh
Beal, F. J.

Bean, Barton A.
Benson, Jno. T.
Blackford, Chas. M.
Bower, Seymour
Bowers, Geo. M.
Brown, Ernest C.
Casselman, E. S.
Clark, E. D.:
Cobb, Eben W.
Cogswell, L. M.
Crampton, Jno. M.
Crandall, A. J.
Detwiller, Jno. Y.
Downing, S. W.
Dunlap, I. H.
Dyche, L. L.
Embody, Geo. C.
Fearing, Daniel B.
Fearing, Mrs. Doniel B.
Field, G. W.
Filkins, B. G.
Finley, Wm. L.
Geserich, L. A.
Graham, Geo. H.
Harron, L. J.
Hay, W. P.
Hayford, Chas. O.
Hoxsie, F. D.

Hubbard, Waldo F.
Johnson, Robert S.
Keil, W. M.
Kendall, W. C.
Kraiker, Carl

Lee, W. McDonald
Lydell, Dwight
Lydell, Mrs. Dwight
Marsh, M. C.
Mercer, J. E.
Moore, Jno. D.
Morton, Wm. P.
Neal, Walter I.
Nichols, John T.
Osburn, Raymond C.
Palmer, T. S.
Porter, R.
Radcliffe, Lewis
Smith, H. M.
Speaks, Jno. C.
Stapleton, M. F.
Struven, Chas. M.
Thayer, W. W.
Titcomb, John W.
Vandegrift, S. H.
Wallace, Jno. Henry, Jr.
Ward, Henry B.
Ward, J. Quincy
Welsh, W. W.
Willard, C. W.
Woods, John P.

NEW MEMBERS.*

The following applicants, forty-one in number, were
elected to membership in the Society:

Alaska Packers’ Assn, Patron
Anderson, T. T.

Brown, Ernest C.
Brown, Ernest Clive

Annin, Howard Coffman, J. N.
Beal, Bios; Crampton, John M.
Bolton, C. C. Conger, Geo. C.
Bordenkecher, R. R. Davidson, J. O.
Briggs, A. B. Dimick, F. F.

*For addresses see membership list.

184 American Fisheries Society

Forsyth, Robert Osborn, A. L.
Gammeter, John R. Russell, Geo. S.
Garcelon, Wm. F. Smith, W. A.
Greene, John V. ae mi ee J.
ve ae 2 ruven, as. M.
SATE ; — A Stryker, Thos. H.
Kavanaugh, Week: Tillman. Robt T
Kraiker, Carl Torrey, Prof. Harry Beal
McDonald, E. B. Vogel, J. C. i
May, Jacob Vandergrift,, H. D., Life Member
Mercer, Jesse E. Wallace, John H., Jr.
Moore, John D. Washburn, Prof. F. L.
Myers, Tos Wolters, W. B.
Nightingale, H. W. Work, Gerald

President Ward then called for the reports of the

Recording Secretary and the Treasurer, which were
given as follows:

REPORT OF THE RECORDING SECRETARY.

To the officers and Members of the American Fisheries

Society:

The most important as well as the heaviest work that
has fallen to the office of the Recording Secretary has
been that of editing and publishing the annual Transac-
tions for the year 1913, the Boston meeting. As the
Secretary was not present at that meeting and as he had
had no previous experience in this Society’s work the
labor was necessarily somewhat greater that it otherwise
would have been. However, the volume was distributed
by July 15. The contract was let to Clark & Fritts of
New York City, as the lowest of a number of bidders,
and 800 copies were ordered printed.

By a resolution adopted at the Boston meeting, free
rein was given to the Secretary and Publication Com-
mittee in the matter of editing. The general opinion
expressed at that meeting was that the discussions should
be cut down in printing to mere essentials. Following
this plan, the records of the business meetings, etc., were
made to cover only 38 pages, which is the lowest record
for this century at least. I believe that an inspection
will show that nothing essential has been omitted.

The directory of members was printed in small type,
thus saving another ten pages.

Secretary’s Report 185

These cuts have permitted the publication of more sci-
entific matter without increasing the size or cost of the
volume. Thus the 1913 volume, while actually 12 pages
smaller than that of 1912, contains 10 pages more of
scientific matter.

The Secretary takes this opportunity to thank the
members of the Publication Committee for their support _
during the progress of the work. It was not found nec-
essary to reject entirely any paper presented for publica-
tion, but some of them were cut down or otherwise
amended, the author’s consent being gained in each case.

The sale of back numbers of the Transaction was re-
ferred at the Boston meeting to the Secretary and Treas-
urer in conjunction with the Executive Committee.
Upon canvassing the situation it was discovered that the
total average cost of producing and mailing the Transac-
tion for a number of years back, has been about $1.50
per copy. (This amount of course covers stenographic
and other work in connection with the proceedings.)
The cost of the 1910 number on this basis was about
$2.00.

The secretary wishes to call the attention of the newer
members especially to the fact that there is an abundant
supply on hand of the volumes from 1904 to the present,
and to suggest to them that here is a good opportunity
to add to their libraries much valuable literature on fish-
ery matters, and at the same time to add to the Society’s
funds.

During the year reports have been sold to the amount
of $51.50.

Back volumes of Transactions in the hands of the Sec-
retary are as follows:

1876—1 1900— 3 1907— 85
1884—1 1901— 1 1908—117
1895—2 1902— 4 1909—135
1896—1 1903— 0 1910—113
1897—3 1904—61 1911—127
1898—4 1905— 1 1912—229

1899—1 1906—92 1913—230

186 American Fisheries Society

It will be seen from this table that there are only two
scattering copies in the Secretary’s file back of 1895 and
that there is no copy of the 1903 number. There should be
in the hands of the Secretary a complete file of the Trans-
actions, to be kept intact as the property of the Society.
The Secretary would offer the suggestion that if any of
the older members of the Society have such back vol-
umes which they no longer require, it would be an excel-
lent thing to donate these to the Society.

The Secretary, in carrying on the work of his office
has expended the following amounts:

Postage: Wes) SEB Oy ey eee ee te ee $72.13
($46 of this for mailing Trans.)
TUSPTESSAGC feet) eo ee tes eee 20.55
(mostly for material in hands of the former
Secretary )
VDE WEIS SAN A) rates I PAST NONS Oar eee oo 12.28
(copying scientific papers)
SHNGTIGS «6s CHE eR ene nl eee 4.45
Total 22. (Qcthst) Sees top Ree ae eee $109.41

The Secretary has kept in mind the financial difficul-
ties under which the Society has been laboring and has
endeavored to keep his expenditures as low as possible,
often at the expense of much personal labor and time.
When the Treasurer is no longer embarrassed by a deficit,
much of this can be hired done, thus making the duties
of the Secretary less onerous. The occasional assistance
of a stenographer in conducting the correspondence
would especially lighten the work, but until the finances
are in better condition even this has been dispensed with.

The deaths, within the year, of the following members
has been reported:

Honorary member.

Dr. P. P. C. Hoek, Scientific Fishery Adviser of the
Dutch Government, 1906.

Secretary’s Report 187

Active members.

1872, Prof. A. S. Bickmore, American Museum of Natu-
ral History, New York City.

1901, T. J. Blakeslee, New York City.

1913, Austin Cook, Woonsocket, R. I.

1910, Thos. M. Darrah, Wheeling, W. Va. :

1875, Dr. Theodore N. Gill, Washington, D. C., an au-
thority on the morphology, classification and
natural history of fishes.

1900, J. J. Hogan, Madison, Wis., life member and mem-
ber of the Wisconsin Board of Fish Commis-
sioners.

1903, Mr. E. C. Lambert, Manchester, N. H.

1899, Mr. Chas. H. Moore, Detroit, Mich.

1910, Mr. Overton W. Price, Washington, D. C., member
of the National Conservation Association and a
member of the Committee on Foreign Relations
of this Society.

1899, Mr. Henry T. Root, Providence, R. I., formerly
President of this Society during the year 1904-5.

The membership has been increased since the 1913
meeting by 33 members up to the beginning of this meet-
ing. The active membership is now over 600 though it
is probable a number of these will have to be dropped
in the near future for non-payment of dues. It is use-
less for us to carry dead wood on our membership list
and we must not deceive ourselves by the size of our
list, even though it is certain that our Society now has
more members in good standing than ever before. Every
member of this Society should organize himself into a
committee of one to push the work of the Society, to
make it known to his friends and especially to increase
the membership. When it is seen that New York and
Massachusetts have more than 60 members each, so that
the two of them have one-fifth of all the active member-
ship of the Society, some one must have been at work,
and when the little city of Akron, Ohio, with no unusual
fishery interests, has nine members of the 29 listed for

188 American Fisheries Society

Ohio, some one there must have displayed great activity
in spreading the gospel of fisheries work.
It was moved and carried that this report be accepted.
REPORT OF THE TREASURER.
To the American Fisheries Society:

I herewith submit my Annual Report as Treasurer
from September 8, 1913 to September 30, 1914.

RECEIPTS.
1913-14 :
Balance in Treasury |... $ 241.54
male of Reports’... 17.50
Donations ve eee 41.00
Life Membership fee 25.00
Yearly dues: 3) ese se 847.00
$1,172.04
EXPENDITURES.
1913

Sept. 11 Sundry expenses, Boston
Meche see 5. 52.70
“, 20. C.J. butler, envelopes. ...... 21.36

Oct. 28 Jeanette Soule, stenography 180.00
Dec. 5 J. J. Colley, packing books,

CEG ee on ee es 10.00
- 5 R.C. Osburn, Sec’y, express
Cte eee es 16.21
- 5 W. E. Roberts Co., publish-
ing 1912 Transactions ...... 600.87
* 8 Irving Press, printing ........... 25.10
1d Os te, Murphys eee 1.00
1914
Feb. 23 R. C. Osburn, Sec’y, post-
BPE) BUC, an ane ee 23.393
May 19 F. A. Ringler Co., engraving 2.70
June 27 Henry B. Ward, telegram ..... 1.00

July 18 Clark & Fritts, publishing
1918. Transactions 232. 400.93

Treasurer's Report 189

July 25 H. D. Allen, postage, ete. ...... 8.08
Aug. 8 C.J. Butler, P. M., envelopes 10.68

Sept. 17 J. C. Hall Co., receipts. ........... 6.75
“ 19 H. B. Ward, telegrams, etc. ZAG
“19 R. C. Osburn, Sec’y, postage
on. Transacrions 2.55... 68.07
“19 R. C. Osburn, Sec’y, salary
TOMY CAT i Be ee ck 50.00
$1,429.88
Sept. 30 Balance due Treasurer... 257.84
$1,429.88

Respectfully submitted,
C. W. WILLARD, Treasurer.
Westerly, R. I., Sept. 30. 1914.

To the American Fisheries Society:

I herewith submit the Annual Report of the Perma-
net Fund of the Society.

Received from Alaska Packers’ Ass’n Patron fee
$50.00. This amount is deposited with the Industrial
Trust Company as Permanent Fund of the American
Fisheries Society, and is drawing interest at the rate of
four per cent.

Respectfully submitted,

C. W. WILLARD, Treasurer.
Westerly, R. I., Sept. 30, 1914.

Moved and carried that this report be referred to the
Auditing Committee.

The Treasurer was asked to comment on the financial
condition of the Society and pointed out that “while there
is a balance of $257.84 due the treasury, the Society
would not have been in arrears if it had not been for
the fact that it was necessary to pay for the 1912 Trans-
actions as well as for the 1913 number, thus adding
more than $600.00 to the amount. The coming year we

190 American Fisheries Society

will not have to pay two years’ bills, so that by the next
meeting we may again have a balance on the right side
of the ledger.”

The Recording Secretary explained further that the
difference in the cost of the Transactions for the two
years was not quite as great as it appeared in the report,
since the cost of mailing, nearly $50.00, was made a sep-
arate item in handling the 1913 Transactions. Never-
theless, there was a very considerable decrease in the
cost of publication. He stated, further, that if the in-
crease in the number of life members had been as great
as in the preceding year, the Society would be entirely
out of debt.

PRESIDENT: I think it is proper for the Chair to ex-
press the appreciation of the Society for the work of
these two officers. Most of you know that a few years
ago, by a complication of circumstances we fell into finan-
cial difficulties. The Society is evidently well out of this
now, however, and it has never been more active, more
thoroughly and vitally interested, as may be seen from
the number of papers presented by the members for this
meeting.

Most of you know that a Pacific Fisheries Society has
been organized on the Pacific Coast and that a very suc-
cessful meeting was held in August. At that time I re-
ceived the following telegram addressed to the American
Fisheries Society in my care:

“The Pacific Fisheries Society, in its first annual ses-
sion, sends greetings to its sister society.

(Signed) JOHN N. Coss, Secretary.”

Knowing that you would wish it done, I took the lib-
erty, without waiting for formal action, of sending a
reply in the name of the Society:

“The American Fisheries Society extends greetings
and congratulations to its new sister organization on
the splendid outlook for its future.

(Signed) HENRY B. WARD, President.”

It is also proper that I should call attention to the
work done by the Local Committee in arranging at a

Business Proceedings 191

rather late date such a splendid program for this meet-
ing. The program speaks for itself and I do not need
to comment on the indebtedness we feel to each member
of that committee, and particularly to its chairman, Dr.
Hugh M. Smith.

We have received a considerable number of invitations
for the meeting of next year from various cities, Spring--
field, Mass., Detroit, Mich., Buffalo, N. Y., San Francisco-
Calif., Oakland, Calif., St. Louis, Mo., Atlantic City, N. J.,
and Chicago, III.

Mr. M. L. ALEXANDER, of New Orleans: Mr. Presi-
dent, if I may be permitted at the proper time, I wish
to present an invitation to this Society to meet in New
Orleans.

PRESIDENT: This is the proper time and the invita-
tion will be considered by the Committee on Time and
Place of Meeting when that committee meets.

Dr. HucH M. SMITH, Commissioner of Fisheries: If I
am in order, Mr. President, I would like to give notice of
the death of Dr. Theodore N. Gill, which occured in this
city on the twenty-fifth of September, 1914. Dr. Gill has
been an active member of this Society since 1875, and, as
you all know, took great interest in our work and was one
of the foremost authorities on fishes in the world. JI will
not say anything more at this time, but I hope that a
suitable memorial may be prepared for publication in the
Proceedings of the Society.

PRESIDENT: May I suggest that in recognition of the
great services of Dr. Gill in the work for which this
Society stands and to science in general, we should now,
by a rising vote, make a matter of record of the notice
and of the regrets which are felt by this organization.
(All the members present arose.) This will be entered
on our minutes and the matter referred to the Committee
on Resolutions for more formal action.

We have at hand the report of one of the standing
committees of the Society, that of the Publicity Commit-
tee, by Mr. H. Wheeler Perce, Chairman, of Chicago. In
the absence of Mr. Perce I will ask the Secretary to read
the report.

192 American Fisheries Society

The report, in the form of a letter to the President was
read:

PRESIDENT: While it may not be wise to publish this
report, since it is purely tentative, there are in it some
suggestions so good for the Society and for the organiza-
tion of its activities that I should like to see it referred
to some committee, say the Executive Committee, for
consideration. If it seems wise they can report on cer-
tain of these recommendations at a subsequent session.

Mr. JOHN P. Woops, of Missouri: I move, Mr. Presi-
dent, that this report be accepted and referred to the
Executive Committee.

The motion was put and carried.

PRESIDENT: Before we adjourn I wish to announce
the Committee on Time and Place of Meeting. The Chair
will name Messrs. Fearing of Rhode Island, Woods of
Missouri, and Downing of Ohio.

The session was then adjourned.

Wednesday, September 30, Afternoon Session.

Prof. L. L. Dyche, State Game and Fish Warden of
Kansas read a paper entitled ‘Notes on the New Kansas
Fish Hatchery and the First Year’s Output.” For this
paper and the discussion which followed, see Trans. Am.
Fish. Soc., Vol. XLIV, No. 1, pp. 5 to 12, Dee. 1914.

The reading of papers terminated at this point and the
session adjourned to meet in the large lecture hall, where
the Bureau of Fisheries exhibited a series of moving
pictures on “The Salmon Industry of the Pacific Coast,”
illustrating the methods of taking and canning Salmon.

Thursday, October 1, Morning Session.

The entire morning was taken up by the reading and
discussing of three papers in the following order:

Mr. M. L. Alexander, New Orleans, La., “Notes on the
Habits and Commercial Importance of the Paddlefish.”
See Transactions, Vol. XLIV, No. 1, pp. 73-78, Dec., 1914.

Dr. Wm. C. Kendall, Washington, D. C., “Taxonomic
and Fish Cultural notes on the Chars or Trouts of New

Business Proceedings 193

England.’”’ See Transactions, Vol XLIV, No. 2, pp. 97-108,
March, 1915.

Mr. M. C. Marsh, Buffalo, N. Y., “The Feeding of Trout
in Relation to Thyroid Tumor.” See Transactions, Vol.
XLIV, No. 1, pp. 13-19, Dec., 1914.

The session adjourned at twelve o’clock.

Thursday, October 1, Afternoon Session.

PRESIDENT: According to the constitution and the
custom of the Society the President is required to name
the members of the Publicity and Editorial Committees.
I therefore beg to submit the following:

Committee on Publicity:

Mr. H. Wheeler Perce, Mr. Geo. H. Grahm, Dr. T.
S. Palmer and Mr. G. E. Jennings.

Committee on Publication:

Dr. Tarleton H. Bean, Prof. Bashford Dean and Mr.

John T. Nichols.

The following papers were then read and discussed:

Mr. Lewis Radcliffe: “Progress in the Culture of
the Diamond-Back Terrapin, with exhibition of speci-
mens.” See Transactions, Vol. XLIV, No. 1, pp. 33-36,
Dec., 1914.

Mr. Lewis Radcliffe: “Notes on some North Carolina
Sharks and Rays, with exhibition of specimens.” See
Transactions, Vol. XLIV, No. 1, pp. 37-40, Dec., 1914.

Mr. Wm. W. Welsh: “Demonstration of Some Modern
Oceanographic Apparatus as Used by the Bureau of Fish-
eries.” The speaker commented on the use and special
value of the instruments shown.

Mr. John W. Titcomb: “The Use of Copper Sulphate
in Destroying Obnoxious Fishes.” See Transactions, Vol.
XLIV, No. 1, pp. 20-26, Dec. 1914.

President Ward then introduced Hon. J. Charles Linthi-
cum, Member of Congress from Maryland, author of a
bill to place migratory fish under Federal control, who
addressed the Society on the topic, ““Why the States have
been Unable to Protect our Food Fish.”

194 American Fisheries Society

ADDRESS OF THE HON. J. CHAS. LINTHICUM.

“When one reflects upon the numerous difficulties the
separate commonwealths have experienced in securing
and enforcing protective measures, when he realizes that
for over a hundred years these individual states have been
struggling with this problem, during which time—in the
majority of instances—they have failed to secure satis-
factory regulations, he will be convinced that the National
Government alone is the only power that can effectively
cope with the situation.

“The causes of the failure upon the part of the states
to protect their focd fish may be divided into three
classes:

1. Insufficient laws.

2. Inefficient administration of these laws,

3. Conditions beyond the jurisdiction of the state to
control.

Insufficient Laws.

In many states I find that the administration of laws
for the protection of food fish is entrusted to the head
of a Fish and Game Department. Too often the general
inclination of such officials is to treat the subject as a
sporting proposition and to give it more attention from
that standpoint than from the point of view of the com-
mercial fisherman. While the sporting end of the propo-
sition concededly merits attention, in a majority of cases
the real interests of the people are centered in its com-
mercial aspects. The commercial fisheries thus neglected
by the official who should be primarily interested and
whose duty it is to initiate legislation for their protection
and development, wane and languish and eventually cease
to be an important economic asset.

But even where state officials realize the importance
of protecting the commercial fisheries (and this protec-
tion involves legislation curtailing some rights at present
enjoyed) such legislation is sure to meet with formidable
opposition. When such fights come before the legislature
the fishermen are usually in possession of the sympathy
and votes of those members from their particular section.

Address of Representative Linthicum 195

We are apt then to witness the employment of log-rolling
and filibustering tactics to defeat legislation for the gen-
eral good. Under such conditions the equitable solution
of the problem rests with those members whose constit-
uents are not directly affected by the proposed legisla-
tion. For example, it is said that members from the
interior counties of Virginia have given that state the ~
best fish and oyster laws the Old Dominion ever enjoyed.

The disposition upon the part of state officials to deal
leniently, even gently, with violators of state laws, is
too well known to require comment from me. And where
a specific individual is the wrong-doer and the great im-
perceptible body of the people are the sufferers the inclina-
tion to leniency on the part of such officers is apt to be
unduly magnified.

When a reformative measure is contemplated by one
state, which entails the co-operation of another, we have
found it next to impossible to secure its passage, for the
reason that there is no officer who can pledge his state to
do its share toward the correction of the situation requir-
ing joint remedy. And when one state proceeds to enact
a measure, the success of which depends upon the joint
action of other states, and the other states fail in their
part, the state which has taken the lead invariably feels
that it has been aggrieved and imposed upon and future
efforts for reform inevitably suffer a set-back.

It required more than one hundred years of dickering
upon the part of Maryland and Virginia to concur in
measures for the protection of the oyster beds in the
Potomac river before satisfactory legislation was finally
agreed upon.

We should bear in mind that the natural resources of
the state are equivalent to so many dollars in the bank
placed there by an all-wise Providence. Every state
ought to know the extent and value of these resources
within its dominions. It ought to inventory them as
correctly as possible, check off withdrawals, keep tab on
their increase or decrease and conserve and protect them
in the same systematic and methodical manner in which
it accounts for and protects its other treasures.

196 American Fisheries Society

But this is not done. I find that many of our coast
states do not require licenses to operate line, gill, or pound
nets, and for that reason their officials are unable to tell
how many of these nets are in operation in their waters.
Others do not require from the licensed fishermen reports
of their catches, in consequence of which they are unable
to tell whether or not the fish in their waters are increas-
ing or diminishing. For illustration, an official at the
head of the Fisheries of the State of Rhode Island con-
fessed that “the absence of a law making fishery returns
compulsory prevents the securing of accurate data in
fisheries.” Now the squeteague, one of the four principal
fishes of that state, has decreased considerably; yet no
accurate data are obtainable by which to determine the
percentage of decrease, or the causes which have pro-
duced the same.

In Connecticut the catch of shad has decreased in the
past ten years over 70%, that of bass, over 86%, and
that of the pickerel over 54%. The Superintendent of the
State Board of Fisheries attributes this decrease to the
pollution of water and streams running dry.

The Chief Game and Fish Warden of Delaware writes:

“T regret that no statistics are available. We are just
beginning to work on fish protection in Delaware. Our
warden service is less than a year old and from lack of
funds has been able to do nothing but preparatory work
with our food fish industry.”

And yet the four principal fish of Delaware are the
trout, shad, menhaden and sturgeon—a most valuable
series. It will be remembered that the catch of the last
named fish brought over one million dollars annually to
the fishermen of Delaware until unregulated fishing de-
stroyed the fisheries.

It will be noted from the excerpts quoted that the in-
sufficiency of laws is blameable for the losses enumer-
ated.

Rhode Island fails to require its fishermen to make
returns of their catches, in consequence of which that
state is sustaining an undetermined loss.

Connecticut suffers from a river pollution which she

Address of Representative Linthicum 197

has not stopped; Delaware is crippled by a lack of funds
to do anything but preparatory work. I might recite
other similar cases, but those mentioned are sufficient to
make clear the necessity of legislation which will, without
fear or favor, apply the remedy needed in any specific
case.

Inefficient Administration.

Many states suffer the lack of capable officers in charge
of their fisheries. Regardless of how conscientious and
well-intentioned an official may be, if he possess not the
knowledge and ability to fully discharge the duties of his
office, the state is bound to be injured. More than one
state has found that a well-paid, competent officer in
charge of its fisheries is the most excellent investment
a commonwealth can make. With good laws and capable,
determined men to enforce those laws, the profits in the
fisheries will prove a source of never-ending congratula-
tion. Experience has shown that it is as difficult for the
states to get good men as it has been for good men to
get in the service of the states.

But the mere getting of good men is not the solution
of the problem. These men must be made independent of
influences which would paralyze their activities for good.
They must be placed beyond the reach of those who, re-
senting the fearless discharge of their duty, would seek
to wreak an unworthy venegance. Happily, many of our
states have already done this, and it will be found that
in those states wherein the men having charge of the
fisheries are protected in the discharge of their duty,
there is a better, more just and more equitable enforce-
ment of the law and improvement of conditions, than
in those states where these precautions have been neg-
lected.

Indeed, I have found opposition to federal regulation
of our fishes arising under conditions that cause me to
suspect that it is mainly inspired by the fear that national
officials will enforce the law in a way that would not be
attempted by state officials. I likewise find that, for the
very same reason, many commercial fishermen would

198 American Fisheries Society

like to see our Government take charge of our fisheries,
believing that with Federal control there would be an
enforcement which would do equal justice to all.

Under present conditions, a noteworthy situation
arises. States bordering the same body of water are
intimately concerned in the passage and enforcement of
good laws by each other. If one state fails to enforce
its laws and, by reason of this failure, its fishermen take
from this joint water more fish than would be their natu-
ral share, they not only wrong their own commonwealth,
but are perpetrating a wrong against the neighboring
state, which, through enforcing the law, prohibits its own
fishermen from getting as much as those of the other
state. Thus we see a premium placed upon the violation
of law, the guilty rewarded and the innocent punished.
Now, if the Federal Government controls the situation
and the laws are laxly enforced, the hardship does not fall
with greater severity upon one state than another, nor
would one state reap a disproportionate benefit at the ex-
pense of another. Under such a situation, the inefficiency
of the states becomes discriminatory, while inefficiency
under national supervision would be non-discriminatory.

Conditions Beyond The Jurisdiction of The States to
Control.

One of the principal reasons making for national con-
trol of our fisheries is the existence of conditions which
one state has not the jurisdiction to control. For in-
stance, fishermen in Pennsylvania who get their living
from the waters of the Susquehanna are indignant at
the lack of regulations restricting Maryland fishermen to
seasons and conditions of fish-taking that will allow the
fish to ascend the river to where they live. Maryland
fishermen want the fisherman of Virginia restricted in
order that fair proportion of the fish may get to the
waters of the upper Chesapeake. The same complaint
is heard in Massachusetts regarding Connecticut, and the
Superintendent of Fisheries of New York attributes the
decrease “which has occurred in the Hudson and Dela-
ware rivers to the miles of nets along the Jersey shore

Address of Representative Linthicum 199

preventing the shad and herring from finding their way
farther up the river.”

Now we all know that notwithstanding the desire
which moves the citizens of the several states to fair
dealing in their relation with their fellowmen, it is always
a difficult matter to convince the legislative body of a
state that it should deprive its citizens of what are re-
garded as certain inalienable rights for the purpose of
giving an equitable deal to the citizens of some other
state. While the fish are coming his way, the fisherman
is content and apt to view almost humorously the com-
plaints of those not so fortunate as himself, but when the
situation is reversed, and his own state is powerless to
help him—when the sense of justice of another state must
be depended upon,—then conditions become almost un-
bearable. Innumerable waters which flow to the coast
pass through the jurisdiction of several states, yet those
states nearest the coast have invariably assumed the
attitude that they have the right, by reason of their for-
tunate location, to preempt the wealth which may enter
those waters from the sea. To induce them to recede
from that conviction would be an effort as hopeless as
the tower of Babel.

I am glad that a brighter, more equitable day is dawn-
ing. The nation has laid down the doctrine that what
is essential to the happiness and well-being of all should
be equitably shared by all. It has declared against mon-
opoly and discrimination whether that monopoly and
discrimination be in matters of tariff, the possession of
coal mines and hydraulic power sites, or what not. Those
who have given thought to the subject and supplemented
that thought with a thorough study of the situation, be-
come more convinced each day that the equitable enjoy-
ment of our fisheries will never be reached under a system
of state supervision. The Federal Government alone
possesses the power to handle the situation under regula-
tions that will do impartial justice to all; that will pre-
serve to posterity the fisheries of the nation, a resource
whose value is becoming constantly greater by reason of
the increasing use of fish in the daily diet of our people.”

200 American Fisheries Society

At the close of Congressman Linthicum’s address the
Society adjourned to the large auditorium for a moving
picture exhibition illustrating “Salmon Culture on the

Pacific Coast, as practiced by the U. S. Bureau of
Fisheries.”

Friday, October 2, Morning Session.

The session opened with an address by Mr. John P.
Woods, President of the Missouri State Fish Commission
on the topic “What mean these American Fisheries So-
city meetings?” Mr. Woods dwelt upon the value of the
meetings to the members and upon the necessity of
assisting, through the medium of the Transactions, the
“large army of laymen throughout the country who desire
more knowledge of fishes and fisheries.”” He suggested
that a campaign for a larger membership should be or-
ganized. “A decided two-fold benefit would manifest
itself, in the strengthened financial condition of the
Society which would permit it to publish to a greater
extent, and more especially in arousing the entire people
to support the many good measures for the protection
and propagation of fishes which we now find it difficult
to pass and enforce. The sacrifices of science would then
be less in vain and the benefits derived would be far-
reaching and valuable beyond the power of the mind to
grasp.”

Mr. Wood’s address precipitated a discussion of ways
and means of assisting the Bureau of Fisheries to secure
proper equipment and appropriations along the lines
indicated by Secretary Redfield’s address and the further-
ing of Federal control as suggested by the remarks of
Congressman Linthicum.

Mr. Graham of Massachusetts moved that a special
committee of five members be appointed to confer with
Secretary Redfield and Commissioner of Fisheries H. M.
Smith and to report at the business meeting on Saturday
morning. Carried.

Later it was moved and carried that President Ward
act as Chairman of the committee and be empowered to
appoint the other members.

Business Proceedings 201

Mr. GRAHAM, of Mass.: Secretary Redfield came here
and outlined the needs of the Bureau of Fisheries and
practically asked us to assist in furthering legislation in
aid of the Bureau. Many of the members would like to
do something, but if one man in Missouri and another
in Massachusetts, etc., each operates along his own line _
and according to his own ideas, nothing will be accom-
plished. We must have concerted action, we must have
a plan to work on, and that is the only way in which
we can get results. I believe that a committee of five
men could be selected to work out some plan of operation
whereby every man in the Society, and every fish and
game commissioner may be able to assist.

Mr. CRAMPTON, of Connecticut: I heartily endorse
the sentiments expressed by the last speaker. In my State
‘the shad industry has been a very important one, but
there has been great pollution of the streams and this
year I am sorry to say that the shad fishery has been
a total failure. Action must be taken by the Federal
Government relative to our fisheries, there is no question
about that. The Italians with us have been exceedingly
destructive to the fisheries, by catching small fish. I have
seen a seine seventeen feet deep and eighty-one rods long,
with a pocket having a mesh smaller than a lead pencil.
Thousands of barrels of small fish have been taken and
sold by measure to be made into soups, etc., and this has
been outside of my jurisdiction. The statement made
by Congressman Linthicum is correct,—Federal action
must be taken and we should hasten to co-operate with
the Government in putting a stop to such waste. The
weakfish has entirely disappeared from our waters, I
have not known of a striped bass being caught this
year, and the sturgeon has entirely disappeared from the
Connecticut River.

Mr. ALEXANDER, of Mississippi: It seems to me that
it is eminently proper than this Society should go on
record as recognizing the recommendation of Secretary
Redfield, and I believe that a committee should be appoint-
ed to consider these recommendations and report to the

202 American Fisheries Society

Society for its endorsement. Mr. President, I move that
a committee of five be appointed.

Mr. SPEAKS, of Ohio: This is a very important sub-
ject, and, considering the interests of Ohio, I think it
should be discussed at greater length than time will per-
mit today. I want to say frankly that I am in favor
of Federal control to a certain extent, but if the bill now
pending in Congress were passed in its present form, it
would mean the elimination of at least fifty per cent
of our fishing interests in Ohio. I think our Ohio fisher-
men are perfectly willing to have Federal control of our
commercial fisheries, but the coast states are more inter-
ested in this subject than we are in Ohio.

Mr. GRAHAM: Unless I am mistaken, the motion made
by Mr. Alexander has to do only with the recommenda-
tions of Secretary Redfield and not the address of Con-
gressman Linthicum, concerning Federal control of.
migratory fishes. Secretary Redfield’s plea was for bet-
ter equipment, new buildings, more men, etc., something
that no state and no fishing industry could object to in
the least.

Mr. Woops, of Missouri: It seems to me that we
should know more fully what Secretary Redfield has in
mind. If we can get from him and Commissioner Smith
a good idea of just what is necessary, we should be able
to formulate some program, uniform in character, to
work on for the support of the Bureau of Fisheries.
Many of us are state fish commissioners and we are all
representatives to a certain extent of our respective states
and we are all anxious to go to our Senators and Rep-
resentatives in Congress if we can present something of
value which will be uniform in character.

Mr. ApAMs, of Massachusetts: It seems to me that
Mr. Woods has made a very practical suggestion. Let
this committee obtain the facts with regard to the needs
of the Bureau, if Secretary Redfield and Commissioner
Smith are ready to state them, and give them to us in
some form which will enable us to help them produce
results. Then we can go to our respective Representa-
tives in Congress and provide them with the facts and the

Business Proceedings 203

needs of the Bureau. By this means we shall have com-
pleted a scheme of education for these men, so that when
they return to Congress and fisheries matters are brought
up they will thoroughly understand what the plan is.
But if it is not presented in proper form and easily ac-
essible we cannot expect a busy Senator or Congress-
man to give the matter the attention it deserves. He ~-
should have at hand the information and the assurance
that the plan has the practical backing of this Society
and he will know that he is not working in a way that
will lay him open to criticism.

The motion made by Mr. Alexander was amended to
read:

Resolved: That a committee of five members be ap-
pointed to consult with Secretary Redfield and Commis-
sioner Smith in regard to the needs of the Bureau oi
Fisheries and to report at the business meeting on Satur-
day morning. Carried.

Moved and seconded that President Ward act as chair-
man of the committee and be empowered to appoint the
other members. Carried.

The Society then passed to the reading and discussion
of papers, and President Ward called upon Professor
Dyche to open the discussion of the paper presented by
Mr. John W. Titcomb at the previous session and which
had been postponed. (See Transactions, Vol. XLIV, No.
1, pp. 24-26, Dec., 1914.)

The paper by Prof. Geo. C. Embody was then read
and discussed: ‘‘Fish Meal and as Food for Trout,” (see
Transactions, Vol. XLIV, No. 1, pp. 57-60, Dec., 1914).

A motion to adjourn and to meet again at two o’clock
was carried, after which a special “marine products”
luncheon was partaken of by the members of the Society
and their friends at the New Willard Hotel.

Friday, October 2, Afternoon Session.

The President called the meeting to order and then,
in the absence of the Vice-president, asked Mr. Seymour
Bower, of Michigan, to take charge of the meeting.

204 American Fisheries Society

Mr. BOWER: It was decided at the close of our last
session that the first order of business for this afternoon
should be the reading of the paper by our honored Presi-
dent, and I have the pleasure of introducing to you Prof.
Henry B. Ward, of the University of Illinois.

The paper by President Ward, entitled ‘““An Experi-
mental Plant for the Study of Fish Culture on a Small
Seale” was read and discussed. (See TRANSACTIONS, this
number, pp. 169-178.)

At 3 o’clock the session was adjourned to give place
to a meeting of the National Association of Fish and
Game Commissioners, in which many of the members of
the American Fisheries Society were especially interested.
All members were invited to be present during the ad-
dress of Senator Geo. P. McLean, of Connecticut, on ‘“‘The
Federal Control of Migratory Birds,” and also to witness
a series of motion pictures illustrating “Results of Game
Protection in Oregon’ shown by Mr. Wm. L. Finley,
Commissioner of Fish and Game for that State.

Saturday Morning, October 3, Final Session.

The final session came to order for the transaction
of such business as remained for the consideration of
the Society.

PRESIDENT WARD: Your Chairman has been requested
to present a proposed ruling to regulate publication. The
object of this ruling is to give the Publication Committee
the authority of the Society to act in certain cases, while
reserving by the first part of the resolution, the right of
the Society to pass upon matters which might involve it
in any way.

Resolved: That papers which are controversial and
do not add to a knowledge of any question by furnishing
new evidence shall not be published except after special
action by the Society at a regular meeting. Otherwise
the Publication Committee may, if finances permit, accept
for publication papers not read at the annual meeting.

Shall this be adopted as a by-law or rule of instruction
for the committee?

Business Proceedings 205

A motion to put this into effect was duly made and
seconded and without discussion, was passed by the
Society.

PRESIDENT: The Secretary has a matter to bring up,
which is in his hands, and I will ask him to present it
to you.

SECRETARY OSBURN: The members who were present >
at the last meeting at Boston, will remember that the
preparation of an index to the first forty volumes of
the TRANSACTIONS of the American Fisheries Society was
announced by our present Vice-President, Mr. Fearing.
This has been completed, final copies prepared and sub-
mitted to the Secretary. This is a careful piece of work,
covering 136 typewritten pages and involved an immense
amount of work. It includes all matters published during
the first forty years of the Society’s work and is there-
fore a ready reference to everything issued up to and
including 1910. In order that I might have definite infor-
mation for you with regard to the cost of publication,
I submitted sample pages to the printers of our last vol-
ume. Their estimate for publishing this index in the
same form as our TRANSACTIONS, so that it can readily
be bound up with them, is $215.00. I have no doubt that
it can be issued at a somewhat lower figure. I believe
that this index will be extremely useful in libraries as
well as to individuals who desire to look up any articles
published in these volumes. It should not be issued in
connection with any other volume, but should be separate
so that it can be inserted in the series at the end of the
forty volumes that it is meant to cover.

PRESIDENT: This matter is before the Society for dis-
cussion.

Mr. TItTcoMsB, of Vermont: We are certainly very
much indebted to Mr. Fearing for this manuscript and I
sincerely hope the Society will take steps to have it pub-
lished, but we should give our publishing board plenty
of time to issue it properly.

Dr. T. S. PALMER, of Washington, D.C.: I fully realize
what this work means as I happened to be a member of
a committee which has published such an index. It should

266 American Fisheries Society

certainly be published. There is one point which I hope
has been considered in its preparation and that is the
entry of every author’s name in full, and where possible
the date of his birth and death, to follow modern biblio-
graphical usage and because libraries need this informa-
tion. The amount of $200.00 could easily be arranged
in some way. The work should not devolve on the regular
officers, but let the Secretary select a committee to do the
work and simply oversee it.

Mr. GRAHAM, of Massachusetts: It seems to me, Mr.
President, that it will be quite an undertaking to get some
one to do this work. Moreover, it will involve an expen-
diture of over $200.00 and we ought to know where that
is coming from before we spend the money, for the treas-
ury is not in a flourishing condition. I think the condi-
tion of the treasury hardly warrants the publication at
present.

PRESIDENT: That certainly is a good business sugges-
tion. We have recently been through a campaign in
which some of us have been interested in the attempt to
clear the Society of debt, and, while we sympathize fully
with what Dr. Palmer has said, we cannot but appreciate
the financial difficulty. It occurs to me that we do not
wish to raise the money here this morning and that it
may be impracticable to come to a final conclusion. Our
Publication Committee is authorized to do certain things
if finances permit. I offer the suggestion that this matter
be referred to that committee to secure the publication if
possible.

A number of members offered to contribute to a fund
for the publication of the index.

The suggestion was also made that a number of the
earlier volumes of the Transactions, now impossible to
obtain, be re-issued, as it would make the index much
more desirable.

PRESIDENT: The question has been discussed pretty
thoroughly, but we have no motion before us. Will some
one propose a definite solution of the problem?

Mr. GRAHAM: It seems to me that this should be
referred to the officers of the Society and the Executive

Business Proceedings 207

Committee. They will know whether the condition of the
treasury will permit the publication. I make that motion.

Mr. TITCOMB: I suggest that it be referred rather
to the President, Secretary and Treasurer, as such a com-
mittee will be less scattered and less unwieldy.

Mr. GRAHAM: I accept the amendment.

Motion seconded.

PRESIDENT: The motion has been made to refer this
matter to a special committee, consisting of the President,
Secretary and Treasurer, with power to act.

The motion was put and carried.

Vice-president Fearing presented a resolution to the
effect that the Committee on Publicity be appointed by
the President for each meeting a short time before the
annual meeting each year. After some discussion this
resolution was passed.

President Ward then called for the report of the Audit-
ing Committee.

Report of the Auditing Committee.

To the Members of the American Fisheries Society :

The Auditing Committee has carefully gone over the
vouchers of the Treasurer, together with his report, and
find the same to be correct.

(Signed) GEORGE H. GRAHAM,
J. QUINCY WARD.

Moved and seconded that the report of the Auditing
Committee be accepted and that the thanks of the So-
ciety be extended to them for their work. Motion carried.

Report of Special Committee on Needs of the Bureau of
Fisheries.

To the Members of the American Fisheries Society :

The Special Committee appointed yesterday begs to
report that it has carried out, so far as possible in the
time given, the directions of the Society and desires to
recommend:

208 American Fisheries Society

1. That its title be made, Committee on Relations with
National and State Governments.

2. That it be authorized to incur the necessary expense
involved in carrying on its work.

3. That it be permitted to call upon other members of
the Society for aid in matters which seem to require their
services.

(Signed) HENRY B. WARD,
M. L. ALEXANDER,
JOHN W. TITCOMB,
Wo. C. ADAMS,
WILLIAM L. FINLEY.
Committee.

After some discussion the Society voted to adopt this
report and approved the recommendations of the com-
mittee.

Report of the Committee on Resolutions.
(Presented by L. L. Dyche, Chairman.)

I. WHEREAS, the passing of Dr. Theodore Nicholas
Gill removes from our midst another of that group of
scientists remarkable for breadth of view, encyclopedic
knowledge and sympathy for research in all forms, there-
fore, be it

Resolved: That the American Fisheries Society,
mindful of the great loss it has sustained, enter on its
records the following brief statement of the work of its
distinguished member: Theodore Nicholas Gill, born
March 21, 1837, in New York City, died September 25,
1914, at Washington, D. C., contributed to humanity as a
teacher, first as Adjunct-Professor of Physics and Natu-
ral History, 1860-61, then as Lecturer and Professor of
Natural History until 1910, when he was made Emeritus
Professor of Zoology, in George Washington University.
As an Associate of the Smithsonian Institution he won
distinction in investigation exemplified in such honors
as President of the American Association for the Ad-
vancement of Science in 1897, and membership in the
National Academy of Sciences and the American Philo-
sophical Society.

Resolutions 209

He was an authority on the morphology of fishes and
mammals, and his numerous writings are conspicuous
contributions in the history of the development of knowl-
edge of these groups of animals.

His kindly presence, and his contributions by papers
and discussions were conspicuous in the meetings of this
Society, of which he was a member since 1875, nearly”
forty years.

II. WHEREAS, death has also removed, in the person
of Henry Theodore Root, one of that body of men who
have labored long and diligently in the cause of conserva-
tion of natural resources, and especially for the propaga-
tion and preservation of fish and game, be it therefore

Resolved: That the following record of the life and
work of this valued citizen be entered on our minutes:
Henry Theodore Root was born October 5, 1830, and died
July 24, 1914, at Providence, Rhode Island. A member
of the American Fisheries Society since 1899, he was
chosen its thirty-fourth President, for the term of 1904-
05, and presided at the meeting held at Atlantic City,
New Jersey.

In 1883 he became a member of the Inland Fisheries
Commission of Rhode Island and served on that board
until 1910, when he resigned. From March 8, 1906, until
his resignation in 1910, he was President of the Rhode
Island Fish Commission. He had also served in the
Rhode Island State Legislature.

For many years a leader in the business and in the
state policies of Rhode Island, he creditably carried im-
portant civic responsibilities. As President of the State
Fish Commision his sturdy purposefulness demonstrated
the identity of science and common sense when applied
to the service of the state.

III. Be it resolved that the thanks of the Society be
extended to the local committees for their work in pre-
paring the program and for the entertainment provided
during the course of this meeting.

On motion duly made and seconded, the above resolu-
tions were passed and approved by the Society.

210 American Fisheries Society

Mr. GRAHAM, of Massachusetts: Mr. President, it
seems to me that this is the proper time to consider the
question of this Society meeting in conjunction with the
Association of Game and Fish Commissioners each year.
We have many interests in common and many members
belong to both organizations. This year there has been
some hitch in the arrangments and the members of the
Commissioners’ Association feel that they have had too
little time for their meetings. I wish to offer the sug-
gestion that a committee be appointed from this Society
to confer with the officers of the Commissioners’ Associa-
tion as to time and place ‘of meeting and other matters
of interest to both societies, to prevent any misunder-
standing in the future.

Moved and seconded that the President, Vice-president
and Secretary of the American Fisheries Society form a
committee to confer with a similar body of the Associa-
tion of Game and Fish Commissioners on matters of
interest to both societies. Motion carried.

Report of the Committee on Time and Place of Meeting.

PRESIDENT WARD: The Committee on Time and Place
of Meeting will now render its report.

Mr. ALEXANDER, of Louisiana: Mr. Chairman, I am
going to ask the privilege of postponing the report of
this committee, because I understand that it is not a
unanimous report and I believe that for the harmony
of its work this Society’s actions should be as unanimous
as possible. I also understand that the city I have the
honor to represent, New Orleans, has received a majority
of the votes of the committee. If this committee will
withdraw its report, I am going to ask the consent of
the Society to withdraw the invitation of the city of New
Orleans for the convention of 1915.

The committee retired for a few moments for further
consideration of the question.

Mr. JOHN P. Woops, of Missouri: Mr. Chairman, I
represent a majority of the committee as previously di-
vided on this question. But as the gentleman from New

Time and Place of Meeting 211

Orleans wishes the majority report to be withdrawn we
are glad in the interests of the Society to accede to his
request, although it is not a distinct pleasure to do so.
Mr. FEARING, of Rhode Island,representing the minor-
ity of the committee, then presented the following report:
The Committee on Time and Place of Meeting begs to
report that offers to entertain the Society at its 45th ~
annual meeting were received from Atlantic City, Chi-
cago, St. Louis, Detroit, Niagara Falls, Buffalo, Spring-
field, New Orleans, Oakland and San Francisco. The
committee having met after Mr. Alexander’s withdrawal
of New Orleans as the meeting place for the forty-fifth
annual meeting, voted to recommend San Francisco, Cali-
fornia, and the time as September 1 to 4, inclusive.

(Signed) DANIEL B. FEARING of Rhode Island,
JOHN P. Woops, of Missouri,
S. W. DOWNING, of Ohio.
Committee.

Mr. ALEXANDER: Mr. Chairman, I move the adoption
of the report. Before the motion is put, however, I beg
the privilege to state that we in New Orleans looked
forward with a great deal of pleasure to entertaining
this Society the present year and were much disappointed
that we did not have the privilege. At some future date
we hope to have that pleasure. The State of Louisiana
is, I believe from investigations that have been made,
richer in actual resources than any other state in the
Union. We have wonderful silver mines yielding twenty
millions of dollars annually, we have the greatest salt
mines in the western hemisphere, we have six of the
greatest oil fields and the greatest gas fields in the United
States ; we have forty-seven hundred miles of water-ways
teeming with choice fishes in great variety and the richest
oyster producing territory in the country; we have
twenty-eight millions of acres of the richest soil un-
der the sun, with great sugar, cotton and rice fields,
and we have the beautiful city of New Orleans. There
has been much ignorance and many false impressions
with regard to our State in other parts of the country

212 American Fisheries Society

and we wanted you, who come from all parts of the
United States, to visit us and learn something of our
people and of our wonderful resources. I felt if I laid
these facts before you, you would stand with me in regard
to this invitation. However, I believe that this year many
of you desire to take advantage of the great opportunity
to attend the San Francisco Exposition, and we do not
wish for any reason to create antagonism in the ranks of
this Society. When you do come we wish you to come
freely so that we may have the pleasure of entertaining
willing guests, and it is for this reason that I have with-
drawn the name of the City of New Orleans for holding
the convention of 1915.

PRESIDENT WARD: Mr. Alexander, in the name of the
Society, I beg to express to you our appreciation of your
remarks. Such broad-minded and generous policies will
bring success both to the great State which you represent
and to this small, but as we believe, important, American
Fisheries Society.

The motion having been made and seconded, it was
unanimously voted that the 1915 meeting be held in San
Francisco on Sept. 1-4, 1915.

Report of Committee on Weights and Measures of
Whitefish.

Mr. DOWNING, of Ohio: I have a report on weights
and measures. As chairman of this committee I meas-
ured and weighed one hundred fish of each sex,—

PRESIDENT WARD: I have understood that the com-
mittee as a whole has had no meetings. It occurs to me
that the other members might object to the presentation
of a report, even by the Chairman, if the matter has not
been fully discussed. This is a matter of great impor-
tance.

Mr. TircoMs, of Vermont: We are pressed for time
at this meeting and this matter should be discussed very
fully. I am sure that whatever Mr. Downing would give
us would be to the point, but we should not be able to
thresh the matter out. I move that the Chairman of this

Election of Officers 213

Committee secure the approval of the other members of
the committee, by correspondence, if necessary, and re-
port later.

This motion, being seconded, was unanimously carried.

Report of the Committee on Nominations.

Mr. CASSELMAN, of New York: The Committee on
Nominations begs to present the following nominations
for officers of this Society for the year 1914-15:

President, Daniel B. Fearing, of Rhode Island;

Vice-President, Jacob Reighard, of Michigan;

Recording Secretary, Raymond C. Osburn, of New
York.

Corresponding Secretary, Chas. H. Townsend, of New
York.

Treasurer, Chas. W. Willard of Rhode Island.

Vice-Presidents of Divisions.

Fish Culture, Dwight Lydell, of Michigan;

Aquatic Biology and Physics, Henry B. Ward, of IIli-
nois.

Commercial Fishing, Jefferson F. Moser, of California ;

Angling, H. Wheeler Perce of Illinois;

Protection and Legislation, T. S. Palmer of Washing-
ton, D; C.

Executive Committee.

Geo. W. Field, of Massachusetts, Chairman ;

L. L. Dyche, of Kansas;

N. R. Buller, of Pennsylvania;

J. Quincy Ward, of Kentucky;

Henry O’Malley, of Washington;

Ernest Schaeffle of California;

John P. Woods, of Missouri.

(Signed) E. S. CASSELMAN,
M. C. MARSH,
EBEN W. COBB,
SEYMOUR BOWER,
JOHN W. TITCOMB,
Committee.

214 American Fisheries Society

Mr. GRAHAM, of Massachusetts: I move that this
report be accepted and that the Secretary be instructed
to cast one ballot for the entire list.

The motion was seconded and carried, whereupon, the
Secretary having cast the ballot, the President declared
the gentlemen named to be elected.

President-elect Fearing was introduced and made a
brief address.

The Committee on Nominations presented the follow-
ing recommendation: Resolved: That the Vice-presi-
dents of Divisions be required to make a report at each
annual meeting. ¥

This was sustained by vote of the Society.

Mr. TITCOMB, of Vermont: It may become necessary
for a re-adjustment of the time for holding our meeting
in order to meet with other societies, or for other rea-
sons. I move a reconsideration in the matter of time
of holding the meeting and the absolute determination
of the date be left to the Conference Committee after
consultation and correspondence.

Motion carried.
The President thereupon declared the meeting ad-
journed.

In Memoriam

A. S. BICKMORE

T. J. BLAKESLEE
AUSTIN COOK
THOMAS M. DARRAH
THEODORE N. GILL

J. J. HOGAN

E. C. LAMBERT
CHARLES H. MOORE
OVERTON W. PRICE
HENRY T. ROOT

bs Sei hike Sayh

= "
ot auth Rs Bias aR

—

po Menge ee ee ENTE er okay
Wi Are) f, F Pee
net gh MOLNAR Blea ae ik nan

CP ik Ys PR eo ? | uit, a
~ =" tae ca Ee ee viel PR ee Dy
<a OF lag ge, eae Oe Weare, EM, - A, Ce
F . ai : ’
, wy Ji re ag 4 :

a | tn <p ERE DOREY at:

4
;
$:
:

’ Wo Fey Sy Pak che ae
Bey a Pier Cakes tad Tada es Pe
‘The ON ane P PACH ya ay ene
Ni cae : AG ak: eee at 8 —
1 . . fot VOR pe Ae " . 7
e : HA, as Me vi Aa ODT ae} ‘ ‘tina
; rity ren PON hes Ph Pts

| : RIC eek A

2 TAIAMAL 8

j THOOM | GLIMARD .
J Pe q i

=
a
»

ae folate WOPAGVS

9 a
aie . - af. ve bi

e Loge Pn {Ava

TRANSACTIONS

of the

American Fisheries Society

“To promote the cause of fish culture; to gather and
diffuse information bearing upon its practical success,
and upon all matters relating to the fisheries; to unite
and encourage all interests of fish culture and the fish-
eries; and to treat all questions of a scientific and eco-
nomic character regarding fish.”

VOLUME XLIV, NUMBER 4
1914-1915

Edited by The Recording Secretary
SEPTEMBER, 1915

Published Quarterly by the Society
NEW YORK.N. Y.

eins

Ok @
Soa ia aA Soe ieee

(Ly wey esee

a) 2

a
’

Aap

areac ey Lick Ses, weenie

nee C3

ae as

anes

are 3
*

re

re
Rs ¥

:
aM

3 =
nae

bei: Porta Se

p'

bi:

“pfs

eres wnat
ee

sheet a Ro teagan

mh

a

i

tet Season

+

oF

“yD:

pas

CERTIFICATE OF INCORPORATION OF
THE AMERICAN FISHERIES SOCIETY

We, the undersigned, persons of full age and citizenship of the
United States, and a majority being citizens of the District of Colum-
bia, pursuant to and in conformity with sections 599 to 603, inclusive,
of the Code of Law for the District of Columbia, enacted March 3,
1901, as amended by the Acts approved January 31 and June 30, 1902,
hereby associate ourselves together as a society or body corporate and™
certify in writing:

1. That the name of the Society is the AMERICAN FISHERIES
SOCIETY.

2. That the term for which it is organized is nine hundred and
ninety-nine years.

3. That its particular business and objects are to promote the cause
of fish culture; to gather and diffuse information bearing upon its
practical success, and upon all matters relating to the fisheries; to
unite and encourage all interests of fish culture and the fisheries; and
to treat all questions of a scientific and economic character regarding
fish; with power:

a. To acquire, hold and convey real estate and other property, and
to establish general and special funds.

b. To hold meetings.
ec. To publish and distribute documents.
d. To conduct lectures.

e. To conduct, endow, or assist investigation in any department of
fishery and fish-culture science.

f. To acquire and maintain a library.

g. And, in general, to transact any business pertinent to a learned
society.

4. That the affairs, funds and property of the corporation shall be
in general charge of a council, consisting of the officers and the execu-
tive committee, the number of whose members for the first year shall
be seventeen, all of whom shall be chosen from among the members
of the Society.

Witness our hands and seals this 16th day of December, 1910.

Seymour Bower (Seal)
Tueopore GILL (Seal)
Wim E. Meenan (Seal)
TueEoporeE S. PaLMER (Seal)
Bertranp H. Roserts (Seal)
Hucu M. Smiru (Seal)
RicwarpD SYLVESTER (Seal)

Recorded April 15, 1911.

221

AMERICAN FISHERIES SOCIETY

Organized 1870

The first meeting of the Society occurred December 20, 1870. The
organization then effected continued until February, 1872, when the
second meeting was held. Since that time there has been a meeting
each year, as shown below. The respective presidents were elected at
the meeting, at the place, and for the period shown opposite their
names, but they presided at the subsequent meeting.

PRESIDENTS, TERMS OF SERVICE, AND PLACES OF

MEETING.

1S WilliiamtChit= = 2) = 1870-18102 New York, N. Y.
2. William Clift. 1872-1873_._.Albany, N. Y.

3: Wiliam Chit ==es= 1873-1874... -_New York, N. Y.
4. Robert B. Roosevelt..........1874-1875_.....New York, N. Y.
5. Robert B. Roosevelt... 1875-1876. “New York. Noyes
6. Robert B. Roosevelt... _1876-1877*..... New York, N. Y.
7. Robert B. Roosevelt... 1877-1878... .New York, N. Y.
8. Robert B. Roosevelt. 1878-1879... -_New York, N. Y.
9. Robert B. Roosevelt............. 1879-1880... New York, N. Y.
10. Robert B. Rooseyelt............. 1880-1881... New York, N. Y.
11. Robert B. Roosevelt.......... 1881-1882.....New York, N. Y.

_.1882-1883 .New York, N. Y.

New York, N. Y

12. George Shepard Page...
13. James Benkard

14. Theodore Lyman... 1884-1885... Washington, D. C.
15. Marshall McDonald... 1885-1886. Washington, D. C.
16; Ws iudsan...2= 1886-1887___. Chicago, Ill.

17. William L. May. ... 1887-1888... Washington, D. C.
1S; JOhnelic yb isselle ee 1888-1889... Detroit, Mich.

19. Eugene G. Blackford... 1889-1890........... Philadelphia, Pa.
20. Eugene G. Blackford.......1890-1891__. Put-in Bay, Ohio.

Din James) A+. tienshall= = 1891-1892... Washington, D. C.
22. Herschel Whitaker... 1892-1893... New York, N. Y.
93. Henry C: Fords. 1893-1894... Chicago, III.

24. William L. May... wel 894-1895... Philadelphia, Pa.
25. L. D. Huntington -New York, N. Y.
26. Herschel Whitaker... 1896-1897... New York, N. Y.
27. William L.. May 1897-1898. Detroit, Mich.

1898-1899... Omaha, Neb.

ste _1899-1900.....Niagara Falls, N. Y.
_--1900-1901........... Woods Hole, Mass.
1901-1902... Milwaukee, Wis.

..- | 902-1903........... Put-in Bay, Ohio.

._ L903-1904............ Woods Hole, Mass.
Atlantic City, N. J.

= 1905-1906... White Sulphur Spgs., W. Va.

28. George F. Peabody...
29. John W. Titcomb......

36, Hawa. Birge Se 1906-1907......Grand Rapids, Mich.
37. Hugh M. Smith. 1907-1908. Erie, Pa.
38. Lartleton Ho. Beans 1908-1909... Washington, D. C.

39. Seymour Bowev-......... Toledo, Ohio.

40. William E. Meehan............. New York, N. Y.

Al. S.E: BPullerton 1911219019. St. Louis, Mo.

42. Charles H. Townsend........1912-1913 Denver, Colo.

43. Henry) 6. Wards Boston, Mass.

44, Daniel B. Fearing... San Francisco, Calif.

“A special meeting was held at the Centennial Grounds, Philadelphia,
Pa., October 6 and 7, 1876.

222

STATEMENT OF THE OWNERSHIP, MANAGEMENT, ETC.,

Required by the Act of August 24, 1912, of the TRANSACTIONS OF
THE AMERICAN FISHERIES SOCIETY.

Published quarterly at New York, N. Y., April 1, 1915.

Editor, Raymond C. Osburn, The Aquarium, Battery Park, New
MONG Ne

Mancging Editor, None.

Business Managers, None.

Publisher, American Fisheries Society, The Aquarium, Battery
Park, N. Y.

Owners, American Fisheries Society, The Aquarium, Battery Park,
New York, N. Y.

An incorporated society with about 600 active members. President,
Daniel B. Fearing, Newport, R. I.; Vice-President, Jacob Reighard,
Ann Arbor, Mich.; Recording Secretary, Raymond C. Osburn, The
Aquarium. Battery Park, New York, N. Y. Treasurer, Chas. W. Wil-
lard, Westerly, R. I.

Known bondholders, mortgagees, and other security holders, hold-
ing 1 per cent or more of total amount of bonds, mortgages, or other
securities, None.

Raymonp C. Ospurn, Editor.
Sworn to and subscribed before me
this 29th day of March, 1915.
Wiritram H. Wotrratu, JR.,
Notary Public, No. 4081.

(My commission expires March 30, 1916.)

223

Che American Fisheries Society

EDITORIAL

THE SAN FRANCISCO MEETING

The Forty-fifth Annual Meeting of the American Fish-
eries Society was held at San Francisco, Cal., on Sep-
tember 1-4. Although the attendance was somewhat
smaller than usual the meeting was full of interest and
the membership of the Society was increased by the elec-
tion of three new patrons and about seventy-five new
members.

Prof. Jacob Reighard, of the University of Michigan,
was elected President of the Society for the year 1915-16,
and Dr. Geo. W. Field, State Commissioner of Fisheries
and Game for Massachusetts, Vice-President. The names
of the remaining officers and the members of the various
committees appear, as usual, on the back cover page.

A full account of the proceedings of the meeting will
appear in a later number of the Transactions.

The next annual meeting—the forty-sixth—will be
held in New Orleans, La., and the date is set for October
16 to 19, 1916.

PACIFIC FISHERIES SOCIETY

Our sister society of the Pacific Coast held the second
annual meeting at San Francisco on August 9-11, 1916.
An interesting meeting is reported. The following of-
ficers ‘were elected for the coming year: President, Mr.
Henry O’Malley, Oregon City, Ore.; Vice-President, Prof.
Trevor Kincaid, Seattle, Wash.; Second Vice-President,
Prof. Chas. L. Edwards, Los Angeles, Cal.; Secretary,
Mr. John N. Cobb, Seattle, Wash.; Treasurer, Mr. Rus-
sell Palmer, Seattle Wash.; Chairman of Executive Com-
mittee, Dr. Barton W. Evermann, San Francisco, Cal.

Portland, Oregon, was selected as the next meeting
place, but the date is not yet fixed.

224

A CORRECTION

Mr. M. L. Alexander, of New Orleans, has called the
attention of the Editor to an error on page 211 of the
June number of the present volume. There are, of course,
no silver mines in Louisiana, and ‘‘mineral wealth” equal
to $20,000,000 annually should have been the statement.
Also, instead of “six of the greatest oil fields,” one should.
read sixth in the production of oil, although Mr. Alexan-
der informs me that his State has now advanced to third
place in this respect. The Editor takes the first oppor-
tunity to relieve Mr. Alexander of the responsibility for
these misstatements. The stenographic report and the
Editor’s absence in Porto Rico at the time of publication
are sufficient to account for the slip.

THE ‘TILE-FISH
After an absence of many years, following the great
marine catastrophe of 1882, whatever it was, that nearly
destroyed the species, the Atlantic Tile-fish is again on
the market in large quantities. All hail to Lopholatilus
chameleonticeps!

LIST OF MEMBERS, 1914--1915
Showing Year of Election to Membership

Honorary Members

The President of the United States, Wooprow Wutson.
The Governors of the several states.

Alabama, Cuartes Henperson.
Arizona, Grorcr W. P. Hun.
Arkansas, Grorce W. Hays.
California, Hiram W. Jounson.
Colorado, Grorce A. Carson.
Connecticut, Marcus A. Hoxcoms.
Delaware, Cuartes R. Miter.
Florida, Park M. TramMeE tt.
Georgia, Joun M. Staton.
Idaho, Mosrs ALEXANDER.
Illinois, Epwarp F. DunNE.
Indiana, Samuer M. Ratston.
Iowa, Grorce W. CrarKeE.
Kansas, ArtHur CAPPER.
Kentucky, James B. McCreary.
Louisiana, Lurner E. Hatt.
Maine, Oaxxey C. Curtis.
Maryland, Puriire L. Goxipsporoven.
Massachusetts, Davin I. WatsH.
Michigan, Woopgrince N. Ferris.
Minnesota, W. S. Hammonn.
Mississippi, Eart Brewer.

Missouri, Exxror W. Masor.

Montana, SamvuEL V. STEWART.
Nebraska, Jonn H. Moreneap.

Nevada, Emmet D. Boy ze.

New Hampshire, Rottanp H. SpavuLpine.
New Jersey, James F. Fievper.

New Mexico, Wirit1am C. McDonaxp.
New York, Cuaries S. WHITMAN.
North Carolina, Locke Crate.

North Dakota, L. B. Hanna.

Ohio, Franx B. Wits.

Oklahoma, R. L. WuiiritaMs.

Oregon, James WirHyCoMBE.
Pennsylvania, M. G. BrumBaucH.
Rhode Island, R. Livinesron BEECKMAN.
South Carolina, Ricuarp I. MANNING.
South Dakota, Franx M. Byrne.
Tennessee, Tuomas C. Rye.

Texas, James E. Fereuson.

Utah, Wixitam Spry.

Vermont, Cuartes W. Gates.

Virginia, H. C. Sruart.

Washington, Ernesr Lister.

West Virginia, Henry D. Hartriexp.
Wisconsin, E. L. Purripp.

Wyoming, Joun B. Kenorick.

226

08
06
09
93
712
04
89
04
04
04
08
88
04
04

09
95

08

01
06

92
06

92
06
08
06

List of Members ya |

Antipa, Pror. Dr. Grecorre, Inspector-General of Fisheries, Bu-
charest, Roumania.

Bresana, Giuseppe, President of the Lombardy Fisheries Society,
Via Rugabello 19, Milan, Italy.

Brive Rince Rop ann Gun Cuius, Harper’s Ferry, W. Va.

Boropine, Nicwotras, 10th Linie 5, Petrograd, Russia.

Caxtperwoop, W. L., Inspector of Salmon Fisheries for Scotland,
Edinburgh, Scotland.

Denszicu, Lorn, Colonel of the Honorable Artillery Company, Lon-.
don, England.

Fis Prorective Association or EAsteERN PenNsytvantrA, 1020 Arch
St., Philadelphia, Pa.

Fryer, Cuarites E., Supervising Inspector of Fisheries, Board of
Agriculture and Fisheries, London, England.

Horer, Pror. Dr. Bruno, Biological Research Station for Fisheries,
Munich, Germany.

KisHinovye, Dr. K., Imperial Fisheries Bureau, Tokyo, Japan.

Kiranara, Dr. Tasaxu, Imperial Fisheries Bureau, Tokyo, Japan.

Laxe St. Crarr SHOOTING AND Fisuine Crus, Detroit, Mich.

Lawrence-Hamitton, Dr. J., M. R. C. S., 30 Sussex Square, Brigh-
ton, England.

Martsupara, Pror. S., President Imperial Fisheries Institute, Tokyo,
Japan.

Nacer, Hon. Cuas., St. Louis, Mo.

New York AssociaATION FOR THE ProtTEcTION oF Fish anp Game,
New York City.

Norpvevist, Dr. Oscar Frirsor, Superintendent of Fisheries, Lund,
Sweden.

Pecx, Hon. Georce W., Milwaukee, Wis.

Perrier, Pror. Epmonp, Director Museum of Natural History,
Paris, France.

SouTHsmvE SporTsMEN’s Crus, Oakdale, L. I., N. Y.

STEINDACHNER, Pror. Dr. Franz, Royal Natural History, Museum,
Vienna, Austria.

Vincicuerra, Pror. Dr. Decio, Director Royal Fish Cultural Sta-
tion, Rome, Italy.

Von Grimm, Dr. Oscar, Inspector-General of Fisheries, Petrograd,
Russia.

Von Kapicu, Dr. Henricu, Department of Forestry and Domain,
Vienna, Austria.

Von Pirxo, Franz, President Austrian Fishery Society, Vienna,
Austria.

228 American Fisheries Society

84.
87
04
04.
09
08
97
84

84
09
89
08
84.

09
84
84.

10

89

14
aL.
21'S
W15

Corresponding Members

AposToLipEs, Pror. Nicoty Cur., Athens, Greece.

ARMISTEAD, J. J., Dumfries, Scotland.

Ayson, Cuartes L., Hakataemen, Oamaru, New Zealand.

Ayson, L. F., Commissioner of Fisheries, Wellington, New Zealand.

FLecet, Cuas., Canea, Crete.

Hicernson, Epvuarpo, Consul for Peru, New York City.

Jarre, S., Sandfort, Lustringen, Germany.

LanpmarkK, A., Inspector of Norwegian Fresh-Water Fisheries,
Christiania, Norway.

Marston, R. B., Editor of the Fishing Gazette, London, England.

Mousrn, S. M., "Bengal Fisheries Department, Calcutta, India.

Otsen, Dr. O. T., Grimsby, England.

Porreau, CHARLNEY, Lommel, Belgium.

Raveret-W Arret, C., Director of Aquicultural Station at Nid-de-
Verdier, 20 Rue ah Acacias, Paris.

Rievet, C., Bergstedt, Germany.

Sars, Pror. G. O., Christiania, Norway.

Sorsky, Baron N. pe, Director of the Imperial Agricultural Mu-
seum, Petrograd, Russia.

Steap, Davin G., Fisheries Department, Sydney, New South Wales,
Australia.

Trysom, Dr. Firipe, Stockholm, Sweden.

Patrons

AxasKA Pacxers’ Assocration, San Francisco, Calif.

Caxuirornia Wire Crorn Company, San Francisco, Cal.

Cuas. F. Marriace Company, 335 Greenwich St., New York City.
J. K. Armssy Company, San Francisco, Cal.

710
713

01
710
04
98
13

06

08
08
713
"12
792
14
718
14
09
710
712
715
gi iE
710

84.
703
"15
710
710
06
92

01

"12
710

712
"15
15
ai
"13

01
798
713
710

List of Members 229

Active Members *

LIFE MEMBERS INDICATED BY ASTERISK (*).

AcKLEN, JosepH H., Department Game, Fish and Forestry, Nash-
ville, Tenn.

Apams, Wm. C., Commissioner of Fisheries and Game, Boston,
Mass.

Arinswortn, G. G., U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, Leadville, Colo.

Artcuison, W. W., 5 Wabash Ave., Chicago, Ill.

Axexanper, A. B., U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, Washington, D. C.

ALEXANDER, Georce L., Grayling, Mich.

Arexanper, M. L., Pres. Louisiana Conservation Commission, New
Orleans, La.

Aurorp, JaBEe, President State Board of Fish Commissioners, 29
W. Dayton St., Madison, Wis.

Autrer, H. D., U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, Washington, D. C.

Awnverson, Avucust J., Box 109, Marquette, Mich.

Awnpverson, Cart A., U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, Manchester, Iowa.

ANDERSON, FranxK, 1331 East Seventh Ave., Denver, Colo.

ANDvERSON, J. F., Bastad, Sweden.

Anverson, T. T., Liggett and Myers Tobacco Co., St. Louis, Mo.

ANNIN, James, Caledonia, N. Y.

ANNIN, Howarp, Caledonia, N. Y.

Anstey, H. M., New Orleans, La.

Antuony, A. W., Ironsides, Ore.

Antorne, Cyarzies, 340 So. Wabash Ave., Chicago, Ill.

ARNOLD AND Wrwnsor Co., 14 Boston Fish Pier, Boston, Mass.

ArtuHor, S. E., 4345 Washington Ave., St. Louis, Mo.

Asspury Park Fisuine Cxivus, John F. Seger, 703 Cookman Ave.,
Asbury Park, N. J.

Atkins, Cuartes G., U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, East Orland, Me.

Atrwoop, AnrHony, 73 Waterest St., Plymouth, Mass.

Atwoop, Irvine M., 31 Boston Fish Pier, Boston, Mass.

Aucur, W. A., 33 Fulton, St.. New York City.

Avery, Amos W., 47 Arch St., Greenwich, Conn.

Avery, Carios, Hutchinson, Minn.

Ayer, F. W., Bangor, Me.

Bascock, Joun P., Provincial Fisheries’ Department, Victoria,
British Columbia.

Bazscock, Wiri1am H., 520 The Rookery, Chicago, Ill.

Bacon, Cuas. R., Chief State Bureau of Shell Fisheries, Had-
donfield, N. J.

Barry, Howarp S., Equitable Building, Denver, Colo.

Baxer, Borss aNpD Watson Co., 38 Boston Fish Pier, Boston, Mass.

Batcu, Howarp K., 158 W. Austin Ave., Chicago, Ill.

Baxpus, Ienarz, 901 Daly St., Indianapolis, Ind.

Baitpwin, Marcus D., Montana Fish and Game Commission, Kalis-
pell, Mont.

Batpwin, O. N., U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, Louisville, Ky.

Batt, E. M., U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, Washington, D. C.

Batzt, Frank H., Grand Lake Stream, Me.

Batxarp, S. Turuston, Louisville, Ky.

*See also appended list of names received too late to be included

in this part.

230 American Fisheries Society

05
#19

10
10
86
712
"14
05
04
84.

01
E20] (4

"13
712
*80
1g
713
13
06

13
aS
RO,

713
713
713
01

14
712
02
“li
714.

90

00
99
710

710
01
14
710
03

#05
14
14
98

Barsour, Tuomas, Museum of Comparative Zoology, Cambridge,
Mass.

Barnes, Earnest W., Supt. R. I. Fisheries Experiment Station,
Wickford, R. I.

Barnes, Ortanpo F., Roscommon, Mich.

Barron, James T., 1006 Yeon Bldg., Portland, Ore.

Barrtert, Dr. S. P., U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, Quincy, Ill.

Bauer, A., 25th and Dearborn Sts., Chicago, III.

Brat, F. J., State Commissioner of Fisheries, Plymouth, N. H.

Braman, D. C., 739 Equitable Bldg., Denver, Colo.

Brean, Barton A., U. S. National Museum, Washington, D. C.

Bean, Dr. Tarteton H., State Fish Culturist, Capitol, Albany,
N. Y., and 1 Madison Ave., New York City.

Breman, Henry W., New Preston, Conn.

Bexioinc, Davin L., Biologist, Mass. Dept. of Fisheries and Game,
Boston, Mass.

Bett, J. C., Alaska Packers? Association, San Francisco, Calif.

Bexiows, I. H., 732 Fullerton Ave., Chicago, Ill.

Betmont, Perry, 580 Fifth Ave., New York City.

Benson, Joun T., Director, Zoological Garden, Boston, Mass.

Benton, A. W., M. D., 208 S. Jefferson St., Neosho, Mo.

Bere, Grorce, Indiana Fish Commission, Indianapolis, Ind.

Berxuovus, Jerry R., Pennsylvania Fish Commission, Torresdale,
Ra:

Bicxrorp, W. M., Missoula, Mont.

Bicktey, Cuas., 56 Robbins St., Waltham, Mass.

Bircr, Dr. E, A., State Board of Fish Commissioners, University
of Wisconsin, Madison, Wis.

Buackrorp, Cuas. Minor, M. D., Staunton, Va.

Brain, James, Missouri State Fish Committee, Springfield, Mo.

Briamey, Joun F., Whitman, Mass.

BoarpMan, W. H., Secretary, Board of Inland Fisheries Commis-
sioners, State House, Providence, R. I.

Bourton, C. C., 7016 Euclid Ave., Cleveland, Ohio.

Bonrits, Frepertck G., The Denver Post, Denver, Colo.

Booru, Dewitt C., Spearfish, S. D.

Borcuerptr, Rupotew, Department of Game and Fish, Denver, Col.

BorpenKecHer, Wiittam, R. R. 19, Haughville Station, Indian-
apolis, Ind.

Bower, Seymour, Superintendent Michigan Fish Commission, De-
troit, Mich.

Bower, Warp T., U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, Washington, D. C.

Bowers, Grorcr M., Martinsburg, W. Va.

Brapitey, Grorce J., Minnesota Game and Fish Commission, St.
Paul, Minn.

Bramuatt, J. W., 415-417 E. 8th St., Kansas City, Mo.

Brass, Joun L., Michigan Fish Commission, Drayton Plains, Mich.

Brices, A. B., Ashaway, R. I.

Briccs, Dr. Bens. M., 106 Willoughby St., Brooklyn, N. Y.

Brirron, F. H., Vice-President and General Manager, St. Louis
Southwestern Railway, St. Louis, Mo.

Brower, J. F., Pennsylvania Fish Commission, Holmesburg, Pa.
Brown, Ernest C., 52 Vanderbilt Ave., New York City.

Brown, Ernest Crive, Copake, N. Y.

Brown, Georce M., care Pere Marquette R. R., Detroit, Mich.

°04 Brown, G. W. N., U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, Homer, Minn.

710 Bruce, Tuomas H., 56 Ash St., Waltham, Mass.

792 Brusu, Dr. E. F., Mount Vernon, N. Y.

"10 Bryan, Pror. Wm. Aranson, College of Hawaii, Honolulu, H. T.

05
O04
712
#19

712
07

au

13
10

712
712
02
"97

07
#903
13
07
713
03
13
06
710
"10
10
"13
05
11
71
10

“ill
12
ae

List of Members 231

Buck, Wiiu1am O., U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, Neosho, Mo.

Butier, A. G. Pennsylvania Fish Commission, Union City, Pa.

Buiirr, G. W., Pleasant Mount, Pa.

Buiter, Naruan R., Pennsylvania Fish Commission, Harrisburg,
Pa.

Burke, Tuomas F., Colorado Fish and Game Commission, Denver,
Colo.

Burnuam, Cnas. W., U. S. Fisheries Station, Louisville, Ky.

Caupwett, E. E., Chief Warden and Commissioner, Illinois Fish
Commission, Havana, Ill.

Catuaway, Fuuter E., 207 Broad St., La Grange, Ga.

Cattaway, W. A., care Armour & Co., Brook and Main Sts.,
Louisville, Ky.

CampsBett, Water E., Altamosa, Colo.

Caprett, Arcu. T. P., U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, Leadville, Colo.

Carter, E. N., U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, Bullochville, Ga.

CaspersEN, Bsorn, U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, Yes Bay, via Ketchi-
kan, Alaska.

CasrEerson, THorcrim, Supt. Hetta Hatchery, Sulzer, Alaska.

CassELMAN, E. S., Lake Delaware, N. Y.

Castine Crus pe France, Place de Concorde, Paris, France.

Cartr, Evcene, Langdon, Kan.

Cuampers, F. W., Salt Lake City, Utah.

Cuanpvier, Horatio, Kingston, Mass.

Cuapman, L. Dana, 374 Washington St., Boston, Mass.

Curyney, Joun K., Tarpon Springs, Fla.

Curistman, Aveust, 107 Bushwick Ave., Brooklyn, N. Y.

Curystie, Percrvat, Box 186, San Diego, Calif.

CuurcH, N. B., Tiverton, R. I.

CHURCHILL, Winston, Cornish, N. H.

Crark, C. C., 316 East South Street, South Bend, Ind.

Cuark, H. Watron, U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, Fairport, Iowa.

Crark, Ira B., U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, Homer, Minn.

Crarke, Isaac H., Treasurer Inland Fisheries Commission, James-
town) be. Le

CreveLanp, W. B., Burton, Ohio.

Currorp, CHartes P., First National Bank, Chicago, III.

Crus SHawinican, Club Shawinigan, St. Maurice Co., Quebec,
Canada.

700 Coss, Esen W., Superintendent of Fisheries, Board of Game and

04.

14
00
00
04
aS
14
06
01
00
710

14
13

Fish Commissioners, St. Paul, Minn.

Cons, Joun N., Pacific Fisherman, 500 Mutual Life Bldg., Seattle,
Wash.

Corrman, J. N., 4248 Cleveland, St. Louis, Mo.

Cocswett, T. M., U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, Washington, D. C.

Conen, N. H., Urbana, III.

Coxer, Dr. Roserr E., U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, Washington, D. C.

Cores, Russert J., Danville, Va.

Concer, Geo. C., 748 E. Market St., Akron, O.

Conway, R. J., Director Belle Isle Aquarium, Detroit, Mich.

Coorrr, E. A., Cold Spring Harbor, N. Y.

Coruiss, C. G., U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, Gloucester, Mass.
Crampton, Pror. Henry Epwarp, American Museum of Natural
History, New York City.

Crampton, JoHn M., State Supt. Board of Fisheries and Game,
New Haven, Conn.

CranpvatL, A. J., Ashaway, R. I.

232

04

10
08
ait
08
04
13

ah

712
13
14
06
aS
“11

13
91
01
712
710

13
bad OD |

"13
05
08

96
13
AS
12
14
99
aS
O07
710

05
A}
99
*09
“1S
*00
aS

10
10
00
19

American Fisheries Society

and *10 Cranson, Samuet E., U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, North-
ville, Mich.

Cranston C. K., care First National Bank, Pendleton, Ore.
Crary, F. O., Hudson, Wis.

Crasser, Hueco, U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, Homer, Minn.

Cuter, C. F., U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, Wytheville, Va.
Cunnincuam, F. W., U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, Gloucester, Mass.
Curran, Wo. E., 3 T Wharf, Boston Mass.

Dant, Joun, Minnesota Game and Fish Commission, Glenwood,
Minn.

Dancrape, Ernest, U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, Washington, D. C.

Davi, Geo. E., U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, Woods Hole, Mass.

Davipson, J. O., Wisconsin Fish Commission, Madison, Wis.

Davies, Davin, U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, Put-in Bay, Ohio.

Davis, H. C., Secretary, Delaware Fish Commission, Laurel, Del.

Davis, Franx O., State Commissioner of Fisheries and Game,
Pomfret Center, Conn.

Dayniss, J. A., Commissioner Louisiana Conservation Commission,
New Orleans, La.

and *10 Dean, Pror, BasHrorp, Columbia University, New York
City.

Dean, Hersert D., Superintendent State Hatchery, Anaconda,
Mont.

DeBaca, Trinipap C., State Fish and Game Warden, Santa Fe,
N. Mex.

Decrorr, Wiit1AM, Board of Commissioners State Bureau of Shell
Fisheries, Keyport, N. J.

Denison, A. P., Annona, Texas.

DeNyse, Wasuincton J., Gravesend Beach, Borough of Brooklyn,
New

DeRocuer, Jas. D., U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, Nashua, N. H.

DePuy, Henry F., 32 W. 40th St., New York City.

Detwitrr, Joun Y., Honorary President Florida Fish Commis-
sion, New Smyrna, Fla.

Dickerson, Freeman B., Detroit, Mich.

Dickinson, F. H., 131 State St., Boston, Mass.

Dickinson, P. A., State Fish Hatchery, Roxbury, Vt.

Due, Witt H., Hearst Building, Chicago, Ill.

Druicx, F. F., 8 Long Wharf, Boston, Mass.

Drysmore, A. H., U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, St. Johnsbury, Vt.

Doner, Lestrt G., 71 Lexington St., Auburndale, Mass.

Dominy, JEREMIAH M., South Haven, N. Y.

DossMANN, Laurent J., 611 Maison Blanche Building, New Or-
leans, La.

Dovetas, W. B., St. Paul, Minn.

Downey, Ben O., 623 Manchester St., Lexington, Ky.

Downine, S. W., U.S. Bureau of Fisheries, Put-in Bay, Ohio.
Doyire, Henry, Vancouver, B. C.

Drew, S. S., South Cle Elum, Wash.

Duntap, I. H., U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, Washington, D. C.

Dorxin, D. L., Minnesota Fish and Game Commission, Frazee,
Minn.

Eaton, Howarp, Wolf, Wyo.

Exserty, H. B., Womelsdorf, Pa.

Epwarps, Vinau N., U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, Woods Hole, Mass.
Exxiorr, Cuarves C., 851 Center St., Elgin, III.

10
10
14
714
#710
713
Ala

792
*00
713
ws
Alia

“13

List of Members 233

Emgopy, Gro. C., Asst. Prof. of Agqiculture, Cornell University,
Ithaca, N. Y.

Encersrecut, P. J., Thomasville, Colo.

Enorert, ANprEw, Castalia, O.

Estes, B. E., 64 Ames Bldg., Boston, Mass.

Evans, Ketty, Commissioner of Game and Fisheries, 64 Welling-
ton St., Toronto, Canada.

EvermMann, Dr. Barton W., Director of the Museum, California
Academy of Sciences, San Francisco, Calif.

Evermann, J. W., Assistant General Manager Texas and Pacific -
Railway, Dallas, Texas.

Fassett, H. C., U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, Washington, D. C.

Feartnc, Daniet B., Board of Inland Fisheries Commissioners,
Newport, R. I.

Fearinc, Mrs. D. B., Newport, R. I.

Frick, Joun A., Sandusky, Ohio.

Fenn, E. Harr, Weathersfield, Conn.

Frievp, Dr. Grorck W., Chairman Commissioners on Fisheries and
Game, Sharon, Mass.

Fretp, Pror. Irvine A., Clark College, Worcester, Mass.

Firxins, B. G., U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, Northville, Mich.

Fintey, W. L., 806 Yeon Building, Portland, Ore.

Fisner, Joun F., Chapinville, Conn.

FiercHer, Emery L., Ely, Nev.

Fryrisuers’ Crus, 36 Piccadilly, W. London, England.

Forzterr, Ricuarp E., Detroit Zoological Society, Palmer Build-
ing, Detroit, Mich.

Foor, Francis D., 42 Florentine Gardens, Springfield, Mass.

Forses, Dr. S. A., University of Illinois, Urbana, Ill.

Forsytu, 1157 The Rookery, Chicago, Ill.

Fortmann, Henry F., 1007 Gough St., San Francisco, Cal.

Foster, Freverick J., U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, Washington, D. C.

Founp, Wm. A., Department of Marine and Fisheries, Ottawa,
Canada.

Fowter, C. F., Waterloo, Iowa.

Fow.er, Kennetu, 1 Fulton Market, New York City.

FRrENzEL, A. B., 1540 Sherman Ave., Denver, Col.

Fourier, Atrrep E., U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, Northville, Mich.

FuLierton, SaAmvet F., 218 South Avon St., St. Paul, Minn.
Fourzterron, Wir11am Ross, St. Paul, Minn.

Gacte, W. H., Middlesboro, Ky.

Garin, Homer K., 148 Michigan Ave., Chicago, Il.

GammMeter, JoHN R., Portage Path, Akron, O.

Garceton, Wm. F., 405 Sears Bldg., Boston, Mass.

Garpner, Mrs. Cuartes C., The Cliffs, Newport, R. I.

GarpNner, Joun W., U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, Concrete, Wash.

Garrietp, G. H., Massachusetts Commission on Fisheries and
Game, Brockton, Mass.

Gavirr, W. S., Lyons, N. Y.

Geer, E. Hart, Secretary State Commission of Fisheries and Game,
Hadlyme, Conn.

Gerry, Prrer G., M. C., Newport, R. I.

Gerry, Rosert L., 258 Broadway, New York City.

Grsericu, L. A., Pres. Missouri State Fish Commission, St. Louis,
Mo.

Getz, Norman, Corry, Pa.

234

05
10
712
10
12
08
713
713
713
qe
713
710
710
03
10

"14
10

LE
713

American Fisheries Society

Grsss, Cuaries E., U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, East Orland, Me.

Grsson, Antonius, Port Monmouth, N. J.

Gisson, ArrHur, 676 Belvedere Bldg., Memphis, Tenn.

Grtpoy, Jonn W., 707 Marshall Ave., St. Paul, Minn.

Girson, ArtHur, 124 S. Main St., Memphis, Tenn.

Giennan, J. J., U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, Washington, D. C.

Gorrin, Rozert A., U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, Woods Hole, Mass.
GoopsrEED, L.. B., Boston, Mass.

Goopwin, O. C., Peace Dale, R. I.

Gourvit1tE, J. H., 11 T Wharf, Boston, Mass.

Grauam, E. A., Berkeley, Taunton, R. F. D., Mass.

Granuam, Georce H., Massachusetts Commission on Fisheries and
Game, 423 Main St., Springfield, Mass.

Grater, Cuaries B., U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, Yes Bay, Alaska.

Gray, Grorce M., Woods Hole, Mass.

Greene, Dr. Cuas. W., University of Missouri, 814 Virginia Ave.,
Columbia Mo.

GREENE, JoHN V., U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, Washington, D. C.

GreEeNtEAF, Georce W., U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, West Booth-
bay Harbor, Me.

Gretuer, E. T., Chief Deputy Commissioner, Missouri State Game
and Fish Department, 1318 Pendleton Ave., St. Louis, Mo.

Guerin, THeorpnite, Treas. R. I. Commission of Fisheries, Woon-
socket, R. I.

Guptit, Gro L., Myrick’s, Mass.

Haas, Wir11am, Pennsylvania Fish Commission, Spruce Creek, Pa.

Haun, E. E., U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, Boothbay Harbor, Me.

Harey, Cares, Fulton Market, New York City.

Harter, Lawrence, 637 S. Main St., Akron, Ohio.

Hampercer, Joun, State Fishery Commission, Erie, Pa.
Hancock, W. K., U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, Yes Bay, via Ketchi-
kan, Alaska.

Hanxinson, T. L., Charleston, Il.

Hansen, Ferpinanp, Russian Caviar Co., 170 Chambers St., New
York City.

Hansen, G., Osceola, Wis.

Hansen, P. H., 446 Commercial National Bank Bldg., Chicago, Ill.

Harriman, Averit, Arden, N. Y.

Harris, Frep N., Mound City Engraving Co., St. Louis, Mo.

Harron, L. G., U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, Washington, D. C.
Hart, W. O., 134 Carondelet St., New Orleans, La.

Hartiey, R. M., 560 Bullitt Building, Philadelphia, Pa.

HartTMANN, Putt, Erie, Pa.

Haveruii, A. D., Fox, Ill.

2 Haviranp, James W., Colorado Fish and Game Commission, Den-

ver, Colo.

Hay, Pror. W. P., Kensington, Md.

Hayrorp, Cuartes O., Supt. State Fish Hatchery, Hackettstown,
N. J.

Hayrorp, Dr. Ernest L., 2301 Monroe St., Chicago, II.

Hayrorp, Rozgerr E., De Bruce, N. Y.

Haynes, Epwarp M., U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, White Sulphur
Springs, W. Va.

Hem, L. C., Marine, Ill.

Hemran, A. J., Barberton, Ohio.

Hemineway, E. D., 123 Rochelle Ave., Wissahickon, Phila., Pa.
Hensuaryt Dr. James A., U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, Tupelo, Miss.

10

*03
713
ca la

79
713

"12
08

List of Members 235

Herrick, Prov. Francis Hosarr, Adelbert College, Cleveland, Ohio.
Herrick, Geo. H., Attleboro, Mass.

Herrick, Dr. W. P., 56 East 53d St., New York City.

Hiceins, Arr. S., 142 Atlantic Ave., Boston, Mass.

a a SamvueL F., U. S. Fisheries Laboratory, Beaufort,
Hriwnricus, Henry, Jr., Keystone Fish Co., Erie, Pa.

ee Frank E., Supt. State Fish Hatchery, East Sandwich,

ass.

Hosarrt, T. D., Pampa, Texas.

Horrses, Ervin J., 195 Ash St., Waltham, Mass.

Horrses, G. Raymonp, U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, Woods Hole,
Mass.

Ho.pen, H. S., Syracuse, N. Y.

Hopper, Greorce L., U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, Baird, Cal.

Hosseixvus, Berr C., Creede, Colo.

Hover, Hersert, Germantown, N. Y.

Howarp, ArruHur D., Ph. D., Scientific Assistant, U. S. Bureau
of Fisheries, Fairport, Ia.

Howes, Exisan S., U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, Woods Hole, Mass.

Hoxsiz, F. D., Superintendent American Fish Culture Company,
Caroline, R. I.

Hvussarp, Waxpo F., U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, Nashua, N. H.

Hueues, Hon. W. H., Board of Fish Commissioners, 221 Wain-
right Building, St. Louis, Mo.

Hummet, Wiizi1am P., Colorado Fish and Game Commission, Den-
ver, Colo.

Hunsaker, W. J., Board of State Fish Commissioners, Saginaw,
Mich.

Hunt, W. T., West Chester, Pa.

Huntsman, A. G., Ph.D., Asst. Prof. of Biology, University of
Toronto, Toronto, Canada.

Houruscet, H. F., East Freetown, Mass.

Hussakor, Dr. Louis, American Museum of Natural History,
New York City.

Hustep, James D., Denver, Colo.

Incatts, Geo. M., 124 Commerce St., Boston, Mass.
Inx, Cuartes, 434 East Market St., Akron, Ohio.

Jenninos, G. E., Fishing Gazette, 203 Broadway, New York City.

JEWETT, STEPHEN S., 614 Main St., Laconia, N. H.

Jounson, E. H., Sabattis, N. Y.

Jounson, Dr. F. M., 43 Tremont St., Boston, Mass.

Jounson, Mrs. F. M., 43 Tremont St., Boston, Mass.

Jounson, Henry J., 205 N. Union St., Chicago, IIL.

Jounson, JAmes G., R. I. Commission of Inland Fisheries, River-
side, R. I.

Jounson, O. J., Board of Game and Fish Commissioners, Glen-
wood, Minn.

Jounson, R. S., U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, Washington, D. C.

Jounston, Cassius A., Hoosick Falls, N. Y.

Jounston, Epwarp C., U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, Washington,
Dyes

Jounston, S. M., Union Wharf, Boston, Mass.

Jones, E. Lester, U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey, Washington,
DEC;

Jones, Lomparp C., Falmouth, Mass.

Jones, Tuos. S., Louisville, Ky.

236 American Fisheries Society

Jorpan, Dr. Davin Srarr, Stanford University, Cal.
Jostyn, C. D., 200 Fifth Ave. (Suite 840), New York City.

Kavanaucu, W. P., Bay City, Mich.

Kersecxer, A. G., U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, Erwin, Tenn.

Keir, W. M., Tuxedo Park, N. Y.

Ketry, H. L., Jr., Oregon City, Ore.

Kemmenicu, Josern, U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, Washington, D. C.

Kenparzt, Dr. Wirtiam C., U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, Washing-
ton; Dac

Kent, Epwin C., Tuxedo Club, Tuxedo Park, N. Y.

Kenyon, A. W., Usquepaugh, R. I.

Kitgorn, Joun R., Cape Vincent, N. Y.

Kinney, M. J., 510 Corbett Bldg., Portland, Oregon.

KisTerBocK, JostaH, JR., 3824 Spruce St., Philadelphia, Pa.

Kirrrepce, BENJAMIN R., Carmel, N. Y.

Kyicut, Dr. Avcustus S., 1- Madison Ave., New York City.

Kwnicut, H. J., Alaska Packers’ Association, San Francisco, Calif.

Kopprin, Puirip, Jr., Missouri Fish Commission, Forest Park, St.
Louis, Mo. ;

Krarker, Cart, 1725 N. 7th St., Philadelphia, Penn.

Lampson, G. H., U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, Baird, Cal.

LaNcEFIELD, Donaxtp E., Box 733, Leavenworth, Wash.

Lanp, S. E., Department of Game and Fish, Denver, Colo.

Laumen, Ferix A., U. S. Bureau of Fisheries) Mammoth Springs,
Ark.

Lay, Cuaries, Sandusky, Ohio.

Leacn, G. C., U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, Yes Bay, via Ketchikan,
Alaska.

Leavitt, Percy W., P.O. Box 374, Akron, Ohio.

Ler, Harry S., 374 Washington St., Boston, Mass.

Ler, W. McDonatp, Commissioner of Fisheries, Irvington, Va.

Lempxey, Watter I., Woodward Bldg., Washington, D. C.

Lewis, Cartes E., Chamber of Commerce, Minneapolis, Minn.

Linpaut, Sern H., 7732 Chauncey Ave., Chicago, Ill.

Linton, Dr. Epwin, Washington and Jefferson College, Washing-
ton, Pa.

Livincston, E. J., 19 Boston Fish Pier, Boston, Mass.

Locuer, Wmn., Kalamazoo, Mich.

Locke, E. F., U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, Gloucester, Mass.

Lorscu, H. C., Colorado Springs, Colo.

Lowe, Carteton W., U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, Fairport, Iowa.

Lyvett, Dwicut, Michigan Fish Commission, Comstock Park, Mich,

Lyvett, Mrs. Dwicur, Comstock Park, Mich.

Masie, Cuartes H., Maywood, N. J
MacCatium, G. A., M.D., 981 Madison Ave., New York, N. Y.
McDonatp, Cart K., U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, Neosho, Mo.

| McDonatp, E. B., Liggett and Myers Tobacco Co., St. Louis, Mo.

McDoveat, J. M., Gunnison, Colo.

Mctntyre, Doveras N., Deputy Commissioner of Fisheries of
British Columbia, Parliament Bldg., Victoria, B. C.

McLain, W. S., Bellefourche, S. Dak.

McReynouvs, B. B., Water Superintendent, Colorado Springs,
Colo.

Mauonr, A. H., U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, Quilcene, Wash.
Mantuory, Cuarzes, Port Chester, N. Y.

712
"10
"97
Aili
ANT
98
98
99
06

712
713
700
14
’00
O04,
“LL
14
ali
"13
712

99
“13
Ut
Al

02
08

10
92
710

wIS
13
"13
13
04
14
05
10
715
"92
10
04
13
10

99
10

*08
10
"13
"12
‘14

List of Members 237

Matone, Eveensz, State Fish Hatchery, Henderson, Colo.

Mawnnrexp, Geo. N., Indianapolis, Ind.

Manton, Dr. W. P., 32 Adams Ave., West, Detroit, Mich.

Marporr, H. F., 4068 Olive St., St. Louis, Mo.

Marine, Dr. Davin, Western Reserve University, Cleveland, Ohio.

Marks, H. H., Sault Ste. Marie, Mich.

Marks, J. P., Michigan Fish Commission, Paris, Mich.

MarsH, M. C., 113 High St., Buffalo, N. Y.

Marty, Joun M., Minnesota Fish and Game Association, St. Paul,
Minn. ;

Mason, C. C., Hermit, Colo.

Maruewson, E. P., Anaconda, Mont.

Maruewson, G. T., Thompsonville, Conn.

May, Jacos, 750 Exchange Bldg., St. Louis, Mo.

Meap, Pror. A. D., Brown University, Providence, R. I.

Meenan, W. E., 422 Dorset St., Mt. Airy, Philadelphia, Pa.

Meents, R. R., President Illinois Fish Commission, Ashkum, III.

Mercer, Jesse E., U. S. Biological Survey, Washington, D. C.

Merrinew, Percy T., Neosho, Mo.

Merritt, Arruur, Wilkinsonville, Mass.

Merritt, Berrram G., Illinois Fish Conservation Society, Hins-
dale, Ill.

Merritt, M. E., U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, St. Johnsbury, Vt.

Mersuon, W. B., Saginaw, Mich.

Meyer, Gustav J. T., 829-831 South Delaware St., Indianapolis, Ind.

Mires, Geo. W., State Commissioner of Fisheries and Game, In-
dianapolis, Ind.

Mitier, Franx, Ohio Fish and Game Commission, Put-in Bay,
Ohio.

Miter, Franx M., President Board of Commissioners for the
Protection of Birds, Game and Fish, 605 Maison Blanche Bldg.,
New Orleans, La.

Mriizerr, Arruvur L., Gloucester, Mass.

Mitts, G. T., Chairman State Fish Commission, Carson City, Nev.

Miner, Roy W., American Museum of Natural History, New York
City.

Mize. Samu. J., M.D., 180 Marlboro St., Boston, Mass.

Monroe, Oris D., Supt. State Fish Hatchery, Palmer, Mass.

Monroe, Wmn., Comstock Park, Mich. ETAOIN SHRDU

Moore, ArreD, 618 American Bldg., Philadelphia, Pa.

Moore, Dr. H. F., U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, Washington, D. C.

Moore, Joun D., State Conservation Commission, Albany, N. Y.

Morcuer, Grorce, London, Ohio.

Morcan, Won. E., U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, Edenton, N. C.

Moreutis, Dr. Serius, 948 Trinity Ave., New York City.

Morretzt, Daniet, Hartford, Conn.

Morrit1, J. P., Verdi, Nev.

Morris, Dr. Roserr T., 616 Madison Ave., New York City.

Morris, Jas. D., 324 W. 14th St., Indianapolis, Ind.

Morse, Wm. R., Manager International Fisheries Company, Ta-
coma, Wash.

Morton, W. P., Providence, R. I.

Moser, Captain Jerrerson F., General Superintendent Alaska

. Packers’ Association, San Francisco, Cal.

Mowsray, Louis L., New York Aquarium, New York City.

Monty, M. G., 1006 Yeon Building, Portland, Ore.

Morrny, C. H., Sabattis, N. Y.

Muscrove, W. E., Leadville, Colo.

Myers, I. S., 604 Norwood St., Akron, O.

13
97

95
13
00
712
aS
"15
715
10

712

"12
04.

04
"15
07
"11
713

02

Au
05
10
710
’09
712

710
"12
ak
"11
09
04

American Fisheries Society

Neat, Watrter I., Maine Fish and Game Commission, Augusta, Me.

and *10 Nerpiincer, Puri, 2225 Emmons Ave., Sheepshead Bay,
Ne OY:

Nesey, Cuarites H., Copake, N. Y.

Nevins, James, Superintendent Wisconsin Fish Commission, Madi-
son, Wis.

Newcoms, Wiiuiam, Tenafly, N. J.

Newman, Epwin A., President Aquarium Fisheries Co., 4305 8th
St., N. W., Washington, D. C.

Newport Free Lrsrary, Newport, R. I.

Newport Hisroricat Society, Newport, R. I.

Nicott, Donaxp, 145 Bowery, New York City.

Nicnoxts, Joun Treapwett, American Museum of Natural History,
New York City.

Nicutincate, H. W., U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, Washington, D. C.

Oaxes, Wm. H., 24 Union Park St., Boston, Mass.

O’Brien, W. J., Supt. of Hatcheries, Nebraska Game and Fish
Commission, Gretna, Neb.

Orrusun, T. O., Secy. Minnesota Fish and Game Commission,
Glenwood, Minn.

Ocrtviz, E. L., Secy. Minnesota State Game and Fish Commis-
sion, South St. Paul, Minn.

Onace, Dr. Justus, St. Paul, Minn.

O’Hara, Josepu, Pleasant Mount, Pa.

O’Matiey, Henry, U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, Oregon City, Ore.

Onverponk, Cuaruss S., 215 E. Eleventh Ave., Denver, Colo.

OppENWEYER, JoHN W., Sorrento, La.

Orcuarp Laxe Cuius, Grooville, N. Y.

Oszporn, A. L., Wisconsin Fish Commission, Oshkosh, Wis.

Ospurn, Pror. Raymonp C., Connecticut College, New London,
Conn.

Oris, Spencer, Railway Exchange, Chicago, Ill.

Parmer, Marsuarzt G., 96 East Ave., Kankakee, III.

Patmer, Dr. TueEopore S., United States Department of Agricul-
ture, Washington, D. C.

ParKkuurst, Hon. C. Frank, 54 Barnes St., Providence, R. I.

Parsons, JouHn S., State Commissioner of Fisheries, Accomac, Va.

ParcuinG, Frep, Loring, Alaska.

Patrick, W. E., Supt. of State Fish Hatcheries, Denver, Colo.

Partrerson, A. G., Kentucky Fish and Game Commission, Pine-
ville, Ky.

Paxton, ae B., Board of State Fish and Game Commis-
sioners, Cincinnati, Ohio.

Pety, Geo. W., 520 16th St., Denver, Colo.

Propies, Hiram, New Providence, Pa.

Perce, H. Wueeter, 904 Webster Bldg., Chicago, IIL.

Pew, Joun J., Gloucester, Mass.

Prievcer, J. E., Akron, Ohio.

Prerce, Henry L., Colorado Fish and Game Commission, Denver,
Colo.

Prxxerton, J. A., Superintendent State Hatchery, Glenwood, Minn.

Por, S. S., Colorado Fish and Game Commission, Denver, Colo.
Poort, Garvner, 126 Atlantic Ave., Boston, Mass.

Ponoauatine Fisu Association, 233 Dock St., Philadelphia, Pa.
Pomeroy, Gro. E., Toledo, Ohio.

Pore, T. E. B., Milwaukee Public Museum, Milwaukee, Wis.

06
709
712
09

10
08
08

03
710
"15
05
84

*93
"13
13
09
713
93

718
713

712
"15
98
"15
03
712
"13
13
99

10
03

10

98
"13
98
el!
10
"11
09
14
“13
"13

"13

"05
13

List of Members 239

Porter, Ricuarp, Board of State Fish Commissioners, Paris, Mo.

Postar, Frep., State Board of Fish Commissioners, Detroit, Mich.

Porrer, L. A., Deputy Warden, Florence, Colo.

Power, D. H., President State Board of Fish Commissioners,
Suttons Bay, Mich.

Power, Mrs. D. H., Suttons Bay, Mich.

Prarr, Dr. JosepH Hype, State Geologist, Chapel Hill, N. C.

Prince, Pror. E. E., Dominion Commissioner of Fisheries, Otta-
wa, Canada.

Race, E. E., U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, Green Lake, Me.

Rapcuirre, Lewis, U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, Washington, D. C.

Ranotetr, Eimer P., 16 Boston Fish Pier, Boston, Mass.

Rankin, J. F., South Charleston, Ohio.

Rarusun, Dr. Ricwarp, Assistant Secretary Smithsonian Institu-
tion, Washington, D. C.

Ravenet, W. ve C., U. S. National Museum, Washington, D. C.

Raye, W. H., Sealshipt Oyster Co., Boston, Mass.

Repwoop Liprary, Newport, R. I.

Reep, Dr. H. D., Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y.

Rewet, F. K., Pleasant Mount, Pa.

ReicHarp, Pror. Jacosp E., University of Michigan, Ann Arbor,
Mich.

Reynonps, Jas. A., U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, Woods Hole, Mass.

Runes, Watiace D., Foreman, State Fish Hatchery, Linlithgo,
Ne Y:

Ressinc, Cuartes A., Henderson, Colo.

Ricu, E. A,, Co., 4 Boston Fish Pier, Boston, Mass.

Ricuarps, G. H., Sears Building, Boston, Mass.

Ricuarpson, Rosert E., State Biological Laboratory, Havana, III.

Ripper, Rosert, Bayfield, Wis.

Riser, Dr. F. L., Henderson, Colo.

Roacu, Epwin R., 518 Hamilton Bldg., Akron, Ohio.

Rosirps, Geo. L., 712 Main St., Kansas City, Mo.

Roserts, A. D., Auditor Inland Fisheries Commission, Woon-
socket, R. I.

Roserts, B. H., 1413 New York Ave., Washington, D. C.

Rosrnson, Ropert K., U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, White Sulphur
Springs, W. Va.

Rocers, James B., U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, Boothbay Harbor,
Me.

Rocers, J. M., Plaza Hotel, Chicago, Ill.

Rose, W. G., Grand Lake Stream, Me.

Rosenserc, Apert, Kalamazoo, Mich.

Rots, E. E., U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, Homer, Minn,

Rowe, Henry C., Groton, Conn.

Rucxman, Cuas. W., U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, Homer, Minn.

Runion, H. P., Bankleman, Neb.

Russett, Geo. S., Bank of Commence of N. A., Cleveland, O.

Russert, J. R., U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, Birdsview, Wash.

Ryan, Carvin D., U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, Concrete, Wash.

Sacus, Jas. G., Pres. Kentucky Game and Fish Commission, 6th
and Jefferson Sts., Louisville, Ky.

Sarrorp, W. H., Missouri Fish Commission, St. Joseph, Mo.

Santa Barsara Pusiic Lrerary, Santa Barbara, Calif.

240

712

a3
A
15
00
713
10
*00
710

3

American Fisheries Society

ScuakFr_e, Ernest, Secretary California Fish and Game Commis-
sion, San Francisco, Cal.

Scuteicuer, R. O., Supt. State Fish Hatchery, Story, Wyoming.

Scumirr, Waxpo, U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, Washington, D. C.

ScHoonmMAKER, Byron C., De Bruce, N. Y.

Seacte, Grorce A., U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, Wytheville, Va.

SEAGRAVE, ArNoxD, Woonsocket, R. I.

Seat, Wn. P., Delair, N. J.

Sexters, M. G., 1518 Sansom St., Philadelphia, Pa.

SuHesiey, Frank A., Superintendent Santa Cruz County Hatchery,
Brookdale, Cal.

See Vicror E., Dept. Zool., University of Illinois, Urbana,
Ill.

SHERWIN, GeraLpD, Windsor, Vt.

SHerwin, H. A., 100 Canal St., Cleveland, Ohio.

Suretps, G. O., 1061 Simpson St., New York City.

Suinn, James A., Department of Game and Fish, Denver, Colo.

Suira, Austin F., U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, Homer, Minn.

Suiras, Geo., 3d; Stoneleigh Court, Washington, D. C.

Suore, S. P., 941 Lawrence Ave., Chicago, Ill.

Sreurtn, P. G., Director Central Swedish Fish Hatchery Co.,
Kloten, Sweden.

Simmons, Watter C., Providence, R. I.

Sinciteton, J. Ernest, Woonsocket, R. I.

SINGLETON, JAMES H., Woonsocket, R. I.

Stave, Grorce P., 309 Broadway, P. O. Box 283, New York City.

Smatru, Hersert C., White Cloud, Mich.

Smiru, Dr. Hucu M., U. S. Commissioner of Fisheries, Washing-
ton; DiC:

SmirH, Lewis H., Algona, Iowa.

Smitrn, W. A., 750 Railway Exchange Bldg., St. Louis, Mo.

Snyper, J. P., U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, Bozeman, Mont.

SourHatt, Jonn B., U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, Fairport, Iowa.

Sparcur, Rozert L., Chief Clerk Colorado Fish and Game Com-
mission, Denver, Colo.

Speaks, Joun C., Chief Warden Fish and Game Commission, Co-
lumbus, Ohio.

Spencer, F., Provo, Utah.

Spens.tey, Catvert, Mineral Point, Wis.

Sperry, E. P., 126 South Euclid Ave., Oak Park, III.

Strack, F. Greorce, “Kamp Kill Kare,” Raquette Lake, N. Y.

SrapLetTon, J. J., Green Lake, Me.

Sraprteton, M. F., U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, Manchester, Iowa.

Srarr, W. J., State Board of Fish Commissioners, Eau Claire, Wis.

Streetz, G. F., Room 604, 18 E. 41st St.. New York City.

Srerett, W. G., State Game, Fish and Oyster Commission, Port
Lavaca, Texas.

Stevens, Arruur F., 227 West Grand St., Elizabeth, N. J.

Stevenson, Cuas. H., 511 Moffat Bldg., Detroit, Mich.

Srivers, D. Gay, Butte Anglers Association, Butte, Mont.

Stone, Dr. Wixtarp J., 3 Harold Arms, Toledo, Ohio.

Srory, Joun A., U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, Green Lake, Me.

Srorz, Martin, 1132 Land Title Building, Philadelphia, Pa.

SrrananHan, J. J., Bullochville, Ga.

SrrincHam, Emerson, U. S., Fisheries Laboratory, Fairport, Ia.

Srruven, Cras. M., 114 S. Frederick St., Baltimore, Md.

SrryKer, Tos. H., Rome, N. Y.

Sunuivan, Watter E., Marquette University School of Medicine,
Milwaukee, Wis.

04
tL

710
10

04

713
99
06
13
00
00
08
713

14
*) 13

10
92

okt

"14
bad 01 |

si les:
13
99

98
13

713

]]

09
#7 4,
10
713
710

Alu
14
00
"12
09

06
96
ze
"14

List of Members 241

Sursur, Tstappevus, U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, Homer, Minn.

Swirt, H. F., Swift-Arthur Packing Co., 16 Colman Dock, Seattle,
Wash.

Sworp, C. B., New Westminster, British Columbia, Canada.

Syivester, Ricuarp, Municipal Building, Washington, D. C.

Tarsor, Henry, Interstate Commerce Commission, Washington,
1D je C8

Tuaw, Avcusr B., 1421 Shelby St., Indianapolis, Ind.

Tuayer, W. W., U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, Northville, Mich.

Tuomas, W. H., U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, Fairport, Iowa.

Tuomas, Aprian, 2517 Hanover Ave., Richmond, Va.

Tuomrson, W. P., 123 N. Fifth St., Philadelphia, Pa.

Tuomrson, W. T., U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, Bozeman, Mont.

Tuomson, G. H., Estes Park, Colo.

sare A. K., Secretary Alaska Packers Assn., San Francisco,

alif.

Tirtman, Rozert T., Beacon Paper Co., St. Louis, Mo.

Timson, Wm., Vice-President, Alaska Packers Assn., San Fran-
cisco, Calif.

Tierney, Jas. N., Roxbury, Vt.

Tircoms, Joun W., Commissioner of Fisheries and Game, Lyndon-
ville, Vt.

Tonevr, Leonarp M., U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, Washington,
DEC:

Torrey, Pror. Harry Bear, Reed College, Portland, Ore.

and 712 Townsenpb, Dr. Cuartes H., Director New York Aquarium,
New York, N. Y.

Trexter, Cot. Harry C., Allentown, Pa.

Triccs, Cas. W., 218 N. Canal St., Chicago, Ill.

Tusss, Frank A., U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, Mammoth Spring,
Ark.

Tuxian, Evcenrt A., Box 1267, New Orleans, La.

Turner, Cuas. C., Judge Kentucky Court of Appeals, Frankfort,
Ky.

vow Jas. W., Connecticut Fish and Game Commission, Hart-
ford, Conn.

Vautetre, Luciano H., Chief of Section of Fish Culture, 827
Rivadavia, Buenos Aires, Argentina.

Van Arta, Crype H., U .S. Bureau of Fisheries, Leadville, Colo.

Vanvercrirt, H. D., 1728 New Hampshire Ave., Washington, D. C.

Van Sicxien, F. W., 36 Spear St., San Francisco, Cal.

VarvDEN, Geo. S., Paris, Ky.

Vues, Burarne S., Inland Fish and Game Commissioner, Augusta,
Me.

Viauesney, J. H., State Game and Fish Warden, Belington, W. Va.

Voce, J. C., 2203 Pearl St., Philadelphia, Pa.

Vocetsanc, ALExanver T., 20 Montgomery St., San Francisco, Cal.

Voct, James H., Nevada Fish Commission, Carson City, Nev.

Von Lencerxe, J., 200 Fifth Ave., New York City.

Wapvett, Joun, Grand Rapids, Mich.

Waker, Bryant, Detroit, Mich.

Wanker, Dr. H. T., 210 Main St., Denison, Texas.

Wattace, Joun H., Jr., State Game and Fish Commissioner,
Montgomery, Ala.

10
06

99

American Fisheries Society

Watticu, Craupius, U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, Concrete, Wash.

> Warrers, C. H., Cold Spring Harbor, N. Y.

Warp, Pror. H. B., University of Illinois, Urbana, II.

2 Warp, J. Quincy, Executive Agent, Kentucky Game and Fish

Commission, Frankfort, Ky.

Wasusurn, Pror. F. L., 1112 Sixth St. S. E., Minneapolis, Minn.

Warts, A. E., 9 T Wharf, Boston, Mass.

Wess, W. Sewarp, 44th St. and Vanderbilt Ave., New York City.

Wesrr, E. D., P. O. Box 81, Littleton, Colo.

Wesster B. O., Wisconsin Fish Commission, Madison, Wis.

Weir, Warrer G., Majestic Bldg., Chicago, IIL.

Weis, Carr. Jas. E., St. Joseph, Mo.

Weisu, Wm. W., Scientific Assistant U. S. Bureau of Fisheries,
Washington, D. C.

WENNERBERG, Henry P., 23 Boston Fish Pier, Boston, Mass.

Wentworth, E. E., U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, Duckabush, Wash.

WESsTERFELD, Car, 854 Mills Bldg., San Francisco, Cal.

WESTERMANN, J. H., Harrietta, Mich.

Wuee Ler, CHaries Stetson, Union Trust Building, San Francisco,
Cal.

Wuee ter, Frep. M., 546 Fulton St., Chicago, Ill.

Wuiraker, ANDREW R., State Fishery Commission, Phoenixville, Pa.

Wuire, R. Tyson, 320 Bridge Street, Brooklyn, N. Y.

Wuitman, Epwarp C., Canso, Nova Scotia, Canada.

Wuitman, Warp anv Lee Co., 9 Boston Fish Pier, Boston, Mass.

Wuitesive, R. B., 204 Sellwood Bldg., Duluth, Minn.

Witsor, H. O., 235 Third St., Philadelphia, Pa.

Witiarp, CHartes W., President Inland Fisheries Commission,
Westerly, R. I.

Witson, C. H., Glen Falls, N. Y.

Wiutson, J. S. P. H., Chairman, Board of Inland Game and Fish
Commissioners, Auburn, Me.

Wincuester, Grant E., Forest, Fish and Game Commission, Bemus
Point; N.Y:

Winn, Dennis, U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, Oregon City, Ore.

Winter, J. H., Alaska Packers Assn., San Francisco, Calif.

Wirrs, S. P., U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, Duluth, Minn.

Wisner, J. Nexson, Director, Institute de Pesca del Uruguay,
Punta del Esto, Uruguay.

Woxters, Cuas. A., Oxford and Marvine Streets, Philadelphia, Pa.

Woxrers, W. B., Wisconsin Fish Commission, Appleton, Wis.

Woop, C. C., Plymouth, Mass.

Woops, Joun P., President, Missouri State Fish Commission, Ist
and Wright Sts., St. Louis, Mo.

Worx, Geraxp, Perkins, Hill, Akron, O.

Wortn, Henry B., U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, Washington, D. C.

Worrn, S. G., U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, Bullochville, Ga.

Worzsure, L., Ketchikan, Alaska.

Wyman, Wiius L., Park Rapids, Minn.

Yerincton, Epwarp B., Board of Fish Commissioners, Carson
City, Nev.

Youne, Carr. Cart C., 2 Mt. Vernon St., Gloucester, Mass.
Younc, Carr. Joun L., Atlantic City, N. J.

ZatsMAN, P. G., Grayling, Mich.

715
*15
715
"5
15
715
715
715
15
15

"15
715
715
"15
715
15
15
"15
15
"15
15
"15
15
15
aS
715
15
"15
715
5
"15
715
"5
"15
"15
"15
715
4S
715
"15
15
a
15

List of Members 243

Appended List of Names Recently Received

Barnes, F. C., Front St., Portland, Ore.

Brrrinc, Dr. A. W., Nat. Canner’s Assn., Washington, D. C.

Brack, C. H., Sunny Point Packing Co., Seattle, Wash.

Boucue_r, E. C., 734 Mills Bldg., San Francisco, Cal.

Burearp, Joun H., Lewis Bldg., Portland, Ore.

Corter, R. E., 112 Market St., San Francisco, Cal.

Dow, Franx P., Tacoma, Wash.

Farisu, R. R., San Francisco, Cal.

Farretz, R. S., 140 Front St., Portland, Ore.

Fempine, J. B., Technical Superintendent, Dept. of Fisheries, To-
ronto, Ontario.

Forses, Rosert, Bellingham, Wash.

Freeman, Miruer, Seattle, Wash.

Giipert, Pror. C. H., Stanford University, Cal.

Guncxet, Witt H., M. and C, Savings Bank, Toledo, O.

Harpy, W. J., 4th and Berry Sts., San Francisco, Cal.

Heron, R., 235 Montgomery St., San Francisco, Cal.

Hoopven, K., Montgomery, Cal.

Hunt, E. W., Sisson, Cal.

Jenxins, Dr. Oxtver P., Stanford University, Cal.

JounstoneE, F. C., Colemen Bldg., Seattle, Wash.

Kennatt, F. P., Farling Bldg., Portland, Ore.

Kenpvati, Neat, Farling Bldg., Portland, Ore.

Kierutrr, C. A., 2605 Fulton St., Berkeley, Cal.

Kirrutrr, T. C., Flat Iron Bldg., San Francisco, Cal.

KLEVENHUSEN, F., Altoona, Wash.

Linpvensercer, B., Smith Bldg., Seattle, Wash.

Lowett, Mansrietp, San Francisco, Cal.

Mappen, F. H., 2021 Smith Bldg., Seattle, Wash.

Marriance, Henry, 335 Greenwich St., New York City.

Mrwnor, R., San Francisco, Cal.

Myers, B. D. 461 Market St., San Francisco, Cal.

Scumipt, Curis., Astoria, Wash.

Scumipt, Max, 2nd and Bryant Sts., San Francisco, Cal.

Seaporn, H. G., Tee Harbor Packing Co., Port Blakely, Wash.

Suesitey, W. H., Sisson, Cal.

Sresz, J. F., 430 Battery, San Francisco, Cal.

Srarr, C. D., Lewis Bldg., Portland, Ore.

Surro, ApotpH Newton, 1155 Pine St., San Francisco, Cal.

Trorne, A., 738 Mills Bldg., San Francisco, Cal.

Troyer, N., Astoria Iron Works, Seattle, Wash.

WaxerteLp, L. E., 1310 Smith Bldg., Seattle, Wash.

Weise, Encieserc, Seattle, Wash.

Wetscn, R., Bellingham, Wash.

CONSTITUTION
(As amended to date)
ARTICLE I

NAME AND OBJECT

The name of this Society shall be American Fisheries -
Society. Its object shall be to promote the cause of fish
culture; to gather and diffuse information bearing upon
its practical success, and upon all matters relating to the
fisheries; the uniting and encouraging of all interests of
fish culture and the fisheries, and the treatment of all
questions regarding fish, of a scientific and economic
character.

ARTICLE II

MEMBERS

Any person shall, upon a two-thirds vote and the pay-
ment of two dollars, become a member of this Society.
In case members do not pay their fees, which shall be
two dollars per year after first year, and are delin-
quent for two years, they shall be notified by the treas-
urer, and if the amount due is not paid within a month
thereafter, they shall be, without further notice, dropped
from the roll of membership. Any person can be made
an honorary or a corresponding member upon a two-
thirds vote of the members present at any regular
meeting.

The President (by name) of the United States and the
Governors (by name) of the several states shall be hon-
orary members of the Society.

Any person shall, upon a two-thirds vote and the pay-
ment of twenty-five dollars, become a life member of this
Society, and shall thereafter be exempt from all annual
dues.

Any library, sporting or fishing club, society, firm or
corporation may, upon two-thirds vote and the payment

246 American Fisheries Society

of the regular annual fee, become a member of this So-
ciety and entitled to all its publications.

Any person, society, club, firm or corporation, on ap-
proval by the Executive Committee and on payment of
$50,00, may become a Patron of this Society with all the
privileges of a life member, and then shall be listed as
such in all published lists of the Society. The money
thus received shall become a part of the permanent funds
of the Society and the interest alone be used as the So-
ciety shall designate.

ARTICLE III

OFFICERS

The officers of this Society shall be a president and a
vice-president, who shall be ineligible for election to the
same office until a year after the expiration of their term ;
a corresponding secretary, a recording secretary, an as-
sistant recording secretary, a treasurer, and an executive
committee of seven, which, with the officers before
named, shall form a council and transact such business
as may be necessary when the Society is not in session
—four to constitute a quorum.

In addition to the officers above named there shall be
elected annually five vice-presidents who shall be in
charge of the following five divisions or sections:

1. Fish culture.

. Commercial fishing.

. Aquatic biology and physics.
. Angling.

. Protection and legislation.

oO & LL

ARTICLE IV

MEETINGS

The regular meeting of the Society shall be held once a
year, the time and place being decided upon at the pre-
vious meeting, or, in default of such action, by the
executive committee.

Constitution 247
ARTICLE V

ORDER OF BUSINESS

. Call to order by president.
. Roll call of members.
. Applications for membership.
. Reports of officers.
a. President.
b. Secretary.
ce. Treasurer.
d. Vice-Presidents of Divisions.
e. Standing Committees.
5. Committees appointed by the president.
a. Committee of five on nomination of officers
for ensuing year.
b. Committee of three on time and place of next
meeting.
. Auditing committee of three.
. Committee of three on programme.
. Committee of three on publication.
. Committee of three on publicity.
6. Reading of papers and discussion of same.
(Note—in the reading of papers preference
shall be given to the members present.)

7. Miscellaneous business.
8. Adjournment.

th

He OO

mh Oo oO

ARTICLE VI

CHANGING THE CONSTITUTION

The constitution of the Society may be amended, al-
tered or repealed by a two-thirds vote of the members
present at any regular meeting, provided at least fifteen
members are present at said regular meeting.

VoL. XLV No. |
,

TRANSACTIONS

OF 7 THE

AMERICAN
FISHERIES
SOCIETY

DECEMBER, 1915

Published Sianely by the American Fisheries Society
at The Aquarium, New York, N. Y.

Entered as second class matter, December 21, 1914, at the Post Office at NewYork, N. Y.,
under the Act of August 24, 1912.

Che American Fisheries Sorivty

Organized 1870—Incorporated 1910

Officers for 1915-16

PYESUILENTee e es JACOB REIGHARD, Ann Arbor, Mich
Vice-President... GEORGE W. FIELD, Sharon, Mass.
Rec. See..............RAYMOND C. OSBURN, New London, Conn..
Cor. Sec......CHAS. H. TOWNSEND, The Aquarium, N. Y. C.
Treasurer... BSR uk CHAS. W. WILLARD, Westerly, R. I.

Hice-Presidents of Sections
Fish Culture........... DWIGHT LYDELL, Comstock Park, Mich.
Aquatic Biology & Physics, HENRY B. WARD, Urbana, IIl.
Commercial Fishing............ J. F. Moser, San Francisco, Cal.
ANOURG ae oe DANIEL B. FEARING, Newport, R. I.
Protection and Legislation.....T. S. PALMER, Wash., D. C.

Exerutive Conumitter
HENRY O’MALLEY, Seattle, Wash., Chairman; H.
WHEELER PERCE, Chicago, Ill.; N. R. BULLER, Har-
risburg, Pa.; J. QUINCY WARD, Frankfort, Ky.;
ERNEST SCHAEFFLE, San Francisco, Cal.;
JOHN P. Woops, St. Louis, Mo.; E. W.
Cops, St. Paul, Minn.

Committee on Forvign Kelations
GEORGE SHIRAS, Washington, D. C., Chairman; HueH M.
SMITH, Washington, D. C.; E. E. PRINCE,
Ottawa, Canada; GEORGE W.
FIELD, Sharon, Mass.

Commitier on Relations with National and State Governments
HENRY B. WARD, Urbana, IIll., Chairman; WM. C. ADAMS,
Boston, Mass.; M. L. ALEXANDER, New Orleans,
La.; WM. L. FINLEY, Portland Ore; JOHN
W. Titcoms, Lyndonville, Vt.

Publication Committee
TaRLETON H. BEAN BasHrorp DEAN Joun T. Nicuous

Die me te

ae ¥ ie
UG eatme ae
Pade AOL a ile asc Ree

TRANSACTIONS

of the

American Fisheries Society

SLI promote the cause of fish culture; to gather and
diffuse information bearing upon its practical success,
and upon all matters relating to the fisheries; to unite
and encourage all interests of fish culture and the fish-
eries; and to treat all questions of a scientific and eco-
nomic character regarding fish.”

VOLUME XLV, NUMBER 1-4:
1915-1916

Edited by The Recording Secretary
DECEMBER, 1915

Published Quarterly by the Society
NEW YORK.N. Y.

CONTENTS

PAGE
Physiological Changes in Salmons 2254 C. W. Greene 5
PignyvCOuservalion \e4 ec C. M. Blackford 18
Fish Parasites and Public Health............. Edwin Linton 19
Commercial and Sport Fishing... H. W. Perce 29
More About the Paddle-Fish............ M. L. Alexander 34
Ripening Striped Bass. as J. P. Snyder 40
Fish-Farmer in Action..........0000.............. Snapshots by Bux 46

ON SOME QUANTITATIVE
PHYSIOLOGICAL CHANGES IN THE
PACIFIC SALMON DURING THE RUN TO
THE SPAWNING GROUNDS
By Pror. C. W. GREENE,

From the Department of Physiology and Pharmacology,
Laboratory of Physiology, University of Missouri.

Among the anadromous fishes, the various species of
Salmonoids are probably the largest and most important
from an economic point of view. It is now well known
(Evermann), that the Pacific salmon of the different
species of the genus, Oncorhychus, after they reach ma-
turity in the sea and make the run up the rivers to the
spawning grounds in the cold fresh-water streams, in-
variably die after spawning. The Atlantic salmon,
Salmo salar, and the Pacific steelhead, Salmo gairdneri,
are supposed after spawning to return to the sea again
for another period of feeding and development.

It is further well proven by the researches of the
United States Bureau of Fisheries that the species of
Oncorhynchus take no food during the run to the spawn-
ing grounds. The king salmon apparently ceases feed-
ing upon entering the brackish waters in the region of
the mouths of the rivers, and the long run against swift
current and mountain torrents, amounting in the case of
the Columbia River and its tributaries to as much as 700
to 1,000 miles, is made absolutely without food.

During my work I have found that many, if not the
majority, of the individuals of the king salmon enter
fresh water (at least in the Sacramento and the Colum-
bia River basins) at a period when their reproductive
organs are relatively immature. During the run from
the mouths of the rivers to the spawning streams and
the sojourn immediately following, the greater portion
of the mass of the reproductive organs is developed. The
two principal facts, namely (1), the expenditure of the
large amount of energy without external food, and (2),

6 American Fisheries Society

the development of one set of organs at the expense of
material derived from other organs, form a unique bio-
logical experiment in nutrition. The experiment is un-
usually favorable also because of the fact that it is
carried out in nature under conditions that must be as-
sumed to be normal and natural for the animal itself.
The source of the material from which is derived, first,
the energy represented by the journey against the swift
currents of the rivers, and second, the material used in
the construction of the reproductive organs, forms the
basis for the work of which the present brief report is
only a small part.

This problem was attacked many years ago by
Miescher, whose classic work on the Rhine salmon is
well known. Later it was again resumed by Noel-Paton,
working under the auspices of the Scottish Fishery
Board and on the same species, Salmo salar. The Atlan-
tic salmon, however, while it makes the run in fresh
water without food, nevertheless is supposed to live to
return to salt water where it again begins to feed. It
remains to be seen whether or not the changes are as
profound and as exhaustive as are found in the king
salmon of the Pacific.

In 1906, after a series of preliminary studies extend-
ing through three summers, I made an exhaustive col-
lection of samples of king salmon from the Sacramento
River basin, California. This collection began with the
sea-run fish caught while feeding at Monterey Bay and
at Bolinas Bay, California. It included a series of
samples taken from brackish water at Black Diamond
on the Sacramento River, and closed with a similar col-
lection from the spawning grounds of the McCloud River
at the U. S. Fishery at Baird, California.

It is obvious that where marked changes are in prog-
ress in a series of animals upon which comparisons are
drawn, some standard must be chosen as the basis of
this comparison. In the case of the salmon the sup-
posedly mature fish at the feeding grounds just before
entering the fresh water is taken as a standard against

Greene.—Physiological Changes in Salmon 7

which are determined such changes as may have occurred
in specimens from the stations at the head of brackish
water and at the spawning grounds.

Noel-Paton has assumed the rule that similar solids
are to each other as the cubes of similar dimensions. The
dimension assumed to change least in the salmon is that
represented by the length, i. e., the skeleton. If one as--
sumes that the skeletal axis does not change in length
while the various organs are being consumed in the mi-
gration, then the length measurement can safely be taken
as the basis of comparison. My preliminary figures indi-
cate that the method of comparison by the cubes of the
lengths can not apply to the king salmon. Within nar-
row limits the variation in weight is closely proportional
to the length. For the present illustration I have chosen
salmon of nearly uniform lengths, thus eliminating the
errors arising from computation. All have been reduced
to the standard length of 860 millimeters.

A comparison of salmon from the three stations is
made along two lines: First, as regards the changes in
the gross amount of nutritive substances represented by
the weight of the various organs; second, the change in
the percentage composition of the primary chemical con-
stituents of these same organs.

Unquestionably the muscle or flesh of the salmon
forms the great store-house of nutritive material, espec-
ially of the fat. However, the skin, the liver, the diges-
tive organs and probably the skeleton also serve as
supplementary stores of energy-giving material. The
figures representing these changes may be computed
from two points of view. First, from the point of view
of the intrinsic interest of a strictly scientific problem;
second, from the point of view of the commercial, i. e.,
economic value of the food material represented by the
salmon industry.

The individual fishes chosen are two females and one
male from each station, namely, the sea, the head of
brackish water, and the spawning grounds of the Sacra-
mento basin. The comparison is made on the basis of

8 American Fisheries Society

total length, i. e., from the tip of the nose to the base of
the tail. The muscle or edible flesh, representing by far
the greater volume of available nutritive material for
either the fish or for man, is alone presented. The data
include the length, weight, weight of muscle, total dry
substance of muscle and certain percentage relations.
The figures are represented in table I.

In table II it is seen that the average total weight is
actually greater at the Black Diamond Station at the
head of the brackish water, than at Monterey on the
feeding grounds. The former fish are 11% heavier than
the average Monterey standard. On the other hand, the
Baird salmon have dropped in weight to 75% of the
weight of the standard Monterey salmon.

The comparison above is made on the basis of total
weight of the specimens. If the total weight of the
muscle only is taken into consideration, the balance is
still in favor of the Black Diamond salmon. The average
weight is 7,220 gms. for the Black Diamond fish as
against 6,836 gms. for the Monterey fish. This is an
advantage of 105.6% so far as weight goes. At Baird the
weight of the muscle has fallen to 3,311 gms. When the
weight of muscle is taken in comparison with the total
weight of the fish, however, it appears that the muscle
of the Monterey fish weighs 67.8% of the total weight
of the fish, the Black Diamond 64.4%, while the Baird
specimens weigh 44.0%. These figures apply to the gross
mass of the muscle.

When the total dry substance of the muscle is figured
in per cent. of the total (wet) muscle then we have
38.3% for the Monterey fish, 35.7% for the Black Dia-
mond, and 26.0% for the Baird. The weight of the dry
muscle averages in the three cases, 2,616 gms. for the
Monterey fish, 2,581 gms. for the Black Diamond fish
and 682 gms. for the Baird fish.

These last figures, that is the percentage of dry muscle
substance of the total muscle, and the total dry weight
of muscle, bring out one striking comparison between
the Monterey and Black Diamond fish. The point is

SACRAMENTO SALMON

TABLE I.

Preliminary table exhibiting the basis for computation of the commercial and food values of the king salmon from 1. salt water,
2. head of tide water, and from 3. the spawning grounds in the Sacramento Basin.

Locality collected

Salt Water
Monterey Bay
Monterey Bay
Bolinas Bay
Average

Head of tide water

Black Diamond
Black Diamond
Black Diamond
Average

Spawning grounds
Baird

Baird

Baird

Average

No. & Sex

Total
length
tip of nose
to tip of
tail
mm

860
860
906
875

Actual
Length & Weight

Total
Actual
weight

gms.

10,000
10,100
10,700
10,267

10,550
11,150
13,000
11,567

7,650
7,300
8,450
7,800

Weight
reduced to

standard
lenghth

of 860 mm
gms.

(0,1 )

10,080

10,330
11,150
12,056
Un lsa befcf

7,493
7,159
7,942
7,531

Computed to standard length of 860 mm

Weight
of wet

muscle
gms.

7,007
6,554
6,906
6,536

6,643
7,426
7,584
7,220

3,023
3,461
3,449
3,311

Muscle
% of
total

weight

70.1
65.0
63.0
67.8

64.3
66.5
63.0
64.4

40.3
48.3
43.4
44.0

Weight
of muscle
dry
éms.

2,736
2,458
2,625

2,016

2,219
2,710
2,813
2,581

562
779
704
682

Weight of
Dry muscle] nutritive
% of substance
total in % of
weight |total weight
of standard
sea fish
27.3
24.4
25.8
25.9 25.9
25.6
6.8

10 American Fisheries Society

this, while the total mass of the muscle is greater, as
was shown of the total body weight, yet the total mass
of the dry substance has remained almost constant. In
fact, the percentage of dry has dropped slightly, from
25.9% to 23.1%. This, along with the water determina-
tions, shows that the apparent increase in weight of the
Black Diamond fish over the sea forms at Monterey is
not due to an increase by actual growth, but rather is
due to a taking on of water. The substance of the dry
muscle figured in per cent. of the total weight of the fish
falls under that of the standard Monterey salmon by
2.8% as just shown. In the Baird salmon, the dry muscle
is only 9.1% of the total fish. Furthermore, if these
figures be converted into percentages of the standard
weight for the particular lengths selected then they
read: Monterey fish 25.9% of the standard, 25.6% for
the Black Diamond fish, and only 6.8% for the spawners
at Baird.

I have computed the percentage of dry substance of
muscle without making any distinction as to the com-
position of the material. Of course, the actual nutritive
value of the salmon flesh is found in the dry substance.
This has been shown to decrease remarkably in the in-
dividual specimens during the migratory run. But when
the chemical composition is taken into consideration it
is obvious that the actual food value represented by the
dry substance is found primarily in the fats. The fact
is, the fat runs from 15% to 20% in the down river
forms, but only 1% to 2% in the spawning ground
salmon.

These three sea salmon of the table have an average
of 15.6% of protein and 18% of fat in the muscle. At
the head of brackish water the fat has already decreased
somewhat both in percentage composition and in abso-
lute amount. On the spawning grounds, in contrast with
feeding sea salmon, the protein has dropped to 14.4%
while the fat is almost entirely gone, 1.6%. See Table III.

One gram of fat represents a fuel value of over twice
that of one gram of protein, i. e., 9,300 Calories for fat

Greene.—Physiological Changes in Salmon 11

TABLE II.
SACRAMENTO SALMON
A comparison of average values from the sea, the head of tide water, and

the spawning grounds. Reduced to uniform standard length of 860 millimeters.

Wet Muscle Dry Muscle

=

Percentage of
standard weight
Weight of
wet muscle
Percentage of
standard weight
of wet muscle
Percentage of
standard fish
Weight of
dry muscle
of dry muscle
standard fish

Percentage of
standard weigh
Percentage of

Sea 860 |10,080 | 100% 100% |67.8% 100% 125.9%
Tide

water 860 |11,177| 110% 105.6 7| 71.6% 98.7 % 125.6%
Spawnin

grounds 860 | 7,531 48.4% |32.8% 26.1%| 6.8%

TABLE III.

Showing the protein and fat in percent of wet muscle:

Salmon Protein Fat

number percent percent
705 15.0 17.4
725 & 15.8 18.6
7542 15.9 18.0
Average 15.6 18.0
875 2 16.7 12.4
877 3 17.1 15.1
87892 16.8 16.3
Average 16.9 14.6
946 2 12.9 his
939 g 15.8 2.4
938 9 14.4 1.3

Average 14.4 1.6

12 American Fisheries Society

and 4,100 Calories for protein. It is shown that the dry
muscle substance in the Baird salmon muscle, which was
only 6.8% by weight of the standard fish, is composed
almost wholly of protein. The loss of the fat reduces
the true nutritive or fuel value of the flesh of the Baird
spawners to 2.3%, i. e., one-third of an equal weight of
flesh from the standard salmon. In a word, the 6.8 dry
pounds of apparent good food per hundred pounds of
fish has dropped off two-thirds in quality.

To sum up this statement, the food material of the
salmon stored in its muscles when it begins its run to
the spawning ground is represented by 25.9% of the
total weight of the fish, whereas at the end of the spawn-
ing run it is represented by about one-third of 6.8% or
2.3% of the total weight of the fish, a loss of between
84% and 85% of the stored material.

This material which is consumed from the muscles
is supplemented by additional material from the skin,
from the visceral organs, such as the stomach, intestines,
pyloric caeca, and to some extent from the liver. The
greatest changes in these latter organs are to be found
in the visceral mass in which the weight decreases from
an average of 265 gms. in the Monterey fish to 33 gms.
in the Baird fish, i. e., one-eighth of the original amount.
The weight of the liver, even in fish of the same length,
varies extremely from all stations, hence no very re-
liable data can be derived from the study of this organ.
The total weight of the skin and the viscera in fish from
Monterey is in round numbers 400 gms. or about 4% of
the fish weight. The absolute amount of nutritive sub-
stance furnished by these organs is small in comparison
with that supplied by the muscles.

The disappearance of nutritive substance in these
changes is to be accounted for, as was said in the begin-
ning, by the expenditure of mechanical energy and by
the growth of the reproductive organs. The distribution
of materials as between these two factors is a most in-
teresting story in itself.

WHAT WE CAN DO TO PROMOTE FISH
CONSERVATION

By CHARLES MINOR BLACKFORD, M. D.,
Staunton, Virginia.

Perhaps no country in the world possesses more
societies and associations for the promotion of various
ends than does the United States, and yet the small suc-
cess that attends the labors of these organizations must
attract the notice of anyone who looks into the matter.
In every state, in many counties and in every city or
large town, we find medical societies and other scientific
or semi-scientific bodies that are trying to teach the
people at large how to better their physical condition,
and yet in many cases, their influence is negligible. It
was only after the brilliant object lessons given by the
altered hygienic conditions in Havana and on the Canal
Zone, that the mass of our intelligent people became con-
vinced that the mosquito is anything more than a trivial
nuisance and that the house fly is a menace to life, al-
though the medical societies had been preaching these
facts to unheeding ears for several years. When the
truth was brought home to the people, however, they
grasped the situation, and the tables of mortality already
show the results of the campaign now being waged
against these domestic enemies.

The reason why these bodies of learned and experi-
enced men have so small an influence on the people
around them may be summed up in the single word,
ignorance. This popular ignorance and its twin off-
spring, prejudice and vanity, must be overcome be-
fore any marked results can be effected. Mere legisla-
tion will not accomplish much. Along our special line,
the conservation of fishes, there is ample legislation—
indeed in some instances there is too much—but the
legislation is not accomplishing its end and we should
try to find out why it is not doing so. Many of the laws

14 American Fisheries Society

on the statute books are not wise and would not accom-
plish anything if they were enforced, but the principal
reason is lack of enforcement, and it is here that igno-
rance and its offspring, prejudice, come into play. One
of the wisest of the writers on law has said that “He
who knoweth the law and knoweth not the reason of the
law, knoweth not the law; for the reason of the law is
the life of the law,” and we must teach the mass of the
laiety the reason of the law if we wish to put life into
the law and get hearty co-operation in its enforcement.

The greatest obstacle that we encounter in doing this
is the vanity of the American people. For more than a
century it has been a mark of so-called patriotism to
claim that the resources of our country are inexhaust-
ible, and anyone who called attention to the danger of
extravagant wastefulness, was considered an hysterical
alarmist or almost a traitor. In consequence of this
foolish talk, we are now seeing the end of our forests,
and geologists are estimating with alarming accuracy,
the length of time that will elapse before our stores of
iron and coal will be exhausted. National and state
governments are frantically taking steps to check the
ruthless destruction of these reserves of natural wealth
before it is too late, but their efforts will bear scanty
fruit unless the people be shown that the wonderful
wealth of our country is not limitless. When this is
grasped, and not until then, conservation will become an
accomplished fact.

When America was first being settled by Europeans,
the abundance and variety of the fisheries of both the
salt and fresh waters made a deep impression on the
colonists. The Grand Banks fisheries played no small
part in causing the adjacent continental shores to be
colonized, and the fishes along the coasts and in the rivers
supplied the colonists with a large part of their food
during the earlier years of the settlements. The wide-
spread belief that this resource was inexhaustible led to
such reckless destruction that the fisheries began to de-
cline, and about the time of the Civil War the shad catch

Blackford.—Fish Conservation. 15

had diminished to such an extent that its restoration
was one of the main reasons for the establishment of
the United States Commission of Fish and Fisheries,
the predecessor of the present Bureau of Fisheries. Fol-
lowing the example of the National Government, many
of the states have established commissions charged with
the duty of restoring or increasing their respective fish-
eries, and it is a part of the duty of our Society to aid —
these commissions in the accomplishment of their task.

This can best be done by arousing the interest of the
people in the work, and as said above, this can only be
done by spreading abroad knowledge of the economic
value of the fisheries and showing that in preserving
them, something more is intended than merely restrict-
ing the rights of the fishermen. Our Society can do
good work in this direction, both as individuals and as
an organization, and I want to make a few suggestions
as to how we may go about it.

At the meeting of the Fourth International Fishery
Congress, held in Washington in 1908, O. M. Dennis,
former State Game Warden of Maryland, gave some
reasons for the failure of fish protective legislation, and
among them he placed the selfish jealousy of sportsmen
and commercial fishermen in regard to bills introduced
by either class. He said that this being true, “‘The
country members of the legislature, as well as the fish-
ermen themselves, look with suspicion on any measure
presented to the legislature which has for its purpose the
protection of fish and game when such measure is pre-
sented by city men.” Unfortunately this is true, and it
is not confined to Maryland by any means. The antagon-
ism between country men and city men is so widespread
as to be almost universal, and among the rural popula-
tion there is a general opinion that game protective laws
are designed to furnish sport for city men at the expense
of the rights of the country people. For this reason the
*" game laws are very commonly looked on as something
very much like acts of tyranny, and disobedience of them
is regarded somewhat in the light of heroism. It should

16 American Fisheries Society

be remembered that laws are but the crystallized expres-
sion of public opinion, and if there be no public opinion
favoring a law, or if public opinion be opposed to a law,
merely placing a legislative act on the statute book will
not produce any result. It is therefore necessary to
create an enlightened public opinion in favor of laws for
the conservation of fishes, and when this is done the en-
forcement of the laws will be both easy and effective.
Our Society can aid in the development of this public
opinion both as a collection of well informed individuals
interested in this movement and as an organization. Our
members come from many of the states of the Union,
and among them are state and national officials, college
professors, commercial fishermen, scientists and sports-
men; in brief, every aspect of the fishery question is rep-
resented among us. We are not sectional and we have
no selfish nor class interests to serve, and consequently
we are in better position to spread the knowledge of
fish life among the people than would be any trade organ-
ization or even a purely scientific society. As individuals
it would be well for us to write papers for the press; not
merely for the big city papers, the sporting magazines
and the fish trade journals, but for the country weeklies
that go out among the masses of the rural population.
If we were to write articles that are scientifically accu-
rate; that are interestingly put, and above all, are not
“in a tongue not understanded of the people,” many of
our members would be surprised to see how eagerly they
will be read and what an effect they will produce. One
of the main reasons that societies such as ours have so
little effect on public opinion is that the subjects that
we discuss and the language in which we discuss them
are uninteresting and unintelligible to most of the people
outside of our own narrow circle. It is hard for us, who
have given much of our time and effort to the acquire-
ment of a special line of knowledge, to appreciate that
what is merely elementary to us is an unknown and fas- .
cinating world to many intelligent men outside of the
ranks of professional naturalists. How many of these

Blackford.—Fish Conservation. 17

people could tell how a fish egg is impregnated and how
it develops? How many can tell anything of the life
history of even the commonest fishes? The knowledge—
if indeed it can be called knowledge—that most persons
have of such subjects is a mass of traditional lore, rest-
ing on misinformation as a basis, that is so far from
the truth that to call a tale a “fish story” is equivalent
to saying that it is false. By putting the known facts
of fish life clearly and accurately before the intelligent
people of our country, we would make hundreds of prac-
tical students of the natural history of fishes where none
are to-day, and nearly every one of them would become
an active aid in the conservation movement.

Another method of advancing our purpose is to have
our members give talks before school children. Many,
if not all, of the school superintendents will welcome the
chance of having some well-informed man or woman give
one or more talks—we need not dignify them by calling
them lectures—before the children on this subject, and
by so doing the interest of the coming generation will
be aroused. The recent Boy Scout movement offers an-
other opportunity. Teach these boys how the black bass
or the brook trout spawn; if possible show them some
of the eggs during their development, and the boys will
become ardent protectors of the spawning fish and not
destroyers of them. They will see that the despised city
sportsman is a pretty decent kind of fellow after all,
and they will teach their parents and their neighbors the
value of fish conservation.

Finally, what can we do as a Society to arouse greater
interest in our avowed objects? We can take a hint
from one of our sister societies, the National Geographic
Society. We should remember that there is nothing in
which any intelligent man is interested that may not
be made an object of interest to any other intelligent
man if it be properly put. We are far too prone to dis-
cuss technical matters that are of great interest to us as
biologists and fish culturists, and to forget that these
topics, although of great value, are of no interest to the

18 American Fisheries Society

masses unless we try to make them such. At first glance
it would seem that there are few subjects less interest-
ing than the cold, bare facts of geography, but by putting
these facts attractively, the National Geographic
Society has built up one of the most entertaining maga-
zines in the country, and has enrolled a membership of
thousands. We might do something of the same sort.
We might try to issue a magazine of popular ichthyology
that would cover the scientific, the commercial and the
sporting sides of our subject, and by having the articles
written simply, clearly and accurately, spread the in-
fluence of our Society throughout the land. We would
replace the ignorance and misinformation that now pre-
vails by clear, concise and accurate knowledge, before
which the obstinacies and prejudices that now oppose
us would disappear. We would enlist thousands of eager
students of all ages and sexes to battle for fish conserva-
tion, and we would make our Society a power in the land.
Many of our members are easy and graceful writers,
and I feel certain that enough of them would be willing
to contribute articles to such a journal that would make
it authoritative and valuable as well as interesting and
entertaining, and, should the experiment succeed, we
would have the consciousness of having performed a
valuable service to our country.

FISH PARASITES AND THE PUBLIC
HEALTH

By PROF. EDWIN LINTON,
Washington and Jefferson College, Washington, Pa.

It had not been my intention to prepare a paper for
the annual meeting of the American Fisheries Society
this year, but certain recent happenings, of which the
parasites of fishes were an important factor, suggest that
I again discuss this question. Three years ago I pre-
sented a paper to this society on ‘“Cestode Cysts in the
Flesh of Marine Fish and their Bearing on Food Values,’’*
in which I fondly hoped, but vainly as it appears, that
any fears which might have existed, either active or
dormant, in the public mind respecting the effect of
parasites in fishes used for food, would be dispelled.

In June, of the present year, the Department of
Public Health of the City of New York condemned cer-
tain cargoes of butterfish amounting to many tons,
thirty I have been told, on account of the alleged pres-
ence of parasites in the flesh. I was asked by the United
States Bureau of Fisheries to have an interview with
the New York health authorities concerning this matter
of the butterfish. The interview was granted and held
in the offices of the Department of Health for the City
of New York on June 21, 1915. Previous to this inter-
view I had supposed that the parasites to which objection
had been made were the minute cysts of the cestode
Otobothrium crenacolle. I had already discussed the
bearing of this parasite on the food value of the butter-
fish in the paper cited above, and was prepared to give
additional evidence of the harmlessness of this parasite
even if eaten by man in his fish diet. I was much re-
lieved therefore upon being assured by the officials that
they had not objected to the butterfish on account of
the cestode parasites. A new charge, however, was

*Trans. Am. Fish. Soc., for 1912, pp. 119-127.

20 American Fisheries Society

brought against the butterfish, viz., that large numbers
of them had nematode worms in the flesh.

Now, as it happens, I had examined large numbers of
butterfish for flesh parasites in the past ten years and,
having found their flesh free from nematode parasites I
was not at all disposed to believe that butterfish had
suddenly become parasitized in this way. I was familiar
with the fact that nematodes are of common occurrence
on the viscera, especially on the pyloric caeca, of the but-
terfish, an affiliction shared with the butterfish by many
other species of fish to a greater or less degree, and sug-
gested that nematodes seen on the viscera had been mis-
takenly referred to the muscle tissue. This created an
issue, an impasse in truth, which could be resolved only
by an investigation to see how the facts lay. Accord-
ingly some butterfish were sent for and brought from
the market. A fish was opened. Nematodes were found
on the viscera, but none in the flesh except a few that had
been carried thither by the knife used in opening the
fish. The remaining fish were opened more carefully
with the result that nematodes, so far as they were pres-
ent at all, were found only on the viscera.

Detailed results of the examination of butterfish for
nematode parasites are given below.

Before taking up the discussion of the particular case
afforded by the butterfish I shall discuss briefly the gen-
eral question of the effect on food values of the presence
‘of representatives of different orders of helminths in
food fishes. Preliminary to this, however, I shall ask
indulgence for a few remarks on the general subject of
parasites. The late Joseph Leidy, many years ago, made
an interesting contribution to science in a paper entitled
A Fauna and Flora within Animals. The title alone was
a valuable gift to popular knowledge. That paper
showed that there exist in nature large numbers of
species of animals and plants which pass all, or an im-
portant part, of their existence within the bodies of
animals. The indweller is called a parasite or guest; the
animal which harbors the indweller is called the host.

Linton.—Fish Parasites and Public Health Zaft |

The successful completion of the round of life of many
of these parasites requires that the host which harbors
one stage of the parasite be eaten by a host in whose
alimentary canal the parasite will find conditions favor-
able for its further development. As a rule the number
of species of animals which are fitted to become the final
host, that is the host in which the parasite becomes adult
and produces eggs, is limited. Thus in the case of the -
flesh parasite of the butterfish, although the butterfish
is eaten by all the larger carnivorous fish that swim the
waters with them, they develop only in the sharks, and
in an exceedingly small number of species of shark. To
make the question still simpler, it may be said that when
a blue fish, for example, eats a butterfish that is harbor-
ing cestode cysts in the flesh, it utilizes as food the
cestode cysts with their contents in the same manner and
doubtless with equal benefit as follows the assimilation
of a similar quantity of proteid material from the mus-
cular tissue; while a hammerhead shark which eats a
butterfish containing these cestode cysts in the flesh, in-
stead of digesting the larva that will be liberated from
the cyst, furnishes the proper conditions for that larva
to develop, and he will have in a short time the adult
cestodes in his spiral valve. There is no reason to believe
that the butterfish cestode will develop in man; on the
contrary there is very good reason to believe that it will
not develop in any warm-blooded animal. Furthermore,
all helminth parasites are killed in ordinary cooking and
the tissues of which they are composed are doubtless as
nutritious as are those in which they chance to be em-
bedded. Again, the popular mind should be taught to
discriminate between the animal and vegetable inhabit-
ants of living animals and those which may make their
appearance in the flesh of animals after they are dead.
The latter, when they are the larvae of insects for ex-
ample, that is maggots, create unpleasant sensations and
suggest spoiled meat, or meat that has not been properly
cared for; when bacteria, they are associated with the
disturbing phenomena of putrefaction. In either case

a

22 American Fisheries Society

food so infected is justly viewed with suspicion, and
health authorities are remiss if they allow such condi-
tions to exist.

It cannot be emphasized too strongly that insect larvae
in meat, or putrefactive changes have nothing in common
with cases of animal parasitism. The helminth parasite,
in the alimentary canal particularly, or in the tissues of
its host, in somewhat less degree, requires that the
animal which harbors it be living. They do not, as a
rule, long survive the death of the host. Living nema-
todes on the viscera of a butterfish in the market, there-
fore, are no indication that the flesh of the butterfish is
not perfectly fresh and wholesome.

Cestodes.—I do not recall any cases of cestode parasites
of fishes in this country which, like Bothriocephalus
latus, found larval in certain European fishes, develop in
man.* If such exist the habit of eating only cooked fish
which prevails here precludes any possibility of man’s
becoming the final host. With the exception of the but-
terfish, the marine food fish that I have examined are
prevailingly free from cysts in the flesh. In the butter-
fish a small cyst, about one millimeter in diameter is
found. If the back-bone of a fish which has these cysts
in the flesh be removed it will carry away with it prac-
tically all of the cysts, which, save in an occasional highly
infected individual, are limited to the immediate vicinity
of the back-bone, where they are, for the most part,
lodged in the spaces between the vertebral spines above
and below. On account of their small size and resem-
blance to small fish roe there is nothing unpleasant in
the sight of these cysts, if they would be distinguished
at all, an exceedingly unlikely event. As stated above
there is no reason to think that these cysts can develop
in man, or indeed in any warm-blooded animal. The
New York health authorities are right in making no
objection to the use of butterfish as food on account of
cestode cysts in the flesh.

*It has been brought to my attention since this paper was written that

Bothriocephaluslatus has recently made its appearance in Wisconsin,
where it has evidently been introduced from Norway.

Linton.—Fish Parasites and Public Health 25

It is not necessary to discuss the possibility of man’s
becoming the secondary host, that is of harboring cestode
parasites in the encysted stage, as, even where such pos-
sibility exists, which is certainly not true in the case of
the butterfish cestode, infection would not be incurred
from using fish as food.

It is interesting to note that the percentage of butter-
fish having considerable numbers of cysts in the flesh ©
has been diminishing in the Woods Hole region during
the past six years. The percentages of butterfish with
numerous cysts in the flesh for the years 1909-1914, in-
clusive, are 48, 29, 36, 15, 18, and 12; the smallest num-
ber of fish examined in any one year was 416, in 1910,
and the greatest was 948, in 1912. The results of the
examinations this year thus far show a rather marked
diminution in the number of parasitized fish from that
of last year.

Trematodes.—Fortunately trematode parasites are not
at all common in fishes in situations which render them
liable to be ingested with parts used as food. In marine
food fish I have not found them in the flesh, although
they often occur in small cysts on the skin and especially
on the fins. They may be recognized as small specks of
black pigment, sometimes, especially on the cunner and
tautog, in large numbers. As fish are ordinarly pre-
pared for the table, such encysted trematodes are re-
moved. There is nothing unpleasant in the sight of these
skin parasites, unless they occur in very great numbers,
not a usual happening, and nothing is to be feared from
them, so far as at present known, even if they be eaten
uncooked. The natural final host of those whose life his-
tory has been made out is some fish-eating bird. Fishes in
fresh water lakes are more liable to infection in this way
than are the fishes of the sea.

Nematodes.—Parasites of this order are found in the
alimentary canals of many species of marine food fishes,
especially in some of the larger kinds, such as the sword-
fish, cod, haddock, ete. They are also found encapsulated

24 American Fisheries Society

on the viscera of most species of fish, sometimes in large
numbers. But in the flesh of food fish they are of infre-
quent occurrence.

While nematodes in food are not necessarily injurious,
even if taken in uncooked food, there is a natural and
justifiable prejudice against them as an article of diet.
Certain of them, as is well known in the case of trichina
of pork, may be inimical to health or even to life itself.
That there should have been uneasiness, therefore, occa-
sioned by the noticing of the presence of nenatodes in
a food fish is not a thing to be marvelled at. But that
the health authorities of New York did not inform them-
selves of the true nature of this case is regretable to say
the least.

ALLEGED OCCURRENCE OF NEMATODES IN THE FLESH OF
THE BUTTERFISH.

Now what are the facts with regard to the occurrence
of nematode parasites in the flesh of the butterfish? That
they occur on the viscera and especially on and among
the pyloric caeca is certain. That they were found in
the flesh, except as they were carried there by the knife
used in opening the fish, from which lodgement they would
have been removed in washing the fish in preparation
for the table, there is much more reason to doubt than
to believe. The New York health authorities were re-
quested to forward to the Bureau of Fisheries examples
of butterfish containing nematodes in the flesh. In re-
sponse to this request suspected fish were sent, but no
nematodes could be found in their flesh.

Since my interview with the New York health officials
I have gone over my notes of examinations of butterfish
for flesh parasites with the following results: It should
be noted in the first place that the butterfish which were
examined for parasites in the flesh were examined for
the purpose of making a record of the frequency of
occurience of cestode cysts. As the examinations were
made a record was kept in columns with the headings:
“No cysts seen,” ‘“‘very few,” “few,” “many,” “numer-

Linton.—Fish Parasites and Public Health 25
ous,” “very numerous.” In order to determine to which
column of the record the fish under examination should
be referred, the fish, having been split open with a sharp
knife inserted near the middle of the back, thus had the
flesh of one side separated from the skeleton. In many
cases only one or two cysts are found, and as these cysts
are only about one millimeter in the longest diameter, —
careful attention had to be given in order to make the
record as exact as possible. Now the nematodes which
are of such common occurrence on the viscera of the
butterfish are about 12 millimeters in length, and are,
moreover, of a reddish brown color. They are therefore
much more conspicuous objects than the cysts, which
do not differ much in color from the muscles and bones
with which they are associated. If nematodes were at
all common in the flesh of the butterfish, therefore, they
would most certainly have been detected in this search
which began in the summer of 1904 and has been con-
tinued each season since. Most of the examinations were
made in the months of July and August. These are sup-
plemented by examinations made by Mr. Vinal N. Ed-
wards in the months of May, June, September and Octo-
ber. The examinations were made on different dates
throughout the season. Thus my record shows that in
the season of 1912 there were 948 butterfish examined
for flesh parasities on 23 dates in July from the 4th to
the 31st, and on 10 dates in August from the lst to the
23d. In 1913 butterfish were examined on 30 dates from
June 30th to August 29th; in 1914, 785 were examined
on 32 dates from July 10th to September 9th. Besides
these I have records of examinations made by Mr. Ed-
wards of 416 butterfish on 21 dates in May, June, Sep-
tember and October. The total number of butterfish
which I have examined for flesh parasites in successive
years from 1904 to the present time is 5,992; in the last
eight years the smallest number for any one year is 416.

Mr. Edwards reports that he has found no nematodes
in the flesh of butterfish. My own record of finds of
nematodes in the flesh of butterfish is as follows: On

26 American Fisheries Society

August 6, 1918, one nematode was found in the flesh of
the side of a butterfish. It was 29 millimeters in length,
much larger than those found on the viscera.

On July 14, 1915, one nematode was found in the flesh
of a butterfish. The fish had been opened by another
worker in the laboratory and had been lying for some
time before I examined it. The length was 29 milli-
meters. It is a different species from that which is
found on the viscera. Another nematode of the same
species as the last was found in the flesh of the side of
a butterfish on July 14, 1915. It was 32 millimeters in
length. E

These three nematodes make up the total found in the
flesh of the butterfish to date. In each case they would
have been detected without much doubt if the fish had
been split open in preparation for the table. This record
of three nematodes found in three butterfish out of nearly
6,000 butterfish examined especially for flesh parasites
over a series of years is a very remarkable one. Very
few of the species of animals used for food can show
such a favorable record after having been subjected to
such a rigorous test.

The occurrence of immature, encapsulated nematodes
on the viscera, and especially on and among the pyloric
caeca of the butterfish is common, but in this the butter-
fish is not exceptional. About 20% of the butterfish that
I have examined this season have had many of these
nematodes on the viscera; about 40% had none; the re-
maining 40% had few, often only one or two were found
after very careful search. Fish were left unopened from
one day to the next, and variously tested to see if the
nematodes on the viscera showed any tendency to enter
the flesh. None did so.

That there is nothing new or exceptional in the occur-
rence of nematodes on the viscera of butterfish is abund-
antly proved by records made in previous years. For
example, in the Bulletin of the U. S. Fish Commission
for 1899, p. 279, under the butterfish the following state-
ment is made:

Linton.—Fish Parasites and Public Health 27

July 21, one—numerous nematodes on viscera. July
23, one—enormous numbers of immature nematodes on
and among the pyloric caeca. August 10, three—serous
coat of pyloric caeca with large numbers of immature
nematodes. August 22, four—numerous small, immature
nematodes found on pyloric caeca.

Also on p. 453 of the same volume the following state-
ment under the butterfish is made: ;

Immature nematodes. Very abundant. Found in the
majority of specimens examined in 1899 and 1900; small,
pale red; particularly abundant on pyloric caeca—length
13 millimeters.

This record is introduced here to show that there is
nothing in the nature of a seasonal epidemic in the occur-
rence of nematodes on the viscera of the butterfish. Fur-
ther, it should be said, those who have given attention
to the distribution of animal parasites could furnish just
as impressive figures for many of the species of animals
used for food.

A careful consideration of the facts above recorded
will I am sure, convince any unprejudiced person that
the New York health officials were mistaken in their
supposition that the nematodes of the butterfish were
in the flesh.

If there is any one who would allow my find of three
- small nematodes in the multitude of nearly 6,000 fishes
to prejudice him against the use of an excellent food
fish, he should not only beeome a vegetarian, but should
make a microscopic examination of any fruit or vegetable
salads, or mushrooms that may come on the table if he
wishes to escape the possibility of an occasional nema-
tode finding sanctuary in his fastidious insides.

CONCLUSIONS.

1. Helminth parasites in the alimentary canal and on
the viscera of animals used for food are of frequent
occurrence.

2. Occasionally they occur in the flesh of the animal,
as in the well-known cases of trichina in pork, and the
encysted stages of tape worms in beef and pork.

28 American Fisheries Society

3. Many of the parasites found in mammals will de-
velop in man. Only one species occurring in fish is known
to develop in man.

4. Ordinary cooking kills these parasites.

5. Flesh which contains helminth parasites must not
be confused with flesh in which insect larvae are devel-
ing, or which is “spoiled.”

6. The flesh of food fish, especially of marine food
fish, is exceptionally free from nematode parasites.

7. There has not been and there is not now any
rational justification for the wholesale condemnation of
any species of food fish on account of animal parasites.

8. The influence of the departments of health might
well be directed towards encouraging the public to use
such wholesome food material as the mussel, Mytilus
edulis, and certain of the sharks and rays, now not much
used for food in this country; assuredly they should not
without certain knowledge use their power in such a
way as to banish wholesome food from the market.

Naturally I should be most loath to criticize the action
of any health officials, knowing how thankless is the task
they have to perform in their efforts to care for the
public health, and how their every act exposes them to
criticism from some quarter or another.

But, as is evidenced in the action of the New York
Department of Health in the matter of the butterfish,
there may arise occasions wherein the interests of the
public demand that the facts in the case be made known.

THE RELATIONS OF COMMERCIAL AND
SPORT FISHING—FAIR PLAY

By H. WHEELER PERCE, Chicago, Ill.

Anglers should never lose sight of one very vital fact.
which confronts them in any efforts they may make to-
ward the conservation of game fishes and that is the
large importance and great value of the strictly com-
mercial fishing industries.

At the same time the anglers are entitled, without
question, to a proper consideration of their requirements
and proper provisions for the continuance of conditions
of a satisfactory nature. Good, clean, out-door sport is
an absolute necessity in the making of good, clean citizens
and is so recognized by all countries of higher civiliza-
tion. In fact, the higher the civilization, the keener be-
comes sport and the more is sport appreciated and en-
couraged. In the greater nations of the world sport
plays a conspicuous part and as the scale is descended,
sport becomes less and less a factor in national life. By
sport is meant healthy, invigorating, mind-resting recrea-
tion, involving physical effort in varying degrees, skill,
the training of the muscles, the eye and the brain as
well, along channels that would otherwise remain inert,
and not mere amusement, the casual looking on at some-
thing which simply entertains, interests or excites. So-
called “‘sport” involving gambling and its attendant fever-
ish lust for “something for nothing” has no part in any
consideration of recreative sport strictly as such. More
especially is the need of true sport appreciated as our
civilization and business activities become more and
more intense and it is in our largest and busiest centers
that men feel the greatest need of something that offers
them relaxation from the strain. To very many men,
angling is the ideal recreation and it is very likely no
sport is as much beloved by its devotees, from the sturdy,
bright-eyed boy with his penny hook, a pole cut in the

30 American Fisheries Society

brush and a can of worms, to the grizzled veteran, the
hero of many a tale, told and untold, with his delicate
bamboo weapon of exquisite make and so many different
patterns of beautifully tied flies that he has to consult
a dictionary on the subject before he can tell you the
names of them all. Probably there is no more demo-
cratic set of men on earth than is embraced in the frater-
nity of anglers. Rich and poor, high and low, the
statesman and the “hired man,” clergyman, lawyers,
doctors, merchants, farmers, mechanics, clerks, all kinds
and conditions of men “go-a-fishing” and all alike love
the sport and love it more and more as their years in-
crease. May and December rub shoulders in the fellow-
ship of angling and the patriarch with silvery locks can
be seen with his grandson at his side on many a stream
or lake, both with eyes alight with the fires of enthu-
siasm.

And the sport is not only democratic but is essentially
very widespread, for there is hardly a corner no matter
how remote, of our beloved country, that does not con-
tain its quota of anglers. If the census enumerators were
to name them in their lists the legion disclosed would be
a vast surprise to those who have given but casual
thought to the subject. And this army of anglers buy
things designed for their use, and catering to their needs
constitutes no mean industry in this age of industries.
Again, if the casual observer will give the matter
thought, he will be surprised at the sum total in dollars
spent by the anglers of this country on their sport, and
every dollar spent by them means a dollar earned by
someone else in supplying the wants of the angler.

The best of this is, that every dollar spent by the
angler yields him an adequate return in improved
strength, revived vitality, refreshed brain, keener
faculties, clearer vision and better health. The only man
who loses out is the doctor.

The angler was, is and always will be. He exists by
nature, by precedent, by right and by choice. He is
“born, not made.” The character of his sport is cal-

Perce.—Commercial and Sport Fishing 31

culated to assist in making him a good citizen. Surely
it takes him along “paths of peace” and ‘‘ways of pleas-
antness” and unfolds to him the loveliness of nature
without a knowledge of which any man is “‘poor indeed.”

The roystering rowdy, who goes on an alleged fishing
trip as a cloak to a drunken revel is no angler. He is
only a lying ruffian and sport for love of sport has no_
place in his sordid make-up.

The charge has been made that the angler kills his
prey. True, and just so long as society kills in order
that it may eat, just so long is the angler entitled so to
do, provided he makes it his bounden duty and sees to
it carefully, that every fish is eaten which he has killed.

It would seem a perfectly fair premise that the angler
is entitled to his share of the best consideration and
effort that our lawmakers are giving and making in the
interest of all of the people, but he should always remem-
ber that others are entitled to their share as well.

While the presence of coarse fish, in some of the waters,
seems to the angler a menace to his sport, and while
they are a menace to some degree, he should always
remember that many kinds of such coarse fish constitute
a cheap food product, always a desirable thing, particu-
larly with food stuffs soaring higher and higher in cost.

The fishing industry is something of very considerable
importance, and, when measured in money, runs up into
millions. This means work and wages for men, shelter,
clothes and food for them and their families. It means
industry and thrift and all that goes with intelligent
labor, rightfully applied in developing the resources of
nature. It means business and profit, enterprise and
progress.

It ranks in character with farming, mining, manufac-
turing, merchandising, all the great basic things that
mean so much in this great country, and around it should
be thrown all the protection that the wisest minds and
most beneficent laws can give. If the commercial fisher-
man in a spirit of larger enterprise is liable to overstrain

32 American Fisheries Society

the resources of nature, he should be protected against
himself. By the very nature of the thing, fishing is dif-
ferent from other industries in that the individual can
do great harm to others by unwisely and excessively
drawing upon the source of supply.

If a farmer overstrains his land—he alone suffers—
but the waters are so undubitably a community interest
that certain restraints are necessary in order that all
may benefit and what is now a source of profit to all be
not rendered barren for all. The seeds planted by a
farmer yield a harvest at the point of planting, but fish
planted, so to speak, at one point may be harvested miles
away and hence it becomes the province of the state to
do the planting or stocking and to the fisherman is left
but the harvesting.

He should never forget this fact and should con-
scientiously respect and obey the wise injunctions against
undue depletion of the waters. The fishing industry has
the dignity of being probably man’s oldest calling, it
secures a valuable food for the people, it has its litera-
ture, its stories, its songs and legends. It is respectable
and should be honored by all, and in no less a degree
should those engaged in it remember the rights of others
than industrial fisherman.

The angler should always respect the rights and
privileges of the commercial fisherman, and he, in his
turn, should render no less consideration to the rights of
the angler.

And the law maker: He has a dual responsibility and
should never fail in giving of his best in the interests of
all concerned. Paternalism on the part of the state, may
have its defects—certainly it has its limitations—but in
the conservation of such natural resources as are offered
by the waters of a state, paternalism, in some degree,
becomes a necessity, if the best results are to be obtained.
Such paternalism should be wisely and carefully exerted
with an eye to the rights and requirements of all. No
law maker should, through a desire to conciliate some
small and selfish part of his constituency, stand in the

Perce.—Commercial and Sport Fishing 33

way of a wise enactment in the interest of the many. It
may be hard, it may even seem right to him and to those
who urge his mistaken course—but his mind should al-
ways remain open to the logical appeal of the many as
against the clamor of the few.

Let the entire fish situation be placed on a plane of
fair play. Let the angler demand and receive fair play
and at the same time, play fair himself. Let the com-
mercial fisherman demand and receive fair play and him-
self play fair in return and let the law maker play fair
and see to it that every one, as far as possible, and con-
sistently with his rights, gets fair play.

MORE ABOUT THE PADDLE-FISH
(Polyodon spathula)

By M. L. ALEXANDER.
President, Conservation Commission of Louisiana, New
Orleans, La.

Further experiments with this species, commonly
called ‘“‘spoon-bill cat,’’ were carried on in White Lake,
La., during March, 1915, by E. A. Tulian, Superintendent
of our Fisheries Department, in compliance with instruc-
tions issued by the Conservation Commission of Louisi-
ana. These studies were made more especially with a
view to obtaining more knowledge of the spawning sea-
son and habits of this fish; and whether it could be safely
and successfully held in retaining ponds during this
season.

Owing to various conditions over which the Commis-
sion had no control, we were obliged to make these studies
on rather a more limited and economical basis than we
had originally intended. Because of this, the work was
somewhat less thorough and efficient than it would other-
wise have been. At the same time, however, we consider
the information gained as being rather instructive and
valuable. Therefore I have decided to briefly outline this
work to you and trust that it may be found of some
little interest and use to the members of the American
Fisheries Society, and others interested in fish culture
and fisheries matters in general.

During the latter part of February and fore part of
March of this year, the temperature of both weather and
water averaged very much colder throughout Louisiana
than was usual for this period. As a result the tempera-
ture of the water in White Lake did not exceed 62° Fahr.
until after April Ist. From the 5th to the 8th of March,
inclusive, the weather averaged somewhat warmer than
later in the month. The water temperature for this

Alexander.—More About the Paddle-Fish 35

period stood at 60° Fahr. On the 9th it dropped to 50°
and remained at this temperature until the 13th, when
it slowly began rising. From the 14th to the 31st, in-
clusive, it ranged mostly between 58° and 62° Fahr.
This excessive cold had the effect of retarding the spawn-
ing season at least two weeks beyond that of a normal
season.

Our first day’s fishing this year, March 6th, resulted
in the capture of a considerable number of this species.
Among these were eight females containing eggs, and
three unripe males, but no spent females or males. One
of the females contained mature eggs which were seen
to be running from its vent when this fish was lifted
from the seine into the boat, and as it flapped about in
the boat before it could be transferred to the live car.
This was witnessed by Capt. Fred Portie of Grand
Chenier, La., who lifted the fish from the seine, Mr.
Ernest Barbe of Lake Charles, La., and Mr. E. A. Tulian
of our Commission. Two of the males would have ma-
tured within the next few days, and one of these was
killed and cut open with the hope of obtaining sufficient
mature milt with which to fertilize the ripe eggs, or a
portion of them at least. However, the milt was found
not to be sufficiently advanced for this purpose. The
matured female and two others with eggs, as well as two
immature males, together with several others were later
tranferred to an enclosure for further observations.

Our second and third day’s fishing was on the 9th and
10th. Among the day’s catch two spent females, eleven
unripe females and three males not yet matured, were
found. Both the immature females and males were
transferred to our enclosure to be held.

From March 1st to the 10th, inclusive, there was such
continuous heavy wind that our seine could only be
hauled on the three days mentioned above. After the
10th, for various reasons, no further seining operations
were attempted until the 22d.

Fishing operations were resumed, however, on this
date, and among the catch of that day were found two

36 American Fisheries Society

females from which the eggs ran freely as they were
lifted from the seine into the boat, and one ripe male
from which the milt could be stripped. These fish were
taken from the seine by Capt. Oliver Vaughn of Lake
Arthur, La., but Mr. Ernest Barbe of Lake Charles, La.,
also saw both milt and eggs as they came from the fish.
Unfortunately Mr. Tulian was detained at our head-
quarters in New Orleans on this date and as none of the
employees on the ground understood the method of arti-
ficially fertilizing and hatching fish eggs, the matured
milt and eggs could not be utilized. However, the three
fish were transferred to a very small enclosure and held
until Mr. Tulian’s arrival, three or four days later, when
he immediately examined them and found all three spent.

Because of continuous heavy winds the seine could not
be hauled from the 22d until the 26th. On the latter date,
however, seining operations were continued and re-
sulted in taking seven spent females and six spent males,
one female with mature eggs running from its vent, and
two unripe males. For various other reasons, and owing
to bad weather and the fact that no immature females
had been taken during the day we decided to suspend
further fishing operations.

The Superintendent of our Fisheries Department and
a couple of other employees remained at White Lake until
afternoon of the 30th. During the last days there, the fish
which had been transferred alive to the enclosure at our
camp were caught and a number of the more desirable
specimens killed and opened. Every fish which had been
empounded, except one, was found alive and in fine con-
dition; the only external injury observed being a slight
wearing away of the tail or a few minor scratches on
the bill of three or four specimens. Twenty of the fish
taken from the enclosure had been confined there twenty-
three days. The roe of the unripe females and organs of
all the fish opened were perfectly healthy and sound.
Among these were a couple of immature males whose milt
was absolutely healthy and normal.

Alexander.—More About the Paddle-Fish 37

The condition of these fish after so long a confinement
is, I think both interesting and significant, inasmuch as
it has been generally understood, I believe, that the pad-
dle-fish when empounded in an aquarium or artificial
pond usually lives only a week or ten days. We look upon
the results attained as favorable indications that it prob-
ably will be possible to hold immature female and male
paddle-fish until ripe, in properly constructed ponds, and -
then strip, fertilize and hatch their eggs artificially.

Judging from the experiments we made last year and
again this, it appears quite certain that paddle-fishes work
in schools when in the act of depositing and fertilizing
their eggs. During the middle of the spawning period, a
seine will invariably take a number of both mature and
immature females and males, as well as recently spent
ones, whenever any spawners are located by it. It has
further been definitely ascertained that in White Lake
during this period these fish are only to be found where
the bottoms are of a somewhat hard and sandy character.
Only an occasional fish could be taken when the seine was
being hauled in localities where the bottoms are of a soft-
er character. These are usually found in the bays and
along stretches of straight shore-line.

The only fish we had to handle this year were those
caught by an outfit and crew hired especially to catch
paddle-fish for our operations. Therefore our studies
were conducted with a very limited number of fish as
compared to the number we secured last year when we
were supplied by the commercial fishermen. This was
caused by the fact that our close season on this species
now extends from January 1, to July 15, of each year,
therefore all commercial fishing is suspended.

The condition existing this year made it a rather ex-
pensive proposition to our Commission, and this contrib-
uted to further curtail the scope of our experiments.
However, it is our intention to again conduct experiments
next year, and on a more extended scale. At that time,
we will probably also extend our field of operations so
as to take in additional territory. Lake St. John in Con-

38 American Fisheries Society

cordia Parish, this State, is possibly as well, or even
better stocked with paddle-fish than White Lake. ‘The
fish grow considerably larger here, and, it is thought
likely, spawn later as this lake is much further north
than White Lake.

Another element which added to the curtailment of our
experiments was the conditions found in and around the
large enclosure where we empounded the fish. These
were such as to make it almost impossible to get them
out for examination from the day they were put into it
until they were finally fished out at the close of the season.

While at work at White Lake, our employees obtained
and preserved a few rather interesting specimens. Among
these was the egg sac, etc., of a ten-pound female paddle-
fish, caught when in the act of spawning. This still con-
tained a portion of the mature eggs, some of which were
in the oviduct. Another specimen is the egg sac, etc., of
a female of about the same weight which was also de-
positing eggs when caught and which still held a few
mature eggs. All of the internal organs of an eight-pound
female which had just recently finished depositing her
eggs, as well as those of a twelve-pound spent male, were
preserved. The milt, etc., of an eight-pound unripe male
was also preserved.

I attach herewith copy of a report on a microscopic
examination of the stomach, etc., of a paddle-fish, made
for us by Percy Viosca, Jr., B.S., of Tulane University.
This, I think, may be found interesting and useful.

NOTE ON THE VISCERA OF POLYODON SPATHULA

Specimen—8 lb. female, after spawning, caught at White
Lake, March 28, 1915.

Gill rakers long and numerous: clean and practically
free from microscopic organisms. Only one copepod
observed.

Stomach large (U-shaped). Contents, examined under

compound microscope, found to contain: Protozoa
(one large flagellate especially numerous), small

Alexander.—More About the Paddle-Fish 39

crustaceae (copepods and the like), filamentous algae,
cyst-like bodies (probably protozoa or spores of
algae).

Duodenum (small intestine), two inches long. Receives
ducts of liver and pancreas and in addition, the duct
of the appendices pyloricae. The latter are confluent
in this species, into a single large, lobose diverticulum
which opens by a single duct near the pyloric valve. -
It contained some of the same contents as the duode-
num. It has doubtless been formed, phylogenetically,
by several smaller pyloric caeca becoming confluent
at the base.

Colon (large intestine), four inches long. Possesses a
well developed spiral valve.

EFFORTS TO RIPEN STRIPED BASS, 1915

By J. P. SNYDER, Supt. U. S. Fish Hatchery,
Cape Vincent, N. Y.

Last spring Mr. John Fitzhugh decided to try to ripen
striped bass at his slide in the Roanoke river near Wel-
don, North Carolina. At this slide each year the female
fish captured would furnish more than a hundred million
eggs could they be held in confinement and ripened. To
this end Mr. Fitzhugh built a suitable and comfortable
houseboat for the use of his watchmen and anchored it
to the slide. He also made a live-car about 12 ft. long
by 4 ft. deep and 4 ft. wide. This he fastened to the side
of the houseboat. This car was built of 7%-inch pine
boards and was made watertight with the exception of a
couple one-inch holes bored in the ends of the car. Over
these holes he tacked fine wire cloth as some one told him
he would have to keep out of the car the little eels that
ascend the Roanoke river in vast numbers during the
month of May. No provision was made for the transfer
of the fish from the slide to the live-car with as little
injury to them as possible, so they were permitted to
kick around on the slide until they had weakened suffi-
ciently to permit their being picked up by the gills and
in that way carried to the live-car. As watchmen he had
two negroes.

These fish begin spawning as soon as the water
reaches 68 degrees Fahr. and usually the most and best
eggs are taken within the first 48 hours after that tem-
perature is reached. This occurred last spring on April
25th and during the last week in April twenty large
female bass, together with a lot of males, were placed
in the car. More bass were available but there wasn’t
room in the car for al! that were taken. Yet in spite
of these very unfavorable conditions four of the bass
ripened. One of those that ripened cast its eggs in the
live-car. The eggs from one turned out badly as only

Snyder.—Ripening Striped Bass. 41

about 25% of them produced fish. From the other two
—one that ripened after being in the car 12 hours and
one after 24 hours confinement—more than two million
good eggs were taken and fertilized with milt from male
fish held in the car. Most of the fish penned, however,
developed fungus and soon died.

I arrived at Weldon on May 2d and the next day
visited Mr. Fitzhugh at his slide. I found the water in
the car very filthy as there was no circulation through
it. As it was too late in the season to build a suitable
car of slats with rounded edges we cut out part of each
end of the car and over the openings thus formed we
tacked wire cloth. Suitable nets or netting for handling
these fish alive cannot be purchased at Weldon so we
got a large piece of burlap out of which we made a net
for handling the fish in the live-car and just back of
the water rushing through the slide we placed another
large piece of burlap. This piece of burlap was kept
damp by spray from the swiftly moving water and large
fish coming upon the slide were immediately wrapped
in it and in that way carried to the live-car. At that
time the water in the river was very low, clear and
warm, registering 76 degrees; too warm to get the best
results with these eggs and too low for fish to get above
the slide so that but ten female fish were available for
tests during my detail of two weeks there. The result
of these tests are herewith presented in tabulated form
and further explained in the “remarks” that follow. No
tabulated data was kept of the tests made before my
arrival.

REMARKS.

(a) I examined this fish at 10 a. m. May 10th. At
that time she seemed soft enough to be ripe but no eggs
came from her. At 3 p. m. on the same day Mr. J. E.
Moody and I examined her and found her ripe and that
she had already cast about half her eggs. The eggs
remaining in her were taken and fertilized with milt
from male fish that had been held in the pen. After

1B) jo ynO
UIAB) SBAA “PIBET

189 WIO1J Ud4B}
88M PUB PlePy

PpaAoulas sem pur ssou
“WOIS JO SUZIS paMmoysg
sPAErI

uonIpuoD

oun,

SNOILVNINVXHY LNANOASENS

prey
1B9 JO JNO Udye} SB AA “PpiBy AIDA
(9) syiewos 999

rodry

(q) sy1Buie1 99g) ‘odry

pisy

(8) syivulo1 990g ‘s#9o s}1 J]BY
jnoqe 4seo Apeoiye pepy ‘odiy

UOOUII}JB UI 9}8] porp osuBys ONY
osuByos ON

PoIp 19}8] PuB ¥yoIg

uOoNIPpuoy

__| (Pp) syzeutes | ‘urd ¢

uOON]
el ABW
op
“u's 6
ZI ABW
‘ud 6
Or AeW
“WB GE
IT 4e—W
“UW ‘d (o
OT ABW
“WB OT
OL ABW
op

“ure OT
OL ABW

owt y,

Seen s
BASSET
pisy AIO A
yos A19 A

odii Ajivou
Ajjusieddy

eal
yos AIO A

osgueyo
a[qeeo1jou ON

osuBys ON

osueyo ON

uo IpuoD

edi sows
6 ABW | Uewopaqe ios AI9A
IEG pie
cL ASW _
op prey A194
"Ul "BG
IT 4eWw os AIDA
‘ud ¢
or Ae 108s AIZA
op pisyg Als A
BOL

OT Aepy | UP WOpPge ios AIDA

Lees uswopqe og
6 Se
op uswopde piByy

‘WB 6 jUoWOpae jos A[11e
8 AB

oun y,

poeinjdey
usyM UOTIpuoD

ainjdey
jO oul,

SI6. “O'N ‘NOG TUM UVAN UAAI AXONVOU
NI S.HOOHZLIY LV SSV&@ GHdIYLS ONINAdIY NI SLNAWIYAdxXd

Snyder.—Ripening Striped Bass. 43

they were expanded they were taken to the hatchery.
They turned out to be a fine lot of eggs and produced
a good percentage of fry. The fry were normal in
every way.

(b) This fish was caught ina net by Mr. W. H. Clan-
ton. She was placed in the boat and immediately taken
to the live-car. I examined her at 3 p. m. and found
her very soft. At 9 p. m. I again examined her and-
found her ripe, seemingly just right. A half hour later
Messrs. Henry Grant and J. E. Moody and I took her
eggs. Unfortunately in cutting her open Mr. Moody
cut too deep and opened the membranes containing the
eggs and the fish in her struggles lost most of the best
eggs in the boat, while quite a little blood got in the pan
with the eggs that were saved. The milt from several
male fish was used but only about 25% of the eggs
expanded and only about 10% of these produced fish.
Those failing to expand seemed normal in every way.
They separated nicely and were normal in size and color
but showed no signs of expanding even though they
were given every chance to do so.

Mr. Roberts reported that only a small percentage of
the eggs taken from a large fish at Fitzhugh’s slide on
May 28th expanded. He knew of no reason for it.

Four years ago Mr. Walter Harrison caught a large
ripe fish in a net and although the eggs seemed in per-
fect condition they would not expand. Other fishermen
have reported this same condition.

(c) This fish was examined by me on May 11th but
no eggs came from her. The next day she was examined
by Mr. B. M. Camp who reported that she had ripened
and had already cast almost all of her eggs. Mr. Camp
has had long experience in taking these eggs and I have
every reason to believe what he told me. This verified
what little experience we had last season.

(d) The fish came upon the slide at a time when no
one was there to remove her to the box and before being
put in the box or car she had badly bruised herself on
the slide. Two hours later I examined her. She was

44 American Fisheries Society

nearly ripe, but sick and soon died. I am convinced
that had she been placed in the live-car soon after com-
ing on the slide she would have ripened. There were
a number of large fish caught previous to my arrival
at Weldon that undoubtedly would have ripened had the
car had proper circulation and had the fish been re-
moved to it without injury.

I might mention here that one million five hundred
thousand eggs taken from a fish caught by Mr. Henry
Grant were fertilized by milt from male fish held in
confinement. Otherwise these eggs would have been
lost as no other male fish were available at the time.

None of the tests were ideal as all the fish, male and
female, were held in one live-car and it was impractic-
able to examine any one fish without seining up the
whole bunch. This was injurious to them for in their
struggles in the net their sharp spines cut each other
and fungus soon developed, other unfavorable conditions
were the frequent handling of all of them to keep track
of the condition of one or two nearly ripe, the continu-
ous presence of men around the car which was fastened
to the house boat, and the smal! depth of water in the
car, but two feet.

RECAPITULATION.

1. Seven of the thirty fish penned ripened in confine-
ment.

2. All of these seven had very soft abdomens when
penned.

3. The eggs from three of these gave splendid results,
comparing favorably with the results obtained from eggs
taken from ripe fish caught in nets.

4. The eggs from two others produced a low percent-
age of fry. This was disappointing, but the same thing
has often happened with eggs taken from fish caught
in nets.

5. Two of the fish ripened and cast their eggs be-
tween examinations. In confinement they cast their
eggs within a few hours after ripening. This makes

Snyder.—Ripening Striped Bass. 45

by themselves so that they can be examined frequently
without disturbing those not quite so far advanced. This
we were not prepared to do.

it necessary that all fish nearly ripe be placed in a car

6. None of the hard or green fish, that had hard firm
abdomens when caught, ripened or showed any signs
of ripening in confinement.

CONCLUSIONS.
1. Striped bass nearly ripe will ripen in confinement.

2. The eggs from some of those that ripen in confine-
ment will produce good results.

3. Striped bass that ripen in pens cast their eggs
within a few hours after ripening.

4. All or nearly all the eggs ripen at about the same
time.

5. Milt from male striped bass held in confinement
seems as potential as that from fish not confined.

THE FISH FARMER IN ACTION

SNAP-SHOTS BY BUX.

One who lived in a great city and had waxed fat, not
by iniquitous appropriation of the unearned increment
of which he found himself unable to deprive his land-
lord, but solely by means of the legitimate 25%, which
he lawfully collected from his service to his fellow men
in buying and selling the necessaries of life, read a scrap
of paper during one of those moments of seclusion from
the world, which offer all from kaiser to peasant an
opportunity to improve their minds, and what he found
recorded seemed good to him. That he should thus
have read when another might have simply done the
other thing shows him a man who knew an opportunity
when he saw it. So when he read that a fish might yield
9,000,000 of eggs at one delivery he said, ‘““Why bother
with a paltry 25%? Back to the land for me and put
it under water as soon as I get there.”

So he bought him a farm and dug him a pond and
when the rain had filled it he dumped in all the fish, his
congressman friend could get a paternal government to
provide. Then with a stub of pencil and the back of an
envelope he sat down to figure and to wait. He is still
waiting, and the envelope is fuller of figures than the
pond is of fish.

STOCK FARMING.

But enthusiasm is contagious and his farmer neighbor
beholding said, “I will go and do likewise,” as it is the
way of farmer neighbors to say and to do. ‘But why
bother to build a fish pond? I have a wood-lot where
no grass is and there is no underbrush nor low limbs
but much shade, and fresh air abundantly. I will fence
it tight and into it turn my breeding stock of cattle
and they will be no more care to me than my neighbor’s
fish are to him. I may not get 9,000,000% but 100 or
even 50 are as much as a conscientious farmer ought

Fish-Farmer in Action 47

to desire when he has only to wait instead of working
for it.”” Having to calculate the probable expense of re-
shingling his hog-pen he did not waste envelopes and
wear out his mind trying to figure up the result to be
expected from the wood-lot experiment, but determined
simply to wait. He too is waiting still, not having found
out that the cattle are dead.

“SEE THE FARMER SOW HIS SEED.”

Said another: ‘“‘Two bushels of seed are enough for
my field, but I have other things to do than to scatter it,
and moreover the wind and the rain do that and every
living thing from the chick just hatched to Old Scratch
himself takes a dig at what I plant, so I will just empty
the sack in the middle of the field and save myself much
work.”

But the harvest was slender, for lo! most of the field
had no seed and where the seed was the plants crowded
one another to death.

THE ROUNDUP.

The season being come a ranchman went forth with
his helpers to drag home by the tail his cattle and
calves. But many difficulties arose and progress was
slow. So he said, “Nay let us rather build a corral at
the spring and when the cattle come to drink we will
shut them in.” And they did so and gathered them all
without tearing up the turf and without damage to any
tails. And an honest fish farmer, seeing, said to himself,
I will gather my stock where they wish to be and will
no longer set myself in array against them. But be-
cause they did not go down to the spring to drink he
must find other causes and times and places for their
gathering, and when he had found them he shut them in.
Verbum sat sapienti.

Mj cae
«ag 7)

fee
Mee " % %
ad a - ' rs

0

TRANSACTIONS

of the

American Fisheries Society

“To promote the cause of fish culture; to gather and
diffuse information bearing upon its practical success,
and upon all matters relating to the fisheries; to unite
and encourage all interests of fish culture and the fish-
eries; and to treat all questions of a scientific and eco~
nomic character regarding fish.”

VOLUME XLV, NUMBER 2
1915-1916

Edited by The Recording Secretary
MARCH, 1916

Published Quarterly by the Society
NEW YORK.N. Y.

CONTENTS

Pace

An Angling Library and Some of Its Treasures.
Dantel “By Fearing: os OS
Proceedings of the Forty-fifth Annual Meeting WW. = NG

Addresses of Welcome

Business and Reading and Discussion of Papers
Presentation of Medal

Address of Mr. Vogelsang

Address of Dr. Jordan

In Memoriam

Editorial

109

AN ANGLING LIBRARY AND SOME OF
ITS TREASURES

By DANIEL B. FEARING, Newport, R. I.

This library of books on angling, fishing, fisheries,
and fish culture, now numbering over twelve thousand
volumes and pamphlets in twenty different languages,*
had its genesis in the year 1890 in the form of a scrap-
book on trout and trout fishing. From that scrap-book
began the collection of books entirely on trout and trout
fishing, then were added books with chapters on those
subjects and so on until the entire four heads mentioned
above were gradually drawn in and the library began
to grow.

It is, of course, an easy matter to obtain the com-
moner run of books on angling, that is to say, the pop-
ular books of the day. Most of them, it would seem from
careful collation, are stolen goods taken from other and
earlier writers of ‘pot boilers” on the same subject.

As the date of publication goes further back, one
would naturally suppose the value would correspond-
ingly rise, but this is not so. There are many angling
books with an imprint of before 1800, that are priced
in English and Scotch second-hand bookseller’s catalogs
at less than one shilling and six pence or two shillings,
and when sold at auction, are usually lumped in one
lot of from half a dozen to a dozen and sold for perhaps
half a crown the lot.

The foundation stone of an angling library is naturally
the first five editions of Izaak Walton’s, ‘““The Compleat
Angler,” the editions that were printed before his death.
Of these five, the first, printed in 1653, THE FIRST
WALTON, stands at the head.

*Chinese, Danish, Dutch, English, Finnish, Flemish, French, German,

Greek, Hindostanee, Hungarian, Italian, Japanese, Latin, Norwegian,
Persian, Portuguese, Russian, Spanish, Swedish.

54 American Fisheries Society

It is the most charming pastoral in the English
tongue, of which Richard Le Gallienne speaks so feel-
ingly, “To keep this in his little library he had under-
gone willingly many privations, cheerfully faced hunger
and cold rather than let it pass from his hand; * * *
perhaps, after Robinson Crusoe, the most popular of the
English Classics, * * * a pastoral, the freshness
of which a hundred editions have left unexhausted, a
book in which the grass is forever green and the shin-
ing brooks do indeed go on forever.” Another lover of
old Izaak has very cleverly adapted the remark of the
celebrated Dr. Botteler of strawberry fame—“doubtless
a better angling book there might have been, but such,
doubtless there never has been yet.”

It is doubtful if there is another book in English save
“The Holy Bible’ that has gone into so many editions.
At this date, 1915, there are over one hundred and
seventy different editions of “The Compleat Angler”
(this collection boasts of over one hundred and sixty).
Though the expression “Waltoniana”’ properly means
anecdotes and stories by or concerning Walton, it has
come by common usage to be understood as applying
in any way to the art piscatorial and one finds it so
used in the majority of the catalogs of booksellers deal-
ing in old and second-hand books.

The story of the “First Walton” reads like a fairy
tale. The first that is known of the “Compleat Angler”
is a small advertisement in an old London newspaper,
“The Perfect Diurnal * * * From Munday, May 9,
to Munday 16, 1652,” reading as follows:

““The Compleat Angler, or the Contemplative Man’s
Recreation,’ being a Discourse of Fish and Fishing, not
unworthy the perusal of most Anglers, of 18 pence price,
written by Iz. Wa.”

The author’s name does not appear on the title page
until the fifth edition published in 1676. The commenda-
tory verses in the second edition, published in 1655, are,
however, inscribed to “Mr. Izaak Walton.”

Fearing.—An Angling Library 55

Probably, no book published in the last three hundred
years has so increased in value. Published originally
at the price of eighteen pence, in Dr. Bethune’s time
(1847) he values a perfect copy at twelve guineas. A
copy in the original binding, but a little soiled, was
offered to the owner of this library in London in 1889
for forty-five guineas. Unluckily for him he was not:
at that time interested in angling books. At the sale
of the Von Antwerp Library in London in 1907 Quaritch
paid £1,290 for a copy in the original binding and in
perfect condition. This copy formerly belonged to
Locker Lampson and has a poem written in pencil by
him on one of the alba. That copy is now in the library
of J. P. Morgan. So high a price may never be reached
again, but since that date several copies have sold for
over a thousand pounds each.

A small book, some 534 by 3%4 inches in pristine bind-
ing, no one knows how many of this edition of 1653 were
issued. As a friend has pleasantly written concerning
it: “Its descriptions of nature, its sage reflections on
manners and customs and the everyday problems of
life, and, beyond all else, the genial humanity which
show through its every page won for it quick popularity.
It was a book to pick up in a leisure half-hour and skim
with the assurance of a quiet pleasure which few
volumes of today can convey. So it happened that the
‘Compleat Angler’ met with a ready sale in its first
edition.

“Perhaps it was because of the low price at which it
was sold, that copies of this little book of 250 years ago
have disappeared so amazingly. Some were left in stage
coaches, derelicts whose mission was ended after they
had beguiled the weary hours of a journey; some were
lost in garrets and some burned in house fires; others
doubtless ruined by immersion in the streams of which
the author loved to write; until to-day nobody knows
how many have outlived the passage of the years.”

Acknowledged by all lovers of English literature to-
day as one of the classics of the English language, its

56 American Fisheries Society

constantly increasing value is due more to the desire of
collectors of ‘First Editions” of the English Classics
to possess a copy, than to the generally “‘poor but honest
angler.”

This library contains three copies of ‘The First
Walton,” two perfect and one imperfect. The first copies
that left the press are distinguishable by several mis-
prints which do not exist in later impressions. One of
the most sought for of these misprints is that using
“contention” instead of “contentment” in the last two
lines of the verses by Sir Harry Wotton: “And, if
Contentment be a stranger then I’ll ne’er look for it, but
in Heaven again.”

The second of the copies of the ‘First Walton” in the
library is a “contention” copy and has on its title pages
the autograph of “J. Venables” in a contemporary hand.
This is supposed to be the autograph of some member
of the family of Col. Robert Venables, who wrote the
third part of the fifth edition of ‘“‘The Compleat Angler,”
of whom more anon.

This first edition was embellished by six very pretty
engravings of the trout, pike, carp, tench, perch and
barbel which were inserted in the text. The engraver
to this day is unknown. They have been attributed to
Pierre Lombart, a Frenchman and a noted engraver resi-
dent in England at that time and engaged in illustrating
books. Faithorne and Vaughn have also been mentioned
as possible candidates for the honor. The latter is known
to have been employed by Marriot on other work.

It has always been the belief of collectors that these
plates were engraved on silver, but that fact has never
been proved and still remains a disputed fact in regard
to this wonderful little book. The same plates were
used for the first four editions and were re-engraved in
reverse, by a less artistic hand, for the fifth edition.
This fact has not been generally noted by bibliographers
up to 1883, when it is mentioned by Thos. Westwood.
Volumes could, indeed, have been written regarding this
best loved of all angling books. Famous writers by the

Fearing.—An Angling Library 57

score have tried to bring new facts in regard to it before
the eyes of a constantly increasing public.

The charm of Walton’s honest writing never grows
stale, one takes him up with as much pleasure in this
twentieth century as in the days of his first appearance.
As has been charmingly said of him, “The Companion.
of our boyhood, the delight of our mature years, when
shall we look upon his like again? Fishers have in-
creased and fishing books have multiplied, but where is
the fisher blest with such a ‘Heavenly memory’ as our
Izaak, and where is the fishing book so rich in honor
and renown as his?”

The second edition, which appeared in 1655, was much
enlarged, having been almost rewritten, and contained
some one hundred and seventeen pages more, and four
more plates, the bream, eel, loach and bull-head having
been added. Commendatory verses by seven apprecia-
tive writers are given for the first time in this edition.
Copies of this second edition, though not bringing as
high a price as the first, are much more rarely met with.
A little more than a hundred years after its appearance
John Hawkins (afterwards Sir John) states in his “Life
of Walton” in his edition of “The Compleat Angler,”
first issued in 1760, ‘“‘The second I have never been able to
see.” This scarcity has continued to the present day
and, while it is always possible for anyone to find a
“First Walton” who is willing to pay the price for it,
he would have to search for a considerable time to find
a good copy of the second edition.

The third edition first appeared in 1661. This con-
tained but few and unimportant changes. This edition
again appeared in 1664 with a new title-page, and dated
1664. The latter date is much scarcer than that of 1661.
The fourth edition appeared in 1668. “It is a mere
paginary reprint of the third, with the exception of the
‘errata’ which are here corrected in the work.”

The fifth edition was issued in 1676 and was called
“The Universal Angler, made so, by Three Books of
Fishing. The first written by Mr. Izaak Walton; the

58 American Fisheries Society

second by Charles Cotton, Esq.; the third by Col. Robert
Venables.” This is the fifth edition of Walton, the first
of Cotton, and the fourth of Venables. Twenty pages
were added to this edition and further improvements
were introduced. This was the last edition published
in the author’s lifetime. “The union of Walton and
Cotton has been perpetuated in all subsequent reprints,
but Venable’s treatise, which, though meritorious, be-
longs to another order of composition, has been ex-
cluded.” Such is the History of ‘The First Five.” The
Angler’s library that is built with these for a corner
stone, is certainly founded upon one of the firmest rocks
of English literature. Good copies of all five are in the
library.

As previously stated the reprints of this famous book
have been many, from absolutely facsimile copies of the
“First Walton,” of which there are several, two of them
magnificent volumes in folio embellished with pictures
by the greatest artists.

It would seem impossible for any thing new in regard
to such a well-known book to be discovered, yet it was
the great good fortune of the owner of this library to
find in 1910 in the catalog of a well-known book auc-
tioneer in Boston, a small Walton and Cotton published
by Septimus Prowett in London, in 1826. It is a small
32mo. in its original violet unlettered cloth binding.
Printed on thin paper, this copy seems to be unique.
Diligent inquiry both in this country and abroad has
failed to find another copy or even the knowledge of
its existence. It is not known or mentioned by any of
the bibliographers of Walton, or to any of the collectors
of Walton that the owner has been able to find. Bought
at auction in Boston, it came in a collection of trashy
novels and other books of no value in a consignment
from Maine and if it had not attracted the cataloger’s
eye by its size and the fact that it was printed on thin
paper, it would have been put into a lot of “and ten
others” and probably lost to sight forever. R. B. Mar-
ston, the editor of ‘The Fishing Gazette” of London, and

Fearing.—An Angling Library 59

undoubtedly the greatest living authority on Walton, has
been most interested in this previously unknown edition,
and in “The Fishing Gazette” of Dec. 30, 1911, he jok-
ingly refers to it as follows: “So angling collectors,
since you now know it, don’t part with your copy of
Walton by Prowett. Oh, Prowett! if you were now
within hearing, you’d tell us, no doubt, you just made
one for Fearing.” This little volume, of course, after
the “First Five’ is one of the chief treasures of the
library.

Searce and interesting copies of Walton, some of
which are indeed unique, are also to be found in the col-
lection, a few of which have been mentioned on account
of their rarity or interest as being unique copies. The
copy of the first John Hawkins edition of 1760 is abso-
lutely uncut and is in original or contemporary binding.
It is the only copy in this condition of which the owner
has seen or heard.

The first Major edition, London, 1823, is a large paper
copy with the prints on India paper. This copy be-
longed to Bedford, the celebrated binder, was bound by
him, and contains an autograph letter presenting it to
him from John Major, the publisher.

Thomas Westwood in “Bibliotheca Piscatoria’” speak-
ing of this edition says: “The editor was Mr. A. Thom-
son, author of the ‘Chronicles of London Bridge,’ 1827,
but the ‘Introductory Essay,’ a farrago of twaddle, was
written by Major himself.”

In 1833 was published “The First Rennie Edition,”
edited by James Rennie, A.M. This edition was re-
printed without change by some twenty-five different
publishers at various dates from 1834 to 1857. All but
eight of these reprints are in the collection.

The year 1836 brought out the celebrated, so-called
“Pickering Edition,’ two large 8vo, volumes printed by
William Pickering, and edited by Sir Harry Nicholas.
This was issued in two editions, one with plain plates,
and one on large paper with the plates on India paper.
The latter is the edition usually chosen by extra-illus-

60 American Fisheries Society

trators for their labors. The library contains copies of
both, also a copy extended to four volumes. The library
is also the possessor of the full set of the actual drawings
by Thomas Stothard, R.A., for this edition, done in
color (with the exception of the “Front View” of the
fishing house; in its place there is an unpublished draw-
ing), and for which he made a special expedition to
Dovedale.

One of the scarcest and most difficult Walton’s to ob-
tain is the German translation of ““Ephemera’s” Edition
(Edward Fitz Gibbon), by I. F. Schumacher, published
by P. Salomon & Co., Hamburg, 1859, the only transla-
tion of the “Compleat Angler” into a foreign language.
Most of the copies of this German edition were destroyed
by fire, and the book was never reprinted. The owner
was over fifteen years in obtaining a copy, and in twenty-
five years has seen but five copies offered at auction, and
of these five one was the same copy appearing twice.

The one hundreth edition of the ‘“‘Compleat Angler”
is the Lea and Dove edition published in London in 1888.
It is in two large volumes, folio, and is the largest
Walton issued up to the present time. The editor is R.
B. Marston, the proprietor and editor of the “Fishing
Gazette of London.” He has given us the most carefully
edited and scholarly edition of Walton thus far pub-
lished, and the reader will find in his notes all of interest
that has been discovered concerning Walton up to the
date of publication. Alongside of this, you will find for
the sake of comparison, “The Compleat Angler,” pub-
lished by Henry Frowde in London (1900). It is known
as the “thumb edition,” being 2 x 134 inches in size. It
is the smallest Walton known and also the smallest book
in the collection.

In special or unique copies of Walton, the library has
several worthy of note, one, a copy of the large paper
second Bagster edition, 1815, extended or two volumes
by the insertion of over one hundred and seventy old
engravings, old portraits, colored views, sepia drawings,
and colored drawings. The original drawings in sepia

Fearing.—An Angling Library 61

are of portraits unattainable otherwise and are all from
authentic sources. They were done especially for this
copy by Mr. J. E. Wheeler, a celebrated “‘Punch”’ artist.
The whole is a record of Izaak Walton, his haunts and
friends. All his favorite authors are illustrated by con-
temporary and rare portraits. Most interesting is a
copy of Elliot Stock’s facsimile reprint of the first-
edition, London, 1896, with a preface by Richard Le Gal-
lienne. This edition strangely enough is not mentioned
in Wood’s “Bibliography.” The copy is unique, Le Gal-
lienne’s manuscript preface, with corrected proofs by
Le Gallienne of the same, consisting of ten pages, being
inserted and signed at the end; together with Le Gal-
lienne’s correspondence with Elliot Stock concerning
this preface, eight highly interesting autograph letters,
making arrangements, stipulating as to his fee, etc.

One of the handsomest editions of Walton is the
“Winchester” edition, published in London in 1902, in
two quarto volumes. It is edited by George A. B.
Dewar, and has an essay by Sir Edward Grey, with etch-
ings by William Strang and D. Y. Cameron. This copy
has been extended to four volumes with specially printed
title-pages and illustrated by the addition of one hundred
and fourteen extra illustrations. The illustrations con-
sist of the complete series of thirty-one original pen-
and-ink drawings by Strang and Cameron which are
reproduced in the book as head and tail pieces. (Draw-
ings by these two artists are exceedingly rare, both
being excellent etchers. Almost all their work has been
done direct on the copper, without preliminary draw-
ings.) Also an extra set of the thirty full-page etchings,
proofs signed by the artist (unpublished thus), and
complete set in proof state on India paper of the beauti-
ful plates and vignettes to Pickering’s 1836 edition of
the “Angler” mentioned above. It is most sumptuously
bound in dark green levant morocco, very richly tooled
after an original design, and inlaid on the sides with
various colored morocco representing conventional river
flowers, bulrushes, water lilies floating on the water,

62 American Fisheries Society

birds in the sky, ete., rich pictoral doubles inlaid in
biscuit and other colored morocco showing scenes con-
nected with Walton’s life and “The Angler.’’ Photo-
graphs of these doubles are inserted in each volume.

After the various editions of ‘“‘The Angler” naturally
come other books by Walton, or books concerning him
and his works. A little 12mo. volume in original old
brown calf, uncut, has on its title-page, the initials “TI.
W.” and throughout the book are fifteen manuscript cor-
rections and additions in the same precious autograph.
It is a first edition of “The Life of Dr. Sanderson, by
Izaak Walton, London, 1678,” and was a presentation
copy from him to “Jn. Merewether,” whose autograph
appears on the bottom margin of the title-page.

Walton wrote the preface to ‘“‘Thelma and Clearchus,”
a pastoral romance by John Chalkhill, London, 1683. A
new edition was published in 1820 by C. Whittingham.
Following the preface are the verses of Tho. Flatman
“To my worthy friend Mr. Izaak Walton on the publica-
tion of this poem.” At end, in place of “finis” is a de-
lightful touch: “And here the author died and I hope
the reader will be sorry.”

The first bibliography of “The Angler’ was “The
Chronicle of The Compleat Angler” by Thomas West-
wood, London, 1864. The library owns two copies of
this, one, the ordinary edition, the other, one of twenty-
five copies printed on large paper. This was a presenta-
tion copy to Rev. H. N. Ellacombe, the author of
“Shakespeare as an Angler,” and has inserted two signed
autograph letters to him from Westwood, a list of the
various editions of Walton’s “Lives,” in his autograph,
and a slip of “Errata.”

A second edition of this was issued in 1883. Only two
hundred copies were printed. It contained notes and
additions by Thos. Satchell. This edition is very scarce
though not generally known to be so. In a copy of
“Twelve Sonnets and an Epilogue in memoriam, Izaak
Walton, Obiit 15th, December, 1683,” by T. Westwood
(only twenty copies printed), presented to Elliot Stock,

Fearing.—An Angling Library 63

the publisher, is inserted an autograph letter from West-
wood to Stock, saying: “I send you the Chronicle. It
is a finished book in two senses, for a fire at the printer’s
has destroyed almost the whole stock.”

Another scarce item is “The Tercentenary of Izaak
Walton, by Andrew Lang, Printed for Private Circula-
tion only, London, 1893.” “A delightfully written ap- -
preciation of ‘The Father of Angling’ written by a
master’s hand.” Only thirty copies were printed. ‘The
Bibliography of Izaak Walton’s ‘Compleat Angler,’ by
Thomas Satchell (printed for presentation only), Lon-
don, 1882.” A limited number were printed with special
title-pages. The library possesses No. 3, a presentation
copy to H. W. Bentley, and Thos. Satchell’s own copy
with his book plate. In 1900 Arnold Wood published
a “Bibliography of ‘The Compleat Angler’ from the first
edition in 1653 until the year 1900,” beautifully gotten
up, with eighty-six photoengraved reproductions of title-
pages. Eighteen copies were issued on Imperial Japan-
ese paper and one hundred and two on Van Gelder
paper. Copies of each are in the collection.

Two very scarce pamphlets in the library are copies
of the Catalog of Editions of ‘““The Compleat Angler”
exhibition at the Grolier Club in New York on the three
hundredth anniversary of Walton’s birth in 1893; and
a “Finding list of an Exhibition of Waltoniana,” at the
Rowfant Club in Cleveland, in 1896.

Of equal scarcity is “A catalogue of an Exhibition of
Waltoniana,” given at the Club of Odd Volumes in Bos-
ton in 1912. Of this, only one hundred and thirty copies
were printed from type at the Merrymount Press, Bos-
ton. This is entirely an exhibit of the treasures of this
library.

Amongst the autographs in the collection the first
place is easily held by a holograph document of Izaak
Walton, eleven lines signed with his full signature, and
dated, “Octo’r 23, 1676”; a beautiful example of Izaak
Walton’s handwriting and a very rare autograph, as he
rarely signed his name in full. Another beautiful speci-

64 American Fisheries Society

men is twenty-five lines in Walton’s autograph signed
“Iz. W.,” being Sir Henry Wotton’s ode to spring quoted
in the “Compleat Angler.” Charles Cotton is repre-
sented by three lines signed ‘‘C-C-Ton,” a curious form
of Cotton’s signature.

Of much greater rarity than the above are seventeen
lines signed ‘‘Robert Venables.” The owner knows of
no other example in a Waltonian Collection. Venables
was the author of Part III of the fifth edition of ““The
Compleat Angler.” Of great interest also in the original
probate copy of Izaak Walton’s will, dated August 9,
1683, beautifully written on a sheet of vellum, nearly
three feet square and with the greater portion of the
old seal still attached to it. This treasure mounted in
a silver frame with glass front and back occupies a
prominent place in the library. The owner had twenty-
five facsimile copies made for distribution amongst
friends; also twenty-five transcripts of the same in clear
English print.

Many more examples of Waltoniana could be men-
tioned were there time and space to describe them.

The manuscript was the first portable form of trans-
mission of men’s thoughts, and in the library are manu-
scripts on pages of vellum containing perhaps the earli-
est mention of fish-ponds and the culture or raising of
fish for food. The old monks who were often, if not
the authors, most certainly the scribes of the manu-
scripts, had the liveliest kind of interest in fish and its
culture, since on their many fast days, the church al-
lowed them fish food.

The earliest manuscript in the collection is undoubt-
edly a copy of the work of Bartholomaeus Glanville, “De
proprietatibus rerum’’—concerning the nature of things.
It was written in 13800. This portly volume was
formerly owned by the University of the Sorbonne in
Paris, and was loaned to the students and scholars of
Paris for a stipulated sum of money per day. This was
quite on the principal of the modern circulating library.
The work is in Latin and was the encyclopaedia of the

Fearing.—An Angling Library 65

middle ages. It contains one chapter on fish and fish-
ponds. This is the earliest material on the subject in
the library.

Of almost equal date is the manuscript of Pietro de
Crescenze, ‘“Ruralium commodorum,” “of rural affairs.”
This work was produced repeatedly by all the early
printers, and indeed, the earliest printed book in the col-~
lection, is the First Edition of Crescentius, printed by
Johan Schuszler in 1471. Another early edition of the
same work in the library is one printed in 1474 by the
celebrated John of Westphalia, at Louvain, the beauti-
ful old seat of learning in Belgium, only recently de-
stroyed. This work was very popular in the Middle Ages
and was translated into Italian, French and German,
and a copy of each is in the collection. Crescenze wrote
on fish-ponds and on how to make small ponds and in-
land lakes profitable. Books published before 1500 are
known as “Incunabula,” or “Books in their cradle.”
The library owns no less than fifteen of these specimens
of the early bookmaker’s art. First in value, naturally,
comes the “Treatyse on the Art of Fysshing with an
angle,’ from the ‘‘Book of St. Albans,” by the legendary
Dame Juliana Berners, and printed by the celebrated
Wynkyn de Worde at Westminster, in 1496. This is the
first book that treats of angling in the English language.
The first printed book to contain an illustration of an
angler using a float, was the “Dyalogus Creaturarum
Moralizatus,” printed at Gouda in 1480. The library
contains copies of the 1482 and 1484 editions.

The earliest known treatise on fishing is a work in
Flemish printed at Antwerp in 1492. A single copy
only of this work is known to exist. It is in the library
of Alfred Denison, who had a literal translation made
of it and twenty-five copies printed for private distri-
bution in 1872. The library possesses one of the twenty-
five copies, also the original manuscript of the transla-
tion, together with the corrected proof sheets and re-
vised proofs.

66 American Fisheries Society

As regards fishing, probably the earliest mention of
the subject in England occurs in “Magna Charta.” The
library owns a copy of this, published in 1556, which
formerly belonged to Mary, Queen of Scots. It is in the
original binding, showing the Tudor rose and crown.
Books from Queen Mary’s library are excessively rare,
the late Queen Victoria even, never having been able to
obtain one.

In 1651 was published a small volume called “The Art
of Angling” by Thomas Barker. It is so scarce that this
library does not own a copy. A reprint of it was pub-
lished in 1820. Of this reprint 100 copies were issued,
also four copies on straw colored paper and one on vel-
lum. The library has one of the ordinary edition, two
of the straw colored copies, and the vellum one. Anent
this book and these copies, an interesting story, illus-
trating the smallness of the world, may be told. In one
of the straw colored copies, which belonged to Thomas
Gosden, the celebrated English XIX Century sportsman,
bibliophile and binder of-angling books, and was bound
by him, is a note in his autograph: “There is also one
reprint on vellum, which I have. T. Gosden.” Is it not
strange that after one hundred years these two little
volumes should come together on one shelf, never again
to be separated? This Barker was a cook, who, devoted
to fishing, wrote his experiences. In his second edition,
published in 1653, in the epistle dedicatory, he boasts of
his skill and declares he takes as much pleasure in the
dressing of fish as in the taking of them, “and to show
how I can perform it, to furnish any Lord’s table, onely
with trouts, as it is furnished with flesh, for 16 to 20
dishes. And I have a desire to preserve their health
(with help of God) to go dry in their boots and shoes
in angling, for age taketh the pleasure from me.”

The subject of fish cookery was one that occupied a
good deal of attention in the old days when the church
ruled the state and the eating of fish was compulsory
upon rich and poor alike. Books of many pages have
been written on the various methods of cooking one fish,

Fearing.—An Angling Library 67

not to mention all fish and shell fish. One author, a
Frenchman, describes 150 different methods of serving
the sardine. Another, an American lady, has written
five hundred pages on ‘‘how to cook fish,” in which she
gives “ninety-five ways to cook shad” alone. Two
separate American authors or compilers have given us,
“One hundred ways to prepare oysters.” The lady men- .
tioned above also wrote a book entitled, ‘““How to cook
shell fish,” in which she gives “215 ways to cook oysters,”
“130 ways to cook clams,” ‘175 ways to cook lobsters,”
“85 ways to cook crabs,” 40 ways to cook shrimps,” be-
sides numerous other shell fish. This author at the end
of 303 pages of recipes for cooking shell fish, says in a
note: “P. S. This is all we know about shell fish. If
we should ever learn any more, it will appear in another
book.” There are over 100 books in the library on fish
cookery, the oldest being a very scarce edition of “De
Honesta Voluptate” published in Bologna in 1499 which
contains 138 pages on the “Cookery of Fish.” The owner
has made a collection of scrap books, now numbering
over fifty, a single volume containing recipes for cook-
ing one kind of fish. The volume on trout has been ex-
tended to two and contains over 300 different ways of
serving trout, and is by no means finished yet!

Among these books on fish cookery in English, French,
German and Italian, is one small curious volume en-
titled, ‘“Fish for Cats, by Dog,’ It was published with-
out place or date and is a collection of recipes from old
cook books. The author, under the pseudonym of “Dog,”
says that he wishes to “alleviate, in the smallest meas-
ures, the agonies of Lent in 1868.”

Perhaps a quotation from the introduction to “A
Handbook of Fish Cookery,” by Lucy H. Yates, London,
1897, may fitly end these remarks on fish cook books.
“Ignorance * * * will generally be found to be the
cause of the aversion which many housewives have to
the cooking of fish * * * the poorer classes still
regard fish as ‘nothing to make a meal of’ * * #*
and many people who would really enjoy eating it are

68 American Fisheries Society

debarred from doing so by its being invariably badly
cooked, or presented always in the same monotonous
dress.” The everlasting boil, broil, fry or bake, of the
English and American cook, certainly makes one long
for the delicate and tasty sauces and methods of prepar-
ing fish of our French and Italian cousins.

In 1758 there was published a book called “The
Anglers.” It was published anonymously, and consisted
of eight dialogues in verse. This first edition is very
scarce and even as far back as 1820 was so little known
that the whole eight cantos were deliberately reprinted
by Thos. O. Lathy without any acknowledgment what-
ever and called “The Angler.” “This book is one of the
worst cases of literary plagiarism known. It was palmed
off on Gosden, the sporting bookseller, whose portrait
by A. Cooper, R. A., is prefixed. He paid £30 for the
copyright and also printed a single copy on vellum, at
an expense of £10 for the vellum alone, as he himself
states in a manuscript nete to a sales catalog.’”’ Besides
this copy on vellum, twenty copies were printed in
quarto, in addition to the ordinary edition. The library
owns the single copy on vellum, most expensively bound
by Gosden himself and with his book plate and manu-
script notes; also a copy of the quarto edition and of the
ordinary one; also a copy of the original work of 1758.
The original edition of- 1758 has by now been exclu-
sively attributed to Dr. Thomas Scott, a dissenting min-
ister of Ipswich. The preface, entitled “The Bookseller
to the Reader,” contains a curious justification of angling,
perhaps worth repeating: “To a man of any compass
of thought and experience in the world it is well
known that angling is not a mere recreation, but a busi-
ness, a business which employeth most orders, profes-
sions and occupations among men. For instance, we
booksellers angle for authors, and authors angle for a
dinner or for fame. Again, doth not the lawyer angle
for clients, the doctor for a fee, the divine for prefer-
ment, the statesman for secrets, the courtier for a pen-
sion, and the needy for a place? Further, what is he

Fearing.—An Angling Library 69

who offereth a bribe, but a fisher for another man’s con-
science? And what is he who taketh a bribe but the
silly fish that is caught with the bait?”

In the 17th Century in England, men’s minds were
much more turned to religion than in the present, and
many books were written on common every-day subjects |
that were really religious works. Of this class of book,
the scarcest is ““A Booke of Angling or Fishing,” by Dr.
Samuel Gardiner, published in London, in 1606. Of this
book, only three copies are known to exist, one in the
Bodleian Library, one formerly in the Huth collection,
recently dispersed at auction, and its final purchaser not
known, and the third is in this library. The history of
this copy has been impossible to trace. It was discovered
by the buyer for a London bookseller in the west of Eng-
land. With others of its kind, the majority of which are
very scarce, it may be called “Fishing Spiritualized.”

The English poets contain much of interest to the
angler, as many have written in praise or description
of the sport. Among the earliest is Michael Drayton,
from whom indeed Walton may have obtained his idea
of the colloquial form of the ‘“‘Compleat Angler.” In
Drayton’s 6th “Nymphal,” the subject is a discussion be-
tween a woodman, a fisherman and a shepherd, each
holding to the superior merits of his own vocation.
Drayton’s other poems contain many allusions to fish and
fishing.

William Browne in his “Britannia’s pastorals” writes
so charmingly of the angler that one feels he must have
loved the art himself.

Our friend, Charles Cotton, of sainted memory,
wrote “Poems on several occasions” in 1689, which are
filled with his favorite subject and friend, angling and
Walton. John Gay in his ‘Rural Sports,’ 1713, comes
well into our list. Thomas Heyrick is another who
wrote frequently on the subject and in one of his poems,
‘“‘A Pindaresque ode in praise of angling,” he not only
praises angling, but abuses in vehement fashion those
who do not angle.

70 American Fisheries Society

“Windsor Forest,’ a poem by Alexander Pope, first
published in 1713, contains the well-known lines begin-
ning “In genial ‘spring. .* °*. *.. Phe wpacient. fisher
takes his silent stand.” James Thomson in his “The
Seasons”’ has a passage of nearly fifty lines which shows
the skill of the angler equally with that of the poet.
Many were the lesser lights who burst forth into poetry
in praise of angling, and there are also many Italian,
a few French, a very few German, many Latin and a
few Greek poems that bear directly on our subject.

The later and more -modern classical authors have,
many of them, been admirers of the art of angling and
many also anglers themselves. The seventh part of
Washington Irving’s “Sketch Book” contains his delight-
ful appreciation of the art, called “The Angler.” The
library possesses a copy of the first edition in the
original seven parts with the original paper covers
bound in and an autograph letter of Irving inserted.

Sir Walter Scott in 1821 wrote a preface and notes
for a new edition of Richard Franck’s “Northern
Memoirs,” which first appeared in 1694. In the library,
by the side of this edition, rests Scott’s original manu-
script.

Another interesting manuscript, is one of thirty-nine
pages, entitled “My First Trout,” written by Charles
Dudley Warner and dated May 6, 1897.

George Washington, himself, was a keen angler, and
a little pamphlet by Dr. George H. Moore, entitled
“Washington as an Angler,’ has been extra-illustrated
for the library by the insertion of a manuscript inscrip-
tion of presentation from the author, many portraits of
Washington, and a fine autograph letter signed by
George Washington. Our good President Grover Cleve-
land was a keen angler and fisherman. He wrote a very
clever little brochure entitled, “A Defense of Fisher-
men.” A very few copies of this were privately printed
for distribution among the author’s friends (not over
twenty at most were issued). The library has a copy,
presented by the author, with a charming autograph

Fearing.—An Angling Library 7

letter to the owner, and signed by him, inserted. Other
statesmen who were fishermen and who wrote on the
subject were John Quincy Adams, De Witt Clinton and
Daniel Webster. The latter was a noted trout fisher-
man, but his writings on the subject are entirely in the
form of letters to various friends. The library owns
the trout rod with which he was accustomed to whip .
the streams of Cape Cod in the latter years of his life.
Andrew Lang, Weir Mitchell, and Dr. Van Dyke all
loved the art, and presentation copies of the books they
wrote are among the library’s treasures.

The library is particularly rich in illustrated books,
from what are probably the earliest known pictures of
fish in the “Dyalogus,” in 1480, mentioned above (the
library has framed a _ woodcut, contemporaneously
colored from a religious history of the world published
several years earlier and said to be the earliest printed
picture of fishing), to the most modern work of the
illustrator and engraver of the 20th century. Among
so many it is possible to mention but one or two. First,
of course, would naturally come the water colors of
Stothard mentioned above. Then perhaps comes Eleazar
Albin’s own copy of his work on “Esculent Fish,”
originally published in 1794, with 18 plates colored by
hand. This copy has sixty full-page water color draw-
ings by Albin. It was his evident intention, from the
accompanying notes, to issue another volume, which,
however, was never published, and these were the draw-
ings he made for that purpose.

Mrs. Bowdich’s “Fresh-water Fishes of Great
Britain,’ London, 1828, a very rare and valuable work
of which only fifty copies were issued, contains forty-
seven plates of fish, drawn from life and colored by
hand.

A copy of Elliot Stock’s facsimile reprint of ‘‘Dame
Barnes’ Treatyse of Fysshing with an angle’ belonged
to Richard Doyle, and he began to illustrate it in color,
but left it unfinished. The first few leaves have ten
original, humorous and exceedingly clever illustrations in

12 American Fisheries Society

color by Richard Doyle and many other illustrations
sketched out in pencil. This interesting book was
bought by Thomas Satchell in 1885 at an exhibition of
illustrators work in Bond St., London, and contains his
book plate, a receipt for 50 guineas which he paid for
it and an insurance receipt for the same amount on the
book while on exhibition.

“The Fly Fishers Guide,” by Geo. C. Bainbridge, Lon-
don, 1816, is the author’s own copy and contains his
book-plate. It is one of ten copies in quarto cloth which
were issued for presents and colored with greater care.

Another work, of which the owner has never seen an-
other copy, is “The Fishing Costume” of Hartlepool,
London, 1819, a very scarce book with six most charm-
ingly engraved and colored plates.

Speaking of “The Genteel Recreation or The Pleasure
of Angling, a poem,” by John Whitney, London, 1700,
and reprinted in 1820, “Bibliotheca Piscatoria” says,
“100 copies were reprinted, copies of it are rare. The
original edition does not appear to have been published.”
The library owns a copy and there is another copy in
the New York Public Library. The library owns a copy
also of the 1820 reprint. At the sale of the Heckscher
collection the only book that Bernard Quaritch, the
famous bookseller of London, bid on, was: ‘‘Certaine ex-
periments concerning fish and fruite: practiced by John
Taverner, Gentleman,” London, 1600. That copy is in
the library and is the only one the owner knows of in
this country.

Another volume that seems to have almost disappeared
is the “Ichthyologia Ohiensis; or, natural history of the
fishes inhabiting the River Ohio, ” Lexington, Kentucky,
1820. Of this book only eight copies are known to sur-
vive, one of which is in the library.

It would be possible to go on indefinitely, picking out
books here and there that are unique or scarce, for it
has been the policy of the library, whenever possible,
to obtain a presentation copy of each book. Where that
has not been possible, there have been inserted, when

Fearing.—An Angling Library 73

they could be found, autograph letters by each author, to-
gether with any interesting newspaper clippings such as
notices of the book, obituary notices of the author, etc.

As regards the books published during the last six or
seven years, many of the authors have been kind enough,
knowing the library by reputation, to send compli-
mentary autographed copies to it. Only one author has
refused to put his autograph in his own book when re-
quested by the owner of the library. The majority have
done more and have added some sentiment or compli-
mentary remark regarding the library. The kindly
gentleman who refused hated Americans and wrote the
gentleman who sent him the book to be autographed for
the owner, ‘‘that he considered ita * * * piece of
American impudence to ask such a favor.” He little
appreciated that as many, if not more, copies of his book
were being purchased by those * * * Americans, as
by his own countrymen. In over twenty-five years of
ardent collecting this is only the second case of churlish
rudeness the owner has met with. The other, it is sad
to state, was a fellow countryman from the middle West.
Besides the books on the subjects of the library, there is
a very large collection of books on whaling. In the early
part of the nineteenth century New York lawyers ar-
gued long and earnestly on the subject, ‘Is the whale a
fish?” Though we all know now that it is a mammal,
the subject is so nearly allied, always being referred to
as “The Whale Fishery,” that a most interesting portion
of the library is taken up with that subject. This com-
prises colored and plain prints, engravings and etchings,
photographs and charts, besides several hundred volumes
in different languages, together with a few manuscripts
and many log books. Among the manuscripts may be
mentioned the original of “‘The Journal of a Voyage to
the Northern Whale-Fishery * * * made in 1822 in the
Ship Baffin of Liverpool, by William Scoresby, Jr.,” and
an appendix, with interlineations and erasures, bound up
with the title-page and text of the first edition, published
in 1823. Inserted, also, is a clipping concerning the man-

74 American Fisheries Society

uscript from a Boston paper, of contemporary date. The
old log books are of particular interest. They were usual-
ly written by the captain of the whaler, who used a
wooden rubber stamp depicting a whale, and if said
whale was killed, the stamp appears lengthwise on the
page and in a blank space on his side was written in the
number of barrels of oil he tried out; but if he escaped,
a stamp showing only his tail was used perpendicularly.

In conjunction with this whaling collection, there is a
complete collection of all the lances, spades, bombs and
guns used in the capture and chase of the whale; also a
very fine collection of scrimshaw, as the etched and
carved work done by the whalers on whale teeth, is called.
Many teeth are beautifully engraved with whaling
scenes, battle scenes of the war of 1812, portraits, etc.
Three very valuable ones, charming in design and color,
are the work of Edward G. Malbone, the celebrated min-
iature painter, done in his youth. They represent the
heathen gods and goddesses. The remainder of the set
the owner has never been able to trace. Included amongst
this scrimshaw is a fine collection of buskbones as worn
by our ancestresses, made from whale bone and ivory
and beautifully engraved; also a large collection of jig-
gers or pie crust cutters, also made from whale ivory by
the whalers.

Another very interesting part of the collection con-
sists of the prints, which number several thousand, all
on the subject of angling or fishing, or containing per-
sons angling or fishing. They date back from the earli-
est woodcuts to the latest work of the modern illustra-
tor and engraver. There are many volumes of colored
illustrations of fish alone, done by various artists in va-
rious lands, notably 246 examples done by a Chinese
artist on rice paper and most artistically drawn and
colored. The late Professor Agassiz told the owner he
considered them the most beautiful examples of fish por-
traiture he had ever seen. As a companion to this is a
book of Indian fishes drawn and colored by a native East
Indian, but in no way so fine and noticeable.

Fearing.—An Angling Library 75

The library contains probably a greater number of
English “Acts” and French “Arrets” on the subject of
“fisheries,” together with Danish, Dutch, German, Ital-
ian, Norwegian and Swedish government acts and laws,
with a few Russian, than any other single library. The
library contains one superb example of the Finnish laws,
in folio, each page engraved, print and borders of fish
and game, made in 1709, with an English translation in
manuscript on each opposite page done in 1720.

It contains a virtually complete set of the publications
of the U. S. Bureau of Fisheries up to 1912, and almost
complete sets of all the various state publications on the
subject up to the same date. One interesting part of the
library is the collection of illustrated post cards on an-
gling, fishing, fisheries and fish, with many comic ones,
amounting in all to nearly 5,000 examples, including a
small volume of French ones, which play on the word
“neche” and the verb ‘“‘pecher,” but which are not kept
for general sight. Enough has been said, however, to
bear out the motto painted over the fireplace in the
library :

“Whatever the wind, whatever the tide,
Here is good fishing by this fire-side.”

This motto was suggested to the owner after reading
Eugene Field’s delightful little essay on “Fender Fish-
ing,” in the “Love Affairs of a Bibliomaniac,” and so,
“To those who love quiet, virtue and angling—this for
Farewell.”

PROCEEDINGS OF THE FORTY-FIFTH
ANNUAL MEETING

The Forty-fifth Annual Meeting of the Society was
held at San Francisco, California, on September 1 to 4,
1915, in the Auditorium of the Young Women’s Chris-
tian Association Building on the grounds of the Panama-
Pacific International Exposition.

President Daniel B. Fearing called the meeting to
order and introduced Hon. A. L. Cowell, and later Dr.
B. W. Evermann and Mr. Ernest Schaeffle, all of whom
made brief addresses of welcome.

ADDRESSES OF WELCOME.

By A. L. COWELL,
Assistant Director of Congresses, Panama-Pacific
International Exposition.

Mr. Chairman and Gentlemen: I feel highly honored
at being permitted to express, in behalf of the President
and Board of Directors of the Exposition and particu-
larly the Department of Congresses with which I am
directly connected, our extreme gratification at being
able to welcome you within the grounds of the Exposi-
tion to this, your Forty-fifth Annual Session. I feel
especially glad because of the fact that you represent so
old an organization and so important a subject. There
are comparatively few of the conventions and congresses
that are meeting in San Francisco and vicinity this year
which have maintained an existence of forty-five con-
secutive years. Therefore, we feel that you bring to us
a certain amount of dignity and stability, which we
greatly appreciate. Of course, the subject in which you
are interested is one of extreme importance to all the
members of the human race.

78 American Fisheries Society

At the opening of the Exposition, there were two im-
portant facts set forth. One was that, as the Exposition
is celebrating a great achievement of American genius
in our own time, the completion of the Panama Canal
which is a work of the present, rather than the anni-
versary of some event which happened hundreds of
years ago, the Exposition should be a contemporaneous
one. None of the exhibits in these palaces are entitled
to be the subjects of award by the Jury of Awards unless
they have been made since the St. Louis Exposition of
1904. Therefore, the viewpoint of the Exposition is
essentially of the present.

We have sought to gather in these exhibit palaces the
material evidences of the progress of mankind within
the last decade. But we thought, also, that the Exposi-
tion should bring together not only the actual material
proofs of the progress of mankind, but that it should
present to the world the methods by which that progress
has been made possible. In order to emphasize those
methods and particularly to emphasize the work of the
organized movements that are so characteristic of
modern development, we tried to bring together as large
a representation from the different organized bodies of
men and women as possible. The result is that more
than nine hundred congresses, conferences and conven-
tions are meeting in San Francisco and vicinity during
the Exposition period and we are glad to claim those
conventions as a part of the Exposition itself, setting
forth to the world the methods and the spirit of the
organizations which have made possible the progress
shown in our exhibit palaces.

There is one other distinctive feature of our Exposi-
tion which we like to emphasize and that is, that we have
made the central purpose of it the idea of human serv-
ice. We have tried, in gathering these conventions, to
emphasize those ideas which make for the betterment
and improvement of the human race, and which con-
tribute to the sum total of human happiness, and we
believe that your work contributes materially to this

Proceedings 79

important end. We are therefore also glad to welcome
you as an important factor in developing a great in-
dustry and a great branch of scientific knowledge, which
is of the utmost importance to the human race.

Because of the importance of the industry which you
represent, because of your long experience, and because
of the fact that you bring to us a rich discussion of”
matters of vital importance to the human race and to
the progress of mankind, we are especially glad to wel-
come you to this Exposition.

By Dr. BARTON W. EVERMANN,
Curator of the California Academy of Sciences, San
Francisco, California.

Mr. President and Members of the Association: I do
not know just what I should say on this occasion more
than that those of us who live in San Francisco and
California and on the western coast are very glad that
the Society is meeting in San Francisco this year. I
believe this is the first meeting that the Society ever has
held west of Denver, and it is particularly appropriate
and gratifying that the meeting this year should be held
in San Francisco at the time of this wonderful Exposi-
tion. I wish it were possible for all the eastern mem-
bers to have come to this meeting, not only because of
the interest which the meeting would have for them,
but for the opportunity of seeing California, the western
coast, and this marvellously beautiful Exposition.

Those on this coast who are particularly interested
in matters of this kind are, of course, primarily the
State Fish and Game Commission and the various com-
mercial interests of the State, and doubtless they extend
to you a very hearty welcome.

The California Academy of Science has in its organ-
ization a few members who are interested in such
matters also, and, of course, they are deeply glad that
you are here this year.

I am sure that the meeting will prove valuable and
will grow in interest as the days go on.

80 American Fisheries Society

By Mr. ERNEST SCHAEFFLE,

Executive Officer of the California Fish and Game
Commission, San Francisco, California.

Mr. Chairman and Gentlemen of the American Fish-
eries Society: The Fish and Game Commission of this
State is very glad indeed that the Society has seen fit
to meet in California this year. We have sometimes
deplored the fact that meetings of an organization so
important as this could not have been held oftener west
of the Rockies. Like a great many other organizations
and people out here in the West, we feel that we are a
long way from “home,” a long way from the seat of
certain forms of activity. For that reason we have been
glad to get the society here this year. We know that
you will profit by your visit with us. We feel particu-
larly certain that the results of our discussions here
will be of benefit to the California Commission and to
the fishing interests of the West. And, like the other
good people who come out here to visit us, we feel sure
now that we will not have to wait so long to see the
members of the Society here again individually and col-
lectively. We feel that you will want to have another
convention farther west than the Rockies, probably here
in San Francisco, or in California, within the next five
or ten years.

So I would say to you that the Fish and Game Com-
mission, which I have the honor to represent, is very
glad to welcome you here, and we hope that you will
have a good time while with us. If there is anything
that the Commission and its representatives can do,
while you are here, or after you return to your homes,
to aid the Society or the members individually in any
way, we shall be very glad to have you call upon us at
any time.

PRESIDENT FEARING called for the election of new
members as the first business of the meeting.

The names and addresses of the Patrons, Life and Active Members
elected, have already been published in the December, 1915, number of
the TRANSACTIONS.

Proceedings 81

REPORT OF THE RECORDING SECRETARY.*

To the Officers and Members of the American Fish-
eries Society:

Aside from the usual amount of correspondence, the
chief duties of the Recording Secretary have been in
connection with the publication of the Transactions. The .
change from an annual issue of one volume to the
quarterly form, which all have noted, was authorized
unanimously by the Council of the Society in November,
1914, and No. 1 of Volume 44 was issued in December.

The chief arguments in favor of the more frequent
publication were, first, that the TRANSACTIONS would
reach the members more frequently and thus have a
greater influence in keeping awake their interest in the
work of the Society, and second, that scientific papers
could be issued without waiting for other matters, while
the Proceedings of the Annual Meeting, the list of mem-
bers, etce., would still appear about as early as formerly.
In arranging material for publication, preference was
given, as far as possible, to those papers read and dis-
cussed at the annual meeting.

The Secretary believes that the change is fully justi-
fied, as he has received many letters and other expres-
sions of approval from the members and has yet to hear
of a single objection.

Incidentally, the change to the quarterly form has
made it possible to enter the TRANSACTIONS as second-
class mail matter, thereby saving a considerable amount
in postage. However, the extra cost of additional cover
pages and envelopes and the work of addressing four
sets of envelopes instead of one will consume a consid-
erable part of what is saved in postage. It appears,
then, that we have a quarterly journal at about the cost
of our former annual volume.

In order that the TRANSACTIONS and other mail may
reach the members promptly, the Secretary insists most
emphatically that he should be informed at once of every

*In the absence of Dr. Osburn, this was read by President Fearing.

82 American Fisheries Society

permanent change of address, a matter that is too often
neglected.

The Index to the first forty volumes of the TRANS-
ACTIONS, prepared by our President, has not yet been
issued, as the finances of the Society have not warranted
the expense. Moreover, certain additions to the text,
suggested at the past meeting by Dr. T. S. Palmer, have
not been completed, though they are under way. A plan
is now under consideration to float the publication by
subscription and it is believed that by this method the
Index can be brought out the coming year without draw-
ing on the funds of the Society.

There are now in the hands of the Recording Secretary
numerous back numbers of the TRANSACTIONS of the
Society for sale. From a former Corresponding Secre-
tary of the Society there have been added to what was
already in my hands, many volumes dating back from
ten to twenty years ago. There is not a single copy of
the 1903 volume in the hands of the Secretary, even for
the Society’s file, but, aside from this one year, full
series as well as odd volumes can be supplied as far back
as 1895.

The work of the Secretary has been carried on at a
minimum of expense, the total amount being only $21.62,
included in the following items:

POsti@ Gs Wea pi ee $11.75
BIXPECSS AG eae Oey lr ere ioe 6.77
Notary aiheesie tA Serre ras 15
Certified copies of the Arti-
cles of Incorporation ............ 2.35
otal .02 ee ey See Beh ge: $21.62

Since the last meeting twenty-four applications for
active membership in the Society have been received and
one active member, Mr. Geo. P. Slade, of New York City,
has applied for life membership.

The Secretary would strongly recommend that an
active campaign be undertaken at once to increase the
membership of the Society. Many of the States,

Proceedings 83

especially in the South, have only one or two members,
and in a few cases none at all. Of the twenty-two appli-
cations received during the year only two have been from
southern states. This is quite disproportionate and
something should be done to increase the membership,
especially in that section. On going over the applications
for the past several years the Secretary has been im-
pressed by the fact that a large percentage of the ap-
plications has resulted from the activity of a few mem-
bers. This is a fine showing for those so engaged and
should be encouraged, but the sporadic activity of a few
members can not be relied upon and is by no means suf-
ficient for the growth of the Society.

Respectfully submitted,

RAYMOND C. OSBURN,
Recording Secretary.

New York, N. Y., August 21, 1915.

Moved and carried that the report be accepted and
printed.

REPORT OF THE TREASURER.

The report of the Treasurer was called for and pre-
sented by Mr. C. W. Willard, the Treasurer of the
Society.*

Dr. B. W. EVERMANN: Mr. President, I have received
word that Professor Chas. F. Holder of Pasadena, Calif.,
is ill and unable to be with us.

On motion by Professor Ward, the following telegram
was sent to Professor -Holder:

DR. CHARLES F. HOLDER,

475 Bellefontaine Street,
Pasadena, California.

The American Fisheries Society, assembled at San Francisco, for its
forty-fifth annual convention, learns with deep regret of your indis-
position. Your presence and counsel had been looked forward to with
pleasurable anticipation. Your absence will be deeply felt. The Society
extends its sincere wishes for your speedy and complete recovery.

AMERICAN FISHERIES SOCIETY.

*According to the minutes, the Report of the Treasurer was accepted
and referred to the Auditing Committee, who found it correct. How-
ever, the report is missing and therefore cannot be printed.—Ed.

84 American Fisheries Society

PRESIDENT FEARING: If you will permit me, I would
like to say a very few words in regard to the attempt
to increase the interest and the usefulness of this
Society. Now, it seems to me a very useless thing that
there should be so many societies with virtually the same
interests, and I would like, before this meeting is over,
to see the Pacific Fisheries Society and the American
Fisheries Society become one. It has been tentatively
suggested, that they should become a Pacific branch of
this Society. I see no reason why the same interest
should not be taken when we meet as we expect to, in
the Southland, at our next meeting, and a southern
division be created, and in course of time a middle-west
division. That would cover the whole country; and in-
stead of having organizations that are antagonistic to
each other, they ought to work together instead of apart.
I merely suggest this for you to think about, and per-
haps talk about at some later time.

TREASURER WILLARD: Mr. President, I wish to sug-
gest an amendment to our by-laws so that there may be
a Membership Committee, consisting perhaps of the
Secretary and Treasurer and one other of the Society,
possibly the President, who shall have the power to
elect members upon application. As it is now, if we re-
ceive an application in October, soon after this meeting
is over, that person does not become a member until the
following fall.

Mr. Woops: Mr. Chairman, I would like to be heard
on the subject of increasing our membership. I would
not allow any city to have a meeting of the American
Fisheries Society unless they would promise a member-
ship of one hundred or one hundred and fifty. For in-
stance, if St. Louis were selected as a meeting place for
the Society, it should be contingent upon St. Louis’s
bringing in one hundred or one hundred and fifty names
for members. Any man who would work could do it.
We should be larger and have more funds to conduct
our work with.

Proceedings 85

This committee suggested by the Treasurer is a good
idea, and is going a long way towards increasing our
membership and the interest in our Society.

Mr. WILLIAM ALLEN of Louisiana: Mr. President, I
would like to state that the plan just mentioned by Mr.
Woods was adopted last year by the Southern Educa-
tional Congress with great success. The committee came
to my city after the convention in Chattanooga, to look
over the ground preparatory to deciding whether the
next convention would be held there or not. It probably
will be held there. But one of the conditions outlined
by the committee was the number of members to be
secured by the city in a limited time before the conven-
tion is held. It has worked well with other societies and
will work here.

PROFESSOR HENRY B. WARD: Mr. President, these are
practical suggestions of the greatest possible value, and
to put them into form for definite action before a meet-
ing of the Society is too far advanced, I move you that
this meeting request Mr. Willard and Mr. Woods to
formulate and present in precise phraseology the by-laws
necessary to carry into execution the proposals which
they have made. (Seconded by Mr. Schaeffle.) Carried.

TREASURER WILLARD: Mr. Chairman, before adjourn-
ing, may I make the suggestion that a committee be ap-
pointed to have in view the amalgamation of the Ameri-
can Fisheries Society and the Pacific Coast Fisheries
Society. It seems to me that if you appoint a com-
mittee they will see the different members and perhaps
be better able to bring some concrete suggestions later
on in the meeting.

Mr. HENRY O’MALLEY, of Seattle, Washington: As
the newly elected President of the Pacific Coast Fisheries
Society, I would like to say a word on the matter of
joining the two societies. We have a little society out
here of one hundred and fifty members at the present
time. I do not want the idea thrown out that we are
seeking any assistance, because we are on a good firm

86 American Fisheries Society

basis. Our constitution has been drawn along the same
lines as that of the American Fisheries Society. Our
objects are the same, and it is our intent to work in
close harmony with the American Fisheries Society.
The reason for our forming the Pacific Coast Society,
primarily, was that there are a good many of us out
here on this coast, our interests are here, we are a long
ways from the body of the American Fisheries Society,
and we do not get an opportunity to meet with them.
Therefore, we formed our own little society of Pacific
Coast members, and a good many of us belong also to
the American Fisheries Society. I have belonged for
a good many years myself, and still continue to have
the same interest that I had before I was a member of
the Pacific Coast Society. A good suggestion was made
last night, that in issuing the quarterly, one number
could be made a Pacific Coast number. Of course, I do
not speak with authority from the Pacific Coast Fish-
eries Society, but I do know that this is a good idea,
and I believe the Pacific Coast Society will probably look
upon the matter with favor.

Moved and seconded that the President appoint two
members representing each society to serve as a com-
mittee. Carried.

PRESIDENT FEARING: I will ask Dr. B. W. Evermann
and Mr. Henry O’Malley to represent the Pacific Coast
Fisheries Society and Mr. John P. Woods and Mr. Chas.
W. Willard the American Fisheries Society on this com-
mittee.

Session adjourned.

Thursday, September 2, 1915.

President Fearing called the meeting to order and
announced the appointment of the following committees:

FOR THIS MEETING.

Committee on Nominations: Mr. Henry O’Malley, Mr.
Carlos Avery, and Mr. C. W. Willard.

Proceedings 87

Committee on Time and Place: Mr. Ernest Schaeffle,
Mr. John M. Crampton, and Mr. F. W. Chambers.

Committee on Resolutions: Dr. Henry B. Ward and
Mr. Henry Dean.

STANDING COMMITTEES.

Committee on Foreign Relations: Mr. George Shiras,
Chairman, Dr. H. M. Smith, Dr. E. E. Prince, and Dr.
George W. Field.

Committee on Relations with National and State
Governments: Professor Henry B. Ward, Chairman,
Mr. William C. Adams, Mr. M. L. Alexander, Mr. Wil-
liam L. Finley, and Mr. John W. Titcomb.

Committee on Publication: Prof. Bashford Dean, Mr.
John T. Nichols, and Dr. Tarleton H. Bean.

VICE-PRESIDENTS OF DIVISIONS.

Fish Culture: Mr. Dwight Lydell, Comstock Park,
Michigan.

Aquatic Biology and Physics: Professor Henry B.
Ward, Urbana, Illinois.

Commercial Fishing: Captain J. F. Moser, San Fran-
cisco, California.

Angling: Mr. H. Wheeler Perce, Chicago, Illinois.

Protection and Legislation: Dr. T. S. Palmer, Wash-
ington, D. C.

These appointments are regularly made by the pre-
siding officer and require no action by the Society.

Mr. SCHAEFFLE: Mr. President and Gentlemen of the
Society, I have the honor to announce that the Imperial
Fisheries Bureau of Japan, through the Commission for
the Exposition, has donated to the Society about one
hundred catalogs of Japanese fisheries. I move that we
extend a vote of thanks to the Japanese Imperial Fish-
eries Bureau for their courtesy.

Motion put and carried.

88 American Fisheries Society

READING AND DISCUSSION OF PAPERS.

Mr. W. O. Buck, of Neosho, Mo., was called upon. His
paper, The Fish Farmer in Action, has already been
printed (TRANSACTIONS, Dec., 1915, pp. 46-47).

Mr. JOHN P. Woops, President of the Missouri State
Fish Commission, presented an address on Missouri Fish
Heraldry.

Most of Mr. Woods’ remarks have been withdrawn
from publication at his own request pending more com-
plete studies. Briefly, the paper consisted of an outline
of the work in fish culture carried on by the State of
Missouri since the year 1879. The work began at that
time with various species of indigenous fishes.

“Three of these have found special favor in very ex-
tensive cultivation in Missouri, viz.: Black bass (large
mouth), crappie and sun perch (blue-gill sun-fish).

“Crappie are more delicate than the blue-gill (sun
perch), but both are prolific breeders and contribute
largely to the supply of food fish. One large lagoon in the
St. Louis hatchery has been able for many years to fully
supply the immense State demand for stocking with
blue-gills, under the surprising conditions of no cultural
care whatever, no artificial nesting, no assorting, no re-
plenishment of breeders, no feeding, no attention, except
prevention of poaching, and even under the handicap
of the constant agitation of the water produced by
public boating.

“The question of black bass cultivation has annually
taken much of the time of this Society, but a majority
decision has not yet been reached. The primary ob-
jection to this fish has been that of its intense greedi-
ness, to the extent of cannibalism. In such aggressive
feeding, however, the growth of those that survive is
facilitated. The State of Missouri long ago undertook
to produce black bass in its hatchery waters and has
been successful to the extent that it has been able to
completely supply the demand in sizes ranging from ad-
vanced fry to fingerlings, and yet let the cannibals work.

Proceedings 89

“Plainly it would appear that to partly rear this
species successfully on a large scale in hatchery waters,
it is necessary to hatch a great many more than
there is urgent need of. Of course, feeding and occa-
sional sorting of sizes will increase the output, and such
practice is recommended. Patience, suitable water and
sufficient pond area are all that is needed for a satis- -
factory output. The success of Missouri in this par-
ticular respect dates back a number of years, but the
results have not been made public.”

Mr. Woods showed a number of bottled specimens
illustrating the rate of growth of the large-mouth black
bass.

The demonstration was followed by active discussion
on the part of a number of the members.

SOME QUANTITATIVE PHYSIOLOGICAL CHANGES IN THE
PACIFIC SALMON DURING THE RUN TO
THE SPAWNING GROUNDS.

By PROFESSOR C. W. GREENE,
Laboratory of Physiology, University of Missourt

(see TRANSACTIONS, Dec., 1915, pages 5-12.)

In the absence of Professor Greene, this paper was
read by Dr. B. W. Evermann. In the discussion that
followed the question was first raised whether the death
of the Pacific salmon is due to loss of energy.

Dr. Evermann: In 1895, and again in 1896, I carried on experiments
on Snow River, Idaho, for the two entire seasons, to determine whether
the salmon actually died after spawning. We were situated so that we
could examine closely every one of several hundred salmon that came
to that region. Each of those seasons, not one of those salmon showed
any scars or bruises upon arrival at the spawning grounds. They had
done no fighting on the way up. When they got on the spawning
ground, fighting to some extent and rubbing over the gravel in the beds
resulted in some injuries of various sorts, but all of those injuries
were received on the spawning grounds. But, although there were
no marked changes in the external appearance of the fish from the time
it left salt water until it arrived on the spawning grounds, there had
been marked change in the muscles and different tissues of the body.

90 American Fisheries Society

Mr. Henry O’Mattey, of Washington: In the waters about Puget
Sound, we find the humpback and dog salmon spawning at no great
distance up the rivers. In fact, a great many dog salmon spawn in
brackish water and run out into salt water, just the same as the others.

Mr. E. W. Coss, of Minnesota: We have heard considerable about the
great results obtained from the introduction of salmon into the fresh
water lakes of the east. Do all of these die in the same way?

Mr. Geo. H. Granam, of Massachusetts: Mr. President, I feel that
we have not experimented long enough with these fish to answer the
question fully. The Chinook salmon were introduced into Lake Sunapee
in 1904. The eggs were hatched out and the fry planted when small,
during the summer, when the lake was alive with black bass. I believe
very few of those salmon lived, but in three or four years, they began
to catch them, weighing up to six and eight pounds. About 1909 or
1910, another lot was planted in the fall after the bass had gone into
winter quarters. The next year two thousand were caught, and the
year after that five thousand. Several specimens weighing fourteen
to sixteen pounds and one between eighteen and twenty pounds have
been taken.

There have been several reports of single dead salmon taken in Lake
Sunapee. I think this is to be accounted for by fish breaking away in
an injured condition from anglers. I maintain that if all died after
they became mature, we should find hundreds of these salmon around the
lake every season.

Now, as to rate of growth, the Massachusetts Commission, in 1912,
planted ten thousand of these salmon in Lake Quinsigamond, near
Worcester, with a screen at the outlet. Eighteen months from the
time those fish were planted, we began to catch them, and six to eight
hundred salmon were taken, running from a pound and a half up to
five pounds. That was all gained in eighteen months, for there were no
salmon there before. Two hundred were taken the first day of the
open season this year, 1915. We intend to experiment with these fish,
because we know when they were planted, and we believe that we
will find out in three or four years just what these fish are doing in
fresh water. We know already that they have been very successful
from the standpoint of the sportsman. They grow rapidly, they are fine
fish to eat, and there is no more gamey fish in the whole country. We
can see very little difference between the chinook salmon in fresh water
lakes and the Atlantic salmon or Sebago salmon.

Mr. Henry O’Maxiey, of Washington: Some years ago I took five
hundred fingerlings of the chinook salmon and was curious to know
what would become of them if held in the same water that the adult
salmon naturally frequented for spawning. The fish were held in a
pond and a large percentage of the males became mature as yearlings.
The milt was used with perfect success to fertilize eggs from river
salmon. These young matured salmon died in the pond. Some died at
the end of the second year and the balance were nearly gone at the end
of the third year. None of them lived to be four years old.

Mr. Granam: A year ago at Lake Sunapee, N. H., I found one
male salmon, weighing five and a half pounds. As the milt was coming
out of the fish, I shipped it to Dr. Tarleton H. Bean, who examined
it and found it to be a mature fish three years old.

Proceedings 91

EFFORTS TO RIPEN STRIPED BAss, 1915

By Mr. J. P. SNYDER, CAPE VINCENT, N. Y.
(see TRANSACTIONS, December, 1915, pages 40-45.)
Read by President Fearing.

Present Feartnc: The greatest results that have ever been obtained
in the history of the world in the introduction of fish into waters abso-
lutely foreign to them, have been those following the introduction of
the striped bass and the shad into the waters of California. This was
done by the United States Fish Commission in 1879 and 1880. The
men, instrumental in the work, were all members of this Society, and
had the backing of the American Fisheries Society, so it is mainly
due to this Society that California rejoices today in the abundance
of these fishes.

It may be news to some of the members of the Society, even some
of the California members, that there were only one hundred and
thirty-five striped bass, and the biggest one weighed only half a pound.
They were distributed in Suisun Bay, in 1879, and in 1882 there was a
further shipment of about three hundred, none of them longer than nine
inches. There was a closed law on them for a number of years, but
in 1901, there were over a million pounds of striped bass sold in San
Francisco alone. Mr. Schaeffle tells me that there is a record of a fish
taken in California that weighed one hundred pounds, which gives us a
little data as to the rate of growth of the striped bass. I may tell you
that the greatest weight of the striped bass, according to absolutely
authenticated record, on the Atlantic Coast, is but one hundred and
twelve pounds, and you have already caught a fish of one hundred
pounds here on the Pacific Coast. You owe that to your magnificent
conservation. You have a close season for your fish, and a law that
forbids the exportation out of the State. In the Atlantic States, there
is no law against taking them when breeding. I have seen, myself, in
Fulton Market, New York City, a female bass that weighed ninety-eight
pounds, and had thirty-six pounds of spawn in her. That is the way
to destroy food fish. You, here in California, have locked the stable
door before the horse was stolen. It would be well if all our states
would do the same. ;

Mr. J. Marrriarp, of California: May I say something about the
shad that you spoke of being introduced here? I do not think the people
in California realize the number of shad there are in this State. They
do not seem to be in the market, for some reason, although they are
one of the finest fishes we have. The shad commence to run about
the beginning of April, and continue until in June. There is no law,
whatever, against catching them. They are taken with dip nets. Thou-
sands and thousands of pounds of shad are caught along these rivers.
The shad are so commpn they feed them to the chickens. They are
the most prolific fish we have here, and I am sorry to say, are hardly
appreciated, but the way they have increased is something wonderful.

Mr. N. B. Scorterp, of California: The State of California did try,
for four different years, to propagate the striped bass. The striped
bass unfortunately changed its habits about the time the Commission

92 American Fisheries Society

started to experiment with them. I do not know what was the reason,
unless the bass had not become well established in its habits, at the time
the propagation was decided upon. Nearly all of the mature or spawn
bass were coming from the neighborhood of Bouldin Island, on the
San Joaquin River. The fishermen caught large numbers of these
spawn bass, a great many of which appeared to be in a ripe con-
dition, so a hatchery was established there. The first season they had
very remarkable success and hatched several million fry. But after
that year the bass got fewer and fewer at San Joaquin, and started
to run at spawning time up the Sacramento. This still continues. very
few going up the San Joaquin at the present time. In all the work
that has been done, we have never discovered the spawning places
of the striped bass in either the San Joaquin or the Sacramento River.

Mr. Scuarrrie, of California: Mr. President, I would like to add a
couple of practical comments relative to striped bass. This is now
one of the three most important fishes in California. JI rather take
issue with our President when he says that we do not appreciate the
striped bass, because I think the people do appreciate it very well;
in fact, the people of the west, a few years ago decided to shut down
the bars, and keep them home. Every state in the west—I do not know
how far east—was drawing on us for their striped bass. In addition
to the non-export law that we have had, I think about six years, we
have had closed seasons. We have had a closed season of Saturday
and Sunday on striped bass, shad and salmon for a great many years.
As an experiment, a few years ago, a closed season was made in the
spring, during what was then supposed to be the spawning season of
the striped bass. That law would have worked splendidly, but unfor-
tunately, wth the run of spawning bass in the spring, we have a run
of salmon and a run of shad. The fish are caught in the same net.
The law intended to protect one is inoperative, because in fishing for
one of the other varieties, striped bass are caught and killed. That law
was taken off at that time, and at the last session of the legislature, a
law was introduced, but not passed, to make a closed season in the
spring on salmon.

We have also had a number of other laws for the protection of the
striped bass. We limit the size of mesh that can be used for taking
the bass, with the idea of protecting the small fish under spawning
size.

We regulate the kinds of nets that can be used for taking bass.
For a great many years we have not allowed the set net. We have
no traps in the waters. We have a law now that prohibits even the use
of small mesh nets, that may be hauled on the beaches. This last legis-
lature passed a very radical act at the recommendation of Mr. Scofield,
of the Fish and Game Commission, under which the small sloughs and
probable breeding grounds of the striped bass will be kept absolutely
free from all kinds of nets. The main waters, say in the main Sac-
ramento and San Joaquin Rivers, are open to the fishermen with nets.
The side sloughs on the main portions of the river are closed. We feel
that this will protect the spawning beds, and the young fish after they
leave the spawning beds, and as they work down into the bays. I
would like to say to that, in addition to having all these laws, the
Commission has strenuously endeavored, for a great many years, to
see that every one of these laws is religiously observed. We maintain

Proceedings 93

a constant patrol of the waters in which the striped bass are found and
taken by the fishermen. We have one large boat on the main bays here,
and two boats on the Sacramento and San Joaquin Rivers, and we
add to them at times. We also detail our field men or game wardens,
to spend quite a lot of time along the streams. We have arrested
hundreds of fishermen for violating these laws because fishermen do
not always have our viewpoint. They think if the fish is in the water,
it ought to be killed. We have had deputies killed in the effort to
enforce these laws, but I think the laws we have at the present time
are wisely framed and they are being more and more closely observed
and rigidly enforced all the time by the Commission.

Mr. Mailliard referred to the fact that the shad are not appreciated
in the State, although at times out in the country the people seem to
be wiser. The shad is not appreciated, so it is taken in large quanti-
ties at times when there is no demand for them and dumped on the
market. Great quantities are salted and shipped to China. We are
not making good use of the shad. The Commission has endeavored to
popularize this fish, but has had little success. We have endeavored
to convince our people on the coast that our shad is just about as
good, if not as good, as the eastern shad, but for some reason, in the
past at least, the public has not taken to the fish. We hope to bring
about a condition, though, in the near future, when the shad will be
appreciated just as the carp is going to be appreciated.

WHAT WE CAN Do TO PROMOTE FISH CONSERVATION.

By CHARLES MINOR BLACKFORD, M.D., STAUNTON, VA.
(see TRANSACTIONS, December, 1915, pages 13-18).
Read by President Fearing.

Following the reading of this there was a prolonged
discussion as to the possibilities of broadening the scope
of the TRANSACTIONS so as to admit of the publication
of short notes and news items, which was approved.
The quarterly publication, instead of the former annual
volume was considered a move in the right direction.
Also the plan of admitting papers for publication at any
time, without the formality of presenting them previ-
ously at an annual meeting, was considered favorably.

Session adjourned.

Friday, September 3, 1915.

PRESIDENT FEARING: Gentlemen, I wish to state that
there is a report from Mr. H. Wheeler Perce, Chairman
of the Publicity Committee, which did not reach me until

94 American Fisheries Society

this morning, and also a very short paper by Mr. Perce
on “The Relations of Commercial and Sport Fishing—
Fair Play.” With your permission, before we proceed to
business, I will read his report as chairman of the
Publicity Committee.

To the Members of the American Fisheries Society:

Permit me, as Chairman of the Publicity Committee to report simply
some general progress and to say that I still feel like reiterating the
suggestions made at earlier meetings. I have still further reason to
believe that a “whirlwind campaign” for members, by means of widely
distributed invitations, would prove successful to a very gratifying de-
gree. In line with this, let me state, that with the assistance of Mr.
Merrill, I could furnish the Society with approximately 3,000 names,
all more or less desirable prospects for membership in the Society.
Surely, similar lists could be obtained from some source in all the states.

Again let me urge the advisablility of a magazine owned by the
Society and circulated among its members only, in the same manner
as the National Geographic Magazine.

The formation of State Chapters of the Society surely would prove
a great advantage. There is an illustration of this in the formation of
that splendid, new association of Pacific Fisheries, which probably
could be to all intents and purposes, a portion of the American Fisher-
ies Society.

I have every reason to believe that a National organization of at least
10,000 could be built up, if some modifications of this general scheme
were adopted and I think the Society could be made into a popular
one, without any danger to its present splendid standard of ethics and
scope and type of work.

Respectfully submitted,
H. WHEELER PERCE,
Chairman Publicity Committee.

THE RELATIONS OF COMMERCIAL AND SPORT FISHING—
FAIR PLAY.

By Mr. H. WHEELER PERCE, Chicago, I1l.
(see TRANSACTIONS, December, 1915, pages 29-33.)
Read by PRESIDENT FEARING.

Owing the lack of time the following papers were read
by title:
More ABOUT THE PADDLE-FISH (Polyodon spathula)
COMMONLY CALLED THE SPOON-BILLED CAT
By M. L. ALEXANDER,
President, Conservation Commission of Louisiana,
New Orleans, La.
(See TRANSACTIONS, December, 1915, pp. 34-39)

Proceedings 95

FISH PARASITES AND THE PUBLIC HEALTH.

PROFESSOR EDWIN LINTON,

Washington and Jefferson College, Washington,
Pennsylvania.

(see TRANSACTIONS, December, 1915, pages 19-28.)

Mr. Geo. H. Graham of Springfield, Mass., President
of the National Association of Fish and Game Commis-
sioners, extended an invitation to the members to be
present at the meeting of this organization on the follow-
ing week and to participate in the excursion to the Cali-
fornia State Game Farm at Hayward.

This was warmly seconded by Mr. Ernest Schaeffie,
Executive Officer of the California Fish and Game Com-
mission.

A motion was made that a committee be appointed to
meet a delegation from the Association of Pacific Fish-
eries on their arrival at Oakland at six o’clock. The
motion was carried and Mr. Schaeffle was asked to select
the committee.

REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE ON TIME AND PLACE.

Presented by the chairman of the committee, Mr.
Ernest Schaeffle, of San Francisco.

Mr. President and Gentlemen: The Committee on
Time and Place have duly considered courteous invita-
tions to hold the 1916 meeting of the Society in Balti-
more, New Orleans, Columbus, New York City, Buffalo,
St. Paul, Washington, D. C., and Boston. It is the judg-
ment of the Committee that the 1916 meeting for pecu-
liar reasons, very satisfactory to the committee, be held
at New Orleans on October 16, 17, 18 and 19, 1916.

We are very glad to report to the Society that Mr.
Allen, representing the Conservation Commission of
Louisiana, has promised to add one hundred and fifty
new members to the Society in advance of and at the
time of the 1916 meeting.

96 American Fisheries Society

Mr. JOHN P. Woops of Missouri: I move, Mr. Chair-
man, that the report be approved.

Seconded by Mr. Carlos Avery of Minnesota.
The motion was put and carried.

Mr. WM. ALLEN of Louisiana: On behalf of the Con-
servation Commission of the State of Louisiana, and of
those who joined in extending the invitation to this
Society to meet there next year, I wish to express my
pleasure that it has been accepted. I can assure you we
will do everything we can to make a great big successful
meeting of it.

PRESIDENT FEARING: We are now ready to consider
the most important matter that has come up at this
meeting, the possibility of amalgamation with this
Society of the young strong Fisheries Society of the
Pacific Coast.

REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE ON THE AMALGAMATION OF
THE PACIFIC COAST FISHERIES ASSOCIATION
WITH THE AMERICAN FISHERIES
SOCIETY.

Presented by Dr. BARTON W. EVERMANN, Chairman.

Mr. President and Members of the Society: Your com-
mittee has held two rather informal meetings, and has
discussed in a very informal way the question that was
delegated to it. I think all the members of the committee
are agreed that good will come to the Pacific Fisheries
Society and to the American Fisheries Society, both, if
some sort of amalgamation or closer affiliation could be
established, and all the members of the committee feel
that it is desirable to adopt an amendment to the con-
stitution and the by-laws, which would provide for such
affiliation. There has been drawn up a draft of an
amendment to the constitution, which would go in prob-
ably as a by-law, in these words:

Wuereas, an enlargement in the scope and work of the Society is
desirable,

Proceedings 97

Be it resolved, That when organizations as a body, of interests similar
to those of this Society, desire to obtain membership in the Society, that,
upon the indication of such desire being formally presented, such
applications shall be duly considered in the annual meetings of this
Society; such admissions to be on terms mutually agreed upon.

The words “chairman” and “recorder” are suggested
as suitable words for the leading officers of the section,
so that there will be no confusion. The president or sec- -
retary will be of the American Fisheries Society, while
we would speak of the chairman of the section, or the
recorder of the section. It was thought that the sections
might hold meetings other than annual meetings, and
that the dates and places and all the details concerning
those meetings, other than the annual meetings, should
be left entirely in the hands of the section. The annual
meeting of the section, however, should be approved by
the American Fisheries Society, so as to prevent con-
flicts in the meeting of two or more sections. The dues, of
course, would be the same in all sections of the Society,
and one clause provides that an amount not to exceed
one-half of the dues may be retained by the section for
its local expenses, that one-half will go to the general
society; but all the funds will be handled by the treas-
urer of the American Fisheries Society.

In order to get that amendment properly before the
Society, this resolution has been drafted as a by-law
and is submitted:

BY-LAW.

On presentation of a formal written petition signed by one hundred
or more members, the Executive Committee of the American Fisheries
Society may approve the formation in any region of a Section of the
American Fisheries Society to be known as the Section.

Such a Section may organize by electing its own officers, and by
adopting such rules as are not in conflict with the Constitution and
By-Laws of the American Fisheries Society.

It may hold meetings and otherwise advance the general interests
of the Society, except that the time and place of its annual meeting
must receive the approval of the Executive Committee of the American
Fisheries Society, and that without specific vote of the American Fish-
eries Society, the Section shall not commit itself to any expression
of public policy on fishing matters.

It may further incur indebtedness to an amount necessary for the
conduct of its work not to exceed one-half of the sum received in
annual dues from members of said section.

Such bills duly approved by the Chairman and Recorder of the Section
shall be paid on presentation to the Treasury of the American Fisheries
Society.

98 American Fisheries Society

After some further explantion by members of the
committee, it was voted to accept the report of the com-
mittee.

Mr. Woods of Missouri moved, seconded by Prof. H.
B. Ward, that the resolutions embodied in the report
of the committee be adopted as by-laws, under Article
II of the Constitution. Carried.

PROFESSOR H. B. WArD of Illinois: I feel that the
occasion is ripe for the entering of another item on our
minutes, and for taking another step towards the amal-
gamation of these two societies, concerning which so
much has been spoken. It seems to me fitting and proper
that our present President, who has done so much to
bring about this thing that we all think will be a great
step in advance, be requested by this meeting to write
a letter to the Pacific Coast Fisheries Society, express-
ing the desire of the American Fisheries Society that
they should be joined with us in the work in which we
are mutually interested, and calling their attention to
the fact that the present regulations of this Society pro-
vide for the continuance of their work, even though they
become a part of our organization. I, therefore, move
that this meeting instruct President Fearing to com-
municate officially with the Pacific Coast Fisheries
Society, to that effect.

Motion carried.

PRESIDENT FEARING: Is the committee appointed to
draft the by-law in regard to election of members ready
to report?

Mr. Woods of Missouri, Chairman of the committee,
presented the following:

BY-LAW

The President, Recording Secretary and Treasurer of the Society
are hereby authorized, during the time intervening between annual
meetings, to act on all individual applications for membership in the
Society, a majority vote of the Committee to elect or reject such ap-
plications as may be duly made.

Moved and seconded and duly carried to incorporate
this as a by-law under Article II of the Constitution.

Proceedings 99

COMMITTEE ON RESOLUTIONS.

Professor H. B. Ward, as Chairman, presented an in-
formal report embodying expressions of regret at the
loss by death of members whose names appear on an-
other page. Also the thanks of the Society were ten-
dered to members of the local committee and to the
Young Women’s Christian Association in whose hall the
meetings were held.

The report of the committee was accepted.

PRESENTATION OF A BRONZE MEDAL TO THE AMERICAN
FISHERIES SOCIETY BY THE PANAMA-PACIFIC
INTERNATIONAL EXPOSITION.

By Hon. C. S. Scott, of the Board of Commissioners of
the Panama-Pacific International Exposition.

Mr. President and Gentlemen: It affords me great
pleasure to represent the President and the Board of
Directors on this occasion, and to extend to you their
greeting and welcome here within our midst. We want
you to feel that you are at home, and we are simply ex-
tending officially a greeting and welcome.

In commemoration of your meeting here with us, and
of this day, and on behalf of the Exposition and the
Directors, and President Moore, I take great pleasure
in presenting to you a medal, made of bronze, on which
is inscribed: “The American Fisheries Society, Forty-
fifth Annual Meeting, September 3, 1915.” On the re-
verse side: ‘In Commemoration Panama-Pacific Inter-
national Exposition, San Francisco.’”’ While this has no
intrinsic value, it carries with it the best wishes that
we can extend, in words or otherwise, for the future
success of your organization.

President Fearing responded, expressing the thanks
of the Society to the officers of the Exposition for their
greeting and for the gift of the medal. The medal was
placed in the hands of the Recording Secretary for
preservation.

100 American Fisheries Society

TREASURER WILLARD: Mr. President, in order to bring
to a focus our informal discussion concerning the in-
crease in our membership list and change in the TRANS-
ACTIONS, I wish to offer the following:

Resolved, That a committee be appointed, consisting of Mr. Daniel B.
Fearing of Rhode Island, Mr. H. Wheeler Perce of Illinois, Dr. Chas.
Minor Blackford of Virginia, Dr. Raymond C. Osburn of Connecticut,
and Dr. Barton W. Evermann of California, whose duty shall be to
consider and put into operation some plan to increase the membership,
and to consider and adopt methods to increase the efficiency of the
publications of the American Fisheries Society.

Being duly seconded by Mr. O’Malley of Washington
the motion was put to vote and carried.

REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE ON NOMINATIONS.

Mr. Henry O’Malley, chairman of the committee, pre-
sented the following nominations for the elective officers
of the Society for the year 1915-16:

PRESIDENT: Prof. Jacob Reighard, University of
Michigan, Ann Arbor, Mich.

VICE-PRESIDENT: Dr. Geo. W. Field, Massachusetts
Fish and Game Commissioner, Sharon, Mass.

RECORDING SECRETARY: Prof. Raymond C. Osburn,
Connecticut College for Women, New London, Conn.

CORRESPONDING SECRETARY: Dr. Chas. H. Townsend,
New York Aquarium, New York City.

TREASURER: Mr. Chas W. Willard, Rhode Island Com-
mission of Inland Fisheries and Game, Westerly, R. I.

EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE.

Henry O’Malley, Seattle, Wash., Chairman; H.
Wheeler Perce, Chicago, Ill.; N. R. Buller, Harrisburg,
Pa.; J. Quincy Ward, Frankfort, Ky.; Ernest Schaeffle,
San Francisco, Calif.; John P. Woods, St. Louis, Mo.;
Eben W. Cobb, St. Paul, Minn.

A motion was passed that the Secretary cast one
ballot for the entire list, which, being done, the officers
for 1915-16 were declared elected.

Proceedings 101

Professor H. B. Ward proposed a vote of thanks to
President Fearing and the other officers of the Society
for their efficient work during the past year. Carried.

President Fearing then introduced Hon. Charles A.
Vogelsang, former Chief Deputy of the California Fish
and Game Commission, and Member of the Board of
Directors of the Panama-Pacific International Exposi-
tion, who addressed the meeting.

ADDRESS OF MR. VOGELSANG.

“Mr. Chairman and Gentlemen: I have to ask your
indulgence for appearing somewhat late, because I hap-
pened to be at another meeting. But I am nevertheless
very glad to be here and meet you gentlemen who have
to deal with one of the great economic problems not
only in all the States of the country, but of the world.
You have chosen to come here to California, to this Ex-
position which happens to be, in this year of 1915, the
meeting ground of the nations of the world. In sharp
contrast to things that are occurring elsewhere, San
Francisco has this unique distinction: It is the one great
peace capital of the world, where men from all nations
are sitting down in friendly intercouse, exchanging
ideas, giving from each country, and each state, that
which makes for the general betterment of mankind.

“The Exposition, after all, is simply the tearing down
of that sort of imaginary fence that stood between you
and your neighbor. You would hear his talk; you would
know something about what he was doing, but he was
over there somewhere, and you wondered what sort of
a peculiar fellow he might be. When that fence was
removed, you would say, ‘Why, he is quite the same as
ourselves. He was born, perhaps, in a little different at-
mosphere, reared under a somewhat different environ-
ment, his training might have been different, but his
hope and his desire is for the betterment of his fellow-
men.’ It has been my opportunity, and I appreciate very
much the great opportunity I have had, to come into
close contact with men from every part of the civilized

102 American Fisheries Society

world, and I find that while we differ somewhat in the
methods of approaching things, sometimes in medicine,
sometimes law, sometimes religion, that after all we are
all heading for one common goal, the betterment of the
race and the world in which we live.

“The year 1915 is fraught with more far-reaching and
important events than any other year since the Christian
Era began. Empires and kingdoms and principalities may
change, but human nature always is the same. But
whatever may be the world changes in the future, you
have come here to this wonderful peace capital, where
all is peace, harmony, beauty, and where you can ex-
change a hand-clasp and a smile with your brother,
whether he comes from Patagonia or from the very
northernmost lands, or from east or west, and we are all
friends, working for the common good and with a com-
mon high purpose.

“On behalf of the Exposition and its representatives,
I want to say to you, in the language of the old Spaniard
from whom we have many beautiful things to remember:
‘My house is your home.’ Therefore, you are most wel-
come to our house.”’

President Fearing introduced the eminent ichthyolo-
gist, Dr. David Starr Jordan, Chancellor of the Leland
Stanford University.

ADDRESS OF DR. JORDAN.

“Mr. President, Ladies and Gentlemen: I used to bea
fisherman, and according to Isaac Walton it is good
enough for any man to be on the right side of a man
who knows fish. And I used to know fish at one time,
and have always been interested in the problem of what
would become of a man if he fell into a fish trap with
several tons of salmon in the trap, whether he would
swim on the backs of the fishes, or sink like a lead bullet
to the bottom. I am much interested to know the solu-
tion of this problem, but have never felt personally like
experimenting.

Proceedings 103

“T have been much interested in Dr. C. H. Gilbert’s
work on salmon, for the last two or three years, in find-
ing that the age of salmon can be told by the concentric
rings of the scales, just as you know the age of a tree
by the rings in the wood. There are a good many of
these rings in a year, but in the winter, when food is
scarce, it appears that the salmon does not grow so ~
rapidly, and the rings are close together; in the summer,
when conditions are favorable for the growth of fish, the
rings are farther apart, so that by noticing the number
of spaces where the rings are wide apart, it is possible
to tell the age of the salmon.

“The ordinary red salmon of Alaska grows usually to
be four years old before it spawns. However, it some-
times spawns under age, and sometimes it goes beyond
the four years. The king salmon spawns usually when
it is four years old, but sometimes it runs on to five or
six, and sometimes it spawns as young as one, or pos-
sibly two years. All these are reported in the scale, so
that if you figure it out, you can find out from the fish
all its history.

“In the habits of the salmon there are many unsettled
problems, but one among the most remarkable things of
natural history is, that the red or sockeye salmon, which
is more abundant than all other salmon in the world put
together, never spawn excepting in the water above a
lake, and whether the stream running into the sea is a
very short one, or whether it is a river like the Yukon,
where they must run eighteen hundred miles before they
come to a lake, in either case they go up a stream that
has a lake, and do not go up a stream that has not.

“T closed my fisheries career with a very ambitious
piece of work—the effort on the part of Canada and the
United States to unify their statutes, so that the fisher-
ies would be governed by the same laws on the Canadian
side of the line in regard to salmon as they were on the
United States side. I spent three summers at that work,
and went over three times practically the whole length
of the international boundary, and with my Canadian

104 American Fisheries Society

colleague and Dr. Evermann, who was with me all the
time, and the aid of a number of others, we got out, as
I remember, fifty-nine statutes on which we agreed. Most
of these were relatively unimportant. Some of them were
very important, and those were very difficult. It was
almost impossible to frame any kind of statute around
Puget Sound that would reduce the number of fishes
caught without making it harder for the fishing compa-
nies to make the business pay. It is really a difficult
problem to prevent people from catching fish. We were
more successful around the Great Lakes, but ran against
another problem—states’ -rights. The State of Michigan
followed up our work there by passing a state law be-
ginning with, “Whereas, all the fishes in the waters sur-
rounding the State of Michigan are the property of the
State, Resolved, so and so.’ The purpose of that was to
exclude, as far as they could by statute, all participa-
tion of the United States in those problems, making it
a state problem, and not a national one. They adopted
our recommendations almost without change, so that I
think on the whole they were quite an improvement over
ours, because they contained some things that we had
not put into our regulations. When the regulations were
all finished and came before the Government of the
United States, all but ten were adopted, and these ten
practically covered netting in the Great Lakes and in
Puget Sound. Of course these particular ones that were
omitted were in some ways least satisfactory, because
they dealt with the problem of how to check the killing
of fishes without interfering with the fishing industry,
and any check is liable to have its injustices and its dif-
ficulties. One of the senators from Michigan, aided and
abetted by various fishermen, objected to those netting
regulations, on the ground of their interference with
states’ rights, and I understand that the senators from
Washington were of the same mind. I understand also
that the fisheries of Puget Sound have been showing a
very distinct falling off.

Proceedings 105

“The red salmon grows to four years before it spawns,
and, like all of our Pacific salmon, they die after spawn-
ing. As they reach the age of four years before they
spawn, then whatever the fisheries may be of one year
is determined by the number that spawned four years
before.

“There has been on Puget Sound, for a great many —
years, one large run, with another large run four years
later, and the three intervening runs are all very much
smaller. That is apparently due to some period when
a great run escaped, and this great run has been con-
tinued right along. We do not know what the reason
really is, but we have supposed that all the weak runs
might be made stronger, if we would allow the fishes to
spawn, or to be spawned artificially, and properly planted.

The condition in Puget Sound is extremely difficult.
Nearly all the salmon spawn in the Frazer River and its
tributaries, and really all might be caught in the Ameri-
can waters before they get to Canada, for we have the
first pull at them in the waters of the United States.
The ultimate result was that the whole thing went by
the board. There is a good deal of criticism now in Lake
Erie over the failing of the fisheries, and I presume that
some sort of regulation must be brought about in Puget
Sound. Now, there’s no way in which regulation can be
brought about, except by the United States making a
treaty with Canada, because the States of Washington
and Michigan cannot make separate treaties with any
country, and no agreement of any sort could have any
validity unless it took the form of a treaty between the
United States and Canada. Canada is now allowed to
make her own treaties. I think the principle involved
in this international commission, and in the attempts
to unify the statutes, is a just one, yet it would involve
a thing we have never had—a series of United States
marshals looking after the fisheries on our side of all
international waters. That is a matter that presents a
good deal of expense and difficulty in itself. Any group
of regulations, such as we proposed, would need a good

106 American Fisheries Society

deal of amendment, for they have to be tried out. You
can hardly expect any outsider not interested in the fish-
eries business to realize all the various intricacies of the
problem. You can not, on the other hand, expect the
people themselves, most of whom are more interested
in what happens immediately than in the long future
of the fisheries, to work out those problems.

“A few representatives of the Alaska Packers’ Asso-
ciation are here, and even if they were not present, I
should like to make an exception of them, because they
have striven very earnestly to work for the long future,
as well as for any immediate profits to the companies
themselves. I have not felt that was always true of all
the companies operating in Alaska. There is a sentiment
found in the Northwest sometimes, that ‘whatever is
not nailed down, is mine, and whatever I can pry loose
is not nailed down,’ and that idea contributes sometimes
to the detriment of all kinds of fishes and animals.

“The matter in regard to the international fisheries
stands now practically as it did before. We are in need
of some law or agreement, governing the matter along
the international line. It is not possible to make any
law or agreement except by treaty between the United
States and Canada, and this treaty should be in the form
of unification of statutes. The methods by which they
should be framed and enforced are more difficult in Can-
ada than with us, but the principles involved on both
sides of the line are much the same, and the only serious
and fundamental difficulty seems to lie in Puget Sound,
where neither the standards that we propose, nor any
others that we can think of, seem to be permanently sat-
isfactory.

“While sometimes our efforts along the line of in-
creased efficiency and better methods with regard to fish-
eries may seem for the present unavailing, you can not
expect to see any results or consequences of such efforts
in your life time; but there is still much satisfaction in
the endeavor, if you know that the cause you work for
will some time be prolific of good.”

Proceedings 107

At the close of Dr. Jordan’s address the session was
temporarily suspended in an informal reception to the
speaker.

The session being reconvened, Dr. H. C. Bryant, in
charge of research, publicity and education for the Cali-
fornia Fish and Game Commission, delivered a lecture
on the “Conservation of Fish and Game Through Educa--
tion.” Dr. Bryant’s remarks were illustrated by moving
pictures taken in 1914 by Mr. E. A. Salisbury, of the
Educational Film Co., working in co-operation with the
California Fish and Game Commission and the United
States Biological Survey.

At the close of the lecture the Society formally ad-
journed.

Su Memoriam

JOHN O. BABBITT
CHARLES L. BENNETT
C. H. BUSCHMAN
LEWIS LINDSAY DYCHE
BARTON D. EVANS

A. R. GRAHAM
CHARLES S. GRINDLE
JOHN F. GUNCKEL

J. P. HALLER

CHARLES FREDERICK HOLDER
A. W. KENYON

WL MAY

JAMES K. P. PURDUM
GERALD SHERWIN

EDITORIAL

New Patrons and Members: Following the San Fran-
cisco meeting in September, 1915, Capt. Jefferson F.
Moser, Vice-President of the Division of Commercial
Fishing, made a special canvass of Pacific Coast firms
interested in one way or another in fisheries or in fishing-
supplies and apparatus, and succeeded in adding fifty
patrons to the Society’s roll. The money derived from
this source is held as a separate fund and invested, only
the interest being used. It therefore serves as a sort of
permanent endowment. Following is the list of patrons
added to our membership list since the last meeting:

SAN FRANCISCO, CALIF.
Henry F. Allen, (Agent, Crown Mills) ........................210 California St.
PORE TCH ERIN GUIt: OOo! i eo. ORS) ee etre eh ee el 815 Battery St.
PATHGhiCally any COb: eee oS oe ee Mills Building

PePeTOUT ee CON oat Battery & Union Sts.
Balfour, Guthrie & Co. RAR A Bs 2 ee ee Mt ee _..350 California St.
Bank of California, N. Ds _.California and Sansome Sts.

Bond & Goodwin. ............... 454 California St.
California Barrel Co. ..... 224 and Illinois Sts.
CalitorniaaWoors Cont: see eee ae 7 ere ete ak 43 Main St.
California Stevedore & Ballast ey) Inc. ..210 California St.

Geo. W. Caswell Co., Ine. —. a ....030-4 Folsom St.
C2 Gy Clinch’ & Co;,, Ing. 2 nent 44 Davis St.
Coffin-Redington Coun ped ee ee LES 5b Secon LOE:
Crane Co., (C. W. Weld, Mgr.) - ptisieke et S01) BAUD Se,

Dodge, Sweeney & Co. ...............
Win eee buller: 6c. Cox feet. ne
Grays Harbor Commercial Co. nee

36-48 Spear St.
Sad 301 Mission St.
at _Foot of 3d St.

enh iendiy Co, ee tS Ai ies iowa AO, Clay? ak
The Jones-Thierbach CO. o:ccccc0cceemmm _.Battery & Merchants Sts.
The Linen Thread Co., (W. A. pay Mery el SE st 443 Mission St.
Cc. Nauman & Co. .... é i 501-3 Sansome St.
Pacific Hardware & Steel Toe ni ae eR ee Ce | _1th & Townsend Sts.
Bacinicsstaes, blectric: Coy 2.4.2.0 ee .575 Mission St.
Pope and Talbot Foot of 3d St.

W. S. Ray Mfg. Co., Ine. ...
Schmidt Lithograph Co. WW.

2 4916) Market. St.
x 2d & Bryants Sts.

Schwabacher-Frey Stationery Co. Baad b 609-11 Market St.
Ship Owners’ & Merchants’ Tug Boat; Cosi. uupaeae Foot of Green St.
The, Sherwin-Williams -Co, —._.._._—_._-._. es 454 Second St.

Standard Gas Engine Co. .......... WE Ss _1 California St.
Standard Oil Co. (of California) - ial Standard Oil Building
United Engineering Works. ...... 232 Spear St.

U. S. Rubber Co. of California, (W.L D. “Rigdon, ‘Mer. ay , 50-60 Fremont St.

U.S. Steel Products Co. Rialto Building
Wells Fargo Nat’l Bank of San Francisco, » Montgomery & Market Sts.
Western) uel" Gomes see 430 California St.
Western) Meat, Coiy 20 _..6th & Townsend Sts.

White Bros., Hardwood Lumber... ._5th & Brannan Sts.

110 American Fisheries Society

OAKLAND, CALIF.
Atlas Gas Engine Co., Inc. _............____....Foot of 29d Avenue

MT. EDEN, CALIF.
Oliver Sala Cows Bt Fe nee ee MESSE) Poe ewe Seat atl Je Oem Rey

ASTORIA, OREGON.
Columbia River Packers’ Assn.

SEATTLE, WASH.
Puget Sonund..Nayigation so; pees or ee ae ie ee ee

Smith Cannery Machines Co. 22cm 2423 South First Avenue
BELLINGHAM, WASH.

Bloedel Donovan (umber Mills. ite foe ee eee

Burpee & Letson, Ltd. He ti O0Utn Bellinghags

First National Bank of Bellinehans Se EAT ETON NO NeeRER ROME NRPN Nee one res eee 2S

Morrison {Mill (Congine, je ae ee es a eee

MorseElard ware Cos Inc oe ee ee eae eee 10295 Bik St.
BALTIMORE, MD.

the fred H. Knapp Go: <2 ke .Arcade-Maryland Casualty Building

WEIRTON, W. ViA.
Piillips ,onect- te Mins Plate Cor.) ioe et it 2 8 eee a

The Society can stand a great deal more encourage-
ment of this sort and it is to be hoped that every member
of the Society will take it upon himself to interest his
friends and acquaintances in becoming members, or, bet-
ter still, patrons of the Society.

The Recording Secretary will be glad to supply all the
application blanks necessary to any member desiring
them.

A new by-law, passed at the last annual meeting, per-
mits the election of applicants to membership at any
time. The President, Treasurer and Recording Secre-
tary of the Society form the election board.

Publication of Papers: It seems not to be generally
understood among the members of the Society that pa-
pers may be presented for publication at any time with-
out waiting for formal presentation at an annual meeting.

The Editor will also welcome short notes and articles
that perhaps would not be considered sufficiently impos-
ing for presentation at a meeting. Such notes, brief
reports on some work, notice of any discovery, impor-
tant appointments, and other interesting items may be
sent in to the Editor at any time.

Editorial BB

New Societies: The writer of Proverbs complained in
his day that “of the making of books there is no end.”
The same might with almost equal propriety be applied
at the present time to the formation of scientific societies.
However, this seems to be a necessary condition of the
increase and specialization of knowledge and interests. -
Two societies recently formed will no doubt be welcomed
by various members of The American Fisheries Society.

The Ecological Society of America was formally or-
ganized at Columbus, during Convocation Week, and be-
gins work with a membership of more than a hundred.
Officers were elected as follows: President, Prof. V. E.
Shelford, of the University of Illinois; Vice-President,
Prof. W. M. Wheeler, of Harvard University; and Secre-
tary-Treasurer, Dr. Forrest Shreve, of the Desert Labor-
atory. It is the intention of the society to hold frequent
field meetings for the study of ecological problems. Nu-
merous members of the new society are well known for
their work on various phases of aquatic biology.

The American Society of Ichthyologists and Herpetol-
ogists is a still more recent organization formed at the
first general meeting held in New York City on March
8, 1916. The purpose of the society, according to the
by-laws, is to advance the science of fishes, batrachians
and reptiles. As the new society is likely to be much
more technical than the American Fisheries Society and
has a different purpose in dealing with fishes, it is not
likely that the two societies will overlap in much of their
work even in this group. Most of the officers are well
known to our Society: President, Professor Bashford
Dean; Vice-Presidents, Dr. Leonhard Stejneger, Dr. Bar-
ton W. Evermann and Dr. Charles R. Eastman; Treas-
urer, Mr. Raymond L. Ditmars, and Secretary, Mr. John
T. Nichols. ;

At the first general meeting twenty-two papers deal-
ing with various phases of the society’s work were read.
The little journal Copeia, which has been running a
couple of years, has been adopted as the official publica-
tion of the society, and will no doubt be greatly enlarged.

im) Wi ttn wa ay ‘ana re nee ery ;
ft ot sae hy sti. hy ahi tara oe
7 4

;

[S) ephacgs ia reba ribet svt spel A ak ‘or Fac oD ters

rf ete RUA y “ih Say hi ear ive ah i nye tere
E. a i au.)
a

a5

triad ie - larity Mee wee te .

hy

eo i hate or, wie sie i ee e. * it nth +h ue

Riot Waa Hse uel 4 yi ie! co aan
; NY Uh) Ts: Gere Het BAN Ww at i Rey: a ee aa i
‘ ; GR) (ieee ts ah eg rca ht i eh | 3 hs oy) ae PT hi (ny ‘h ee ‘ ra r ri ss
| te ghrttira nae vit ied) Rican Lp eta he Olona
| Et a 1 4) of i i ¥ — i oy ye ie Ie ee f no Mal F uf aa . i ; ‘ °
ate ay CA EA ian eee EL te te, eae “nals, ip’ Weare
o bis ij woh "hale 7 ; i}, pie nt } ae fee ri SOs . uP
uh f y' ; m 5 Ly 43 s ik ’ ale wie i, AB, ' 9
ate a) Pane tel etn ee is i. ag ;
Peery id tyhag A | ‘ i +k
+ Wy ree tha fl La ah i Oy iy c}, & |
ab os lid ee ee ee NE aha i 6 Shh % ; re
4 ip) a) ig fc ns Ad nt fra Pe a ae Le eet itary t 7 mn a
os Wes ae A IS wis, PVE. C4 CR RIM Sc ding teas
Nee ie ga a)! DN Pe aie ie i are ee.
: : Les yi pe! be al ,
att Whe EN ae Bt % MeL 2: LA t aot a
. ; ’ , — ney | inl vee y. a.
| i iN et =D i Ae
( ie JI ie ar mor) Me Sade ing
eerie ae ae «(Saar He gt iy) BY ‘a ry tL em Ci his is iy
ME te ol ae 1 Py ie if Sid) Pah Phe 2) i to ‘why eae
uk } Wrens ni a be we eh a ea ae ny r rs ei ret, ¢ ty - By
ay ee wed iat ae y Pa 4" Ae Marea 5 ae

wig nt Se we yee een cyte Se ia Ty vay M he
Dake Te. nna ce Ny
ition nee en isin ‘ip age ; ie by rots
'- “hs } < = te is cee i TA oe “stele

heey, ALS ie TaN es as Rit i (ites a alle Aa i i Ms be
ee nah Oa oe pes tea! HPA § ‘AG? wpe
b oe Mae fi) ee ey Ay iy i eine 5 Nay ree)
By het det thotuiy oi alti ae h
J

-

TRANSACTIONS

of the

American Fisheries Society

“To promote the cause of fish culture; to gather and
diffuse information bearing upon its practical success,
and upon all matters relating to the fisheries; to unite
and encourage all interests of fish culture and the fish-
eries; and to treat all questions of a scientific and eco-
nomic character regarding fish.”

VOLUME XLV, NUMBER 3
1915-1916

Edited by The Recording Secretary
JUNE, 1916

Published Quarterly by the Society
NEW YORK.N. Y.

CONTENTS

PaGE
The Fish and Fisheries of New Zealand. Edward E. Princee.............. LOTTE
Pacific Halibut Fishery Declining. Johm Ni Codd ccs .. 129
The New England Fisheries, 1915. FY. Fo. Ditamicdke .eccceccceececssseeceseve ABT
The Work of the Pennsylvania Fish Commission. N. R. Bullev........... 145
Notes on Oneida Lake Fish and Fisheries.

Chas. C. Adams and T. Lh. Hankinson 22 no ce 154
Sewage Disposal by Fish Culture. M. C. Marsh 22.0.2 ccceeieennnen Ave
The Ultimate Sources of Marine Food. [. A. Pied oicccccccocccecceccecenee LTT
Physiological Characters of Marine Animals from Different

Depths... “V1; Shelford: 2.2553 Se iE
The Influence of Fasting on Lobsters. 8S. Morgalis 0.0mm . 198

The Nature of the Spines in Catfishes. H. D. Reed and T. J. Lloyd 202

THE FISH AND FISHERIES OF NEW
ZEALAND

By PRoFessoR EDWARD E. PRINCE, LL.D., D.Sc.,
Dominion Commissioner of Fisheries, Ottawa.

INTRODUCTION.

New Zealand is a land of contrasts. Almost every-
thing to which an American or European is accustomed
is there reversed. Midsummer there is midwinter here.
The northern parts are warm, almost tropical, while the
cold increases further south, and Stewart Island at the
southern extremity of the Dominion, has a climate as
cold as Scotland. The most characteristic birds are
practically wingless, and do not fly. The typical forest
trees do not shed their leaves, and the luxuriant bush
and the extensive plains of New Zealand, have never
had any four-footed animals living upon them until
introduced by the white man. The fisheries are no excep-
tion, and while the waters of New Zealand are prolific
in fish, the most familiar and important food fish are
totally absent, no cod, haddock, herring or true mackerel
being found there.

RESEMBLANCE BETWEEN NEW ZEALAND AND
MEDITERRANEAN FISH.

The latitude being between the 34th and 45th South
parallels, the climatic conditions resemble those of Spain,
or Portugal, or the southern part of Italy, and the typical
fish recall in many ways, those familiar in the Mediter-
ranean, and sold in the markets of Naples, Messina, or
Lisbon.

SURVEY OF NEW ZEALAND FISHERIES IN 1914.

It was my privilege two years ago to make a survey
of the fresh-water and sea fisheries of New Zealand, at
the request of the Government of that Dominion. My

118 American Fisheries Society

inspection was very complete, as I had all facilities
afforded by the authorities for visiting every locality
where fish occurred, and as very favorable weather pre-
vailed during my lengthened cruises, I was able to make
a complete survey in the five or six months allotted to
the task.

I commenced my survey in April, the beginning of
the New Zealand winter, and continued until the advent
of spring, in the month of September. The beautiful
government cruiser ‘““Hinemoa,”’ under command of the
accomplished Captain Bollons, was used during my dredg-
ing, otter-trawling, drift-net and other experiments, and
as Chief Inspector L. F. Ayson accompanied me, I had an
unusual opportunity of making a full investigation of
the fishery resources of New Zealand.

SCENERY.

It is not necessary to refer at length to the character
of the country, for the scenic beauty of ‘“Maoriland” is
famous all over the world. Her snow-capped mountain
ranges, running like a backbone through the whole
country, and the vast glaciers and lofty peaks, are not
excelled by the Swiss Alps, or by the Rocky Mountains
of this continent. The fjords of the southwest coast
are unexcelled for magnificent grandeur and tropical
forest luxuriance, while the hot springs, geysers, and
other volcanic phenomena are more wonderful and
extensive than in any other part of the world.

From a fishery point of view the sheltered bays and
romantic straits and extensive inshore fishing banks,
are of the highest importance, while the picturesque
lakes of which the larger in size exceed twenty in num-
ber, the swift flowing rivers, more than one hundred
of them, provide the most favorable conditions for great
and productive fisheries, and the scenery and the fertility
associated with these waters, recall in many ways, the
fishery conditions of Japan.

Prince.—New Zealand Fisheries 119

AREA.

The two main islands, with Stewart Island at the
southern extermity, embrace an area of 103,581 square
miles, and extend a length of about 1,000 miles, with
a breadth varying from fifty to two hundred miles. The
coast line, 4,330 miles, is indented by beautiful bays like
the Bay of Plenty, Hawkes Bay, Golden Bay and Hauraki
Gulf, etc., and the picturesque shores are washed by the ©
open South Pacific Ocean on the east, and deep Tasman
Sea on the west.

AREA OF AVAILABLE FISHING LIMITS.

I estimated the inshore waters, 10 to 30 fathoms deep,
at not less than 20,000 square miles, while about 25,000
square miles range from 40 to 50 fathoms in depth, and
outside these (10 to 20 miles from shore) the depth
descends to 300 or 400 fathoms, and greater depths lie
beyond. The inland lakes are famous for their exqui-
site beauty, the shores in most cases being backed by
lofty mountains with forests of tree-ferns and giant
kauri and totara trees, the beautiful red pine, rata and
various birches or beeches. Some of these lakes are
of considerable area, Taupo for example, 250 square
miles, Te Anau, 182 square miles; Lake Wakatip, 120
square miles; the last descending to a depth of 1,300
feet in some places. The total area of the lakes includ-
ing rivers, some of which like the Clutha or Molyneux
are 150 miles long, approaches 15,000 square miles or
about one-sixth of the area of the Great Lakes of this
continent.

VALUE OF FISHERIES ; NUMBER OF FISHERMEN, ETC.

The fisheries have not been developed to any great
extent, the population of New Zealand being small
(1,115,000), and the demand for fish limited, while the
main outside markets have been those of Australia, to
which considerable exports of fish have been made.

120 American Fisheries Society

1,500 or 1,600 persons are engaged directly in fishing
or handling fish, about 1,000 of these being actual fisher-
men, while the annual value of fish caught probably does
not exceed $500,000, including about $200,000 worth
exported, mainly to Australia.

It is remarkable that New Zealand imports, annually,
fish to the value of $540,000, mainly from the British
Isles, notwithstanding that her own waters are so pro-
ductive, and many species of excellent fish are abundant.

NUMBER OF SPECIES OF FISH.

Over three hundred species of teleostean fishes have
been described in New Zealand, but of these not more
than thirty-five are regarded as food fishes, and even
some of these are not in public favor, although in many
cases exceedingly good table-fish.

BLUE COD OF IMPORTANCE ECONOMICALLY.

They belong very largely to the rough scaled spiny-
finned kinds of which the red snapper and groper are
types. Amongst the more important species must be
counted the blue cod, Parapercis colias, Forster, which
is in great favor, and though not a large species, is
regarded perhaps as the best of the food fishes in
New Zealand seas. There is a large domestic demand
for it and cured and smoked it is exported in consider-
able quantities to Australia. Captain Cook called it the
“coal” fish, and remarked on its abundance, and it is
still very plentiful, and of widespread occurrence all
along the coast, especially on precipitous rocky shores.
They are caught in from 10 to 15 fathoms depth, and
range from one up to five pounds, reaching ten pounds
weight off D’Urville Island, Cook Straits, where the
water is deep. Not at all resembling cod, and not belong-
ing to the cod family, it is curious how it has acquired
the name, especially as its colors are very brilliant; often
a dark green along the sides marbled with brown and a
patch of green over each eye, while the under side is

Prince.—New Zealand Fisheries 121

greyish white. The fins are grey spotted with brown,
and the dorsal fin, the first five rays of which are sharp
spines, runs the whole length of the back. As already
stated it is a delicious fish when smoked, but when very
slightly salted, it is much in favor, and is of unusually
excellent table qualities. Hardly less important is the
gigantic Hapuka or Groper (Polyprion oxygeneios,
Bloch) which is really a hugh sea-bass or sea-perch, and |
ranges from 40 to 50 or even 100 pounds in weight. It
belongs to the order Serranide, and frequents depths
of 60 to 90 fathoms, or even still deeper water. It is
usually caught by baited hand-lines, but will frequently
not take the bait in July, when the fishermen state that
it is spawning. A still larger species occurs at greater
depths outside, and is called P. Americanus. The gropers
are, on account of their firm, white flesh, and their large
size, exceptionally important from a commercial stand-
point.

The Moki, which is one of the Latridide, though less
esteemed than the groper, is an excellent food fish, and
when smoked, is equal to finnan haddie. It is a handsome
perch-like fish ranging from 2 to 19 pounds in weight,
and frequents water 10 to 40 fathoms deep. There are
two species, the more abundant being Latris ciliaris,
Forster, which sometimes completely fills the fishermen’s
nets; but another species, Latris lineatus, Forster, is
much larger, and specimens three feet long have been
taken off Tairoa Head. Both are handsome perch-like
fishes, silvery on the sides, and lead-colored with a golden
sheen on the back.

THE SNAPPER A VALUED SPECIES.

One of the most familiar food fishes, and generally
esteemed, is the snapper, Pagrosomus auratus, Forster.
It is an active, handsome fish, and typical of the family
Sparide, with a high back, markedly forked tail, ser-
rated brilliant scales, and of a delicate rose color, fading
into grey along the sides. The snapper is very wide-

122 American Fisheries Society

spread, abundant in the north and extending even as
far south and west as Dusky Sound. It is plentiful near
Auckland and Poverty Bay, especially around the weird
eternally-smoking White Island. As many as 2,000
snappers are often taken in a single haul. On hotel bills
of fare, in New Zealand, this red snapper is a favorite
item, and the firm white flesh, and delicate, if not very
marked flavor, cause them to rank high as food fishes.

CONGER, LING AND OTHER FISH WASTED.

Fine conger eels, sometimes of a striking yellow color,
frequent the offshore waters, and specimens reaching a
length of 6 or 7 feet are quite common. The species is
Leptocephalus conger, Forster, and it is scaleless, but
has very firm and palatable flesh. The conger eel is not
eaten in New Zealand, and quantities are dumped over-
board each season by the fishermen, and as on this con-
tinent are thus wasted; nor does the ling, Genypterus
blacodes, one of the Ophidiide, fare better. Ling range
from 10 to 20 pounds or over, and are common on the
shores of South Island, but are not eaten, though the
flaky flesh is white and salts well.

KINGFISH OR SO-CALLED BARRACOUTA.

The savage looking so-called Barracouta or Snoek,
Thyrsites atun, Euphrasen, is abundant, three feet long
and five pounds and over, in weight. Split and smoked,
it sells readily, and large quantities are taken by the
fishermen. Its abundance may be judged from the fact
that two men will take 250 to 500 in three or four
hours fishing. The name Barracouta, is sometimes
given to two other fish, namely the king-fish, of the South
Island, Rexea furcifera, Waite, and the fine silvery king-
fish of North Island, Seriola lalandii, really the Yellow
Tail or Amber Fish of Florida and the Carolinas. The
former, which belongs to the Trichiuridz, exposes two
formidable canines on the projecting lower jaw, even
when the mouth is closed, and it has thus quite a fero-

Prince.—New Zealand Fisheries ize

cious appearance. The latter, one of the Carangide, is
remarkable for the size it may reach, some specimens
being 40 pounds weight and 4 feet long; but usually they
are smaller, 6 to 10 pounds in weight. Both of these
fish are fine food-fish, but do not keep well in a fresh
state. Great quantities of the South Island king-fish are
split, salted and smoked for home and export trade.

TREVALLY AND OTHER KINDS.

Two fishes common in New Zealand waters are called
Trevally, one, Seriolella brama, Giinther, and the silvery
sea-bream generally called the Warehou. The former
attains a length of two or three feet (12 to 14 pounds
weight) but those of smaller size are better flavored; and
the sea bream, Caranx platessa, which occurs every-
where, often in enormous numbers ranges from 2 to 3
pounds in weight. The latter is a typical Caranx,
whereas the Warehou belongs to the family Stromateide,
to which the “dollar” fish and other familiar kinds
belong. A very handsome species which recalls the
salmon on account of its elegant shape and active
rapidity in the water, is the Kahawai, Arripis trutta,
Forster, 3 to 7 pounds or more in weight, greenish grey
on the back with lead blue spots, white sides, and a dark
elegantly forked tail. It occasionally ascends some of
the northern rivers for 30 or 40 miles, and it is not sur-
prising that the name “native salmon” has been given
to it, though it belongs to the family Sciaenide, under
which the sea-drum and many tropical and sub-tropical
fishes are ranged. One familiar table-fish has a wide-
spread range, namely the Terakihi (Cheilodactylus
macropterus), a small elegant bass-like fish 14 to 1%
pounds in weight, though it may reach 6 to 7 pounds;
but it is not very highly esteemed by epicures.

FROST FISH (LEPIDOPUS).

Of the less abundant fish, mention must be made of
the remarkable Trichiurid, the frost fish or hiku,
Lepidopus caudatus, Euph., 41% to 5 feet in length, for

124 American Fisheries Society

which, however, no regular fishing can be carried on,
on account of its erratic and peculiar mode of occurrence.

Each season quantities are taken after frosty nights
in winter, being cast upon certain flat beaches, and
writhing like silvery snakes, 4 to 5 feet long, may be
captured by hand, hundreds at a time. The flesh does
not keep very well, but it sells at high prices in the
local markets, for it is regarded as one of the most
delicious fishes in New Zealand waters. The cause of
this suicidal tendency is a mystery. Possibly they are
male fish, affected seasonally, as has been found to be
the case with the pollock, and other marine species.

HAKE, RED COD AND OTHER KINDS.

The esteemed John Dory, Zeus faber, the hake, Mer-
luccius gayi, sometimes called whiting, the mackerel,
Scomber pneumatophorus, the sword fish, and a species
of pilchard, are native to New Zealand waters. A small
herring not to be compared with the herring of northern
seas, also occurs. The small red cod, Physiculus bachus,
Forster, 12 to 20 inches long and 2 to 5 pounds in weight,
is very widespread, but vast quantities are thrown away
by the fishermen because there is little or no demand
for them. The fish is somewhat insipid, but it could be
readily utilized on a large scale, for when smoked, its
qualities are much improved, and it is one of the most
plentiful of inshore fishes. They disappear for a season
or two unaccountably, after one or two seasons of
abundance.

WASTE OF FINE GURNARDS.

Hardly less abundant is the gurnard (Prionotus), of
which three kinds occur, the commonest is of a brilliant
red color with fine, firm flesh, but so little desired by the
public that tens of thousands caught by the fishermen are
thrown back into the sea. It is not inferior to the
esteemed gurnards of Europe, but is usually wasted in
large quantities each season.

Prince.—New Zealand Fisheries 125

FLAT FISHES OF VARIOUS SPECIES.

Of soles and flat fishes, there are many species. The
New Zealand sole, Peltorhamphus, is very highly
esteemed, while the so-called turbot, Ammotretes, and
the brill and the lemon sole (Pelotretis) are very com-
mon and of very good quality, but the Megrim (Caulop-
setta) and Sand flounder (Rhombus solea) though ex-
tremely abundant, are very much inferior in quality.

THE ESTEEMED MULLET.

Mention must be made of the Mullet (Mugil) which
has been caught in large quantities in the northern
estuaries, 150 dozen being taken at one “set” on the
Kaipara River. It has also been canned, and like all
the Mullet family, is a most delicate and delicious fish.

A curious Chimeroid fish is surprisingly plentiful. It
is the Elephant Fish (Callorhynchus) and most gro-
tesque in shape, though handsome, owing to its bright
silvery coloration. The flesh is white and firm and might
be utilized if public prejudice against the sharks and
their congeners could be overcome.

LOBSTERS, OYSTERS, ETC.

Of the crustacea, the reddish spiny lobster, Jasus Ed-
wardsii, is extremely abundant, and may be captured in
enormous quantities along the shores generally. The
flesh is not quite so delicate in flavor as the true lobster,
but as in Cape Colony, there is ample scope in New Zea-
land for a lobster canning industry, the spiny lobster
being not only extremely plentiful, but of large size. It
must be added that there is practically no claw meat in
this species as the nipping claws are very small.

The oysters of New Zealand are very remarkable as
one kind is dredged in fairly deep water and another kind,
the delicious and delicate rock oyster, is found coating
the rocks over large extents of the coast. This latter
oyster, Ostrea glomerata, Gould, is cup-like in form, and

126 American Fisheries Society

of extremely delicate flavor, but it must be fished for
with a hammer and chisel as the bunches of these shell-
fish adhere firmly to the rocks, mainly in the northern
waters of New Zealand. Deep-sea oysters occur espe-
cially in the Foveaux Straits in 15 or 20 fathoms, and
are of considerable size and exceedingly good quality,
though not equal to the rock oyster. They are scien-
tifically called Ostrea angasi, Sowerby.

NEW ZEALAND CLAMS ARE SUPERIOR.

A most excellent clam occurs, especially on certain
shores of the North Island, called the toheroa, a very
delicate and delicious soup being made from these shell-
fish. Quite a fishing industry has been developed on the
clam beds, which occur over considerable areas of the
eastern shores.

A few words are necessary in regard to the fresh-
water fish which were almost absent from the rivers and
inland waters before the white man settled in New
Zealand. The native fresh-water species are very few,
and not to be compared with the fresh-water species of
North America.

EELS, WHITE-BAIT AND OTHER NATIVE RIVER FISH.

Native eels (Anguilla) are extremely abundant, and
indeed are a menace to superior fish, but the white-bait
or small Inunga, is extremely abundant, and much
esteemed as a delicacy on the table.* There are several
species of so-called native trout or Kokopu (Galazias),
and they afford a small amount of sport, but they have
been altogether overshadowed by the introduced species,
namely the rainbow trout, European brown trout and the

Pacific cutthroat trout.
*Locally stated to be the young of the New Zealand Smelt (Retro-

pinna) and the so-called native trout (Galavias), but the specimens
examined by me were the young of the latter (Galawias).

K.

Prince.—New Zealand Fisheries 12

INTRODUCED TROUT, A GREAT SUCCESS.

These have established themselves thoroughly in New
Zealand, and all of them reach a large size. Fish 5 to 7
or 8 pounds are quite common, and specimens have been
taken in numbers weighing 25 to even 27 pounds. No
fishing in the world can excel the trout fishing in such
lakes as Taupo, Rotorua and Wakatipu. The Atlantic
salmon, though repeated attempts have been made to es-
tablish it, has not been a success. A small proportion
seems to have survived, and there are records of grilse
being caught around the shores, but the introduction of
this species must be regarded as unsuccessful.

QUINNAT SALMON ACCLIMATIZED.

It is otherwise with the spring salmon or quinnat of
the Pacific Coast of America. This fine Salmonoid is
now thoroughly established in several New Zealand
rivers, and the fish spawn regularly each season, so that
there is a great future in store for the Pacific species
of salmon. Great credit is due to the head of the Fisheries
Department, Wellington (Mr. L. F. Ayson), for his
zealous and successful fish-culture work. The Ac-
climatization Societies too merit a meed of praise for
their splendid efforts with fish and game.

WHALES, SEALS, ETC.

A closing word must be said about the wonderful
whaling and sealing industries which have been carried
on for a long period in New Zealand waters. Whales
still occur and fur seals are also found, but both are in
such diminished numbers, that their total extinction in
the near future is to be feared. It is hoped that pro-
tective measures may be effectively enforced as the
New Zealand Government has shown itself willing to
carry out a wise policy in regard to certain native
animals. It has extended its protective legislation to
marine creatures in a unique manner.

128 American Fisheries Society

“PELORUS JACK.”

It is well known that a fine specimen of Risso’s
grampus, known the world over as “Pelorus Jack’? was
protected by special legislative enactment. This creature
14 feet long frequented Pelorus Sound in Cook Straits
for over fifty years, and was accustomed to meet and
accompany steamers, navigating through the sound.
Tourists always looked out for “Pelorus Jack” and under
parliamentary protection it continued unharmed until
recently when it ceased to appear, and is believed to have
been criminally killed, or to have died from old age.

PROMISING FUTURE FOR NEW ZEALAND FISHERIES.

The varied fresh-water and marine products of New
Zealand, are such that a great future lies before the fish-
ing industries, if they are developed and properly con-
served. Fishing can be carried on all the year round
practically, owing to the ‘fact that there is no winter
season in New Zealand and the hardships of winter
fishing are unknown, though stormy weather, especially
on the west coast is often a serious interruption. No
systematic prosecution of the fishing industry has really
been carried on on an adequate scale, and the limited
markets and small local demand may partly account for
this, though complaints are common in New Zealand that
the people cannot get supplies of their own fish at reason-
able rates. There is no reason why canning and curing
industries should not be carried on upon a large scale,
and New Zealand fishery products shipped to all parts
of the world. Instead of importing preserved fish in
large quantities as at present, New Zealand should
export extensively. The government has indeed had in
view a great scheme of fishery development, and my
own report made in 1914, will no doubt offer much
guidance in this future development.

PACIFIC HALIBUT FISHERY DECLINING
By JOHN N. Coss, Seattle, Wash.

For the past two years the condition of the halibut
fishery of the Pacific Coast has been a cause for concern
on the part of those interested in its preservation. While
the total yearly catch of halibut has been steadily on the
increase for some years, thus apparently indicating a
healthy condition, yet the reverse is really the case, the
increase in catch being far from proportionate to the
increase in the fleets operating, while it has been neces-
sary to extend widely the range covered and to increase
vastly the amount of gear used in order to secure this
catch, thus showing that the reserve or capital stock of
fish is being steadily depleted.

In showing the present statistical condition of the in-
dustry as compared with some years ago I have selected
the years 1904 and 1914, a period during which the
greatest changes and expansion in the industry have oc-
curred, and have restricted the data to the Puget Sound
fleet, which in both years comprised the greater part of
the vessels working on the halibut banks, and the one
for which the data are most complete. The catch per
dory will be used for comparison as being the one most
easily fixed.

In 1904, the Puget Sound fleet comprised 35 sailing
schooners, with a net tonnage of 645, and operating 78
dories; 1 power schooner, with a net tonnage of 14, and
operating 3 dories; and 3 steamers, with a net tonnage
of 108, and operating 18 dories; making a grand total
of 39 vessels with a net tonnage of 767, and operating
99 dories. This gives an average of 19.67 net tons to
the vessel, and an average of 2.5 dories to the vessel.
The catch of halibut by this fleet in 1904 amounted to
11,774,000 pounds, and this divided by 99, the total num-
ber or dories, gives an average per dory of 118,929
pounds. This catch brought the fishermen an average
of nearly 3 cents per pound for first grade fish.

130 American Fisheries Society

In 1914, the Puget Sound fleet comprised 90 power
vessels, with a total net tonnage of 2,635, and operating
361 dories; and 7 steamers, with a total net tonnage of
1,118, and operating 92 dories; making a grand total for
the fleet of 97 vessels, with a total net tonnage of 3,753,
and operating 453 dories. This gives an average of
38.69 net tons to the vessel as compared with 19.67 in
1904, a gain in size of 19.03 net tons per vessel for 1914.
An average of 4.67 dories to the vessel is also shown, an
increase of 2.17 over 1904, when the average number
of dories to the vessel was 2.5. The catch of halibut by
this fleet in 1914 amounted to 43,305,805 pounds, and
this divided by 453, the total number of dories, gives an
average per dory of 95,597 pounds. The average price
per pound of first grade fish received by the fishermen
for this catch amounted to 4.7 cents.

The average catch per dory in 1904 was 118,929 pounds,
while the average per dory in 1914 was 95,597 pounds,
a decrease per dory in the latter year as compared with
1904 of 28,332 pounds, or about 20 per cent.

In considering this decrease per dory since 1904, the
conditions in the former year, and for some little time
after, should be taken into consideration. In 1904, there
was a limited, but growing, demand for halibut, and as
the fleet was more than able to supply this demand but
few of the vessels were operated throughout the year. Of
the fleet of 35 sailing and 1 power schooners, 11 operated
only on the nearby banks, thus tying up or engaging
in other business during a portion of the year, while 7
of the remainder fished for halibut in Alaska alone, pre-
sumably engaging in other fishing operations or acting
as run boats in the salmon industry the rest of the year.
Had the whole fleet engaged continuously in the industry
throughout the year, as was the case in 1914, the average
per dory in 1904 would have been vastly larger than it
really was, thus making the decrease since much more
pronounced than the figures indicate. ;

Twelve years ago the fleet was composed almost
wholly of small sailing vessels, nearly all of which had

Cobb.—Halibut Fishery Declining 131

their headquarters on Puget Sound, and which operated
during the greater part of the year on banks lying within
400 miles of Seattle. During the inclement weather of
late fall, winter and early spring a portion of these ves-
sels made their headquarters in Southeast Alaska and
fished on the banks in the protected waters of that region,
shipping their catch down on the regular steamship lines.

Today the sailing vessel is unknown in the halibut fish-
ery, having been superseded by vessels with twice the car-
rying capacity of those formerly engaged, the increase
in size permitting them to carry double the number of
fishermen and dories. These vessels are all powered
with gas engines. Instead of getting its catch within
easy steaming radius of Seattle, the fleet now fishes mainly
on the Alaska off-shore banks, ranging from 800 to 2,000
nautical miles from Seattle. A greater amount of gear
to the dory is set at present than was the case twelve
years ago, while the introduction, several years ago, of
the method of long-line fishing directly from the deck
of the vessel permits fishing now in weather when it
would not be safe to launch a dory.

Closed Season Proposed :—About two years ago, in the
Pacific Fisherman, a journal devoted to the interests of
the Pacific Coast fisheries, I called attention to the con-
dition of the halibut fishery, and suggested that a closed
season, say from November 15 to February 15, be estab-
lished. Since then the demand for a protective measure
of this sort has been steadily growing. About six months
ago the Department of Naval Service of Canada, which
department has charge of fishery matters in the Domin-
ion, addressed inquiries to its own halibut fishermen and
dealers, endeavoring to learn the exact status of affairs,
and inquiring as to whether they favored a closed season.
I am informed, through apparently reliable sources, that
the large majority of the responses were favorable to
the idea of a closed season of from one to three months.

The ideal time for a closed season is when the fish in
question are spawning, and, fortunately, in the case of
the halibut this comes during the winter months, when

132 American Fisheries Society

fishing is usually prosecuted at the greatest disadvantage.
W. F. Thompson, in his Preliminary Report on the Life-
History of the Halibut (Rep. B. C. Com’r of Fisheries
for 1914, pp. 76-99), as a result of his study of the
Pacific halibut, says, “It may be stated with confidence
that the halibut breeds on this coast between the middle
of December and the last of April or the middle of May.”
This, he states, may be subject to some variation, but is
practically correct.

On February 21 a bill was introduced in Congress,
which seeks to establish a closed season on the catching
of halibut on the banks-in the Pacific Ocean during the
months of December and January, and prohibiting, un-
der penalties, any violation of the act; also setting aside
a certain area in Southeast Alaska as a nursery for hali-
but and prohibiting fishing in this restricted area at any
time.

As Canadian vessels also fish on these same banks,
and a closed season would not be of much value unless
it included both nations, the act provides that it shall
not take effect until Canada has enacted concurrent or
essentially similar regulations governing its own people
and vessels.

The fact that the halibut attains maturity slowly as
compared with the salmons, for instance, makes it espe-
cially necessary that it should have some protection.
Thompson’s investigations (loc. cit., p. 93), show that
“there are but relatively few halibut which mature dur-
ing the eighth year of their lives, the chances being one
in twenty-five against obtaining such a one, and there
are fish still immature in the fifteenth year of their age.
The eighth is, however, the age of a large proportion of
the fish in Hecate Strait at the time of capture. In
Hecate Strait but 14 per cent. of the female fish caught
had completed their twelfth year and but 5 per cent. their
sixteenth year. Off Kodiak Island 31 per cent. were be-
yond the twelfth year and 12 per cent. beyond the six-
teenth. This increased percentage of mature fish may,
of course, be characteristic of the banks which have been

Cobb.—Halibut Fishery Declining 133

less intensively fished. However this may be, it is evi-

dent that a large majority of fish caught do not reach
maturity.”

So far as published, his investigations show that the
fish from Hecate Strait and off Kodiak Island attain ma-
turity at twelve years of age. He also states that he
believes the maximum age attained by the halibut to be
about twenty-five years.

The above shows plainly that a large proportion of the
fish caught are immature, i. e., fish which have never
spawned. As the halibut roe contains about 2,000,000
eggs as compared with say about 2,000 eggs in a salmon
roe, this superabundance of eggs deposited by the halibut
counterbalances in some degree the late maturity of the
species. It is, plain, however, that the first object of the
authorities should be so to protect the halibut that a
larger proportion may attain to maturity, and the first
step should be to prevent the catching of small halibut,
knows as “chicken” halibut.

Early History of the Fishery:—The present extensive
halibut fisheries of the Pacific owe their inception to
the publication in 1886 of a series of very optimistic let-
ters in the Cape Ann Advertiser, of Gloucester, Mass.
The enterprising spirit of the New England fishermen
prompted them to consider the matter favorably, par-
ticularly as they knew from the most reliable sources that
halibut were abundant off Cape Flattery at certain sea-
sons. The native fishermen had fished here for their own
use (the surplus being sold to the whites living on the
shores of Puget Sound) for many years previous.

The pelagic fur-seal fishery, which was then lawful
and quite profitable, was another strong inducement for
the eastern fishermen to make the venture of sailing
“around the Horn,” for some believed that this offered
unusual opportunities for financial success, while they
thought the period between sealing seasons might be
profitably utilized by engaging in halibut fishing. The
men who entered upon this experiment were among the
most skillful, daring and adventurous of their class and,

134 American Fisheries Society

so far as catching fish was concerned, none could be found
better fitted for the work.

In the fall and early winter of 1887, three schooners
sailed from Massachusetts for Puget Sound. These were
the Mollie Adams and the Edward E. Webster, of
Gloucester, and the Oscar and Hattie, of Swampscott.
The two former were owned by Capt. Sol. Jacobs, who
had achieved fame as a mackerel fisherman, and who,
after dispatching his vessels, crossed the continent in
time to make the necessary business arrangements, pend-
ing their arrival. The Mollie Adams made a good passage
and reached her destination without mishap; but the
Webster met with an accident to her spars before round-
ing the Horn, put into Montevideo for repairs, was de-
layed, and finally arrived on the west coast late in the
season.

The Oscar and Hattie reached Puget Sound some time
later than the Adams, but in time to engage in the halibut
fishery, upon which she entered, making her headquarters
at Port Townsend. Owing to the want of a suitable mar-
ket, and to the fact that the schooner had to go to Tacoma
to ship her catch east, the fishery from this place was
followed with loss rather than profit. The Oscar and
Hattie carried 6 dories and a crew of 14 men.

About two-thirds of the catch was sold fresh and the
remainder was fletched. The result of the season’s work
in 1888 was 240,000 pounds of fresh and fletched fish,
with a value (at the prices paid the fishermen) of $7,600.
The average price received for fresh halibut was 3 cents
per pound, and for salt fish 31% cents per pound.

The catch shipped east by the Oscar and Hattie was
the first shipment so made, and it went forward by the
Northern Pacific railroad. The ice used cost $22.50 per
ton( more than five times the present cost of ice), and
the high freight rates charged by the railroad took all
the profit of the shipment.

On July 24, 1888, the schooner Mollie Adams left Seat-
tle, bound north on a fletched halibut trip, the first one
of its kind that had been undertaken on the Pacific Coast.

Cobb.—Halibut Fishery Declining 135

But few halibut were captured until the schooner arrived
off the southern extremity of the Queen Charlotte Is-
lands, where they were found in great abundance and of
larger size than on the grounds off Cape Flattery. A few
of those taken were estimated to weigh over 300 pounds
each. About half of the number obtained were large
enough for fletching, the remainder being used as bait
or thrown away. The fishing was carried on in depths
of only 30 to 45 fathoms.

On the morning of September 8, the Adams having
“wet” all her salt, started for home with 150,000 pounds
of fish. In the meantime, after a lot of trouble, her
owner, Captain Jacobs, had arranged for a rate of $1.25
per hundred pounds for the transportation of the fish
across the continent to Gloucester. After deducting ex-
penses the members of the crew received $175 each, or
at the rate of nine dollars a day for nineteen days’ fishing.

It was soon found that Port Townsend was too remote
from railroads for shipping purposes and in a very short
time Seattle became the headquarters of the schooner
fleet. The New England Fish Company, an American
firm, soon after located at Vancouver, British Columbia,
while the International Fisheries Company, located at
Tacoma, Wash., put on fleets of steam vessels, and have
since been important factors in the development of the
industry.

Fishing Banks:—For a few years the fishing for the
fresh markets was confined to Flattery Bank, located off
Cape Flattery, at the mouth of the Straits of Juan de
Fuca, and extending from close in shore to some twelve
or fifteen miles off the cape, in depths of water ranging
from 35 to 75 fathoms. From early in the spring until
the middle of June halibut can be obtained on these
grounds in paying quantities, but later in the season
dogfish and sharks strike in, driving nearly all the edible
fishes away.

The steamers early devoted their attention to the banks
which had been discovered in Hecate Strait and Dixon
Entrance. Later good grounds were found in the neigh-

136 American Fisheries Society

borhood of Cape Scott, on the northern end of Vancouver
Island, British Columbia. Another, and for some years,
one of the most prolific grounds yet discovered, lies off
the northern end of Graham Island, between Rose Spit
and North Island. All along this shore, for a distance
of sixty miles, good fishing was found in from 25 to 40
fathoms for a number of years.

The chief objection to most of these banks was that
they were in the vicinity of islands belonging to Canada,
which government, for some years, harassed our fisher-
men in every way possible, and as a result of this condi-
tion of affairs and the-gradual exhaustion of the Can-
adian banks, our fishermen began seeking new banks in
Alaskan waters. Small banks lying in what are known
as the “protected waters,” i. e., the bays, straits and
sounds dividing the numerous islands forming the greater
part of Southeast Alaska, had been fished by both whites
and indians for some years, but they were not prolific
enough to justify the larger vessels resorting to them.
During the winter of 1909-10 several of the steamers
prospected the open waters between Cape Muzon and
Sitka, with the result that halibut were found in great
abundance throughout the greater part of this area. Off
Forrester Island seemed to be the center of greatest
abundance. Here an average depth of 80 fathoms is
found for about four miles from shore; a little farther
out it deepens to 150 fathoms. The first few cargoes
from here averaged fifteen pounds to the fish, but the
average soon dropped to fourteen pounds.

As these banks became depleted the fleet gradually
worked its way north and west, first off Sitka, then on
the Fairweather ground, then off Prince William Sound,
and at the present time some of the vessels fish as far
west as Portlock bank, near Kodiak Island.

It is probable that ultimately the larger vessels will be
compelled to fish as far west as Unimak Pass. It is known
that halibut are to be found, supposedly in limited num-
bers, on the famous cod banks in the section between
Kodiak Island and Unimak Pass.

THE NEW ENGLAND FISHERIES, 1915
By FREDERICK F. DIMICK, Boston, Mass.

The following notes from the Annual Report of the
Boston Fish Bureau will be found of interest to our
members:

Reviewing the fisheries of the year probably the most
sailent feature has been the improvement in the mackerel
fishery. The total catch of these fish on the northeastern
coast of North America amounted to 138,466 bbis.—
96,564 bbls. fresh, and 41,902 bbls. salt.

Among the impressive events of the year might be
mentioned the introduction of the tilefish by the Bureau
of Fisheries. The efforts of the Bureau to popularize
this fish has met with splendid success. It seems almost
incredible that fish of so much value covering an area
of 70,000 square miles, 50 to 75 miles south of Nantucket,
should not have been marketed before.

A subject coming before Congress is the destruction
of the dogfish. These fish destroy the food fish, and ham-
per the operations of the fishermen. The amount of fish
destroyed by man is but a drop in the bucket compared
with the amount consumed by dogfish and other preda-
ceous fish.

Too much importance cannot be laid on care in the
preparation of fish for market whether fresh or salt.
The new law in regard to the inspection of fish that went
into effect in Canada on the first day of May, the object
of which is to bring into general use a strong barrel of a
standard size for marketing pickled fish, to raise the
standard of curing and grading fish, should be a benefit
to trade.

A bill has been introduced into Congress to limit the
time that fish can be held in cold storage to three months,
and contains other pernicious regulations. If this bill
becomes a law it will increase the cost of living, and crip-
ple the fishing industry.

FRESH FISH.

On March 30, 1916, the business at the Boston Fish
Pier, where the fresh fish business of the city is conduct-
ed will have been in operation for two years during
which time substantial progress has been made. The

138 American Fisheries Society

buildings in this part of Boston that comprise the Boston
Fish Pier constitute a city by itself.

Groundfish :—The catch by the fleet that makes this
port its headquarters shows an increase. In the spring
and summer the fleet landed good catches of haddock.
Codfish, however, have been in comparatively light sup-
ply. Receipts were decreased in the fall by a strike of
the fishermen of the steam trawlers.

The fishing fleet numbered about the same as in the
previous year, 330, of which 167 were sailing vessels, 13
steam otter-trawlers, and 150 boats of various kinds.

The catch of the Gloucester gill netters, that is largely
received here, amounted to 7,400,000 lbs. compared with
8,500,000 in the previous year.

Prices of haddock, by months, ex vessel, have ranged
about as follows: (Dollars per 100 lbs.)

High Low High Low
Jan. $8.00 $2.00 July $4.10 $1.10
June 5.50 1.25. Dee. 8.50 2.10
May 7.00 90 Nov. 8.00 o20
April 4.50 1.00 Oct. 6.90 1.50
March 6.50 1.25 ‘Sept. 6.00 125
Feb. 8.00 2.00 Aug. 4,75 Las

Some of the best stocks were:

Vessel Captain Stock
Pontiac Ernest Parsons $50,735
A. Piatt Andrew Wallace Bruce 46,124
Commonwealth Frank Watts 43,709
Mary C. Santos Manuel C. Santos 43,000
Elizabeth W. Nunan Frank Nunan 36,172
Natalie Hammond Chas. Colson 32,970
Progress Antonio King 32,000
Mary P. Goulart A. Goulart 24,800

Mackerel:—The southern mackerel fleet got an early
start, the first vessel sailing sixteen days earlier than the
previous year.

The first trip of mackerel was landed April 9, schooner
Rob Roy, at Lewes, Del., 3,240 mixed mackerel, caught
100 miles east by south from Cape Henlopen in 40 fath-
oms. First arrival at Chincoteague April 16; first catch
at Chatham, April 20; at Seaconnet, April 20; near Yar-
mouth, N. S., May 14; at New York, from Carolina trap,
March 24.

Dimick.—New England Fisheries 139

The first Cape Shore arrivals from the fleet were on
June 7th, ten vessels having an aggregate of 430,000
fresh mackerel. Sales were made at 15 to 16 cents each
for large, 8 to 10 for medium, and 4 to 6 for small. The
first arrival the previous year was on June 8th, and sold
at 171% cents for large, and 8 cents medium.

The total receipts from Cape Shore were 781,000 fish,
compared with 503,000 the previous year.

The total catch of fresh mackerel by the fleet amounted
to 71,564 bbls. against 68,582 the previous season.

Foreign receipts of fresh mackerel show an increase
of about seventy-five per cent.

Some of the best stocks by mackerel seiners were:

Vessel Captain Stock
Str. Lois H. Corkhum William Corkhum $33,200
Lottie G. Merchant Ralph Webber 33,000
Monarch John Seavey 28,884
Marguerite Haskins Reuben Cameron 28,809
Arthur James John Matheson 26,959
Rob Roy Lemuel Firth 26,158

Herring :—The catch along the shore was a moderate
one. The first seine herring were taken at Gloucester,
April 25th. The first herring bait at the same place,
April 1, 500 fish.

Swordfish :—Swordfish were in good supply during the
season. The fleet comprised 42 sail, and fished mostly to
the eastward but experienced much bad weather.

On July 20th there were 17 arrivals at the Boston Fish
Pier having 1,126 fish from Georges, probably the largest
number of swordfish ever landed in one day. Sales at
8 cents per pound.

Schooner Gladys B. Simmins, from Georges, the first
arrival, June 21, twenty-six fish, sold at 20 cents per lb.;
the first the previous year, schooner Virginia, 16 fish,
June 24, sold at 2114 cents per pound.

Schooner Albert D. Willard, Capt. Fred Bickford, is
high line of the swordfish fleet, having stocked $6,800,
the crew sharing $270. In four trips this vessel landed
278 fish.

Halibut :—About 30 vessels engaged in this branch of
fishing on the Atlantic coast, and made good stocks.

The catch on the Pacific coast was 33,133,313 lbs., com-
pared with 41,825,575 the previous year. The average
price paid the vessel this year was 5.7 per lb.; in 1914, 4.7.

140 American Fisheries Society

A closed season in the halibut fishery is being agitated
on the Pacific coast from November 15 to February 15,
and it is reported that the fishermen are largely in favor
of it with the hope of putting the industry on a more
profitable basis, and conserving the supply for future
fishing.

Some of the best stocks of vessels on the Atlantic coast
were:

Vessel Captain Stock
Richard Augustus G. Hall $30,500
Rex Robert Wharton 29,839

Tilefish:—The schooner Hortense that arrived at Bos-
ton Fish Pier, December 23, with 16,000 lbs. of tilefish,
had the first trip of these fish ever brought into Boston
by a fishing vessel fitted out especially for that kind of
fishing. They sold at 4c per lb. The fish varied in size
from 8 to 40 lbs. each, and were caught 90 miles south-
ae of New York on the western slope of the Gulf

tream.

FROZEN FISH.

Most all kinds of frozen fish have been in good supply,
and large quantities have gone into consumption, includ-
ing mackerel, salmon, halibut, herring, butterfish, had-
dock, whiting, etc. During periods of scarcity of fresh
fish caused by bad weather it has been most always pos-
sible to obtain frozen fish of fine quality.

Herring :—Shore frozen herring have been in fair sup-
ply. Large shore herring from Maine of fine quality have
been received, and were in good demand, as they compare
quite favorably with Newfoundland fish. Blueback her-
ring have been in good supply.

Newfoundland herring were in light supply and sold
at high prices. The receipts the winter of 1914-1915
amounted to 12,990 bbls. compared with 15,090 in the
previous season.

Smelts:—This kind of frozen fish is in good demand
during the winter months. The mild weather in the fall
put off the fishing operations and receipts were late in
coming from Canada. The fish are running of small size.

Mackerel:—Frozen mackerel have been in good supply.
During the summer when mackerel were plenty on the
shore considerable quantities were put into the freezers.

Dimick.—New England Fisheries 141

The fresh mackerel netters fished later in the season than
usual this season which was unfavorable to the distribu-
tion of frozen fish.

Other Frozen Fish:—Squid and whiting have been in
fair supply. Squid have been exported to Canada and
Newfoundland where the catch of these fish was a failure.
Whiting have been in fair supply. Salmon and halibut
have been in good supply.

SHELL FISH.

The first shipments from Nova Scotia for the season
were received December 19, 1915, 499 crates, and sold
at $25.00 per crate. The first, the previous season were
received December 21, 26014 crates, and sold at $25.00
per crate for large, and $15.00 for small.

Total foreign receipts of lobsters were 43,943 crates as
compared with 22,741 the previous year.

The latest information of the lobster fisheries of the
Atlantic coast, covering the year 1913, shows the total
catch and value of lobsters, as follows:

Pounds Value

Maine 7,670,667 $1,525,776
New Hampshire 301,710 108,560
Maine 1,524,389 290,423
Rhode Island 1,283,056 197,960
Connecticut 724,435 131,767
New York 435,811 81,783
New Jersey 301,349 54,155
Delaware 25,600 4,398

Total 12,267,017 $2,394,822

SALT FISH.

Mackerel:—The production of salt mackerel of the
world owing to the small amounts cured in Ireland and
Norway was the lightest on record.

Our first receipts of salt mackerel of any consequence
came from Cape Shore. Ten vessels arrived from there,
June 7th, having a total of 1,462 bbls. They counted
from 180 to 200 fish to a barrel and sales were made at
$8.00 per barrel. The total catch of the Cape Shore fleet
amounted to 3,400 bbls., and sold from $7.50 to $8.50 per
bbl. ; the previous year 2,775 bbls., and sold at from $9.00

142 American Fisheries Society

to $10.00 per bbl. The Cape Shore fleet numbered 19
sail, compared with 31 the previous year.

When the market was glutted with fresh mackerel con-
siderable were sold for salting. The shore fish were of
desirable size, but early in the season the demand was
light owing to the unsettled conditions caused by the
war.

Shore mackerel sold in July ex vessel at from $9.00 to
$14.00 per bbl.; in August from $14.00 to $14.50; Sep-
tember $15.00 to $17.00; October $17.50 to $19.00.

A small fleet went to the North Bay, but were unsuc-
cessful owing to bad weather.

The catch at the Magdalen Islands was the best for
five or six years, but at other points in Canada the pro-
duction was light.

The amount salted in Ireland was light owing to the
good demand in the English markets for fresh mackerel.
A large portion of the Norwegian catch was also con-
sumed fresh.

The catch of salt mackerel of the leading countries of
the world, compared with 1914, were as follows:

1915 1914
United States 19,691 bbls. 15,521 bbls.
Canada 20,201.50. PIAS MAT A eens
Ireland G91) st oOssa0ta
N’rw’y and Sw’d’n 12,211 “ 35-5127 ue
Total 65,098 106,140

Codfish:—The feature of the codfish trade has been
the unprecedented demand for fish for export due to the
conditions caused by the war. Good prices prevailed
through the year.

The vessels engaged in the Bank fishery brought home
good catches. The Cape North fleet although bothered
some at first by ice in obtaining bait returned with good
trips. The fleet made good catches of fish on the fishing
grounds in the Gulf of St. Lawrence off Perce, Quebec,
where codfish were abundant.

The first fare of trawl Bank codfish arrived at Glouces-
ter, June 15, schr. Athelete, having 280,000 lbs., and sold
at $3.50 per ewt. for large and $3.25 for small.

Schooner Athelete, Capt. Thos. Benham, is also high
line of the codfish fleet, having stocked $19,500.

The catch of the leading countries of the world, com-
pared with 1914, has been as follows:

Dimick.—New England Fisheries 143

1915 1914
New England 370,235 qtls. 354,526 qtls.
Pacific Coast 124,000; ;"5 105,580. *
Nova Scotia, Lunenberg 227,243 ‘“ 154,065 “
Newf’d and Labrador’ 1,282,088 “ 1,149,168 ‘“
France 1: A ZAL TIA
Norway aot Lae: os 2,910,714. *
Total 4,631,383 4,915,717

Hake, Haddock and Pollock :—Hake have been in light
supply, and sold during the year from $3.14 to $3.75 per
qtl., from first hands. Hake, haddock and pollock have
been in good demand for export. Haddock have sold
from $3,50 to $3.75 per qtl. Large Cusk from $4.25 to
pee medium from $3.25 to $4.00. Pollock from $2.75
to $3.50.

Herring :—Pickled herring, owing to the light impor-
tations as a result of the war, have been in light supply,
and receipts have sold at unprecedented high prices.
Canadian and Newfoundland packers have put up her-
ring in the Scotch style that have been in good demand.

The imports of herring into the United States for the
ten months ending October were 51,404,992 lbs., valued
at $2,017,686, compared with 65,343,563 ibs. valued at
$2,141,884 for the same period in 1914.

Salmon:—Pickled salmon have been in light supply
and sold at good prices as the amount cured on the
Pacific coast was only one-third as much in the previous
year.

Alewives :—Although the catch of alewives was good
the amount cured was light and the end of the year finds
these fish in short supply. Five hundred fish were taken
at Edgartown on Feb. 25, the first catch at that place
during the season, and was earlier than usual.

SMOKED FISH.

Box Herring:—These have been in good supply dur-
ing the year and prices have ruled low. The supply that
comes to this market is small in comparison with past
years.

Bloaters:—Smoked bloaters have been in good supply
as the Newfoundland fishery that supplies the fish for
this article was quite successful. The receipts from the
fleet the winter of 1914-15 amounted to 47 cargoes, 41,619

144 American Fisheries Society

bbls. salt bulk, 4,489 bbls. pickled herring. The previ-
ous season there were 36 arrivals with 26,011 bbls. salt
bulk, and 7,597 bbls. pickled.

The season of the winter of 1915-16 promises to be a
successful one, and most of the cargoes were obtained
at Bonne Bay.

The herring sold ex vessel at $5.25 per bbl. for salt
bulk and $5.75 to $6.00 for barrelled herring, probably
the highest prices ever paid.

Salmon:—The supply of these has been light, and they
sold during the year at good prices.

Halibut:—The fleet engaged in supplying these fish
only comprised two vessels. The schooner Maxine Elliot
arrived Sept. 14, having 75,000 lbs., and reported fish
scarce and weather conditions unfavorable.

Finnan Haddies:—The output of finnan haddies has
been light as during the smoking season fish were in
light supply and sold at high prices. The receipts from
Nova Scotia have increased.

CANNED FISH.

Sardines :—These have been in good supply and sold
at low prices. A large quantity went into consumption.
The pack, which is estimated at 1,800,000 cases, has been
largely distributed.

The pack in 1914 amounted to 1,600,000 cases. The
end of the season of 1915 the pack was light, and prices
seven and the new season will open with light stocks
on hand.

Lobsters :—Owing to the light demand for export, the
total pack in Newfoundland has been light. The total
pack amounted to 5,579 cases, compared with 11,000
cases the previous year.

The total pack in Canada for the nine months ending
December 31, 1915, amounted to 157,416 cases, compared
with 145,200 the previous period.

Salmon:—The pack of salmon on the Pacific coast has
been 7,998,601 cases, against 6,781,282 cases the previ-
ous year.

Clams :—Canned clams have been in fair supply, and

the pack was an average one. Prices obtained for them
was about the same as in the previous season.

THE WORK OF THE PENNSYLVANIA
FISH COMMISSION

By N. R. BULLER, Commissioner.

The Department of Fisheries of the State of Pennsyl-
vania was organized under the provisions of the Act of
April 2, 1903. The act authorized the appointment of a
Commissioner of Fisheries and four other citizens of the
Commonwealth, who together should constitute the Fish-
eries Commission. It also authorized the appointment
of a clerk and stenographer and the Department was
empowered to take charge of all hatching and fish cul-
tural stations in this Commonwealth.

The duties of the Department of Fisheries are to pro-
vide for the protection and propagation of fish and to
promote and encourage the development of the fishery
interests; to obtain and publish information respecting
the extent and conditions of the fisheries of the Common-
wealth; and to make rules and regulations for the en-
forcement of all laws designed for the protection, exten-
sion and propagation of fish.

The Commissioner of Fisheries is the president and
executive officer of the Fisheries Commission, and is also
chief superintendent of all hatching stations and fish
cultural establishments now existing or which may here-
after be established. He has full control, direction and
management of all fish wardens, or water bailiffs, and
of the work of the enforcement of the laws relating to
the protection, propagation and distribution of fish. All
fish wardens, constables, police, sheriffs and guardians
of the peace, are required to make prompt report to him
of all cases of violation of the laws relating to fish.

The Department has under its control six hatcheries
which are devoted to the hatching and propagation of
fish. These establishments are located in Erie, Centre,

Note—A portion of an address delivered before the Third Pennsyl-

vania Welfare, Efficiency and Engineering Conference held at Harris-
burg, November, 1915.

146 American Fisheries Society

Wayne and Philadelphia counties and are each in charge
of a superintendent, said superintendent being respon-
sible for the operation of the hatchery to the Commis-
sioner of Fisheries.

Experience has shown that economy in any business
is only attained by the use of the latest and most im-
proved methods, and the Department, since my incum-
bency, has devoted much time and labor to the rehabili-
tation of the hatcheries, to bring them up to the highest
point of efficiency, so that they will be entirely up to date
in every way for the propagation of fish, and when they
are completed will be a credit to the Commonwealth.
The old wooden structures are being replaced by sub-
stantial buildings of concrete, brick and steel.

The next factor is efficiency, because without efficient
workmen, the best implements are no better than poor
ones. It is here that the Department finds itself badly
handicapped, on account of all the hatcheries being un-
dermanned.

The work of the fish culturist is hard and the hours
long, and it is only after years of training that a man
attains that efficiency which is so essential in the propa-
gation of fish. The men are now not only overworked,
but are unable from the smallness of their number to get
all out of the hatcheries that these would do if properly
manned. Lack of appropriations accounts for this con-
dition. Too much water running in a trough or battery
would mean destruction to millions of eggs or fish, and
the same would result from the stoppage of the water.
Hence, the troughs and batteries must be under the con-
stant and trained eye of some one all the time. The
attendant must be always on the alert to detect the first
symptom of trouble among his charges, and be ready
at an instant to meet the trouble. Contagion spreads like
wild fire and may undo the work of.months. In ship-
ping fish the messenger must be one who understands
the habits of his charges, and see to it that the water
is kept aerated and at the proper temperature, for with-
out this only dead fish will reach the recipient. The

Buller.—Pennsylvania Fish Commission 147

messenger, it might be well to state, accompanies the
fish from the time they are placed on the train in ship-
ping cans at the hatchery, until the last can of fish is de-
livered to the applicant, oftentimes making it necessary
for him to be on duty all night and part of the next day
without any sleep. Each applicant is requested to report
to the Department the condition of the fish when they are -
received. In this way the Department is in possession of
much valuable information which assists it in its work.

It has been difficult to keep men in the employ of the
Department owing to the inadequate salaries that the
Department is able to pay under the appropriations made
by the Legislature. As the men are trained by the De-
partment and become efficient they are sought for and
bought up by offers of a much higher salary than the
Department is able to pay. The result is that the De-
partment makes the man and some one else gets the
benefit of the training.

What is true of the hatcheries is true of the field work.
Field work is really as important as the work at the
hatcheries. It means the gathering of the spawn from
the fish in the natural waters that would otherwise be
lost. The millions of eggs gathered at Erie would be
entirely wasted were it not for the efforts of the Penn-
sylvania Department of Fisheries in collecting them,
hatching them and planting the young fish in the lake.
This is shown by the fact that the supply of fish is kept
up and that the port of Erie, today, is the largest fresh
water fish market in the world, yet Pennsylvania has
only forty miles of shore line on the lake. The people
of Pennsylvania should be proud of this distinction as
it means much to the Commonwealth in the commercial
and business world. The amount of nets set every day
runs into hundreds of miles and the production of fish
last year was 9.205,767 pounds, valued at wholesale at
$393,700.48, or about 414 cents per pound. These figures
convey forcibly the value of the fish business in Lake
Erie, where the city of Erie is only one of a number of
fishing ports. The value of the boats and tackle used

148 American Fisheries Society

in taking the fish and the warehouses where they are
handled runs into millions of dollars and gives employ-
ment to hundreds of men.

The most remarkable thing, however, in this matter
and one in which the Pennsylvania Department of Fish-
eries takes pride is the fact that all this immense busi-
ness is due to the artificial propagation of fish by this
Department, by the United States Bureau of Fisheries
and other State Commissions, and the whole restocking
is done by saving the eggs which would be a waste prod-
uct if it were not for the work of the hatchery men.
There is not the slightest question in the mind of any
fisherman as to the value of the work done by the Penn-
sylvania Department of Fisheries in this matter, because
it was not many years ago, before the artificial propaga-
tion was taken up, that the catch of fish had so fallen
off that the pursuit of fishing was no longer profitable.

The figures given above do not convey entirely the
immensity of the business because they show the whole-
sale prices and the persons who use this large supply
pay from 50 to 100 per cent. advance on these figures
on account of freight and handling by the fish dealers.
Taken altogether the fish industry at Erie is a most valu-
able object lesson as to the value of artificial propagation
of fish in furnishing a very important food supply to the
people. If Lake Erie, with the tremendous drain made
upon it by the fishermen, can be kept stocked with fish,
it shows that the other lakes and streams in Pennsyl-
vania can also be restocked to their former productive-
ness if the hatcheries are worked to their full capacity
and the fishermen observe the laws against wasteful
and destructive methods of fishing.

Another duty which devolves upon the Department is
the enforcement of the laws governing the protection of
fish in our streams. The enforcement of the law comes
under the small force of wardens which the Department is
able toemploy. The law allows the appointment of 30 citi-
zens to act as fish wardens but unfortunately the Legis-
lature appropriated only sufficient money to employ reg-

Buller.—Pennsylvania Fish Commission 149

ularly ten men. This small force is expected to cover
this great Commonwealth of ours with its numberless
miles of streams and every warden is obliged to hold
himself in readiness to go to any part of the Common-
wealth on a moment’s notice. This very largely increases
the traveling expenses pro rata, because the men have
to travel such long distances. It is hoped that the im-~
portance of this branch of the work of the Department
will be realized and enough money appropriated to allow
the employment of the 30 men. The wardens also have
to look after the pollution of the streams and are now
giving this their serious and careful attention. Under
the provisions of the Act of May 1, 1909, the Department
is given the authority to keep the streams clear of pol-
lution, and this is the most serious and stupendous ques-
tion which the Department is called upon to face.

Much time and thought has been devoted by the Legis-
lature in the past half century of this Commonwealth
and other states in making laws which would restore the
streams to their original purity, prevent the wasteful
and destructive devices from being used, and at the same
time establish plants where fish can be raised artificially
and used to restock the depleted streams. Yet the man
who is fishing has found himself face to face with the
fact that the laws do not enforce themselves, but can
only be enforced by the consent and help of every citizen
who believes that these laws are justified.

The common law which is the basis of our laws is
merely crystalized common sense, evolved from the ne-
cessity and demands of the people for protection in prop-
erty and personal rights. Around this there have grown
up statutory laws which are enactments of the repre-
sentatives of the people called for by the force of cir-
cumstances and by new conditions that constantly spring
up. In most cases their proper enforcement demands
that the public be taught their reason why and the bene-
fit to be derived from their enforcement. This is largely
true in the case of the laws governing the fishing which
involve the protection of the fish and the clarification

150 American Fisheries Society

of the streams and the restocking of the same by artificial
methods. As the population grew and the number of
fishermen increased it became necessary that the rights
of the people in the fish should be guarded by law in the
same manner as the rights of the people in property are
guarded. It is a self evident proposition to people who
look into the matter that fish should not be taken during
the spawning season, and while on the nest, or else there
will be no supply of young fish to grow up and take the
place of the larger ones which furnish the sport and food.

No sane person would take the setting hen from her
nest to furnish a meal for the suddenly arriving guest,
and the same should be true in regard to taking a fish
which is guarding its nest, and at which time it is as
easily caught as the hen on her eggs. The farmer who
kills all his chickens before they reach the egg-laying
period will in a short time have no eggs, and the same is
true of the persons who take the small fish before they
reach the size and age when they can reproduce them-
selves.

It is to prevent such wasteful destruction that the laws
were formulated and if the people can be educated to
understand the reasons for these laws, as set forth above,
there will be as common an assent to their enforcement as
there is to the laws protecting people in their rights of
property.

The fish of the State are the property of the Common-
wealth and are for the use and benefit of the whole people,
not only as a very important food supply, but as a means
of sport and recreation. The importance of laws pro-
tecting fish from wasteful methods of fishing are not new,
as we find them to have been enacted in England as far
back as the twelfth century. Having taught the people
the importance of the laws protecting the fish so that they
will propagate and multiply, it will be an easy matter
to create an aroused sentiment of the absolute importance
of keeping the waters of the Commonwealth pure and
undefiled so that the fish may live and thrive therein.
In fact public sentiment is aroused to such an extent at

Buller.—Pennsylvania Fish Commission 151

this present time that the Department is receiving com-
plaints daily with reference to the pollution of some
streams.

I have given this question of pollution of the streams
much thought and the Department now has a plan of
filtering refuse from the various manufacturing estab-
lishments throughout the Commonwealth which it will
recommend and which it knows from practical demon-
strations will absolutely prevent refuse from getting into
the streams and which can be installed at a very moder-
ate cost to the manufacturer or mine owner. I have had
this filter system patented, paying for same out of my
own personal funds, and will turn the patent rights over
to the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania insofar as the
Commonwealth is concerned. This system of filtration
is the fruit of much thought and time given to it by one
of the wardens of the Department, Mr. Albert, and my-
self and we know that it will do the work. The Depart-
ment will be pleased and intends to furnish blue prints
of this system to every manufacturer in this State and
will insist upon it being installed as it has so much
confidence in its practicability that it does not hesitate
to recommend its installation. This system of filtration
will take care of and purify refuse from tanneries, dye
works, chemical mills, oil refineries, mines, nitro glycer-
ine works and creameries. The Department has on file
in its office scores of letters from manufacturers in this
State who are only waiting for the blue prints to go
ahead and install this system. The Department has found
that the manufacturers as a whole are willing to co-
operate with the Department in its work, which is very
gratifying and now since it has something which it can
stand back of it expects to accomplish much along this
line of work. It is the biggest and most serious ques-
tion the Department of Fisheries of Pennsylvania has
to contend with today and, with the hearty co-operation
of all those who are interested in the preservation of
fish life in our streams, the Department expects to restore
the streams to their former pure state so that there will
be good fishing for all.

152 American Fisheries Society

The Department of Fisheries is very much in earnest
in its efforts to bring about the clarification of the
streams, because its success in restocking the streams
and waters depends almost entirely upon the ability of
those waters to sustain fish life, not destroy it.

In order to interest the growing generation in the
protection and preservation of fish life the Department
has had prepared a Bronze Cabinent, known as “Bulle-
tin Number 9,” in which it has placed a number of vials
containing some phases of the growth of the fish from
the time it is in the embryo in the egg until it has started
in the race for life. The specimens are taken, in one case
from the trout as the representative of the game fishes
of the Commonwealth, and in the other instance from
the white fish as the representative of the commercial
fish.

There is nothing more important in the eye of the
Department than the enlisting of the rising generation
as the friends of the fish. If the boys and girls of the
Commonwealth can be shown how the fish lives, its habits,
its instincts, and all the various phases of its life, they
will become interested and incited by the interest, will
be impelled to follow the study as they grow older. The
more thoroughly they acquire an interest in the mysteries
of the lives of the dwellers in the water, the more they
will become convinced that the requirements of the laws
which have been enacted to safeguard the fish are neces-
sary for its protection in these days of constant growth
in population. Describing the cabinet, a bulletin has
been issued which tells of the characteristics, of the fish,
where they differ, and of the growth from the embryo
to maturity.

To the person who knows nothing of its life and habits,
the fish represents only so much of a portion of man’s
food. But to one who studies the life of the fish and its
habits, there is opened a volume as interesting as any
upon the book shelves of the library.

The Department has had prepared a bulletin which
treats of the capabilities of an acre of water in raising

Buller.—Pennsylvania Fish Commission 153

fish and is pleased to say that it is one of the most popu-
lar ones compiled by the Department. The co-operation
of the farmers is needed by the Department, because if
the farmers will take up the culture of fish they will be
able to add largely to the food supply of the people,
which in these days of high living is very essential. It
has been said that it is not the “high cost of living,” but
the ‘“‘cost of high living,” which keeps the prices of com-
modities up, but I will leave that for you to decide.

NOTES ON ONEIDA LAKE FISH AND
FISHERIES

By CHAS. C. ADAMS AND T. L. HANKINSON.

“A systematic study of the water life of our State should be made
without delay and with the utmost thoroughness in detail. * * * Infor-
mation of this kind is greatly needed, and is received slowly because
the number of observers in the field is very limited. New York has
not done as much work in the study of the life histories of its fish
as some other States, and yet the importance of its assets in this
direction is out of all proportion to the outlay of effort and money
devoted to biological surveys.” Dr. T. H. Bean, Fourth Annual Report,
New York State Conservation Commission for 1914, p. 333, 1915.

INTRODUCTION.

The New York State College of Forestry at Syracuse
is located within less than an hour’s trolley ride of
Oneida Lake. This lake is the largest body of water
wholly within the state. It has an area of about 80
square miles, of which about 13 are of shallow water,
abounding in water plants, fish food, and suitable breed-
ing places for a large number of species. From the
standpoint of food and game fish this lake is one of
great importance and there has been no comprehensive
working plan for the lake toward which its management
might be directed to produce the maximum amount of
food and game fish. Thousands of people from Syracuse
and the smaller neighboring towns fish there. This is
a very important lake for eels and other food fish, and
the frog industry is the most extensive in the state, and
one of the most important in the United States. Clearly
such a large lake should not be managed solely to the
angling interests, but should produce an abundance of
fresh food fish for this part of the state. There is as
much reason for the diversified use of the waters, causing
them to be used for recreation (picnics, boating, angling,
etc.), for the production of food, as a part of the canal
system (for transportation and for water storage) as
there is for the diversified utilization of farm and forest
lands (cf. Adams ’16, Diversified Forestry, Jour. N. Y.
State Forestry Associa., Vol. 3, pages 25-26). Econ-

Adams and Hankinson.—Oneida Lake Fisheries 155

omically, therefore, it is unwise to advocate the use of
Oneida Lake primarily for angling as some enthusiasts
are inclined to do. It should also produce much excellent
food fish.

Considering the importance of this lake, it is strange
indeed that so little accurate information is recorded
about its fish, although a State Hatchery has been located
upon its shores for several years. New York State has
indeed been backward instead of leading in the study of
its fresh water resources. This condition of affairs was
soon realized, particularly with regard to Oneida Lake,
when the college attempted to utilize it for field excur-
sions and demonstrations in its courses devoted to train-
ing foresters in the elements of fish conservation, pro-
tection and breeding. It was early learned that the fish
of the lake must be investigated carefully and in detail
if a firm foundation is to be laid for sound instruction,
and furthermore, if the best use is to be made of this
resource at the door of the college. In addition to this
educational problem, the college has other obligations
which relate this lake study to its investigative work on
the utilization of forest lands. Most forest lands con-
tain, as in the Adirondacks and Catskills, a large number
of lakes, streams and swamps which should be made to
produce game and food fish. Thus on the investigative
side this is the continuation of a policy initiated by Dean
Hugh P. Baker when he published the paper by Professor
W. M. Smallwood, entitled: “Preliminary Report on the
Diseases of Fish in the Adirondacks,” ete. (Technical
Pub. No. 1, 1914, N. Y. State College of Forestry, Syra-
cuse). As rapidly as possible the college will extend its
investigations to other lakes and streams, and in this
work it seeks the co-operation of local organizations
wishing surveys made in their vicinity, as such assist-
ance will hasten the progress of this kind of work.

In the study of Oneida Lake, naturally, the first step
was to make a general inventory of its fish population
and their associated animals and plants which directly
or indirectly influence them. In August, 1915, work was

156 American Fisheries Society

begun, under the supervision of the senior author, and
with the co-operation of the junior author, and Mr.
Frank C. Baker, Zoological Investigator of the College.
Mr. Baker made a special investigation of the molluscan
life of the lake, as related to the fish, and the results
have been published (Baker 716) as a bulletin by the
college, to which the reader is referred for a summary
of the American work on the relation of molluses to fish,
particularly as fish food, and for the results of a detailed
study of the stomach contents of many Oneida Lake fish.
This is an important investigation and the first of the
kind ever made on Oneida Lake.

Up to the present time the western fourth of the lake
has been examined, and the present paper is intended
to indicate only the general phases of the study. The
detailed results will be published by the college as a
Technical Bulletin. In addition to the general inventory,
an effort has been made to increase our knowledge of
the relative abundance of the species, their habitats,
habits, feeding and breeding grounds, food, enemies, and
associated vegetation. Upon the basis of such a survey
it is hoped that more detailed studies will be made which
will ultimately lead to the intelligent management of
this important lake. During the summer of 1916 these
investigations will be continued.

PHYSICAL AND VEGETATIONAL FEATURES OF THE LAKE.

The physical features of the lake have recently been
well summarized by Baker (’16) from which the follow-
ing items are taken: The lake is 21 miles long with a
maximum width of 5.5 miles, a maximum depth of about
55 feet, and the shores are generally low and bordered,
particularly at the western end, by very extensive shal-
low water areas and swamps. The shore line is about 65
miles long. The area of the lake is about 80 square miles
of which 6.8 square miles are not over 6 feet in depth,
and between the 6-foot and 12-foot countours there are
6.2 square miles; the total shallow water area is thus

Adams and Hankinson.—Oneida Lake Fisheries 157

13.03 square miles, or 16 per cent. of the total area of
the lake. The lake is thus both large and shallow and
in striking contrast with other New York lakes and the
Great Lakes, which also have but little shallow water.

The shallow waters are usually bouldery, particularly
the projecting points, and in the bays sandy, with organic
muds in the most protected coves. The shallow waters
abound in vegetation, except upon exposed points and
shores where wave action is too strong. On moderately
exposed places water willow (Dianthera) and bulrushes
(Scirpus) thrive, while in the bays a great variety of
water plants abound, including Valisneria, Castalia,
Decodon, Myriophyllum and many others. This lake is
particularly favorable for the study of the relation of
water plants to fish.

ANGLING ON ONEIDA LAKE.

It is seldom that a large iniand city is located so close
to a large lake abounding in game fish. The exceptional
opportunities about Syracuse for anglers are much
appreciated, as is shown by the large number of persons
who belong to angling organizations. The oldest and
largest organization, the Anglers’ Association of Onon-
daga, has over 600 active members. This association has
not only planted millions of fish, received from the
Federal and State authorities, but has recently, in
co-operation with the college, established a fish nursery
at the College Experiment Station at Syracuse for rear-
ing young fish to a favorable planting age. These facts
are indicative of the character and amount of interest
shown in the game fish.

If one attempts to summarize approved methods of
angling in Oneida Lake, much divergence of opinion is
found. The number of “best methods” is amazing. It
calls to mind the difficulties encountered in any effort
to determine the “best”? in politics, automobiles, etc.,
because of the diverse personal preferences. As repre-
sentative opinion, the following has been prepared, on

158 American Fisheries Society

request, by Mr. A. L. Bishop, President of the Anglers’
Association of Onondaga, who states that: ‘“‘The Oneida
Lake game fish may be rated as follows in the order of
their preference as game fish: Small-mouthed Black
Bass, Pikeperch, Large-mouthed Black Bass, Yellow
Perch, Pickerel and Bullheads. An approved method for
angling for Pikeperch is to troll the bottom with a small
spoon, attached by a copper wire leader 10-12 feet long;
in June on stony bottom of moderate depth, in July in
deeper water. Bass to be taken by still fishing, with live
bait (crawfish, locally known as ‘crabs,’ and minnows),
or with wooden bait with casting rod. Perch are taken
by still fishing, live bait (minnows, ‘crabs,’ or worms)
fish eyes, or scarlet ventral fin of the perch. Pickerel
are largely taken with a large trolling spoon (larger
than for Pikeperch), to a much less degree by still fish-
ing, with minnows. Bullheads are taken at night with
worms.”

Without a knowledge of Mr. Bishop’s preceding sec-
tion, Mr. W. H. Weston, Division Chief Game Protector
of the State Conservation Commission, has prepared the
following statement, using information from a number
of his wardens:

APPROVED METHODS FOR ANGLING ON ONEIDA LAKE ARE.

1. Pikeperch. Trolling spoon; bait, minnows; still fishing in shal-
low bouldery bars early in the season, later, in July and August, in
deep water, with worms.

2. Small-mouthed Black Bass. A fish of uncertain habits in taking
bait; crawfish or “crabs,” minnows, worms, grasshoppers, and crickets
are recommended. A trolling spoon, hauled very rapidly over bars
in shallow water without a sinker and with a cotton line gives good
results. At times fly fishing is successful.

3. Pickerel. Trolling, bait casting, with frog, minnow or wooden
bait, at the surface or below it, is approved.

4. Large-mouthed Black Bass. Same methods as for Pickerel.

5. Yellow Perch. Still fishing, with bait of worms, small minnows,
pieces of perch with skin removed, perch eyes, reddish ventral fin of
perch, and by fly fishing.

6. Pumpkinseed. Still fishing with worms, or fly fishing.

7. Rock Bass by trolling spoon, or line baited with small minnows
or “crabs.”

8. Bullheads. Line fishing with worms, crab “tails,” minnows (dead
or alive). June the best month for fishing.”

Adams and Hankinson.—Oneida Lake Fisheries 159

THE FISHERIES OF ONEIDA LAKE.

The large amount of animal food produced by the lake
and taken in that vicinity is a subject not generally
appreciated even locally. The eels and frogs easily lead
in importance. At our request the food fish of the lake
has been rated by Mr. Hiram N. Coville, a fish dealer
living at Brewerton, at the outlet of the lake:

Eels.

Pikeperch, Yellow Perch, Bullheads and Pickerel.
Pumpkinseed, Black and Red-fin Suckers.

Rock Bass.

Catfish (the kind with a forked tail).

. Oneida Lake Whitefish or Tullibee.

The Tullibee or Oneida Lake Whitefish is sold fresh
or salted. For salting they are opened along the back,
salted to draw the blood, then packed in dry salt. In
this manner 400 to 500 pounds are salted each year of
the four to five tons of whitefish handled. Pikeperch
and Yellow perch are taken by “tipups” through the ice.
Small minnows are used for bait for Perch in this ice
fishing.

Doe © ©

At the State Hatchery at Constantia special attention
is given to Pikeperch, Small-mouthed Black Bass, Yellow
Perch and Oneida Lake Whitefish or Tullibee.

EEL INDUSTRY.

We are indebted to Mr. C. F. Davison and Mr. H. N.
Coville for the following items concerning their fish
business. Eels are taken in various parts of the lake,
but the main catch is made at Caughdenhoy, four miles
down the Oneida River, just below the large dam, which
controls the level of Oneida Lake. Here there are two
rows of weirs, each consisting of three traps or pots.
The eels when mature descend the river to spawn in the
sea and are trapped on this journey. The eels are taken
from the traps and stored in cages until a sufficient num-
ber has been accumulated to sell. These are sold at Brew-
erton to Davison and Coville, who smoke and market

160 American Fisheries Society

them. About 100 tons of eels are handled a year. Of
these about three tons are smoked. About 300 pounds
are smoked each week, from the middle of May to the
middle to September, or in about 20 weeks. The eels are
skinned, cleaned, split open, washed and salted, rinsed
and hung up to drain for an hour or so in the smokehouse
shanty. A wire screen is suspended below the eels to
catch them in case any fall, as they are liable to do if
cooked too rapidly, preliminary to smoking. A quick fire
is started of corn cobs and sawdust to cook them and then
the fire is converted into a slow smudge. By adding sul-
phur to the fire a rich brown color is given which greatly
aids the sale. The time required for smoking varies
greatly, from 4 to 15 hours. The causes for this great
difference in time are not known. The smoked eels sell
wholesale at 20 cents per pound, the undressed eels retail
at 6.5 cents per pound, and the dressed unsmoked eels at
10 cents per pound.

The large catches of eels follow a strong east wind
which, during July and August, blows toward the lake
outlet. The average weight of individuals is about four
pounds. Mr. Coville had one weighing 714 pounds,
which was probably about 31% feet long.

FROG INDUSTRY.

The frog industry about Oneida Lake is the most
extensive in New York. It is conducted on a scale that
is surprising to many persons, particularly to the people
of Syracuse. The kinds of frogs concerned are almost
exclusively Leopard Frogs (Rana pipiens, Shreber),
Green Frogs, locally known as “Clinkers” or ‘“Cow”’
Frogs (Rana clamitans, Lat.), the Pickerel or Swamp
Frog (Rana plaustris, Le Conte) and rarely examples of
the Bull Frog (Rana catesbiana, Shaw).

There are two important methods used in catching
frogs. In one case men and boys tramp the borders of
the lake and swamps and the upland fields, singly or in
small parties, carrying clubs about three feet long. The

Adams and Hankinson.—Oneida Lake Fisheries 161

frogs are flushed and as they alight a blow is struck
with the club, killing them. In this manner from 600
to 800 frogs may be caught in a day, from July until
the winter season sets in. Mr. H. N. Coville has taken
early in August 1,276 frogs between 9 A. M. and 2:30
P. M. or 5% hours of work. This is an exceptional
record. It was during a drouth when the frogs had
congregated in short grass, grass as short as in a closely
cropped pasture. When the haying of timothy and
clover begins early in July, the frogs leave the fields and
go to the short pastures, just as during a drouth.

The second method of capture is by the use of screens.
This is used in the fall when the frogs migrate from
the fields and swamps toward the lake for hibernation.
This migration is not regular, it takes place mostly at
night, particularly during warm rains, after a light frost.
Taking advantage of this migrating behavior, cheese
cloth screens, about 18 inches high, supported by sticks,
are placed along the shore to intercept the migrating
frogs. At intervals of two or three rods, nail kegs, carbide
2ans, or post-hole like excavations entrap the frogs which,
failing to surmount the screen, wander along it, and fall
in the traps. The frog catcher has only to collect the
frogs from those traps. Late in the season one may find
various sized frogs, mice and other small mammals
drowned and frozen in these small wells.

The screens have to be placed far enough back from
the lake shore to avoid water rising to near the surface
and thus destroy the traps. On swampy ground the
holes are similarly obliterated by the water. To over-
come this difficulty, Mr. A. W. Thierre, of Lower South
Bay, has devised a trap of woven wire screen; with a one-
half inch mesh. If this trap was placed at an opening
in the screen, which is not the case, it would allow the
undersized frogs to escape and to reach the lake and find
proper winter quarters, while the screens tend to destroy
both the smaller kinds of frogs and immature individuals
of the larger species. This wire trap has an inclined
surface up which the frogs crawl, and from which they

162 American Fisheries Society

fall into the trap cavity, and from which they seldom
escape. Thierre also uses a large minnow box to store
his frogs, until delivery to the dealers.

By means of the screens and traps a single night’s
catch may amount to about 500 pounds, from about a
half mile of screen in a good locality. As much as $70.00
has been paid for a single catch.

Mr. Coville, who has had much experience in catching
frogs, informs me that the frogs near the swamps are
more abundant, but smaller than on the uplands. It
takes from 40-50 swamp frogs to make a pound of frogs
legs for market. Of the larger upland frogs it takes a
smaller number, from 25-35, to make a pound of legs.
The average for mixed lots, of swamp and upland frogs,
range from 25-40 to make a pound of legs. Coville
attributes the differences in the frogs of these two
habitats to the more abundant food on the uplands, where
there is more food and fewer frogs competing for it.
Coville estimates that about 20,000 upland frogs, live
weight, make a ton; about 30,000-40,000 of swamp frogs
to the ton, and an average mixed lot will contain about
28,000 to 30,000 frogs. In the fall of 1915 Mr. Coville
had on hand in his cages about five tons of frogs, or
about 150,000 frogs.

These estimates of the relative differences between
swamp and upland frogs are a rough measure of the
degree of productiveness of the two kinds of land, and
are probably surprising to most persons who naturally
look to the swamp as the most favorable habitat for the
frog. A valuable suggestion, bearing on frog breeding,
is made by these facts. This is that a frog farm, if on
swampy land, must provide for feeding the denser pop-
ulation or the frogs will be small, or it should provide
for upland feeding grounds. Of course, part of the
swamp frogs might be collected and taken to the uplands,
after the Danish method of transplanting Plaice to better
feeding grounds, and allowing them to grow, before
marketing.

Adams and Hankinson.—Oneida Lake Fisheries 163

Davison and Coville conduct a gross business of about
$15,000 per year in frogs alone. One customer bought
between June 1, 1915, and March 1, 1916, $1,687.50 worth
of frogs’ legs. When sold per hundred, live weight, large
and small, the price ranges from 30 cents to $1.50, or
averages $1.05. The legs sell per pound, large and small,
from 10 to 50 cents and average 35 cents per pound. An
expert can dress between 15 and 16 hundred frogs per
hour, but an average rate is about 1,000 per hour.

ANNOTATED LIST.

This list includes the species of fish, and the lamprey,
known to occur in Oneida Lake. There are several col-
lections which yet await critical examination, which will
add several species to this list. Most of the data for
this list is based on collections made by the authors dur-
ing ten days of field work done between August 31, 1915,
and September 10, 1915. To these have been added other
records from collections made by the senior author before
and since the joint collecting. A few published records
have been used. The shallow water of the lake has been
carefully examined from Constantia to Brewerton on the
north shore, and from Brewerton to the mouth of Chit-
tenango Creek on the south shore.

The brief annotations are necessarily general and the
list simply shows our progress in finding the species
present, but it will give a fair idea of the fish fauna of
the lake, and some idea of its important fisheries.

Petromyzon marinus unicolor (De Kay), Lake Lamprey.

Evidently very abundant in the lake. They were fre-
quently found on the under sides of our boats, to which
they would attach themselves while the boat was in
motion, and when the boat would stop they would release
themselves. The many dead fish that we found in the
lake frequently had lamprey marks upon them. Two
cases were heard of lampreys attaching themselves to
bathers, but the only harm done was the fright they

164 American Fisheries Society

occasioned. The following kinds of fish were found dead
with lamprey scars upon them: Dog Fish, Eel, Carp,
Common Sucker, Chain Pickerel and Small-mouthed
Black Bass.

Amiatus calvus (Linnaeus) Dog Fish.

A large dead one was found in the water at Walnut
Point with a lamprey injury on it.

Salmo salar (Linn.), Atlantic Salmon.

Recorded on the authority of Sir John Richardson
(1886), who in his Fauna Boreali-americana says that
they enter Oneida Lake in May and remain until winter.

Leucichthys tullibee (Richardson), Tullibee.

A number of specimens were obtained from the market.
The fishermen report the fish common in certain deep
areas of the lake. Those seen by us were all of market-
able size and in good condition. Fall specimens opened
contained many well-developed ova. They spawn late in
the fall. Locally known as Oneida Lake Whitefish.

Anguilla rostrata (DeKay), Eel.

A large dead one was found with a lamprey scar. The
important eel fishery is at Coughdenhoy, four miles down
Oneida River, the lake outlet.

Cyprinus carpio (Linn.), Carp.

A number found dead in the lake and several were
secured from Coville, the fish dealer, at Brewerton.
There is much local prejudice against this fish. Only
scaled specimens have been secured by us.

Moxzostoma aureolum (LeSueur), Red Horse.

None were collected by us, but the species is recorded
from the lake by Jordan and Evermann 1896 and Bean
1903, but market specimens from Syracuse and Brewer-
ton have been secured. It is locally known as “Red-fin
Sucker.”

Adams and Hankinson.—Oneida Lake Fisheries 165

Catostomus commersonii (Lacepede), Common Sucker.

Small examples frequently found on the shoals of the
lake with other small fish. A large fish of this species
found dead with lamprey scars, near the mouth of Scriba
Creek, Constantia. Specimens secured from the market
at Brewerton in May contained a large number of nearly
ripe eggs. A variable irregular red line along the side
is quite distinct in some specimens.

Catostomus nigricans (LeSueur), Hog Sucker.

One in the College of Forestry collection, that was
caught near Constantia, and others were secured from
Coville, fish dealer, at Brewerton.

Ameiwurus natalis (LeSueur) Yellow Bullhead.

Ten examples were taken by us close to the mouths of
shoals having muddy bottoms, and from sluggish streams
entering Big Bay.

Ameiurus nebulosus (LeSueur), Common Bullhead.

Taken in places similar to those frequented by the
yellow bullhead. With this last species it seems to asso-
ciate, but it is apparently more common and more
generally distributed, at least in shallow water, than the
yellow bullhead. A few were found in the creeks at Con-
stantia. Many very small ones, under two inches in
length, were caught in Shaws Bay; and some similar ones
were found in an isolated pool a few hundred feet inland
from Johnsons Bay.

Esox reticulatus LeSueur, Chain Pickerel.

Common, but our collecting methods were not of a kind
to get many of them in the lake. One taken in shallow
water of Shaws Bay and one from Big Bay. Many were
in a portion of Frederick Creek, where they were about
the overhanging banks of a part of the stream in woods
and where the water was quiet and its depth near a foot.

166 American Fisheries Society

Lucius lucius (Linn.), Common Pike.

A market specimen from Oneida Lake was seen Nov.
30, 1915, which weighed 14 pounds and was 38 inches
long. Locally this is known as the Spotted Pickerel or
Pickerel.

Ambloplytes rupestris (Rafinesque), Rock Bass.

Apparently common in the lake. Small ones under two
inches in length were frequently taken on the shoals and
in creeks entering the lake. In deep water, twelve to
eighteen feet deep near Grassy Island, a number of large
ones were caught in the trap nets.

Pomoxis sparoides (Lacepede), Calico Bass.

A small specimen from Lower South Bay, and other
specimens from the market at Brewerton. Locally known
as Strawberry Bass.

Lepomis cyanellus (Rafinesque), Green Sunfish.

A small one taken in a minnow trap set in Big Bay
Creek, near its mouth.

'Hupomotis gibbosus (Linn.), Common Sunfish, Pumpkin-
seed.

Abundant in the lake. The only sunfish found in the
lake by us that was abundant. Many small ones were
taken in shallow water, but they were in greatest num-
bers on shoals with much plant life. Many large ones
were in the trap nets that we saw raised from deep water
near Grassy Island.

Micropterus dolomieu (Lacepede), Small-mouthed Black
Bass.

Small ones were frequently found on shoals and in
creeks. A number were in the trap nets raised near
Grassy Island. The species is propagated at the State
Fish Hatchery at Constantia.

Adams and Hankinson.—Oneida Lake Fisheries 167

Micropterus salmoides (Lacepede), Large-mouthed Black
Bass.

A few small ones taken on a few shoals and in creeks
entering the lake. Not as abundant in the lake as
the Small-mouth.

Stizostedion vitreum (Mitchill), Wall-eyed Pike.

Abundant in deep water. A number caught in the trap
nets set near Grassy Island. Many were seen that had
been taken by fishermen from the lake. All were large;
no small ones were seen by us and none was found on
the shoals. Spawns in the spring in Chittenango Creek
in large numbers. Locally called Pike or Pikeperch.

Perca flavescens (Mitchill), Common Perch.

Abundant and very generally distributed. Small ones
in considerable numbers on most shoals that we visited.
Large ones numerous in deep water. Fished for exten-
sively through the ice.

Roccus chrysops (Rafinesque), Striped Bass.

A few large examples in the College of Forestry col-
lection from Constantia. A single young specimen was
taken (No. 314) in shallow water in October.

Lota maculosa (LeSueur), Burbot, Ling, Lawyer.

A few specimens have been secured, from the vicinity
of Constantia, from Syracuse and Brewerton markets. It
has been taken in trap nets in very large quantities.

The following species of little or no economic value,
except as food for other fishes, also occur in Oneida Lake
or its tributaries: Hybognathus nuchalis (Agassiz), Sil-
very Minnow; Pimephales notatus (Rafinesque), Blunt-
nosed Minnow; Abramis chrysoleucas (Mitchill), Golden
Shiner; Notropis heterodon (Cope), Black-chinned Min-
now; Notropis cayuga (Meek), Cayuga Minnow; Notro-
pis hudsonius (DeWitt Clinton), Spot-tailed Minnow;

168 American Fisheries Society

Notropis whipplii (Girard), Silver-fin Minnow; Notro-
pis cornutus (Mitchill), Common Shiner; Notropis
atherinoides (Rafinesque), Shiner; Notropis rubrifrons,
Rosy-faced Minnow; Semotilus atromaculatus (Mitchill),
Horned Dace; Semotilus bullaris (Rafinesque), Fallfish;
Rhinichthys atronasus (Mitchill), Black-nosed Dace;
Exoglossum mazxillingua (LeSueur), Cut-lip Minnow;
Erimyzon sucetta oblongus (Mitchill), Chub Sucker;
Schilbeodes gyrinus (Mitchill), Tadpole Cat; Schilbeodes
miurus (Jordan), Brindled Stone Cat; Umbra limi (Kirt-
land), Mud Minnow; Fundulus diaphanus (LeSueur),
Barred Killifish; Percopsis guttatus (Agassiz), Trout
Perch; Labidesthes sicculus (Cope), Brook Silversides;
Percina caprodes zebra (Agassiz), Manitou Darter;
Hadropterus aspro (Cope and Jordan), Black-sided
Darter; Boleosoma nigrum olmstedi (Storer), Tessel-
lated Darter; Htheostoma flabellare (Rafinesque), Fan-
tail Darter; Htheostoma iowae (Jordan and Meek) ;
Cottus ictalops (Rafinesque), Miller’s Thumb.

LITERATURE.

The most important sources of information on the fish of Oneida
Lake are the following:

Baker, F. C.
1916 The Relation of Molluscs to Fish in Oneida Lake. Technical
Pub., No. 4, N. Y. State College of Forestry, Syracuse,
pp. 1-345.

Bean, T. H.
1903 Catalogue of the Fishes of New York. Bull, No. 60, N. Y.
State Museum, pp. 1-784.
1911-1915 Annual Reports of the Fish Culturist from 1910-1914.
First to Fourth Ann. Reports of the State Conservation
Comm. of N. Y.

Coss, J. N.
1904 The Commercial Fisheries of the Interior Lakes and Rivers
of New York and Vermont. Ann. Rep. U. S. Fish
Comm. for 1903, pp. 225-246.

Jorvan, D. S., and Evermann, B. W.
1896 The Fishes of North and Middle America. Bull., 47, U. S.
Nat. Museum.

RicHarpson, JOHN
1836 Fauna Boreali-Americana, or the Zoology of the Northern
Parts of British America. Part III, the Fish. London.

Adams and Hankinson.—Oneida Lake Fisheries 169

There are three other papers of so much value to the student of fish
and fisheries in western New York that they should be mentioned.
These are:

Gace, S. H.
1893 The Lake and Brook Lampreys of New York, especially
those of Cayuga and Seneca Lakes. Wilder Quarter-
Century Book, pp. 421-493, Ithaca, N. Y.

Reep, H. D., and Wricut, A. H.
1909 The Vertebrates of the Cayuga Lake Basin, N. Y. Proc.
Amer. Phil. Soc., Vol. 48, pp. 370-459.

Wricut, A. H.
1914 North American Anura: Life Histories of the Anura of
Ithaca, New York, Pub., No. 197, Carnegie Inst. of
Washington, pp. 1-98.

SEWAGE DISPOSAL BY FISH CULTURE
By M. C. MARSH, Gratwick Laboratory, Buffalo, N. Y.

In “Les Miserables” Victor Hugo said that France
was pouring into the Atlantic Ocean a half billion of
francs every year. Bemoaning the waste of all the sew-
age of Paris, his imagination, delighting in paradox,
burst into this glorification of the burden of the sewers:

“All this; a flowering field; it is green grass, it is
mint and thyme and sage, it is game, it is cattle, it is
the satisfied lowing of- heavy kine at night, it is per-
fumed hay, it is gilded wheat, it is bread on your table,
it is warm blood in your veins, it is health, it is joy, it
is life.”

It is surprising that it did not occur to the novelist
in this flight of fancy that it is also the fishes swimming
in the brook, for now reality has gone even further and
made “‘it’”’ the fish in the market and on the table. Fish
culture has been linked with sewage disposal. Agricul-
ture had already effected, in broad irrigation, a partial
saving of the waste of the great potential values in sew-
age. Now comes fish culture with the hope of making
the product pay all the costs of the transformation.

Sewage disposal, always one of the great current prob-
lems, has slowly progressed and various means have
been more or less perfected for converting the offense
and possible danger of city sewage into a harmless and
unobjectionable effluent. Sewage irrigation projects, by
which the sewage is poured over a large acreage which
is then cropped, are comparatively rare and almost never
pay the cost of operation. Sanitary conversion of
sewage into something unobjectionable, but not valuable
is successfully but not universally practiced and the pro-
cesses are cumbersome and expensive. Even now most
cities discharge their sewage unaltered into lakes, rivers
or the sea and let it go at that.

The Germans, ever efficient in ways and means, have
taken the next step. They have sought to change the

Marsh.—Sewage and Fish Culture 171

sewage into something valuable enough to pay the cost
of the conversion, and on a small yet practical scale
they seem to have succeeded. They invoke the aid of
fish culture, use the sewage to rear young food fish to
marketable size and persuade the market to buy them.
This method has been developed by Dr. Bruno Hofer,
the director of a government fisheries research station _
in Munich, Germany. Its practical use is best exempli-
fied in Strassburg where a large pond system consumes
a portion of the output of the city sewage in growing
the German carp and other staple food fishes. Here the
writer had the good fortune in May, 1914, to see this
combined fish cultural and sewage disposal plant in
operation.

As is well known, streams purify themselves finally
of the sewage poured into them. The process is com-
plicated and not thoroughly understood, but is known
to depend upon a variety of conditions, such as tempera-
ture, rate of flow, oxygenation of the water, and to in-
volve complicated chemical changes among which oxida-
tions are of prime importance. Water bacteria in great
numbers are necessary to the process and many higher
forms of both animal and vegetable life play an essential
part. A rather slow current is favorable to the abun-
dance of these organisms and affords the necessary time
for their action upon the sewage. In general then the
slower the stream, other conditions being equal, the more
minute life it is apt to contain and therefore the greater
its sewage digesting ability or power to purify itself.
Slow streams, however, have little comminuting effect
on the gross particles of sewage, which requires there-
fore to be mechanically screened of the larger bodies
in suspension in order that purification may proceed
rapidly. If such sewage is evenly distributed through-
out a slowly flowing stream containing a suitable fauna
and flora, these latter digest and incorporate the sewage
and increase thereby. If the stream is made a fish pond
with a very slow current and conditions are under con-
trol and nicely adjusted, a profitable cycle may be estab-

lished, consuming sewage on the one aes ee produc-
ed

172 American Fisheries Society

ing fish on the other. In brief, Dr. Hofer’s method aims
at the transformation of the organic but lifeless sub-
stances held in sewage into living organisms, the sewage
being thus used up in the process. Of the living product
the larger eats the smaller through a series of forms
ending in marketable food fishes.

A brief description of the Strassburg sewage-fish
cultural station should begin with emphasis on its loca-
tion and the nature of the land put at its disposal. This
is of fundamental importance for the economy of the
experiment, which requires that such land shall be of
little’ value for other -purposes, otherwise overhead
charges will make the business show a loss. When a
level tract of suitable size and small value located below
the sewerage system and yet high enough to turn its ef-
fluent conveniently into the drainage of the region, is
available, the first essential is complied with.

The Strassburg plant takes a sewerage composed of all
the wastes of the city, domestic and industrial, besides
the street washings. A small portion of the total sewage
is diverted from the sewerage system. It is first subjected
to coarse filtration or screening, which frees the sewage
of the larger bodies floating or in suspension. This proc-
ess yields daily about five cubic yards of an almost
worthless residue. A part of the remaining sewage is
pumped to sedimenting tanks where it is cleared of a
large portion of the remaining suspended matter. The
sedimented matter is periodically drawn off from the
bottoms of these tanks to drying beds and yields a fer-
tilizer of some commercial value. The now partially
clarified sewage is ready for the fish ponds. It is, of
course, nearly all water—more than 99.9% of it. It still
contains by far the greater part of foreign matter which
characterized the original sewage; for two-thirds or
more of the solid matter in sewage is in solution. In
this country ordinary town sewage has at most one-tenth
of one per cent. of solid matter, and usually much less.
About half of this is inoffensive inorganic matter, of
which about three-quarters is dissolved. The other half
is vegetable and animal matter and over half of this por-

|

|

|

Marsh.—Sewage and Fish Culture 173

tion is likewise in solution. It is this organic portion,
whether suspended or dissolved, which makes sewage
a hygienic or aesthetic offense, or both, as the case may be.

The sewage is now diluted with a considerable volume
of clean water and distributed to shallow ponds of one
or two acres in size, of which the best shape is somewhat
rectangular and about twice as long as wide. The ponds ©
convert a proportion of sewage representing about 6,000
of population, or that of about 800 persons per acre of
pond area, which therefore covers between seven and
eight acres. The sewage is let into the ponds at many
separate places arond one end, a thorough distribution
being of the first importance. The depth varies from
twelve inches at the edges to twenty inches in the middle
and three feet or more at the outlet. A slow current
sets lengthwise of the pond and practically complete
purification must be obtained before the outlet is reached.
The borders of the ponds must be clear of trees or
bushes hindering the free access of sunlight. In the
ponds themselves certain water plants are provided—
sweet-flag and manna-grass (Glyceria) near the inflow;
Glyceria, Ceratophyllum and Myriophyllum in deeper
parts, while undesirable plants are removed. The duck-
weed (Lemna) for instance led to such interference with
the growth of algae and consequent oxygenation by
blanketing the surface that young ducks were introduced
to feed upon the Lemna. They were thus reared upon
the products of the ponds and when fattened just before
marketing contributed appreciably to the profits of
operation. They were moreover of some use in aerating
the water.

The ponds are first prepared by supplying them from
other waters with large quantities of crustacea, insect
larvae (Chironomus abundant), mussels and _ snails.
Cyclops and Daphnia and related groups are very abund-
ant and important in this stock of minute life; in fact
pits are used for breeding these small forms. The young
fishes which it is intended to rear are introduced in such
numbers as appear suited to the fish cultural capacity
of the ponds. These are then maintained for two or

174 American Fisheries Society

three weeks by a flow of clean water and without sew-
age. After this preliminary period, the sewage is
admitted to the ponds and its purification begins. The
erustacea and other plankton multiply tremendously on
this continuous influx of sewage which avails them as
an unlimited food supply. In turn the young fishes find
this minute life an abundant food suitable for their own
rapid growth. The many forms of both animal and vege-
table life which attain greater size are eaten by the
older fishes. The species most commonly utilized have
been the carp, tench and pike (Esox), but cat-fish, black
bass, a flat fish and even the rainbow trout were con-
templated as desirable food fishes which further experi-
ment might show to be susceptible to this new method
of fish culture.

The effect of the purification process can be seen very
soon after the entry of the sewage. An appreciable
cloudiness is caused in the water about the inflow end
of the pond, due to the turbid sewage. This affects only
a small portion of the pond, the turbidity soon disap-
pears and the contents of the rest of the pond are clear
enough to show plainly the vegetation and other organ-
isms on the bottom. Progressively toward the outlet
the water is more and more relieved of its sewage char-
acter until the effluent is said to be potable. The series
of ponds and the disposal plant as a whole present a
sightly appearance and resemble any well conducted fish
cultural station. The process can not be said to involve
a nuisance.

The purification process is rather delicately balanced
and its successful and continuous operation depends on
foresight and constant care. The various reactions are
interdependent and must proceed with reasonable quan-
titative adjustment to each other, without which a pre-
ponderance of any one is able to disturb the co-operation
of all. The most important index is the dissolved oxygen
in the pond water, and daily estimations by color tests
are made. Additional control is obtained by other
chemical and bacteriological tests carried out every two
weeks. The absolute and relative quantities of sewage

Marsh.—Sewage and Fish Culture 175

and clean water admitted to the ponds, the quantity
and distribution of the higher plants, which afford pro-
tection and attachment for many animals, and lurking
places for yong fishes, the adaptation of the stock of
fishes to the capacity of the pond, these are prime ele-
ments in the even driving of the process. They require
constant supervision and regulation. Moreover the
method as a whole, while it has been made workable by
repeated modification through a long series of experi-
ments, will be further perfected by the experience gained
from continued use.

As is not difficult to infer, the introduction of fish
from the sewage ponds to the market as table fish did
not fail to encounter the opposition of natural prejudice,
even in Germany where the carp, the principal species
produced by this method, is in high favor and where the
public is highly amenable to reason. It required an
organized campaign of education by means of lectures
and various authoritative propaganda. It was explained
that the carp in its natural habitat sought the vicinity
of whatever sewers were available, finding there its
food most abundant; that the public had long been eating
carp bred under similar and less well controlled condi-
tions; that there was no offense in or about the sewage
fish ponds, as anyone might see by inspecting them; that
there was no logical or hygienic objection to the use as
food of fish grown in them; and finally by serving them
to a representative public, directly from the ponds,
these fish were shown to compete in attractiveness with
any other. The whole product of the ponds is disposed
of without difficulty in Strassburg. The fish are taken
alive in tanks of water to the city and the consumer
may make his choice of an obviously fresh specimen, a
fact which no doubt facilitates the sale: The income
from the sale of the total products of the disposal plant
suffice, according to the management, to pay all the ex-
penses of the process and leave a small margin of profit.
Exact figures are not available, but the attainment of
an even break between profit and loss has doubtless been
the goal sought and one hitherto entirely beyond reach.

176 American Fisheries Society

It is unlikely that more than a nominal excess of revenue
over all the costs of operation is to be expected.

Two years ago this method of making sewage disposal
economic by the aid of fish culture evidently had been
stamped with the seal of official approval in Germany.
A Hamburg commission had examined and reported fav-
orably on the Strassburg installation, and had recom-
mended tentative establishments in suburban sections in
the region about Hamburg. In Strassburg itself it was
learned that the plans and specifications for enlarging
the system to the demands of the whole body of Strass-
burg sewage had been for some time completed, and had
official approval, but the necessary appropriation of funds
had not been made. It appeared that military influences
alone had intervened to prevent this not inconsiderable
public expenditure. In May, 1914, this seemed puzzling.
Within less than three months war had broken out, and
it may be inferred the Strassburg project is at least no
further advanced.

The question arises how far these methods of sewage
disposal are applicable in the United States. In some
respects it is likely that greater difficulties will be en-
countered than in Germany. The public will regard fish
raised from sewage with more suspicion than the Ger-
mans displayed toward them, and it will be less suscep-
tible than the German public to efforts to counteract
its prejudices in this respect. Yet conditions suitable for
producing fish from sewage can undoubtedly be found at
many places here. In localities with a severe winter
climate there has been little or no experience with the
method, and low winter temperature must reduce, mod-
ify or put an end to its efficiency. The Strassburg ponds
are operated in a climate considerably milder than that
of our northern cities.

THE ULTIMATE SOURCES OF MARINE
FOOD

By Pror. IRVING A. FIELD,
Clark College, Worcester, Mass.

The ocean as a source of food for human consumption
always has been a subject of interest, but the attention
given to developing the food resources of the sea has
been almost nothing compared to that devoted to agri-
culture. Without exercising any intelligent control in
the cultivation of marine food products we are now ap-
propriating for use such food materials as happen to
be produced within our reach just as primitive man in
ages past depended on land plants and animals in an
uncultivated and undomesticated state. At the present
time we see the science of agriculture reaching a high
stage of development. Most of our nation’s land fit for
growing crops has been appropriated for cultivation,
scientific methods for increasing the yield have been de-
veloped, labor saving devices for reaping have been per-
fected and yet with it all our rate of food consumption
is increasing more rapidly than the rate of production.
The capacity of the soil to produce enough food for our
rapidly increasing population is fast approaching its
limit. Unless the chemists come to the rescue with inex-
pensive methods for rapidly combining the necessary
chemical elements into palatable, digestible and nutri-
tious compounds we shall have to devote our energies to
the development of the natural food resources which lie
in the waters covering nearly three-fourths of the earth’s
surface. A prominent authority once stated that four
square feet of ocean was capable of supporting a human
life. At first thought such a thing seems impossible, but
a better understanding of the sea will show that his
statement is not far from the truth. It is the purpose
of this paper to point out the ultimate sources of marine
food and the almost unlimited resources they provide for
- the production of human food.

178 American Fisheries Society

A brief comparison of the conditions of life found on
the land and in the ocean will help one to understand
the wonderful opportunities which are offered for deriv-
ing food from the sea.

On the land there is one vast expanse of verdure.
Plants of all sizes from the minute algae to the giant
trees are abundant everywhere and they form the ulti-
mate food basis for animal life. The animals for the
most part are herbivorous. The Carnivora are com-
paratively few in number, which is a very important
condition for if they should exceed the vegetable feeders -
in abundance it would soon mean extinction for both
races.

In the sea, life conditions are very different. Vege-
table life is as inconspicuous in the sea as it is conspicu-
ous on the land. To be sure along the coast there is a
fringe of sea weeds and floating in the middle of the
ocean are great masses of algae such as the Sargasso
sea; but taken as a whole the ocean is barren of visible
vegetation. Under these conditions we find practically
no animals that correspond to the terrestrial Herbivora.
Most of the animals are carnivorous. A few fishes may
browse on the sea weeds which fringe the shore or float
in the water, but, on the whole, most marine animals are
voracious beasts of prey. The larger species devour the
smaller ones and these in turn feed upon those smaller
than themselves. Furthermore animal life swarms in
the sea in incredible multitudes. The naturalists of the
Challenger expedition reported that the waters of the
equatorial Pacific contained great banks of pelagic
animals through which the vessel sailed. Chiercha wrote
that the equatorial calms of the Atlantic are rich beyond
all measure in animal life and that the water often looks
and feels like coagulated jelly. The Challenger expedi-
tion reported having encountered banks of copepods a
mile thick and on one occasion to have steamed for two
days through a dense cloud formed of a single species,
one found distributed from the Arctic regions to the
equator. Of the fishes Professor Brooks says, “Herring

Field.—Sources of Marine Food 179

swarm like locusts and a herring bank is almost a solid
wall.” Goode tells of a school of mackerel which was
estimated to contain a million barrels and of another
which was a windrow of fish half a mile wide and at
least twenty miles long. In the bays and estuaries beds

of sea mussels are found containing 6,000 to 8,000 .

bushels to the acre.

How this vast multitude of animals can be supported
in a region apparently destitute of vegetation has been
a problem of investigation since the microscope came
into use and it is interesting to note that the first serious
contribution on the subject was written Oct. 16, 1699,
by the old pioneer, Anton van Leeuwenhoek, who ground
lenses and made his own microscopes. After observing
the minute organisms which he discovered in fresh
water by means of his microscope he came to the follow-
ing conclusion: “If it be then asked, to what end such
exceedingly minute animalcules were created, no answer
can readily be given which seems more agreeable to the
truth than that, in like manner as we see constantly,
that the bigger kinds of fish feed on the smaller; as, for
example, that the cod fish preys on the haddock and other
smaller kinds of fish; the haddock again on the whiting;
these on still smaller fishes, and among the rest on
shrimps; and shrimps on still more minute fishes; and
that this gradually prevails among all the kinds of fish;
so that, in a word, the smaller are created to be food
for the larger. Again, if we consider the nature of our
sea, abounding with fish, yet having nothing at the bot-
tom of it save barren sand: stored with various shell-
fish, yet destitute of every green herb; and if we,
moreover, lay it down for a truth, that no fish can be
supported on water alone, there will not remain a doubt,
that the smaller fishes are destined, by nature, to be the
subsistence of the larger.’ It is evident from Leeuwen-
hoek’s illustrations that his use of the expression
“smaller fishes” refers to what we now recognize in
general as plankton, which includes both animal and
vegetable organisms.

180 American Fisheries Society

Peck, in his splendid paper on The Sources of Marine
Food, gives us an excellent example of the food relations
described by Leeuwenhoek. Reporting on the stomach
contents of the squeteague he says, ‘On the morning of
July 23 there was taken a large specimen whose stomach
contained an adult herring. In the stomach of the
herring were found two young scup (besides many small
crustacea), and in the stomach of one of these scup
were found copepods, while in the alimentary tract of
these last one could identify one or two of the diatoms
and an infusorian test among the mass of triturated
material which formed its food. This is an instance of
the universal rule of this kind of food: The squeteague
captures the butterfish or squid, which in turn have fed
on young fish, which in their turn have fed upon the
more minute crustacea, which finally utilize a micro-
scopic food supply.”” These microscopic organisms con-
stitute an unfailing, ultimate food supply and without
it the larger animals of the ocean whose chief business
is to devour each other, would soon exterminate them-
selves. It consists of single-celled plants and animals,
chief among which are the diatoms and radiolarians.
According to Peck these two groups alone may be re-
garded as the great primary food supply for the larger
marine animals. The diatoms in particular may be said
to constitute the pastures of the sea.

How these minute creatures can support such a large
and extensive fauna may be readily understood when
their habits are known. They grow under far more
advantageous conditions than our land plants and con-
sequently grow faster, almost infinitely faster. Land
plants have a portion only of their bodies in the ground
and can absorb the mineral elements necessary for their
growth only as the rains dissolve them. Being crowded
into limited space and subject to seasons of drought and
cold their growth is constantly arrested.

On the other hand the microscopic marine plants are
bathed in a uniform solution of mineral food, they have
the full benefit of the sunlight and the temperature of

Field.—Sources of Marine Food 181

the water is not subject to extreme changes. Under
such conditions growth is so rapid that it passes beyond
our powers of conception. Microscopic examination of
water taken from almost any part of the sea shows that
in reality it is a living broth. To give us a clear picture
of the wonderful productivity of these unicellular organ-
isms it requires the expression of the late Professor
Brooks who says, “Their vegetative power is wonderful ~
past all expression. Among land plants, corn, which
yields seed a hundredfold in a single season, is the
emblem of fertility, but it can be shown that a single
marine plant, very much smaller than a grain of mus-
tard seed, would fill the whole ocean solid in less than
a week if all its descendents were to live. This stupen-
dous fact is almost incredible, but it is capable of
rigorous demonstration and it must be clearly grasped
before we can understand the life of the ocean.”

Until recently students of marine biology have looked
upon diatoms as constituting the ultimate food basis of
marine animals. Practical oyster growers in order to
find out the best localities in which to plant their oyster
beds have tried to determine the food value of the sur-
rounding waters in quantity of diatoms per volume of
water. In general it has been found that oysters and
mussels thrive best where diatoms are most abundant.
On the other hand investigations, made by Dr. H. F.
Moore of the U. S. Bureau of Fisheries and others, show
that the amount of diatoms consumed by shellfish is not
sufficient to account for their increase in growth. The
question then arises what is the source of the additional
nourishment that they obtain? Some investigators say
it is from the soluble organic matter in sea water which
is constantly absorbed through the body surface, while
others attribute it to the suspended organic particles
which are taken in with the diatoms. The truth prob-
ably lies in the latter assumption as is shown by several
very important researches recently conducted at the
Danish Marine Biological Station.

Petersen, 1890, was the first to express the idea that
the abundance of fish on the Danish coasts was due

182 American Fisheries Society

chiefly to Zostera which is better known to fishermen
as “eel grass.” Petersen and Jensen (1911) tried to
show that, in all probability, the plants of the eel grass
belt, and not the plankton organisms should be regarded
as the main sources of the organic matter of the sea
bottom in Danish waters. Their reasoning is based on
the fact that the quantity of carbon in a series of bottom
samples is directly proportional to the amount of Zostera
vegetation and not to the quantity of plankton present.

This study was continued in greater detail and pub-
lished by Jensen in 1914. He shows that the eel grass
plays an important part in the production of organic
matter in the sea. In all the Danish waters he found
fragments of eel grass deposited in greater or less quan-
tities, for the most part in very fine particles as detritus.
In this detritus he found comparatively few diatom
shells. Much of the detritus particles were too small to
be identified by the microscope as of eel grass or plank-
ton origin. By chemical means, however, Jensen was
able to determine the source of the organic matter in
the sea bottom. He found that the eel grass cells con-
tain a considerable quantity of starch-like substances
known to the chemists as pentosans, whereas those of
diatoms are composed mainly of silica and those of Peri-
dineans of fairly pure cellulose. By comparing analyses
of various bottom samples of organic matter with those
of eel grass and diatoms the following conclusions were
reached: ‘(1) In the more sheltered waters the organic
matter of the sea bottom is to a pre-eminent degree
formed by eel grass. (2) In the more open waters, at
least half of the organic matter is probably formed by
eel grass. (3) In the deepest waters the organic matter
is probably formed chiefly by the plankton organisms.”

Calculations on the production of phytoplankton
(minute floating plant life) and eel grass per square
meter have been attempted, but what has been done so
far approaches a mere approximation only. In regard
to the phytoplankton, Hensen (1887) figured that one
square meter of surface produces annually 15-18 grams

Field.—Sources of Marine Food 183

of dry organic matter exclusive of the phytoplankton
consumed by the surface fauna. The total production
of phytoplankton he estimated to be 150 grams per
square meter annually. Jensen by very careful calcula-
tions estimates that in the Danish waters about 100
grams of organic dry matter per square meter is pro-
duced each year by the phytoplankton. For eel grass
the percentage of dry organic matter produced annually
per square meter he found to be 1,920, 1,120 and 344
grams in good, moderate, and bad localities respectively.
Eel grass beds cover about one-seventh of the area
studied (between the Skaw and the Baltic) which means
that the annual production of eel grass per square meter
of the water as a whole is 120 grams of organic matter.
Comparing the production of eel grass and plankton on
a basis of Jensen’s calculations we see that eel grass
produces 120 grams of organie matter per square meter
while the plankton produces 100 grams.

Now the question arises, how much of the organic
matter from each source is deposited on the sea bottom?
Undoubtedly much of the matter of the plankton dis-
solves following the death of the organisms due to the
action of baceria. Admitting that a portion of the eel
grass material is similiarly lost it is evident that the
plankton organisms with their relatively far greater
surface are in a much higher degree liable to destruction
than the eel grass. Furthermore a large part of the
plankton is devoured by the plankton fauna which would
lead one to believe that but a limited portion of plankton
production is deposited on the sea bottom. These cal-
culations are supported by the results of chemical
analyses of the organic matter in the sea bottom. Jensen
has done this and states his conclusions as follows: ‘In
the more sheltered waters the organic matter of the sea
bottom is derived almost exclusively from the Zostera
(eel grass) ; in the more open waters, it is possible that
the plankton organisms may play a not altogether unim-
portant part as a source of the organic matter of the
bottom.”

184 American Fisheries Society

The transformation of nitrogen during the decom-
position of eel grass and its relation to the nitrogen
content of the organic matter in the sea bottom was also
investigated by Jensen. He found that the green eel
grass is as rich in nitrogen as peas or beans, which con-
tain about 3%. As the eel grass decomposes the per-
centage of nitrogen decreases until it is as low as 0.88%,
then as decomposition continues it rises again up to
1.39%. Analyses of the organic matter in the sea bottom
indicate that the average amount of nitrogen present is
4%. Thus it is evident that the organic substances of
the sea bottom contain a greater proportion of nitrogen
than the eel grass.

Why the organic matter in the sea bottom is so much
richer in nitrogen than the eel grass from which it is
formed chiefly is readily explained by Jensen. As has
been shown the amount of nitrogen in the green eel grass
is greater than that in the early stages of decomposition.
Later the amount of nitrogen increases becoming much
greater than in the green eel grass. The diminution in
nitrogen during the first stages may be due to the fact
that a portion of the nitrogenous protoplasm is dis-
solved in the sea water as the cells die. The increase in
proportion of nitrogen in the final stages of decom-
position may be due to two causes. (1) Hither by the
destruction of non-nitrogenous substances in the sea
bottom to a greater extent than is the case with the nitro-
genous matter, or (2) by the fixation of inorganic or
free nitrogen by bacteria.

It has been established beyond all doubt that non-
nitrogenous substances of the sea floor are to a very
considerable extent destroyed by bacteria, at least one
step in the process being the fermentation of the pen-
toses. Another is the formation of methane from the
fermentation of cellulose. On the other hand it is prob-
able that the nitrogenous substances are acted upon to
a lesser degree due to the fact that they are compara-
tively easily transformed into humic compounds, which
are less easily destroyed.

Field.—Sources of Marine Food 185

It is also possible that the excremental action of the
fauna contributes to render the bottom richer in nitro-
gen. The nitrogenous portion of the bottom is indigest-
ible while the non-nitrogenous matter contains consid-
erable quantities of digestible pentosans. Hence when
fed upon in the form of detritus by such organisms as
mussels and oysters the non-nitrogenous matter would
be removed and the nitrogenous portion returned to the
bottom. This was well illustrated by comparing the
composition of oyster excrements which consisted of
almost pure detritus, with bottom samples taken at the
same place where the oysters were found. The nitrogen
of the bottom samples amounted to .187% while that of
the excrements was .71%.

That nitrogenous matter of the bottom can also be in-
creased by the fixation of inorganic nitrogen through
the action of bacteria is likewise probable. The nitro-
gen may be taken from the ammonia or nitrates dis-
solved in the water or from the free nitrogen which is
also present in solution. Bacteria such as Azotobacter
and Clostridiwm, which perform this function, are of
common occurrence on the bottom and a considerable
amount of nitrogen fixation has been shown to take place
where the vegetation is abundant.

In addition to the above sources of nitrogen it should
be mentioned that the fauna itself, by dying and form-
ing detritus, also serves to increase the amount of
nitrogen in the sea floor.

A determination of the total quantity of detritus and
plankton in sea water was also attempted. Ten liter
samples of sea water from various localities were care-
fully filtered and the total quantity of detritus and
plankton measured. It was first weighed and dried at
100° C. and then weighed again. Samples were also
subjected to microscopic examination to determine the
amounts of detritus and plankton organisms present.

The results were that nearly all the samples showed
a greater proportion of detritus than of plankton. The
weight of the dry matter in the residue varied between

186 American Fisheries Society

9.6 and 72.3 milligrams per 10 liters of sea water. No
relation could be shown to exist between the weather
conditions and amount of detritus in the water.

The conclusion to be drawn from these results is that
sea water is rich in the quantity of detritus it contains.

The next question which arises is, what value does
this organic matter of the sea bottom possess as a source
of nourishment for the benthos or bottom fauna?

Assuming that the organic matter of the sea bottom
forms a source of nourishment for the majority of the
fauna living in and near the bottom Jensen considered
it advisable to investigate the question as to how far
suitable nourishment for such fauna can be shown to
exist among the substances of which the sea floor is
composed.

Since eel grass contributes most of the organic matter
of the bottom it was natural to examine quite closely
the chemical composition of this weed. It was found to
compare favorably with the composition of the common
fodder grasses. Protein was found present to the amount
of 7.5% and pentosan 8-9%. - No fat determination was
made.

When eel grass is treated with pancreatin from 23 to
26% of the nitrogen is digested. Since the eel grass con-
tains 7.5% proteins, of which about 14 is digestible by
pancreatin the amount of digestible proteins contained
may be put at 1.08%. Decomposed eel grass contains
less nitrogen and is less digestible. For example black
eel grass (dead) was found to contain 1.39% nitrogen
of which but 6.6% was digestible. These figures should,
however, in all probability mainly be taken as minimal.

Experiments on the digestible nitrogenous com-
pounds in the sea bottom brought out the fact that there
is only a very small amount of proteins in the bottom
which are digestible with pancreatin. In fact the
amount is so small as to be very nearly within the limits
of possible error. The analyses for the top layer, how-
ever, give such positive results that it is justifiable to
conclude that the upper-most layer of the bottom really

Field.—Sources of Marine Food 187

does contain a certain amount of proteins digestible by
pancreatin. In the upper layer from 44 to 68 milligrams
of digestible proteins per 100 square centimeters are
found, which means that the amount of digestible pro-
teins per square meter is approximately 5 grams.

On the other hand digestible non-nitrogenous com-
pounds in the sea bottom consist of a fairly considerable
amount of material in the form of pentosans amounting
to from 0.3 to 1.0%. This is an important fact for there
is reason to suppose that the bottom fauna is able to
digest pentosan. It has been well established that her-
bivorous animals utilize pentosan as a food and Bieder-
man and Moritz (1898) showed that Gastropods were
able to digest pentosan. It is probable, therefore, that
bivalves also can digest pentosan and that the consid-
erable amount of pentosan present in the sea bottom
besides other possible substances (hemicellulose gen-
erally) plays an important part as non-nitrogenous
nourishment for a great portion of the bottom fauna.

In support of Jensen’s observations Blevgad, 1914, has
made an interesting study of the food of the commonest
and most widely distributed bottom-inhabiting animals
in the various communities of the Danish waters. His
report is based on the analysis of stomach contents.
Three main sources of nourishment for the bottom
fauna of the sea were determined. (1) Plants—fresh
growing plants of the benthos formation, chiefly eel
grass which in the Danish waters produces about 8,232,-
000 kilograms annually. In course of time, this decays
and falls to pieces forming (2) detritus. This includes
dead or dying organisms or portions of them whether
vegetable or animal in origin as are found in suspension
(or solution in the sea water) or deposited on the bottom.
Most of this detritus is of eel gras origin. (3) Animal
or carneous food or the third source includes all living
animals found in the sea, together with their carrion,
save where these are to be reckoned as forming part
of the detritus as just defined.

———

188 American Fisheries Society

The plankton, heretofore considered as of greatest
significance, he does not list as an important source of
focd. Whereas previous observers have emphasized the
great importance of plankton, Blevgad emphasizes the
importance of detritus. He furthermore questions
Piitter’s (1908) theory to the effect that the carbon com-
pounds present in solution in the sea water are of very
extensive importance as food for certain animals of the
bottom fauna. At least it must for the present be re-
garded as unproved. It is possible, however, that some
organisms may live on dissolved organic matter and so
for the sake of convenience Blevgad classifies dissolved
organic matter under detritus.

The commonest animal forms in Danish waters are
classified into three groups according to their mode of
feeding. (1) Herbivores which include certain Gastro-
pods, two Echinoderms and some Crustacea. (2) Pure
detritus eaters which comprise all the Lamellibranchs,
Holothurians, Sipunculidae, Cumacea, Diptera larvae and
Ascidiae, two Gastropods, Balanoglossus, Amphioxus,
Ostracods, Bryozoa, Porifera and Foraminifera. The
great mass of material in the alimentary tracts of these
animals is detritus and when analyzed chemically it cor-
responds to that on the ocean floor. Plankton organisms
are only incidentally present. These observations led
Blevgad to make the extreme statement, “The living
phytoplankton is thus of no importance at all as a food
for the bottom fauna.” (3) Purely carnivorous animals
including a few Polychaeta, some Gastropods, some
Crustacea, some Echinoderms, Coelenterates, Nemer-
teans, Planarians and Pantopods constitute the last
group. Quite a large number of animals are both carni-
vores and detritus feeders.

The investigations tend to show the extreme import-
ance of detritus as a food for the fauna on the sea bot-
tom. To use Blevgad’s words, ‘‘Detritus forms the prin-
cipal food of nearly all the invertebrate animals of the
sea bottom, next in order of importance being plant
food from fresh benthos plants. The value of the live

Field.—Sources of Marine Food 189

phytoplankton in this connection is absolutely minimal,
amounting in any case to nothing more than an indirect
Significance through the medium of the plankton
copepods.”

That detritus is formed so abundantly in the shallower
waters of the ocean and constitutes such an important
food supply for most of the bottom-inhabiting animals
is of great significance in its bearing on the coming
science of sea farming. If the investigators of the Dan-
ish Biological Station are right in their conclusions con-
cerning the importance of detritus as a food for the
benthos fauna then we shall have to revise our methods
of determining the available oyster, mussel or clam food
supply in the waters of a given locality. It also means
that the available fields for the cultivation of oysters
or other shellfish are far more fertile than we have ever
dreamed in the past. The knowledge of the réle played
by detritus in its relation to the benthos fauna helps us
to understand better the phenomenal growth which often
takes place in many mollusks in the absence of an
abundant supply of plankton. For example many mussel
beds are known to yield on an average about 2,000
bushels annually and experiments have shown that one
bushel of seed clams planted in a barren flat will yield
ten bushels of marketable clams one year later. This
serves to show what splendid opportunities for increased
food production lie within our reach. Between the
plankton organisms and detritus there is an inexhaust-
ible ultimate food supply which can be quickly and
readily converted into a form available for human con-
sumption. A partial solution of the problem of the ever
increasing high cost of living undoubtedly lies in appro-
priating this vast resource for greatly increasing our
own food supply. Cultivating the ocean promises to
yield the fisherman far greater returns, with less ex:
pense of time and energy, than the farmer is able to
produce from the land. Each new discovery in marine
biology is making it more clear that for the comfort and
economy of the nation we ought to be doing more in
the scientific development of our fisheries.

190 American Fisheries Society

LITERATURE.

BreperMAN, W., anv Mortvz, P.:
1898. Beitrage zur vergleichenden Physiologie der Verdauung. 3.
Ueber die Function der Sogenannten Leber der Mollus-
ken. Arch. Phys. Pfliiger, Bd. 75, p. 1-86.
Bureveap, H.:
1915. Food and Conditions of Nourishment Among the Communi-
ties of Invertebrate Animals Found on or in the Sea
Bottom in Danish Waters. Report of the Danish Bio-

logical Station to the Board of Agriculture, Vol. 22, p.
41-78. Copenhagen.

Brooxs, W. K.:

1893. The Genus Salpa. Memoirs from the Biological Laboratory
of the Johns Hopkins University. II. Baltimore.

HeENsEN, VICTOR:
1901. Ueber die quantative Bestimmung der kleineren Plankton
organismen und ueber den Diagonal-Zug mittelst geeig-
neter netzformen. Abth. Kiel, Heft. 2, pp. 67-81.

Hoortre, SAMUEL:
1800. The Select Works of Antony van Leeuwenhoek. Trans. from
Dutch and Latin editions. 2 Vols. in 1, 658 pp. G. Sid-
ney, London.

JENSEN, P. Boysen:
1915. Studies Concerning the Organic Matter of the Sea Bottom.
Report of the Danish Biological Station to the Board
of Agriculture, Vol. 22, p.p. 1-39. Copenhagen.

Kepine, Max:
1906. Weitere Untersuchungen iiber stickstoffbindende Bakterien.
Abth. Kiel, (N. F.) 9, pp. 273-309.

KeEvutTNER, JOSEPH:
1905. Ueber das Vorkommen und die Verbreitung stickstoffbin-
dender Bakterien im Meene. Abth. Kiel, (N. F.), 8, pp.
27-55.

Peck, J. l::
1896. The Source of Marine Food. Bull. U. S. Fish Commission,
Vol. 15, pp. 351-368.

Petersen, C .G. Jon., AND JENSEN, P. Boysen:
1911. The Animal Life of the Sea Bed, Its Aliment and Multi-
tude. Report of the Danish Biological Station to the
Board of Agriculture, Vol. 20. Copenhagen.

Porter, Avucust: :
1911. Die Ernahrung der Wassertiere durch geléste organische
Verbindungen. Arch. gas. Physiol. Bonn 137, pp. 595-621.

PHYSIOLOGICAL CHARACTERS OF MA-
RINE ANIMALS FROM DIFFERENT
DEPTHS *

By Pror. V. E. SHELFORD,
University of Illinois, Urbana, Il.

I.—INTRODUCTION.

The sea is the largest single type of habitat and on
account of its vastness we are accustomed to think of its
life as comparatively uniform for slightly different
depths, and of its conditions as essentially the same for
closely connected parts and opposite sides of compara-
tively narrow channels. It was a matter of much sur-
prise to the writer to find that marine fishes showed
marked sensitiveness to slight differences in acidity and
alkalinity, and that, as compared with the difference to
which they respond, the differences in this respect be-
tween the two sides of the channel south of Brown’s
Island, Puget Sound (Friday Harbor, Wash.),+ which
is only about a fourth of a mile wide, are great. The
water on the north side of the island is uniformly
alkaline and suited to the development of the eggs of fish-
es and invertebrates which require an alkaline medium,
while the water of the south side is acid much of the
time and the eggs of various animals do not develop
well. This difference is correlated with striking differ-
ences in vegetation and animal life which the casual
observer would attribute to the difference in current and
bottom, the south side being most strongly swept by the
tide and rocky, while the north side is sandy and escapes
the main force of the tide. In a paper by the writer
and Mr. E. B. Powers, attention was called to the fact
that slight contamination of the sea can have pronounced
effects.

* Contribution from the Puget Sound Marine Station.

* Biol. Bull. XXVIII: 315-334; also reprinted in Fishing Gazette,
March and April, 1916.

192 American Fisheries Society

The Baltic towns of the Hanseatic League were de-
pendent in part upon the herring industry and after a
century of great growth and prosperity fell into decline
at the middle of the fourteenth century. Their prosper-
ity was the accompaniment of the presence of great
shoals of herring off the Island of Riigen in the Baltic.
Their decline was caused in part by the failure of the
herring industry and the supposed migration of the
herring to the North Sea which has since been the centre
of the industry. Schouwen (on the Netherland coast of
the North Sea) appears to have been frequented by the
herring shoals in preference to Riigen. The rapid growth
of the Netherland cities, their supremacy and final
separation from the Hanseatic League followed. A little
later the herring again changed their haunts choosing
the coast of Norway where both Norsemen and Nether-
landers caught them. The Beukelszoon method of curing
herring having come into use, nearness to home was no
longer a necessity. The Norse fisheries flourished until
1587 when an “apparation of a gigantic herring
frightened the shoals away.” Thus it appears that the
development of the herring industry in each locality led
to the apparent desertion of the locality by the fish,
though the migrations assumed by historians may be
doubted. Was this due to the contamination of the sea
by the cities, or merely to over catch? Whichever may
have beén the case it is certain that contamination will
not invite runs of the herring. The common assumption
that the sea is so large that pollution can not have a
significant réle is rendered entirely untenable by the
greatly increased sensitiveness of the marine fishes as
compared with the fresh water ones.

These unexpected differences in the character of the
water near the surface and the sensitiveness of animals
to it, are only excelled by the marked differences among
animals of the same species from different depths.* Uni-
formity of physiological characters has been commonly
assumed. It has been customary since the early writings

* For a full account of the experiment see Puget Sound Marine Sta-
tion Publications, Vol. I.

Shelford.—Phystological Characters and Depth 193

of Sir Edward Forbes to divide the margins of the sea
bottom into several belts, the uppermost of these is com-
monly known as the shore belt and reaches from the
level of the usual high tide to the average of low tides
which is about three feet above the mean low tide of
the U. S. Navigation Charts. The reason for this lower
limit not agreeing with the mean low tide lies in the
fact that the usual low tide is considerably above mean
low tide level so that animals living within about three
feet from mean low tide are exposed out of water only
for a few hours during a brief period once a month. A
growth of Ulva which reaches up to this level covers the
stones quite completely at such times so that the animals
are not fully exposed.

Immediately below this is the Laminarian Belt which
is characterized by broad leaved algae. The algae shelter
animals from light and enemies. The lower limit of this
belt is the lower limit of light for green algae. The
Laminarian Belt extends from three feet above mean
low tide to a depth of about sixty feet.

The belt below this is commonly known as the Coral-
line Belt because of the presence of Coralline Algae.
For convenience it may be subdivided into the Coralline
which reaches to 300 feet and the Subcoralline from 300
feet to about 600 feet. It is characterized by a very
short daylight period and faint light at all times.

The advantages of the Puget Sound Marine Station
locality for the study of physiological difference between
animals from different depths lies in the fact that the
abrupt shores make it possible to get animals from
several different depths ranging from 0 feet to 540 feet
(165 meters) within a few moments and submit them
to experimental conditions within a short period.

II.—RESISTANCE TO HIGH TEMPERATURE.

The following selected results of comparison of the
resistance of animals of the same species from different
depths to fatal conditions will serve to illustrate the
whole series of experiments.

194 American Fisheries Society

TABLE I.

Showing the relative resistance of two Puget Sound
commercial shrimps, the coonstripe (Pandalus danae
Stimp.) and the deep coonstripe (Pandalus stenolepis
Rath), from different depths to a temperature of 24° C.
The animals were kept at this temperature in small
dishes containing sea water surrounded by a large mass
of water heated by an alcohol lamp.

Pandalus danae Pandalus stenolepis
Depth in | Survival Time|| Depthin | Survival Time
Meters in Minutes Meters in Minutes
4 5 ea | airiceeien Mes eevtcmt e's 9 rs Uy
14-20 Bile e> As) | Waray eben, eee a
40-60 21 40-110 1A
60-100 13 100-140 8
100-156 12% 150-165 7

Marine animals, particularly fishes and crustacea,
take on the color of the background present during de-
velopment and those from considerable depth are pale
in color and the shrimp have decidedly luminescent eyes.
The relation of color to light and background has caused
the shrimps from the different levels to be easily dis-
tinguished and also leads to the conclusion that they
have lived at the level from which they were collected
since an early juvenile condition, because it is only in
the young that such changes can be brought about. The
shrimps from the different levels were placed in the
same dishes during the experiments so as to preclude
the possibility of the different individuals, having been

‘experimented upon under different conditions. The

general results were confirmed by numerous tests at
other temperatures.

It will be noted that the shrimps of each species from
deeper water died in a shorter time. Likewise the shrimp
which habitually lives at greatest depth dies much

Shelford.—Physiological Characters and Depth 195

quicker than those from the lesser depth. Crabs show
similar relations. The data suggest that those that live
in the dark are more sensitive than those from the light,
which accords with the results with crabs from differ-
ent depths.

III.—RESISTANCE TO FRESH WATER.

Marine animals do not generally survive for any
length of time in fresh water or in water without their
normal salt content. Taking for example one of the
shrimps noted in the preceding table we find that loss
of equilibrium follows in a few minutes after the animals
are immersed in the fresh water.

Table II.

Showing the Survival of Marine Shrimps from different
depths in Fresh Water.

Pandalus danae | Crangon munita Dana
Depth in Survival Time |} Depthin | Survival Time
Meters in Minutes Meters in Minutes
4-6 AS eT aha |e mas Ck ey | i eas
12-20 23. 15-20 54
30-50 13 35-75 24

Here again as in the case of temperature the shrimps
from the shallower water survive longest. The same
general results were obtained with mussels, barnacles,
ete.

IV.—RESISTANCE TO ALKALINE AND ACID WATER.

The experiments with herring showed that the fishes
are much influenced by the reaction of the water, i. e.,
whether it is acid or alkaline. Accordingly a series of
experiments was run to determine the relative resistance
of the animals from different depths to acidity and
alkalinity.

i} 196 American Fisheries Society

Table III.
RESISTANCE TO ACID WATER.

(100 c. c. of tenth normal alkali required to neutralize
one liter of sea water,—phenolphthalein indicator.)

Pandalus danae Pandalus stenolepis
Depth Time to loss o Depth | Time to loss of
in M. Equilibrium in M. Equilibrium

4 10 50 13

20 23 40-60 14

100-150 81 170 18

Here the relative resistance of individuals from differ-
ent depths is reversed; those from the deeper water lose
their equilibrium later than those from the shallow water.
Death follows after irregular intervals.

Table IV.
RESISTANCE TO ALKALINE WATER.

(41. c. c. of tenth normal acid to neutralize one liter,—
methyl orange indicator.)

Pandalus danae Pandalus stenolepis

Depth Loss of Depth Loss of
in M. equilibrium in M. ; equilibrium
4 After 19 mins., 5 10 After 67 mins.,
(all) on sides all dead
20 After 19 mins., 3 180 After 92 mins.,

(of 5) on sides all alive

As in the case of the acid water the animals from
deeper water are more resistant. There are some varia-
tions and irregularities, and while the experiments with
acid and alkaline water were not extensive they indicate
the reverse of the results with fresh water and high
temperature.

Shelford.—Physiological Characters and Depth 197

V.—GENERAL DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION.

The resistance to fresh water and to high temperature
on the one hand and acid and alkaline water on the other
being reversed, we conclude the physiological characters
of the animals differ generally and that the differences
are not purely adaptive adjustments. Fluctuations in
temperature and salinity are greatest at the surface and
thus animals at the surface might be expected to show
greatest resistance to differences in these respects. On
the other hand since fluctuations in degree of alkalinity
are usually greatest in the region occupied by vegetation
it would accordingly be expected that animals from the
Laminarian Belt would be more resistant to alkaline con-
ditions than those from deper water but such is not the
case.

The experiments indicate that it is not safe to assume
that individuals of a species have the same physiological
constitution regardless of conditions or that the presence
of a species coincident with a uniform condition of a given
factor such as temperature does not indicate that tem-
perature controls the distribution. The organism may
be physiologically different.

In fresh water the presence of certain animals is often
taken to indicate that conditions are suitable or detri-
mental to fishes, or that the water is or is not contamin-
ated. Such conclusions must be made with due caution
and variations in physiological characters of such index
organisms must be fully investigated before their presence
can be relied upon to indicate the conditions they are
supposed to show.

THE INFLUENCE OF FASTING ON
LOBSTERS *

By SERGIUS MORGULIS, PH.D., New York, N. Y.

The most apparent effect exerted on living organisms
by fasting is the loss of weight which they sustain. With
the prolongation of the fast, which in the case of man
has on many occasions exceeded a month and in the case
of other animals even much longer periods, the diminu-
tion of the mass of the organism becomes so conspicuous
as to point unmistakably to the serious organic changes
wrought by the protracted abstinence from food. The
emaciation of an individual is a positive indication that
he is in a state of either chronic or acute starvation.

To the best of my knowledge of all animals, lobsters
alone do not conform to the general rule. They offer
no recognizable external signs of emaciation or loss of
mass to warrant an observer in concluding that this or
that lobster has been deprived of nourishment for any
length of time. Indeed not only are the outward symp-
toms missing, which one so readily detects in a starving
individual, but the weight of fasting lobsters changes so
slightly that it can be found out only by very careful
measurements.

I observed six lobsters in the course of a fast which
lasted fifty-six days, during which time they were kept
in thoroughly filtered sea water, and none looked differ-
ent at the close of the ordeal from what they did at the
beginning. They were weighed carefully every two
weeks on a balance weighing accurately to one-hundredth
of a gram, and the greatest loss observed was 1.89 per
cent. of the initial weight in two weeks time, whereas
the average loss for the eight weeks was only 2.89 per
cent. It will be better appreciated how insignificant such
a change is from a review of the actual weights, which

* For a complete statement of the data the reader is referred to the
author’s article in the Journal of Biological Chemistry, Vol. 24, pp.
137-146, 1916.

Morgulis.—Fasting on Lobsters 199

at the beginning of the experiment was 167.5 grams and
at the end 162.7 grams, or a difference of about one-sixth
of an ounce.

This very slight change in weight is, however, decep-
tive, and behind an apparently immutable surface, as an
investigation of the changes in the makeup of the lob-
sters reveals, far-reaching transformations are effected.
To anticipate, a study of the chemical composition of the
fasting lobsters proves that the exceptional position oc-
cupied by these animals in not conforming to the general
rule of emaciation, is only skin deep and that the loss
of substance which they suffer is as profound and fully
as extensive as that sustained by any other organism.

It is a matter of common knowledge that every organ-
ism is composed of three kinds of material, water, or-
ganic and mineral matter. With respect to quantity,
water is by far the most important of these three constit-
uents. A normal lobster (including the shell) contains
67.3 per cent. of water. The remaining 32.7 per cent.,
or one third, is made up of 21 per cent. organic material
and 11.7 per cent. mineral matter. It may therefore be
said that, roughly, seven-tenths of the lobster is water,
two-tenths is organic stuff, and one-tenth is a mixture
of salts.

After fasting fifty-six days the composition of the lob-
sters changes radically. They now contain 78.2 per cent.
of water, 10.8 per cent. of organic and 10.6 per cent.
of mineral matter. Roughly speaking therefore, eight-
tenths of the lobster is water and the organic and min-
eral portions represent each a tenth of the entire or-
ganism. A comparison of these figures shows at a
glance that the content of fasting lobsters is greatly
impoverished as regards its organic moiety, which in-
volves all the edible and really nutritious elements, i. e.,
the glycogen, fat and proteins.

The difference in the relative composition (percentage)
of the two kinds of lobsters is not sufficient, however,
to fully picture the transformation effected by the fast,
or to explain why the weight remains almost unmodified.

200 American Fisheries Society

To gain a clear insight into these matters, we must com-
pare the quantities of the various materials actually pres-
ent in the lobsters before and after fasting.

The average weight of my lobsters was 167.3 grams,
of which 112.7 grams was water and 35.2 and 19.5 grams
was organic and mineral matter respectively. It may
be observed further that the 35.2 grams of organic mate-
rial are made up as follows: 0.27 gram of glycogen, 1.6
grams of fat, 17.3 grams of protein and 8.6 grams of
what is commonly designated as “extractive.” The re-
maining 7.4 grams, or a little over one-fifth of the entire
organic matter, is probably chitin, the chief constituent
of the shell.

The same lobsters, at the end of the fast, weighed on
an average 162.6 grams. Of this 127.8 grams was water,
17.5 grams organic and 17.3 grams mineral matter. It
is thus quite evident that one-half of the total organic
matter has been lost, having been used up by the lobster
in maintaining its existence while no other nourishment
was available. It is also interesting to note that the
organic material of the starved lobster contained no gly-
cogen, only 0.1 gram of fat, 7.8 grams of protein and 2.6
grams of “extractives.” There is thus 7 grams left over
which probably represents the chitin. This quantity is
very nearly the same which we found in the lobsters
before they were subjected to the fast and we must con-
clude therefore that the shell has not been affected by
the fast.

But the most significant fact disclosed by this study
is the actual increase in the quantity of water from 112.7
to 127.8 grams. This absorption of water will help to
elucidate the circumstance that in spite of the loss sus-
tained by the organic portion of the body, the total weight
of the lobsters remains almost stationary. Bearing this
in mind, we may attempt to compute what the loss was
at the end of fifty-six days of fasting. The loss observed
in the change of body weight was only 2.73 per cent.
Let us suppose, however, that no imbibition of water had
taken place. With the knowledge gained from the study

Morgulis.—Fasting on Lobsters 201

of other fasting organisms we may assume that at this
particular phase of starvation the quantity of water in
the body would have diminished about a third. Starting
with a quantity of 112.7 grams of water, this would
have decreased to 75.1 grams at the end of fifty-six days
of fasting, had there been no compensating absorption
of water from the surrounding medium. The weight |
of the lobsters would therefore have been 109.8 grams,
and the loss 34.4 per cent., instead of 2.73 per cent. The
hard shell protecting the entire body of the lobster and
forming a solid supporting structure, apparently pre-
vents the cells of the soft tissues from shrinking as they
ordinarily do under the influence of inanition* when the
cell inclusions are being used up. This may explain the
extraordinary extent of the imbibition of water by the
tissues as their reserves are being gradually exhausted.
The relative increase in the water content of the body
which invariably occurs in inanition is unquestionably
to reduce the concentration of the body juices. But the
great absorption of water by the tissues of starving
lobsters is the result primarily of mechanical factors, the
tissues imbibing an excess of water in the manner of a
sponge.

* Morgulis, S., Archiv fiir Entwicklungsmechnik d. Org. 32, p. 169,
1911.

THE NATURE OF THE SPINES IN
CATFISHES

By H. D. REED AND T. J. LLOYD,
Zoological Laboratory, Cornell University.

Anyone who has handled catfishes, dead or alive, is
probably painfully aware of the presence of heavy and
sharp spines in the dorsal and pectoral fins. In the fol-
lowing paragraphs an attempt is made to explain briefly
the morphologic nature of these spines; that is, how do
they compare with the more flexible fin supports and
with the spines of other fishes?

The fin is to be looked upon as an extension of the
general integument of the body. In nature it is precisely
as if the skin of the back of the hand were pinched and
drawn away from the surface. The web of the fin thus
constituted becomes useful as a balancer, propeller, or
rudder by virtue of its flexibility and consequent freedom
of movement and at the same time has the possibility
of a certain amount of rigidity. All these characteristics
are imparted to the fin by its inner supports called fin-
rays, to which group of structures the fin-spines belong.

The nature of any type of fin-spine is better appreci-
ated after a review of the more common and more primi-
tive fin supports, namely, the soft rays. This kind of
ray is most numerous in fishes and because of its soft
or flexible state it receives its designation. Its role in
the fin is that of a skeletal support to the fin-web only.
The origin and homology of the soft rays have been
traced by Goodrich’, Harrison’ and others, and may, there-
fore, be omitted here. Much more desirable is a knowl-
edge of the simple structure of a soft ray. In this con-
nection there are two features to be noted. First, rays
of this type are always dichotomously branched. The
base of the ray is heavy and solid, but soon divides into

1. Goodrich, E. S. Jour. Mic. Science, vol. 47, 1903.
2. Harrison, R. G. Arch. f. Mik. Anat, vol. 42, 1893.

Reed and Lloyd.—Spines of Catfishes 203

two parts, each of which divides into two and so on to
the periphery of the fin. Because of this branching the
ray becomes fan-shaped, supporting a much greater ex-
tent of the web at its free edge than at its base, Fig. 1.
Second, each division of the ray is transversely
segmented, a state which makes for flexibility as well as
indicating its morphologic nature.

In what may, for convenience, be termed the “higher”
or more modified bony fishes—strong and sharp spines
may be present in all fins excepting the caudal. The
Yellow Perch serves as a good example. The first dorsal
of this species is supported entirely by spines. They are
heavy at the base and with an even surface regularly
taper to a sharp point at the margin of the fin-web, Fig.
2. They are without either transverse segments or
branches. Spines of this type may be said to result from
a suppression of branching and segmentation during
development. Each spine, therefore, as an entity is an
exact match for a soft ray. When the segmentation per-
sists without the branching there results what has been
termed a simple ray, Fig. 3. So far as definitive struc-
tures are concerned the simple ray occupies an inter-
mediate position between soft rays and spines.

The presence of the catfishes among the groups com-
monly designated as soft-rayed fishes leads one to wonder
at what appears to constitute an exception to the rule
of the absence of fin-spines among these forms. There
is no doubt about the rigidity, sharpness and efficiency
of catfish-spines as organs of defence. They appeal to
one as true functional spines whatever may be their
nature in a structural way.

Observations upon the microscopic structure and de-
velopment of catfish spines leads one to the conclusion
that while they are strong and sharp spine-like struc-
tures in function their nature in a morphologic way is
not such as to be considered widely different from that
of soft rays. It has been noted above that the spines
of the more highly modified fishes are regular with re-
gard to surface. Quite the reverse of this state obtains

204 American Fisheries Society

in the spines of catfishes. While still covered by skin
they may appear smooth enough, but after the soft tis-
sues are removed the surface is found broken by deep
and more or less longitudinal furrows with correspond-
ing intermediate ridges, Fig. 4. These ridges are
reminiscent of the ankylosis of dichotomous divisions of
soft rays. The spine as a whole represents a single soft
ray. Instead of a derivation through the suppression of
branches and the early co-ossification of segments, the
spines of catfishes ossify and become rigid after the for-
mation of the dichotomous branches has taken place.
This is clearly shown by a study of both the surface of
the spine and microscopical preparations.

As a rule the anterior branch of the first soft ray in
a fin is the shortest one, the succeding divisions becom-
ing progressively longer according to the curvature of
the edge of the fin-web. These relations are obvious in
the elements of the spines of catfishes as shown in Fig.
4. The first ridge (fd.) on the anterior side of the spine
represents the first division of the ray. It extends
diagonally towards the anterior margin and comes to an
end somewhat before the middle of the spine is reached.
The second (sd.) division is similar in appearance and
course, but does not end until the distal half of the spine
is reached. The third (td.) is the longest of the spine
elements and forms the point. The fourth (fd.)
although not so pronounced as the other divisions is in-
corporated with the spine to about the middle of its ex-
tent at which level it fails to co-ossify with others and
becomes an independent division in the fin-web near the
margin of which it divides. The free portion of this
division is in every respect like that of soft rays. In
the proximal portion of the spine, particularly of very
young specimens there are numerous openings extend-
ing into the cavity. These represent the last vestiges of
the spaces between segments. As the fish matures new
bony tissue is deposited in the longitudinal grooves which
become less and less conspicuous with age.

Reed and Lloyd.—Spines of Catfishes 205

From observations such as those mentioned above it
appears that the spines of the common catfishes repre-
sent modifications of soft rays through ankylosis of the
segments and dichotomous divisions rather than suppres-
sion of those parts as in the spiny-rayed forms. In
other words, the catfish spine is a modification of a
definitive soft ray rather than that of its embryonic
rudiments. The presence of spines in catfishes becomes
harmonious, therefore, with their rank among the soft-
rayed groups.

206

American Fisheries Society

EXPLANATION OF FIGURES.

Diagram of a soft ray.

Diagram of a fin-spine. S., spine; W., web of fin.

Diagram of a simple ray. It possesses transverse segments

but no branches.

Diagram of a wax model of the spine of the common bull-
head, Ameiurus nebulosus. Fd., first division of ray; Sd.,
Td., Fd. second to fourth divisions respectively. Sr.
first soft ray of fin.

ns |

’ : ,
Pas Sh Meats. ss)
, gett eee este

ait
i
a ath
' ete

TRANSACTIONS

of the

American Fisheries Society

“To promote the cause of fish culture; to gather and
diffuse information bearing upon its practical success,
and upon all matters relating to the fisheries; to unite
and encourage all interests of fish culture and the fish-
eries; and to treat all questions of a scientific and eco~
nomic character regarding fish.”

VOLUME XLV, NUMBER 4
1915-1916

Edited by The Recording Secretary
SEPTEMBER, 1916

Published Quarterly by the Society
NEW YORK.N. Y.

CONTENTS

Editorial
Report of the ‘Treasurer 22200. eee

Distributon) of ‘Annual Meetings, eee 216
Life of Inland "Waters: eee a tal Ae
Last) of |" Membersye oe eee eS Aaa nites Re ee

OnSTIUWEIOR | oe a a ATO Oe ce a ea

CERTIFICATE OF INCORPORATION OF
THE AMERICAN FISHERIES SOCIETY

We, the undersigned, persons of full age and citizenship of the
United States, and a majority being citizens of the District of Colum-
bia, pursuant to and in conformity with sections 599 to 603, inclusive,
of the Code of Law for the District of Columbia, enacted March 3,
1901, as amended by the Acts approved January 31 and June 30, 1902,
hereby associate ourselves together as a society or body corporate and
certify in writing:

1, That the name of the Society is the AMERICAN FISHERIES
SOCIETY.

2. That the term for which it is organized is nine hundred and
ninety-nine years.

3. That its particular business and objects are to promote the cause
of fish culture; to gather and diffuse information bearing upon its
practical success, and upon all matters relating to the fisheries; to
unite and encourage all interests of fish culture and the fisheries; and
to treat all questions of a scientific and economic character regarding
fish with power:

a. To acquire, hold and convey real estate and other property, and
to establish general and special funds.

b. To hold meetings.
ce. To publish and distribute documents.
d. To conduct lectures.

e. To conduct, endow, or assist investigation in any department of
fishery and fish-culture science.

f. To acquire and maintain a library.

g. And, in general, to transact any business pertinent to a learned
society.

4. That the affairs, funds and property of the ¢orporation shall be
in general charge of a council, consisting of the officers and the execu-
tive committee, the number of whose members for the first year shall
be seventeen, all of whom shall be chosen from among the members
ot the Society.

Witness our hands and seals this 16th day of December, 1910.

Seymour Bower (Seal)
TxHeopvore GILL (Seal)
Wiruiam E, Meexan (Seal)
TxHeovorE S. PALMER (Seal)
Bertranp H. Roserts (Seal)
Hucu M. Smirn (Seal)
RicHARD SYLVESTER (Seal)

Recorded April 15, 1911.

second meeting was held.

AMERICAN FISHERIES SOCIETY

Organized 1870

The first meeting of the Society occurred December 20, 1870. The
organization then effected continued until February, 1872, when the

Since that time there has been a meeting

each year, as shown below. The respective presidents were elected at
the meeting, at the place, and for the period shown opposite their
names, but they presided at the subsequent meeting.

PRESIDENTS, TERMS OF SERVICE, AND PLACES OF

MEETING.
Le Walliamy@ litte se eee als 1870-1872............
2. William Clift... WA SIDINGS eae
Ss) oWilham) (Clift _1873-187A4............
4. Robert B. Roosevelt... 1874-1875..........
5. Robert B. Roosevelt...........1875-1876...........
6. Robert B. Roosevelt.......... 1876-1877*
7. Robert B. Roosevelt............ 1877-1878...........
8. Robert B. Roosevelt... 1878-1879..........
9. Robert B. Roosevelt... 1879-1880...........

10. Robert B. Roosevellt...... 1880-1881

11. Robert B. Roosevelt... 1881-1882

12. George Shepard Page..........1882-1883

13. James Benkard................. 1883-1884.

14, Theodore Lyman......... 1 884-1885

15. Marshall McDonald.........1885-1886...........
GSW Viewed sons ae 1886-1887

17, William DL.) May: 2) _.1887-1888.......
18. John H. Bissell... 1888-1889

19. Eugene G. Blackford.......1889-1890

21. James A. Henshall... 1891-1892
22. Herschel Whitaker... 1892-1893
2a. VRCRry (Cain. ali vagule 1893-1894
24. William L. May.................. 1894-1895
A) Od De Huntington TET 1895-1896
26. Herschel Whitaker...........1896-1897
24.) Willian; 4o.s Mayo 1897-1898
28. George F. Peabody 1898-1899
29. John W. Titcomb.................. 1599-1900
30) 16.) Dickersone 1900-1901
S1.°K. 0B Bryantsc nt) 1901-1902
32. George M. Bowerz...............1902-1903
So) rank oN G@lark. icone. 1903-1904
34. Henry DS HROOt Le We eu een 1904-1905

*A special meeting was held at the Centennial Grounds,

» C. D. Joslyn... ue 1905-1906
. E. A. Birge.... ae

Pa., October 6 and 7, 1876.

. Eugene G. Blackford........1890-1891........

New York, N. Y.
Albany, N. Y.

New York, N.. Y.
New York, N. Y.
New York, N. Y.

een New York, N. Y.

New York, N. Y.
New York, N. Y.
New York, N. Y.
New York, N. Y.
New York, N. Y.
New York, N. Y.
New York, N. Y.
Washington, D. C.
Washington, D. C.
Chicago, Ill.

... Washington, D. C.

Detroit, Mich.
Philadelphia, Pa.
Put-in Bay, Ohio
Washington, D. C.
New York, N. Y.
Chicago, Il.
Philadelphia, Pa.
New York, N. Y.
New York, N. Y.
Detroit, Mich.

Niagara Falls, N. Y.
Woods Hole, Mass.
Milwaukee, Wis.

Put-in Bay, Ohio.

Woods Hole, Mass.
Atlantic City, N. J.

White Sulphur Spgs., W. Va.
Grand Rapids, Mich.

- Hugh M. Smith........ f 1 907-1908............ Erie, Pa.

»adbarleton HH. Bean 1908-1909............ Washington, D. C.

- Seymour Bower... 1909-1910............ Toledo, Ohio.

. William E. Meehan... 1910-191 1............ New York, N. Y.
CS Bllerto nec 1911-1912... St. Louis, Mo.

. Charles H. Townsend.........1912-1914........... Denver, Colo.

» RRORIY VW er tate! ae 1913-1914........... Boston, Mass.

- Daniel B. Fearing. 1914-1915 Washington, D. C.

- Jacob Reighard.. sn 1914-1916............ San Francisco, Calif.

Philadelphia,

Che American Fisheries Society

EDITORIAL

REPORT OF THE TREASURER.

As stated in a note at the foot of page 83 (Transac-
tions, Vol. XLV, No. 2, March, 1916), of the proceedings
of the San Francisco meeting, the report of the Treas-

urer for the year 1914-15 was missing.

It has since

been found and is herewith presented.—R. C. O.

To the American Fisheries Society:

I hereby submit my Annual Report as Treasurer from
September 30, 1914, to September 1, 1915:

1914

1914

Sept.

Oct.

Oct.
Oct.

Oct.

Nov.

Dec.

Dec.

RECEIPTS.
Sale vor MmeDOEES oi ke $ 50.50
Postage Deposit Refund ..... 12.52
Life Membership Fees .......... 50.00
Memriv ines hii elite ok 675.10
EXPENDITURES.

30—Balance due Treasurer $257.84
3—Dr. H. M. Smith, post-

Cg SACs ae GA EY Be if a Ir
7—Clark & Fritts, printing 16.75

10-—W.F. Roberts: Co.,
oy 155) 5 app aNe 2eelenehs eon 20.85

1S) os Batler, Ps Mi
stamped envelopes... 10.68

5—R. J. Holmes, stenog-
Paper eke eee 115.75

6—W. F. Roberts Co.,
[51 1) 01 #1 AR AO meee me Oe 14.00

7—Clark & Fritts, printing 6.00

$788.12

216 American Fisheries Society

1915
Feb. 12—Clark & Fritts, pub-

lishing see e's 207.38
March 2—Consolidated Engrav-

Inge Cos que nce 3.00
April 26—Clark & Fritts, pub-

HSH gy eS 7 159.22
July} 26—C.’ J; Butler.) Po) Me .

stamped envelopes... 21.36
Aug. 10—Clark & Fritts, pub-

becdath et stiaaw ne eae len! 119.55
Aug. 18—J. C. Hall Co., receipt

Bogs wee early 6.75
Aug. 20—Raymond C. Osburn,

Secretary | on 71.62
Aug. 20—Clerical work _...... 3.00

$1,040.87
Balance due Treasurer $252.75

$1,040.87
Respectfully submitted,

C. W. WILLARD, Treasurer.

Westerly, R. I., September 1, 1915.

DISTRIBUTION OF ANNUAL MEETINGS

The coming annual meeting in New Orleans calls to
mind the fact that never before in the history of the
Society has a meeting been held in the South. Washing-
ton, D. C., White Sulphur Springs, W. Va., and St.
Louis, Mo., can scarcely be considered as being more
than on the border line.

A glance at the geographical distribution of the an-
nual meetings of the past forty-five years reveals the
fact that twenty-nine of them have been held in the Mid-
dle Atlantic States, ten in the Middle Western States,

Editorial 217

six in Washington, D. C., three in New England (all in
Mass.) and three in the west.

How are these irregularities to be accounted for? The
first thirteen meetings after the organization of the So-
ciety were held in New York City, with one exception,
Albany. This was probably because of the central posi-
tion of New York with regard to the early membership.
Since that time five meetings have been held in New
York State, and only once in the last sixteen years. The
six meetings held in Washington are not a dispropor-
tionate number when one considers the interest and ac-
tivity of the members of the Bureau of Fisheries in the
work of the Society. Aside from the above, only four
States have had as many as three annual meetings,
Massachusetts, Pennsylvania, Ohio and Michigan. Other
- States are as follows: Illinois, 2; Nebraska, Wisconsin,
New Jersey, West Virginia, Missouri, Colorado and Cali-
fornia, one each. Since 1900 there have been only two
repetitions, indicating a desire on the part of the Society
for a fair distribution of the meetings.

Undoubtedly a number of factors have entered into
the choice of meeting places in recent years. The most
important of these seems to be the distribution of mem-
bers, most of whom are still in the New England, Middle
Atlantic and North Middle States. Interest in fish cul-
ture has also been an important factor. For example,
two of the Massachusetts meetings were held at Woods
Hole and two of the Ohio meetings at Put-in-Bay. Great
“convention cities,’ which have much to offer the visitor
in the way of sight-seeing, have also influenced the dis-
tribution of the meetings, as witness New York, Wash-
ington, Boston, Philadelphia, Chicago and San Francisco.

Now, why have no meetings until the present one been
held in the South? Two reasons which come to my mind
at once seem sufficient to explain this apparent neglect.
In the first place, the membership in the southern states
has always been comparatively slight, possibly because,
owing to smaller population and natural advantages, the
necessity for artificial culture of fish has not been so

218 American Fisheries Society

pressing as in some other regions of our country, and
therefore there has been less interest in this work and
in the Society. If so, this is a condition that will bring
its own cure in a few years,—the necessity is already
keenly felt in some parts of the South, in fact. But of
far greater weight is the fact that the meetings have
always been held in the latter part of the summer, at
the time when the fisheries men are as a rule more
free to attend than at any other time, and then the
southern states are supposed to be hot. The climate may
be quite bearable, to be sure, as the writer can testify,
but the northern man who has not summered in the South
is firmly inclined to the belief that he would melt com-
pletely away if compelled to spend a few days in sum-
mer below Mason’s and Dixon’s Line.

New Orleans has broken the ice (a mere figure of
speech, of course, as none ever occurs there outside of
the refrigerator and the drinkables), and undoubtedly
the meetings will be held in the South with increasing
frequency in coming years, especially with the growth
of membership in that section.—R. C. O.

LIFE OF INLAND WATERS

The science of limnology or hydrobiology, the study of
the fresh waters and their inhabitants, has recently been
enriched to the scientist and laid open to the beginning
student and casual reader by the publication of a book
bearing the above title, prepared by Prof. Jas. G. Need-
ham and Mr. J. T. Lloyd of Cornell University, and is-
sued by the Comstock Publishing Co. of Ithaca, N. Y.
The long experience and fruitful work of the senior au-
thor are alone sufficient recommendation for the quality
of the book, and it will be found an extremely instructive
work, of value to all those interested in fisheries and the
problems of the fresh waters.

While space will not permit a thorough digest of the
four hundred and thirty-eight pages of well-selected and
interesting reading matter, illustrated by two hundred

List of Members 219

and forty-four cuts, it may not be amiss to cite the topics
discussed, which are in brief:
The nature of the aquatic environment,—properties
and uses of water, water and land;
Types of aquatic environment,—lakes and ponds,
streams, marshes, swamps and bogs;
Aquatic organisms,—plants, animals;
Adjustment to conditions of aquatic life,—individ-
ual adjustment, mutual adjustment;
Aquatic societies,—limnetic societies, littoral socie-
ties ;
Inland water culture,—aboriginal water culture,
water crops, water culture and civic improvement;
Bibliography,—more important papers dealing with
life in the water;
Index.

While, as might be expected from the previous work
of the authors, the emphasis is placed on ecology or the
relation of aquatic organisms to their environment, there
is also much valuable material on the general biology
and life histories of aquatic forms, and the economic side
is not neglected.

The reviewer does not hesitate to recommend the book
as well worth the perusal of anyone interested in aquatic
life.

he. ee

LIST OF MEMBERS, 1914-- 1915
Showing Year of Election to Membership

Honorary Members

The President of the United States, Wooprow Witson.
The Governors of the several states.
Alabama, Cuarites Henperson.
Arizona, Georce W. P. Hunt.
Arkansas, Grorce W. Hays.
California, Hmam W. Jounson.
Colorado, Grorce A. Cartson.
Connecticut, Marcus A. Hoxtcome.
Delaware, Cuartes R. Mitter..
Florida, Park M. TrammMett.
Georgia, Nar. E. Harris.

Idaho, Moses ALEXANDER.

Illinois, Epwarp F. Dunne.

Indiana, Samurt M. Ratuston.

Iowa, Grorce W. Crarke.

Kansas, ArrHur Capper.

Kentucky, A. O. Stan ey.

Louisiana, Lurner E. Hatt.

Maine, Oaxrey C. Curtis.

Maryland, Emerson C. Harrineron.
Massachusetts, SamuEL W. McCatt.
Michigan, Woopsrince N. Ferris.
Minnesota, W. S. Hammonn.
Mississippi, THeropore G. Brxzo.
Missouri, Exztor W. Masor.
Montana, Samvue.t VY. Stewart.
Nebraska, Jonn H. Moreneap.
Nevada, Emmet D. Boyte.

New Hampshire, Rottanp H. Spavprne.
New Jersey, James F. Frexver.

New Mexico, Witz1am C. McDona xp.
New York, Cuarites S. WHITMAN.
North Carolina, Locxe Craice.

North Dakota, L. B. Hanna.

Ohio, Franx B. WI11u1s.

Oklahoma, R. L. WrriiaMs.

Oregon, JaAMEs WITHYCOMBE.
Pennsylvania, M. G. BrumBavucu.
Rhode Island, R. Livincston BEEcKMAN.
South Carolina, Ricuarp I. Mannine.
South Dakota, Frank M. Byrne.
Tennessee, THomas C. Rye.

Texas, JamEs E. FrErcuson.

Utah, Wix11am Spry.

Vermont, Cuartes W. Gates.
Virginia, H. C. Sruarr.

Washington, Ernest Lister.

West Virginia, Henry D. Harriexp.
Wisconsin, E. L. Purppr.

Wyoming, Joun B. Kenopricx.

08
06
09
93,
712

04
89

04,
04
04
08
88
04

09
95

08

List of Members 221

Antipa, Pror. Dr. Grecorre, Inspector-General of Fisheries, Bu-
charest, Roumania.

Besana, Guiuserre, Lombardy Fisheries Society, Via Rugabello
19, Milan, Italy

Buus Rincr Rop anp Gun Cuvs, Harper’s Ferry, W. Va.

Boropine, Nicoras, Petrograd, Russia.

Caxverwoop, W. L., Inspector of Salmon Fisheries for Scotland,
Edinburgh, Scotland.

Denzicu, Lorp, London, England. F

Fisu Protective Association or EasteERN PENNsyLvANiA, 1020 Arch
St., Philadelphia, Pa.

Fryer, Str Cnarzes E., Former Supervising Inspector of Fisheries,
Board of Agriculture and Fisheries, London, England.

Horer, Pror. Dr. Bruno, Biological Research Station for Fisheries,
Munich Germany.

Kisuinovuye, Dr. K., Imperial University, Tokyo, Japan.

Krranara, Dr. Tasaxu, Imperial Fisheries Bureau, Tokyo, Japan.

Laxe Sr. Crain SHoorine AND FisuHine Crus, Detroit, Mich.

MarsuBara, Pror. S., Imperial Household Department, Tokyo,
Japan.

Nacet, Hon. Cuas., St. Louis, Mo.

New York AssociaTIoN FOR THE Protection oF Fisu ann Game,
New York City.

Norpavist, Dr. Oscar Fritsor, Superintendent of Fisheries, Lund,
Sweden.

Perrier, Pror. EpmMonp, Director Museum of Natural History,
Paris France.

Sournsipe SportsMEN’s Crus, Oakdale, L. I., N. Y.

STEINDACHNER, Pror. Dr. Franz, Royal Natural History, Museum,
Vienna, Austria.

Vincicuerra, Pror. Dr. Decio, Director Royal Fish Cultural Sta-
tion, Rome, Italy.

Von Grimm, Dr. Oscar, Inspector-General of Fisheries, Petrograd,
Russia.

Von Kanicu, Dr. Henricu, Department of Forestry and Domain,
Vienna, Austria.

Von Pirxo, Franz, Austrian Fishery Society, Vienna, Austria.

222

84.
"87
04
04
09
08
97
84.

84
09
89
08
84,
09
84.
84

10

American Fisheries Society

Corresponding Mombers

APoOsTOLIDES, Pror. Nicoty Cur., Athens, Greece.

ARMISTEAD, J. J., Dumfries, Scotland.

Ayson, Cuartes L., Hakataemen, Oamaru, New Zealand.

Ayson, L. F., Commissioner of Fisheries, Wellington, New Zealand.

Fiecer, Cuas., Canea, Crete.

Hice1nson, Epuarpo, Consul for Peru, New York City.

Jarre, S., Sandfort, Lustringen, Germany.

Lanpmark, A., Inspector of Norwegian Fresh-Water Fisheries,
Christiania, Norway.

Marston, R. B., Editor of the Fishing Gazette, London, England.

Mousrn, S. M., Bengal Fisheries Department, Calcutta, India.

O1sen, Dr. O. T., Grimsby, England.

Porreav, CHartNey, Lommel, Belgium.

Raveret-Warter, C., Director of Aquicultural Station at Nid-de-
Verdier, 20 Rue des Acacias, Paris.

Rieper, C., Bergstedt, Germany.

Sars, Pror. G. O., Christiania, Norway.

Sortsky, Baron N. pe, Director of the Imperial Agricultural Mu-
seum, Petrograd, Russia.

Sreap, Davin G., Fisheries Department, Sydney, New South Wales,
Australia.

"15

15
715

"15

List of Members 223

Patrons

AxuasKA Packers’ Association, San Francisco, Calif.

Auten, Henry F. (Agent, Crown Mills), 210 California St., San
Francisco, Cal. .

American Biscurr Co., 815 Battery St., San Francisco, Cal.

American Can Co., Mills Building, San Francisco, Cal.

Armour & Co., Battery and Union Sts., San Francisco, Cal.

Armssy, J. K., Company, San Francisco, Cal.

Attias Gas Encorne Co., Inc., Foot of 22d Avenue, Oakland, Cal.

Batrour, Guturie & Co., 350 California St., San Francisco, Cal.

Bank or Carirornia, N. A., California and Sansome Sts., San
Francisco, Cal.

Broeper-Donovan Lumper Mirtis, Bellingham, Wash.

Bonv anv Goopwin, 454 California St., San Francisco, Cal.

Burree ann Letson, Lrp., South Bellingham, Wash.

Cautrornta Barret Co., 22d and Illinois Sts., San Francisco, Cal.

Cauirorn1a Door Co., 43 Main St., San Francisco, Cal.

CALIFORNIA STEVEDORE AND Batxasr Co., Inc., 210 California St.,
San Francisco, Cal.

CaLirorniA Wire Crora Company, San Francisco, Cal.

CaswEL1, Geo. W., Co., Inc., 530-4 Folsom St., San Francisco, Cal.

Curncu, C. G., & Co., Inc., 144 Davis St., San Francisco, Cal.

Corrin-Repincton Co., 35-45 Second St., San Francisco, Cal.

CoxtumpBra River Packers’ Association, Astoria, Ore.

Crane Co. (C. W. Weld, Mgr.), 301 Brannan St., San Francisco,
Cal.

Donce, Sweeney & Co., 36-48 Spear St., San Francisco, Cal.

First Nationat Bank or BettincHam, Bellingham, Wash.

Fuuter, W. P., & Co., 301 Mission St., San Francisco, Cal.

Grays Harsor Commerciat Co., Foot of 3d St., San Francisco, Cal.

Henpry, C. J., Co., 46 Clay St., San Francisco, Cal.

Jones-TurersacH Co., Tue, Battery and Merchants Sts. San
San Francisco, Cal.

Kwarp, Tue Frep H., Co., Arcade-Maryland Casualty Building,
Baltimore, Md.

Linen Tureap Co., Tue (W. A. Barbour, Mgr.), 443 Mission St.,
San Francisco, Cal.

Marriace, Cuas. F., Company, 335 Greenwich St., New York City.

Nauman, C., & Co., 501-3 Sansome St., San Francisco, Cal.

Outver Sart Co., Mt. Eden, Cal.

Morrison Mixx Co., Ixc., Bellingham, Wash.

Morse Harpware Co., Inc., 1025 Elk St., Bellingham, Wash.

Pacrric Harpware anp Steet Co., 7th and Townsend Sts., San
Francisco, Cal.

Paciric States Execrric Co., 575 Mission St., San Francisco, Cal.

Puintirrs SHEET AND Tin Piate Co., Weirton, W. Va.

Pore anv Tarzsor, Foot of 3d St., San Francisco, Cal.

Pucer Sounp Navication Co., Seattle, Wash.

Ray, W. S., Mre. Co., Inc., 216 Market St., San Francisco, Cal.

Scumwt Lirnocraru Co., 2d and Bryant Sts., San Francisco, Cal.

ScuHwaBACHER-FrEY STaTIONERY Co., 609-11 Market St., San Fran-
cisco, Cal.

Suip Owners anv Mercuants’ Tue Boar Co., Foot of Green St.,
San Francisco, Cal.

Suerwin-Wixitams Co., Tuer, 454 Second St., San Francisco, Cal.

SmiruH Cannery Macuines Co., 2423 South First Avenue, Seattle,
Wash.

Sranparp Gas Encrne Co., 1 California St., San Francisco, Cal.

224 American Fisheries Society

715 Sranparp Ox Co. or Carirornia, Standard Oil Building, San
Francisco, Cal.

715 Unirep Encrneentnc Works, 232 Spear St., San Francisco, Cal.

15 U. S. Rupser Co. or Carrrornta (W. D. Rigdon, Mgr.), 50-60
Fremont St., San Francisco, Cal.

15 U. S. Street Propucts Co., Rialto Building, San Francisco, Cal.

715 Weis Farco NationaL Banx or San Francisco, Montgomery and
Market Sts., San Francisco, Cal.

715 Western Fuex Co., 430 California St., San Francisco, Cal.

°15 Western Meat Co., 6th and Townsend Sts., San Francisco, Cal.

15 Wuitre Bros., Harpwoop Lumexer, 5th and Brannan Sts., San
Francisco, Cal.

"16
"13

710
98
"13

06
715

08
08
13
712
92
14
"18
14
712
"15
710

84
03
715
710

01

712
712
"15
715
713

01
98
7138
710
05

ele

15
710
86
712
14
05
04
84

01

List of Members 225

Active Members*

LIFE MEMBERS INDICATED BY ASTERISK (*).

Avams, Pror. Cras. C., State College of Forestry, Syracuse, N. Y.
a Wm. C., Commissioner of Fisheries and Game, Boston,
ass.

Artcuison, W. W., 5 Wabash Ave., Chicago, III.

ALexanverR, GeorcE L., Grayling, Mich.

Aexanver, M. L., President, Louisiana Conservation Commission,
New Orleans, La.

Axrorp, Jase, President State Board of Fish Commissioners, 29
W. Dayton St., Madison, Wis.

ALLEN, Witi1AmM, New Orleans Association of Commerce, New
Orleans, La.

Auer, H. D., U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, Washington, D. C.

Awnverson, Aucusr J., Box 109, Marquette, Mich.

Anpverson, Cart A., U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, Manchester, Iowa.

ANDERSON, FrRanxK, 1331 East Seventh Ave., Denver, Colo.

ANDERSON, J. F., Bastad, Sweden.

Anverson, T. T., Liggett and Myers Tobacco Co., St. Louis, Mo.

ANNIN, JAmEs, Caledonia, N. Y.

Annin, Howarp, Caledonia, N. Y.

ANTOINE, CHartEs, 340 So. Wabash Ave., Chicago, Ill.

ARNOLD AND Winsor Co., 14 Boston Fish Pier, Boston, Mass.

Assury Park Fisuine Crus, John F. Seger, 703 Cookman Ave.,
Asbury Park, N. J.

Atxtins, Cuartes G., U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, Fast Orland, Me.

Atwoop, AnTHony, 73 Waterest St., Plymouth, Mass.

Atwoop, Irvine M., 31 Boston Fish Pier, Boston, Mass.

Aveur, W. A., 33 Fulton St., New York City.

Bascock, JoHn P., Provincial Fisheries’ Department, Victoria,
British Columbia.

Bascock, Wiit1u1am H., 520 The Rookery, Chicago, III.

Batrey, Howarp S., Equitable Building, Denver, Colo.

Baxer, Borers anp Watson Co., 38 Boston Fish Pier, Boston, Mass.

Batcu, Howarp K., 158 W. Austin Ave., Chicago, Ill.

Baupwin, Marcus D., Montana Fish and Game Commission, Kalis-
pell, Mont.

Batpwin, O. N., U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, Saratoga, Wyo.

Batt, E. M., U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, Washington, D. C.

Bart, Franx H., Grand Lake Stream, Me.

Bauxiarp, S. Turuston, Louisville, Ky.

Barzsour, THomas, Museum of Comparative Zoology, Cambridge,
Mass.

Barnes, Earnest W., Supt., R. I. Fisheries Experiment Station,
Wickford, R. I.

Barnes, F. C.. Front St., Portland, Ore.

Barron, James T., 405 Wells Fargo Bldg., Portland, Ore.

Bartiert, Dr. S. P., U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, Quincy, Ill.

Bauer, A., 25th and’ Dearborn Sts., Chicago, Ill.

Beat, F. J., State Commissioner of Fisheries, Plymouth, N. H.

Beaman, D. C., 739 Equitable Bldg., Denver, Colo.

Bean, Barton A., U. S. National Museum, Washington, D. C.

Bean, Dr. Tartetron H., State Fish Culturist, Capitol, Albany,
N. Y., and 1 Madison Ave., New York City.

Beeman, Henry W., New Preston, Conn.

226 American Fisheries Society

“13 Bextpinc, Davin L., Biologist, Massachusetts Department of Fish-
eries and Game, Boston, Mass.

13 Bett, J. C., Alaska Packers’ Association, San Francisco, Cal.

°80 Betmont, Perry, 580 Fifth Ave., New York City.

“13 Benson, Joun T., Director, Zoological Garden, Boston, Mass.

13 Bere, Georce, Indiana Fish Commission, Indianapolis, Ind.

06 Berxuovus, Jerry R., Pennsylvania Fish Commission, Torresdale,
Pa.

713 Bicxrorp, W. M., Missoula, Mont.

13 Bicxiey, Cuas., 56 Robbins St., Waltham, Mass.

“97 Bircr, Dr. E. A., State Board of Fish Commissioners, University
of Wisconsin, Madison, Wis.

<i Urs ese Dr. A. W., National Canner’s Association, Washington,

C.

15 Buack, C. H., Sunny Point Packing Co., Seattle, Wash.

713 BiacKxrorp, Cnas. Minor, M.D., Staunton, Va.

13 Brain, James, Missouri State Fish Committee, Springfield, Mo.

13 Buaney, Jonn F., Whitman, Mass.

"16 Brysrap, Cuester N., U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, Yes Bay, Alaska.

°01 BoarpMan, W. H., Secretary, Board of Inland Fisheries Commis-
sioners, State House, Providence, R. I.

14 Botton, C. C., 404 Hickox Bldg., Cleveland, Ohio.

702 Bootu, Drewirr C., Homer, Minn.

14 BorpeNnkEcueER, Witiiam, R. R. 19, Haughville Station, Indian-
apolis, Ind.

715 Boucuer, E. C., 431 New Call Bldg., San Francisco, Cal.

°90 Bower, Seymour, Superintendent, Michigan Fish Commission, De-
troit, Mich.

700 Bower, Warp T., U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, Washington, D. C.

°99 Bowers, Georce M., Martinsburg, W. Va.

"10 Bramuatt, J. W., 415-417 E. 8th St., Kansas City, Mo.

14 Brices, A. B., Ashaway, R. I.

“05 Brower, J. F., Pennsylvania Fish Commission, Holmesburg, Pa.

14 Brown, Ernest C., 52 Vanderbilt Ave., New York City.

14 Brown, Ernest Cuive, Copake, N. Y.

°98 Brown, Georce M., care Pere Marquette R. R., Detroit, Mich.

°04 Brown, G. W.N., U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, Orangeburg, S. C.

°92 Brusu, Dr. E. F., Mount Vernon, N. Y.

10 Bryan, Pror. Wm. Atanson, College of Hawaii, Honolulu, H. T.

705 Buck, Wiruiam O., U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, Neosho, Mo.

04 Butter, A. G., Pennsylvania Fish Commission, Corry, Pa.

712 Burirr, G. W., Pleasant Mount, Pa.

“12 Buiter, Naruan R., Pennsylvania Fish Commission, Harrisburg,
Pa.

15 Burearp, Joun H., Lewis Bldg., Portland, Ore.

°07 Burnuam, Cuas. W., U. S. Fisheries Station, Louisville, Ky.

13 Cattaway, Furrer E., 207 Broad St., La Grange, Ga.

"12 Carett, Arcu. T. P., U .S. Bureau of Fisheries, Trail, Ore.
702 Carter, E. N., U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, Bullochville, Ga.
16 Caster, Wm. A., U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, Homer, Minn.
*°03 CasseLmMAN, E. S., Lake Delaware, N. Y.

713 Castine Crus pe France, Place de Concorde, Paris, France.
07 Carre, Evcenr, Langdon, Kan.

13 Campers, F. W., Salt Lake City, Utah.

°03 CranpieR, Horatio, Kingston, Mass.

713 Cuapman, L. Dana, 374 Washington St., Boston, Mass.

06 Curyney, Joun K., Tarpon Springs, Fla.

10 Curystie, Percivat, High Bridge, N. J.

710
713
"11
10

71]
712
Ala

00

04
14
00
04
“139
14
01
*00
715
710

"14

List of Members 227

Cuurcn, N. B., Tiverton, R. I.
CuurcHiLL, Winston, Cornish, N. H.
Crark, H. Warton, U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, Fairport, Iowa.

Crarke, Isaac H., Treasurer Inland Fisheries Commission, James-
town, R. I.

CLEVELAND, W. B., Burton, Ohio.

Cuirrorp, Cuarzes P., First National Bank, Chicago, IIL.

Crus SuHawinican, Club Shawinigan, St. Maurice Co., Quebec, -
Canada.

Cons, Esen W., Superintendent of Fisheries, Board of Game and
Fish Commissioners, St. Paul, Minn.

Coss, JouHn N., Pacific Fisherman, 1321 Smith Bldg., Seattle, Wash.

Corrman, J. Y., 4248 Cleveland, St. Louis, Mo.

Cocswe11, T. M., U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, Washington, D. C.

Coxer, Dr. Rosert E., U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, Washington, D.C.

Corrs, Russett J., Danville, Va.

Concer, Geo. C., 748 E. Market St., Akron, O.

Cooper, E. A., Cold Spring Harbor, N. Y.

Coruss, C. G., U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, Gloucester, Mass.

Correr, R. E., 112 Market St., San Francisco, Cal.

Crampton, Pror. Henry Epwarp, American Museum of Natural
History, New York City.

Crampton, Joun M., State Superintendent, Board of Fisheries and
Game, New Haven, Conn.

13 Cranpatt, A. J., Ashaway, R. I.
710 Cranston, C. K., care First National Bank, Pendleton, Ore.

08
"ll
08
04
"13

"12
13
"14
06
13
"13

91

01
"12

13
“01

713
05
08

713
"13
712
"14
99
"13
OT

Crary, F. O., Hudson, Wis.

CrasserR, Heo, 1304 Charles St., LaCrosse, Wis.

Curr, C. F., U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, Wytheville, Va.
CunnincHuam, F. W., U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, Gloucester, Mass.
Curran, Won. E., 3 T Wharf, Boston, Mass.

Danexape, Ernest, U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, Washington, D. C.

Davin, Geo., U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, Woods Hole, Mass.

Davinson, J. O., Wisconsin Fish Commission, Madison, Wis.

Davies, Davin, U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, Put-in Bay, Ohio.

Davis, H. C., Secretary, Delaware Fish Commission, Laurel, Del.

Dayries, J. A., Commissioner, Louisiana Conservation Commission,
New Orleans, La.

and °10 Dean, Pror. Basurorp, Columbia University, New York
City.

ved Hersert D., Kalispell, Mont.

DeBaca, Trrnipap C., State Fish and Game Warden, Santa Fe,
New Mexico.

Denison, A. P., Annona, Texas.

DeNyse, Wasuincton J., Gravesend Beach, Borough of Brooklyn,
IN SAY

DeRocuer, Jas. D., U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, Nashua, N. H.

DePuy, Henry F., 32 W. 40th St., New York City.

Detwiter, Joun Y., Honorary President, Florida Fish Commis-
sion, New Smyrna, Fla.

Dickinson, F. H., 131 State St., Boston, Mass.

Dickinson, P. A., State Fish Hatchery, Roxbury, Vt.

Dune, Wii H., Hearst Building, Chicago, Il.

Dinicx, F. F., 8 Long Wharf, Boston, Mass.

Dinsmorg, A. Hi, U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, St. Johnsbury, Vt.

Donce, Leste G., 71 Lexington St., Auburndale, Mass.

Dominy, JEREMIAH M., South Haven, N. Y.

"15 Dow, Franx P., Tacoma, Wash.

228

13
99
09
713
’00
"13

710
00
713

712
13
06

02
04

15
15
»”00

#19
09
"15

07

710
99
712
04.
712
"13
04

712
715
710
14
#19
710
712

710
710
15

714
10
713
792
13
13

American Fisheries Society

Downey, Ben O., 623 Manchester St., Lexington, Ky.
Downine, S. W., U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, Put-in Bay, Ohio.
Doyir, Henry, Vancouver, B. C.

Drew, S. S., South Cle Elum, Wash.

Duntap, I. H., U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, Washington, D. C.

Durkin, D. L., Minnesota Fish and Game Commission, Frazee,
Minn.

Eaton, Howarp, Wolf, Wyo.

Epwarps, Vina N., U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, Woods Hole, Mass.

Empopy, Geo. C., Assistant Professor of Agiculture, Cornell Uni-
versity, Ithaca, N. Y.

ENGELBRECHT, P. J., Thomasville, Colo.

Estes, B. E., 64 Ames Bldg., Boston, Mass.

Evans, Ketty, Commissioner of Game and Fisheries, 64 Welling-
ton St., Toronto, Canada.

EverMANN, Dr. Barron W., Director of the Museum, California
Academy of Sciences, San Francisco, Calif.

Evermann, J. W., Assistant General Manager, Texas and Pacific
Railway, Dallas, Texas.

Farisu, R. R., San Francisco, Cal.

Farretz, R. S., 140 Front St., Portland, Ore.

Fearinc, Daniret B., Board of Inland Fisheries Commissioners,
Newport, R. I.

Fearinc, Mrs. D. B., Newport, R. I.

Feicx, Jonn A., Sandusky, Ohio.

Fempine, J. B., Technical Superintendent, Department of Fish-
eries, Barrie, Ontario.

Fretp, Dr. Grorce W., Chairman, Commissioners on Fisheries and
Game, Sharon, Mass.

Fretp, Pror. Irvine A., Clark College, Worcester, Mass.

Firxrns, B. G., U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, Northville, Mich.

Fintey, W. L., 806 Yeon Building, Portland, Ore.

FisHer, JoHN F., Chapinville, Conn.

FietcHer, Emery L., Ely, Nev.

Fryrisuers’ Crus, 36 Piccadiliy, W. London, England.

Foutert, Ricuarp E., Detroit Zoological Society, Palmer Build-
ing, Detroit, Mich.

Foor, Francis D., 42 Florentine Gardens, Springfield, Mass.

Forses, Rosert, 1705 Knox St., South Bellingham, Wash.

Fores, Dr. S. A., University of Illinois, Urbana, III.

Forsyru, 1157 The Rookery, Chicago, Ill.

FortmMann, Henry F., 1007 Gough St., San Francisco, Cal.

Foster, Frepertcx J., U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, Saratoga, Wyo.

Founp, Wm. A., Department of Marine and Fisheries, Ottawa,
Canada.

Fowter, C. F., Waterloo, Iowa.

Fowrer, Kennetu, 1 Fulton Market, New York City.

Freeman, Mixer, Smith Bldg., Seattle, Wash.

Garceton, Wm. F., 405 Sears Bldg., Boston, Mass.

Garpner, Mrs. Cuarzes C., The Cliffs, Newport, R. I.

GarpNern, Joun W., U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, Concrete, Wash.
Gavirr, W. S., Lyons, N. Y.

Gerry, Perer G., M. C., Providence, R. I.

Gerry, Roserr L., 258 Broadway, New York City.

it

713
05
"15
08
"16
713
713
"13
13

13
"15

08

List of Members 229

Gesericnu, L. A., President, Missouri State Fish Commission, St.
Louis, Mo.

Getz, Norman, Corry, Pa.

Gisss, Cuaries E., U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, East Orland, Me.

Gripert, Pror. C. H., Stanford University, Cal.

Giennan, J. J., U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, Washington, D. C.

Gumpse, F. B., Wells-Fargo Express Co., Kansas City, Mo.

Gorrin, Rozert A., U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, Woods Hole, Mass.

GoopsreED, L. B., Boston, Mass.

Goopwin, O. C., Peace Dale, R. I.

Gourvitie, J. H., 11 T Wharf, Boston, Mass.

Granam, E. A., Berkeley, Taunton, R. F. D., Mass.

GraHam, Grorce H., Massachusetts Commission on Fisheries and
Game, 423 Main St., Springfield, Mass.

Grater, Cuartes B., U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, Yes Bay, Alaska.

Gray, Greorce M., Woods Hole, Mass.

Greene, Dr. Cuas. W., University of Missouri, 814 Virginia Ave.,
Columbia, Mo.

GREENE, Joun V., U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, Washington, D. C.

GREENLEAF, GEorceE W., U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, West Booth-
bay Harbor, Me.

Guerin, Tueorpuite, Treasurer, Rhode Island Commission of
Fisheries, Woonsocket, R. I.

GuncxeL, Witt H., M. and C. Savings Bank, Toledo, Ohio.

Gort, Gro. L., Myrick’s, Mass.

Haas, Wit11am, Pennsylvania Fish Commission, Spruce Creek, Pa.

Haun, E. E., U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, Boothbay Harbor, Me.

Hatey, Cares, Fulton Market, New York City.

Hater, Lawrence, 637 S. Main St., Akron, Ohio.

Hancock, W. K., U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, Baird, Cal.

Hanxinson, T. L., Charleston, Ill.

Hansen, Ferpinanp, Russian Caviar Co., 170 Chambers St., New
York City.

Hansen, G., Osceola, Wis.

Harpy, W. J., 4th and Bessy Sts., San Francisco, Cal.

Harriman, Avertt, Arden, N. Y.

Harris, Frep N., Mound City Engraving Co., St. Louis, Mo.

Harris, P. E., 503 Maynard Bldg., Seattle, Wash.

Harron, L. G., U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, Washington, D. C.

Hart, W. O., 134 Carondelet St., New Orleans, La.

Hartiey, R. M., 560 Bullitt Building, Philadelphia, Pa.

HarrmMann, Pum, Erie, Pa.

Hay, Pror. W. P., Kensington, Md.

Hayrorp, Cuaries O., Supt., State Fish Hatchery, Hackettstown,
N. J.

Hayrorp, Dr. Ernest L., 2301 Monroe St., Chicago, Ill.

Hayrorp, Rozert E., De Bruce, N. Y.

Herman, A. J., Barberton, Ohio.

Hemineway, E. D., 123 Rochelle Ave., Wissahickon, Phila., Pa.

Hensuart, Dr. James A., U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, Tupelo, Miss.

Hero, R., 235 Montgomery St., San Francisco, Cal.

Herrick, Pror. Francis Hopart, Adelbert College, Cleveland, Ohio.

Herricx, Gro. H., Attleboro, Mass.

Herrick, Dr. W. P., 56 East 53d St., New York City.

Hieerns, Aur. S., 142 Atlantic Ave., Boston, Mass.

Hixpersranp, Samvuet F., U. S. Fisheries Laboratory, Beaufort,
N.C:

Hrvyricus, Henry, Jr., Keystone Fish Co., Erie, Pa.

230 American Fisheries Society

13 Hircnincs, Frank E., Supt. State Fish Hatchery, East Sand-
wich, Mass.

03 Hosanr, T. D., Pampa, Texas.

713 Horrses, Exvix J., 195 Ash St., Waltham, Mass.

713. Horrses, G. Raymonp, WS: Bureau of Fisheries, Afognak, Alaska.

95 Hoxpen, H. S., Syracuse, N. Y.

°15 Hoopen, K., Montgomery, Cal.

*10 Hopper, Gronae L., U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, Baird, Cal.

713 Hover, Hersert, Germantown, INE oY:

713 Howarp, Arruur D., Ph. D., Scientific Assistant, U. S. Bureau
of Fisheries, Fairport, Ia.

"13 Howes, E1isan S., U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, Woods Hole, Mass.

?04 Hoxsir, F. D., Superintendent, American Fish Culture Company,
Caroline, R. I.

700 Husparp, Waxpo F., U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, Nashua, N. H.

712 ees Wiis Board of State Fish Commissioners, Saginaw,

ic

"715 Hunt, E. W., Sisson, Cal.-

713 Huntsman, A. G., Ph. D., Asst. Prof. of Biology, University of
Toronto, Toronto, Canada.

#95 Hurizut, H. F., East Freetown, Mass.

710 Hussaxor, Dr. hou American Museum of Natural History, New
York City.

712 Husrep, James D., Denver, Colo.

713 Incatts, Geo. M., 124 Commerce St., Boston, Mass.
712 Inx, Cuartes, 434 East Market St., Akron, Ohio.

715 Jenxins, Dr. Oxiver P., Stanford University, Cal.

795 JeENNiNGs, G. E., Fishing Gazette, 203 Broadway, New York City.

°03 JEWETT, SrePEEN S., 614 Main St., Laconia, N. H.

713 Jonnson, E. H., Sabattis, NG AY)

703 JoHNSON, Dr. F. M., 43 cate St., Boston Mass.

706 JoHNnsoN, Mrs. F. M., 43 Tremont St., Boston, Mass.

713 Jonnson, Henry J., 205 N. Union St., Chicago, Ill.

715 Jowunson, James G., R. I. Commission of Inland Fisheries, River-
side, R. I.

713 Jouwnston, Cassius A., Hoosick Falls, N. Y.

715 JounstoneE, F. C., Colemen Bldg., Seattle, Wash.

713 Jones, E. Lester, U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey, Washington,
DiC:

708 Jones, Tuos. S., Louisville, Ky.

710 Jorpan, Dr. Davin Srarr, Stanford University, Cal.

702 Jostyn, C. D., 200 Fifth Ave. (Suite 840), New York City.

714 Kavanaucu, W. P., Bay City, Mich.

705 Kersecker, A. G., U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, Erwin, Tenn.

°99 Krit, W. M., Tuxedo, Park, N. Y.

712 Kemm™ericnu, Joseru, U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, Washington, D. C.

715 Kenpbart, F. P., Farling Bldg., Portland, Ore.

15 Kenpnart, Near, Farling Bldg., Portland, Ore.

702 Kenparr, Dr. Witi1am C., U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, Washing-
ton, D. C.

704. Kent, Epwin C., Tuxedo Club, Tuxedo Park, N. Y.

715 Kirerutrr, C. A., 2605 Fulton St., Berkeley, Cal.

715 Krervurrr, T. C., Flat Iron Bldg., San Francisco, Cal.

710 Kirznorn, Joun R., Cape Vincent, N. Y.

713 Kinney, M. J., 510 Corbett Bldg., Portland, Oregon.

List of Members 231

"04 KisterzBock, Jostan, Jr., 3824 Spruce St., Philadelphia, Pa.

04 Kirrrepcr, Bensamrin R., Carmel, N. Y.

715 Kievennuusen, F., Altoona, Wash.

15 Kwicut, Dr. Aveustus S., 1 Madison Ave., New York City.

13 Knicut, H. J., Alaska Packers’ Association, San Francisco, Calif.

710 Kopprin, Purp, Jr., Missouri Fish Commission, Forest Park, St.
Louis, Mo.

714 Krarxer, Carr, 1725 N. 7th St., Philadelphia, Penn.

703 Lamsson, G. H., U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, Baird, Cal.

715 Lancerretp, Donatp E., Box 733, Leavenworth, Wash.

*11 Lanp, S. E., Department of Game and Fish, Denver, Colo.

04 Las Feux A., U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, Mammoth Springs,
rk.

708 Lay, Cuartes, Sandusky, Ohio.

16 Lea, Cuartes M., West Thorpe Farm, Devon, Pa.

98 pees C., U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, Yes Bay, via Ketchikan,
aska.

715 Lepcerwoop, LeRoy, 2017 Stuart St., Berkeley, Cal.

713 Lee, Harry S., 374 Washington St., Boston, Mass.

710 Ler, W. McDonaxp, Commissioner of Fisheries, Irvington, Va.

702 Lewis, Cuartes E., Chamber of Commerce, Minneapolis, Minn.

715 Lryvant, Setu H., 7732 Chauncey Ave., Chicago, Ill.

715 Linvensercer, B., Smith Bldg., Seattle, Wash.

710 Linton, Dr. Epwix, Washington and Jefferson College, Washing-

ton, Pa.

706 Locuer, Wm., Kalamazoo, Mich.

12 Lorescu, H. C., Colorado Springs, Colo.

715 Lowe.t, Mansrrexp, San Francisco, Cal.

°98 Lyper1, Dwieut, Michigan Fish Commission, Comstock Park, Mich.

710 Masiz, Cuartes H., Maywood, N. J.

713. MacCatium, G. A., M. D., 981 Madison Ave., New York, N. Y.

"11 McDonaxp, Cart K., U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, Leadville, Colo.

14 McDonaxp, E. B., Liggett and Myers Tobacco Co., St. Louis, Mo.

703 McDovueat, J. M., Gunnison, Colo.

718 McLain, W. S., Bellefourche, S. Dak.

"12 McReynoups, B. B., Water Superintendent, Colorado Springs,
Colo.

"15 Mappen, F. H., 2021 Smith Bldg., Seattle, Wash.

703 Manone, A. H., U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, Quilcene, Wash.

"15 Marirarv, Josern, 1815 Vallejo St., San Francisco, Cal.

°80 Maxiory, CuHarzies, Port Chester, N. Y.

"10 Mannrexp, Geo. N., Indianapolis, Ind.

°97 Manton, Dr. W. P., 32 Adams Ave. West, Detroit, Mich.

711 Marporr, H. F., 4068 Olive St., St. Louis, Mo.

*11 Marrxe, Dr. Davin, Western Reserve University, Cleveland, Ohio.

°98 Marks, J. P., Michigan Fish Commission, Paris, Mich.

799 Marsu, M. C., 113 High St., Buffalo, N. i:

°06 Marry, Joun M., Minnesota Fish and Game Association, St. Paul,
Minn.

°12 Mason, C. C., Hermit, Colo.

13 Maruewson, E. P., Anaconda, Mont.

"15 Marriapcr, Henry, 335 Greenwich St., New York City.

14 May, Jacos, 3452 St. Vincent St., St. Louis, Mo.

°00 Mrap, Pror. A. D., Brown University, Providence, R. I.

*94 MeeHAN, W. E., 422 Dorset St., Mt. Airy, Philadelphia, Pa.

*11 Meents, R. R., President Illinois Fish Commission, Ashkum, III.

232

"14
13
’99
"13
ili
02

08

92
"10

“13
"13
713
13
04
"14
05
715
’92
04
13
99
"10

710
"13
"15
"14

"13
"13

86

712
WOT

"13
13
"10

"14

13
97

"13

95
13
00
"15
"15

American Fisheries Society

Mercer, Jesse E., U. S. Biological Survey, Washington, D. C.

Merritt, ArtHur, Wilkinsonville, Mass.

Merritt, M. E., U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, St. Johnsbury, Vt.

Merson, W. B., Saginaw, Mich.

Meyer, Gustav J. T., 829-831 South Delaware St., Indianapolis, Ind.

Barres Franx, Ohio Fish and Game Commission, Put-in Bay,
Ohio.

Mitten, Franx M., President Board of Commissioners for the
Protection of Birds, Game and Fish, 605 Maison Blanche Bldg.,
New Orleans, La.

Mirus, G. T., Chairman State Fish Commission, Carson City, Nev.

re Roy W., American Museum of Natural History, New York

ity.

Mixter, Samu. J., M. D., 180 Marlboro St., Boston, Mass.

Monroe, Oris D., Supt. State Fish Hatchery, Palmer, Mass.

Mownroz, Wm., Comstock Park, Mich.

Moore, Aurrep, 618 American Bldg., Philadelphia, Pa.

Moore, Dr. H. F., U. S: Bureau of Fisheries, Washington, D. C.

Moore, Joun D., State Conservation Commission, Albany, N. Y.

Morcuer, Grorce, London, Ohio.

Moreutis, Dr. Seretus, 948 Trinity Ave., New York City.

Morretzt, Dantet, Hartford, Conn.

Morris, Dr. Rosert T., 616 Madison Ave., New York City.

Morris, Jas. D., 324 W. 14th St., Indianapolis, Ind.

Morton, W. P., 105 Sterling Ave., Providence, R. I.

Moser, Captain JEFFERSON F., General Superintendent Alaska
Packers’ Association, San Francisco, Cal.

Mun ty, M. G., 1006 Yeon Building, Portland, Ore.

Morpuy, C. H., Sabattis, N. Y.

Myers, B. D., 461 Market St., San Francisco, Cal.

Myers, I. S., 604 Norwood St., Akron, Ohio.

Near, Watter I., Maine Fish and Game Commission, Augusta, Me.

and 710 Neipuincer, Puiuir, 2225 Emmons Ave., Sheepshead Bay,
ING Es

Nevins, James, Superintendent Wisconsin Fish Commission, Madi-
son, Wis.

Newcombe, Witt1am, Tenafly, N. J.

Newman, Epwin A., President Aquarium Fisheries Co., 4305 8th
St., N. W., Washington, D. C.

Newport Free Liprary, Newport, R. I.

Newrorr Historicat Society, Newport, R. I.

Nicnors, JoHN Treapwett, American Museum of Natural History,
New York City.

NicutincaLe, H. W., 740 Salem St., Malden, Mass.

Oaxes, Wn. H., 24 Union Park St., Boston, Mass.

O’Brien, W. J., Supt. of Hatcheries, Nebraska Game and Fish
Commission, Gretna, Neb.

Orrusun, T. O., Secy. Minnesota Fish and Game Commission,
Glenwood, Minn.

Onace, Dr. Justus, St. Paul, Minn.

O’Hara, Josern, Pleasant Mount, Pa.

O’Matiry, Henry, U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, Washington, D. C.

OppeNWEYER, JoHNn W., Sorrento, La.

Oxcuarp Laxe Crus, Grooville, N. Y.

#10
712

04

04
715
07
713

02

11
05
710
710
09
713
"ll
09
04
06
09
08

16

03
710
84,

793
713
713
09
713
93

713
"16
713

15
98
"15
10
713
"99

710
710

98
98
710
16
"16

List of Members 233

ptt Pror. Raymonp C., Connecticut College, New London,
onn.
Oris, Spencer, Railway Exchange, Chicago, II.

Patmer, Dr. Tueropore S., United States Department of Agricul-
ture, Washington, D. C.

ParKuurst, Hon. C. Franx, 54 Barnes St., Providence, R. I.

Parsons, JoHN S., State Commissioner of Fisheries, Accomac, Va.

PatcuinG, Frep, Loring, Alaska.

Parrerson, A. G., Kentucky Fish and Game Commission, Pine-
ville, Ky. ‘i
Paxton, Tuomas B., Board of State Fish and Game Commis-

sioners, Cincinnati, Ohio.
Per, Geo. W., 520 16th St., Denver, Colo.
Propies, Hiram, New Providence, Pa.
Perce, H. Wueeter, 1145 Webster Bldg., Chicago, Ill.
Pew, Joun J., Gloucester, Mass.
Prievcer, J. E., Akron, Ohio.
Poor, GarRDNER, 126 Atlantic Ave., Boston, Mass.
PonHoavualinE Fis Assocration, 233 Dock St., Philadelphia, Pa.
Pomeroy, Geo. E., Toledo, Ohio.
Port, T. E. B., Milwaukee Public Museum, Milwaukee, Wis.
Porter, Ricuarp, Board of State Fish Commissioners, Paris, Mo.
Postar, Frep., State Board of Fish Commissioners, Detroit, Mich.
Prince, Pror. E. E., Dominion Commissioner of Fisheries, Ottawa,
Canada.
Purpy, Dorman S., 115 Eddy St., Ithaca, N. Y.

Racer, E. E., U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, Green Lake, Me.

Rancuirre, Lewis, U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, Washington, D. C.

Ratusun, Dr. Ricuarp, Assistant Secretary Smithsonian Institu-
tion, Washington, D. C.

RaveneEL, W. ve C., U. S. National Museum, Washington, D. C.

Raye, W. H., Sealshipt Oyster Co., Boston, Mass.

Repwoop Lisrary, Newport, R. I.

Reep, Dr. H. D., Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y.

Reret, F. K., Pleasant Mount, Pa.

Reicuarp, Pror. Jacosp E., University of Michigan, Ann Arbor,
Mich.

Reynotps, Jas. A., U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, Woods Hole, Mass.

Reynoups, Joun J., 1610 L. C. Smith Bldg., Seattle, Wash.

Rurnes, Watrace D., Foreman, State Fish Hatchery, Linlithgo,
N. Y.

Ricn, E. A., Co., 4 Boston Fish Pier, Boston, Mass.

Ricwarps, G. H., Sears Building, Boston, Mass.

Ricuarpson, Rosert E., State Biological Laboratory, Havana, IIl.

River, H. A., State Fish and Game Commissioner, St. Paul, Minn.

Roacu, Epwin R., 518 Hamilton Bldg., Akron, Ohio.

Roserts, A. D., Auditor Inland Fisheries Commission, Woon-
socket, R. I.

Roserts, B. H., 1413 New York Ave., Washington, D. C.

Rocers, James B., U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, Boothbay Harbor,
Me.

Ropcers, J. M., Plaza Hotel, Chicago, Ill.

RosenBerG, ALBERT, Kalamazoo, Mich.

Rowe, Henry C., Groton, Conn.

Rowe, Wm. H., West Buxton, Me.

Royce, James, DeBruce, Sullivan County, N. Y.

234

"11
14
13
"13

05
"13
"16
715
"15
715
"15
16
"15
700
713
700
710

"15
713

Ai
708
2s
13
01
03
13
791

799
705
08

"87
10
713
04
715
00
03
Ali

03
712
"14
04
Als
14,
14
ak’
04
715
"10

04

American Fisheries Society

Rucxman, Cuas. W., U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, Homer, Minn.
Russextt, Geo. S., Bank of Commerce of N. A., Cleveland, O.
Russev1, J. R., U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, Birdsview, Wash.
Ryan, Carvin D., U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, Concrete, Wash.

Sarrorp, W. H., Missouri Fish Commission, St. Joseph, Mo.

Santa Barpara Pusric Lisrary, Santa Barbara, Calif.

Saunpbers, Dr. Wave Hampton, Box 296, Roanoke, Va.

Scumint, Curais., Astoria, Wash.

Scumipt, Max, 2d and Bryant Sts., San Francisco, Cal.

Scuorietp, N. B., Sunnyvale, Cal.

ScHoonMAKER, Byron C., De Bruce, N. Y.

Scuraper, Franz, Route 1, Prince Bay, N. Y.

Seaporn, H. G., Tee Harbor Packing Co., Port Blakely, Wash.

Seacie, Georce A., U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, Wytheville, Va.

SEaGRAVE, ArNoxtD, Woonsocket, R. I.

Seriers, M. G., 1518 Sansom St., Philadelphia, Pa.

Suesiey, Franx A., Superintendent Santa Cruz County Hatchery,
Brookdale, Cal.

Suesiey, W. H., Sisson, Cal.

SHELLFoRD, Vicror E., Dept. Zool., University of Illinois, Urbana,
Til.

Suira, Austin F., U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, Fairport, Iowa.

Suiras, Gro., 3p, Stoneleigh Court, Washington, D. C.

Stese, J. F., 430 Battery, San Francisco, Cal.

SINGLETON, J. Ernest, Woonsocket, R. I.

SINGLETON, JAMES H., Woonsocket, R. I.

SiapE, Georce P., 309 Broadway, P. O. Box 283, New York City.

Smitu, Hersert C., White Cloud, Mich.

Smiru, Dr. Hucu M., U. S. Commissioner of Fisheries, Washing-
ton, D. C.

SmiruH, Lewis H., Algona, Iowa.

Snyper, J. P., U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, Cape Vincent, N. Y.

Spraxs, Jonn C., Chief Warden Fish and Game Commission, Co-
lumbus, Ohio.

SPENSLEY, Catvert, Mineral Point, Wis.

Strack, F. Grorcre, “Kamp Kill Kare,’ Raquette Lake, N. Y.

SrapLeton, J. J., Green Lake, Me.

Srapteton, M. F., U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, Manchester, Iowa.

Srarr, C. D., Lewis Bldg., Portland, Ore.

Srarr, W. J., State Board of Fish Commissioners, Eau Claire, Wis.

Sreete, G. F., Room 604, 18 E. 41st St., New York City.

Steretr, W. G., State Game, Fish and Oyster Commission, Port
Lavaca, Texas.

Stevens, Arruur F., 227 West Grand St., Elizabeth, N. J.

Stivers, D. Gay, Butte Anglers’ Association, Butte, Mont.

Sronr, Dr. Witiarp J., 3 Harold Arms, Toledo, Ohio.

Srory, Joun A., U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, Green Lake, Me.

Srrincuam, Emerson, U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, Hamilton, Ill.

Srruven, Cuas. M., 114 S. Frederick St., Baltimore, Md.

Stryker, THos. H., Rome, N. Y.

Suuiivan, Water E., Tuft’s School of Medicine, Boston, Mass.

Surgpour, Turappevs, U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, Homer, Minn.

Surro, Anotp Newton, 1155 Pine St., San Francisco, Cal.

Sworn, C. B., New Westminster, British Columbia, Canada.

Tarzsot, Henry, Interstate Commerce Commission, Washington,
DC

713
99
06
713
00
00
08
"15
713

14
#13

792

"ll
14
bats 0) |

"13
713
"15
16
99

798
"13

713

bata |p |

09
P14
710
1S
710

14
’00
712
09

06
15
96
ll
96
98
712
"14
"13
92
"16
13
215

List of Members 235

Tuaw, Aveousr B., 1421 Shelby St., Indianapolis, Ind.

Tuayer, W. W., U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, Northville, Mich.

Tuomas, W. H., U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, Fairport, Iowa.

Tuomas, Aprian, 2012 Hanover Ave., Richmond, Va.

Txuompson, W. P., 123 N. Fifth St., Philadelphia, Pa.

Tuompson, W. T., U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, Bozeman, Mont.

Tuomson, G. H., Estes Park, Colo.

TxHorneE, Anprew, 745 Mills Bldg., San Francisco, Cal.

ee A. K., Secretary Alaska Packers’ Assn., San Francisco,

alif.

Truman, Rosert T., Beacon Paper Co., St. Louis, Mo. :

Timson, Wm., Vice-President, Alaska Packers’ Assn., San Fran-
cisco, Calif.

Tircoms, Joun W., Commissioner of Fisheries and Game, Lyndon-
ville, Vt.

TonovueE, Leonarp M., 718 Equitable Bldg., Baltimore, Md.

Torrey, Pror. Harry Bear, Reed College, Portland, Ore.

and °12 Townsenp, Dr. Cuaries H., Director New York Aquarium,
New York, N. Y.

Trexter, Cor. Harry C., Allentown, Pa.

Triccs, Cuas. W., 218 N. Canal St., Chicago, Ill.

Troyer, M., Astoria Iron Works, Seattle, Wash.

Trout, Harry S., 317 E. 196th St., Fordham, N. Y.

Tusss, Frank A., U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, Mammoth Spring,
Ark.

Tuan, Evcene A., Box 1267, New Orleans, La,

Turner, Cuas. C., Judge Kentucky Court of Appeals, Frankfort,
Ky.

asso. Jas. W., Connecticut Fish and Game Commission, Hart-

ford, Conn.
VatietrE, Luciano H., Chief of Section of Fish Culture, 827
Rivadavia, Buenos Aires, Argentina.
Van Arra, Crype H., U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, Leadville, Colo.
Vanovercrirt, S. H., 1728 New Hampshire Ave., Washington, D. C.
Van Sicxien, F. W., 36 Spear St., San Francisco, Cal.
VarveN, Geo. S., Paris, Ky.
Vues, Buaine S., Inland Fish and Game Commissioner, Augusta,
Me.
Voce1, J. C., 2203 Pearl St., Philadelphia, Pa.
Vocersanc, ALExANDER T., 20 Montgomery St., San Francisco, Cal.
Voer, James H., Nevada Fish Commission, Carson City, Nev.
Von Lenoerxe, J., 200 Fifth Ave., New York City.

Wappett, Jonn, Grand Rapids, Mich.

Waxerrexp, L. E., 1310 Smith Bldg., Seattle, Wash.

Watxer, Bryant, Detroit, Mich.

Watxer, Dr. H. T., 210 Main St., Denison, Texas.

Watters, C. H., Cold Spring Harbor, N. Y.

Warp, Pror. H. B., University of Illinois, Urbana, III.

Warp, J. Quincy, Executive Agent, Kentucky Game and Fish
Commission, Frankfort, Ky.

Wasusurn, Pror. F. L., 1112 Sixth St., S. E., Minneapolis, Minn.

Warts, A. E., 9 T Wharf, Boston, Mass.

Wess, W. Sewarp, 44th St. and Vanderbilt Ave., New York City.

Weexs, Anprew Gray, 8 Congress St., Boston, Mass.

Wert, Water G., Majestic Bldg., Chicago, II.

Wes, Carr. Jas. E., St. Joseph, Mo.

236 American Fisheries Society

715 Weisz, Encieserc, Seattle, Wash.

13 Weitsu, Wm. W., Scientific Assistant U. S. Bureau of Fisheries,
Washington, D. C.

"15 Wexnscu, R., Bellingham, Wash.

°15 WeNNERBERG, Henry P., 23 Boston Fish Pier, Boston, Mass.

701 Wentworth, E. E., U. S. Bureau of Fiseries, Duckabush, Wash.

713 WesterFELD, Cart, 854 Mills Bldg., San Francisco, Cal.

713 WesterMANN, J. H., Harrietta, Mich.

701 Wueeier, CHARLES cao Union Trust Building, Sau Francisco,
Cal.

"15 Wueeter, Frep. M., 546 Fulton St., Chicago, Ill.

04. Wuitaker, ANpREW R., State Fishery Commission, Phoenixville, Pa.

96 Wuite, R. Tyson, 320 Bridge Street, Brooklyn, N. Y.

710 Wuitman, Epwarp C., Canso, Nova Scotia, Canada.

715 Wuitrman, Warp anp LEE Co., 9 Boston Fish Pier, Boston, Mass.

715 Wuitesing, R. B., 204 Sellwood Bldg., Duluth, Minn.

°99 Wititarp, CHartes W., President Inland Fisheries Commission,
Westerly, R. I.

701 Wirson, C. H., Glen Falls, ah ae

?11 Winson, J. S. P. H., Chairman, Board of Inland Game and Fish
Commissioners, Annas Me.

710 WincuHeEster, Grant E., Forest, Fish and Game Commission, Bemus

Points N: *y-

00 Winn, Dennis, U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, 1217 L. C. Smith Bldg.,
Seattle, Wash.

713 Winter, J. H., Alaska Packers’ Assn., San Francisco, Calif.

7°99 Wires, S. P., U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, Duluth, Minn.

*13 Wisner, J. Netson, Director, Institute de Pesca del Uruguay,
Punta del Esto, Uruguay.

*05 Woxters, Cuas A., Oxford and Marvine Streets, Philadelphia, Pa.

°97 Woop, C. C., Plymouth, Mass.

713 Woops, Joun P., President, Missouri State Fish Commission, Ist
and Wright Sts., St. Louis, Mo.

714. Worx, Geraxp, Perkins Hill, Akron, Ohio.

°84 Worrn, S. G., U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, 616 West 38th St., Nor-
folk, Va.

715 Wyman, Wiis L., Park Rapids, Minn.

709 Yertrncton, Epwarp B., Board of Fish Commissioners, Carson
City, Nev.

°99 ZarsmaNn, P. G., Grayling, Mich.

RECAPITULATION

EVO NOM AR Ee Tein eG EN Os fh eet oe
CORRESPONDING 25008 oe Ee eee ee 17

Hl Oc) Sa RCE Sicko eA eee ar We Mauser ere NTs ee leo (eI

CONSTITUTION
(As amended to date)

ARTICLE I

NAME AND OBJECT

The name of this Society shall be American Fisheries
Society. Its object shall be to promote the cause of fish
culture; to gather and diffuse information bearing upon
its practical success, and upon all matters relating to the
fisheries; the uniting and encouraging of all interests of
fish culture and the fisheries, and the treatment of all
questions regarding fish, of a scientific and economic
character.

ARTICLE II

MEMBERSHIP

Active Members.—Any person may, upon a two-thirds
vote and the payment of two dollars, become a member
of this Society. In case members do not pay their fees,
which shall be two dollars per year after first year, and
are delinquent for two years, they shall be notified by the
treasurer, and if the amount due is not paid within a
month thereafter, they shall be, without further notice,
dropped from the roll of membership.

Any library, sporting or fishing club, society, firm or
corporation may, upon two-thirds vote and the payment
of the regular annual fee, become a member of this So-
ciety and entitled to all its publications.

Life Members.—Any person shall, upon a two-thirds
vote and the payment of twenty-five dollars, become a
life member of this Society, and shall thereafter be ex-
empt from all annual dues.

Patrons.—Any person, society, club, firm or corpora-
tion, on approval by the Executive Committee and on
payment of $50.00, may become a Patron of this Society

238 American Fisheries Society

with all the privileges of a life member, and then shall
be listed as such in all published lists of the Society. The
money thus received shall become a part of the perma-
nent funds of the Society and the interest alone be used
as the Society shall designate.

Honorary and Corresponding Members.—Any person
can be made an honorary or a corresponding member
upon a two-thirds vote of the members present at any
regular meeting.

The President (by name) of the United States and the
Governors (by name) of the several states shall be hon-
orary members of the Society.

Election of Members Between Annual Meetings.—The
President, Recording Secretary and Treasurer of the So-
ciety are hereby authorized, during the time intervening
between annual meetings, to act on all individual appli-
cations for membership in the Society, a majority vote of
the Committee to elect or reject such applications as may
be duly made.

ARTICLE III

SECTIONS

On presentation of a formal written petition signed
by one hundred or more members, the Executive Com-
mittee of the American Fisheries Society may approve
the formation in any region of a Section of the Ameri-
can Fisheries Society to be known as the Section.

Such a Section may organize by electing its own of-
ficers, and by adopting such rules as are not in conflict
with the Constitution and By-Laws of the American
Fisheries Society.

It may hold meetings and otherwise advance the gen-
eral interests of the Society, except that the time and
place of its annual meeting must receive the approval of
the Executive Committee of the American Fisheries So-
ciety, and that without specific vote of the American
Fisheries Society, the Section shall not commit itself to

Constitution 239

any expression of public policy on fishing matters.

It may further incur indebtedness to an amount nec-
essary for the conduct of its work not to exceed one-half
of the sum received in annual dues from members of
said section.

Such bills duly approved by the Chairman and Re-
corder of the Section shall be paid on presentation to the
Treasurer of the American Fisheries Society.

ARTICLE IV

OFFICERS

The officers of this Society shall be a president and a
vice-president, who shall be ineligible for election to the
same office until a year after the expiration of their term;
a corresponding secretary, a recording secretary, an as-
sistant recording secretary, a treasurer, and an execu-
tive committee of seven, which, with the officers before
named, shall form a council and transact such business
as may be necessary when the Society is not in session
—four to constitute a quorum.

In addition to the officers above named there shall be
elected annually five vice-presidents who shall be in
charge of the following five divisions or sections:

1. Fish culture.

2. Commercial fishing.

3. Aquatic biology and physics.

4, Angling.

5. Protection and legislation.

Vice-Presidents of sections are expected to present re-
ports at each annual meeting.

ARTICLE V

MEETINGS

The regular meeting of the Society shall be held once a
year, the time and place being decided upon at the pre-

240

American Fisheries Society

vious meeting, or, in default of such action, by the execu-
tive committee.

m OD eH

ARTICLE VI

ORDER OF BUSINESS

. Call to order by president.
. Roll call of members.
. Applications for membership.
. Reports of officers.
a.
DB:

President.
Secretary.

c. Treasurer.

d.
e.

Vice-Presidents of Divisions.
Standing Committees.

5. Committees appointed by the president.

a.

b.

hh OO OO

Commitee of five on nomination of officers
for ensuing year.

Committee of three on time and place of next
meeting.

. Auditing committee of three.

. Committee of three on programme.
. Committee of three on publication.
. Committee of three on publicity.

6. Reading of papers and discussion of same.
(Note—In the reading of papers preference

shall be given to the members present.)

7. Miscellaneous business.
8. Adjournment.

ARTICLE VII

CHANGING THE CONSTITUTION

The constitution of the Society may be amended, al-
tered or repealed by a two-thirds vote of the members
present at any regular meeting, provided at least fifteen
members are present at said regular meeting.

“al

in é i .

bi he
ae

ee! cf

AA

4 4 Y oa ana ya ty: ek)
Rial Me Sat Noa ent Sh

ry

eye 7)
oy he we

SH American Fisheries

1 Society
Ad5 Transactions
v.44-45
Biological
Medical
erials

PLEASE DO NOT REMOVE
CARDS OR SLIPS FROM THIS POCKET

UNIVERSITY OF TORONTO LIBRARY

‘STO RAGE

” asad
. ing ALARA TS i nk BL ~
ihe pnt ne entree

Apt > ene oe
endangers Th WR DORAL
tated eae

nik Bae

ane om

eg hee
ahd se ae

ert

et >: