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HARVARD UNIVERSITY.
LIBRA II Y
OF THE
MUSEUM OF COMPARATIVE ZOOLOGY.
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Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis, Vol. XIX.
Sti auss Photograph from Portrait by Richard Miller, 1906-
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13Ut.
TRANSACTIONS
OF
THE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE
OF ST. LOUIS.
VOL. XIX.
JANUARY, 1910, TO DECEMBER, 1910.
PUBLISHED UNDER DIRECTION OF THE COUNCIL.
ST. LOUIS
NIXON- JONES PRINTING CO.
A
CONTENTS.
PAGE.
Table of Contents iii
List of Officers v
List of Members. Revised to December 31, 1910. ... vi
1. Patrons.
2. Honorary Members.
3. Active Members.
Abstract of History xix
Record. January 1, to December 31, 1910 xxiii
Papers Published. January 1, to December 31, 1910 :
1. Francis E. Nipher. — On the Nature of the Elec-
tric Discharge. The One-Fluid and the Two-
Fluid Theories. — Plates I-X. — Issued Febru-
ary 18, 1910 I
2. Philip Rau. — Observations on the Duration of
Life, on Copulation, and on Oviposition in
Samia Cecropia Linn. — Issued February 26,
1910 21
3. Frank J. Phillips. — Hail Injury on Forest
Trees.— Plates XI-X VII. —Issued March 10,
1910 49
4. Francis E. Nipher. — On the Nature of the Elec-
tric Discharge. The One-Fluid and the Two-
Fluid Theories.— Plates XVIII-XXV.— Is-
sued June 2, 1910 57
5. John K. Strecker, Jr. — Studies in North Amer-
ican Batrachology. Notes on the Robber
Frog (Lithodytes la trans Cope). — Issued
June 14, 1910 73
6. Adolf Alt. — On the Histology of the Eye of
Typhlotriton spelaeus from Marble Cave, Mo.
—Plates XXVI-XXXIV.— Issued October 12,
1910 83
IV
Contents.
7. Ernest J. Palmer. — Flora of the Grand Falls
Chert Barrens. — Issued December 15, 1910. . 97
8. H. E. Ewing. — New Acarina from India —
Plate XXXV.— Issued December 29, 1910. . 113
9. Charles R. Keyes. — The Guadalupan Series:
and the Relations of its Discovery to the
Existence of a Permian Section in Missouri. —
Abundance of Meteorites on the Painted Des-
ert; and its Bearing upon the Planetesimal
Hypothesis of the Origin of the Earth. —
Issued December 29, 1910 123
10. C. H. Turner. — Ecological Notes on the Clado-
cera and Copepoda of Augusta, Georgia, with
Descriptions of New or Little Known Species.
Plates XXXVI-XXXVIIL— Issued Decem-
ber 31, 1910 151
11. Title Page. Prefatory Matter and Index of
Vol. XIX. Record January 1, to December
31, 1910.— Issued March 29, 1911.
List of Authors 177
General Index 178
Index to Genera 180
CORRECTIONS.
P. 3, line 12 — For Thompson read Thomson.
9 from bottom — For ironization read ionization.
6 from bottom — For ironized read ionized.
P. 6, last line — Read used.
P. Ill, line 8— After Heller insert *
Plate XXIV. Figs. B and C should have been transposed.
LIST OF OFFICERS, 1910.
President William Trelease.
First Vice President D. S. H. Smith.
Second Vice President Francis E. Nipher.
Recording Secretary Walter Edward McCourt.
Corresponding Secretary George T. Moore.
Treasurer H. E. Wiedemann.
Librarian Wm. L. R. Gifford.
Curators Julius Hurter.
Philip Rau.
Joseph Grindon.
Directors Otto Widmann.
Adolf Alt.
MEMBERS.
1. Patrons.
Bixby, William Keeney Kingshighway and Lindell Bis.
Eliot, Henry Ware '4446 Westminster PL
fHarrison, Edwin
Mallinckrodt, Edward 26 Vandeventer PL
McMillan, Mrs. Eliza 25 Portland PL
McMillan, William Northrop . . Century Bldg.
2. Honorary Members.
Arrhenius, Prof. Svante University of Stockholm,
Sweden,
Bahlsen, Prof. Dr. Leopold . . . University of Berlin, Germany.
Escherich, Prof. Theodore .... University of Vienna, Austria.
Kitasato, Prof. Shibasaburo . . University of Tokyo, Japan.
Lewald, Geh. Oberreg. Rath
Theodor Berlin, Germany.
Limburg, Stiram, Graf Berlin, Germany.
Orth, Geh. Rath Dr. Johann . . University of Berlin, Germany.
Ostwald, Prof Wilhelm University of Leipzig, Germany.
Ramsay, Sir William Royal Institute, London,
England.
Rutherford, Prof. Ernest University of Manchester,
England.
Sander, Dr. Enno St. Louis, Mo.
Springer, Frank Burlington, Iowa.
Van't Hoff , Prof. J. W University of Berlin, Germany.
Waldyer, Geh. Rath Prof. Dr.
Wilhelm University of Berlin, Germany.
Wassermann, Prof. Dr. A University of Berlin, Germany.
Wittmack, Geh. Reg. Rath
Prof. Dr. L University of Berlin, Germany.
f Deceased.
Members. vii
3. Active Members.
Abbott, James F.2 Washington University.
Alleman, Gellert1 Swarthmore College,
Swarthmore, Pa.
Allen, George L 26 Westmoreland PL
Allen, Terry W 5061 Lindell Boul.
Allison, James E Merchants' Laclede Bldg.
Allison, Nathaniel Humboldt Bldg.
Alt, Adolf 316 Metropolitan Bldg.
Altheimer, Benjamin 4349 Westminster PI.
Ameiss, F. C 3906 Olive St.
Ammerman, Charles McKinley High School.
Arbuckle, James Stock Exchange Bldg.
Armbruster, Wm. J 3622 Shenandoah St.
Bagby, Julian1 New Haven, Mo.
Bain, Samuel McCutchen1 .... University of Tennessee,
Knoxville, Tenn.
Baldwin, Roger N 3739 Windsor PL
Barck, Carl Humboldt Bldg.
Barnard, George D Vandeventer and Laclede Aves.
Barroll, Joseph R 4603 Berlin Ave.
Baskett, James Newton1 Fourth and Park Sts.,
Belleville, 111.
Baumgarten, Walter Humboldt Bldg.
Bay, J. Christian1 Crerar Library, Chicago, 111.
Beckwith, Thomas1 Charleston, Mo.
Beede, J. W.1 State University,
Bloomington, Ind.
Bemis, S. A Fourth and Poplar Sts.
Bender, Cloyd Raymond1 307 Glen Ave.,
Council Bluffs, Iowa.
Bernays, Walter 3623 Laclede Ave.
Berninghaus, J. A Central National Bank.
Bessey, Charles Edwin1 University of Nebraska,
Lincoln, Neb.
Bessey, Ernst A.1 Michigan Agricultural College,
East Lansing, Mich.
1 Non-resident.
2 Member of the Entomological Section.
viii Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.
Blair, V. P Metropolitan Bldg.
Blankinship, Joseph William . . 4008a Flad Ave.
Blewett, Ben Ninth and Locust Sts.
Bock, George W.2 2904 Allen Ave.
Boeckeler, William L 4441 Laclede Ave.
Boland, Charles C Dolph Bldg.
Borgmeyer, Charles J St. Louis University. *
Bostwick, Arthur E 4654 Berlin Ave.
Boyle, Wilbur F New Bank of Commerce Blag.
Bradshaw, Preston J Liggett Bldg.
Brandenburger, Louis A 3614 Cleveland Ave.
Brandenburger, W. A 1406 Syndicate Trust Bldg.
Brannon, Melvin A.1 University of North Dakota,
Grand Forks, N. Dak.
Brennan, Martin S 6304 Minnesota Ave.
Brimmer, George G 6900 Michigan Ave.
Britton, F. H.1 Kirkwood, Mo.
Brockman, F. W 3710 N. Grand Ave.
Brookings, Robert S 5125 Lindell Boul.
Brookmire, James H 315 North Fourth St.
Brown, Arthur A 4023 West Pine Boul.
Brown, Daniel S 2212 DeKalb St.
Brown, George Warren 40 Portland PI.
Brown, Willi 5351 Waterman Ave.
Browne, Clarence 1 4630a Delmar Ave.
Buckley, Ernest Robertson1 . . . Rolla, Mo.
Buehler, H. A.1 Rolla, Mo.
Burg, William 4323 Washington Boul.
Burnett, E. C University Club.
Busch, Adolphus Busch PI.
Busch, Aug. A Busch PI.
Bush, Benjamin Franklin1 ... Courtney, Mo.
Butler, William M Yeatman High School.
Cale, George W., Jr 12 Lennox PI.
Campbell, James A Mermod Jaccard Bldg.
Carleton, Murray 1135 Washington Ave.
Carpenter, George O 12 Portland PI.
Carr, Peyton T 62 Vandeventer PL
Carter, Howard1 Webster Groves, Mo.
Carver, George Washington1 . . Tuskegee, Ala.
Members. ix
Caspari, Charles E 4060 Westminster PL
Catlin, Daniel Security Bldg.
Chambers, C. 0 Missouri Botanical Garden.
Chandler, Harley P 5539 Page Ave.
Chappell, W. G Buckingham Club.
Chenery, Winthrop Holt Washington University.
Christie, Harvey L 1605 Pierce Bldg.
Clark, Enos1 Kirkwood, Mo.
Clopton, Malvern B Humboldt Bldg.
Cole, John J 316 South Seventh St,
Colnon, R. S 506 Merchants' Laclede Bldg.
Conzelman, Theophilus 5260 Washington Boul.
Cook, Abraham 4208 Pine St.
Cook, Francis E 4398e Olive St.
Cook, Isaac T Chemical Bldg.
Cook, Jerome E 4254 Lindell Boul.
Coulter, Samuel M Washington University.
Craig, Moses Missouri Botanical Garden.
Cramer, Gustav Care Cramer Dry Plate Co.
Crandall, George C 3674 Lindell Boul.
Crawford, Hanford 4442 Lindell Boul.
Crook, A. R.1 : . State Natural History Museum,
Springfield, 111.
Crunden, Frank P Second and Gratiot Sts.
Cupples, Samuel 3673 Pine St.
Curley, Francis E. A 6143 Berlin Ave.
Curtis, Chester B Central High School.
Curtis, William S Washington University.
Dameron, Edward Caswell1 .... Clarksville, Mo.
Danforth, Charles H.1 Tufts College, Mass.
Davis, Dwight F 220 Security Bldg.
Davis, H. N 56 Vandeventer PI.
Davis, John D 815 Merchants' Laclede Bldg.
Dean, George R1 Rolla, Mo.
Densford, H. E.1 Kirkwood, Mo.
Dewey, Lyster H.1 4612 Ninth St., N. W.,
Washington, D. C.
Dieckmann, Charles A.2 2816 Potomac St.
Diehm, Ferdinand 6175 Kingsbury PI.
Doan, George P 42 Portland PI.
x Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.
Dock, George Washington University
Medical Department.
Dorsett, Walter B Linmar Bldg.
Dougan, Lewis M.2 Shaw School.
Douglas, Archer W 5079 McPherson Ave.
Drosten, F. W 2011 Park Ave.
Drushel, J. A Teachers' College.
Duncan, John H Humboldt Bldg.
Duncan, M. E 915 Olive St.
Duncker, Charles H 3636 Page Ave.
Ebeling, A. W.1 Warrenton, Mo.
Eberle, E. G.1 416 Jackson St., Dallas, Texas.
Eimbeck, August F.1 New Haven, Mo.
Eliot, Edward C 5468 Maple Ave.
Emerson, John B Syndicate Trust Bldg.
Emmel, Victor E Washington University,
Medical Department.
Engler, Edmund Arthur1 11 Boynton St.,
Worcester, Mass.
Ericson, Eric John 1420 Clara Ave.
Erker, Adolph P 604 Olive St.
Espenschied, Charles 3500 Washington Ave.
Euston, Alexander 3730 Lindell Boul.
Evers, Edward 1861 North Market St.
Ewing, Arthur E 5956 West Cabanne PI.
Farr, Henry V 4916 Labadie Ave.
Fawcett, H. S.1 Gainesville, Fla.
Ferriss, James H.1 Joliet, 111.
Filley, John D 40 Westmoreland PL
Fischel, Walter 5284 Westminster PI.
Fischel, Washington E Humboldt Bldg.
Fordyce, John R.1 2223 Louisiana St.,
Little Rock, Ark.
Fordyce, S. W 21 Washington Terrace.
Francis, David R 4421 Maryland Ave.
Franck, Charles H Liggett Bldg.
French, George Hazen1 Carbondale, 111.
Frerichs, Frederick W 4320 Washington Boul.
Frick, John Henry1 Warrenton, Mo.
Members. xi
Fruth, Otto J 3060 Hawthorne Boul.
Fry, Frank R 4609 McPherson Ave.
Fuhrmann, Richard H 3221 California Ave.
Fullgraf, Charles W 7077 Pernod Ave.
Funkhouser, Robert Monroe . . 4354 Olive St.
Furth, Jacob 723 Pierce Bldg.
Gager, C. Stuart1 Central Museum, Eastern
Parkway, Brooklyn, N. Y.
Garman, Harrison1 Lexington, Ky.
Gates, Reginald R Missouri Botanical Garden.
Geeks, Frank 3453 Magnolia Ave.
Geitz, H. A.1 61 Montauk Ave., Belle Harbor,
Long Island, N. Y.
Gellhorn, George Metropolitan Bldg.
Gerling, H. J Teachers' College.
Gifford, William L. R Mercantile Library.
Gill, Charles M Teachers' College.
Gillette, C. P.1 Fort Collins, Colo.
Glasgow, Frank A 3894 Washington Ave.
Glatfelter, Noah Miller 4720 North Twentieth St.
Glazebrook, Thomas B 1718 Olive St.
Goldstein, Max A 3858 Westminster PL
Goltra, Edward F 4416 Lindell Boul.
Goodman, Charles H 4500 Olive St.
Gratz, Benjamin Rialto Bldg.
Graves, William W Metropolitan Bldg.
Green, John 2670 Washington Ave.
Greer, E. 0 2750 Park Ave.
Greger, Darling Kennett1 .... Westminster College,
Fulton, Mo.
Gregg, Cecil D 920 Market St.
Grindon, Joseph 3894 Washington Ave.
Gundelach, Charles H 4523 Washington Boul.
Gundelach, William J 4477 Washington Boul.
Gundlach, John H 3615 North Broadway.
Guthrie, Robert J Pierce Bldg.
Guv. William E 10 Portland PL
Haarstick, Henry C St. Louis Union Trust Bldg.
Hall, Fred B 4579 Morgan St.
xii Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.
Hambach, Gustav3 2061 San Jose Avenue, Ala-
meda, California.
Hard, M. E.1 Kirkwood, Mo.
Harder, Ulrich 8015 Florissant Ave.
Harris, Cortlandt 425 North Broadway.
Harris, James Arthur1 Station for Experimental Evo-
lution, Cold Spring Harbor,,
Long Island, N. Y.
Hartmann, Rudolph 3859 Flora Boul.
Held, George A International Bank.
Hendrich, Walter F 6228 Washington Boul.
Herf, Oscar 48 Gay Bldg.
Hidden, Edward Commonwealth Trust Bldg.
Hill, Charles Van Dyke Third National Bank Bldg.
Hoffman, Philip 3657 Delmar Ave.
Hoke, William E 304 North Third St,
Holman, C. L 716 Locust St.
Holmes, J. A Tenth and Spruce Sts.
Hough, Warwick 5884 Cates Ave.
Houwink, J. J 3505 Franklin Ave.
Hughes, Charles Hamilton .... Metropolitan Bldg.
Hughes, Marc Ray Metropolitan Bldg.
Hume, H. Harold1 Glen St. Mary, Fla,
Hurter, Julius 2346 South Tenth St.
Hus, Henri Th. A.1 University of Michigan,
Ann Arbor, Mich.
Huttig, Charles H Third National Bank.
Ilhardt, William K Euclid and Delmar Aves.
Irish, Henry C Missouri Botanical Garden.
Ives, Halsey Cooley City Art Museum.
Johnson, Albert L New National Bank of Com-
merce Bldg.
Jonas, Ernest 465 North Taylor Ave.
Jones, Breckenridge * ... 45 Portland PI.
Jones, Robert McKittrick 6 Westmoreland PI.
Kammerer, Alfred L Tower Grove and Flad Aves.
Keiser, Edward H Washington University.
* Elected a life-member January 3, 1882.
Members. xiii
Keller Joseph M 3712 Westminster PL
Kennett, Alfred Q Washington University.
Kennett, Luther M 3507 Lucas Ave.
Kessler, George E 529 Frisco Bldg.
Kessler, J. J 224 South Vandeventer Ave.
Keyes, Charles R.1 944 Fifth St., Des Moines, la.
Kinealy, John H 503 Granite Bldg.
King, Goodman 78 Vandeventer PI.
Kinsella, W. J 4422 Lindell Boul.
Kirchner, Walter C. G 1127 North Grand Ave.
Klem, Mary J 3133 Nebraska Ave.
Knapp, H. P Eighteenth and Olive Sts.
Knight, H. F 4433 Westminster PI.
Lang, George, Jr 213 North Second St.
Langsdorf , Alexander S Washington University.
Larkin, E. H 109 St. George St.
Leavitt, Sherman1 University of Tennessee,
Knoxville, Tenn.
Lefevre, George1 University of Missouri,
Columbia, Mo.
Leonard, L. L Rialto Bldg.
Letterman, George W.1 Allenton, Mo.
Le Van, W. C.1 116 Taylor Ave.,
Kirkwood, Mo.
Lewis, E. G.1 University City, Mo.
Lichter, John J 1740 Simpson PI.
Lloyd, Francis Ernest1 Alabama Polytechnic Institute,
Auburn, Ala.
Lloyd, Hiram Odd Fellows' Bldg.
Loeb, Hanau Wolf Humboldt Bldg.
Lovejoy, Arthur Onchen1 411 Hitt St., Columbia, Mo.
Luedde, William H Metropolitan Bldg.
Lukens, C. DeWitt 4908 Laclede Ave.
Lutz, Frank J Josephine Hospital.
MacDougal, D. T.1 Tucson, Ariz.
Mack, Charles Jacob 113 North Broadway.
Mallinckrodt, Edward, Jr 26 Vandeventer PL
Mardorf, W. C 2136 South Grand Ave.
Markham, George Dickson . . . 4961 Berlin Ave.
xiv Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.
Mason, Silas C.1 133 East Avenue 52,
Los Angeles, CaL
Matthews, Leonard 5447 Cabanne PL
Mauran, John Lawrence 1620 Chemical Bldg.
McBride, W. J.1 Haskell & Barker Car Co.,
Michigan City, Ind.
McCourt, Walter Edward Washington University.
McCubbin, J. B Metropolitan Bldg.
McCulloch, Richard 3869 Park Ave.
McCulloch, Robert 3869 Park Ave.
McKittrick, Thomas H 911 Washington Ave.
McLeod, N. W Lumbermen's Bldg.
Meier, Theodore G 5220 Washington Boul.
Mesker, Frank 421 South Sixth St.
Meyer, Andrew, Jr 3218a Missouri Ave.
Meyer, Jesse S 3894 Washington Boul.
Michael, Elias Rice, Stix Dry Goods Co.
Middleton, Thomas1 Webster Groves, Mo.
Miller, Alten S Twelfth and Locust Sts.
Mitchell, E. T.1 7730 Jeanette St.,
New Orleans, La„
Monell, Joseph T.2 3454 Halliday Ave.
Moore, George T Missouri Botanical Garden.
Moore, Robert 61 Vandeventer PL
Morfit, John Campbell 3534 Washington Ave.
Morrison, Gilbert McKinley High School.
Morse, Sidney1 University City, Mo.
Mudd, Harvey G 408 Humboldt Bldg.
Mueller, Ambrose1 Webster Groves, Mo.
Nagel, Charles 3726 Washington Boul.
Nasse, August 2323 Lafayette Ave.
Nauer, Albert R 4634 Nebraska Ave.
Nicolaus, Henry 2149 South Grand Ave.
Nipher, Francis E Washington University.
Nisbet, Fritz 611 Locust St.
Noble, John W 3043 Pine St.
Nolker, William H Fifteenth and Pine Sts.
Norvell, Saunders LaSalle Bldg.
Oglevee, Christopher Stoner1 . . . Lincoln, 111.
Ohlweiler, W. W 4026a Shenandoah Ave.
Members. xv
Olshausen, Ernest P 1115 Rutger St.
Opie, Eugene L Washington University,
Medical Department.
O'Reilly, Andrew J 1720 Pierce Bldg.
O'Reilly, Robert J 27 Washington Terrace.
Outten, W. B 3515 Pine St.
Palmer, Ernest Jesse1 321 S. Allen St.,
Webb City, Mo.
Pammel, Louis Hermann1 .... Ames, Iowa.
Pantaleoni, Guido 15 Lennox PI.
Parker, George Ward1 45 Broadway, New York City.
Payne, E. G Teachers' College.
Pennock, C. J.1 Kennett Square,
Chester Co., Pa.
Perkins, Albert T 401 North Fourth St.
Pettus, Charles P 33 Westmoreland PI.
Pettus, W. H. H 4373 Westminster PI.
Pitzman, Julius 1900 South Compton Ave.
Plant, Frederick S 802 North Main St.
Poats, Thomas Grayson1 Clemson College, S. C.
Post, Martin Hayward 5371 Waterman Ave.
Priest, Henry Samuel New National Bank of Com-
merce Bldg.
Prynne, Charles Martyn Century Bldg.
Pyle, Lindley 6116 Washington Boul.
Randolph, Tom 4386 Lindell Boul.
Rassieur, Leo Fourth and Market Sts.
Rathmann, Charles G 3886 Hartford St.
Rau, Philip2 4932 Botanical Ave.
Ravold, Amand 5248 Vernon Ave.
Reber, H. Linton Kinloch Bldg.
Reber, Maxine 301 New City Hall.
Redlich, C. F Nat'l. Bank of Commerce Bldg.
Reed, George M.1 809 Virginia Ave.,
Columbia, Mo.
Reller, A. H 24 Gast PI.
Ricker, Maurice1 1039 Nineteenth St.
Des Moines, Iowa.
Ridgely, Franklin L 3720 Lindell Boul.
Robarts, Heber 5899 Cates Ave.
xvi Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.
Robbins, Walter 3737 Washington Ave.
Robert, Edward Scott 4140 Lindell Boul.
Roever, William Henry Washington University.
Rolfs, F. M.1 Mountain Grove, Mo.
Rolfs, Peter H.1 Gainesville, Fla.
Rose, Hugh B 401 North Fourth St.
Rosenwald, Lucian1 412 Delaware St.,
Kansas City, Mo.
Rowse, E. C Chemical Bldg.
Ruf, Frank A 5863 Cabanne PI.
Rusch, Henri City Hall.
Ryan, Frank K Times Bldg.
Sargent, Charles Sprague1 Jamaica Plains, Mass.
Sauer, William E Humboldt Bldg.
Scanlan, Philip C City Hall.
Schisler, Edwin.' 2600 South Grand Ave.
Schlueter, Robert E 909 Park Ave.
Schmidt, Louis Franklin Bank.
Schnell, L. W.2 4541 Varrelmann St.
Schramm, Jacob Missouri Botanical Garden.
Von Schrenk, Hermann Tower Grove and Flad Aves.
Schrowang, Otto Panama Bldg.
Schwarz, Ernest2 6310 Newstead Ave.
Schwarz, Frank 1813 Lafayette Ave.
Schwarz, Henry 440 North Newstead Ave.
Schwarz, Herman2 720 Clark Ave.,
Webster Groves, Mo.
Schweitzer, Paul1 Columbia, Mo.
Schweyer, George 4252 Blaine Ave.
See, Thomas Jefferson Jackson1. Naval Observatory,
Mare Island, Cal.
Selby, Augustine Dawson1. . . .Wooster Ohio.
Senseney, E. M 5738 Clemens Ave.
Senter, Charles Parsons 1 Beverly PL
Shaffer, Philip A Washington University,
Medical Department.
Shahan, William E 5234a Morgan St.
Shannon, James I St. Louis University.
Shapleigh, Alfred Lee 3636 Delmar Ave.
Shapleigh, John B Humboldt Bldg.
Sheldon, F. E Chemical Bldg.
Members. xvii
Shepley, John F 50 Vandeventer PI.
Shimek, B.1 Iowa City, Iowa.
Shoemaker, William Alfred . . . 4386 Westminster PL
Shutt, C. H.1 25 Lebanon Ave.,
Belleville, 111.
Simmons, E. C Ninth and Spruce Sts.
Simmons, Wallace D Ninth and Spruce Sts.
Skinker, Thomas K Pierce Bldg.
Sluder, Greenfield 3542 Washington Ave.
Smith, Arthur George1 Iowa City, Iowa.
Smith, D. S. H 4388 Westminster PL
Smith, Irwin Z 87 Vandeventer PL
Smith, Jared G.1 Kealakekua, Hawaiian Islands.
Spencer, H. N 2725 Washington Ave.
Standley, Paul C.1 Division of Plants, National
Museum, Washington, D. C.
Starkloff, H. M 3623 Cleveland Ave.
Starr, John E.1 50 Church St., New York City.
Staudinger, B 3556 Lindell Boul.
Stelzleni, G. M 1215 North Grand Ave.
Stennett, W. H.1 203 Linden Ave., Oak Park,
Cook Co., 111.
Stevens, Charles D 948 Laurel Ave.
Stevens, Wyandotte James .... 4448 Olive St.
Stinde, George C 5146 McPherson Ave.
Stix, Charles A Stix, Baer & Fuller Dry Goods
Company.
Stocker, George J 2833 South Kingshighway Bl.
Strecker, John K., Jr.1 Baylor University, Waco, Tex.
Studniczka, Henry 2012 St. Louis Ave.
Sultan, Fred W 112 North Second St.
Summa, Hugo Metropolitan Bldg.
Suppan, Leo 2648 Russell Ave.
Taussig, William 3447 Lafayette Ave.
Terry, Robert James Washington University,
Medical Department,
Thacher, Arthur 5185 Lindell Boul.
Thomas, John R 4128 Washington Boul.
Thompson, Charles Henry2 ... Missouri Botanical Garden.
Thompson, Frank C.1 522 Big Bend Road,
Webster Groves, Mo.
xviii Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.
Thompson, Henry C, Jr 4642 Cook Ave.
Thurman, John S 521 North Taylor Ave.
Timmerman, Arthur H 5374 Vernon Ave.
Tittmann, Harold H 5024 Westminster PI.
Todd, Charles A 3723 Delmar Ave.
Trelease, William Missouri Botanical Garden.
Tuholske, Herman 465 North Taylor Ave.
Turner, Charles H.2 Sumner High School.
Turner, Wilson P. H 411 Olive St.
Tuttle, Daniel S 74 Vandeventer PI.
Tyler, Eliza Edward1 University of Missouri,
Columbia, Mo.
Van Ornum, John Lane Washington University.
Vickroy, Wilhelm Rees 2901 Rauschenbach Ave.
Walbridge, C. P Fourth and Market Sts.
Waldo, C. A Washington University.
Walsh, Julius S Fourth and Pine Sts.
Watts, Millard F 5740 Cabanne PI.
Weber, George L 6912 Bruno Ave.
Weichsel, Hans 6400 Plymouth Ave.
Wells, Rolla 4228 Lindell Boul.
Werner, Louis Fullerton Bldg.
Werner, Percy 5505 Gates Ave.
Wheeler, H. A 3439 Lucas Ave.
Whelpley, Henry Milton 2342 Albion PI.
Whitaker, Edwards 300 North Fourth St.
Whitelaw, Oscar L 409 North Second St.
Whitten, John Charles1 Columbia, Mo.
Widmann, Otto 5105 Morgan St.
Wiedemann, H. E 721 Holland Bldg.
Wielandy, Paul J Sixteenth and Locust Sts.
Wiener, Meyer 3854 Westminster PI.
Wiggins, Charles 32 Vandeventer PI.
Winkelmeyer, Christopher. . . .4585 West Pine St.
Wislizenus, Frederick A Washington University.
Witt, Thomas D 4374 Laclede Ave.
Wolfner, Henry L 4563 Forest Park Boul.
Woodward, Calvin Milton 3013 Hawthorne Boul.
Wright, George M 4457 Westminster PI.
Zahorsky, John 1460 South Grand Ave.
Zellweger, John 1900 Adelaide Ave.
ABSTRACT OF HISTORY.
ORGANIZATION.
The Academy of Science of St. Louis was organized on
the 10th of March, 1856, in the hall of the Board of Public
Schools. Dr. George Engelmann was the first President.
CHARTER.
On the 17th of January following, a charter incorporat-
ing the Academy was signed and approved, and this was
accepted by a vote of the Academy on the 9th of February.
1857.
OBJECTS.
The act of incorporation declares the object of the
Academy to be the advancement of science and the estab-
lishment in St. Louis of a museum and library for the
illustration and study of its various branches, and pro-
vides that the members shall acquire no individual prop-
erty in the real estate, cabinets, library, or other of its
effects, their interest being merely usufructuary.
The constitution as adopted at the organization meet-
ing and amended at various times subsequently, provides
for holding meetings for the consideration and discussion
of scientific subjects ; taking measures to procure original
papers upon such subjects; the publication of transac-
tions ; the establishment and maintenance of a cabinet of
objects illustrative of the several departments of science
and a library of works relating to the same; and the
establishment of relations with other scientific institu-
tions. To encourage and promote special investigation
in any branch of science, the formation of special sections
under the charter is provided for.
xx Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.
MEMBERSHIP.
Members are classified as active members, correspond-
ing members, honorary members and patrons. Active
membership is limited to persons interested in science,
though they need not of necessity be engaged in scientific
work, and they alone conduct the affairs of the Academy,
under its constitution. Persons not living in the city or
county of St. Louis who are disposed to further the
objects of the Academy, by original researches, contribu-
tions of specimens, or otherwise, are eligible as corre-
sponding members. Persons not living in the city or
county of St. Louis are eligible as honorary members by
virtue of their attainments in science. Any person con-
veying to the Academy the sum of one thousand dollars
or its equivalent becomes eligible as a patron.
Under the By-Laws, resident active members pay an
initiation fee of five dollars and annual dues of six dollars.
Non-resident active members pay the same initiation fee,
but annual dues of three dollars only. Patrons and
honorary and corresponding members are exempt from
the payment of dues. Each patron and active member
not in arrears is entitled to one copy of each publication
of the Academy issued after his election.
Since the organization of the Academy, 1,274 persons
have been elected to active membership, of whom, on
December 31, 1910, 433 were carried on the list. Six
patrons, Mr. Edwin Harrison, Mrs. Eliza McMillan, Mr.
William Northrop McMillan, Mr. Henry W. Eliot, Mr.
William Keeney Bixby and Mr. Edward Mallinckrodt,
have been elected. Elections to honorary membership
number 19 (page vi), and 226 persons (Vol. X., p. xii)
have been elected to corresponding membership.
OFFICERS AND MANAGEMENT.
The officers, who are chosen from the active members,
consist of a President, two Vice-Presidents, Recording
and Corresponding Secretaries, Treasurer, Librarian,
Abstract of History.
xxi
three Curators and two Directors. The general business
management of the Academy is vested in a Council com-
posed of the officers.
The office of President has been filled by the following
well-known citizens of St. Louis, nearly all of whom have
been eminent in some line of scientific work: George
Engelmann, Benjamin F. Shumard, Adolphus Wislizenus,
Hiram A. Prout, John B. Johnson, James B. Eads, Wil-
liam T. Harris, Charles V. Riley, Francis E. Nipher,
Henry S. Pritchett, John Green, Melvin L. Gray, Ed-
mund A. Engier, Robert Moore, Henry W. Eliot, Edwin
Harrison, Adolf Alt and Calvin M. Woodward.
MEETINGS.
The regular meetings of the Academy are held at its
building, 3817 Olive Street, at 8 o'clock, on the first and
third Monday evenings of each month, a recess being
taken between the meeting on the first Monday in June
and the meeting on the third Monday in October. These
meetings, to which interested persons are always wel-
come, are devoted in part to the reading of technical
papers designed for publication in the Academy's Trans-
actions, and in part to the presentation of more popular
abstracts of recent investigation or progress. From time
to time public lectures, calculated to interest a larger
audience, are provided for in some suitable hall.
The following dates for regular meetings for the year
1911 have been fixed by the Council :
Jan
Feb
Mar
April
May
June
Oct
Nov
Dec
6
6
3
1
5
6
4
16
20
20
17
15
16
20
18
xxii Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.
LIBKARY.
After its organization, the Academy met in Pope's
Medical College, where a creditable beginning had been
made toward the formation of a museum and library,
until May, 1869, when the building and museum were
destroyed by fire, the library being saved. The library
now contains about 18,500 books and 16,000 pamphlets,
and is open during certain hours of the day for consulta-
tion by members and persons engaged in scientific work.
PUBLICATIONS AND EXCHANGES.
Nineteen octavo volumes of Transactions have been
published since the organization of the Academy, and
widely distributed. Two quarto publications have also
been issued: one from the Archaeological Section, being
a contribution to the archaeology of Missouri, and the
other a report of the observations made by the Washing-
ton University Eclipse Party of 1889. The Academy
now stands in exchange relations with 414 institutions or
organizations of aims similar to its own.
MUSEUM.
After the loss of its first museum, in 1869, the Acad-
emy lacked adequate room for the arrangement of a
public museum, and, although small museum accessions
were received and cared for, its main effort, of necessity,
was concentrated on the holding of meetings, the forma-
tion of a library, the publication of worthy scientific mat-
ter, and the maintenance of relations with other scientific
bodies.
The Museum is at present located on the third floor
of the Academy Building and has in it a number of
specimens illustrating the various branches of natural
science, among which may be mentioned the Yandell Col-
lection of fossils, a collection of some 600 exotic butter-
flies, a collection of Mound Builder pottery and skulls
from near New Madrid, Mo., and a collection of 25
meteorites. Our material forms but a nucleus of a
museum which the Academy hopes to establish — a
museum which we trust will be of benefit to the public
and to the educational institutions of the city.
RECORD.
Fkom January 1 to December 31, 1910.
The following list of papers were presented at the meet-
ings during this period :
January 17, 1910:
LeRoy McMaster. — Relations Between Organic Fer-
ments and Colloidal Suspensions.
F. E. Nipher. — On the Nature of the Electric Dis-
charge. The One-Fluid and the Two-Fluid Theo-
ries.
(Published in Transactions of The Academy of Science
of St. Louis, Vol. XIX, No. 1, 1910.)
February 7, 1910:
Martin S. Brennan. — Halley's Comet.
Charles J. Borgmeyer. — Stereo-model of Halley's
Comet.
February 21, 1910:
Charles H. Thompson. — Three new Mexican Plants.
March 7, 1910:
Carl Barck.— The Snake Dance of the Hopi Indians.
March 21, 1910:
Julius Hurter. — A Life History of the Blind Sala-
mander of Missouri.
Adolf Alt. — On the Histology of the Eye of Typhlo-
triton spelaeus from Marble Cave, Missouri.
(Published in Transactions of The Academy of Science
of St. Louis, Vol. XIX, No. 6, 1910.)
April 4, 1910:
Robert J. Terry. — The Morphology of the Pineal Re-
gion in Teleosts.
xxiv Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.
April 18, 1910:
Frank Meskee. — China, and the Great Wall.
May 2, 1910:
Charles A. Todd. — The Preservation and Mounting
of Wet Preparations for Museums.
Francis E. Nipher. — The Nature of the Electric Dis-
charge.
(Published in Transactions of The Academy of Science
of St. Louis, Vol. XIX, No. 4, 1910.)
May 16, 1910:
William Trelease. — The Geographical Distribution
of Agave in the West Indies, and its Probable
Mode of Introduction.
June 6, 1910:
Walter Edward McCourt. — The Unfolding of the
Map of the World.
October 17, 1910:
William Trelease. — The Smallest of the Century
Plants.
(Published in Popular Science Monthly, December, 1910.)
J. L. Van Ornttm.— The Effect of the Presence of
Vegetable Mold on the Strength of Concrete and
Mortar.
November 21, 1910:
Julius Hurter. — The Poisonous Snakes of Missouri.
December 5, 1910:
Ulrich Harder. — Evolution with Eeference to the
Acquisition of the Erect Posture, its Disadvan-
tages and the Decline of Certain Faculties in
Man.
December 19, 1910:
Robert J. Wallace.— The Construction, Equipment
and Work of a Modern Observatory.
Record. xxv
Meeting op January 3, 1910.
The Academy of Science of St. Louis met in the Acad-
emy Building, 3817 Olive Street, at 8 p. m., January 3,
1910; President Trelease in the chair; attendance 21.
The President delivered his address as President of the
Academy for the year 1909.4
The Treasurer's report for the year 1909 was sub-
mitted.5
The report of the Curators for 1909 was read.6
The report of the Librarian for 1909 was presented.7
The report of the Entomological Section was sub-
mitted.8
The Nominating Committee reported the results of the
election of officers for 1910, as follows:
President William Trelease
First Vice-President D. S. H. Smith
Second Vice-President F. E. Nipher
Recording Secretary Walter E. McCourt
Corresponding Secretary Geo. T. Moore
Treasurer H. E. Wiedemann
Librarian Wm. L. R. Giff ord
Curators Julius Hurter
Joseph Grindon
Philip Rau
Directors Otto Widmann
Adolf Alt
Professor Geo. R. Dean was elected to membership.
January 17, 1910.
President Trelease in the chair ; attendance 25.
Dr. LeRoy McMaster read a paper on "Relations be-
tween Organic Ferments and Colloidal Suspensions."
The term fermentation means changes in organic substances
induced by certain living organisms, or by certain substances derived
from animal or vegetable sources. Ferments are divided into two
4 Transactions, Vol. XVIII, page lxiii.
5 Transactions, Vol. XVIII, page Ixvi.
6 Transactions, Vol. XVIII, page lxvii.
7 Transactions, Vol. XVIII, page lxvi.
8 Transactions, Vol. XVIII, page lxvii.
xxvi Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.
classes, organized ferments, or those which cause fermentation during
the growth and reproduction of living organisms, and unorganized
ferments, or those secreted by the living organisms, which may be
extracted from the cells in which they have been found and are known
as enzymes.
Solutions are of two kinds, crystalloidal, or those which are
known as true solutions, inasmuch as they show an osmotic pressure
and have a freezing point lower and a boiling point higher than the
original solution, and colloidal solutions, which have these properties
to a slight extent only, if at all. Colloidal suspensions resemble
true solutions less closely than colloidal solutions. The electrical
method of Bredig is the most important one in preparing these sus-
pensions, which have a homogeneous appearance under the micro-
scope.
The features common to enzymes and colloidal suspensions are
that they act catalytically, especially upon hydrogen dioxide, as the
investigations of Bredig have shown; the activity of each increases
with a rise of temperature until a certain maximum is reached. Both
enzymes and suspensions are very sensitive to the presence of foreign
substances. Some substances act as inhibitors while others act as
accelerators to both.
Professor F. E. Niplier presented an abstract of his
paper "On the Nature of the Electric Discharge. The
One-Fluid and the Two-Fluid Theories."
The President then briefly set forth the present situ-
ation regarding the endowment fund, and the Secretary
read the form of contract which it was proposed should be
entered into by the Academy and the St. Louis Union
Trust Co. and certain subscribers. This contract pro-
vided for the establishment of an endowment fund of at
least $15,000.00, $7,000.00 of which is to be set apart
for that purpose by the Academy, and at least $8,000.00
to be contributed by certain individuals interested in the
welfare of the institution. This entire fund is to be
placed in the hands of the St. Louis Union Trust Co.
as Trustee, to be held by it for a period of twenty-five
years and may not be diverted or impaired in any way.
The net income during the twenty-five years of the trus-
teeship is to be paid to the Academy and at the end of
this period the trust property and accumulated income
is to be turned back to the Academy to be used as it may
determine.
After reading and discussion of the contract, the fol-
Record. xxvii
lowing resolutions, which were recommended to the Acad-
emy by the Council, were unanimously passed:
Be it resolved, that the said sum of $7,000.00 be appropriated for
the purpose of establishing an endowment fund, and that the officers
of this association be and are hereby empowered and directed,
1. To execute the said agreement in the form herein above set
forth.
2. To pay to the St. Louis Union Trust Co. as Trustee thereunder
when demanded by it, the said sum of $7,000.00, as a contributor to
the said endowment fund.
3. When making such payment of the said sum of $7,000.00 to
further pay to said Trust Co. as Trustee in the name of John A.
Holmes the sum of $500.00 already transferred to the Academy by
him as a subscriber to said endowment fund.
Febkuary 7, 1910.
President Trelease in the chair; attendance 175.
Reverend Martin S. Brennan read a paper on "Hal-
ley's Comet."
Reverend Charles J. Borgmeyer exhibited and ex-
plained a stereo-model, showing the path of Halley's
Comet during the period of its present appearance.
Dr. Charles A. Todd was elected to membership.
February 21, 1910.
Dr. Adolf Alt in the chair; attendance 26.
Mr. C. H. Thompson presented descriptions, illustrated
by herbarium material and living specimens, of three new
Mexican plants.
March 7, 1910.
President Trelease in the chair; attendance 52.
Dr. Carl Barck delivered a most interesting lecture on
"The Snake Dance of the Hopi Indians."
Mr. Philip Rau presented to the Academy Museum a
fine specimen of a nest of Vespa maculata, from Kimms-
wick, Mo.
A resolution was adopted endorsing the bill pending
in the House of Representatives to protect migratory
birds in the United States ; and the Corresponding Secre-
tary requested to urge the Missouri members to work and
xxviii Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.
vote for the bill. In introducing his motion Mr. Wid-
mann read the following :
In November, 1905, I had a paper before the American Ornitholo-
gists' Union at its twenty-third Congress in New York City, entitled
"Should Bird Protection Laws and their Enforcement be in the Hands
of the National Government?" This same question is now put to
Congress in bill 10,276, introduced into the House of Representatives
May 28, 1909, by Hon. John W. Weeks of Massachusetts.
The bill reads as follows:
"Be it enacted, by the Senate and House of Representatives of
the United States of America in Congress assembled, that all Geese,
Swans, Brants, Ducks, Snipe, Plover, Woodcock, Rail, Pigeons, and
all other migratory birds, which, in their northern and southern
migrations, pass through or do not remain permanently the entire
year within the borders of any state or territory, shall hereafter be
deemed to be within the custody and protection of the Government
of the United States, and shall not be destroyed or taken contrary to
regulations hereinafter provided for.
Sec. 2. "That the Department of Agriculture is hereby authorized
to adopt suitable regulations to give effect to the previous section by
prescribing and fixing closed seasons, having due regard to the zones
of temperature, breeding habits, and times and line of migratory flight,
thereby enabling the department to select and designate suitable dis-
tricts for different portions of the country, within which said closed
seasons, it shall not be lawful to shoot or by any device kill or seize
and capture migratory birds within the protection of this law, and by
declaring penalties by fine or imprisonment, or both, for violations of
such regulations.
Sec 3. "That the Department of Agriculture, after preparation of
said regulations, shall cause the same to be made public, and shall
allow a period of three months in which said regulations may be
examined and considered before final adoption, to cause same to be
engrossed and submitted, to the President of the United States for
approval: Provided, however, that nothing therein contained shall be
deemed to affect or interfere with the local laws of the states and ter-
ritories for the protection of game localized within their borders, nor
to prevent the states and territories from enacting laws and regula-
tions to promote and render efficient the regulations of the Depart-
ment of Agriculture provided under this statute."
Experience has shown the impossibility of obtaining uniform and
adequate legislation for migratory birds from state legislatures. The
formulating of a good protective law is a task which requires more
knowledge of the habits of birds than legislators can be expected
to possess, and there is the danger that with every new session of a
legislature a good law may be changed, usually through the agency
of parties who find the law injuring their business. It is known that
business men with a little money as a persuader have convinced law
makers in our own state that if certain laws were passed or not
changed they would have to go out of business, or rather go into some
other business, less injurious to the public welfare.
Record. xxix
To show you how these state laws are constantly changed, the
balance sheet of last year's legislative gains and losses is instructive.
Gains are: — Massachusetts and North Dakota prohibited spring
shooting. Montana and Nebraska protected the Doves throughout
the year. Idaho accorded protection to the Blackbirds. North Caro-
lina passed a number of local game laws. Oklahoma and North
Dakota enacted the so-called "Model Law," and California established
a bird day.
Losses are: — Illinois removed protection from all hawks, and
New Mexico from road runners. Oklahoma left the Doves without
any closed season, Pennsylvania classed Loons and Grebes as game
birds with an open season, and removed protection from Shrikes,
Eagles, Buzzards, Ospreys, Cranes, Herons, and Bitterns. Utah
removed protection from Blackbirds, Blue Herons, Bitterns, Squaks,
Magpies, and Kingfishers. West Virginia removed protection from all
Hawks, Owls, Eagles, Crows, and Kingfishers. Indiana, Nevada, Oregon
and Nebraska extended spring shooting two or three weeks. Idaho
permitted shooting in January and February, and Washington in Jan-
uary, February and March.
But even more important than the making of the game and bird
protection law is its enforcement. It is a well known fact that local
officials do not appreciate the good of bird protection and are unwilling
to prosecute friends and neighbors for violation of unpopular laws.
For the last twenty-five years, and long before game laws were ever
thought of, we have had in Missouri a law prohibiting the killing or
catching of song and insectivorous birds and the robbing of their
nests, but sheriffs and constables, whose duty it was to enforce the
law, ignored it so constantly that it became a dead letter.
When game laws were created, it was necessary to employ special
officers with a regular salary; this led to the present system of game
wardens adopted by most states. Unfortunately, this game warden
system is also subjected to the moods of the General Assembly, and
it was shown in our own state a few years ago how easy it is to
make the law inefficient by simply omitting the appropriation for the
salary of district game wardens. The Forty-fourth General Assembly
appropriated only enough money to pay a big salary to the state game
and fish commissioner and for the expenses of his office and travels,
but nothing for deputy game wardens. Governor Folk sanctioned the
bill against the wishes of the Audubon Society and it became a law,
wholly worthless for the reason that one head game warden without
a force of assistants can do nothing except draw his salary.
The last General Assembly re-enacted the entire game law with
desirable modifications, but the next legislative session may change
it again or deprive it of its effectiveness. But under present conditions
even the best game warden system is inadequate for the care of birds,
other than game. The aim of the game warden is to preserve game in
the interest of the hunter; being hunters themselves they naturally do
not care very much for the preservation of other than game birds, and,
like most people, think that small birds are fit for nothing, and
that it makes little difference whether they are killed or not. Nor
xxx Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.
is this latter view confined to certain classes of our population; very
few of our county judges see the use of stringent laws prohibiting
the killing of birds, and convictions or judgments are hard to obtain
in such courts. Laxity in the enforcement of state laws is the reason
why federal laws are more highly respected, because violators brought
before federal judges seldom escape severe punishment.
Formerly it was thought that everybody had a right to kill any
wild bird at any time and any place he had a chance to do so. When
it became apparent that something had to be done to prevent the
threatened extermination of game, the states claimed ownership of
all game and wild birds and created laws based on this claim of
ownership. By closer scrutiny of the question we find that this claim
cannot be satisfactorily established, since with the exception of few
species, mainly Quail, Grouse and Turkey, all game birds and nearly
all non-game birds are migratory and most of them are only transient
visitors in the United States. Ducks, Geese, Snipes and Plovers have
their breeding grounds in Canada and spend the winter south of the
United States. In fact there are very few wild birds which remain
on the same ground the entire year; most of them spend the summer
in one state, the winter in another and in traveling to and fro stop
temporarily in a number of states on both ways. This forces us to
regard migratory birds as guests, not of a county or state, but of the
Nation at large. What is true of land birds holds equally good of
sea birds, which come to our shores to breed, or fly along our coasts
to feed, or visit them temporarily in their migrations. They are as
much the guests of the Nation as the inland birds and are entitled
to the care and protection of the country at large. A few attempts
to protect them on their breeding grounds have been made by the
National Association of Audubon Societies, and lately President
Roosevelt set aside by executive orders fifty-three parcels of ground
used by bird colonies for nesting purposes, chiefly along our coasts—
a few in the interior. Valuable as this is, it is not sufficient, for, to
preserve these beautiful and interesting creatures for future gener-
ations, we have to protect them all the year round from wanton
slaughter by the wily plume hunter. This is a very difficult task
which the all-powerful National Government only can take upon its
shoulders, but a Nation so charitable and humane as that of the
United States can ill afford to withhold the largest measure of pro-
tection to such defenseless creatures as her feathered wards, the
migratory birds.
The following were elected to membership : Chas. H.
Franck, Wm. E. Hoke, C. L. Holman, Geo. E. Kessler,
Geo. C. Stinde and Frank C. Thompson.
Maech 21, 1910.
President Trelease in the chair; attendance 30.
Mr. Jnlius Hurter gave the life history of the Blind
Salamander of Missouri, showing specimens at various
stages of development.
Record. xxxi
Dr. Adolf Alt exhibited and explained the structure of
the eye of this salamander, illustrating his talk with
many interesting and instructive lantern slides.
Mr. Alten S. Miller was elected to membership.
The death of Mr. Eufus J. Lackland was reported.
April 4, 1910.
Dr. Adolf Alt in the chair ; attendance 30.
Dr. Eobert J. Terry presented a paper on "The
Morphology of the Pineal Region in Teleosts."
Professor F. E. Nipher exhibited and explained photo-
graphic plates showing the gradual development of an
electric discharge.
Mr. J. W. Beede was elected to membership.
April 18, 1910.
Dr. Adolf Alt in the chair; attendance 70.
Mr. Frank Mesker gave a lecture illustrated by lan-
tern slides from photographs taken in China, including
the Great Wall.
Mr. Charles H. Turner was elected to membership.
May 2, 1910.
President Trelease in the chair; attendance 16.
Dr. Charles A. Todd presented a paper on "The Pres-
ervation and Mounting of Wet Preparations for Mu-
seums."
Professor F. E. Nipher presented in abstract and illus-
trated by lantern slides a communication on "The Na-
ture of the Electric Discharge."
May 16, 1910.
President Trelease in the chair; attendance 25.
The Corresponding Secretary read the following:
In the death of Alexander Agassiz, a corresponding member of the
Academy of Science Of St. Louis for forty-four years, the Academy
wishes to record its loss and to express its appreciation of Mr.
Agassiz's great service to science.
xxxii Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.
The President reported that after a contribution of
$2,500 and a transfer from the current treasury account
of $1,000 had last year raised the Academy endowment
to $6,500, which, by the further gift of Mr. John Holmes,
had been increased to $7,000, a circular letter sent to all
members of the Academy had brought in the further sum
of $500 contributed by Messrs. Gustav Baumgarten, M. S.
Brennan, D. I. Bushnell, E. C. Dameron, W. E. Fischel,
George Lang, Jr., E. H. Larkin, Edward Mallinckrodt,
Jr., Frank Mesker, J. S. Thurman and T. D. Witt—
which had been added to the endowment from time to
time as received.
It was further reported that under authorization voted
by the Academy in the early part of this year, the Presi-
dent and Treasurer had recently transferred to the Saint
Louis Union Trust Company this sum of $7,500, to which
a few members of the Academy, Messrs. W. K. Bixby,
George O. Carpenter, Peyton Carr, Benjamin Gratz, Ed-
ward Mallinckrodt, D. S. H. Smith and William Trelease,
and Mrs. Eliza McMillan, had added a like sum,— the
total of $15,000, under the agreement sanctioned by the
Academy, to be held in trust for a period of twenty-five
years and the proceeds of its investment collected and
turned over to the Academy for its current use.
Calling attention to the rules concerning the election
of patrons, the President stated that among these con-
tributors to the Academy's endowment (in addition to
Mrs. McMillan, who is already a patron of the Academy),
Mr. W. K. Bixby and Mr. Edward Mallinckrodt had
given over $1,000 each, and recommended that these gen-
tlemen be elected patrons of the Academy.
Dr. William Trelease gave an illustrated account of
"The Geographical Distribution of Agave in the West
Indies and its Probable Mode of Introduction."
Three main types of Agave are recognized in the West Indies;
one confined to the southwestern Cuban region, another to the Inaguas,
and the third ranging through the entire archipelago. Subtypes of the
latter are limited respectively to the Greater Antilles, the Bahamas,
the Caribbees, and the Leeward Islands and the adjoining Venezuelan
coast. Within these groups specific differentiation is observable so
that each island isolated by a 100-fathom channel has its endemic
Record. xxxiii
species, the islands with a common coastal plain possessing little if
at all differentiated forms. The almost entire absence of the genus
from South America and the geographic grouping of species and super-
species in the West Indies indicate that Agave penetrated from the
Central American mainland, where it centers, and overran the terrain
before the disruption into islands, two or perhaps three parent stocks
being involved.
Mr. William Keeney Bixby and Mr. Edward Mallinc-
krodt were unanimously elected Patrons of the Academy.
Mr. Cloyd Raymond Bender was elected to membership.
June 6, 1910.
President Trelease in the chair; attendance 40.
Professor Walter Edward McCourt gave an account,
illustrated by lantern slides, of "The Unfolding of the
Map of the World."
Mr. McCourt related how the knowledge of new lands has been
acquired by discoveries and explorations, beginning with the small
area about the Mediterranean Sea and gradually widening the geo-
graphic horizon, until we have the world of today, as we know it.
Mr. McCourt also told of the various ideas of peoples (from these
early times, 3000 B. C.) concerning the shape and features of the earth,
and the various changes taking place on it. The talk was amply
illustrated by lantern slides, including many ancient and fanciful
maps of the world, to show how our present ideas concerning the
earth have come to be.
The death of Mr. Henry W. Scheffer was reported.
Octobee 17, 1910.
President Trelease in the chair; attendance 52.
Professor William Trelease exhibited and illustrated
by lantern slides "The Smallest of the Century Plants."
Professor J. L. Van Ornum gave a summary of his
recent experiments showing the effect of the presence
of vegetable mold on the strength of concrete and mortar.
Professor F. E. Nipher gave a review of his recent
work on the electric discharge.
The death of Dr. Gustav Baumgarten and of Judge Jacob
Klein was reported.
xxxiv Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.
November 21, 1910.
President Trelease in the chair; attendance 40.
The gift of the late Dr. Baumgarten's personal file of
the Academy's Transactions, as well as extra copies of
the rare first and second volumes, from Dr. Walter Baum-
garten and Miss Alma Baumgarten, was reported.
Mr. Julius Hurter read a paper on "The Poisonous
Snakes of Missouri," illustrating his talk with specimens.
The following were elected to membership; Nathaniel
Allison, Roger N. Baldwin, Thomas Beckwith, S. A.
Bemis, Chas. C. Boland, Louis A. Brandenburger, James
H. Brookmire, Jas. A. Campbell, C. 0. Chambers, Isaac T.
Cook, Jerome E. Cook, Francis E. A. Curley, H. E. Dens-
ford, George Dock, A. W. Ebeling, Walter Fischel,
George Gellhorn, Chas. M. Gill, Thos. B. Glazebrook,
Cortlandt Harris, Edward Hidden, J. J. Houwink, Ernest
Jonas, Breckinridge Jones, Joseph M. Keller, Luther M.
Kennett, H. F. Knight, W. C. LeVan, Wm. H. Luedde,
Frank J. Lutz, J. B. McCubbin, Elias Michael, Thomas
Middleton, E. T. Mitchell, John Campbell Morfit, Sidney
Morse, Albert R. Nauer, Wm. H. Nolker, Saunders Nor-
vell, Eugene L. Opie, E. G. Payne, Hugh B. Eose, Henri
Rusch, Jacob Schramm, Philip A. Shaffer, James I. Shan-
non, Thomas K. Skinker, G. M. Stelzleni, W. H. Stennett,
Henry C. Thompson, Jr., and Hans Weichsel.
The death of Mr. Pierre Chouteau and of Mr. David F.
Kaime was reported.
December 5, 1910.
President Trelease in the chair; attendance 35.
Messrs. Leonard Matthews, J. F. Abbott, Ben Blewett,
J. H. Gundlach and R. N. Baldwin were appointed a com-
mittee to assist the movement for a Zoological Garden
for St. Louis.
Dr. Ulrich Harder read a paper on "Evolution with
Reference to the Acquisition of the Erect Posture, its
Disadvantages and the Decline of Certain Faculties in
Man."
Record. xxxv
Professor F. E. Nipher presented Ms newest results
on his work on the Electric Discharge.
Dr. Eobert J. Terry, Mr. H. C. Irish, and Dr. R. R.
Gates, were elected to serve as a committee to nominate
officers for the year 1911.
The following were elected to membership : James E.-
Allison, J. A. Berninghaus, Preston J. Bradshaw, Geo. P.
Doan, John B. Emerson, Edward F. Goltra, Robert J.
Guthrie, Fred B. Hall, Chas. Van Dyke Hill, Marc Ray
Hughes, Albert L. Johnson, W. J. Kinsella, L. L. Leon-
ard, C. Dewitt Lukens, Henry Samuel Priest, A. H. Rel-
ler, Walter Robbins, E. C. Rowse, George Schweyer, F. E.
Sheldon, Paul J. Wielandy and Charles Wiggins.
Decembek 19, 1910.
President Trelease in the chair ; attendance 30.
Professor Robert J. Wallace gave an illustrated ac-
count of the " Construction, Equipment and Work of a
Modern Observatory."
The following report from the Nominating Commit-
tee was read :
St. Louis, Mo., Dec. 17, 1910.
The nominating committee, elected at the last meeting of the
Academy of Science, begs to submit and place in nomination the
following names for officers for the ensuing year: —
For President William Trelease
For First Vice-President D. S. H. Smith
For Second Vice-President Francis E. Nipher
For Recording Secretary Walter E. McCourt
For Corresponding Secretary George T. Moore
For Treasurer H. E. Wiedemann
For Librarian Wm. L. R. Gifford
For Curators Julius Hurter
Joseph Grindon
Philip Rau
For Directors Otto Widmann
Adolf Alt
Respectfully submitted,
R. J. TERRY,
(Signed) R. R. GATES,
H. C. IRISH.
The following were elected to membership : Abraham;
Cook and H. Linton Reber.
xxxvi Trans. Acad. Set. of St. Louis.
REPORTS OF OFFICERS.
President 's Addeess.
Fellow Members:
It is my privilege again to report a year of well-being and progress
in the Academy.
Fifteen meetings have been held, with an average registration of
twenty-three, but an attendance fully doubling this number. On an
invitation in which we participated, the National Academy of Sciences
held its autumn meeting in St. Louis, in the early part of November,
thereby honoring the community and encouraging and stimulating its
scientific activities. This meeting afforded us an opportunity to tender
to the public, on behalf of our guests, a lecture by the dean of Ameri-
can geologists — Professor Chamberlin — presenting impressions derived
by him during an extensive educational mission to that little-known
land, China; and indirectly brought us a masterly address by one of
America's most distinguished zoologists — Professor Wilson — arranged
by the Washington University chapter of the honorary scientific
society of Sigma Xi, attendance on which was made possible by action
of the Council suspending our own session of November seventh. The
officers of the National Academy have been pleased to speak of the
St. Louis meeting as a satisfactory one, and its sessions were given
an unusual and pleasing touch of reminiscence by the presence on the
walls of the meeting-room of portraits of Chauvenet, Eads and Engel-
mann, — all, in their day, honored and valued members of the National
Academy, as of our own organization.
Perhaps in no single respect has the real scientific activity of our
body been so gratifyingly manifested as in its Entomological Section,
which has held eight meetings through the year and has brought
together the nucleus of a general collection of insects, supplementing
the beautiful butterflies which, through Mrs. Bouton's interest and
effort, were presented to the Academy some years since. Though
little enlarged, otherwise, the museum has been maintained, in the
customary manner and made accessible to the public; and the practice
of opening it after our evening meeting has been continued through
the year. The librarian reports the usual increase in our library, bet-
terments in its condition, and maintenance and suitable extension of
our scientific affiliations.
Toward the end of the season the Academy, helpful in every
effort to better the community in the line of our own activities, gave
approval to a movement Jooking to the establishment of a zoological
garden in St. Louis, and a committee has been appointed for suitable
, co-operation, chosen from members of the Academy who at the same
time are representative of the most important civic interests to which
such a movement should appeal.
The publications of the Academy have been carried through the
year in the usual manner, — gratifying as to quantity and quality, and,
Record. xxxvii
in addition to a concluding brochure containing an abstract of pro-
ceedings for the year, etc., the nineteenth volume of our Transactions
will contain ten worthy contributions to knowledge which have seen
the light in 1910. The encouraging financial condition that was
reported a year since, continues. The treasurer reports a current
balance of $119.04. By further subscription, the endowment reported
at the end of 1909 was increased to $7,500.00, which was doubled in the
early part of the year through the generosity of a few members, so
that this safeguard of our realty and of our publishing activities now
stands at $15,000.00, which, by vote of the Academy, has been placed:
in trust for a term of twenty-five years at the end of which the prin-
cipal will require re-investment, — the income, only (netting about 5-
per cent) being available for current use.
In the course of the year much needed renovations have been
made in our building, the initial cost of which, assumed by the Engi-
neers' Club, is covered by a corresponding reduction in the rental paid
by the Club. What is expected to be a material betterment in the
quiet and ventilation of the meeting room is being made by the pro-
vision of apparatus for delivering an ample supply of tempered pure
air, with removal of the vitiated air, permitting the windows to be
covered at all seasons with pads which are expected to intercept much
of the noise from the street which now interferes seriously with the
use of the room, especially in the summer, when windows are opened
to secure a circulation of air. The initial cost of this installation —
the efficiency test of which is awaited with keen anticipation — is borne
by the Engineers' Club, the Academy assuming the operating expense.
Death has claimed again a heavy toll from our members: Gustav
Baumgarten, Pierre Chouteau, David F. Kaime, Jacob Klein, Rufus J.
Lackland, Henry W. Scheffer. Notwithstanding these losses and the
customary resignations of sustaining members, the membership has
experienced a net increase of fifty-three (14 per cent.), and at the end
of the year stands at four hundred and thirty-three, the highest figure
yet reached. The list is a roll of honor, including, in addition to the
still lamentably few productive investigators of the community, the
names of those whose interest and work and gifts are making the
"new St. Louis."
Gratifying to your officers, is your increasing individual activity
in sustaining and enlarging this membership, on which, as I stated a
year ago, rests and must continue to rest the Academy's power for
good. In 1909, thirty-three names of sponsors appeared on the pro-
posals of the 135 members elected; last year, the eighty-eight proposals
submitted bore sixty-two signatures. May not a further diffusion of
activity in presenting suitable names be hoped for this year? The
task is easy, the value and privilege of membership are clear, and the
cause is worthy.
(Signed) William Trelease,
President.
xxxviii Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.
Treasurers Eeport.
Receipts.
Balance from 1909 $ 231.15
Dues from members 1,805.50
Rent from tenant societies 691.34
Telephone (Engineers' Club) 10.00
Academy's Transactions sold 59.95
Washington University (books) 40.00
Interest on balance, September 8, 1910 5.61
Interest on real estate loan 82.50
Balance from Union Trust Co ■- 89.99
Income from endowment fund 181.95
Total receipts for the year $3,197.99
Expenditures.
Salaries $1,200.00
Water license 41.00
Gas and electric light 55.63
Fuel 244.36
Telephone 58.10
Printing — 1,057.98
Current expenses 421.88
Total expenditures for the year $3,078.95
Balance December 31, 1910 119.04
$3,197.99
Endowment Account at Union Trust Co.
Balance from 1909 $4,460.83
Interest accrued, May 5, 1910 29.16
Total on hand, May 5, 1910 $4,489.99
Withdrawn for endowment fund, May 5, 1910 $4,400.00
Withdrawn from Academy's funds 89.99
$4,489.99
This account is closed.
The total endowment fund is now $15,000.00.
Respectfully submitted,
(Signed) H. E. Wiedemann,
Treasurer.
Record. xxxix
Librarian's Eepoet.
The Librarian reported that the accessions to the library for the
year 1910 by exchange with 113 home and 301 foreign societies
amounted to 84 volumes and 76 pamphlets, and by donation 28 volumes
and 30 pamphlets.
The Transactions for the year were sent to 107 home and 232
foreign societies.
Dr. Walter Baumgarten and Miss Alma Baumgarten donated a full
set of the Academy's Transactions, from the library of their father.
Curator's Report.
The Curators reported that during the year donations were received
from:
Mr. Philip Rau, a fine specimen of a nest of Vespa maculata, from
Kimmswick, Mo., and one hundred insect cases for the use of the
Entomological Section.
Report of the Entomological Section".
St. Louis, Mo., Jan. 16, 1911.
To the Academy of Science of St. Louis:
Another year has passed in which the Entomological Section has
done work of which it may well be proud. Eight meetings were held
and at each one of these considerable enthusiasm was shown.
At the January meeting Prof. J. F. Abbott was elected to succeed
himself as chairman and Mr. Hermann Schwarz as secretary. Mr.
Hermann Schwarz reported on the meeting of Illinois and Missouri
entomologists held at the home of Dr. Wm. Barnes, of Decatur, 111.,
January 16th. The enormous collection of North American Lepidoptera
possessed by Dr. Barnes proved instructive far beyond the expecta-
tions of many. The conference was attended by twenty-two persons.
Mr. J. T. Monell described the manner in which aphids puncture
leaves. Mr. Rau, Mr. Monell and others spoke of the good work done
by the Section during the past year and the cheerful outlook for its
future.
At the February meeting Prof. J. F. Abbott read a paper on
"Mimicry in the Genus Limenitis L. and the Papilioninae, Models of
L. Ursula."
At the March meeting Mr. Phil Rau read a paper on "Life History
and Color Changes in Stagomantis Carolina;' illustrating same with a
number of lantern slides made of photographs taken by himself of
insects under observation.
xl Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.
At the April meeting Dr. C. H. Turner presented a paper on "The
Homing of Ants." Mr. Philip Rau offered to present the Section with
one hundred paste-board boxes to be used as temporary receptacles for
insects donated by members of the Section to the museum collection.
Mr. Louis Schnell and Mr. Hermann Schwarz were elected custodians
of the prospective collection.
At the May meeting Dr. Carl Fisch spoke of "Parasites in the
Intestines of Insects," supplementing his talk with a number of micro-
scopic slides. The boxes donated by Mr. Rau were thankfully accepted.
At the field meet held jointly with the St. Louis Entomological
Club at West Kimmswick, Mo., July 16-17th, the most interesting
insect found was Satyrus alope. This butterfly occurs very rarely
about St. Louis but here it was quite plentiful.
At the October meeting Mr. Philip Rau presented to the museum
a case containing specimens in each stage of development of Samia
cecropia. The same gentleman read a paper on "Further Notes on the
Cecropia Moth."
At the December meeting Dr. C. H. Turner read a paper entitled,
"Color Vision of the Honey Bee." The subject proved to be one of
intense interest and was therefore thoroughly discussed.
The average attendance for the last eight meetings was six mem-
bers and four visitors. The Section at present consists of ten members.
Respectfully submitted,
(Signed) Hermann Schwarz,
Secretary of the Section.
Record. xli
Memorial to De. Gustav Baumgaeten.
The following appreciation of our late associate, Dr.
Gustav Baumgarten, was prepared by Dr. John Green:
Gustav Heinrich Ernst Baumgarten
June 1,1837— September 20, 1910.
It was my rare privilege to make the acquaintance of
Dr. Baumgarten early in 1867, — an acquaintance which
proved to be the beginning of an association of forty-
three years in the teaching of medicine, and of an abid-
ing friendship now a gracious memory.
Dr. Baumgarten had already won recognition by lead-
ers in the profession as distinctively the exponent of
scientific medicine in this community. His broad knowl-
edge perfectly coordinated and at instant command, his
gift of direct and lucid exposition, his unwavering fidelity
to duty, and above all his intellectual honesty and punc-
tilious regard for the rights of others, were distinguish-
ing attributes of the wise physician, the helpful consult-
ant, and the impressive teacher.
Dr. Baumgarten's life work was in the practice and
teaching of internal medicine, but in following this predi-
lection he was ever mindful of the essential oneness of
medical science as the summation of knowledge garnered
from many fields. So every year brought accession of
wisdom and power ; — his growth was continuous and sym-
metrical to the end.
Single-minded in his reverence for truth and deliber-
ately exact in formulating his convictions, he was impa-
tient of self-assertion and rhetorical display in discuss-
ing scientific problems. His own utterances, always per-
tinent and illuminating, were characterized by a judicial
discrimination that compelled the respect of receptive
hearers. In the local Society of German Physicians he
found congenial companionship, and gave freely of his
best in impromptu friendly debate and in carefully
studied papers. For thirty years and to the very last
he was constant in his attendance at its meetings and
xlii Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.
at the informal reunion of members after adjournment.
In the Association of American Physicians he was the
peer of acknowledged leaders in scientific medicine. Hon-
orary distinctions came to him unsought ; the giver more
honored than the recipient.
Dr. Baumgarten was a man of distinctively broad cul-
ture. The Latin and Greek of a curriculum assimilated
to that of the gymnasium lived anew in his terse and
incisive English. His native German, formed on the best
models, was equally the perfect mirror of his thought.
He valued mathematics as the exemplification of close
reasoning from defined postulates. Biology was in the
widest sense the Science of Life. Literature was a cult
and a recreation; the sympathetic characterizations of
Fritz Eeuter and the whimsical conceits of Jean Paul
and of Stockton appealed strongly to his genial sense of
humor — humani nihil a se alienum putabat.
Of the eighty-five active members of the Academy
listed in 1867 only five were carried on the roll at the date
of its semi-centennial celebration, March 10, 1906. The
number is now reduced to four. In the days of relatively
small membership and sparse attendance at meetings Dr.
Baumgarten was its efficient Librarian and supervisor
of the exchange of Transactions with affiliated societies.
Later, as one by one old associates were removed, he
ceased to frequent our meetings. His sustained loyalty
to the Academy is attested by his remarkable record as
an active member, from 1856, and by his unfailing appre-
ciation of efforts to realize the high aspirations of its
founders : — Engelmann loved him, and he revered Engel-
mann's memory.
In all the relations of life, he was sans peur et sans
reproche. In the circle of his chosen friends he was
affable and often playful. All were better for having
known him. If it were required to write his epitaph in
a single phrase, it might well be in the finely appropriate
words of Virgil: —
MENS SIBI CONSCTA RECTI
\V\
Transactions of the Academy of Science of St. Louis.
VOL. XIX. No. 1.
ON THE NATURE OF THE ELECTRIC DISCHARGE.
THE ONE-FLUID AND THE TWO-FLUID
THEORIES.
FRANCIS E. NIPHER.
Issued February 18, 1910.
PUBLICATIONS.
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The Academy of Science of St. Louis, 3817 Olive St., St. Louis, Mo.
TRANSACTIONS (In OCtaVO).
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Continued on page 3 of Cover.
ON THE NATUEE OF THE ELECTRIC DIS-
CHARGE. THE ONE-FLUID AND THE TWO-
FLUID THEORIES.
Francis E. Niphek.
It is now nearly three years since the writer began a
search for some direct and tangible evidence which would
determine the direction of flow of the electric current in
a conductor. The phenomena revealed by the study of
radio-active bodies had shown that we have in the ft
particles an agent which fills the requirements of an
" electric fluid." The a particles are evidently incapable
of flowing through a conducting wire. But it did not
seem impossible that the a particles might be com-
posed of a nucleus and a similar fluid which might have
the properties of the positive fluid.
In the present paper an attempt will be made to present
evidence with which all are familiar, and which has been
accumulating during many years, which seems important
in determining the nature of the current in a wire con-
ductor. Additional evidence will be presented which
seems to be inconsistent with the two-fluid theory.
The results of Wheatstone's work on the velocity of an
electric disturbance are in harmony with either the one-
fluid or the two-fluid hypothesis. An examination of
Wheatstone's paper1 revealed the fact that his drawings
of the rotating mirror show a device which is incapable
of a rotation of 800 times per second. The mirror is not
central on the shaft. The spark knob which permitted
the passage of the spark when the mirror was in the
proper position for observing the image of the spark
board was balanced by a similar knob on the opposite side
of the shaft. But in order that only one spark should
Presented before The Academy of Science of St. Louis, Jan. 17, 1910.
1 Phil. Tr. R. Soc. 1834.
(1)
2 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.
occur in a revolution, the balancing knob was displaced
along the shaft. This results in another unbalanced mo-
ment which must be carried by the pivots on which the
shaft is mounted. It was estimated that the pivots would
at 800 revolutions per second, have carried lateral revolv-
ing thrusts amounting to 75 or 80 pounds. It was there-
fore determined to repeat this work. Through the cour-
tesy of the Department of Physics of the University of
Chicago the construction of a rotating mirror was se-
cured from patterns used in the building of a mirror for
that department. A mile of wire was contributed by the
Kinloch Telephone Company of St. Louis, and Wheat-
stone's line was reproduced in the hallway of Eads Hall
at Washington University. The reflected images of the
sparks on the spark board were thrown into a large copy-
ing camera. Datum sparks when the mirror was at rest
could thus be obtained, and the sparks produced during
rotation could also be obtained. When both terminals of
the large 8-plate influence machine were put to the line
it was found impossible to obtain Wheatstone's result. A
series of small sparks was shown in the end gaps at the
machine terminals, followed by a single spark in the mid-
dle gap. Finally one end of the line was grounded and
the other presented to either terminal of the machine. It
was then found that when either the positive or the nega-
tive discharge was sent through the line, the spark near-
est to the machine occurred first, the middle spark sec-
ond, and the spark nearest to the ground occurred last.
The sparks came at regular time intervals. Wheatstone's
conclusion was therefore verified.2
The question then arises, are these disturbances dis-
charges of the positive and negative fluids, or are they
disturbances in the nature of compression and rarefac-
tion waves in a fluid? Wheatstone's result does not de-
cide between these two possible hypotheses. Rowland's
2 Probably Wheatstone's drawings represent apparatus used in pre-
liminary work, and not the apparatus which he finally used for obtaining
his published results.
Nipher—On the Nature of the Electric Discharge. 3
famous experiment on the electromagnetic effect due to
the motion of a charged body, establishes the fact that a
positively charged body, moving in space, produces the
same electromagnetic field as a negatively charged body
moving along the same path with equal velocity in the op-
posite direction. These two actions are, however, not
identical, since they involve the motion of masses of mat-
ter in opposite directions.
The positive luminiscence in the Geissler tube is not
necessarily a discharge of positive electricity, although
it seems to proceed from the positive terminal. J. J.
Thompson found that this positive luminescence in a tube
15 meters in length moved outward from the positive
terminal, with a velocity somewhat more than half that of
light. But this may only be a result of the negative dis-
charge. A stream of water issuing with great velocity
from a pipe may wear a channel into the earth, and this
channel may lengthen for a time in the direction of flow.
At a distant point where this stream runs down a steep
bank into the sea, a channel may also be worn, which may
elongate indefinitely in a direction opposite to that in
which the stream flows. The gradual recession of the
falls of Niagara is an illustration of such action.
If the water were invisible, and if the recession of
Niagara Falls from Lake Ontario to Lake Erie should
occur in ten minutes, the phenomenon might be thought
to be a "positive discharge" into Lake Erie.
The positive luminescence in Thomson's long tube may
be explained as follows:
The ironization of the column of gas at the anode end
begins at the anode wire. Negative particles pass from
molecules in contact with it to the wire. These molecules
thus ironized are then capable of accepting negative par-
ticles from their neighbors who are slightly more remote
from the anode. In other words, they have acquired the
property of conduction. It is as though the length of the
anode wire had been extended into the tube. In the lan-
guage of the two-fluid theory, positive electricity has be-
4 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.
gun to flow from the anode. This operation extends
throughout the tube, up to the dark space at the cathode.
At the cathode end the negative particles appear. In the
arc light such a cathode stream shows itself capable of
beating a crater into the end of the positive carbon, and
raising the temperature of that carbon a thousand de-
grees or more above that of the negative carbon. In the
Geissler tube this cathode stream apparently beats the
gas molecules away from the cathode. They are beaten
towards the positive terminal of the tube. A condition
is thus formed around the cathode which approaches that
in the Crookes tube. We may have then in this space a
region of increased "resistance" to the passage of the
discharge. A kind of automatic valve action may be thus
brought about. A system of standing waves may result,
in the air column, somewhat resembling that in an organ
pipe. All of this would involve, at any one point in the
tube, harmonic changes in pressure in the gas, such as
exist in an organ pipe, and harmonic changes in the ' i re-
sistance" offered to the discharge. If the cathode has a
form which gives proper direction to the cathode stream
a counter discharge of positive ions towards the cathode
end of the tube may be brought about.
Such periodic changes in the gas column of the Geissler
tube would of course be attended by many complex auxil-
iary phenomena which are not to be found in vibrations
in the air column of an organ pipe, produced by a con-
tinuous blast of air. It certainly seems possible that the
cathode stream across the dark space around the cathode,
even when a constant current source is used, may be the
cause of the periodic vibrations of a more or less regular
character involved in the striae and dark spaces. "Why
should such mechanical considerations not enter into the
explanation of these long known phenomena?
It certainly does not seem possible that the positive
ions can emerge from within the metal conductor form-
ing the anode. They are what is left of the atom, when
the negative particles have been detached from atoms of
Nipher — On the Nature of the Electric Discharge. 5
a substance having gaseous form. In a gas we may have
freely moving positive ions as well as freely moving nega-
tive ions. This is the condition in the Geissler and
Crookes tubes. In a solid conductor we may also have a
displacement of negative ions. The positive ions cannot
move. They constitute the conductor. In such a con-
ductor, so far as position is concerned, molecules are al-
ways and constantly related to neighboring molecules as
gaseous molecules are when they collide. The lower the
temperature of the solid, the more nearly the molecules
approach each other, and the more easily negative ions or
particles are displaced from molecule to molecule. In
other words, conduction is improved by a decrease of
temperature. In the solid conductor, there is no evidence
of the existence of a positive current. The positive ions
which exist in the gases of the Crookes and Geissler tubes
could not flow through a copper wire.
There has been of late a tendency to return to the one-
fluid theory. A few phenomena will be described which
appear to favor Franklin's view of the nature of elec-
tricity.
In 1900 in a paper in these transactions entitled, "On
Certain Properties of Light-Struck Photographic
Plates, ' '3 1 have described a phenomenon which has some
resemblance to what has been called ball lightning. Fig-
ures 8, 9 and 10 of that paper show traces on a photo-
graphic film, made by a slowly moving point of light. The
motion of the point of light was always in the direction
of flow of a negative discharge, and came from the nega-
tive terminal of an influence machine. A metal disc hav-
ing a diameter of a centimeter was armed with a pin-
point. The point was bent over so that when the disc was
placed on the film, the point made intimate contact with
the film. The point rested upon a short pencil mark on
the film. A slight moistening of the pencil mark is of ad-
vantage. The knobs of the machine should be widely sep-
arated, and it is of advantage to place a large sheet of
3 Trans. Vol. X, No. 6.
6 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.
glass midway between them, so that no disruptive dis-
charge may occur. The disk is to he in metallic connec-
tion with the negative terminal. A point of light emerges
from the pin-point or the pencil mark, and moves slowly
over the film, curving towards the positive terminal of
the machine, and leaving a darkened trail behind. Along
this trail an invisible negative flow is taking place, as can
be seen by bringing near to it a device which has earned
the name of "teazer." This consists of two pins, tied or
soldered together at their head ends, the points being in
opposite directions. This is mounted at its middle point
by means of sealing wax, to a long tube of glass. One of
these points when presented to the pin-point on the disk
will usually start the ball discharge, if it fails to appear.
It was found to be impossible to obtain these ball dis-
charges from the positive side of the machine. When the
teazer was used, these discharges would come from the
point on the teazer and would move towards the posi-
tive terminal. Plate I of this present paper shows such
discharges. At the top of the figure were placed two
disks armed with pins, which were connected to the +
and — terminals of the machine. Below were two sim-
ilar disks opposite to those above mentioned, mounted on
the same photographic plate, which was 10X12 inches in
size.4 These disks were in metallic connection with two
large gas torches hung on insulated supports in the air
outside of the building. The torches were fed by means
of long rubber tubes, ending in short metal pipes to which
the line wires were soldered. Ball discharges came one
after the other from the negative terminal, some of which
went to the torch terminal opposite, some turning to-
wards the positive terminal of the machine. Ball dis-
charges also appeared from the torch opposite the posi-
tive terminal and went to that terminal. The plate was
exposed and developed in daylight, the developer being
4 Separate plates for the + and — circuits permit them to be more
widely separated, and give better results. Smaller plates may then be
s < .
Nipher — On the Nature of the Electric Discharge. 7
hvdrocliinone, which was weak in sodium carbonate. Sim-
ilar results may be obtained by replacing the torches by
metal wires, each being armed with about 500 pin-points.
The black lines on the film are shown even when the plate
is fixed without being developed. The discharges are not
discharges through the air or over the surface of the film.
They are within the body of the film itself, and the film
shows a distinct depression along the discharge lines.
These effects may be produced between the terminals
of the machine, without any ground lines. Similar and
much larger ball discharges may be made on a surface of
wood by means of a powerful spark-coil operated by a
direct current with interrupter. If an alternating cur-
rent is used in the primary, ball discharges may be ob-
tained from both terminals simultaneously. They may be
led into various paths, but cannot be brought together.
The tracks are burned into the wood, and are two or
three millimeters in breadth.
A Crookes tube may be placed in either of these dis-
charge lines, from the terminals of an influence machine,
both lines being carried to independent ground contacts.
If placed in the positive line, the cathode terminal of the
tube must be turned to the ground. This ground may be
on a torch, or on a many-pointed conductor, or the
cathode may be grounded directly on a water pipe.
Equally good X-ray pictures may be obtained in the posi-
tive or in the negative lines, with equal times of exposure.
When placed in the positive line, however, the tube seems
to operate in a less positive manner than when operating
in the negative line. When this was first done by the
author in 1902, the behavior of the tube and discharge line
created the suspicion that there was a condition in this
line which was in the nature of a rarefaction. Electric
discharges from all surrounding objects, seemed to be
flowing in upon the tube and the positive line. These ob-
jects were tipped with brush discharges. The cathode dis-
charge seemed to be somewhat unsteady and was easily
8 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.
disturbed by the movement of near-by objects. Atten-
tion was called to this phenomenon and to the "ball-
lightning" discharge in my paper before the Interna-
tional Congress of Arts and Science in 1904.5 These phe-
nomena indicate that the negative current is the agent
which seems to be concerned in electrical action. On the
negative side of the machine, negative discharge to the
ground is accompanied with leakage from the machine
terminals and line to the surrounding air. On the posi-
tive side a negative flow from the ground to the machine
seems to be accompanied with an inflow or leakage of
negative electricity from the surrounding air to the posi-
tive terminals and line. There is nothing to make neces-
sary the assumption that any positive discharge is taking
place through the conducting wires in any of the experi-
ments here described. The positive ions which appear
in the gases of the Geissler and Crookes tubes are gaseous
atoms from which negative electrical particles have been
separated, by reason of a forced circulation of these neg-
ative particles through the entire circuit.
In order to examine more directly the nature of the
discharge from or towards separately grounded lines of
the influence machine the method here to be described
was employed. One terminal of the machine was con-
nected with an earth connection (Gx, Fig. 1) in the yard
outside of the building, a spark gap of one or two centi-
meters being made at the machine terminal. The dis-
charge from the other terminal across a spark-gap of
about 30 cm., was led to an independent ground (G2) on
an adjoining side of the building. The conductors in both
lines were No. 8 copper wires. The line having the long
spark discharge through it contained a high resistance
R, near its ground end. This resistance was composed
of three or four strips of porous cloth bandage, placed in
parallel, their ends being placed in tumblers of salt
water. This resistance could be varied by changing the
* Present Problems. Vol. IV, pp. 92-101 of the Proceedings.
Nipher — On the Nature of the Electric Discharge. 9
distance between the tumblers, which rested upon glass
supports.6
Fig. l.
Between this resistance and the machine end was in-
serted a No. 34 copper wire, which passed horizontally
6 A convenient form of resistance is obtained by threading one or
more strips of the cloth bandage through a glass tube. The ends of the
tube rest upon the brims of tumblers, the cloth conductor dipping into
salt water in the tumblers.
10 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.
across the film of a photographic plate P, Fig. 1, sup-
ported at its edges on insulating supports. This wire was
held in proper tension by means of brass springs, from
which silk cords passed to the wire, and its position with
respect to the film of the photographic plate was adjusted
by means of hard rubber supports on either side of the
plate having adjusting screws of insulating material, Be-
low the center of the plate a distance of about 1.5 cm.
was the pointed end of a copper wire, which was ground-
ed on the water pipe, G3. The resistance E was so ad-
justed that a spark discharge would not pass from the
wire above the film around the plate P to the grounded
wire below, but would be on the point of doing so. This
adjustment was made for the exposures in the positive
and also in the negative line.
Plate II. shows a 5X7 inch photographic plate across
which 5 spark discharges from the negative terminal were
passed. The fine wire which carried the discharge was
in contact with the film. This wire was surrounded by a
glow of light, but the resistance between the plate and
the ground was not sufficient to force discharges over the
film. To have made this resistance greater would have
brought about a spark discharge around the plate, when
the pointed ground conductor was put in position, al-
though it was not in position during this exposure. The
effect produced by introducing this ground wire G3 is
shown in Plate III. This plate was otherwise exposed
exactly as the former plate. The ground wire terminated
1.5 cm. below the center of the plate. The result in Plate
III. may be explained as follows :
1. By the tivo- fluid hypothesis. The negative discharge
through the wire in contact with the film, is attended by
a positive discharge from the ground wire to the lower
face of the plate. This positive discharge is spread over
an area coincident with the blackened area which the neg-
ative discharge is shown to cover in Plate III. The glass
plate on which the photographic film is spread is in a con-
dition like that of the glass wall of a Ley den jar which
Nipher — On the Nature of the Electric Discharge. 11
has been charged from the negative terminal of the ma-
chine.
2. By the one-fluid hypothesis. The negative dis-
charge flowing under compression through the wire
above, finds in the grounded wire below a line of leakage.
This ground wire greatly increases the potential drop at
that point. A negative discharge from the lower face of
the glass plate passes to the ground wire below. Simul-
taneously a negative discharge from the upper wire flows
over the film, and tends to flow downward to the ionized
molecules of glass in the lower face of the glass plate. It
constitutes a bound charge.
The discharge effects shown may be explained by
either hypothesis. Plates IV and V show two plates
which have been exposed in precisely the same way when
the discharge through the wire above came from the posi-
tive terminal of the machine. The spark length was about
twice as great as the negative sparks in Plates II and III.
This could be done without producing sparks around the
plate when the ground wire was placed below the photo-
graphic plate. In such exposures adjustable spark ter-
minals a and b, Fig. 1, were used. They are so placed that
the negative discharge passes from a large knob to a
small one. In case of a reversal of the electrification of
the machine, the adjustable terminals are transferred to
the other terminal of the spark gaps. When the negative
discharge is being used, the positive spark gap is short-
ened in length to one or two centimeters. It will be seen
that the discharge lines in Plate IV for the positive dis-
charge extend outwards several centimeters from the
wire, while in Plate II for the negative discharge there
are no discharges over the film of the plate. "When the
spark length in the negative line is made four times as
great as was the case in the formation of Plate II, and
when the ground resistance is a spark-gap of ten centi-
meters, the number of sparks passed through the wire
being increased to an hundred, the only effect is to broad-
en the black line shown in Plate II. There are no dis-
12 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.
charge lines such as are shown in Plate IV. It is with
difficulty that the negative discharge is forced out of a
straight wire and over the film, although the wire is sur-
rounded by a luminous glow extending outward a centi-
meter or more from the wire. There are rudimentary
lines shown in this black belt. The negative particles can
be much more easily forced from one positive ion to the
next within the body of the copper conductor, than into a
photographic film in contact with the wire. This seems
to be true notwithstanding the fact that the negative par-
ticles are easily drawn from the film surface into the wire
through several centimeters of distance when the copper
wire is in an ionized condition in the positive circuit.
This inward flow must cross the discontinuity at the con-
tact of film and wire. It is evidently not the resistance
offered by this discontinuity, which accounts for the dif-
ficulty of forcing the electricity out of the wire on the
compression side of the machine. The discharge lines
shown in Plate IV begin at the wire and increase in
length during the discharge. This may easily be shown
by drawing pencil lines on the film. Some of these dis-
charge lines will terminate on these pencil marks, while
others not thus arrested will continue to lengthen to a
greater distance from the wire. Such a result, with a
different form of discharge wire, is shown in Fig. B,
Plate X. It might be supposed from this result in Plate
IV that positive discharges can be forced outward over
the film from the positive wire, while the negative dis-
charge cannot easily be forced to leave the wire, under
like conditions. It might be supposed that the electricity
in the positive wire is therefore under greater compres-
sion.
If these discharge lines from the positive wire are due
to a positive discharge outward from the wire, then the
placing of the grounded wire below the center of the plate
should permit a negative discharge to flow upwards, and
to distribute itself over the under side of the glass plate.
This should produce a condenser effect similar to that
Nipher—On the Nature of the Electric Discharge. 13
shown in Plate III. This is what is required by the two-
fluid hypothesis. The result actually produced is shown
in Plate V. This effect presented on this plate seems
entirely inconsistent with the two-fluid theory.
Assuming the one-fluid theory the result shown on
Plate V may be explained as follows :
The electric current is flowing from the ground to the
positive terminal of the machine. The condition within
the wire may be described as one of rarefaction, such as
exists on the exhaust side of a pump. Electricity is leak-
ing into this wire from the photographic film, and it is
leaking up from the grounded wire below the center of the
plate, to the under surface of the plate. The inflow over
the film to the wire, is repelled from the central area
which is being charged by the grounded wire below. The
electricity streams to the wire around this area. The
electricity distributed over the lower face of the glass
plate, tends to flow upward through the plate, to replace
the charge which has streamed from the upper surface to
the wire. The grounded wire is now a line of leakage
into the discharge wire. The fogging shown on the center
of Plate V is due to the upward discharge from the
grounded line. This is shown by the two figures of
Plate VI. These figures show two photographic
plates which were placed back to back. The plate shown
in Fig. A was placed with its film in contact with the dis-
charge wire when the positive discharge was sent
through it. The film of the other plate faced downwards
towards the end of the grounded wire. The upper plate
shows no trace of a fogging effect. The upper film may,
however, be fogged on its under side if the time of ex-
posure is increased. If the upper discharge wire is raised
from the film, both films may be strongly fogged from a
pointed wire below, when no trace of any effect from the
discharge wire itself is observable on the upper surface
of the upper film. Such a result is shown in the two fig-
ures of Plate VII. The fogging shown on the upper plate
14 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.
A after fixing was not observable during the developing
of the film when it was viewed from above. It was seen
on turning the plate over so as to expose the under side.
This fogging had therefore been produced through two
glass plates.
Plate VIII shows two photographic plates exposed
back to back in the same manner, when the negative dis-
charge was passed through the upper wire. From the
film of the lower plate B a negative discharge passed to
the grounded wire below. This downward discharge pro-
ceeded from an area which was coincident with that of
the blackened area on the upper film A. This is revealed
by the presence of small black points here and there to-
wards which fine discharge lines proceed, and from
which the discharge passed to the wire below. The form
of these lines seems to have been somewhat affected by
electro-magnetic induction from the discharge wire across
the upper film. The fogging effect on a film from which
electricity passes to a conductor, is much less than that
caused by a like discharge of electricity against the film.
It is this difference, which has always been ascribed to a
difference between positive and negative discharges.
The exposure of plates like those shown in Plates III
and V, where the grounded wire was in place, was varied
as follows :
A blast of air from a large tank of 800 liters capacity
and maintained at constant pressure of two and a half
atmospheres, was blown across the end of the grounded
wire below the photographic plate. The blast swept
through the gap between this end and the photographic
plate. This was done with both positive and negative dis-
charge. The blast was also directed along the discharge
wire in contact with the upper film. Not a trace of any
effect on the discharge lines could be detected, although
the blast was maintained throughout the entire exposure.
The results thus far described seem to show conclu-
sively that the apparent emission of positive electricity
from the positive terminal of the influence machine, is
Nipher — On the Nature of the Electric Discharge. 15
really a drawing in of the negative "fluid" from the
bodies which are thus "positively electrified."
Another line of experiment which was begun in 1907
consists in passing a discharge from the influence ma-
chine around right angles in a fine wire placed in either
of the separately grounded lines. The object sought was
to determine whether there was any difference in the
fogging effect on a photographic film on the two sides of
an angle. It was found impossible to simultaneously ex-
amine the two sides of the same angle. The arrange-
ments shown in Fig. 2 were both employed. The fine wire
o
o
± \J
r-
r
Fig. 2.
-O
o
B
(No. 32) was bent sharply around thin bamboo splinters.
The resistance between the angles and the ground was
made as small as was possible, but wet string resistances
were placed between the angles and the spark-gaps at the
terminals, in order to quiet any oscillations that might
possibly be produced. In the earlier work, the photo-
graphic plates were placed in hard rubber holders, which
rested on a sheet of glass upon which the angles were
mounted. The covers and bottoms of these holders had
various thicknesses, from one to three-sixteenths of an
inch. It was found that under these conditions, when
proper adjustments had been secured, the greatest fog-
ging effect was produced on the plate towards which the
negative discharge passed downwards around the angle
and then across the plate. In the negative line arrange-
ment A of Fig. 2 was used. In the positive line arrange-
ment B was used. In this line the negative discharge
passed from the ground to the machine. The effect was
greatest at the angle nearest the ground, in both cases.
The wires were raised above the plates to such a height
IQ Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.
that the fogging effect was confined to a small area imme-
diately below the angle. This area was sharply defined.
It was found very difficult to obtain any fogging effect
from the positive line. It required with the thicker covers
above the plates, from eight to ten thousand sparks when
the machine was working to its utmost limit, and the neg-
ative spark-gap was reduced to one cm. to obtain effects
which fifty sparks of the same length would produce m
the negative line. No discordant results were ever ob-
tained in the positive line. In the negative line many
were obtained. After a couple of years of almost daily
experimenting, it was found that fatigue or after effects
were produced in the hard rubber covers, which were of
sufficient influence to reverse the effects m short ex-
posures. An illustration of this after effect is shown in
Fig C of Plate IX. It was found that the fogging effect
could be converged to a black focal line on the film, by
means of a small cylindrical fiber of red or white glass
laid upon the film below the angle and at right angles to
the wire. Such effects are shown in Fig. A of Plate IX.
The ends of such focal lines showed, after developing,
branching discharges, which proved conclusively that
electricity was escaping along the fiber in a lateral direc-
tion with respect to the discharge wire above. Such dis-
charges from the ends of a focal line are shown m Fig;B,
Plate IX, which is an enlarged copy of a portion of Fig.
A where the glass fiber crosses the fogged area. When
such a glass fiber had been long and recently exposed, and
was then used on another plate, it gave a perfectly white
shadow picture, such as is shown in C of Plate IX. I his
also indicates that the apparent refraction effects shown
in Figs. A and B are not due to ultra violet light or to
ether waves.
Fig A of Plate X shows shadow pictures of live red
glass fibers which had never been on the film of this plate,
but which had previously been exposed on another film in
the same holder.
Nipher — On the Nature of the Electric Discharge. 17
This figure also shows fainter images of the glass fibers
in the position they had been in on a still earlier exposure,
the hard rubber frame on which the fibers were mounted
having been turned end for end. In these exposures the
holder was placed between two plates acting as a con-
denser, and 100 spark discharges were sent across a 30
cm. spark gap in parallel with the condenser. A shadow
image of the hard rubber frame is also visible.
These sources of disturbance having been discovered
the angle wires were surrounded by black curtains in
order to protect the photographic plates from the light
due to the sparks at the machine, and the plates were
then exposed directly to the wires at the angles. The
plates were supported on insulating supports at their
outer lateral edges. Below the plates was a layer of air,
separating the plate from the sheet of glass serving as a
table top. It was then found that the films exposed to
the angles in the positive line were acted upon as quickly
as those in the negative line. It was finally learned that
this result was due to negative discharges from the films
to the positive wire, and that it was not a fogging of the
film by a discharge from the wire to the film, as was ap-
parently the case when the film was protected by the hard
rubber holder. Fig. B of Plate X shows such a result.
Here the limiting effect of pencil marks on the film is
shown. Fig. C of Plate X shows a similar limitation of a
discharge from an angle in the negative line. Here the
negative leakage is outward from the discharge wire,
while in Fig. B the flow is inward towards the positive
discharge wire. In both cases the discharge lines or
fogged areas on the film begin to form immediately below
the wire, and elongate outwards, as has been explained.
It was this experience which led to the results given in
Plates II, III, IV and V, which have been previously ex-
plained.
Some work has been done on the momentum effects
around the angles in the negative line, with plates uncov-
18 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.
ered, and previous results have been confirmed. The dif-
ferences between th two sides of the angle are, however,
less marked than those obtained when the plate was en-
closed. It is, however, felt that additional attention must
be given to this branch of the subject. There does not
seem to be any reasonable doubt of the existence of mo-
mentum effects at the angle, but the action is complicated
bv other effects, some of which have not received sum-
cient attention to permit of discussion at present.
For example, the effect of spark discharges of this
character on a platinum wire of 0.005 cm. diameter may
be cited. After such a wire had been in daily use for
about three weeks as an angle-wire, it was found that a
system of regular wavelets had formed over its whole
length, of about 80 cm. The waves were very regular in
form. The wave length was 0.090 cm. and the amplitude
from crest to crest was 0.015 cm. The wire was under
tension of 4 grams weight. The wet cloth resistances
were in constant use, so that electrical oscillations were
eliminated. These wavelets seem to be much more reg-
ular in form than those described by Plante. This may be
due to a difference in the conditions of the discharge. He
is said to have used a continuous current from storage
cells.
That the linear velocity of the current particles in a
conductor must be very great follows from the following
considerations, which were pointed out by the author in
1895 :7
Imagine two conducting spheres having radii equal to
that of the earth, or 6.37 X108 cm. Let them be charged
to potentials +25 and — 25 volts. Connect them with a
wire containing in circuit a 50-volt 1-ampere lamp, the
resistance of the wire conductor being neglected. In order
to maintain the potential difference on the two spheres
constant, and thus maintain normal candle power in the
lamp while all of this store of electricity is being used,
Nipher. Electricity and Magnetism, p. 390, § 222.
Nipher — On the Nature of the Electric Discharge. 19
the two spheres must be forced to collapse to zero radius
at a uniform rate of motion.
Since — = V we have
r
dQ = V dr = i dt
. V 50 6.37 X108 AAOr,
or t=ir = soo lxF=om
The time during which the operation of the lamp could
be maintained by this amount of electricity is therefore
0.035 second. We must therefore think of this operation
as being continuously repeated 28 times a second in order
to maintain a 50-watt lamp in normal operation. The
velocity with which the radii must shorten from 6.37 X108
cm. (4000 miles) to zero during each stroke of the piston
of this electrical pumping service, is 1.8 X1010 cm. per
second, or about 113,000 miles per second. This is more
than half the velocity of light.
It is said by physicians who use electricity in the treat-
ment of disease that when a patient is placed on an insu-
lating stand, a sponge treatment with the positive ter-
minal of an influence machine, gives very different re-
sults from those produced by the negative terminal. If
the conclusions of this paper are correct, the reason for
this difference is somewhat like that which explains the
difference between the action of cold and hot water. In
the one case Franklin's "fluid" is being drawn out of the
patient, and in the other case it is being forced in under
pressure.
The phenomena discussed in this paper show that
everywhere in and around an electric system composed of
the machine and its conductors, the negative particles are
the direct active agents. If we consider a branching spark
discharge we may perhaps assume that the breaking down
of the air begins at the positive terminal. A Geissler-tube
condition progresses outward from that terminal. Tribu-
tary discharges branch off from the main discharge-chan-
20 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.
nel as it progresses towards the negative terminal. The
system is like that of a river with its tributaries, which
wears a channel in the earth. The channel develops and
deepens progressively in a direction opposite to that in
which the stream flows. It may be that such a condition
in the air between the spark-knobs of a machine brings
about the result which has long been known, to-wit: The
spark length is greatest when the negative discharge
passes from a large knob to a small knob. The diverging
system of tributary discharge lines terminates on the
large knob. This is readily seen by transferring the
movable conductors, a, b, of Fig. 1, to the opposite termi-
nals of the gaps. This arrangement is a convenient one
for determining in a lighted room which is the negative
terminal of the machine.
EXPLANATION OF PLATES.
Plate I. — Tracks of slowly moving discharges from negative terminals.
Plate II. — Photographic plate in contact with the negative discharge
line.
Plate III.— Plate exposed as in II with the end of a grounded wire
near the back of the plate.
Plates IV, V. — Plates exposed like those of II and III to the positive
line.
Plate VI.— Plates exposed back to back as in V. The film of Fig. A
was in contact with the positive discharge wire. The film of B faced
the end of the grounded wire.
Plate VII. — Plates [exposed as in VI, the discharge wire being a
couple of mm. from the film of plate A. The fogging on both plates is
due to the grounded end of the leakage wire.
Plate VIII.— Plates exposed like VI, on the negative discharge wire.
Plate IX. — Fig. A. Apparent refraction of electrical fogging by a red
glass fiber laid on the film. A white glass fiber laid across the red one,
and was not in contact with the film. Fig. B. An enlarged view of the
focal line of A showing branching discharges from its ends. Fig. C.
Fatigue effect in the glass fiber.
Plate X. — Fig. A. Fatigue effects in the hard rubber holders. Fig. B.
Arrest of positive discharge lines by pencil marks on the film. Fig. C.
Arrest of negative outflow from a fogged area by pencil marks on the
film.
Issued February 18, 1910.
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VOL. XIX. No. 2.
OBSERVATIONS ON THE DURATION OF LIFE, ON
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SAMIA CECROPIA, LINN.
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Issued February 26, 1910.
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1
v 25 cts. each.
> 60 cts. each.
75 eta.
91.00
7.80
7.00
8*
1, 3 to 6
8, 10, 12
2, 7, 9, 11
i 25 cts. each.
50 cts. each.
8.75
3.50
01
1, 3, 4, 7, 9
2,5,8
6
25 cts. each.
60 cts. each.
61.25
3.75
3.60
Continued on page 3 of Cover.
OBSERVATIONS ON THE DURATION OF LIFE, ON
COPULATION AND ON OVIPOSITION IN
SAMIA CECROPIA, LINN.*
Philip Rau.
I. Introduction.
I became interested in Weismann's writings on the
duration of life in insects and was attracted by the appar-
ent opportunity of doing more work along these lines. In
the greater number of his citations it is not stated whether
the lives of both sexes, in any one species, be of equal or
of unequal lengths, and in but few instances does he give
any exact information on the duration of the life of the
male, or of the fertilized or the unfertilized female.
I, therefore, decided to make further observations on
the duration of life in the male and also on the fertilized
and unfertilized female; on copulation and oviposition;
on the relation of the duration of life to perfect or imper-
fect oviposition; on the relation of time spent in copulo
to perfect or imperfect oviposition ; and on the relation of
ages of parents at the time of copulation to perfect -or
imperfect oviposition.
The material selected for these observations was the
common Cecropia moth, Samia cecropia Linn.
The cocoons, sixty-nine in number, were gathered early
in April, 1909, in the fields near the river Des Peres, just
south of Forest Park, St. Louis, Mo. They were placed in
wire cages (11 1/2 x 10 1/2 x 24 inches) and kept in an
outhouse to insure them against premature hatching. The
imagines emerged at intervals from May 14th to June
14th (forty-three males and twenty-five females) ; from
one cocoon none hatched, and none was parasitized.
Notes were made on twelve copulating pairs and on
four unfertilized females. Lack of facilities made it im-
* Read before the Entomological Section September 30, 1909, and pre-
sented by title to The Academy of Science of St. Louis, December 6,
1909.
(21)
22 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.
possible to make more extended observations. The
imagines were placed under the same climatic conditions
and were given an opportunity to mate as soon as possible
after hatching. The material proved to be good for just
such observations, as all the matured individuals of this
family have rudimentary mouth parts, and the Cecropia
moths take no food.
The observations and notes were never made at greater
intervals than six hours; the last notes were made each
day near midnight, the first in the morning about six,
and during the day notes were made at intervals of about
three hours. The time upon which the tables are based
is the time when the notes were made, not the time when
the act (mating, hatching, dying, etc.) may have occurred.
This method is not mathematically exact, since it is impos-
sible to be present at the precise moment when the insects
mate or hatch or die. I think, however, that my figures
are as exact as could possibly be obtained. The observa-
tions extended from the time when the first pair was seen
in copulo, May 16, 1909, until the death of the last male
on June 22, 1909.
It gives me great pleasure to here acknowledge my in-
debtedness to Professor A. C. Eycleshymer of St. Louis
University and Professor J. F. Abbott of Washington
University for valuable suggestions in the preparation
of this paper.
II. Obsebvations on Life Cycle.
1. DTJBATION OF LIFE OF MALE.
(a) The duration of life of male from hatching until
death.
Notes derived from observations in six instances. In
the following tables the designations are for each copu-
lating pair:
KNOWN AS DAYS HOURS
A 10a 11 5:30
A 8 10 23:30
A 14 10 4
A 10 9 17
A 12 9 16
A 15 8 14:40
Rau — Observations on Samia Cecropia, Linn. 23
In A 10 a we see the longest duration of entire life of
male, 11 days 5 hours and 30 minutes. In A 15 we see the
shortest duration of entire life of male, 8 days 14 hours
and 40 minutes. The average duration of entire life of
male for the six instances is 10 days 1 hour and 26 2/3
minutes.
(b) The duration of life of male from the time when first
observed in copulo until death.
The notes are derived from observations in ten in-
stances, and exclude male A 1, which met with accidental
death.
KNOWN AS
DAYS
HOURS
A 5
13
1:30
A 3
12
23:30
A 8
10
9:30
All
10
1
A 4
10
0:30
A 14
9
5:30
A 12
9
0:30
A 10a
8
13
A 15
7
1
A 10
7
0:30
The longest duration of life of male from copulation
until death was A 5, 13 days 1 hour and 30 minutes. The
shortest duration was A10, 7 days and 30 minutes. The
average duration was 9 days 17 hours and 39 minutes.
(c) The duration of life of male from the time when
copulation terminated until death.
Notes derived from observations in ten instances.
KNOWN AS
DAYS
HOURS
A 5
12
1:30
A 3
12
0
A 4
9
16
A 8
9
9
A 14
9
5:30
A 12
9
5
All
9
1
A 10a
7
1:30
A 15
6
14:30
A 10
6
1
24 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.
The greatest duration of life of male from the termina-
tion of copulation until death was A 5, 12 days 1 hour and
30 minutes. The shortest duration of such life was A 10,
6 days 1 hour. The average duration of life of male from
the termination of copulation until death was 9 days and
42 minutes.
In the face of Weismann's theory that the duration of
life is an adaptation, and finding the species to be monag-
amous, we should expect them to die very soon after
leaving the female, instead of spending a useless life of
from 6 to 12 days, as the foregoing figures show. It may
be of interest to here state that the longest useless life is
found in A 5, being 12 days 1 hour and 30 minutes, while
the useful life of its mate, as I shall show later, was cut
short before she had time to deposit her remaining 112
eggs.
(d) On the length of time each male outlived its mate.
Notes derived from observations in ten instances.
KNOWN AS
DAYS
HOURS
A 3
8
11
A 5
7
15:30
A 8
6
9:30
A 12
4
0:30
A 14
3
1:50
A 4
3
0
All
2
18
A 10
1
0:30
A 15
0
21
A 10a
0
12:30
In A 3 we find the male to have outlived its mate by 8
days 11 hours. This, however, was the longest period.
The shortest length of time that any male survived its
mate was A 10a, 12 hours and 30 minutes. Perhaps the
shortness of the life of the male A 10 a was due to the
fact that the two pairs A 10 and A 10 a were placed to-
gether.
The ten pmles survived their mates on the average
by 3 days 18 hours and 38 minutes.
Ran — Observations on Samia C ectopia, Linn. 25
2. DURATION OP LIFE OF FEMALE.
(a) The duration of life of fertilized female from hatch-
ing until death.
Notes derived from observations in seven instances.
KNOWN AS
DAYS
HOURS
A 8
9
19:30
A 9
9
4:30
A 10a
8
16:30
A 14
7
21:50
A 15
7
18
A 12
7
7
A 10
6
16
In A 8 we have the longest duration of entire life of
female, 9 days 19 hours and 30 minutes. In A 10 we
have the shortest duration of entire life of the female,
6 days and 16 hours. The average entire dura-
tion of life of female was 8 days 4 hours and 28 4/7
minutes.
(b) Comparison of entire life of male and female.
The duration of shortest lived male was 8 days 14 hours
and 40 minutes. The duration of shortest lived female
was 6 days and 16 hours. The shortest lived male out-
lived the shortest lived female by 1 day 22 hours and 40
minutes. The longest duration of life of female was 9
days 19 hours and 30 minutes. The longest duration of
life of male was 11 days 5 hours and 30 minutes. The
longest lived male outlived the longest lived female by
1 day and 10 hours. The average duration of life of
male over the average duration of life of female was 1
day 20 hours and 58 2/21 minutes.
Without exception, in each copulating pair we find the
male to have outlived its mate, regardless of age at the
time of copulating. One is apt to suspect that the males
outlived their mates because they may have been younger
at the time of mating, but the figures given below will
show that the males survive the females whether both be
of equal age or whether the females be younger or
26
Trans. Acad. Sd. of St. Louis.
older. In each of the twelve copulating pairs the males
always outlived their mates. The figures below are only
for those upon which the exact time of hatching is known.
OWN AS
DAYS
HOURS
A 8
c?5
5:30
younger than 9
c? lived 6
9:30
longer.
A 9
c?2
1
older than $
male escaped.
A 10
<?2
0:30
older than 9
tf lived 1
0:30
longer.
A 10a
c?2
0:30
older than $
tf lived 0
12:30
longer.
A 12
c?l
15:30
younger than <j?
tf lived 4
0:30
longer.
A 14
JO
20
younger than 9
cT lived 3
1:50
longer.
A 15
c?0
0:20
younger than $
J1 lived 0
21
longer.
(c) The duration of life of unfertilized females from
hatching until death.
Notes derived from observations in four instances.
B is the conventional designation for the unfertilized
female.
HOURS
KNOWN AS
DAYS
B 2a
9
B la
8
Bl
8
B5
7
0:30
The shortest duration of life of the unfertilized female
was 7 days and 30 minutes. The longest duration of life
of unfertilized female was 9 days. The average dura-
tion of life of unfertilized female was 8 days 7 1/2 min-
utes.
(d) Comparison of the entire duration of life of fertilized
and unfertilized female.
The longest duration of entire life of fertilized female
was 9 days 19 hours and 30 minutes. The longest dura-
tion of entire life of unfertilized female was 9 days. The
Rau — Observations on Samia Cecropia, Linn. 27
longest lived fertilized female outlived the longest lived
unfertilized female by 19 hours and 30 minutes. The
shortest duration of entire life of fertilized female was
6 days and 16 hours. The shortest duration of entire life
of unfertilized female was 7 days and 30 minutes. The
shortest lived unfertilized female outlived the shortest
lived fertilized female by 8 hours and 30 minutes. The
average duration of entire life of fertilized female was
8 days 4 hours and 28 4/7 minutes. The average duration
of entire life of unfertilized female was 8 days 7 1/2 min-
utes. The average duration of life of fertilized female
was greater than the average duration of life of unferti-
lized female by 4 hours and 21 1/14 minutes.
In the fertilized females notes were made in seven in-
stances; in the unfertilized females notes were made in
four instances. Were the number of observations equal
in each case, no doubt the average duration of fertilized
and of unfertilized female life would be about equal.
(e) The duration of life of fertilized female from time
when first observed in copido until death.
Notes derived from observations in twelve instances.
40WN AS
DAYS
HOURS
A 10a
8
0:30
A 11
7
7
A 4
7
0:30
A 14
6
15:40
A 9
6
6
A 15
6
4
A 10
6
0
A 5
5
10
A 1
5
9
A 12
5
0
A 3
4
12:30
A 8
4
0
The greatest length of life of female from the time of
copulo until death was 8 days and 30 minutes. The short-
est length of life of female from the time of copulo until
death was 4 days. The average duration of life of female
from the time of copulo until death was 5 days 23 hours
and 25 5/6 minutes.
28 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.
(/) The number of days which elapsed in the life of the
fertilised female from hatching until the first eggs
were deposited.
Notes derived from one observation.
A 15 hatched June 12th, first eggs deposited on June
15th ; a lapse of 3 days.
(g) The number of days which elapsed in the life of the
unfertilized female from hatching until the first eggs
iv ere deposited.
Notes were derived from observations in two instances.
KNOWN AS DAYS
B 1 4
B 5 3
(h) Comparison of the number of days which elapsed in
the life of the fertilised and unfertilized female from
hatching to first egg laying.
In the one case of the fertilized female the length of
time was 3 days. In the two unfertilized females the aver-
age length of time was 3 1/2 days.
The object of these notes was to ascertain whether or
not the eggs are deposited when the female reaches a defi-
nite age regardless of being or not being fertilized, but
the data are too insufficient for any definite conclusions.
(i) The number of days which intervened between the
ending of copulation and the time when the first eggs
were deposited.
Notes derived from observations in five instances.
KWOWN AS FIRST EGGS DEPOSITED
A 1 Same day
A 3 Same day
A 4 One day later
A 5 One day later
A 15 One day later
The foregoing figures show that in three cases the first
eggs were deposited one day after the pairs were severed,
in two cases the eggs were deposited on the same day.
J. J. Davis1 shows that in twenty Cecropia moths that
were mated, sixteen began ovipositing on the evening of
the second day, and four on the evening of the third day
1 Entomological News, 368. D 1906.
Rau — Observations on Samia C ectopia, Linn. 29
following the morning when copulation began, which goes
to show that if we add to this the length of time spent in
copulo, which averages over twenty-one hours, we find
that the greater number of females began ovipositing on
the same day that copulation terminated, only four begin-
ning one day later.
(j) The number of days tvhich elapsed in the life of the
fertilized female from the day when the last eggs
were deposited until death.
Notes derived from observations in five instances.
KNOWN AS
DAYS
A 4
3
A 1
1
A 5
1
A 3
0
A 15
0
In four out of five observations we find that death over-
took the insect on the same day or one day after oviposi-
tion. In one case, A 4, we found the female, after deposit-
ing 217 eggs, spending the last three days of its life with-
out ovipositing, while, upon dissection after death, 91
eggs were found in the abdomen. The pair A 4 were
accidentally severed while they were in copulo 8 hours
and 30 minutes, and a connection was never again re-
sumed. Perhaps this was the direct cause of the three
days ' duration of life between egg laying and death with-
out further oviposition, while in the other cases death
overtook the individuals, as it were, almost in the midst
of the egg laying.
III. Obsekvations on Copulation and Oviposition.
(a) The length of time each pair remained in copulo.
Notes derived from observations in twelve instances.
KNOWN AS
DAYS
HOURS
A 1
1
5:15
A 8
1
0:30
A 5
1
0
All
1
0
A 3
0
23:30
A 10
0
23:30
A 10a
0
23:30
A 14
0
22:30
A 12
0
17:30
A 9
0
12
A 15
0
10:30
A 4
0
8:30
30 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.
The greatest length of time spent in copulo was by A 1,
1 day 5 hours and 15 minutes. The shortest time spent in
copulo was by A 4, 8 hours and 30 minutes. The average
time spent in copulo for the eleven cases (excluding A 4
which was accidentally severed) was 21 hours and 20 5/11
minutes.
In every case the pairing was done during the night,
the following morning finding them in copulo, in which
condition they would remain throughout the day, sep-
arating some time during the following evening. Both
male and female were active from the time when the wings
had spread until they had mated. Wherever possible
they were given to mate very soon after hatching to avoid
an expenditure of excessive amount of vitality and in-
juring themselves through their activity, which perhaps
might have caused earlier death.
As I have already shown, the males, after leaving the
females, lived from 6 to 12 days, and retained their orig-
inal activity for perhaps one or two days. Then for some-
time they would grow less active, remain almost station-
ary on the wire or twigs in the cage, and would only be-
come somewhat active when handled. Soon they became
too aged to even cling to the wire. We would then find
them lying on the bottom of the cage, only moving when
irritated. Soon the wings assumed a vertical position and
the insects remained for the most part motionless, resting
on one side of their abdomen and on one wing. When
irritated they could just barely move the wings, and pres-
ently would appear dead. My test for ascertaining
whether the organism was still alive was to gently move
the wings back into their normal position and see if they
still had the power to assume the vertical position. Thus,
we see the slow senescence and death of the male.
In the females we find the insects ovipositing on the
same day, or at the latest, one day after the termination
of copulation. After three days of ovipositing we usually
find the female dead, death, no doubt, being due to ex-
haustion from the task of egg laying, for, in the greater
Rau — Observations on Samia Cecropia, Linn. 31
majority of cases, we find that, could its life have been
prolonged, a fair proportion of eggs could have been de-
posited. The species is monagamous, all attempts to
mate one male with more than one female or one female
with more than one male being futile.
(b) The number of eggs deposited by fertilized females.
Notes derived from observations in eleven instances.
KNOWN
AS
NUMBER OF EGGS
A 10
A 10a
i
796
A 1
317
A 9
287
A 8
260
A 15
231
A 12
229
A 4
217
A 3
213
All
187
A 5
159
The greatest number of eggs were deposited by A 10
and A 10a, which were placed in one cage. 796 eggs were
deposited by the two females. Perhaps one or both were
abnormal, as the greatest number of eggs deposited by
any one female was 317. The smallest number of eggs
were deposited by A 5, 159. The average number of eggs
deposited by eleven females was 263 3/11.
J. J. Davis,2 who has made observations on the num-
ber of eggs deposited by the Cecropia moth, finds that, in
a count of twenty lots, the greatest number deposited by
any one female was 366 eggs, the smallest 119 eggs, and
the average for the twenty lots, 243.9 eggs, which is a
smaller average by almost 20 than my observations give.
(c) The number of eggs deposited by unfertilised females.
Notes derived from observations in four cases.
KNOWN AS NUMBER OF EGGS
B 5 113
Bl 135
B la ) w
B 2a ) 6W
The average number of eggs deposited by four unfer-
tilized females was 157.
2 Entomological News. 368. D 1906.
32 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.
(d) Comparison of the number of eggs deposited by fer-
tilized and unfertilized females.
The average number of eggs deposited by the fer-
tilized females was 263 3/11. The average number of
eggs deposited by the unfertilized females was 159.
The average number of eggs deposited by fertilized
females was greater than the average number of eggs
deposited by the unfertilized females by 104 3/11.
The figures show that the fertilized females lay the
greater number of eggs.
(e) The number of eggs remaining in the body of the
fertilized females when overtaken by death.
Notes derived from observations in twelve instances.
IOWN AS
NUMBER OF EGGS
A 14
125
A 5
112
A 8
98
A 4
91
A 3
61
A 12
55
A 1
45
A 10a
14
A 9
4
A 10
0
All
0
A 15
0
The greatest number of eggs retained at death was 125,
In three instances no eggs were retained at death. The
average number of eggs retained for the twelve females
at death was 50 5/12.
(/) The number of eggs remaining in the body of the un-
fertilized females when overtaken by death.
Notes derived from observations in four instances.
KNOWN AS
NUMBER OF EGGS
B5
201
Bl
175
B la
4
B2a
0
The largest number of eggs retained by unfertilized
females was B 5, 201. No eggs were retained by B 2a.
Rau — Observations on Samia Cecropia, Linn. 33
The average number of eggs retained by unfertilized
females was 95.
(g) Comparison of the number of eggs remaining in the
body of the fertilized female with those remaining in
the unfertilised female.
The greatest number of eggs remaining in the body of
any one fertilized female was 125. The greatest number
of eggs remaining in the body of any unfertilized female
was 201. The unfertilized female retained 76 more eggs
than the fertilized. The least number of eggs retained by
a fertilized female was zero in three instances, as well as
in the case of one unfertilized female. The average num-
ber of eggs retained by fertilized females was 50 5/12.
The average number of eggs retained by unfertilized
females was 95. The average number of eggs retained
by unfertilized females was greater than the average num-
ber of eggs retained by fertilized females by 44 7/12.
(h) The entire number of eggs contained in the body of
female at hatching computed by the number of eggs
deposited plus the number of eggs retained.
Observations computed in fifteen cases.
KNOWN AS
NUMBER OF EGGS
A 10
A 10a
1
810
B la
B 2a
}
384
A 1
362
A 8
358
B 5
314
B 1
310
A 4
308
A 9
291
A 12
284
A 3
274
A 5
271
A 15
231
All
187
The greatest number of eggs carried by any one female
was 362. The smallest number carried by any one female
was 187. The average number carried was 292 4/15.
34 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.
(i) The number of dags spent in ovipositing and the num-
ber of eggs deposited each dag.
Notes from observations on four fertilized females.
KNOWN AS
DAYS
EGGS DEPOSITED
A 1
3
1.
210
2.
80
3.
27
A3
3
1.
158
2.
38
3.
17
A4
4
1.
117
2.
53
3.
43
4.
4
A5
3
1.
58
2.
80
3.
21
In three out of four instances the eggs were deposited
in three days ; in the fourth instance oviposition consumed
four days, but on the fourth day only a very few eggs were
deposited. In three cases out of four we find the greatest
number of eggs deposited on the first day, in the fourth
case on the second day. In every instance the smallest
number were deposited on the last day.
IV. The Relation of the Duration of Life, the Rela-
tion of the Time Spent in Copulo, and the Rela-
tion of the Ages of Paeents at the Time of
Copulation to the Number of Eggs
Retained at Death.
(a) The relation of the duration of life of unfertilized
females to the number of eggs retained at death.
Notes derived from observations in four instances.
KNOWN AS
DURATION of life
number of
eggs retained
B5
7 days 30 min.
201
B 1
8 days
175
B la
8 days
4
B2a
9 days
0
The above figures apparently show that there is a rela-
tion between a long life and perfect oviposition, and a
short life and imperfect oviposition. "We shall see later,
Rau — Observations on Samia Cecropia, Linn. 35
however, in the fertilized females, where observations
were made on a greater number of moths, that there is no
relation between a long life and perfect oviposition, and
a short life and imperfect oviposition. Were observa-
tions made on a larger number of unfertilized females, the
results, no doubt, would lead to similar conclusions.
(b) The relation of the duration of life of fertilized
female to the number of eggs retained at death.
Notes derived from observations in seven instances.
KNOWN AS
DURATION OF LIFE
NUMBER OF
DAYS
HOURS
EGGS RETAINED
A 8
9
19:30
98
A 9
9
4:30
4
A 10a
8
16:30
14
A 14
7
21:50
125
A 15
7
18
0
A 12
7
7
55
A 10
6
16
0
The figures show that there is absolutely no relation
between a long life and perfect oviposition and a short
life and imperfect oviposition. Here we see imperfect
oviposition in a long life, perfect oviposition in a short
life, and vice versa.
(c) The relation of time spent in copulo to the number
of eggs retained.
Notes made from observations in twelve instances.
KNOWN AS
TIME
SPENT
NUMBER OF
DAYS
HOURS
EGGS RETAINED,
A 1
1
5:15
45
A 8
1
0:30
98
A 5
1
0
112
A 11
1
0
0
A 10
0
23:30
0
A 10a
0
23:30
14
A 3
0
23:30
61
A 14
0
22:30
125
A 12
0
17:30
55
A 9
0
12
4
A 15
0
10:30
0
A 4
0
8:30
91
The above figures show that there is no relation be-
tween a longer or shorter period of copulation and per-
fect or imperfect oviposition. In some cases we see a
36 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.
short copulating period with perfect oviposition, a long
copulating period with imperfect oviposition, and vice
versa.
(d) The relation of the difference in the ages of the par-
ents at the time of copulation to the number of eggs
retained at death.
NOWN AS
DIFFERENCE IN AGE
NUMBER OF EGGS
DAYS
HOURS
RETAINED
A 8
?5
5:30 older than $
98
A 12
91
15:30 older than J»
55
A 14
90
20 older than ^
125
A 15
90
0:20 older than J1
0
A 10
92
0:30 younger than
c?
0
A 9
92
1 younger than
e
4
A 10a
9 2
0:30 younger than
d
14
The figures show that there is a direct relation between
the ages of the parents at the time of copulation and the
number of eggs retained at death. In A 15 we have the
most perfect oviposition, there being only a difference
of 20 minutes in the ages of the male and female. In A
10, A 9, and A 10a, we have perfect or almost perfect
oviposition. In each of these cases it is shown that the
female was more than two days younger than the male
at the time of impregnation. In A 8, A 12, and A 14, we
have very imperfect oviposition, the number of eggs re-
tained at death being 98, 55, and 125 respectively. In each
case we find the female older than the male.
The fact that there is a relation between perfect ovi-
position and the younger age of the female, and between
imperfect oviposition and the older age of the female
can be accounted for in this way. Each individual is des-
tined to live for a certain length of time, females from
6 to almost 10 days. Where the male is of equal age or
older than the female we have perfect or almost perfect
oviposition. To insure the deposition of all the eggs, the
male, so to speak, must be in readiness, waiting for the
female to hatch. In the cases where no males were at
hand when the females had hatched and the females were
compelled to await impregnation for a certain number of
their days, which were spent in activity with consequent
Ran — Observations on Samia Cecropia, Linn. 37
injury and perhaps loss of vitality, they were overtaken
by death, regardless of whether or not the propagation of
the species had been assured to the fullest extent. The
duration of life does not seem to be regulated by the needs
of the species, but is controlled by some unknown internal
force.
V. Summary.
1. The 68 good cocoons hatched 43 males and 25
females.3
2. The species is monagamous.
3. The Cecropia moths take no food or water.
4. The shortest entire duration of life of male was 8
days 14 hours and 40 minutes; the longest was 11 days 5
hours and 30 minutes. The average for six cases was 10
days 1 hour and 26 2/3 minutes.
5. The longest duration of life of male from copula-
tion until death was 13 days 1 hour and 30 minutes ; the
shortest was 7 days and 30 minutes. The average dura-
tion was 9 days 17 hours and 39 minutes.
6. The greatest duration of life of male from termina-
tion of copulation until death, which can be no other than
useless life, was 12 days 1 hour and 30 minutes. The
shortest useless life was 6 days and 1 hour. The average
duration for the ten instances was 9 days and 42 minutes.
7. The greatest length of time that any male survived
its mate was 8 days and 11 hours; the shortest survival
was 12 hours and 30 minutes. The average length of
time that the ten males survived their mates was 3 days
18 hours and 38 minutes.
8. The longest duration of entire fertilized female life
was 9 days 19 hours and 30 minutes. The shortest was
3 The number of males was also greater in a collection at Washington
University. Thirty-five individuals had hatched in the spring of 1909,
twenty- two being males and thirteen females.
38 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.
6 days and 16 hours. The average entire duration of life
of fertilized females for the seven instances was 8 days
4 hours and 28 4/7 minutes.
9. The shortest lived male outlived the shortest lived
female 1 day 22 hours and 40 minutes. The longest lived
male outlived the longest lived female by 1 day and 10
hours. The average duration of life of male was greater
than the average duration of life of female by 1 day 20
hours and 58 2/21 minutes.
10. Eegardless of age, we find in every case the male
surviving its mate.
11. The shortest duration of life of unfertilized female
was 7 days and 30 minutes. The longest duration of such
life was 9 days. The average duration was 8 days 7 1/2
minutes.
12. The longest lived fertilized female outlived the
longest lived unfertilized female by 19 hours and 30 min-
utes. The shortest lived unfertilized female outlived the
shortest lived fertilized female by 8 hours and 30 minutes.
The average duration of entire life of fertilized female
was greater than the average duration of entire life of
unfertilized female by 4 hours and 21 1/14 minutes.
13. The greatest duration of life of female from copula-
tion until death was 8 days and 30 minutes. The shortest
was 4 days. The average duration of life of female from
copulation until death was 5 days 23 hours and 25 5/6
minutes.
14. The number of days which elapsed in the life of the
fertilized female from hatching to the time when the first
eggs were deposited in the one observation was 3 days.
15. The average length of time which elapsed in the
life of the unfertilized female from hatching until
the first eggs were deposited for the two cases observed
was 3 days and 12 hours.
Rau — Observations on Samia Cecropia, Linn. 39
16. My notes on the lapse of time between hatchin
and egg laying are too insufficient to make any conclu-
sions as to whether the unfertilized female holds off
oviposition in the "hope" of mating.
17. In all the cases observed the eggs were deposited
on the same day, or not more than one day after, the pair
had severed.
18. In all but one case the time which intervened be-
tween the last egg laying and death was 1 day or less than
one day. The females, so to speak, were overtaken by
death in the act of ovipositing.
19. In the one case referred to above the time which
intervened between the last egg laying and death was 3
days. After death this body contained 91 eggs. This in-
dividual was accidentally separated while in copulo only
8 hours and 30 minutes. Perhaps this is the direct cause
of a 3 days' duration of life without oviposition.
20. The greatest length of time that any pair remained
in copulo was 1 day 5 hours and 30 minutes. The short-
est was 8 hours and 30 minutes. The average time spent
in copulo for the eleven cases observed was 21 hours and
20 5/11 minutes.
21. The greatest number of eggs deposited by any one
fertilized female was 317. The smallest number was 159.
The average number for the eleven cases was 263 3/11.
22. The greatest number of eggs deposited by two
unfertilized females was 380 ; the smallest 113. The aver-
age number for the four cases was 157.
23. The average number of eggs deposited by the fer-
tilized female was greater than the average number of
eggs deposited by the unfertilized female by 104 3/11.
24. The greatest number of eggs remaining in the body
of the fertilized female after death was 125, and in three
40 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.
cases none. The average number of eggs retained for the
twelve females was 50 5/12.
25. The greatest number of eggs remaining in the body
of the unfertilized female after death was 201 ; the small-
est number 0. The average number for the four females
was 95 eggs.
26. The average number of eggs retained by the un-
fertilized female was greater than the average number
retained by the fertilized female by 44 7/12.
27. The greatest entire number of eggs carried at hatch-
ing by any female was 362 ; the smallest number 187. The
average for the fifteen females was 292 4/15.
28. Three days were for the most part spent in ovipos-
iting. In almost all cases the greatest number of eggs
were deposited on the first day, and in all cases the least
number were deposited on the last day.
29. In the unfertilized female there is an apparent
relation between perfect oviposition and a long dura-
tion of life, and between imperfect oviposition and a short
life. Notes were made only on four specimens, an in-
sufficient number for any definite conclusions.
30. In the fertilized females, where notes were made
on seven individuals, we see no relation between a long
life and perfect oviposition, and a short life and imper-
fect oviposition.
31. There is no relation between the length of time
spent in copulo and perfect or imperfect oviposition.
32. We find a relation between the difference in the
ages of the parents at the time of copulation and perfect
or imperfect oviposition. Where the males and females
are of equal age or where the females are younger, there
is perfect or almost perfect oviposition. In all cases where
the females are older, death overtakes them while still
possessing a large number of eggs.
Rau — Observations on Samia Cecropia, Linn. 41
VI. General Considerations and Conclusions.
(a) General Considerations.
Only in a very few instances does Weismann give us
any facts as to the duration of life of the male and
female of any moth, and in those few instances the spe-
cies is allied to the Cecropia moth. Since the moths are
somewhat analogous, a comparison of Weismann 's facts
with notes upon the Cecropia moth will not be out of
order in a paper of this kind.
In his essay on Life and Death4 Weismann says:
"Lepidoptera, such as the emperor-moths and lappet-
moths, lay their eggs one after another and then die.
We may certainly say that these insects die of exhaustion;
their vital strength is used up in the last effort of laying
eggs, and in the case of the males, in the act of copula-
tion. Eeproduction is here certainly the most apparent
cause of death, but a more remote and deeper cause is
to be found in the limitation of vital strength to the
length and the necessary duties of the reproductive
period. They live in a torpid condition for days or weeks
until fertilization is accomplished."
The emperor-moth as well as the Cecropia moth be-
long to the family Saturniidae. Neither species in the
imago state takes nourishment, still there seems to be
some difference in the duration of life of the emperor-
moth when compared with that of the Cecropia moth.
The female Cecropia moth does not die after egg
laying, and the males in the act of copulation, as Weis-
mann tells us of the emperor moth; but the female
Cecropias die, in the greater number of cases, before
all the eggs are deposited, while the males live, on an
average of 9 days and 42 minutes, after separating from
the females.
The female Cecropias do not live in a torpid condition
for days or weeks until fertilization is accomplished, but
4 Essays upon Heredity. English translation. 159. 1891. (2d Ed.)
42 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.
oviposit whether or not mating has taken place, and
their life is of no longer duration than that of their fer-
tilized sisters. In the three cases observed egg laying
occurred within 3 or 4 days after hatching. Perhaps Weis-
niann's emperor moth could live for days or weeks in a
torpid condition, awaiting impregnation, on the accu-
mulated reserve nutriment. But in the Cecropias we
found both males and females so active that all efforts
were made to mate them early in life. This was done to
avoid damaging their wings and also to avoid an exces-
sive expenditure of vitality, which probably would have
shortened their lives.
In his essay on the Duration of Life5 Weismann points
to the case of Aglia tau, in which the duration of male
and female life is unequal. He says: "The males cer-
tainly live for a period of from eight to fourteen days,
while the female moth seldom lives for more than three
or four days." This, he seems to think, is an adapta-
tion for the good of the species, for he says the males
"fly swiftly in the forests, seeking for the less abundant
females."
Weismann evidently means that the males fly swiftly
through the forests after impregnating the females, al-
though he may possibly mean that they do so before mat-
ing. If the former is true, we must assume that the spe-
cies is polygamous, and, if the latter, that it is monaga-
mous.
Both Aglia tau and Samia cecropia belong to the family
Saturniidae (Claus). The greater duration of life of the
male, that we found among the Cecropia moth, is some-
what analogous to that of Aglia tau, but how this dif-
ference can prove of benefit, at least in the Cecropias, I
have no way of telling. Were the species polygamous,
perhaps the longer life of the male would be of value
to the race, were it not for the fact that the life of the
male, after leaving the female, is one of inactivity and
5 Essays on Heredity. English translation. 18. 1891. (2d Ed.)
Rau — Observations on Samia C ectopia, Linn. 43
slow decline. The Cecropia moth has about enough vital-
ity to fertilize one female ; after that its longer or shorter
life is of no consequence to the species.
Seeing the similarity between the duration of life and
the functionless proboscis in Aglia tau and Samia cecro-
pia, are we not justified in supposing that Aglia tau is
also monagamous, and that the longer duration of life of
the male of Aglia tau is one of slow decline and that
physically it is unfit to fly actively about after impregna-
tion?
If we suppose Weismann to mean that Aglia tau flies
swiftly through the forests before mating, we must con-
clude that the species is monagamous. If the species is
monagamous, and if the females reject old or middle-aged
males, as they do in the cecropia, and considering the
physical condition of a moth that has flown through the
forests without nourishment for from eight to fourteen
days, we can well see how necessary it is for mating to
take place while the males are quite young. If it is
necessary for the male to mate when very young, in what
way can a useless life of the male from 8 to 14 days
benefit the race1?
Weismann states that his notes on the life of Aglia tau
are not from direct observation, but are estimated from
the time when these insects were seen on the wing. It
might be possible that further observations on Aglia tau
would show that the duration of its life and its habits are
somewhat similar to that of Samia cecropia.
(b) Conclusions.
Finding the duration of life of the female to be in-
sufficient to propagate the race to its fullest extent, and,
in contrast to this, an excessive duration of life in the
male, which in a species that is monagamous can be noth-
ing but useless, we must conclude that the duration of
life at this stage of evolution cannot be an adaptation
for the good of the species.
Perhaps the male lives longer because it can accumu-
late larger stores of reserve nutriment in the larval
44 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.
stage. The female, having a large mass of ova to pro-
duce, has perhaps little time or room to lay up as large a
store of reserve nourishment, and in many cases it may
be possible that the supply is insufficient to completely
carry it through the reproductive period, while in the male
it may be so great as to carry it far beyond. Again, if the
reserve nutriment be equal in both sexes, the earlier
death of the female may be due to the expenditure of a
greater amount of vitality in the efforts of egg laying.
We have seen that those females, which had a male
almost in waiting, so to speak, when they hatched, were
overtaken by death when all the eggs had been deposited ;
we also found that death, after a time, likewise
overtook those less fortunate females, who mated late in
life and were cut short in their ovipositing regardless of
whether the propagation of the species was assured to
the fullest extent. For just this reason one is apt to
think that out of 68 cocoons 43 were males so that they
might be on hand to properly fertilize the females early
in life and thus insure perfect oviposition.
Thus we are led to suppose that the greater number of
males is an adaptation for the good of the species, and
that perhaps this came about through natural selection.
But if natural selection produced a greater number of
males it also endowed them with a longer duration of
life, which is as useless to the individual as to the species.
If natural selection is so great a factor in economic-
ally producing adaptation, would it not have been easier,
and perhaps better, to prolong the life of the female just
a few days or perhaps a few hours to insure perfect
oviposition, than to produce a greater number of males
and uselessly prolong their lives to insure impregnating
the females at an early age? Coulcl it not be possible
that the phenomena here observed are the incipient
stages of higher adaptation, or that at this stage of the
Cecropia moth we have a phylogenetic vestige of the time
when the long life of the male was of advantage to the
species? Perhaps before the mouth parts degenerated,
Rau — Observations on Samia Cecropia, Linn. 45
the species took food and was long lived, and may have
been polygamous and the proportion of the sexes equal.
Possibly the female died of exhaustion in ovipositing,
while the male was able to fly about actively, finding and
impregnating many females, which, being heavily laden
with ova, were inactive and could not conveniently fly
about to seek the males. Can it possibly be that the
longer duration of life of the male, as we now see it in the
Cecropia moth is a vestige of the time when such
longevity was of benefit to the species?
46
Trans. Acad. ScL of St. Louis.
TABLE I. COPULATING PAIRS.
Date of Hatching of
Female
Date of Hatching of
Male
Time when First
Seen in Copulo
Time when Pair was
First Observed
Separated
"p
ft
o
O
_g
e
ft
m
£
to
ho
bo
3-8
m o
c ft
!<3
£ 9
v Zi
a
Number of Eggs
Deposited
tnQ
bo.
be &
& c
Z
CM-
fc"B
JI.S
» a
%%
■ - ho
m
Pair known as
>>
a
Q
03
t-4
>>
oS
Q
c
a
Q
u
CO
Q
o
A 1
5/16
7 A.M.
5/19
6:30 A. M.
5/18
6 A.M.
5/20
6 A.M.
6/4
6 A.M.
6/9
6 A.M.
6/10
6:30 A. M.
6/10
6:30 A. M.
6/11
6:30 A. M.
6/12
7 A.M.
6/13
8:30 A. M.
6/14
6:30 A. M.
5/17
8:15 A. M.
5/20
6 A.M.
5/18
2:30 P. M.
5/21
6 A.M.
6/5
6:30 A. M.
6/9
6 P.M.
6/11
6 A.M.
6/11
6 A.M.
6/12
6:30 A. M.
6/13
2:30 A. M.
6/14
7 A.M.
6/14
5 P.M.
Ida.
5:15 hrs.
23:30 hrs.
8:30 hrs.
Ida.
Ida.
0:30 hrs.
12 hrs.
23:30 hrs.
23:30 hrs
Ida.
17:30 hrs,
22:30 hrs.
10:30 hrs.
5/17
5/20
5/19
5/22
5/17
210
5/20
158
5/19
117
5/22
58
5/19
80
5/22
38
5/20
53
5/23
80
5/20
27
5/23
17
5/21
43
5/24
21
None
None
5/22
4
None
317
213
217
159
260
287
796
187
1229
?
231
45
61
91
112
98
4
f
0
<
14
L
0
55
125
0
362
274
308
271
A 8
A 9
5/29
10:30A.M.
6/6
7:30 A.M.
6/9
bet. 12
noon and
5 P.M.
6/9
bet. 12
noon and
5 P.M.
6/3
4 P.M.
6/4
6:30 A. M.
6/7
2 P.M.
6/7
2 P.M.
358
291
A10 f
"
"
-
A 10a
-
*- 810
.
-
J
187
A 12
Bet. 12
noon 6/9
and
2 P.M.
6/10
6/11
2 P.M.
6/12
4:30 P. M.
6/11
3:30 P. M.
6/12
10 A. M.
6/12
4:50 P. M.
284
A 14
?
A 15
6/15
6/15
81
....
6/20
150*
None
231
* Additional were found.
Rau — Observations on Samia Cecropia, Linn.
47
TABLE I. COPULATING PAIRS — Continued.
Pair known
as
A 1
A 3,
A 4 .
A 5 .
A 8.
A 9.
A 10 .
A 10a.
All
A 12
A 14.
A 15.
o
a
o
p
Q
o o
O
£.2
3j=
_ O U
5 ur°
'■S §5
bj o ~
h ^ H
3<fi 3
O
•8.2
s
o
t. « S
3<m 3
P
_ "1
O ■-'
«H C
O 3
» bo
•S.S
cS
ggS
S'H'O
Q
^3
■g§
.« bo
si
■2 e*
*> E +i
^ O $
3 *.S!
St-i'O
a
Jo
to
o,p"
■p >
si
<V in
£2
2 p>a
O U-T3
<M ° 3
a> c.2
*h.£ +3
REMARKS
5/21
4 P.M.
5/23
7 P.M.
5/25
6:30 A. M.
5/25
4 P.M.
6/8
6 A.M.
6/15
12 N.
6/16
6:30 A. M.
6/18
7 A.M.
6/18
1:30 P. M.
6/17
7 A.M.
6/19
12:10 P.M.
6/20
10:30A.M.
5/21
5:30 P. M.
6/1
6 A.M.
5/28
6:30 A. M.
6/2
7:30 A. M.
6/14
3:30 P. M.
5 da.
9 hrs.
4 da.
12:30 hrs.
5 da.
10:30 hrs
12 da.
23:30 hrs
7 da. 10 da.
0:30 hrs. 0:30 hrs.
6/17
7 A.M.
6/18
7:30 P. M
6/21
7:30 A. M.
6/21
7:30 A. M.
6/22
2 P.M.
6/21
7:30 A. M.
5 da.
10 hrs.
4 da.
6 da.
6 hrs.
6 da.
8 da.
0:30 hrs.
7 da.
7 hrs.
5 da.
6 da.
15:40 hrs.
6 da.
4 hrs.
13 da.
1:30 hrs.
10 da.
9:30 hrs.
7 da.
0:30 hrs.
8 da.
13 hrs.
10 da.
1 hrs.
9 da.
0:30 hrs.
9 da.
5:30 hrs.
7 da.
1 hrs.
9 da.
19:30 hrs.
9 da.
4:30 hrs.
6 da.
16 hrs.
8 da.
16:30 hrs.
10 da.
23:30 hrs.
7 da.
7 hrs.
7 da.
21:50 hrs.
7 da.
18 hrs.
9 da.
17 hrs.
11 da.
5:30 hrs.
1:30 hrs.
8 da.
11:00 hrs.
3 da.
7 da.
15:30 hrs.
6 da.
9:30 hrs.
4 da.
9:15 hrs.
12 da.
9 da.
16 hrs.
12 da.
1:30 hrs.
9 da.
9 hrs.
9 da.
16 hrs.
10 da.
4 hrs.
8 da.
14:40 hrs.
Ida.
0:30 hrs.
12:30 hrs.
2 da.
18 hrs.
4 da.
0:30 hrs.
3 da.
1:50 hrs.
21 hrs.
6 da.
lhr.
7 da.
1:30 hrs.
9 da.
lhr.
9 da.
5 hrs.
9 da.
5:30 hrs.
6 da.
14:30 hrs.
Death of cfSE acci-
dental.
Pair accidentally-
separated while
in copulo.
c? escaped.
7 d"s had hatched
6/7 P. M.
2 were selected.
i^Both pairs placed
in one cage.
Estimated date
of ? birth 6/9,
2:30 P. M.
Time figured on 9
hatching as 6/10,
12 midnight.
The eggs of this
pair for the
greater part
were lost.
48
Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.
TABLE II. UNFERTILIZED FEMALES.
Date of Hatching
to
il!
SO
•- . -
r"1 tn
&H O
c O
Is
p
Number of Eggs Deposited
■
a
o TO
is
Entire number of
Eggs Carried
c3
0)
P
o
<u
TO
P
Duration of Life from
Hatching Until
Death
Known as
s»
OS
P
>>
to
P
>>
P
u
CO
>>
TO
P
■5
"3
+-»
o
H
REMARKS
T? ^
5/28
2:30 P. M.
5/20
2:30 P. M.
5/21
5/25
5/31
5/24
-
5/31
19
5/24
8
Up to
5/29
the 2
S's
depos-
ited
278
eggs
1
last
eggs
laid
6/4
last
eggs
laid
5/28
113
135
j- 380
201
175
4
0
314
310
1- 384
6/4 7 da.
R 1
3 P.M.
5/28
2:30 P- M,
5/29
9:30 P- M.
6/3
7:30 A. M.
8 da.
8 da.
9 da.
1
~& 9»
last
eggs
laid
5/31
j B la and
B 2a were
placed in
one cage.
Issued February 26, 1910.
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Transactions of the Academy of Science of St. Louis.
VOL. XIX. No. 3.
HAIL INJURY ON FOREST TREES.
FRANK J. PHILLIPS.
Issued March 10, 1910.
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HAIL INJURY ON FOREST TREES.*
Frank J. Phillips.
Among the minor injuries to which forest trees are
exposed that of hail storms is one of the most interesting.
The total amount of primary damage resulting from such
storms is always localized sharply and while this damage
may be temporarily great so far as the locality is con-
cerned, it is not ordinarily severe for a whole region or
for a whole state even for a series of years. Within the
limits of individual storms, forest growth as a whole is
more immune from serious effects than almost any other
crop with the possible exception of the short, non-culti-
vated grasses. Whole crops of fruit and vegetables are
often entirely ruined while forest trees usually escape
with varying amounts of defoliation, laceration of the
bark and cambium, and the occasional destruction of
young trees or sprouts. Many of the European texts con-
sider this injury limitedly and one authority1 on hail
reports storms which were severe enough to remove
branches two inches in diameter.
No other region in the United States presents as good
a field for such an investigation as does the middle west.
A large number of hail storms occur in adjoining states
but the states of the Plains may be rightly called the
hail storm center. Missouri and Nebraska have been
selected as good examples for this region. In both these
states hail is a typical late spring and summer phenome-
non, although such storms do occur in March, October and
November in Missouri. Hail has been reported during
the winter months, but this is probably pellets of snow
or soft hail without crystalline structure, the same as the
' ' Graupeln ' ' of Germany.
In Missouri2 during April and May, particularly the
latter month, hail accompanies almost every thunder-
* Presented by title to the Academy of Science of St. Louis. Decem-
ber 20, 1909.
1 On Hail. R. Russell. 1893. 2 Information supplied by George Reeder
Section Director, U. S. Weather Bureau.'
(49)
50
Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.
storm that is of marked energy. In the majority of in-
stances the duration of the fall is for one or two minutes,
while the stones are few in number and range from one-
fourth to one-half inch in diameter though they may be an
inch or more in diameter. The hail belt is generally a
narrow strip running from east to west or from the south-
west to the northeast, but has been reported running m
other directions. The extent of the belt usually ranges
from two to four hundred feet in breadth to a half mile or
more long, skipping a large section to fall again farther
along. Once or twice during a decade a storm may be
verysevere, covering territory several miles wide and ten
to fifteen or more miles in length.
For the fifteen years 1895-1909 the average number of
hail storms was as follows : March, 2 ; April, 8 ; May, 12 ;
June, 8; July, 4; August, 4; September, 3; October, 2
Many of these were very slight and caused no damage. It
appears that hail storms are more frequent and severe
in the northwestern part of the state. Probably the most
severe hailstorm that has occurred within the history ot
the state was that of September 5, 1898.3
The following table will give a general idea as to the
prevalency of such storms and the possibility of injury
to forest trees : ======
Stations in
Nebraska.
,0 .
o «
O) CO
NUMBER OF DAYS ON WHICH HAIL
FELL.4
April May
June
July
Aug. I Sept.
Total.
Ashland 26
Beaver City
Fairbury
Fremont
Genoa
Harvard
Hay Springs
Kimball
Lincoln
Minden
Oakdale
Ravenna
Weeping Water..
20
27
32
21
22
23
22
24
32
21
32
32
13
4
7
8
14
22
4
2
19
29
7
10
7
16
4
7
16
8
9
19
15
15
9
8
11
16
27
11
11
24
22
17
12
14
12
28
13
6
3
3
7
9
11
10
17
6
12
3
9
7
1
1
7
1
7
5
9
4
10
8
8
4
8
1
44
1
29
2
35
0
33
6
70
2
64
1
43
2
68
4
61
7
102
6
53
2
51
4
67
a Described in Monthly
* Information supplied
Weather Bureau.
Report, Missouri Section, October, 1898.
by Prof. Geo. Loveland, Section Director, U. b.
Phillips — Hail Injury on Forest Trees. 51
This is the total number of days that hail was reported
for each month from April to September inclusive. A
few hail storms were reported in March and October, but
they were few and scattering. Most of the storms here
reported were entirely harmless or did but little damage.
These stations are considered the most reliable in the
state.
Excellent opportunity for studying this kind of injury
was afforded by a hailstorm which occurred at Hutchin-
son, Kansas, on the last day of May, 1908. The storm
started about 5 a. m., and lasted for 20 to 30 minutes, do-
ing damage both north and south of the city. The hail
clouds came from the northwest against the wind which
was blowing from the southeast. This probably accounted
at least partially for the duration of the storm and ex-
plains why the defoliation of forest trees occurred on the
south and east sides although the clouds came from the
opposite direction. The hail stones ranged from the size
of a hazelnut to that of a hickory nut and formed a layer
of 1 to 4 inches in depth. The stones on the outskirts of
the storm were reported to be of a larger size but were
fewer in number, and the injury to all forms of vegetation
was less than in the center of the storm.
Hardy catalpa suffered worse than any other forest
tree. Except in rare cases whole stands were entirely
defoliated and the bark badly torn on exposed branches.
On trees 6 to 10 years old many wounds were measured
which were continuous for 12 to 15 inches, and occasion-
ally these wounds were an inch or more in breadth. Es-
pecially bad effects were noted in one year old coppice
stands. Such sprouts are very succulent, never possess
side branches and have large, tender leaves. In such
stands it frequently happened that many sprouts were
broken from the stump, while others had the bark com-
pletely girdled or shredded for their entire length. In
coppice shoots older than one year as well as in seedling
stands the current season's growth was almost invariably
killed back while in many cases the shoots were killed
back into the last season's growth. However, the bark
52
Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.
was only slightly injured on growth 3 years old or over
and this injury occurred almost invariably between the
flakes or ridges of bark. It has frequently been reported
that only moderately severe hailstorms cause a serious
malformation and restriction of growth when catalpa
pods are developing. Such malformation consists of
badly curved pods, many of which fail to develop. Mod-
erate hailstorms after the pods are fully developed rarely
do serious damage.
Sycamore suffered co-ordinately with the catalpa in
regard to leaf defoliation and very nearly as bad results
to the young twigs. The effect was so severe that not a
HAIL INJURY TO CATALPA.
single sycamore was seen which had not made an entirely
new seasonal growth and often the growth was killed back
so that the adventitious buds developed from the middle
of last season's growth. Unlike the catalpa, however, the
bark on the sycamore shoots 2 years old was not severely
injured, but the force of the hail caused slight wounds on
the largest trunks. A microscopic examination showed
that few of these wounds had affected the cambium badly
except in twigs and small branches.
Eussian mulberry suffered badly from defoliation and
injury to new growth. In the usual cases two-thirds to
three-fourths of each tree was defoliated while many
specimens standing in the open were entirely defoliated.
Injury to the bark was nearly as severe as it was to the
Phillips — Hail Injury on Forest Trees. 53
catalpa with the exception that the bark wounds on
catalpa were much more irregular because of the fibrous
nature of the bark.
The deepest bark wounds on any species were found on
the cottonwood and box elder. This was due to the soft,
smooth nature of the bark which extends over compara-
tively large branches, while in such trees as catalpa the
bark matures rapidly. It was not infrequent to see
branches of cottonwood 3 to 4 inches in diameter with
wounds an inch broad and several inches long. Cotton-
wood was about one-half defoliated; the characteristic
injury consisting of riddled leaves which consequently
lost their function and were shed by the tree. A peculiar
character of the injury to the limbs consisted of wounds
bridged over by dead cortical strands of fibrous bark.
It is thought that the force of the hail was sufficient to
injure the cambium without entirely destroying the bark.
The possibility of fungus action was considered but since
no trace of fungi was found in such areas it was thought
improbable that the injury was due to such a cause.
Honey locust suffered from defoliation but had only
slight injury to the wood. Black walnut was in most cases
entirely defoliated. The bark was wounded slightly more
than honey locust but not so much as box elder or cotton-
wood. Silver maple had slight injury both to the leaves
and the bark. Green ash leaves were less injured than
black walnut while the bark was injured about the same.
Russian olive leaves were scarcely affected and the bark
showed injury only in rare cases. Bur oak had no ap-
preciable injury to the bark and only a few leaves were
partially lacerated.
Box elder suffered more from defoliation than did
cottonwood, but on the other hand more leaves were shed
and fewer lacerated. The wounds on the young wood were
as severe as on cottonwood. American elm suffered mod-
erately from defoliation and laceration, but had only rare
injury to the bark. English elm showed still less effect
on leaves and wood than American elm. White willow
suffered worse than sand-bar willow in both bark and
54 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.
leaf injury. Osage orange showed the least effect of any
of the broad leaved trees.
Conifers as a class were much less affected than were
the broad leaved trees. Scotch pine suffered most, but
even in the worst cases lost only a few leaves and showed
few wounds on the bark. Austrian pine was still less
affected than Scotch pine and red cedar showed no in-
jury.
The relative resistance of the broad leaved species in
this storm is shown in the following table in which the
worst affected species are placed at the head of the table.
DEFOLIATION. INJURY TO TWIGS,
Catalpa (Catalpa). Catalpa.
Sycamore (Platanus). Russian Mulberry.
Russian Mulberry (Morus). Box Elder.
Cottonwood (Populus). Cottonwood.
Box Elder (Negundo) . White Willow.
Black Walnut (Juglans). Sandbar Willow.
Green Ash (Fraxinus). Sycamore.
Silver Maple (Acer). Green Ash.
Honey Locust (Gleditschia) . Silver Maple.
White Willow (Salix). Black Walnut.
Sandbar Willow (Salix). Honey Locust.
American Elm (Ulmus). American Elm.
English Elm (Ulmus). English Elm.
Osage Orange (Madura) . Osage Orange.
All species suffered most severely from defoliation on
the sides from which the storm came, while the worst
injury to twigs and branches occurred in the tops of the
trees and usually on such exposed branches as were most
nearly at right angles to the hail. This occasionally
caused the opposite side of the tree from which the storm
came to have more wound injury to bark than the side
from which the storm came. In four Carolina poplars
which were examined it seemed that less bark injury
occurred than in common cottonwood, and it is thought
that the sharper angle of branching had much to do with
this. Unfortunately time did not permit a search for a
sufficient number of these trees to determine this point.
Trees with flexible branches suffered less than those
with stiff branches. Species with small twigs or with
hard wood suffered less than those with large twigs and
Phillips — Hail Injury on Forest Trees. 55
succulent wood. Large, succulent leaves were much worse
affected than linear leaves, cut leaves, or leathery leaves.
Coppice was more seriously affected, because of the more
succulent growth and also because it retains smooth bark
for a much longer period, than seedling growth. An es-
pecially noteworthy feature of the injury was noticed in
the growth of the new leaves where entire defoliation had
taken place. In every case the first leaves developed at
the ends of the growing shoots, when the shoots were not
badly wounded. If the shoots were broken or severely
lacerated, the first leaf developed from an adventitious
or a dormant bud back of the injury. Such leaves were
usually at least one week in advance of all other leaves.
Lateral leaves further down the shoots continued to
appear from 3 to 4 weeks after the first leaves, thus caus-
ing a very irregular and prolonged leaf development. The
retention of thick, leathery leaves such as occur on osage
orange aids materially in protecting the shoots. In
Europe5 the removal of the forest is said to increase the
frequency of hail.
The injury to forest trees caused by hail is especially
likely to induce secondary injuries from forest fungi and
insects. In cases of severe injury to shade trees it would
be well to trim off the branches most severely affected and
to watch carefully for insect or fungus infestation. As a
result of two years' observation there seems little doubt
that hail injury increases the infestation of hardy catalpa
by dry rot (Polystictus versicolor Fr.). Hardy catalpa
does not recuperate readily from hail injury and most of
the plantations, windbreaks and shelterbelts in the state
show the effect of some hail storm of the past. In such
plantings it is a common occurrence to find wounds ten
to twenty years old which have not healed over and such
badly wounded branches often show a great deal of
fungus action. Some of the wounds show a secondary
injury by insects, but so far this is limited. Most of these
wounded trees are also characterized by water sprouts
5 Houston, E. J. Outlines of Forestry. 147. 1893.
56 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.
which on trees 30 to 45 feet tall may number 200 to 300
to the tree.
Attention should also be paid to the management of
catalpa coppice during the first year. It has been cus-
tomary to leave two or three sprouts to each stool for the
first year because of the danger from wind. In case of
hail an immediate inspection of the coppice should be
made and if the injury has occurred early in the growing
season all badly injured growth should be removed. Oc-
casionally it will be necessary to cut all the sprouts, but in
most cases from 1 to 3 healthy sprouts will remain. At
the end of the first growing season, the plantation should
again be thinned leaving one sprout to the stool. The rea-
son for cutting off sprouts badly injured by hail imme-
diately after the storm is obvious. If such sprouts were
allowed to remain the growth would be inferior and the
stool would be weakened. If injury occurs in the middle of
or late in the growing season it is best to leave one sprout
to the stool or to leave all remedial work until the end
of the season because of the danger from winter killing.
Hail injury naturally reduces the annual wood incre-
ment and in such a storm as the one which occurred at
Hutchinson it causes the formation of false annual rings
in the species worst affected. Natural pruning of the
branches continues for many years after a hail storm
has passed; such pruning occurs first on weakened,
interior branches and branches deeply wounded, but the
pruning continues and has been noted on branches which
had been injured 19 years previously. Favorable climatic
conditions immediately after the storm assist tree growth
in recuperation while a prolonged drouth would greatly
increase the damage.
EXPLANATION OF ILLUSTRATIONS.
Text-figure. Hail injury to hardy catalpa, experienced ten years
before the photographs were made. B shows a false ring. C is fourteen
inches below an open wound, but still shows heart-rot. Reduced.
Plates XI-XVIL— Hail injury to twigs of various forest trees. One-
half natural size.
Issued March 10, 1910.
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Transactions of the Academy of Science of St. Louis.
VOL. XIX. No. 4.
ON THE NATURE OF THE ELECTRIC DISCHARGE.
THE ONE-FLUID AND THE TWO-FLUID
THEORIES.
(Continued from No. 1).
FRANCIS E. NIPHER.
Issued June 2, 1910.
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■jun
me
ON THE NATURE OF THE ELECTRIC DISCHARGE
THE ONE-FLUID AND THE TWO-FLUID
THEORIES.1
Francis E. Nipher.
_ The dissymmetry in the discharge effects at the posi-
tive and negative terminals of an electric machine is now
ascribed to the difference in the size of the carriers of the
electric discharge. In my former paper in these Trans-
actions evidence has been presented, which shows that
this dissymmetry is due to the fact that the negative
electrons are being forced out under "pressure" at the
negative terminal, and that they are being drawn in
at the positive terminal under conditions which may
be likened to those on the exhaust side of a pump.
Characteristic forms of discharge lines usually attrib-
uted to positive and negative discharge are shown
in Plates XVTII and XIX, Figs. A and B.
Such plates were obtained by means of the arrange-
ment shown in Fig. 1.
The lines leading from the terminals of an influence
machine are separately grounded in the yard outside-
of the building. In each line there is a spark-gap of sev-
eral centimeters at the machine terminal. Each line has
another gap, the two ends of which terminate in pin-
heads which make a spring contact with copper plates
P and P1. The copper plates rest on sheets of glass.
The pin-head nearest the machine in the positive line, and
the one nearest the ground in the negative line are in
Fig. 1 shown as resting on the film of a photographic
plate. The other pin-heads rest on the copper sheets.
In each case there will be an inflow of Franklin's fluid
from the copper plate to the pin-head. This inflow is in
1 Continued from No. 1, Vol. XIX. Presented before The Academy
of Science of St. Louis, May 2nd, 1910.
(57)
58
Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.
part a disruptive spark discharge. This is accompanied
by a streaming in of the negative fluid from various
directions over the film. See Plate XVIII, Fig. B, and
Plate XIX, Fig. A. In the negative line the copper plate
is in the case shown in Fig. 1 energized by a compression
o
G
Fig. 1.
action from the machine terminal. The discharge from
the film is urged towards and into the grounded line.
The flow lines resemble a system of rivers and tributary
streams.
In the positive line the terminal resting on the film is
in a condition which may be described as an exhaust con-
dition. The electric fluid is then drawn into the pin-head
terminal from the film. The stream lines in this case
certainly originate at the pin-head terminal, and elongate
in a direction opposite to that of the flow. Possibly this
may be true of the plate in the negative line also. The
results seem to be alike in character. The action is, how-
ever, different, and it may be that there is a difference in
degree. There is in both cases a condenser effect. In
Plate XVIII, Fig. A, and Plate XIX, Fig. B, are shown
Nipher—On the Nature of the Electric Discharge.
two plates where in each gap of Fig. 1, the plates were
exposed at the opposite terminal. Here we have over
each film a negative outflow from the pin-head. In the
negative line the outflow is from the pin-head, which is
in communication with the machine. In the positive line
it is an outflow from the grounded pin-head. This out-
flow is induced by the copper plate below, which is in an
exhaust condition. Franklin's fluid has been drawn out
of it. These discharge lines are also alike in character.
These results might have been expected, if the ground
connections in Fig. 1 were broken, and the lines were
connected to form a circuit between the machine termi-
nals. This result is similar to that described in the
former paper2 for the Crookes tube.
It can hardly be claimed that these four photographic
plates contain in themselves evidence that they are pro-
duced by au outflow at one terminal of each gap, and by
an inflow at the other terminals. Such plates have long
ago been produced at the gap terminals of an electric cir-
cuit, and they have not suggested such an explanation.
But when it is known that the so-called positive discharge
is an inflow of negative electricity, the plates themselves
seem to be suggestive of such a condition.
If both terminals in either of the gaps in the discharge
lines of Fig. 1 be placed on the film of a photographic
plate, the terminals of the two forms of discharge lines
will unite with each other as should be expected if one is
an outflow and the other an inflow. In such an exposure,
a sheet of glass may be placed between the metal plate
and the photographic plate. In the exposure of the four
photographic plates thus far described, the spark gaps
at the machine were between large knobs. No apprecia-
ble brush discharges which could affect the film preceded
the disruptive discharge.
The exposure table was screened from external sources
of light due to sparks at the machine. It was also wholly
surrounded by a metal screen of wire netting, which was
2 These Trans. XIX, 1, p. 7.
60 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.
grounded on an independent ground. The diagonal
brushes of the influence machine were also grounded in-
dependently of all other ground contacts.
Conditions Which Precede Disruptive Discharge.
In making an examination of the conditions which pre-
cede a disruptive discharge, the arrangement shown in
Fig. 1 was somewhat modified. The metal plate was re-
moved. The photographic plate was lifted above the
glass top of the table, and supported at its edges only by
insulating supports. The pin-head terminals were moved
nearer together and rested on the same film, which had
dimensions 31/4x41/4 inches. The spark gap at the ma-
chine was reduced to 3 or 4 mm. The plates of the ma-
chine were revolved very slowly. Several small sparks
at the machine having followed each other in quick suc-
cession, a spark would pass across the film between the
pin-head terminals. In a series of plates to be described,
the exposure was in the negative line. The positive
terminal was grounded, on an independent ground.
Fig. A of Plate XX shows the effect of a single small
spark at the machine. The negative inflow at the pin-
head terminal marked G, which was connected with the
ground is very slight. In B and C, the exposure was
slightly increased. This may be done by increasing the
number of minute sparks at the machine, or by slightly
increasing the length of this spark. Fig. A and Fig. B
of Plate XXI show the result of a slight increase of the
spark length. The ionization of the air due to the inflow
of negative electricity to the grounded pin-head has in
Fig. A extended to the small fogged area around the pin-
head, which is receiving the negative discharges from
the machine. This is the negative glow. We have here
the same phenomenon that was pointed out in the former
paper. It is apparently with difficulty that the negative
discharge can be forced out of the negative terminal, but
it can easily be drawn in from the film to the positive
terminal. The results here shown were obtained when
Nipher — On the Nature of the Electric Discharge. 61
the plates were exposed in open air in the darkened room
containing the influence machine. No change in the re-
sult was obtained when the table with its overhanging
curtains on which the plates were exposed, was wholly
surrounded by a cage of galvanized wire screen which
was then grounded.
The lines of inflow on this series of plates are in ap-
pearance like the outer extremities of the lines of inflow
in Fig. B, Plate XVIII, and Fig. A, Plate XIX.
When the exposure has reached the stage represented
in Fig. A, Plate XXI, a spark is on the point of passing.
In securing such a plate dozens of plates may be spoiled
by the passage of a spark. Such a result is shown in
Figs. B and C, Plate XXI. In the latter figure, the dis-
ruptive discharge evidently did not begin at the grounded
pin-head. That terminal was surrounded by a film of
ionized air, which was thus sufficiently possessed of the
property of conduction, to prevent the formation of the
rarefied hole or channel through which the disruptive
discharge passed. The end of this hole is about 4 mm.
from the grounded pin-head. The volley of negative
electrons which passed through this discharge channel
from the negative terminal, was apparently fired at the
grounded pin-head across this small interval of ionized
air. The result is seen in the fogging of that part of the
plate around the grounded terminal. The volley was ap-
parently a diverging one. Its fogging effect extended
more than a centimeter beyond the grounded terminal at
which the volley was directed. The pin-head protected
that portion of the film which was behind it as seen from
the muzzle of the discharge channel. Fig. A, Plate XXII,
shows a somewhat larger region of ionized air into which
the discharge from the air channel was diffused. In Fig.
B two sparks passed, the first of which apparently pro-
duced the ionizing effect. The second discharge passed
through more than three centimeters of ionized air on its
way to the grounded terminal and the fogging effect ex-
tended nearly an equal distance beyond, as is shown by
the shadow cast by the pin-head.
62 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.
In obtaining such ionization of the air around the
grounded anode terminal, the plates of the machine
should be turned with extreme slowness. There should
be a gap of a couple of mm. at the machine terminal, and
the rotation should cease for a moment, if it is thought
that a spark may pass across the plate. After half a
minute the velocity of rotation may be increased and the
spark allowed to pass over the film. This method of pro-
cedure will give time for the ionization to be brought
about, and will occasionally give desired results.
In Fig. C of Plate XXII the pin soldered to the end of
the terminal wire was so bent, that the rounded head
made contact at the central point of its rounded head with
the photographic film. The form of the shadow shows
that the cause for the fogging effect around this pin-head
lies in a very thin layer of air at the film.
Fig. C of Plate XXII also shows that the origin of the
agency which produces the fogging effect is at the muzzle
of the discharge channel about midway between the ter-
minals. Fig. D is a print from Fig. C. Hundreds of
plates have been used in securing a comparatively few
specimens which show the dispersion of the disruptive
discharge at some point between the metallic terminals.
In no case has such a dispersion area of ionized air ex-
tended to the negative pin-head. These ionization ef-
fects always have their origin at the grounded pin-head,
although the presence of the negative pin-head is of
course necessary in order to make the grounded pin-head
effective.
Fig. A of Plate XXIII shows one of two exposures
which have been obtained, in which the disruptive part of
the discharge is a very small part of the distance be-
tween the pin-heads.
In both cases there is evidence that there was a dis-
charge towards the negative terminal such as might be
produced by an issuance of positively (or, perhaps, nega-
tively) charged particles from the negative end of the
spark channel. There is slight evidence of such dis-
charge in other plates, which show the negative discharge
Nipher — On the Nature of the Electric Discharge. 63
towards the grounded terminal in a more strongly-
marked way. It certainly might be expected that some
such effect might exist in case of a disruptive discharge.
Fig. B of Plate XXIII was exposed in the positive line
in precisely the same way that former plates were ex-
posed in the negative line. Here the negative discharge
comes from the ground. The ionization is produced at
the positive pin-head terminal, which is connected with
the positive terminal of the machine.
In Fig. C of Plate XXIII the pin-head terminals were
connected with the + and — terminals of the machine.
The spark-gaps at the machine were not more than 3 or
4 mm. A single spark was passed through these gaps. This
figure shows what is clearly shown in other plates, how
insignificant is the ionizing effect at the negative termi-
nal, as compared with that which produces the negative
inflow at the positive terminal. In this plate these ioni-
zation effects are due to the exhaust effects at the posi-
tive terminal and to the presence of the negative termi-
nal, which produces such effects at the opposite terminal,
even when it is grounded. The effect is to be finally
traced to the forced rotation of the glass plates of the
machine in the presence of the inductor cards on the sta-
tionary plates
In this figure it will be observed that one of the stream
lines which proceeds to the positive terminal curves
around the small black area at the negative terminal. Its
source is on the opposite side of the negative terminal
from the positive terminal. Its curved form is due to the
negative outflow from the negative terminal.
In this figure as well as in Fig. A of Plate XXI the
discharge lines have a form which suggests lines of force
from static charges of opposite sign. It is, however, to
be observed that the conditions in these fields of force
are dynamic in character. There is an outflow of gaseous
molecules from both terminals, as will be explained later.
The meeting and mingling of these oppositely directed
"electric winds," produced the disturbed condition that
is to be observed between the terminals and just outside
64
Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.
of the dark circular area around the negative terminal.
These lines do not terminate in the negative pin-head
terminal in the same manner that they originate in the
positive terminal. They appear distorted near the nega-
tive terminal, as if by a blast from that terminal. The
significance of this will appear later. It may, however,
be here stated that the conditions in this region, just
outside of the negative glow, are like those in the Faraday
dark space in the vacuum tube, although the mean free
path of the molecules is of course very much less.
Canal Rays.
The results heretofore discussed in this paper and in
the preceding one, suggested the idea that an insulated
plate of metal placed between spark terminals of the
influence machine should arrest the ionization of the air
column between them and prevent the passage of sparks.
This was tested by the arrangement shown in Fig. 2.
A and A1 are large knobs of about 10 cm. diameter,
having adjustable floating spark terminals a and a1. The
large knobs are metalically connected with the larger
knobs forming the terminals of the machine. Small spark
. Nipher — On the Nature of the Electric Discharge. 65
gaps may be made at a and a1, either by adjustment of
the positions of A and A1, or the floating terminals a
and a1.
If the adjustment is such that loud sparks are passing
between the terminals, the effect of placing the insulated
metal sheet CC midway between the terminals is to com-
pletely prevent the sparks from passing. A luminous
brush " discharge" passes from the positive terminal to
the plate. A luminous glow is formed at the negative
terminal. This glow is of a character which indicates
that an active discharge is passing from the negative
terminal. But between this negative glow and the metal
sheet the space is absolutely dark. The positive lumi-
nescence and the negative glow are produced only when
a minute spark gap exists at a or a1.
A photograph of these positive and negative discharge
effects is shown in Fig. A. Plate XXIV. This photograph
was made by means of a large copying camera, with an
exposure of 15 minutes.
The distance between the knobs was about 13 cm.
When the metal plate was hung on long silk cords it
set in stable equilibrium at a distance of 3 or 4 cm. from
the negative terminal. In this position sparks passed
through the plate as readily as they would pass when it
was removed. The dark space still existed between the
plate and the negative glow. If the plate is moved over
to the positive terminal the dark space follows, as the
positive column follows when the motion is in the oppo-
site direction.
A small windmill having vanes of thin mica mounted
in a hub of hard rubber, and turning on pivots of vul-
canized fiber will revolve when placed in either gap. In
the positive column, the air is thus shown to be moving
towards the plate, and from the positive terminal. In
the dark space the air is moving in the opposite direc-
tion. In the positive column the rotation was about like
that which could be produced by walking with the wind
mill in still air with a velocity of 1.5 meters per second.
In the dark space the speed was somewhat less.
66 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.
A hole of about 5 mm. diameter was made in the cop-
per plate on the line through the two knobs. Loud sparks
then passed. On the negative side of the plate they
passed to the hole, keeping along the luminous positive
ray which passed through the hole. On the positive side
the sparks danced about in a fantastic way within the
luminous column. A photograph of 80 spark discharges
is shown in Fig. B, Plate XXIV. This photograph was
obtained by replacing the large lens of the copying cam-
era, by a small pin-hole in a sheet of tin-foil. It is evi-
dent that the spark discharge followed the column of air
from which the negative electrons had been drained into
the positive terminal.
The Leyden jars were removed from the machine, in
order to avoid spark discharges. The brush discharges
were photographed by means of the camera with lens,
Fig. C, Plate XXIV. Here the positive column is seen
to extend through the opening in the metal screen. It
extends to the negative glow. A feeble negative inflow
to the edge of the copper plate (a positive brush "dis-
charge") is also to be seen. A comparison of this figure
with the former one is very instructive. It shows that
the cathode discharge is promoted by extending a chan-
nel of conducting air to the cathode. Nevertheless a dis-
charge is continually passing through the dark space,
when no opening exists in the metal screen. This trans-
fer across the dark space is then evidently by convection.
The air molecules are overloaded with the negative parti-
cles at the negative terminal, in the region of the negative
glow. After passing through the dark space the negative
particles are delivered to the metal plate, from which they
pass to molecules in the positive column which have been
deprived of negative particles through drainage to the
positive terminal.
Fig. A of Plate XXV shows a shadow made by a glass
tube when placed in the positive column, its end facing
the camera. The air in this shadow is not in a condition
to conduct the discharge from the metal plate. The tube
cuts off the means for draining into the positive termi-
Nipher — On the Nature of the Electric Discharge. 67
nal, the electrical particles contained in the molecules
within the shadow, or between the tube and plate. The
positive column shown in Figs. A and C, Plate XXIV,
and all the figures of Plate XXV at any instant show to
the eye the same details which are shown in Fig. A, Plate
XXI. A time exposure in a camera shows, of course,
no such detail of the discharge.
It appears that the insulated metal plate CC of Fig. 2
serves to separate the luminous positive column from the
Faraday dark space, to such an extent that they may
become apparent in discharges through air at ordinary
pressure. When the metal plate is removed, the mole-
cules at the boundary of these two regions mingle with
each other. Electrically they are friendly, and they are
being urged in opposite directions, by the compression
and rarefaction terminals of the machine.
The Critical Spark-Length.
The Faraday Dark-Space.
The metal plate CC of Fig. 2 was removed. A minute
spark-gap was made at a1. The contact at a was made
as complete as possible, so that no luminous point is seen
at this contact. The discharge then swept through the
entire spark gap of about 15 cm. The photograph of
this luminous column as taken by the camera is shown in
Fig. B, Plate XXV. The exposure was about five minutes.
The mica wind-mill shows a feeble wind from the positive
terminal. If the gap at a1 is made somewhat larger, the
discharge is then filled throughout with small disruptive
sparks, and the windmill will not operate. If the gap a1
is made still longer, as seen in Fig. D, Plate XXV, a
strong positive wind causes the windmill to rotate so
rapidly that its vanes are invisible. This wind sweeps
through the entire gap. The discharge is not then disrup-
tive in character. If the gap at a1 is closed and that at a
is opened, the luminous streamers forming the positive
column are beaten back by a blast of air from the nega-
tive terminal. The mica windmill shows that the nega-
tive wind now sweeps the entire gap. Fig. C, Plate XXV,
68 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.
is a camera photograph of the discharge. The slightest
change in the length of the spark-gaps a and a1, produces
marked changes in the form and character of the dis-
charge through the long gap. Such changes are attended
by variation in the pitch of musical tones which accom-
pany the discharge. Oscillations certainly play an im-
portant part in the phenomena. These results seem to
justify the suggestion made in the former paper that the
striations in the vacuum tube are produced in somewhat
the same manner as the waves in an organ pipe.
The discharge at a1 shown in Fig. D of Plate XXV, be-
fore referred to, is one of great interest. In this figure
the position and size of the knobs is indicated by the
circular arcs drawn in ink. This discharge shows the
Faraday dark space, which is a region of convection of
air molecules, which have been overloaded with Frank-
lin's fluid, in the region of the negative glow. The nega-
tive glow is also shown in the figure. If the large knob
be moved nearer to the small positive terminal, the dark
space is made shorter. The negative convection appar-
ently penetrates the positive luminous column. The end
of the positive column begins to fray out into streamers.
When the large knob reaches the end of the positive col-
umn, disruptive discharges begin. They are joined to-
gether at the positive terminal. If the gap is reduced to
the length of the dark-space, the luminous positive dis-
charge streamers are meanwhile separated from each
other from knob to knob. Apparently negative convec-
tion and negative conduction by transfer from molecule
to molecule (positive discharge) are taking place side by
side. Dark spaces and positive columns exist side by
side. They jostle each other in a somewhat tumultuous
way. This is the critical spark length.
If the conditions represented in Fig. D exist, the dis-
charge not being disruptive, it will become so if an insu-
lated copper plate be placed between the knobs, at the
end of the positive column. Moving the copper plate a
fraction of a mm. towards the positive terminal, wholly
cuts off the discharge. Such a minute change in position
Nipher — On the Nature of the Electric Discharge. 69
will result in a change from the noisy crackle of a multi-
tude of small sparks, to silence and darkness. The same
statement may be made concerning the motion of the
large knob A1, if the plate be removed and the large
knob be placed at the end of the positive column. In this
case, however, the disruptive discharge does not begin
until the large knob has reached the positive column. A
slight movement of the knob away from the positive
terminal then causes the disruptive discharge to cease.
When the copper plate is placed at the end of the posi-
tive column and is then moved towards the anode,' the
''resistance" of the gap appears to be increased. When
moved towards the cathode it is diminished, and the
positive column, from which Franklin's fluid has been
drained into the anode, is made longer. It appears to
follow the plate.
The copper plate does not obstruct the discharge if
moved into the dark space. The positive column follows
it, and acts as a conductor.
If the copper plate be placed in contact with the cathode
knob, the negative glow passes to the corners and edges
of the plate, where it ceases to be effective or visible. If
placed in contact with the anode knob, the drainage col-
umn (positive brush discharge) into the anode then ap-
pears at the corners and edges of the plate. It then also
ceases to be effective.
If the preceding explanation is valid it probably ex-
plains the behaviour of the Hittorf tube referred to by
J. J. Thomson.3 In the shorter branch of the tube, the
dark convection discharge across the Faraday dark space
involves a transfer of super-charged gas molecules from
cathode to anode. In the longer branch, the electricity is
passing by transfer from molecule to molecule, from
cathode to anode. The molecules of gas are, however,
moving in the opposite direction. The flow of gas in the
two branches thus forms a continuous circulation around
the circuit of the two branches.
3 Conduction of Electricity through Gases, 2d ed., p. 443.
70 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.
The phenomena which have been discussed in this and
the former paper have suggested the idea, that the
amount of electricity that can be pumped out of a body
in normal condition and at zero potential is not neces-
sarily equal to the amount that can be forced into or
upon it. This statement may perhaps correspond to the
statement that when a boiler is full of water, more water
can be pumped out of it, than can be forced into it.
A large attracted disk electrometer was constructed of
sheet copper. The guard-plate which had a diameter of
nearly two meters was hung from the ceiling on four silk
cords, and faced a grounded plate of equal diameter.
The attracted disk had a diameter of about 20 cm., and
was hung on silk cords from a long and light balance
beam of wood turning on two needle points. The appar-
atus was surrounded by a grounded screen of galvanized
wire netting. The scale-pan carrying the weights was
just outside of the screen. When the negative terminal
of the influence machine was grounded, and the positive
terminal was connected with the attracted disk, the
attraction was about 20 per cent, greater than when the
reverse connections were made. The results of this paper
and of the previous one seem to make it doubtful whether
this is to be accounted for as due to unsymmetric leakage
through the ionized air between the large plates. It
seems probable that this difference in the conditions ex-
isting in the two cases tends to diminish the observed
effect. Apparatus of greater precision is being pre-
pared for a further examination of this effect.
Again assume two equal spheres to be charged to
potentials +V and — V. Surround them by concentric
spherical shells which are insulated. If shell and sphere
are in each case put into contact, we have been accus-
tomed to say that the charges on the two spheres go to
the shells. If the one-fluid theory is to be adopted, we
must suppose that Franklin's fluid flows from the shell
to the positively charged sphere which it surrounds. May
we not properly expect a dissymmetry in these two cases?
Nipher — On the Nature of the Electric Discharge. 71
Is the positive electrification of a body simply a surface
effect 1
The phenomena described in this and the preceding-
paper seem to indicate that the main function of the
positive ions, in spark discharge, is to serve as stepping
stones of a somewhat unstable character. The anode wire
is found to be very effective in converting the air mole-
cules into a condition which makes the air a conductor of
the discharge. Such an anode wire is absent in the ar-
rangement of discharge circuit shown in Plate II of the
former paper. (No. 1 of Vol. XIX.) The results in the
present paper suggest that there may be a convection dis-
charge from the negative glow along that negatively
charged wire. This convection discharge is into a Fara-
day dark space, with no positive column beyond. In the
device of Plate III of the former paper, the positive
column is supplied through the agency of the grounded
point below the photographic plate.
In the discharge between the wire and the grounded
point below the photographic plate, represented in Plates
III and V of the former paper, the photographic plate
takes the place of the metal plate in the cases discussed
in the present paper. In Plate III, the film is in the
negative glow, and facing the cathode. In Plate V it is
in the positive or luminous column, and facing the anode.
In closing, a suggestion which may have practical im-
portance may be made. It seems probable that the dan-
ger of puncture of X-ray tubes may be materially dimin-
ished by grounding the cathode through a wet string
resistance. This would result in draining Franklin's
fluid through the tube, instead of forcing it through under
pressure-
72 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.
EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES.
Plate XVIII. — Fig. A. Electrical discharge from pin-head terminal.
Negative outflow in negative line. Fig. B. Negative inflow to pin-head
in negative line.
Plate XIX.— Fig. A. Positive line. Positive outflow. (Negative in-
flow). Fig. B. Positive line. Positive inflow. (Negative outflow).
These four figures are emphasized by condenser effects.
Plate XX.— Fig. A. One minute spark. Negative line. Fig. B.
Slightly longer spark. Fig. C. Two sparks. The sparks were in a small
gap at the machine.
Plate XXL— Fig. A. One spark. Increased length. Fig. B. Five or
six sparks and then increase of speed of machine and disruptive spark.
Fig. C. Dispersion of spark discharge into ionized air around grounded
terminal. Shadow of pin-head terminal.
Plate XXII. — Fig. A. The same. Fig. B. The same. Two discharges
in quick succession. Fig. C. The same. One spark. Fig. D. Photo-
graphic reversal of last Fig.
Plate XXIII. — Fig. A. Shadow effects at both pin-heads. Explosive
discharge channel very short. Fig. B. Effects like preceding but in pos-
itive line. Fig. C. Pin-head terminals connected to -f and — terminals
of machine. Small gap at machine. Spark about to pass between pin-
heads. Compare Fig. A, Plate XXL
Plate XXIV.— Fig. A. Camera photograph of brush discharges. In-
sulated copper plate between terminals. Spark will not pass. Fig. B.
Same as last with drill-hole in copper plate. Eighty spark discharges.
Pin-hole photograph. Fig. C. Camera photograph of canal ray. Same
as last with no Leyden jars in machine. Brush discharges.
Plate XXV.— Fig. A. Shadow by glass tube in positive column.
Camera photograph. Fig. B. Brush discharge in which mica windmill
shows feeble positive ' ' electrical wind ' ' or none. Camera photo. Fig. C.
Same where marked negative wind is shown. Fig. D. Brush discharge
at a1 Fig. 2 showing Faraday dark space and positive column. Camera
photograph. This spark gap was 3.2 cm. in length.
Issued June 2, 1910.
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Transactions of The Acadsmy of Science of St. Louis.
VOI,. XIX. No. 5.
STUDIES IN NORTH AMERICAN BATRACHOLOGY.
NOTES ON THE ROBBER FROG
(LITHODYTES LATRANS COPE).
JOHN K. STRECKER, Jr.
Issued, June lUh, 1910.
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Continued on page 3 of Cover,
NOTES ON THE ROBBER FROG
(LITHODYTES LATRANS COPE).*
John K. Strecker, Jr,
The Robber Frog, Lithodytes lot inns, is one of the most
peculiar and little known of the frog-like amphibians
inhabiting the State of Texas. Discovered by Mr. O. W.
Marnock, near Helotes, Bexar County, in 1878, and de-
scribed in the same year by Cope,1 it is still a rare species
in collections. In 1899, the present writer discovered its
presence at Waco, nearly 200 miles north of the type
locality, in a rather different faunal region.
Lithodytes latrans has in all probability an extensive
range, but, on account of its peculiarly secretive and noc-
turnal habits, has been overlooked by the most eminent
herpetologists who have visited Texas. Its distribution
is entirely dependent on the presence of the exposures of
white limestone which enclose many of the streams of the
central and southern sections of the State.
It is a land animal, hiding in caves and fissures during
the daytime, and, excepting during the brief breeding
period, venturing abroad only at night. Breeding in wa-
ter-filled pockets and hollows in the rocks and in the
rocky beds of small streams, it does not appear to be per-
fectly at home in the water at any time and specimens ob-
served by me made no attempt to conceal themselves by
diving but swam clumsily across small pools and sought
to escape by leaping up the bank on the opposite side. A
breeding pair remain in copula close in to the bank. The
masses of water-soaked leaves which line the edges of
the pools and hollows serve them for the purpose of float-
ing their fertilized eggs.
* Presented by title to The Academy of Science of St. Louis, May 2, 1910.
1 American Naturalist, 1878 : 186.
(73)
74 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.
Life Coloeation-.
Examples of Lithodytes from Waco are not as brightly
colored as those from the type locality, nor are the mark-
ings of the upper surfaces as well defined. Miss Dick-
erson2 mentions Helotes specimens in which the superior
surfaces were tinged with salmon-pink. As a rule, San
Antonio and Waco examples of the same species, both in
reptiles and amphibians, have widely different colors.
Specimens of Holbrookia texana Troschel, and Sceloporas
consobrinus B. & G., from the San Antonio district dis-
play shades of red not exhibited by examples from Aus-
tin northward.
The following description was written in the field :
(Baylor University Collection No. 5281, male, Waco,
Texas, March 5, 1910.) Skin very smooth. Superior
surfaces brownish gray with a few large brown spots
having pale greenish centers. (These spots were very
distinct in the living animal, but are now much faded,
their outlines being barely perceptible. The animal was
accidentally suffocated in the collecting can.) Outer and
inner surfaces of limbs, bright yellowish green, this color
extending along the side of the body to a point midway
between the fore- and hind-limbs and forming conspic-
uous patches. Below pale grayish dotted with white on
the chest and throat as in pale Eastern examples of
Engystoma carolinense Holbrook. Throat pale yellow-
ish, a blackish line along the edge of the under lip. Bars
on upper surfaces of the limbs present, but rather indis-
tinct. Spots along side of body and head very conspic-
uous, blackish brown in color. Spot in front of arm
insertion pale in color but distinct. Spaces below dark
spots under eyes and along upper lip, white. Iris bronze.
Vocal pouch well developed.
This specimen is only about half grown and the limbs
are comparatively shorter than in larger examples. Total
length, head and body, 1-13/16 in. The coloration, how-
2 The Frog Book 163. 1906.
Strecker — Notes on the Robber Frog. 75
ever, is the same as that of adult examples. Attains a
length of 3Vo inches. An example collected April 13,
1910, had the ground color of the upper surfaces a beau-
tiful pearl gray.
Habitat Associations.
The Robber Frog has been observed by the writer in
two similar localities in the vicinity of Waco : —
(1) Flat Rock Creek, McLennan County (Hewitt Sec-
tion, altitude 625 to 655 feet), an intermittent stream
flowing through a stretch of prairie land. Banks of soft
shaly white limestone, filled with cavities and fissures.
Large fragments have been broken loose from the bluffs
from time to time and strew the bed of the stream. Sev-
eral trips have been made to this place and in each case
the same species of reptiles and amphibians have been
obtained. The most characteristic reptile is an iguanian
lizard — Holbrookia texana Troschel — which is equally
abundant on the bluffs and among the rocks below them.
Numerous examples of Long's Garter snake, Eutaenia
proximo, Say, and the diamond-marked water snake,
Tropidonotus rhombifer Hallowell, haunt the neighbor-
hood of the deeper water holes, where they find abundant
food — Leopard Frogs, Cricket Frogs, and small fishes.
Two species of Toads, Bufo valliceps Weig. and Bufo
americanus Le Conte (large dark type), scorpions,
Buthus, and large ground spiders are found in fissures in
the banks and in hollows under the larger rocks. Whip
Snakes, Zamenis flagelhim Shaw, of the pale prairie type
resort here in numbers for the purpose of feeding on the
lizards and the large grasshopper, Schistocera americana,
which forms their principal food. The following species
of mollusks are abundant : Polygyra roemeri Pf r., Poly-
gyra texasiana Mor., Bulimulus dealbatus mooreanus
Pfr. The rocky bluffs are low, averaging less than a
dozen feet.
(2) Nameless Gully, three miles north of Waco, head-
ing near Walker's Crossing on the Bosque River. Banks
of soft shaly limestone, interspersed with stretches of
76 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.
yellow clay. At the highest point, the bluffs are only
about 20 feet, but average about 15 feet for a distance of
about a quarter of a mile. The gully is dry during the
greater portion of the year. A few small water pockets
are fed by tiny springs but the moisture evaporates so
rapidly that a running stream is seldom formed. The
majority of the hollows in the bed are filled with rain
water. A few of them are as much as a foot in depth,
but the average is only three or four inches. The bluffs
are constantly shaling off and the bed of the gully is
strewn with small shattered masses of limestone. The
hill on the east side is covered with a heavy growth of
Kock Cedar, Juniperus sabinoides Nees, and the one on
the west side with numerous trees, shrubs, and vines of
many species.
FAUNA.
MAMMALIA.
8 Peromyscus maniculatus pallescens Allen.
REPTILIA.
4 Holbrookia texana Troschel. * Cnemidophorus gularis B. & G.
6 Eumeces quinquelineatus Linn. 3 Eutaenia proxima Say.
* Leiolepisma laterale Say. 3 Storeria dekayi Hollbrook.
AMPHIBIA.
3 Bufo ameircanus LeConte. 3 Rana pipiens Schreber.
3 Bufo valliceps Weig. 3 Lithodytes latrans Cope.
3 Acris gryllus crepitans Baird.
MOLLUSCA.
Helicina orbiculata tropica Jan. Bulimulus dealbatus liquabilisRve.
Praticolella berlandieriana Mor. Bifidaria sp.
Polygyra mooreana W. G. B. Vitrea indentata umbilicata Sing.
Polygyra texasiana Mor. (Banded 6 Omphalina friabilis W. G. B.
form) 6 Agriolimax agrestis Linn.
Polygyra roemeri Pfr. Pyriamidula alternata Say.
3 These species were found only in the gully.
* East Hill, living among rocks and around the bases of the cedars.
5 West Hill only; among leaves and around stumps and fallen trees.
8 Not recorded in the writer's report on the Mollusca of McLennan County
(Nautilus XXII: 63-67. 1908), and since found only at this place. The slug was
identified by Bryant Walker. It is not uncommon and is found under fallen
branches and pieces of dead bark. Very few living examples of Omphalina
were discovered, but hundreds of weather-worn shells are imbedded in clay
and strewn along the rocks on both sides of the gully.
Strecker — Notes on the Robber Frog. 77
Living examples of the above mollusks were found
only on the west slope. Altitude about the same as that
of the other station.
Notes ox Breeding Habits.
This species breeds unusually early in the year. Mar-
nock informed Cope7 that the eggs were hatched in win-
ter. Here in central Texas the breeding season is later
than it is in Bexar County and the eggs are deposited
early in February. If the eggs were deposited before
the 9th of that month in the present year, they were sub-
jected to some of the hardest freezes we have had in
years. On the 9th and 10th the ground was covered with
two inches of snow. A few days later the weather was
warm and clear and melted snow filled the hollows in
many of the gulches that are usually dry at this season.
On March 5th, a number of tadpoles were found in
small pools in the gully three miles north of town. They
were in two stages, the larger ones having the hind limbs
well developed. In form these larvae were short and
round bodied, with slender, but rather short, tails. In a
specimen 36 mm. in total length, the distance from muzzle
to anus was 14 mm. In a smaller example, the tail was
only 4 mm. longer than head and body.
Color above deep brown, appearing blackish in water.
Beneath silvery white. Under a glass the superior sur-
faces present a peculiarly mottled appearance, much as
though several tints of brown paint had been thrown to-
gether without being thoroughly mixed. Sides reticu-
lated with blackish brown lines. To the naked eye, the
lateral line sense organs appear as continuous yellow
stripes on the sides. From above the head presents a
much narrower outline than is found in tadpoles of the
families Hylidae and Ranidae. The upper lip has two
rows of teeth, the lower three.
These little "polly-wogs" are very active and on being
disturbed conceal themselves among leaves in the bottoms
7 Bull. U.S. Nat. Mus. 17. 1880.
78 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.
and on the sides of the pools. The larger ones are un-
usually wary and it is a difficult matter to capture them
even with a dip net. I was unsuccessful in an attempt
to transfer several of them to the aquarium in our lab-
oratory, for although all precautions were taken, they
died a short time after their capture. The tadpoles were
found in three lots and were of three different sizes.
Those of lot 1 (three in number) were in a rather deep
and well shaded water pocket, under an overhanging
rock. Dimensions of pocket, 6x4 feet. Depth at deepest
point, about a foot. When first observed the tadpoles
were in the shallow portion, but on being alarmed swam
to the bottom. All three appeared to be of about the
same size.
In lot 2 were ten specimens, each about two-thirds the
size of those in the first lot. In a water pocket six inches
in depth.
Lot 3, twenty or more specimens, the majority of which
were small (stage 1), were in water in a section of the
gulch where tiny springs issue from the bases of the
bluffs. The water was barely running and the portion
of the stream in which the tadpoles were found was about
25 feet in length and from 6 to 24 inches in width, with
a depth of only a few inches. Eocky bottom, well covered
with dead leaves.
Judging from these exhibits the number of eggs de-
posited by this species must be remarkably small, for
those of the smaller Anurans such as Chorophilus triseri-
atus and Acris gryllus usually number 500 or more. As
no fish were found in the pools and none of the Ophidians
were as yet active, the question of the number being re-
duced by animal foes is entirely eliminated. The eggs or
tadpoles could not have been scattered by being washed
down stream as there were no accumulations of water
higher up in the bed of the gully. By the 19th of March
the larger tadpoles had become fully developed frogs and
left the water with their short tails still in evidence.
They were slightly over a third as large as full grown
Strecker — Notes on the Robber Frog.] 79
adults. The complete metamorphosis must not take over
six weeks, if we are to judge by the length of time re-
quired for other frogs to transform after the first ap-
pearance of the hind limbs. Two specimens collected in
March were only about an inch and a half in length. This
indicates that it requires from 2y2 to 3 years for this
species to become full grown.
General Notes.
Up to the 12th of March, Lithodytes was the only active
amphibian noted. Even Acris was sluggish and the few
examples observed were stirred out from piles of dead
leaves and rock fragments in the bed of the gully. The
only toads discovered were two semi-torpid examples of
Bufo americanus which were found in burrows under a
rotten log.
In 1899 I captured a single half-grown Lithodytes in a
gutter on one of the principal streets of Waco, just after
a heavy shower. On April 13, 1910, an adult was cap-
tured on an elm flat, nearly a mile from any bluffs. Two
specimens of Bufo punctatus B. & G-., a toad which also
inhabits rocky gulches, were found under similar condi-
tions in 1908. I have no theory to account for the pres-
ence of these animals so far from their natural haunts.
Our Eobber Frogs may never breed in the heart of
winter, yet their breeding dates are far in advance of
those of other Aiiura inhabiting the vicinity of Waco.
The following is a list of our tailless amphibians, with
breeding and other data: —
ANURA OF WACO.
SPECIES. BREEDING DATES. BREEDING LOCALITIES. REMARKS.
Hyla versicolor Le Conte
(Var.) April 3, 1899. Permanent ponds. Species
April 3, 1910. Permanent ponds. rare.
April 21, 1910. Small pool in gravel Large tad-
pit, poles.
Hyla cinerea Daudin April 15, 1904. Permanent lagoon 15
miles south of city.
80
Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.
Choropkilus tr'seriatus. ...April 2, 1910.
Wied.
April 12, 1896.
May 20, 1897.
Acris g. crepitans Baird. .April 10 to
May 30.
Engystoma texense
Girard April 15 to
June 1.
Bufo americanus
Le Conte March 19 to
May 30.
Bufo valliceps Wieg April 10 to
May 30.
Bufo debilis Girard April 30, 1900.
May 12, 1906.
May 20, 1897.
Bufo compactilis Wieg. . . May 1 to
May 30.
Bufo punctatus B. & G. .May 12, 1907.
April 15, 1909.
Water-filled ditches Males
on mesquite flats. only.
Grassy marsh two miles
east of city.
Temporary prairie Spring
ponds breeding in rains
company with Bufo later
debilis Gir. and En- thau
gystoma texense Girard. usual.
Ponds and small
streams.
Prairie ponds, pools in
damp gulches, road-
side ditches.
Brazos river, Waco
creek, ponds.
Pools in damp gulches,
small creeks. The
males are usually
heard a night or two
before the females
seek the breeding
places. The former
greatly exceed the
latter in numbers.
Prairie ponds.
Roadside ditches along
mesquite covered flats.
Prairie ponds.
Temporary ponds and
ditches. Breeding
habits resemble those
of Scaphiopus to a
considerable extent.
Metamorphosis of
tadpole unusually
rapid.
One specimen captured
in a temporary pond
but may not have
been breeding.
Near Glen Rose, Som-
ervell Co., Texas, I
found this species
breeding in water-
filled hollows in a
rocky gulch.
Strecker — Notes on the Robber Frog. 81
Scaphiopus couchii
B. & G April 10 to May Permanent ponds, tem-
30. As late porary pools, water-
as July in dry filled hollows in city
years. yards.
Scaphiopus sp.8 April 13, 1910. Temporary pool.
Rana catesbeiana Shaw April 1 to Waco creek, permanent
May 10. marshes and ponds.
Rana pipiens Schreber. ...April 11 to Marshes, ponds, small
May 15. creeks.
Rana sphenocephala
Cope No date for Waco.
April 14-15, Deep holes in Paluxy
1909. creek, Somervell
County, Texas.
It must be taken into consideration that many of our
species breed in temporary pools and that the time of
their going into the water depends entirely on the amount
of rainfall we get in early spring. Earlier dates for some
of the species have been recorded from more northern
localities, but this discrepancy in dates and latitude is
something that I am unable to account for. Some frogs
can stand a comparatively low temperature, but moisture
is most essential to them under all conditions. In the
north in early spring the ponds and water-courses are
filled to overflowing as a result of the winter sleets and
snows, but in Texas we usually get the greatest amount
of rainfall early in the autumn and in the months of
April and May. In the plains country in Western Texas
(Hale and Garza Counties), Bufo cognatus Say and the
Tiger Salamander Ambystoma tigrinum Green rarely go
into the water before July.
The adult Lithodytes latrans presents a rather unusual
appearance for a frog, on account of its proportions and
its peculiar method of elevating the body. Younger
specimens have much shorter limbs and do not look so
odd. At times the species is sluggish and rather easily
captured, but as a rule retreats into caves and fissures
at the slightest alarm. Its voice is a short dog-like bark
8 A new species related to the solitary spadefoot (S. holbrookii Harlan) to
be described later.
82 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.
ending in a metallic ring. It is usually uttered at night
or during heavy showers; rarely in the morning, in its
breeding haunts. The stomach of one example contained
the elytra of a ground beetle and the remains of many
spiders and ants. Much yet remains to be learned re-
garding the habits and eccentricities of this strange crea-
ture, but it is hoped that the present paper will prove of
interest to those engaged in working out the life histories
of this most interesting order of animals.
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Transactions of The Academy of Science of St. Louis.
VOL. XIX. No. 6.
ON THE HISTOLOGY OF THE EYE OF
TYPHLOTRITON SPELAEUS FROM
MARBLE CAVE, MO.
ADOLF ALT.
Issued October 12, 1910.
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ON THE HISTOLOGY OF THE EYE OF TYPHLO-
TRITON SPELAEUS, FROM MARBLE
CAVE, MO.*
Adolf Alt.
When through the kindness of Mr. J. Hurter of this
city an opportunity was offered to me to make the his-
tological examination of the eyes of a number of speci-
mens of Typhlotriton spelaeus of Marble Cave, Mo., I
was at first not in possession of any previous literature
on the subject, nor did it seem possible to get hold of
it, since a personal letter to Dr. Carl H. Eigenmann
remained unanswered. Through the kindness of Pro-
fessor A. C. Eycleshymer of the St. Louis University
T have of late received a number of reprints on this
subject. Aside from one paper written together with
another author, as far as I can find, it is Carl H. Eigen-
mann's own work which alone treats on the structure of
the eyes of this so-called blind salamander.
What appears to have been the first description by
this author is a paper published in the twenty-first volume
of the Transactions of the American Microscopical
Society, 1900, under the title "The eyes of the blind
vertebrates of North America, II. The eyes of Typhlo-
molge Rathbuni, Stejneger." In this paper he says,
after a short description of the eyes of Typhlomolge,
"The eye of Typhlotriton is, in many respects, much
more degenerate than that of its European caverniculous
relative, Proteus." When reading this it seemed some-
what strange to me that the larger part of a paper on
the eyes of Typhlomolge Rathbuni should be taken up by
a description of the eyes of Typhlotriton, but there it was
in print and could not be doubted.
* Read and illustrated with numerous lantern slides before The Academy
of Science of St. Louis, March 21, 1910.
(83)
84 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.
After a somewhat lengthy description of the different
membranes of the eye of Typhlotriton, in which I find
also the statement that no bloodvessels enter the eye, he
summarizes as follows :
"1. The eye lies just beneath the skin. The skin is but
little thinner over the eye than elsewhere and shows no
structural characters different from those of the neigh-
boring regions.
2. The eye muscles have vanished.
3. The lens has vanished and its place has in part
become filled by an ingrowth of choroidal tissue contain-
ing pigment.
4. The vitreal body is very small, if present at all.
The vitreal cavity is a funnel-shaped space.
5. The pigment layer of the retina is a pavement epi-
thelium with indistinct cell boundaries, and with occa-
sional pigmented processes extending into or through
the nuclear layers.
6. Rods and cones are not formed.
7. The outer reticular layer has disappeared.
8. The inner and outer nuclear layers form one layer,
cells indistinguishable from each other.
9. The inner reticular layer, as usually with degen-
erate eyes, is relatively well developed.
10. The ganglionic layer is well represented and con-
nected with the brain by the well developed optic nerve,
etc."
"When reading this, after having myself examined a
number of specimens of Typhlotriton eyes, I could not
understand how such a description was possible. Surely,
in my specimens of Typhlotriton, the crystalline lens, for
instance, which Eigenmann said had vanished, was one
of the most prominent features, and there were numerous
other discrepancies.
A little later I came into possession of a second paper
written by Carl H. Eigenmann together with W. A.
Denny, entitled: "The eyes of the blind vertebrates of
North America. III. The structure and ontogenetic
Alt — Histology of the Eye of Typhlotriton Spelaeus. 85
degeneration of the eyes of the Missouri Cave Salaman-
der, etc." Biological Bulletin, 2:1. 1900.
In this paper the eyes of Typhlotriton spelaeus from
Eock House Cave and from Marble Cave, Mo., are de-
scribed very exhaustively. Again it appeared strange
that in this paper I could nowhere find any reference
whatever to the former paper, although the two descrip-
tions differ so widely, as will be seen from the follow-
ing summary with which this second paper ends :
"Typhlotriton is an incipient blind salamander liv-
ing in the caves of southwestern Missouri. It detects its
food by the sense of touch without the use of its eyes.
It is stereotropic. The eyes show the early stages in
the steps of degeneration from those of salamanders liv-
ing in the open to those of the Typhlomolge from the
caves of Texas. The lids are in process of obliteration,
the upper overlapping the lower so that the eye is always
covered in the adult. The sclera possesses a cartilagin-
ous band in the larval stage but not in the adult. The
disappearance of the cartilage is probably an incident
of metamorphosis, not of the degeneration the eye is
undergoing. The lens is normal. The retina is normal
in the larva with a proportionately thicker ganglionic
layer than in the related epigaean forms. Marked onto-
genetic degenerations take place during and shortly after
the metamorphosis, a. The outer reticular layer dis-
appears, b. The rods and cones lose their complexity
of structure, such as differentiation into inner and outer
segments and finally are lost altogether."
In this paper the author also states "that the six eye
muscles are present."
After I had read the present paper before the Acad-
emy of Science, I was made acquainted through the kind-
ness of Miss M. Klem with a large and beautifully illus-
trated volume, entitled ' ' The Cave Vertebrates of Amer-
ica. A study in degenerative Evolution," by Carl H.
Eigenmann. Published by the Carnegie Institution of
Washington, D. C, June, 1909.
86 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.
In this volume my former suspicion that in the above
mentioned paper on the eyes of Typhlomolge Rathbuni
Stejneger the word Typhlotriton, wherever it appears,
should in reality read Typhlomolge, seems to be proven
correct. At least in the part of this paper referred to,
as it is reprinted in the large volume, this change from
Typhlotriton to Typhlomolge is made. This chapter is
followed by one which is an exact reproduction of the
above mentioned paper on the eye of the Missouri cave
salamander by Eigenmann and Denny. This in turn is
followed by "Conclusions as to the eye of Typhlotriton
spelaeus," which are the exact reproduction of the con-
clusions given as a summary after the description of,
what I now think, should have been the eyes of Typh-
lomolge Rathbuni, although it was always called Typh-
lotriton. (See page 83.) After these conclusions, in
reality referring to the eye of Typhlomolge, comes finally
a "Summary in regard to Typhlotriton," which is the
exact reproduction of the summary following the orig-
inal paper of Eigenmann and Denny. (See page 84.)
What is a student to make of such contradictions, when,
he reads, for instance, on page 40, "The lens has van-
ished, etc.," and on page 41, "The lens is normal," and
so on, apparently referring to one and the same species!
In an address delivered as president of the Indiana
Academy of Science (Proceedings 1899) by C. H. Eigen-
mann, entitled "Degeneration in the eyes of the cold-
blooded vertebrates of the North American caves," this
author again says about the eyes of Typhlotriton "the
dioptric arrangements are all normal ; the retina is nor-
mal in the young, but the rods and cones disappear with
the change from the larval to the adult condition.'1
Of the six specimens of Typhlotriton spelaeus from
Marble Cave, Mo., which I had for examination, the
smallest— a larva— was 90 mm. long, and the largest
measured 115 mm. Of the two smallest ones one still
had gills and no eyelids, the other no longer showed a
sign of gills, but, also, had no eyelids. (See Figs. 1 and
Alt — Histology of the Eye of Typhlotriton Spelaeus. 87
2.) The next two in size had eyelids and a small pal-
pebral fissure, the upper eyelid, however, overlapped the
lower one. (See Figs. 3, 6 and 11.) In the two largest
specimens I could not find the smallest palpebral open-
ing. It seems that no light whatever could enter their
eyes except after having passed through the semi-trans-
parent lids covering them. (See Figs. 5, 8 and 12.)
Unfortunately the preservation of the material for
examination was not such as we are accustomed to with
the material taken from man. One specimen was still
alive when I got it. Yet, even in this animal 's eyes, into
which the preserving and hardening fluids evidently did
not enter in a sufficient quantity, certain post mortem
changes took place. Another difficulty lay in the fact
that the celloidin in which I embedded the decalcified
heads for cutting did not penetrate into the interior of the
eyes in such a way as to fill the cavities and give the
whole a uniform firmness. In consequence the eyes were
more or less shrunken and the tissues did not always lie
in their natural positions and relations to each other.
Some parts, like the uveal tract, were always more or
less disintegrated. In quite a number of sections the
crystalline lens fell out during the handling and stain-
ing. I cut some of the heads vertically to the surface
and some parallel to the surface, hoping to get in this
way a more complete picture of the real conditions.
In the two specimens which had as yet no eyelids
(Figs. 1 and 2) the outer skin seems simply to pass over
the eyes. But it shows decided structural changes in
this ocular part, so as to be easily recognized as the
cornea. While the epithelium of the skin in the neigh-
borhood of the eye consists chiefly of cylindrical and
goblet-shaped cells, it is suddenly changed into a strati-
fied epithelium where it covers the eye. While in the
four eyes without lids I can find no section in which
the whole of this corneal epithelium is intact, on account
of the lack of protection, yet larger portions, and espe-
cially the peripheral parts, were in a larger number of
88 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.
the sections well enough preserved to show that there
are usually three layers of epithelial cells. The cells of
the basal layer are more or less cuboid, the next layer
consists of flatter cells, and in the outer layer they are
still more flattened. In the eyes of the adult specimens
where the corneal surface was well protected the corneal
epithelium is preserved intact and shows the same
arrangement.
The corneal tissue proper shows a lamellated structure
with fixed corneal cells. I have not been able to find
any anterior uniform layer corresponding to Bowman's
layer, nor a posterior membrane corresponding to that
of Descemet in the human eye. On account of the
extreme shallowness of the anterior chamber in most
of my sections, in consequence of which the anterior sur-
face of the iris and the anterior pole of the crystalline
lens seem fairly agglutinated to the posterior surface of
the cornea, it was only with difficulty that I could con-
vince myself that the posterior surface of the cornea is
lined with a layer of endothelial cells'. These cells
appear large and flat and have a large oval nucleus. They
resemble so much the capsular epithelial cells of the
adjacent crystalline lens that this, also, helps to render
it more difficult to differentiate them.
The sclerotic is quite thin and shows nothing particular
aside from a small amount of cartilage tissue which I
find not only in the larvae, but also in some of my adult
specimens.
As stated above, the very darkly pigmented uveal tract
is in all of my sections more or less mutilated and dis-
integrated, and quite frequently the choroid is split in
two unequal parts, the inner one adhering to the retina.
It was, therefore, impossible to study the structural con-
ditions with anything like accuracy and completeness.
In none of my sections have I found a trace of a blood-
vessel in this membrane, which in the human eye is the
vascular coat. The ciliary body appears simply like a
few folds and corrugations of darkly pigmented tissue in
Alt — Histology of the Eye of Typhlotriton Spelaeus. 89
which I can find no trace of any muscular fibers. It is,
also, impossible to demonstrate any muscular tissue in
the iris.
The cells of the pigment epithelium are comparatively
well preserved in a good many of my sections, although
their continuity is frequently interrupted. They are
large flat cuboid cells, the protoplasma of which is filled
with fuscin needles. Their nucleus is quite large. In
most sections they adhere to the outer surface of the
retina, which must be distinctly stated as it is of impor-
tance for the understanding of the outer structures of
the retina.
According to Eigenmann there is a very marked differ-
ence between the retina in the larval state and that in the
adult.
My specimens show no such marked difference, in fact
they appear very much the same in both states. It may,
of course, be possible that at an earlier age than that
which my larval specimens had attained, the retina of
the larva is really as nearly perfectly developed as Eigen-
mann states.
In all the sections next to the crystalline lens the retina
is really the most conspicuous part of the eye. Even
where it is well preserved and lies approximately in its
normal position its great thickness is obvious. When
viewed from within outward under a higher power the
first striking fact is an absence of a plainly visible nerve
fibre layer. Eigenmann does not mention this layer at
all. I have not been able to see any nerve fibres no mat-
ter what stain I used. Possibly they had become dis-
integrated. Surely their absence would seem particu-
larly strange with such a well developed layer of gang-
lionic cells. The ganglionic cell layer, according to
Eigenmann, is composed of five or six rows of cells in
the larva, and of two to five rows of cells in the adult.
The thickness of this, as of all the layers of the retina
depends, of course, on the part of the retina from which
the section is taken and on the plane in which the sec-
90 Trans. Acad. Set. of St. Louis.
tion lies. I have sections of the larval eye in which the
ganglionic layer seems to be composed of three more
or less well defined rows of cells, and, on the other hand,
sections of the adult eve in which six or seven rows of
cells may be counted.
Outside of the ganglionic layer the inner plexiform
(reticular) layer forms in all the sections, whether they
are from the eyes of the larvae or of the adult, a com-
paratively broad band. No details can be made out in
my sections in this layer; it appears as a uniformly
stained homogeneous tissue. Outside of this layer lies
apparently a single very broad nuclear layer, where in
the human retina we have the two nuclear layers, sep-
arated by the external plexiform layer. This thick
nuclear layer shows, sometimes very indistinctly, some-
times more plainly, a separation between the large inner
mass of nuclei and the two outermost layers, that is, what
in the human eye would correspond to the layer of rods
and cones and their nuclei. From the foregoing it is
seen that while in my specimens there is neither in the
eyes of the larva nor in those of the adult a distinct outer
plexiform layer, still there is a sign of some separation
between the large inner and these two outermost nuclear
layers. The outermost layer, corresponding to the rods
and cones, consists of cells which are arranged pallisade-
like and markedly differ in their shape and nature from
the others. While in the larval eyes they often appear
broader at the base and thinner at their outer end (see
Fig. 14), in the adult eyes their shape is more rounded
at the outer end. It is impossible to distinguish between
rods and cones, the cells appearing all of the same ovoid
shape. (See Figs. 15, 16, 17.)
According to Eigenmann the so-called outer segments
of the rods and cones are lost in the adult eye. While
in most of my specimens the space between the rods and
cones and the pigment epithelium is filled with a mass
of detritus which contains numerous streaks and heaps
of fuscin needles and which takes up a slight stain with
Alt — Histology of the Eye of Typhlotriton Spelaeus. 91
eosin, there are sufficient places in which distinct pro-
cesses can be traced from the rods and cones toward the
pigment epithelium which take up eosin and are doubt-
lessly such outer segments. (See Figs. 14, 15, 16, 17.)
It seems, therefore, to me that, while no differentiation
can be made between rods and cones, the outermost layer
of the larval as well as the adult retina of Typhlotriton
represents what in the human eye are the rods and cones
with their outer segments.
In order to find out whether epigaean relatives of
Typhlotriton have a very different arrangement of the
retina, I, also, studied the eyes of a specimen of Desmog-
nathus fuscus from Mobile, Alabama, kindly furnished
me by Mr. J. Hurter. The arrangement of the different
retinal layers in this salamander corresponds almost
exactly with that of Typhlotriton, especially the cells rep-
resenting the rods and cones are very much the same.
Except that where in Typhlotriton I found only an indis-
tinct separation of the outer two layers from the nuclear
layer, in Desmognathus I could with Mallory's stain here
and there demonstrate a blue line in this locality. It
seems, therefore, that the peculiar appearance of the
cells in the layer of rods and cones does not alone belong-
to Typhlotriton. The retinae of another salamander,
Diemyctilus viridescens, from Cliff Cave, Missouri, have
very different rods and cones, which are easily recognized
as such.
A distinct nerve fibre layer, however, I have been just
as unable to find in the retina of Desmognathus and
Diemyctilus as in that of Typhlotriton. Either these
fibres have become disintegrated during the hardening
process, or, instead of forming a separate layer as in
man, they may, perhaps, run between the ganglionic cells
in such a manner as to be more or less hidden and not
easilv distinguished.
Like Eigenmann I have not found any network of blood-
vessels in the retina proper, yet in a number of sections
there is one large bloodvessel lying in the retina — but I
92 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.
have found it in cross sections only — near where the
optic disc should be. It seems to be venous in character.
As I have never been able to see a nerve fibre layer in
the retina, I have, also, been unable to see exactly how
the nerve fibres pass out of the eye. In some sections
a line passes through the posterior pole of the retina to
the nerve. (See Figs. 9 and 10.) The latter simply
forms a process which is very darkly pigmented and
which beginning at the outer surface of the retina passes
through choroid and sclerotic and into the tissue cen-
trally from the eyeball in a direction toward the cranial
cavity and brain. I have no transverse sections which
allow of a better understanding very close to the eye,
but I have numerous transverse sections of the nerve
farther away centrally. Here the nerve in most speci-
mens is seen to be accompanied or surrounded by darkly
pigmented cells — in one no such pigment cells are found.
The optic nerve itself is small and consists of very few
fibres only. (See Fig. 18.) From their nuclei I can
only count about from 6 to 12. It appears from a num-
ber of sections that each optic nerve separately enters
the cerebral hemisphere on its side, at least in a number
of sections this seems to be the only explanation. In
these I find a strand of fibres with spindle shaped nuclei
going from the back of the eye towards the brain and
entering it through an opening in the cranial bones. The
only link wanting is the direct connection of this strand
of fibres with the retina, probably due to a curve which
the nerve makes just behind the eyeball.
Eigenmann says : "In both adult and young the optic
nerve enters as a single strand and passes entirely
through the layers. A heavy mass of pigment is found
following the optic nerve to within a short distance of
the brain."
The crystalline lens is very large and in most sections,
as far as I can see, it is perfectly spherical, although
Puetter (Graefe-Saemisch. 2^192. [2nd ed.]) says:
"The lens of amphibia is not really spherical, as this
Alt — Histology 0} the Eye of Typhlotriton Spelaeus. 93
is usually stated. The anterior surface is less curved
than the posterior one." It fills in ray sections almost
the whole space between the cornea and posterior sur-
face of the iris, and the retina, except at its posterior
pole where the retina has a funnel-like depression (cor-
responding to the optic papilla in man) in front of the
optic nerve. It consists of broad epithelial fibres with
large oval nuclei. While in man the capsular epithelium
reaches only a little ways back of the aequator of the
lens, in Typhlotriton it lines the whole of the lens cap-
sule. (See Fig. 8.)
Whether there is any tissue, like the vitreous body
of man, in the eye of Typhlotriton I have not been able
to decide. There is in many of my sections a small
amount of amorphous tissue, stained slightly by eosin,
situated in the funnel back of the lens; but it is impos-
sible to state whether this is derived from vitreous body
or from disintegrated nerve fibres coming from the retina.
(See Figs. 1, 2, 9 and 10.)
What I have stated thus far refers to the eyes of both
larvae and adults. As already mentioned, I can find no
material difference between the two states. If there is
one it must be in larvae considerably smaller than the
two which I had for examination.
The only real difference I can find is that the adults
have eyelids and a conjunctival sac. (See Figs. 3 to 8.)
Two of my adult specimens have a small palpebral fissure
which is centrally located. Towards what might be
termed the outer and inner canthus the eyelids are united.
In these specimens the upper lid overlaps the lower one
in the palpebral fissure to quite an extent. (See Figs. 3,
6, 11.) Both lids contain the same small amount of sub-
cutaneous pigment. To both sides of the palpebral fis-
sure the union of the two eyelids is for a certain distance
an epithelial union only (see Fig. 13), but still further
outward this gives place to firm tissue union. The pal-
pebral opening can be of little use as far as the admission
of pictures from the outer world goes, especially since
94 Trims. Acini Sci. of St. Louis.
there does not even seem to be any muscular tissue in
the upper lid which might serve as a levator. Yet, the
eyelids are evidently transparent enough to transmit a
considerable amount of light. Mr. Hurter tells me that
he found at least one specimen of TypMotriton crawling
on a rock outside of and quite a distance removed from
the entrance of Marble Cave. This seems to show that
the animal is not blind in the full sense of the word, or
at least that some individuals do not always live in the
darkness of the cave.
Eigenmann says: "The six normal eye muscles were
present in TypMotriton. The musculi recti form a sheath
about the optic nerve in its distal part and spread out
from it near the eye." It is hard to understand what
is meant by this description. There is, as far as I can
see, much muscular tissue in the neighborhood of the
eye, but it has not been my good fortune to see one, much
less the six normal muscles insert themselves into the
sclerotic. In fact the only muscular tissue which seems
to merge into the sclerotic reaches backward from the
posterior pole of the eye enveloping the optic nerve. It
seems to form a rather thick and broad band which is
attached to the sphenoid bone. It would seem that this
muscle might act as a retractor oculi. (See Figs. 9
and 10.)
EXPLANATION OP THE PLATES.
Plate XXVI. — Fig. 1. Vertical section through the eye of the larva
of TypMotriton which still had gills. No evidence of lid formation.
Cornea covered with epithelium which is flattened and differs mate-
rially from that on the surrounding skin. The retina does not lie in
the normal position since the eye is shrunken, but shows the different
layers well. A separation between the two outermost layers of cells
and the remainder of the retina is quite noticeable. Fig. 2. Vertical
section through the eye of a TypMotriton, probably just about reaching
the adult state. This specimen showed no gills, yet, no eyelids have
as yet been formed. Perhaps, the protruding fold seen on the left
side of the cornea is the beginning of the lower eyelid. In this figure,
too, although not as well as in figure 1, a separation of the two outer-
most layers of the cells of the retina from the broad nuclear layer
is visible.
Alt — Histology oj the Eye of Typhlotriton Spelaeus. 95
Plate XXVII. — Fig. 3. Vertical section through the head of an adult
Typhlotriton. The plane of this section is evidently somewhat oblique.
In consequence the left eye shows the eyelids where the small palpebral
fissure is open, while on the right side this is closed by firm tissue
union of the two lids. On the left the upper eyelid overlaps the lower
one in such a manner as to make the palpebral fissure apparently use-
less for vision. There is quite a large conjunctival sac. Below are
remnants of the food of the salamander. Fig. 4. Vertical section of
the head of an adult Typhlotriton.
Plate XXVIII. — Fig. 5. Vertical section somewhat further back
than figure 4. In this specimen no overlapping of the upper lids over
the lower one has taken place and there is no palpebral fissure, the
lids being united at their margins. The conjunctival sac is plainly
visible between the lids and eyeball. Incidentally these sections show
the lower jaw and glandular tongue of this salamander. Fig. 6.
Vertical section through the eye of an adult Typhlotriton showing
under a higher power the manner in which the upper eyelid overlaps
the lower one. The cornea and its epithelial covering are well pre-
served. The whole eye is evidently pretty firmly united with the sur-
rounding tissue and therefore probably immovable. No external eye
muscles are visible.
Plate XXIX.— Figs. 7 and 8. Enlarged from figures 4 and 5, show-
ing the union of the eyelids at their margin and the absence of even a
microscopical palpebral fissure. Figure 8 shows the capsular epithelium
of the lens on its posterior surface. No eye muscles are visible.
Plate XXX. — Fig. 9. A nearly horizontal section through the eye
of an adult Typhlotriton. The crystalline lens lies against iris and
cornea; the contents of a possible anterior chamber have disappeared.
The thick retina forms a broad band behind the lens from which it is
separated only posteriorly by a funnel shaped depression in it cor-
responding to the human optic papilla. The inner reticular layer is
seen as a white line. There is, also, an indistinct whitish line seen
to pass through the thickness of the retina at the posterior pole and
apparently to connect with the optic nerve. The latter leaves the eye
in a curve and appears darkly pigmented. An indistinct broken line
may be seen to separate the two outermost layers of cells from the
remainder of the retina. To the right of the optic nerve some mus-
cular tissue is seen to insert itself into the sclerotic. Fig. 10. Another
horizontal section through the same eye as figure 9. The darkly pig-
mented optic nerve can be traced somewhat farther back nasally. The
muscular tissue inserting itself into the posterior part of the sclerotic
is seen in this section to the right and left of the optic nerve. The
small funnel shaped space between the posterior pole of the lens and
the retina in both of these figures is filled with an amorphous material.
Plate XXXI.— Fig. 11. Enlarged from figure 3. Shows the two lids
in the middle of the palpebral fissure and the manner in which the
upper one overlaps the lower. To the right is the corneal epithelium
cut obliquely. Fig. 12. Enlarged from figures 5 and 8. Although in
this eye the lids appear throughout united with each other at their
96 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.
margins, so that there is no palpebral fissure in this one section from
the center under a high power it seems as if the union was not yet
quite accomplished. The conjunctival sac is still quite large. To
the right the corneal epithelium is seen in oblique section.
Plate XXXII. — Fig. 13: Vertical section through the lids of an
adult Typhlotriton a little beyond the open palpebral fissure. It shows
that the union between the eyelids in this part is as yet only an
epithelial one. To the right the corneal epithelium. Fig. 14. Section
through the retina of a larva of Typhlotriton. To the left and upward
sclerotic, in the lower angle part of the cartilage tissue found in the
sclerotic. To the right in the retinal tissue the transverse section
of a large, probably venous bloodvessel. No layer of nerve fibres
can be made out on the inner (upward) surface of the retina. The
ganglionic layer appears to consist of six or eight rows of cells. The
white space separating the ganglionic layer (downward) from the
broad nuclear layer is the inner plexiform layer. In this section the
separation between the nuclear layer and its two outermost layers
of cells is not so marked as in others, but the outer cells correspond-
ing to rods and cones can be well seen. They appear as conical or oval
bodies. The space between these layers and the pigment epithelium
is filled with detritus containing many fuscin needles.
Plate XXXIII. Figs. 15 and 16. Sections through the retina of
adult eyes. They show that there is very little difference between the
retina of my specimens from the larval or the adult state. Really
the only difference I can find is that the outermost layer (rods and
cones) seems to consist in the main of oval cells. From these cells
small processes may be seen in many places to reach into the space
between retina and pigment epithelium, which I take to be the outer
segments of the typhlotriton's rods and cones, although most of them
are evidently disintegrated and form the detritus which fills this space.
Plate XXXIV. Fig. 17. Section through the retina of an adult
eye. Fig. 18. Shows a transverse section of an optic nerve not very far
from the eyeball. The large black mass is the choroid cut at a tangent.
The nerve which lies below it is accompanied by a large number of
darkly pigmented cells and surrounded by muscular tissue. Below is
the palate with its cylindrical epithelium.
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Transactions of The Academy of Science of St. Louis.
VOL,. XIX. No. 7.
FLORA OF THE GRAND FALLS CHERT BARRENS
ERNEST J. PALMER.
Issued December 15, 1910.
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Continued on page 3 of Cover.
FLORA OF THE GRAND FALLS CHERT
BARRENS.
Ernest J. Palmer.
Several years ago while botanizing near Joplin, Mis-
souri, I came upon an interesting locality in the valley
of Turkey Creek where several plants were growing that
I had not noted or collected previously in the vicinity, and
subsequent visits to the same spot have been rewarded
bjr the discovery of a number of other uncommon species.
At this point, on the north side of the creek, just west
of the Grirard branch of the Frisco Railway, along the
Joplin-Belleville wagon road, the erosion of the stream
has laid bare a massive bed of chert or flint, the rugged
but generally horizontal surface of which forms the floor
of the valley over an area of several acres. The thin
layer of rich soil gathered in the local depressions of the
rock, subjected to sharply contrasted conditions in regard
to moisture at different seasons of the year, serves to
support a flora in many respects peculiar and interesting.
Some time later, having extended my explorations to
Shoal Creek in the northern part of Newton County, I
was surprised to find much more extensive outcrops of
the same chert formation, upon which a number of the
peculiar plants collected at the Turkey Creek locality,
several miles north in Jasper County, were growing un-
der practically identical conditions. This was in the
vicinity of Reding 's Mill, about four miles south of Jop-
lin. On both sides of the stream, near the bridge that
spans it at that point, the chert is well exposed and good
examples of the barrens may be seen. During the past
few years I have made several trips to this region, ex-
ploring the barrens on both sides of the creek as far
* Presented by title to The Academy of Science of St. Louis, November
21, 1910.
(97)
98 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.
down as the Grand Falls, some two or three miles below.
On two or three of these excursions Mr. B. F. Bush has
accompanied me; and I am indebted to him for the de-
termination of a number of the species.
The picturesque scenery along this part of the creek
attracts many picnic parties and campers from Joplin
and other nearby towns. The locality has been known
to geologists since Swallow first described it in the old
Missouri Reports of 1855. In connection with the work
of the Geological Survey Professor Broadhead also made
a small collection of plants in the vicinity of Grand
Falls. The botany of the barrens formed by the chert
exposures, scarcely less interesting than the geology of
the region that has been studied by both the United
States and State Surveys, presents several features
worthy of investigation and description. To the en-
thusiastic collector the locality is one of special interest
on account of the presence of a number of plants that
are rare or unknown elsewhere in this part of the coun-
try. The peculiar ecological conditions under which
the plants grow, and which undoubtedly make it possible
for them to maintain themselves against the encroach-
ments of the common dominant species that surround
them, while at the same time limiting their range strictly
to the area occupied by this particular geological for-
mation, also offer an interesting field for study.
In the present paper only a brief sketch can be given
of the singular physiographic features of the region and
the resulting peculiarities of the local flora. The local-
ity is one that would well repay a closer study with a
more complete list of plants than that appended, which
is based on the results of several hasty collecting trips
at various times in the year, although scarcely covering
the entire season. However it is intended to include
all of the higher plants noted that seem peculiar to the
region as well as a number common to the dry woods
and prairies surrounding the barrens.
The geological formation that gives rise to the Shoal
Palmer — Flora of the Grand Falls Chert Barrens. 99
Creek barrens is a massive silicious bed near the base
of the Keokuk stage of the Mississippian series or Lower
Carboniferous rocks. Throughout Southwest Missouri
and adjacent territory occupied by strata of this age
chert is everywhere abundant, usually in the form of
nodules, lenses or layers interbedded with limestone. The
Grand Falls Chert layer, as this formation is called from
the falls on Shoal Creek where it is typically exposed,
is remarkable if not unique for its great extent and thick-
ness. The surface exposures, with the exception of the
small area referred to above on Turkey Creek, north of
Joplin, are confined to the valley of Shoal Creek and
several of its small tributaries in the northern part of
Newton County, Missouri. The area has been carefully
studied and mapped by the United States Geological Sur-
vey, and the formation is described in the Geological
Atlas of the Joplin District, published in 1907. The ex-
posed area perhaps aggregates about two square miles,
beyond which the chert disappears under higher strata
and is of wide extent as revealed by hundreds of shafts
and drill holes that have penetrated it in search of lead
and zinc ores, of which it often carries valuable lodes.
To the northward in Jasper County it is known to the
miners as the "sheet ground," and is the basis of a very
extensive mining industry. In the vicinity of Webb City
the chert is found at an average depth of about one hun-
dred and fifty feet below the surface, and its thickness
ranges from thirty to forty feet. Elsewhere it is said
to attain a maximum thickness of over eighty feet.
Shoal Creek, along which the principal exposures of
Grand Palls Chert occur, is a swift flowing stream of con-
siderable volume, that might well be denominated a small
river. It has its rise in the highlands of Barry County,
flowing in a winding but generally northwesterly direction
until it joins Spring River several miles beyond the Kan-
sas line. For the greater part of its course it traverses
a rugged hilly country, through which it has carved a val-
ley of varying width and depth, the adjacent hills some-
100
Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.
times rising to a height of two or three hundred feet
above the flood plains.
Where the course of the stream has led through the
usual limestone formations of the region portions of the
valley are from half a mile to a mile in width. However
when the level of the Grand Falls Chert was reached the
process of erosion was sharply checked, and a series of
shallows and rapids were formed, as the water, etching-
its way slowly through the hard strata, leaped from ledge
to ledge. This change in the topography of the valley
is well shown on the map, where the contour lines are
crowded close to the stream in the vicinity of Reding 's
Mill. Three miles below the rapids culminate in the
Grand Falls, where the stream makes a drop of twenty-
four feet. For most of the intervening distance the
creek has cut through the upper layers of the chert, which
is exposed on one or both sides in perpendicular or over-
hanging cliffs, twenty to forty feet in height. Extending
for some distance back from the tops of these cliffs the
rock has been washed bare or is covered only with a
sparse mantle of soil, thus forming the barrens.
So hard and dense is the rock that the ordinary forces
of surface erosion : rain, wind and frost, have little effect
upon it. Looking at the gnarled and rugged faces of the
cliffs or at the smoothly polished promontories of the sur-
face, one might well believe that the storms of ages would
beat upon them to little purpose. Indeed few works .of
nature impress the mind more forcibly with a sense of
their strength and indestructibility than these massive
beds of the Grand Falls Chert.
The stream, however, aided by the sharp gravel and
boulders derived from the beds themselves, is slowly but
incessantly cutting its way through them, and in places
undermining the cliffs. The process of disintegration is
facilitated by the fact that the rock is deeply fractured at
intervals by fissures, either vertical or at various angles,
that eventually allow undermined portions of the cliffs to
shear off into the stream. Here and there great castle-
Palmer — Flora of the Grand Falls Chert Barrens. 101
like masses thus detached lie isolated at the foot of the
cliff or well out in the stream itself, bearing mute testi-
mony to the slow ravages of time. The general and ex-
tensive fracturing of the beds, due to the brittle nature
of the rock, has doubtless been caused by stress and dis-
placement, resulting either from a general upward move-
ment of the region or a local settling in consequence of
solution of the underlying limestone. Both causes have
been operative at times more or less remote, and the lat-
ter at least is still going on to some extent.
Where a fissure has determined the line of cleavage the
face of the cliff is often smooth and bare, not even a lichen
finding foothold on its barren surface. However, owing
to the peculiar gnarled and brecciated nature of the rock,
the cliff faces are usually very irregular, affording many
hollows, crevices and shelves, where soil borne by the
wind or transported by rainwater from the hills above
or by the alluvium laden waters of the stream in times
of flood, finds ready lodgment. Here soon a few hardy
mosses, grasses and other herbaceous plants establish
themselves, adding vegetable mold to the deposit from
year to year, and thus affording sustenance to other immi-
grants, until in time the face of the cliff is adorned with
a diversified flora wherever a little shade and moisture
exist.
In such situations are found several ferns, some of
them not known elsewhere in the region. These are Dry-
opteris marginalis, Asplenium Trichomcmes and Cheil-
anthes lanosa, although the last also extends up into the
barrens and flourishes wherever a ledge or irregularity
of surface affords a little protection. Asplenium pav-
vulum, Woodsia obtusa and several other ferns also
abound, and Melica nitens and Arabis laevigata are quite
characteristic, with many other plants common to the
barrens and surrounding woods.
Where the horizontal surface of the chert is smooth
and level a condition of absolute barrenness prevails. This
is however the case only over very small spots, as in gen-
102 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.
eral the surface is very rough and irregular, splintered
and jagged, or rising into innumerable small hummocks
and bosses and sinking into basin-like depressions, seldom
exceeding a few inches or at most a foot or two in verti-
cal measurement, but sufficient to cause the accumulation
of a thin layer of soil and to retain an abundance of water
during the rainy season. In addition to this, at several
places, terraces or ledges a few feet in height afford still
further protection to soil and plants.
The close fine textured chert being quite impermeable
to water, except where flawed or fractured, pools gather
in the basin-like depressions, where the water is retained
until, as the season advances and rains become less fre-
quent, it is gradually evaporated by the sun ; after which
the region becomes temporarily a parched desert again.
To this unequal distribution of moisture in different parts
and at different seasons of the year may doubtless in
large measure be attributed the peculiarities of the flora.
In spring and early summer, with a superabundance of
water in the local depressions, a number of brackish
water and moisture-loving plants spring up. Amongst
these are Eleocharis ovata, Fimbrystylis laxa, Stenophyl-
lus capillaris, Cyperus aristatus, C. acuminatus, Juncus
marginatus, Allium mutabile and Cynosciadium pin-
natum.
Just beyond the margins of these temporary pools, in
thin rich soil, at first saturated but soon dry, or where
the rock is nearly exposed, such succulent species as
Sedum Nuttallianum, 8. pulchellum, Portulaca pilosa,
Talinum calycinum and T. parviflorum flourish. In some-
what drier situations, but where the accumulation of soil
is greater and moisture is consequently conserved to some
extent for a considerable portion of the season, the num-
ber of species is much larger. Typical amongst them are
Saxifraga texana, Selenia aurea, Rumen hastatulus, Cro-
tonopsis linearis, Lathyrus pusillus, Chaerophyllum tex-
anum, Ptilimnium Nuttallii, Spermolepis echinata, Hyper-
icum pseudomaculatum, Linaria canadensis, Phacelia
Palmer — Flora of the Grand Falls Chert Barrens. 103
dubia, Coreopsis lanceolata, C. tinctoria and Polygonum
tenue. Growing with these are also many plants of wider
distribution, evidently invaders from the dry woods and
prairies beyond. In number of species these far exceed
the "aborigines," although of the latter such plants as
Selenia aurea, Crotonopsis linearis and Coreopsis tinc-
toria sometimes prevail over limited areas almost to the
exclusion of all others.
0\er the most exposed portions of the surface, where
the rock is almost destitute of soil and very little sus-
tenance is afforded such hardy pioneers of vegetable colo-
nization as Selaginella rupestris, reindeer moss and a
number of other lichens and mosses manage to maintain
themselves. Here, no doubt, the cryptogamist would find
an interesting field for study.
As might be expected nearly all of the characteristic
plants of the more typical portions of the barrens are
annuals, with a few fleshy-rooted perennials, such as
Opuntia macrorhiza and the Talinums, especially adapted
to sustaining long periods of drouth. The life period of
many of the plants is shorter and the individuals are
much smaller than of the same species under normal con-
ditions. The perpetuation of some of them apparently is
dependent upon their ability to mature their seeds or
spores while the supply of moisture holds out. With the
hot sun beating down on the unshaded rock, the germina-
tion of the seed deposited in the thin rich soil, and the
subsequent development of the plants is hastened with
almost tropical rapidity.
In a normally dry season the number of plants that can
be collected after mid-summer is very small. Of the an-
nuals a few grasses, such as Aristida basiramea and Era-
grostis capillaris, and such narrow leafed plants as Polyg-
onum tenue, Crotonopsis linearis and Isanthus brachi-
atus survive until late in the season. After the autumn
rains set in some of these seem to take on a new lease of
life, with Selaginella rupestris and the fleshy rooted
perennials.
104 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.
Narrow and linear leafed plants are strikingly predom-
inant in these barrens, broad and large leafed species be-
ing indeed entirely absent from the typical portions. This
is of course plainly a case of adaptation to environment,
such species being better able to resist the scorching sun
and drouth to which they are subjected. Another notice-
able peculiarity, perhaps not so easily explained, is the
predominance of yellow-flowered plants. Possibly this
is more apparent than real, however, from the fact that
most of the common species with conspicuous flowers have
petals of this color. Early in the spring the bright yel-
low blossoms of Selenia aurea give a truly golden tint
to the surface. A little later it assumes a somewhat paler
hue, as the lemon-colored flowers of Sedum Nuttallianum
come into evidence over a large part of the area. As the
season advances the slender scapes of Coreopsis lance-
olata and the taller branching stems of C. tinctoria bear a
wealth of richly tinted blossoms, conspicuous from afar,
like the gold of some fabled Ophir or Eldorado.
Most of the plants peculiar to the barrens are strictly
limited in their range, seldom being found more than a
few feet beyond the chert outcrop; and it is only over
very limited areas that they are able to maintain undis-
puted possession and keep back the hordes of the more
hardy races that press upon them from all sides, invading
their territory wherever a little greater accumulation of
soil exists, as a breach in the rocky barrier that defends
them.
The amount of soil varies greatly in different parts of
the barrens, patches of absolutely naked rock, where no
form of vegetation can maintain itself, alternating with
small areas upon which a deposit of soil and gravel sev-
eral inches or even feet in thickness sustains a growth of
shrubs and stunted trees, in addition to the herbaceous
species.
The ligneous plants are limited chiefly to a series of
low knolls or mounds, that constitute a very striking and
peculiar feature of the region, and one that stands in
Palmer — Flora of the Grand Falls Chert Barrens. 105
need of further explanation. On both sides of the creek,
wherever the chert is exposed and even over the small
area on Turkey Creek in Jasper County, these peculiar
mounds may he observed. They are perhaps most typi-
cally developed along Silver Creek, a small stream that
flows into Shoal Creek from the north, near Reding 's Mill.
A large number may be seen along this stream, just west
of the Joplin wagon road, and between this point and the
mouth of "Tanyard Hollow" hundreds could doubtless
be counted.
These elevations are usually from ten to thirty feet in
diameter, roughly circular in outline and rise in the center
to a height of from two to three feet above the general
level. The plants occupying these knolls are, as might
be expected, chiefly those of the dry woods, which monop-
olize these more favorable spots nearly to the exclusion
of the barren species. Amongst trees and shrubs Quer-
ctis stellata, Q. marylandica, Diospyros virginiana, Frax-
inus americana, Amelanchier canadensis, Rubus villosus,
Rosa setigera, Vacciniwm arboreum and V. vacillans are
common.
A general similarity in size and form and something
like uniformity of distribution at several points strongly
suggests the theory that the mounds are of artificial ori-
gin. With this idea, no doubt, persons digging for relics
have dug trenches in several of them at different points.
However, so far as known, nothing has been found in any
of them to repay the investigation or to bear out the
theory. The material forming the mounds, as encoun-
tered in these excavations, is a mixture of soil, clay and
chert fragments, showing no evidence of human agency in
its arrangement, but on the contrary having every ap-
pearance of being a natural deposit of residuary material.
Indian relics are found at a number of places in the near-
by alluvial valley; but one could scarcely believe that
the rocky barrens would be likely to have appealed to the
aboriginal settlers as a favorable site either for a vil-
lage or a necropolis. Moreover a careful search has
106 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.
failed to discover any trace of implements or of wrought
flints on the surface of the barrens. The most obvious
and natural explanation would be that the knolls are
merely the result of surface erosion, remnants of the soil
mantle that once covered the entire area; but when seen
in the field this hypothesis can scarcely be entertained
as a satisfactory one, in view of the peculiar appearance
of the mounds, as mentioned above. Rejecting these ex-
planations as unsatisfactory, a third possible one sug-
gests itself: May not these low mounds have been con-
structed by some animal long since extinct, that once
found a congenial habitat in the rocky barrens along the
banks of these clear, swift flowing streams? However
their origin may be accounted for, their frequency and
uniform size render them a singular and striking feature
of the region.
The range of most of the peculiar species of plants is,
as has been stated, co-extensive with the chert outcrop;
and it is a curious fact that nearly all of those found at
the Shoal Creek localities should reappear with the out-
cropping of the Grand Falls chert north of Turkey
Creek. Although only about six miles distant this area
is entirely isolated from the main outcrops, and no trace
of most of the barrens plants can be found in the inter-
vening or surrounding country. A few of the species,
such as Selenia aurea, Cyperus inflexus, Specularia lepto-
carpa, Portulaca pilosa, Talinum calycinum and Linaria
canadensis, are also found occasionally in sandy soil or
in limestone barrens throughout Jasper and Newton
Counties.
The occurrence in the barrens of a number of plants of
such restricted range suggests interesting questions in
regard to the survival and distribution of species. The
soil of the uplands in this part of the State is entirely
residual, resulting directly from the disintegration of the
underlying rocks. Under such conditions a closer core-
lation between geological formations and plant distri-
bution could naturally be expected, although of course, as
Palmer — Flora of the Grand Falls Chert Barrens. 107
elsewhere, moisture, drainage, shade and other factors
are most important. After the region was elevated above
sea level, in the remote past, ages must have elapsed be-
fore any great amount of soil could have been formed
over most of the area. The greater part of the surface
must then have possessed the characters of a rocky bar-
ren, with plants gradually appearing that were adapted
to such a region. As the process of soil making pro-
ceeded the flora would of course undergo a corresponding
transition, through the extinction of the old forms, their
modification and the introduction of other species
adapted to the changed conditions. Possibly in the small
isolated rocky barrens of the present time we find sur-
vivors of some of the later stages of these ancient floras.
In the appended list the species regarded as local or
peculiar to the barrens are marked with an asterisk.
POLYPODIACEAE.
Cheilanthes lanosa (Michx.) Watt.* Common on cliffs, in fissures
and along ledges in barrens.
Asplenium parvulum Mart. & Gal. Uncommon on faces of cliffs.
Asplenium platyneuron (L.) Oakes. Common along ledges in bar-
lens.
Asplenium Tricfiomanes L.* Common in clefts and on somewhat
protected cliff faces.
Camptosorus rhizophyllus (L.) Link. Uncommon on moist shaded
cliffs.
Dryopteris marginalis (L.) A. Gray.* Rare at two or three places
on shaded cliffs.
Woodsia obtusa (Spreng. ) Torr. Very common along ledges and
in clefts in barrens.
Equisetaceae.
Equisetum arvense L. Uncommon in moist places.
Selaginellaceae.
Sclaginclla rupestris (L.) Spreng.* Very common in exposed parts.
Gramineae.
Digitaria filiformis (L.) Koehler.* Frequent in thin dry soil.
Panicum tennesseense Ashe. Common in thin dry soil.
Alopecurus geniculatus L. Frequent in wet depressions.
Aristida basiramea Engelm.* Common in dry exposed situations.
Eragrostis capillaris (L.) Nees. Similar situations to last. Com-
mon.
108 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.
Melica nitens Nutt.* Frequent on cliffs and ledges.
Festuca octoftora Walt. Common in thin soil.
Olyceria nervata (Willd.) Trin. Uncommon in moist places.
Cypeeaceae.
Cyperus aristatus Rottb.* Common in wet depressions.
Cyperus ovularis (Michx.) Torr. Frequent in dry soil.
Cyperus filiculmis Vahl. Frequent with last.
Eleocharis ovata (Roth) R. & S. Common in pools and depressions.
Stenophyllus capillaris (L.) Britton. Frequent with last.
Carex laxiflora Wanda (Dewey) Boott. Wet depressions. Uncom-
mon.
Carex triceps hirsuta (Willd.) Bailey. Frequent in dry soil.
COMMELINACEAE.
Tradescantia reflexa Raf. Common in dry soil and along edges of
cliffs.
JlJNCACEAE.
Juncus marginatus Rostk. Very common in wet depressions.
Luzula campestris bulbosa A. Wood. Common in dry soil.
Liliaceae.
Allium canadense L. Common in dry soil.
Allium mutabile Michx.* Very local but abundant in wet depress-
ions.
Nothoscordum bivalve (L. ) Britton. Common in dry soil.
Camassia esculenta (Ker.) Robinson. Frequent in rather dry situ-
ations.
Orchidaceae.
Spiranthes gracilis (Bigel.) Beck. Occasional in dry soil.
Fagaceae.
Quercus stellata Wang. Small stunted specimens frequent on knolls.
Quercus marylandica Muench. Small specimens frequent on knolls.
Quercus Muhlenbergii Engelm. Small specimens occasional on
knolls.
Ulmaceae.
Ccltis mississippiensis Bosc. Common on knolls and along terraces.
POLYGOXACEAE.
Rumex hastatulus Baldw.* Very common in thin soil, early moist
but soon dry.
Polygonum avicularc L. Frequent in dry soil.
Polygonum tenue Michx.* Common in dry soil.
Caryopiiyllaceaic.
Arenaria patula Michx.* Common in thin soil, early wet but soon
dry.
Palmer — Flora of the Grand Falls Chert Barrens. 109
POBTULACACEAE.
Claytonia virginica L. Common in dry soil.
Talinum parviflorum Nutt.* Very local, but not uncommon in thin
soil, early wet but soon dry.
Talinum calycinum Engelm.* Common with last and somewhat more
widely distributed.
Portulaca pilosa L.* Common in thin soil, early wet but soon dry.
Ranunculaceae.
Ranunculus micranthus Nutt. Common in dry soil.
Ranunculus fascicularis Muhl. Common throughout in dry soil.
Lauraceae.
Sassafras variifolium (Salisb.) Ktze. Occasional on knolls.
Ckuciferae.
Draba brachycarpa Nutt. Common in dry soil.
Selenia aurea Nutt.* Common in thin dry soil throughout.
Arabis laevigata (Muhl.) Poir. Frequent on cliffs and ledges.
Arabis canadensis L. Occasional with last.
Ceassulaceae.
Sedum NuttaUianum Raf.* Common in thin soil, early wet but
soon dry.
Sedum pulchellum Michx. Not so common as last, in similar situ-
ations.
Saxifragacf.ae.
Saxifraga texana Buckley.* Frequent in dry soil. April.
Heuchera hirsuticaulis (Wheelock) Rydb. Uncommon on cliffs and
ledges.
Ribes missouricnsis Nutt. Frequent along shelves and ledges.
Rosaceae.
Amelancliier canadensis (L.) Medic. Frequent on knolls and along
edges of cliffs.
Crataegus macropoda Sarg. Frequent on knolls and in dry soil.
Crataegus furcata Sarg. Common with last.
Crataegus magnifolia Sarg. Uncommon along ledges.
Rubus villosus Ait. Frequent in dry soil and on knolls.
Rubus nigrobaccus Bailey. Frequent on cliffs and ledges.
Rosa setigera Michx. Frequent on knolls.
Prunus serotina Ehrh. Occasional on knolls and ledges.
Prunus americana mollis T. & G. This or another species, perhaps
more than one, occurs along ledges.
110 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.
Leguminosae.
Cercis canadensis L. Frequent on knolls and ledges.
Baptisia bracteata (Muhl.) Ell. Frequent on knolls and in dry soil.
Trifolium carolinianum Michx.* Frequent in dry soil.
Tephrosia virginiana (L.) Pers. Frequent on knolls and in dry soil.
Lespedeza virginica (L.) Britton. Occasional on knolls and in dry
soil along ledges.
Stylosanthes biflora (L.) BSP. With the last and about as frequent.
Lathyrus pusillus Ell.* Locally abundant along banks and in moist
situations.
Linaceae.
Linum medium (Planch.) Britton. Occasional in dry soil.
OXAjLIDACEAE.
Oxalis violacea L. Common in thin dry soil.
Rut ace ae.
Ptelea trifoliata L. Occasional along ledges and near streams.
POLYGALACEAE.
Polygala incarnata L. Uncommon in dry soil.
Polygala sanguinea L. Common on knolls and in dry soil.
E UPHORBI ACEAE.
Crotonopsis linearis Michx.* Very common in thin dry soil, some-
times almost to the exclusion of other species.
Acalypha gracilis Gray. Frequent in dry soil.
Euphorbia maculata L. Common in thin dry soil. Quite villous.
Euphorbia dentata Michx. Frequent in dry soil. Perhaps intro-
duced.
Anacarihaceae.
Rhus trilobata Nutt. Frequent along ledges.
Hypericaceae.
Hypericum pseudomaculatum Bush. Infrequent in thin dry soil.
Hypericum Drummondii (G. & H.) T. & G. Frequent in dry soil.
ClSTACEAE.
Lechea tenuifolia Michx. Common in dry soil.
Cactaceae.
Opuntia macrorhiza Engelm.* This or perhaps a new species is
common in dry soil and on knolls throughout the barrens.
Palmer — Flora of the Grand Falls Chert Barrens. HI
Lythraceae.
Cttphea petiolata (L.) Koehne. Frequent in dry soil.
Onagbaceae.
Oenothera linifolia Nutt. Common in thin soil, early wet but soon
dry.
Umbellifekae.
Chaerophyllum texanum C. & R.* Common throughout in dry soil.
Spermolepis echinata (Nutt.) Heller. Locally abundant in a few
places, in thin dry soil.
Ptilimnium Nuttallii (DC.) Britton. Common throughout in dry
soil.
Cynosciadium pinnatum DC* Very local but not rare in pools and
wet depressions.
Daucus pusillus Michx. Common in dry soil.
Ebicaceae.
Vaccinium arboreum Marsh. Occasional along ledges and edges of
cliffs.
Vaccinium vacillans Kalm. This and perhaps one or two other low
species are common on knolls and ledges of the barrens as well as
in the surrounding rocky woods.
Pbimulaceae.
Doclecathcon Meadia L. Uncommon in more protected parts.
Oeeaceae.
Fraxinus americana L. Small stunted specimens frequent on knolls.
Gentianaceae.
Sabbatia campestris Nutt. Frequent on knolls.
Hydkophyllaceae.
Phacelia dubia (L.) Small.* Very common throughout in dry soil
and along ledges.
Labiatae.
Isanthus brachiatus (L.) BSP. Occasional in thin dry soil.
Scutellaria versicolor Nutt. Occasional in dry soil.
Scrophulariaceae.
Linaria canadensis (L.) Dumont.* Frequent in dry soil.
112 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.
SOLANACEAE.
Physalis heterophylla Nees. Frequent in dry soil.
Physalis pumila Nutt. With the last, and about as common.
ACANTHACEAE.
Ruellia ciliosa Pursh. Common in dry soil.
Plantaginaceae.
Plantago virginica L. Common in dry soil.
Plantago aristata Michx. Common with last.
Rubiaceae.
Diodia teres Walt. Very common in dry soil.
Campanulaceae.
Specularia leptocarpa (Nutt.) Gray.* Locally frequent in dry soil.
Valebianaceae.
Valerianella radiata (L.) Dufr. Common in thin soil, early wet but
soon dry.
Compositae.
Liatris squarrosa Willd. Infrequent in dry soil along bluffs.
RudbecUa hirta L. Common throughout on knolls and in dry soil.
RudbecUa amplexicfiuUs Vahl.* Local and uncommon along Silver
Creek.
Coreopsis tinctoria Nutt.* Very common in thin soil, early wet but
soon dry-
Coreopsis lanceolata L.* Common in dry soil and in situations sim-
ilar to last species.
Coreopsis pubescens Ell. Uncommon in more sheltered situations.
Marshallia caespitosa Nutt. Local in dry gravelly soil, on bluffs
near mouth of Silver Creek.
Issued December 15, 1910.
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Transactions of The Academy of Science of St. Louis.
VOL. XIX. No. 8.
NEW ACARINA FROM INDIA.
H. E. EWING.
Issued December 29, 1910.
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NEW ACARINA FROM INDIA.*
H. E. Ewing.
INTRODUCTION.
At present our knowledge of the Acarina is almost
entirely confined to European and North American forms,
with the possible exception of the family Analgesidae, or
"Bird Mites." As the members of this family can be
easily collected from the skins of birds in museums, its
representatives have been obtained from all parts of the
world.
A comparative study of those few forms which we do
have from the tropics with the many now known from the
North Temperate Zone appears to indicate, though we
would hardly expect it, that, as a rule, it is the tropical
forms that are the smaller and less remarkable in appear-
anace. In other words, for most free-living families at
least, it appears that it is in temperate climates that
they reach their greatest development. This point was
strongly emphasized a few years ago by Mr. A. D. Michael
of England, who then examined and described1 some very
fantastic and bizarre forms collected by Mr. Bostock in
New Zealand. Every one of these species Mr. Michael
referred to previously created genera, yet they showed
a great exaggeration of the characters found in warmer
climates.
A careful study of some fifteen species received from
the southern part of India has been made by the writer.
Judging from my knowledge of these forms as compared
with our North American and the European Acarina, I
have been convinced of the correctness of Mr. Michael's
view. I find that, with one possible exception, all these
*Presented by title to The Academy of Science of St. Louis, Decem-
ber 5, 1910.
Unrecorded Acari from New Zealand. Journ. Linn. Soc. 30; 134-149.
(113)
114 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.
species from a tropical climate are easily referable to
well known genera, and in two cases the species are iden-
tical with temperate forms. Of the new species, which
are described in this paper, all are of a modest appear-
ance and of a relatively smaller size than our forms.
The new forms described in this paper were all, except
one, obtained from some moss and dirt which was sent
moist through the mails enclosed in tin cans. The mate-
rial, as a whole, came though in fine condition and plenty
of live individuals were found. For this collection, I am
indebted to my brother, R. L. Ewing, who very carefully
carried out the instruction given in regard to the collect-
ing of the material and with such good results.
This moss and dirt was collected near Springfield Post
Office, Nilgiri Hills, South India. The following is the
exact data given by the collector: "The moss was gath-
ered along a footpath running through a grove of young-
wattle, situated on a hill-side. The moss was plentiful,
forming a thick carpet. The wattle formed a dense
shade. The elevation is 6000 feet above sea level.'1
In the following pages nine new species are described.
They are distributed into five families.
description of new species.
Gamasidae.
macrocheles Latreille.
With peritreme; first pair of legs without claws; dorsal shield entire;
no post anal plate; hind femora unarmed; male genital aperture on
the anterior margin of sternum ; second pair of legs of the male slightly
enlarged and usually provided with teeth.
One species.
Macrocheles hastatus n. sp.
Dark reddish brown, some specimens paler.
Mouth-parts well developed. Mandibles of the male with very long,
curved, lateral, spear-like, chitinous projections, hence the name has-
tatus. Hypostoma of male extending forward in the form of two very
long cusps which are about equal in length to the lateral spear-like
projections of the mandibles.
Ewing — New Acarina from India. U
.-
Body almost twice as long as broad, strongly constricted in front
of the shoulders, sides almost straight, and on the dorsal side evenly
rounded behind. Dorsally, abdomen sparsely clothed with minute
hairs. On the ventral side, the ventral plate projects beyond the dorsal
margin of the abdomen immediately behind the anus. Anus small,
circular and situated about twice its diameter from the posterior mar-
gin of this ventral plate.
Second pair of legs of the male enlarged and with a prominent tooth-
like projection on the femur. The coxae of the posterior pair of legs
are nearer together than the coxae of the other two legs.
Length, 0.78 mm.; breadth, 0.42 mm.
In moss. I was unable to find any living specimens
of this species, for all of the specimens evidently had
been dead before the moss was collected, as they were
mostly in bad shape and were only empty shells. By
putting together some seven or eight of these dead, shell-
like specimens all the important characters could be ob-
tained. Nilgiri Hills, South India.
gamasus Latreille.
Peritreme more than twice as long as broad; legs of the first pair
provided with claws; dorsal shield entire; genital opening of the male
at the anterior margin of the sternal plate; legs of the second pair
in the case of the male frequently enlarged and armed with chitinous
tubercles; epigynium of female triangular.
One species.
Gamasus dentatilinea n. sp.
PI. XXXV. f. 5.
Female. In general appearance a very light yellowish brown.
Mouth-parts prominent; epistoma large, rectangular; from each lateral
anterior corner there projects a prominent, sharp cusp; palpi about
one-half as long as the first pair of legs, last segment equal in length,
but much narrower than the penultimate; from the inner, distal edge of
the penultimate segment there arises a sharp spine almost as long as
the segment itself; antepenultimate segment slightly longer and wider
than the penultimate; mandibles long and stout, and when extended
they may reach beyond the tips of the palpi, constricted at their middle
where there is a very long bristle at each side equal to one-half the
total length of the mandible; chelae of the mandibles stout, almost
straight, and each with a row of subequal, sharp teeth which extends
the entire length of the same on its inner margin, hence the name,
dentatilinca.
Abdomen almost twice as long as broad; margin slightly concave in
front of the shoulders and broadly and evenly rounded behind. Ab-
116 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.
domen dorsally clothed with rather short bristles, some of the larger
of which are slightly clubbed and pectinate; shoulder bristles moderate
and of the same kind as the larger abdominal bristles. Sternum subrec-
tangular, extending from the front margins of coxae II to between
coxae III, posterior margin concave. Female genital plate triangular,
apex reaching beyond the posterior margins of coxae III and base situ-
ated far behind the posterior coxae.
Anterior and posterior legs much longer than the other two pairs.
Tarsus of leg I, one and a half times as long as tibia and well clothed
with simple setae; tibia twice as long as broad and longer than the
patella, which is slightly curved. Posterior legs extending for more
than half their length beyond the posterior margin of the abdomen,
tarsus very long and tapering with an indicated segmentation near its
base, tibia slightly over one-half as long as the tarsus.
Length, 0.54 mm.; breadth, 0.24 mm.
In trash. Described from a single female which came
through from India alive and in good condition. She was
very active.
Uropodidae.
ueopoda Latreille.
Sculptures present on the ventral surface for the reception of the
legs; legs of the first pair with claws; dorsal surface of the body
sometimes with pits, but never sculptured, its margin unbroken.
Two species.
Uropoda discus n. sp.
Reddish brown; integument more strongly chitinized around the
margins of the body, and in the region of the sternum and the coxae
of the legs.
Body longer than broad with the front margin somewhat flattened
and the hind margin rather narrowly rounded; with a few minute hairs
on the dorsal surface. Upper plate of the exoskeleton extending down
somewhat on the ventral surface at the sides in order to join the
ventral plate.
Posterior part of the sternum of the male thickened and containing
the circular genital opening which is situated immediately between
the posterior coxae. In front of this posterior thickened area the
sternum is roughly rectangular but between the second and third
coxae a lateral angle is produced. Epigynium of female almost two-
thirds as broad as long, extending from between the second coxae to
behind the posterior margin of the fourth coxae. It is evenly rounded
in front and slightly truncate behind. Anus very small and situated
at the posterior margin of the abdomen.
Tarsus of leg I twice as long as tibia, clothed with many straight
bristles, and ending in a rather long pedicel with minute claws; tibia
Ewing — New Acarina from India. 117
broader than the tarsus and two-thirds as broad as long. Posterior
pair of legs slightly longer than the second and third pairs. The
femora of the last two pairs of legs are each provided with a triangular
tooth on their posterior margins near the base. The tarsi of the three
posterior pairs of legs are all very long and tapering.
Length, 0.40 mm.; breadth, 0.38 mm.
In moss. From Nilgiri Hills, South India. Described
from one male and two females.
Uropoda postgenitalis n. sp.
PI. XXXV. f. 3.
Color reddish brown; margins of the body darker than the rest of
the body. Integument thick and with shallow pits; pits, though rather
evenly distributed, are somewhat irregular in shape and size.
Mouth-parts rather small and hidden by a slightly projecting an-
terior, roundly curved, margin of body.
Body almost as broad as long, subcircular in outline with margins
slightly roughened. Body clothed above with hairs that are unique
in their structure. They each possess a single stalk-like base, but this
basal stalk is soon resolved into three or even four elements. Of these
different elements one is always much larger than the rest, and may
be considered as composing the main body of the bristle. The other
smaller elements which arise not far from the base of the bristle,
extend along the larger one like whip-lashes. These bristles are ar-
ranged as follows: there are two rows of seven bristles each which run
longitudinally, one on each side of the median line; a row of marginal
bristles which completely encircles the body, of these there are about
thirty; about an equal number scattered over the upper surface of the
abdomen in no special order or arrangement.
Genital opening of the male large, circular and situated behind the
last pair of coxae! Epigynium of female very long, fully twice as
long as broad, extending from the front margin of the second coxae to
the hind margins of the fourth coxae. It is widest near its middle
and is narrowly rounded in front and truncate behind.
Excavations for the legs moderate, but snugly containing them when
folded. Last three pairs of legs subequal. The femora are the stoutest
segments while the tarsi are long and tapering.
Length, 0.52 mm.; breadth, 0.42 mm.
In dirt. From Nilgiri Hills, South India.
Oribatidae.
oribata Latreille.
Abdomen with chitinous wing-like expansions called pteromorphae;
no spatulate hairs present; lamellae attached to the cephalothorax by
118 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.
their inner margins; tarsi with tridactyle claws; first tarsus never
broadened at its end.
Three species.
Oribata tessellatala n. sp.
Very dark chestnut brown.
Cephalothorax as broad as long. No true lamellae present but lateral
thickened areas which extend almost to the tip of the rostrum. Both
the superior and the antero-lateral bristles apparently absent.
Abdomen as broad as long, hairless, with a semicircular free margin.
Pteromorphae large, antero-ventral free margin deeply emarginated.
The pteromorphae are peculiar in that they show the epidermal cells
forming a tessellated appearance when viewed from above. Genital
covers small, rectangular, each twice as long as broad. They are sit-
uated between the posterior coxae. Anal covers twice as long as the
genital, situated their length from the latter and one-third their length
from the posterior margin of the ventral plate, broader toward their
posterior ends.
Legs of moderate size. Claws tridactyle, dactyles unequal.
Length, 0.80 mm.; breadth, 0.45 mm.
In moss. From Nilgiri Hills. Three specimens.
Oribata nilgiria n. sp.
Body dark chestnut brown, pteromorphae and legs much paler.
Cephalothorax almost as broad as long; no true lamellae present but
lateral thickened areas which extend forward beyond the middle of the
cephalothorax. Superior bristles very minute; antero-lateral bristles
apparently absent. Pseudostigmatic organs with long straight pedicels
and clavate, pectinate head.
Abdomen as broad as long, uniformly rounded behind. Pteromorphae
large, extending forward almost to the tip of the rostrum, showing
vertical chitinous thickenings. Genital covers short and broad, subrec-
tangular, two-thirds as broad as long and each with a longitudinal row
of fine minute hairs, row of hairs down the middle of each cover.
Anal covers almost twice as long as the genital, situated about their
length behind the latter and a third their length from the posterior
margin of the ventral plate. They are broadest at their posterior ends,
and each has two minute hairs, one at each end.
Tarsus of leg I longer than the tibia, well clothed with simple
bristles and each possessing three plumose hairs on their inner mar-
gins; tibia much broader distally than proximally, with an inner plu-
mose bristle and an outer very long tactile bristle; genual over twice
as long as broad and three-fourths as long as tibia, with an inner
plumose bristle.
Length, 0.32 mm.; breadth, 0.24 mm.
In moss. Described from an abundance of live material
which came from the Nilgiri Hills.
Ewing — New Acarina from India. 119
Oribata appressala n. sp.
PI. XXXV. f. 1.
Light reddish brown.
Cephalothorax pyramidal; lamellae long and narrow, extending two-
thirds of the distance to the tip of the rostrum, broadest at their pos-
terior ends; lamellar hairs straight, about as long as the lamellae them-
selves and extending for one-third their length beyond the tip of the
rostrum; interlamellar hairs present, straight, erect and equal to the
lamellar hairs; antero-lateral hairs almost straight and about one-half
as long as the lamellar hairs. Pseudostigmata hidden by the pteromor-
phae, with slender pedicels and swollen, clavate heads.
Abdomen two-thirds as broad as long, evenly and broadly rounded
behind. Pteromorphae truncate, appressed and not extending, beyond
the anterior margin of the abdomen. Genital covers small, situated
at the anterior margin of ventral plate, each about two-thirds as broad
as long. Anal covers much larger than the genital covers, situated about
their length from the latter and about one-third their length from the
posterior margin of the ventral plate, each with a straight inner mar-
gin and with an oval outer margin.
Anterior pair of legs extending beyond the tip of the rostrum by
one-third their length; tarsus as long as the tibia; tibia twice as long
as the genual, distal end almost twice as broad as the proximal end;
genual three-fifths as broad as long. All the tarsal claws tridactyle
with dactyles unequal.
Length, 0.32 mm.; breadth, 0.22 mm.
In moss. Collected by R. L. Ewing in the Nilgiri Hills,
South India.
Notheidae.
notaspis Herm.
Lamellae present; cephalothorax plainly demarcated from the ab-
domen; body with smooth integument; last three pairs of legs inserted
at the edges of the body.
One species.
Notaspis brevirostris n. sp.
PI. XXXV. f. 2.
In general appearance a uniform, light brown.
Cephalothorax very short, broader than long. Lamellae very close
together, short with long, free, cusp-like ends which extend almost to
the tip of the rostrum and each bearing a simple, slightly curved
lamellar hair about twice as long as the lamella itself and extending
over one-half its length beyond the tip of the rostrum. Pseudostig-
matic organs each with a long slender pedicel and an enlarged, flat-
tened, sharp-pointed head; both the head and pedicel simple.
120 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.
Abdomen two-thirds as broad as long; dorsum hairless. Genital
covers large, rectangular extending almost to the front margin of the
ventral plate, each about twice as long as broad. Anal covers about
the same size as the genital covers, and situated about one-fifth their
length behind the genital covers and an equal distance from the pos-
terior margin of the abdomen. They are much broader at their pos-
terior end than at their anterior end.
Anterior pair of legs extending about one-half their length beyond
the tip of the rostrum; tarsus slightly longer than the tibia and with
a single, moderate, curved claw; tibia twice as long as genual and
about twice as broad at its distal end as at its proximal end. It has
on its lateral margin near the distal end a bristle slightly longer than
the segment itself; genual almost two-thirds as broad as long and
with a prominent inner and outer bristle. Posterior pair of legs extend-
ing slightly beyond the posterior margin of the abdomen; tarsus
shorter than the tibia; tibia club-shaped and with a prominent bristle
on its outer margin near its distal end.
Length, 0.30 mm.; breadth, 0.20 mm.
In moss. A single live individual came through from
India in the moss. Nilgiri Hills.
LlSTROPHORIDAE.
LABIDOCARPUS Trt.
Body strongly compressed; skin transversely striated. Legs of the
third and fourth pairs of the usual form but deprived of suckers and
armed with stout spines; legs of the first and second pairs composed
of a single piece in the form of a chitinous clasper.
One species.
Labidocarpus compressus n. sp.
PI. XXXV. f. -',.
In general appearance hyaline except for the anterior and basilar
portions of the cephalothorax which being strongly chitinized are
brown.
Cephalothorax V-shaped from a side view, and, like the whole body, is
greatly compressed. Beak stout, almost structureless, but with a small
pair of dorsal hairs. Toward the middle of the dorsal surface of the
cephalothorax there are two pairs of long bristles, the inner pair of
which is the largest. Posterior part of cephalothorax transversely
striated.
Abdomen half as long again as the cephalothorax, striated dorsally,
with a prominent pair of lateral bristles near its anterior end and a
very long pair of terminal bristles which equal the abdomen itself in
length.
Anterior group of legs formed into large, stout, chitinized clasping
organs. Each is almost as broad as long. Posterior group of legs small
Ewing — New A carina from India. 121
and of the usual form. Tarsus of leg III with a long distal claw-
like spine longer than the segment itself; inside of this spine are
situated two short tooth-like spines. Tarsus of leg IV also with a
similar claw-like spine but apparently with only one inner tooth-like
spine.
Length, 0.44 mm.; height, 0.22 mm.
From the Indian Fruit Bat, Pteropus edwardsii. Sev-
eral specimens found on one of these bats from Ceylon.
EXPLANATION OF ILLUSTRATIONS.
Photomicrographs made by the writer.
Plate XXXV. Fig. 1. Oribata appressala, dorsal view, X 75.— Fig. 2.
Notaspis brevirostris, dorsal view, X 75— Fig. 3. Uropoda post genitalis,
ventral view of the male showing the extreme posterior situation of
the genital opening, X 75.— Fig. 4. Labidocarpus compressus, side
view, X 75.— Fig. 5. Gamasus dentatilinea, dorsal view of the female
showing the mandibles extended, X 50.
Issued December 29, 1910.
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\v\C|
Transactions of The Academy of Science of St. Louis.
VOL. XIX. Xo. 9.
THE GUADALUPAN SERIES: AND THE RELATIONS
OF ITS DISCOVERY TO THE EXISTENCE OF A
PERMIAN SECTION IN MISSOURI.
ABUNDANCE OF METEORITES ON THE PAINTED
DESERT; AND ITS BEARING UPON THE PLANE-
TESIMAL HYPOTHESIS OF THE ORIGIN OF
THE EARTH.
CHARLES R. KEYES.
Issued December 29, 1910.
PUBLICATIONS.
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Continued on page 3 of Cover.
THE GUADALUPAN SERIES; AND THE RELA-
TIONS OF ITS DISCOVERY TO THE EXIST-
ENCE OF A PERMIAN SECTION IN
MISSOURI.*
Charles R. Keyes.
A most spirited controversy was the Permian Question
in American geology during the middle of the last cen-
tury. For more than 50 years was it warmly debated
without tangible results. While some of the attendant
problems still remain not fully solved it is with great
interest that it may now be announced that recently data
of a critical character have been secured for the definite
settlement of the main question.
Singularly, during all of this period of nearly two gen-
erations of discussion the only real evidences favoring the
occurrence of strata of true Permian equivalent in this
country are contained in papers first read before our
Academy and published in the initial volume of its Trans-
actions. To this record I desire to call especial attention
at this time, and also to refer to the significance of cer-
tain discoveries which bear directly upon the general
question that the Far Southwest and Mexican tableland
have recently afforded.
Among the earliest communications made to our St.
Louis Academy of Science were several presented by
one of its most active and distinguished members, Dr.
B. F. Shumard. One of these papers in particular, read
at the regular meeting of March 8, 1858, was an announce-
ment of the discovery of true Permian fossils in the white
limestones of the Guadalupe mountains on the southern
boundary of New Mexico, not far from El Paso.1 Soon
*Presented by title to The Academy of Science of St. Louis, Novem-
ber 21, 1910.
'Trans. Acad. Sci. St. Louis, 1:113; 387-403. 1860.
(123)
124 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.
afterwards this important discovery was also announced
in France.2
The far-reaching significance of Shumard's results and
their bearing upon the proper interpretation of the so-
called Permian section of Kansas, of the uppermost coal
measures of Missouri, and of the general, or schematic,
section of American Carbonic rocks, appear, until lately,
to have been entirely overlooked. Only when the Car-
bonic section of the Rio Grande region is critically exam-
ined and paralleled with that of the Mississippi Valley
province do the real positions of the several parts of
the latter present themselves.
The main discussion of a Permian equivalent in Amer-
ica has always centered around the age of the rock-
sequence in Kansas. My own survey of the facts chances
to be singularly critical. After a rather wide acquain-
tance with the Carbonic rocks of Missouri and eastern
Kansas, I had the good fortune, in company with Messrs.
Karpinsky, Pavlow, Tschernychew, Amalitzky, Nikitin,
Stuckenberg, and other Russian geologists, who had
given the subject most attention, to examine carefully
many of the sections of the original Permian rocks of
eastern Russia. While the Russian and American se-
quences of the Carbonic rocks were recognized as remark-
ably alike lithologically I attempted to show3 that if any
parallelism was possible only the uppermost terrane, that
next to the Cimarronian Red-beds of the Kansas section,
had any likelihood of proving to be eventually of Permian
age. Faunally the greater part, at least, of the disputed
Kansas section must be compared with the Russian
Artinsk formation, which is, as is well known, very much
older than any of the original Permian beds. This is
the section which I had distinguished as the Oklahoman
series;4 it includes the Chase and Marion formations in
2 Bull. Geol. Soc. France, II. 15:531-533. 1858.
3 Jour. Geol. 7:332. 1899.
4 Am. Geologist, 18:27. 1896.
Keyes — The Guadalupan Series.
125
that part of the general section lying above the horizon
of the Cottonwood limestone.
Later, after a long sojourn in southwestern United
States, I made the observation5 that "after seeing at
close range the Red-beds of New Mexico I was convinced
that the Permian question in America was not to be set-
tled on the basis of Kansas stratigraphy."
In tracing the Kansas Red-beds, or Cimarronian series,
southwestward around the southern end of the Rocky
mountains into central New Mexico the courses of the
Canadian river and the Rio Pecos were followed, the val-
leys of these streams cutting off to the north and west
the extension of the great plains of the Llano Estacado.
Upon stratigraphic grounds mainly I thought that I had
found the Cimarronian part of the Carbonic sequence
uninterrupted until a point was reached to the southwest-
ward where it rested directly upon the limestones form-
ing the backslope of the Guadalupe mountains, the locality
from which Shumard had received from his brother the
fossils which he described as true Permian in age.
On comparing the general terranal sequences of the
two provinces mentioned we find that there are, in the
Mississippi section of the Carbonic strata, great thick-
nesses of rocks which are not represented. Paralleling
the serial divisions of the two sections:
Geologic Age.
Mississippi
Province.
Rio Grande Province.
Late
Cimarronian
Wanting
Oklahoman
Missourian
Des Moines
Arkansan
1,200
Cimarronian
Guadalupan
Maderan
Manzanan
Wanting?
Ladronesian
1,000
1,500
2,000
3,500
Carbonic
Mid
1,000
1,000
500
10,000
...... 200
Mississippian
1,200
Early
Socorran
...... 500
In Kansas the so-called Permian beds are included in
the Oklahoman and Cimarronian series, the latter being
the Red-Beds section. The relationships of the several
s Ibid. 32:218. 1903.
126 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.
series of the Carbonic section in the Rio Grande region
I have lately discussed at length.6 The Bed-beds of
Kansas and the southern Rocky Mountains I have also
considered in some detail.7 It suffices here merely to
note, by way of explanation, that in New Mexico there
are present three great groups of red-beds: One, the
Bernalillo Red-beds, in the Maderan series, the true Cimar-
ronian Red-beds, and the Triassic Red-beds. Each of
these red-beds sections has a thickness of about 1000 feet ;
and in some localities in New Mexico all three of them
appear superposed upon one another, forming a contin-
uous "Red-beds" sequence.
The exact stratigraphic level of the Guadalupan series
is a subject that is now demanding critical attention. My
own observations, which are mainly stratigraphical in
character, point to a superior position of the Cimarron-
ian Red-beds, with reference to the Guadalupan division.
Girty,8 depending largely upon paleontologic deduction,
is inclined to give the Cimarronian an inferior situation,
notwithstanding the fact that the red-beds are almost
devoid of organic remains. Thus this author is forced
to make the Cimarronian red shales an exact equivalent
of the Hueco limestones (Maderan-Manzanan series) of
the west Texas section. Insofar as there is any strati-
graphic evidence adduced for this conclusion the author
seems to be influenced by certain brief notes published
by Graton and Gordon.9 From impressions gained by
the latter on the east side of the Rio Grande area these
authors seem to regard all of the red-beds of this valley
as belonging to the Bernalillo shales division (Maderan)
and report that above these red shales occurs a thick
black limestone lithologically similar to the Hueco lime-
stone which, in the Guadalupe mountains, immediately
underlies the Guadalupan series. This may be the cor-
6 Jour. Geol. 14:147-154. 1906.
7Proc. Iowa Acad. Sci. 15:143-144. 1909.
SU. S. Geol. Surv. Prof. Pap. 58:48. 1908.
9 Jour. Geol. 15:805. 1906.
Keyes — The Guadalupan Series. 127
rect stratigrapliic interpretation of the southern New
Mexican red beds, but it is wholly at variance with my
own observations in the region. I am quite familiar with
all of the localities visited by Messrs. Graton and Gordon.
In the Sierra Oscuro, the Sierra San Andreas, the Sierra
de los Caballos, the Sierra Manzano, and the Sierra San-
dia, and in every case where the black limestone appears
to hold a position higher than the red beds there are in-
disputable evidences of profound differential movements
of the strata along fault-lines. Singularly enough, the
only place where the direct evidence of faulting is not
yet fully determined is the identical locality where the
authors mentioned say that the black superior limestone
is missing from its normal position, above the red-beds.
This is on the east side of the Sandia mountains, and the
dark limestone in inclined beds rises to a height of several
hundreds of feet abruptly out of the red-beds. It may be
that the Red-beds of Kansas are older than the Guada-
lupan series but much stronger evidences shall have to
be forthcoming before I shall be willing to admit that
the Cimarronian Red-beds are the stratigrapliic repre-
sentatives of the Hueco limestones, or of the Bernalillo
red shales.
Whether or not the great Guadalupan series, 3500 feet
in thickness, is above or beneath the Cimarronian Red-
beds is immaterial in the present connection; the impor-
tant consideration is that there is small doubt but that it
is much younger than any of the so-called Permian beds
of Kansas (Oklahoman). The stratigrapliic position and
faunal horizon of the Guadalupan series have close rela-
tionships with those of the original Permian of Russia.
This is the only section yet discovered in America which
satisfies the conditions of such a correlation. The recent
investigations amply attest the correctness of Shumard's
early work and the astuteness with which his main con-
clusions were drawn. It has taken half a century to put
the proper estimate upon his efforts.
The final elimination of the so-called Kansas Permian
128 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.
section below the Bed-Beds, from the Late Carbonic per-
iod, and the finding of the Great Guadalupan series
yonnger than any other Paleozoic rocks, excepting the
Red-Beds perhaps, on the continent, calls especial atten-
tion to Girty's pregnant suggestion that it does not seem
necessary to regard Russian Permian deposition as the
last chapter in the Paleozoic history. It is a fact long
known to paleontologists that from a strictly faunal view-
point the original Permian fossils are still distinctly
Paleozoic in all of their facies. There is little to herald
the immediate appearance of a new Mesozoic era. Should
the Guadalupan series prove to be younger than any yet
discovered Paleozoic strata Shumard's discovery will
have an added interest.
Shumard numbered 54 species of fossils, 26 of which
were previously undescribed, among his collections from
the Guadalupe mountains. The prolificy of marine life
in this region is clearly indicated by the fact that Girty
recently enumerated more than six times as many species
as did his predecessor in the field.
The recognition of the great Guadalupan section has
an important bearing upon the proper interpretation of
our own local geology of Missouri. Than the instance
of Shumard's discovery in a distant land I know of no
better example of the intimate and dependent relation-
ship of all phases of scientific knowledge. In Missouri
we have probably not sufficient data ever to be able to
determine definitely whether or not there exist rocks
equivalent to the Permian section of the general geologic
column, as has sometimes been claimed. The Guadalu-
pan fauna now sets all doubts aside and proves beyond
peradventure that there is no part of the Missouri rock-
section that we can even hope to find to be of Permian
age.
When, after sifting all the available evidence, both pub-
lished notes and in the field, after visiting most of the
leading localities, and after critically inspecting the origi-
nal Permian rocks of the Urals, I ventured, more than a
Keyes — The Guadalupan Series. 129
decade ago, the opinion that faunally at least the so-
called Permian strata of Kansas and of northwest Mis-
souri must be regarded as much older than the true Per-
mian section of Russia and that in the Mississippi valley
Permian deposition, with the possible exception of the
red-beds, was entirely wanting, my statements were se-
verely criticised. I think, however, that the results of
the recent investigations in the Guadalupe mountains
more than substantiate the conclusions which I long ago
reached.
Summing up, it may be concluded: —
(1) That the real discovery of true Permian equiva-
lents in America must be ascribed to Dr. B. F. Shumard,
who, by the way, took no part in the Kansas controversy.
(2) That Late Carbonic time in America is a vastly
more important period than has been generally hereto-
fore supposed.
(3) That the so-called Permian section below the Red-
Beds of central Kansas belongs in reality to a Mid Car-
bonic series and is not the homotaxial equivalent of the
original Permian division.
(4) That no part of our Missouri strata can be re-
garded as belonging to the Late Carbonic or Permian
period.
Issued December 29, 1910.
ABUNDANCE OF METEORITES ON THE PAINTED
DESERT, AND ITS BEARING UPON THE
PLANETESIMAL HYPOTHESIS OF THE
ORIGIN OF THE EARTH.*
Chakles R. Keyes.
Prefatory.
On the borders of the great Painted Desert, in north-
eastern Arizona, is a remarkable truncated cone known
as Coon Butte. This low hill rises scarcely 200 feet above
the level of the vast unbroken plain which stretches away
inimitably in all directions and which forms part of the
general surface of the High Plateau. Even from short
distances it ordinarily would be barely noticeable were it
not for the fact that it is located on the crest of a slight
swell in the great plains-surface. This fact, coupled with
the circumstance that the hill is near a good desert water-
hole, makes Coon Butte an important feature of the local
landscape.1
The recent notoriety into which this unimportant emi-
nence of Coon Butte has come on account of the abund-
ance of meteoric material found in its vicinity is out of
all proportion to its merits. The novelty of these mete-
oric finds now appears to lie not so much along the tracer-
ies of cosmic speculation, as it does along the more sub-
*Presented by title to The Academy of Science of St. Louis, Novem-
ber 21, 1910.
1 Coon Butte, or Coon Mound, is a very appropriate title in the minds
of the denizens of the Canyon Diablo desert. The landmark, incon-
spicuous as it is, is especially distinguished by a term indicating that
the Coon tanks, or Coon springs, are near by, where ample supplies
of wholesome water is obtainable. Probably at one time, not so very
long ago, two large rock monuments stood on the rim of the crater
nearest the water-holes. This is a happy and quite generally used
emblem directing the desert traveler to potable water.
(131)
132 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.
stantial lines of geologic discovery as yet not fully inter-
preted. Owing to peculiarities of climate the unheard
of abundance of meteoritic material is brought into
special prominence. It indicates as very probable that
from the desert regions of the globe shall come chief
knowledge regarding cosmic substances.
Volcanic Phenomena About Coon Butte.
Meteoric Hypothesis of Origin. Local tradition of the
Canyon Diablo country has long ascribed the depression
in the top of Coon hill to the impact of a falling star.
Some of the oldest inhabitants may be found who may
even claim that their fathers were witnesses of the great
event. At any rate, the idea presents many attractive
aspects; and there are today $100,000 being expended
in drilling and sinking shafts to uncover and mine out
the huge mass of pure iron and nickel supposed to be
lying deeply buried in the bowels of the earth at this
place.
Without attempting to enter, in the present connection,
into a prolix discussion of the possible meteoritic origin
of Coon Butte it may be said that the evidence adduced
in support of such a genesis seems incomplete, indecisive,
and unsatisfactory. On the other hand consideration of
the volcanic phenomena of the region about appears to
be strangely neglected. Critical testimony concerning
the great activity of local vulcanism abounds.
The important fact connected with the Coon Butte
meteorites appears to be not so much whether or not
there exists the hypothetical large one, as it is the real
significance of the presence of the countless small ones
which have been obtained in the neighborhood on the
surface of the desert.
Extent of Local Vulcanism. Coon Butte lies in the
midst of widespread and prodigious volcanic effects. Less
than a score of miles to the west rises one of the most
majestic volcanic piles of the Southwest country. The
San Francisco mountains are the remnants ; and the main
Keyes — Meteorites on the Painted Desert. 133
crater walls are still 15,000 feet above sea-level. Around
their base, and for distances of miles from the central
mass, are numberless craterlets and ash-cones. To the
north and east of Coon Butte, for many miles extends
a broad, diversified stretch of country known as the
Painted Desert, the surface of which is abundantly
studded with lofty denuded necks of old volcanoes. A
few miles to the southward stretches away interminably
one of the great lava fields of the globe. Bound about
Coon Butte, then, within a radius of a score of miles, are
hundreds of minor ash-cones and other manifestations
of explosive vulcanism. Many of these rise 400 to 500 feet
above the level of the vast plain and often have craters
at their summits as perfectly preserved as on the day
when they were formed. Some of these ash-cones dis-
play at their bases the ragged, basset edges of the layered
rocks through which the volcanic powers found exit.
Other ash-cones, 200 to 300 feet in height, with perfect
craters in their tops, rise out of the floors of deep circu-
lar depressions entirely surrounded by steep rocky cliffs
the crest of which is the general plains-surface, and the
base of which is the level of the flat-bottomed rifts.
Crater Salt-Lake to the eastward of Canyon Diablo is
identical in every respect with Coon Butte, except that
from its floor project two small and perfect ash-cones.2
All things considered it would be difficult to fancy an
origin for the Coon Butte depression very different from
the hundreds of volcanic disturbances of the explosive
type that are found everywhere throughout the vicinity.
Coon Butte cannot be considered by itself. It is not an
isolated, anomalous, incomparable feature of the land-
scape. It must be viewed in connection with its similar
geologic surroundings.
Geologic Descriptions. The ash-cones about the San
Francisco mountains were early described by Newberry ;3
-For a good photographic view, see Bull. Geol. Soc. Amer. 17:720,
pi. SO. 1907.
3 Colorado River of the West, Ives' Rept. 3:72. 1861.
134 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.
and were later especially noted by Dutton.4 Gilbert5
gave tlie first succinct account of the Black Mesa country
on the south. The details of the geological phenomena
presented at Coon Butte and the vicinity are fully ex-
plained by Foote,0 Gilbert,7 Fairchild,s Merrill,9 and
Telghman and Barringer,1" and the accounts of these
authors reference may be made.
Significance of Certain Geologic Features.
Geologic Section. The drill records of borings made
in the bottom of the Coon Butte crater are of exceptional
interest. As given by Messrs. Barringer and Telghman
the following section appears to be characteristic.
Geologic Section of the Coon Crater.
FEET.
1. Soil, sand, surface material and wash from cliffs 27
2. Lake-bed formations, lying horizontally and containing diatoms,
shells of mollusks and abundant gypsum crystals 61
3. Sand, which gives reaction for nickel and iron, and contains
fragments of metamorphosed sandstone, sandstone, pumice,
etc 135
4. Sand and rock, sand-grains crushed slightly, if any, and not
metamorphosed, barren of meteoric material 300
5. Sand and "silica" (rock-flour), with abundant slag-like material
containing iron and nickel and metamorphosed sandstone.. 80
6 Silica powder, fine (rock-flour), and sand, no meteoric material. . 20
7. Bed-rock, a grayish sandstone
Character of the So-called Lake-Beds. Of the several
distinctive strata passed through in drilling numbers 2
and 5 are of noteworthy significance ; the last mentioned,
near bed-rock, on account of being the only zone in which
undoubted meteoric material occurs ; and the first because
of constituting the so-called lake-beds.
4 Ann. Rept. U. S. Geol. Surv. 6:113. 1885.
5U. S. Geog. and Geol. Surv. W. 100 Merid. 3:128. 1875.
°Am. Jour. Sci. III. 42:413. 1891.
'Science, N. S. 3:1. 1896.
8 Bull. Geol. Soc. America, 18:493. 1907.
fl Smith. Misc. Coll. 50:461. 1908.
"Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phil. 57:861. 1906.
Keyes — Meteorites on the Painted Desert. 135
The so-called lake-beds are mainly composed of coarse
silts. Their great thickness and uniform lithologic char-
acter might be difficult to explain were it not for the fact
that other depressions exist in the vicinity that still re-
tain their waters. A single local "cloud-burst" may fill
with water such an enclosed basin to a depth of a dozen
or a score of feet, as shown in the sudden rise in the level
of the Laguna del Perro in eastern New Mexico,11 the
overflow of the Eio Carmen in the San Jose bolson in
Chihuahua, Mexico,12 and the appearance of the ephem-
eral lakes in the Eio San Juan valley in Tamalipas state.
Zuni Salt-Lake, a few miles east of the Coon Butte, occu-
pies a similar crateriform depression in the plain and
out of its waters rise two small ash-cones.
The filling of such ephemeral pools and other bodies
of water in the desert must be exceedingly rapid. The
well-known playa formations are one phase. Certain of
the so-called Tertiary lake deposits of western United
States are another. Desert soil accumulations some-
times are a third sort. In physical characteristics the
resemblance of all of these deposits to the loess is as re-
markable as it is genetically suggestive.
Wind-blown dusts of the desert are caught and retained
by bodies of water, and under favorable conditions enor-
mous deposits are rapidly built up. The vast boracif-
erous clays, 5000 to 8000 feet in thickness, of southern
California are thus explained.13 The great inland sea,
or arm of the Pacific ocean, once covering the deep Death
valley, the Mojave basin and the Santa Clara valley is
regarded as long in drying up. The disappearance of
the water may have been more rapid than the great thick-
ness of the terranes at first thought suggests, for the
reason that as an accompaniment of the evaporation of
the waters in an excessively dry climate there must have
been a filling-up of the basin by the prodigious quantities
uJourn. Geol. 16:434. 1908.
"Am. Jour. Sci. IV. 16:378. 1903.
15 Trans. Amer. Ins. Mining Eng. 40:674. 1909.
136 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.
of wind-borne dust derived from the adjoining deserts.
In the case of the larger example noted it is not to be
inferred that since the clays and sands have such an
enormous thickness, the waters were in the beginning at
least of the same depth, but rather that the arm of the
ocean and afterwards the inland sea was always very
shallow, and that as the area was filling up with the sedi-
ments the waters continued to rest on the surface of the
basin rising with the rise of the bottom.
In the phenomena connected with the filling of the
Coon Butte lakelet by "lake deposits" is probably to be
found the key to the entire mystery of the formation of
the vast Western American "Fresh-water Tertiaries."
Lower Meteoric Zone in Coon Crater. The bed of
coarse materials lying immediately above the basal mem-
ber of the section in Coon Crater is especially noteworthy
on account of the meteoric fragments which occur so
abundantly. This is at a depth below the floor of the
crater of about 600 feet. Its formation appears to rep-
resent an episode when eolic agencies had full sweep
as at the present time, when concentration, as it were,
of the large and heavy rock-fragments was going on
through the exportation of the finer soil materials-. So
soon as a sporadic "cloud-burst" chanced partially to
fill the crater, lake conditions prevailed and the process
of residual concentration through deflative influences
ceased.
As will be more specially noted hereafter meteoric falls
were probaly not more frequent during the time repre-
sented by this zone, than during any other period of
equal length. In the one case the finer soil particles were
constantly removed, while in the other they were rapidly
deposited.
Mineralogic Composition of Canyon Diablo Meteorites.
The Canyon Diablo meteorites have been described
by many writers. Since the first announcement of their
Keyes — Meteorites on the Painted Desert. 137
discovery by Foote14 unusual interest on account of the
discovery of diamonds in some of the masses has been
taken in these falls.
Details of the petrologic and mineralogic characters
need not be here described; they are fully set forth in
the papers of Mallard,15 Brezina,10 Daubree,17 Friedel,ls
Moissan,19 Huntington,20 Derby,21 Mallet,22 Farring-
ton,23 Merrill and Tassin,24 and Merrill.25
The complete list of minerals found in the meteorites
of the district as given by the last mentioned author26 is
of great interest. Further reference to it will be made
in another connection.
Kamacite (nickel-iron). Diamond (colorless, yellow and
Plessite (nickel-iron). black), carbon.
Taenite (nickel-iron). Cliftonite (carbon).
Scbreibersite (iron phosphide). Graphite.
Rhabdite (iron phosphide). Amorphous carbon.
(Unidentified black iron phos- Silicon.
phide). Platinum.
Cohenite (iron carbide). Copper.
Graphitic iron (?). Olivine.
Troilite (iron sulphide). Chromite.
Lawrencite (iron chloride). Fayalite (?).
Moissanite (carbon silicide). Daubreelite.
Abundance of Meteoric Material About Canyon Diablo.
The Canyon Diablo country, in which Coon Butte is
located, has become so famous for the unique character
of some of its meteoric minerals that several equally re-
"Amer. Jour. Sci. III. 42:413. 1891.
"Comptes Rendus, 114:812. 1892.
16Ueber Neue Meteoreisen 1893; also Wien. Sammlung 1895:288.
"Comptes Rendus, 114:412. 1892; 116:345. 1893.
lsComptes Rendus, 115:1037. 1892; 116:290. 1893.
"Comptes Rendus, 116:288. 1892; 139:773. 1904.
:oProc. Amer. Acad. Sci. 29:209. 1894.
"Arner. Jour. Sci. III. 49:101. 1895.
n~IMd. IV. 21:347. 1906.
23 Ibid. 22:303. 1906.
2i Smith. Misc. Coll. 50:203. 1907.
wlUd. 50:481. 1908.
se Smith. Misc. Coll. 50:483. 1908.
138 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.
markable features have been lost sight of. Concerning
these meteoric materials not the least instructive consid-
eration is their seemingly wonderful abundance. During
the past decade or two literally thousands of meteoric
masses have been gathered from the district. In Ari-
zona the search for "meteoric stones" and "nickel-irons"
constitutes an important branch of the local "curiosity
business." For many years one Indian trader of the
region has employed numbers of men and boys to look
for "heavy stones" and "green stones"; and he has dis-
posed of large numbers of the small specimens besides
numbers of large masses. It was through this and other
indefatigable collectors of the neighborhood that the me-
teoric finds were first brought to the notice of the scien-
tific world.
According to the written accounts of the Canyon Diablo
falls few of the meteoric masses were found within the
crateriform depression of the Coon Butte. From the
country about, within a radius of a score of miles, the
large majority of the masses found are reported. The
Indian trader's collecting grounds are much more ex-
tensive. In its general bearing this wide distribution is
of far-reaching importance.
That Canyon Diablo, or Coon Butte, should appear to
be the center of a meteoric shower is partly illusory,
partly due to accidental circumstances, and partly a re-
sult of incomplete observation. The phenomenon is
neither isolated nor strictly local, but, as will be shown
later, one of wide prevalency. In the Coon Butte area
the meteoric masses have been collected more industri-
ously than elsewhere. The hard limestone floor of the
plain, constantly swept bare of its soils, permits meteoric
stones to remain indefinitely exposed on the surface of
the ground. The small amount of chemical decay going
on is merely sufficient to impart to the nickeliferous irons
or stones a slight greenish tinge which enables them to
be easily recognized among the myriads of pebbles strew-
ing the surface of the ground. With proper investigation
Keyes — Meteorites on the Painted Desert. 139
and similar favorable climatic and geologic conditions
other desert tracts would doubtless yield meteoric ma-
terials in equal abundance.
Occurrence of Meteorites in Desert Regions.
Although the abundance of meteoric materials at Can-
yon Diablo excites wide attention and is even regarded
as something unparalleled, it does not appear to be quite
so unusual as has been generally inferred. The marked
success of the Indian trader Voltz in collecting meteoric
stones for the purpose of sale as curiosities is merely
the result of exceptional diligence along lines which are
the experience of many a ranchero of the Mexican table-
land. Few of the stock ranches of the grazing country
do not have lying about the premises some larger or
smaller fragments of the "heavy stones."
As already noted meteoric falls are probably not more
frequent in desert regions than elsewhere on the earth's
surface; but the anomalous climatic conditions tend to
give them great prominence. The thin air, the cloudless
skies, and high altitudes contrast sharply with the thick
atmosphere, the prevailingly cloud-covered firmament of
the sea-coast of humid countries. In the high dry re-
gions the frequency of meteoric manifestations immedi-
ately arouses the wonderment of the sojourner from
cloudy-land. The constant stream of light-paths across
the heavens reminds one every night in the year of the
November meteoric showers of other parts of the world.
As especially emphasized later on arid climate strongly
militates against the rapid decay of rocks. There is
practically no such phenomenon in dry regions as chemi-
cal decomposition of rock-masses as it is known in the
moister regions of the globe. For years, without notable
oxidation, meteoric stones and irons remain on the sur-
face of the desert. When they fall in humid lands mete-
oric masses are immediately lost to view in dense vege-
tation, are covered by soft earth, and are subject to rapid
disintegration; but in desert regions the very reverse is
140 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.
true. The dry climate, and the constant removal of the
lighter soils by the winds,27 tend to keep all pebbles and
larger rock-fragments continually exposed on the surface
of the ground. The pebble-mosaics, such as are described
by Blake,28 Tolman,29 and others,30 covering large tracts
of arid plain amply attest the extent of this remarkable
phenomenon.
These are some of the reasons for observing that the
great abundance of meteoric falls in the Canyon Diablo
district does not appear to be unique but is really a gen-
eral desert phenomenon.
Bearing of the Planetesimal Hypothesis.
It follows from a consideration of the plantesimal the-
ory of the earth's origin, as recently and specifically set
forth by Professor Chamberlain,31 that there should be
falling upon the surface of our planet a constant rain of
rock-forming materials derived directly from extra-ter-
restrial sources. That such a shower actually takes
place seems now fully demonstrated by a number of facts.
That it is an important general source of ore materials
appears also sufficiently substantiated.
The meteoritic theory is not a new one. So long ago
as 1848, Meyer32 presented a well supported hypothesis
of an origin of the planetary and stellar bodies, through
meteoric agglomeration. Since the first appearance of
the astute German author's work the theory has had the
hearty support of many able thinkers.
That portion of the stellar dust which falls into the
sea goes to form the characteristic bottom-muds of the
ocean. Another part which falls upon the moister land
areas mingles immediately and almost unnoticed with
27 Bull. Geol. Soc. Amer. 19:73. 1908.
28 Trans. Amer. Inst. Mining Eng. 34:161. 1904.
29Journ. Geol. 17:149. 1909.
30 Bull. Geol. Soc. Amer. 19:74. 1908.
"Carnegie Inst. Yearbook, 3:208. 1905.
32 Beitrage zur Mechanik des Himmels, 157. 1848.
Keyes — Meteorites on the Painted Desert. 141
the soil. A third portion falling upon desert tracts re-
mains exposed and is preserved unchanged for a much
longer time. But whether falling upon land or water
the stellar particles, on account of their high specific
gravity and their prevailingly metallic character, tend
sooner or later to sink beneath the lighter floating crust
of the lithosphere.
In its ultimate analysis the meteoritic hypothesis is not
so radically distinct from Laplace's nebular hypothesis
as some of its advocates would have us believe. It is
not so entirely novel as it might at first glance appear.
As shown by G. H. Darwin33 the meteoric swarm is dy-
namically analogous to a gas; and in reality the laws
of gases strictly apply.
Peculiarities of Desert Rock Weathering.
Insolation. The peculiarities of rock disintegration in
dry climates has an especial bearing upon meteoritical
augmentation in general, and in particular upon meteoric
phenomena displayed about Coon Butte. Without enter-
ing upon details emphasis may be laid upon the strictly
mechanical character of desert rock weathering. In arid
lands chemical rock decay is almost unknown. Destruc-
tion of rock-masses is accomplished mainly by spauling
due to great changes in diurnal temperatures at the sur-
face. To this distinctive geologic process the term inso-
lation is appropriately applied.
As Russell34 has pointed out, rock-decay appears to
be the direct result of normal climatic conditions ; in cold
or arid regions the rocks are scarcely at all decayed. The
surprisingly small extent of chemical decomposition
which rock-masses of the desert undergo is well shown
by the great talus slopes and other accumulations of col-
luvial deposits which form veritable rubble-heaps of pro-
33 Phil. Trans. Royal Soc. London, 180:1-69. 1889.
34 Bull. Geol. Soc. Amer. 1:134. 1890.
142 Trails. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.
digious size, with fragments so fresh to all appearances
that they seem to come direct from some titanic rock-
crusher. Even the adobe soils of arid regions, when
examined under the microscope, attest the strictly me-
chanical origin of their finest materials.
Under such climatic conditions basic or metallic masses
of meteoric origin must, without appreciable change in
chemical composition, remain indefinitely upon the sur-
face of the ground. Meteoric minerals that are highly
unstable under conditions of a moist climate do not in
a dry climate readily assume more stable forms.
Pebble Mosaics of the Desert. Eolation in the desert
gives rise to certain characteristics of the soil not met
with in moist lands. These features serve at once to ob-
scure meteoric masses as effectually as does thick vege-
tation. Singularly enough one of the most notable effects
of the winds upon the dry soils is, by the removal of the
finer materials, to impart a gravelly appearance to the
ground. Most arid plains-mantles are mainly composed
of fine loams. There are often sands; but as a whole
there is really little gravel or coarse rock.
That the desert loams have the appearance of gravels
is due to the fact that the winds constantly carry away
the loose fine materials. When the pebbles in the soil
are more abundant than usual it is not uncommon to find
areas acres in extent covered by a single layer of small
angular stones as closely and as evenly set as in mosaics.
Upon careful search it is probable that such pebble pave-
ments will yield meteoritic material even more abund-
antly than the bare rock-surface of the Canyon Diablo
region. In the interests of astronomy and cosmic geology
they are well worth systematic investigation. Applica-
tion of the Indian trader's methods and confinement of
effort to a search for the "heavy stones" and "green
stones" might soon disclose means more certain than at
present for distinguishing meteoric pebbles from the
myriads of the smaller rock fragments with which they
are mingled.
Keyes — Meteorites on the Painted Desert. 143
Black Coloration of Desert Rock Surfaces. For other
reasons also, meteoric masses might not be easy to rec-
ognize among the rock fragments of the pebble pave-
ments, or on the gravel-strewn plains. The majority of
the more basic rocks of the desert are susceptible to
notable discoloration and wind-polishing. Until the
pebbles are broken in two they give little suggestion of
the real lithologic character. The only clew in such
cases to meteoric material is sometimes the greenish tint
of certain pebbles, that is caused by a slight hydration
of the nickel content.
In arid regions the more basic iron-bearing rocks are
almost invariably coated with a black iron and manganese
film which, after being thoroughly polished by the wind-
blown dusts and sands, imparts every appearance of the
masses having been fused on the surface. In general
aspect it is not very unlike the surfaces of recently fallen
meteorites in moist lands. Among such dark laquered
rock-fragments it would be with the greatest difficulty
that true meteorites could be distinguished. That meteor-
ites do actually occur abundantly under such conditions
is now widely known among dwellers of the desert; and
that they will be more generally detected when especially
sought after is more than probable.
Exportation of Finer Rock-Waste. The general phases
of erosion of desert regions by the winds are fully de-
scribed in the recent writings of Walther,35 Pasarge,36
Spurr,37 Cross38 and others.39 Its bearing upon the dis-
closure of meteoric falls should be here emphasized. The
movement of desert soils and sands is to be regarded as
much more than a mere idle shifting of dry particles as
is commonly inferred. Besides the constant sweeping
back and forth of the soils and sands over the surface of
35Abhdl. K. Sachische Gesell. d. Wissenschaften, 16. 1901.
36 Zeitschrift d. deut. geol. Gesell. 56:193. 1904.
"Prof. Pap. U. S. Geol. Surv. 42:110. 1907.
38 Bull. Geol. Soc. Amer. 19:53-62. 1908.
89 JfeieZ. 19:63. 1908.
144 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.
the parched land there is in reality a steady and notable
advancement of soil materials in the direction of the pre-
vailing winds eventually transporting them far beyond
the boundaries of the arid tract. This exportation of
desert soil appears to be more rapid, more extensive, and
more constant than the flow of sediments in rivers from
an area of equal size.
Black Sands of Desert Soils and Arctic Snows.
Magnitude of Meteoric Augmentation. From the oc-
casionally recorded falls of the larger meteoric irons and
stones something of their nature has been made known.
Our prevailing conceptions of extra-terrestrial materials
are largely confined to such masses. In the broader
problems it is, however, the constant and almost imper-
ceptible shower of cosmic dust and smaller stellar parti-
cles upon the earth's surface that is of greatest conse-
quence. By this, and not by the rarer larger masses,
must the volume of cosmic augmentation to the earth's
bulk be measured.
Not only the magnitude but the more common evidences
of the cosmic dust shower ordinarily escape notice. This
is especially true in countries with moist climates. In
the last mentioned situations, about the only direct sug-
gestion of such phenomenon is the fact that hailstones
are frequently found containing small particles of what
is presumably meteoric iron.
In desert and cold portions of the globe the chances
of observation upon cosmic materials falling upon the
surface of the earth are much more favorable than they
possibly can be in moist countries. By the melting of
snow in the arctic regions fine metallic particles com-
posed mainly of iron, nickel, cobalt, etc., are obtained;
and their source often occasions wonderment. The
reality of the heavenly host and something of its impor-
tance may be gained when the frequency and numerical
extent of meteoric falls are taken into consideration. In
Keyes — Meteorites on the Painted Desert. 145
every 24 hours there are, according to Young,40 no less
than from 15,000,000 to 20,000,000 of meteorites entering
the earth's atmosphere. The collection of some thou-
sands of meteoritic stones and irons in the Canyon Diablo
district no longer demands the intervention of special
explanations to account for their reality.
It is however, to the desert regions of our earth that
we must turn in order to gain our chief knowledge con-
cerning the exact nature, great volume, and general pre-
valency of the meteoritic augmentation to the earth's
mass.
Abysmal Sea Deposits. The great abundance of those
peculiar masses brought up in deep-sea dredgings called
chondres which occur throughout the abysmal deposits
covering the floor of the ocean is especially noted by Mur-
ray and Renard41 in the reports of the Challenger expe-
dition. These masses are largely composed of basic min-
erals closely related to the earthy minerals known as
bronzite and with small doubt are of cosmic origin. The
materials from the bottom of the deep seas should be
examined anew in the light of their possible celestial
origin.
Dark Bands in Arctic Snow-fields. The banded appear-
ance of arctic glaciers has seldom found adequate expla-
nation. Its main cause appears to be due to layers of
fine dust and minute rock-fragments. Nordenskiold42 in
particular calls attention to the distinct layered appear-
ance of certain arctic snow-fields in which the dark zones
were found to be imparted by minute black grains most
of which were metallic in character. Chamberlain43 in
presenting some fine photographic views of the fronts
of the Bryant, Krakokla and other Greenland glaciers
specifically emphasizes the marked banded appearance.
Although he incidentally states that the dark bands are
40 Astronomy, 472. 1898.
"Narrative of the Cruise of H. M. S. Challenger, 2:809. 1885.
"Comptes rendus de 1'Acad. d. Sci., 77:463. 1873.
■"Jour. Geol. 3:568. 1895.
146 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.
composed of fine mineral particles and that the particles
are "mainly terrestrial" he gives no data upon which he
bases his latter conclusions, and he leaves it to be inferred
that he regards at least part of the material as meteoritic
in character. The myriads of dust-wells which the same
observer describes44 in the surface of the great Iglooda-
homyn glacier in Greenland seem to have a like signifi-
cance.
Metallic Sands of Arid Soils. Important as may be
such phenomena as are afforded by the larger Canyon
Diablo falls it is also to the desert regions that it seems
we must turn for information concerning the rain of
stellar dust. The prevalency of black sand-grains in the
desert soils has generally escaped notice. On the vast
high plains of the dry Mexican tableland fine metallic
particles occur abundantly in the soils miles removed
from the mountains, and from outcrops of igneous rocks.
The plains are so level, the distances so great, and the
rain-fall so scant, that it precludes the transportation of
the heavy grains by means of water. The high specific
gravity of the material must prevent their movement by
means of the winds. Yet after severe rain showers which
occur at rare intervals when little rills traverse the plains-
surface with its relative high gradients quantities of the
iron sands accumulate along their paths. A thorough
chemical investigation of the composition of these sands
would be highly instructive. The better known placer black
sands which have recently attracted wide attention are to-
tally distinct; and their origin may usually be directly
traced to decomposing igneous masses. The metallic sand-
particles of the desert rocks would long resist decay.
Should these particles prove to be undoubtedly of meteo-
ritic origin it would make such estimates of the average
meteoritic augmentation as those of Chamberlain and Sal-
isbury45 very inadequate. As it is these figures must be
vastly too low.
"IMd. 215.
"Geology, 1:381. 1905.
Keyes — Meteorites on the Painted Desert. 147
Bearing Upon Meteoritic Source of the Ores.
In the consideration of the petrologic aspects of the
larger stony masses termed meteorites in the same man-
ner as that by which the igneous rocks of the globe are
examined, suggestive relationships are at once estab-
lished. They appear to have a very important bearing
upon the source of the ore materials. Of the four main
groups usually recognized among the common terrestrial
rocks of igneous origin the ultra-basic class is quite rare.
Among the stony meteorites the rock-species distin-
guished are not only largely ultra-basic in character but
the cosmical series begins with the most basic of the
earthly classes and continues through yet unnamed series
in which the metals form a large proportion of their
make-up.
So long ago as 1871 Meunier40 recognized nearly 50
lithologic types among the meteorites, of most of which
he later47 described the microscopical characters and
among which he noted a wide range of metallic elements.
The metals occurring in meteorites include nearly all
of those found in the common ores. Gold and silver are
the only conspicuous metals which do not yet appear to
exist abundantly in celestial minerals. There are, how-
ever, good grounds why these two metals have not beeffl
reported; and other equally good reasons why certain
other metals seemingly occur only sparingly; so that the
apparent absence of some of these elements in the compo-
sition of known meteorites in no way precludes their de-
rivation from this source.
In explanation of the notable difference in the relative
abundance of elements in terrestrial and sideral rocks
it is suggested by Farrington48 that there are good
grounds for believing this unlikeness to be apparent
40 Geol. des. Meteorites: Moniteur scientifique Quesneville, 1 et 15
fevrier. 1871.
"Bull. Soc. d'Hist. nat. d'Autun. 16. 1893; and Ibid. 17. 1895.
4,Journ. Geol. 9:394. 1901.
148 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.
rather than real. Only the crust of the earth is com-
monly considered; and the analysis of most meteoritic
materials do not often show the true proportions of stony
matter.
On the theory of meteoritic agglomeration the original
and often the immediate source of ore materials cannot
be so largely magmatic as it is vadose in nature. Quali-
fied in some ways and somewhat strengthened in others,
the general arguments of Forschaminer, Sandberger,
Winslow, Van Hise and Bain assume a new interest and
an added value. The main shortcoming, if such it be, is
merely in ascribing a role or principal origin of the ore
materials to rock-weathering, when a somewhat broader
interpretation of the facts and conditions seems neces-
sary.
The manner by which metallic substances of meteoritic
origin may become incorporated with ore materials gen-
erally is not an intricate one. After reaching the surface
of the earth all cosmic dust and fragments must mingle
with the soil, more or less quickly oxidize, and enter
through means of the circulating ground-waters or other-
wise sooner or later reach the deep-seated zone, in the
same way as any of the heavier mineral particles liber-
ated from the surface rocks through decomposition are
supposed to do. The processes involved are essentially
the same as for the changes and movements of rock-form-
ing materials generally. The distinction to be made is
merely that instead of all of the ore materials being de-
rived from the breaking down of rocks of the lithosphere
a very large proportion is regarded as coming from extra-
terrestrial sources.
In the course of the inward migration of ore materials
temporary ore-bodies are often localized in the vadose
zone, and even lower down. How much of these mater-
ials is of recent extra-terrestrial origin and what propor-
tion is really a product of rock decay is at the present-
moment difficult to estimate. Even dominant notions
concerning ore-bodies seemingly directly associated with
Keyes — Meteorites on the Painted Desert. 149
igneous masses appear to be in need of careful revision.
The meteoritic phase has received as yet insufficient ap-
plication. That it is far more important than has been
suspected is clearly shown by recent observations on
desert ores. That this is the main source of vadose ore
materials now seems not unlikely. It is probable that
much of the so-called general metallic content of the sedi-
mentary rocks is in reality derived immediately from
meteoritic sources, for its derivation entirely from the
country-rock of mining districts especially those far re-
moved from volcanic activity, has never been a very sat-
isfactory explanation.
The supplies of metaliferous materials derived from
meteoritic sources, inferentially at least, equal if not
actually greatly exceed in amount those derived from the
secular decay of rock-masses. It is also a question
whether of the worked ore-bodies of the world the ma-
jority of mines are not really operated in the so-called
vadose ores. Casual perusal of the vast descriptive lit-
erature on the mines of the world appears to give ample
support to this statement.
Resume.
From the foregoing notes it may be inferred:
(1) That Coon Butte is most probably of volcanic ori-
gin ; the direct evidences being the numerous similar phe-
nomena in the vicinity showing undoubted connection
with the explosive type of vulcanism.
(2) That the great abundance of meteoritic materials
in the neighborhood of Coon Butte is due to favorable
climatic conditions coupled with marked deflative activity
on a hard rock stratum rather than to extensive comminu-
tion of a huge meteorite falling at this point.
(3) That as compared with the conditions afforded
by moist lands desert regions generally are exceptionally
favorable for the disclosure of abundant meteoritic ma-
terial.
150 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.
(4) That in the form of dust is probably the chief
meteoritic augmentation to the earth's volume, with the
abundance of metallic grains in the desert soils and arctic
snows as evidence.
(5) That the principal ultimate source of ore materials
is possibly meteoritic in character rather than magmatic.
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Transactions of The Academy of Science of St. Louis.
VOL. XIX. No. lO.
ECOLOGICAL NOTES ON THE CLADOCERA AND
COPEPODA OF AUGUSTA, GEORGIA, WITH
DESCRIPTIONS OF NEW OR LITTLE KNOWN
SPECIES.
C. H. TURNER.
Issued December 31, 1910.
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Continued on page 3 of Cover.
ECOLOGICAL NOTES ON THE CLADOCERA AND
COPEPODA OF AUGUSTA, GEORGIA, WITH
DESCRIPTIONS OF NEW OR LITTLE
KNOWN SPECIES.*
C. H. TUKNEK.
This communication is but a fragment of what was
planned to be an exhaustive ecological study of the Clado-
cera and Copepoda of Augusta, Georgia. The various
ponds and other bodies of water were visited at regular
intervals, a careful record made of the temperature of the
water and the condition of the body of water, and a collec-
tion made with a Birge dredge. These collections were
taken to my laboratory and worked over at once. The
species were identified and measured and, usually, a rec-
ord made of other small animals that were collected at the
same time. When this work had been in progress for a
little more than one year, it was suddenly terminated be-
cause I then left Augusta to reside, permanently, in an-
other part of the country. Partly as the result of ravages
of mice and partly because, as the work progressed, my
ideas as to what measurements were essential underwent
a change, the records are not so complete as I would like.
However, since it will be impossible for me to complete
the work; and since so little has been published on the
ecology of the American entomostraca, I have thought
it best to publish the data that I have.
Augusta, Georgia, is situated on the fall line separating
the Piedmont Plateau from the Atlantic Coastal Plain.
At this point, the level, sandy plain is dotted with numer-
ous artificial ponds. These ponds, which have been exca-
vated by the numerous brick-yards of the locality, vary
in extent from a few square yards to several acres. There
are also a few creeks, which empty into the Savannah
*Presented by the title to The Academy of Science of St. Louis,
December 5, 1910.
(151)
152 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.
River, and several lagoons and numerous ditches. The
brick-yard ponds, the ages of which varied from less than
a year to more than twenty years, lay in a flood plain ; but,
since there had not been a large flood for twenty years,
they furnished an excellent opportunity for the study
of the succession of entomostracan life in fresh water
ponds. When the work had been in progress a few
months, there occurred a large flood, which, temporarily,
turned all of these ponds into one vast lake. This com-
mingling of the waters of the several ponds defeated the
most important aim of this series of studies. For this
reason, no mention of the relative ages of the different
ponds is made in this communication. Since no collec-
tions were made at the time of the flood nor for several
weeks after it had completely subsided, it is thought that
the data giving the entomostracan associates of each form
are reliable.
The tables that are found in the body of this communi-
cation record things as they were in Augusta at the time
of this investigation; but, they do not pretend to predi-
cate what must be the conditions elsewhere. Indeed, since
the period of study extended over only a little more than
one year, it would be claiming too much to insist that the
conditions here recorded must be invariably the case even
in Augusta. However, such facts as are recorded are
positive and it is thought that they will be of some value
to future students of the ecology of the Entomostraca.
One fact that I noticed deserves more than passing at-
tention. Not once in my Augustan experience did I find
a cladoceran bearing "winter eggs." It is well known
that, in warm climates, the Cladocera do not form "win-
ter eggs" ; but, since many of my collections were made in
water with a temperature of a little above zero centi-
grade, the result just recorded was not expected. In-
deed, I often broke a thin layer of ice in order to make
my collections. In Ohio, where the winters are much
more severe than they are in Augusta, I have often found
cladocerans bearing "winter eggs" in water that was
Turner — Ecological Notes — Cladocera and Copepoda. 153
free from even a suggestion of ice. Although I did not
take the temperature of the water in those Ohio ponds,
yet, since no ice had formed on the surface, it was cer-
tainly higher than zero centigrade. It seems then that
a temperature which would be low enough to induce clad-
ocerans of a cold clime to produce ''winter eggs" is not
necessarily low enough to induce those of a milder climate
to do so. My records do not show whether or no male
cladocerans occur in Augusta; the Copepoda, both the
Calanidae and the Cyclopidae, produce numerous males.
It is not claimed that observations made throughout one
winter are sufficient to warrant the assertion that the
Cladocera of Augusta never form "winter eggs;" but
this does not militate against the statement made above.
COPEPODA.
Calanidae.
diaptomus Westwood.
1. diaptomus sanguineus Forbes, var. minnetonka Her-
rick.
Diaptomus sanguineus, Forbes, '76, pp. 15, 16, 23; fig. 24, 28-30.
Diaptomus minnetonka, Herrick & Turner, '95, pp. 71-72; PI. XIII.,
Fig. 8-10.
Diaptomus sanguineus, Schacht, '97, pp. 133-137, PI. XXIIL-XXV.
Near Augusta, this form, which is abundant, seems to
be confined to marshes and ditches having a temperature
of from 10° to 16° C. Associated with it, in addition to
the entomostracans mentioned in table I., were : — young
crayfish, Brancippi, Assellidae, gammarids, water-boat-
men, hydraclmids, and planarians.
2. diaptomus stagnalis Forbes.
Diaptomus stagnalis, Forbes, '82, p. 646; PI. VIII., Fig. 8, 10-12, 14.
Diaptomus stagnalis, Herrick and Turner, '95, pp. 66, 67; PI. III.;
XIII., Fig. 11, 13.
Diaptomus stagnalis, Schacht, '97, pp. 138-141; PI. XXVIII. , Fig. 2.
Alike D. sanguineus, this species is an inhabitant of
marshes and ditches ; but is more abundant. I have never
found D. sanguineus except in company with D. stagnalis,
154 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.
but I have frequently found the latter in places where
the former was not in evidence.
The temperature of the water in which it was found
varied from 4° to 12° C.
The females varied much in color. From some localities, the specimens
were blood red all over, except dark streaks due to eggs in the brood-
sac; from other localities, the thorax was bright blue tinged with yel-
low, through which shone the orange to brown digestive tract, the distal
half of the abdomen was orange, the antennae were reddish brown, and
the legs a deep blue; from another locality the body was straw color,
with a dash of red on the antennae and a portion of the thorax, while
the legs were almost black. With one exception, the males encountered
were all bright red. The exception was a pale, pink male found among
a large number of males of the typical color. This was probably a case
of albinism.
The dimensions of the females are given in table IV. The following
dimensions of the male are averages derived from measurements of
twenty-five individuals. Length of the thorax 2.13 mm., length of the
abdomen 1.04 mm., length of the abdominal furca 0.14 mm., length of
the abdominal setae 0.70 mm., total length, excluding the abdominal
setae, 3.17 mm., total length, including the abdominal setae, 3.87 mm.
Associated with it, in addition to the Entomostraca
mentioned in table I., were : Brancippi, Assellidae, gam-
marids, water-boatmen, diving beetles, hydrachnids, pla-
narians, Limnaeus, and Hydra fusca.
3. Diaptomus augustaensis, n. sp.
PI. XXXVI. f. 1-4.
This is a small, slender species closely related to D.
ashmedi.
Female. — Thorax long and slender, almost three times as long as
wide: suture between the head and thorax distinct in fresh specimens;
but indistinct on the dorsal aspect of specimens mounted in balsam.
The last two thoracic segments distinct, the last strongly bifid; each arm
of the bifurcation broad and slightly concave on the posterior margin,
with the two posterior angles terminating in a sharp spine or tooth.
The abdomen is slender; including the furca, it is not half so long
as the cephalothorax. The first abdominal somite, which is about as
long as the remainder of the abdomen, including the furcal rami, is
dilated laterally and armed on each side with a prominent spine; the
second segment is slightly shorter than the third; the furcal rami are
about twice as long as wide.
The 25-jointed antennae reach about to the base of the furcal rami.
On the fifth foot, the basal joint bears, at its outer angle, a small spine;
Turner — Ecological Notes — Cladocera and Copepoda. 155
the basal joint of the outer ramus is a trifle over twice as long as
wide; the second segment is slightly shorter than the first, it tapers
to a sharp point and curves inward (towards the inner ramus); about
half way up the concave margin, there is a prominent tooth, between
this tooth and the tip there are numerous fine serrations. [This tooth
is a constant feature, but is not to be seen in mounts that show a
cephalic rather than a lateral view.] There is the merest trace of a
third joint, this bears two long setae, which are finely pectinated, and a
shorter seta. The inner ramus, which is about as long as the first
joint of the outer ramus, is of about uniform width throughout and
terminates in two sub-equal setae, which are usually hairy.
Viewed from the side, the dorsal margin is feebly but uniformly con-
vex.
Male. — The inner distal angle of the geniculate antenna is extended
into a straight, pointed, process, which is longer than the penultimate
joint.
On the inner border of the basal segment of the larger fifth leg there
is a hyaline plate which is more than half as long as the segment, and
bears on its inner distal angle a prominent tooth. The inner margin of
the second basal segment is strongly convex and bears a narrow hyaline
flange. The proximal fourth of the inner margin of the distal joint of
the outer ramus of this leg is convex; the next two fourths concave;
near the convexity, in the proximal portion of this concavity, there is a
prominent spine. This distal segment is about twice as long as broad
and its broadest part is its distal border; from its outer angle, springs
a stout, pectinated, lateral spine, which is about half as long as the
segment; from the inner angle of this border arises a sickle-like seta,
which is longer than the outer ramus of the leg. The inner ramus
of the leg is sub-clavate and extends to about the middle of the distal
joint of the outer ramus; its free blunt end bears, at about its middle,
a small tooth.
The smaller fifth leg reaches to a little beyond the base of the last
segment of the larger leg.
This form was found in only one locality, which was a
temporary pond in a marsh. The depth of the water
was from two to six inches, the bottom was covered with
plants (dead), the temperature of the water was 4° C.
4. Diaptomus mississippiensis Marsh.
Diaptomus mississippiensis, Marsh, '94, p. 15; pi. I., fig. 1-3.
Diaptomus mississippiensis, Herrick & Turner, '95, p. 78; pi.
XLVIL, fig. 1-3.
Diaptomus mississippiensis, Schacht, '97, pp. 173-176; pi.
XXXIIL, fig. 1-4.
This was found in only one pond ; but it was abundant
in both shallow and deep water. The temperature of the
156 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.
water varied from 16° C. to 21° C. The pond was about
ten years old and, in the shallow places, many plants
were found.
The length of the female varied from 1.32 mm. to 1.57
mm.
In addition to the Entomostraca mentioned in table I.,
associated with it were hydrachnids, may-fly larvae, roti-
fers, snails, water-boatmen.
Cyclopidae.
cyclops 0. F. Mueller.
5. cyclops vikidis Jurine, var. brevispinosus Herrick.
Cyclops brevispinosus, Herrick and Turner, '95, p. 95; pi. XXIII. ,
fig. 1-4; pi. XXIV., fig. 7-12.
Cyclops viridis, var. brevispinosus, E. B. Forbes, '97, p. 41; pi.
XL, fig. 1-2.
This form was found on only one occasion ; then it was
in a roadside ditch with a temperature of 15° C.
6. cyclops viridis Jurine, var. insectus Forbes.
Cyclops insectus, Forbes, '82, p. 649; pi. IX., fig. 6.
Cyclops viridis, var. americanus, Herrick & Turner, '95, pp. 91-
92; pi. XIV., fig. 1-9.
Cyclops viridis, var. insectus, E. B. Forbes, '97, pp. 41-44; pi. XL,
fig. 3-6.
In the neighborhood of Augusta, this form is widely
distributed; it is found in ditches, marshes, no-outlet
ponds and ponds with outlets. Where there is an abund-
ance of algae and other vegetation, this species is almost
certainly to be found. The temperature of the water
varied from 4° C. to 19° C.
It is frequently covered with parasitic Protozoa, the
color of which is often green.
7. cyclops viridis Jurine, var. ingens Herrick.
Cyclops ingens, Herrick & Turner, '95, p. 92; pi. XXV., fig. 1-8.
This variety was found in six localities ; but always in
either a flooded meadow, a marsh, or other temporary
Turner — Ecological Notes — Cladocera and Copepoda. 157
pond. The temperature of the water varied from 4° C. to
8° C. In those places and under those conditions, the
species was abundant. This is a very large form.
On one occasion, in a pond formed by the overflow of
Butler's Creek, I found a specimen which had the struc-
tural peculiarities of C. ingens, but a size but little larger
than the large forms of C. insectus. The dimensions were
as follows: length of the first thoracic somite 0.74 mm.,
length of the thorax 1.20 mm., length of the abdomen 0.60,
length of the abdominal furca 0.18, length of the abdom-
inal setae 1.18, total length, excluding the setae, 1.80,
total length, including the setae, 2.98, length of the anten-
nae 0.78. width of the first abdominal somite 0.22, width
of the remainder of the abdomen 0.16, length of the ab-
dominal furca 0.06.
Gammarus was associated with this variety.
8. CYCLOPS BICUSPIDATUS ClaUS.
Cyclops foroesi, Herrick & Turner, '95, p. 104.
Cyclops bicuspidatus, E. B. Forbes, '97, pp. 44-47; pi. XII., fig. 1-4.
This form was found in three localities : among plants,
in a marsh; in the weedy, temporary, portion of a no-out-
let pond ; and in a shallow lagoon with a bare red-clay bot-
tom. The temperature of the water varied from 12° 0.
to 15° C.
In addition to the Entomostraca mentioned in the
table, associated with it were gammarids, hydrachnids,
and may-fly larvae.
9. cyclops signatus Koch, var. coronatus Claus.
Cyclops signatus, var. coronatus, Herrick & Turner, '95, p. 106;
pi. XV., fig. 1-4.
This variety was found in two localities ; in the shallow,
grassy, edge of a large pond which was fed and drained
by a large creek; and in a large hole filled by the over-
flow from Butler's Creek. The temperature of the water
was 8° C. The specimens were conspicuously banded
with blue.
158 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.
10. CYCLOPS SIGNATUS Kocll, Vai\ TENUICORNIS ClaUS.
Cyclops signatus, var. tenuicornis, Herrick & Turner, '95, pp. 106,
107; pi. XV., fig. 5-7; pi. XX., fig. 1-7; pi. XXXIIL, fig. 1, 2.
Cyclops alUdus. E. B. Forbes, '97, pp. 47-49; pi. XIII.
This form is common about Augusta. I found it in
marshes, in no-outlet ponds containing much vegetation,
and in lagoons that were almost free from aquatic vege-
tation; when the temperature of the water ranged from
6° C. to 15° C. On no occasion did I find this variety
associated with the variety coronahis.
11. cyclops ater Herrick.
Cyclops ater, Herrick & Turner, '95, pp. 89-90; pi. VI., fig. 11, 12;
pi. XII., fig. 9-12; XXI., fig. 13-15, 17, 18.
Cyclops ater, E. B. Forbes, '97, pp. 49-51; pi. XIV., and pi. XV.,
fig. 1-3.
This form was found in the temporary portion of a
no-outlet pond, in temporary ponds, and in a pond fed
by the overflow from a large creek. The temperature
of the water ranged from 4° C. to 17° C. The color of
the thorax varied from dark blue to almost black.
12. cyclops serrulatus Fischer.
Cyclops serrulatus, Herrick & Turner, '95, pp. 111-112; pi. XV.;
fig. 8-11; pi. XIX., fig. 2-5; pi. XXVI., fig. 10; pi. XXIX., fig.
17-19.
Cyclops serrulatus, E. B. Forbes, '97, pp. 54-57; pi. XVII., pi.
XVIII., fig. 1-3.
This is the commonest copepod about Augusta. It
abounds in temporary ponds, ditches and permanent
ponds of both types. It is found among vegetation and
where the aquatic vegetation is practically absent. The
temperature of the water in which it was found varied
from 4° C. to 28.5° C.
In addition to the Entomostraca mentioned in the table,
associated with it were gammarids, hydrachnids, may-
fly larvae, diving beetles, larvae of Diptera, planarians,
rotifers, snails, water-boatmen, Hydra.
Turner — Ecological Notes — Cladocera and Copepoda. 159
13. CYCLOPS PHALERATUS Kocll.
Cyclops phaleratus, Herrick & Turner, '95, pp. 120, 121; pi. XVII.,
fig. 1-7; pi. XVIII., fig. 2-2d; pi. XIX., fig. 1; pi. XXL, fig.
6-10.
Cyclops phaleratus, E. B. Forbes, '97, pp. 59-63; pi. XX., fig. 3.
This form was found in only one locality and on only
one occasion. Then it was collected, among vegetation,
in the temporary portion of a large no-outlet pond, the
temperature of the water of which was 21° C.
14. cyclops FiMBRiATUS Fischer.
Cyclops fimbriatus, Herrick & Turner, '95, pp. 121-122; pi. XVIL,
fig. 8, 9; pi. XXL, fig. 11; pi. XXV., fig. 9-14.
This form is rare about Augusta. It was found on
only one occasion; then it was found, among cat-tail
rushes and weeds, in a large no-outlet pond, the surface
of which was covered with duck weeds.
Harpacticidae.
canthocamptus.
15. canthocamptus minutus, Herrick & Turner, '95, pp.
131, 132 ; pi. XLVIL, fig. 7-21 ; pi. L., fig. 7, 8.
This form was found in two localities, among filamen-
tous algae, in a shallow, sandy, marsh, and in a hole fed
by a creek. The temperature of the water varied from
4° C. to 12° C.
CLADOCERA.
SlDIDAE.
pseudosida Herrick.
16. pseudosida tridentata Herrick.
Pseudosida tridentata, Herrick & Turner, '95, pp. 147-148; pi.
XXXVL, figs. 2-6; pi. L., fig. 9.
Near Augusta, this form is rare. It was found on only
one occasion ; then it was encountered, among submerged
160 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.
plants, in the temporary portion of a permanent, no-
outlet, pond.
In addition to the Entomostraca mentioned in the table,
associated with it were dipterous larvae, gammarids, and
may-fly larvae.
daphnella Baird.
17. DAPHNELLA BRANDTIANA Fischer.
Daphnella brandtiana. Birge, '91, p. 382.
Daphnella brandtiana, Herrick & Turner, '95, p. 149; pi. XXXVII.,
fig. 3-6.
This species was found on only one occasion; then it
was collected, in large numbers, in a large no-outlet pond,
in which there was no vegetation. The temperature of
the water was 19° C.
18. MOINA BEACHIATA Jurine.
Moina brachiata, Herrick & Turner, '95, pp. 162-163 ; pi. XXXIX.,
fig. 5-8; pi. XLIIL, fig. 1, 2.
This form is abundant about Augusta, among plants,
in one of the large no-outlet ponds.
ceriodaphnia Dana.
19. CERIODAPHNIA MEGOPS SarS.
Ceriodaphnia cristata, Birge, '78, p. 6; pi. II., fig. 8, 9.
Ceriodaphnia megops, Herrick & Turner, '95, pp; 168-169; pi.
XLL, fig. 20.
About Augusta, this form is abundant in ditches and
marshes with a water temperature of 4° to 12° C.
scAPHOLEBEBis Schoedler.
20. SCAPHOLEBERIS MUCRONATA Mueller.
Scapholeberis mucronata, Birge '78, pp. 8-9; pi. I., fig. 7.
Scapholeberis mucronata, Herrick & Turner, '95, pp. 174-175; pi.
XLIIL, fig. 4-7; pi. XLV., fig. 5.
This species was found, in abundance, in several of the
temporary ponds having a temperature of from 4° C. to
10° C.
Turner — Ecological Notes — Cladocera and Copepoda. 161
21. simocephalus vetulus Mueller.
Simocephalus vetulus, Birge, '78, p. 8.
Simocephalus vetulus, Herrick & Turner, '95, p. 178; pi. XLIV.,
fig. 7; LIL, fig. 6-9.
This form was found, in large numbers, in three tem-
porary ponds, the water temperature of which was 4° C.
to 8° C.
22. SIMOCEPHALUS SERRULATUS Koch.
Simocephalus americanus, Birge, '78, pp. 6-8; pi. I., fig. 6.
Simocephalus cerrulatus, Herrick & Turner, '95, p. 179.
Simocephalus americanus, Herrick & Turner, '95, p. 179; pi.
XLV., fig. 9.
About Augusta, this form is abundant in ditches,
marshes, no-outlet ponds, and holes fed by creeks. The
temperature of the water in which it was found varies
from 4° C. to 29° C.
In addition to the Entomostraca mentioned in the table,
associated with it were hydrachnids, gammarids, may-fly
larvae, diving beetles, water-boatmen, Brancippus, drag-
on-fly larvae, and Limnaeus.
daphnia Schoedler.
23. daphnia schoedleri Sars.
Daphnia schoedleri, Herrick & Turner, '95, p. 193.
This species was found in temporary ponds with a
water temperature of from 8° C. to 15° C. The number
of teeth upon the postabdomen varied from six to ten,
otherwise it corresponds with the species found by Brady
in England.
24. daphnia hyalina Leydig.
PI. XXXVII. f. 1-8.
Daphnia laevis, Birge, '78, pp. 12-13; pi. II., fig. 5-7.
Daphnia hyalina, Birge, '91, pp. 388-389.
Daphnia hyalina, Herrick & Turner, '95, pp. 195-196; pi. XXII.,
fig. 7, 8; pi. XXVII., fig. 6; pi. XXXV., fig. 16; pi. XLIX.,
fig. 3-5; pi. LIIL, fig. 1-4.
This form was very abundant in two of the large no-
outlet ponds. It was found in water with a temperature
of from 19° C. to 20° C.
Ig2 Trans. Acad. Set. of St. Louis.
All who have had a first-hand acquaintance with Daph-
nia hyalina have noticed the marked morphological differ-
ence of individuals captured from the same pond. In
some the head bears a spine, in others it does not ; in some
the dorsal spine is short, in others it is long; in some
cases the spine is at the dorso-caudal angle of the shell,
in others it is lower down. Heretofore, so far as my
knowledge goes, these forms have been considered indi-
vidual peculiarities, distinct varieties, or even distinct
species. The relative length of the spine is apparently
an individual matter, at least its relative size is not deter-
mined by the age of the animal. In the forms that are
found around Augusta, the other differences are differ-
entiations due to age. In the young embryo in the brood
pouch, the caudal spine is so bent down and appressed
against the body that the posterior border of the body
appears to be rounded (PL XXXVII. f. 1) or slightly
pointed (PL XXXVII. f. 2) and the head is spineless.
The free swimming but immature form has a long caudo-
dorsal spine and a short, but prominent, head spine (PL
XXXVII. f. 3) ; in this stage the body is relatively quite
long. Between now and the breeding stage, the body
becomes relatively much higher; otherwise there is no
marked change, except, perhaps, a slight shortening of
the spine on the head (PL XXXVII. f. 4-5). When the
animal begins to breed, the long spine on the posterior
border progressively retreats ventrad; this is due to the
enormous development of the brood sac (the old female
bearing fully three times as many eggs as the youngest
breeders— PL XXXVII. f. 6-8). In old forms the spine
on the head disappears entirely (PL XXXVII. f. 8).
bosmina Baird.
25. BOSMINA. LONGIKOSTEIS 0. F. M.
Bosmina longirostris, Birge, '78, p. 15.
Bosmina longirostris, Herrick & Turner, '95, p. 207; pi. XLV., fig.
2; pi. LXV., fig. 2.
This form was abundant in the temporary portions of
a large no-outlet pond, at a water temperature of 21° C. ;
Turner — Ecological Notes — Cladocera and Copepoda. 163
in that same pond, at another season Bosmina atlantaen-
sis was found.
26. bosmina atlantaensis Turner.
Bosmina atlantaensis, Turner, '94, p. 23; pi. VII., fig. 12, 13.
Bosmina atlantaensis, Herrick & Turner, '95, p. 209; p. 273.
In the light of our present knowledge of the genus, the
original description of this species was too condensed;
hence I am giving a more complete description.
The shell is smooth; length greater than the height; the body uni-
formly arched from the caudo-dorsal margin to the beak, vental
margin straight; caudal margin less than half the greatest
height, which is slightly caudad of the middle. The flagellum is about
midway between the eye and the beak, or slightly nearer the beak. In
a few cases, there was a faint trace of a pigment fleck at the base
of the flagellum. The spine is short and slightly curved caudad; an-
tennules nearly twice as long as the greatest height of the animal.
They are slender and slightly, but uniformly, curved from the beak
to their tip. The sensory seta is much nearer to the beak than to
the tip of the antennules.
This species is abundant in two permanent, no-outlet
ponds, in which the water had a temperature of from 10°
to 16° C.
Ever since reading Burckhardt 's Faunistische und sys-
tematische Studien ueber das Zooplankton der grosseron
Seen der Schweiz und ihrer Grenzgebiete, I have been in-
clined to regard this as a variety of Bosmina longirostris;
but, since there is still some uncertainty in my mind, I
have not felt it wise to change the name.
27. Bosmina reversaspina n. sp.
PI. XXXVIII. f. 1.
The body is longer than wide and the greatest height is in front
of the middle; indistinctly marked with irregular striae, which run,
approximately, parallel to the dorsal surface; on the head these lines
converge towards the front. In specimens mounted in Canada balsam,
no markings are visible on the lower part of the body, nor on the
head. The dorsal margin is uniformly convex, protruding a little in
front of the eye; ventral margin is nearly straight. The flagellum
is near the eye; the beak is short; antennules long and slightly curved.
The spines are long and stout and curved towards the front (cephalad),
toothed on the posterior borders. (In no other Bosmina do we find
a spine of this type). The postabdomen is truncated, convex at its
Ig4 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.
caudo-ventral angle; on the caudal margin, near the caudo-ventral
angle, are several small bristles; the claws are slightly flexible and
bear neither spines nor teeth; but, on their caudal margins, there are
several bristles.
Habitat : Augusta, Ga. ; shallow marsh with a grassy
bottom and a water temperature of 12° C. ; collected Jan-
uary 23, 1908. Besides the Entomostraca mentioned in
the table, associated with it were gammarids, Asselidae,
hydrachnids, etc., but no filamentous algae. The grass
was dead.
acantholeberis Lilljeborg.
28. ACANTHOLEBERIS CURVIROSTRIS 0. F. M.
Acantholeberis eurvirostris, Herrick & Turner, '95, p. 218; pi.
XLVL, fig. 1-4.
This rare form was found, on only one occasion, in a
hole fed by the overflow from Butler's Creek. The tem-
perature of the water was 8° C. To the best of my know-
ledge, this is the first time that this form has been found
in America.
ILYOCRYPTUS.
29. ilyocryptus spinifer Herrick.
Ilyocryptus longiremus, Birge, '91, pp. 392-393; pi. XIII., fig. 18.
Ilyocryptus spinifer, Herrick & Turner, '95, pp. 221-223; pi. LV.,
fig. 1-4; pi. LVL, fig. 18, 19, 21.
Near Augusta, this species is rare. The water in
which it was found had a temperature of 6° C.
eurycerus Baird.
30. eurycerus lamellatus 0. F. M.
PI. XXXVIII. /. 2.
Eurycercus lamellatus, Herrick & Turner, '95, p. 226; pi. XL VI.,
fig. 7, 8; pi. LI., fig. 6; pi. LX., fig. 5, 6; pi. LXIL, fig. 19.
In Butler's Creek and in the ponds fed and drained
by it, this species is abundant, when the water tempera-
ture ranges from 4° C. to 8° C.
In addition to the Entomostraca mentioned in the table,
associated with it were gammarids, may-fly larvae, diving-
beetles, and hydrachnids.
Turner — Ecological Notes — Cladocera and Copepoda. 165
camptocercus. Baird.
31. CAMPTOCERCUS MACRURUS 0. F. M.
Camptocercus macrurus, Birge, '91, p. 395.
Camptocercus macrurus, Herrick & Turner, '95, pp. 229-230; pi.
LXL, fig. 10, 10a.
This is one of the most widely distributed of the Clado-
cera of Augusta; it being found in temporary ponds, in
no-outlet permanent ponds, and in permanent ponds with
an outlet; and at water temperatures of from 4° C. to 21°
C. In addition to the Entomostraca mentioned in the
table, associated with it were dragon-fly larvae, hydrach-
nids, Limnaeus, and may-fly larvae.
alonopsis Sars.
32. ALONOPSIS LATISSIMA KurZ.
Alonopsis latissima, Herrick & Turner, '95, p. 232; pi. LXL, fig.
8; pi. LXIIL, fig. 1 & 9.
This form was found on only one occasion ; then it was
collected, on December 12, 1907, among submerged plants,
in a no-outlet, permanent, pond.
LEYDIGIA KurZ.
33. LEYDIGIA QUADRANGULARIS Leydig.
Leydigia quadrangularis, Herrick & Turner, '95, p. 234; pi. LIX.,
fig. 6; pi. LX., fig. 4.
This form was found in a no-outlet, permanent, pond
and in a marsh, when the water temperature was 16° C.
and 17° C. respectively.
alona Sars.
34. alona quadrangularis Mueller.
Alona oblonga, Birge, '78, p. 31.
Alona quadrangularis, Herrick & Turner, '95, pp. 240-241; pi.
LXL, fig. 1, 2.
Although not abundant, this species was found in four
localities ; a temporary pond, two no-outlet ponds, and a
creek. The temperature of the water was 8° C.
166 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.
35. AL0NA INTERMEDIA SarS.
Alona intermedia, Herrick & Turner, '95, pp. 244-245; pi. LXIL,
fig. 15.
This species was found on only one occasion; then it
was in a marsh having a water temperature of 12° C.
The bottom was grassy, the grass was dead.
36. ALONA CORONATA KurS.
Alona coronata, Herrick & Turner, '95, p. 247.
This form was found on only one occasion ; then it was
collected, in abundance, from a ditch in a marsh, in Jan-
uary, 1908.
PLEURoxus P. E. Mueller.
37. PLEUROXUS DENTICULATUS Birge.
Pleuroxus denticulatus , Birge, '78, pp. 20-21; pi. I., fig. 21.
Pleuroxus denticulatus, Herrick & Turner, '95, p. 256; pi. XLV.,
fig. 8; pi. LXIII., fig. 10a, 12, 13.
Near Augusta, this species was common, among vege-
tation, in certain marshes and no-outlet, permanent,
ponds, having a water temperature from 8° C. to 17° C.
38. PLEUROXUS HAMATUS BirgC
Pleuroxus hamatus, Birge, '78, pp. 22-23; pi. II., fig. 13, 14.
Pleuroxus hamatus, Herrick & Turner, '95, p. 257; pi. LX., fig. 1.
This species was abundant, among vegetation, in two
of the large, no-outlet, permanent ponds ; at a water tem-
perature of from 16° C. to 21° C.
chydorus Leach.
39. CHYDORUS SPHAERICUS 0. F. M.
Chydorus sphaericus, Birge, '78, pp. 23, 24.
Chydorus sphaericus, Herrick & Turner, '95, p. 261; pi. LXIV.,
fig. 4, 7, 8, 10.
This species was abundant in several of the no-outlet,
permanent, ponds. It was found among vegetation and
also where there was practically no vegetation. The
temperature of the water in which it was found varied
from 10° C. to 29° C.
Turner — Ecological Notes — Cladocera and Copepoda. 157
List of Articles Referred to in this Communication.
BIRGB, E. A.
'78. Notes on Cladocera.
'91. List of Crustacea Cladocera from Madison, Wisconsin. (Trans.
Wisconsin Acad. Sci. 8: 379-398, pi. 13.)
FORBES, S. A.
'76. List of Illinois Crustacea, with Descriptions of New Species.
(Bull. 111. State Lab. Nat. Hist. 1: 3-25.)
'82. On some Entomostraca of Lake Michigan and Adjacent Waters.
(Am. Nat. 16: 537-543, 640-650, pis. 8-9.)
FORBES, E. B.
'97. A Contribution to a Knowledge of the North American Fresh-
Water Cyclopidae. (Bull. 111. State Lab. Nat. Hist. 5: 27-82,
pis. 8-20.)
HERRICK, C. L., and TURNER, C. H.
'95. Synopsis of the Entomostraca of Minnesota. (Geol. Nat. Hist.
Surv. Minnesota, Zool. Series 2: 1-524, pis. 1-81.)
MARSH, C. D.
'94. On two New Species of Diaptomus. (Trans. Wisconsin Acad.
Sci., Arts, Letters 10: 15-17, pi. 1.)
SCHACHT, F. W.
'97. The North American Species of Diaptomus. (Bull. 111. State
Lab. Nat, Hist. 5: 97-207, pis. 21-35.)
TURNER, C. H.
'94. Notes on the Cladocera of Georgia. (Bull. Sci. Lab. Denison
Univ. 8: 22-25, pi. 7.)
168
Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.
TABLE I.
ENTOMOSTRACAN ASSOCIATES.
to
3
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3
C
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to
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03
3
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to
to
3
s
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ft
a
5
COPEPODA.
1. Canthocamptus minutus
1
1
1
3
2
1
1
2
c
1
1
1
1
2
1
1
1
1
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1
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C
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1
1
9
c
1
i
1
1
1
c
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c
CLADOCERA.
1
1
1
1
3
1
1
1
1
1
1
3
3
2
1
2
1
C
1
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1
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1
3
1
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1
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1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
2
2
c
3
1
1
1
1
2
1
C
2
2
2
1
1
1
3
1
C
2
1
2
1
C
2
i
1
1
The numerals in the columns indicate the number of times the form opposite which
head of the column in which the figure is found; the letter "c" indicates more than
Turner — Ecological Notes — Cladocera and Copepoda.
169
7!
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si
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55
CO
1
1
1
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1
1
1
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1 1
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1
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1
1
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1
1
1
1
...
1
1
1
1
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1
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1
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2
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1
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1
1
3
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c
1
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c
1
3
2
2
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3
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c
1
2
1
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1
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2
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1
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1
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1 1
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9
1
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1
c
1
1 1
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1
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c
1
1
1
3
1
C
2
C
1
c
3
c
1
1
2
2
2
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
2
2
C
1
c
c
1
1
3
c
3
c
C
1 1
1
1
2
1
1
3
c
3
C
1
1
C
3
3
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1
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2
c
1 2
2
2
C
c
3
3
a
2
each is placed
three times.
was found associated with th e animal the name of which stands at the
170
Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.
TABLE II.
DISTRIBUTION OP AUGUSTAN CLADOCERA AND COPEPODA ACCORD-
ING TO TEMPERATURE.
6
o
i
o
©
U
o
1
0
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1
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rH
6
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1
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in
6
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i
o
lO
COPEPODA.
1. Canthocamptus minutus
p
p
p
p
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
6. Cyclops serrulatus
p
p
p
p
P
P
7. Cyclops signatus coronatus..
8. Cyclops signatus tenuicornis.
P
P
P
9. Cyclops viridis brevispinosus.
10. Cyclops viridis ingens
p
p
11. Cyclops viridis insectus
p
p
P
P
12. Diaptomus augustaensis
13. Diaptomus mississippiensis. . .
P
P
P
P
P
p
p
p
CLADOCERA.
16. Acantholeberis curvirostris. .
P
p
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
24. Camptocercus macrurus
p
p
p
p
P
P
26. Chydorus sphaericus
P
P
P
P
P
P
28. Daphnia hyalina
P
29. Daphnia schoedleri
p
p
p
P
30. Eurycercus lamellatus
p
32. Leydigia quadrangularis
P
P
p
P
P
P
35. Pleuroxus hamatus
P
37. Scapholeberis mucronata
p
p
p
p
p
p
P
P
38. Simocephalus serrulatus
P
P
P
A "p" indicates that the animal mentioned in the left-hand column
was present.
An "*" indicates that the record was lost.
Turner — Ecological Notes — Cladocera and Copepoda. 171
TABLE III.
DISTRIBUTION OF AUGUSTAN CLADOCERA AND COPEPODA ACCORD-
ING TO THE CHARACTER OF THE HABITAT.
o
s
CO
u
3 •
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u
O
COPEPODA.
p
p
p
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
6. Cyclops serrulatus
p
P
p
p
p
P
P
8. Cyclops signatus tenuicornis. . . .
9. Cyclops viridis brevispinosus. . . .
p
P
P
p
p
P
p
P
P
P
13. Diaptomus mississippiensis
P
p
p
P
P
CLADOCERA.
16. Acantholeberis curvirostris
P
p
P
P ,
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
25. Ceriodaphnia megops
p
P
p
26. Chydorus sphaericus
P
P
P
29. Daphnia schoedleri
P
p
P
33. Moina brachiata
p
p
P
P
P
P
P
P
p
P
37. Scapholeberis mucronata
38. Simocephalus serrulatus
p
P
P
P
P
p
p
39 Simocephalus vetulus
A "p" indicates that the animal opposite the name of which the let-
ter stands was present in the body of water mentioned at the head of
the column.
172
Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.
TABLE IV.
DIMENSIONS OP AUGUSTA
COPEPODA.
(Females only)
-t->
m ■>-!
b c
c <D
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5 &
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1. Canthocamptus minutus
2. Cyclops atert
3. Cyclops bicuspidatust
4. Cyclops fimbriatus
5. Cyclops phaleratusf
6. Cyclops serrulatus
7. Cyclops signatus coronatust • •
8. Cyclops signatus tenulcornist
9. Cyclops viridis brevicornatus.
10. Cyclops viridis ingens
11. Cyclops viridis insectus
12. Diaptomus augustaensis
13. Diaptomus mississippiensis. . .
14. Diaptomus sanguineus
15. Diaptomus stagnalis
0.48
*
0.32
0.30
0.42
0.84
0.98
0.96
0.56
0.52
0.72
1.34
0.98
0.54
0.52
0.38
0.32
0.48
0.66
0.54
0.42
0.66
1.00
1.80
2.02
0.88
1.27
2.20
2.33
0.98
1.40
0.53
0.80
0.10
0.14
0.08
0.09
0.12
0.12
0.10
1.00
1.07
0.22
0.26
0.13
0.22
0.13
The top figure in each square gives the measurement of one
of the largest measured. Where only one figure is given that is
great that average does not mean much. This lack of uniform-
been made and the original measurements destroyed before I de-
Where an "*" occurs in the first block it indicates that the
The figures represent millimeters.
Turner — Ecological Notes — Cladocera and Copepoda. 173
o
<n a!
O oj
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- 0)
bo .
c -a
■
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a 0)
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41
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cp £
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o .5
■« £
P cti
Width of the abdom-
inal furca.
CD
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6o £
<D c
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£ C*
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0.76
1.52
2.28
0.60
0.18
0.12
0.50
1.48
1.98
0.54
0.18
0.10
0.02
0.74
0.60
0.94
1.54
0.38
0.14
0.12
0.03
0.20
0.32
0.14
0.38
0.76
0.76
0.84
1.20
2.00
1.22
1.96
2.76
0.30
0.42
0.96
0.12
0.14
0.18
0.06
0.08
0.14
0.02
0.03
0.05
0.34
0.54
1.28
0.25
0.40
0.44
0.14
0.20
0.30
0.76
1.52
2.28
0.60
0.18
0.12
1.28
1.42
0.52
0.87
2.79
3.42
1.41
2.07
4.07
4.82
1.93
2.94
1.00
1.16
0.50
0.76
0.30
0.32
0.18
0.26
0.18
0.20
0.10
0.14
0.06
0.07
0.02
0.04
1.00
1.14
0.44
0.64
1.32
1.57
0.53
0.60
3.27
3.33
3.80
3.93
1.00
0.45
0.40
of the smallest individuals measured, the lower right figure that
the average of those measured. In many cases the variation is so
jty is due to the fact that the averages of some of the forms had
cided that it was best to give the two extremes,
records of the measurements of that species were lost in moving.
174
Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.
TABLE V.
DIMENSIONS OF AUGUSTAN
CLADOCERA.
(Females only)
CO £
3 O,
■3 »
<d &
0) c
. ^3
°i
60 o
r-
% >
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r-" tfl
60 ,C
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5|
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x c
6o s
2. to
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o ^
16. Acantholeberis curvirostris
|
1.06
1.56
0.42
0.48
1
0.36
0.46
*
*
0.32
0.50
0.46
0.32
0.46
*
24 Camptocercus macrurus
0.40
0.44
1.16
1.52
0.33
1.46
2.00
0.38
0.36
0.86
27 Daphnella brandtiana
•
*
*
1.80
1.99
2.20
2.30
*
0.28
0.64
0.96
0.54
0.55
0.52
0.60
0.64
0.60
*
0.58
0.78
0.73
1.77
| 2.33
| 3.01
| 3.46
1.58
1.86
2.36
2.07
2.90
1 3.33
1
Where there is only one number in a square, it is the average
upper is the dimension of the smallest individual measured and
An "*" indicates that the record of the measurements was
The figures represent millimeters.
Turner — Ecological Notes — Cladocera and Copepoda. 175
1-1
O CD
_ c
■<-' S.
b£ to
to (0
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5 ,_•
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CD A
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Dimensions of the
pigment fleck.
01
z
a -£
CD C
J CO
0.93
0.78
0.11
0.10
0.03
0.34
0.30
0.34
0.22
'
0.04
0.40
0.16
0.08
0.06
0.05
0.12
0.33
0.14
0.05
0.04
0.08
1.00
1.33
0.32
0.40
0.50
0.14
0.16
0.03
0.06
0.02
0.38
1
0.08
0.08
1.40
1.67
0.88
1.00
0.29
0.30
0.14
0.15
0.12
0.12
0.02
0.04
0.40
0.10
0.44
0.46
0.34
0.12
0.14
0.16
0.22
0.26 '
0.06
0.07
0.06
0.03
0.03
0.03
0.02
0.02
0.04
0.05
0.52
0.30
0.15
0.07
0.19
0.26
0.11
0.13
1.04
1.66
2.00
2.27
i
0.50
0.80
0.79
1.20
0.16
0.18
0.27
0.16
0.04
0.12
0.10
0.14
of all the specimens measured; where there are two numbers, the
the lower number that of the largest individual,
lost in moving.
176 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.
EXPLANATIONS OP ILLUSTRATIONS.
..Plate XXXVI. — Fig. 1. Diaptomus augustaensis, male, distal portion
of the geniculate*! antenna. — Fig. 2. Diaptomus augustaensis, male,
fifth foot. — Fig. 3. Diaptomus augustaensis, female, fifth foot. — Fig. 4.
Diaptomus augustaensis, female, posterior end of the abdomen.
Plate XXXVII.— Daphnia hyalina, female, Stages in its life history —
Fig. 1. First stage (from the brood-pouch), — Fig. 2. Second stage (from
the brood-pouch).— Fig. 3. Third stage (Free swimming).— Fig. 4.
Fourth stage.— Fig. 5. Fifth stage (just before it begins to bear eggs).—
Fig. 6. Sixth stage (four egg stage).— Fig. 7. Seventh stage (eight
egg stage, two eggs are out of focus).— Fig. 8. Eighth stage (twelve egg
stage, four eggs are out of focus).
Plate XXXVIII. — Fig. 1. Bosmina reversaspina, n. sp., female. — Fig.
2. Eurycercus lamellatus, female.
Issued December 31, 1910.
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Transactions of The Academy of Science of St. Louis.
VOL. XIX. No. 11.
TITLE-PAGE, PREFATORY MATTER AND INDEX.
RECORD FROM JAN. 1, 1910, TO DEC. 31, 1910.
Issued March 29, 1911.
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List of Authors. 177
LIST OF AUTHORS.
Alt, Adolf, 83, xxxi
Barck, Carl, xxvii
Borgmeyer, C. J., xxvii
Brennan, M. S., xxvii
Ewing, H. E., 113
Green, John, xli
Harder, Ulrich, xxxiv
Hurter, Julius, xxx, xxxiv
Keyes, C. R., 123
McCourt, W. E., xxxiii
McMaster, LeRoy, xxv
Mesker, Frank, xxxi
Nipher, P. E., 1, 57, xxvi, xxxi, xxxiii, xxxv
Palmer, E. J., 97
Philipps, F. J., 49
Rau, Philip, 21
Strecker, J. K., Jr., 73
Terry, R. J., xxxi
Thompson, C. H., xxvii
Todd, C. A., xxxi
Trelease, Wm., xxxii, xxxifi.
Turner, C. H., 151
Van Ornum, J. L., xxxiii
Wallace, R. J., xxxv
Widmann, Otto, xxvii
178
Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.
GENERAL INDEX.
Acarina, New Indian 113
Active members vii
Address of President xxxvi
Agassiz, Alexander, Death of xxxi
Agaves in West Indies xxxii
Augusta, Cladocera and Copepoda
of 151
Baumgarten, Gustav, Death of
xxxiii, xli
Birds, Protection of migratory
xxvii
Bixby, William K. elected Patron
xxxiii
Blind Salamander of Missouri xxx,
xxxi, S3
Century plant, Smallest xxxiii
Charter xix
China and the Great Wall xxxi
Chouteau, Pierre, Death of xxxiv
Cladocera of Augusta, Ga. 151
Colloidal suspensions xxv
Copepoda of Augusta, Ga. 151
Copulation 21
Curators report xxxix
Ferments xxv
Forest trees, Hail injury to 49
Frog, Robber 73
Geographical distribution of Agave
xxxii
Georgia, Cladocera and Copepoda of
115
Grand Falls Chert Barrens 97
Great Wall of China xxxi
Guadalupan series 123
Hail injury to forest trees 49
Halley's comet xxvii
History xix
Honorary members vi
Hopi Indian Snake Dance xxvii
India, New Acarina from 113
Kaime, David F., Death of xxxiv
Klein, Jacob, Death of xxxiii
Lackland, Rufus J., Death of xxxi
Librarian, Report of xxxix
Library xxii
Duration of life of Samia cecropia
21
Earth, Origin of 123
Ecology of Cladocera and Copepoda
151
Electric Discharge xxv, xxxi, xxxiii,
xxxv, 1, 57
Endowment fund xxv, xxxii
Entomological section report xxxix
Evolution and erect posture xxxiv
Exchanges xxii
Eye of Blind Salamander 83
Mallinckrodt, Edward elected Pa-
tron xxxiii
Management xx
Map of world xxxiii
Meetings xxi
Members vi
Membership xx
Meteorites of Painted Desert 123
Mexican plants, Three new xxvii
Migratory, Protection of Birds xxvii
Missouri, Blind Salamander of xxx,
xxxi, 83
Missouri, Permian of 123
General Index.
179
Missouri Poisonous Snakes xxxiv
Museum xxii
Museum, Preparations for xxxi
Necrology
Baumgarten, Gustav xxxiii, xli
Chouteau, Pierre xxxiv
Kaime, David F. xxxiv
Klein, Jacob xxxiii
Lackland, Rufus J. xxxi
Scheffer, Henry W. xxxiii
Objects xix
Observatory equipment xxxv
Officers v, xx
Organic ferments xxv
Organization xix
Origin of earth 123
Oviposition of Samia cecropia 21
Painted Desert, Meteorites on 123
Patrons vi
Permian in Missouri 123
Pineal region in Teleosts xxxi
Planetesimal hypothesis 123
Plants, New Mexican xxvii
Poisonous Snakes of Missouri xxxiv xxxiv
President, Address of xxxvi
Protection of migratory birds xxvii
Publications xxii
Report of Curators xxxix
Entomological Section xxxix
Librarian xxxix
President xxxvi
Treasurer xxxviii
Robber frog 73
Salamander, Blind xxx, xxxi, 83
Samia, Observations on 21
Scheffer, Henry W., Death of xxxiii
Snake dance of Hopi Indians xxvii
Snakes of Missouri, Poisonous xxxiv
Suspensions, Colloidal xxv
Teleosts, Pineal region of xxxi
Treasurer, Report of xxxviii
Vegetable mold and concrete xxxiii
West Indies, Agaves of xxxii
Wet preparations for museums xxxi
Zoological Garden for St. Louis
180
Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.
INDEX TO GENERA.
Acalypha 110
Acantholeberis 164, 168-171, 174
Acer 54
Acris 76, 78-80
Aglia 42-43.
Agriolimax 76
Allium 102, 108
Alona 165-166, 168-171, 174
Alonopsis 165, 168-171, 174
Alopecurus 107
Ambystoma 81
Amelanchier 105, 109
Anura 79
Arabis 101, 109
Arenaria 108
Aristida 103, 107
Asplenium 101, 107
Baptisia 110
Bifidaria 76
Bosmina 162-164, 168-171, 174
Brancippus 161
Bufo 75-76, 79-81
Bulimulus 75-76
Buthus 75
Camassia 108
Camptocerus 165, 168-171, 174
Camptosorus 107
Canthocamptus 159, 168, 170-172
Carex 108
Catalpa 54
Celtis 108
Cercis 110
Ceriodaphnia 160, 168-171, 174
Chaerophyllum 102, 111
Cheilantbes 101, 107
Chorophilus 78, 80
Chydorus 166, 168-171, 174
Claytonia 109
Cnemidopborus 76
Coreopsis 103-104, 112
Crataegus 109
Crotonopsis 102-103, 110
Cupbea 111
Cyclops 156-159, 168, 170-172
Cynosciadium 102, 111
Cyperus 102, 106, 108
Daphnella 160, 168-171, 174
Daphnia 161-162, 168-171, 174
Daucus 111
Desmognathus 91
Diaptomus 153-155, 168-172
Diemyctilus 91
Digitaria 107
Diodia 112
Diospyros 105
Dodecatheon 111
Draba 109
Dryopteris 101, 107
Eleocbaris 102, 108
Engystoma 74, 80
Equisetum 107
Eragrostis 103, 107
Eumeces 76
Euphorbia 110
Eurycerus 164, 168-171, 174
Eutaemia 75-76
Festuca 108
Fimbrystylis 102
Fraxinus 54, 105, 111
Gamasus 115
Gleditschia 54
Glyceria 108
Helicina 76
Heuchera 109
Holbrookia 74-76
Hyla 79
Hypericum 102, 110
Ilyocryptus 164, 168-171, 174
Isanthus 103, 111
Juglans 54
Juncus 102, 108
Juniperus 76
Labidocarpus 120
Lathyrus 102, 110
Lechea 110
[Index to Genera.
181
Leiolepisma 76
Lespedeza 110
Leydigia 165, 168-171, 174
Liatris 112
Limnaeus 161, 165
Linaria 102, 106, 111
Linum 110
Lithodytes 73-82
Luzula 108
Madura 54
Macrocheles 114
Marshallia 112
Melica 101, 108
Moina 160, 168-171, 174
Morus 54
Negundo 54
Notaspis 119
Nothoscordum 108
Oenothera 111
Omphalina 76
Opuntia 103, 110
Oribata 117-119
Oxalis 110
Panicum 107
Peromyscus 76
Phacelia 102, 111
Physalis 112
Plantago 112
Platanus 54
Pleuroxus 166, 168-171, 174
Polygala 110
Polygonum 103, 108
Polygyra 75-76
Polystictus 55
Populus 54
Portulaca 102, 106, 109
Praticolella 76
Proteus 83
Prunus 109
Pseudosida 159, 168-171, 174
Ptelea 110
Ptilimnium 102, 111
Pyriamidula 76
Rana 76, 81
Ranunculus 109
Rhus 110
Ribes 109
Rosa 105, 109
Rubus 105, 109
Rudbeckia 112
Ruellia 112
Rumex 102, 108
Sabbatia 111
Salix 54
Samia 21-48
Sassafras 109
Saxifraga 102, 109
Scaphiopus 80-81
Scapholeberis 160, 168-171, 174
Sceloporus 74
Schistocera 75
Scutellaria 111
Sedum 102, 104, 109
Selaginella 103, 107
Selenia 102-104, 106, 109
Simocephalus 161, 168-171, 174
Specularia 106, 112
Spermolepis 102, 111
Spiranthes 108
Stenophyllus 102, 108
Storeria 76
Stylosanthes 110
Talinum 102, 106, 109
Tephrosia 110
Tradescantia 108
Trifolium 110
Tropidonotus 75
Typhlomolge 83, 85-86
Typhlotriton 83-96
Ulmus 54
Uropoda 116-117
Vaccinium 105, 111
Valerianella 112
Vespa xxvii
Vitrea 76
Woodsia 101, 107
Quercus 105, 108
Zamenis 75
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Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis, Vol. XIX.
Plate I.
>i
T
71
o
4
BALL LIGHTNING DISCHARGES.
Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis, Vol. XIX.
Plate II.
NEGATIVE LINE.
Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis, Vol. XIX.
Plate III.
NEGATIVE LINE. GROUNDED POINT BELOW.
Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis, Vol. XIX.
Plate IV.
POSITIVE LINE.
Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis, Vol. XIX.
Plate V.
{
POSITIVE LINE. GROUNDED POINT BELOW.
Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis, Vol. XIX.
Plate VI.
^Hi'M'iH1''"" i
FIGS. A AND B.
Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis, Vol. XIX.
Plate VII.
FIGS. A AND B.
:::::
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I
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Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis, Vol. XIX.
Plate VIII.
FIGS. A AND B.
Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis, Vol. XIX.
Plate IX
FIGS. A B AND C.
Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis. Vol. XIX.
Plate X.
FIGS. A B AND C.
jans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis, Vol. XIX.
Plate XI.
Honey Locust
Catalpa
HAIL INJURY.
Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis, Vol. XIX.
Plate XII.
Wh Willow
HAIL INJURY.
Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis, Vol. XIX.
Plate XIII.
LO 1 TON WOOD
HAIL INJURY.
Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis, Vol. XIX.
Plate XIV.
Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis, Vol. XIX.
Plate XV.
Box Elder
HAIL INJURY.
Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis. Vol. XIX.
Plate XVI.
HAIL INJURY.
HARDY CATALPAS, AFTER A LAPSE OF TEN YEARS
Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis, Vol. XIX.
Plate XVII.
HAIL INJURY. FOLLOWED BY INSECT ATTACKS.
HARDY CATALPAS, AFTER A LAPSE OF TEN YEARS.
Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis, Vol. XIX.
Plate XVIII.
.,-,
[v;;
FIGS. A AND B.
Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis, Vol. XIX.
Plate XIX.
FIGS. A AND B.
Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis, Vol. XIX.
Plate XX.
•
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FIGS. A, B AND C.
Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis, Vol. XIX.
Plate XXI.
G
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G
FIGS. A, B AND C.
Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis, Vol. XIX.
Plate XXII.
FIGS. A. B, C AND D.
Tkans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis, Vol. XIX.
Plate XXIII.
I
/-f
/ —
FIGS. A, B AND C.
Correction No. 4, Vol. XIX.
In Plate XXIV, Figs. B. and C should have been trans-
posed. -
Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis, Vol. XIX.
Plate XXIV.
*
J
»
FIGS. A, B AND C.
Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis, Vol. XIX.
Plate XXV.
I
1
FIGS. A. B, C AND D.
Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis, Vol. XIX.
Plate XXVI.
Fig. 1.
■-
Fig. 2.
Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis. Vol. XIX.
Plate XXVII.
Fig. ?,.
Fig. 4.
Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis, Vol. XIX.
Plate XXVIII.
Fig. 5.
Fig. 6.
Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis. Vol. XIX.
Plate XXIX.
S€^SS%af3
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Fig. 7.
Fig. 8.
Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis, Voi . XIX.
Plate XXX.
Fig. 9.
Fig. 10.
Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis. Vol. XIX.
Plate XXXI.
Fig. 11.
Fig. 12.
Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis, Vol. XIX.
Plate XXXII.
?ig. IS
tlG. 14.
Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis, Vol. XIX.
Plate XXXIII.
Fig. 15.
Fig. 16.
Trans. Acad. So. of St. Louis, Vol. XIX
Plate XXXIV.
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Fig. 18.
Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis, Vol. XIX.
Plate XXXV.
NEW ACARJNA FROM INDIA.
Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis, Vol. XIX. Plate XXXVI.
DIAPTOMUS AUGUSTAENSIS.
Trans. Acad. Scr. of Gt. Louis, Vol. XIX.
Plate XXXVII.
DAPHNIA HYALINA.
Trans. Acad. Scr. of St. Louis. Vol. XIX.
Plate XXXVIII.
fa-Y"",
BOSMINA REVERSASP1NA. EURYCERCUS LAMELLATUS.
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