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CAROi."]V

TRANSACTIONS

THE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE
OF ST. LOUIS.

VOL. XI.
JANUARY 1901 TO DECEMBER 1901.

PUBLISHED UNDER DIRECTION OF THE COUNCIL.

ST. LOUIS:
NIXON -JONES PRINTING CO.

v.//

tfoi

CONTENTS.

PAGE.

Table of Contents Hi

List of Members. Revised to December 31, 1901:

1. Patrons v

2. Active Members v

History of the Academy (Abstract) xiii

Record. January 1 to December 31, 1901 xvii

Papers Published. January 1 to December 31, 1901:

1. Frank Collins Baker. — A revision of the Limnaeas of

Northern Illinois. — Plate I. — Issued January 16,
1901 1

2. P. H. Rolfs. — Florida lichens. — Issued March 16,

1901 25

3. T. G. Poats. — Isogonic transformation. — Issued May

16, 1901 41

4. Francis E. Nipher. — The relation of direct to re-

versed photographic pictures. — Plates II. -X. —
The specific heat of gaseous nebulae in gravitational
contraction. — Issued June 7, 1901 51

5. George Lefevre. — The advance of zoology in the

nineteenth century. — Issued July 3, 1901 71

6. Francis E. Nipher. — Physics during the last cen-

tury.— Issued November 13, 1901... 105

7. William Trelease. — The progress made in botany

during the nineteenth century. — Issued November
26, 1901 125

8. Frank Collins Baker. — Some interesting molluscan

monstrosities. — Plate XI. — Issued November 26,
1901 143

9. Stuart Weller. — Kinderhook faunal studies. III.

The faunas of beds No. 3 to No. 7 at Burlington,
Iowa. — Plates XII.-XX. —Issued December 18, 1901 147

10. J. Arthur Harris. — Normal and teratological thorns

of Gleditschia triacanthos, L. — Plates XXI.-
XXV. — Issued December 24, 1901 215

11. Title-page, prefatory matter and index of Vol.

XI. — Record, January 1 to December 31, 1901. —

Issued January 12, 1902

List of Authors 223

General Index 224

Index to Genera 225

CORRECTIONS.

P. 107, line 5. — For an, read any.

P. 118, line 6. — For bedt, read bent.

P. 125, line 5. — For were, read was.

Line 10. — For relationship, read relationships.
Note. — For November 8, read 18.

P. 127. — On the authority of Mr. Jackson, it should be said that
Mr. Darwin did not make the testamentary provision he had in-
tended, for the publication of the Index Kewensis, but his well-
known purpose was nevertheless carried out by Mrs. Darwin and
her family.

P. 132, line 10. — For Haberland, read Haberlandt.

P. 139, line 22.— For Haberland, read Hildebrand.

P. 150. — For Puguax, read Pugnax.

P. 211, line 20, 213, 3rd line from bottom. — For Concardium, read
Conocardium.

Transactions of The Academy of Science of St. Louis.

VOL. XI. No. 1.

A REVISION OF THE LIMNAEAS OF NORTHERN

ILLINOIS.

FRANK COLLINS BAKER.

Issued January 16, 1901,

A REVISION OF THE LIMNAEAS OF NORTHERN

ILLINOIS.*

Frank Collins Baker.

In the number of the Nautilus of June last the writer pre-
sented a revision of the Physae of the northeastern part of
Illinois, and in the present paper the genus Limnaea is dis-
cussed in the same manner. The Limnaeids seem to be
better understood than the Physae, although far too many
names have been given to them, founded for the most part
on very trivial characters.

The collection of Limnaea in the Chicago Academy of Sci
ences is very rich, especially in the fauna of the Mississippi
Valley, and enough material has been at hand to satisfactorily
determine the specific standing of a number of names. The
writer may be thought to have been too radical in the matter
of synonymy, but the conclusions reached seem to be borne
out by the natural divisions of the group.

My thanks are due to the following persons, either for
specimens, notes or suggestions: Mr. Bryant Walker, De-
troit, Michigan; Mr. J. H. Handwerk, Joliet, Illinois;
Messrs. T. Jensen, F. M. Woodruff, and Prof. W. K. Higley,
of Chicago ; and to the Natural History Survey of the Chicago
Academy of Science for the loan of the cuts in the text of
the present article.

KEY TO SPECIES OF LIMNAEA.

A. Shell 50 to 60 mill, in length.

a. Aperture and spire about equal in length, the former much

expanded. stagnalis.

B. Shell 30 to 40 mill, in length.

a. Spire attenuated, longer than aperture, the latter strongly

reflexed; surface very rarely malleated. reflexa.

b. Spire and aperture about equal in length; surface nearly

always heavily malleated; shell wider in proportion to

length than Ca) . palustris.

* Presented, and read by title, before The Academy of Science of St. Louis,
December 17, 1900.

(1)

2 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

C. Shell 10 to 20 mill, in length.

a. Surface marked with distinct, impressed spiral lines.

1. Spire longer than aperture, shell attenuated. caperata.

2. Spire equal to aperture, shell globose in form. cubensis.

3. Spire half the length of the aperture. columella.

b. Surface without distinct spiral lines.

1. Spire equal to or longer than aperture.

f Spire short conic, aperture roundly ovate, not produced, humilis.
ft Spire long and pointed, aperture long-ovate, produced, desidiosa.

2. Spire shorter than aperture.

t Spire bluntly rounded, shell very globose. catascopium.*

A recent study of numerous species of this genus has con-
vinced the writer that some classification other than the one
in use must be found. The present grouping by shell char-
acters is totally unsatisfactory on account of the extreme
variability of the individuals. For example, different forms
of L. emarginata Say var. mighelsi Binne}', recently exam-
ined, can be placed in all of the so-called subgenera usually rec-
ognized (Radix, Bulimnea, Limnophysa, etc.) and in fact
the typical emarginata is typical of Limnophysa, and the
variety mighelsi of Radix; all of the intermediate forms occur
and absolutely connect the extremes. In view of this fact the
writer has discarded all subgenera, using simply the generic
term Limnaea. Some divisions of value undoubtedly will be
found when all of the species are examined anatomically, for
the genitalia, radula, etc. There is abundant work in this line
for a naturalist having the time and material at his command.

1. Limnaea columella Say.

PI. I. f. 23.

Limnaea columella Say, Journ. Phil. Acad. 1 : 14. 1817.

Limnaea navicula Valenciennes, Rec. d'Obs. 2 : 251. 1833.

Limnaea chalybea Gould, Am. Journ. Sci. i. 38 : 196. 1840. (Variety.)

Limnaea acuminata Adams, 1. c. 39 : 374. 1840.

Limnaea strigosa Lea, Proc. Amer. Phil. Soc. 2 : 33. 1841.

Limnaea coarctata Lea, 1. c. p. 33. 1841.

Limnaea casta Lea, 1. c. p. 33. 1841. (Variety.)

Succinea pellucida, Lea, Proc. Phil. Acad. 1864 : 1C9.

Limnaea columellaris Adams, Amer. Journ. Sci. i. 36 : 392, absq. descr.

Limnaea succiniformis Adams, ms. teste Haldeman.

Shell: Ovate, somewhat pointed, thin, fragile, transparent ;

color light greenish or yellowish horn ; surface shining, cov-

* The long spiral form is not found in this region.

Baker — A Revision of the Limnaeas of Northern Illinois. 3

ered with rather coarse growth lines, and encircled by im-
pressed spiral lines ; whorls 4, rounded, rapidly enlarging,
the last one three times the size of the rest of the shell ; spire
sharply conic, rather short ; apex small, very dark brown ;
sutures impressed, aperture ovate, dilated, expanded at the
lower part; the aperture varies from long and narrow to wide
and somewhat expanded; peristome thin, acute; columella
narrow, twisted; terminations of peristome connected by a
thin callus; umbilicus generally closed but sometimes very
narrowly perforate where the callus is not fully developed ;
the columella is so thin and narrow that a view may be taken
from the base nearly to the apex, as in Succinea retusa.

Length 16.00; width 8.50; aperture length 11.40; width 6.00 mill. (10410.)
" 14.00; " 7.75; " " 9.50; " 5.60 " (10440.)

Animal: Almost transparent, with a short, wide foot,
bluntly rounded behind ; head separated from foot by a con-
striction, wide, bifurcated; tentacles short, thick, triangular,
transparent; eyes black, situated on small prominences at the
inner base of the tentacles ; color dirty white, darker on the
body which is covered with white spots, seen through the
transparent shell; edge of mantle transparent, simple; head
above lilac-tinted ; respiratory orifice on right side of body,
near the junction of the upper part of the columella with the
body whorl ; the head is not much in advance of the edge of
the shell when the animal is in motion; the aperture appears
much too large for the shell. The heart is situated on the left
side of the animal, as in desidiosa. ,The pulsations are rather
irregular, three or four
being quick, then fol-
lowed by a pause; they
vary from 53 to 60 per
minute. Length of foot
8.00; width 5.50 mill.

Jaws: Three, the medi-
an elliptical, smooth, the
lateral jaws irregular ;
finely striated ; cutting edges brownish black, shading into
yellowish brown as the base of the cartilage is reached

Fig. 1. Jaws of Limnaea columella ray.

Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Loxiis.

Radula formula: £| + i + i + l+f + i+f|(35 — I
<-— 35 ) : central tooth as in the genus ; lateral teeth with a
quadrate base of attachment; reflection long and rather wide,
reaching below the base of attachment, bicuspid, the inner
cusp very large and long, the outer cusp small and sharp; the
tenth tooth is trifid and connects the lateral and marginal
teeth ; marginal teeth much longer than wide, generally four-
cuspid, the inner cusp placed
about midway of the reflection,
the other three placed at the dis-
tal end ; there are generally sev-
eral small denticles on the upper
inner edse of the reflection; the
outer marginals have all the cusps
placed at the distal end and the
margins are simple (f. 2).

Distribution: New England to
Iowa, Canada to Georgia; Tepic,
New Mexico.*

Geological Distribution: Pleis-
tocene ; Loess.

Habitat: Found abundantly in
small ponds and creeks where the
water is more or less stagnant.
Particularly fond of a locality
where lily pads are in abundance.
Remarks: This species is very
variable in the shape of its aperture, and several distinct
species have been made from these variations, which will
stand simply as varieties. It is very frequently taken for
JSuccinea and the shell bears a very strong resemblance to
that genus. The animal, however, is quite different, and
shows that it is a genuine Limnaea. The raised spiral lines
are very beautiful, and different from those of any other
Limnaea in our area. So far as known it has only been col-
lected in the greenhouse and lily ponds in Lincoln Park.

xs so
Fig. 2. Radula of Limnaea colu-
mella Say. C, central tooth; 1,
first lateral; 10, first marginal;
12, 13, 16, typical marginals;
25, 30, 35, typical outer margi-
nals.

* Vide J. G. Cooper, Proc. Cal. Acad. Sci. ii. 51 : 167. 1895.

Baker — A Revision of the Limnaeas of Northern Illinois. 5
2. Limnaea catascopium Say.

PI. I. f.9.

Limnaea catascopium Say, Nich. Encycl. ed. 1. pi. 11. f. 3. 1816.
Limnaea virginiana Lamarck, An. sans Vert. ed. 1. 6: 160. 1822.
Limnaea cornea Vallenciennes, Recueil d'Observ. Zool. etc. 2:251. 1833,
Limnaea sericata Ziegler, Rossmassler Iconog. 1 : 98. 1837.

/Shell: Thin, globosely ovate, inflated; color light horn to
blackish; surface dull to shining, lines of growth numerous,
fine, crowded, wavy; apex frequently eroded; whorls 5,
rounded, inflated, the last very large and inflated; spire sharp
to obtuse, conic ; sutures slightly impressed ; aperture roundly
ovate, large, from half to three fourths the length of the
entire shell, rounded below, somewhat narrowed above; peri-
stome thin, sharp, thickened by a light callus just within the
edge, the callus whitish ; columella oblique, with a heavy
plait across the middle ; the lower part of the columella has
a flexure caused by the heavy plait; the lower part of the
peristome and the whole of the columella are covered by a
heavy coating of white, testaceous material, which is reflected
over the umbilicus, completely closing it.

Length 13.50; breadth 8.75; aperture length 8.00; breadth 5.00 mill. (8388.)
'« 14 50; " 9.50; " " 9.50; " 5.50 " (8388.)

" 14.00; " 9.00; " " 8.75; " 5.00 " (8388.)

Animal, jaw and radula not examined.

Distribution: New England to Utah, British America to
Virginia.

Geological Distribution: Pleistocene.

Habitat: In the larger lakes and rivers, attached to sticks,
stones and various debris.

Remarks: Catascopium is readily distinguished by its
large, rounded aperture and swollen whorls. The height of
the spire varies, in some specimens being one-half the length
of the aperture while in others they are about equal in
height. The long spiral form has not been collected in the
area under consideration, and is much more common in New
York State than in the west.

2a. Limnaea catascopium pinguis Say.
Pi. I. f. 12.
Limnaea pinguis, Say, Journ. Phil. Acad. 5: 123. 1825.

Shell: Differing from typical catascopium in being more

6 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

globose, having a large aperture, a short, stumpy spire and
a very large body whorl; the umbilicus is open and deep.

Dgth 10.50;

width

7.50

aperture

length

8.00

"width

4.50 mill

" 1050;

7.00;

6.75

4.50 '*

12.00;

9.00

. <<

8.50

5.50 "

" 8.00;

5.25

6.00

3.50 "

" 8.00;

5.75

3.50 "

" 7.75;

6.00

6.25

4.75 u

Animal: Not differing from the typical form.

Radula and Jaw: Not examined.

Distribution: Apparently the same as the typical form.

Geological Distribution: Pleistocene.

Habitat: Same as catascopium.

Remarks: This distinct little variety has been found very
recently by Mr. F. M. Woodruff at Miller's, Indiana, in the
debris thrown up by the lake, where it may be collected
by thousands. Pinguis is distinguished by its very short
spire, swollen body whorl and large aperture. The specimens
from Miller's are all yellowish or corneous in color although
all the specimens from this locality were dead beach shells.
The surface is frequently strongly malleated. Thus far it has
been found only at Miller's, Indiana, on the Lake shore in
Chicago at Oak street, and at Edge water.

3. Limnaea desidiosa Say.

PI. I. f. 8.

Limnaea desidiosa Say, Journ. Phil. Acad. 2 : 169. 1821.

Limnaea modicella Say, Journ. Phil. Acad. 5 : 122. 1825.

Limnaea acuta Lea, Trans. Amer. Phil. Soc. 5 : 114. pi. xix. f. 81. 1837.

Limnaea philadtlphica Lea, Proc. Amer. Phil. Soc. 2 : 32. 1841.

Limnaea plica Lea, Proc. Amer. Phil. Soc. 2 : 33. 1841.

Limnaea rustica Lea, 1. c. p. 33. 1841.

Limnaea planulati Lea, 1. c. p. 33. 1841.

Limnaea jamesii Lea, Proc. Phil. Acad. 1864 : 113.

Limnaea decampi L. H. Streng, The Nautilus. 9: 123. 1896. (Variety.?)

/Shell: Subconic, pointed, oblong, rather thin, sometimes
inflated ; color light or dark horn ; surface shining, covered
with numerous crowded, fine lines of growth which can
scarcely be discerned on the apex ; whorls 5, somewhat shoul-
dered in some forms, the shoulder being near the suture;
the last whorl is very large, half the length of the entire
shell ; each whorl is double the size of the one preced-

Baker — A Revision of the Limnaeas of Northern Illinois. 7

iDg ; spire sharply conical ; sutures very deeply indented ;
aperture elongately-ovate, somewhat expanded; peristome
thin, acute; columella thickened by a testaceous deposit, and
bearing a heavy plait across the middle; the columella is re-
flected at the lower end, the reflection almost covering the
umbilicus, which is narrowly open ; the umbilical region is
somewhat indented. The surface is sometimes broken up by
coarse, spiral semi-ridges, with facets forming a somewhat
reticulated surface.

Length 12.00
" 12.00
" 10.00
" 8.75
u 13.00

width 6.00; aperture length 6.00; width 3.00 mill. (8457.)

« 5.25; " " 6.00; " 3.50 " (8457.)

" 4.00; « " 5.50; " 2.50 " (8457.)

" 5.00; " " 4.50; " 2.50 " (8457.)

«« 5.75; " " 7.50; « 4.00 « (8468.)

Fig. 3. Animal of
Limnaea desidio-
sa Say. ( Binney,
/. 25.)

Animal (f. «?, after Binney) : With a very small, more or
less oblong foot, when viewed from the base, the anterior and
posterior borders rounded; color dark gray
or blackish, lighter below; the whole surface
is dotted with whitish, which is specially
noticeable about the ej'es ; tentacles trian-
gular, flat, short, more or less transparent;
the black eyes are placed on prominences at
the inner base of the tentacles ; respiratory
orifice on the right side, near the angle of
the peristome and body whorl. Length of
foot 5.00, width 3.00 mill. The heart is
situated near the umbilicus and the pulsations are very rapid ;
the writer counted 150 to 155 per minute.

Jaw: As usual.

Radula formula: ^ + f + 1 + i + | + | + ^ (46 — 1
— 46): central tooth as usual; lateral teeth with a subquad-
rate base of attachment, the reflection very broad, bicuspid,
the inner cusp long, reaching below the lower margin of the
base of attachment, the side cusps smaller; the 8 to 16 laterals
are tricuspid, the inner cusp very small; these may be called
intermediate marginals; marginals at first (17 to 20) modified
laterals, with a long, bifid inner cusp and two very short outer
cusps ; rest of marginals long and narrow, serrated, gen-
erally three short cusps at the distal end and two short>cusps

Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

at the outer side ; these latter disappear toward the outer part
of the membrane (28-45) : all have cutting points, especially

well developed on the laterals
and first marginals (f. 4).

Distribution: New England
to Iowa, Canada, Manitoba and
California, south to Virginia,
Kentucky and New Mexico.

Geological Distribution:
Pleistocene; Loess.

Habitat: In small bodies of
water, clinging to submerged
stones and sticks. It occasion-
ally inhabits the large rivers.
Prefers still water, and has
been dredged in Lake Superior
at a depth of 8 to 13 fathoms.
Remarks. This species is
subject to some little variation,
and numerous names have been
given to the forms.* In the
main, however, it may be recognized by its long, pointed
apex, and elongately-ovate aperture. It approaches L.
humilis in some of its forms, but that species always has a
shorter, more obtuse spire and a more rounded aperture.
The lower part of the aperture in the latter species is not
produced as in desidiosa. When in motion the animal is slow
and deliberate; the shell is pulled forward by a series of
jerks. This is a very common Limnaea and is found in all
parts of the area. Found fossil in sand banks on the lake
shore north of Graceland avenue.

$X-VS

Xt-%1

Fig. 4. Radula of Limnaea desi-
diosa Say. C, central tooth; 1,
first lateral ; 1-8, laterals; 17-20,
modified marginals; 21-45, vari-
ous types of marginals.

* It is evident from study of present material and the original figures and
descriptions, that several other so-called species will have to become
synonyms of desidosa: L. obrussa Say and L. fusiformis Lea, may be con-
sidered doubtful species.

Baker — A Revision of the Limnaeas of Northern Illinois. 9
4. Limnaea humilis Say.

PI. I. f. 14.

Limnaea humilis Say, Jour. Phil. Acad. 2 : 378. 1822.

Limnaea parva Lea, Proc. Amer. Phil. Soc. 2: 33. 1841.

Limnaea curta Lea, 1. c. p. 33. 1841.

Limnaea exigua Lea, 1. c. p. 33. 1841.

Limnaea griffithiana Lea, 1. c. p. 33. 1841.

Limnaea linsleyi De Kay, Moll, of New York. 72. pi. iv. f. 74. 1843.

Limnaea lecontii Lea, Proc. Phil. Acad. 1864: 113.

Shell: Thin, transparent to translucent, ovate-conic ; color
light horn, sometimes reddish; surface shining, covered with,
numerous crowded lines of growth, which are not much ele-
vated and which disappear on the apex; whorls 5, well-
rounded, the last being a trifle longer than the spire in most
specimens; spire obtusely conic; sutures impressed, some-
times indented; aperture oblong-ovate, somewhat expanded,
narrowed at the upper part, generally a little longer than the
spire; peristome thin, acute; columella oblique, covered with
a thin testaceous deposit; the columella is reflected along the
lower third, the reflection nearly covering the umbilicus which
is narrowly open.

Length 8.50; width 4 00; aperture length 4.50; width 2.75 mill. (10488.)
" 8.00; «< 4.50; " " 4.50; <« 2.25 " (10488.)

" 7.25; " 3.50; " " 3.75; " 2.00 " (10488.)

Animal: In general form similar to desidiosa; color light
brown or blackish, lighter on the foot, translucent about the
edges of the body. Heart situated as in the last species,
pulsations regular, 140-146 per minute.

Jaio: As usual.

Uadula formula: ^ + £ + -f + T + l + i + i| (22— 1 —
22); central tooth as usual ; lateral teeth bicuspid, the inner
cusp very long and wide,
bifid, the outer cusp
smaller; marginal teeth
long and narrow, the dis-
tal end four-cuspid, and
two small denticles on the
center of the outer mar- Fig. 5. Radula of Limnaea humilis Say.
gin (/. 5). A second c> central tooth; 1, first lateral; 15,
example gave 15—1 — 15 ninth marSinal-
teeth with six laterals. This latter was probably an incom-

10 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

plete membrane, as several examinations gave the result
recorded above.

Distribution: New England to California, Canada to
Georgia, Texas and New Mexico.

Geological Distribution: Pleistocene; Loess.

Habitat: Similar to that of desidiosa. It seems to prefer
the under side of boards, sticks and lily pads.

Remarks: As remarked under the last species, humilis is
closely related to desidiosa. It is always smaller (about one
half) is never malleated, and the spire is shorter and more
conic and the aperture more rounded. This is one of our
most abundant species and may be found by the hundred in
any small pond or ditch, attached to submerged sticks, stones
or vegetation. It is, like all the Limnaeids, very sociable
and is always found in communities. L. desidiosa, caperata
and palustris are almost always found associated with this
species. It is as frequently out of water as in it, and this
fact has led some conchologists to identify it as Pomatiopsis.
Not long ago a number of specimens were given to the Acad-
emy by a gentleman who said they were found in wet moss
but not in the water at all. He thought, from this fact, that
they must certainly be a land mollusk. The writer has had
this species crawl over his desk like some of the land snails,
which fact is true, in a lesser degree, of L. caperata and desid
iosa. It is very abundant and universally distributed.

5. LlMNAEA CAPERATA Say.

PL I. f. 11.

Limnaea caperata Say, New Harm. Diss. 2 : 230. 1829.

Shell: Ovately elongate, rather solid, translucent; color
yellowish horn to brown, sometimes black; surface shining or
dull; lines of growth numerous and very fine; shell en -ircled
by numerous irregular, impressed spiral lines, which give the
shell a somewhat latticed appearance; these spiral lines are
placed on the epidermis and may be rubbed off with a b: ush ;
whorls 5-6, convex, the last less than half the length of the
shell; spire long, somewhat acute; sutures very heavily im-
pressed; aperture ovate, its termination more or less rounded,
frequently reddish or purplish ; peristome thin, sharp ; colum-

Baker — A Revision of the Limuaeas of Northern Illinois. 11

igth 12.00

width 5.50;

aperture

length 5.50

" 10.50

5.00;

i«

" 5.00

" 9.00

4.50;

" 4.00

" 11.00

5.50;

«c

" 5.50

" 13.00

6.00;

" 6.00

" 15.50

7.00;

" 7.50

ella strong, white; reflected so as to cover the umbilicus,

there is a small fold crossing the center of the columella;

umbilicus small, narrow, deep, covered by the reflected

columella.

width 3.00 mill. (10656.)
" 2.50 " (10656.)
" 2.50 " (10656.)
" 3.00 " (10437.)
«< 3.50 «' (12337.)
" 4.00 " (12687.;

Animal: Black or bluish black, lighter below and minutely
flecked with small whitish dots, which are scarcely visible, ex-
cept on the top of the head; head distinct; tentacle short,
flat, triangular; foot short and wide, 8 mill, long and 3
mill. wide. Heart placed a trifle below the center of the
columella, the pulsations ranging from 129 to 133, somewhat
irregular.

Jaw: As usual.

Radula formula: l^+i + i + ± + i + lt+U (32—1
— 32 ) : central tooth as usual ; lateral teeth with a sub-
quadrate base of attachment, the reflection longer than
wide and bicuspid; the inner cusp very large, the outer
cusp short; the 8-10 teeth are modified from laterals to
marginals by the
bifurcation of the
inner cusp, and
the splitting up
of the upper part
of the outer cusp
into small denti-
cles ; the tenth
tooth is trifid on
the inner cusp
and the eleventh
and all that fol-
low are of the us-
ual form (f. 6).

Fig. 6. Radula of Limnaea caperata Say. C, central
tooth; 1-7, lateral teeth; 8-9, modified marginal
teeth; 10, first true marginal; 12, 14, 17, inter-
mediate marginals; 20-25, outer marginals.

Distribution: New England to California and Hudson Bay
to Louisiana.

Geological Distribution: Pleistocene; Loess.

12 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

Habitat: Found in small colonies in ditches and clear
patches of swamp. It prefers submerged pieces of wood.

He?narks: This species is distinguished by its heavy spiral
lines and long, acute spire. The animal is very rapid and de-
cisive in its movements. Several specimens, kept together in
captivity, ate holes in each other's shell for the lime for their
own shells. This was at first attributed to cannibalism, but
upon investigation no foundation for this supposition was
found. It is quite abundant and is one of the neatest
Limnaeids found in this area. An egg mass of this species
was laid March 18, 1897. It contained 45 eggs, distinctly
nucleated, and in a jelly-like mass measuring 11 by 2 mill.

On March 18th a second egg mass was laid and on the 19th
three more masses. On the 22d three individuals were seen
in coitu, each one endeavoring to play the active part. Of
the five egg masses laid each contained the following number
of eggs : 42, 42, 35, 45, 28. The eggs were spherical in shape
and very distinctly nucleated. One set of eggs was laid the
morning of the 19th and at noon of the 20th embryos were
seen slowly rotating about, propelled by numerous cilia. The
writer regrets that through some accident which occurred
while moving from one house to another, the eggs became
lost, so that he is unable to record any exact observations on
the embryology of caperata.

This species is closely related to cubensis and might, per-
haps, more properly be made a variety of that form than a
distinct species. The spire in caperata is long and somewhat
pointed and the aperture is much shorter than the spire. In
cubensis the spire is short and conic and about equal to the
aperture in length. Caperata is found universally distributed
through the area.

6. Limnaea cubensis Pfeiffer.

Pi. I. f. 1 0.

Limnaea cubensis Pfeiffer in Weigmann's Archiv. fiirNatur. 1839 : 354.

Limnaea umbilicata Adams, Amer. Jour. Sc. i. 39 : 374. 1840.

Limnaea techella Haldeman, Amer. Jour. Conch. 3: 194. pi. vi. f. 4. 1867.

Shell: Ovate, solid, translucent; color yellowish or brown-
ish horn; surface shining, growth lines fine and numerous;
shell encircled by impressed spiral lines; whorls 5, very con-

Baker — A Revision of the Limnaeas of Northern Illinois. 13

idt

li 2.75 mill.

(10G55.)

2.00 "

(10655.)

2.00 "

(10492.)

3.50 "

(12475.)

3.50 "

(12686.)

vex, the last whorl inflated, occupying from one half to three

fifths of the total length of the shell; spire short, obtuse,

conic; sutures much impressed; aperture roundly ovate, % to

4 the length of the shell, the terminations rounded; peristome

thin, sharp, thickened inside by a reddish deposit; columella

strong, reflected over the narrowly open umbilicus ; columella

with a small fold.

Length 10.00; width 5.00; aperture length 5.50

" 6.00; " 4.00; " " 3.50

«■ 6.75; <; 4.00; " " 4.00

" 11.25; " 6.50; " " 6.50

" 14.00; « 6.00; " " 7.00

Animal: Similar to that of caperata.

Jaw: As usual, striated.

Radula formula: !t + ! + Hl +t+I + i+!+ ^
(30 — 1 — 30): central tooth as usual; first four laterals
with a quadrate base of attachment, about as wide as high ;
reflection bicuspid, the inner cusp very large, the outer cusp
smaller; fifth to seventh transitory, the inner cusp becom-
ing split up into two cusps and a smaller cusp appearing on
the outer side of the outer cusp ;
eighth, and all after true margi-
nals, long and narrow, with from
five to seven cusps ; at first two
of the cusps are situated some
distance up the outer margin of
the cusp; but finally (20) they
appear only on the distal end

Distribution : New England to
California, Michigan and Dakota
to Texas and Mexico ; Cuba.

Geological Distribution: Pleis-
tocene ; Loess.

Habitat: Similar to and almost
always associated with caperata.

Remarks: This species, long known as umbilicata, has
been shown by Mr. Pilsbry to be a synonym of cubensis Pfr.*

Fig. 7. Kadula of Limnaea cuben-
sis Pfr. C, central tooth; 1-4,
first lateral teeth; 5, 6, 7, tran-
sition teeth; 8, 9, 12, 20, mar-
ginal teeth.

* Vide Proc. Phil. Acad. 1891 : 321.

14 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

It has been confounded with the closely allied species caperata,
but is always a wider, more globose shell, and the aperture is
generally longer than the spire, while in caperata the spire is
always longer than the aperture. In caperata the aperture
is elongately ovate while in cubensis it is roundly ovate. The
spires of the two species are also quite different. Like cap-
erata the present species is universally distributed throughout
the area, but is not quite as common. Fossil specimens have
been found in the sand banks along the lake shore north of
Graceland Avenue.

7. LlMNAEA PALUSTRIS Mullei*.*

PI. I. f. 1, 2.

Limnaea palustris Muller, Zool. Dan. Prodr. 2934. 1776.

Limnaeus elodes Say, Journ. Phil. Acad. 2 : 169. 1821.

Limnaea umbrosa Say, Amer. Conch, pi. xxxi. f. 1. 1332.

Limnaea nuttalliana Lea, Proc. Amer. Phil. Soc. 2: 33. 1841.

Limnaea plebeia Gould, Invert, of Mass. 1841.

Limnaea expansa Haldeman, Mori. 29. pi. ix. f. 6-8. 1842.

Limnaea fragilis, Haldeman (non Linn6), Mon. 20. pi. vi. f. 1. 1842.

Limnaea haydeni Lea, Proc. Phil. Acad. 1858 : 166.

Limnaea sumassi Baird, Proc. Zool. Soc. London. 68. 1863.

Limnaea michiganensis Bryant Walker, The Nautilus. 6 : 33. pi. i. f. 9, 10.
1892. (Variety.)

Limnaeus sufflaius W. W. Calkins, mss. (An expanded form of Halde-
man's expansa )

Limnaea intertexta Currier, mss., vide Walker, The Nautilus. 6 : 33. 1892.

Shell: Varying from elongate to elongate-ovate, rather
thin ; color varyiug from pale brown to almost jet black ; sur-
face dull to shining, covered with numerous crowded growth
lines crossed by several elevated spiral lines and by numerous
very fine impressed spiral lines, which give the surface a
malleated aspect; the whorls are sometimes encircled by
coarse wrinkles, and frequently the epidermis is so arranged
as to show longitudinal stripes of white and horn color, alter-
nating; whorls 6, rounded, the last varying in its rotundity ;
spire sharp and pointed, varying from over half to two thirds
the length of the entire shell ; sutures well impressed ; aper-

* It is a grave question whether or not it is wise to make varieties of the
numerous forms of this species, as there appears to be no limit to its varia-
tion. One may place specimens of this species in a row, beginning with
the smaller narrow forms and trace the variation, without a break, to the
wide, swollen, typical form.

Baker — A Revision of the Limnaeas of Northern Illinois. 15

ture roundly-ovate, more or less expanded ; peristome thin,
acute, sometimes expanded, in old specimens thickened by a
heavy deposit within; the peristome is white and there is a
band of very dark brown which edges the callus deposit;
columella oblique, reflected, with a large fold across the
middle, and covered by a heavy, whitish, testaceous deposit
which is more or less spreading; umbilicus closed by the
spreading callus and reflected columella, but the region is
indented and the umbilicus is sometimes narrowly open.

Length 27.50
" 23.00
24.00
26.00
30 00
26.00
20.00
15.50
26.50

it
«
tt
it
u
tt
(i

Animal

width 9.50
" 9.00

<<
CI
It
ct

10.00
13.00
12.00
12.00
9.00
7.00
11.00

aperture leng

th 12.00;

width 5 00

11.00;

" 5.00

11.50;

" 550

15.00

" 8.00

14.00'

" 7.12

12.25

" 7.00

9.00

" 4.50

8.50

; " 3.50

11.00

" 6.00

tt
tt
(t
it
tt
tt

(9323.)
(8114.)
(9884.)
(8375.)
(8115.)
(8115.)
(9695.)
(9695.)
(9695.)

With a short, wide foot, rounded before and
behind; tentacles short, triangular; color black, lighter be-
low, the body spotted with white which shows through the
shell. Heart situated as usual, pulsation regular, 80-81 per
minute. Length of foot 8.00, width 3.00 mills.

Jaw : As usual.

Radula formula: f£ + *■ + f + \+ f + i + 1^(34 — 1 —
34): central tooth as usual; lateral teeth of the usual type,
bicuspid ; tran-
sition teeth at
first like later-
als but tricus-
pid, the central
cusp the largest
(11) but soon
(13) the inner
cusps become
more equal and

the outer cusp Fig. 8. Radula of Limnaea pahistris Muller. C, central
small • marginal tooth; 1, first lateral; 7, seventh lateral; 11-13, inter-

, to mediate teeth ; 14-30, types of marginal teeth.

teeth of the

usual type (f. 8). In one membrane examined (f. 9) the first

&&,

16 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

lateral to the right of the central tooth had a bifid outer cusp.
This was observed in all the first laterals in this membrane.

Distribution: North America, Europe,
Asia; circumpolar. Alaska (Randolph).

Geological Distribution: Pleistocene;
Loess.

Habitat: Found in small streams and
rivers, ponds and lakes, attached to float-
ing sticks and submerged water plants.

Remarks: This is a very common and

also a very variable species, as the list of

Fig. 9. First lateral of synonyms which heads the description
L.palustris, with hiM ^ ^^ ^ ^ d & ^^ mQre

outer cusp. . J

or less fusiform species, with the aper-
ture and spire equal, or the latter a trifle longer, but never
twice as long, as in reflexa. The malleation is usually,
though not always, present. There seem to be no geographic
races to this form, as all varieties may be found in a single
small pool, as is the case near Bowmanville. The lip may
be thin or thickened, without regard to size. Some forms
are ornamented by numerous fine, incremental lines, much as
in some land shells.

The food of the Limnaeids is supposed to be exclusively
vegetable, but from some recent observations and from late
notes of other naturalists it would seem that the group is
carnivorous as well as scavengiferous. The writer has noted
this species feeding upon dead carcasses (dogs, cats, etc.)
and Dr. Sterki (The Nautilus. 5 : 94. 1891) has seen it in the
act of eating a living leach. The species is found in almost
all parts of the area and in some localities is the predominat-
ion form.

The animal of palustris is very rapid in movement. It
crawls out of the water and will remain in this position for a
long time. When crawling, the shell is frequently moved
rapidly from side to side, and is carried at all conceivable
angles. It is a very rapid feeder and will soon clear up the
sides of an aquarium. Like other species of the genus, palus-
tris has the habit of rising very suddenly from the bottom to
the top of the water where it will then float shell downward.

Baker — A Revision of the Limnaeas of Northern Illinois. 17
7a. Limnaea palustris michiganensis Walker.

PI. I. f. 5.

This form is characterized (although connected by inter-
mediate forms with the type) by the aperture being about one
half the total length, the outer lip is thickened within by a
bluish-white callus edged with brownish black ; this shows as
a white longitudinal band on the outside of the shell. Mr.
Walker mentions very fine spiral lines but these are as fully
developed in the typical forms as in the variety.

Length 20.00; width 8.00; aperture length 9.00; width 4.50 mill. (.12083.)
" 17.00; " 7.00; " " 8.50; " 4.00 " (12083.)

" 15.00; " 7.00; " " 8.00; " 4.00 '■ (12082.)

Habitat; Associated always with the type, but not as
numerous in individuals.

8. Limnaea reflexa Say.

Pi. I. f. 3, 6.

Limneus reflexus Say, Journ. Phil. Acad. 2 : 167. 1821.

Limneus elongatus Say, 1. c. 167. 1821.

Limnaea palustris var. distortus, Rossmassler, Icon. 1 : 97. pi. ii. f. 52.
1835.

Limnaea exilis Lea, Trans. Amer. Phil. Soc. 5 : 114. pl.xix. f. 82. 1837.
(Variety.)

Limnaea kirthandiana Lea, Proc. Amer. Phil. Soc. 2: 33. 1841. (Va-
riety.)

Limnaea lanceata Gould, Proc. Bost. Soc. N. H. 3: 64. 1848.

Limnaea zebra Tryon, Amer. Jour. Conch. 1 : 228. pi. xxiii. f. 4. 1865.

Shell: Very much elongated, narrow, thin, sometimes
scalar ; color honey-yellow to black, sometimes obscurely
longitudinally banded; surface shining, covered with numer-
ous closely crowded growth lines, sometimes showing very
fine impressed spiral lines which reticulate the surface; the
growth lines are also wavy and elevated, in some specimens
forming elevated ridges of considerable size; apex smooth,
brownish or blackish ; whorls 6-7, elongate-rounded, last
whorl dilated (compressed in some varieties), reflexed ; spire
very long and pointed, occupying about two-thirds of the
entire length of the shell ; sutures impressed ; aperture lunate
or elongate-ovate, narrowed at the upper part, very oblique
in some specimens; peristome thin, sharp, thickened by a
heavy callus on the inside, the callus chocolate or purplish in
color; peristome whitish; lower part of peristome dilated;

Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

columella oblique, with a heavy plait across its center, run-
ning up into the whorl and extending to the apex; the colu-
mella callus is heavy, wide and spreading, and, with the
columella, is reflected so as to completely cover the umbilicus ;
umbilical region indented.

Length

20.00;

width

7.00;

aperture length

7.50;

width 3.75

mill.

(8382.)

30.00;

9.00

12.50

5.50

(8384.)

36.50;

11.00

14.00

7.00

(8111.)

34.00;

10.00

13.00

6.00

(8111.)

30.50;

9.50

12.50

5.50

(8109.)

40.00;

13.00

15.00

8.50

(8109.)

38.00;

10.00

13.50

6.50

(8110.)

31.00;

9.50

12.00

7.00

(8110.)

37.00;

12.00

16.00

7.50

(8112.)

Animal: Bluish-black or black; foot short and wide, 12.50
mill, long, 6.50 mill, wide; other characters as in palustris.

the head is carried but little in ad-
vance of the edge of the shell (f.
10).

Jaws: As usual.

Radula formula: f^ + -f- + J^-

+ i + ¥■ + i + H (40— 1 — 40) •
central tooth as usual ; lateral teeth

with a subquadrate base of attach-
ment ; reflection large, a little longer
than wide; bicuspid, the inner cusp
very large and sub-bifid, the second
part represented only by a swelling
on the inner side of the cusp ; the
outer cusp is short and narrow, and pointed; intermediate lat-
erals and marginals tricuspid, the central cusp long, the outer
cusps short; as the marginals are approached the reflection
becomes narrow and the inner cusp is placed nearer the top
of the tooth ; marginal teeth long and narrow, of the usual

type (f. 11).

Distribution: Northern United States and Canada, from
the Atlantic to the Pacific.

Geological Distribution : Pleistocene; Loess.

Habitat: Found plentifully in creeks, ponds, lakes and
rivers, attached to pieces of floating wood, submerged vegeta-

Fig. 10. Mouth parts of
Limnaea reflexa Say. A,
superior jaw; B, lateral
jaws; C. radula; D. lips.

Baker — A Revision of the Limnaeas of Northern Illinois. 19

tion, stones, etc. Also found attached to floating garbage,
such as decaying apples, vegetables, etc.

Remarks: This is one of
our most common species,
and, excepting L. stagnalis,
is the finest and largest
Limnaea we have. It is
always characterized by a
long and attenuated spire
which is twice as long as the
aperture. In palustris the
spire and aperture are nearly
equal, and the shell is wider
in proportion to its length
than in rejiexa, and the lat-
ter is very rarely malleated.
There is great variation in
the attenuation of the spire,
some forms approaching var.
attenuata in having a long,
narrow, pointed spire ( PI. 1 .
f. 3). The figures well illus-
trate this variation.

The animal is generally rather sluggish in movement, but
sometimes moves with considerable rapidity, especially when
feeding. The species is as widely distributed in the present
area as palustris.

Dr. Howard N. Lyon has raised this species from the egg
and has presented the set showing age development to the
Academy. Considerable variation is shown in the form of
the shell, the young (12-16 weeks) looking very like L. pa-
lustris, the characteristic "twist" of rejiexa not appearing
until the 21st week. The measurements of the successive
stages are as follows : —

Fig. 11. Radula of Limnaea rejiexa
Say. C, central tooth; 1, first lat-
eral; 11, 14, intermediate teeth; 18,
24, 29, 37, 39, eighteenth to thirty-

ninth marginals.

6 weeks.
12
12
16
16
21

Length 2.00; width 1.50 mill.
« 5.00; " 2.75 "
" 10.00; " 5.00 "
" 1300; " 6.00 "
" 20.50; " 7.50 "
" 21.50; " 9.00 "

This set shows that
some individuals grow
faster than others.

20 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

21 weeks. Length 25.00; width 9.00 mill.
33 " " 26.50; " 9.50 "

52 " " 26.00; " 11.50 "

52 " " 28.50; «• 10.50 "

Another remarkable set showing development was pre-
sented by Dr. Lyon. The tablet contains fifteen specimens
which were all killed when seventeen weeks old, yet the
smallest is 4 mill, long and the largest 27 mill. All were fed
on lettuce and contained in a four quart battery jar, under
equal conditions of heat and light, and the brood was from a
single egg capsule.

8a. LlMNAEA REFLEXA ATTENUATA Say.
PI. I.j. 4.

Limnaea attenuate/, Say, New Harm. Diss. 2 : 244. 1829.
Limnata subulata Dunker, Kiister, Chenm. ed. 2. p. 24. pi. iv. f. 24.

Shell: With an attenuated spire, which is more pointed
than in reflexa; whorls 7, somewhat loosely coiled, leaving a
well-marked suture, very convex; apex small, rounded, prom-
inent; aperture about a third the length of the entire shell,
lunate, thickened on the inside by a heavy callus; peristome
thin ; columella covered by a heavy callus and with a prom-
inent plait; color light horn, sometimes darker, aperture dark
horn, the callus yellowish, bordered with dark brown ; other
characters as in reflexa.

Length 24.00; width 8.00; aperture length 9.50; width 5.25 mill.
" 23.00; «' 7.75; " " 9.00; <* 5.00 "

" 22.00; " 7.00: " " 8.75; " 4.75 "

Animal, Jaw and Dentition as in reflexa.

Distribution ; Same as reflexa, with the addition of Mexico.

Habitat: Same as reflexa.

Remarks: The present form cannot stand, in the writer's
opinion, as a species. It intergrades with forms of reflexa,
and cannot be satisfactorily separated from that species. It
may, however, stand as a variety, characterized by an attenu-
ated spire, rounded whorls and general scalariform shell.
The variety is very rare and is only known from the vicinity
of Joliet.

Baker — A Revision of the Limnaeas of Northern Illinois. 21
8b. Limnaea Keflex a scalaris Walker.

PI. I. f. 7.

Limnaea reflexa var. scalaris Bryant Walker, The Nautilus. 6 : 33. pi. t. /.
7. 1892.

This form is intermediate between the typical reflexa and
its variety attenuata. It is in reality a scalariform condition ,
the whorls being well rounded and divided by a deep suture.
The variety does not seem to be very common and is always
found, at least in this area, associated with the type. It may
be collected sparingly in Lake Calumet and near Joliet.

9. Limnaea stagnalis Linne.*

Plate I.f.15.

Helix stagnalis Linne, Faun. Suecica. 2188. 1761.

Limnaea jugularis Say, Nich. Encycl. Amer. ed. 1816. (Variety.)

Limnaea appressa Say, Journ. Phil. Acad. 2: 168. 1821.

Limnaea speciosa Ziegler, of Rossmassler, Icon. Land & Siissw. Moll.
1: 96. pi. 11. f. 50. 1835.

Limnaea occidentalis Hemphill, The Nautilus. 4 : 26. 1890. (Variety.)

Limnaea sanctaemariae Walker, The Nautilus. 6:31. pi. 2". /. 4, 5. 1892.
(Variety.)

Shell: Elongated (or oval), ventricose at the anterior end,
thin; color yellowish-horn to brownish-black; surface shin-
ing, growth lines numerous, crowded, more or less elevated,
crossed by numerous fine, impressed spiral lines; apex
smooth, brownish horn color ; whorls 6^, rapidly increasing,
all but the last two rather flat sided ; last whorl very large,
considerably dilated and inflated; spire long, pointed, acute,
occupying about half the length of the entire shell (some-
times very short); sutures distinct but not very much im-
pressed; aperture large, broadly ovate, dilated, particularly
at the upper part; peristome thin, acute, in some specimens
thickened by an internal callus ; lower part rounded ; colum

* It seems hardly necessary, or worth the time expended, to name
the numerous varieties of this species recognized by European writers, and
yet it may be of some interest to tabulate the names of some of these varieties
as recorded in the Annales de la Soci^te Malacologique de Belgique, 1872.
7 : 81, et seq. These are: sinistrosa, Jeff . (reversed), lutea, maxima, expansa,
quadrangulata, alba, erosa, regularis, distorta, aperta, biplicata, costulata, all
of Collin; minima, gibbosa, illaqueata, scalaris, aqnarii, arenaria, producta,
all of J. Colb.; rosea, Gass., subfusca, major, pumila, turgida, all of Moq.
Tan.; reseo -labiata Wolf (Moq.), fragilis L. (Moq.). This list simply
shows to what extent the system of varietal naming may be carried.

Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

ella crossed in the middle by a very heavy plait, which starts
from the base of the aperture and runs obliquely into the
aperture of the shell about 10 mill, from the junction of
the peristome with the body whorl ; there is a spreading
callus on the columella and labrum which completely covers
the umbilicus.

LeDgth 48.00; width 21.50

51.00;
33.00;
50.00;
62. CO;
57.00;

22.50
16.75

20.00
50.00
24.00

aperture length 26.00; width 14.00 mill. (8113.)
" 26.50; " 15.00 " (8113.)
" 18.50; " 9.50 " (8113.)
" 26.00; " 12.00 " (8113.)
« 33.00; " 17.00 "(Jensen.)
31.00; « 14.50 " (12315.)

Animal; Dark horn colored, tinged with bluish on the foot ;

head distinct, separated from the body by a constriction or

neck, and produced into
lateral flaps or vela; ten-
tacles triangular, rather
long, flat, the eyes placed
on their bases ; foot short
and wide, truncated before
and roundly pointed behind,
20.00 mill, long and 9.00
mill, wide; respiratory ori-
fice very large, placed near
the junction of the peristome

with the body whorl. Heart situated midway between upper

and lower ends of columella, pulsations varying from 37 to

48 per minute.
Jaw; As usual.

Fig. 12. Animal of Limnaea stagnalis
Linne. (Canadian Naturalist. 2 :
196.)

Radula formula : $+ + 2-3 + V" + T +

13.
2

-4- 4-

2-3 I

2.9.

4 +

(46—

1 — 46): central tooth as usual, a single membrane examined
had the central tooth abnormal in possessing a denticle on
the left side of the reflection (/. 13, c. ) ; lateral teeth with
a quadrate base of attachment, the reflection very large,
reaching far below the base of attachment, bicuspid, the
inner cusp very large, the outer cusp very small (the first
lateral has a bifid inner cusp); intermediate teeth very long
and narrow, bi- or tricuspid ; marginal teeth very long and
narrow, four- or more cuspid, the cusps being very blunt
and small and extending irregularly along the outer edge of

Baker — A Revision of the Limnaeas of Northern Illinois. 23

the teeth. The number of teeth seems to vary in different

individuals; the writer has counted from 46 — 1 — 46 to 54 —

1 — 54; Binney (L.

&F.W. Sh.,p. 28)

gives 40 — 1 — 40

and (p. 155) 47—

1_47 teeth; Bland

and Binney (Am.

Journ. Conch. 7 :

161) give 40—1—

40. It is probable

that the membrane

having 54 — 1 — 54

teeth was abnormal .

46 — 1 — 46 is the

number generally

counted by the

writer (f. 13).

Distribution :
North America,
Europe, Asia; cir-
cumpolar.

Fig. 13. Radula of Limnaea stagnalis Linne\ C,
central tooth, abnormal; 1, first literal; 2,
second lateral; 14, fourteenth lateral or first
intermediate; 19, 23, marginal teeth.

Geological Distribution ; Pleistocene; Loess.

Habitat: Found generally in stagnant spots of ponds and
rivers about decaying vegetation. Rotting fruit or vegetables
floating in the water will be found a good habitat for this
species. Dredged from a depth of ten meters at High Island
Harbor, Lake Michigan (vide Bryant Walker).

Remarks: This is our largest and finest Limnaea, easily
distinguished by its large size, pointed spire and ample
aperture. It varies to a great extent, principally in the form
and size of the aperture, which is normally about the same
length as the spire, but may be twice its length ; it may also
be elongately rounded or spreading and flaring. With all its
variation, however, it is easily identified and cannot be mis-
taken for any other shell. This species may be classed with
palustris, under the remarks on the latter species, in regard
to its food. It has been seen about dead carcasses of a
number of animals.

24 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

EXPLANATION OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

PLATE I.

1, Limnaea palustris Muller. — 2, L. palustris (sufllatus Calkins). — S} L.
reflexa Say, elongate form. — 4, L. reflexa variety attenuata Say. — 5, L.
palustris Miiller variety michiganensis Walker. — 6, L. reflexa Say. — 7, L.
reflexa variety scalaris Walker. — 8, L. desidiosa Say. — 9, L. catascopium
Say. — 10, L. cubensis Pfeiffer. — 11, L. caperata Say. — 12, L. catascopium
variety pinguis Say. — 13, L. columella Say. — 14, L. humilis Say. — 15; L.
atagnalis Linn6.

Issued January 16, 1901.

Trans. Acad. Sci. «>f St. Louis, Vol. XI.

Plate I.

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Transactions of The Academy of Science of St. Louis.

VOL. XI. No. 2.

FLORIDA LICHENS.

P. H. ROLFS.

Issued March 16, 1901

FLORIDA LICHENS.*
P. H. Rolfs.

The lichens of the following list are in the herbarium of
the Florida State Agricultural College at Lake City. The
specimens were collected and determined during the writer's
connection with that institution.

About eighty per cent, of the species were collected by Mr.
Lovik T. Pattillo, a student in the college, who deserves
unusual credit for his keen discrimination as an amateur col-
lector and his untiring patience. The remainder of the
specimens were collected by Mr. A. L. Quaintance, by the
Sophomore classes, and by the writer.

The material, as collected, was shipped in what might be
termed a rough condition to Mr. W. W. Calkins, of Chicago,
well known among botanists for his work on lichens. The
material was collected, labelled as to date, habitat, and local-
ity and transferred to Mr. Calkins. The task of examining
critically about 500 packages, each containing from one to an
indefinite number of species, would seem enough to drown the
enthusiasm of the most ardent.

The "Lichen-Flora of Florida," f published in 1887,
enumerates 330 species and varieties. This list gives 48
species and varieties not mentioned in that paper, making 378
species and varieties catalogued for Florida, and the field is
only partially explored.

Lichenologists interested in the species here enumerated
will have no difficulty in securing access to the collection for
study, if they desire.

The notes, common, abundant,. rare, etc., have been fur-
nished by Mr. Calkins and explain themselves.

* Presented and read by title before The Academy of Science of St. Louis,
February 18, 1901.

t Eckfeldt and Calkins, Jour. Mycol. 3 : 121-126, 133-137. 1887.

(25)

26 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

A rather full annotation of the habitats is given with a view
of stimulating amateur collecting and thus securing larger rep-
resentation of the Lichen flora. For this reason the common
name, if specific enough, has been given preference.*

SERIES GYMNOCARPI.

TRIBE PARMELIACEI.
Family Usneei.

Ramalina.

1. Ramalina rigida, (Pers.) Nyl.

Common on dead oak.

2. Ramalina rigida, var. montagnaei, Tuck.

On water oak.

USNEA.

3. USNEA BARBATA, (L.) Fl*.

On palmetto; cypress; persimmon.

4. USNEA BARBATA, Vai\ FLORIDA, Fl\

On dead cypress ; water oak; scrub oak.

5. USNEA BARBATA, Var. HIRTA, Fl*.

Family Parmeliei.

Parmelia.

6. Parmelia cetrata, Ach.

Common on pine stump; dead cedar; cypress.

7. Parmelia crinita, Ach.

Common on dead oak.

* The following annotations may be of service: Gum, Nyssa; pine
stump, P. palustris; persimmon, Diospyros; pear, Pyrus communis; mul-
berry, Moms rubra; hickory, Carya; pine, Pinus; chinquapin oak, Q. pri-
noides; oak, Quercus; plum, Primus (cultivated); linden Tilia sp.; thorny
locust, Oleditschia triacanthos; wild cherry, Prunus serotina; live-oak,
Q. virens; magnolia, M. grandiflora; palmetto, Sabal, Serenoa; cypress, Tax-
odium; willow oak, Q. Phellos; scrub oak, Q. sp.; saw palmetto, Serenoa
serrulata; black oak, Q. tinctorial; crape myrtle, Lagerstroemia Indica; red
oak, Q. rubra1?; blue gum, Nyssa aquatica; red cedar, Juniperus Virginiana.

Rolfs — Florida Lichens. 27

8. Parmelia latissima, Fee.

On pine roof ; dead oak ; hickory ; saw palmetto ;
wild cherry; Xanthoxylum ; dead pine ; Crataegus.

9. Parmelia perforata, (Jacq.) Ach.

Abundant. On pine stump; oak; hickory; per-
simmon.

10. Parmelia perl ata, (L.) Ach.

On oak ; palmetto ; persimmon ; orange ; magnolia ;
pear; sassafras; black oak.

11. Parmelia perl ata, var. ciliata, Ouctt.

On sassafras.

12. Parmelia physodes, (L.) Ach.

Rare. On hickory.

13. Parmelia tiliacea, (Hoffm.) Floerk.

Common. On dead cypress ; hickory; crape myrtle;
blue gum; oak.

14. Parmelia tiliacea, var. sublaevigata, Nyl.

On dead cypress ; magnolia ; hickory ; Bejaria ; sas-
safras ; linden ; plum ; pear.

Physcia.

15. Physcia adglutinata, (Floerk) Nyl.

16. Physcia crisp a, Nyl.

On oak ; palmetto ; magnolia ; dead live-oak ; hickory.

17. Physcia crispa, var. hypomela, Tuck.

On wild cherry.

18. Physcia stellaris, (L.) Nyl.

Common. On mulberry ; red cedar ; linden ; hickory.

Pyxine.

19. Pyxine cocoes, (Sw.) Nyl.

On palmetto.

20. Pyxine meissneri, Tuck.

Very rare. On Oarpinus.

21. Pyxine picta, (Sw.) Tuck.

Abundant. On scrub oak.

22. Pyxine sorediata, Fr.

On Ficus; Sabal.

28 Trans. Acad. ScL of St. Louis.

Family Peltigerei.

Sticta.

23. Sticta aurata, (Sw.) Ach.

On magnolia.

24. Sticta quercizans, (Michx.) Ach.

On magnolia; Crataegus; red oak.

Family Pannariei.

Pannaria.

25. Pannaria molybdaea, (Pers.) Tuck.

Not common. On crape myrtle; red cedar; dead
live-oak; water oak; Carpi nun; scrub oak; magnolia;
persimmon; Andromeda.

26. Pannaria rubiginosa, (Thunb.) Delis.

Abundant. On red oak ; black oak; Andromeda.

27. Pannaria stellata, (Tuck.) Nyl.

Abundant. On Carpinus.

Family Collemei.

Collema.

28. Collema aggregatum, Nyl.

Abundant. On dead cypress ; scrub oak.

29. Collema nigrescens, Fr.

Common. On hickory.

30. Collema nigrescens, var. leucopepla, Tuck.

On linden.

Leptogium.

31. Leptogium marginellum, (Sw.) Mont.

On red cedar; linden; Carpinus; oak; mulberry;
Liquidambar.

32. Leptogium myochroum, (Ehrh.) Tuck.

On sassafras.

33. Leptogium myochroum, var. saturninum, Schaer.

34. Leptogium pulchellum, (Ach. ) Nyl.

On Cornus florida ; Carpinus; linden.

Rolfs — Florida Lichens. 29

35. Leptogium tremelloides, (L. f.) Fr.

Abundant. On red cedar; magnolia; Oarpinus;
black oak; hickory.

Family Lecanorei.

Placodium.

36. Placodium cerinum, (Hedw.) Naeg. & Hepp.

On red oak ; linden; chinquapin oak.

Lecanora.

37. Lecanora atra, (Huds.) Ach.

Very common. On mulberry; Liquidambar ; per-
simmon; blue gum ; linden; chinquapin oak ; magnolia.

38. Lecanora conizaea, Ach.

On pine.

39. Lecanora cupressi, Tuck.

Very common. On dead pine; cypress.

40. Lecanora granifera, Ach.

On Oarpinus.

41. Lecanora pallida, (Schreb.) Schaer.

Abundant. On mulberry ; red cedar ; hickory ; scrub
oak; persimmon; live-oak.

42. Lecanora pallida, var. cancriformis, Tuck.

Abundant. On linden ; water oak.

43. Lecanora pallescens, (L.) Schaer.

On hickory; Ilex.

44. Lecanora pulchella, Ach.

On blue gum ; willow oak ; oak ; water oak.

45. Lecanora punicea, Ach.

Very abundant. On water oak ; chinquapin oak ; live-
oak ; young oak ; red oak ; Myrica ; wild cherry ; mul-
berry ; hickory ; cypress ; C ornus florida ; Xanthoxylum.

46. Lecanora subfusca, (L.) Ach.

Common. On mulberry; cypress; C 'ornus florida;
hickory; persimmon; water oak.

47. Lecanora varia, (Ehrh.) Nyl.

On Casianea; dead cypress; Myrica; wild cherry;
linden; chinquapin oak; live oak.

30 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis

48. Lecanora varia, var. symmicta, Ach.

On mulberry ; hickory ; scrub oak.

49. Lecanora xanthophana, Nyl.

Rare. On magnolia.

Rinodina.

50. Rinodina constans, (Nyl.) Tuck.

Rare. On magnolia.

51. Rinodina flavo-nigella, Tuck.

Rare. On rotten log ; stump ; dead live-oak ; persim-
mon ; black-jack oak.

Pertusaria.

52. Pertusaria communis, DC.

Common. On oak; red oak; black oak; persimmon;
hickory.

53. Pertusaria leioplaca, Kbr.

Abundant. On mulberry ; linden ; magnolia ; red oak ;
hickory; live-oak; Liquidambar ; chinquapin oak.

54. Pertusaria multipuncta, (Turn.) Nyl.

On live-oak; hickory; oak stump; magnolia; pine;
oak; water oak; pine stump; C ornus florida ; linden;
red oak; plum; Mexopaca; dead pine.

55. Pertusaria pustulata, (Ach.), Nyl.

On Myrica; chinquapin oak.

56. Pertusaria velata, (Turn.) Nyl.

Common. On Carpinus; magnolia.

57. Pertusaria wulfenii, DC.

Rare. On hickory; Carpinus.

Gyalecta.

58. Gyalecta lutea, (Dicks.) Tuck.

On C ornus florida.

59. Gyalecta pineti, (Schrad.) Tuck.

On pine; Polyporus.

Thelotrema.

60. Thelotrema domingense, (Fee, N}d.) Tuck.

Common. On Ulmus; hickory.

Rolfs — Florida Lichens. 31

61. Thelotrema glaucescens, Nyl.

Rare. On hickory.

62. Thelotrema interpositum, (Nyl.) Tuck.

On oak; pine; Gordonia.

63. Thelotrema subtile, Tuck.

Abundant. On Carpinus; Cornus florida.

Gyrostomum.

64. Gyrostomum scyphuliferum, (Ach.) Fr.

Very common. On oak; persimmon; Carpinus;
mulberry; pear ; hickory ; wild cherry; Xanthoxylum;
Myrica; crape myrtle; chinquapin oak.

Myriangium.

65. Myriangium duriaei, (M. & B.) Tuck.

On thorny locust; blue gum.

TRIBE LECIDEACEI.

Family Cladoniei.

Cladonia.

66. Cladonia fimbriata, (L.) Fr.

Common. On saw palmetto; cabbage palmetto; pine
log; pine stump; dead live-oak; magnolia; dead pine.

67. Cladonia gracilis, (L.) Nyl.

On pine log.

68. Cladonia gracilis, var. reticulata, Fr.

On sand.

69. Cladonia leporina, Fr.

On sand; old pine roof; pine stump ; saw palmetto.

70. Cladonia macilenta, (Ehrh.) Hoffm.

On old pine stump.

71. Cladonia mitrula, Tuck.

On oak; dead live-oak; damp earth.

72. Cladonia pulchella, Schw.

On dead pine.

73. Cladonia rangiferina, var. alpestris, L.

On old pine roof ; sand.

32 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

74. Cladonia rangiferina, var. sylvatica, L.

On saw palmetto; sand.

75. Cladonia squamosa, var. botryoides, Tuck.

On pine stumps.

Biatora.

76. Biatora atropurpurea, (Mass.) Hepp.

On willow oak.

77. Baitora carneo-albens, (Nyl.) Calkins.

78. Biatora exigua, (Chaub.) Fr.

On Myrica.

79. Biatora floridana, Calkins.

On Carpinus.

80. Biatora furfurosa, Tuck.

On magnolia.

81. Biatora fusco-rubella, Hoffm.

On Gornus fiorida ; water oak.

82. Biatora hypomela, Nyl.

On water oak ; magnolia.

83. Biatora parvifolia, (Pers.) Tuck.

On magnolia; sassafras; Carpinus.

84. Biatora parvifolia, var. corallina, Tuck.

85. Biatora parvifolia, var. granulosa, Tuck.

On magnolia.

86. Biatora parvifolia, var. subgranulosa, Tuck.

On magnolia.

87. Biatora rubella, (Ehrk.) Rab.

On dead cypress; linden; magnolia; mulberry; hick-
ory; Liquidambar .

88. Biatora schweinitzii, Fr.

On sassafras; Gornus florida ; hickory : Liquidambar ;
water oak.

89. Biatora tricholoma, Mont.

Rare. On live-oak.

90. Biatora varians, (Ach.) Tuck.

On persimmon; wild cherry ; chinquapin oak.

91. Biatora vernalis, (L.) Fr.

On palmetto.

Bolfs — Florida Lichens. 33

Heterothecium.

92. Heterothecium domingense, (Pers.) Flot.

On magnolia; Carpinus; hickory; Liquidambar;
water oak.

93. Heterothecium leucoxanthum, (Spreng.) Mass.

Common. On hickory; magnolia; Cornus jlorida;
oak ; black oak ; Ilex opaca ; linden ; mulberry ; willow
oak ; Liquidambar.

94. Heterothecium tuberculosum, (Fee) Flot.

On magnolia.

95. Heterothecium vulpinum, Tuck.

Abundant on magnolia.

Lecidea.

96. Lecidea disciformis, Nyl.

On plum ; magnolia ; wild cherry ; blue gum ; live-oak ;
chinquapin oak.

Buellia.

97. Buellia myriocarpa, (DC.) Mudd.

Common. On Myrica.

98. Buellia parasema, (Ach.) Th. Fr.

Common. On dead pines ; on dead cypress ; mulberry ;
cypress ; magnolia ; Myrica ; hickory ; scrub oak ; Bejaria.

TKIBE GRAPHIDIACEI.

Family Lecanactidei.

Platygrapha.

99. Platygrapha ocellata, Nyl.

Very rare. On Carpinus.

Family Opegraphei.

Opegrapha,

100. Opegrapha astraea, Tuck.
On linden.

34 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

101. Opegrapha bonplandi, Fee.

Common. On oak.

102. Opegrapha similis, Pers.

On hickory.

103. Opegrapha varia, (Pers.) Fr.

Common. On Carpinus; mulberry; magnolia; Cor-
nus florida.

104. Opegrapha viridis, Pers.

On hickory.

105. Opegrapha vulgata, Ach.

Common. On water oak.

Graphis.

106. Graphis abaphoides, Nyl.

Not common. On Persea.

107. Graphis adscribens, Nyl.

Tropical. On mulberry; Persea; Oordonia; hickory.

108. Graphis afzelii, Ach.

Very abundant. On Carpinus; hickory; Myrica;
water oak; scrub oak; pear; Ilex opaca; blue gum;
live-oak.

109. Graphis assimilis, Nyl.

Not rare. On mulberry.

110. Graphis comma, Ach.

On oak ; hickory.

111. Graphis dendritica, Ach.

Common. On XantJioxylum ; deak oaks ; plum; wild
cherry ; chinquapin oak ; pear ; live oak.

112. Graphis elegans, (Sw.) Ach.

Not common. On Carpinus; linden; hickory; mag-
nolia; persimmon

113. Graphis elegans, var. striatula, Ach.

Rare. On oak; magnolia; linden.

114. Graphis erumpens, Nyl.

Common. On Xanthoxylum ; JSTyssa.

115. Graphis glaucoderma, Nyl.

On magnolia ; Carpinus; mulberry.

116. Graphis inusta, Ach.

On hickory.

Rolfs — Florida Lichens. 35

117. Graphis nitida, (Eschw.) Nyl.

Rare. On Myrica.

118. Graphis nitidescens, Nyl.

Very rare. On Oarpinus; linden.

119. Graphis patellul a, (Meiss.) Nyl.

On hickory ; scrub oak.

120. Graphis poitaeoides, Nyl.

Not common. On crape myrtle.

121. Graphis scalpturata, Ach.

On Myrica; hickory; red oak ; linden.

122. Graphis scripta, (L.) Ach.

Common. On wild cherry ; red oak; plum; hickory;
pear; Myrica; crape myrtle; blue gum; willow oak;
magnolia; water oak.

123. Graphis scripta, var. recta, Schaer.

On wild cherry.

124. Graphis scripta, var. serpentina, Sch.

On mulberry; hickory; linden.

125. Graphis sophistica, Nyl.

Not rare. On pear ; willow oak; live oak; chinqua-
pin oak.

126. Graphis subparalis, Nyl.

On magnolia.

127. Graphis substriatula, Nyl.

On water oak.

128. Graphis subvirginalis, Nyl.

On hickory ; oak.

129. Graphis tenella, Ach.

Common. On hickory; Myrica; oak; mulberry;
pear ; blue gum ; water oak ; Oarpinus ; chinquapin oak ;
plum; Xanlhoxylum ; Liquidambar.

130. Graphis tricosa, Ach.

Rare. On Myrica; mulberry; pear; wild cherry;
crape myrtle; chinquapin oak; linden.

Enterographa.

131. Enterographa elegans, Eschw.

Very rare. On black oak.

36 Trans. Acad. Rci. of St. Louis.

Stigmatidium.

132. Stigmatidium inscriptum, Nyl.

Abundant. On Carpinus.

Family Glyphidei.

Chiodecton.

133. Chiodecton montagnaei, Tuck.

Common. On hickory; oak stump; magnolia; red
oak; Carpinus; oak; Ilex opaca; mulberry; Liquidam-
bar ; dead pine ; willow oak ; linden; pine.

134. Chiodecton rubro-cinctum, Nyl.

Very common. On palmetto ; magnolia; dead cedar;
dead pine; Crataegus.

Glyphis.

135. Glyphis achariana, Tuck.

Common. On oak; Xantltoxylum ; Myrica; pear;
crape myrtle; hickory.

136. Glyphis cribosa, Ach.

On hickory; linden.

137. Glyphis favulosa, Ach.

On mulberry; willow oak; linden; water oak.

Family Arthoniei.

Arthonia.

138. Arthonia asteroidea, Ach.

Not common. On chinquapin oak.

139. Arthonia cinnabarrina, Wallr.

Common. On wild cherry; cabbage palmetto scab-
bard; Xanlhoxylum ; Ilex opaca; C 'or nus jiori da; lin-
den; hickory; live oak; chinquapin oak.

140. Arthonia dispersa, Nyl.

On persimmon ; pear; Hamamelis; oak; Myrica.

141. Arthonia floridana, Willey.

Rare. On Myrica; Ilex ojmca.

142. Arthonia interveniens, Nyl.

On thorny locust.

Rolfs — Florida Lichens. 37

143. Arthonia tunctiformis, Ach.

On Comus florida ; linden.

144. Arthonia pyrrhula, Nyl.

On mulberry; Myrica.

145. Arthonia pyrrhuliza, Nyl.

On mulberry; Myrica; chinquapin oak.

146. Arthonia quintaria, Nyl.

Abundant. On wild cherry; Myrica.

147. Arthonia rubella, Fee.

Common. On linden.

148. Arthonia spectabilis, Flot.

On mulberry; hickory; Myrica; pine.

149. Arthonia taediosa, Nyl.

Not common. On Myrica; oak; plum; Pinus
clausa; chinquapin oak; pear; Xanthoxylum ; linden.

Mycoporum.

150. Mycoporum pycnocarpum, Nyl.

Common. On persimmon; Pinus clausa; Xan-
thoxylum.

TRIBE CALICIACEI.

Family Caliciei.

Acolium.

151. Acolium carolinianum, Tuck.

On pine stump.

152. Acolium javanicum, (M. & Vd. B.) Stitz.

On gum.

38 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

SERIES ANGIOCARPI.

TRIBE VERRUCARIACEI.
Family Verrucariei.

Segestria.

153. Segestria nucula, (Fr.) Ach.

On hickory; linden; magnolia; oak; mulberry;
Liquidambar ; Cornus florida ; willow oak.

Trypthelium.

154. Trypthelium (Pyrenula) aggregata, Fee.

Common. On Myrica.

155. Trypthelium catervarium, (Fee) Tuck.

Rare. On Myrica.

156. Trypthelium mastoideum, Ach.

On mulberry ; pear ; Myrica ; linden ; hickory ; red
oak; Xanthoxylum.

157. Trypthelium achroleum, Nvl.

On hickory; pear.

158. Trypthelium achroleum, var. pallescens, Miiller.

Ou mulberry; hickory.

159. Trypthelium cruentum, Mont.

On mulberry; blue gum; pear; plum.

160. Trypthelium pyrenuloides, Mont.

Abundant. On linden; Carpinus; hickory; water
oak; willow oak; Cornus florida ; magnolia ; mulberry.

161. Trypthelium scorites, (Tuck.) Nyl.

Abundant. On oak; Hex opaca; willow oak;
hickory.

162. Trypthelium virens, Tuck.

Abundant. On blue gum.

Pyrenula.

163. Pyrenula cinchonae, (Ach.) Tuck.

On Myrica.

Rolfs — Florida Lichens. 39

164. Pyrenula fall ax, Nyl.

Common. On Xanthoxylum ; plum; blue gum.

165. PrRENULA GEMMATA, Ach.

On Carpinus; hickory.

166. Pyrenula glabrata, Ach.

On hickory ; oak; pear; linden.

167. Pyrenula mamillana, Ach.

On Carpinus; linden; Ilex opaca; wild cherry ;
Myrica; magnolia.

168. Pyrenula nitida, Ach.

On oak stump ; chinquapin oak ; Myrica; willow oak ;
water oak; linden.

169. Pyrenula ochraceo-flava, Nyl.

On mulberry; live-oak.

170. Pyrenula punctiformis, Ach.

On Xanthoxylum; Pinus clausa; hickory.

171. Pyrenula quinque-septata, (Nyl. ) Tuck.

On Myrica.

172. Pyrenula subprostans, (Nyl.) Tuck.

Common. On oak.

173. Pyrenula tropica, (Ach.) Tuck.

Rare. On mulberry; hickory; pear.

Pyrenastrum.

174. Pyrenastrum astroideum, (Fee) Eschw.

On magnolia ; Ilex opaca; hickory; wild cherry.

175. Pyrenastrum ravenelii, Tuck.

On linden.

Strigula.

176. Strigula complanata, (Fee & Mont.) Nyl.

On magnolia leaves.

Issued March 16, 1901.

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The total eclipse of the sun, January 1, 1889. A report of the observations
made by the Washington University Eclipse Party, at Norman, Califor-
nia. 1891. $2.00.

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Transactions of The Academy of Science of St, Louis.

VOL.. XI. No. 3.

ISOGONIC TRANSFORMATION.

T. G. POATS.

Issued May 16, 1901,

IS0G0N1C TRANSFORMATION.*

T. G. Poats.

In this paper the expression Isogonic Transformation is used
to indicate the transformation of a figure which results from
the projection of its points along circular arcs which measure
equal angles at the feet of the ordinates of the respective
points. For instance, if the ordinate drawn to P' (Fig. 1)

Fig. l.

is turned through an angle a about its foot and, likewise,
the ordinates from all the other points of the circumference
are turned each through the same angle a, the resulting figure
is the isogonic transformation of the circle.

* Presented in abstract to The Academy of Science of St. Louis, Jan. 21,
1901.

(41)

42 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

Referring to Fig. 1, let the circle P'BCA be given by its
equation

x2 + y'2 = R2

referred to the rectangular axes OX' , OY'.

Take any point P' in the circumference whose co-ordinates
are x' , y' and turn the ordinate y' through an angle a bringing

r to p.

The co-ordinates of P referred to OX' , OY' are xlt yr
Treat every point of the circumference in the same way and
we shall have (Fig. 2) the circle transformed into an ellipse.

Proof :

jb'2 + y'2 = R2 (1)

is the equation to the circle referred to OX', OY'.

The co-ordinates of P' in terms of those of P are

x' = Xj + 2/j tan a
y' = yl sec a,

and the new locus has for its equation

(xx + .Vi tan a)2 + (yx sec a)2 = R2
or

x2 + yt2 + 2yx2 tan2 a -f- 2^, tan a — R2. (2)

which is the equation of an ellipse.

Now let us refer the conic to the axes OX, OY, which
make an angle # with OX', OY' respectively, and let the new
co-ordinates of P referred to OX, OY be x, y.

For changing from the axes OX' , OY' to the axes OX, OY

xx = y sin 6 + x cos 6
y1 = y cos 6 — x sin 0.

Substituting and separating terms equation ( 2 ) becomes

+ 1

— tan a sin 20 + y2

+ 2 tan2 a sin2 6

+ 1

+ tan a sin 26

+ 2 tan2 a cos2 0

+ 2ar?/

tan a cos 20

-tan2 a sin 20 =^' ^

Poats — Isogonic Transformation. 43

Making the coefficient of xy zero to get rid of the term in-
rolving xy, we have

tan a cos 20 — tan2 a sin 20 = 0
cot 20 = tan a

Hence

20 = 90° — a

For this value of 0 equation (3) becomes of the general

form

Ax2 + By2 = R2,

in which

A = z — j — ; — >
1 + sin a

and

1 — sin a

Equation (3) now becomes

R2 ( 1 + sin a) ^ R2 ( 1 — sin a) K J

which is the equation to the ellipse whose constants are: —
semi-major axis, a = R V\ + sin a,
semi-minor axis, b — R V\ — sin a,

_ \R2 (1 + sina)--i22(l--sina)

eccentricity,

R2 (l + sin a)

2 sin a

1 + sin a
focal distance, c = ae

2 sin a

— R VI + sin a\- — ; — : —

u + sin a

= R V 2 sin a.

a\l

Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

When a — 30°, c = R, and the focus is on the circumfer-
ence of the circle.

(This ellipse is the common isometric projection of the
circle. )

Fig. 2.

To determine common points of ellipse and circle we have

x2 + y2 = R2

1 + sin a \ — sin a

_ V referred to OX, OY,

whence
and

x = ± R cos 6

y = ± R sin 6.

These two equations give us the points A, B, p, q, (Fig. 2),

Poats — Isogonic Transformation. 45

To determine the vertices of the ellipse we have (Fig. 2)

tan ^PQO = P° b RVT=^~'

OQ a R i/l + sin a

1 — tan2 0
l + tan20

Hence
and

therefore

1 — tan2 0
\| 1 + 1 + tan2 0

— tan 0.

^.pqo = e

POM = ^LOPM = 90° — 0
OM = MP = MQ = P'M;

^LP'OB = 45°

The vertices may consequently be determined at once as
well as the position and length of the axes.

To rectify this ellipse

/ e2 3 e4 3'4-0 eD

I1 """ 2* "" 22^42 ~~ 22-42-62 ~~ )

i2 3 ei 32-5 e6
L = 2-rra 1 — ^ — ^-ns —

in which

2 sin a

e2 =

1 + sin a
and

a — R V\ + sin a ;
hence

y /. 1 sin a

£ = %«R 1/1 + 8in . (1 - j • (1+siDa)

3 sin2 a 5 sin3 a \

~~ 16 ' (1+sina)2"" 32 ' (1 + sina)3 )

When

a = 0° Z = 2iri? Circle Maximum perimeter.

a — 90° Z = 4 i?l/2 Straight line Minimum perimeter.

Area of the ellipse

A — Trab = 7r . RV\ + sin a . i?l/l — sin a

— ttR2 cos a

46 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis

The area of this ellipse varies therefore as cos a. We have
then special cases as follows : —

a = 0° A — irR2 Circle Maximum area.

a = 90° ^4 = 0 Straight Line Minimum area.

It will be seen from the above equation for the area and
from the transformed areas of other figures that the area of
the transformed figure is obtained by multiplying the original
area by cos a.

It will also be observed that the area of the transformed
figure is the same as that of the orthographic projection of
the original figure on a plane at angle a with the plane of the
original figure.

Isogonic Transformation may be applied equally well to
solids.

Let us take its application to a sphere (Fig. 3) referred to
the rectangular axes OX', OY , OZ', whose equation is

x'2 + y'2 + z'2 = R2. (5)

Let P' be any point on the sphere and let the co-ordinates
of P' be x', y', z'.

Turn the ordinate z' through an angle a about its foot,
keeping it always parallel with the X'Z' plane. P' will
go to P whose co-ordinates are x^ yv zv

Now, turning the co-ordinate system backward through an
angle 0 (to be determined later) about OY' we have xyz as
the new co-ordinates of P referred to OX, OY, OZ.

The equations for the first transformation are

x' = x1 + 2j tan a

V' = 2/i

z' = zx sec a

and equation (5) becomes

(xl + z1 tan a)2 + y2 + (z2 sec a)2 = li2

x2 + 2x, zl tan a + y2 + z2 + 2z2 tan2 a = R2 (6)

Poats — Isogonic Transformation.

The equations for the second transformation are

x1 — z sin 6 -f- x cos 6

2/1 = 2/

zx — z cos 6 — x sin 0
and equation (6) becomes, after assembling terms,

as"

+ cos2 0

— 2 tan a sin 6 cos 0 . „ . _

a • 2 a + y2 + z2

+ sm2 a

+ 2 tan2 a sin2 6

+ sin2 (9

+ 2 tan a sin 0 cos 0

+ cos2 0

+ 2 tan2 a cos2 0

+ 2JC2

4- sin 6 cos 0
+ tan a cos2 0

— tan a sin2 0

— sin 6 cos 0

— 2 tana a sin 0 cos 6

= i?2.

(7)

■p,

vM:

\ i \
Vi> \

^7y'|

*"" /

/y=y,*y'

j^.-

Fig. 3.

Making the coefficient of ccjs zero it is found that

0 = i(9O°-«)

48 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

It will be seen from equation ( 7 ) that the coefficients of
x2 and z2 are the same as the coefficients of x2 and y2 in the
case of the circle.

Equation ( 7 ) is therefore of the general form
Ax2 + By2 + Cz2 = R2,

1 + sin a

B = l

in which

C =

1 — sin a

and may be written

R2(l + sin a) + R2 + R2 (1 — sin a) = lf ^
which is the equation to the ellipsoid, whose semi-axes are
a = RV \ + sin a, b = i?, c = RV\ — sin a.

Its volume is

4 4

V= ~ frabc — = ttRs cos a
o 6

which is the volume of the sphere multiplied by cos a.

Lastly, let us apply this method of transformation to the
prolate spheroid, taking the longest axis as the y axis and
the equal axes as the x and z axes.

Adapting its equation (Fig. 3), we have

x'2 + z'2 y'2 _
a2 "*■ b2 ~
or

b2 (x'2 + z'2) + a2y'2 = a2 b2. (9)

Transforming by means of the equations

x' = x1 + ^ tan a

y' = y,

z' = z1 sec a

Poats — Isogonio Transformation.

we have

b2x2 + 2b2x1z1 tan a + b2z2 tan2 a

+ b2z2 sec2 a + a2y2 = a262.

Again transforming by means of

cCj = z sin 0 + x cos 0

& => y

z1 — z cos 0 — x sin #

(10)

equation (10) becomes

b2x2

+ cos2 0

— 2 tan a sin 0 cos 0

+ sin2 0

+ 2 tan2 a sin2 0

+ a2?/2 4- b2z2

+ sin2 0

+ 2 tan a sin 0 cos 0

+ cos2 0

+ 2 tan2 a cos2 0

+ 262 #2

4- sin 0 cos 0
+ tan a cos2 0

— tan a sin2 0

— sin 0 cos 0

— 2 tan2 a sin 0 cos 0

= a262.

(11)

From the coefficient of xz in ( 11) it is seen that

and

20 =

90° —

0 =

45°-

a
2

A =

1 4- sin a

B =

n —

1 — sin a
Equation (11) now becomes

b x2 b2z2

=— : : h d2V2 4" z, : = Cl2b2

1 4- sin a J 1 — sin a

+ y- +

1.2 I

a2( 1 4- sin a ) b2 a2 (1 — sin a

= 1

(12)

50 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

which is the equation to the ellipsoid whose volume is

4
V = -x 7ra2bcosa.

This is the volume of the prolate spheroid generator multi-
plied by cos a.

It may also be seen from equation (12) that the oblate
spheroid is derived from the prolate spheroid when

that is when

a2 ( 1 + sin a) = b2

b2
1 + sin a = —5;
a1

b2 b2 ,2

sin a = -^ — 1 = -5 • e %
a2 a2

a = arc si

- m

A casual examination will show, that the ellipsoid may be
derived from the oblate spheroid by the method of Isogonic
Transformation. In fact, the method may be applied to any
figure through its equation, or, simply by graphics.

There is no indication at present that this method of trans-
formation admits of any practical application.

Issued May 16, 1901.

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* 8upply exhausted.

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Transactions of The Academy of Science of St. Louis.

VOL. XI. No. 4.

THE RELATION OF DIRECT TO REVERSED
PHOTOGRArHIC PICTURES.

FRANCIS E. NIPHER.

THE SPECIFIC HEAT OF GASEOUS NEBULAE IN
GRAVITATIONAL CONTRACTION.

FRANCIS E. NIPHER.

Issued June 7, 1901.

THE RELATION OF DIRECT TO REVERSED PHOTO-
GRAPHIC PICTURES.*

Francis E. Nipher. -e >■• '■

i :> . ft

In former papers in these Transactions t the author has
given a partial exposition of the results of developing photo-
graphic pictures in the light. These results were reached in
the course of a long series of experiments, in which the films
were acted upon by electrical discharge. It was found that
the most rapid plates might be exposed to daylight for a
week, and that contact electrographs of coins might then be
produced in a well-known way. It was also found that these
pictures might be developed in the light, and that for expo-
sures to electrical action with a Holtz machine for several
minutes, these pictures were negatives. The parts of the
film most exposed to electrical action came out dark when
developed either in the dark-room or in the light, but those
developed in the light were clearer and gave less trouble from
fog. The significance of this was not then fully realized, and
there remain yet many points to be cleared up by further
study. Since that time specially treated plates have yielded
negatives in the light from ordinary camera exposures and
they showed a marked improvement when the light was
turned on. But the method is not as yet under sufficient
control so that the results can be obtained except at rare
intervals.

The results given in the former paper seem to have been
misunderstood by many, who have apparently supposed that
the author was not aware of the fact that photographic posi-
tives had long been known as a result of developing greatly
over-exposed plates. This was expressly stated in the first

* Presented and read in abstract before The Academy of Science of St.
Louis, April 15, 1901.

t Trans. Vol. X., Nos. 6 and 9.

(51)

52 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

paper referred to, and it was clearly pointed out that devel-
opment in the light was the feature to which attention was
invited.

In the present paper the conditions which yield direct and
reversed pictures will be given. The work has been restricted
to Cramer's "crown " plate, and the developer used washydro-
chinon. The plates were all exposed in a printing frame
either to the light of an incandescent lamp or to daylight.
The pictures were all printed from the same lantern slide, or
positive, so that the direct pictures are all negatives, and the
reversed are all positives.* The over-exposed negative and
the under-exposed positive require the same kind of treat-
ment. A restrainer must be used, whose function is to keep
away the fog. The fog is incidental to an approach to a zero
condition in which the plate will be blank. The restrainer
does not change the character of the picture as regards posi-
tive or negative. It is not necessary to use it for what are
called normal exposures, when negatives are developed in the
dark room, nor for normal exposures when positives are de-
veloped in the light. The amount of restrainer used must
increase as the zero condition is approached. The amount
needed may be as great as a twelfth of the entire bath in ten
per cent, solution of potassium bromide, and this may be sup-
plemented by the addition of from two to five drops of satu-
rated solution of sodium hyposulphite. When the picture to be
developed is a landscape with modulated lights and shadows,
any exposure from normal to more than ten million times
over-exposed may be developed in the dark-room. As the
zero condition is reached, the strongest highlights will reverse,
and the other parts of the picture will locally reverse as
greater exposures are given, but without complete loss of
detail. There will be incongruities in light and shadow, and
each local detail will have at a certain exposure, a minimum
of distinctness. A picture in which the shadows are alike,
and likewise the lights, will develop a blank at the zero con-

* This method of exposure was adopted iu order to secure known con-
ditions of illumination. For seme of the longer exposures, a 300-candle
Packard incandescent lamp was used, and was found very satisfactory.
This lamp was kindly furnished by the manufacturers.

Nipher — Relation of Direct to Reversed Photographic Pictures. 53

dition. This would be the case if a punched stencil in card-
board were printed upon a sensitive plate.

The zero condition does not seem to be affected by varying
the strength of the bath. If the plate be first placed for a
minute in a normal bath, it may then be transferred to and
developed in a bath as weak as one-tenth the normal strength.
The positive and negative features are then the same as when
developed in the normal bath. If the plate is first placed in
the weak bath, the solution does not wet the film uniformly,
and the plate appears as if it had been attacked by a painter's
brush while the gelatine was soft.

There is little need to lose any valuable landscape exposure
entirely if the plate is from the first treated as an over-exposed
plate, until its condition is known.

The plate from which the printing was done is reproduced
in Fig. 1, Plate 2.* When exposed for one second at a
distance of a meter from a 16-candle lamp a normal nega-
tive results from development without restrainer. When
the exposure has been increased to 53 m. 20 s. or 3200
seconds, the strong light across the walk to the left of the
picture begins to reverse, and appear white as a positive. The
original slide does not quite cover the sensitive plate be-
low. On a narrow strip along the left edge of the picture,
the plate is fully exposed to the light. This part also begins
to reverse at the same time as the high-light mentioned. In
diffuse daylight ten feet from a south window when the sky
is as clear as it usuallv becomes in St. Louis, during the win-
ter, the picture will begin to reverse with sixteen seconds of
exposure. This time varies somewhat with variations in
illumination and only rough approximations are possible.
This daylight is therefore actinically about 200 times as active
as one lamp-meter, which required 3200 seconds to produce
the same result. As the exposure increases, other parts of
the picture reverse. The light on the monk's lap will finally
reverse, and appear white, while the part below in shadow
will also appear white, because it is still a negative.

* The picture was not formed symmetrically on the plate, and the trans-
parent border is lacking on one side of the picture. The picture was ob-
tained by an artist friend in Southern California.

54 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

Such a result is shown in Fig. 11, Plate 7. The penum-
bra which separates light and shadow appears then darker
than either the lighter or the darker areas adjoining. Never-
theless the whole figure of the monk shown in the foreground
is sharply differentiated from the background. The dense
foliage to the right of the picture is still a negative, while the
entire left half of the picture has reversed. When the expo-
sure time has increased to about ten minutes of daylight, or
120,000 lamp-meter-seconds, the last detail of the picture has
just reversed or is about to reverse. This part is the deep
shadow among the foliage in the right of the picture. In Fig.
12, Plate 7, the picture is all reversed, excepting a small area
of the darkest foliage.

When the exposure has been increased to two hours, a
sharply defined positive, yielding a good print, is yet obtained.
It is, however, somewhat dense, and prints slowly. The pic-
ture from this exposure is reproduced in Fig. 13, Plate 8.
The exposure for this plate is equivalent to 7200X200=
1,440,000 lamp-meter-seconds, or over sixteen lamp-meter-
days.

When instead of developing the exposed plate in the dark
room, it is developed at a distance r = seven meters below a
lH-candle lamp, the plane of the filament being horizontal, a
similar series of pictures is obtained as the exposure time in-
creases. The picture begins to reverse exactly as in the dark
room, when the exposure in lamp-meter-seconds is 3200. All
exposures less than this give negatives, of surprising merit.
The positive or reversed 'pictures having a greater exposure
than 3200 cannot be distinguished from those made in the
dark room. In the diagram representing the conditions of
exposure and development, the co-ordinates are exposure JS, in
lamp-meter-seconds, and illumination, /, in lamp-meters, of

the developing bath. The value of lis -%> where r is the dis-
tance of the bath from the 16-candle lamp. The value lis
laid off on the horizontal axis of the diagram, and the num-
bers representing distances r, ranging between 2 and 7 meters,
are indicated along the axis / at places on the scale which
those distances determine. For example where r = 2 meters,

Nipher — Relation of Direct to Reversed Photographic Pictures. 55

Diagram I.

zero eonflition

3000

2000

LC03

o TTT1 ^~T

7 3 5 4 3

0.2

2.5

2 r

Ordinates represent exposure in lamp-meter-seconds. Lamp = 16 candle

power.
Abscissae represent illumination of the plate while in the developing bath,

in lamp-meters.
The rectangular area within the zero line, covers the conditions yielding

negatives. External to this line is the region of positives.

56 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

. 1

the value of I in lamp-meters is ^2 = 0.25. The vertical axis

E, where 7=0, corresponds to r= 00 . This vertical axis
therefore represents increasing exposures in the dark room.

For all values of /less than ,„ ()Kyz = 0.238 the picture be-
gins to reverse when the exposure time is 3200 seconds,
exactly as has been described for dark room development.
This value of I is a critical value. When the developing
plate has this illumination, a zero plate is obtained
for all exposures between 53 and 3200 lamp-meter-seconds.
The zero line which for smaller values of I was the horizontal
line Ea, of the diagram, drops straight down from a to b.
As this line is approached from the negative side, the picture
becomes more and more obscure, and on reaching it the plate
is blank, with the exception of a few faint isolated features
here and there, some of which appear to be positive and some
negative. If I is made slightly greater than this critical
value, the picture wholly reverses and becomes positive as
soon as E exceeds 53 seconds. For slightly smaller values
the picture is a poor negative. The line b b' is a sharp line
of separation between positive and negative results, and no
mongrel pictures are produced in the transition. The line
b b' is not horizontal. When the picture is developed at a
distance r = 1 meter, for which 1=1, faint positive pictures
are obtained with an exposure of 25 lamp-meter-seconds.
Thus far it has been found impossible to develop any nega-
tives in this light. The zero line evidently approaches the
axis I for illuminations greater than the critical value / =
0.238. For daylight development the picture evidently starts
from a positive condition, just as for small values of / it
starts from a negative condition. When the plate is illumined
with the critical illumination there is probably some condition
of chemical instability which should render the plate photo-
graphically sensitive to feeble influences which under other
circumstances might have no discernible effect. This might
apply to electrical oscillations. This critical condition has
been very carefully studied photographically, and plates have
been produced along the entire range represented by the line
a 6, both on the negative and on the positive side.

Nipher — Relation of Direct to Reversed Photographic Pictures. 57

The area on the diagram representing the conditions where
good photographic positives can be produced has not yet been
adequately explored. An attempt was made to form an
exhibit of developed plates which would show by inspection
the results obtainable with various exposures E, and illumin-
ations / of the plate while developing. The plates were laid
upon a large table at points determined by the co-ordinates
E and /. Jn order to properly represent dark-room work, the
scale of E should be at least one meter for one lamp-meter-
second. Ordinary dark-room work with ordinary over-
exposures would then require a table a few meters in length.
The time of exposure which will yield good positives has,
however, been found so large that the plan proved impracti-
cable. Fig. 15, Plate 9, is a reproduction of a picture
which had an exposure of 16 hours to diffuse daylight. The
value of E in the diagram was about 16 X 3600 X 200 = 11,-
520,000 lamp-meter-seconds. This would be equivalent to a
continuous exposure of four months to a 16-candle lamp at a
distance of one meter. The position of this plate on the
exhibition table would be at a distance E — 11,520 kilometers
or about 6,900 miles from the axis I. The plate was developed
in a glass tray in diffuse daylight with reflected light thrown
up through the bottom of the tray. The value of i" was
therefore over 200, which is about 800 times the value that
could be represented in the diagram. With these long ex-
posures the best results have been obtained by reflecting light
through the bottom of a glass tray, while the plate is being
developed. If this cannot be done, the plate should be lifted
out of the liquid at intervals, and the bottom should be exposed
to the light. Fig. 16, Plate 9, shows a trace of two ribs in
the bottom of the developing tray which cut off part of the
light.

These long exposures show wonderful detail in the darker
shadows. They show with clearness details that are barely
distinguishable in the original plate from which the printing
was done. Kef erring to the plates,

Fig. 1 is a positive, from which all the printing was done.

Fig. 2 is a negative, printed from 1, with an exposure of
one lamp-meter-second, E=l, and developed in the dark

58 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

room. These conditions are represented by a point in the
diagram which is practically at the origin 0.

Fig. 3 is a negative having an exposure E — 1000, and de-
veloped in the dark room. The point in the diagram is
marked d'.

Fig. 4, is a negative having an exposure 1000, and devel-
oped at a distance r = 4 meters below a 16-candle lamp. The
illumination is 7=0.0625. The point in the diagram thus
determined is marked d.

Fig. 5 is a negative having an exposure E = 1500, and de-
veloped exactly like No. 4. The point in the diagram is
marked m .

Fig. 6 is also a negative, having an exposure E = 3200, and
developed under the same conditions as Figs. 4 and 5. This
picture has just begun to reverse. The light on the walk just
beyond the pan, has begun to turn white. The picture is
rather dense, but the details are sharp. The bright strip
around the picture has also become lighter. Point k in the
diagram represents the conditions.

Fig. 7. The plate here reproduced has had the same ex-
posure as the last, but it was developed one meter below three
16-candle lamps. Hence 1=3. The diagram does not extend
beyond the value / = 0.25.

Fig. 8. This plate had an exposure E = 3200 like the last,
but the value of 1 = 100.

Fig. 9. The exposure was E = 24000 and the plate was
developed in daylight where / = 200. The plate is wholly
reversed.

Fig. 10. Exposure E = 36000, / = 200. This picture is a
clear positive, and was developed without any restrainer.

Fig. 11. This plate had an exposure 60000, and was devel-
oped 2.25 meters below a 16-candle lamp. The value of
7 = 0.197. This is somewhat less than the critical value of
7, represented by the line ab in the diagram. The picture
has only in part reversed, although the plate last described,
with an exposure only a little more than half as much, was
fully reversed, because of the larger value of 1.

Fig. 12. This plate had an exposure E = 120,000.

The value of I = 0.0625. The only part of the plate which

Nipher — Relation of Direct to Reversed Photographic Pictures. 59

is still negative is a small area in the dense foliage in shadow,
on the right of the picture.

Fig. 13. Exposure E = 1,440,000. 1=0.

This picture is completely reversed.

Fig. 14. This plate had the same exposure as the last, but
was developed in daylight where /= 200.

Fig. 15. Exposure 5,000,000. 1 = 200.

The details in the dense shadows are admirably shown in
this picture. The exposure was seven hours to diffuse day-
light in front of an inclined skylight about ten feet square.
The exposure was to a northern sky.

Fig. 16. This exposure was made like the last one, but
lasted for sixteen hours on two days. The plate was devel-
oped in the same light, with a mirror reflecting light upward
upon the under side of the plate. The traces of two ribs in
the bottom of the glass tray, are shown on the plate.

Fig. 17. This picture is from the negative shown in Fig. 2,
Plate 2. It is a reproduction of a print from that negative,
which was made by ordinary methods. It is to be compared
with Fig. 18, made from the same original as Fig. 16, which
is from an exposure 11,500,000 times as great.

A number of good pictures have been developed in direct
sunlight, but they have been lost or destroyed, and it has since
been found difficult to produce as good ones as were formerly
made. There is strong evidence that there is a discontinuity
in the conditions of sunlight development like that shown by
the zero line at the critical illumination. One difficulty in the
study of this subject, is the extreme variability of sunlight.
The actinic value of sunlight is also enormous compared with
the standard illumination used in this work. An exposure of
about a quarter of a second is greater than an exposure of
120,000 seconds at a distance of one meter from a 16-candle
lamp. The developing of good pictures in direct sunlight is
therefore in an uncertain condition as yet, and is receiving
further study.

If the plan of laying the developed plates down upon a
table at points determined by J3 and /, had proved practi-
cable, it would have been possible to draw on the diagram,
lines passing through points where the plates have equal ex-

60 Trans. Acart. Sci. of St. Louis.

cellence. These lines might be considered to be contour
lines surrounding the summit of a surface. This summit,
representing the maximum of excellence of negatives would
be on the vertical axis, E, and very close to the origin. It
would correspond to normal conditions for dark-room work.
The surface would sink to a minimum along: the zero line
shown in the diagram, and would then rise again in the im-
mense field representing the conditions under which positives
may be developed. The conditions of maximum excellence
for positives are as yet unknown, but the best pictures yet
obtained, which seem to be as near perfect as could be wished,
had exposures of two and a half minutes in strong diffuse
light just outside of direct sunlight at a south window. This
illumination was probably about 400, on the scale used in this
paper. The pictures were developed at the same point.

In the pictures here presented the plates have all received
uniform treatment. No shading of highlights has been clone.

In the etching during the half-tone reproduction all parts of
the plate have been treated alike.

In reproducing Fig. 6 it was found that on account of a
muddy background effect in those parts of the plate which
were about to reverse, the original did not submit itself
readily to the half-tone process. Details which could be
clearly seen could not be satisfactorily reproduced. The
plate was therefore re-photographed by ordinary means, and
from this plate a print was made which has been reproduced
in half-tone.

This plate having an exposure of 3200, marks the beginning
of reversal. All exposures greater than this lie above the
horizontal zero line. The picture does not wholly reverse
until the exposure has reached 120000. This broad belt of
mongrel effects extends along the whole length of the hori-
zontal zero line, from dark-room conditions to critical illu-
mination. The upper limit of this belt will of course vary
with different plates, depending upon the density of the plate
in the deepest shadows.

So soon as the plate is developed in a light stronger than
the critical value, no mongrel effects appear, and the expo-
sure time for a plate yielding zero effects drops at once to

Nipher — Relation of Direct to Reversed Photographic Pictures. 61

0.016 of 3200. In these stronger illuminations is therefore
a field of promise for positive photography with short expo-
sures. It may perhaps require a modification of the developer,
the plate emulsion or both, in order to secure the best at-
tainable results.

In one of the figures, the pencil marks put on in the dark
room do not agree with the ink marks. The latter are
correct.

Issued June 7, 1901.

THE SPECIFIC HEAT OF GASEOUS NEBULAE IN
GRAVITATIONAL CONTRACTION.*

Francis E. Nipher.

In former papers in these Transactions f the author has dis-
cussed the conditions of equilibrium in an infinite mass of
gas, symmetrically arranged around a centre towards which
it gravitates.

Assuming at any instant a uniform temperature T0 through-
out the mass, the density SQ of the gas and the pressure P0 at
a distance i?0 from the centre is t

r — _5LZL /i \

»~27rkBQ2 {L)

P = ° (2)

where C is the constant for the gas, and Jc is the gravita-
tion constant. The mass within a radius i?0 is as Woodward
showed

^=2-nF°- <»>

Let the entire nebulous mass contract so that the radius of
the spherical mass M0 diminishes to i?, and each element of
mass initially, distant r0 from the centre shall finally be dis-
tant r, and satisfying the condition

* Presented and read by title before The Academy of Science of St.
Louis, May 20, 1901.

t Trans. Vol. IX. Nos. 4 and 7.

% See Woodward's paper. Trans. Vol. IX. No. 3.

(63)

64 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

A new state of equilibrium will result in which

C2T2
P ~ 2-irkK* {5)

__ 2CTR „

M=-^- =M0.

The relation of final to initial temperature was shown to be

T=PTr
It follows that at the surface of the mass M,

« = P%
and

P = P^Q.

The work done upon the spherical mass by the superposed
gravitating mass while the radius shortens by dR is

dW=-4irR2PdR
2G2T2dE.

In this equation

R2T2

T2 = P2T2

"0^0

o ~~ R2

Inserting this value of T2 in the last equation, the work done
upon the spherical mass while the radius shortens from R0 to
Rh

^__!£!^f|_!$!*i»(,_1): (6)

Let H represent the heat produced in the mass M during
this operation, J, the mechanical equivalent of heat, and s the
specific heat of the gas. Then

Nipher — Gaseous Nebulae in Gravitational Contraction. 65

2CTnBn

W=JH=Js

o^o

(T-T0)

JS*J^(P-n

(7)

By equating (6) and (7) the specific heat during this opera-
tion in which pressure, volume and temperature all change is

s =

(8)

This result is the well-known expression for the difference
between the specific heat at constant pressure and the specific
heat at constant volume.

The value of J in C. G. S. units and Centigrade degrees
is 4.19X107.

The annexed table gives for a few of the "permanent"
gases, the values of (7, and of the specific heat s of such
gases when forming this gravitating cosmical mass in isen-
tropic compression.

The values of C are computed from Regnault's determina-
tions of S.

SUBSTANCE.

Hydrogen
Air

Oxygen

4.140X107
2.868X106
2.594X106

0.988

0.0685

0.0619

In the cylinder of the Carnot engine where gravitation is not
involved, and where the pressures are uniform, the specific
heat of isentropic compression, computed as has been done
for this nebula, is the specific heat of constant volume.

During this operation the average condition of the gas
within radius R changes, and this change may be represented

66 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

by a moving point on the thermodynamic surface whose
equation is

PV = CT.

When a gas is heated either under constant pressure or
constant volume, the moving point on this surface traces a
straight line in space. There are, of course, an infinite
variety of operations to which the gas may be subjected, in
which the point representing the condition of the gas may
trace out in each case some definite path on the surface re-
ferred to. Each operation will involve some value for the
specific heat.

The average density of the mass M is at all times three
times the density at its surface. Hence calling F0the initial,
and Fthe final volume of the spherical mass, the law of gases
gives the equations

PQV0 = ICT03I (9)

PV=^CTM. (10)

These equations may also be obtained from (2) and (5) by
multiplying by the volumes of the respective spheres having
radii PQ and P. The right hand member is then reduced to
the form given, by introducing the value of M0 or the equal
value M from (3), or the equation which follows (5).

Since

P T*

P = oiP = ° >

the value of P in the last equation may be eliminated. The
two equations then give

which by (3) becomes

T-V-iffi. (ID

The point traces upon the surface a path, which projects

Nipher — Gaseous Nebulae in Gravitational Contraction. 67

on the co-ordinate plane T, V, in a curve of which (11) is
the equation.

Eliminating Fin (10) and (11)

2(7*

P = T*. (12)

In like manner by the elimination of T in the same equa-
tions

pr* = (J)**» (is)

These equations represent projections of the path on the
other co-ordinate planes.

The relations involved in (11), (12) and (13) were pub-
lished by Ritter* in 1878, in the form

A _ x T*

Pv3 = const., Tv3 ■= const., -tj = const. The equations

which precede determine the value of these three constants in
terms of the mass M of the gas, the constant O for the gas,
and the gravitation constant k.

The preceding equations may be used in determining the
total heat produced in the shrinkage of a given mass M, from
infinite dimensions to a sphere of radius R, the distribution
of pressure throughout the mass being as previously assumed.
If the value CTbe eliminated in the general equations for P
and M, the pressure at the surface of the mass M whose
radius is i?, is found to be,

M2k

<97ri^

The work done on this mass by superposed layers while the
radius shortens by dR is

dW=— ±7rR2PdB.
Hence

M'k dR M2k

W =

c I dR
I R2

*y rr,

R2 2R

* Annalen der Physik und Chimie. Bd. V. S. 550.

68 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

Here MVh is the mass in astronomical units. The initial

temperature, when R = oo must be assumed to be zero. In

its final condition the temperature of the mass has risen to T.

G
The specific heat has been shown to be -j. Hence the total

heat produced within the mass M during the operation was

MGT

j — . The work-equivalent of this heat is

W = MGT.

Equating the two values of W, and solving for T,

Mk
T~2GB'

This equation is identical with (3) and the result merely
shows the nature of the conditions which are involved in the
equations which precede.

The last equation was originally deduced by C. M. Wood-
ward in the paper previously cited. It was deduced as a
condition of statical equilibrium in a cosmical mass of gas of
uniform temperature T. Woodward denied that it could
apply in gravitational contraction, or even that gravitational
contraction was possible.

It is certainly true that the equations given in this discus-
sion involve at each point in the gaseous mass, a condition of
balanced forces. It is as though a weight on a piston rod is
continually and automatically increased as isentropic com-
pression proceeds, and at the precise rate which continuous
isentropic compression demands.

If the infinite space occupied by this cosmical mass of gas,
may be considered the first of an infinite series of infinite
spaces having perhaps increasingly higher orders of mag-
nitude, we might suppose that heat developed in the nebula
by compression may dissipate by radiation, into the realms
beyond. If heat could thus be abstracted from all parts of
the mass with equal facility, the conditions resulting would
certainly be different from those which would result if the
radiation were greatest from those parts most remote from

Nipher — Gaseous Nebulae in Gravitational Contraction. 69

the centre. The real conditions will then be determined by
the rate at which heat can be taken from the mass. The loss
of heat will still result in a rise of temperature of the radiat-
ing mass and a contraction in volume. At the same time this
loss of heat from the mass at a greater or less rate will deter-
mine the time required for the nebula to pass through its
history of gravitational contraction.

In this discussion the conditions are somewhat special in
their character, and the equations are not in a form adapted
to other and general conditions. If any initial condition be
assumed in which the temperature of the mass is T0, and if
the mass contract so that the ratio of contraction is every-

v
where p = -°* then equations (4) and (5) may be written

8- CT°P nn

n_ c2T0y

P-^rkW' (15)

These equations give the pressure and density at any point
distant It from the centre, after any contraction p has taken
place.

The value of g at any point within the mass will be

9-—jr (16)

and the mass internal to any point distant R will be

„ 2CTaBp

M= j*-£. (17)

The final temperature throughout the mass will be

T=PT0. (18)

If, for example, the ratio of contraction p, be made 4, then
at any fixed point in space distant i?, the values of g, 8 and
M will be made four times as great, while the pressure will
become sixteen times as great.

70 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

To find the points where the original values will exist, these
equations indicate that the density after this contraction, will
have its initial value at a distance 2R. The initial pressure
will be found at a distance 4i?.

The weight of a gramme, g, will have the initial value at a
distance 4i2. The mass internal to the point considered will
have the initial value at a distance ^R. In these last equa-
tions the variables p and R are entirely independent.

Issued June 7, 1901.

Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis, Vol. XI.

Plate II.

1. The ( Iriginal.

2. Exposure, l. Illumination, 0.

DIRECT AND REVERSED PHOTOGRAPHY.

Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis, Vol. XI.

Plate III.

3. Exposure. 1,000. Illumination, 0.

4. Exposure, 1,000. Illumination, 0.003.

DIRECT AND REVERSED PHOTOGRAPHY.

Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis, Vol. XI.

Plate IV.

5. Exposure, 1,500.

Illumination, 0.002.

0. Exposure, 3,200. Illumination, 0.063.

DIRECT AND REVERSED PHOTOGRAPHY

Trans Acad. Sci. of St. Louis, Vol. XI.

Plate V.

SflflBF "■' 1^w^|'i

*r ^. sx oo

x- - o

7. Exposure, 3,200. Illumination, 3.

T ~ too

8. Exposure, 3.200. Illumination, 100.

DIRECT AND REVERSED PHOTOGRAPHY.

Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Lours, Vol. XL

Plate VI.

x ~ %>° *

9. Exposuke, 24.000. Illumination, 200.

s=. 3 6 o c c

T~ %oo

10. Exposure, 86.000. Illumination, 200.

DIRECT AND REVERSED PHOTOGRAPHY.

Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis, Vol. XI.

Plate VII.

6 O, O O £>

•1

11. Exposure, 60,000. Illumination, 0.197.

/% O, C qo

X => ^.o6J

12. Exposure, 120,000. Illumination, 0.063.

DIRECT AND REVERSED PHOTOGRAPHY

Trans. Acad, Sct. of St. Louis, Vol. XI.

Plate VIII.

13. Exposure, 1,440,000. Illumination, 0.

Z i

14. Exposure, 1,440,000. Illumination, 200.

DIRECT AND REVERSED PHOTOGRAPHY.

Trans. Acad. Spi. of St. Louis, Vol. XI.

Plate IX.

15. Exposure, 5.000.000. Illumination. 200.

It;. Exposure, 11.500,000. Illumination, over L'00.
DIRECT AND REVERSED PHOTOGRAPHY.

Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis, \*<>i.. XI.

Plate X.

17, Fkom a Normally Exposed Plate (Fin. 2).

IS. From a Plate Over-Exposed 11,500,000 Times (Fig. 16).

DIRECT AND REVERSED PHOTOGRAPHY.

WESTERN ENGR. CO., ST.

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Transactions of The Academy of Science of St. Louis.

VOL,. XI. No. 5.

THE ADVANCE OF ZOOLOGY IN THE NINETEENTH

CENTURY.

GEORGE LEFEVRE.

Issued July 3, 1901.

THE ADVANCE OF ZOOLOGY IN THE NINETEENTH

CENTURY.*

George Lefevre.

The task of reviewing in the limits of a single lecture the
progress in the nineteenth century of zoology, a science which
has undergone by far the greater and most important part of
its development within the century and which to-day presents
a vast array of fact and theory, is one of embarrassment of
riches. I can only attempt to bring to your attention a few
of the more conspicuous achievements of the century in the
field of zoology ; to speak briefly of the dawn of the science ;
and to indicate the trend of its progress at the present time.
In so doing I shall trace the advance along four great lines
of zoological development, which, although they often meet
and become confluent, receiving from and giving impetus and
material to each other, have, nevertheless, advanced more or
less independently. It is thus possible to follow the thread
continuously through each. These four lines are as follows:

1. Morphology, or the study of form and structure, includ-
ing systematic zoology.

2. Evolution, or the application of evolutionary principles
to organic nature.

3. The Cell Doctrine, or the doctrine that living things are
made up of elementary vital units, termed cells.

4. Experimental Morphology, or the investigation of the
causes underlying the forms and activities of living things,
the study of which has been pursued through the experi-
mental method. This last line belongs to a very recent date,
its main development having taken place within the past
decade.

V .
* »

* An address delivered before The Academy of Science of St. Louis,
May 20, 1901.

(71)

72 Trans. Acad. Set. of St. Louis.

I. MORPHOLOGY.

In Aristotle, who may justly be called the " Father of
Zoology," we find the first dawn of morphology, which he
advanced far beyond the fragmentary knowledge of his prede-
cessors. Although his errors were many and often grotesque,
it is still a matter of wonder that his observations upon the
structure and activities of animals possessed such a high de-
gree of accuracy ; and strange to say, some of his discoveries
have only received confirmation within the nineteenth cen-
tury, as, for example, that many sharks are viviparous and
their embryos are attached to the maternal uterus by means
of a nutritive contrivance, the placenta.

Although Aristotle did not propose a definite classification
of animals, he recognized certain main groups, distinguishing
them by important characters and assigning to them descrip-
tive names. He separated all animals into two great divi-
sions, the evatfia, or animals with blood, and the aW.ua, or
bloodless animals, that is, those with no blood or with color-
less blood. These groups correspond to the Vertebrata and
Invertebrata, respectively.

Among Aristotle's successors and other writers of antiquity
we find little of value, and even those who wrote on zoology
at all represent a retrogression from the stage of advancement
which Aristotle had attained. This is true of Pliny, who,
while contributing no original observations of his own, in-
cluded much that was fabulous in his compilations of the
writings of others, and replaced Aristotle's natural classifica-
tion by a purely arbitrary and unnatural one, dividing animals
into those that fly, those that live on land, and those that live
in the water.

The Middle Ages followed with their blight upon the natural
sciences, and during this long period of darkness the annihi-
lation of observation and investigation of natural phenomena
was almost complete. It is true tbat the Schoolmen con-
cerned themselves with labored and learned discussions of
such questions as " how many teeth has the horse? " but so
long as their method was one of a priori argument and no one
thought of looking into a horse's mouth to find out, the ad-

Lefevre — The Advance of Zoology in the Nineteenth Century. 73

vance of zoology was not likely to make rapid strides. The
state of mental stagnation and perversion in regard to animal
life during this period is well indicated by the Physiologus or
Bestiarius, names given to a class of books of great popu-
larity during the Middle Ages which served as encyclopedias
of the zoology of the time and which fairly represent the
attitude of mind then existing toward animal life. The books
contain absurd and symbolical descriptions of about seventy
animals, many of which are creatures of fable, as, for example,
the dragon, the unicorn, and the phoenix; and the stories are
nearly all written for the purpose of illustrating some relig-
ious or moral teaching. Witness the following: " The uni-
corn has but one horn in the middle of its forehead. It is
the only animal that ventures to attack the elephant ; and so
sharp is the nail of its foot, that with one blow it rips up the
belly of that most terrible of all beasts. The hunters can
catch the unicorn only by placing a young virgin in the
forest which it haunts. No sooner does this marvelous
animal descry the damsel, than it runs towards her, lies down
at her feet, and so suffers itself to be taken by the hunters.
The unicorn represents our Lord Jesus Christ, who, taking
our humanity upon him in the Virgin's womb, was betrayed
by the wicked Jews, and delivered into the hands of Pilate.
Its one horn signifies the gospel truth, that Christ is one with
the Father."

After this legendary period, it was not until 1552 that the
darkness was broken by a ray of light, and interest in scientific
investigation awoke. In that year appeared the work of the
Englishman, Wotton, " De Diiferentiis Animalium," which
was essentially a return to Aristotle and a rejection of the
absurdities of the Middle Ages. To Aristotle's classification
he added one other group, under the avaifia, namely, the
Zoophyta, or "plant animals," in which he included Holo-
thurians, Star-fishes, Medusae and Sponges.

To about the same period belong the writings of Conrad
Gesner, Ulysses Aldrovaudi of Bologna, and Johnstone, whose
works, however, are a more or less critical compilation of
stories, records and pictures of animals, representing the
knowledge of zoology of the time and gathered from the great

74 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

libraries of Europe and from reports of adventurous travelers
in foreign lands.

The great awakening which spread over Europe in the six-
teenth century after the long intellectual paralysis of the
Middle Ages led to the revival of independent observation of
natural phenomena. It was but natural that interest in in-
vestigation should have centered in the great universities, and,
owing to the connection of medicine with these seats of learn-
ing, attention was first given to the study of the structure and
functions of the human body and of the higher animals.
Comparative anatomy, having thus arisen in connection with
the study of medicine, was developed in the medical schools
and, in fact, until a very recent date, it has been almost
universally assigned to the Medical Faculty, especially in
Europe. The spirit of inquiry which now became general,
showed itself in the anatomical schools of the Italian univer-
sities, and later at Oxford, and a great impetus was given to
observation and experiment by the learned scientific academies
and societies which sprang up over Europe in the seventeenth
century.

All through the Middle Ages the sum-total of medical and
anatomical knowledge was contained in the works of Galen
whose authority had remained unquestioned from the time of
the second century. It was not until the middle of the six-
teenth century that the modern development began, and the
numerous errors of Galen were pointed out in the light of the
knowledge which was then acquired from a scientific investi-
gation of the human cadaver. Much repugnance had pre-
viously been shown to dissection of the human body, and
many and gross errors had been in existence since the time of
Galen from an unwarranted application to human anatomy of
discoveries made upon the lower animals.

The great names of the sixteenth century in anatomical
investigation are Harvey, the discoverer of the circulation of
the blood, and the Italians, Vesalius, Eustachius, Fabricius,
Riolan and Severinus.

Later on, in the seventeenth century, Malpighi, Swammer-
dam and Leeuwenhoek introduced the microscope, and inves-
tigation was at once carried into the field of microscopical

Lefevre — The Advance of Zoology in the Nineteenth Century. 75

anatomy, with the resulting discovery of the red blood-cor-
puscles in vertebrates, the cross-striation of muscular fibre,
the fibres of the lens of the eye, the spermatozoon, and many
other important facts of microscopical structure.

In the latter part of the sixteenth century and the begin-
ning of the seventeenth, interest had arisen in the structure
and life-history of particular groups of animals, the develop-
ment of which was greatly stimulated by the discovery and
description of interesting forms of animal life from distant
countries. There soon arose a body of facts which made
possible a systematic classification of animals and plants,
based upon their anatomical structure, which was to reach
its culmination in the work of the Swedish naturalist, Lin-
naeus. The chief name between the time of Gesner and Lin-
naeus in systematic zoology is that of John Ray, who paved
the way for his illustrious successor and who is prominent
from the limitation which he set upon the term species
previously only vaguely applied. The meaning which he
placed upon the term remained until Darwin gave it a new
significance.

Linnaeus was born in 1707 and died in 1778, and in his
great work, the " Systema Naturae," first published in 1735
and passing through twelve editions before his death, he laid
the foundation of modern systematic zoology. In place of
loose and rambling descriptions he introduced concise, brief
diagnoses, adding numerous discoveries in the anatomy of
plants and animals and descriptions of many new species.
But his chief merit lies in the fact that he inaugurated a
method of classification which practically created systematic
zoology and botany in their modern form. Before Linnaeus
long, many-worded names had been used and no uniformity
existed, but by the introduction of his system of binomial
nomenclature it became possible to speak of any given animal
or plant with accuracy and to express in a single phrase re-
semblances and differences between species. Hitherto much
confusion had arisen from the use of common names in the
scientific world, and furthermore from the fact that one and
the same animal or plant might have different names, or dif-
ferent animals and plants the same name. In Linnaeus'

76 Trans. Acad. Set. of St. Louis.

binomial system this was entirely obviated. The first name,
usually a noun, denotes the genus; the second, usually an
adjective, the species. Thus, Canis familiaris, Canis lupus
and Canis vulpes indicate the dog, the wolf and the fox
respectively, and moreover, that they all belong to a common
genus of dog-like animals, though representing different
species within the genus. He further grouped his genera
into orders and the orders into classes, and into these four
divisions, classes, orders, genera and species he arranged the
entire animal kingdom, like the subdivisions of an army,
the greater group containing several of the lesser. Although
Linnaeus treated of a far larger number of animals than
any of his predecessors, nevertheless, his classification as
a whole was a retrogression from Aristotle's. He divided
animals into six classes ; namely, Mammalia, Aves, Amphibia,
Pisces, Insecta and Vermes. The first four correspond to
Aristotle's svat/ia, or blood-containing animals, the Insecta and
Vermes to the «Wf/za, or bloodless animals; but among the
latter he does not recognize as many distinct groups as did
Aristotle, and hence, we may regard the classification as a
backward step.

Linnaeus adopted Kay's conception of species, regarding it
as a fixed, permanent, objective reality, and maintaining that
species were created as such in the beginning by the Infinite
Being, and that just as many species are present as have been
from the first. This erroneous conception of species was
destined to last for over a century, and only disappeared
finally when the acceptance of the descent-theory became
general.

Great as was the service rendered by Linnaeus' reform in
classification, it nevertheless contained the germ of a one-
sided development, for there soon arose a great array of
systematists who, in their zeal and enthusiasm for naming
and classifying animals and plants, made this the end and
aim of the study of zoology, and failed to appreciate the ob-
vious truth that the work of classification is merely an aid to
the investigation of the fundamental problems and not a goal
in itself. The ultimate purpose of the science, namely, the
investigation of the nature and causes of living things, was

Lefevre — The Advance of Zoology in the Nineteenth Century. 11

utterly lost sight of by Linnaeus and his followers, and inter-
est in anatomy, physiology and embryology lagged far be-
hind. The narrow and false aim thus established in large
measure dominated the study of zoology for many years after-
wards and resulted in a dry, spiritless investigation which dur-
ing the first half of the nineteenth century had brought zool-
ogy into much disrepute among thinking men.

Widespread as was the influence of the species-maker dur-
ing the latter part of the eighteenth century and first half of
the nineteenth, he nevertheless did not hold an undisputed
field. Although it was not until the dawn of the Darwinian
Era that his doom was finally sealed, there had been many
voices lifted in protest against the purely empirical method of
the systematists, and there soon arose in revolt against the
Linnaean School a large number of philosophical zoologists
who endeavored to bring order into the chaos of the vast
amount of accumulated raw material. There thus sprang up
over Europe the so-called nature-philosophers, most notably
and ably represented by Erasmus Darwin, Lamarck, Oken,
Goethe, Treviranus and Geoffroy St. Hilaire. I shall have
occasion later to speak of these men in considering the develop-
ment of the evolutionary idea, as their philosophical specula-
tions were largely concerned with the transmutation of
species. But great as was the service rendered by them and
others in establishing a broader, philosophical spirit and in
attempting to discover underlying general principles of
zoology, their speculations frequently led them into serious
error. Just as the pendulum had swung to one extreme with
Linnaeus and his followers on the empirical side, it reached
in the school of nature-philosophers the opposite limit in
their uncontrolled speculations. From the time of Linnaeus,
a general survev of zoological science shows us a continual
vacillation between these two tendencies, the empirical on the
one hand and the speculative on the other. Now, as opposed
to the many errors of the nature-philosophers, the great
French naturalist, Cuvier, brought the pendulum back to the
empirical method byre-establishing, extending and developing
the study of comparative anatomy, an empirical method,
however, which was far sounder and more valuable than that

78 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

of the former systematists. The Cuvierian Period held sway
until the middle of the century when it in turn gave place to
a second philosophical reaction with the beginning of the
Darwinian Era.

From the time of antiquity those who concerned themselves
with philosophical conceptions of nature regarded animals as
constituting a linear series of increasing complexity, or a scala
naturae as it was called, and to this conception Linnaeus'
system of classification lent great weight. Linnaeus believed
that the whole animal kingdom could be arranged in such a
series, beginning with the simplest forms and ending with the
most complex, the species falling within the genera, the
genera within the orders and the orders within the classes,
succeeding one another in regular linear gradation.

In the history of systematic zoology the only name between
Linnaeus and Cuvier which need be mentioned here is that of
Lamarck who, however, is chiefly distinguished as the founder
of a theory of evolution. Lamarck's classification was merely
an enlargement and logical development of Linnaeus', but
owing to the progress which had been made during the fifty
years intervening in the knowledge of animal forms, espe-
cially of the lower forms, it contained twice as many classes
and ten times as many genera as were recorded by Linnaeus.
To him is due the introduction of the terras invertebrate and
vertebrate to indicate animals without and those with an axial
supporting structure or back-bone.

In the revolt against the systematists during the latter part
of the eighteenth century the study of comparative anatomy,
long laid aside for species-description, had its rebirth, and
there had arisen as a result of the comparisons made between
the different parts of the same organism and similar parts of
different organisms two great principles; namely, the Corre-
lation of Parts and the Homology of Parts. According to
the former it was recognized that an organ is not an isolated
thing but that there exists in the body a mutual dependence
of all its parts, certain features in one structure being always
associated or correlated with certain features in another, as
for example, in the teeth and in the digestive tract. The
principle of correlation, first formulated by Cuvier, was soon
to be carried by him to an extreme in maintaining that from

Lefevre — The Advance of Zoology in the Nineteenth Century. 79

a single bone or claw of an extinct animal the entire body
might be reconstructed, so definite is the relation of one part
to another.

Of still greater importance was the recognition of the fact
that structures of different animals or plants are frequently
built upon a similar plan, exhibiting thus a fundamental re-
semblance, even though the functions of the parts in question
may be quite different. This led to the recognition that
structure, not function, determines resemblance, for it was
discovered that organs practically identical in form and struc-
ture may be used for totally different purposes. There con-
sequently arose the important conception of homology and
analogy of parts, and organs possessing the same plan of
structure and general relations were said to be homologous, as
the wing of the bird and the fore-leg of the mammal, or the
lung of the higher vertebrates and the swim-bladder of the
fish ; and organs differing in plan of structure, though having
a similar function, were regarded as being analogous, as the
wing of the bird and the wing of the insect. The principle
of homology, though its meaning was not understood at the
time, was destined to assume the highest prominence later on
when the fact had become established that structural resem-
blances of parts are due to a community of descent.

One of the most noteworthy of the early homologies ad-
vanced at this period is that proposed by Goethe in his
" Metamorphosis of Plants," published in 1790, in which he
maintained that the parts of a flower, sepals, petals, stamens
and pistil, though apparently widely different, are in reality
modified leaves; an homology which is still adhered to.

The vertebral theory of the skull, independently put for-
ward by Goethe and Oken, should also be mentioned, for al-
though it has had to be discarded, it played an important part
in the development of the conception of homologies. Ac-
cording to the theory the skull of a vertebrate was supposed
to consist of a number of closely united segments, each rep-
resenting a modified vertebra, similar in all essential respects
to a single vertebra of the spinal column ; the skull would
therefore, merely represent the consolidated anterior region
of the back-bone. Later investigation of the skull of the
lower vetebrates, where it consists, not of separate parts more

80 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

or less firmly united, but of a continuous cartilaginous case sur-
rounding the brain, has led to an abandonment of Goethe's and
Oken's theory, but it still remains of deep historical interest.

The doctrine of homologies was much elaborated and ex-
tended by that master of comparative anatomy, Cuvier
(1769-1832), who until the time of Darwin was the most
commanding figure in the zoology of the century; and we
must now direct our attention for a moment to his influence
upon the development of the science.

Owing to his vast researches in comparative anatomy, of
both invertebrates and vertebrates, the idea of homology of
parts became deeply rooted in Cuvier' s mind, and it was this
principle which led him to an entirely new view of the rela-
tionships of animals, a view which may be called the Type-
theory, as opposed to the scala naturae of Linnaeus and
others. He recognized four distinct types of structure in the
animal kingdom, each distinguished by a peculiar plan of
structure of its own; and under each branch, or embranche-
menl, he arranged the Linnaean groups. His classification as
finally elaborated and published in " Le Begne Animal" in
1829 is as follows: —

First Branch. Animalia Vertebrata.
Class 1. Mammalia.

" 2. Aves.

" 3. Reptilia.

" 4. Pisces.
Second Branch. Animalia Mollusca.
Class 1. Cephalopoda.

" 2. Pteropoda.

" 3. Gastropoda.

" 4. Acephala.

" 5. Brachiopoda.

" 6. Cirrhopoda.
Third Branch. Animalia Articulata.
Class 1. Annelida.

" 2. Crustacea.

" 3. Arachnida.

" 4. Insecta.
Fourth Branch. Animalia Radiata.
Class 1. Echinodermata.

f< 2. Intestinal Worms.

" 3. Acalephae.

,f 4. Polypi.

" 5. Infusoria.

Lefevre — The Advance of Zoology in the Nineteenth Century. 81

It may be mentioned here that the embryologist Von Baer
(1792-1876) adopted Cuvier's four divisions, calling them the
Vertebrate, the Massive, the Longitudinal, and the Peripheric,
and believing that the same unity in plan of structure could
be recognized in the development of each group.

In Cuvier's mind the identity of plan existing throughout
a group is the expression of an idea of the Creator, and not
only is the species a fixed and permanent reality but the type
as well. He vigorously combatted the speculations of the
nature-philosophers regarding the transformation or evolution
of forms ; while the variation of the details of structure within
a single type, with the retention of .the essential plan, was to
him merely evidence of the Creator's consummate skill. He
was led into bitter controversy with his opponents, or those
who held to the transmutability of species, the conflict reach-
ing its climax in the famous dispute in the French Academy
between Cuvier and St. Hilaire, the leader of the French
nature-philosophers. This discussion took place in 1830 and
lasted through several sessions, the result being that Cuvier
through his greater authority and much wider knowledge of
comparative anatomy completely vanquished his antagonist.
The victory thus won by Cuvier, by force of arms as it
were, for the immutability of species and fixity of plan in
nature, completely dominated the study of zoology until Dar-
win's time, and feeble were the efforts made to dislodge it
during the intervening thirty years. The last serious advo-
cate of Cuvier's types was Louis Agassiz, who held the rare
distinction of being the only naturalist of prominence to re-
ject the doctrine of descent and who until his death remained
a bitter opponent of Darwin.

Foremost among Cuvier's disciples may be mentioned Rich-
ard Owen who carefully dissected and studied many animals,
both vertebrate and invertebrate, including a number of very
rare forms, such as the Pearly-Nautilus and the New Zealand
Apteryx. He especially concerned himself with the recon-
struction of extinct vertebrates, following the Cuvierian
method founded on the principle of correlation of parts.
The terms homology and analogy are due to Owen, who
rendered zoology an inestimable service by clearly and

82 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

definitely distinguishing between homologous and analogous
structures.

After Cuvier's death the center of zoological progress
moved to Germany, where to a greater degree than anywhere
else the study of the minute structure of animals and their
development by the aid of the compound microscope had
given the science an immense impetus.

Contemporaneous with Cuvier was Johannes Miiller (1801-
1858), the greatest of all investigators of animal structure,
whose reputation for rapid, exhaustive and accurate observa-
tion has never been surpassed. Possessing a remarkable com-
prehensiveness of view and unusual skill in dissection, he
achieved brilliant results not only in the field of anatomy, but
also in that of embryology and physiology. His memoirs upon
the structure of Amphioxus and Bdellostoma, two of the lower
vertebrates ; on the anatomy and classification of Fishes ; and
on the development of Echinoderms, are some of his most im-
portant researches, and still stand among the marvels of
zoological investigation.

It is impossible to even enumerate the. host of workers
of this period who advanced the science in rapid strides,
adding far-reaching discoveries in anatomy and embryology
and correction of former errors. Reference has already
been made to the able embryologist Karl Von Baer,
the discoverer of the mammalian egg, who may be said
to have really founded the study of embryology.
Thompson in England removed the Cirripedia from the
group of Mollusca where Cuvier had retained them, and from
a study of their development placed them, where they prop-
erly belong, with the Crustacea. Siebold established the
group Protozoa in its modern signification, separating it from
Cuvier's Radiata ; and a decade later (1848), Leuckart finally
did away with the Radiata altogether by dividing the remain-
der into two groups; namely, the Coelenterata (polyps, me-
dusae, etc.), and the Echinodermata (star-fishes, sea-urchins
and related forms); two distinct branches which only very
superficially resemble each other. Siebold further abol-
ished Cuvier's Articulata, transferring the Annelida to the
Vermes or worm-group, and proposing the term Arthropoda

Lefevre — The Advance of Zoology in the Nineteenth Century. 83

for the rest, including Crustacea, Insects, Myriapods and
Spiders.

We now arrive at the Darwinian Era, or the period when
the doctrine of organic evolution became established. Al-
though I shall speak of the development of evolutionary
views in another place, it will be well here to refer to the pro-
found influence which the acceptance of the theory of natural
selection exerted upon the progress of morphology. With
the rejection of the old and erroneous conception of species
and with the establishment of the doctrine of genetic descent
of all living things, at once a natural classification of animals
became possible, a classification which should express, not
arbitrarily chosen differences and resemblances, but actual
relationships. The nearness or remoteness of descent of a
given form would now determine its position in the system,
which would thus be an attempt to indicate the lines of descent
and interrelationships of all known animals.

A flood of light burst for the first time on the mass of
accumulated facts which gradually began to assume an
orderly arrangement and to take their proper positions ac-
cording to the general principle of organic evolution. Facts
previously misinterpreted received a rational explanation, and
facts which before had no significance, or which had merely
been referred to the will or pleasure of a Creator, now as-
sumed a real meaning. The breath of life as it were had
been breathed into the science of zoology.

Evidence for the theory of descent is drawn from four
great sources, namely, comparative anatomy, embryology,
palaeontology and geographical distribution ; and it is but
natural that with the acceptance of the doctrine, which soon
became practically universal among zoologists, these four de-
partments of zoological investigation should have sprung for-
ward with giant leaps in the feverish haste of workers to gain
further evidence for Darwinism. Homology had received a
real explanation, for the reason why a part of one animal re-
sembles in structure the part of another, though perhaps dif-
fering in function and external appearance, is because it has
been inherited in both cases from an ancestor possessing a
similar part constructed after the same fundamental pattern.

84 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

The discovery and interpretation of homologous structures,
now called homogenetic structures, gave to comparative anat-
omy a new goal, and led to a hitherto undreamed-of expansion
of the study.

Before Darwin's work the embryologist Von Baer had
announced his discovery that the higher animals pass
through, in their individual development, stages which
correspond more or less closely with the adult grade of
organization of lower forms; but although the discoverer
of a great law, Von Baer had no notion of its impor-
tant meaning, nor had any of his contemporaries, except
that many regarded it merely as illustrating the general
harmony of plan in creation. Fritz Miiller, one of the most
ardent of Darwin's early supporters, from his observations
upon the development and life history of Crustacea, was the
first to point out its significance for the evolutionary theory.
It is now known as the Law of Recapitulation, or the Bio-
genetic Law as Haeckel called it, and in general it states the
now well-known fact that " an animal in its growth from the
egg to the adult condition tends to pass through a series of
stages which are recapitulative of the stages through which
its ancestry has passed in the historical development of the
species from a primitive form ; or more shortly, that the de-
velopment of the individual (ontogeny) is an epitome of the
development of the race (phylogeny)." As an animal in its
development is believed to retrace, as it were, its line of
descent, it can be readily seen what an impetus the formula-
tion of this principle gave to the study of embryology, for
there could be found the actual record, often obscured, modi-
fied and blurred it is true, but, nevertheless, a more or less
complete record of its ancestral history. For many years
afterwards the greatest attention was directed to the working
out of phylogenies or ancestral histories through the study of
comparative anatomy and embryology ; and as a result of
these researches, carried on by zoologists over the entire world,
the growth of our knowledge in these subjects was stupen-
dous. As every epoch-making discovery by a master-mind has
set the trend of investigation for a long period following, so
the study of phylogeny dominated zoology from Darwin's

Lefevre — The Advance of Zoology in the Nineteenth Century. 85

time down to the beginning of the last decade. Science does
not develop logically, but follows the paths of least resistance ;
and with the almost endless wealth of material at hand, made
especially easy of access by the establishment of many marine
laboratories along the coasts of Europe and America, and
augmented by the rich collections brought back by scientific
expeditions, it is not surprising that so fascinating a study
should have absorbed zoologists for a long time. During the
past ten years other problems have occupied the attention of
investigators to a greater degree, and phylogenetic researches
have been going out of fashion.

It would be an impossible task to speak here of the count-
less discoveries made in the field of comparative anatomy and
embryology under the inspiration of the doctrine of descent,
for our modern knowledge in these branches, which has
largely been the outcome of researches carried on during this
period, has attained enormous proportions. Our present
system of classification, which attempts to express the proba-
bilities of genealogical relationships, embodies the results of
our anatomical and embryological knowledge of to-day. Every
group of animals has been most carefully studied, its anatomy
and development accurately described and pictured, and
although gaps exist here and there, the amount of information
which we now possess was undreamed of even in Darwin's
time. Old groups have been broken up and several classes
made of them, as for example, the Mollusca, which has
been forced to surrender the Brachiopoda, the Bryozoa
and the Tunicata, as more careful anatomical and embryolog-
ical study has brought to light their special affinities. The
group of Vermes which so long remained the dumping ground
for all forms whose relationships were obscure has in the
latest proposed classification been discarded altogether and it
is now represented by a number of separate branches. We
now recognize twelve phyla, or main subdivisions of the
animal kingdom, including fifty-one classes and several
appendices, or groups whose affinities are doubtful. It is
probable, however, that any classification will receive only a
temporary acceptance, and will for a long time to come be
subject to much remodeling and revision, as discoveries are
made which necessitate change.

86 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

The study of palaeontology, a science which could hardly
be said to have been in existence a century ago, received the
same impetus from the doctrine of descent as did compara-
tive anatomy and embryology, and it has undergone a marvel-
ous development in our epoch. If the present fauna is the
last link in the long series of animal forms which have suc-
ceeded one another by slow and gradual substitution of
species, it is from an examination of the fossiliferous remains
that we should find the prima facie evidence of evolution.
Cuvier and his disciples, it is true, had already studied the
fossils of the Paris basin with rich results, but it was not
until after Darwin that the science entered upon its modern
development. Considering the difficulties that beset any
palaeontological investigation and the fact that only a few
spots in the earth's crust have been scratched for fossilifer-
ous remains, the achievements have been remarkable. Huxley
in England and the American school of palaeontologists,
notably Cope, Marsh, Osborn and Scott, have brought to light
a wealth of material, the western plains of the United States
alone yielding a world of extinct animal forms. The phy-
logenies of many animals have been discovered with greater
or less completeness, as for example, that of the horse, and
the proofs of organic evolution which palaeontology has
furnished have even surpassed expectation.

II. EVOLUTION.

Let us now turn to a consideration of the development of
evolutionary doctrines as applied to organic nature.

The essence of the idea of the gradual development of
organisms can be traced back to the Greeks, for in the earliest
Ionians, Thales and Anaximander, more than six hundred
years before Christ, we find the first premonition of evolu-
tion. Later, in Heraclitus and Empedocles who set forth the
doctrine of the gradually increasing perfection of organisms,
the idea became somewhat less vague, the latter even dimly
foreshadowing the theory of the " Survival of the Fittest."
And still later we find in Aristotle very clearly brought forth
the principle of adaptation or fitness of certain structures to

Lefevre — The Advance of Zoology in the Nineteenth Century. 87

certain ends ; but he believed that the succession of forms in
evolution was due to the action of an internal perfecting prin-
ciple originally implanted by the Divine Intelligence. During
the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries more or less direct
contributions were made to the foundations of modern evolu-
tion by the philosophers Bacon, Descartes, Leibnitz, Kant
and others. But it is to the great naturalists or nature-phi-
losophers of the latter half of the eighteenth century and the
first half of the nineteenth that we must look for the definite
formulation of evolutionary theories, to Buffon, Erasmus
Darwin, Lamarck, Goethe, Treviranus and Geoffroy St. Hilaire.
Although each of these naturalists, especially Goethe, clearly
recognized the evolutionary principle as opposed to the doctrine
of special creation, Lamarck alone proposed a definite system
by setting forth certain factors to account for adaptations and
the origin of species, and it is to his theory that we must
confine our attention in this place in speaking of pre-Darwinian
evolutionists. The complete expression of his theory appeared
in his " Philosophic Zoologique " in 1809.

Lamarck taught that first organisms of the simplest struc-
ture arose through spontaneous generation, and that from these
there have been developed in the course of a vast period of
time, through gradual change, all of the present species of
animals and plants without any break in the continuity. The
last and highest member of the series is man who has there-
fore had a common origin with the lower forms. The causes
which have brought about these changes, or in other words the
factors of evolution, according to Lamarck, are the inherited
effects of use and disuse, the action of the environment, and the
influence of conscious effort or willing on the part of the
animal. The giraffe for example, has acquired a long neck
because he has been compelled to stretch his neck in order
to browse upon the leaves of trees, living as he does in regions
of sparse vegetation; and again, the blind fish living in dark
caves has lost its eye- sight through disuse of its organs of
vision. Lamarck regarded the influence of environment as
of secondary importance and as acting only indirectly upon
animals by changing the conditions for the use of organs.

In maintaining a continuity of development for all organic

88 Trans. Acad. Set. of St. Louis.

forms Lamarck rejected the cataclysm theory of Cuvier by
which the latter accounted for the successive series of animals
and plants found in the fossiliferous rocks of each geological
age. According to the doctrine of cataclysms a great revo-
lution or convulsion of nature had brought to an end each
period of the earth's history, with the destruction of all
life, and upon the newly formed earth a fresh and newly
created world of fixed species had been placed by the Creator,
only to be wiped out of existence in its turn by the next cat-
aclysm. Lamarck's spirited writings remained almost un-
noticed by his contemporaries, and met with only contempt
from Cuvier who spoke of each edition of his works as a
" nouvelle folie."

In 1830, a year after Lamarck's death, Cuvier won his
famous victory over St. Hilaire, with the result as already
mentioned, that the doctrine of the mutability of species re-
mained buried until it was revived nearly thirty years later by
Darwin and Wallace. In the same year, however, Cuvier's
theory of cataclysms received its death blow from the geolo-
gist Lyell who in his epoch-making work, the " Principles of
Geology," completely set aside the doctrine of convulsions
and explained the past changes of the earth's surface as due,
not to violent intermittent revolutions, but to the constant
action of physical agents which are still in operation, as for
example, the erosive action of water. Only gradually then
has one period of the earth's history passed into the next and
without any break in the continuity. For these changes
to have taken place vast periods of time must have been
necessary; and it is with this deduction from Lyell' s work
that the biologist is especially concerned, as it allows of the
requisite length of time for the changes to have taken place
in the organic world in the gradual evolution of species. And
from this point of view Lyell furnished Darwin with a strong
support for his theory.

Darwin. — So complete had been the overthrow of the
transmutation-theory that the special-creation view of species
rested quietly for over a quarter of a century without receiv-
ing a serious attack. Evolutionary doctrine had remained
obscured for so long that Darwin's "Origin of Species'

Lefevre — The Advance of Zoology in the Nineteenth Century. 89

came upon the stage with startling abruptness ; and hence
the Darwinian Era is sharply marked off from the preceding
period.

In the brief limits of this lecture it is impossible to give to
Darwin his true relative position or to adequately picture his
towering pre-eminence over all of his predecessors.

During his long voyage as naturalist on the war-ship
" Beagle," detailed by the British Admiralty from 1831 to
1836 for nautical researches, Darwin had been deeply im-
pressed by the striking character of island faunas, especially
of the Galapagos Islands, and by the remarkable distribution
of Edentates in South America. Although on the voyage he
was a believer in special-creation, the peculiarities of distri-
bution which he had observed caused him to think much on
the subject of species, and he says he was haunted by the
problem of mutability. On his return he began to systemat-
ically collect from every available source facts concerning
variations of animals and plants under domestication and
in a state of nature, and to carefully search the litera-
ture of the subject. "In October, 1838," he says, "I
happened to read for amusement Malthus on Population,
and being well prepared to appreciate the struggle for
existence which everywhere goes on, from long continued
observation of habits of animals and plants, it at once struck
me that under these circumstances favorable variations would
tend to be preserved and unfavorable ones destroyed. The
result of this would be the formation of new species. Here,
then, I had at last got a theory by which to work." So
cautious was he, however, that he published nothing for many
years afterwards and it was not until 1842 that he even wrote
an outline of his view for his own satisfaction ; and this brief
abstract he enlarged two years later. At that time he wrote
his friend Hooker, " I have been ever since my return, en-
gaged in a very presumptuous work, and I know no one in-
dividual who would not say a very foolish one. I was so
struck with the distribution of the Galapagos organisms and
with the character of the American fossil mammif ers that I de-
termined to collect blindly every sort ©f fact which could bear
in any way on what are species. At last gleams of light have

90 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

come, and I am almost convinced (quite contrary to the opin-
ion that I started with) that species are not (it is like confess-
in »• a murder) immutable. Heaven forfend me from Lamarck
nonsense of a ' tendency to progression,' ' adaptations from
the slow willing of animals,' etc! But the conclusions I am
led to are not widely different from his ; though the means of
change are wholly so." This quotation well indicates the
general attitude of the time toward the immutability of
species, to doubt which was high crime.

Darwin's reluctance to publish his theory until he had col-
lected a vast amount of evidence came near costing him his
right to priority. In 1858, twenty years after the idea of
Natural Selection had occurred to him, during which time he
had devoted all of his energy to gathering every possible fact
and observation in support of his doctrine, he received an essay
from his friend, the naturalist-traveler, Alfred Russel Wal-
lace, who was then in the Malay archipelago. Wallace's paper
contained an outline of a theory of Natural Selection which,
though differing in certain points, was essentially the same as
that which Darwin had long before arrived at. Under per-
suasion of his friends Hooker and Lyell, Darwin consented to
give publicity to his theory and on June 30, 1858, a modest
abstract, consisting of his earlier notes, together with Wal-
lace's essay, appeared in print in the Journal of the Linnean
Society. In the year following (1859) was published the
most important of his writings, " The Origin of Species by
Means of Natural Selection, or the Preservation of Favored
Races in the Struggle for Life," and in rapid succession after-
wards the complete series of his works, representing the
results of many years of labor. Those which bear more
directly upon the theory of desceut are "The Variation of
Animals and Plants under Domestication," and " The
Descent of Man," the latter applying the theory of Natural
Selection to man.

So completely had evolutionary theories been forgotten that
Darwin's work was almost universallv regarded as something
entirely new, and at once it provoked the most violent oppo-
sition, to some extent from scientific men, but mainly from
the clergy. Only a few men of science placed themselves at

Lefevre — The Advance of Zoology in the Nineteenth Century. 91

the beginning on the side of Darwin, and for some years a
fierce battle was waged between the advocates and opponents
of Natural Selection. Darwin took little part in these con-
troversies himself, and it was largely due to the spirited efforts
of a handful of loyal supporters, notably of Huxley in En-
gland and Haeckel in Germany, that the brilliant victory for
the descent-theory was won. Although ideas of organic evo-
lution had been expressed at intervals from the time of the
Greeks, and in a few instances a cause of the transmutation
had been offered, as in Lamarck's system, Darwin was the
first to propose a reasonable explanation of the origin of
species based upon observed fact. No scientific work of the
century has attracted so much attention, not only in the
zoological, but in the entire educated world; and at the
present time our whole scientific thought is so thoroughly
permeated with the idea of the descent-theory, that there is
no department of knowledge which has not felt its far-reaching
influence.

So familiar is the theory of Natural Selection to every one
that the briefest outline will suffice. The over-production of
individuals leads to a fierce struggle for existence among all
living things, a struggle which is both active and passive,
occurring not only between organisms but between the organ-
ism and its environment, a struggle which is to result either
in the destruction of the individual or its survival. Those
individuals survive which can, and it is the fittest, or those
which are best suited to withstand the ceaseless life- struggle,
that will constitute the favored. Upon Darwin's theory the
origin of species is accounted for by the hereditary transmis-
sion of "fortuitous" congenital variations which are useful
to the organism by giving it an advantage in the struggle for
existence and thus determining whether the organism is to
survive to produce offspring or to perish without leaving off-
spring. In order that the character should be selected, it
must be useful, must be at some time a life-preserving char-
acter, and the fundamental principle underlying the process
of Natural Selection is that of utility. It is a matter of com-
mon observation that no two individual animals or plants of
the same species, even those derived from the same parents,

92 Trans. Acad. Sci. of Si. Louis.

are precisely alike, but show countless differences, " varia-
tions " as Darwin called them. It has been thoroughly es-
tablished by observation that all parts of the organism are
subject to variation, and furthermore, that any variation in
the parent tends to be transmitted to the offspring. Should
any of the innumerable variations of the body be of utility to
the possessor in the struggle for existence, that is, should it be
a determining factor in deciding whether the possessor is to
survive or perish, it will be naturally selected, and the off-
spring will tend to receive the same advantage. In this way
Darwin explained the origin of adaptations, those exquisite
adjustments of the organism to its environment which before
his work seemed so purposeful that a supernatural Intel-
ligence was thought necessary to account for them. But
Darwin showed that many, if not all, adaptations could be
satisfactorily explained by the inheritance of those accidental
or fortuitous variations which have been selected naturally
from among innumerable indifferent variations by reason of
their life-preserving value in the struggle for existence. By
a slow and gradual process, useful variations once established
would be perfected by further transmission of additional im-
provements along the same lines, until adaptations, as we see
them now, in all their intricate complexity and perfect adjust-
ment would result.

Early in the history of the doctrine the objection was urged,
and for a long time strongly pressed, that until a variation
had at least reached a considerable degree of development it
could not be useful and hence could not determine survival ;
and moreover, that a single favorable variation would soon be
lost by the swamping effect of cross-breeding. As an answer
to this argument, it has been shown since Darwin's time (and
this has been one of the most important of the later addi-
tions to the theory) that it is not necessary for a variation to
be of profound significance at first, but that a gradual advance
may take place by raising the general average of each genera-
tion even by a slight amount. It has been clearly shown that
variations occur around a mean, and that with regard to any
particular character animals or plants arrange themselves
maintyinto groups — those above and those below the average.

Lefevre — The Advance of Zoology in the Nineteenth Century. 93

However slight a given variation might be above the mean, in
times of stress the survivors would contain a relatively larger
number of individuals possessing that advantage, and this
being repeated at subsequent generations, natural selection
would establish adaptations by thus gradually raising the
general average. The advance would therefore be, not by
isolated spurts of individual variations, although it is possible
that this might take place in certain cases, but an advance of
the species as a whole. And furthermore, as it is largely
those individuals falling below the mean which are extermi-
nated, the survivors would have to mate with each other, and
there would be no opportunity for the new character to be
eliminated by cross-breading.

The necessity of variations occurring in definite, beneficial
lines, as opposed to indiscriminate variation, in order to pro-
duce adaptations, that is, the necessity of their being deter-
minate, has for a long time appealed with force to the minds
of some. If variations are determinate, if there is some
underlying cause which calls forth the variation when needed
and directs its development, then, it is argued, Natural Se-
lection would not be the cause of evolution, and the real
problem of evolution would be the discovery of the cause of
the determinate variation. There has arisen a school of
biologists who, working from this standpoint, have attempted
to identify this cause with the old Lamarckian factors but
with modifications necessitated by the advance of zoological
knowledge. The all-sufficiency of Natural Selection as the
cause of evolution, is denied by these Neo-Lamarckians who
maintain that use and disuse and the action of the environ-
ment produce and determine variations, directing them along
beneficial lines ; and moreover, that the effects of these factors
upon the individual are transmitted. They assign to Natural
Selection only a secondary role in contributing to the estab-
lishment and elaboration of variations after they have once
been produced by use or disuse or by the action of the envi-
ronment and brought into existence when needed. During
the past twenty or twenty-five years the contention over
Natural Selection versus the inheritance of " acquired char-
acters " has proceeded with considerable earnestness, and

94 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

has attracted much interest from the educated world at large,
owing to the practical importance of the question for soci-
ological and educational problems.

In the latter part of his life, Darwin admitted the possibil-
ity of the Lamarckian factors, though strenuously denying
them in his earlier writings. Herbert Spencer and Romanes
in England, Haeckel in Germany and the American school of
palaeontologists have been the strongest advocates of Neo-
Lamarckianism, while the all-sufficiency of Natural Selection
has been stoutly upheld by Wallace, but above all by Weis-
mann and his followers. Although Natural Selection stands
upon a firmer footing than perhaps it has ever stood, the
general attitude among biologists is that, although the Neo-
Lamarckians have not made good their claim and have ad-
vanced no convincing experimental proof of the inheritance of
" acquired characters," it is still possible that these factors,
or yet some undiscovered ones, may have operated with
Natural Selection to bring about adaptations and the origin of
species. The discussion has been largely of an a priori nature
and little or no advance had been made toward a settlement ;
and the majority of biologists, I think, are willing to look
upon it as an open question for the future to decide, if it is
ever to be decided. During the past few years, however, a
serious attempt has been begun to carefully study the origin
of variations, without any bias towards one theory or another,
in the hope that the question of whether variations are deter-
minate or not may be settled. Already some valuable results
have come from this work, done almost entirely in this coun-
try, and it has given promise of becoming a most important
branch of zoological investigation.

III. THE CELL DOCTBINE.

Here we must leave the history of organic evolution and
look for a moment at the advance made in another great de-
partment of zoological science, a development which has taken
place almost independently of evolutionary views and entirely
in the nineteenth century. I refer to the development of the
so-called cell-theory which has created the science of cytology

Lefevre — The Advance of Zoology in the Nineteenth Century. 95

almost within the past twenty-five years. This remarkable
growth which has taken place in our knowledge of the struc-
ture and activities of cells has been immensely aided, in fact
made possible, by the great improvement within recent years
of microscopical lenses, by the invention of accurate micro-
tomes and by the perfection of methods of hardening, stain-
ing, imbedding and serial section-cutting. It has thus become
possible in cytological research to preserve, with little distor-
tion, the most delicate of cell-structures, to bring into view,
by means of differentiating stains, objects which would other-
wise be invisible, and to examine them, in sections of only
one thousandth of a millimeter in thickness if need be, under
remarkably high powers of magnification.

In all the higher forms of animal and plant life the body
consists of innumerable structural units, termed cells, out of
which, directly or indirectly, every part is constructed; and
the view that all organisms are composed of these elementary
minute particles is known as the cell-theory which is rightly
considered to be one of the most important generalizations in
the history of modern biology.

The essential substance composing cells is living matter or
protoplasm which was termed by Huxley the " physical basis
of life " and which is now universally regarded as the seat
of all manifestations of life. In the lowest organisms the
body consists of a single cell in which all of the vital func-
tions are performed ; in the higher forms, however, the body
is made up of a multitude of cells and is in a certain sense to
be compared with a colony or aggregate of many unicellular
forms which exhibit a division of labor among themselves,
some being specially modified in structure for the perform-
ance of one function, others modified in a different direction
for another function. And as the functions of the organism
as a whole are but the result of the activities of the individual
cells, we therefore recognize the cell, not only as the unit of
structure, but as the unit of function as well. " Considera-
tion of the individual functions of the body urges us con-
stantly toward the cell. The problem of the motion of the
heart and of muscular contraction resides in the muscle-cell ;
that of secretion in the gland-cell ; that of food-reception and

96 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

resorption in the epithelium- cell and the white blood-cell;
that of the regulation of all bodily activities in the ganglion-
cell. * * * If, then, physiology considers its task to
be the investigation of vital phenomena, it must investigate
them in the place where they have their seat, that is, in the
cell." *

Ever since the formulation of the cell-theory the fact has
become more and more generally recognized that the solution
of all ultimate problems of biology is to be found in cell-in-
vestigation. Already the doctrine has contributed to the
science many of its most important generalizations. "It
was the cell-theory that first brought the structure of plants
and animals under one point of view by revealing their com-
mon plan of organization. It was through the cell-theory
that Kolliker and Remak opened the way to an understanding
of the nature of embryological development, and the law of
genetic continuity lying at the basis of inheritance. It was
the cell-theory again which, in the hands of Virchow and
Max Schultze, inaugurated a new era in the history of physi-
ology and pathology, by showing that all the various func-
tions of the body, in health and in disease, are but the out-
ward expression of cell-activities. And at a still later day it
was through the cell-theory that Hertwig, Fol, Van Beneden
and Stragburger solved the longstanding riddle of the fertil-
ization of the egg, and the mechanism of hereditary trans-
mission. No other biological generalization, save only the
theory of organic evolution, has brought so many apparently
diverse phenomena under a common point of view or has ac-
complished more for the unification of knowledge. The cell-
theory must, therefore, be placed beside the evolution-theory
as one of the foundation stones of modern biology." t

As early as the seventeenth century Hooke, Malpighi and
Grew had discovered in plant bodies, by the aid of low mag-
nifying glasses, small spaces, surrounded by firm walls and
filled with fluid, to which Hooke first applied the word cell.
The discovery attracted little or no attention and it was not
until nearly two centuries later that the cell was re-discovered.

* Verworn, General Physiology, p. 48. 1899.

f Wilson, The'Cell in Development and Inheritance, p. 1. 1898.

Lefevre — The Advance of Zoology in the Nineteenth Century. 97

In 1833 the English botanist, Robert Brown, saw in certain
plant structures that each cell contained a small circular spot
which he called the nucleus. Five years later, in 1838, Schlei-
den proposed the generalization that a nucleus was an uni-
versal elementary organ in plant bodies, and in 1839 the
doctrine was extended by Schwann to animal bodies. The
theory is hence commonly known as the Schleiden and
Schwann Cell-theory.

At first the wall or membrane of the cell was considered
to be the most important part of the vesicle, while the sub-
stance contained within the wall, to which Von Mohl gave the
name protoplasm in 1846, was either overlooked or regarded
as a waste-product. Through a series of researches, mainly
by Bergmann, Kolliker, Bischoff, Cohn, de Bary and Schultze,
it was definitely proven that the cell-contents, not its walls,
is the seat of the vital functions, by showing that some cells,
as the white blood-cells, are merely naked masses of protoplasm.
It was then further demonstrated that the presence of a
nucleus was practically universal, and the cell came to be rec-
ognized as a " mass of protoplasm containing a nucleus," a
definition which is accepted to-day. The word cell is there-
fore a misnomer, but it has been perpetuated as an historical
survival in spite of numerous attempts to supplant it.

Schleiden and Schwann believed that cells might arise in
the body by a process of crystallization out of a formative
substance, termed " cytoblastema." It was not until years of
careful research had elapsed that it was finally settled that new
cells are only produced by division of pre-existing cells, and
in 1855 Viichow announced his famous aphorism, omnis
cellula e celhda. This conclusion now rests upon an irre-
fragable basis.

The mechanism of division, however, was little understood
at first, although it had been shown as early as 1841 by Remak
and Kolliker that both the nucleus and the body of the cell
divide. The division was supposed at that time to take place
by simple constriction, first of the nucleus into two parts, and
then of the cell-body into two, each containing one of the
daughter-nuclei. It was not until 1873 that the process was
shown to be of a far more complicated nature and to in-

98 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

volve a remarkable transformation of the nucleus to
which Schleicher in 1878 gave the name of karyokinesis. In
certain cases, however, the simpler method of division ex-
ists, which is now recognized as direct division and con-
trasted with the indirect method of karyokinesis. The
indirect process is an intricate device for the purpose of
dividing and distributing to each of the resulting two cells
equal portions of a substance contained in the nucleus, termed
chromatin, which we have many reasons for indentifying as
the essential constituent of the cell, controlling its activity
and determining its specific nature. In indirect nuclear divi-
sion, therefore, the result is attained that precisely equivalent
portions of the chromatin are passed into the daughter-cells
which thus receive the same specific constitution as possessed
by the parent -cell.

Not only do the cells of the body arise in this manner by
division of pre-existing cells, but it has been shown by the
painstaking labors of a host of investigators that all the cells
can be traced back to the fertilized egg- cell which by a suc-
cessive series of divisions ultimately gives rise to the vast
multitude of cells composing the body of the adult. This
process has now been followed with great accuracy in a large
number of cases, both animals and plants, and the genetic
continuity of all cells of the body has been thereby thoroughly
established. Nor does the process of cell-division start with
the cleavage of the egg, for the link between successive gen-
erations has been shown to consist in the fact that the ess-

cell and the sperm-cell arise in the body of the parent by
division of pre-existing cells and are therefore directly derived
from an egg-cell of the preceding generation. The old Greek
doctrine of equivocal or spontaneous generation has long since
been discarded, and we now know that living things constitute
an uninterrupted series from generation to generation.
Although the body of the individual dies, the germ-cells live
on, embodying the sum-total of the race behind them and
giving to the generation arising from them the expression of
this inheritance.

The spermatozoon discovered by Liidwig Hamm,a pupil of
Leeuwenhoek, in 1677, and first regarded as a parasitic ani-

Lefevre — The Advance of Zoology in the Nineteenth Century. 99

malcule living in the sperm or seminal fluid of the male
(hence the name spermatozoon) was in 1831 proven by
Kolliker to arise directly from cells of the testis, and some-
what later its precise cellular nature was demonstrated. The
spermatozoon, like the egg, is therefore a true cell, though
considerably modified for its special function.

A most important step for the correct understanding of
physical inheritance was next taken when Oscar Hertwig in
1875 showed that fertilization is accomplished by the union
of the nucleus of one spermatozoon, which penetrates the
egg, with the nucleus of the egg. During the past twenty-
five years the exact details of this process have been made
known through the brilliant researches of later cytologists.
In fertilization we now know that the male and female nucleus
contribute to the formation of the nucleus of the fertilized
egg exactly equivalent amounts of chromatin which, during
cleavage, is therefore distributed equally to the daughter-cells
arising at each division. The marvelous result is that the
determining constituent, or chromatin, of every cell of the
body is derived half from one parent and half from the other.
In this fact rests the physical basis of inheritance, an in-
heritance which is therefore twofold and transmits to the
offspring the characteristic organization of both parents.
Within recent years we have witnessed the establishment of
the all-important fact that chromatin is identical with the
germ-plasm, the substance which contains the sum- total of
the species and which, when detached from the parent body,
under the proper conditions gives rise to the body of the
child. The problem of heredity, therefore, has become a
cell-problem, and its solution lies in a correct understanding
of the cell-phenomena involved.

In the eighteenth century and early part of the nineteenth,
ideas concerning the sexual products and their relation to the
adult organism were vague and fanciful. The ablest anat-
omists and physiologists held that eggs agree in their structure
in every particular with the adult organism, and therefore
that they possess from the beginning the same organs arranged
in precisely the same manner and bearing the same relation
to each other, with the only difference that they are of ex-

100 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

traordinarily small size in the egg. The entire organism was
therefore held to be preformed in every particular in the egg,
but in miniature. The germ was likened to the plant bud
which contains all the parts of the future flower, petals,
stamens, etc., and just as the bud gradually increases in size
and suddenly expands into the flower, so also in the develop-
ment of animals it was believed that the already present but
minute and transparent parts of the animal germ grow, ex-
pand and become visible. This doctrine was called the theory
of Evolution, or Unfolding, but a later and better name was
the theory of Preformation. The essence of the theory is
that at no time in development is anything formed anew, but
that every part of the organism is preformed in its complete-
ness and present from the beginning in the germ. " There
is no such thing as becoming " (or coming into being), says
Haller, one of the great upholders of early preformation,
4i no part in the animal body was formed before another; all
were created at the same time." It logically followed, and
indeed was formulated by Bonnet and others, that in every
germ the germs of all subsequent offspring must be included,
since living things are developed from one another unin-
terruptedly; this was called the Einschachtelungslehre, or the
theory of emboitemeni, and its adherents actually attempted
to estimate the number of human germs which must have been
present in the ovary of Eve, accordingly reaching the number
200,000 millions.

But difficulty arose in the ranks of the preformationists
upon the discovery of the spermatozoon, and the question
soon came to be fervently discussed whether the egg or the
seminal filament was the preformed germ. Some, the Ovists,
declared in favor of the egg, others, the Animalculists, cham-
pioned the spermatozoon, the latter imagining that with the
aid of their magnifying glasses they could see in the human
spermatozoon the head, arms and legs of the man, and re-
garding the egg merely as a nutritive soil in which the growth
of the spermatozoon takes place.

In 1759, however, Caspar Friedrich Wolff opposed the
preformation-theory and maintained that " at the beginning
the germ is nothing else than an unorganized material, elim-

Lefevre — The Advance of Zoology in the Nineteenth Century. 101

inated from the sexual organs of the parent, which gradually
becomes organized, but only during the process of develop-
ment in consequence of fertilization." According to Wolff
therefore the organs of the body are only gradually differen-
tiated during development out of an originally undifferen-
tiated germinal material. For many years his theory was
buried in obscurity, but it was later brought to light and
to-day he is accepted as the founder of the theory of epi-
genesis, the rival of Weismann's doctrine of preformation.
In recent times with the development of the cell-theory, with
a closer insight into the nature of cell-processes, and espe-
cially with the advance of our knowledge of the finer struc-
ture of the germ-cells, much in Wolff's doctrine of unorganized
germinal matter has had to be discarded, but the essential
conception of his theory of development has laid the founda-
tion of modern epigenesis.

The two opposing points of view, preformation and epi-
genesis, around which the earlier discussion took place,
strange to say, furnish the modern contention in discussions
regarding the nature of development. Our more accurate
instruments and more refined methods, it is true, have forced
the abandonment of what was crude and grotesque in the
earlier views, but the fundamental conception of each theory
is the same and has been activelv fought over in the last
decade. Although in recent preformation-theories it is not
maintained that the embryo is actually preformed in the germ
in its complete and final organization, the view has been
strongly advocated that the organism is predetermined in the
sense that different regions of the germ contain different sub-
stances which are destined to form definite parts of the
embryo ; in other words, that the head, for example, is formed
in development from a certain definite and predetermined
portion of the germinal substance and from that alone.

Time will permit of but the merest reference to the final
product of these opposing theories, namely the modern Pre-
formation Doctrine, first formulated by Wilhelm Roux in
1883, but greatly elaborated and extended by Weismann, and
modern Epigenesis, whose chief exponent has been Oscar
Hertwig.

102 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

Weisniann has postulated for the geriii-plasm a complicated
architectural structure which is a definite and predetermined
arrangement of elementary vital units, each of which is des-
tined to form a particular and definite part of the body.
These units are distributed during the course of cell-divisions
occurring in embryological development to their respective
positions in the body where they control and determine the
development of those special structures only which they are
destined to form. And, furthermore, he maintains that a
certain undifferentiated portion of the germ-plasm is passed
into the germ-cells where in the next generation it becomes
in turn disintegrated in forming the body of the offspring.
He thus postulates an uninterrupted continuity for the germ-
plasm which bridges across the gap from one generation to
the next, as contrasted with the perishable body of the organ-
ism which is destroyed at the death of each individual.

Much of Weismann' s doctrine has been recently shown to
be without a foundation of fact, and great as has been its
influence in stimulating the progress of this phase of zoologi-
cal investigation, the theory has been largely given up for an
epigenetic view of organic development.

According to epigenesis the organism is not preformed in
the germ in all its final complexity of structure, but many of
the characters of the adult arise secondarily during develop-
ment, being the result of the interaction of internal and
external forces and coming into existence only after many
cells have been formed by division and grouped in different
ways both in relation to each other and to their environment.

As to the ultimate problem of heredity and development,
zoology is still completely in ignorance. Weismannism throws
it one step farther back and transfers it from the visible to
the invisible, without supplying a real explanation. Epigene-
sis has no answer at all, not even a formal one, to the funda-
mental questions of heredity and development. What we
want to know is this : What is the peculiar organization of
the germ- plasm upon which we are driven to believe inheri-
tance depends, and what is the power that controls the intri-
cate phenomena of development and directs them to a definite
and foreseen end? In some way the nature of the individual

Lefevre — The Advance of Zoology in the Nineteenth Century. 10:3

cell determines how it is going to react to external forces and
stimuli, and how it is going to be combined in a definite man-
ner with other cells. Two fertilized egg-cells, subjected to
precisely the same external conditions, react in utterly differ-
ent ways. A hen's egg and a duck's egg, lying side by side
in the same incubator, or under the same hen, give rise one
to a fowl and the other to a duck. The difference must be
attributed to a difference in the nature of the cell itself, and
whether we shall ever understand what lies behind this differ-
ence remains for the future to decide. We can, however,
guard against the delusion that we have an explanation where
none exists. Yet so brilliant have been the achievements
within the past few years in the fields of cytological and ex-
perimental research, that we can set no limit on the possible
advance in our knowledge of inheritance and development.

IV. EXPERIMENTAL MORPHOLOGY.

Finally, this outline of the advance of zoology in the cen-
tury would be incomplete without a reference to a very recent
development of the science which has been brought about by
the application of the experimental method to the investiga-
tion of fundamental problems of heredity, development and
growth. In the field of embryological development, the in-
vestigation has been pushed with the greatest enthusiasm, and
by subjecting the egg to entirely new conditions, which can
be altered and controlled by experiment, illuminating and
far-reaching results have been obtained. Not only has the
egg been thus experimentally studied, but the same method
has been applied to all developmental stages from the time of
fertilization onward. It has been entirely through work of
this nature that we have arrived at an epigenetic conception
of development.

Again, much attention has been directed to the study of
the regeneration or replacement of lost parts by growth in
animals and plants, an investigation which obviously lends
itself well to the experimental method, in the hope of dis-
covering the causes underlying this remarkable power of
living things. Although the study is only in its first stages

104 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Lends.

of development, it is to be hoped that by its further pur-
suance much light will be thrown upon fundamental vital
processes.

The tendency to-day, especially among the younger men,
is to depart from the older lines of investigation and to strike
at the solution of the activities of living things by the use of
the experimental method, to reduce, in so far as possible,
vital activities to known laws of physics and chemistry, and
to thus attack the fundamental problems of life. A glance
at the biological journals of the day will convince one of the
absorbing interest which is displayed on every hand in ex-
perimental work, and the number of their pages which are
being devoted to these researches is sufficient evidence of the
present tendency- Such problems as the effect of external
agencies, temperature, light, gravity, electricity, chemical
stimuli, etc, upon protoplasm in all its forms and conditions
are being eagerly investigated. One of the most recent
results obtained from investigations of this nature is the
startling discovery a short time ago that unfertilized eggs of
the sea-urchin, when subjected for a time to the action of
certain inorganic salts in definite solutions, develop partheno-
genetically into normal larvae. Where this discovery will
lead us, to what degree it will cause us to reconstruct our
conceptions of fertilization and hereditary transmission, it is
too early to say, but it is probable that it will necessitate a
considerable remodeling of some of our present ideas.

The whole subject of experimental morphology is too young
to surmise what results it will yield in the future, but it un-
doubtedly gives promise of brilliant achievements. It is a
field of research which is attracting manv of our ablest biolo-
gists who feel little confidence of progress along the lines of
speculation and discussion which have so largely occupied
zoologists and botanists since Darwin's time.

It is not too much to hope, however, that in this new de-
parture of experimental research we may be led to the discovery
of some of the unknown forces which confront us in the last
analysis of all vital phenomena.

Issued July 3, 1901.

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Transactions of The Academy of Science of St, Louis,

VOL. XI. No. 6.

PHYSICS DURING THE LAST CENTURY.

FRANCIS E. NIPHER.

Issued November 13, 1901,

PHYSICS DURING THE LAST CENTURY.*
Francis E. Nipher.

The study of physical science had its origin among people
who had been accustomed to reach most of the results which
seemed to them of value, by processes of a purely mental
character. After the result had been attained it was consid-
ered important that it should be accepted by others. It was
regarded as a duty for every man to convert others to his
philosophy. It was considered of importance if some record
of a predecessor could be found and quoted, showing that the
new result was in line with precedents. It is difficult for us in
this day to realize the endless quarreling, and irrelevant or
senseless debating which attended the early advances in every
branch of science. It is one of the greatest advances in
science that we no longer consider it of importance that our
thinking should square itself with the ideas of those who have
preceded us in a former age, and who perhaps did not and
could not think seriously about the matter at all. It is cer-
tainly an advance of a very fundamental and far-reaching
character, that our explanation of the working of a pump
does not involve the proposition that " Nature abhors a
vacuum." It is hard for us to understand how men of a
former time could have felt any mental stimulation in the
doctrine that the number of planets could not exceed the
number of openings in the head of a man, or that anything
could be proved by an astonishing illustration of something
else.

In the century which preceded the last there were men who
began to have what we should call a sense of logical connec-
tion in physical reasoning. In the preface to Rohault's Na-
tural Philosophy, the English edition of which appeared in
1729, are some keen and discriminating comments upon what

* Address delivered before The Academy of Science of St. Louis, Octo-
ber 21, 1901.

(105)

106 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

was then considered as logical and sufficient among the school-
men. The writer says: —

If you ask a ploughman why it is that the loadstone at-
tracts iron, he will tell you that he does not know. If you
ask of the schoolman he will tell you that it is by reason of
an occult property which the loadstone possesses. Now this,
as the writer goes on to say, is to say the same that the plough-
man said, but in language which might delude the ignorant
into the belief that the thing has been explained.

During the last century and particularly during the latter
half, the opposition to the intellectual freedom which the
man of science demands, has practically ceased. The so-
called scientific method has found its way into the intellectual
workshops of all who make pretense to scholarly attainment.
In its promise of future good this is the great achievement of
the past century.

When we come to sum up the results of scientific study in
physics, it is impossible to do more than to briefly allude to
the broader outlines. There is one result which is of central
importance. It is the doctrine of the " conservation of
energy." The student of our day who reads the earlier
papers of Mayer, Helmholtz, Grove, and others, written be-
tween 1840 and 1850, will find much to bewilder him. The
notation and phrase-coiniDg necessary to state the problem
which they were solving, had not yet been effected. New
ideas were being brought into focus and there was a new
quantity to be dealt with, and measured, but it had no name.
They called it " force " but Mayer clearly pointed out in his
paper on the mechanical equivalent of heat in 1851 that this
was a different meaning from Newton's.

Speaking of the word Kraft, he says: —

"I. On the one hand it denotes every push or pull, every
effort of an inert body to change its state of rest or motion."

In his day they sometimes called this "mere force" or
" dead force."

" II. On the other hand the product of the pressure into
the space through which it acts, and again the product — or
half product — of the mass into the square of the velocity
is named force."

Nipher — Physics During the Last Century. 107

This they usually called " living force," a name which was
later for a time restricted to the quantity M V2.

He, however, goes on to say that " force and the product
of force into the effective space are magnitudes too thoroughly
unlike to be by an possibility combined into a generic con-
ception," and he recommends thatthe name force be restricted
to one or the other of these meanings. Nevertheless it was
not uncommon twenty years later to read in the books of that
time that the unit of force was the foot-pound.

The word pressure is still misused in this way by many
literary and engineering writers. It is used to denote force
per unit-area, and force.

The doctrine of the Conservation of Energy grew very
naturally out of the discovery that a definite quantity of heat
is directly producable from a definite quantity of work. In
a qualitative way the identity of heat and molecular motion
had long been insisted upon. In Rohault's Natural Phi-
losophy, before referred to, is a chapter devoted to this sub-
ject. The writer says (I, 155) : —

" We observe that two hard Bodies rubbed against one an-
other, do so agitate the parts of each other, as not only to
burn us when we touch them, but their Motion will increase
to such a Degree as to set each other on Fire. Thus in very
dry Weather, the Wheel and the Axle-tree of a chariot, when it
goes very quick, and in general, all sorts of Engines which
are made of Matter that will burn, and which move very quick,
are apt to take Fire. Nothing is more common than to see a
Wimble grow hot in boring a Hole in a hard thick Piece of
Wood. So likewise, if wejile or sharp a Piece of Iron or Steel,
it will grow so hot sometimes as to lose its Temper. And a
/Saw, which the Wood will not easily yield to, acquires a very
notable Heat. But nothing sooner takes Fire than a small
piece of Flint or of Steel, which is struck off, and put into
violent Motion by striking these two against each other. Now
in all these Instances, there is nothing added to these Bodies
but Motion.

" All the Antients who have considered the greatest Part of
these Experiments, have asserted that Motion is the Principle
of Heat; which I acknowledge with them to be true; if by

108 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

Motion they mean the Motion of the Whole Bodies, which is
the Cause of the two Bodies rubbing against each other; but
if bv Motion they mean the Motion of their insensible Parts, I
think they have not said enough : for the Motion of these
Parts, is the very Heat itself of those Bodies."

Sixty-nine years later, in 1798 appeared Count Rumford's
paper in the Transactions of the Royal Society, in which he
gives an account of experiments made in the boring of brass
cannon at Munich while he was in the service of the Elector
of Bavaria. He tested the heat capacity of the metal borings
and found them the same as the cuttings made with a sharp
saw where little heat was produced. He concluded that the
heat obtained in the boring was not a substance, caloric,
squeezed out of the borings, and concludes : —

"It is hardly necessary to add, that anything which any
insulated body or system of bodies can continue to furnish
without limitation, cannot possibly be a material substance;
and it appears to me to be extremely difficult, if not quite
impossible, to form any distinct idea of anything capable of
being excited and communicated in those experiments, except
it be motion."

The advance which this great man made, was in the meas-
urement of heat quantities. He compared the quantity of
heat produced by the work of a horse, in driving the drill
used in boring the cannon, with that which could be realized
by burning the feed which the horse would require during the
interval, and also with that produced in the burning of a
definite quantity of wax in candles of specified size. This
comparison was made by determining the amount of water
heated from freezing to boiling.

This man Benjamin Thompson, born in Woburn, Mass.,
1753, was one of the great men whom this country has pro-
duced, and whom it does not know. He was in charge of an
academy at Rumford, afterwards Concord, N. H., in 1770.
At the outbreak of hostilities he applied for a commission in
the revolutionary army, but he was accused of toryism and
left the country in disgust. Later his distinguished serv-
ices to the English government and people led to his being
knighted. Soon after he entered the service of Bavaria,

Nipher — Physics During the Last Century. 109

where he brought about a revolution in military tactics, in
industrial education, in the manufacture of arms and ord-
nance, in the suppression of organized beggary, in the im-
provement in construction of the dwellings of the poor, in
the introduction of superior breeds of horses and cattle, and
in bringing into existence a public park where the grateful
people afterwards erected a monument to his honor. For
these great services he received many honors, among others
being made a Count of the Holy Roman Empire. He chose
as a title the name of his New Hampshire home, and was
afterwards known as Count Rum ford. He returned to
England and founded the Royal Institution of England. The
great service which that Institution has rendered to the
science of the last century is sufficiently indicated by a mere
mention of the names of the great men who have been pro-
fessors there. Beginning with Thomas Young, we have Sir
Humphrey Davy, Michael Faraday, John Tyndall, and in
our day Lord Rayleigh and Professor Dewar.

Rumford afterwards took up his residence in France, be-
came one of the eight foreign associates of the Academy of
Sciences of Paris, and married the widow of the great chemist
Lavoisier.*

Davy was brought to Rumford' s attention by some ingen-
ious experiments which he made upon heat, although at first
his ideas were far from clear. He showed that cakes of ice
might be melted by friction upon each other when in an
atmosphere where no melting could occur when the friction
ceased. This work of Rumford and Davy, supplemented by
the powerful adhesion of Thomas Young, was apparently
without effect for nearly half a century. But it was not
without effect. The seed had been sown, and the results
showed themselves in the almost simultaneous appearance of
different phases of a new and comprehensive generalization,
the Conservation of Energy.

In 1842, Dr. J. R. Mayer of Heilbron, a physician, published
a paper in which for the first time an attempt was made to
determine the height through which a body must fall, in

* In our time Rumford's biography and works, in six volumes, have been
made public by Ellis.

110 Trans. Acad. Set. of St. Louis.

order to heat an equal quantity of water 1°. Here for the
first time we have the equivalence of heat and work clearly
stated. This value was calculated from the difference be-
tween the two specific heats. And it is perhaps worthy of
remark that the direct occasion which brought about this line
of work, was the observation by him while in surgical prac-
tice in the island of Java, in 1840, that blood drawn from the
veins of newly arrived Europeans, possessed almost without
exception a surprisingly bright red color.

At about the same time Colding in Denmark, Helmholtz in
Germany, Grove and Joule in England were independently
working upon the same subject. The work of Joule was the
direct determination of the mechanical equivalent of the heat
unit, by a .method of stirring water with rotating paddles,
which Rumford had suggested half a century before. Row-
land has in our day improved on Joule's method, and has
undoubtedly made what is, for practical purposes, a final de-
termination of the mechanical equivalent of heat. Thomson
and Clausius completed the proof, that, while the total
energy of the universe is constant, a continually increasing
amount of this energy is becoming unavailable. Each trans-
formation of energy results in the production of heat, which
is dissipated, and so far as we can see, becomes forever un-
available. There is no way by which this heat can be pumped
back into bodies of higher temperature without a greater heat
loss than that which we seek to avoid. This was the final
proof that perpetual motion was impossible. The heat from
coal which drives a power-house engine is only a small part
of that which was liberated by the combustion under the
boiler. Most of this heat is wasted through the chimney, or
by radiation from the furnace boiler or cylinder. In convert-
ing the mechanical energy into a current of electricity which
is to be conducted to the moving car, there is a further con-
version into heat in the dynamo, the conducting wires and the
motor. When the car is stopped all the remaining energy,
represented by the moving car, is converted into heat at the
brake-shoes, and when the car comes to rest, the entire energy
potential in the coal has been converted into heat, which has
been dissipated into the colder space around. It is forever

Nipher — Physics During the Last Century. Ill

beyond our reach. The water which has turned the mill, may
be again lifted to the hills, and may return to drive the same
mill again, but the energy which thus apparently reappears,
has not really done so. It is a new supply of energy fur-
nished us in solar radiation. And this source of energy thus
tremendously drawn upon will finally fail.

In 1854 Helmholtz computed the total heat resulting from
the condensation of the sun and planets, from an initial con-
dition of zero density, to their present condition. He con
eluded that only about the 454th part of the original energy
remains as such, and that the heat which has already been dissi-
pated into space, would raise the temperature of a mass of
water equal to that of the sun and planets, to a temperature
of 28 million degrees centigrade. He pointed out that all of
the operations of our universe are of a descending character.
It is a great clock which is running down. Carried backward
in time these newly discovered laws point to a beginning of
the present order of things. All the energies expended
through historic time, whether those of Nature, or those
which man has drawn upon, used and wasted, were potentially
present in a cold and lifeless nebula. The struggles of men
to enslave their fellows, and the struggles of men to be free,
the energy which drives the pen, the cannon-shot and the
mill, were all expressions of portions of the initial energy of
this infinitely diffused gaseous mass, which we now in its
present condition call the solar system.

And if we would know of the future, these same laws tell
us that the history of our universe will end as it began, in
cold and stillness and universal night. The matter in the
solar system, instead of being infinitely diffused, will have
gravitated into a solid mass. The energy which it once con-
tained will have been radiated into the ether, which fills all
space around. The energy of the matter of the universe,
will have been transferred to the ether. Are these ether
wavelets crossing and interlacing forever in reflection from
some envelope which bounds our universe, and separates it
from a fathomless, unknown beyond? or do the}' continue
outward forever into a space which is absolutely without
limit? Is our infinite the first of an infinite series of infinite

112 Trans. Acad. Set. of St. Louis.

spaces, having perhaps an increasingly higher order of magni-
tude?

The determination of the amount of heat radiated from the
sun, per second, per unit of area, was attempted by Pouillet,
and has been more accurately determined by Langley. This
result has served as a basis for the determination of the dura-
tion of the life of our universe. There is some ground for
thinking that this time interval may be determined with
reasonable precision, but it is doubtful if such estimates can
as yet receive much weight.

But a study of the flow of heat from the interior of the
earth has enabled Sir William Thomson to determine between
reasonable limits the interval since the earth began to solidify.
The information needed for this is, the rate of increase in
temperature with depth, and the conducting power of the
material forming the outer shell of the earth. This result
has attracted keen attention from geologists, for the interval
found is much shorter than that formerly thought necessary
to accomplish the work of geological time.

Another great step has been the increase in our knowledge
of the ether. When the existence of an ether which filled all
space was suggested, it was a conjecture based on possibility.
The logical situation involved a choice between two theories
of light. Newton had suggested that light might be a dis-
charge of particles which shoot off from all luminous bodies,
and which must travel with enormous speed. This condition
has been strongly simulated in an artificial way in the interior
of the Crookes tube. The cathode discharge falling upon the
walls of the tube arouses the X-ray into activity, just as
Newton thought the luminous particles might bombard the
retina and arouse the sensation of light.

Many of Newton's followers were dogmatic in their adher-
ence to his ideas. He was not.

Newton's ideas were held by a majority of the great men at
the beginning of the century. But in the merciless examina-
tion which was given it the emission theory was found inade-
quate. At the beginning of the century Brewster was one of
the foremost exponents of optics in England, and he strongly
condemned the wave theory of light. He has placed upon

Nipher — Physics During the Last Century. 113

record the statement that his " chief objection to the undu-
latory theory of light was that he could not think the Creator
guilty of so clumsy a contrivance as the filling of space with
ether in order to produce light."

In those days they tried to settle such questions by attor-
neys who argued, and ridiculed, and quoted authorities and
precedents. Lord Brougham, who was a prominent figure
of that day, made the most ludicrous efforts of this
kind. He assailed Thomas Young, the great exponent
of the wave theory, with the most bitter personalities. Lord
Brougham's abilities and opportunities did not justify any
well-grounded hope that he could know anything about a
theory which must be tested by mathematical analysis and del-
icate experiment, but his powers of ridicule and invective were
of a high order. For a time he prevailed with the British
public as against Thomas Young. It was in 1801 that Young
showed that Newton's rings and the colors of thin plates
might be explained by the wave theory. Ten years later
Fresnel gave the subject an elaborate mathematical discussion,
and designed the most searching experimental tests, in which
wave length was determined by interference phenomena.
By the wave theory, it was easy to explain how the super-
position of two luminous pencils might produce darkness.
The advocates of Newton's ideas yielded very slowly, but the
measurement of the velocity of light in various media gave
the final evidence which could no longer be questioned.
Newton's theory required that the velocity of light should be
greater in matter than in a vacuum, and the reverse was found
to be the case, as the wave theory demanded. The velocity
of light was measured over terrestrial distances about the
middle of the century. In 1850 Foucault measured the time
required by light to travel over a distance of about 20 meters.
This time is about ttoWocTo second, an interval that bears
about the same relation to the second that the second does to
six months. And this minute interval of time is to be meas-
ured with precision.

This measurement was made possible by a method used by
Wheatstone in determining the duration of an electric spark.
A beam of light is reflected from a rapidly revolving mirror,

114 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

to a distant fixed one, and is reflected back to the revolving
one again, which has appreciably moved during this to and
fro passage of the light. The beam emerging from the
revolving mirror will be displaced from the entering beam,
by an amount which will increase with the angular velocity
of the mirror, and the distance between the two mirrors.
The intermittent light thus reflected was also focused upon
the tooth of a cos^ed wheel. When the wheel was driven at
such a speed that successive teeth appeared at the focus at
intervals equal to that of a rotation of the mirror, the wheel
would seem to be at rest. If the wheel were slowed down
slightly, it would seem to be rotating slowly in a direction
opposite to that in which it was moving. If the wheel were
slightly accelerated, it would have a slow apparent motion in
the direction of its actual motion. This method gives a very
accurate measurement of the time of rotation of the mirror
and involves determining the number of rotations per second
of the cogged wheel.

Michelson has made great improvements in Foucault's
methods. With a slower rotation of the mirror, he obtained
very much greater deviations of the returning beam. His
first announcement of preliminary results was made in this
city in 1878. In his final work the velocity of light was de-
termined with a possible error of two hundredths of one per
cent. This result has been universally accepted as the best
attainable value.

The medium which transmits light is also concerned in the
transmission of electrical and magnetic action. Faraday
paved the way for this idea. He did not indeed concern him-
self with the nature of the ether, but he did abandon wholly
the idea of action at a distance, which had formed a sufficient
basis for mathematicians like Poisson and Gauss. His work
between 1831 and 1841 resulted in establishing the idea that
inductive action is communicated from point to point in space.

In 1850 Lamont of Munich established a periodicity in the
average amount of daily oscillation in the magnetic needle.
This fluctuation was due to a periodic change in the frequency
of what have been called magnetic storms, with their at-
tendant auroral displays. In 1851 Schwabe of Dessau es-

Nipher — Physics During the Last Century. 115

tablished a period for sun-spot frequency. At once Sabine
in England, Gautier in France, and Wolf in Switzerland,
pointed out, independently of each other, the coincidence of
sun-spot maxima and those of magnetic oscillation. On Aug.
3, 1872, Young observed at Sherman in the Rocky Mountains,
three immense solar disturbances at intervals of about an
hour, and the magnetic needle at that station was deflected
entirely off the scale. The coincidence of the two phenomena
could not be established because the time of the magnetic dis-
turbance was not noted. But the Greenwich and Stonyhurst
photographic records showed that the magnetic disturbances
in England wTere felt at the same times that Young saw the
luminous outbursts, where hundreds of dark lines in the spec-
trum were suddenly reversed for a few minutes at a time.

In the meantime Maxwell had been putting the ideas of
Faraday into mathematical language. In his great treatise
which appeared in 1873, he developed the idea that light was
an electromagnetic induction, differing from that which an
alternator may produce only in wave frequency, or wave
length This view of the subject gave a complete explana-
tion of the experimental results of Fresnel, according to
which the so-called vibrations of light were in a plane at right
angles to the direction of propagation of the ray. It also
linked with the discovery of Oersted in 1820, that a magnetic
line of force of a linear current is a circle, having some point
on the current as a center. According to Maxwell, the elec-
trical and magnetic lines of force, which are thus shown to
be at right-angles to each other, are components of luminous
vibration. Notwithstanding the long perspective of prior
evidence tending to corroborate this view, Maxwell's ideas
did not at first receive very general assent. But the electro-
magnetic theory of light has been steadily reinforced by every
subsequent development. We can now see that the induced
discharges which occur here and there on conductors remote
from a great electrical discharge, are the spray over the
sunken rocks, or the splashing surf along the shores of an
ethereal ocean. It was Hertz who in 1888 first produced
and studied by electrical means these ether, waves which
serve as the messengers in the wireless telegraphing of to-

116 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

day. He stirred up the ethereal ocean by making electrical
disturbance between spheres 30 cm. in diameter. The ether
waves which he produced were 5.55 meters in length. When
the disturbance is produced on smaller spheres, the wave-
lengths are found to be shorter. In order to reduce the
length of these Hertz waves to the length of light waves, so
that they would become luminous, the bodies which are elec-
trically disturbed must have dimensions such as Kelvin has
computed for the atoms. An electrical disturbance of elec-
trically charged atoms therefore involves the setting up of
ether waves which affect the eye and which are called light
waves. It is evident that in great solar outbursts, ether dis-
turbances of large magnitude must be produced in order to
account for the distortions of the earth's magnetic field, which
are so frequent in the time of solar activity. It is possible
that a blast from a great gun might have an appreciable effect
upon a neighboring magnetic needle, of small moment of
inertia and in a zero field.*

Spectrum analysis has been wholly developed during the
last century. Fraunhofer discovered the dark lines in the
solar spectrum in 1817. It was not until Bunsen and Kir-
schoff took up the matter about 1866 that the significance of
the dark lines was suspected. Bright line spectra had been
observed, and the coincidence of the dark lines of the solar
spectrum with the bright lines due to certain metals, was
finally found to indicate that the metals whose light was
absent in sunlight, were present in the sun. The continuous
spectrum is made up of an infinite series of overlapping
images of the slit. The dark lines indicate that images are
wanting. The particular light which iron vapors yield when
heated has been partially quenched by the cool iron vapors
lying above the most strongly luminous layers of the sun.
These dark lines are displaced in the spectrum if either the
radiating substance or the earth is in motion which changes
the distance between the eye and the radiant mass. The
phenomenon is precisely similar to the one in sound where

* This experiment yields appreciable effects, but it is so far complicated
with the magnetic reaction of the steel barrel of the gun, and possibly with
Rowland effects.

Nipher — Physics During the Last Century. 117

the apparent pitch of the sound is changed by motion of the
sounding body or the ear. This has enabled astronomers to
measure the velocity with which stars are approaching or re-
ceding from the earth. Double stars have been discovered
which no telescope can resolve. The commingled light from
the two stars has been separated by the spectroscope. The
dark lines from the light of the approaching star, are de-
flected towards the violet end of the spectrum, and those from
the receding star, are deflected in the opposite way. These
deflections go through periodic to-and-fro changes, corre-
sponding to the orbital motions around the common center of
gravity. When August Comte said in his Positive Philosophy
that while we might know the forms and distances of the
heavenly bodies, " we can never know anything of their
chemical or mineralogical condition," he really meant that
chemists would never be able to have samples from these
bodies collected and carted to Paris for analysis in test tubes.
When Comte wrote these words the men were living who were
to analyze the stars.

In the progress of the study of light, its identity with
radiant heat was established. The earlier work by Melloni,
Tyndall and Magnus was done with the thermo pile. The
more recent work of Langley has greatly increased the deli-
cacy of the measurements. Langley finds that only about
one-fifth of the energy of the solar spectrum is from visible
radiations. In the visible part of the spectrum, the luminous
and heating effects rise and fall together. The dark lines are
lines of lower temperature. The bolometer, which was de-
signed by Langley for temperature measurements of this
character, shows the presence of similar cold bands in the
invisible part of the spectrum below the red. With the latest
form of instrument, it is possible to measure to the millionth
of a degree.

The greatest development shown in any one branch of
Physics, has been in electricity and magnetism. The ad-
vances in our understanding of the nature of magnetic and
electrical action have been already touched upon. Oer-
sted, Arago and Ampere discovered that the space around a
current of electricity is a magnetic field. They studied the

118 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

directive action of currents upon magnetic needles, and upon
other currents. Out of these studies grew the needle tele-
graph.

Sturgeon was the first to intensify the magnetic field of a
current, by winding it in a coil around the legs of an iron bar
bedt into the horse-shoe form. This was an electro-magnet.
Joseph Henry produced an electro-magnet of enormous lifting
force, and used small electro-magnets to send signals to a
distant point. He connected his battery cells and designed
the magnet-windings so as to make the signals effective over
a long circuit. The telegraph line which he established at
Albany made signals by means of the sound of the attracted
armature striking a resonant stop. Some years later Morse
added a system of recording apparatus, and built a line for
commercial purposes. In practice the signals by means of
sound were found more convenient than those which Morse
tried to introduce.

During the greater part of the century, the source of elec-
tricity was the battery, of Volta and Galvani. But as early
as 1831, Faraday had made the grand discovery, which was
to work a revolution. On September 22 of that year he wrote
in his laboratory note-book as follows: —

" I have had an iron ring made, (soft iron) iron round and
|- of an inch thick, and ring six inches in diameter. Wound
many coils of copper round, one half of the coil being sep-
arated by twine and calico. There were three lengths of wire,
each about 24 feet long, and they could be connected as one
length or as separate lengths. By trial of a trough, each was
insulated from the other. We will call this side of the ring
A. On the other side, but separated by an interval, was
wound wire in two pieces, together amounting to about 60 feet
in length, the direction being as with the other coils. This
side call B.

" Charged a battery of ten plates, four inches square, made
the coil on B side one coil and connected its extremities by a
copper wire passing to a distance and just over a magnetic
needle (three feet from wire ring). Then connected the ends
of one of the pieces on A side with the battery ; immediately
a sensible effect on needle. It oscillated and settled at last in

Nipher — Physics During the Last Century. 119

original position. On breaking connection of A side with the
battery, again a disturbance of the needle."

Later he varied the experiment and writes: —

" In place of the indicating helix, our galvanometer was
used, and then a sudden jerk was perceived when battery
communication was made and broken, but it was so slight as
to be scarcely visible. It was one way when made and the
other way when broken, and the needle took up its natural
position at intermediate times."

The device which Faraday describes was a transformer.
The impulses which he saw in the needle were due to induced
currents. He immediately proceeded to produce induced cur-
rents by the motion of a closed conductor, in a magnetic
field. That was the first dynamo, and was constructed during
the same month. If any person had asked of Faraday that
exasperating question, what is the practical value of your dis-
covery ; how are induced currents available for money-getting?
he would have been unable to make any satisfactory reply.
The effects which he observed, were utterly insignificant. Who
would then have imagined that these feeble impulses would
some day transmit articulate speech? Who could have
imagined the ponderous machinery now employed in pumping
induced currents through massive conductors, to light large
cities, and to move heavy cars loaded down with passengers?
Even fifteen years ago the man who would have predicted that
this city would contain the railway system which it now has,
would have been considered a lunatic by every street railway
man. It would have been sufficient answer to such folly, that
there was no traffic to sustain such an enormous outlay of
capital with the necessary running expense. It would have
been called the idle fancy of a useless brain.

It became apparent in 1873 that the dynamo was reversible.
The same machine might be mechanically driven and used as
a generator, and it might be electrically driven in the reverse
direction and develop power as a mechanical motor. This
result had indeed been foreshadowed by Pacinotti in a re-
markable paper in 1864. But his machine remained forgotten
in the museum of the University of Pisa until the Gramme
machine appeared in 1871. Pacinotti pointed out clearly

120 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

that the dynamo and motor were complementary, but the
reversibility of the Gramme dynamo as shown at the Vienna
Exposition of 1873, and repeated at the Centennial Exposition
at Philadelphia in 1876 was a most impressive lesson to all who
saw it. Nevertheless it was not until 1880 that the scientific
world was ready to admit that an enormous development of
electrical industries was possible. It was then that the ques-
tions of economy were settled which showed the great eco-
nomic advantage of the dynamo and the steam engine over
the primary battery, and that large electrical plants with
their high efficiency were possible.

The first telephone was constructed and operated by Philipp
Reis in 1861 and 1862, and he gave his instrument the name
telephone. His system consisted of a transmitter or loose
contact which was disturbed by a membrane put into vibra-
tion by the sound wave, a receiving instrument consisting of
an electromagnet or sounder upon a sounding board, and a
battery. This is broadly, so far as it goes, a complete descrip-
tion of the telephone of to-day.

Bell modified the Reis receiver, making the armature in the
form of an iron disc, and used the same instrument for a trans-
mitter. In Bell's system, the sound waves were the source
of power for setting the armature into vibration, such vibra-
tion by a dynamo action producing currents having the char-
acteristics of the sound waves. In the Reis system the power
was supplied by a battery, the current being moulded by the
voice acting upon the loose contact in the transmitter.

The Reis instrument did not prove practical because the
materials used were not the best that could be chosen. The
membrane of his transmitter was of animal tissue, while iron
is now used, and the loose contact was between platinum
points, while carbon is now used. The Reis receiver was not
sensitive enough.

The Bell system failed because the receiving instrument
was not adapted to use as a transmitter, although his re-
ceiver was a great improvement upon that of Reis. The tele-
phone of to-day is the improved Reis telephone. It is coming
into more general use in the country than in the cities. In
the great farming region of the upper Mississippi valley the

Nipher — Physics During the Last Century. 121

farmers are everywhere building their own systems and owning
their instruments. The value of such a service to a farming
community is very great, and the financial advantage is not
its most valuable feature.

The discovery of Roentgen in 1895 has taxed the ingenuity
of every man who has sought to explain the nature of the
X-ray. It was a discovery which lays hold of the secrets of
the ether and the atom, and is likely to lead to results which
as yet cannot even be conjectured. Becquerel and Madam
Curie have found invisible radiations from various substances,
which possess all the essential properties of the X-rays. It
is said that Madam Curie is so saturated with radio-active
matter, that she is barred from all laboratories where electrical
work is being done. In her presence all electrified bodies are
discharged. Another great discovery of the last decade was
made by Zeeman of Holland. He found that if an incandes-
cent gas whose spectrum is being examined, be placed in a
strong magnetic field, the bright lines of the spectrum are
resolved into component lines, which are plane polarized.
Of the D lines given by sodium, Dx becomes four lines, and
D0 becomes six. Lorenz has shown that this phenomenon is
fully accounted for by the electromagnetic theory of light.

Even so fragmentary a review as this should contain some
reference to the science and art of photography, which is
wholly a product of the last century. Previous to the daguerreo-
type process, which was due to Daguerre and Nicephore de
Niepse, there was a process due to the latter, which yielded a
permanent image on a metallic plate covered with an asphalt-
um varnish, which was then developed by means of a solvent.
The time of exposure was from three to eight hours. The
picture was in faint relief, the parts which had been most acted
upon by the light being least acted upon by the developer.

The daguerreotype which was produced in 1839, was a pic-
ture, on a silver plate, or a copper plate coated with silver.
The sensitive layer was formed by holding the plate in iodine
vapor, and the image was then developed by holding the plate
in mercury vapor. The vapor of mercury condensed upon
the plate in proportion to the light action, so that the picture
is a mercury amalgam. The plate was fixed by means of

122 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

sodium hyposulphite. The time of exposure when only iodin e
was used in the preparation of the film was from three to
thirty minutes, but this was very much shortened by the use of
bromine in 1844. It was then possible to take so-called in-
stantaneous views of well-lighted objects. A little later
iTizeau treated the level plate with a solution of gold chlorid e
mixed with sodium hyposulphite, which was warmed over a
lamp until the plate had received the re-enforcement possible
with this process. This produced a picture in slight relief ,
and most of the plates extant are of this class.

The wet plate collodion process which followed in 1850
possessed the advantage that prints could be made from the
original negative, and that these prints show the object cor-
rectly as to right and left, which was not the case with the
daguerreotype. Dry plates were first shown to be possible in
1854 by Gaudin. The dry-plate first became practically an
assured success by the introduction of the alkaline developer,
with films made sensitive by means of bromide and chloride
of silver. This improvement is said to be of American
origin, prior to 1862, but neither the date nor the author
seems to be known. Up to 1880, pyrogallic acid was the sole
reducing agent in the alkaline developer, but in that year
Captain Abney discovered that hydrochinone was a most ef-
fective agent. From that time many other developers have
been used. As an all-around developer pyrocatechin is prob-
bably the best yet discovered. There is a possibility that the
future may see the elimination of the dark-room and the
negative from photography, and the direct printing of positives
from positives with short exposures.

If the history of the last century has taught us anything,
it has established the practical or commercial value of research
in pure science. It is from such work that all of the great
achievements have directly come. And whenever any people
forgets the source from which these great things have come,
and allows engineering to supplant science, that people is on
the way to the civilization of China. There are great prob-
lems yet to be solved. The burning of coal is a mere inci-
dent in human history. There are men now living who can
remember when its use began, and there are boys now living

Nipher — Physics During the Last Century. 123

who will see the beginning of the end. The substitution of
some other source of heat and power for coal as it is now
used, will tax the resources of the human race, if the civili-
zation of to-day is to be maintained. It is customary to put
away such thoughts with the optimistic remark that the men
of the future will solve the problems of their time as we
have solved the problems of our day. But it is also true that
there have been former civilizations which have reached
their culminations and vanished from the earth.

Nevertheless, the progress of science during the closing
years of the century has been something marvelous, and we
are amply warranted in looking forward for still greater things.

Issued November IS, 1901.

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Transactions of The Academy of Science of St. Louis.

VOL. XI. No. 7.

THE PROGRESS MADE IN BOTANY DURING THE
NINETEENTH CENTURY.

WILLIAM TRELEASE.

Issued November 26, 1901.

THE PROGRESS MADE IN BOTANY DURING THE
NINETEENTH CENTURY.*

William Trelease.

what botany stood for at the beginning of the century.
At the beginning of the Nineteenth Century about 25,000
species of plants had been described, and, though consider-
able use had long been made of other species which at the
beginning of the century were unclassified and unnamed by
botanists, the number of these were relatively small, so that
the entire knowledge of botany, economic as well as scientific,
and in all of its branches, was practically confined to the
limited number of species mentioned. This knowledge con-
sisted in a recognition of their specific differences and the
rather superficial affinities and relationship deduced from
these in a great but often hopelessly scattered and frequently
erroneous literature, and in popular acquaintance with their
useful properties — particularly their medicinal virtues, and a
general blocking out of their anatomy and physiology, — to
no small extent a matter of subjective opinion.

SYSTEMATIC BOTANY.

About the middle of the preceding century, Linnaeus had
elaborated a workable, if artificial, system of classification,
which, with brief but sharp diagnoses, made it reasonably easy
to ascertain whether a given species of plant in hand had been
previously described or was new to science; and as he had
combined with this the very simple expedient of referring to
the several species by latinized binomials instead of by de-
scriptive phrases, the naming and describing of species has
proved not only one of the most necessary but also one of the
easiest and most popular branches of this as well as of the
related biologic science, zoology, during the century just
closed.

* Aa address delivered before The Academy of Science of St. Louis,
November 8, 1901.

(125)

126 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

Linnaeus himself, in 1771, admitted 8551 species of plants,
of which more than nine-tenths belong to the most obvious
and grossly marked group, the flowering plants, which, with
the ferns, still represent the field of botany for uneducated
persons. The rapidity of progress in differentiating unrecog-
nized species and characterizing such as had remained unob-
served is shown by the increase of Linnaeus's scant 9,000 to
some 70,000 before the first quarter of the Nineteenth Cen-
tury had been passed, and, largely because of territorial ex-
ploration, the next half century produced even greater results
and the phenomenal interest in the interior of Africa evinced
during the closing decade of the century is to-day bearing
like fruit. With this activity in collecting and naming plants
came inevitably a progressive interest in the more and more
difficult and minute flowerless plants, so that through the
studies of Presl, Milde, the Hookers and others on ferns and
their allies, of Schimper, Leitgeb and others on mosses and
liverworts, of Agardh, Kuetzing, Harvey, Thuret and Bornet
on algae, of Fries, Persoon, and the Tulasnes on fungi, and
of Acharius and Nylander on lichens, the proportion of cryp-
togams to flowering plants gradually advanced, notwithstand-
ing a very great increase in the latter, until at about the close
of the third quarter of the century approximately one-fourth
of the 125,000 species then known were cryptograms. Then
came a much increased activity in the study of these minuter
plants, partly from the concentration on them of study no
longer believed to be necessary for the flowering plants of the
more accessible parts of the world, these having been fairly
satisfactorily disposed of on the grosser or so-called Linnaean
ideas of specific limitation, and partly because of DeBary's
studies of parasitism and a recognition that many of the
diseases of cultivated plants are caused by fungi, the differ-
entiation of which then became important from an economic
as well as a systematic point of view. At the close of the
century not far from 180,000 species of< plants were known,
of which some 75,000, or more than the total number of
species known in all groups at the end of the first quarter of
the century, are cryptogams. The last decade, however, has
witnessed a proportionally greater increase in phanerogamic

Trelease — Botany During the 19th Century. 127

species than that marking the immediately preceding decades,
because of the geographic exploration already referred to,
and still more because of a growing change in the scale of
specific differentials which has resulted in the segregation of
many forms which under the older views passed for at the
most varieties of polymorphic or variable species. The
genera Rubus and Hieracium, in Europe, and Viola, Sisyrin-
cldum and Crataegus, in our own country, well illustrate my
meaning.

Just as the descriptive manuals of Linnaeus, and the editions
of them published after his death by Schultz, Willdenow and
others, facilitated and stimulated the accumulation of hith-
erto unrecognized species at the beginning of the century,
its progress throughout has been recorded and accelerated by
the publication of later works of the same general character
and purpose. For the flowering plants, some of the most
noteworthy of such general descriptive works are the incom-
plete Prodromus and Monographiae of the De Candolles, the
numerous revisions of genera and families in Engler's Jahr-
bucher and the Journal of the Linnean Society, and the com-
prehensive Index Kewensis prepared by Mr. Jackson under a
provision made in Darwin's will; and no account of this
aspect of the science would be at all complete without refer-
ence to the books and journals devoted to the illustration of
plants, foremost among which stands the Botanical Maga-
zine, which, founded by Curtis in 1790, has been continued
without interruption, and at the end of 1900 contained 7751
colored plates, mostly illustrative of plants of decorative
value. For Pteridophytes, the manuals of Hooker and Baker
have been most helpful. Bride), Schimper and Warnstorf
stand out prominent among those who have published compre-
hensive manuals of the Bryophytes, while the enormous
Sylloge Fungorum of Saccardo and the as yet incomplete
Sylloge Algarum of DeToni have made accessible the myriads
of scattered descriptions of species belonging to these groups
of the lower cryptogams.

SYSTEMS OF CLASSIFICATION.

The simplicity of Linnaeus' s classification of flowering
plants has been mentioned. The popular handbooks even of

128 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

our own flora, up to a point somewhat after the middle of the
century, were based on this system, which, when the purpose
of the student was to find the name of a plant, has scarcely
been equaled by any other ; yet it had one very great defect,
in that plants which were obviously related might come to
stand far apart in it, so that the suggestion of this relation-
ship would be lost on the user of a book in which it was
followed. Even before the close of the preceding century,
efforts had been turned to the arrangement of a natural se-
quence of the higher groups of plants, so that those which
possess a number of important and correlated characters in
common might be brought together, leaving the tracing of
any given species to its place in the system for a quite inde-
pendent artificial key, — the Linnean, for instance, or some
other specially fancied by the writer or suited to his purposes.
To the Jussieus the inception of this movement in a modern
sense is due, and the elder DeCandolle stands out prominently
among those who amplified and bettered it ; and yet the suc-
cess of these earlier seekers for a natural system was but par-
tial, and in the summation of their conclusions, as exemplified,
for instance, in the great Genera Plantarum of Bentham and
Sir Joseph Hooker, though many of the resultant groups,
even no higher than orders, possess a very puzzling com-
plexity because of the insertion of aberrants, there still re-
main many, as, for instance, a large part of those constitut-
ing the so-called Apetalae, which are obviously little more
than makeshifts, loose-jointed in themselves and with scarce
concealed affiliations of the most diverse kinds. As early as
the middle of the century, by his comparative developmental
studies of the gymnosperms and higher cryptogams, Hof-
meister laid the foundations of a more rational system, which,
largely through the labors of Alexander Braun and Eichler,
culminated in the phylogenetic system of Engler, which marks
the close of the century.

Somewhat comparable needs and advances have marked the
knowledge of the cryptogams. The ferns and their allies
early differentiated themselves from the remainder of this
great second group of Linnaeus, and the mosses and liver-
worts as quickly came to be recognized as forming another

Trelease — Botany During the 19th Century. 129

distinct group of primary importance in any natural classifica-
tion, the researches of Ho fmeister contributing largely to this
result; but even to-clay, convenience of treatment, if no other
reason, causes specialists to write commonly on either algae,
fungi or lichens, according to the group of thallophytes they
may be studying. And yet the beginning of better things
has been made, for DeBary's suggestion and Schwendener's
morphological demonstration that lichens are in reality only
certain fungi with enslaved or commensal algae as an integral
and usually necessary part of their organization marks the
close of the third quarter of the century, and in the conclud-
ing quarter various efforts have been made at a classification
of the thallophytes on more scientific grounds than the pres-
sence or absence in them of chromophyll-bearing cells or tis-
sues. Though the goal may not yet have been reached, these
efforts are full of promise for success in the century that is
now on the calendar.

EVOLUTION AND CLASSIFICATION.

It was in the first decade of the century that Lamarck, fol-
lowing a line of thought that had caused men long before his
time to speculate on the varied forms of nature, attempted
to show how environment, use and disuse of parte, and sim-
ilar natural factors might have brought about modifications
leading to the origin of new species from ancestors otherwise
characterized; and the year 1858 will always stand out in
prominence in the history of biology because of the simulta-
neous presentation in that year of almost identical explana-
tions of the manner in which natural selection, or the survival
of the fittest in life's struggle, might and of necessity must
lead to the repeopling of a given territory by new forms de-
scended from those pre-existing, provided, in the progress of
time, the conditions of life were changeful and variations
were present in offspring, as compared with one another and
their parents, — as was well known to be the case. Darwin
and Wallace, the authors of these first papers, did not go to
the bottom of their great subject, and the last word on it is
far from having been said yet, but the theory of organic
evolution may be regarded to-day as an axiom on which most
philosophical analyses of biology rest as a footing course.

130 Trans. Acad. Set. of St. Louis.

Closely connected with the changing conceptions as to the
origin and fixity of species, was a much increased interest in
such evidence concerning the plants of the past as was afforded
by their fossil remains, and, largely through the work of
Brongniart, Goeppert, Heer, the elder Schimper, von Ettings-
hausen, Saporta and Solms Laubach, and Dawson, New-
berry, and Lesquereux in this country, paleobotany has
assumed, in the last fifty years, a position of no small im-
portance.

Partly because of the same reasons, the geographical dis-
tribution of plants and the influences controlling widespread
or restricted occurrence in the case of individual genera or
species has also assumed an importance in recent years not
formerly recognized for it, and on the foundation laid by
DeCandolle, Humboldt and Martius, Grisebach, Engler, Drude
and the younger Schimper have grounded a line of botanical
research in which morphologists, systematists and evolution-
ists are alike interested.

With the change in the world's view of the fixity of species,
and of their several and independent origin in their present
form, came new and somewhat differently conceived efforts
to group plants in a natural system, the ultimate object being
virtually the production of a classification which should rep-
resent descent relationship as well as organic or morphological
affinity, and which, in a word, should present the family tree
of any individual group or species, — to the primitive animal
and vegetable main divisions of which Haeckel in particular
has given attention. A comparative glance at the Genera
Plantarum of Bentham and Hooker, the synopses of Van
Tieghem and Warming, and the still incomplete Pflanzen-
familien of Engler and Prantl will show how great have been
the changes wrought in systems of classification by the
introduction of these later considerations and motives. Free
to read heredity and atavism into the explanation of aberrant
minor characters, rudiments and vestiges, these men have often
found in the minuter details of anatomy, reproduction and
development most surprising indications of affinity between
superficially and externally dissimilar groups. That they are
not at one in their conclusions, indicates that the Twentieth

Trelease — Botany During the 19th Century. 181

Century may regard the preparation of a truly natural system
even of the higher plants as a part of its legitimate and
necessary work, and it may well be that even though this task
be accomplished, a like result among the lower cryptogams
will be reserved for the next century. At any rate, although
DeBary and others have contributed to a rational comparison
of the larger groups of thallophytes, a glance at the sytematic
memoirs relating to the fungi and algae shows a most obvious
if convenient artificialty in their classification.

MORPHOLOGY AND ANATOMY.

Some years since, I saw with much interest a palm in the
Botanical Garden of Padua on which, toward the end of the
Eighteenth Century, the great poet Goethe made some of the
observations which led to a formulation of his theory of meta-
morphosis in the parts of plants, — a theory which, in the first
half of the century just closed, DeCandolle, our own Engel-
mann and others put upon a more scientific basis as a funda-
mental idea in plant morphology. Toward the middle of the
century, the superficial indications afforded by position, grada-
tion and malformation of parts were much strengthened by
embryological and developmental studies, and it was about this
time that the details of cellular structure, grossly known for a
couple of centuries, were brought out by Robert Brown and
Schleiden, the latter of whom stated in another form for
plants the general fact of the origin of every cell from a pre-
vious cell, succinctly expressed by the now venerable Virchow,
whose eightieth birthday has recently been celebrated in this
country as well as in his native land ; for by this time these
structures had come to be recognized as the seat of vital
manifestations through their protoplasm, which, discovered
and named by von Mohl, and the nuclear differentiation of
which was observed by Robert Brown in 1835, and which was
shown to be similar in animals and plants by Cohn in 1850,
Huxley has so happily designated as the physical basis of life.

Though external morphology and anatomy, the latter even
in some of its minuter details, had come down from the past,
both may be said to have been made a part of science in the
Nineteenth Century, and the fact that homologous members

132 Trans. Acad. Set. of St. Louis.

may serve the most diverse organic purpose, that sometimes
analagous organs, like the leaf of the moss and that of the
flowering plant, cannot be morphologically compared, since
they are parts of fundamentally unlike plant bodies, shown
primarily by Hofmeister's discovery of alternating genera-
tions in 1851 (one representing the gametophyte and the
other the sporophj^te of beings with alternating sexual and
non-sexual generations), and that cells, cellular tissues, and
systems of such tissues show a similar and comparable plia-
bility in their adaptation to physiological function, as Haber-
land and others have made clearly evident, with many other
facts of equal importance for a right understanding of nature,
may be credited in large part to the last half, and, as to much
of their detail, to the last quarter, of the century. Indeed,
the consideration of tissues from a proper morphological
point of view dates practically from Hanstein's studies in
1868, and their rational terminology was established by
DeBary nearly a decade later.

Though initially wrong, Schleiden as early as 1837 laid the
foundation of embryology in botany, and the organogenetic
studies of Hofmeister, Payer, Sachs and Goebel will always
stand as classics in the application of the developmental line
of research to the progressively formed grosser parts of more
mature plants.

PHYSIOLOGY. ,

Physiology, either of animals or plants, could scarcely have
become a science before the determination of the grosser
chemical composition of the atmosphere, which, made by the
chemist Priestley toward the end of the Eighteenth Century,
was quickly followed up b}^ him, Ingen-Housz, de Saussure,
Hales and numerous others, with the result of showing that
a very considerable part of the organic matter of which
plants consist is derived from the carbon dioxide of the at-
mosphere, which is fixed in carbohydrate form in the green
parts of plants under the influence of light ; and the studies
of Draper and Wilhelm Engelmann stand out in prominence
as contributing to our present knowledge that certain wave-
lengths of sunlight, when passing through the chlorophyll
or comparable pigments of plants, disappear as light, and are

Trelease — Botany During the 19th Century. 133

converted into chemical or physical energy, which, under
the guidance of the living protoplasm of the cells, is utilized
for the breaking down of carbon dioxide and water, their
elements being then recombined into the organic products
referred to, the most usually recognizable of which is starch.
An attendant liberation of oxygen, constituting, with the ab-
straction of carbon dioxide, a purification of the air, so far
as the needs of animals are concerned, was made known
shortly before the century began, but it is to Saussure, at its
very beginning, that the connection of this with actual plant
nutrition is due, and it was he, too, who gave the first
clear demonstration that the remainder of plant food is de-
rived from the soil. A detailed study of this subject, as
well as of the metabolism or elaboration and transmutation that
food undergoes in the plant in its various nutritive and storage
processes, occupied particularly Sachs during the third quarter,
and Pfeffer during the last quarter of the century, Pfeffer's
ingenious investigation of the osmotic action of root hairs being
particularly interesting in connection with the physical prob-
lems of the absorption of crude materials and the retention of
organic products in the self -same organ. The last half of the
century has also produced the demonstration, on a large scale
in the field experiments of Gilbert and Lawes,and on a smaller
scale, but under more rigid control, in the laboratories of nu-
merous investigators, of the fact that while free atmospheric
nitrogen is not available for the nutrition of higher plants,
which therefore as a rule require for their proper support an
abundance of available nitrogen supplied to the roots in the
form of nitrates, nitrites, etc., the Leguminosae as a class
make use of large quantities of this atmospheric nitrogen,
not, indeed, in its free form directly, but through the inter-
vention of certain of the lowest fungi which inhabit their
roots as parasites, but, having the power of assimilating
nitrogen in forms in which it is not usable by the higher
plants, contribute to the latter enough of the product of their
own activity to more than compensate for whatever injury
they may cause by their parasitic invasion of the tissues of
the host. Indeed, pure cultures of these pseudo-parasites
are on the market, under the name of nitragin, for the inoc-

134 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

ulation of new soil when sown to clover and other legumin-
ous crops, though it must be added that the practical value
of this inoculation is thrown in considerable doubt by re-
cently made laboratory experimental tests.

PROTOPLASM.

Doubtless the most important of all discoveries in physiol-
ogy is that of protoplasm as the living working part of both
plants and animals, in the early phases of which von Mohl,
Robert Brown, Naegeli and Cohn played a prominent part.
Studies on this substance, its physical and chemical properties,
and its activity, have occupied many of the best chemical,
physical and biological investigators of the last half of the
century, and are destined to be the keystone of physiological
attainments in the century we are now entering upon.

Though sex in the flowering plants was known long before
the century opened, to the extent that the co-operation of
stamen and pistil, and even the transfer of pollen from the
former to the latter, was recognized as necessary for the pro-
duction of fertile seed, — a fact, indeed, which Linnaeus in-
dicated and even amplified in his designation of the groups
which he called phanerogams and cryptogams, — it was not
until 1823 that Amici observed the growth of the pollen tube
to the ovule, and real fertilization, the union of protoplasmic
structures, was not demonstrated until the close of another
quarter of a century, when Hofmeister and Pringsheim at in-
tervals of a few years described it respectively for some of
the higher and lower cryptogams.

The greatest advance in protoplasmic study was doubtless
made possible by Strasburger's introduction, in 1875, of
methods for fixing protoplasmic structures in certain desired
states of their transformations, by the use of killing and
hardening fluids, and the addition a few years later of dif-
ferential staining processes, as a result of which, largely
through his efforts and those of his pupils, the minutiae of
both cell division and cell union have been carried to a won-
derful detail, — perhaps the least expected result of which is
the closing discovery of the century of an unexplained double
fertilization in the case of the flowering plants, by which the
endosperm is formed as well as the embryo.

Trelease — Botany During the 19th Century. 135

How protoplasm carries " life," the nature of the reactions
t shows to stimuli of various kinds, causing it to work, to
change, to rest, to die, how it is moved to vary in the forms
of tissues and organs over the construction of which it pre-
sides, how it transmits characters of form and action from
parent to offspring and reverts now and then to ancestral
structures and traits in both animals and plants, are scarce
more than question marks on an otherwise clean page spread
out before the Twentieth Century, and it is not possible yet
to say whether they will receive their answer soon or always
remain unanswered.

ECOLOGY.

One of the most popular lines of physiological work to-day
concerns itself with special modifications and activities con-
nected with local environment and what may be called the
personal or individual needs of plants, in contrast with their
needs as a class. This is called biology by some and ecology
by others.

Just before the end of the Eighteenth Century, a German,
Sprengel, observed a few hairs springing from the base of the
petals of a wild geranium, and, though he did not share the
impersonal teleological views that prevail to-day, he believed
that these hairs existed for a purpose, which he undertook to
find out. Under them he found glands secretins; a sweet
fluid, nectar, which he saw was sheltered by them, but the
nectar was a further puzzle. Bees came to the flowers as he
watched, and removed the nectar, which the glands had
secreted and the hairs protected for them, and the question
seemed answered; for an idea, somewhat prevalent even yet,
that everything exists for the good of something else, — gen-
erally higher in the scale than itself, — was commonly held
in his day. Further observation, however, showed him that
the bees became dusted with pollen and that they uncon-
sciously transferred some of this to the stigmas of the flowers,
while rifling them of their sweets, and that this transfer,
long known as necessary in some manner for fertilization and
the quickening of the germ, could not otherwise take place
except by remote chance. Then he examined many other
kinds of flowers, and reached the broad conclusion that nectar

136 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

in these organs exists for the sole purpose of attracting to
them insects, sometimes of one, sometimes of another kind
(for which it is protected from rain and dew and commonly
from other classes of insects, and to which its presence is
made known by odor and color, and its position by grooves
and other guiding mechanism and by variegation in the col-
oring), which, while serving their own purposes, ensure the
pollination of some flowers which might attain the same end
directly as well of others which from some seeming freak of
nature mature stamens and pistils at different times or even
have them separated in different flowers, — sometimes, even,
on different individuals. A half century later, Mr. Darwin,
seeing in floral forms, colors and odors something more than
means of overcoming chance defects in plan or development,
showed not only the general accuracy of Sprengel's conclu-
sions as illustrated by a host of other cases, but that they
might be carried a step further, by stating the purpose of the
structural and functional peculiarities in question to be the
effecting of cross fertilization. Then he set to work to prove,
by a long-continued series of experiments, whether or not
this is connected with a gain to the offspring resulting from
such crosses, and we cannot question the resulting conclusion
that it is. Indeed it may be asked if any axiom is more im-
portant to an understanding of the evolutionary adaptation of
species to changing environment than the obvious conclusion
that sex, and particularly the partition of the sexes with sec-
ondary provisions of the most varied kinds for their functional
union, is a most potent factor for the introduction of variation
within helpful limits, on which natural selection may build
with the current of the times, as well as for the direct bet-
terment of the offspring.

How dissemination is effected, and the structures connected
with it ; how plants may climb to the light and air with a
minimum expenditure of material, over their more robust
competitors when the latter have reached their own limit in
the occupation of the soil ; how they may feed upon each
other and upon animals ; how they may extend into deserts
and the salt sea : — these and many other questions show the
range of ecology as it is now occupying alike physiologists^

Trelease — Botany During the 19th Century. 137

morphologists and systematists, and, while much remains to
be done, its blocking out is likely to stand as one of the more
important achievements of the century just closed.

APPLIED BOTANY.

Hand in hand with the advance of pure botany, and largely
dependent upon it, have gone at least as great advances in the
application of ascertained facts; and the best agricultural
practice of to-day, as exemplified in the intelligent use of
fertilizers, the rotation of crops, etc., is conformed to the
teachings of vegetable physiology, while the knowledge of
the plasticity of plants has made each of the later decades
the recipient of numerous improved races and varieties of
cultivated species. To-day, among the more pliable forms,
within certain limits that cannot yet be overstepped, new
varieties suited to special needs are selected and bred by men
like Burbank with surprising rapidity and accuracy, almost
to drawing and specification, because of the practical appli-
cation of the knowledge that plants are plastic under environ-
ment and selection.

The details of other contributions of botanical science to
human needs are of no less interest. Modern brewing is
carried on scientifically, as a result of the fermentation studies
of Schwann and Pasteur and the cultural investigations of
Hansen, a yeast being employed which has developed from
a single cell of known pedigree and properties. Citric acid
and vinegar are produced with equal certainty if less com-
plexity of manipulation, and the method of pure cultures
of the necessary ferments is coming into considerable use in
the ripening of cream for butter and of cheese.

Perhaps the most markedly useful application of the botan-
ical knowledge of the century is in the field of medicine. In
the early part of the century, the physician was of necessity
a botanist, and indeed many of the botanists whose names ap-
pear in this accouut were physicians by training. From the
Middle Ages he had the knowledge of physic that character-
izes primitive man everywhere to-day, and this had gradually
come to represent a pseudo-science of therapy which he prac-
ticed by diagnosis, prescription and exhibition, — if I may

138 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

borrow a word. But the century just closed has seen a dif-
ferentiation of pharmacy from medicine which has not only
greatly simplified the materia medica through its more
careful investigation, but has given the physician more free-
dom to follow out his own field, so that to-day, while he must
know experimentally the physiological action of more plants
than his predecessors actually used, he need not ordinarily
know more of these plants thau that their active principles, in
sulphates, fluid extracts and the like are commercially pro-
curable in definite degrees of assimilability and concentration,
though his final trials have not been lessened thereby.

The century will forever stand as that in the last third of
which the germ causation of disease was made known, and
the names of Pasteur, Koch and Lister are inseparably con-
nected with this great addition to knowledge, which, — since
the germs of disease are for the most part bacteria, that,
though of simple and aberrant structure, are commonly
classed with plants, — must be counted among the achieve-
ments of botany. Sanitation and surgery have both been put
on an entirely new footing by this recognition that the minut-
est organisms yet known are responsible for many of the most
dreaded pests, so that the exclusion or elimination of germs,
and the use of their own products, — either direct or by ani-
mal reaction in the form of serums, — in therapy, form to-
day the surest safeguard against infectious disease, the occur-
rence of which may soon be regarded as almost a stigma on
civilization.

The century just closed has witnessed an almost equal ad-
vance in knowledge of the causation of the diseases of plants
themselves. Rusts, smuts and mildews are no longer looked
upon as exanthemata, but the fruits of parasitic fungi, which,
more than is the case with the parasites of animals, are of the
less minute and therefore more easily seen and controlled
groups, — though plants are also subject to a few bacterial
diseases. Much has been done in the way of prophylaxis,
and something in the way of germicide therapy, in this field,
and the foundations of a true science of plant pathology based
upon distorted physiological processes due to improper en-
vironment, food and the like, or to the ferments secreted by

Trelease — Botany During the 19th Century. 139

parasites or the chemical alterations which these induce in the
affected plants, may be said to have been laid in the closing
days of the century by Professor Marshall Ward.

POPULARIZATION AND PUBLICATION.

The development of any department of science is closely
connected with its power of interesting men. The present
tendency of this interest is more and more commercial and
economic, though it should be said at the same time that no
earlier period has witnessed a higher development of interest
in the purely abstract problems of science.

The lucid, terse Latin of Linnaeus did much to popularize
the botany of his time, and for the century just closed full
credit should not be withheld from those whose writings fos-
tered and spread an interest in their science. Schleiden,
Lindley, Willkomm, Gray, Darwin, Kerner von Marilaun,
Gibson and Lubbock have shown pre-eminent ability to per-
petuate the old and awaken new interests. Too great value
can scarcely be attributed further to the scientific stimulus
and opportunity due to the publication of such comprehensive
class-books as the general text-book of Sachs, the Compara-
tive Anatomy of DeBary, the physiological manuals of Sachs
and Pfeffer, the pollination works of Herman Mueller and
the dissemination treatises of Haberland, all of them original
contributions to science as well as adaptations of its results to
the purpose of the teacher; and the abridgments, local
adaptations, popularizations and imitations of these products
of leaders, reaching and being comprehended by a larger
audience, may perhaps have done even more toward fanning
into flame the first spark of enthusiasm and desire for re-
search.

Quite as noteworthy is the advance in educational and in-
structional methods, and appliances other than books. Up
to the middle of the century, instruction in botany was con-
fined to more or less perfunctory lecture courses, and the
pupil who would become an investigator was obliged to work
out his own salvation, or was permitted as a special favor the
privilege of association with a master. The opening of a
botanical laboratory at the Univerity of Freiburg, by DeBary,
in 1858, marks an epoch. It is a poor college to-day, as the

140 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

equipment of colleges now goes, which has not a better labor-
atory and a better equipped one than was DeBary's. With
the introduction of laboratory work came the training, in the
laboratories, of laboratory teachers to spread the leaven, not
only by repeating the process but by publishing in detail their
methods for the benefit of others who could not work under
them. It would be impossible to overstate our debt to Huxley
and Martin's Biology and the many guides of which it was
the precursor, to Strasburger's Practicum, the various treat-
ises on microscopic technique and microchemistry, and the in-
creasing number of physiological handbooks which have grown
out of Detmer's original. That the botanical world has
to-day not only the attainments of its predecessors, but as a
regular institution these facilities which did not formerly ex-
ist for the performance of work, may perhaps be regarded as
affording ground for the hope that the century upon which
we have now entered will as greatly surpass in achievement
the one just closed as the latter did all of its predecessors.

BOTANY IN THE UNITED STATES.

Though epitomized in the preceding general survey of the
field, the progress in our country of what has been called the
amiable science interests us so directly that I may briefly
touch on it in conclusion.

Systematic phanerogamic botany, early advanced through
the labors of Nuttall, Pursh, the Michaux, Elliott and others,
made rapid strides about the middle of the century,
when Torrey and Gray undertook the publication of their
Flora, — unfortunately never completed, partly because
of the wealth of new material brought to its authors as a
result of the extensive explorations of our western territory
undertaken by the Government. Without mentioning others
who have greatly contributed to its advancement in recent
years, I may say that Gray's Manual, Chapman's Flora of
the Southern States, Watson's contributions to western bot-
any, Coulter's Rocky Mountain Botany, and the masterly
revisions of critical groups by Gray, Watson andEngeimann,
have brought a knowledge of our plants within the reach
alike of investigator and amateur ; while few countries pos-
sess a local flora comparable with that of Britton and Brown,

Trelease — Botany During the 19th Century. 141

and the great Silva of Sargent, now nearly completed, stands
quite alone. Eaton and Engelraann laid a good foundation
for the further study of pteridophytes, which Davenport, Rob-
inson, Underwood and others have later brought to the hands
of every working botanist. Through the work of Sullivant,
Lesquereux, James, Austin, Barnes and Underwood, thebryo-
phytes have been similarly put within easy reach, though the
current work of Mrs. Britton, Evans, Renauld and Cardot
shows that even more than with the superior groups, the field
for systematic research is here still open. By the publica-
tions of Harvey, Farlow, Collins and others on marine forms,
and of Wood, Wolle and others on those of fresh water, our
algae have been exceptionally well blocked out. Tucker-
mann, Willey and Williams have brought the lichens
together; and though less advanced than either of the
others, the great group of fungi, because of its size,
has been the subject of more actual work than all of the
remaining cryptogams, and the names of Berkeley, an Enlish-
man, and of Schweinitz, Curtis, Ravenel, Farlow, Thaxter,
Peck and Ellis stand out prominent among those who have
contributed to its lasting literature. Like the great English
botanists, Americans have been closer adherents to the
DeCandolle classification of flowering plants than to the later
French and German systems until very recently ; but the dis-
position of to-day is strongly toward the latter. I may
mention, in passing, that the new plantations of the Missouri
Botanical Garden will be twofold, — one portion illustrating
the now familiar but rapidly passing French-English system,
while another and greater part will follow the general lines of
the present German school.

Americans were quick to take up the Darwinian ideas of
evolution, — none quicker than the great botanist Asa Gray,
and it may not be going too far if I say that nowhere in the
world has horticultural advantage been more fully taken of
their teaching than in America, Bailey's varied work in this
field being particularly mentionable.

Though morphological teachings were prevalent in the mid-
dle part of the century, as a research subject morphology has
been confined to the later years, during which, in connection

142 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

with more precise anatomical studies, it has contributed to an
important if not very extensive literature, — largely, it mast
be confessed, resting upon the studies of German-trained
students.

Vegetable physiology, as a subject for serious work in this
country, can scarcely be traced back of the last quarter of the
century, except for the much earlier isolated studies of Draper ;
but to-day the force of several well-equipped laboratories,
and numerous isolated workers, are probing the difficult
problems the solution of which could not be compassed in the
century just closed. Nowhere has that phase of physiological
work known as bionomics or ecology been more eagerly taken
up than in this country, and, beginning with Dr. Gray, a
number of workers have enlarged our knowledge of the pol-
lination, dissemination and germination of plants, while the
last few years have witnessed a widespread and growing
interest in the vegetative relations of plants to their surround-
ings, and in the manner in which, as individuals and com-
munities, they compete for a foothold on the earth.

Without going into details, I may say that America leads
the world in the attention given to botanical (as other) re-
search relating to agriculture and horticulture, and no small
part of the recent progress in this field has come from our
Government and State laboratories and experiment stations.

In conclusion, as, perhaps, the greatest advance in botany
made in this country during the century, I may note the in-
crease and improvement in means and methods for instruction.
The great strides made in this direction by the Germans at
the close of the Franco-Prussian war, and the prestige of
DeBary, Sachs, Pfeffer and Strasburger in their Universities,
stimulated and attracted Americans to such an extent that
to-day no country, aside from Germany, offers so many, so
good, or so varied opportunities for training in scientific bot-
any as we possess in the United States, and a rich fruition
may be confidently expected in the century on which we have
now entered.

Issued November 26, 19 01.

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Transactions of The Academy of Science of St. Louis,

VOL,. XI. No. 8.

SOME INTERESTING MOLLUSCAN MONSTROSITIES.

FRANK COLLINS BAKER.

Issued November 26, 1901.

SOME INTERESTING MOLLUSCAN MONSTROSI-
TIES.*

Frank Collins Baker.

The study of abnormal and pathologic specimens of the
Mollusca is of great importance in assisting us to understand
the biological causes for the specific variation of our fresh
water shells. Monstrosities among land and fresh water
shells are constantly occurring and are, curiously enough, more
often produced by external causes, as man or cattle, than by
the atrophy or hypertrophy of any part of the animal.

Fords and shallow bars of rivers and lakes are the best
localities in which to find abnormal individuals, as in these
places cattle and horses are passing to and fro and injuring
the shells with their feet.

Several years ago Mr. Charles E. Beecher, in a paper on
Abnormal Fresh- water Shells,! made the following statement
(p. 55):-

*« Specimens similar to the preceding briefly noted forms
are often overlooked or considered unimportant by many col-
lectors; but to a student of morphological variations and pos-
sible specific change, they are extremely interesting. After
numerous accidental and natural changes have been illustrated
and described, embracing many genera and species, it will be
possible to generalize important biological facts relating to
the classification of species and manner of growth of the
organisms."

The following descriptions and figures are a contribution
toward this end.

* Presented by title before The Academy of Science of St. Louis, Novem-
ber 18, 1901.

t Annual Report New York State Museum of Natural History. 36: 51.
1883.

(143)

144 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

Lampsilis alata Say.

PI. XI. f. 1,1a.

Figure 1 illustrates the interior of the right valve of the
specimen. A fold starts 15 mill, from the umbo and extends
to the lower margin of the shell where it ends in a bell-shaped
expansion; the fold is 45 mill, long and the greatest diameter
is 22 mill. Near the starting-point there is a projection
which forms a large bunch extending into the cavity of the
shell. The left valve (fig. la) is normal, except for a
slight constriction which extends across the shell in a direc-
tion parallel with the fold in the right valve.

The writer is quite unable to explain the cause of this mal-
formation. Some peculiar accident must have occurred to the
shell to have caused such a peculiar mode of growth. With-
in the bell-shaped fold the epidermis is formed, but it is
rougher than that of the rest of the shell. The breadth of
the shell is greater than in a normal specimen of this species
and the posterior margin is more rounded. The posterior
basal portion of the shell projects far below the normal ventral
margin of the shell, as in female specimens of Lampsilis
luteola.

Length 87.00; Height 65.00 ; breadth 34.00 mill.

Lampsilis ligamentina Lamarck.

PL XI. /. 3, 5.

A single specimen of this species seems to have been crushed
in on the posterior end of both valves, probably by the feet of
horses or cattle. This injury caused a hole on each side of
the shell, 40 mill, behind the umbones, which the animal
neatly repaired by the addition of new shelly matter. The
injury to the left valve was greater than to the right, the shell
being pushed in to such an extent as to make an oblong hole
at the anterior edge of the posterior adductor muscle scar.
It is notable that the epidermis formed about the injured
region is much coarser than that on the normal part of the
shell and is raised in fine ridges. This seems to be a general
rule in such cases.

Length 85.50; height 56.00; breadth 43.50 mill.

Another specimen of this species (a right valve, fig. 3) is
abnormally thickened and ridged internally by the addition of

Baker — Some Interesting Molluscan Monstrosities. 145

pearly matter, evidently to cover some foreign substance which
found entrance between the valve and the mantle of the
animal. The additional material is confined to the region
bounded by the muscle scars, and the pallial line and hinge.
A part of the posterior adductor muscle ( posterior end ) is
covered by a thick callus, and the anterior adductor muscle
scar is strengthened by the addition of numerous pearly
pustules.

Length, 106.00; height, 63.00 ; the thickness of one valve
15.00 mill.

Weight of a normal valve of same size 2.45 oz.

Weight of abnormal valve 3.75 oz.

Unio gibbosus Barnes.

PL XI. f.2,4.

Monstrosities apparently occur in this species more than in
any other, it seeming to be especially susceptible to abnor-
malities. One specimen (fig. 2) has the shell twisted
on the hinge line, causing the anterior end of the right
valve to be depressed below that of the left valve. The
latter has a depression which extends from the umbo to the
ventral margin and there is a corresponding swelling in the
right valve. The right valve has two lateral teeth or lamina?,
one about 12 mill, long, smooth, extending a short distance
behind the cardinal teeth and the normal lamina, which is
triangular and very rough. The teeth of the left valve appear
to be normal. Interior of shell white.

Length 88.50; height 42.00; breadth 33.50 mill.

Another specimen of this species (fig. 4) has the posterior
basal portion produced as in the females of some species of
Lampsilis. The nacre of this specimen is a beautiful mauve
or purple.

Several Unios recently collected bear patches of pearly
secretions resembling little piles of agglutinated sand, and
indeed these without doubt are small grains of sand covered
with pearly matter. These masses are placed in different
parts of the shell, some being outside of the pallial line, some
near the cavity of the beaks and others near the adductor
muscles. The specimens figured were collected by Mr. Joseph
Kinstler in the Mississippi River, while pearl hunting.

146 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

EXPLANATION OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

Plate XI.

1, Lampsilis alata Say; la^ right valve of same, showing fold. — 2, Unio
gibbosus Barnes. — 3, Lampsilis ligamentina Lamarck. — i, Unio gibbosus
Barnes. — 5, Lampsilis ligamentina Lamarck.

Issued November 26, 1901.

Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis, Vol. XI.

Plate XI.

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Transactions of The Academy of Science of St. Louis.

VOL. XI. No. 9.

KINDERHOOK FAUNAL STUDIES.

III. THE FAUNAS OF BEDS NO. 3 TO NO. 7
AT BURLINGTON, IOWA.

STUART WELLER.

Issued December 18, 1901.

KINDERHOOK FAUNAL STUDIES. III. THE FAU-
NAS OF BEDS NO. 3 TO NO. 7 AT BURLINGTON,
IOWA.*

Stuart Weller.
Introduction.

In the second paper of this series of Kinderhook Faunal
Studies! the fauna of the Chonopectus sandstone, or bed No.
2 in the Burlington section, was described. The present
paper contains descriptions of the faunas of all the beds in
the same section lying above the Chonopectus sandstone and
below the Burlington limestone. These two papers, therefore,
will cover the entire series of Kinderhook faunas at Burling-
ton, which were long ago investigated by White, $ White and
Whitfield, § and Winchell, If and most of the species described
by these men are here illustrated from the type specimens pre-
served in the University of Michigan collection. There still
remains to be described a single member of the series of
fossil faunas at Burlington, that of bed No. 1, a fauna that
was unknown to the earlier investigators.

In these studies it is not presumed that the fauna of any
one of these beds has been exhaustively investigated.
Future collections will certainly bring to light additional
species in each of the faunas which have been described, but
each fauna has been here treated as fully as the material at
hand, from several different sources, would admit, and it is
believed that enough has been presented to materially assist in
the correlation of the faunas with those from other localities.

* Presented by title before The Academy of Science of St. Louis,
November 18, 1901.

t Trans. Acad. Sci. St. Louis. 10. No. 3.

X Proc. Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist. 9: 8-33. (1862.)

§ Proc. Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist. 8:289-306. (1862.)

1 Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phil. 1863 : 2-25. — Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phil.
1865:109-133.

(147)

148 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

As this paper is not devoted to the description of the
fauna from a single bed, but to the description of a series of
faunas, the descriptions of species have been grouped under
five headings, each section being devoted to the fauna of a
single stratum. The general conclusions which have been
reached through the study of these faunas have been reserved
for treatment at the end, subsequent to the detailed descrip-
tions of all the faunas.

The source of the materials upon which the faunal studies
of this paper have been based has been the same as in the
case of the Chonopectus sandstone fauna. The most im-
portant collection consulted is that known as the " White
Collection " in the museum of the University of Michigan,
for the use of which the author is deeply indebted to Prof.
I. C. Russell. Another small collection was contributed by
Prof. S. Calvin, State Geologist of Iowa, and still other
material has been collected in the field by the author.
Assistance has also been given by Dr. E. O. Hovey, of the
American Museum of Natural History in New York City,
through whose courtesy the writer was enabled to examine
the Burlington material in that museum.

'to'

Description of Species.*

In many cases the descriptions of species published in the
present paper, are in the main copies of the original descrip-
tions. In all cases these copied descriptions have been placed
in quotation marks, although some slight changes have often
been introduced, especially in the case of the brachiopods
where the terms pedicle and brachial are introduced instead
of ventral and dorsal, and the modern usage of the terms
foramen, delthyrium, etc., is substituted in those cases where
it has been found necessary. In all cases measurements have
been changed from fractions of an inch to millimeters.

* The Bibliographic references have been omitted from these descriptions .
For these the reader is referred to Bulletin 153, U. S. Geological Survey,
" A Bibliographic Index of North American Carboniferous Invertebrates,"
by Stuart Weller, Washington, 1898. When species are referred to a dif-
ferent genus in this paper than in Bulletin 153, a reference is given to the
Bulletin.

Weller — Kinderhook Faunal Studies. 149

I. THE FAUNA OF BED NO. 3.

Bed No. 3 never attains a thickness of more than a few
inches, but there are often two distinct bands represented. The
lowest of these is an impure limestone crowded with indi-
viduals of Chonetes gregarius. The upper one is an impure
oolitic limestone. The Chonetes band is apparently persist-
ent throughout the area around about Burlington, but the
oolite band is often wanting. With the exception of Chono-
pectus fischeri, the species which have been recognized in
these two bands have in no case been found to be common to
both, so it is possible that the two should not be considered
as members of one bed; but because of their extreme thin-
ness and because the upper band is not always present, it has
been thought best to group them together, although the spe-
cies from each will be considered separately.

All the material from the Chonetes band used in the prep-
aration of the present paper, has been collected by the writer,
while all the material from the oolite band belongs in the
University of Michigan collection. Further careful collecting
in the field will doubtless increase the number of species
from each band.

Species from the Chonetes band.
MOUL.USCOIDEA.

BRACHIOPODA.

Chonetes gregarius n. sp.

PI. XII. f. 2.

Shell small, transversely suboval, hinge-line a little shorter
than the greatest width. Pedicle valve rather strongly con-
vex, the fullness extending well out towards the cardinal and
lateral margins, so that this portion of the shell is but moder-
ately compressed. Brachial valve much flatter than the op-
posite one.

Surface marked by exceedingly tine, radiating striae, from
90 to 100 being recognizable upon an average pedicle valve.
The characters of the cardinal spines not observed.

150 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

The dimensions of an average specimen are, length 4^-
mm. ; breadth 6 mm. ; and convexity 1 mm.

Remarks. This little species occurs in vast numbers in
the thin Chonetes bed of the Burlington section. In general
outline and in size it resembles C. geniculatus White, from
the Louisiana limestone, but it differs conspicuously from
the latter in its much finer and far more numerous radiating
striae. It also resembles C. scitulus Hall from the middle
and upper Devonian faunas of New York, but is usually
smaller and always has much finer radiating striae. White
seems to have identified the species provisionally with his
C. geniculatus, at least he records Burlington, Iowa, with a
query, as one of the localities for his species, and there seems
to be no other species of the genus at this locality which
could have been indicated by such a reference. Casts, be-
lieved to belong to this species, are present in the Chonopec-
tus sandstone beds,* but the conditions of preservation are
not such as to preserve the delicate surface markings.

•Chonopectus fischeri (N. & P.)

Pi. XII. f. l .

A few imperfect specimens of this typical Chonopectus sand-
stone species have been observed in the thin Chonetes bed,
but none of them are as well preserved as those from the
limestone bed No. 4.

Rhipidomella burlingtonensis (Hall).

PI. XII. f. 3.

A single, nearly perfect specimen of a brachial valve of
this species has been collected from the thin Chonetes bed in
the Burlington section. It does not differ in any essential
particulars from individuals of the same species found at
other localities and in other horizons.

PUGUAX STRIATOCOSTATA (M. & W.).

Fragments of this species agreeing in all respects with the
typical form found in bed No. 4, have been observed in the
Chonetes bed.

* Trans. Ac. Sci. St. Louis. 10: 68.

Weller — Kinderhook Faunal Stitdies. 151

Species from the Oolite band.

ECHINODERMATA.

Numerous fragments of crinoid stems, belonging to several
different species, are present in this bed, but no determinable
portions have been observed.

MOLLUSCOIDEA.

BRACHIOPODA.

Orthothetes sp. undet.

An imperfect specimen belonging to a member of this genus
has been noticed. It is possibly a representation of one of
the species of Orthothetes which occur elsewhere in the Kinder-
hook beds at Burlington, but it is too fragmentary for cer-
tain specific identification.

Rhipidomella sp. undet.

A single imperfect specimen of a small subcircular species
of this genus has been observed. Its size is about 10 mm. in
both length and width.

Chonetes sp. — cf . C. illinoisensis Worthen.

A single specimen of Chonetes which may possibly belong
to the species (J. illinoisensis, has been observed in the ma-
terial from this bed. Additional material is necessary, how-
ever, for certain specific identification.

Chonopectus fischeri (N. & P.).

This species sometimes occurs in the oolite band of bed
No. 3, it being the only species of the band, as far as ob-
served, which is also present in other faunas of the section.

MOLLU8CA.

PELECYPODA.

Aviculopecten iowensis Miller.

PI. XII. /. 9.

Original Description. " Shell small, appressed, hinge-
line equal to greatest width ; anterior and posterior umbonal

152 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

ridges at right angles, and straight to the middle of the shell
extremities, between which the pallial margin is regularly
curved. Wings distinct, the anterior slightly inflated,
rounded at the extremity, and separated from the body of the
shell by a rather acute notch, from which a furrow extends
to the beak ; posterior wing flattened, acute, subtriangular,
with a shallow sinus below. Body of shell smooth ; wings
with radiating ribs, strongest on the anterior wing and crossed
by equally strong concentric lines ; posterior wing with fine
concentric lines."

Length of hinge-line in the type specimen 6| mm., height of
shell about 7 mm.

Remarks. This species was originally named A. occidentalis
by Winchell, but that name being preoccupied, it was changed
to A. iowensishy Miller in his work on North American Geology
and Paleontology. The onlv individual which has been exam-
ined is the single type specimen in the University of Michigan
collection. The perfectly smooth body of the shell is the
chief peculiarity of the species, but this may be due to an
eroded condition of the type.

Aviculopecten sp. undet.

An imperfect specimen about 14 mm. in height has been
observed from this bed, which is apparently distinct from A.
iou-ensis, but the single individual is too imperfect for identi-
fication or definition.

MlCRODON LEPTOGASTER (Will.).

PL XII. f. 8.

Sanguinolaria leptogaster. Bull. U. S. G. S. 153: 537.

Original Description. " Shell small, thin, subquadrangu-

lar. Beaks subcentral, flat, not elevated above the dorsal

line. Posterior end obliquely truncated ; anterior gently

rounded below, abruptly above, with a long deep lunette;

ventral side arcuate in the middle, joining the extremities by

a graduallv increased curvature. Umbo flattened, — a low

ridge extending obliquely to the posterior basal angle.

Dorsal line straight behind the beaks, joining the posterior

side at an angle of 125°. Surface marked by fine regular

striae parallel with the ventral and posterior margins."

Welter — Kinderhook Faunal Studies. 153

Length of type specimen 14 mm., height 9| mm., con-
vexity of one valve about 2 mm.

Remarks:. This little shell seems certainly to be cogeneric
with those species in the Spergen Hill fauna of Indiana, and
with those in the New York Devonian faunas, which are
referred to the genus Microdon.

GASTEROPODA.

HOLOPEA OONICA Will.

PI. XII. f. 4-7.

Shell small, never exceeding 10 mm. in height and
usually not more than 5 mm. Spire elevated ; whorls grad-
ually and regularly increasing in size, probably about seven
or eight in the adult shells, though usually not more than
four or five are preserved, the apical ones being destroyed.
Suture distinct, moderately impressed. Aperture subcircular
in outline, somewhat angular posteriorly, but regularly
rounded in front. The outer lip thin, inner lip slightly
thickened, surface of shell smooth. The dimensions of one
of the best preserved specimens, the type of Holopella mira
Win., are, height 51 mm., diameter of body whorl 3 mm.

Remarks. Winchell has described separate individuals of
a little coiled shell, which occurs gregariously in this stratum,
as three distinct species, Holopea conica, Holopea subconica,
and Holopella mira, but a careful examination of all the type
specimens and numerous others has led to the decision that
all of them constitute a single species, the various specimens
exhibiting different stages of growth. The proper generic
reference of the species is not certain, but it does not have
the circular aperture of Holopella, and is for the present re-
tained in the genus Holopea, though the adult shells possess
a more elevated spire than is usually present in members of
that genus. The specific name retained is conica, that being
the first species described, although all of them were pub-
lished in the same paper.

Loxonema sp. undet.

A single imperfect individual of a species apparently be-
longing to this genus, has been noticed. When complete it

154 Trails. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

must have been about 25 mm. in length, with a maximum
diameter of 10 mm.

Straparollus ? sp. undet.

Several imperfect specimens of one or more species of low
coiled shells, having diameters of 5 or 6 mm., have been
observed. They are too imperfect to allow their generic
characters to be certainly determined, but they seem to
belong to Straparollus.

CEPHALOPODA.

Orthoceras sp. undet.

A single imperfect individual of a gradually tapering spe-
cies of this genus, is preserved in the collection studied. Its
greatest diameter is 6 mm., and the length of the fragment
preserved is about 14 mm.

II. THE FAUNA OF BED NO. 4.

MOLLUSCOIDEA.

BRACHIOPODA.

Chonopectus fischeri (N. & P.),

PI. XIII. f. 1 7.

This species occurs in the fauna of bed No. 4, but never in
such abundance as in the Chonopectus sandstone. The speci-
mens are not casts as in the sandstone, and often preserve the
fine surface markings which cannot be seen in the sandstone
specimens. These markings consist of exceedingly fine, more
or less interrupted radiating striae, and still finer concentric
striae with some coarser wrinkles of growth. The double
set of curved diagonal lines seen in many of the casts are not
so conspicuous in these limestone specimens, but they seem
to be more pronounced on the brachial than on the pedicle
valves.

Pdgnax striatocostata (M. & W.).

PI. XIII. f. 14-16.

Original description. " Shell attaining a medium size,
subtrigonal, or sometimes approaching subpentagonal, mod

Weller — Kinderhook Faunal Studies. 155

erately gibbous, about as long as wide, or sometimes slightly
wider than long; greatest breadth near the middle ; posterior
lateral slopes rather straight, and converging to the beaks at
an angle of about 100 degrees; sides more or less rounded or
sometimes subtruncate. Pedicle valve depressed-convex in
the umbonal and lateral regions, and concave in the middle,
the concavity commencing narrow and shallow, generally be-
hind the middle, and widening and deepening to the front, so
as to form abroad, shallow, rather flat mesial sinus; de-
pressed part of the front curving downwards, and a little
produced, to fill a corresponding sinuosity in the front of the
other valve, the margins of the two valves meeting there, at
rather less than a right angle, so that no emargination of the
outline of the front is produced; beak small, rather pointed,
projecting little beyond that of the other valve, over which
it curves. Brachial valve considerably more convex than the
other, the greatest convexity being generally in front of the
middle, from which it rounds off abruptly behind and on
each side, while in the middle it rises into a broad depressed,
or moderately prominent, flattened or somewhat rounded,
mesial prominence, rarely extending back much beyond the
middle; beak incurved; cardinal margin broadly and rather
distinctly sinuous on each side of the beak.

" Surface ornamented by about nine to eleven broad, dis-
tinct, rounded, occasionally bifurcating plications, most of
which, excepting the outer lateral ones, extend nearly to the
umbones. Of these plications, three to four occupy the
mesial sinus and four to five the mesial fold, the greater num-
ber in each instance generally resulting from the bifurcation
of one of the lateral ones. Distinct, rather coarse, irregular
radiating striae also mark every part of the surface, and are
well defined on exfoliated surfaces, as well as upon internal
casts, while fine undulating lines, and occasional stronger
marks of growth, traverse the surface concentrically.

" Length of a mature specimen 24 mm. ; breadth 25 mm. ;
convexity 17| mm.; also of another more gibbous indi-
vidual, of the same size, 19 mm."

Remarks. The specimens of this species from bed No. 4
agree exactly with the typical form of the species as it was

156 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

originally described by Meek and Worthen from Kinderhook,
Illinois. Another variety of the species or perhaps a form
which should be considered as a distinct species, occurs in the
Chonopectus sandstone,* but it always differs from this typi-
cal form in having a much wider angle at the beak and is a
larger and thicker shell. In the illustrations of the species on
Plate XIII. the fine radiating striae which are so characteristic
of the shell, are not shown.

Camarotoechia ? heteropsis (Win.).

PL XIII. f. 9-13.

Bhynchonella heteropsis, Bull. U. S. G. S. 153: 533.

Original description. " Shell small, varying from sectori-
form to transversely elliptic, with moderately projecting
beak; very young specimens in the shape of a barley-corn.
Plications sharp, ranging in number from ten to twenty; of
which three generally (sometimes two or four) occupy the
sinus of the pedicle valve. This valve has a moderately
sharp beak, turned back in an angle of 45° with the plane
of the shell, and slit (in the cast) from the apex to the
hinge; sinus deep toward the front of the mature shell, want-
ing in the young one; the plications on each side of the sinus
variable, four in those with two plications in the sinus, six,
seven or eight in those with three, and five in those with four,
making the whole number of plications ten to nineteen.
These lateral plications are bent backwards in approaching
the margin. Greatest prominence of pedicle valve near the
beak. Brachial valve more ventricose than the pedicle, most
prominent at the anterior margin ; mesial fold much less
marked than the sinus opposite, consisting of two, three, four
or five plications, elevated at their extremities somewhat
above the lateral plications, the remotest of which exhibit a
strong downward curvature. Beak of this valve concealed
beneath that of its fellow."

" Length 9| mm., breadth 101 mm., thickness of both
valves 7 mm.

Remarks. This species is remarkably variable in form.
The commonest variety is a moderately flattened shell with

* Trans Ac. Sci. St. Louis. 10:72.

Wetter — Kinderhook Faunal Studies. 157

pointed beak, having three plications in the sinus; a less
common form being much thicker with the sinus produced
into a lingual extension at the front of the shell. This last
variety approaches very closely to Rhynchopora pustulosa,
but the shell structure is not punctate as in that species. The
little specimen described by Winch ell as Rhynchonella unica
(see Plate XIII. figs. 7-8) is only a small distorted specimen
of this species, its peculiar characters being due to the lateral
crushing of the type specimen.

Khynchopora pustulosa (White).

PI. XIII. f. 4-6.

Original description. " Shell subtrigonal or subglobose,
front broadly rounded or slightly flattened, sides flattened and
meeting at the beak at nearly a right angle. Brachial valve
much more convex than the pedicle valve, which is usually
somewhat depressed ; beak closely incurved, highest part
near the front margin. Beak of pedicle valve prominent,
acute and considerably incurved ; delthyrium triangular.

" Surface marked by from twelve to sixteen strong, some-
what rounded plications, three of which are usually mod-
erately depressed on the pedicle valve, and four elevated on
the brachial valve, forming the mesial fold and sinus, which
are not observable much more than half the length of the
shell. Along the center of each of the plications, for a
considerable distance from the margin, runs a slight de-
pression, giving them a flattened appearance.

" Fine concentric striae and imbricating lines of growth
are visible on well-preserved specimens. When the shell
is partially exfoliated it usually presents under the lens
a fine pustulose appearance."

The dimensions of a rather large specimen are : length
12 mm.; breadth 14 mm.; thickness 10 mm.

Remarks. The types of this species closely resemble
some individuals of C amarotoechia 9 heteropsis, and from
the form of the shell alone it would probably be imprac-
ticable to separate these two species. All the authentic
specimens of this species, however, exhibit the finely punc-
tate shell structure of Rhynchopora, while authentic
specimens of C. heteropsis are apparently impunctate.

158 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

In his original description White recorded this species
from most of the beds of the Kinderhook at Burlington.
The types, however, are without exception from bed No.
4, and the rhynchonelloid shells from other beds do not
possess characters which seem to warrant their specific
identity with these.

Stringothyris halli Win.

PI. XIII. f. 1-3.

Original description. "Shell of medium size, trans-
versely elongate, widest along the hinge-line; greatest depth
of the two valves equalling or exceeding the greatest length.
Pedicle valve with a deep, defined sinus; beak very elevated ;
surface sloping thence with but little convexity, to all parts
of the margin, — being sometimes even concave between the
apex and the cardinal extremities; area large, triangular,
transversely striate, flat or slightly arched, with a more
marked incurvation just beneath the beak; perforated by a
narrow, or moderately wide, triangular fissure, which is
grooved along its lateral borders as if for the reception of a
deltidium ; dental plates rather short, diverging at an angle
of 66°; mesial septum a low ridge extending two-fifths the
length of the valve ; line of divaricator scars extending with
a curve from the inner end of dental plates to inner end
of mesial septum. Brachial valve moderately ventricose,
with a convex surface, and abrupt well-defined mesial eleva-
tion, and a small beak which overhangs the base of the fissure
in the area of the opposite valve, — the area being scarcely
perceptible in the brachial valve Surface ornamented by 12
to 16 rounded ribs on each side of the mesial fold and sinus,
becoming obsolete toward the lateral angles. Mesial fold and
sinus destitute of ribs. The whole surface is further marked
by faint, delicate lines of growth."

" Length of hinge-line 33 mm.; depth from beak of pedi-
cle valve to most prominent point of brachial — which is
nearly at right angles to the plane of the valves — 17^ mm. ;
distance from hinge-line to middle of anterior margin 13^
mm.; elevation of area 12 mm.; width of fissure at base
7 mm."

Weller — Kinderhook Faunal Studies. 159

Remarks. The individual here illustrated is the most
perfect one of the five type specimens in the University of
Michigan collection, but it is somewhat smaller than the one
whose dimensions are given by Winchell. The author of the
species included in it as a variety, a shell from the
Chonopectus sandstone below, which, however, proves
to be specifically distinct, being the same species
for which Hall proposed the name Spirifer extenuatus.
The differences between the two species have already been
noted in the description of the Chonopectus sandstone fauna.*
The median septum mentioned by Winchell in his description
is scarcely worthy of being mentioned as such, it being noth-
ing more than a very slight ridge dividing the two lobes of the
diductor muscular impressions. In none of the type speci-
mens could the punctate shell structure of this genus be dis-
tinguished. The presence of a canaliferous plate is exhibited
in one internal cast included among the types, which may
have been collected from some other bed.

III. THE FAUNA OF BED NO. 5.

MOL.LUSCOIDEA.

BRACHIOPODA.
Leptaena rhomboid alis (Wilck.).

PI. XIV f. 19-20.

This cosmopolitan species has not been observed below this
horizon in the Kinderhook section at Burlington. The speci-
mens need no comment, they being similar to those occurring
elsewhere.

Orthothetes inaequalis (Hall).

PI. XIV. /. 16-18.

Original description. " Shell subplano-convex or de-
pressed hemispherical, semi-elliptical in outline ; hinge line
equalling the greatest width of the shell. Brachial valve
very gibbous, greatest convexity near the center ; umbo promi-

* Trans. Ac. Sci. St. Louis. 10: 77.

160 Trans. Acad. Set. of St. Louis.

nent, beak scarcely elevated above the hinge margin. Pedicle
valve nearly plain, slightly convex towards the beak, flattened
at the lateral margins, and slightly concave towards the basal
margin which is not sinuate ; area long, narrow ; delthyrium
broad."

" Surface marked by alternating larger and smaller striae,
which in the casts appear to be fasciculate near the margins,
striae curved upwards on the margin of the convex valve, but
not running out on the hinge line."

The dimensions of an average specimen are, length 19 mm.,
width 22 mm., convexity of brachial valve 6 mm.

Remarks. This species is closely allied to O. chemungensis
of the New York Devonian faunas. Its form is more regular
than in most of the species of the genus, but it does exhibit
some variation, especially in the length of the hinge-line
which is often shorter than the width of the shell. The
pedicle valve is more variable than the brachial and has a
greater resemblance to 0. chemungensis.

Produgtus arcuatus Hall.

PL XIV f. 23.

This species is rarely represented in this fauna, its normal
position being in the oolitic limestone above. The specimens
which have been observed are all imperfect, but they retain
the general form, proportion and markings of the species
and are probably identical with those in the oolite bed.

Productus parvulus Win.

PI. XIV. f. 21-22.

Original description. "Shell very small, semi-elliptic or
nearly semicircular in outline, with a hinge-line equalling the
greatest width, or a little less. Pedicle valve ventricose, with
regular, though slightly diminishing curvature from beak to
anterior margin, describing an arc of about 180°; beak ele-
vated above the hinge-line and incurved over it; flanks regu-
larly convex, abruptly flattened and auriculate at the hinge
extremities. Brachial valve unknown. Surface ornamented
with small, rigid, continuous, radiating ribs, which on the
sides increase by implantation."

Wetter — Kinderhook Faunal Studies. 161

Length of an average example 6^ mm., breadth 6^ mm.,
convexity of pedicle valve 3 mm.

Remarks. The size of this species varies somewhat, the
measurements given above being taken from a medium-sized
individual. The largest specimen observed has a length of
9 mm.

Productus mokbillianus Win.

PL XIV. f. 24-25.

Original description. st Shell small, transversely subellip-
tic, only moderately produced. Hinge line seven-eighths the
greatest width of the shell; ears small, nearly right-angled.
The shell regularly contracts from the aperture to the beak,
which is small, subacute, and projects slightly beyond the
hinge. The arching of the shell is such that when resting on
the aperture the greatest height is equal to one-half the
greatest width. No sinus or flattening present. The sur-
face is marked by a series of deep, continuous, equidistant
wrinkles, ten or eleven in number, becoming obscure toward
the beak ; between the wrinkles are numerous tine concentric
striae not easily seen without a magnifier. These features
are crossed by a longitudinal system which, near the beak, is
a set of fine regular costae, which near the middle become
interrupted by the wrinkles, and, losing their identity, result
in several concentric bands of short longitudinal tubes buried
in the substance of the shell, and gradually emerging and
presenting their apertures anteriorly."

Width of specimen illustrated 29 mm., length 26 mm.,
greatest convexity 1\ mm.

Remarks. The original description of this species was
made from a specimen coming from the base of the Burling-
ton limestone at Burlington, Iowa, but another specimen from
bed No. 5 is said to be "probably identical with this." This
sandstone specimen mentioned by Winchell is preserved in the
'k White Collection" with the label marked " Type in part,"
and it is this specimen which is here illustrated and whose
dimensions are given. Judging from the dimensions given
by Winchell, this specimen is about twice the size of that
from the base of the Burlington limestone, and its relative
convexity is only about one-half as great.

162 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

Camarophorella lenticularis (W. & W.).

PL XIV. f. 11-13.

Original description. " Shell small, broadly ovate, or sub-
circular, length and breadth nearly equal, profile lentiform.
Valves subequal, depressed convex. Beaks small, pointed,
slightly incurved, sides and front regularly rounded. Pedicle
valve a little the most convex ; the beak pointed, and project-
ing beyond that of the dorsal. Spondylium of the interior
of the ventral valve proportionally large, in some specimens
nearly one- third the width of the shell, and extending about
one-third the length of the valve ; longitudinal septum reach-
ins to near the center of the shell. Interior of brachial valve
with a single longitudinal septum, with horizontal plates curv-
ing toward the cavity of the opposite valve. Strong radiat-
ing muscular or vascular markings appear on internal casts of
both valves."

"Surface apparently smooth, without mesial fold or sinus."

Length of an average pedicle valve 12 mm., breadth 10|-

mm. ; dimensions of a brachial valve, length 10| mm., breadth

12 mm.; thickness of a specimen 11 mm. long and 10 mm.

wide, 6 mm.

DlELASMA ALLEI (Win.).
PI. XIV. f. 10.
Centronella allei, Bull. U. S. G. S. 153: 171.

Original description. "Shell large to medium size, tere-
bratuliform, greatest width a little anterior to the middle,
contained one and one-fourth times in the greatest length.
Pedicle valve somewhat ventricose, full to the immediate
vicinity of the margin, especially along the cardinal slopes;
regularly arching from beak to anterior margin ; highest in
the middle ; anterior margin with a barely perceptible trunca-
tion ; no sinus or fold present ; beak produced beyond that of
brachial valve, truncated and circularly perforate at the
extremity ; dental lamellae more than one-fifth the whole
length of the valve ; muscular scars, consisting of one faint
median linear impression, on each side of which is another,
all reaching to the middle of the valve. Brachial valve with
its short imperforate beak closely concealed under that of its
fellow, slightly truncate in front, but without mesial fold or

Weller — Kinderhook Faunal Studies. 163

sinus ; regularly arched from beak to front, highest in the
middle, exhibiting a convexity equal to that of the opposite
valve. Muscular scars consisting of a faint but distinct linear
median impression, with a much deeper linear impression on
each side, and a very faint one exterior to each of these —
the three principal impressions reaching to the middle of the
valve. Shell thin, stony and solid ; structure beautifully
punctate under a lens; general surface polished, marked by a
few feeble concentric lines of growth."

Length of type specimen 17 mm., breadth 11 mm., con-
vexity of pedicle valve 5 mm.

Remarks. The type specimens of this species are from bed
No. 5 and from the overlying oolitic limestone. The
original description of the pedicle valve was made from an
internal cast from the sandstone, the brachial valve and the
shell structure being described from an oolitic limestone
specimen. The specimen illustrated is the type of the pedicle
valve.

In the original description this species was referred to
the genus Gentronella. The brachidium has never been
observed but it is extremely probable that the species is a
Dielasma. It is referred to this latter genus here because
it has the general form of other members of the genus and
does not so closely resemble members of the genus Gen-
tronella.

Spirifer centronatus Win.

PI. XIV. f. 3-4.

Shell broadly subtriangular in outline, hinge-line extended,
with mucronate cardinal extremities, breadth along the hinge-
line usually more than twice the length of the shell. Pedicle
valve much more convex than the brachial, the greatest con-
vexity being at a point in about the middle of the valve, the
slopes from this point to the cardinal extremities, concave;
beak pointed and incurved; sinus rather narrow, sharply
defined and subangular at the beak, becoming rounded to-
wards the front, with one median plication starting near the
beak and extending without division to the anterior margin ;
the bounding plications of the sinus are larger than any others

164 Trans. Acad. Sc>. of St. Louis.

on the valve, they divide at a point about one-third the dis-
tance from the beak and each one gives off from its inner side
a single branch which occupies the lateral slope of the sinus;
cardinal area narrow, with subparallel margins. Brachial
valve depressed convex, flattened toward the cardinal extremi-
ties ; the fold but slightly elevated above the general surface
of the valve, usually marked by a single furrow along its
median line, rarely with a lateral one on each side. Surface
of each valve marked by twelve to sixteen simple, rounded
plications on each lateral slope, and by concentric, lamellose
lines of growth which become more crowded near the margin
and of which a few are usually stronger than the others.
These concentric markings can only be observed in external
impressions of the shell.

The dimensions of an average specimen are: length 11|
mm., breadth along hinge-line 25 mm., convexity of pedicle
valve 5 mm.

Remarks. The Burlington specimens of this species were
originally included by Hall, along with specimens from the
Chonopectus sandstone, in his species 8. biplicatus. The
specimens from these two horizons are specifically distinct,
however, and the Chonopectus sandstone shell has been re-
tained as the typical 8 . biplicatus. Immature individuals of
the brachial valves of 8. centronatus, as for example the
specimen here illustrated, often have some resemblance to 8.
biplicatus, but the pedicle valves of the two species need never
be confused. 8. centronatus, although it has an elongate
hinge-line with mucronate extremities, never possesses the
excessively elongate and attenuate cardinal extremities which
are characteristic of S . biplicatus.

S. centronatus was originally described from the Waverly
series of Ohio, but neither the original specimen nor other
specimens from the same region, have ever been illustrated.
The species has been identified, however, from Nevada, Utah,
and the Yellowstone Park, and good illustrations of specimens
from these localities have been published. The Burlington
specimens agree well with the original description of the spe-
cies, and with the published illustrations of western speci-
mens. The species is closely allied to 8 . marionensis, but

Weller — Kinderhook Faunal Studies. 165

differs from that species in its smaller size and in its more
extended hinge-line.

Spirifer marionensis Shum.

Pi. XIV. f. 1-2.

The specimens of this species in the upper yellow sand-
stone are not common, but those that have been observed are
indistinguishable from specimens ^in the superjacent oolite
bed where the species becomes much more abundant.

Spirifer peculiaris Shum. ?

Pi. xiv f. 6-9.

Shell subcircular to longitudinally subsemielliptical in
outline. Length of hinge-line usually less than the width
of the shell in front, the cardinal extremities usually
rounded. Valves subequally convex. Greatest convexity
of pedicle valve posterior to the middle of the shell ; beak
small, pointed and incurved; umbo prominent; sinus nar-
row, sharply defined near the beak, but becoming less dis-
tinct and relatively shallow anteriorly, in the casts often
ill defined throughout, and sometimes indicated only by
a flattening of the shell along the median line; cardinal
area concave, its margin rounded in the casts. Brachial
valve regularly convex, fold but slightly elevated above the
general surface of the shell. Lateral slopes of each valve
marked by six to eight simple, depressed, rounded plications
which decrease regularly in size from the fold and sinus to
the lateral margins ; in the casts the plications are often ob-
solete or nearly so; the fold and sinus without plications.

A rather large cast of a pedicle valve measures 16 mm. in
length and 19 mm. in width. If the shell were preserved,
the length would be increased considerably, much more in
proportion than the width. Most of the specimens from the
upper yellow sandstone are smaller than the one whose di-
mensions have been given, the length of the shell usually
being less than 15 mm.

Remarks. The only specimen observed which preserves
the external features of this shell is a wax impression taken
from a natural mold in the University of Michigan collec-
tion. In this specimen the hinge-line is somewhat longer

166 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

than the width of shell in front, and the margin of the car-
dinal area is angular and not rounded as in the casts. The
internal cast of the same individual is also preserved in the
same collection and does not differ from other similar speci-
mens.

In authentic specimens of 6\ peculiaris from the Chouteau
limestone of Cooper County, Missouri, the margin of the car-
dinal area is always rounded and the hinge-line shorter than
the greatest width of the shell. These Chouteau specimens are
also, for the most part, internal casts, and they may have had
a better defined cardinal area in the shell itself, but the length
of the hinge could not have been greater than the greatest width
of the shell in any of the specimens which have been exam-
ined. If the extended hinge-line be a constant characteris-
tic of the Burlington specimens, they will have to be consid-
ered as distinct from 8 . peculiaris , but sufficient material to
establish this distinction has not been available for study.

The plications of the pedicle valve in the Chouteau lime-
stone specimens, are always better defined than in any of the
Burlington specimens, but this may be due to the different
sediments in which they are preserved.

Reticclaria cooperensis (Swallow).

PI. XIV. f. 14-15.

Original description of Spirifer hirtus. " Shell of medium
size, extremely ventricose, about once and a half as wide as
high. Hinge-line very short, not more than one-third as long
as the width of the shell, front and cardinal angles regularly
rounded. Pedicle valve most ventricose a little forward of
the beak, which is obtuse and incurved; area scarcely percep-
tible ; delthyrium broad, triangular, nearly as wide at the base
as the length of the area; front half of the valve marked by
a broad, shallow, undefined sinus. Brachial valve less ventri-
cose than the opposite, regularly convex, without a visible
mesial elevation ; beak obtuse, incurved, extending above the
cardinal line."

" Surface marked by strong, equidistant, concentric ridges,
indicating different stages of growth; also by indistinct,
radiating striae, which form little pustules at the margin of

Wetter — Kinderhooh Faunal Studies. 167

the ridges, as if for the attachment of setae. No appearance
of plications has been observed on any of several specimens
examined."

Length of an average specimen 15 mm., breadth 19 mm.,
convexity of pedicle valve 5 mm.

Remarks. Spirifer hirtus W. & W., described from bed
No. 5 at Burlington, is a synonym of the species described
from the Chouteau limestone of Cooper County, Missouri, as
S. cooperensis Swall. The species is a common one in the
fauna under consideration and is scarcely more than a diminu-
tive form of R . pseudolineata (Hall) from the Osage faunas.
The median septum and dental plates of the pedicle valve,
represented by narrow slits in the specimens, are conspicuous
features of the species as it occurs in the yellow sandstone in
the form of internal casts. The brachial valve is marked
only by a somewhat faint median septum.

Cyrtina acdtirostris (Shum.) ?

PI. xiv. f. 5.

This species is represented by a single specimen of a
brachial valve. It agrees in all respects, except such as may
be due to differences of preservation, with specimens from
the Louisiana limestone. Additional specimens, however,
showing the opposite valve, will be necessary for study before
this identification can be made with certainty.

MOLLUSC A.

PELECYPODA.

PTERINOPECTEN NODOCOSTATU8 ( W. & W.).

PI. XV. f. 7.

Aviculopecten nodocostatus, Bull. U. S. G. S. 153: 113.

Original description. " Shell of medium size, semi-circu-
lar in outline, valves depressed convex. Hinge line straight,
equalling the greatest width of the shell. Anterior extension
separated from the body of the shell by a deep marginal
sinus, and by a broad flattened depression on the surface,
extending from the beak to the extremity of the auricle ; pos-

168 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

terior side having no sinus. Beak of the right valve minute,
depressed, situated at two-fifths of the length of the hinge
from the anterior extremity."

" Surface marked by from forty-five to fifty rugose,
radial ing plications, which sometimes bifurcate; those on the
body of the shell about twice as wide as the interspaces;
while those on the sides are much finer. The depression,
separating the anterior auricle on the right valve, has but one
plication. Strong, undulating concentric lines cross the radii,
giving them their rugose surface."

The dimensions of the type specimen are, length 27 mm.,
and height 17 mm.

Remarks. It has already been shown * that the two type
specimens of White and Whitfield's Aviculopecten nodocostaius
are really representatives of two distinct species, and one of
these species from the Chonopectus sandstone has been pro-
visionally referred to Pterinopeclen laetus Hall. The specimen
which is retained as the type of P. nodocostaius is from the
upper yellow sandstone and is the only example which has
been observed. The original description of the species was
based for the most part upon this specimen, and in the pre-
ceding copy of this description all references to the left valve,
which was the Chonopectus sandstone specimen, have been
omitted.

Pernopecien cooperensis (Shum.).

PI. XV. f. 5-6.

A description and discussion of this species has already
been published in Kinderhook Faunal Studies. I.f One of
the specimens here illustrated is one of the types used by
White and Whitfield for their species Aviculopecten
limaformis, and the other, the one showing the crenate hinge,
is the specimen used by VVinchell as the type of his genus
Pernopecten.

LlTHOPHAGA MINUTA 11. Sp.

PI. XV. f. 19.

Shell minute, the type specimen having a length of 9|

* Trans. Acad. Sci. St. Louis. 10 : 84
f Trans*. Acad. Sci. St. Louis. 9 : 24.

Wetter — Kiuderhook Fanned Studies. 169

mm., and a maximum width near the posterior extremity of
4 mm ; subcuneate in outline, anterior extremity sharply
and narrowly rounded ; posterior extremity broadly rounded,
dorsal margin straight, ventral margin slightly convex; the
beaks situated above the anterior extremity; the hinge-line
nearly equalling the extreme length of the shell. Extending
from the beak to the posterior basal extremity is a well-
developed umbonal ridge which is rather sharply rounded
anteriorly but becomes more broadly rounded posteriorly ;
the dorsal slope from the umbonal ridge is nearly vertical and
slightly concave near the beak, but becomes less abrupt and
slightly convex posteriorly ; the ventral slope is convex
throughout ; the greatest convexity of the shell is upon the
umbonal ridge about one-third the length of the shell from
the beak.

Remarks. This little shell is apparently cogeneric with
several species in the American Mississippian faunas, which
have usually been referred to the genus Lithophaga. It is
quite possible that these shells are not really members of
Lamarck's genus, but they may be retained here for the
present for the want of a better place for them. DeKoninck
has referred several quite similar species from the Carbonif-
erous fauna of Belgium, to the <renus Modiola.

Macrodon parvus W. & W.

. PL XV. f. 14.

Original description. " Shell small, elongate quadrangular,
or area-form ; length equal to twice and a half the breadth.
Valves extremely ventricose. Beaks prominent and incurved,
situated at about two-fifths of the entire length from the an-
terior end. Hinge line straight, nearly as long as the body
of the shell. Posterior end obliquely truncate, somewhat
prolonged at the postero-basal angle. Anterior end gradually
rounding from the hinge on to the basal margin, which is
gently arcuate, with a slight emargination in the middle,
forming a small byssal opening. Hinge plate narrow, bear-
ing on the posterior end two long linear, lateral teeth ; the
inner one the longest, reaching nearly one-third the length of
the shell ; the anterior end having about four short, oblique

170 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

teeth, but less distinct than those of the posterior. Anterior
muscular scar subcircular, situated near the upper anterior
angle. Posterior scar larger than the anterior, with its upper
margin excavated out of the hinge plate. Pallial line entire,
connecting the muscular scars."

"Surface smooth, except a few concentric undulations,
which are scarcely visible except on the upper side of the pos-
terior umbonal slope."

Dimensions of one of the type specimens: length 11 mm.,
height 7 mm., convexity of one valve 2 mm.

Remarks. This is a common species of the fauna. The
concentric markings of the shell are perhaps a little more
strongly marked than the original description indicates, and
the muscular impressions are always faint and are usually not
recognizable at all. The basal margin is often straight with
no indication of a slight emargination.

Edmondia nuptialis Win.

PI. XV. f. 13.

Original description. " Shell of moderate size, trans-
versely-suboval ; in adult specimens considerably inflated in
the vicinity of the pallial border. Beaks subcentral, small,
incurved, somewhat elevated above the moderately extended,
slightly arcuate hinge-line. Ventral margin gently curved
or nearly straight in the middle, more rapidly curved to-
ward the rounded, subequal extremities. Hinge structure
obscure, but apparently consisting of one or more lateral
teeth on each side of the beak. Surface unequally and inter-
ruptedly furrowed. Greatest thickness through the middle of
the shell."

The dimensions of the type specimen are: length 20 mm.,
height 16 mm., and convexity of one valve 6 mm.

Edmondia strigillata Win.

PI. XV /. 12.

Original description. " Shell rather small, rather gibbous,
transversely oval ; beaks subcentral, elevated, obtuse, some-
what strongly turned forward. Ventral margin gently arcuate
in the middle, more rapidly curved toward the neatly rounded
extremities, of which the posterior is broadest. Hinge-line

Weller — Kinderhook Faunal Stodies. 171

curved, furnished with a pair of rather thick lateral teeth ;
cardinal teeth apparently none. Surface marked, toward the
margin, by a few irregular concentric wrinkles."

Length 20 mm., height 15^ mm., convexity of a single
valve 5 mm.

Remarks. In the original description this species is said to
be marked by " fine radiating lines," but this statement is
omitted from the above quotation. The types of the species
are three in number, but one of these, the one showing the
radiating lines, is not even cogeneric with the others. The
dissimilarity between this specimen and the other two was
probably recognized by Winchell subsequent to the prepara-
tion of the description of the species, for this specimen is
indicated on the card to which all three are attached, " Dexi-
obia whitei " and the specimen may be a left valve of this
species. Of the two remaining specimens, a drawing has
been made of the best preserved one, and is here published.
It is very similar to E. nuptialis, and in all probability E .
strigillata should be considered only as a synonym of that
species.

Sphenotus cylindricus (Win.).

PI. XV. f. 11.

Sanguinolites cylindricus, Bull. U. S. G. S. 153: 538.

Original description. " Shell small, equivalve; length
equal to two and a half times its height ; beak about one-
seventh the length from the anterior end, elevated above the
hinge-line, flattened and enrolled; greatest height along the
perpendicular from beak to base; dorsal margin extended,
slightly concave upwards and inwards, sharply inflected in-
wards, forming a long, deep posterior escutcheon or cartilage
base ; ventral margin nearly straight, curving rapidly from a
point opposite the beaks to the anterior extermity, which is
abruptly rounded into the deep heart-shaped lunette ; posterior
extremity truncated by a line extending from the basal to the
dorsal margin, and making with the latter an angle of 120°.
Valves very ventricose, the greatest thickness being behind
the central point on the sharp, prominent umbonal plication,
which extends from the beak to the postero-basal angle — the
area between this plication and the anterior region being

172 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

curved subcylindrically from a dorsal to a ventral direction,
and the area between the plication and the hinge-line being a
triangular, twisted, somewhat concave surface, faintly marked
by lines diverging from the beak to the posterior boundary.
Entire surface covered with fine irregular striae parallel with
the basal and anal margins."

Length of the type specimen 16^ mm., height 7 mm., con-
vexity of one valve 3 mm.

Spathella phaselia (Win.).

PL XV. f. 10.

Orthonota phaselia, Bull. U. S. G. S. 153: 399.

Shell subelliptical in outline, beaks inconspicuous, nearly
terminal, but little elevated above the slightly arcuate hinge-
line. Ventral and dorsal margins subparallel, the ventral one
sometimes with a slight sinuation in the middle. Posterior
margin truncately curved below, broadly rounded above, the
most posterior extension of the shell above the middle.
Anterior margin rather sharply rounded with a deep lunette
above. Shell inflated throughout nearly its entire length,
greatest convexity a little in front of the middle. Anterior
muscular impression shallow, close to the anterior margin of
the shell; posterior impression not recognizable. Surface
marked by a few more or less inconspicuous concentric lines
of growth.

Length 9 mm., width 5 mm., convexity of a single valve
1£ mm.

Remarks. The specimen here illustrated is the type of the
species. Its generic position is uucertain, but it certainly is
not Orthonota, the genus in which it was originally placed by
Winchell. It is here placed with some hesitation in the genus
Spathella. The species has some resemblance to members
of the genus Modiomorplia, but is relatively more elongate
and narrower posteriorly than the more typical representatives
of that genus.

NUCULA IOWENSIS W. & W.

PI. XV. f.S-9.

Nucula houghtoni, Bull U. S. G. S. 153: 378.

Original description. " Shell small, subovate or subtri-
angular in outline, very ventricose. Beaks situated near the

Wetter — Kinderhook Faunal Studies. 173

posterior (short) end, prominent and incurved. Hinge-plate
bent abruptly beneath the beaks ; occupied by from five to
seven long narrow teeth on the long side and from three to
five smaller ones on the short side. Posterior end broadly
rounded ; anterior end prolonged, obtusely pointed ; basal
margin strongly arcuate, and the border of the shell thick-
ened."

" Surface characters not determined. This species, like
most of the others, occurs in the condition of internal casts,
and in some instances the impressions of the exterior surface
have not been preserved."

" This shell appears to be subject to considerable variation,
at different stations of growth ; young specimens often being
distinctly triangular, with the posterior end very short, and
the basal margin but little arched, while old specimens are
subovate in form and the posterior end more prolonged. In
one full-grown individual the muscular impressions are very
strongly marked, the anterior one being nearly double the
size of the posterior, and the basal portion of the shell shows
a great degree of thickening."

The dimensions of a rather large specimen are: length 13
mm., breadth 10 mm., and convexity of one valve 4 mm.

Pal aeon eilo microdonta (Win.).

PI. XV. f 15-16.

Nucula microdonta, Bull. U. S. G. S. 153:387.

Original description. " Shell small, transversely oblong;
height equal to two-thirds the length ; beaks small, somewhat
incurved, but little elevated above the hinge-line, about one-
third the length from the short end. Ventral border rapidly
curved, and regularly so to the vicinity of the long end,
where it is slightly sinuated, from which point a shallow
groove extends up nearly to the beak. Dental plates but little
angulated between the beaks; the larger bearing near its
outer margin 10 or 12 minute transversely tubercular teeth,
and the shorter 4 or 5. Teeth not distinguishable to the
beaks, but no cartilage pit seems to be present. Anterior
muscular pit oblong, surrounded by a large pedal scar. Shell
most ventricose in the middle. No surface markings dis-
cernible."

174 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

Dimensions of the type specimen: length 11| mm., height
8 mm., convexity of one valve 2 mm.

Remarks. The type specimen which served as the basis
for the above original description is the larger one of the two
specimens illustrated on the accompanying plate. It is the
largest specimen of the species which has been observed, but
associated with it are other smaller ones which seem to belong
to the same species, and which differ chiefly in having the
shell less constricted posteriorly. The species was originally
referred to the genus JVucula, but it seems better to transfer
it to Palaeoneilo. It is closely allied to P. conslricta of the
New York Hamilton fauna. It is also allied to the species
from the Vermicular sandstone of Northview, Missouri,*
which was provisionally identified as P. constricta, and to P.
bedfordensis from the Bedford shale of Ohio.

Palaeoneilo barrisi (W. & W.).

PI. XV. f. 17-18.

Palaeoneilo sulcatina, Bull. U. S. G. S. 153: 407.

Original description. " Shell elongate elliptical in outline;
the length twice as great as the breadth ; valves very ventri-
cose, most gibbous near the anterior end. Beaks of medium
size, situated about two-fifths of the entire length from the
anterior extremity ; incurved, not prominent. Hinge-line
gently arcuate throughout its entire length ; occupied by a
large number of small, curved teeth. Anterior extremity
rounded, longest below the middle ; basal margin gently
arcuate; posterior extremity obliquely truncate, longest near
the hinge line, with a slight emargination below. Umbonal
slope slightly prominent, with a gentle depression between it
and the cardinal line."

" Surface marked by fine, closely arranged, equidistant,
concentric lines, which are distinctly undulated as they cross
the umbonal slope and the depression above it. Many of the
internal casts preserve faint impressions of the concentric
lines, except near the basal margin, where they are obscured
by the thickening of the shell."

* Trans. Acad. Sci. St. Louis. 9 : 32.

Wetter — Kinderhook Faunal Studies. 175

The dimensions of an average specimen are : length 17 mm.,
breadth 8 mm., and convexity of one valve 3i mm.

Leda saccata (Win.).

PI. XV. f. 20.

Nuculana saccata, Bull. U. S. G. S. 153: 382.

Original description. " Shell very small, transversely
elongate, rostrate at the longer extremity; obtuse, ventri-
cose and saccate at the other. Beak abruptly, though mod-
erately, drawn out, and but slightly incurved. Ventral side
strongly curved, becoming nearly straight toward the rostral
extremity. Dorsal region deeply excavated for an escutcheon
on the longer side of the beak; hinge plates bearing each
six or seven teeth ; greatest thickness of shell between the
beaks and the middle. Pit of adductor of short end very
deep on its superior border ; the other pit smaller, deepest
on its superior border. Surface with fine, indistinct striae of
growth .

Length of an average specimen 1\ mm. and width 4 mm.

Dexiobia ovata ( Hall ) .

pi. xv. f. 1-2.

Original description of Dexiobia whitei. " Shell sub-
rotund, with a slight anterior obliquity caused by a moderate
protrusion of the antero- ventral border, from which, in the
right valve, a slight elevation extends to the beak ; anterior
margin rather straight above. Hinge-line short, regularly
curved ; beaks nearly central. Surface marked by fine ra-
diating ribs — becoming; obsolete toward the umbo — and
numerous irregular concentric wrinkles, which are generally
more conspicuous in the left valve."

The dimensions of a large specimen are, height 38 mm.,
length 36 mm., convexity of right valve 14 mm.

Remarks. This species was originally described by Hall *
as Cardiomorpha ovata. The reference of the species to
the genus Cardiomorpha was erroneous, and Winchell
used it as the type of his genus Dexiobia, changing the
specific name to whitei. This change of the specific name,
however, does not seem to be warranted. The specimens

* Rep. Geol. Surv. Iowa. I2 : 522.

176 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

commonly collected are right valves, the left valve
being rarely met with. The two valves are quite unlike, and
the left one, being less convex and having a less prominent
umbo, was described by White* as a distinct species. One
specimen in the White collection shows the two valves con-
joined, and although it is an imperfect distorted specimen it
shows, as has been pointed out by Winchell, f the relationship
of these two supposed species. The specimen illustrated is
one of those used by Winchell in his description of the genus
Dexiobia .

Dexiobia halli Win

PI. XV. f. 3-4.

Original description. "Shell small, semi-elliptic; sub-
equilateral. Hinge line straight, extended ; in some specimens
as long as the greatest width of the shell. Right valve ex-
tremely ventricose, flattened and subalate toward the hinge
extremities ; left valve with a very small obtuse beak, and
slender posterior cartilage plate bearing a longitudinal median
furrow. Surface smooth."

The dimensions of the most perfectly preserved of the type
specimens, a right valve, are, height 17 mm., length 19 mm.,
and convexity 9 mm.

Remarks. This species and D. lohitei were considered by
Winchell as the types of his genus Dexiobia. D. halli can
always be recognized by its smooth surface and its extended
hinge-line. Like D. whitei its right valve is most commonly
preserved, the left valve being rarely found.

SCHIZODUS TRIGONALIS ( Win. ) .

PI. XV. f. 21-22.

Cardiomorpha trigonalis, Bull. U. S. G. S. loo: 169.

Original description. " Shell of moderate size, triangular,
rather ventricose, with elevated, incurved beaks. Ventral
margin slightly convex anteriorly, slightly sinuate near the
posterior angle ; anterior angle regularly rounded to the sub-
truncate anterior side ; posterior angle rather acute, formed by

* Proc. Bos. Soc Nat. Hist. 9 : 31.
tProc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phil. 1863: 11

Weller — Kinderhook Faunal Studies. 177

the termination of the sharp postumbonal ridge, from which
the surface descends precipitously to the truncate posterior
margin. Hinge-line short, rounded, edentulous. Greatest
thickness a little above the middle of the shell. Surface
marked only by faint incremental striae."

Length of the type specimen 21 mm., height 7| mm., and
convexity of right valve 6 mm.

Remarks. In the University of Michigan collection, two
distinct species of shells have been associated as the types
of S. trigonalis. The authentic type, judging from WinchelPs
description, and the measurements given by him, is the
larger specimen of the two accompanying illustrations. The
other specimens attached to the same card with this one in
the Michigan collection, are much smaller and are from the
Chonopectus sandstone rather than from the bed under dis-
cussion. In a former contribution these Chonopectus sand-
stone specimens have been described as a new species,
/Schizodus iowensis.*

Promacrus cuneatus Hall.

Trans. Acad. Sci. St. Louis. 10: 104. pi. IV. f. 20.

Original description. " Shell below the medium size, elon-
gate, attenuate, subcuneate anterior to the beak.

" The specimen is a fragment, preserving the anterior end
and the beak. It proves, upon comparison with Promacrus
Missouriensis, to belong to the same genus. It is distin-
guished by its smaller size, stronger and more regular con-
centric undulations, and distinct continuous radii of the sur-
face, which become nodose at their intersections with the
concentric undulations.

"The specimen, anterior to the beak, has a length of 45
mm. and a height at the beak of 24 mm."

Remarks. The horizon of this species, as cited by Hall, is
simply " Yellow Sandstones at Burlington, Iowa." At the
time of publication of the description of the Chonopectus
sandstone fauna, no specimen of this species had been ob-
served and it was provisionally included in that fauna and a
copy of Hall's original illustration was reproduced. Since

* Tran^. Acad. Sci. St. Louis. 10: 101.

178 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

that time, through the courtesy of Dr. E. O. Hovey, the
writer has been able to examine the type specimen of the
species in the collections of the American Museum of Natural
History, and it proves to be a member of the upper yellow
sandstone fauna at Burlington, and not of the Chonopectus
sandstone. A much more perfect specimen than the type,
from Northview, Missouri, has been illustrated in these
Kinderhook Faunal Studies. I.*

GASTEROPODA.

Straparollus angularis Weller.

PL XV. f. 26-27.

A single specimen of an internal cast, in this fauna, seems
to be identical with the species described from the Chonopec-
tus sandstone as Straparollus angularis, f it being one of the
very few species which are common to the two faunas.

Straparollus sp. undet.

pi. XV. f. 25.

A single cast of a small specimen of this undetermined
species of Straparollus has been observed. Only the upper
surface of the shell is exposed upon a slab, and this surface
exhibits a slight, regular convexity. About three whorls in
all are preserved.

BUCANOPSIS PERELEGANS (W. & W.).

PL XV. f. 23-24.

Bellerophon perelegans, Bull. U. S. G. S. 153 : 144.

Original description. "Shell small, subglobose ; umbili-
cus small, aperture transverse, reniform. Back and sides
marked by fine, sharply elevated revolving lines, which are
about equal to the spaces between them, finer and more
closely arranged in the middle than on the sides of the shell.
Dorsum marked by a narrow, elevated, revolving band;
bounded on each side by a shallow depression. The revolving
lines on the band are much finer than those on the body of
the shell. Very fine transverse striae of growth across the

* Trans. Acad. Sci. St. Louis. 9 : 35. pi. III. f. 2.
t Trans Acad. Sci. St. Louis. 10: 110.

Weller — Kinderlwok Faunal Studies. 179

revolving striae, give a finely cancellated appearance to the
surface. Margin of the peristome nearly straight, or with
a gentle backward curvature to the shallow central notch."

Remarks. The specimen of this species here illustrated,
is the largest one of the types, being nearly twice as large as
the average representatives of the species. On the internal
casts the delicate surface markings cannot be recognized, but
they are beautifully shown in the external impressions of the
shell. On the casts the only surface irregularities usually
recognizable, are the revolving dorsal band and some faint,,
irregular, concentric wrinkles of growth.

Among the specimens indicated as types of this species in
the University of Michigan collection, three distinct species
are represented. A number of the specimens are good ex-
amples of Belleroj)hon bilabiatus, and another has been made
the type of a new species, Bucanopsis deflectus.* The
specimens which are retained as the types of the species are
those which apparently were used as a basis for the original
description, and were found in the fauna under consideration.

Bellerophon sp. undet.

Pi. XV. f. 28.

This undetermined species is represented in the collections
which have been studied, by a single very imperfect speci-
men which is here illustrated. The species is much larger
than B. perelegans, and when perfect examples are found, it
may prove to be an undescribed species.

Phanerotinus paradoxus Win.

Trans. Acad. Sci. St. Louis. 10: 112. pi. VIII. f. 1.

The types of this species are wax casts from a natural
mould which probably has been lost. They are said to be
from the " yellow sandstone " at Burlington, but as no other
specimens have been seen, it is impossible to determine cer-
tainly from which yellow sandstone horizon the types were
secured. The species was included provisionally in the Chono-
pectus fauna, but in view of the fact that the same species
occurs in the vermicular sandstone at North view, Missouri, f

* Trans. Acad. Sci. St. Louis. 10: 114.

t Trans. Acad. Sci. St. Louis. 9 : 43. pi. V. f. 6.

180 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

associated with so many species which ally that fauna with
the upper yellow sandstone fauna at Burlington, with none
at all which suggest the Chonopectus fauna, it seems more
probable that Phanerotinus paradoxus is from the upper
yellow sandstone fauna and not from the Chonopectus fauna.

Dentalium grandaevum Win.

PL XV f. 29.

The types of this species preserved in the White collection
are from both the Chonopectus sandstone and the upper yellow
sandstone, and the specimens from the two horizons seem to
be identical as far as external appearances go.

IV. THE FAUNA OF BED NO. 6.

COEL.ENTE RATA .

CORALS.

Zaphrentis sp. undet.

Several specimens of corals which are apparently members
of the genus Zaphrentis, are present in the fauna of the
oolitic limestone at Burlington. It is possible that two
species may be represented, one perfectly straight and the
other one curved. Additional material and a study of the
internal structure of these corals will be necessary before they
can be successfully determined.

MOULUSCOIDEA.

BRACHIOPODA.
Leptaena rhomboidalis (Wilck.).

PL XVI. f. 7-8.

This species occurs, but not abundantly, in the oolite fauna.
The individuals examined do not differ essentially from the
ordinary form of this cosmopolitan species.

Weller — Kinderhook Faunal Studies.

181

Orthothetes inflatus (Wt. & W.).

PI. XVI. f. 2-3.

The types of this species are from both the oolite bed and
the base of the superjacent brown magnesian limestone. The
most perfect specimen among the types is from the upper
bed, and a description of the species is given with the descrip-
tion of the fauna from that horizon (see p. 195), although
the species is probably more common in the oolite.

Orthothetes sp. undet.

PL xvi. f. I.

Associated with 0. inflatus in the oolite bed there is another
form of the genus Orthothetes which may prove to be a dis-
tinct species. It differs from 0. inflatus in having the great-
est convexity of the brachial valve much nearer the front (A)
of the shell, as is shown in the accompanying profile outlines.

Specimens of this form are often larger than the typical O.
inflatus, but not sufficient material has been in hand for study
to determine whether or not the larger size of the adult shells
is a constant characteristic. No pedicle valves, which can be
definitely correlated with this type of brachial valve, have been
observed.

Rhipidomella burlingtonensis (Hall).

PL XVI. f. 6.

The specimens in the oolite bed which have been identified
with this species, differ from the normal form of the species
on account of their much smaller size, as is shown in the

182 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

illustration, and on account of the greater flattening of the
pedicle valve along its median portion toward the front of the
shell. In some respects the shell resembles R. dubia of the
Spergen Hill fauna, but its hinge-line is longer than in that
species.

SCHIZOPHORIA SUBELLIPTICA (W. & W.).

PI. XVI. f. 4-5.

Rhipidomella subelliptica, Bull. U. S. G. S. 153 : 525.

Original description . " Shell medium size, subelliptical in
outline. Hinge line about two-thirds or three-fourths as long
as the greatest breadth of the shell. Cardinal extremities
rounded, valves subequal, moderately convex ; the pedicle
somewhat flattened toward the front, very ventricose on the
umbo; beak small and pointed; area about one-third as high
as long, delthyrium twice as high as wide. Brachial valve
more regularly convex than the pedicle, and the beaks less
elevated, very small and pointed, but little incurved."

" Surface marked by fine, equal rounded striae, which
are curved upwards near the extremities of the hinge-line,
and some of them run out on the cardinal border. Increased
both by bifurcation and implantation."

Dimensions of an average specimen from the oolite bed :
length 10 mm., breadth 12 mm, and convexity of both valves
5 mm.

Remarks. This little shell is a common species in the
oolitic bed, and also occurs in the base of the superjacent
magnesian limestone. One specimen from this latter horizon,
included among the types of the species in the University of
Michigan collection, is much larger than any specimen from
the oolite, its length being 18 mm., and its breadth 23 mm.

This species has been referred by Schuchert * to the genus
Rhipidomella, but it should rather be referred to Schizophoria.
The brachial valve has all the appearance of a diminutive
8. swallovi, but the pedicle valve has a higher area and a
relatively much more prominent umbo than that species.

Chonetes logani N. & P.

PL XVI. f. 10-11.

Original description. " Shell small; transverse, having its
greatest breadth near the cardinal border. Pedicle valve

* Bull. U. S. G. S. 87 : 352.

Wetter — Kinderhook Faunal Studies. 183

inflated, without a sinus, covered with about thirty rugose
ribs. Ears small, scarcely separated from the body of the
shell. Beak rather large and recurved. Ribs flattened and
crossed by fine lines, many of them dichotomous. Area and
brachial valve unknown. Traces of tubes can be seen on the
cardinal edge, but the number cannot be ascertained. Length
6 mm. ; breadth 9 mm.

Remarks. This species has always been the cause of much
confusion. Only a few years after its first description by
Norwood and Pratten, Hall* identified a common species from
the Burlington limestone as C. logani, which he described as
having from 100 to 125 dichotomizing striae, while the original
C. logani was said to have but about 30. Worthen f first
detected Hall's error and gave the name C. illinoisensis to
the Burlington limestone species. At the time of publication
of volume IV of the New York Paleontology, HallJ seems
to have recognized the true V. logani from Burlington. The
latest reference to the species has been made by Girty,§ who
has described it from the Madison limestone of the Yellow-
stone Park, referring it to Shumard's species C. ornatus,
although the identity of the species with C. logani is sug-
gested. The specimen illustrated by him is as typical C . logani
as any that can be found at Burlington.

At Burlington this species seems to be restricted to the
oolitic limestone bed No. 6. It can always be recognized by
its rather coarse plications and by its concentric markings
which are stronger on the ribs than in the depressions. The
shell is also more convex than any of its associates, and the
fullness extends well out towards the cardinal extremities so
that the auriculations of the shell are not so conspicuous as
they are in some members of the genus. The shell often
attains a greater size than the dimensions given by Norwood
and Pratten, the larger ones being 8| mm. long and 10 mm.
wide. The larger shells are more convex than the smaller

* Rep. Geol. Surv. la. I2 : 598.

t Trans. Acad. Sci. St. Louis. 1 : 571.

J Pal. N. Y. 4: 137.

§ Monog. U. S. G. S. 32: 527.

184 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

ones and the hinge-line is relatively shorter. Usually two
spine bases can be detected on the cardinal margin each side
of the beak, and sometimes a third one. The spines them-
selves are oblique in position. On the larger shells the num-
ber of plications sometimes reaches forty.

Chonetes burlingtonensis n. sp.

PI. XVI. f. 9.

Shell of medium size, semielliptical in outline, the hinge-
line as long as or a little shorter than the greatest width of
the shell. Pedicle valve prominent on the umbo, compressed
towards the cardinal angles, and flattened or slightly sinuate
along the median line. The bases of two oblique spines on
the cardinal margin may usually be seen on each side of the
beak. Surface of the pedicle valve ornamented with about
100 rounded plications on the margins of the shell, which
originate by bifurcation from less than 25 at the beak, and
which are furnished with numerous tubular openings. The
furrows between the plications are narrower than the plica-
tions themselves. Besides the plications the shell is marked
by exceedingly fine, inconspicuous concentric striae, which are
strongest in the radiating furrows. Brachial valve unknown.

The dimensions of an average sized specimen are : length 9
mm., breadth 14 mm., and convexity 3 mm.

Remarks. This species is less common in the oolite fauna
than C. logani, from which it can be easily distinguished by
its larger size, its greater number of plications, its less con-
vexity, its more compressed cardinal angles, and bv the ab-
sence of the conspicuous concentric striae. In size and gen-
eral outline the species resembles C. illinoisensis, but it differs
from this common species of the Burlington limestone in its
smaller number of plications and in its smaller number of
cardinal spines.

Productella concentrica (Hall).

PL XVI. f. 12-14.

Original description.* "Shell small, semi-elliptical;
hinge-line scarcelv so long as the greatest width of the shell.

* This is the description published by Hall in 1858 in Rep. Geol. Surv. la.
I2 : 517. An earlier description was published in 1857 by the same author
in the Reg. Rep. of N. Y. State Mus. Nat. Hist.

Wetter — Kinderhook Faunal Studies. 185

Brachial valve deeply concave, abruptly curved and almost
geniculate in front ; cardinal extremities slightly contracted ;
upper half of shell marked by strong concentric wrinkles
and somewhat distant spiniform tubercles ; lower half of
shell marked by elongate spiniferous ridges."

Remarks. This species was originally described from the
«* sandstone of the age of the Chemung group " at Burling-
ton, but it seems to be most abundant in the oolitic lime-
stone bed, all the specimens which have been studied being
from that horizon. When the original description was pub-
lished, the pedicle valve was said to be unknown, but an as-
sociated pedicle valve was described and illustrated as Pro-
dactus shumardianus . Clarksville, Missouri, and Burlington,
Iowa, were recorded as the localities for this latter species,
but the Burlington specimens should without doubt be in-
cluded in the P. concentricus.

The pedicle valve is gibbous in the middle and compressed
at the cardinal extremities, it is flattened along the median
line, but with no sinus. The ornamentation is like that of
the brachial valve. An average sized specimen is 16 mm. in
length, 18 mm. in breadth, with the convexity of the pedicle
valve 9 mm.

Some of the specimens which have been studied, and which
are evidently members of the same species, are marked by
much more numerous spine bases than those which have been
illustrated.

The species was originally described as a member of the
genus Productus, but Schuchert has transferred it to Pro-
ductella. The essential features of the hinge which charac-
terize the genus Productella have not been observed in any
of the Burlington specimens, but in the character of its sur-
face ornamentation the species is more like members of the
genus Productella than like typical members of the genus
Productus.

Productus arcuatus Hall.

PI. XVI. f. 15.

Original description. " Pedicle valve much elevated, longer
than wide, very gibbous, extremely arcuate, the beak recurved

186 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

upon itself so that the hinge is nearly opposite the center of
the back of the shell ; hinge-line shorter than the width of
the shell; cardinal extremities produced into small angular
ears . * '

" Surface marked by strong radiating costae which bifur-
cate upon the umbo and below, and sometimes coalesce to-
wards the base of the shell, entire surface covered by fine
undulating concentric striae, and, in the upper part, by a few
strong wrinkles which are conspicuous on the ears and umbo.
A few marks of the bases of spines are noticed, but they
appear to have been irregularly distributed, and in our
specimen do not appear at all. Dorsal valve and interior
unknown."

Dimensions of an average example : length 19 mm., breadth
19 mm., and convexity of pedicle valve 15 mm.

Remarks. This species has been variously placed at dif-
ferent times in the genera -Productus and Productetta, but
there seem to be no grounds for removing it from the first
of these genera. it is a well defined Produclus of the
semireticulatus type. It resembles P. burling tone nsis H., but
is always a smaller shell and never has any indication of a
median sinus. The brachial valve is flattened toward the
cardinal extremities, and gently concave in the posterior
median portion, but bends upward rather abruptly toward
the lateral and anterior margins.

Athykis ckassicardinalis White.

PI. XVI. f. 18-24.

Shell small, breadth a little greater than the length, the
greatest breadth posterior to the middle, more or less broadly
pointed posteriorly. Pedicle valve most convex, the greatest
convexilv nosterior to the middle, elevated along the median
line ; the delthyrium large, open in all the specimens observed;
the hinge-teeth large and strong, pointing obliquely inward
and toward the brachial valve. Brachial valve flattened trans-
versely, more or less strongly arched longitudinally ; the
umbo rather prominent, with the shell flattened on each side ;
the cardinal process notched in front, large and platform-like,
slightly excavated on top. Surface of shell marked by sev-

Weller — Kinderhook Faunal Studies. 187

eral more or less conspicuous growth lines which are usually
strongest on the pedicle valve.

The dimensions of a rather large individual are : length of
brachial valve 10 mm., and width of brachial valve 10| mm.
The corresponding pedicle valve would, of course, have a little
greater length with the same width.

Remarks. As indicated by the types in the University of
Michigan collection, two quite distinct shells were included
by White in his species Athyris crassicardinalis . The orig-
inal description applies in the main to the commoner one of
these two shells which has been described above, and the
specific name is therefore retained for this species, but the
generic relations of the shell are extremely doubtful. It is
almost certainly not a member of the genus Athyris, but as
no better disposition can be made of it at the present time, it
is allowed so to remain until its real generic relationships can
be determined.

Because of its deep muscular impression and consequent
thinness of the shell, the pedicle valve of this species is per-
fectly preserved less often than the brachial valve. The
most characteristic features of the shell are, the peculiar
transverse flattening of the brachial valve, the large cardinal
process and the posterior position of the maximum breadth
of the shell.

The other shell which was included in this species by
White, is a small member of the genus Gleiothyris which will
have to be considered separately.

Cleiothyris hirsuta Hall.

PL XVI. f. 25-27.

Shell subcircular in outline, lenticular, the two valves being
subequally convex. Pedicle valve most convex towards the
beak, the beak incurved so as to bring the foramen nearly
in line with the margin of the shell. Brachial valve regularly
convex, its beak closely incurved beneath the beak of the
opposite valve. Fold and sinus usually absent, but in some
specimens there is a faint sinus in the pedicle valve with a
corresponding fold in the brachial valve. Surface of entire
shell marked by fine, concentric, lamellose lines of growth,

188 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

which give origin to successive rows of minute spines.
Length of an average specimen 9 mm., width 10 mm., and
thickness 6 mm.

Remarks. Among the specimens used by White for the
description of Athyris crassicardinalis, three distinct species
belonging to there different genera were included. Eleven out
of the sixteen type specimens are members of a species char-
acterized by a peculiar transversely flattened brachial valve
and which shows no indication of the concentric rows of
spines mentioned in the original description as being present
in some specimens. These nine specimens have been retained
as the typical form of Athyris crassicardinalis. One of the
five additional specimens is a member of the species Niicleo-
spira barrisi, and four remaining specimens seem to be identi-
cal with VJeiothyris hirsuta, first described from the Spergen
Hill fauna in Indiana, of St. Louis age. It is upon these
specimens alone that the fringes mentioned by White are
sometimes preserved. These specimens from theKinderhook
oolite at Burlington, are so nearly like many of those from
St. Louis oolite of Indiana, both in size, form and manner of
preservation, that were specimens from the two localities
mixed together it would be impossible to distinguish them.
It is quite possible that all these shells, along with other some-
what larger ones from the Osage faunas, should be considered
as being but variations of Gleiothyris roissyi.

Spirifer marionensis Shum.

PI. XVI. f 16-17.

Shell subcircular or subsemielliptical in outline, from one-
half to two-thirds as long as broad, the valves subequally con-
vex, the cardinal extremities usually mucronate in the younger
individuals, but becoming less pointed in the older specimens.
Pedicle valve with the greatest convexity posterior to the
middle, umbo prominent, beak pointed and incurved ; the
sinus well defined, narrow and angular at the beak, becoming
broad, shallow and less well defined toward the front, marked
by three or four dichotomizing plications ; cardinal area of
moderate height, the sides subparallel, the delthyrium rather
broadly triangular. Brachial valve regularly convex, flat-

Weller — Kinderhook Faunal Studies. 189

tened toward the cardinal extremities ; the mesial fold scarcely
elevated above the general surface of the valve, marked by
dichotomizing plications which are from four to six in number
at the front margin. Surface of each valve marked by from
fifteen to twenty- five plications on each side of the fold and
sinus, all of which are often simple but with the first one or
two adjacent to the fold and sinus sometimes divided. Entire
surface also covered by concentric lines of growth which are
lamellose on perfectly preserved shells.

Remarks. The most typical form of this somewhat vari-
able species is that which occurs in the Louisiana limestone
of Pike and Marion counties, Missouri. The specimens from
the oolitic limestone at Burlington are usually somewhat
smaller than the largest individuals from the Louisiana lime-
stone, and the beak of the pedicle valve is less incurved.
In all other respects, however, examples from the two locali-
ties are identical, and it seems impossible to consider them in
any other light than as members of a single species.

DlELASMA ALLEI (Win.).

For a full description with illustrations of this shell, the
reader is referred to page 162 of the present paper. The
types of the species are from both the upper yellow sandstone
and the oolite bed at Burlington. The single specimen from
the oolite bed is but a fragment of one valve, but it is prob-
ably the same species as the more perfect specimen from the
yellow sandstone below. The description of the shell struct-
ure given by Winchell, was drawn wholly from this oolite
specimen.

MOLLUSC A.

PELECYPODA.

Pernopecten cooperensis (Shumard).

Pi. xvii. f. l .

This species has already been fully described and discussed
in these studies.* The specimens in the oolite bed are typical
of the species described by Hall from this same locality as

* Trans. Acad. Sci. St. Louis. 9 : 24.

190 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

Avicula circulus,* but his name must be considered as a
synonym of Pernopecten cooperensis. The oolite specimens
are usually larger than those from the subjacent yellow sand-
stone, but are about the same size as those usually found in
the Vermicular sandstone fauna at Northview, Missouri.!

CONOCARDIUM PULCHELLUM W. & W.
PI. XVII. f. 2-3.

Original description. " Shell small, general form triangu-
lar, with ventricose valves. Hinge line straight, the length
equal to that of the posterior slope. Anterior end cuneate ;
posterior end obliquely truncate. Basal line gently arcuate,
widely gaping near the anterior extremity ; hiatus elongate
ovate, distinctly crenate on the inner border. Beaks minute,
incurved, situated posteriorly ; umbonal slope rounded, pos-
terior space concave; siphonal tube small. Entire surface
marked by distinct, diverging radii, those of the posterior
space a trifle finer than those of the body of the shell ; also
by very fine concentric striae."

The dimensions of the type specimens are: length along
hinge line 7 mm., greatest height 6 mm., thickness of both
valves 5 mm.

Remarks. This little species is strongly suggestive of some
of the small species of C onocardium which occur in the
Spergen Hill fauna in Indiana at the horizon of the St. Louis
limestone. The resemblance is even more striking because
of the similarity of the lithologic characters of the beds con-
taining the fossils at the two localities, both formations being
white oolitic limestone. The Burlington species, however,
is distinct from any of those in the Spergen Hill fauna, its
greatest resemblance being with (J. meekanum.

GASTEROPODA.

Loxonema sp. undet.

PL XVII. f. 9.

The interior casts of a species of Loxonema are not uncom-
mon in the oolite bed, but no specimens preserving the shell

* Rep. Geol. Surv. la. 12:522. The original A. circulus Shum., is dis-
tinct.

t Trans. Acad. Sci. St. Louis. 9 : 24.

Welter — Kinderhook Faunal Studies. 191

and the external markings, have been observed. The speci-
men illustrated is a good example of the species. In the
University of Michigan collection this specimen is designated
as one of the types of Murchisonia qitadricincta Win., but is
probably not even cogeneric with this species.

Pleurotomaria ? quinquesulcata Win.

PL XVII. f. 10-11.

Original description. " Shell of medium size, depressed
conical, consisting of three or four rapidly enlarging whorls.
Outer whorl nearly as wide as all the others, having a nearly
circular section, and presenting on its exterior about five
longitudinal furrows, covering the space from the suture above
to the base below ; shell otherwise apparently smooth."

"Diameter of last whorl 27 mm.; height of spire about
18 mm."

Remarks. The specimen here illustrated is believed to be
the type of the species although it is not so marked. It is
the only specimen so labeled in the University of Michigan
collection, and agrees exactly with the measurements given by
Winchell. The specimen is a very imperfect one, and it is
impossible to determine its generic relations. The revolving
furrows mentioned by Winchell seem to be wholly imaginary.

Pleurotomaria ? sp. undet.

PL XVII. f. 12.

A single specimen of a small coiled shell with a low spire,
has been observed. Its generic relations cannot be deter-
mined and so it is only referred provisionally to the genus
Pleurotomaria.

Straparollus obtusus (Hall).

PL XVII. f. 6-8.

Original description. " Shell discoid, planorbiform. Spire
little elevated, consisting of five or six volutions which
increase in size very gradually from the apex; largest outer
volution very obtusely angular on the upper side towards the
outer margin, and below this somewhat flattened to the peri-
phery of the shell below, where it is very regularly and
symmetrically rounded; upper side, from the obtuse angle

192 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

to the suture, flat on the inner volutions, and slightly sloping
inward on the outer volutions ; aperture straight above, cir-
cular below.

'» Surface marked by fine, closely arranged striae of
growth."

Remarks. This species is rather a common one in the
oolite bed at Burlington, and exhibits some variations in its
characters which are not mentioned in the original definition.
The chief of these is in the elevation of the spire, it being
slightly elevated in some specimens while in others it is
slightly depressed below the plane of the outer volution.
The angular character of the upper side of the volutions is
oftentimes more or less obscure, the cross section of the
volutions being almost circular. The umbilicus is broad and
in it all the volutions of the shell are exhibited. The
specimen here illustrated is perhaps a little smaller than the
average adult size, the shell sometimes attaining a diameter
of 45 mm.

Strophostylus bivolve. (W. & W.).

PI. XVII. f. 4-5.

Original description. " Shell small, ventricose, composed
of about two closely coiled, rounded volutions, spire not ele-
vated above the surface of the outer volutions. Inner whor
minute, outer volution more rapidly expanding and ventricose.
Section of the volution transversely ovate, narrowest at the
inner or ventral margin ; border of the aperture with a shallow
sinus on the upper side, and another below the middle. Sur-
face marked by fine transverse striae, parallel to the border
of the aperture."

Greatest diameter of the type specimen, 20 mm., greatest
width of the outer volution of the same specimen 14 mm.,
height of aperture 11 mm.

Remarks. The specimens of this species labeled " types"
in the University of Michigan collection, are five in number,
two of them being from the Chonopectus sandstone and three
from the oolitic limestone. One of the Chonopectus sand-
stone specimens is not even cogeneric with the other indi-
viduals and may be a specimen of Naticopsis depressus Win.,

Weller — Kinderhook Faunal Studies. 193

the other one* is a member of the genus Strophosfylus, but
is probably specifically distinct from the specimens from the
oolitic layer. These last mentioned specimens should be con-
sidered as the true types of the species. They are three in
number, the largest one is illustrated here for the first time,
and one of the others, the most perfect of all, has been well
illustrated by Keyes.f The third specimen is smaller than
either of the others and shows no characters which are not bet-
ter exhibited on the others. The Chonopectus sandstone speci-
men which is a true Strophostylus differs from the oolitic
specimens in having the inner whorl of the shell much thicker
so that the shell expands much less rapidly ; the number of
whorls also in this individual is probably greater than in the
oolite specimens although the apex of the shell is destroyed.

CEPHALOPODA.
Orthoceras indianense Hall.

PI. XVII. f. 13-14.

A small, smooth orthocereas which has usually been re-
ferred to this species is not uncommon in the oolite fauna.
The specimens are usually elliptical in cross-section with the
siphuncle situated eccentrically. Specimens from the Chono-
pectus sandstone,! have been referred to the same species,
and those from the Vermicular sandstone at North view, Mis-
souri, which were identified as C. chemungense Swallow, § are
also possibly the same.

Gyroceras burlingtonensis Owen.

PI. XVIII. f. i .

Original description. "Scroll-shaped; volutions about
two, rapidly enlarging; chambers forty-eight (?), indicated
by undulating lines curving from the inner margin of the
periphery."

* For an illustration of this specimen see Trans. Ac. Sci. St. Louis. 10. pi.
V. f. 4-5.

t Rep. Mo. Geol. Surv. 5. pi. 53. f. 4 a-b.
X Trans. Acad. Sci. St. Louis. 10: 120.
§ Trans. Acad. Sci. St. Louis. 9 : 45.

194 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

" This Gyroceras is of unusually large dimensions, — about
fifteen inches in diameter, and nearly three feet along the
dorsal circumference of a single coil. It occurs in the oolitic
bed, at the top of member a, of the Lower Series of Carbon-
iferous Limestones, under the encrinital beds of the quarries
at Burlington, Iowa."

Remarks. This species has not been observed by the
writer. In connection with its original description, its strati-
graphic position at Burlington was so definitely stated that
there can be no doubt of its being a member of the fauna
under discussion. A tracing of the outlines of the original
drawing is presented on plate XVIII, but according to the
dimensions given for the species, this drawing must be less
than one-third natural size, although no statement to that
effect is made in the explanation of the original plate.

V. THE FAUNA OF BED NO. 7.

COELENTER AT A .

Leptopora typa Win.

pi. XX. f. 19.

Original description. " Polypary subcircular in outline,
and slightly convex on the general surface; composed (in the
specimens examined) of about 25-30 rather large cells of
which the internal ones are hexagonal, and the peripheral
rounded exteriorly; margins of cups strongly elevated ; radial
lamellae about 20."

" Diameter of mass 18 mm., diameter of cells about 3| mm.,
and their depth about \\ mm."

Remarks. The type specimens of this species in the
University of Michigan collection are two in number, one
being a cast of the surface of a corallum and another less
perfect colony shows several corallites in which the substance
of the coral has been preserved. The specimen here illus-
trated is the cast and in it the bounding rims of the corallites
are of course represented by grooves instead of elevations.
In the specimen retaining the coral substance each corallite

Waller — Kinderhook Faunal Studies. 195

is seen to possess a low, broad columella and the septa are
almost obsolete, being represented by faint ridges near the
sides of the cups.

MOL.LUSCOIDEA.

BRACHIOPODA.
Orthothetes inflatus (W. & YV.).

PL XIX. f. 10-12.

Original description. " Shell above a medium size, some-
what semicircular in outline ; the hinge usually a little shorter
than the greatest width of the shell causing a slight rounding
of the cardinal extremities. Pedicle valve concave in the
center, and elevated at the beak, which is straight and
pointed, directed obliquely backward from the hinge-line,
area rather high, irregular in width, and about one-third as
high as long ; delthyrium very narrow, extending to near the
point of the beak, closed to near the base by a thin, rounded
deltidium. Brachial valve strongly inflated, very prominent
on the umbo, a little flattened at the cardinal extremities.

" Surface marked by moderately strong, rounded, somewhat
alternate, radiating striae, which present a wiry appearance.
The interior of the brachial valve is characterized by a very
large, flabelliform cardinal process, marked by several strong
plications."

The dimensions of the type specimen are: length 28 mm.,
breadth 28 mm., and thickness of the two valves 18 mm.

Remarks, The type specimens of this species are from
both the magnesian limestone bed and the subjacent oolite
bed. The only specimen which is approximately perfect is
from the magnesian limestone and is here illustrated.

Orthothetes inaequalis (Hall). ?

PL VIII. f. 9.

Among the specimens of Orthothetes from the magnesian lime-
stone bed at Burlington, there are two forms. The less com-
mon one is that already described as O. inflatus, in which the
length and breadth are approximately equal. The most abun-
dant form, however, is one having the breadth considerably

196 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

in excess of the length as seen in figure 9 of plate XIX, and
having the pedicle valve less concave. Several individuals of
this form in the University of Michigan collection, the one
here illustrated being among them, have been labeled
Streplorhynchus inaequalis by Winchell, but they do not wholly
agree with authentic specimens of Orthothetes inaequalis
which is typically from the upper yellow sandstone bed be-
neath the oolite. The type specimens of O. inflatus are
three in number, and one of them is the brachial valve of
an individual of this broad form, so it seems that White and
Whitfield considered both forms as variations of a single
species, and it is not improbable that they were co" rect in
this supposition.

Productus punctatus Martin.

PI. XIX. f. 8.

Typical examples of this well-known carboniferous species
occur in the fauna. All the specimens which have been
observed are internal casts of the pedicle valve, the speci-
men illustrated being the largest and most perfect example
seen.

SCHIZOPHORIA SUBELLIPTICA ( W. & W.).
PI. XIX. f. 6-7.

The types of this species are from both the magnesian
limestone bed and from the subjacent oolite bed although
the original description of the species was probably taken pri-
marily from the oolite specimens. One well preserved bra-
chial valve from the magnesian limestone is much larger than
any of the oolite specimens but seems to agree with them in
all its essential characters.

Camarophoria caput-testudinis (White).

PI. XIX. f. 1-4.

Original description. " Shell large, subtriangular, sub-
cuneate, front rather fully rounded, meeting the lateral slopes
at an obtuse angle ; sides somewhat concave, free from plica-
tions near the beaks, and sloping to them with gentle incurva-
tures, giving the shell an angular appearance about the beaks,
which are small, and at which the sides meet at an acute

Weller — Kinderhook Faunal Studies. 197

angle; both valves regularly and nearly equally convex ; bra-
chial beak closely incurved beneath the pedicle beak, which
is slightly incurved. Foramen and delthyrium unknown.
Surface marked by from sixteen to eighteen distinct some-
what rounded plications on each valve, which mostly reach
the beak with some distinctness, but are occasionally increased
both by implantation and bifurcation. They are traversed by
fine radiating lines, and crossed by fine concentric lines of
growth . ' '

" Mesial fold and sinus scarcelv defined, but the front is
slightly emarginate in the older specimens, by the elevation
of the lingual extension of the lower pedicle valve with a
gradual curve, which includes five or six of the plications."

The dimensions of the type specimen are: length 43 mm.,
breadth 3d mm., and thickness 27 mm.

Remarks. The geologic horizon of this species is recorded
by its original author as " base of the Burlington Limestone,"
but the specimens indicated as types in the University of
Michigan collection include as well individuals from the mag-
nesian layer at the top of the Kinderhook. These lower
specimens, however, are all more or less imperfectly pre-
served, though they apparently belong to the same species as
the more perfect Burlington limestone specimens. Among
the accompanying illustrations of this species, figures 1, 2
and 3 are views of a nearly perfect individual from the Bur-
lington limestone, which may be taken as the true type
of the species. Figure 4 is one of the most perfect of the
magnesian limestone specimens. The shell illustrated by
Keyes (Mo. Geol. Surv., Vol. V., Paleontology II. pi. 41,
Fig. 11), under the name Rhynchonella sp.?\$ quite cer-
tainly an individual of this species.

Camarotoechia persinuata (Win.).

PL XIX. f. 5.

Rhynchonella persinuata, Bull. U. S. G. S. 153: 534.

Original description. " Shell of medium size, transversely
oval, with abbreviated rostral extension. Cardinal slopes
nearly straight, sides rounded, front straight. Pedicle valve
depressed, with about twenty straight plications, of which
eight occupy the broad and rather shallow sinus. Anterior

198 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

margin of valve abruptly deflected. Dental lamellae extending
nearly one-third the length of the valve. The beak of this
valve projects nearly in the plane of the shell, and the lateral
portions of the valve are continued, without convexity, to the
borders, thus giving this valve a peculiarly flattened surface —
the broad sinus forming a similar plane lying at a lower level."
The dimensions of the type specimen are: length 17 mm.,
breadth 27 mm., and convexity of pedicle valve 4 mm.

Remarks. A single specimen of this species has been
observed in the University of Michigan collection, and
although it is not marked "type' it is undoubtedly the
specimen used by Winchell in his description of the species.
It is an imperfect specimen, only a cast of the interior of the
pedicle valve being preserved. The species is apparently a
member of that group of Rhynchonelloid shells for which
Hall and Clarke have used the name Camarotoechia, and it is
therefore referred to that genus. It is closely allied to, and
is perhaps not specifically distinct from the English species
Jthynchonella pleurodon Phill., and from an examination of
the illustrations of that species given by Davidson, it seems
probable that that author would not have considered the
American specimen as a distinct species. The species de-
scribed from the Chouteau limestone of Cooper County, Mis-
souri, as R. cooperensis Shum. is perhaps not distinct from
this Burlington species.

fc'PIRIFER PECULIAR1S Shum. ?

PL XX. f. 1 .

A single specimen which may belong to this species has
been observed in the fauna under consideration. It is larger
than the specimens in bed No. 5 which have been referred to
this species, and is also larger than specimens of the species
from central Missouri. The specimen also differs from
authentic representations of S. peculiaris in having a well
defined cardinal area. This last difference, however, may be
due to the state of preservation.

Spiriferina solidirostris (White).

PL XX. f. 2-4.

Original description. " Shell rather small, nearly semi-
circular, wider than long, widest at the hinge-line, where it is

Wetter — Kinderhook Faunal Studies. 199

sometimes extended into submucronate points, rounded in
front.

;' Brachial valve more convex from beak to front than trans-
versely. Beak scarcely prominent, slightly projecting beyond
the hinge-line.

" Pedicle valve about twice as deep as the opposite one,
regularly arcuate from beak to front, but a little de-
pressed near the cardinal extremities. Area large and well
defined, delthyrium narrow, beak acute, incurved, and be-
coming solidified as the delthyrium is progressively closed.
Dental plates strong, projecting a little forward of the hinge-
line. From six to eight prominent plications on each side of
the mesial fold and sinus, which decrease regularly in size
toward the hinge extremities. Sinus rather broad and deep,
distinctly defined even to the point of the beak ; a slightly
elevated ridge extends along its bottom, and a corresponding
depression along the mesial fold.

" Mesial fold prominent and widely separated from the plica-
tions. Surface marked by fine, lamellose, concentric striae,
which arch upon the plications and the ridge in the mesial
sinus, and doubly arch upon the mesial fold."

The dimensions of one of the best preserved pedicle valves
among the types are: length 111 mm., width along the hinge-
line 15 mm., and convexity 6 mm. Another brachial valve
is 9i mm. long, 19 mm. wide along the hinge-line, and hns a
convexity of 4 mm.

Remarks. Neither the types nor any authentic specimens
of this species have ever been illustrated, and it has often
been confused with S. sublexta, a species described by White
from the base of the Burlington limestone. This latter
species also has never been illustrated, and therefore a figure
of the type specimen has been introduced on the plate with
S. solidirostris (see Plate XX, fig. 5-6). 8. solidirostris
may be recognized by its stronger lamellose lines of growth,
and by the slight furrow in the median fold and the corre-
sponding elevation in the sinus.

NUCLEOSPIRA BAKRIST White.
PI. XX. f. 7-11.

Original description. " Shell transversely oval, gibbous,
becoming ventricose with age. Hinge-line short, surface

200 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

traversed by a few imbricating lines of growth, which
increase in number near the border in the older specimens.
Pedicle valve with a narrow, faintly impressed sinus extend-
ing from the beak along the shell, corresponding to the inner
septum, which gradually expands into a broader and deeper
depression, and, with a corresponding elevation in the oppo-
site valve at the margin, gives it a considerable sinuosity in
front. Beak short, acute, and slightly incurved. A minute
round foramen just beneath the apex. False area small, con-
cave. Longitudinal septum not extending beneath the beak,
but ending about even with the cardinal teeth. Brachial
valve more gibbous than the pedicle, umbo prominent, longi-
tudinal septum extending the full length of the shell, but be-
coming indistinct at the front margin. A narrow, scarcely
perceptible impression extends along the back, opposite the
septum. The spatulate portion of the cardinal process short,
and bending slightly upward, to correspond to the under side
of the concave area, beneath which it passes at nearly a right
angle to the basal portion. The crura, being very small,
serve to give sharpness to the angle, and also, by slight lateral
projection in front of the cardinal teeth, give security to the
hinge. Length of shell from 8 mm. to 10 mm., breadth
from 10 mm. to 12 mm."

MOLLUSCA
GASTEROPODA.

Worthenia mississippiensis ( W. and W.).

PI. XX. f. 12.

Pleurotomaria mississippiensis , Bull. U. S. G. S. 153: 457.

Original description. " Shell rather above a medium size,
spire elevated, composed of five or six volutions ; the height
a little greater than the diameter of the base. Volutions
flattened on the upper side, the plane extending from the
suture to the middle of the whorl, regularly rounded on the
inner side. Periphery marked by a revolving band, which on
the outer volution is an eighth of an inch in breadth, prom-
inent at the margins and depressed in the center. Volutions

Weller — Kinde.rhook Fanned Studies. 201

coiled upon each other at the base of the band. Angle of
the spire seventy to eighty degrees. Surface characters un-
known. The nature of the imbedding material is such that it
has entirely destroyed the surface markings; but the form of
the shell is so entirely different from any other described
from rocks of the same age that it is easily recognized."

The dimensions of the type specimen are: total height
about 43 mm., greatest dimensions of the last whorl 40 mm.

Remarks. This species resembles P. tabulata from the
Coal measures more closely than any other. De Koninck has
made this last species one of the typical ones of his genus
Worthenia * and as P. mississippiensis is probably cogeneric
with P. tabulata it is here placed in the genus Worthe-
nia. Whitfield has made P. textiligera a synonym of this
species, but this is certainly a mistake.

Capulus paralius (W. W.).

PI. XX. f. 13-14.

Original description. " Shell rather below the medium
size, composed of but little more than one loosely-coiled
volution. Apex minute, laterally compressed ; the upper half
of the shell somewhat angular on the dorsum, more rapidly
expanding and less angular in the outer part. Body of the
shell marked by several proportionally strong, irregular plica-
tions, which give a deeply undulating or dentate character to
the margin of the aperture. General form of the aperture
irregular ovate. Peristome much prolonged on the anterior
portion, and a little more expanded on the right side."

" Surface marked by strong concentric lamellose lines of
growth, which are strongly undulated as they cross the pli-
cations."

The dimensions of the type specimen are : depth of aper-
ture 14 mm., width of aperture 13 mm., and height of shell
from the plane of the aperture 13 mm.

Remarks. The specimen represented by figure 13 is des-
ignated as the type of this species in the University of Mich-
igan collection, the specimen represented by figure 14 being
designated as a variety of the species.

* Faun, du Calc. Carb. Belg. 4 : 64.

202 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

Capulus voheritjm (Win.).

PL XX. f.lo.

Original description. " Shell of medium size, describing
about half a direct whorl, very rapidly enlarging ; peripheral
(or dorsal) region elevated and surmounted by a strong,
broad, rounded carina, which becomes more obtuse toward
the aperture, — a shallow groove running along each side of
the carina: transverse section showing an angle of about 70°
toward the beak, which enlarges to about 110° near the aper-
ture; surface of cast destitute of markings."

" Distance from front of aperture in a straight line, to most
projecting portion of beak 21 mm., height of shell when
resting on aperture 12 mm., summit when in this position
three-fifths the distance from aperture to apex, length of
aperture 17 mm., width of aperture 15 mm."

Remarks. The type of this species has not been seen, but
the individual illustrated is an authentic specimen in the
University of Michigan collection labeled by the author of the
species. It differs from the type chiefly in being much
smaller. The species can be easily recognized by its strongly
carinate periphery.

Igoceras undata (Win.).

PI. XX. f. 1 6.

Metoptoma undata, Bull. U. S. G. S. 153 : 351.

Original deselection. " Shell of medium size, nearly erect,
apex nearly central, aperture transversely slightly elliptic;
body of shell most inflated in the middle, somewhat acumi-
nate toward the apex, and contracted at the aperture. Cast
nearly smooth over the body of the shell, longitudinally un-
dulate near and at the aperture, with a few wavy concentric
lines of increment."

"Height of shell 29 mm., longest diameter of aperture
27 mm."

Remarks. With the original description of the species it
is said to be from " bed No. 5." but this must be a mistake,
since the lithologic character of the type specimen shows
conclusively that it is from the magnesian limestone bed.
The species has not heretofore been referred to the genus
Igocerus, but if that group of Capulid shells is really deserv-
ing of generic rank this species is certainly a member of the genus.

Well&r — Kinderhook Faunal Studies. 203

Bellerophon panneus White.

PI. XX. f. 17-18.

Original description. " Shell subglobose, gradually ex-
panding, except at the lateral margins, where it expands
abruptly ; transverse section of the volution opposite the
aperture an irregular ellipse ; umbilici narrow and deep, which,
when not filled with the imbedding material, display the
rounded sides of the volutions, which are three or four in
number. The back of the shell is somewhat flattened, and
has a central longitudinal elevation, which becomes a distinct
carina at the front; surface marked by strong, irregular,
undulating lines of growth, becoming very rough towards the
front margin."

The dimensions of the type specimen are: greatest diameter
of shell 37 mm., and width of aperture 35 mm.

Remarks. The accompanying illustrations of this species
represent two views of the best preserved of the type speci-
mens in the University of Michigan collection. The illustra-
tion published by Keyes * as a representative of this species
is something entirely different and probably represents an
undescribed species. His illustration f designated as B. bila
bialus is more nearly like B. panneus, being entirely distinct
from the true B. bilabiatus from the Chonopectus sandstone.

CORRELATION.

The number of species in the faunas of beds No. 3. and No. 4
is so limited that the correlation of these beds will be depend-
ent in large part upon the correlation of the subjacent and
superjacent strata with their more prolific faunas. The
presence of Chonopectus jischeri throughout these two beds,
however, and the absence of any forms which especially ally
the faunas to those immediately above them in the Burlington
section, would seem to indicate that these two beds should be
associated with the underlying Chonopectus sandstone rather
than with the overlying strata. These two beds, and these
alone in the Burlington section, contain specimens of the
typical form of Pugnax slriaticostata , the specimens from

* Mo. Geol. Surv. 5. pi. 50. f. 6.
t Loc. cit. pi. 50. f. 3.

204

Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

the Chonopectus sandstone being so different in their charac-
ters as to probably constitute a distinct, though allied
species. The typical form of this species was described from
the Kinderhook strata at Kinderhook, Pike County, Illinois,
but no statement is made as to what portion of the Kinder-
hook series the specimens were derived from. A comparison
of specimens from Pike County, Illinois, with those from
Burlington, shows them to be identical in character and in
mode of preservation. It is possible that this species is
characteristic of a definite horizon in Pike County, as it is at
Burlington, in which case it may be of value in the correlation
of the Pike County section when it is properly studied.

The fauna of bed No. 5, the upper yellow sandstone, may
be directly compared with the fauna of the Northview sand-
stone in southwestern Missouri which has been described in
Kinderhook Faunal Studies I. The entire Kinderhook series
as represented in Greene and the neighboring counties in
Missouri,* consisting of the three principal formations, Sac
limestone, Northview sandstone and shale, and Pierson lime-
stone, must be correlated with the typical Chouteau limestone
of central Missouri, the Sac limestone containing a fauna
which is typical of the lower Chouteau limestone as described
by Swallow. t In the following table the two faunas, that of
bed No. 5 at Burlington and the Northview sandstone, are
arranged side by side so that a direct comparison between
them may be made. Those species in the Burlington
fauna which are not known from any other fauna, are marked
with an asterisk.

UPPER YKLLOW SANDSTONE AT
BURLINGTON.

Leptaena rhomboidalis
Orthothetes inaequalis

Productus arcuatus
* Productus parvulus
* Productus morbillianus

NORTHVIEW SANDSTONE.

Zaphrentis sp. undet.
Scalarituba missouriensls

Orthothetes chemungensis ?
Schizophoria swallovi
Bhipidomella burlingtonensis
Chonetes illinoisensis ?
Chonetes sp. undet.
Productus sp. undet.

* Jour. Geol. 9: 130-148.

t Geol. Surv. Mo. I. & II. Rep. (1855), p. 102.

Wetter — Kinderhook Fanned Studies.

205

UPPER YELLOW SAND8TONE AT
BURLINGTON.

Spirifer marionensis * * *
Spirifer peculiaris ;?****
Spirifer centronatus

Gyrtina acutirostris ?
Reticularia cooperensis

*Dielasma allei * * *

* Camarophorella lenticularis

* Pteri?wpecten nodocostus
Pernopecten cooperensis *

*Lithophaga minuta

* Macrodon parvus * *
* Edmondia nuptialis

* Edmondia strigillata

* Sphenotus cylindricus

* Spathella phacelia
*Nucula iowensis

* Palaeoneilo microdonta *

* Palaeoneilo barrisi * * *
*Leda saccata

*Deziobia ovata
*Dexiobia halli

* Schizodus trigonalis

Promacrus cuneatus *

* Bellerophon sp. uudet.
*Bucanopsis perelegens

* Strap arollus sp. undet.
Straparollus angularis

Phanerotinus paradoxus * * *

NORTHVIEW SANDSTONE.

Productella concentrica
Spirifer marionensis
Spirifer peculiaris
Spirifer striatiformis ?
Spirifer sp. undet.
Spiriferina sp. undet.
Syringothyris carteri

Ambocoelia parva
Athyris lamellosa
Cleiothyris sp. undet.
Dielasma sp. undet.

Crenipecten xoinchelli
Crenipecten laevis

Pernopecten cooperensis

Modiomorpha northviewensis
Ptychodesma ? sp. undet.
Macrodon sp. undet.
Edmondia missouriensis
Edmondia sp. undet.
Sanguinolites websteren»is

Palaeoneilo constricta
Palaeoneilo truncata

Cardiopsis radiata
Gardiopsis erectus
Schizodus aeqnalis
Elymclla missouriensis
Promacrus websterensis
Promacrus cuneatus
Tropidodiscus cyrtolites
Euphcmus sp undet.
Bucania sp. undet.
Bellerophon sp. undet.

Mourlonia northviewensis
Pleurot'>maria sp. undet.
Platyschisma missourie7isis
Straparollus sp. undet.

Phanerotinus paradoxus
Capnlus sp. undet.
Porcellia rectinoda ?
Loxonema sp. undet

206

Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

UPPER YELLOW SANDSTONE AT
BURLINGTON.

Dentalium grandaevum

NORTHVIEW SANDSTONE.

Orthoceras indianense
Triboloceras digonum
Proetus sp. undet.
Spirophyton sp.

A comparison of these two lists shows a large number of
species in each which do not occur in the other, but at the
same time certain strong bonds of relationship are exhibited.
This relationship is best shown by the pelecypod genera Per-
nopecten, Palaeoneilo and Promacrus. The genus Peruopecten
is one of the commonest forms in the Northview fauna, it is
also abundant in the upper yellow sandstone at Burlington,
but has an even greater representation in the superjacent oolitic
limestone. In all these beds the genus is represented by a
common species, P. cooperensis, which is also exceedingly
common in some of the beds of the Chouteau limestone of
central Missouri. Palaeoneilo is represented by two species
in each of the above faunal lists, which in both cases may be
considered as representative species, those in the two faunas
being closely allied. The genus is largely represented in the
higher Devonian faunas but is entirely absent from the Chono-
pectus fauna where so many Devonian genera of pelecypods
are present. Promacrus is one of the most conspicuous
genera in the Northview fauna, but only a single specimen
has been observed from Burlington, which is, however, a
member of one of the two Northview species. This genus is
also not uncommon in some beds of the Chouteau limestone
of central Missouri.

The species in the upper yellow sandstone fauna at Burling-
ton which are known to occur in other faunas are only thir-
teen in number, but of this number two only, /Straparollus,
angularis and Dentalium grandaevum occur in the Chouo-
pectus sandstone of the same section. Cyrtina acutirostris
which is but doubtfully identified in the Burlington section,
is certainly known elsewhere only in the Louisiana fauna.
Orthothetes iuaequalis and Spirifer centronatus are known
from the Waverlv sandstone of Ohio. The remainder of the
thirteen species, Leptaena rhomboidalis, Productus arcuatus,

Wetter — Kinderhook Faunal Studies. 207

Spirifer marionensis, Spirifer peculiaris, Reticularia cooper-
•ensis, Pernopecten cooperensis, Promacrus cuneatus and
Phanerotinus paradoxus, are more or less common in the
faunas of the typical Chouteau limestone of central Missouri,
or in those of the same age in southwestern Missouri.

The correlation of the upper yellow sandstone at Burling-
ton with some portion of the typical Chouteau limestone of
central Missouri is assured by the paleontological evidence.
Bed No. 6, the oolite limestone, also carries a Chouteau lime-
stone fauna. The fauna is closely allied to that of the sub-
jacent bed No. 5, but lacks the pelecypod element which con-
stitutes so large a portion of that fauna. The only common
pelecypod in the fauna is Pernopecten cooperensis, which is
also present in bed No. 5, and which is a common form in
some of the beds of Chouteau age in central and southwest-
ern Missouri. Chonetes logani, a common species in the
fauna, is also present in the Sac limestone of southwestern
Missouri, and is possibly identical with (Jhonetes ornatus of the
typical Chouteau limestone. Productus arcuatus and Pro-
ductella concentrica are both well represented in the faunas of
Chouteau age in Missouri. /Spirifer marionensis, one of the
commonest species of the fauna, is abundant in the typical
Chouteau faunas, and is also one of the most characteristic
species of the Louisiana limestone fauna.

in bed No. 7, some species, such as Productus puuctatus and
Camarophoria caput-testudinis, are introduced, which point
forward to the following Osage faunas. Several of the other
species in the fauna pass up from the beds below, and others are
restricted to this bed in the Burlington section. Rfiynchontlla
persinuata is closely allied to, and is possibly not distinct
from Rhynctionella cooperensis of the typical Chouteau fauna
of Cooper County, Missouri. This same introduction of
Osage forms is noticeable in the upper beds of Chouteau age
elsewhere, especially in the Pierson limestone of soutlnvestern
Missouri.

The paleontologic evidence points definitely to the approxi-
mate correlation of beds 5, 6, and 7 of the Burlington sec-
tion, with the Chouteau limestone of central Missouri, and
with the three formations known as the Sac limestone, the

208 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

Northview sandstone and shales, and the Pierson limestone,
of southwestern Missouri.

In the Kinderhook section, at Louisiana, Missouri, three
formations, the Louisiana limestone, the Hannibal shale
and the Chouteau limestone, have been recognized
by the Missouri Geological Survey.* In the lists of
species from these formations at this locality, pub-
lished by Keyes t and Rowley, almost the entire Kinder-
hook fauna is restricted to the Louisiana limestone. Only
thirteen species are recorded from the Hannibal shale,
and of these four are not identified specifically. With two
unimportant exceptions every one of these nine species defi-
nitely recognized is present elsewhere in faunas of Chouteau
age. The species recognized are the following : Atliyrishan-
nibalensis ( — A., (amellosa), Chonetes ornatus, Rhipidomella
missouriensis (this species is probably identical with R. bur-
lingtonensis as identified from Kinderhook horizons), Spi-
rifer marionensis, Syringothyris carteri, Grammy sia hanni-
balensis (a typical specimen of this species from the North-
view sandstone near Wishart, Missouri, is preserved in the
collection of Walker Museum), and Pernopectm cooperensis.
This assemblage of species may be safely considered as rep-
resenting the fauna of the typical Chouteau horizon, in part,
at least the fauna of the upper portion of the Kinderhook
section at Burlington and the Kinderhook fauna of south-
west Missouri.

The so-called Chouteau limestone of the Louisiana section,
a bed with a thickness of but nine feet, contains a more pro-
lific fauna than the Hannibal shale, twenty-eight species in all
being- recorded. Eighteen of these are crinoids or other
echinoderms, which are for the most part Burlington lime-
stone species, every one of them except Rftodocrinus lohitei
being originally described from the lower Burlington lime-
stone or from the bed in question at Louisiana. R. whitei
was described by Hall from the Chemung sandstone at Bur-
lington and probably came from bed No. 7 at that locality.
Of the other species recorded, Zaphrentis calceola, Athyris

* Mo. Geol. Surv. 4 : 48-57.
t Proc. Io. Acad. Sci. 4:29.

Weller — Kinderhook Faunal Studies. 209

lamellosa, Orlhis swallovi, Straparollus latus, and Igoceras
quincyense are all lower Burlington limestone species. Cleis-
topora typa which is identified with a query, is the same as
Leptopora typa of bed No. 7 at Burlington. As has been
pointed out by Keyes * this fauna is allied to that of the Bur-
lington limestone. It is not, however, the Chouteau fauna,
and the bed containing it cannot be correlated with that
formation.

In recent papers Keyes f has suggested the correlation of
the Chonopectus sandstone at Burlington with the Hannibal
shale of the Louisiana section. The paleontological evidence,
however, afforded by the same author, demonstrates the
Chouteau age of the Hannibal shales, and suggests their cor-
relation with the beds representing the Chouteau in the
Burlington section which lie altogether above the Chonopectus
sandstone. If such a correlation prove to be the correct one,
then bed No. 4 may be considered as a northern extension of
the Louisiana limestone as has been suggested in a previous
paper by the writer, % and the Chonopectus fauna may be
considered as being pre Louisiana in age. The fauna of bed
No. 4, however, contains little or nothing to suggest its cor-
relation with the Louisiana limestone.

In a recent paper on the Carboniferous faunas of the Yel-
lowstone National Park, Dr. Geo. H. Girty § has drawn some
interesting comparisons between the fauna of the Madison
limestone of that region, and the Kinderhook faunas of the
Mississippi valley. He says,H " Considering the fauna of the
Madison limestone as a whole, it can be pointed out that, of the
79 species known from this formation, 29 were described from
or have been identified in Kinderhook beds of Ohio, Michigan,
and the Mississippi Valley — that is, about 37 per cent of the
Madison limestone fauna consists of Kinderhook species." A
list of species follows and then he continues, " After making
the necessary deductions from this list, some of whose identi-

* Trans. Ia. Acad Sci. 4:26. — Trans. Acad. Sci. St. Louis. 7 : 357. —
Am. Geol. 20: 167.

t Jour. Geol. 8 : 315. — Am. Geol. 26 : 315.

% Iowa Geol. Surv. 10 : 79.

§ Monog. U. S. G. S. 32: 479-578.

1 Loc. cit. p. 490.

210 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

fications are rather in the nature of approximations, it still
must be apparent that the fauna of the Madison limestone
has many peculiarities of the earlier Mississippian, and in par-
ticular shows a marked affinity throughout with the Kinder-
hook fauna." It is recognized by Dr. Girty, however, that
it is not a pure Kinderhook fauna with which he is dealing,
for he says,* "I do not believe that the facts warrant an
exact correlation of the Madison limestone with the Kinder-
hook horizon of the Mississippi Basin, although the Kinder-
hook affinities of its fauna are obvious. The evidence of such
genera as Endothyra, Eumetria, Archimedes, and other forms
already mentioned, can not be set aside, and the probabilities
involved in placing the Madison limestone, 1,700 feet thick,
to offset the 300 feet of shales, sandstones, and limestones of
the Kinderhook in the Mississippi Talley, are significant.

" A more probable interpretation of the facts observed
seems to be that the Madison limestone represents a large
portion, possibly even the whole, of the Lower Carboniferous
period, being a Kinderhook fauna which through uniformity
of conditions of environment had maintained its essential
characters long after its contemporary fauna to the east had
been superseded."

In making his comparisons between the fauna of the
Madison limestone and the Kinderhook fauna, Dr. Girty
makes no particular mention of any special division of the
Kinderhook faunas, but rather treats them as a unit. A
careful examination of his lists of species shows, however,
that this relationship is especially with the Chouteau fauna
of the Mississippi Valley. The following species of this
fauna at Burlington, are present or are represented by closely
allied species in the Madison limestone.

Yellowstone. Burlington.

Lcptaena rhomboidalis Leptaena rhomboidalis

Orthothetes injiatus Orthothetes in flatus

Orihotkeles inaequalis Orthothetes inaequalis

Chonetes ornatus Chonetes logani

Productella cooperensis Productella concentrica

Loc cit. p. 493.

Welter — Kinderhook Faunal Studies. 211

Yellowstone. Burlington.

Productus parviformis Productus parvus

Cleiolhyris crassicardinalis Cleiothyris hirsuta

Spirifer cenlronatus Spirifer centronatus

Spirifer marionensis Spirifer marionensis

Reticularia cooperensis Reticularia cooperensis

Straparollus utahensis Straparollus oblusus

There is little or nothing in common between the Chono
pectus fauna at Burlington and the fauna described by Girty.

That the Madison limestone represents a time period much
longer than the Chouteau zone of the Kinderhook, seems to
be well assured, in fact it is probably the stratigraphic equiv-
alent of all the formations in the Mississippi Valley from
the Kinderhook at least up to the St. Louis limestone. In this
connection it is of interest to note that in the Chouteau fauna
and more especially in the fauna of the oolite bed at Burling-
ton, there is also an element suggestive of faunas younger
than the Osage. Specimens of Cleiothyris hirsuta not dis-
tinguishable from specimens of the same species in the
Spergen Hill fauna of St. Louis age are present in the oolite
fauna at Burlington. Concardium pulchellus has a Spergen
Hill representative in C. meekanum, Athyris crassicardinalis
is similar to and is perhaps identical with Oentronella crassi-
cardinalis, and the particular variety of Rhipidomella burling-
tonensis present in the oolite bed at Burlington is represented
by R. dubia in the Spergen Hill fauna.

The suggestion offered as an interpretation of all these
various faunal relationships is that after the wide geographic
distribution of the later Kinderhook faunas, from Ohio to
beyond the Rocky Mountains, there was a withdrawal of the
fauna for some reason, within the more western portion of the
area it had occupied, where it continued to flourish during the
period of development of the Osage faunas in the Mississippi
Valley. At a much later period, the beginning of Genevieve
time, this western fauna again migrated eastward and entered
into the fauna of the St. Louis limestone and its stratigraphic
equivalents. The recurrence, in rocks of the age of the St.
Louis limestone at Batesville, Arkansas, of a fauna of much

212 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

older type, even Devonian, has been recorded by Williams,*
but this Batesville fauna seems to have migrated eastward
from the southwestern region. The eastward migration from
the northwest of the fauna containing persistent Kinderhook
types, probably occurred at approximately the same time as a
similar migration from the southwest the evidence of which
is recorded in the rocks of Arkansas.

EXPLANATION OF ILLUSTRATIONS.
Plates XII-XX.

(unless otherwise stated, all figures are of natural size.)

Plate XII. — 1. Chonopectus fischeri (N. & P.). U. of C. Coll. No. 6655. —
2. Chonetes gregarius n. sp. U. of C. Coll. No. 6654. — 3. Bhipidomella
burling tonensis (H.) U. of C. Coll. No. 6656. — 4-7. Holopea conica Win.
4. Type of H. conica. 6. Type of H. mira. 7. Type of H. subcunica. U. of
M. Coll. Nos. 1459, 1460. — 8. Microdon leptogaster (Win.) Type specimen.
U. of M. Coll. No. 1431. — 9. Aviculopecten iowensis Miller. Type speci-
men. U. of M. Coll. No. 1395.

Plate XIII. — 1-3, Syringothyris halli Win. Three views of the most per-
fect of the type specimens. U. of M. Coll. No. 1369. — 4-6. Bhynchopora
pustulosa (White). Three views of one of the type specimens. U. of M.
Coll. No. 1377. — 7-13. Camarotoechia ? heteropsis (Win.). 9-10. Two views
of one of the type specimens, and 11-13; three views of another of the types
of U. M. Coll. No. 1997. 7-8. Two views of the type of B. unica Win. U. of M.
Coll. No. 1999. — 14-16. Pugnax striaticostata (M. & W.). Three views of a
very perfect specimen. The radiating striae are not shown in the drawing.
U. of C. Coll. No. 6658.— 17. Chonopectus fischeri (N. & P.). U. of C. Coll.
No. 6657.

Plate XIV. — 1-2. Spirifer marionensis Shum. Two views of a pedicle
valve. U. of M. Coll. — 3-4. Spirifer centronatus Win. Views of a pedicle and
a brachial valve. U. of C. Coll. No. 6660. — 5. Cyrtina acutirostris (Shum.) ?
View of a brachial valve. U. of C. Coll. No. 6663. — 6-9. Spirifer peculiaris
Shum. ? 6-7. Views of a brachial and a pedicle valve. 8. View of a wax
impression from a natural mould showing an elongate hinge -line and a
sharply defined cardinal area. — 9. Lateral view of an internal cast. U. of M.
Coll. Nos. 1362, 1363, 1413. — 10. Dielasma allei (Win.). The type speci-
men. U. of M. Coll. No. 2004. — 11-13. Camarophorella lenticularis (W. & W.) .
11. A pedicle valve, 12-13, brachial and lateral views of another speci-
men. Type specimens. U. of M. Coll. No. 1356. — 14-15. Beticularia coop •
erensis (Swall.). A pedicle and a brachial valve. U. of M. Coll. No.
1367. — 16-18. Orthothetes inaequalis (Hall). Views of three specimens, one
pedicle and two brachial valves. U. of C. Coll. No. 6662. — 19-20. Leptaena
rhomboidalis Wilck. U. of C. Coll. No. 6659. — 21-22. Producttis parvulus

* Am. Jour. Sci. 49:94-101.

Wetter — Kinderhook Faunal Studies. "213

Win. Two views of one of the type specimens. U. of M. Coll. No. 1338. —
23. Productus arcuatus Hall. U. of M. Coll. No. 6661.— 24-25. Productus
morbilliamis Win. Two views of one of the type specimens. U. of M. Coll.
No. 2003.

Plate XV . — 1-2. Dexiobia ovata (Hall) . Two views of WinchelPs type of
the genus. U. of M. Coll. No. 1425.— 3-4. Dexiobia halli Win. Two views
of the type specimen. U. of M. Coll. No. 1403.— 5-6. Pernopecten cooperen-
sis (Shum.). 5. The type specimen of Aviculopecten limaformis W. & W. 6.
The type of the genus Pernopecten. U. of M. Coll. No. 1388. — 7. Pterino-
pecten nodocostatus (W. & W.). The type specimen. U. of M. Coll. No. 1390
(in part). — 8-9. Nucula ioioensis W. & W. Two of the type specimens.
U. of M. Coll. No. 1423. — 10. Spathella phaselia (Win.). The type speci-
men. U. of M. Coll. No. 1404. — 11. Sphenotus cylindricits (Win.). The
type specimen. U. of M. Coll. No. 1413. — 12. Edmondia strigillata Win,.
The type specimen. U. of M. Coll. No. 1409. — 13. Edmondia nvptialis
Win. The type specimen. U. of M. Coll. No. 1407. — 14. Macrodon
parvus W. & W. The type specimen. U. of M. Coll. No. 1421. — 15-16.
Palaeoneilo microdonta (Win.). Two of the type specimens. U. of M. Coll.
No. 1424. — 17-18. Palaeoneilo barrisi (W. &W.). Two of the type speci-
mens. U. of M. Coll. No. 1425. — 19. Lithophaga mimitan. sp. The type
specimen. U. of M. Coll. No. 1401. — 20. Leda saccata (Win.). View of
an average specimen. U. of C. Coll. No. 6667. — 21-22. Schizodus trigonalis
(Win.). Two specimens, the larger of which is the type. U. of M. Coll.
No. 1419 (in part). U. of C. Coll. No. 6666.-23-24. Bucanopsis perelegans
(W. & W.). The largest of the type specimens. U. of M. Coll. No. 1437.—
25. Straparollus sp. undet. U. of C. Coll. No. 6665. — 26-27. Straparollus
angularts Weller. Two views of one specimen. U. of M. Coll. No. 1454. —
28. Bellerophon sp. undet. U. of C. Coll. No. 6664. — 29. Dentalium grandae-
vum Win. One of the type specimens. U. of M. Coll. No. 1447.

Plate XVI. — 1. Orthothetes sp. undet. U. of C. Coll. No. 6671. — 2-3. Or-
thothetes inflatus (W. & W.). Two of the type specimens, a pedicle and a
brachial valve. U. of M. Coll. No. 1353. — 4-5. Schizophoria subelliptica
(W. & W.). Two views of one of the type [specimens. U. of M. Coll.
No. 1349. — 6. Bhipidomella burling tonensis (Hall)? A pedicle valve. U. of
C. Coll. No. 6670. — 7-8. Leptaena rhomboidalis Wilck. Two views of one
specimen. U. of M. Coll. No. 1347. — 9. Chonetes burlingtonensis n. sp. The
type specimen. U. of C. Coll. No. 6669. — 10-11. Chonetes logani N. & P.
View of a rather large specimen and an enlargement of the minute surface
characters. U. of C. Coll. No. 6668. — 12-14. Productella concentrica
(Hall). One view of a brachial and two views of a pedicle valve. U. of
C. Coll. No. 6672. — 15. Productus arcuatus Hall. Lateral view of an aver-
age specimen. U. of C. Coll. No. 6673. — 16-17. Spirifer marionensis
Shum. A pedicle and a brachial valve. U. of C. Coll. No. 6674. — 18-24.
Athyris crassicardinalis White. Several views of type specimens. U. of M.
Coll. No. 1358 (in part). — 25-27. Cleiothyris hirsuta Hall. Three views
of one specimen. U. of M. Coll. No. 1358 (in part).

Plate XVII. — 1. Pernopecten cooperensis (Shum.). A specimen of aver-
age dimensions. U. of C. Coll. No. 6675. — 2-3. Concardium pulchellum
W. & W. Two views of the type specimen. U. of M. Coll. No. 1427. — 4-5.
Strophostylus bivolve (W. & W.). Two views of one of the type specimens.

214 Trans. Acad. Set. of St. Louis.

U. of M. Coll. No. 1444 (in part). — 6-8. Straparollus obtusus (Hall). Three
views of a nearly perfect specimen. U. of C. Coll. No. 6676. — 9. Loxonema
sp. undet. U. of M. Coll. No. 1450 (in part). — 10-11. Pleurotomaria ?
quinquesulcata (Win.). Two views of the specimen supposed to be the type.
U. of M. Coll. No. 2005. — 12. Pleurotomaria ? sp. undet. U. of C. Coll.
No. 6677. — 13-14. Orthoceras indianense (Hall). Outline views drawn
from an imperfect specimen. U. of C. Coll. No. 6678.

Plate XVIII. — 1. Gyroceras burlingtonensis Owen. Tracing of the origi-
nal illustration of the type specimen. About one-third natural size.

Plate XIX. — 1-4. Camarophoria caput -testudinis (White). 1-3. Three
views of the best of the type specimens from the Burlington limestone. 4.
An imperfect specimen from Bed No. 7. U. of M. Coll. No. 1376. — 5.
Camarotoechia persinuata (Win.). The specimen believed to be the type.
U. of M. Coll. No. 1998. — 6-7. Schizophoria subelliptica (W. & W.). Two
views of the type specimens. U. of M. Coll. No. 1349. — 8. Productus
punctatus Martin. U. of M. Coll. No. 2011. — 9. Orthothetes inaequalis
(Hall) ? U. of M. Coll. No. 1325. — 10-12. Orthothetes infiatus (W. & W.).
Three views of one of the type specimens. U. of M. Coll. No. 1353.

Plate XX. — Spirifer peculiaris Shum. ? U. of M. Coll. — 2-4. Spirifer-
ina solidivostris (White). Views of two of the type specimens. U. of M.
Coll. No. 1372. — 5-6. Spiriferina subtexta White. The type specimen from
the Burlington limestone. Introduced for comparison with S. solidirostris.
U. of M. Coll. No. 1701. — 7-11. Nucleospira barrisi White. Two of the
type specimens. U. of M. Coll. No. 1360. — 12. Worthenia mississippiensis
(W. & W.). The type specimen. U. of M. Coll. No. 1448. — 13-14. Capulus
paralius W. & W.). The type specimens. U. of M. Coll. Nos. 1443. 1994. —
15. Capulus vomerium (Win.) View of an authentic specimen. U. of M.
Coll. No. 2010. — 16. Igoceras undata (Win.). The type specimen. U. of M.
Coll. No. 1995. — 17-18. Bellerophon panneus White. Two views of the best
of the type specimens. U. of M. Coll. No. 1435. — 19. Leptopora typa. Win.
The type specimen. U. of M. Coll. No. 1327.

Issued December 18, 1901 .

Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis, Vol. XI.

Plate XII.

KINDERHOOK FOSSILS.

Trans. Acad. Sci. ov St. Louis, Vol. XI.

Pf.ATK XI 11.

KINDERHOOK FOSSILS.

Trans. Acad. Sci. ok St. Louis. Vol. XI.

Plate XIV.

:/'

12 13

21 22

K1NDERHOOK FOSSILS.

.,CT*Sr

Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. I, oris. Vol.. XI.

Plate XV

Jiuo.r6 UJelltr citi

K1NDERHOOK FOSSILS.

Trans. Acad. Sct. of St. Louis, Vol XI.

Plate XVI.

x-/^|

■!

Wis -

■pf^*^

v -' * ,

Stuart UJeLttr cltl

KINDERHOOK FOSSILS.

Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis. Vol. XI.

Plate XVII.

KINDERHOOK FOSSILS.

Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Lotus, Vol. XI.

I'l.ATE XV 111

KINDERHOOK FOSSILS

Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis, Vol. XI.

Plate XIX

-w

\*'i:

^gse*

Stuart W*lltr clt>/

KINDERHOOK FOSSILS.

Trans. Acad. Sci. op St. Louis. Vol. XI.

Plate XX.

V .

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Transactions of The Academy of Science of St. Louis.

VOn. XI. No. 10.

NORMAL AND TERATOLOGICAL THORNS OF
GLEDITSCHIA TRIACANTHOS, L.

J. ARTHUR HARRIS.

Issued December 24, 1901.

NORMAL AND TERATOLOGICAL THORNS OF
GLEDITSCHIA TRIACANTHOS, L.*

J. Arthur Harris.

In Gleditschia , a genus of wide distribution,! including ten
or more species, \ abnormalities of structure are of very fre-
quent occurrence. Fasciation has been observed in the twig,
malformations in the leaves have been noted by many writers.
Synanthy is often observed. The occurrence of two carpels
in otherwise single flowers is very common. Either of these
cases may lead to the formation of double fruits. Deviations
from the normal structure are of frequent occurrence in the
seedlings. The seeds sometimes contain more than one em-
bryo and the plants developing from them may be grown
together. The occurrence of three cotyledons, splitting of
the cotyledons, and the growing together of the same, either
laterally or dorsally, have been observed.

The above anomalies are mentioned by Penzig,§ where ref-
ences to the literature, as well as a somewhat more extensive
mention of the different cases, may be found, for G. triacan-
thos. Some of the same deformities are noted for other
species of the genus and some teratological phenomena not as
yet observed for G. triacanthos are noted for other species.

* Presented in abstract to The Academy of Science of St. Louis, Decem-
ber 2, 1901.

f Gleditschia is found in Eastern North America and in the mountains of
West Tropical Africa. It is represented by one species in Northern Persia
and the Province of Talysh, south of the Caspian sea. It is widely dis-
tributed in Japan and China. In the Tertiary Period it existed in Europe.
G. amorphoides has recently been described from South America. — See
Sargent, C. S. Silva of North America. 3 : 73-80. 1892. — Taubert, P. Zur
Kentniss einiger Leguminosen- Gattungen. Ber. D. B. G. 10 : 637-642. 1892.

J Index Keioensis gives eight. At least two have been since described
and the Gleditschias of some regions, as China, are very imperfectly
known. — See Sargent, I. c.

§ Penzig, O. Pflanzen-Teratologic. 1:404-407.1890.

(215)

216 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

An examination of the literature shows that more of these
deviations from the normal structure have been reported for
G. triacantlios than for any other species. This may, of
course, be due to its greater accessibility for study. Penzig,
however, in speaking of anomalies of the leaf, says: "Die
Laubblatter fast aller Gleditschien, besonders aber die von
Gl. triacantlios. zeigen sehr hiiufior eine Menge Von Anom-
alien, welche von zahlreichen Autoren studiert und beschrieben
worden sind." This might indicate that G. triacantlios is
the member of the genus especially likely to show abnor-
malities..

In the notes here presented I shall figure and briefly de-
scribe some variations from the usual structure noted in
thorns of Gleditschia during the summer and autumn of
1901 . The material was collected in part in Douglas County,
Kansas, while I was doing work in the Botanical Laboratory of
the University of Kansas, and in part in the region in and
around St. Louis, and on the grounds of the Missouri Botan-
ical Garden, where the work has been put into its present
form;

Sargent * says of the thorns of G. triacantlios: " The
spines, which are undeveloped branches, are three or four
inches long, simple or three-forked, terete, very sharp and
rigid, long pointed, thickened at the base, red at first and
bright chestnut-brown when fully grown; they are produced
on some individuals from above the axils of all the leaves,
and sometimes in large numbers on the trunk and main
branches, but are wanting or nearly wanting in others."

The thorns are usually nearly terete as Sargent describes
them. Some are found, however, which are very much
flattened. Such a case is shown in fig. 26. The branches,
when present, on these flattened thorns are also frequently
considerably flattened.

The branch of the thorn, when present, is subtended by a
small but distinct scar, indicating the presence of a foliage leaf
on the thorn before it became of such a specialized character
as it is at present. This scar is also present in G. aquatica.

The production of thorns from adventitious buds on the

Sargent, I. c.

Harris — Thorns of Gleditschia triacanthos. 217

trunk and larger branches is very common in G. triacanthos.*
The thorns produced from these adventitious buds are as a
rule much larger than those produced in the regular manner
on a normally developed twig. Those on the twig are rarely
over 8 cm. in length and never, so far as I have observed, pro-
duce more than two branches. These branches are usually
small, but in some instances may become quite large, reaching
in some cases a length of 25 mm., when produced on a thorn
80 mm. in length. The thorns produced from adventitious
buds are sometimes as much as 40 cm. in length, usually
much branched, the branches large and frequently bearing
one or two lateral branches of considerable size.

The thorns are not produced exclusively on the trunks of
large trees but also on those of small shoots, sometimes on
those less than an inch in diameter. These thorns are as
much branched as those borne on the large trunks. They
are also similar to them in form, the only difference being
that of size. A thorn 32 mm. long from a sapling an inch in
diameter bore six branches and a thorn 37 cm. long from a
large trunk also bore six. The largest thorns are produced
onlv on trees of considerable size. Small thorns, similar to
those found on small saplings, occasionally occur on com-
paratively large trunks.

On the trunks the thorns are sometimes produced singly
but as a rule are found grouped together, as many as three or
four sometimes originating on a square centimetre, their
numerous branches forming a mass of spines extending in all
directions. This grouping of the spines is also noticed in
young saplings. It sometimes happens that since they are so
crowded the lower branches of these thorns arc somewhat
distorted. A rather extreme example of this is shown in fig.

37.

In G. triacanthoH all trunks do not produce thorns alike,

but many are found which are entirely free of them. 1 have
not made sufficiently extensive observations to decide what
conditions, if any may be determined, are responsible for this.
Sargent f says, in discussing the size attained by G. triacan-

* Thorns are also produced in the same way iu G. aqnatica and in G.
amorphoides . — See Taubert, I. c.
t Sargent, l. c.

218 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

thos: " In less favorable situations and in poorer soil it is
low, stunted, wide branched, and often covered with thorns."
Whether or not it will be found that the production of thorns
on the trunk is more apt to occur in individuals developing
under unfavorable conditions, I cannot say.

It might seem that the production of these thorns is
governed to a certain extent by inherent individual tendencies.
I have not been able to account for it entirely on the basis of
environment, since individuals with or without them may be
found in the most widely differing localities, rich, moist
bottom land as well as the poorer, dryer soil of the hills.

To find an explanation for one of the anomalies observed it
will be necessary to notice the ontogeny of the normal thorn.
Various explanations of its position and origin have been
offered. The following * seems the most plausible. In the
growing tip of the Gleditschia twig there is early differentiated
in the axis of the leaf primordium, the meristem of the axil-
lary shoot. As growth progresses this axillary bud is carried
forward by the elongation of the main axis. The region
below this axillary bud is surrounded in its earlier stages of
development by the somewhat clasping base of the leaf petiole
and here are formed a series of buds, beginning next the orig-
inal axillary bud and passing down the stem, the lowest bud
being the last formed. It will thus be seen that, although in
its mature form it is removed a considerable distance from the
axis of the leaf, the thorn has its origin in the original axil-
lary bud. In subsequent vegetative periods these buds de-
velop into foliage branches, thorns and flowers. One of the
buds usually develops into a short branch, about 3-6 mm.
long, bearing a rosette of once pinnate leaves which represent
a very important part of the photosynlhetic surface of the
plant. In one of the two following years this branch usually
dies but it may be continued as one of the regular foliage
branches.

While the thorns on the trunk are usually much branched,
all the buds produced on them usually do not develop. Fig. 35

* See Delbrouck, Courad. Die Pilanzen-Stacheln. Botanische Ab-
handluugeu aus dem (Jebiet dtr Morphologie uud Physiologic 2 : *. — Kussel,
W. Recherches sur les bourgeons multiples. Auu. Sci. Nat., Botauique.
vii. 15 : 93-202.— Shull, Geo. II. Accessory buds. Bot. Gaz. 21 : 166-169.

Harris - - Thorns of Gleditschia triacanthos. 219

represents a case in which only the two lower buds have de-
veloped at all and tig. 36 a case in which only a bud near
the end of the thorn has developed. In tig. 31 is shown a
case in which the development of practically all the lateral
buds seems to have been induced by an injury to the terminal
growing point of the central axis. Here we have produced
eleven branches from a central axis 80 mm. in length. Of
these, seven are longer than, or nearly as long as, the main
axis.

In July I noticed many of the perfectly formed thorns pro-
duced from adventitious buds on trees srowino; in the neigh-
borhood of Lawrence, Kansas, which bore leaves below the
branches. The same was noticed for trees in St. Louis,
Missouri, in October. Not all the thorns thus produced were
leaf -bearing but many of them were. The per cent., in some
eases, might reach as high as 50. Whether or not the pro-
duction of these leaf- bearing thorns is more common one vear

CD *j

than another I cannot say.

The leaves produced on the thorns are quite variable. An
extensive description is unnecessary since a glance at the
tigures conveys a good idea of their form. They are some-
times simple, ovate, sometimes once pinnate, of varying
length and varying form of pinnae, sometimes bipinnate, or
only a part of the leaflets again divided.

In speaking of leaf anomalies in this species Penzig says:
" Sie treten, nach dem was ich beobachtet habe, leichter am
Stock-Ausschlag auf, als an normal entwickelten Zweigen,
sind daher an den zur Ilecken verschnittenen oder als nied-
rige Straucher gehaltenen Exemplaren haufiger, als an den
Zweigen natursviichsiger Biiume."

The production of leaves on thorns seems to be confined to
those produced from adventitious buds. I have never, unless
it be in one case, found any indication of such among the
thorns of normal branches.

Of course, as mentioned above, some of the buds produced
on these thorns do not develop into thorn branches, and it is
not at all uncommon to find leaves whose axillary buds have
failed to develop, as in figs. 1, 2 and (J.

It is of interest in this connection to note that in 1858

220 Trans. Acad. Set. of St. Louis.

M. Baillon exhibited * to the Societe Botaniquo de France a
branched thorn of Ol^dil^cliia (species not recorded) bearing
flowers at the extremities. Where the thorn was produced is
not stated but it not improbably originated in an adventitious
bud on the trunk.

On the trunks of trees in St. Louis and the surrounding
regions were noticed thorns which had produced two branches,
one immediately or close above the other. Several of these
are figured.

While only mature material has been available for study
the explanation of this seems to be as follows. There is pro-
duced in the axil of the leaf or the leaf scar on the devel-
oping thorn, the meristem of an axillary shoot, which is carried
forward some distance from the axis of the leaf, and one or
more supernumerary primordiums are developed below this
primary axillary bud, just as in the normal twig. The pro-
duction of the second, and lower, of the branches is to be
accounted for by the development of a supernumerary bud.
In many cases a small bud may be detected between the base
of the branch and the leaf scar. In some cases the lower
thorn has become abortive while its development is incom-
plete. Even where its development appears at first examina-
tion to be complete it is often found to be more flattened, or
less terete, than the upper branch, and has something of the
appearance of a blighted or withered structure. As may be
seen from the figures they show no regularity as to size,
being sometimes larger and sometimes smaller than the one
above. In four cases, figs. 11, 14, 15 and 22, the lower
branches were found producing secondary branches. In one
of these cases, fig. 22, the branch of the second order was pro-
duced on the lower side of the branch, that is to say pointing
towards the trunk. This is the only case I have noticed of
a branch of the second order being produced on the lower
side of the branch in a plane parallel to the main axis of the
thorn. In a few cases these secondarj7 branches have been
observed on the upper side of the branches, as shown in
fig. 28. When produced here they were sometimes found in
addition to the two usual lateral thorns found farther down.

In these superposed thorns it will be noticed that one

* Bull. Soc. Bot. France. 5: 316. 1858.

Harris — Thorns of Gleditsch>a Iriacanthos. 221

thorn is sometimes placed immediately above the other, and
sometimes removed a considerable distance. Compare figs.
14, 17, 18, 19 and 22. This may be accounted for by the
variation in the distance above the axis of the leaf to which
the first formed bud is carried before growth in length ceases.
Even where a second branch is not produced considerable
variation in this distance is noticeable, the leaves being some-
times immediately, and sometimes a considerable distance,
below the branch. Compare the figures on Plate XXI.

While I am not prepared to say whether the production of
leaves on thorns is more common one year than another, I
have been able to note, in a general wav, no differences in the
number of cases of superposed thorns produced in different
years, the occurrence of such being seemingly equally numer-
ous among the old, weathered thorns, which are falling off
the trees, and those more recently formed.

It is certainly not without interest or significance that, on
the thorn produced from an adventitious bud, the branch
developing from the bud which probably corresponds to the
one producing the thorns on the normal twig is almost invari-
ably a perfectly formed thorn showing little variation in form,
while the one developing from the bud which probably cor-
responds to the one producing the foliage branch in the nor-
mal twig shows a considerable range of variation in form.

It seems not at all improbable that it might be possible to
find a complete series of gradations between the most special-
ized type of thorn and the foliage branch produced from
adventitious buds. It is certainly difficult to determine to
what class some of the material examined belongs. Figs. 28
and 29 show a stem, bearing some resemblance to the usual
type of twig, developed from one of the supernumerary buds
on an adventitious twig, which otherwise would have passed
as a perfectly formed thorn. In Fig 30 is seen a well-formed
and branched thorn developed from one of the supernumerary
buds on a twig produced from an adventitious bud on the
trunk of a large tree. This occurrence was very common in
the twig from which this was taken, in one case three well-
formed thorns being produced.

The production of the anomalies above described seems to
be confined, for the most part, to certain individuals, or at

222 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

least in them occurs most frequently. The thorns produced
on one trunk may be well supplied with leaves while those
on another may have none. The superposed thorns may
occur abundantly on some trees and not at all on others.

The same observation was made by Penzig, who says in
speaking of leaves : "■ Sehr oft ist die Tendenz, Blattmonstrosi-
tiiten hervorzubringeu, an einzelne Individuen ganz besonders
ausgebildet, und man kann an solchen Exemplaren Anomalien
der verschiedensten Art vereint finden."

EXPLANATION OF ILLUSTRATIONS.
Plates XXI-XXV.

Plate XXI. — 1-7. Various forms of leaf-bearing thorns produced from
adventitious buds. — 1-6, X*- — 7>X h-

Plate XXII. — 8-9. Brauches of adventitious thorns, from above, showing
size of secondary branches, X L — 10-17. Forms of superposed thorns. —
10, X2.— 11-17, X I-

Plate XXIII. — 18-24. Various forms of superposed thorns from adventi-
tious buds. — 21 shows a deflection from its course of the main axis by the
strong development of lateral branches. The same thing is also to be seen
in figure 27.— 18-23, X L — 24, about X h-

Plate XXIV. — 25. One of six lateral branches from a thorn 29 cm. long
from the trunk of a large tree, from above, showing the production of a
lateral secondary branch nearer the end than is usually seen, X 1- The tip
of the central axis had been broken off, a fact which may account for the
very large size of two of the branches. — 26, A much flattened thorn from an
adventitious twig four years old. — 27, Terminal portion of adventitious
thoru, showing almost equal size of terminal portion of central axis and
the last branch, also variatiou in the size of the branches, X *■ — 28, Node
of twig from adventitious bud on trunk of large tree. The twig has all the
appearance of a large but perfectly -formed thorn except that one of the
supernumerary buds has developed into a twig bearing in turn two large
brauches in the form of thorns (see 29), X 2- — 29, A continuation of the twis:
from fig. 28, X h- — 30, Node of adventitious twig showing thorn developed
from supernumeraiw bud, X !••

PI. XXV. — 31. Adventitious thorn in which the development of a large
number of lateral buds seems to have been brought about by an injury to the
tip of the main axis,X £• — 32, Branch from large adventitious thorn. Not
as large as is sometimes found but the largest simple branch noticed, X 1- —
33, 34, Adventitious thorns which have been injured, apparently by some
insect, possibly Cicada, laying eggs in them, X 1- — 35, Adventitious thorn
producing branches only near the base, X 3- — 36, Adventitious thorn in
which only one of the buds near the end has developed. An uncommon oc-
currence, Xi — 37, Base of adventitious thorn showing deformities due
to crowding, X L

Issued December 24, 1901 .

Trass. Acad. Sci. or St. Louis, Vol. XI.

I'LATE XXI.

THOENS <>K GLED1TSCHIA.

Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis, Vol. XI.

l'LATE XXII.

THORNS OF GLEDITSCFIIA.

Tkans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis, Vol. XL

Plate XXIII.

THORNS <>F GLEDITSCHIA.

Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louin. Vol. XI.

Plate xxiv.

THolfNS OF GLEDITSCHIA.

Teans. A.cajd Sci. of St. Louis, Vol. XI.

IT. ATE xxv

THORNS OF GLKDITSCHIA.

List of Authors. 223

LIST OF AUTHORS.

Alleman, G. xxxii

Baker, C. F. xxxi
Baker, F. C. xxxiv, 1, 143
Brennan, M. S. xviii
Bush, B. F. xxxvi

Che8Sin, A. S. xxxiv-v

Hambach, G. xxxii
Harris, J. A. xxxv, 215

Kodis, T. xxv, xxviii

Lefevre, G. xxxi, 71

Marbut, C. F. xxix
McKenzie, K. K. xxxvi

Nipher, F. E. xx, xxii, xxv, xxvi, xxix-xxxi,
xxxiii, xxxvi, 51, 63, 105

Pauls, G. xxvi, xxxii, xxxiii, xxxiv
Poats, T. G. xviii, 41

Roever, W. H. xxxii
Rolfs, P. H. xxii, 25
Russell, C. xxiv

Sawyer, A. xxiv, xxx
Soldan, F. L. xxxvi
Stedman, J. M, xvii

Thurman, J. S. xxviii
Trelease, W. xxiv, xxxiv, 125

Van Ornum, J. L. xxii

Weller, S. xxxiv, 147
Woodward, C. M. xxix

224

Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

GENERAL INDEX.

Air, compressed xxviii
Astronomy xviii

Ball lightning xxvi

Blastoldeae xxxii

Botany xxii, xxxiv, xxxv, 25, 125,

215
Brain, staining xxviii
Burlington fossils xxxiv, 147

Cell doctrine 94, 131
Chemistry xxxii

Classification, biological 75, 125
Color xxxv
Compressed air xxviii

Diazo-compounds xxxii

Earth's rotation xxxii, xxxiv
Ecology 135
Education xxxvi
Electricity xxv, xxvi, 117
Embryology xxxi
Energy 107
Engineering xxii
Ether xxxvi, 112
Evolution 86, 129

Falling bodies xxxii
Favosite xxxiv
Florida lichens xxii, 25

Galls xxvi, xxxii
Gaseous nebulae xxxi, 63
Generation length xxix
Geology xxix
Grapes xxxiii, xxxiv
Gravitation xxxi, xxxii, 63

Harmony of tone and color xxxv
Heat of nebulae xxxi, 63

Indian remains xxiv, xxviii, xxx
Isogonic projection xviii, 41

Kinderhook fossils xxxiv, 147

Librarian xl
Lichens xxii, 25
Life zones xvii
Light 112

Meetings for 1902 xv
Memorials xxi, xxvil
Mexico xvii
Mollusca xxxiv, 1, 143
Morphology 72, 103, 131
Museum xxviii, xxxiv

Nebulae xxxi, 63

Officers xvii, xxxv, xxxvii

Paleontology xxxii, xxxiv, 147
Photography xx, xxii, xxv, xxix,

xxx, 51, 121
Physics xxxiii, 105
Physiology xxv, 132
President xxxi, xxxii, xxxiii, xxxvii
Progress in science.

Astronomy xviii

Botany xxxiv, 125

Chemistry xxvi

Education xxxvi

Engineering xxii

Geology xxix

Physics xxxiii, 105

Zoology xxxi, 71
Protoplasm 97, 134

Resolutions xxxiii

Shells, deformed xxxiv
Spines xxxv, 215
Staining brain xxviii

Tone and color xxxv
Top xxxiv
Treasurer xl

Wood, buried xxiv

Zoology xxxi, 71

Index to Genera.

225

INDEX TO GENERA.

Acolium 37

Ambocoelia 205

Arthonia 35

Athyris 186-8, 205, 208, 211, 213.

pi. 16
Avicula 190
Aviculopecten 151-2, 167-8, 212-3.

pi. 12, 15

Bellerophon 178-9, 203, 205, 213-4.

pi. 15,20
Biatora 32
Bucania 205

Bucanopsis 178-9, 205, 213. pi. 15
Buellia 33
Bulimnea 2

Camarophorella 162, 205, 2l2.pl. 14
Camarophoria 196, 207, 2li.pl. 19
Camarotoechia 156-7, 197, 212, 214.

pi. 13, 19
Capulus 201-2, 205, 214. pi. 20
Cardiomorpha 175-6
Cardiopsis 205
Celtis xxvi
Centronella 162
Chiodecton 35
Chonetes 149, 151, 182-4, 204, 207-8,

210,212, 213. pi. 12, 16
Chonopectus 149-151, 154, 203, 212.

pi. 12,13.
Cladonia 31
Cleiothyris 187-8, 205, 211, 213.pl.

16
Cleistopora 209
Collema 28

Conocardium 190, 211, 213. pi. 17
Crenipecten 205
Cyrtina 167, 205-6, 2l2.pl. 14

Dentalium 180, 206, 213. pi. 15
Dexiobia 175-6, 205, 213. pi. 15
Dielasma 162, 189, 205, 212. pi. 14

Edmondia 170, 205, 213. pi. 1 5
Elymella 205
Enterographa 35
Euphemus 205

Qleditschia xxxv, 215. pi. 21-5

Glyphis 35

Grammysia 208

Graphis 34

Gyalecta 30

Gyroceras 193-4, 21i.pl. 18

Gyrostomum 31

Helix 21

Heterothecium 33
Holopea 153, 212.pl. 12
Holopella 153

Igoceras 202, 209, 214. pi 20

Lampsilis 144, 146. pi. 11
Lecanora 29
Lecidea 33

Ledal75,205, 213. pi. 15
Leptaena 159, 180, 204, 206, 210, 213.

pi. 16
Leptogium 28

Leptopora 194, 209, 214. pi. 20
Lespedeza xxxvi
Limnaea 1, 17, 24. pi. 1
Limnophysa 2

Llthophaga 168, 205, 213. pi. 15
Loxonema 153, 190, 205, 214.

pi. 17

Macrodon 169, 205, 213. pi. 15
Metoptomia 202
Microdon 152, 212. pi!. 12
Modiola 169
Modiomorpha 205
Mourlonia 205
Mycoporum 37
Myriangium 31

226

Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

Naticopsis 192
Nucleospira 199, 214. pi. 20
Nucula 172-3, 205, 213. pi. 15
Nuculana 175

Reticularia 166, 205, 207, 211-2.

pi. 14
Rhipidomella 160, 151, 181-2, 204,

208, 211, 212-3. pi. 12, 16
Rhodocrinus 208
Rhynchonella 156, 197-8, 207
Rhynchophora 157, 212. pi. 13

Opegrapha 33

Orthis 209

Orthoceras 154, 193, 206, 214. pi. 1 7 Rinodina 30

Orthonota 172

Orthothetes 151, 159, 181, 195-6, Sanguinolaria 152

204, 206, 210, 212-4. pi. 14, 16, Sanguinolites 171, 205

19 Scalarituba 204

Schizodus 176, 205, 213. pi. 15
Pannaria 28 Schizophoria 182, 196, 204, 213-4

Palaeoneilo 173-4, 205-6, 213. pi. pi. 16,19

Segestria 38

Permelia 26

Spathella 172, 205, 213. pi. 15

Pernopecten 168, 189-190,205-8, sphenotus 171, 205, 213. pi. 15

2l3.pl. 15,17
Pertusaria 30

Phanerotinus 179, 205, 207.
Physcia 27
Placodium 29
Platygrapha 33
Platyschisma 205
Pleurotomaria 191, 00-1,205,214

pi. 17
Porcellia 205

Spirifer 159, 163, 165-7, 188, 198,
205-8, 211-4. pi. 14, 1 6, 20

Spiriferina 198-9, 205, 214. pi. 20

Spirophyton 206

Sticta 28

Stigmatidium 36

Straparollus 154, 178, 191, 205-6,
209, 211,213-4. pi. 15,17

Streptorhynchus 196

Strigula 39

Productella 184-5,205, 207, 210, strophostylue 192-3, 213. pi. 17

213. pi. 16 Succinea2

Productus 160-1, 185-6, 196, 204, Syringothyria 168, 205, 208, 212

206-7, 211-4. pi. 14, 1 6, 19 pi. 13

Proetus 206

Promacrus 177, 205-7 Thelotrema 30

Pterinopecten 167-8, 205, 213. pi. Triboloceras 206

15 Tropidodiscus 205

Ptychodesma 205
Pugnax 150, 154, 203, 212. pi. 13
Pyrenastrum 39
Pyrenula 38
Pyxine 27

Trypthelium 38

Unio 145-6. pi. 11
Usnea 26

Radix 2
Ramalina 26

Worthenia 200, 214. pi. 20
Zaphrentis 180, 204, 208

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Transactions of The Academy of Science of St. Louis.

VOL.. XL No. 11.

TITLE-PAGE, PREFATORY MATTER AND INDEX.
RECORD FROM JAN. 1 TO DEC. 31, 190^.

Issued January 12, 1902.

MEMBERS.

1. PATRONS.

Harrison, Edwin 3747 Westminster pi.

2. ACTIVE MEMBERS.

Adkins, Benjamin C Water Dept., City Hall.

Adkins, James Park and Vandeventer avs.

Alleman, Gellert ...Washington University.

Alt, Adolf 3036 Locust st.

Andrews, William Edward Taylorville, 111.

Bain, Robert Edward Mather 900 Locust st.

Bailey, Liberty Hyde Ithaca, N. Y.

Baker, Carl Fuller Stanford University, Calif.

Ball, David C 27 William st., New York City.

Barck, Carl 2715 Locust st.

Bartlett, George M 215 Pine st.

Bauduy, J. K 2810 Olive st.

Baumgarten, Gustav 5227 Washington av.

Becktold, William B 212 Pine st.

Bernays, A. C 3623 Laclede av.

Biebinger, Frederick W 1421 S. 11th st.

Bixby, William Keeney 13 Portland pi.

Bolton, Benjamin Meade 4160 McPherson av.

Boogher, John H 4034 Delmar boul,

Bouton, Charles Leonard 503 Craigie Hall,

Cambridge, Mass.

Brannon, Melvin A University, N. Dak.

Bremer, Ludwig 3723 West Pine boul.

Brennan, Martin S 1414 O'Fallon st.

Brimmer, George G 6900 Michigan av.

Brookings, Robert S 5125 Lindell av.

Brown, Daniel S 2212 DeKalb st.

Bryson, John P 209 N. Garrison av.

Budgett, Sidney Payne 1806 Locust st.

Bursr, William 1756 Missouri av.

Burnett, E. C : University Club.

Busch, Adolphus 1 Busch pi.

Busch, Aug. A Busch pi.

Bush, Benjamin Franklin Courtney, Mo.

vi Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

Calvert, Sidney State University, Columbia, Mo.

Carpenter, George O Russell and Compton avs.

Carter, Howard Webster Groves, Mo.

Carver, George Washington Tuskegee, Ala.

Chaplin, Winfield S 3636 West Pine boul.

Cbappell, W. G 3810 Westminster pi.

Chase, E. C Oriel bldg.

Chauvenet, Louis 5501 Chamberlain av.

Chessin, Alexander S Washington University.

Chouteau, Pierre 912 Security bldg.

Chouteau, Mrs. Pierre 912 Security bldg.

Compton, P. C 4156 Washington boul.

Comstock, T. Griswold 3401 Washington av.

Conklin, Harry R Joplin, Mo.

Conzelman, John E 2901 Morgan st.

Cramer, Gustav ,c/0 G. Cramer Dry Plate Co.

Crandall, George C 4287 Olive st.

Crunden, Frederick Morgan Public Library.

Curtis, William S St. Louis Law School.

Cushman, Alierton S Bryn Mawr, Pa.

Dame, James E 2353 Albion pi.

Dameron, Edward Caswell Clarksville, Mo.

Davis, H. N 56 Vandeventer pi.

Davis, John D 421 Olive st.

Diehm, Ferdinand 1834 Kennett pi.

Dodd, Samuel M 415 Locust st.

Douglas, Archer W c/o Simmons Hardware Co.

Drake, George S 64 Vandeventer pi.

Duenckel, Frederick William 2912 Ellendale av.

Durant, George F ..9 Benton pi.

Eggert, Henry 1001 Collinsville av.,

East St. Louis, 111.

Eliot, Edward C 5468 Maple av.

Eliot, Henry W 2635 Locust st.

Engler, Edmund Arthur 11 Boynton st., Worcester, Mass.

Engman, Martin F 2608 Locust st.

Erker, Adolph P 608 Olive st.

Espenschied, Charles 3500 Washington av.

Euston, Alexander 3730 Lindell boul.

Evers, Edward 1861 N. Market st.

Ewing, Arthur E 6024 West Cabanne pi.

Members. vii

Favor, Ernest Howard Box 842, Columbia, Mo.

Fischel, Washington E 2647 Washington av.

Forbes, Stephen A Urbana, III.

Fordyce, John R 2223 Louisiana st.,

Little Rock, Ark.

Forster, Marquard 2317 S. 13th st.

Francis, David R 4421 Maryland av.

French, George Hazen Carbondale, 111.

Frerichs, Frederick W 4608 S. Broadway.

Frick, John Henry Warrenton, Mo.

Fruth, Otto J 3066 Hawthorne boul.

Fry, Frank R 3133 Pine st.

Funkhouser, Robert Monroe 3534 Olive st.

Gazzam, James Breading 514 Security bldg.

Gerling, H. J 4320 Cook av.

Glasgow, Frank A ...3894 Washington boul.

Glasgow, William C 2847 Washington av.

Goetz, Victor 129 Market st.

Goldstein, Max A 3702 Olive st.

Goodman, Charles H 3329 Washington av.

Graham, Benjamin B 5145 Lindell boul.

Graves, William W 1943 N. 11th st.

Graves, Willis Nelson 2813 Lafayette av.

Gray, Melvin L 3756 Lindell boul.

Grebe, E 3839 Russell av.

Green, John 2670 Washington av.

Gregory, Elisha Hall 3525 Lucas av.

Gregory, Elisha H., Jr Harvard Medical School,

Boston, Mass.

Grindon, Joseph 4546 Laclede av.

Grocott, Willis Henry 5179 Delmar av.

Gurney, James Tower Grove and Magnolia avs.

Guy, William Evans. 4380 Westminster pi.

Haarstick, Henry C Main and Walnut sts.

Habermaas, Albert .3109 S. Jefferson av.

Hambach, Gustav * 1319 Lami st.

Hardaway, W. A 2922 Locust st.

Hartmann, Rudolph 2020 Victor st.

Held, George A International Bank.

Herzog, William 3644 Botanical ar.

* Elected a life-member January 3, 1882.

viii Trans. Acad. Set. of St. Louis.

Hirschberg, Francis D 3818 Lindell boul.

Hitchcock, Albert Spear U. S. Dept. Agriculture,

Washington, D. C.

Hitchcock, George C 3877 Washington av.

Hitchcock, Henry 709 Wainwrightbldg.

Holman, M. L 3744 Finney av.

Holzinger, John Michael 207 W. King st., Winona, Minn.

Homan, George 323 Odd Fellows' bldg.

Hough, Warwick West End Hotel.

Hughes, Charles Hamilton 3860 West Pine boul.

Huiskamp, John E 5554 Cabanne av.

Hume, H. Harold Lake City, Fla.

Hunicke, Henry August 3532 Victor st.

Hurter, Julius 2346 S. 10th st.

Hyatt, Robert J U. S. Weather Bureau.

Ives, Halsey C Museum of Fine Arts.

Jackson, Clarence M 1201 Paquin st., Columbia, Mo.

Johnson, J. B 4244 Washington boul.

Johnson, Reno DeO Desloge, Mo.

Jones, Breckinridge 4010 Lindell boul.

Keiser, Edward H Washington University.

Kennett, A. Q 2916 Lucas av.

Keyes, Charles R 944 Fifth st., Des Moines, la.

Kinealy, John H Washington University.

King, Goodman 78 Vandeventer pi.

Kirchner, Walter C. G 4234a Easton av.

Kline, George R 215 Pine st.

Kodis, Theodore Schado wo,

Government Kowno, Russia ,
Krall, George Warren Manual Training School.

Lackland, Rufus J 1623 Locust st.

Langsdorf, Alexander S Washington University.

Leavitt, Sherman 1618 Indiana av., Chicago, 111.

Lefevre, George State University, Columbia, Mo.

Leighton, George Bridge = ....803 Garrison av.

Letterman, George W Allenton, Mo.

Lichter, John J 5305 Virginia av.

Loeb, Hanau Wolf 3559 Olive st.

Ludwig, Charles V. F 1509 Chouteau av.

Lumelius, J. George 1225 St. Ange av.

Lyon, Hartwell Nelles 3910 Russell ay.

Members. ix

Mack, Charles Jacob 113 N. Broadwa}r.

Mallinckrodt, Edward 26 Vandeventer pi.

Markham, George Dickson 4961 Berlin av.

Marx, Christian William Box 73, Columbia, Mo.

Maserang, Joseph, Jr Washington and Leffingwell avs.

Mason, Silas C Berea, Ky.

Matthews, Leonard 300 N. 4th st.

Meier, Theodore G 3938 Washington boul.

Merrell, Albert 3814 Washington boul.

Michel, Eugene H 2721S. King's Highway.

Miller, Charles F 1751 Missouri av.

Monell, Joseph T Flat River, Mo.

Monroe, Lee Ernest Eureka, Mo.

Moore, Robert 61 Vandeventer pi.

Morton, Isaac W c/o Simmons Hardware Co.

Mottier, David M Bloomington, Incl.

Mudd, Harvey G 2604 Locust st.

Muegge, Aug. H Grand av. and Hickory st.

Mueller, Ambrose Webster Groves, Mo.

Nagel, Charles 3969 Washington boul.

Nasse, Aug 209 N. 2d st.

Nelson, Aven Laramie, Wyom.

Niedringhaus, George W 3745 Lindell boul.

Nipher, Francis E Washington University.

Norton, J. B. S College Park, Md.

Oelfcken, Ernst W 3207 Olive st.

Oglevee, Christopher Stoner Lincoln, 111.

Olshausen, Ernest P 1115 Rutger st. »'

Olshausen, George R Armour Institute, Chicago, 111.

O'Reilly, Andrew J 326 City Hall.

O'Reilly, Robert J 3411 Pine st.

Outten, W. B Mo. Pacific Hospital.

Overstolz, Herman , 100 N. Broadway.

Palmer, Ernest Jesse 321 S. Allen st., Webb City, Mo.

Pammel, Louis Hermann Ames, la.

Pantaleoni, Guido 415 Locust st.

Parker, George Ward 417 Pine st.

Parsons, Charles 2804 Pine st.

Pauls, Gustavus Eureka, Mo.

Pettus, W. H. H 2834 Chestnut st.

x Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

Pike, Sherman B 5881 Cates av.

Pitzman, Julius 1900 S. Compton av.

Poats, Thomas Grayson Clemson College, S. C.

Post, Martin Hay ward 5371 Waterman av.

Preetorius, Emil c/0 Wesiliche Post.

Prewitt, Theodore F 4917 Berlin av.

Primm, AlexanderT., Jr c/o J- Kennard & Sons.

Pritchett, Henry Smith Institute of Technology,

Boston, Mass.
Pulsifer, William H The Grafton, Washington, D. C.

Quaintance, A. L Experiment, Ga.

Randall, John E 1910 Olive st.

Ravold, Amand 2806 Morgan st.

Reverchon, Julien Box 229, Dallas, Tex.

Robert, Edward Scott... 1105 Union Trust bldg.

Roberts, Herbert F Manhattan, Kas.

Robertson, Charles Carlinville, 111.

Roever, William Henry Cambridge, Mass.

Rogers, Herbert F c/0 Provident Chemical Works.

Rolfs, Peter H Tropical Laboratory, Miami, Fla.

Rosenwald, Lucian Las Vegas, New Mex.

Runge, Edward C Supt. Insane Asylum.

Russell, Colton Los Angeles, Calif.

Sander, Enno 2807 Lawton av.

Sargent, Charles Sprague Jamaica Plain, Mass.

Schmalz, Leopold 2824 Shenandoah av.

Schneck, Jacob Mt. Carmel, 111.

von Schrenk, Hermann Shaw School of Botany.

Schroers, John 1730 Missouri av.

Schrowang, Otto 122 N. 3d st.

Schwab, Sidney 1 2602 Locust st.

Schwarz, Henry 1723 Chouteau av.

Schweitzer, Paul Columbia, Mo.

Scott, Henry C 64 Vandeventer pi.

See, Thomas Jefferson Jackson ..Naval Observatory,

Washington, D. C.

Selby, Augustine Dawson Wooster, O.

Senseney, E. M 2829 Washington av.

Sheldon, Walter L 4065 Delmar av.

Shepley, JohnF 60 Vandeventer pi.

Members. xi

Shoemaker, Wm. Alfred 4386 Westminster pi.

Simmons, E. C 9th and Spruce sts.

Simmons, W. D ,...9th and Spruce sts.

Sluder, Greenfield 2647 Washington av.

Smith, Arthur George 422 N. Dubuque st., Iowa City, la.

Smith, D. S. H 3646 Washington boul.

Smith, Irwin Z 87 Vaudeventer pi.

Smith, Jared G Honolulu, Hawaiian Islands.

Soldan, F. Louis 3634 Flad av.

Spiegelhalter, Joseph 2166 Lafayette av.

Starr, John E 258 Broadway, New York City.

Staudinger, B 3556 Lindell boul.

Stedman, John Moore State University, Columbia, Mo.

Stevens, Charles D 1749 S. Grand av.

Stevens, Wyandotte James 5377 Cabanne av.

Stocker, George J 2833 S. King's Highway.

Stone, Charles H 5562 Clemens av.

Strauss, Julius C 3516 Franklin av.

Stuart, James Lyall 5346 Maple av.

Sutter, Otto 3035 Bell av.

Taussig, Albert E 2318 Lafayette av.

Taussig, William 3447 Lafayette av.

Teichmann, William C 1141 Market st.

Terry, Robert James 2726 Washington av.

Thacher, Arthur 4304 Washington boul.

Thiele, Albert 2746 Park av.

Thilly, Frank 601 Hitt st., Columbia, Mo.

Thorn, Charles State University, Columbia, Mo.

Thomas, John R 420 N. 4th st.

Thomson, Wm. H., Jr 3805 Lindell boul.

Thurman, John S 416 Lincoln Trust bldg.

Timmerman, Arthur H 2633 Park av.

Tittmann, Harold H 3726 Washington boul.

Trelease, William Mo. Botanical Garden.

Tyler, Elza Edward State University, Columbia, Mo.

Tyrrell, Warren Ayres 3620a Folsom av.

Updegraff, Milton 2505 Wisconsin av.,

Washington, D. C.

Valle, Jules F 3303 Washington av.

VanOrnum, John Lane Washington University.

xii Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

Vickroy, Wilhelni Rees 2901 Rauschenbach av.

von Schrader, George F Wainwright bldg.

von Schrader, Otto U 3749 Westminster pi.

Warren, William Homer 1806 Locust st.

Watts, Millard F 4362 Morgan st.

Weller, Stuart University of Chicago,

Chicago, 111.

Westgate, John Mintou 6023 Ellis av., Chicago, 111.

Wheeler, H. A 3124 Locust st.

Whelpley, Henry Milton 2342 Albion pi.

Whitaker, Edwards 300 N. 4th st.

Whitten, John Charles Columbia, Mo.

Whittier, Charles Thurston 92 St. James pi., Brooklyn, N. Y.

Widmann, Otto Old Orchard, Mo.

Winkelmeyer, Christopher 3540 Lawton av.

Winslow, Arthur 104 W. 9th St., Kansas City, Mo.

Wislizenus, Frederick A 3628 Cleveland av.

Witt, Thomas D Rushville, 111.

Wood, Obadiah M 3016 Caroline st.

Woodward, Calvin Milton Washington University.

Zahorsky, John 1460 S. Grand av.

THE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE OF ST. LOUIS.

ORGANIZATION.

The Academy of Science of St. Louis was organized on the
10th of March, 1856, in the hall of the Board of Public
Schools. Dr. George Engelmann was the first President.

CHARTER.

On the 17th of January following, a charter incorporating
the Academy was signed and approved, and this was accepted
by vote of the Academy on the 9th of February, 1857.

OBJECTS.

The act of incorporation declares the object of the Academy
to be the advancement of science and the establishment in St.
Louis of a museum and library for the illustration and study
of its various branches, and provides that the members shall
acquire no individual property in the real estate, cabinets,
library, or other of its effects, their interest being usufruc-
tuary merely.

The constitution, as adopted at the organization meeting
and amended at various times subsequently, provides for hold-
ing meetings for the consideration and discussion of scientific
subjects; taking measures to procure original papers upon
such subjects ; the publication of transactions ; the establish-
ment and maintenance of a cabinet of objects illustrative of
the several departments of science, and a library of works
relating to the same; and the establishment of relations with
other scientific institutions. To encourage and promote special
investigation in any branch of science, the formation of special
sections under the charter is provided for.

MEMBERSHIP.

Members are classified as active members, corresponding
members, honorary members and patrons. Active member-

xiv Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

ship is limited to persons interested in science, though they
need not of necessity be engaged in scientific work, and they
alone conduct the affairs of the Academy, under its constitu-
tion. Persons not living in the city or county of St. Louis,
who are disposed to further the objects of the Academy by
original researches, contributions of specimens, or otherwise,
are eligible as corresponding members. Persons not living in
the city or county of St. Louis are eligible as honorary mem-
bers by virtue of their attainments in science. Any person
conveying to the Academy the sum of one thousand dollars or
its equivalent becomes eligible as a patron.

Under the bj-laws, resident active members pay an initia-
tion fee of five dollars and annual dues of six dollars. Non-
resident active members pay the same initiation fee, but
annual dues of three dollars only. Patrons, and honorary and
corresponding members, are exempt from the payment of
dues. Each patron and active member not in arrears is
entitled to one copy of each publication of the Academy
issued after his election.

Since the organization of the Academy, 926 persons have
been elected to active membership, of whom, at the present
time, 287 are carried on the list. One patron, Mr. Edwin
Harrison, has been elected. The list of corresponding mem-
bers (Vol. X. p. xii) includes 205 names, among which are
the names of 102 persons known to be deceased.

OFFICERS AND MANAGEMENT.

The officers, who are chosen from the active members, con-
sist of a President, two Vice-Presidents, Recording and Cor-
responding Secretaries, Treasurer, Librarian, three Curators,
and two Directors. The general business management of the
Academy is vested in a Council composed of the President,
the two Vice-Presidents, the Recording Secretary, the Treas-
urer and the two Directors.

The office of President has been filled by the following well-
known citizens of St. Louis, nearly all of whom have been
eminent in some line of scientific work: George Engelmann,
Benjamin F. Shumard, Adolphus Wislizenus, Hiram A.
Prout, John B.Johnson, James B. Eads, William T. Harris,

Abstract of History.

Charles V. Eiley, Francis E. Nipher, Henry S. Pritchett,
John Green, Melvin L. Gray, Edmund A. Engler, and Robert
Moore.

MEETINGS.

The regular meetings of the Academy are held at its rooms,
1600 Locust Street, at 8 o'clock, on the first and third Mon-
day evenings of each month, a recess being taken between
the meeting on the first Monday in June and the meeting on
the third Monday in October. These meetings, to which
interested persons are always welcome, are devoted in part to
the reading of technical papers designed for publication in
the Academy's Transactions, and in part to the presentation
of more popular abstracts of recent investigation or progress.
From time to time public lectures, calculated to interest a
larger audience, are provided for in some suitable hall.

The following dates for regular meetings for the year 1902
have been fixed by the Council: —

Jan.

6
20

Feb.

Mar.

April.

May.

June.

Oct.

Nov.

Dec.

1
15

LIBRARY.

After its organization, the Academy met in Pope's Medical
College, where a creditable beginning had been made toward
the formation of a museum and library, until May, 1869,
when the building and museum were destroyed by fire, the
library being saved. The library now contains 14,164 books
and 10,350 pamphlets, and is open during certain hours of
the day for consultation by members and persons engaged in
scientific work.

PUBLICATIONS AND EXCHANGES.

Eleven thick octavo volumes of Transactions have been pub-
lished since the organization of the Academy, and widely

xvi Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

distributed. Two quarto publications have also been issued,
one from the Archaeological section, being a contribution to
the archaeology of Missouri, and the other a report of the
observations made by the Washington University Eclipse
Party of 1889. The Academy now stands in exchange rela-
tions with 561 institutions or organizations of aims similar to
its own.

MUSEUM.

Since the loss of its first museum, in 1869, the Academy
has lacked adequate room for the arrangement of a public
museum, and, although small museum accessions have been
received and cared for, its main effort of necessity has been
concentrated on the holding of meetings, the formation of a
library, the publication of worthy scientific matter, and the
maintenance of relations with other scientific bodies.

December 31, 1901.

RECORD.

From January 1, 1901, to December 31, 1901.

January 7, 1901.

President Engler in the chair, thirty-one persons present.

The nominating committee reported that 128 ballots had
been counted, and the following officers for 1901 were declared
duly elected : —

President Edmund A. Engler.

First Vice-President D. S. H. Smith.

Second Vice-President M. H. Post.

Recording Secretary William Trelease.

Corresponding Secretary... .Hermann von Schrenk.

Treasurer Enno Sander.

Librarian G. Hambach.

Curators . . . . .G. Hambach,

Julius Hurter,
Robert J. Terry.

Directors H. W. Eliot,

Adolph Herthel.

The President delivered an address on the condition of the
Academy and its work during the year 1900.*

The Treasurer submitted his annual report, showing invested
funds to the amount of $(5,500.00 and a balance of $450.26
carried forward to the year 1901.f

The Librarian submitted his annual reporfc.J

The resignation of Dr. J. K. Bauduy, Mr. Holmes Smith,
Professor J. B. Johnson and Mr. F. N. Judson was reported
by the Council.

Professor J. M. Stedman, of the University of Missouri,
gave an interesting account of a personal examination of the
life-zones of Mexico, made by him last summer, in the course
of which he crossed the continent from Vera Cruz to Man-

* Transactions 10 : lxvi. f Transactions, 10 : lxix. X Transactions. 10 : lxix.

xviii Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

zanillo, making the ascent of Popocatepetl to the summit in
doing so. The address was illustrated by a large series of
lantern slides, presenting some of the more striking features
of the physiography and vegetation of the country, and illus-
trating the customs of the Mexicans.

Messrs. John E. Conzelman, Otto Schrowang and W. H.
Thomson, Jr., of St. Louis, were elected to active member-
ship.

Three persons were proposed for active membership.

January 21, 1901.

President Engler in the chair, twenty-seven persons present.

The death of Mr. Charles P. Chouteau, a charter member
of the Academy, and the resignation of Professor L. T. More,
were reported by the Council.

Rev. M. S. Brennan read a short sketch of the progress of
astronomy in the United States, in which the material equip-
ment and discoveries made in that science in this country
during the past century were passed in review.

A paper by Professor T. G. Poats, entitled Isogonic projec-
tion, was presented in abstract by Professor Nipher.

Professor F. E. Nipher showed by means of the lantern a
series of negatives printed by contact from a lantern slide or
positive picture, by the light of a 300 candle incandescent
lamp. The unit of exposure adopted was one lamp-meter-
second. The exposures varied from 0.0054 to 4800. All
were developed in the dark-room with hydrochinon, those
above 0.1 exposure having in the bath one drop of saturated
hypo to the ounce of bath. The plate having an exposure
of 0.1 seemed to be normally exposed. An exposure 210
gave a negative showing some fogging, but a print from it by
ordinary methods gave a very satisfactory result. With longer
exposures, the plate began to reverse, locally. With an ex-
posure of 3600, which was an exposure of one hour at a dis-
tance of one meter from a 300 candle lamp, half of the plate
still showed as a negative. The shadow on the gown of a
figure in the landscape showed white as a negative, and the

Record. xix

part of the gown in sunshine showed white as a positive. The
penumbra between light and shadow was darker. All the
details were sharp, but lights and shadows were somewhat
incongruous. With an exposure of 4800 the details had not
yet all reversed, but the greater part of the plate had become
a positive.

The greatest exposure giving a negative which would yield
an acceptable print was 210, which was 39,000 times the least
exposure which would give a good negative. All exposures
of 210 and over gave complete positives when the plates were
developed 1.41 meter from a 16 candle lamp, or in stronger
light. As good a picture as has been obtained had an expo-
sure of 4800, and was developed within half a meter of a 300'
candle lamp. A fair picture had even been obtained from a
two-hour exposure to direct sunlight with a Cramer " Crown '
plate.

It was stated that hypo in the developing bath did not
affect the zero condition, or change the character as to posi-
tive and negative. When no hypo is used, the plate fogs so
quickly that the picture is invisible, before it has time to fully
develop. After fixing, the thin shadowy picture showing on
the fogged plate has the same local positive and negative
characters that are shown on the clearly defined picture of
the same exposure, when developed in the hypo-hydrochinon
bath.

The greatest exposures giving good results that have been
measured with reasonable accuracy were about 900,000 times
as great as the least exposure giving a good negative in the
dark-room. This factor can certainly be trebled. A plate
having any intermediate exposure can be developed either as
a good positive in the light, or as a good negative in the dark-
room.

It was stated that the best results with plates near the zero
condition had been reached with a rather strong bath, with
two drops of saturated hypo to the ounce of bath.

Messrs. W. G. Chappell and Sherman Leavitt, of St. Louis,
and Mr. Ernest Howard Favor, of Columbia, Missouri, were
elected to active membership.

Four persons were proposed for active membership.

xx Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

February 4, 1901.

President Engler in the chair, thirty-eight persons present.

An invitation from the K. K. zoologisch-botanische Gesell-
schaft, of Vienna, was presented, for the Academy to par-
ticipate in its fiftieth anniversary session on March 30, and on
motion the Corresponding Secretary was instructed to extend
the congratulations and well wishes of the Academy to the
officers of that Association, together with the Academy's
regret that it could not be personally represented at the
meeting.

Professor F. E. Nipher showed, by means of the lantern,
positive and negative photographic pictures developed from
plates equally exposed, and positives reproduced from each.
He outlined briefly the character of the work which he is now
prosecuting on this subject, and stated that since his last com-
munication he had succeeded in still further shortening the
duration of the exposure necessary to secure good positives,
so that he appeared to be rapidly realizing his hope that it
will shortly be possible to convert any plate, which on the
beginning of the development in the dark room shows too
great exposure to yield a good negative, into a positive, by
leading it beyond the zero point and completing the develop-
ment in the light.

Messrs. W. N. Graves and George C. Hitchcock, of St.
Louis, Dr. Lee E. Monroe, of Eureka, Missouri, and Mr. W.
L. Sachtleben, of Alton, Illinois, were elected to active mem-
bership.

Two persons were proposed for active membership.

February 18, 1901.

President Engler in the chair, twenty -three persons present.

The Council reported the resignation of Dr. L. C. McElwee.

On behalf of a committee appointed at a previous meeting
to present a suitable memorial of the late Charles P. Chou-
teau, a charter member of the Academy, Dr. Green presented

Record. xxi

the following report, which was ordered entered on the

minutes and transmitted to the family of the late Mr.

Chouteau : —

IN MEMORIAM.

CHARLES PIERRE CHOUTEAU.

Born, in St. Louis, December 2, 1819; died, in St. Louis, January 5, 1901.

March 10, 1856, The Academy of Science of St. Louis was organized; a
constitution and by-laws were adopted, and officers elected. The name of
Charles P. Chouteau appears in the minutes as a member of the Board of
Council; it is the only name carried on the roll of active members at the
beginning of the new century. Of the fifteen founders who took part in the
meeting for organization, but one now remains affiliated as a corresponding
member; two others are still living in St. Louis.

The establishment of a museum by the A( ademy dates from its second
meeting, April 21, 1856; at this meeting " Mr Charles P. Chouteau stated
that he would place the collection of fossil remains, obtained by Dr. Hayden
from the Mauvaises Terres and other parts of Nebraska, now in his posses-
sion, in the Museum of the Academy . . . His own interest in the
collection, amounting to about one -fourth of the whole, he presented as a
donation." A second one- fourth interest in this very important collection,
" of Mammalian and Chelonian remains from the Eocene Tertiary, together
with a large suite of elegantly preserved fossils from the Cretaceous For-
mation of Nebraska," was acquired a year later by subscription; the other
half having become the property of the Academy of Natural Sciences of
Philadelphia. The museum was rapidly increased by a great number of
valuable donations, and occasionally by purchases, noted in the minutes of
successive meetings down to the oui break of the Civil War, in 1861 Promi-
nent among the donors appears, again and again, the name of Charles P.
Chouteau, whose continuing interest is shown b"th by his very numerous
gifts of important specimens and by his repeated acts of enlightened liber-
ality in providing for a collector or other representative of the Academy to
accompany him, as his guest, on the annual steamboit expeditions of the
American Fur Company to the Upper Missouri Frequent notices in the
Journal of Proceedings testily to the extent and the value ot the additions
made to the Museum from these trips. By the destruction of the collections
of the Academy, by fire, in May, 1869, the visible evi. enceof the munificence
of Mr. Chouteau and other early benefactors has been obliterated; the mag-
nitude of the loss may be inferred, rather than estimated, from the too brief
notices contained in the minutes as published in the first and second volumes
of the Transactions. The fragment of a lariie meteorite from Nebra ka,
presented May 17, 1858 (vide Transactions, Vol. 1. pp. 711-12, Plate XXI),
alone remains of the many and priceless gifts of Charles P. Chouteau to the
Academy.

At the Annual Meeting, January 12, 1857, Caarles P. Chouteau was elected
to the office of Second Vice President; in an act of the General Assembly
of the State of Missouri, approved January 17, 1857, his name appears as a
Charter Member, in conjuction with fGeorge Enirelmann, fHiram A. Prout,
Nathaniel Holmes, fBeujamin F. Stiumard, fCharles W. Steven^, f Jmnes
B. Eads, fMoses M. Palleu, fAdolphus Wisliz nus, fCharles A. Pope, and
William M. McPheeters.

xxii Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

As a young man, Charles P. Chouteau engaged in the trading enterprises
of the American Fur Company, in whose service he spent .nuch time in the
Territories of the Northwest. He was the fir-t and only navigator who took
steamboats up the Missouri river from St. Louis to Fort Beuton. Inherit-
ing property from his father, Pierre Chouteau, he added largely to it. He
became a large owner in the famous Iron Mountain and eugaged in the pro-
duction and working of iron on an expensive scale. Himself educated as
an engineer, he took a kindly interest in studious and progre-sive young
men and found pleasure in assisting them. During his long life his inter-
ests were identified with the growth and development of St. Louis; his
name wil! be remembered as one of her best and most honored citizens.

As a benefactor and steadfast supporter of the Academy, from its incep-
tion, Charles P. Chouteau stands for u«, as a type of the busy and successful
man of affairs, endowed with a keen appreciation of what is highest and
best in human endeavor, and ever lending a willing hand to earnest workers

in science.

John Green,

Enno Sander,

Francis E. Niphbr.

Professor J. L. Van Ornum addressed the Academy on The
progress made in engineering during the nineteenth century.

A paper by Professor P. H. Rolfs, entitled Florida lichens,
was presented by title.

Professor F. E. Nipher exhibited two photographic nega-
tives, developed by an ordinary pyro developer. One plate
had been exposed in a printing frame for 1,000 seconds at a
distance of a meter from a 300 candle lamp. It was then
treated for ten minutes in a chromic acid bath having ten
drops of an eight per cent, solution of chromic acid to three
ounces of water. This treatment was in the dark-room. The
plate was then developed in the dark-room.

The exposure of the other plate had been equivalent to
a tenth of a second at the same distance from the lamp,
and was exposed under the same plate. This plate developed
normally in a pyro developer, having six drops of bromide
and six drops of potassium ferro-cyanide, both in ten per
cent, solutions. The over-exposed plate showed more of de-
tail, but the contrasts were less strong than iu the plate with
normal exposure. It looked like a slightly under-exposed
plate.

"When a plate with this exposure is treated with the chromic
acid bath while in the light and is then developed in the light,
a positive picture results. The chromic acid bath may be

Record. xxiii

replaced by ten drops of saturated potassium bichromate so-
lution, and four drops of common C. P. nitric acid, to three
ounces (90 cc.) of water. There is reason to believe that
any camera exposure which was intended to be correct may
be developed as a positive in the light by such methods. It
is certain that it may be handled as a negative in the dark-
room.

Professor Nipher stated that if either a negative or a posi-
tive had been started and had resulted in a failure, due to
improper treatment, the picture with the fog on the plate
might be chemically destroyed by chromic acid, and the pic-
ture might be redeveloped in either case either as a negative
in the dark-room or as a positive in the light.

It was also stated that one plate had been developed as a
superb negative at a distance of a meter from a 300 candle
lamp. This case was very remarkable, because, on account
of an accident in the treatment, a failure or a poor positive
had been expected. Several repetitions of this treatment had
failed to yield this result again.

It is frequently observed that with a strong pyrocatechin
developer the picture will start as a negative in the light, and
will reach a fair degree of excellence, and then reverse. This
is all in the nature of an oscillation such as is known in elec-
tric discharges. The phenomenon is not observed in a weaker
or in a more slowly acting bath. The anomalous case before
referred to could hardly be accounted for in this way, be-
cause the picture developed very slowly in a normal hydro-
chinon bath, and grew steadily better until it was sharply
defined on the back of the film. This case is still being
examined.

Mr. George A. Held and Dr. George Homan, of St. Louis,
were elected to active membership.

One person was proposed for active membership.

March 4, 1901.

President Engler in the chair, fourteen persons present.

The Council reported that at their request Professor T. H.
Macbride and Mr. W. L. Sachtleben, who had not qualified,
had been dropped from the list of members.

xxiv Trans. Acad. Set. of St. Louis.

An invitation for the Academy to be represented at the fifth
International Congress of Zoology, to be held in Berlin,
August 12-16, 1901, was presented and referred to the Coun-
cil [which subsequently designated Mr. Julius Hurter as the
representative of the Academy at the Congress] .

The Corresponding Secretary read a communication from
Dr. Amos Sawyer, entitled Ethnographic life lines left by
a prehistoric race, the paper being illustrated by sketches,
fragmentary human remains, and stones believed by him to be
stone implements, but not necessarily such, derived from a
prehistoric grave examined some ten miles southwest of Hills-
boro, Illinois, on the west side of Shoal Creek. In one in-
stance it was stated that a grave consisting of six large slabs
of limestone contained six skeletons, their thighs flexed upon
the abdomen, the legs upon the thighs, their arms placed by
their sides and their heads at either end of the inclosing box
and facing east and west. From the limited capacity of the
slab-inclosed graves, the writer inferred that the remains had
been placed in them after skeletonization, as there was not
sufficient room for the number of bodies found unless the
muscles had been removed, and it was argued from this that
the remains were those of men prominent in the nation.

The Corresponding Secretary read a further communication
from Dr. Sawyer, referring to a piece of wood found at a
depth of 400 feet below the surface, in sinking a shaft for a
coal mine. The specimen was said to have occurred in a ten-
foot layer of loam filled with the debris of a forest, and the
specimen submitted, like others, had been flattened by pres-
sure .

In the discussion of these communications, Mr. Colton
Russell stated that west of St. Louis, in a number of so-called
Indian graves which he had examined, the encasing with
rough limestone slabs, mentioned by Dr Sawyer, had been
observed, and Dr. Trelease called attention to the fact that
the specimen of wood exhibited, which did not seem to be
petrified, belonged to post-glacial times and was perhaps
comparable with certain pieces of wood, supposed to be cedar,
but not yet carefully studied, which Mr. Hermann, the Sewer
Commissioner of St. Louis, had found in company with

Record. xxv

bones of the early bison in the glacial detritus through which
a storm sewer is being excavated at Tower Grove.

A paper by Dr. T. Kodis, On the action of the constant
current upon animal tissue, was presented by the Secretary
and read by title.

Professor F. E. Nipher stated that he wished to take this
occasion to correct some misapprehensions concerning the
development of photographic positives. He stated that the
effect of development in the light was to make the normal
exposure for positives shorter than when they are developed
in the dark-room. When for a given illumination of the
developing room the exposure has been properly made, the
ordinary developer used for negatives may also be used for
positives, without any restrainer. The restrainer is only
needed when the plate to be developed as a positive has been
under-exposed, or the plate to be developed as a negative
has been over-exposed. In both cases it is an approach to
the zero condition which calls for the restrainer.

Professor Nipher added that Mr. Cockayne, of the Helio-
type Company, of Boston, had suggested to him the use of
potassium f erro-cyanide in place of potassium bromide in devel-
oping positives, and he had found it to give great brilliancy to
the pittures. A Cramer " Crown " plate exposed in a printing
frame for a couple of minutes at a south window, just out of
the direct rays of the sun, under a thin negative or positive,
may be developed at the same place. A few drops of ten
per cent, solution of the ferro-cyanide may be added, and
even as much as one part in twelve of developer has yielded
excellent results. The bath has in some cases been wholly
made up of the ferro-cyanide solution, the other chemicals
being added in dry form. The action of the ferro-cyanide is
quite different from that of bromide in equal strength,
although it may be largely a matter of degree.

This bath should not be quite so strongly alkaline as for
negatives, in order to get the best results. The best results
when positives are developed in daylight are as fine as can be
obtained in the dark-room in the ordinary developing of nega-
tives. Various developers have been tried, but none of them
have yielded as good results as hydrochinon.

xxvi Trans. Acad. Set. of St. Louis.

Mr. G. Pauls laid before the Academy a branch of a small
hackberry (Celtis) which had become completely covered
with the small nodular galls frequently borne in smaller
quantities by the hackberry, and called attention to the fact
that in this particular case the natural enemies of the gall-
forming creatures seemed to have been absent, allowing the
unusual multiplication.

Dr. Albert Habermaas, of St. Louis, was elected to active
membership.

Three persons were proposed for active membership.

March 18, 1901.

President Engler in the chair, forty-three persons present.

Professor Edward H. Reiser delivered an address on
Progress in the science of chemistry during the nineteenth
century.*

Professor F. E. Nipher exhibited pieces of pine board a
foot square, showing the tracks of ball lightning discharges
upon them like those formerly described by him in No. 6,
Volume X, of the Transactions of the Academy. The dis-
charges formerly described had been formed on a photo-
graphic film. The balls were very small, and wandered over
the plate, leaving a track of metallic silver in their wake. In
the present instance the balls were much larger, and they
burned a deep channel in the wood. They are formed at the
secondary spark gap of a coil. The terminals are pointed
and are under control, so that the gap may be changed in
length. To start the balls, the pointed terminals are put upon
the wood surface, so near that the surface carbonizes some-
what, after which the gap is made longer. These balls travel in
either direction, when a direct current is used with a Wehnelt
interrupter. This differs from the results reached on the
photographic film with the Holtz machine. There the balls
came from the cathode. Even when they originated at isola-
ted points on the film, they traveled away from the cathode.

In the present results, the balls have been caused to orig-

* This address was printed in full in Science, n. s. 13: 803-9. 1901.

Record. xxvii

inate at isolated points, and two balls have started in
opposite directions. Wood which gives little flame shows
the phenomenon to best advantage, but the balls preserve
their identity and travel slowly along even when completely
surrounded by flames of the burning wood.

Messrs. George G. Brimmer and J. E. Dame, of St. Louis,
and Mr. Ernest J. Palmer, of Webb City, Missouri, were
elected to active membership.

One person was proposed for active membership.

April 1, 1901.

President Engler in the chair, thirty-three persons present.

On behalf of a committee appointed at a previous meeting
to take suitable action on the death of the late Judge Nathan-
iel Holmes, a charter member of the Academy, the following
memorial was read, adopted and ordered recorded in the
minutes: —

Judge Nathaniel Holmes, for mauy years a valued member of the Acad-
emy of Science of St. Louis, died at bis home in Cambridge, Mass., March
1, 1901.

He was born in Peterborough, New Hampshire, January 2, 1815. He was
a graduate of Harvard of the class of 1837. In 1839 he was admitted to
the bar, and later he established himself in St. Louis. In 1846 he was Cir-
cuit Attorney. His name appears in the list of charter members of the Actd-
emy, and at the first regular meeting on March 10, 1856, he was of the com-
mittee which reported a constitution and by-laws for the government of the
Academy. At this meeting he was chosen Second Vice-President, and a
member of the Council. At the January meeting the next year, he was
chosen Corresponding Secretary. This position he contiuued to hold almost
continuously until 1883, when he retired from the practice of his profession
and removed to Cambridge, Mass.

During 1866 and 1867, while actins as judge of the Supreme Court of
Missouri, be was relieved of the duties of Corresponding Secretary, but he
then served as Second Vice-President, and the frequency with which his name
appears in the proceedings indicates that he even then took an active part
in the work of the Academy. From 1868 to 1873 he acted as Royall Pro-
fessor of Law at the Harvard Law School. On his return to St. Louis he
resumed his services to the Academy, and during the next ten years he was
untiring in his efforts in its behalf. He was not himself a worker in sci-
ence, but he followed the work of others in this country and abroad with
the greatest interest. He was particularly and from the first interested in
the ideas of Darwin and the evolutionists who followed him.

In the early years of its life he did a great service to the Academy by

xxviii Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

putting it in communication with foreign societies of learning, and securing
an exchange of publications, although tbe Academy had little to offt r. The
result was the accumulation of the valuable library of science now owned
by the Academy, and which, even in his day, was a thing of which St. Louis
might well be proud. He always examined all of our exchanges as ihey
were received, and at each meeting he made a report to the Academy, out-
lining the ground covered t>y the more important works, and giviug a gen-
eral summary of the results reached. We still have on our ord> r of bus-
iness the Report of the Corresponding Secretary, which dates back to his
time.

During the Civil War and the years which followed, the interest, of the
public in the work of the Academy was at a low ebb. He was one <>f the
few citizens of St. Louis whose constant presence at the meetings gave
assurauce that there was still hope.

Your committee to whom was referred the taking of suitable action in
commemoration of his services to the Academy feel that we owf to him and
to those who labored with him a debt of gratitude which we can only com-
pensate by actively continuing the work which he and his companions so

worthily began.

Francis E Nipher.

Enno Sandkr

G. Baumgartbn.

The Secretary reported that Dr. Amos Sawyer had pre-
sented to the Museum of the Academy the specimens and
sketches used in illustration of his communication on Ethno-
graphic life lines left by a prehistoric race, presented at the
meeting of March 4, 1901.

Mr John S. Thurman delivered an interesting address on
the many industrial uses now made of compressed air, illus-
trating his remarks by apparatus in operation, including elec-
tric motor air compressor, compressed air auger, drill, disin-
fecting atomizer, sculptors' and stone-cutters' tools, carpet
renovators, etc., and a set of lantern slides showing the prac-
tical uses made of these and other implements and machines
operated by means of compressed air.

Dr. Theodore Kodis exhibited, under the microscope, slides
illustrating a new method of staining brain tissue, whereby,
in four or five days, it has proved possible to prepare single
or double stained preparations containing nerve cells with the
dendrides of the latter brought out by a direct stain, instead
of being differentiated merely as amorphous silhouettes, as is
the case with the much slower Golgi process commonly em-
ployed. It was stated that the material is treated before sec-

Record. xxix

tioning, for about twenty-four hours, with cyanide of mer-
cury, followed for approximately the same length of time by
a formaldehyde solution, after which sections are cut, stained
with phosphomolybdate haematoxylin and, if desired, a con-
trasting stain, such as one of the aniline greens, and mounted
in the usual way.

April 15, 1901.

President Engler in the chair, thirty-two persons present.

The Council reported that the Societe Scientifique et Medi-
cale de l'Ouest, of Rennes, France, had been added to the
exchange list of the Academy.

Professor F. E. Nipher presented by title a paper On the
relation of direct to reversed photographic pictures, which on
motion was referred to the Council.

Professor C. F. Marbut delivered an address on The ad-
vance made in geology during the nineteenth century. The
speaker discussed the earlier attempts to explain the structure
of the earth, describing the work of Weber, Hutton, Lyell
and Cuvier in establishing the chronological scale in general
acceptance to-day. The origin of volcanoes, the folding of
the earth's crust, the formation of mountains and the study
of the rocks were among the topics treated.

Professor CM. Woodward spoke of An easy method of
determining the length of a generation. The speaker ob-
served that the average length of human life is often assumed
to be what is meant by a generation, but that it is quite a
different thing. The average length of human life in a given
community is readily found by averaging the ages of those
who die. The statistics for this purpose are given in mort-
uary reports. He had calculated that average from the An-
nual Report of the Board of Health of St. Louis, and had
found it to be between twenty and twenty-one years. The
length of a generation is the average difference in age
between father and son; and it is at once evident that this
difference is equally independent of child mortality and of
longevity. Social and race conditions largely determine the
marriageable age and hence the length of a generation. The

xxx Trans. Acad. Set. of St. Louis.

length of life depends upon race, climate, sanitary regula-
tions, medical science, etc. The schedules of the United
States Census contain all the data necessary for determining
the length of a generation, as the ages of fathers and sons
are given in such proximity that the relationship is obvious.
From a few examples the speaker had found the length of a
generation of males to be about thirty-two years. For
females, that is mother and daughter, it is less than thirty
years.

Professor Nipher discussed in brief the latest results of his
work on direct and reversed photographs as embodied in his
paper presented for publication.

Mr. Benjamin C. Adkins, of St. Louis, was elected to
active membership.

One person was proposed for active membership.

May 6, 1901.

President Engler in the chair, twenty-two persons present.

The Council reported that exchange relations with the
Cambridge Entomological Club had been discontinued.

The Corresponding Secretary read a letter from Mr. Pierre
Chouteau, acknowledging the receipt of the memorial of the
late Charles P. Chouteau, adopted by the Academy. The
Corresponding Secretary also read a letter from Mr. Arthur
MacDonald, requesting the Academy's indorsement of the
proposed establishment, under the Department of the In-
terior, of a psycho-physical laboratory for medico-sociological
purposes. This was referred to the Council. The Corre-
sponding Secretary read a letter from Dr. Amos Sawyer,
accompanying a peculiar object appearing as if consisting of
soapstone and of a dark color, which had been found in the
Indian village from which objects exhibited at a recent meet-
ing of the Academy were taken. It was about three inches
long, and, a piece having been broken off at one end by
accident, it was seen to be hollow within, with an interior
core seemingly of hard yellow clay. Dr. Sawyer questioned
whether it might possibly have been a plaything of some
Indian child.

Record. xxxi

Mr. C. F. Baker presented an interesting embryological
exhibit, consisting of fresh material, dissections, and slides
under the microscope, representing the development of the
chick during the first forty-eight hours of segmentation. Mr.
Baker's purpose in giving the demonstration was to show that
with inexpensive apparatus, and inexpensive models, prepared
of cardboard and paper, it was within the power of any high
school teacher of biology to give a practical knowledge of ver-
tebrate embryology to this extent as a part of the regular
laboratory and class-room work.

The secretary presented a letter from Professor Engler,
tendering his resignation as President of the Academy, be-
cause of his approaching removal from the city, the resig-
nation to sro into effect not later than June 15. It being-
Professor Engler's wish that immediate action should be
taken in the matter, the resignation was accepted and the Sec-
retary was instructed to state on the announcement of the
next meeting of the Academy that a committee would then
be elected to submit nominations for the Presidencv of the
Academy, in accordance with the provisions of the By-Laws.

Dr. William A. Shoemaker, of St. Louis, was elected to
active membership.

One person was proposed for active membership.

May 20, 1901.

President Engler in the chair, twenty-six persons present.

The Council reported that the request of Mr. Arthur Mac-
Donald presented at the last meeting had been declined as not
coming within the scope of the Academy, in the judgment
of the Council ; and the Entomological Society of London
had been canceled from the exchange list.

Professor George Lefevre delivered an address on The
advance made in zoology during the nineteenth century.

A paper by Professor F. E. Nipher, entitled The specific
heat of gaseous nebulae in gravitational contraction, was
presented and read by title.

xxxii Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

As a committee to nominate a candidate or candidates for
the office of President for the remainder of the current year,
Messrs. Baumgarten, Green and Alleman were elected.

Mr. Lucian Rosenwald, of Las Vegas, New Mexico, was
elected to active membership.

June 3, 1901.

President Engler in the chair, twenty-two persons present.

The nominating committee elected at the last meeting
placed Mr. Robert Moore in nomination for the vacant office
of President of the Academy for the remainder of the current
year, and on motion the Secretary was instructed to issue the
ballots for this special election not later than June 5, and to
state that the polls would close at six p. m., June 15.

The following papers were presented by title and referred
to the Council: —

The action of alcohol on certain isomeric diazo-compounds,
by Dr. Gellert Alleman.

A revision of the Blastoideae, by Dr. G. Hambach.

Mr. Win. H. Roever read a paper on The effect of the
earth's rotation upon falling bodies, in which he showed that
a body falling from a great height has a southward deviation
in the northern hemisphere and a northward deviation in the
southern hemisphere. The deviation is given by the for-
mula—

7 h V

1 -d \K sin <£ cos <f> , T-r . , ,

\ R) ^ \ K sin <p cos <p

A = h

It \3^ o f (^ t h \ l — Ecosl<j>

(l + ^)zTcos^ (l + ^)

in which h is the height through which the body falls, R the
radius of the earth (assumed spherical), cf> the latitude of the

place of observation, K the numerical fraction and A

289
the deviation. H.h and R are given in feet, A is in feet.

For h = 578 feet and <£ = 45,° A =.00133 inch.
Mr. G. Pauls presented a number of specimens collected
at Eureka, Missouri. He exhibited a larse number of galls

Record. xxxiii

on hickory, maple and oak leaves, commenting on the remark-
able variety of the forms of galls made by the minute insects.
He had bred a good many of these insects, and found that
in successive years a good many different forms came from
the galls.

October 21, 1901.

Dr. Green was elected chairman pro tern. About forty-five
persons were present.

The Council reported that on a report of the nominating
committee, 156 ballots having been cast, Mr. Robert Moore
had in June been declared elected President of the Academy
for the remainder of the current year ; that the Academy had
been represented at a meeting of representatives of various
bodies called by the President of the Missouri Historical So-
ciety to take steps toward securing a permanent home for the
Academy and other bodies; that through the death of Colonel
George E. Leighton, Mr. Edward Walsh, Jr., Dr. E. S.
Lemoine, and Mr. Adolph Herthel, the Academy had lost
four members; and that the names of Messrs. J. M. Coulter,
F. M. Hugunin, E. T. Jester, and G. H. Pegram had been
removed from the list of members.

Professor F. E. Nipher delivered an address of popular and
technical as well as scientific interest on Progress made in
physics during the nineteenth century.

Mr. G. Pauls exhibited a number of varieties of grapes
cultivated by him, among them a seedling of superior value,
the Dora, and a large suite of specimens illustrating the
coloring of autumnal foliage.

A communication from a committee representing the Mis-
souri Historical Society and other bodies was read, request-
ing action by the Academy, and on motion the following
preamble and resolutions were unanimously adopted : —

Whereas, It" is understood that an effort is being made to secure, among
the buildings needed for the Louisiana Purchase Exposition, one of fire-
proof material, suitably located, and to be used after the Exposition for the
housing in an accessible and instructive manner of the libraries and collec-
tions of the Missouri Historical Society, The Academy of Science of St.
Louis, and other organizations devoted to history, archaeology, natural his-
tory and other pure and applied sciences, and for meeting places for such
organizations,

xxxiv Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

Besolved, That The Academy of Science of St. Louis is heartily in favor of
such effort and indorses the proposed ends, which it believes are in the best
interest of the community at large.

Besolved, further, That a committee of three be appointed by the chair
without delay, authorized to represent this body, in connection with similar
committees appointed by other organizations, in such action as may be
necessary to secure the desired end.

Two persons were proposed for active membership.

November 4, 1901.

President Moore in the chair, twenty persons present.

The Council reported the resignation of Mr. N. O. Nelson.

Professor A. S. Chessin addressed the Academy On the
motion of a top, taking into account the rotation of the
earth, giving an abstract of his researches on the earth's
rotation as manifested in the motion of bodies on its surface,
the details of which he hoped to present shortly in a series of
papers.

Dr. B. Meade Bolton and Professor Alexander S. Chessin,
of St. Louis, were elected to active membership.

One person was proposed for active membership.

November 18, 1901.

President Moore in the chair, twenty-four persons present.

Mr. G. Pauls presented to the museum a large Favosite fos-
sil from the vicinity of Eureka, Missouri, and a package of
cuttings of the Dora grape for distribution among members
of the Academy.

The following papers were presented by title : —

F. C. Baker, Some interesting molluscan monstrosities.

Stuart Weller, Kinderhook faunal studies. III. The faunas
of beds No. 3 to No. 7 at Burlington, Iowa.

Professor William Trelease read an untechnical address on
The progress made in botany during the nineteenth century,
which on motion was referred to the Council for publication.

Dr. Martin F. Engman, of St. Louis, was elected to active
membership.

Record. xxxv

December 2, 1901.

President Moore in the chair, eighteen persons present.

Mr. J. Arthur Harris presented in abstract a paper on
Normal and teratological thorns of Gleditschia triacanthos, L.

Professor A. S. Chessin delivered an interesting address
on The harmony of tone and color. The speaker said that
although the idea is not new that colors, like tones, are sub-
ject to laws of harmony, he did not know that any systematic
theory concerning this had thus far been presented, and the
object of the paper was to establish such a theory. A color-
scale was constructed and the properties of the intervals cor-
responding to those appearing in the musical scale were
discussed, and the conclusion was reached that within the
limit of an octave the laws of harmony in tone and color are
identical.

A paper by Professor A. S. Chessin, on The true potential
of the force of gravity, was presented and read by title, the
author remarking that this was the first of a series of detailed
papers bearing upon the general subject, the broad conclusions
concerning which he had presented in synopsis at a recent
meeting of the Academv.

In accordance with the By-Laws of the Academy, a com-
mittee, which consisted of Messrs. Green, Evers and Nipher,
was elected to nominate officers for the year 1902.

December 16, 1901.

President Moore in the chair, twelve persons present.
The nominating committee reported the following list of
candidates for the year 1902 : —

President Henry W. Eliot.

First Vice-President D. S. H. Smith.

Second Vice-President William E. Guy.

Recording Secretary William Trelease.

Corresponding Secretary Ernest P. Olshausen.

Treasurer Enno Sander.

Librarian G. Hambach.

Curators G. Hambach,

Julius Hurter,
Hermann von Schrenk.

Directors Amand Ravold.

Adolf Alt.

xxxvi Trans. Acad. Set. of St. Louis.

The Secretary stated that he had received, too late for the
information of the nominating committee, a letter from Dr.
Smith, asking that his name be not placed in nomination for
office, and that, believing Dr. Smith to really desire to be
excused, he wished to place in nomination for the office of
First- Vice-President Dr. M. H. Post.

A paper by K. K. Mackenzie and B. F. Bush, entitled The
Lespedezas of Missouri, was presented and read by title.

Professor F. L. Soldan delivered an interesting address on
The advance made in education during the nineteenth century,
stating that the most characteristic feature of the century's
progress lay in the epoch of expansion and organization which
it marked. The influence of Pestalozzi, Froebel, Horace
Mann, William T. Harris and other distinguished educators
was traced, the marked change in opinion concerning the
commercial value of education brought out by the Centennial
Exposition of 1876 was indicated, and the establishment of a
true university grade in this country with the opening of the
Johns Hopkins University, the year following, was commented
on.

Professor F. E. Nipher stated that he had continued his
experiments on the production of ether disturbances by ex-
plosions, and by the motion of masses of matter. He had
apparently succeeded in eliminating the effects of the shock of
the air-wave upon the magnet needle. The needle is adjusted
to a condition approaching maximum sensitiveness. There is
no iron about the apparatus except what is contained in the
needle and in the compensating maguets. The latter are
clamped in place so that the structure on which they are
mounted may be pounded by a mallet without disturbing the
needle. Rowland effects due to convection of electrified
particles have also been eliminated. There remains a marked
deflection of the needle, seeming to indicate that an ether
distortion or wave originates in a sharp and violent explosion.
This result is so amazing that it is announced with the state-
ment that the whole subject is yet under the most searching
examination. The coherer and the receiver of the telephone
are to be used in two wholly different plans of experiment, in
one of which the effects along the entire track of a leaden

Record.

xxxvn

bullet are to be summed up in an alternating current. The
results which seem to have been reached are in entire harmony
with the well-known experiment of Michelson and Morley, who
found that the ether within the building in which they worked
was being carried along with the building and with the earth
in its orbital motion.

Reports of Officers for the Year 1901.

Submitted January 6, 1902.

The retiring president, Mr. Robert Moore, presented the
following address : —

Members of the Academy of Science of St. Louis:

In retiring from the office that since the deeply regretted departure of
Prof. Engler from the city has for a few months been occupied by me, it
gives me pleasure to record that during the past year the work of the
Academy has been carried on with success.

ATTENDANCE BY MEETINGS.

Sixteen meetings have been held with an average attendance of twenty-
eight persons. This is somewhat less than during the year 1900, when for
reasons of an excepiional nature the attendance for several meeting-* was
unusually large, but it is considerably larger than the average of the five
preceding years, 1895-99, and has been more regular than in those years.

XXXVlll

Trans. Acad. Set. of St. Louis.

6^4

1900

1901

^y'

,-''

Av.

300-
-200-

,,--'

_.---

„'""*

,''

.,-'

1901

,''

Av.

i! mo

' JA|N.

FEB.

ACT.
1

MAY JLlKlE OCT.
I 1 I

n6v.

DEC.

ATTENDANCE FOR YEAR.

In this we And reason for the belief that the Academy and its work is
appealing each year to a larger number of our citizens.

I regret, however, to record that during the past year, the Academy has

(

60 18

65 18

70 IS

75 18

80 IS

85 18

90 18

95 19

J
01

TOTAL MEMBERSHIP.

Record.

XXXIX

suffered a serious loss in the death of seven members, viz. : Charles P.
Chouteau, a charter member, Adolph Herthel, a member of the Council,
George E. Leighton, E. S. Lemoine, George A. Madill, Wm, McMillan, and
Edward Walsh, Jr., — all honored names whose memories will live long
with those who knew them. But notwithstanding our losses from death
and other causes we close the year with a roll of membership larger by one
than at its beginning. As a contribution to the history of the Academy
well worthy of preservation, I submit for publication some diagrams,
compiled by the Secretary, showing the attendance at meetings in 1900, 1901,
and the average attendance from 1895-9, inclusive, and the membership at
different dates since the organization of the Academy in 1856.

300

—

1
1
1
1
1
1

/
1
1

1
1

y
s

1
1
1
1
1
1

/
/
/
/

*->

1
i

60 18

65 18

70 18

75 18

80 18

85 18

90 18

95 191

ACTUAL MEMBERSHIP.

During the last year the Academy has published ten numbers which
with prefatory matter will form the eleventh volume of our Transactions.

The purposes of our organization as stated in the act of incorporation are,
the advancement of science and the establishment in St. Louis of a museum
and library for the illustration and study of its various branches. In the
forty-six years which have elapsed since the Academy was founded it has
made important contributions to the advancement of science in many de-
partments, it has made a good beginning in the establishment of a museum,
and has collected a library which if it were properly bound and shelved
and catalogued might be of very great value to students of science. Our
publications go to all parts of the world, and there is hardly any better
method of reaching those who are extending the boundaries of knowledge
than the pages of our Transactions afford. In a word, the Academy has
fully justified the work of its founders and has brought credit to our city.

But with a larger membership and ampler resources how much more
might we accomplish for the advancement of science and for the honor of

xl Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

St. Louis! A brilliant illustration of what can be done by individual effort
has been given us during the year that has just closed, during which Mrs.
William Bouton has, almost unaided, raised the funds with which to pur-
chase and has given to the Academy one of the best and most beautiful
collections of butterflies in the world.

With such an example before us, is it too much to hope that our fiftieth
anniversary may be celebrated in a home where amid suitable surroundings
our meetings can be held, our library be made accessible and our collections
be safely housed? On such a foundation the future of the Academy will be
secure as a rallying-point for workers in science and a center for the diffu-
sion of knowledge.

The Treasurer reported as follows: —

RECEIPTS.

Balance from 1900 $ 450 26

Interested on invested money 285 00

Membership dues 1,483 00

$2,218 26

EXPENDITURES.

Rent $ 500 00

Current expenses 430 66

Publication of Transactions 582 35

Insurance of property ($10,000 00) 150 00

Balance to 1902 55 5 25

$2,218 26

INVESTED FUND.

Invested on security $6,500.00

The Librarian reported that during 1901 exchanges had been
received from 287 societies, of which 6 were new. In all,
540 volumes and 481 pamphlets were reported as having been
added to the library, an increase of 173 as compared with the
preceding year. It was reported that during the year the
Transactions of the Academy had been distributed to 561
societies or institutions, chiefly by way of exchange.

PUBLICATIONS.

The following publications of the Academy are offered for sale at the
net prices indicated. Applications should be addressed to the Librarian,
The Academy of Science of St. Louis, 1600 Locust St., St. Louis, Mo.

transactions (in octavo).

Vol.

Number.

Price per
number.

Price per vol.

Price in set.

2t
3,4

$7.50
(Nos. 2-4 only.)

$4.00
2.00 each.

$7.00
(Nos. 2-4 only.)

1 to 3

2.00 each.

5.50

5.00

1 to 4

2.00 each.

7.50

7.00

1 to 4

2.00 each.

7.50

7.00

1-2, 3-4 |

4.00 each,
(double numbers)

7.50

7.00

1, 2, 6, 8,

10, 11, 16, 17

4, 5, 7, 13,

14, 15, 18

3, 9

I 25 cts. each.

1 60 cts. each.

75 cts. each.
$1.00

7.50

7.00

2, 3, 4, 6, 7, 8,
13, 15, 16,

18, 19

5, 9 to 12,

14,20

I 25 cts. each.

> 50 cts. each.

75 cts.
$1.00

7.50

7.00

1, 3 to 6

8, 10, 12

2, 7, 9, 11

I 25 cts. each..
50 cts.. each.

3.75

3.50

1, 3, 4, 7, 9

2, 5,8

25 cts. each.
50 cts. each.
ftl.25

10 ct#i

25 cts. each.

40 cts.
50 cts. each.

3.75

3.50

10*

2, 4, 5, 10

3, G, 7,8,11

3.75

3.50

lit

2 3

5-8, 'l0, 11

15 cts. each.
25 cts. each.

45 cts.

75 cts.
1.00

3.75

3.50

memoirs (in quarto).

Contributions to the archaeology of Missouri, by the Archaeological Section.
Part I. Pottery. 1880. $2.00.

The total eclipse of the sun, January 1, 1889. A report of the observations
made by the Washington University Eclipse Party, at Norman, Califor-
nia. 1891. $2.00.

* Supply exhausted.

t Can be sold only to purchasers of the entire volume,— so far as this can be
supplied.

I Each number is a brochure containing one complete paper (or rarely two).

/few York Botanical Garden Librar

3 5185 00240 7193

4 m i

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