Skip to main content

Full text of "Transactions of the Cumberland Association for the Advancement of Literature and Science"

See other formats 


se} 


tion 


AND SCIENCE, 


i M. GaOtk., SURVEY. 


" * 5 


PRICE ‘TO MEMBERS, ONE SHILLING, 


a 


TRANSACTIONS 


OF THE 


Cumberland and C@estmorland 
Association 


FOR THE 


ADVANCEMENT OF LITERATURE 
AND SCIENCE, 


No. XIII.—1887-88. 


Becrep. ny J. G.- GOODCHILD,- F.G.S.,.-F.2Z.8;; 


MEMBER OF THE BRITISH ORNITHOLOGISTS’ UNION ; 
H.M. GEOL. SURVEY, 


PRICE TO MEMBERS, ONE SHILLING, 
NON-MEMBERS, TWO SHILLINGS AND SIXPENCE. 


CARLISLE : 
PRINTED BY G. & T. COWARD, THE WORDSWORTH PRESS. 
1888. 


- : Pee 3 as io Vb. “ES s 


bi fees HOVE 


ah 


if 
? ¢ oh ys 
. a - 
agcoal- cuts of 
‘a 

2 ar 

i | | 

: F > a 

+. ve 


' weet pitertes ; 
‘  erebao ton Tike CAST ian aut 
Re = copy anya ~ yitastar "a Net 


a Hh, 
- ; a 
\ 
J ae “OMIA ayva Pe aL OT ATS 
ava iquia aya ensue Cut CASED i” 
ia » ‘er. = 
; oe pe te 5 oon 
Ba) ; ; , 
a 4 *. > ° 
Cane + . 4 be = F 


at | peeve oe. ia So 
Peace sab PaChzOM, WE 135% Yr 
og 3 gan ~<a = i) 


> 


a 
eal 


~ a : ; 
5 * =e es - 
3 La Le x cee! 
' ~% ~ - 
es a ae i ; 


CONTENTS. 


Page 
RULES sas tes fot Ase oes oC ais v. 
List OF OFFICERS... ies ef 35 ane we. Ville 
ADDRESSES OF HONORARY SECRETARIES OF THE SEVERAL “LOCAL 
SOCIETIES sale aS Los see e ae ix. 
MEMORANDA FOR MEMBERS ... Ace sas its ose ix. 
List oF ASSOCIATION MEMBERS ae oe asi ewe x, 
REPORTS FROM THE ASSOCIATED SOCIETIES... ace was xi. 
REPORT OF ASSOCIATION SECRETARY ... sa as oy. KXIMG 
: TREASURER’S ACCOUNT Bee ae ASS ae Renin ee.2.0.4 


PRESIDENT’s ADDRESS (R. A. ALLISON, Esq., M.P.) at Longtown 77 


PAPERS COMMUNICATED TO THE SOCIETIES, AND SELECTED BY THE 
ASSOCIATION COUNCIL FOR RUBLICATION :— 


‘The ‘Giant’s Thumb,’ Penrith Parish Churchyard.” By GEORGE 
WATSON (Penrith) nai ee a spe ee 


‘© Was St. Patrick a Cumbrian?’ By Rev. Joun I. CUMMINS, 
O.S.B. (Maryport) Ber eae moe ee oe 7 


“Ornithological Record for Cumberland, January, 1887—June, 1888.” 
By H. A. MacpHerson, M.A., M.B.O.U., Carlisle, and 
W. DuckwortTH, Ulverston... oe a oc: 25 


‘Some of the Old Families in the Parish of Crosthwaite : The 
Brownriggs of Ormathwaite, &c.” By J. FISHER Cros- 


THWAITE, F.S.A. (Keswick)... Ses ts eae 31 
“The Birds of our Marshes.” By J. N. Ropinson, of Cargo 
(Carlisle) is aoe Bc BE 47 


‘Report on Pallas Sand-grouse (Syrrhaptes paradoxus) in the 
North-West of England.” By H. A. MACPHERSON, M.B.O.U. 59 


“The Physical History of Greystoke Park and the Valley of the 
Petteril.”” By J. G. GoopcuiLp, H.M. Geol. Survey, F.G.S. 89 


“The Old Lakes of Edenside.” By J. G. GoopcHILD, H.M. 
Geol. Survey, F.G.S. ... ae ace an Som 105 


‘¢ Additional Notes on Pallas Sand-grouse.” HH. A. MACPHERSON 114 


rie ae ry ee i oe ed 
- © ae es 
‘ og she a a —. ¢ 
’ m= 5 ee ‘. an = 
Se (Si = 
af at 
= >— . 4 ; } 
ea : ; 
- oes 
Be Pe ene 
- x . \ 
s Tw es oy vt O o~ ; 
: a ee 
< wt 
* < 
rast y ie [a 2 - “oe 
es in = aoe e PA 
Pies 
ae _ * 4 
at ane TA ae | a % ee : 
ES. SAW AP MOA NE nee ry epariaen eo CaszS5oe a ¢ 


ae a) rt eT: > ** ade - yee (4 ee sae shkawid 
‘ , , 


4 om a oe “ae su ; oie oP stiaesat ao, “i — 
ee. a c= he j AT te a to : oT ela he sort posi By : 
pal hg & “¢ ee Pony SaaS Ozer smh nit ete 
aa ae Riva in 1) a ee) 0 tes ES ere ihosaa aN ‘a 
wa ; R52, tee . ¥ te 7 ifr 


. Sane rita ued ™“ 4a) be a Wane k nS 


; on ong 
a, AON iP aaee “an * ee as nie 
a 4” |. ~ Soe tt oir } 


‘an —_ “i ay ' a 
a ee, irises tet, ph tie el)! 
‘* r i a ahs * Mosse = | 


: + ale tak « un piece” IE 
a op —— mi ease) e4 on 
> a pols mesic irs styulad.> 
wa ug, bean crete) Fe Be Moen TV ves 1a sé he Ath 
as Fi ae 7 bes nes Prete : 
Lee gilters i Legit os het an 
. 3 i NEE Lies ak z 
ae fe. (Coma ie amen 


Page 


' on es 
|S es * cote as eat ; pak 
Fah re as - fe! we ” ve al 
=] ir: - ‘Se, * ot Sai .s gt aoe ase” Ps " 
ais Cat 
| 
od a ae 


_: 5S. 5 area i Pum 
; a realy % ada rail 
ne a ee oe (eens 8 GRE Ahi Ea ree ees ms us ‘ 

itn oe ek fe attra tame, Wiehe * eae 


R.U LES 


OF THE 


“Cumberland aud Westmorland Association 


FOR THE 


Advancement of Literature wd Sriewce, 


—<———S 


1.—That the Association be called the ‘(CUMBERLAND AND 
WESTMORLAND ASSOCIATION FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OF LITERA- 
TURE AND SCIENCE. 

>.—The Association shall consist of the following Societies :— 
Keswick Literary and Scientific Society, Maryport Literary and 
Scientific Society, Longtown Literary and Scientific Society, 
Carlisle Scientific Society and Field Naturalists’ Club, Ambleside 
and District Literary and Scientific Society, Silloth and Holme 
Cultram Literary and Scientific Society, Brampton Literary and 
Scientific Society and Field Naturalists’ Club, Penrith and District 
Literary and Scientific Society, Windermere Literary and Scientific 
Society ; and of such other Societies as shall be duly affiliated. 
Also of persons nominated by two members of the Council. Such 
members shall be termed “ Association Members.” 

3.—All members of affiliated Societies, unless otherwise ruled 
by the regulations of their respective Societies, shall be members 


of the Cumberland and Westmorland Association. 


vi. 

4.—The Association shall be governed by a Council, consisting 
of a President, Vice-Presidents, Secretary, Treasurer, an Editor, a 
Librarian, and of ordinary members, two to be elected by each 
affiliated Society. The President, Secretary, Treasurer, Editor, 
and Librarian shall be elected annually at the Annual Meeting, 
and shall be capable of re-election. The Recorders shall be 
ex-officio members of the Council. 

5.—The Vice-Presidents shall consist of the Presidents of the 
various affiliated Societies; and the delegates of the various 
Societies shall be elected annually by their respective Societies. 

6.—An Annual Meeting of the Association shall be held at such 
time and place as may be decided upon at the previous Annual 
Meeting, or (failing such appointment) as may be arranged by the 
Council, 

7.—At each Annual Meeting, after the delivery of the Presi- 
dent’s Address, and the reading of the reports from the affiliated 
Societies, the objects of the Association may be furthered by 
Lectures, Papers, Addresses, Discussions, Conversaziones, &c. 

8.—The Committee of each affiliated Society shall be entitled 
to recommend one original and local paper communicated to such 
Society (subject to the consent of the author) for publication in the 
Transactions of the Association ; but Societies contributing capi- 
tation grant on a number of members exceeding one hundred and 
fifty shall have the privilege of sending two papers. The Council 
shall publish at the expense of the Association the papers recom- 
mended, either in full, or such an abstract of each or any of them 
as the author may prepare or sanction; also those portions of the 
Association Transactions that may be deemed advisable. 


9.—The Council shall endeavour to promote co-operation among 


vil. 

existing Societies, and may assist in the formation of new ones; it 
may also aid in the establishment of classes in connection with 
any of the associated societies. 

10.—Affiliated Societies shall contribute annually towards the 
general funds of the Association, Sixpence for each of their 
members; but when the number of members of the affiliated 
Societies exceeds one hundred and fifty, a reduction of fifty per 
cent. shall be made upon the payment for each member in excess 
of that number, 

11.—Association Members pay the sum of 6/- annually, or they 
may compound for their subscription for life by a payment of 
43 3s. od. in one sum. 

12.—The rules can be altered only by a majority of two-thirds 
of the members present at an Annual Meeting. Any member 
desiring to alter the Rules must send a copy of the proposed 
alterations to the Secretary, at least two weeks before the meeting 
is held. 

13.—Past Presidents of the Association shall be permanent 
members of the Council, and be described as Past-Presidents. 

14.— The travelling expenses of all who assist in carrying out 
the programme of the various affiliated Societies shall be defrayed 


by the Society assisted. 


The Fourteenth ANNUAL MEETING will be held in the Summer 
of 1889, and due notice of the place of Meeting and of the arrange- 
ments will be sent to all members of the Association. 

Members willing to contribute original A7ticles on subjects of 
local interest, or short /Votices of anything that may be considered 
worth recording of local and scientific value, should communicate 
with the Honorary Secretary, J. B. Battery, Esq., Eaglesfield 
Street, Maryport, 


OFFICERS FOR THE SESSION 1888-89, 


President. 
R. A. ALLISON, Esq., M.P. 


Past-Presidents. 
THE Lorp BisHoP oF CARLISLE. 

THe LATE I. FietcHer, Esq., M.P., F.R.S. 
THe Hon. P. S. WynpHam, M.P. 
Rosert Frrcuson, Esq., M.P., F.S.A. 
RicHARD 8, Frrcuson, Esq., M.A., LL.M., F.S.A. 
Davip AinswortH, Esq. 


Vice-Presidents. 


Epwin Jackson, Esq. 254 a5 Keswick. 

Rey. E. SAmPson “2 tis és Maryport. 

Dr. S. F. Mo. Lacuian Sd ae Longtown. 

R. A. Axtison, Esq., M.P. ... ope Carlisle. 

F. M. T. Jonzs, Esq. on Se Ambleside. 

J; M. Paunt, Hsg., 1.G.S. ... as Silloth. 

G. J. Jounson, Esq. ... 506 ... +» Brampton. 

Rev. H. WHITEHEAD ... ae ae Penrith. L 

Rey. A. Rawson ons 5010 ea Windermere. 

Delegates. 

Rev. J. N. Hoarr, M.A. Dr. Buack. oe sd Keswick. 
E. W. Licutroot, Esq. ... H. Bumpy, Esq. sis Maryport. 
J. Wison, Esq. ... .. HE. P. WALKER, Esq.  ... Longtown. 
J. A. WueEatiry, Esq. ... Dr. BARnzs. _... ist Carlisle. 
C. W. Smrrx, Esq. ... J. BentLEy, Esq. sis Ambleside. 
Tuos. JoHNSTON, Esq. ... H. L. Barxer, Esq. ... Silloth. 
Rev. 8. FALte ... .. Rev. H. J. BULKELEY .... Brampton. 
Major ARNISON ... ... G. Watson, Esq. ae Penrith. 
G. Heatzry, Esq.... .. J. Hoxiuanp, Esq. ae Windermere. 


Hon. Association Secretary. 
J. B. Battey, Esq., Eaglesfield Street, Maryport. 


Treasurer. 


Editor. 


J. G. Goopcenitp, Esq., F.G.8., F.Z.8., M.B.0.U., H.M. Geol. Survey, 
28 Jermyn Street, London, S. W. 


Librarian. 
Rev. M. Stpney Donatp, Thorpe, Penrith. 


Delegate to British Association. 
G. H. Bartry, D.Sc., Ph.D., The Owens College, Manchester. 


Zoological Recorders. 


Rev. H. A. Macpuerson, M.A., M.B.O.U., 20 Cecil Street, Carlisle. 
J. Norman Roginson, Esq., Croft House, Cargo, Carlisle. 


Botanical Recorders. 


Rev. R. Woop, M.A., Rosley Vicarage, Carlisle. 
W. Hopeson, Esq., A.L.8., Flimby, Maryport, 


ADDRESSES OF HONORARY SECRETARIES 
OF THE SEVERAL LOCAL SOCIETIES. 


Keswick ... ... J. Broatcu, Esq., St. John Street, Keswick. 
Maryport ... .. E. W. Licutroot, Esq., Holme Lea, Maryport. 
Longtown ... .. J. G. Toprry, Esq., Graham Street, Longtown. 
Carlisle... ... Jd. Srnciatr, Esq., 6 Hawick Street, Carlisle. 
Ambleside... ... J. Brntiey, Esq., Ambleside. 

Silloth... .. H. L. Barker, Esq., Silloth. 

Brampton ... ... I. B. Hopeson, Esq., Brampton. 

Penrith ... .. H. M‘Lean Witson, Esq., M.B., C.M., Portland 


Place, Penrith. 


Col. W. C. MacDoveatt. 


Windermere F, Barton, Esq., 8 Biskey Howe-Terr., Windermere. 


MEMORANDA FOR MEMBERS, &« 


SUBSCRIPTIONS ARE DUE— 


Association Members... ... January Ist. 
For Transactions pe ... February Ist. 
Lecturer’s Fee... sad ... February Ist. 
Capitation Fee ... ae: ... April Ist. 


PAPERS INTENDED FOR PUBLICATION to be sent not later than April 20th, 
to J. G. GoopcuiLp, Esq., 28 Jermyn Street, London. 


Prick or TRANSACTIONS— 
Current Number. Members, 1/- for the first copy, 2/- each for others ; 
Non-members, 2/6. 
For Back NumMBERS— 
Apply to Messrs. G. & T. Cowarp, Booksellers, Carlisle. 


AvutTHors’ CoPirs— 

Twenty copies, free. Extra copies at a small rate, if notice of the 
number required be given to the Printer when the proof is 
returned. There is a large stock of Authors’ Copies in hand. 
The Council would be glad to reduce this stock. Application to 
be made to the Hon. Association Secretary. 

Crrcunatine Liprary— 

Full particulars will be sent to each Society when arrangements are 
completed. 

NoticEs RELATING TO ZooLoey to be sent to Rev. H. A. Macruerson, M.A., 

20 Cecil Street, Carlisle. 

NorticEs RELATING To Botany to be sent to Wu. Hopeson, Esq., A.L.S., 

Flimby, Maryport. 


ASSOCIATION MEMBERS, 
(RULES 2 & 11.) 


J. Ortry Arxrnson, Esq,, Stramongate, Kendal. 

BE. B. W. Batme, Esq., Cote Wall, Mirfield, Normanton. 

W. Browne, Esq., Tallentire Hall, Cockermouth. 

Amos BrarpsLey, Esq., Grange-over-Sands, Lancashire. 

G. H. Bartey, D.Se., Ph.D., The Owens College, Manchester. 

F. W. Banks, Esq., 22 North Bank, Regent’s Park, London, N.W. 

Rev. W. S. Catverzey, The Vicarage, Aspatria, 

H. F. Curwen, Esq., The Hall, Workington. 

G. Cowarp, Esq., 75 Scotch Street, Carlisle. 

W. G. Coxttinewoop, Esq., Gillhead, Windermere. 

Tuomas Carrick, Hsq., Haydon Bridge. 

R. Frrauson, Esq., Morton, Carlisle. 

W. C. Gutty, Q.C., M.P. 

J. G. GoopcutLp, Esq., H.M. Geol. Survey, F.G.S., 28 Jermyn-St., 
London. 

T. V. Hormss, Esq., F.G.S., 28 Crooms Hill, Greenwich. 

R. H. Hamitron, Esq., Maryport. 

G. Lowrutan, Esq., 58 Blenheim Crescent, Notting Hill, London, W. 

W. S. Losh, Esq., Woodside, Carlisle. 

T. A. Mercer, Esq., Librarian, Free Library, Barrow-in-Furness. 

R. D. MarsHatt, Esq., Cookridge Hall, Leeds. 

Mixes MacInnes, Esq., M.P., Rickerby, Carlisle. 

T. Bartow Massicxs, Esq., Millom, Carnforth. 

W. P. Miter, Esq., Thistleton, Poulton-le-Fylde, Lancashire. 

Rev. H. H. Moors, St. John’s Vicarage, Darwen, Lancashire. 

G. H. Parkes, Esq., Infield Lodge, Furness Abbey. 

R. ALtEyNE Rosrnson, Esq., J.P., South Lodge, Cockermouth. 

J. Severs, Esq., Literary and Scientific Society, Kendal. 

Prof. H. G. Srrtey, F.R.S., F.G.S., The Vine, Sevenoaks. 

Rev. Dr. TrourBeck, Dean’s Yard, Westminster. 

Dr. M. W. Taytor, F.S.A., 202 Earl’s Court Road, South Kensington, 
London, 8. W. 

Dr. Tirriy, The Limes, Wigton. 

Gero. THompson, Esq., Alston, Cumberland. 

Major Varty, Stagstones, Penrith. 

T. Witson, Esq., Aynam Lodge, Kendal. 

R. J. Wuitwett, Esq., Airethwaite, Kendal. 

Rev. H. WuiteHEeaD, Newton Reigny, Penrith. 

H. J. Wess, Esq., Ph.D., B.Sc, The Agricultural College, 
Aspatria. 


Reports front tle Associated Societies. 


KESWICK LITERARY AND SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 


——<—_— 


19TH SESSION, 1887-88. 


—_—— 


President... ees ss uae J. PosriutawaitTt, F.G.S. 
Vice-President ae “ia Rev. J. N. Hoars, M.A., F.Hist.S. 
Secretary aa Red at wes J. BROATOH. 
Treasurer saa we oe .. T, E. Hieuton. 
Committee. 

Rev. H. D. Rawnstzy, M.A. Rev. W. CoLviLle. 
Rev. A. R. GopparD, B.A. J. Fisoer Crosruwaits, F.S.A. 
EpWIN JACKSON. Tuomas SMITH. 


Delegates to the Council of the C. and W. Association. 
A. A. H. Kyicut, M.D. | G. Brack, M.B. 


Hon. Curators of the Museum. 


JoHN BIRKETT. | J. PosrLetHwaitE, F.G.S_ 


The following MEETINGS were held during the Session : 
ORDINARY MEETINGS. 


1887. 
Oct. Pps abcioniee’s AppreEss.—“ Volcanoes.” 
Nov. 28.—Mr. J. Fisher Crostawaire, F.S.A.—‘‘On the Ancient Free 
School of Crosthwaite.” 
~ Dec. 12.—Mr. Txos. Smrru.—Cowper—‘“‘ Winter Evening.” 


1888. 
Jan. 30.—Rev. A. R. Gopparp, B.A.—‘‘Pompeii—its Ruin and Recovery.” 
Feb. 6.—Mr. H. Stave Witson.—‘‘Some English Dramatic Characters.”’ 
Feb. 13.—Mr. W. R. Frrzpatrick.—‘‘ Mary Queen of Scots.” 
Mar. 12.—Mr. T. E. HicHrox,—‘“‘ Russia in Asia.” 
Mar, 19.—Mr. W. Woopine Netson.—‘‘ Who Wrote Shakespeare ?” 
ANNUAL MEETING. 


‘ 


XiL. 


LECTURES. 
1887. 
Nov. 7.—Mr. Epwin Jackson.—‘‘H. M. Stanley’s African Travels and 
Work.” 
Noy. 21.—Rev. H. D. Rawnstry, M.A.—‘‘Some Royal Mummies.” 
Dec. 5.—Rev. J. SHarre Ostiz, M.A.—‘‘ Calverley.” 
Dec. 19.—Rev. C. J. D. Forpus, M.A.—‘‘ Life and Times of Anselm.” 
1888. 
Jan. 23.—Mr. W. H. Gotpine.—“Cloistered Cathedrals and Ancient 
Abbeys,” illustrated by Oxyhydrogen Apparatus. 
Feb. 20.—Rev. Brooke Lampert, M.A.—‘‘ More’s Utopia.” 
Mar. 5.—Mr. P. T. Freeman.—Concert Lecture—‘‘The Pianoforte and 
its Music from the Earliest Times,” with illustrations. 


OFFICERS FOR 1888-89, vresident—Mr. Edwin Jackson. 
Vice-President—J. Postlethwaite, F.G.S. on. Secretary—Mt. J. 
Broatch. Hon. ZTreasurer—Mr. T. E. Highton. Committee— 
Rev. W. Colville, Mr. J. Fisher Crosthwaite, F.S.A., A. A. H. 
Knight, M.D., Mr. W. Wooding Nelson, Rev. H. D. Rawnsley, M.A., 
Mr. W. Wilson. Delegates to Association Council—G. Black, M.B., 
and Rev. J. N. Hoare, M.A., F.Hist.S. on. Curators of the 
Museum—Mr. John Birkett and Mr. John Postlethwaite, F.G.S. 


MARYPORT LITERARY AND SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY, 
ASSEMBLY HALL, HIGH STREET. 


127TH SESSION, 1887-88. 


President A wa ext sa P. pe E. Contin. 


Vice-President ... a ae .. Rev. E, Sampson, 


Past-Presidents. 


ALFRED HINE. | J. B, Bartey. | J. Hewertson. 
Committee. 
WILrrip HINE. R. H. Hamntrton. 
J. RICHARDSON, E. W. Licurroor, 
Dr. Marutas, Dr. CLARK, 


F, Ketty, H. Bumpy, 


xii. 


Delegates. 
P. B. Metmore. | D. Irvine. 
Hon. Treasurer cee 58 a eee C. EAGLESFIELD, jun, 
Hon. Secretary wae a aus te D. Irvine. 


The following LECTURES were given during the Session : 
1887. 

Noy. 1.—ConvVERSAZIONE. 

Noy. 15.—Rev. J. J. Cummins.—‘‘St. Patrick a Cumbrian.” 

Noy. 29.—J. H. Parx, Esq.—‘‘The Sandwich Islands and their people, 
as seen in 1886.” 

Dec. 13.—Rev. C. H. Gem, B.A.—‘‘ Shakespeare.” 

Dec, 22.—G. H. Battzy, D.Sc., Ph.D.—-‘‘Coal Mines and Explosions,” 
with Experiments. 

1888. 

Jan. 13.—Prof. SreLEy, F.R.S., F.G.S.—‘‘The Work of Water in shaping 
Land,” illustrated by Lime Light Lantern. 

Jan. 25.—Rev. S. Hepert, M.A.—‘‘ Pharaoh and his Mummy,” illustrated 
by Diagrams. 

Feb. 8.—W. E. Rozertson, Esq.—‘‘ Reminiscenses of a Tour in South 
Africa.” 

Feb. 22.—J. CRERAR, Esq., M.R.C.P.E.—‘‘ The Circulation of the Blood,” 
illustrated by Diagrams. 

Mar. 7.—Dr. H. J. Wess, Agricultural College, Aspatria.—‘‘ Light, and 
its Work in Nature,” with Experiments. 

Mar. 28.—ANNUAL MEETING. 


LONGTOWN LITERARY AND SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 


—_—__ 


llrax SESSION, 1887-8. 


President oi ee ms S. F. Mc.Lacuiay, Esq., M.B. 
Vice-Presidents. 
R. A. Atison, Esq., M.P. Rev. Wm. Lytretn, M.A. 
Rev. P. CARRUTHERS. W. Easton Ropertson, Esq. _ 
Rev. J. R. Greson. J. G. Goopcuitp, Esq., F.G.S. 


Mr. JoHN WILSON. 


Treasurer and Secretary vee ts ae Mr, J. G. Topriy 


é 
XIV, 


Committee. 
Mr. I. Rrra Mr, A. TWEDDLE 
Mr. A. P. WiLkI5 Mr. JonHn RoBeRTSON 
Mr. W. JARDINE. 


Delegates ae we Aan Messrs. WILSON and JARDINE. 


The following MEETINGS were held during the Session :— 


1887. 


Noy. 
Nov. 


Nov. 


Nov. 
Novy. 
Dec. 


1—R. A. Atuison, Esq., M.P.—‘“ Edmund Burke.” 

8—Dr. Grant.—‘‘Christianity in Britain before ‘the coming of 
Augustine.” Illustrated by Magic Lantern. 

15—Mr. WiLKkin.—‘‘ James Hogg, the Ettrick Shepherd.”’ 

. 22—J. H. Pann, Esq.—‘‘ The Sandwich Islands.” 

. 29—Reyv. J. R. Greson.—‘‘ Books, and how to Read them.” 

6—Debate: ‘‘Is Reason confined to Man?”’ Af. Mr. J. WiILson. 
Neg. Dr. Mc. LacHian. 


Dec. 13—Rev. J. A. Smira.—‘‘A Trip Round the World.” Illustrated 
by Lime-light Lantern. 
Dec. 23—W™m. Honvason, Esq., A.L.S.—‘‘Sea-side Botany.” 
Dec. 27—Special Arrangements. 
1888. 
Jan. 3—Special Arrangements. 
Jan. 10—Debate: ‘‘Has Machinery benefited the Working Classes ?” 
Jan. 17—Reyv. S. Fatite.—‘‘ Epitaphs.”’ 
Jan, 24—Rev. H. T. ButkeLny.—‘‘ Robert Browning.” 
Jan. 31—Mr. Jonn Witson,—‘‘ The Limits of Science.” 
Feb. 7—Rev. D. THomas.—‘‘ Reading.” 
Feb. 14—Dr. Mc. Lacutan.—‘‘ The Fools of Shakespeare.” 
Feb. 21—Readings, &e. 
Feb. 28—Mr. J. G. Toprin.—‘‘ Ants.” 
Mar. 13—Mr. WiLk1r.—Reading from Dickens. 
Mar. 20—Shakespearian night. 
Mar. 27—Business of the Society, Election of Officers, &o, 


XV. 


CARLISLE SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY AND FIELD 
NATURALIST CLUB. 


lira SESSION, 1887-88. 


President... ee ae .. BR. A, ALLISON, Esq., M.P. 


Past Presidents. 


The Right Rev. the Lorp BisHop oF CARLISLE. 
Rosert FEeReuson, Esq. 
Mites MacInnzs, Esq., M.P. 
R. 8. Fereuson, Esq., M.A., F.S.A. 
Rev. Ciraup H. Parnz, M.A. 


Vice-Presidents. 

8. J. Binnine, Esq. | Dr. CARLYLE. 
Treasurer... ae ...Rogpt, CrowprEr, Esq., Eden Mount. 
Hon. Secretary “ae a JoHN Srnctatr, 6 Hawick Street. 

Committee. 

Mr. R. J. Baricre. Mr. Gro. Dawson. 

Mr. Isaac CARTMELL. Mr. T. DuckworTH. 

Mr. J. A. WHEATLEY. Mr. W. DuckwortTH. 

Dr. MAcLAREN. Mr. R. M. Hitt. 

Dr. BARNES. Dr. LEDIARD. 

Mr. T. T. Scort. Mr. J. HARRISON. 


The following LECTURES, &c., have been given during the Session :— 


1887. 
Noy. 10—R. A. Atison, Esq., M.P.—‘‘Scenes and Anecdotes from the 
Past History of the House of Commons.” 
Noy. 17—Joun Srnciarr.—‘‘ Our Dalesfolk,” and ‘‘ Wit of Cumberland.” 
Dec. 1—Rev. C. H. Gem.—‘‘ A Poet’s View of Art and Faith.” 
Dec. 15—Mr. Davip Burns, C.E., F.G.S.—‘‘ The Tea Kettle.” 
Dec. 22—Mr. Witt1am Honpeson, A.L.S.—‘ Seaside Botany, St. Bees to 


Bowness,” Part 3rd. 
1888. 


Jan. 13—Professor SEELEY.—‘‘The Race Characters of the English People.” 
Jan. 26—J. A. WHxattEy, Esq.—‘‘ Diamonds.” 
Feb. 9—Mr. Gro. Dawson and Mr. J. Roprinson.—‘‘ The Birds of our 


Marshes.” 
B 


xvi. 


Mar. 8—Rev. H. WuitTrnnap.—‘‘ George Fox the Quaker.” 
Mar. 22—R. S. Fercuson, Esq., M.A., F.S.A.—‘‘ The Siege of Carlisle 
in 1644-5,” 


Apl. 5—Mr. Wii1iam THompson,—‘‘ Pond Life.” 


Three Field-Days have been held during the Season, and about 
one hundred copies of the Z7ansactions have been distributed free 
to the Members. 


AMBLESIDE AND DISTRICT LITERARY AND 
SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 


llrax SESSION, 1887-88. 


President ws ste Se F. M. T. Jonus, Esq., J.P., C.B. 


Past Presidents. 
R. CREWDSON, Esq. Rey. E. M. Reynoxps. 


Vice-Presidents. 


G. Gatzy, Esq. | Rev. C. H. CHasz. 
Treasurer ats et cop aoe Be Mr. W. Lister. 
Secretary vat he wae of ie Mr. J. BentLey 

Delegates. 
Mr. C. W. Sirsa. | Mr. J. BENTLEY. 
Committee. 

Mr. T. BEL. Mr. W. E. PERcrIvat. 

Mr: J. Brown. A. RepmMayne, Esq. 

Mr. J, FLEMING. Mr. STALKER, Senr, 

Mr. E. Hirp. Mr. C. W. Smrra. 

Mr. H. BE. Rev. C. W, Rawson 


The following MEETINGS were held during the Session :-— 
1887. 
Oct. 18—J. Watson, Esq.—‘‘ Caves and Cave Contents.” 
Oct. 25—W. G. Cottinawoop, Esq., M.A.-—‘‘ Freaks of Coniston Quartz.” 
Noy. 1—J. Szvers, Esq.—‘‘The Microscope.” 


xvil. 


Nov. 15—Rev. H. D. Rawnstey, M.A.—‘‘ On some Royal Mummies.” 

Nov. 29—G. E. Lowraran, Esq.—‘‘ Combustion.” Illustrated by Experi- 
ments. 

Dec. 13—Rev. J. N. Hoare, M.A., F.R.H.S.—‘‘ Buddhism.” 

1888. 

Jan. 10—Professor SEELEY, F.R.S., F.G.S.—‘‘ The Race Characters of the 
English People.” 

Jan. 24—W. H. Goxpine, Esq.—‘‘ The Breath of Life.” Illustrated by 
Experiments. 

Feb. 7—H. H. Pearse, Esq., War Correspondent to The Daily News.— 
«<A Night March, and a Fight for Water.” 

Feb. 21_A. H. Rarxes, Esq., M.A.—‘‘An ancient path, a forgotten 
battle, a lover’s leap, a clan’s feud, a poet’s vision, a chief’s 
revenge, may be read in these Celtic names, when rightly 
interpreted.” 

Mar. 6—T.-Macxereru, Esq., F.R.A.S., F.R. Met. Soc.—‘‘On the Stars.” 

Mar. 20—_W. R. Firzparrick, Esq.—‘‘ Mary Queen of Scots.” 

Mar. 27—Annual Meeting—Election of Officers. 


SILLOTH AND HOLME CULTRAM LITERARY 
AND SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 


9TH SESSION, 1887-88. 


President ... “ns ss Sa ... Rev. S. Hepert, M.A. 


Vice-Presidents. 


J. M. Pautt, F.G.S. | G. T. Carr. 
Committee. 
H. L. BARKER. JosEPH GLAISTER. 
W. Crass. Ww. M. Hupson. 
J. GRAHAM. Rev. H. M. Topp, M.A. 
JOHN GLAISTER. W. F. Wuson, J.P. 


Rev. W. A. WRIGLEY. 
Hon. Treasurer ae os a te ... J. STRONACH, 


Hon. Secretary a9 ch ae oar .. Jd. B. Brings, 


xvill. 


The following LECTURES were given during the Session :— 
1887. 
Oct. 12.—Rev. 8S. HEBERT, M.A.—‘‘Pharaoh and his Mummy,” illustrated 
by Diagrams. 
Oct. 26.—R. J. BAILLIE, F.R.A.S.—“ Earthquakes and Volcanoes.” 
Nov. 9.—J. M. Pavtt, F.G.S.—‘‘ Man.” 
Nov. 23.—Dr. Kniext.—“ The Circulation of the Blooc vis 
Dec. 7.—J. B. Bartey.—‘‘ Shakespeare,” a suggestive Sketch. 
Dec. 14.—Rev. C. H. GEM, B. A.—‘‘ Milton.” 


1888. 
Jan. 11.—R. Mc.Mruan.—‘‘ The First Glassmakers, the History of a 


Sponge Family.” 
Jane 26.—Dr. H. J. Wepp.—‘‘ The Water we Drink,” illustrated by 
Experiments. 


Feb. 8.—J. A. Wuuartiry. —“ Diamonds and Precious Stones.” 
Feb. 22.—Rev. H. M. Topp, M. A.—‘‘ Norway and Sweden.” 
Mar. 21.—Dr. MrrcHELL.—“* The Brain and Nerves.” 

OFFICERS FOR 1888-89. President—J. M. Paull, Esq., F.G.S. 
Vice-Presidents—Rev. S. Hebert, M.A., and John Graham. Com- 
pitt —G,. Lo Carr, W.-Crabb; T. Johnston, John Glaister, Joseph 
Glaister, W. M. Hudson, Rev. H. M. Todd, M.A., W. F. Wilson, 
J.P:, Rev. “W. A. Wrigley. Hon. T veasurer—john Stronach. 
Hon. Secretary—H. L. Barker. Delegates to Annual Meeting— 
Thomas Johnston and H. L. Barker. 


ee 


BRAMPTON LITERARY AND FIELD NATURALIST 
SOCIETY. 


———_ 


SESSION, 1887-88. 


President oad ro ex see .. G. J. Jonxson, Esq. 


Vice-Presidents. 


Rey. S. FALLE. | Rev. H. J. BULKELEY. 


Treasurer ae Zee oes aa Heo Mr. J. B. LEE. 


Hon. Secretary ... ae ae see Mr. Isaac B, Hopeson. 
y 


X1x. 


Committee. 
Mr. J. FARRER. Mrs. H. Y. THOMPSON. 
Mr. J. Nrxon. Miss BELL 
Mr. Rice. Miss Emma LEE. 
Mr. JAMES STEELE. Miss MacQuEEn. 
Dr. THOMPSON. Miss THom. 


The following MEETINGS were held during the Session :— 
1887. 
Oct. 11.—Transaction of the AnNuAL Bustess, followed by Music and 
Readings. : 
Oct. 18.—Mr. F. Harrison.—‘‘ Old Cumberland Customs.” 
Nov. 1.—Mr. R. J. Bartz, F.R.A.S.—‘‘ Meteors and Comets,” illus- 
5 trated by Diagrams. 
Nov. 15.—Mr. Jonny BrrKpeck.—‘‘The Alps and Vesuvius,” illustrated 
with Views shown by the Lime Light. 
Noy. 29.—Dr. Macrnatu.—‘‘ Witchcraft and Modern Views of Insanity.” 
Dec. 13.—Dr. THompson.—‘‘ Some Curiosities of Science.” 
Dec. 20.—Rev. S. Fatie.—“‘ Epitaphs.” 
1888. 
Jan. 10.—Reading by Mremspers.—‘“‘ She Stoops to Conquer.” 
Jan. 24.—Debate: ‘‘ Free versus Fair Trade.” 
Feb, 7.—Rev. H. J. Bucxetey.—‘‘ Eminent Persons who died in 1887.” 
Feb. 21.—Rev. Percy Lez.—‘t What I saw in Egypt and the Holy Land.” 
Mar. 6.—Mr. R. J. Wurrwetu.—‘‘ Dictionaries.” 
Mar. 20.—Rev. J. N. Hoarz.—‘‘ Ancient Egypt.” 


There are ninety-five members, and the attendance at the 
Lectures has been well sustained. 


PENRITH AND DISTRICT LITERARY AND 
SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 


7tH SESSION, 1887-88. 


——— ee 


President ..» — .. Rey. H. Wurrenzap, M.A. 
Vice-Presidents. 
GEORGE WATSON. | Rey. E. Cuapman, M.A. 
Secretary os ne ath ..  H. Mc.Lean Witson, M.B. 


Treasurer a is & J. B, SHAWYER 


XX. 


Delegates. 
Major W. B. ArRnison. | GORGE WATSON. 
Committee. 
Rev. W. M. ScHNIBBEN. C. H. GRAHAM. 
J. THOMPSON. T. Lester. 
F. Kine. W. BELL. 
E. H. Resp, M.A. Rev. W. Marsa, M.A. 
J. Simpson YEATES. W. B. ARNISON. 
Curator of Museum .. ee =e are CHARLES SMITH 
Librarian a is ae Sas 3 4 J. STUART 


The following Lectures and Papers have been delivered during 
the Winter :— 
1887. 
Nov. 3—Annual Meeting and Conversazione 


Noy. 17—Rev. H. Wuireneap.—‘‘ Hall Marks on Silver Plate.” 
Dec. 1—Rev. H. D. Rawnstey.—‘‘Some Royal Mummies.” 
Dec. 15—Rev. J. N. Hoare.—‘‘ Buddhism.” 

Dec. 29—Prof. H. A. NrcHotson.—‘‘ A Piece of Limestone.” 


1888. 
Jan. 12—Prof. H. G. Sretey, F.R.S.—‘‘The Race Characters of the 


English People.” 
Jan. 26—Miss NicHotson.-—‘‘ Trolls and Fays.” 
Feb. 9—Mr. Chancellor Ferauson.—‘‘ Clifton Moor in the ’45.” 
Feb. 23—Rev. C. H. Parrz.—‘‘ Eyes.” 
Mar. 8—Rev. H. J. ButKeLtey.—‘‘ Eminent Persons who Died in 1887.” 
Mar. 22—Rev. J. J. Srocktey.—‘‘ Elizabeth Barrett Browning.” 
Apl. 5—Rev. Dr. Hayman.—‘‘ Something about Lord Nelson.” 


WINDERMERE LITERARY AND SCIENTIFIC 
SOCIETY. 


—_—— 


6rH SESSION, 1887-88. 


President a Fee ake bee ao H. W. ScHNEIDER. 


Vice-Presidents. 
E. P. Srocx. | B. A. Irvine. 


Secretaries. 
W. C. MacDovca t. | FRANK Barron. 


xxi. 


Treasurer re ae a Ih 8 JoHn Ho.Lianp. 
Delegates, 
G. HEALEY. | J. HoLuanp. 

Committee. 

J. W. ATKINSON. G. HEALEY. 

S. ATKINSON. J. LONGTON. . 

J. T. Bownass. F. Marr. 

J. BELL. J. M. Moss. 

F. BrRownson. - G. H. Patrrnson. 

W. E. Bonp. A. H. RATKESs. 

R. Circa. A. RAWSON. 

F. CLoweEs. J. ROBINSON. 

T. Dogpson. T. THOMPSON. 


W. VY. YATES. 


The following MEETINGS were held during the Session :— 
1887. 
Oct. 20.—OPENING CONVERSAZIONE. 
Oct. 31.—Rev. R. L. Owen Lewis.—‘“‘ Plant Life.” 
Nov. 14.—Mr. J. H. Lergu.—Dramatic Recitals. 
Dec. 5.—Mr. B. A. Invine.—‘‘ Notes on Scandinavia.” 


1888. 
Jan. —Prof, FRANK CLOWES. 
Jan. 9.—Prof. Srn.ey, F.R.S., F.G.S.—‘‘The Race Characters of the 


English People.” 

Jan. 30.—Mr. B. A. Irvine and Rev. Canon Srock.—Popular Lecture, 
with Lantern Views. 

Feb. 13.—Mr. Jonn BurrerwortH, F.R.M.S.—‘‘The Fishes of the Coal 
Period,” illustrated by the Oxyhydrogen Light. 

Feb. 27.—Rev. J. M. Moss. 

Mar. 12,—Mr. Frank Barron, A.C.0.—‘ The History of the Pianoforte,” 
with Musical Examples. 


Your Committee in presenting the Sixth Annual Report of the 
Society’s work, have much pleasure in stating that the last year 
has been a highly successful one. 

The number of subscribers has been nearly doubled, and whereas 
at the beginning of the session there was a serious deficit of 
£8 2s. 6d., the Society has now a credit balance of £5 28s. 7d. 

The Session was opened with a Conversazione, which proved so 
enjoyable, that, acting on the suggestion of one of its members, the 
Committee decided to hold a Social Meeting later on; this was 
done on Dec. roth, and was much appreciated by the large number 


Xxil. 


who attended it. The members of the Society were also invited 
by Col. MacDougall to an afternoon gathering and exhibition of 
pictures on March 23rd. The thanks of the Society are due to 
Col. MacDougall for his active efforts in its behalf. 

During the winter there have been nine Public Lectures, and it 
is gratifying to be able to state that the attendances have been 
much larger than in any previous year. The amounts taken at the 
door have also been much greater than usual. 

Free tickets to the number of 400 have again been distributed 
amongst the various schools in the district, and these have been 
eagerly sought after and made use of. 

The best thanks of the Society are due to those who so kindly 
gave Lectures during the past Session ; and also to the ladies and 
gentlemen who rendered help in the musical part of the Conver- 
sazione and Social Meeting. 

The Society has sustained a heavy lossin the death of its President, 
the late Mr. H. W. Schneider, a gentlemen who took a great 
interest in the work of the Society, and who gave it the most 
valuable assistance on several occasions. 

The liberal assistance of Mr. Clowes deserves the especial 
thanks of the Society. 


Xxiil. 


Report of Association Secretarp. 


THE Council has to report a satisfactory increase in the number of 
Members, and it has the almost certain promise of an addition to 
the number of Local Associations during the coming Session. 


The following table shows the number of Members on whom 


. the Capitation Grant was paid by the several Societies for 1887, 
and for the present year; together with the copies of the Z7ans- 
: actions taken by them during the same years :— 
G 
4 ; 
, Members. Transactions. 
1887. 1888. Part XI. Part XII. 
KESWICK we ron 145 130 70 60 
MARYPORT aS Ze foro) 100 60 62 
LoNGTOWN sie Se 46 32 12 12 
CARLISLE ie Se 104 122 95 105 
AMBLESIDE sas ie 93 go 20 10 
SILLOTH See va 65 50 8 7 
BRAMPTON Hy ae 67 79 10 12 
PENRITH 3 Se 169 170 160 140 
WINDERMERE ... ee 62 100 — 14 
ASSOCIATION MEMBERS 23 37 23 37 
864 910 458 459 


Some fifteen names have been added to the list of Association 


Members during the past year. This is satisfactory so far as it 


XXIV. 


goes; but it will require very largely augmenting if the Society: is 
to be placed on a firm basis. The Council would be glad of the 
co-operation of members generally towards the extension of this 


list. 


LECTURERS. 


Professor H. G. Seeley, F.R.S., was the Association Lecturer, 
and gave the greatest satisfaction to the members of those Societies 
before whom he lectured. Unfortunately it was impossible to 
arrange for his visiting each of the Societies; but the Council 
trusts that it will now be able to make such arrangements as will 
enable the Association Lecturer to visit each Society during the 


coming Session. 


A somewhat imperfect list of suggested Lecturers was issued to 
each of the Societies last Session. As such a list is likely to prove 
very useful in the compilation of the programme, the Council is 
very wishful to make it as perfect as possible. To this end it 
suggests that Local Secretaries should, if possible, get permission 
from gentlemen whom they think would consent to place their 
names on the list. If at the same time the subject of the lecture 
could be stated, this would be a very valuable addition to the list, 
and would save much labour. Of course it should be understood 
that “the fact of any gentleman allowing his name to appear on 
the list would only imply a general willingness to assist the Society, 
and not any obligation to accept any particular invitation to lecture.” 
Any suggestions that will tend to increase the value of the list will 


be gladly received by the Council. 


In another way the Council may be of use to the Local Associ- 


ations. There are times when, through unforseen circumstances, 


(xxv, 


a lecturer is unable to deliver the lecture he has prepared. As a 
break in the programme is not always desirable, it would be well 
if some arrangement could be made by which the engagement 
could be kept at short notice. The best thanks of the Council are 
due and tendered to Mr. R. J. Whitwell for his kindness in filling 
an unforeseen vacancy at Brampton on short notice. If other 
gentlemen would kindly place their services at the disposal of the 
Council on similar terms, it would tend greatly to the benefit of 


the Local Associations. 


BOND OF UNION. 


It has long been felt that a stronger bond of union is wanted, 
not only between the Local Associations themselves, but also 
between them and the Council—at least if the union is to be a 
reality. Were the finances of the Association in a more flourishing 
condition, much might be done to alter this state of things; at 
the same time, the alterations in the Rules, as suggested, will be a 
decided step in this direction, and the hearty co-operation of the 
members will prove of immense benefit. The Council having had 
the matter under its consideration, offers the following recommend- 


ations as of special importance :— 


(z.) That the various Committees send up Resolutions to the 
Council bearing on any point likely to promote the welfare of the 
Association. 

(2.) That, if possible, inter-Association Field-Days be arranged 
for—a Summer Session being thus made a part of the programme. 
If a élass could be formed in connection with each Association, 
then Field-Days would come as a matter of course. The Council 


suggests a Natural History Class, though it sees no reason why 


XXV1. 


Science Classes should not be encouraged. The Syllabus recom- 
mended by the British Association (see Part VIII. Z7vansactions) 
is wide enough for all purposes. 

(3.) That each Society print the names of its members as part 
of its annual programme. This is done at Maryport with very 
good results, 

(4.) That Hon. Secs. in making up their Annual Reports should 
briefly state how their work has been carried on, and the success 
that has been obtained. 

(5.) That each Society endeavour to secure Lecturers for the 
other Societies, and especially for the smaller ones. 

(6.) That Hon. Secs. send a copy of their Rules to the Hon. 
Association Secretary, so as to enable him to compile a code for 
suggested new Associations; also to send a copy of their Pro- 
grammes to the other Associations in Union, together with, say a 
dozen, to the Hon. Association Secretary, for distribution amongst 
the Officers of the Association. 

(7.) That members of any affiliated Association, and also the 
Association Members, be admitted to the Meetings of Local 
Societies other than their own, on the same terms as Local Mem- 
bers, on giving proof of membership ; and that the Local Associ- 
ation Secretary be requested to write each member’s name on the 
programme for the year—such programme to be used in support 


of membership when so required. 


CIRCULATING LIBRARY. 


With the same end in view, it is proposed to give effect to 
resolutions passed at almost every Annual Meeting held since 


1883, with regard to a Circulating Library. A large number of 


XXVil. 
Transactions of various Societies has been received in exchange 
for our own Transactions. Seeing that so much valuable inform- 
ation is contained therein, and which, at present, is entirely lost to 
our members, it is proposed to appoint a Librarian, whose duty it 
shall be briefly to catalogue the chief contents of these Transactions, 
and then issue them to such Societies as may wish to read them. 
Such a Library would be of immense benefit to the projected 


Natural History Classes. 


TRANSACTIONS. 


The issue of the Zvansactions cannot be said to be at all satis- 
factory, and, sooner or later, some change will have to be made, 
unless indeed the issue becomes more general than at present. 
Many useful alterations are in contemplation, by which the 
Transactions will be greatly increased in value. Hence the 
Council trust they may count on the active support of each Local 
Association towards its distribution. Some of the Societies give it 
Sree to the members. If the other Societies would try the experi- 
ment of giving the next number, say, free, the Council would be 
in a very mnch better position to help the Local Societies. 

There is, besides, a rapidly increasing stock of Back Numbers 
on hand—some 1700 or 1800 in number. The Council would 
earnestly ask members to supply themselves with copies. Such a 


course would materially help forward the work of the Association. 


FORMATION OF CLASSES. 


The Council would like to give full effect to Rule 9, especially 
with regard to University Extension Lectures, Natural History 


Classes, or Science Classes, in connection with the Local Associ- 


XXVIii. 
ations. The advantages of such classes are too obvious to need 


mention ;—though the Council regrets its inability to render any 


pecuniary aid at present. 


SUB-COMMITTEE, 


It is suggested that a Sub-Committee be appointed to consider :— 

(1) Whether joint action can be taken in the matter of 
University Extension, and if so, how. 

(2) How best to encourage the ‘“‘formation of classes.” 

(3) How to induce systematic work in connection with the 
syllabus of the British Association. 

(4) The further extension of the Association, and its more 
efficient working, 

(5) The conditions on which the Transactions received from 


other Societies are to be circulated. 


HOW TO WORK A SOCIETY. 


The Council has been asked to recommend a plan for the 
efficient working of a Local Society. In the absence of the 
Rules of the various Societies, they are unable to advise as to the 
merits or demerits of such rules ; but the following suggestions are 
offered as likely to be of use in attaining the desired end. Of 
course, in a Literary and Scientific Society, the main object is the 
furtherance of Literary and Scientific studies. Hence the Session 
may very properly be commenced, if not also be ended, by a 
Conversazione. ‘The Council does not see any reason why other 
meetings of a Social character should not also form part of the 
programme. Then the programme ought to be of as varied a 


character as possible, at least one night being set apart for Read- 


XxXIX. 


ings, Discussions, &c. It ought also to provide for continuity of 
operations during the Summer months, by the establishment of 
Field-Days, &c. But success depends not so much on the fact of 
having a programme—however good it may be—but on the 
way in which it is brought before the public, both members and 
non-members. 

Where notices of every meeting have been regularly sent, not 
only to members, but also to non-members, it has been found that 
the Society has greatly benefited. 

In those centres where there are Societies other than “ Literary 
and Scientific,” arrangements might be made by which such 
Societies might be induced to attend at least the lecture given by 
the Association Lecturer ; but this is a matter that more immedi- 
ately concerns the Local Society. 

There is still a small balance in hand, but much too small for 


effective working. 


Cumberland and GHestmorland Associntion for the 
Advancement of Literature and Science. 


erry 


BALANCE SHEET FOR THE YEAR ENDING AUGUST 80, 1888. 


RECEIPTS. 

Balance brought forward £5 2 10 
Subscriptions towards Prof. 

Seeley’s expenses aoe O 
Capitation Grant on 873 

Members Sin 
Subscriptions of 31 Associ- 

ation Members ee aE2 O 


Transactions, Part XII. 
Sold to Societies (360) ... 13 0 Oo 


,, Assoc. Memb. (31) I II oO 

Sold by Messrs. Coward oOo 3 6 
Back Numbers sold Cee 10 
Authors’ Copies 2 7rd 
Bank Interest OL2) 0 
£72 0 5 


PAYMENTS. 


Prof. Seeley, for 5 Lectures £26 
Towards buying Scarce Nos. 
Late Hon. Secs. Postage A/c. 
Editor’s Pe 93 
Hon. 
3 Carriage, &c. ... 
Griffin’s Year Book 
Messrs. Coward— Printing 
720 copies Part XII. ... 30 
Do. for Doing-up 700... 3 
Do, for Printing, &c. Authors’ 


I 
fo) 
fo) 

Secs. of 45 
fe) 
fo) 


Copies ... 2 
Do. for Stationery, &c. 2 
Cheque Book sex fo) 
Balance in hand Aug. 23, 1888 ° 


472 


Audited and found correct, October 3rd, 1888, 


ASSETS, 


Balance in hand 7 £016) 7 
Due for Transactions, Part XII. 
From Members ... Bacio 
From Association Members 0 5 Oo 
Subscriptions due from Associ- 
ation Members ee EO 


£5. BOF 


TRANSACTIONS, Part 


Sold to Societies 


Sold to Association Members 


Sold to Non-Members 
Presented 
On hand October 3rd, 1888 


H. BUMBY, 
R. H. HAMILTON, 


LIABILITIES, 


(Nil. ) 


XII. 


ie) 
0 6 
IO 2 
II 6 
0 3h 
5 1% 
60 


Auditors. 


THE “GIANTS THUMB,” 
PENRITH PARISH CHURCHYARD. 


By GEO. WATSON. 
(Read before the Penrith Society. ) 


THE mutilated cross in Penrith Churchyard, popularly known as 
the Giant’s Thumb, is a relic of great antiquarian interest, and has 
lately been brought prominently before the public mind in conse- 
quence of its temporary removal, for the purpose of being more 
worthily placed upon a pedestal, and out of harm’s way of the 
widened public footpath through the churchyard, 

This old cross belongs to a class of early Christian monuments, 
whose age antiquarians are seldom able to agree upon more 
precisely than as being between the Sixth and the Twelfth 
centuries. They are variously spoken of as Anglo-Saxon, Celtic, 
and Runic crosses; the latter term, however, is loose and mis- 
leading—for in many instances crosses are so called when no 
Runic characters are to be found upon them. 

It is scarcely possible to speak of the Giant’s Thumb without 
referring also to the Giant’s Grave, which is universally acknow- 
ledged to be one of the most interesting, as it is also one of the 
most inexplicable, monuments of antiquity to be met with in the 
country. 

The earliest reference to Penrith church I have met with is in 
Camden’s Britannica, written early in the 17th Century ; he says, 
“Penrith, generally called Perith, is adorned with a pretty hand- 

1 


2 


some church ;” but although Camden was the great antiquarian of 
his day, he makes no mention of either the Giant’s Grave or the 
Giant’s Thumb. 

It must, however, be borne in mind that post-reformation anti- 
quarians of Camden’s time, and indeed for three centuries or so 
after that, were so strongly influenced by the reaction from 
medeivalism, that their notions of antiquarian research were 
directed principally to Roman remains, to the neglect of, if not 
contempt for, all Christian monuments. 

However, an edition of Camden’s work was published in 1695, 
with additions by the best local authorities in each county ; that 
for Cumberland was entrusted to the learned Dr. Hugh Todd, 
Prebendary of Carlisle Cathedral and afterwards Vicar of Penrith, 
who added to Camden’s meagre information a notice of the Giant’s 
Grave, recounting the tradition of the mighty hunter of Inglewood 
forest—mighty in stature as well as in hunting the boar—which 
has been repeated over and over again in all the local histories up 
to this day; but he makes no mention whatever of the Giant’s 
Thumb. 

One thing, however, the indefatigable doctor did, as Vicar of 
Penrith: he pulled down Camden’s ‘‘pretty and handsome” 
Gothic church, and built the Georgian edifice now standing. 

The demolition of the old church, without as much as a line of 
description or drawing of its appearance, is matter for sincere 
regret; but we must remember that at that time old Gothic 
churches were regarded as worthless rubbish, and no opportunity 
was lost for pulling them down and replacing them with bad 
copies of Wren’s classical churches, then in fashion. 

If, then, the old church was so much despised, what wonder if 
the mean-looking old churchyard cross was not thought worthy of 
mention, and that, being in the way of the builders, the labourers 
were told to take it away and stick it in anywhere ? 

The connection of the Giant’s Thumb with the Giant’s Grave is 
as mythical as the giant himself; indeed it could not possibly be 
the same giant, for the monster who was laid at rest in the fifteen 
foot space assigned to him, huge though he was, must have been a 


PE rere 


3 


baby to the giant of the thumb. According to human proportions, 
while the giant of the grave stood with his head not halfway up 
the side of the church, he of the thumb must have stood twice the 
height of the steeple—certainly a giant of consequence. 

Leaving the'mythical aspect of the subject as being too vast for 
our limited imaginations, let us come to a more prosaic consider- 
ation of the subject. 

First a few words about old crosses in general. 

Notwithstanding the wanton and fanatical destruction of ancient 
crosses, there are still remaining scattered over Great Britain and 
Ireland numerous interesting examples of these Christian monu- 
ments. 

They are classed principally as Preaching-, Memorial-, and 
Market crosses; and they stand all over the land as silent chapters 
in stone in the history of British Christianity. 

The Giant’s Thumb is undoubtedly one of the first class. They 
were erected in the earliest times of Anglo-Saxon Christianity, as 
missionary stations, before churches were built ; where the grand 
old Saxon apostles—the saintly Cuthberts, Kentigerns, and 
Oswalds—met the people gathered from far and near to listen to 
their fervid eloquence. In this way the preaching crosses became 
centres of religious feeling, and sometimes fixed the name of 
the locality, as Crosthwaite, Crosby-Ravensworth, and many 
others. 

The cross in Penrith churchyard, as we have been accustomed 
to see it, is by no means an imposing relic. It has been mutilated 
by knocking off the upper part of the cross. It has been broken 
off from its base stone or pedestal, and re-set in comparatively 
modern times by inserting it two feet and a half in the ground. 
Time and the weather have all but obliterated its sculptured 
ornamentation. 

When it was ignobly placed in this position is not recorded ; 
but from the fact now ascertained that it was set upon a portion 
of a 17th or early 18th Century headstone, and wedged up with 
blue slates. I should conjecture that it originally stood near the 
old church, the “pretty and handsome church” Camden tells us 


. 


4 


about, and was removed to make room for Dr. Todd’s great 
Georgian church in 1721 or 1722. 

The original form of the cross has been a Greek cross and 
circle, i.e, the emblem of the Redemption surrounded by a 
nimbus or glory, familiarly styled a “four-holed cross.” The 
holes, however, are too large and shapeless to come within any 
proper geometrical delineation, and, in my opinion, have been 
tampered with by widening out in an irregular manner. 

I have heard a tradition that may possibly account for this. 
The late Mr. William Grisenthwaite, of this town, who had quite a 
store of local traditions, told me that the Giant’s Thumb was at 
one time used as a pillory—the universal medizval corrective of 
all social delinquencies ;—and as if stamping the tradition as an 
historical fact, he said the last time it was so used, the unfortunate 
offender was a young woman, who died of a broken heart in 
consequence of her shameful exposure. 

If this alleged tradition has a foundation in fact, it may account 
for the holes having been enlarged to accommodate the culprit’s 
wrists. 

The cross consists of one stone seven feet six inches long ; the 
stem or shaft is twenty inches by nine inches at bottom, tapering 
upwards to the head. 

The remains of sculptured ornament to be seen upon the shaft 
of the cross indicates that a running scroll or spiral pattern has 
been used ; it occurs frequently on Anglo-Saxon crosses, and may 
be seen on the famous Bewcastle cross, and more plainly still on 
the Irton cross. 

Mr. Owen Jones, in his Grammar of Ornament, gives examples 
of this class of ornament; under the head of Celtic Ornament he 
refers to some forms of the scroll in the Manx and Cumberland 
crosses of that period, and suggests that they were copied from 
the tesselated pavements left by the Romans in Britain; and he 
also further shows that the Romans in their turn had adopted them 
from ancient Greek art. 

The running scroll form of decoration, which has secured 
admiration from the earliest times to the present, has been adopted 


5 


in the borders of the marble mosaic floors lately laid in the chancel 
of our parish church, illustrating forcibly the oft-quoted sentiment, 
that, “‘a thing of beauty is a joy for ever.” 

It is intended to re-erect* the old cross upon a suitable pedestal 
near the place where people have been accustomed to see it; and 
from its improved appearance, when so elevated, it will probably 
become better known as the Old Churchyard Cross than as the 
Giant’s Thumb. 


* Since this paper was read the old cross has been re-erected on a pedestal 
bearing the inscription: ‘‘Re-erected on new base. Carved designs reproduced 
from the cross. 1887.” The carved designs are the running scroll and the 
interlaced ring and band pattern. These patterns, all but obliterated by the 
hand of time, and requiring the eye of faith to see them in the old cross, have 
been curiously indirectly confirmed by excavations just made at the sides of the 
famous hog-backed stones of the Giant’s Grave, by which these very patterns 
have been brought to light in a most perfect state of preservation. 


ae 


WAS ST. PATRICK ‘A CUMBRIAN? 
By Rev. JOHN I. CUMMINS, O.S.B. 
(Read before the Maryport Society. ) 


THE question as to the birthplace of the Apostle of Ireland has 
long been a matter of controversy. Almost as many places claim 
the honour as of old claimed that of being Homer’s birthplace. 
Nor is it likely, in the absence of fresh and convincing evidence, 
that the question will ever be satisfactorily settled. It may seem 
therefore a waste of time to discuss the matter further, more par- 
ticularly when we propose to advance an entirely novel theory, and 
to defend the claims of yet another country to the honour of having 
given birth to the Apostle of the Irish. Yet the very fact that 
learned men have so long disagreed shows that there is still room 
for other claims; and the very novelty of an opinion may lend 
interest, if nothing else, to its discussion. 

The old national rhythm asserted that “St. Patrick was a gentle- 
man, and came of decent people ;” but so vague a description of 
his family and connections was not likely to satisfy either the 
devotion of his admirers or the curiosity of archeologists. Nor 
were materials for further conjecture altogether wanting. In the 
authentic writings of the Saint himself, in the early lives written by 
his immediate disciples, as well as in the ancient traditions of his 
people, there were to be found allusions and names which have 
proved a fertile source of conjecture as to the nation and locality 
from which he sprang. The main facts are admitted; it is in the 
interpretation of them that authorities differ, Many have claimed 


8 


the Saint for Kilpatrick near Dumbarton on the Clyde; some for 
the S.W. parts of Wales, about St. David’s ; some for Brittany and 
the north of Gaul. I am not aware that anyone has, until very 
lately, claimed St. Patrick as a Cumbrian. Yet this is what I am 
prepared to do. The probabilities of the evidence seem to me to 
point to some part of the British coast south of the Great Wall of 
Hadrian, i.e., to some part of the modern county of Cumberland, 
as the true locality of St. Patrick’s birth.* 

May I express the hope that the subject under discussion will 
not be found too dry for a popular lecture? ‘There are surely 
elements of general interest even about an archzological question 
like this. It will be something if we can add St. Patrick to the 
not very long list of worthies whom Cumberland has so far pro- 
duced. And even if we fail in this effort, we may still find incidental 
points of interest to compensate us for our trouble. Toa cultivated 
mind there is always a pleasure in realizing in imagination the 
conditions and appearance, ages ago, of the countryside with which 
we are now familiar. It has been well said that ‘‘ whatever helps 
men to realize the past, the distant, or the eternal over the tempo- 
rary and the present, advances them in the dignity of thinking 
beings.” And if get nothing more from our inquiry than a clearer 
picture of what West Cumberland, with its towns and people, was 
like fifteen hundred years ago, we shall not have had our labour in 
vain. 

A word or two must be premised as to the authorities for the 
facts of St. Patrick’s history. ‘There are several very early lives of 
the Saint. But more important are two documents which profess 
to be his own genuine writings. One of these is an Epistle to 
Coroticus, a British prince of some part of South Wales. The 
other is called the “Confession of St. Patrick,” and is a kind of 
autobiography, something in the style of the more famous Con- 


*This suggestion has been already made by Sir W. Butler in the first number 
of ‘‘Merry England,” May 1882. From the obvious similarity between 
Banaven and Whitehaven, Col. Butler ascribes the honour to this latter town. 
Whilst agreeing cordially with his main conclusion, I believe that a closer 
acquaintance with the archzeology of the locality shows the improbability of 
Whitehaven being the Banaven of St. Patrick’s Confession. 


re, 


9 


fessions of his great contemporary, St. Augustine of Hippo. In 
these two writings occur the allusions which are the only certain 
ground that we have to rely upon. It would take us too long to 
enter into the question of their authenticity. It must suffice to 
say that they are generally accepted as the genuine writings of the 
Saint. The Bollandist, for instance, whose name is synonymous for 
accurate and extensive scholarship, acknowledge their authenticity ; 
so does Archbishop Ussher. Dr. Todd, a recent Protestant his- 
torian, quotes in their favour Spelman, Ducange, Mabillon and 
others. In one word, they are quoted on all hands as our 
only and sufficient evidence for what we know of the Saint’s life. 
We shall rely for our materials, then, upon these two writings 
alone, leaving aside altogether the fuller, but much less authentic, 
details of the later lives. The later these are in date, and the 
further removed from original sources, the more detailed and 
dogmatic do they become. ‘The most recent ones are quite con- 
fident in their identification of localities which are barely referred 
to in the older documents. ‘These Lives are the original sources 
of many of the traditions about the Saint, but as authorities on 
archzeology are of the very slightest value. The one or two simple 
statements which the Saint makes about himself are worth more 
than all the guesses of later writers put together. 

This then is how the Saint speaks of himself :—‘‘ According to 
the flesh I am of noble birth, my father being a decurion; but I 
have bartered my nobility for the good of others. . . I, Patrick, 
had for father Calphurnius, who was of the town Banaven Tabernia. 
He had a farm close by where I was made captive. . . I was 
carried captive into Ireland with many thousands of men,—as we 
indeed deserved, for we had not kept the commandments nor 
obeyed our priests who taught us the way of salvation.” 

From these passages, and from others too long to quote, we 
learn the following facts. Saint Patrick was born at a place in 
Britain called “‘Banaven Taberniz” (Banavie of the Tents or 
Camps.) His father seems to have been an officer in a Roman 
legion stationed at that place, and to have been of Gaulish, or 
perhaps Frankish, nationality. His mother (Conchessa) was most 


10 


likely of Gaulish extraction ; and is said to have been a niece of 
St. Martin of Tours. During his boyhood a descent was made 
upon the coast where he lived by pagan pirates from Ireland, by 
whom his parents were slain, and he himself was carried away 
captive. The date of his birth must be about A.D. 387; that of 
his captivity, about 400. It is particularly to be noticed that he 
had been living at this time in the mdst of a large Christian 
population. From his native country he was carried to some part 
of the north-east of Ireland. ‘Trustworthy tradition points to the 
mountain slopes of Antrim as the spot where the future apostle 
fed the flocks of his pagan master. Escaping from captivity after 
some years, he describes himself as “journeying” southwards for 
many days, then crossing the sea until he came to what he calls 
his “fatherland” (patria) ; and this seems from subsequent passages 
to have been Gaul. 

The problem before us is to identify this “ Banaven Taberniz,” 
and to explain the various allusions made by the Saint. At the 
outset we are met by two rival theories supporting respectively the 
claims of Gaul and of North Britain to be the birthplace of the 
Saint. I think it can be shown that both these claims rest upon 
mistaken interpretations of the passages in question; and that 
without denying the facts upon which they rely, we can more justly 
fit them in with quite a different opinion. 

. The principal grounds for the first theory that St. Panel was 
Be in Gaul—somesaynear Boulogne, somesay near Tours—are the 
tradition of his relationship with St. Martin, alluded to in the later 
lives, and the fact that he seems to speak of Gaul as his fatherland. 
But there is no necessary inference from these statements that he was 
himself born in Gaul. It is a matter of history that legions which had 
long been stationed and recruited in Gaul were, about this very 
time, sent to Britain under Theodosius to defend the northern 
frontier against the Picts. Calphurnius, St. Patrick’s father, may 
well have been a Gaul, or perhaps a Frank, who had enlisted in 
one of the legions, and married St, Martin’s niece whilst still in 
Gaul; but whose child had been born during his parents’ residence 
in Britain. Under such circumstances the boy would naturally 


11 


speak of Gaul as his “fatherland,” would have all his relatives 
there, and would go there on his escape from captivity. In pre- 
cisely the same way, the child of an English officer born whilst 
his father was stationed with his regiment in India would still call 
England, not India, his fatherland, where his relatives would be found, 
and whither he might go as to his own country. All the evidence 
for St. Patrick’s connection with Gaul, through his family, we can 
readily accept ; but this does not prove that Gaul was actually his 
birthplace. And we cannot evade the evidence of other most 
clear facts, which point to a connection of another kind with some 
part of Great Britain. 

But what part of Britain was it? His father would appear to 
have been engaged in the defence of some military station against 
the Picts, who towards the close of the Fourth century were con- 
stantly invading the northern provinces. It would be during a 
successful attack of this kind that the parents of the child were 
slain, and that he himself, with many thousands of others, was 
made captive. Where was this station? All the probabilities of 
the case—all the historical evidence from other sources, point to 
some part of the northern and western frontiers of Britain as the 
scene of the invasion. But was it somewhere on the Clyde, by 
one of the fortresses of the frontier of Antonine? or was it not 
rather in some part of modern Cumberland, at some station near 
the great Wall of Hadrian? 

2. I must at once admit that the more common opinion has 
hitherto been that it was in Clydesdale, probably near Dumbarton, 
that Calphurnius was stationed, and that his son was made captive. 
The little village of Old Kilpatrick is further indicated as being 
the exact spot. The name indeed would imply nothing more than 
that in ancient times a cell or church had existed there dedicated 
to the Saint. On this ground we might almost as well advance 
claims for Patterdale, or even Aspatria. There is no record of 
even a chapel at Kilpatrick before the Twelfth century. But the 
chief objection to this theory is that it does not square with a most 
important detail, and fails to take account of the following weighty 
fact, 


12 


In his ‘‘Confession,” the Saint distinctly implies that, before 
being made captive, he was dwelling amongst a /arge and settled 
Christian population. He alludes to congregations of Christians 
enjoying the full exercise of their religion, with priests, churches, 
etc.;—and apparently by no means in the first fervour of conversion. 
He blames them for having fallen off in their piety ; expressing his 
conviction that it was because of their sins that God had permitted 
them to become a prey to their enemies. ‘These are his words :— 
“‘T was carried captive into Ireland with many thousands of men— 
as indeed we deserved, because we had not kept the command- 
ments, nor obeyed our priests who taught us the way of salvation.” 

Now if we are to verify these plain words, we shall have to 
localize St. Patrick’s birth in some part of Britain,—it must be on 
the sea, and near some exposed frontier,—where there could be 
at the time a numerous population of Christians. He speaks of 
“many thousands of men who were not obeying their priests,” etc. 
But to account for such a Christian population in Britain, before 
the close of the 4th century, we must suppose a comparatively 
settled colony. There were no Christians in those days beyond 
the frontiers of the Roman world ; and I can find no reason for 
believing that such a population as St. Patrick speaks of was to be 
found at this time along the wall of Antonine, or indeed anywhere 
in the province of Valentia. There are of course extensive Roman 
remains in that region. It had been the battlefield of Britain for 
three hundred years. Dumbarton itself was a strong Roman 
fortress, and the termination of the rampart of Antonine. But all 
the known circumstances of the district tell against the likelihood 
of its having any large Christian population, or indeed of its being 
well populated at all. The country between the two Walls,—what 
we may roughly indicate as the modern Lowlands,—was the latest 
of Roman conquests in the Island, and the least settled. Its very 
name—Valentia—was only derived from the Emperor who died in 
367, just a few years before St. Patrick was born. It was little 
more than an outpost of Roman Britain, which really ended at the 
Wall of Hadrian ; and it remained to the end a province only held 
by military force and especially exposed to barbarian inroads. It had 


a ee Te eee at ee, ee 


13 


not been colonized long enough to allow the growth of settlements 
with a civil population dwelling peacefully under the shelter of the 
Roman garrisons. It was a country therefore where we should be 
least likely to find a numerous Christian population such as that of 
which St. Patrick speaks. The district might fit in fairly well with 
the other incidents of the story, but the impossibility of reconciling 
its circumstances with this main fact is, to my mind, fatal to its 
claims to be considered the birthplace of our Saint. 

Very different was the condition of the country which lay to the 
south of Hadrian’s Wall,—that is, of the district now known as 
Cumberland. ‘There everything points to the presence of a large 
population, which there is nothing inconsistent in supposing was 
by this time largely impregnated with Christianity. But in order 
to realize fully the force of this part of my argument, it will be well 
to try to form some idea of what Cumberland was like during the 
period of the Roman occupation. 

Much has been changed in the aspect of the country during the 
course of so many ages, but much remains unchanged. The great 
physical features are of course unaltered. Skiddaw and the high 
mountain ranges filled then as now the horizon to the east. Criffel 
and its neighbours overhung the Solway from the opposite coast. 
The same rivers rolled along the same beds, perhaps somewhat 
deeper and fuller than now. The coast line, too, would be 
much the same, except that the tide may have insulated such 
promontories as those at Maryport and St. Bees. But we 
must dismiss altogether from our minds the notion that 
Cumberland was then the uninhabited, unimportant, desolate 
region which it did afterwards become. It was not, of course, 
cultivated and peopled as it is now; but it was very much more 
populous than it became during the wild times that followed the 
withdrawal of the Roman arms.. Much of the land was morass, or 
dense forest, or barren moor ; still it was traversed by many lines 
of broad highways maintained in constant use and good repair; 
and it contained Roman stations both numerous and important, 
the presence of which argues settlements of considerable size. The 
great Wall of Hadrian ran through the district from Bowness on 


14 


the Solway, through Carlisle, along a tributary valley of the Eden 
into that of the Tyne, and so on to Wallsend on the eastern coast- 
This Roman Wall was one long series of castles and stations, many 
of which grew to be important colonies and fortified towns. Besides 
these stations, another series of fortifications carried along the 
sea-coast to the west the same defence against the Scots which the 
Wall provided on the north ; whilst again another batch protected 
the network of military roads which converged from all parts upon 
Carlisle. 

There was a very obvious necessity for the great number of 
fortified places in this locality. Cumberland has always been a 
Border county, exposed to raids from external enemies, and needing 
constant protection. In this respect its condition was very different 
from that of the rest of Britain. When the Roman conquest had 
been completed and the early risings finally quelled, the provincials 
of Britain settled down into quiet contentment under the peaceful 
rule of their conquerors. Subdued but not enslaved, and 
accepting gladly the laws and manners of their rulers, they 
were soon admitted to the full rights of Roman citizenship. In 
course of time the need for garrisons and walled cities amongst 
them entirely passed away. A revolt against the rule of Rome 
was out of the question. There might be risings in favour of rival 
candidates for the imperial crown in which the provincials as well 
as the legions took part, but after the First century we find no 
organized attempt to shake off the civilizing yoke of the empire. 
Now this peaceful state of affairs never came about on the Border, 
by the line of the great Wall. Here there was always need of 
powerful garrisons to protect the province from the inroads of a 
restless foe. ‘The Cumbrian fortresses were consequently not like 
those of which we see remains in the south of Britain or along the 
Welsh frontier, or even like those to be found in North Britain. 
They were not manned only for a short while, in one or two cam- 
paigns, until the subjugation of the natives had been accomplished ; 
they were the permanent defences of the country against an ever- 
present foreign enemy. ‘True, an entire province had been subdued 
to the north of Hadrian’s Wall, and a further line of defence erected 


15 


in the rampart which ran between the Clyde and the Forth. But 
nothing can be more certain than that,—whatever may have been 
the numbers and strength of the Roman fortresses in the Low- 
lands,—this province never experienced the same lasting peace 
which its more southern neighbours enjoyed. It was always an 
outpost, exposed to the first attack, and frequently ravaged by 
foes who yet did not dare to pass the second line of defence. The 
conquest of Britain by the Romans may be illustrated by comparing 
it with the British conquest of India. Now that India has peace- 
fully accepted our rule, there is not the same occasion .as there 
used to be to mass large bodies of troops throughout the country. 
On the north-west frontier, however, strong and frequent garrisons 
must still be kept, to hold in check the restless tribes beyond the 
border, much as in old times Cumberland bristled with Roman 
camps. ‘The parallel might be pushed still further if we imagine 
Afghanistan to be held—as some think it should be—by British 
troops as a remote defence against Russian invasion. The further 
province would be an outpost to British India, much as Valentia 
was to Roman Britain. It would still be liable to be overrun by 
waves of warfare; but though they might break through the first 
barrier, they would be spent before they beat upon the real frontier 
of the empire. 

As a fact we know that this outlying province was being con- 
tinually invaded, notwithstanding the defence afforded by the more 
northern Wall. After the peaceful reigns of the Antonines it was 
so constantly attacked that in A.D. 208 the Emperor Severus had 
to undertake its reconquest, and even his famous expedition was 
not entirely successful. In the middle of the 4th century it was 
again entirely lost to the Roman power ; so much so, that when it 
was reconquered by Theodosius in 367 it was treated as though 
it were a new province, and the new name of Valentia was bestowed 
upon it in honour of the reigning Emperor Valens. Fifteen years 
afterward, in 383, the British Emperor Maximus had again to 
repress the incursions of the Picts and Scots who had ravaged the 
new province ; and before the end of the century, “Stilicho once 
more drove back the invading tribes and recovered the territory 


16 


as far as the Northern Wall.” All this was going on during the 
years of St. Patrick’s childhood, at the very time when the advo- 
cates of the Kilpatrick theory would have us believe that in this 
sadly harassed province—a very outpost of civilization—there 
existed a numerous and a Christian population. 

We begin to understand now the position which Cumberland 
held in the defence of Britain, and the reason for the number and 
importance of its stations. It was the true border of Roman 
Britain. ‘The Wall of Hadrian was the real line of defence which 
had to be protected efficiently notwithstanding the existence of the 
outlying province of Valentia. There was moreover the long 
coast line exposed to a danger from which even the conquest of 
Valentia afforded little protection, viz., the incursions of pirates 
from Ireland. Hence the chain of forts, some ten or twelve in 
number and connected by a military road, which we find extending 
from Bowness along the brink of the Solway, as far as Moresby 
and Egremont. 

Such being the military situation and needs of our county in 
Roman times, it remains to examine what would be the domestic 
and social consequences of the continued presence of these large 
garrisons. In the first place, it is just the neighbourhood where— 
apart from the proof afforded by actual remains—we should natur- 
ally expect to find a large population. I suppose in a camp like 
our own, for instance, there would generally be stationed about 
tooo soldiers alone, not counting camp-followers and civilians. 
Then consider the necessity of provisioning the garrisons, and all 
that this work would entail. Whether the supplies were brought 
by sea in fleets, or in convoys along the great roads, or were 
partially obtained from agriculture in the neighbourhood,—they 
would necessitate the employment of many besides the soldiers them- 
selves. Lastly, we must not overlook the system of military service 
established under the Romans at this period. They had the 
custom of giving lands to their veterans as a reward for their 
service and valour, and of requiring them to settle on these lands 
and colonize them. ‘The legionaries were stationed in the same 
camp for such a length of time together, that they might well look 


17 


ee aa 


upon it asahome. Many would intermarry with the people of the 
county ; the wives and families of others would be brought with 
them ; and thus, in course of time, from one cause and another, 
there would grow up around each great station a large, permanent 
population, dependent upon, and closely connected with, the 
Roman garrison, sharing its fortunes, and suffering its fate. 

In his “ Origins of English History,” Elton has thus described 
the process we are considering :— 


, 


“*The soldiers were pioneers and colonists. A Roman camp was a city in 
arms ; and most of the British towns grew out of the stationary quarters of the 
soldiery. The ramparts and pathways developed into walls and streets ; the 
square of the tribunal into the market-place; and every gateway was the 
beginning of a suburb where straggling rows of shops, temples, gardens, and 
cemeteries were sheltered from all danger by the presence of a permanent 
garrison. In course of time the important positions were surrounded with lofty 
walls protected by turrets set apart at the distance of a bowshot, and built of 
such solid strength as to resist the shock of a battering ram. In the centre of 
the town stood a group of public buildings, containing the court-house, baths, 
and barracks ; and it seems very likely that every important place had a theatre 
or a circus for races and shows.” (p. 32.) 


Here is another account, written in the 12th century, describing 
what remained of one of those cities at that time :— 

**Caerleon,” writes Giraldus Cambrenses, ‘‘was excellently built by the 
- Romans with walls of brick; and there are still to be seen many traces of 
its former greatness; huge palaces aping the Roman majesty with their roofs 
_ of antique gold ; a giant tower and noble baths, ruined temples, and theatres 
_ of which the well-built walls are standing to this day. Within and outside the 
_ city the traveller finds underground works, canals and winding passages, and 
_ hypocausts contrived with wonderful skill to throw the heat from little hidden 
_ flues within the walls.” 
But we have not to go so far as South Wales for an illustration 
_ of the process by which a military station grew gradually into an 
important town. We have an example of it under our own eyes. 
Indeed the first description we gave might have been taken literally 
from the camp with which we in Maryport are most familiar. Try 
_ to call up in imagination the picture which our own hilltop would 
present in the middle of the 4th century. Standing four-square, 
_ and crowning the summit of a high insulated hill some one hundred 


and eighty feet above the sea, was the camp itself, guarded by 
2 


18 


fosse and mound, and probably by a brick wall as well arched 
over the four gates, and with roads leading from the gates to north- 
east and south. Many of the principal buildings, with the greater 
part of the town, would be outside the camp itself, extending, 
though not in close order, all over the top of the hill on which the 
modern town is built, and to the north-east over the fields at the 
end of Camp Road. 

The well in the centre of the camp is still visible, other remains 
have been unearthed of various buildings which may have been a 
temple, and a basilica, i.e. a hall of justice, or a bath (and of course 
you are aware that there is no other spot of Britain where so large 
a number of altars has been discovered). Besides the great camp, 
another “castellum” crowned the little hill which guards the 
entrance to the river, now known as Castle Hill, or Motehill ; 
whilst another protected the ford which crossed the Ellen at 
Netherhall. The station is supposed to have been founded by 
Agricola about A.D. 80; and there are reasons for believing it to 
have been for some time at least the head quarters of the admiral 
in command of the Roman fleet.* Probably many of the officers 
of the fleet and of the legions would have their families living in 
stately villas overlooking the magnificent estuary. The station 
must have been the chief post of defence on the coast; and no 
one who has stood on Camp Hill and surveyed from it the broad 
reaches of the Solway and the long stretch of Scotch coast from 
Annan to Burrow Head, can doubt the purpose or the importance 
of the site. . 

Such a description of our town in the fourth century may seem 


* Mr. J. B. Bailey, of Maryport, has shown that there are strong reasons to 
believe that the station at Maryport was founded by Agricola himself in one of 
the campaigns described by Tacitus. The historian says, ‘‘loca castris ipse 
capere, estuaria ac silvas ipse praetentare” (Agricola xx.); and again :— 
‘« Annotabant periti non alium ducem opportunitates locorum sapientius legisse. 
Nullum ab Agricola positum castellum aut vi hostium expugnatum aut pactione 
ac fuga desertum”’ (xxi.) Four altars have been found at Maryport dedicated 
by M. Mcenius Agrippa, who is known to have been commander of the Roman 
fleet in British waters during the time of Hadrian. The name of the camp is 
still doubtful, but Mr. Bailey has advanced good reasons for supposing it to 
have been the Glanoventa of the Itinerary of Antonine. 


19 


to some fanciful or exaggerated. But we must remember that at 
the time of which we are speaking, Glanoventa, or Axelodunum, or 
whatever name it may have borne, was no new colony. The 
Roman occupation of Britain had continued for nigh four hundred 
‘years. During that long period stations and towns had time 
enough to grow into large cities, and to recover from the effects of 
many invasions and destructions. That our own camp had been 
occupied almost without a break during the whole of those three 
centuries, we have convincing evidence both from coins and in- 
scriptions. During that long period a numerous population both 
of colonists and natives must have grown up, dwelling along the 
military roads, and at the neighbouring outposts, safe under the 
protection of the impregnable camp. We may therefore fairly 
apply to our own locality what archeologists tell of the size and 
magnificence of some of the Roman cities in Cumberland. ‘These 
stations were crowded with streets and buildings, and adorned with 
~ baths and temples.” “It is hardly credible what a number of 
august remains of Roman grandeur is to be seen here to this 
day. In every place where one casts his eyes there is some curious 
antiquity; either the marks of streets and temples in ruins, or 
inscriptions, broken pillars, statues, and other pieces of sculpture 
all scattered on the ground” (Gordon, Iter Sept.) ‘There are 
ruins so vast and complete still scattered over these desolate hills, 
that they have been styled, without much exaggeration, the Tadmor 
and Pompeii of Britain” (Elton, 328). 

Now in a district such as Cumberland was in the closing years 
of the fourth century, with its large population and continual 
intercourse with the rest of the Roman world, I find no difficulty 
in believing that there might exist Christian congregations on such 
a scale as to verify the allusions in St. Patrick’s Life. The 
question as to the first introduction of Christianity into these parts 
is a most interesting one ; unfortunately it is one for the solution 
of which few materials are at hand. It has been remarked that 
there are few, if any, traces of the Christian religion to be found in 
the Roman remains that still exist in Cumberland. All the in- 
scriptions and all the monuments are of pagan origin. Yet it can 


20 


hardly be doubted that the Christian faith must have been brought 
into these parts long before the time of St. Patrick, i.e. before 
A.D. 400, through the legionaries recruited in all parts of the 
world. There was a flourishing Christian church in Britain before 
the year 300; there are authentic records of martyrs for the faith 
under the Emperor Diocletian ; and after that time the conversion 
of Constantine and the official recognition of Christianity must have 
given splendid opportunities for the spread of the faith. St. Patrick 
was born about A.D. 387. Fifty years before his birth, three 
British bishops had sat in the great Council of Arles (328). Fifty 
years after his birth, the Britons were reckoned to be Christians, 
just as much as the natives of Gaul or Spain. We can well believe 
therefore that by the last quarter of the fourth century many both 
of the legionaries and the provincials had, even in the north, 
embraced the Christian faith, and that here, as elsewhere, Christi- 
anity was the recognized religion of the state. 

In some such district then as this, where Roman magistrates 
still held sway, and where Christian influences had made much 
progress, St, Patrick’s father was dwelling towards the close of the 
fourth century, exercising there the honourable office of a decurion, 
whether civil or military. He would be a man of substance and 
consideration, living in some state, cultivating a farm near his 
station, and attended by numerous domestics. Then comes the 
sudden descent upon the coast of the Pictish pirates. Too 
probably the garrison had been already weakened by the with- 
drawal of many of the soldiers. It was now completely defeated. 
Calphurnius and his wife were slain; his children, with numbers 
of others, were carried off into slavery, and the once flourishing 
colony was laid waste. What a vivid picture the story gives us of 
the last troubled days of the Roman occupation of Britain; how 
hard to realize that the peaceful street-covered slopes of our familiar 
hills were once the scenes of such slaughter! Yet we know that 
such must have been the case. The traces of burnt houses and 
broken altars, if not the careful concealment of other altar-stones, 
suggest the final fate of the settlement. It is historically certain 
that about the very time when St. Patrick was made captive, the 


21 


station at Maryport suffered the same disaster as is described in 
his life:—a weakened garrison, a successful onslaught of the 
Picts, the camp seized, the town burnt, the people slain or 
carried into slavery. All along the wide frontiers of the falling 
empire scenes like these were being enacted. The legions had 
been withdrawn to defend more important districts, and the 
borders were left exposed. Here in Britain, the provincials, freed 
from allegiance to their imperial master, were expressly bidden to 
see to their own defence. Unused to warfare, and enervated by 
a long continued peace, the hapless citizens proved unequal to the 
task. The barbarians, revelling in the novel luxury of victory, 
swarmed over the Walls, seized the stations, and sacked the wealthy 
cities of the province. In a few years the entire Roman polity in 
Britain was overwhelmed ; and nothing remained to mark the long 
dominion of the imperial race save the slabs and altars and coins 
that fill our museums, the long straight lines of highways stretching 
over the country, and the skeletons of camps and cities still strewn 
throughout the land. 

But we must return to our immediate subject, and we are now 
in a better position to gather up the threads of our argument. Two 
points then emerge with some clearness from the records of the 
fourth century which we have been considering. (1) That 
St. Patrick was born in some place in which there lived a fairly 
large Christian population. (2) ‘That the place was known as 
Banaven of the camps. Now the first fact cannot be verified of 
the neighbourhood of the Wall of Antonine, or indeed of any part 
of Valentia, a province continually devastated by the barbarians 
and at the date of his birth only recently re-acquired to the empire. 
But it fits in exactly with what we know of the vicinity of the Wall 
of Hadrian, with its numerous well fortified camps, and its colonies 
that had existed for three hundred years. I believe that the 
mistake has arisen from the common error of not distinguishing 
between the two great Roman Walls. The northern Wall of 
Antonine has been confounded in this, as in other matters, with 
the more important Wall to the south which bears the name of 
Hadrian. Later writers, living at a distance, and forgetting the 


22 


distinction,‘have attributed to Clydesdale what should really be 
said of Cumberland, and have thus given rise to the traditions on 
the strength of which Kilpatrick claims to be the birthplace of our 
saint. 

Now as to the second point; it is more difficult but“less im- 
portant to localise the name—‘“ Banaven of the camps.” The 
epithet “of the camps” surely applies better to Cumberland, 
bristling as it did with Roman stations, than to any other locality 
in Britain. No other part of the island is so thickly dotted with 
camps as this ; no other part of the island was the scene of such 
prolonged warfare ; no other part of the island therefore would 
better deserve the designation. The inference remains that 
St. Patrick’s birthplace would be somewhere in the vicinity of 
Hadrian’s Wall; and as it was on a coast exposed to the attacks 
of Irish pirates it would be, not on the east side by the Tyne, but 
on the west, that is in Cumberland. May we go a step further, 
and try what particular part of Cumberland best fits in with our 
story? Here we shall have to rely upon any evidence we can get 
out of the proper names. What then is the meaning of Banaven ? 
I suppose it signifies the mouth of a river—the opening of some 
water. Avon or Afon is one of the commonest Keltic names for 
water. It is found in names of rivers all over our island, and is 
parallel with Axe, Exe, or Oich, or with the Aln, Allen, or Ellen 
with which we are more familiar. The prefix Bun or Ban is also 
not an uncommon one, being synonymous with Inver and Aber, 
as in Inverness or Aberdeen, and meaning the mouth or opening 
of a river, the junction of one stream with another. Thus for 
example: There is a Bunoich at Fort Augustus, a Bunawe on 
Loch Etive, and a Banavie by Fort William—all meaning precisely 
the same thing, and the latter being almost the same form 
as we find in St. Patrick’s story. In this connection the name 
helps to particularise the locality we are seeking by requiring the 
presence of some stream, and its confluence with another or with 
the sea; and so would exclude such inland camps as those at Old 
Carlisle and Papcastle, or the stations actually on the Wall. The 
prefix Ban might indeed be translated White, as we find it in the 


23 


word Banshee, “the White Woman.” We should then have 
Banaven meaning the White Water, or Haven. In this case it 
would serve as the literal translation of the name of a neighbouring 
Cumbrian town; but besides the fact that the name of White- 
haven is most probably of English, not of Keltic derivation, and 
has an altogether different meaning, its claims to be considered 
St. Patrick’s birthplace are further barred by there being no river 
there, by there being no natural feature which would deserve to be 
called White, and what is more important, by there being no 
ancient fortification or settlement nearer than Moresby or Egre- 
mont. Under its former and more probable meaning then, as the 
mouth of a river, the name Banaven would apply equally well to 
the Derwent at Workington, or to the Ellen at Maryport, The 
latter has undoubtedly been an ancient haven or harbour. It 
would be quite deep enough for the light galleys of the period, and 
would be well protected both by its natural configuration and by 
the fortifications of Mote Hill and the Camp. We might notice 
too that Ellen and Aven both mean precisely the same thing ; they 
are two of the commonest Keltic names forariver. The old name 
Ellenfoot and Banaven are thus identical in meaning; though I 
should not like to assert that they are on that account interchange: 
able. 

A local antiquarian of considerable repute has advanced good 
reasons for believing that the original name of our camp was the 
*‘Glanoventa” of the Itinerary of Antonine. Now it is well known 
that Keltic derivations are a great snare,—veritable pitfalls to the 
unwary explorer of ancient records. The cynical have even been 
known to hint that a Keltic name may be twisted into almost any 
meaning. I dare not enter on such debateable ground. But I 
would just suggest whether it might not be possible—with liberal 
help, of course, from Grimm’s laws and the other resources of 
perplexed etymologists—to identify the ‘‘Banaven” of St. Patrick’s 
story with the ‘“Glanoventa” of the Itinerary. If it could be done 
it would throw light upon two most interesting problems—the 
name of our ancient Camp, and the birthplace of St. Patrick. Ido 
not venture to be dogmatic on such a point, but merely throw it 


24 


out as a suggestion. But whatever may be its worth, and quite 
apart from this last suggestion, I would conclude from the previous 
argument that there are some good grounds for believing St. Patrick 
to have been a Cumbrian. And if we are to look for his birth- 
place in Cumberland, it must be at some station on the Solway ; 
and if at any Roman Station on the Solway, you at least will agree 
with me that the balance of probability lies in favour of the place 
with which we are connected ; a town which can boast of a very 
venerable antiquity as well as of its splendid future ; a town which 
will never be destitute of historic importance and archzological 
interest if it can lay claim to Agricola as its founder and to 
St. Patrick as one of its citizens! 


i 
| 


25 


ORNITHOLOGICAL RECORD FOR CUMBERLAND, 
JANUARY, 1887—JUNE, 1888. 


By H. A. MACPHERSON, M.A., M.B.O.U., CARLISLE, 
AND W. DUCKWORTH, ULVERsTON. 


One of the chief charms of Zoology lies in the abundance of fresh 


_ facts that from time to time reward the zealous student ;—and we 


are glad to say that the facts which will be noticed in the present 
report, represent a small portion only of the incidents detailed in 


_ our notebooks and ledgers. 


At the outset, we feel it right to call attention to the insufficiency 
of the protection at present vouchsafed to our nesting birds. 

Of our really local birds, the Pied Flycatcher is a prime favourite. 
For the last ninety years at least, very large numbers have been 
accustomed to repair to the fine hanging timber which clothes the 
banks of the river Eamont at Lowther. But when the birds 
arrived in their old haunts on April 25th, 1888, they found that 
most of the old trees in which they and their forefathers had 
nested, had been cut down during the winter. The birds were 
obliged to scatter in search of fresh quarters, and an historic 
breeding colony has thus been reduced for the present year, at 
any rate, to a miserable representation of two or three pairs. 

It is consoling to know that these evicted tenants of Lord 
Lonsdale have not journeyed to the Arctic Circle after his lordship, 
but settled down at no great distance from the now-desolate 
Lowther. 


26 


Whilst studying their habits in June, 1888, with our friend Mr. 
Edward Tandy, we were rejoiced by the discovery of a charming 
little nestling Redstart (Rutecilla phenicurus ), snugly esconced in 
the nesting hole of a pair of Pied Flycatchers, which had evidently 
hatched the stranger among their own pretty, spotted brood of 
five. The nesting hole, originally owned by a pair of Jackdaws 
(Corvus monedula), must have been selected for nidificatory 
purposes by a female Redstart, which again was ousted by the 
Flycatchers after she had laid a single egg. The next pair of 
Pied Flycatchers located on the same ground were nesting in the 
dead limb of a tall Scotch fir; on the other side, a third pair 
reared their young in the base of an old oak ; a fourth had chosen 
a recess in an ash; a fifth nested in the very heart of an old elm, 
entering by a narrow fissure from above; a sixth couple preferred 
masonry, and their nest was stowed away in the centre of a low 
stone wall. Too much protection cannot be afforded to this 
melodious Flycatcher, and its sweet song deserves to be better 
known. 

In a great wood, not far from the above-mentioned colony of 
Pied Flycatchers, many of the trees are riddled by the tunnels of 
boring caterpillars, and here the Greater Spotted Woodpecker 
( Dendrocopus major) rears its young. The stations of this species 
in Cumberland are however so few that they can be counted on 
the fingers of one hand. Gamekeepers should be subsidised to 
protect these useful and persecuted birds. ‘Tidings reached us of 
at least one pair of breeding birds shot on the Scottish border 
during the present year; a short-sighted proceeding which it would 
be difficult to excuse. 

The Lesser Spotted Woodpecker (Dendrocopus minor) has 
reappeared in our midst, and last year (1887) a pair of Green 
Woodpeckers ( Gecinus viridis) reared their brood in safety upon 
the northern limit of their breeding range in Great Britain. 

We regret to say that the senseless war waged against the 
Buzzard ( Buteo vulgaris) has in no wise abated. Considering 
that this fine hawk subsists largely on carrion, the injury to property 
which results from its presence among our lake mountains must be 
granted to be small, 


27 


The dashing little Merlin (alco ewsalon) is becoming more 
scarce every year, because old birds and young are all trapped at 
the nest. Yet we have never conversed with a keeper who con- 
demned the Merlin; and our own observations proved, years ago, 
that its prey includes little else than small field birds. 

Pole traps continue to wreak havoc among our Owls, and should 
be dispensed with, whenever possible. 

We do not propose to speak at length of the Dotterel ( Charadrius 
morinellus ), but candour compels us to state the fact that such 
few trips as still visit us are decimated for the sake of fly feathers. 
It is high time that anglers should discountenance the vandalism 
of their agents. 

Directing our thoughts to the North of Cumberland, we are 
reminded that the Shoveller (Spatula clypeata) continues to breed 
sparingly. A rumour reached us lately that two working-men 
in Carlisle tried to kill a pair of Shovellers at their nest. We trust 
that the report was unfounded. Residents in the neighbourhood 
of Sandsfield and Rockliffe are cautioned against capturing Shel- 
drakes at their nests, and lifting whole clutches. We have our 
eye upon the offenders, and advise them to leave the birds in 
peace. 

The Gulleries, Heronries, and Terneries of which Cumbrian 
men are proud, continue to flourish as a whole; but the eggs of 
Larus ridibundus are shamefully plundered on Bowness Moss, 
and the colony of this species at Salta Moss has suffered cruelly 
of late, every nest being empty on the occasion of a visit in June 
last. 

The foregoing remarks will be understood to convey our sense 
of anxiety on behalf of the scarcer birds that seek to breed with 
us ; and we can only trust that all the members of this Association 
will employ their influences in the right direction. 

We now pass on to consider the more important facts regarding 
Waders and Wildfowl in the winter 1887-8, and the autumn 1887. 
The winter brought us a good season for wildfowl; it is true that 
Wigeon (Mareca penelope) were unusually scarce, but some other 
Species were exceptionally abundant. This was true of the 


28 


Goosander ( Mergus merganser ), but applies with greater force to 
the common Goldeneye ( Clangula glaucion ). One wintry day in 
February last, when the northeaster was drifting the snowflakes 
into great puff balls on Burgh, we observed flocks of twenty and 
thirty Goldeneyes on the Eden estuary. The same day we noticed 
a gagele of about thirty geese, which proved to be Pinkfooted 
Geese (Anser brachyrynchus). Formerly, our evidence regarding 
this Grey Goose was meagre ; and the credit of determining its 
irregular visits to Rockliffe Marsh remains with that excellent and 
helpful observer, Mr. A. Smith of Castletown. It has occurred 
occasionally on the lower Solway, and also inland, but is on the 
whole a very sparing visitor to our estuaries, where the Bean Goose 
(Anser segetum,) is the only really common Grey Goose at the 
present time. Of greater interest is the fact that last winter 
brought us some examples of Bewick’s Swan ( Cygnus bewichi), a 
single bird being killed on the Solway, and others shot on Ulls- 
water by Mr. W. H. Parkin of Ravencragg. ‘These last, 
together with another shot at Lowther, were examined by 
Mr. Edward ‘Tandy, and received determination at our 
hands whilst still freshly mounted. We are further indebted to 
Mr. Edward Tandy, for bringing to light a recent occurrence of 
the Grey Lag Goose (Anser ferus), now a scarce bird in Cum- 
berland. In taking leave of the Anatide, it is our duty to remark 
that the exceptional immigration to British shores of the Longtailed 
Duck ( Harelda glacialis), to which we were the first to direct 
public attention, affected to some extent the Solway. On and 
after October roth, their presence was noticed at Silloth, and 
before Christmas nearly a score were killed on the English 
side of the firth. We also ascertained, and reported to Mr. R. 
Service, the naturalist in charge of the Scottish Solway, the occur- 
rence of several immature birds on his side of the water. Before 
Christmas, we had ourselves examined in the flesh about half a 
hundred birds of this species. Nearly all of these were immature, 
as were four whose flight and quick diving we watched one 
bleak day last November on the banks of a weird highland loch, 
Present limits forbid that we should dilate either on the Velvet 


— 


-” =~ 


——————— oe Tele PS ee, lore ae 


29 


Scoters ( Oidemia fusca) which visited us last winter, or on recent — 
occurrences of the Blackthroated- and the Great Northern- Divers, 
both scarce in our region. 

In autumn, our estuaries were alive with Limicolz, including 
the Grey Phalarope ( Phalaropus fulicarius ) observed by Mr. Tandy 
on September 22nd, near Silloth. The east coasts of Great Britain 
were favoured with hosts of Curlew, Sandpipers, Little Stints, and 
Grey Plover; but our western estuaries were not similarly affected 
as regards the two first, nor was a single specimen of Zvinga minuta 
obtained on our side of the Solway, but Grey Plover (Sguatarola 
helvetica) and Bartailed Godwits (Limosa lapponica) occurred 
during the autumn in exceptional numbers. The principal rush 
reached the Waver on September 3rd, as observed by Mr. Tandy. 
It was not until October 25th that we were able to visit the Solway 
with Mr. H. P. Senhouse, always enthusiastic in the study and 
chase of wary waders ; but despite seven weeks of hard shooting, 
many Grey Plover still remained, and a few wintered on this 
sheltered lagoon. Some old Grey Plover killed there on September 
15th, and sent to Mr. Mackenzie of Carlisle, still retained much of 
their handsome summer plumage. 

We are well aware that we have fully reached the space assigned 
to our record, and shall therefore refer only briefly to two ornitho- 
logical occurrences. The most recent is identical with the irruption 
of Pallas Sandgrouse (Syrrhaptes paradoxus). Concerning this, 
we propose to give separate details, and will only here record 
our regret that our unsparing efforts to preserve the birds from 
destruction proved a failure, twenty-one individuals being killed in 
Cumberland up to June roth. The earlier occurrence is that of the 
Isabelline Wheatear (Saxicola isabellina) shot at Aigle Gill, near 
Allonby, in November last, by Messrs. Mann, as recorded by us 
in the “Ibis” for January last. We had ventured to predict the 
occurrence of south-eastern birds in that locality and at that time. 
That a new species has thus been added to the fauna of Western 
Europe, is an excellent illustration of what may be accomplished 
again and again by such lynx-eyed field naturalists as our kind 
friends at Aigle Gill. 


"TORI PATI 
enaiey : 


Peak 


IFIP. be aphahrwuer I 


? 
ts Se 
ie ters by fa, 

‘ 


Ay <r" 
if 


3l 


SOME OF THE OLD FAMILIES IN THE PARISH 
OF CROSTHWAITE: 


THE BROWNRIGGS OF ORMATHWAITE, &c. 


By J. FISHER CROSTHWAITE, F.S.A. 


(Read before the Ke eswick Society. ) 


In undertaking another paper on the Old Families in the Parish 
of Crosthwaite, I find that I have undertaken a more difficult 
task than I anticipated. The materials are scanty, and the time 
required in searching for them is more than I have had at my 
disposal. I have, however, decided to draw your attention in this 
paper to the family of Brownrigg, and to give you such facts as I 
have been able to gather, which I hope may not prove altogether 


- yninteresting to the members of this Society. For this information 


I naturally go first to the parish registers. We here find the 
different estates upon which the family resided before they finally 
settled at Ormathwaite, where the last of the family, William 
Brownrigg, Esq., M.D., F.R.S., so long resided, and died in the 
first year of the present century, leaving no descendants. 

The first burial of which I have a note is dated— 

“1607, Feb. 23rd.—Christopher Brownrigge of Milnbecke.” 
Then follows :— 

~ “1640, March 2oth.—William Brownrigg of Milnbeck. Quier.” 
“1669, July 22nd.— William Brownrigg of Milnbeck. Quire.” 
The first Brownrigge of Ormathwaite mentioned is— 

“1677, Sept. 1.—An Brownrigge of Ormathwaite. Quire.” 


32 


Then follow :— 

“1681, Feb. 22nd.—Gawine Brownrigge of Milnbeck. Quire.” 
“1681, Mch. 2zoth.—Richard Brownerigge, son of George. Quire.” 
“1683, Feb. roth.—John Brownerigge of High Rowe. In Church.” 
“1684, Aug. 24th.—Isabell Brownerigge. In Quire.” 

“1686, Aug. 16th.—Elizabeth Brownerigge, wife of George. Quire.” 
“1691, Feb. 1.—George Brownerigge wife. Quire.” 

‘1695, March 16th.—George Brownrigge daughter. Quire.” 

In the register of births we find the Brownriggs at Scalebeck, 
and at the Green, now called Underscar :— 

“ Baptism, 1575-6, Jan. 22nd—Of John Brownrigg, son of Christo- 
pher Brownrigg of Skelbeck and Janet his wife.” 

“1577, April 28.—William Brownrigg, son of Christopher Brown- 
rigg of Skilbeck and Janet his wife.” 

“1582, Feb. 18.—Christopher Brownrigge, son of Christopher 
Brownrigge of Grene and Janet his wife.” 

“1585, July 25th.—Mabell Brownrigg, daughter of Christopher 
Brownrigg and Janet his wyfe.” 

From the foregoing entries it would seem that the Brownriggs 
resided upon different farms in Underskiddaw, all of which ulti- 
mately became the property of the family, and possibly they were 
the original owners, except Millbeck Hall, which from the inscrip- 
tion on a stone over the front door,* shows that in the year 1592 
it was the property of Nicholas Williamson. After that date, it 
also became their property. 

Like many other Cumberland families, the Brownriggs had 
descendants who settled in Ireland. Notably, Henry Brownrigg, 
of Yerton in Cumberland, who was the first of a family settled at 
Rockingham in the county of Wicklow. His second son Robert, 
a General officer in the Army, a Knight Grand Cross of the Bath, 
and Governor of Landguard Fort, was created a Baronet March 
gth, 1816. He was succeeded by his grandson, Sir Robert James 


* The inscription is as follows :— 
1592. QVORSVM, MW 
VIVERE-MORI-MORI-VIVERE, 
NICHOLAS WILLIAMSON, 


ail i ta Dk ie 


33 


Brownrigg, as second baronet, 27th of May, 1833, and was living 
in 1850. I mention this family, because George Brownrigg of 
Ormathwaite married Mary Brownrigg, daughter of Henry Brown- 
rigg, Esq., of Wingfield, in Ireland. 

The Brownriggs always held a prominent position in the parish 
of Crosthwaite, and their names are found as taking part in all 
parochial business. 

In 1735 we find George Brownrigg one of the eighteen sworn 
men, governors of the ancient Free School; and in the year 1749 
we have J/r. George Brownrigg acting as foreman of the Trustees. 

In the year 1693, we have this remarkable combination of 
names, each acting as trustees of the Free School, viz., Thomas 


- Calvert, Daniel Stanger, and Francis Raisley. The only represent- 


ative of these three names now left in the parish is Mrs. Stanger 
of Fieldside. 

The last of the Brownriggs of Ormathwaite was William Brown- 
rigg, M.D., F.R.S., whose medical education commenced at 
London, where he attended medical lectures two years. He then 
proceeded to Leyden, and had the degree of Doctor of Medicine 
conferred upon him in 1737. He was born at Highclose Hall, in 
Cumberland, March 24th, 1711, and was therefore twenty-six 
years of age when he took his degree. To that university, which 
had obtained unrivalled celebrity, medical students generally 
resorted ; and from it they derived the greatest improvement and 
the highest honours in their profession. In this learned seminary, 
the doctor remained several years, and studied the theory and 


" practice of physic, anatomy, botany, and experimental philosophy, 


under the auspices of their respective most illustrious professors — 


_ Boerhaave, Albinus, Van Royen, and others. To these, his inti- 


mate friends and revered preceptors, he dedicated with affection 


_and respect his elaborate thesis, De Praxi Medica incunda; an 


enquiry well adapted to the situation of one who, conversant with 
the theory, was about to engage in the practice of medicine. 
As soon as Dr. Brownrigg had entered upon the practice of 


_ medicine at Whitehaven, he began with judgment and perseverance 
_ to put in execution the plan which he had laid down; and among 


3 


84 


other enquiries, the damps or exhalations arising in coal mines 
with which that town is surrounded, appeared to him deserving of 
careful and accurate examination. So extraordinary were these 
effects, that he employed much of his leisure time in investigating 
their properties. | Earnestly solicited by the late Sir James 
Lowther, Bart., proprietor of the mines, to engage in this arduous 
undertaking, he was encouraged in the prosecution of it by 
motives of humanity, justly supposing that a more extensive 
acquaintance with subterraneous exhalations might lead to the 
discovery of some more effectual method for preventing their 
dreadful consequences, and for rendering them less fatal and 
destructive. 


With a view to excite the attention of philosophers to such 
subjects, and to promote a spirit of experimental enquiry, he wrote 
several essays on those exhalations, which, in the year 1741, were 
presented by Sir James Lowther to the Royal Society of London, 
by whom they were received with distinguished approbation ; and 
the doctor was in consequence unanimously elected a member of 
that learned body. To these essays, then transmitted to the 
Royal Society, he added, in the year 1746, another, in the form of 
a letter to Sir James Lowther, containing an account of a labora- 
tory which he had erected in the neighbourhood of Whitehaven. 
By favour of Sir James Lowther, it was supplied with a constant 
stream of inflammable air, or fire damp. In this laboratory many 
curious experiments were made upon that subtile body; and by 
its application, as a substitute for fire, several chemical operations 
performed, requiring a long continued and determined degree of 
heat. According to a method discovered by Mr. Carlisle Sped- 
ding, the fire damp was conveyed up an adjacent pit, from which 
it was conducted through a leaden pipe to Dr. Brownrigg’s labora- 
tory. For its reception he invented several furnaces of such 
construction as to be capable of affording the most intense, or 
the most gentle, heat. In the prosecution of his inquiries he 
experienced occasional interruptions from certain irregularities in 
the quantity and motion of the fire damp, which were the effect of 


35 


a sudden transition of the atmosphere, either from a rarified to a 
dense, or from a dense to a rarified state. 

The honour which the Royal Society proposed to confer upon 
Dr. Brownrigg, by inserting these essays in their Philosophical 
Transactions, was declined by him, as it was his intention to 
publish them on some future occasion, enlarged and improved by 
many additions and corrections. 

Desirous also that his observations should be confirmed not 
only by his own experiments, but by the attestation of others, he 
solicited and received the opinions of many of his literary friends, 
particularly of Sir Hans Sloan and Dr. Hales. Furnished with 
necessary materials, and qualified for the execution of so difficult 
a task by his indefatigable perseverance and his attachment to 
chemical philosophy, he long had it in agitation to write a general 
history of fire damps. With this motive, he retired from his 
professional avocations to his paternal seat, Ormathwaite. The 


outlines of his history of damps having been sent to Dr. Hales for 


his private perusal, were submitted by that celebrated philosopher 
to the inspection of the Royal Society ; but, notwithstanding the 
importunities of those who were able to appreciate their merits, he 
could never be prevailed upon to give his consent to their public- 
ation. An incontestable argument, however, of his attention to 


_ the properties of damps, and the deference which was paid to his 


judgment, arises from his being frequently consulted when an 
explosion in mines was apprehended. By observing the degree of 
rapidity with which the mercury descended in the barometer, he 
_ could foretell the exact period of an explosion; and his predictions 
~ were too often verified by some melancholy event. 

The only work which he permitted to be published on the 
subject of damps was, “An Extract of an Essay on the Uses of a 
_ Knowledge of Mineral Exhalations, when applied to discover the 
_ principles and properties of mineral waters, the nature of burning 
fountains, and those poisonous lakes called Averni.” This ingenious 
_ tract was read before the Royal Society in April, 1741. The 


_ object of it is to prove that the distinguishing qualities of mineral 


_ waters depend on a particular kind of air which forms a consider- 


36 


able part of their composition; and that this air differs in no 
respect from the choke- or fire damp. 

This experimental enquiry was considered by the Royal Society 
of so singular and important a nature, that to the ingenious author 
of it, as the best publication of the year, Sir Godfrey Copley’s 
honorary medal was adjudged. 

In the year 1748, Dr. Brownrigg published his valuable work 
entitled, ‘The Art of Making Common Salt, as now practised in 
most parts of the world; with several Improvements in that Art 
for the use of the British Dominions.” He was prompted to 
undertake this arduous task from a general desire which at that 
period prevailed in the nation to promote and extend the British 
fisheries, and, by this measure, to find profitable employment not 
only for great numbers of seamen who, on the restoration of peace, 
had been discharged from the service of their country, but also for 
the natives of the north of Scotland. 

Dr. Campbell in his political survey of Great Britain, noticing 
Dr. Brownrigg’s treatise upon Salt, calls it “ta very learned, 
ingenious, and solid performance, than which,” he adds, ‘there 
is not perhaps anything more concise or more correct in any 
language.” 

This work was so highly approved by the Royal Society, that 
they conferred upon Dr. Brownrigg the singular honour of directing 
an abridgment of it to be made by Mr. William Watson, a worthy 
member of that learned Society, which they published in Vol. 46 
of their Transactions. 

The metal Platina di pinto, juan blanco, or white gold, was the 
next object of Dr. Brownrigg’s attention. The first specimens of 
this article having been originally carried from Carthagena, in 
New Spain, to Jamaica, were brought to England in 1741 by 
Mr. Charles Wood, and were given by him to his relative Dr. 
Brownrigg, who presented them to the Royal Society in 1750, 
accompanied with an accurate and ingenious account of its origin 
and properties, which was inserted in Vol. 46 of their Philosophical 
Transactions, under the title of “Several Papers concerning a New 
Semi-metal, called Platina.” Platina has been improperly styled 


37 


‘a semi-metal ; for, when all extraneous substances are removed, it 
possesses the distinguishing qualities of a metal, viz., malleability 
and fixity. 

While engaged collecting materials for this paper, my attention 
was drawn by two of our lady members—Mrs. Leitch and Miss 
Mitchell—to an article in “Good Words” for July, 1885, from the 
pen of Mrs. Mary Howitt, entitled, “Some Reminiscences of my 
Life,” in which there is the following notice of Dr. Brownrigg, 
which appeared to me to be so interesting that I have extracted it 
at length, and it runs as follows :— 


On December 13th, 1750, William Brownrigg, M.D., F.R.S., (through 
William Watson, F.R.S.,) presented to the Royal Society in London specimens 
of platina, a new metal hitherto unknown in Europe, and stated in an accom- 
panying memoir: ‘This semi-metal was first presented to me about nine years 
ago by Mr. Charles Wood, a skilful and inquisitive metallurgist, who met with 
it in Jamaica, whither it had been brought from Carthagena, in New Spain.’ 

My grandfather, who was thus the introducer of the extremely useful metal, 
platina, was the brother-in-law of the learned Dr. Brownrigg, residing at the 
’ family estate, Ormathwaite Hall, Cumberland. The great-grandfather, Gawain 
Brownrigg, of Ormathwaite, had married an Irish lady, one of seven sisters, 
which led to the relationship with the Annisley and Esmonde families. Charles 
Wood returned home a widower, and married Dr. Brownrigg’s sister Jemima, 
a lively, fascinating lady, who had also been in Jamaica, and was the widow of 
Captain Lyndon, of the Do/~hin, a slave ship. She had one son named Roger 
__. —another son, Charles, had been lost at sea. 

My grandfather built and resided at Low-mill ironworks, near Whitehaven. 

There his six children by his second marriage were born. From Cumberland 
__ he removed to South Wales, and became active in establishing the important 
_ Cyfarthfa ironworks, near Merthyr Tydfil. 
_ After my grandfather’s death the family continued to reside at Cyfarthfa, 
Roger Lyndon and his half-brother, William Wood, being engaged in the 
works, The eldest daughter Mary, adopted by her uncle Brownrigg, had 
_ remained in Cumberland. She was distinguished for her good looks, and had 
_ many admirers, amongst others young Mr. Wilberforce. She did not, however, 
encourage the addresses of the future renowned philanthropist, from the notion 
_ that ‘she could do better for herself,’ and ended by marrying the Rev. Thomas 
Wilkinson, vicar of Thetford, Norfolk. 


Mrs. Howitt is incorrect in the christian name of Mr. Wilkinson. 
_ He published in 1810 “Select Views in Cumberland, Westmorland, 


38 


and Lancashire,” by the Rev. Joseph Wilkinson, rector of East and 
West Wretham, in the county of Norfolk, and chaplain to the 
Marquis of Huntley.” This is now a rare work, but there are 
two copies in this neighbourhood which I have seen—one in the 
possession of Mrs. Stanger of Fieldside, and the other of Mr. Smith 
of Skiddaw Lodge. It was published by Ackerman, London. 

But to return to Dr. Brownrigg’s work. In the year 1771, the 
appearance of the plague in some of the most distant parts of 
Europe had produced a general apprehension lest it should, as 
was formerly experienced, very widely extend its fatal ravages. 
The expediency of amending the laws, as a barrier against this 
destructive malady, was announced by His Majesty and the whole 
British legislature. Upon which occasion, Dr. Brownrigg observing 
their defects, and actuated by principles of duty and humanity, 
was prompted to offer to the public a treatise entitled “ Consider- 
ations on the Means of Preventing the Communication of Pesti- 
lential Contagion and of Eradicating it in Infected Places.” As 
the apprehension of danger was soon, happily, removed, this 
treatise and its advice did not receive from the legislature that 
attention which has since been given to provide more effectual 
security against the introduction and communication of pestilential 
contagion. 

In the year 1772, Dr. Brownrigg was visited at Ormathwaite by 
Dr. Franklin, the great American statesman and philosopher, then 
about sixty-six years of age. 

Dr. Brownrigg, in the presence of Dr. Franklin and Sir John 
Pringle (who was also on a visit at his house) performed an 
experiment of a very curious nature upon Derwent Lake. On 
pouring a small quantity of oil into the lake during a great com- 
motion of the water, the surface in a short time became perfectly 
smooth. This extraordinary effect having been originally noticed 
by Dr. Franklin, was suggested by him to Dr. Brownrigg. Soon 
after his departure from Ormathwaite, Dr. Franklin transmitted to 
Dr. Brownrigg a letter, dated London, November 7, 1773, in 
which he gave a full and circumstantial relation, not only of every 
experiment which he had made at different periods for ascertaining 


39 


this remarkable property of oil, but also of the various incidents 
which had led to the discovery. An extract from this letter, and 
also from two others on the same subject—one from Dr. Brownrigg 
to Dr. Franklin, and the other from the Rey. Mr. Farish of Carlisle - 
to Dr. Brownrigg—was inserted in Vol. 64 of the Philosophical 
Transactions for the year 1774. 

Through the good offices of our townsman, Mr, F. W. Banks 
_ (now resident in London), I had these extracts copied out by one 
of the officials at the British Museum, as well as an obituary notice 
of Dr. Brownrigg from the “Gentlemen’s Magazine,” but I find 
them too lengthy to insert in full, but extract the following :— 


(Extract from a Letter of Dr. Brownrigg to Dr. Franklin, dated 
Ormathwaite, Fanuary 27th, 1773.) 


By the enclosed from an old friend, a worthy clergyman at Carlisle, whose 
great learning and extensive knowledge in most sciences would have more 
distinguished him had he been placed in a more conspicuous point of view ; 
you will find that he had heard of our experiment on Derwent Lake, and has 
thrown together what he could collect on that subject; to which I have 
subjoined one experiment from the relation of another gentleman. 


(Extract from a Letter of Rev. Mr. Farish to Dr. Brownrigg.) 


‘I was some time ago with Mr. Dun, who surprised me with an account of an 
_ experiment you had tried upon the Derwentwater, in company with Sir John 
, Pringle and Dr. Franklin. According to his representation, the water, which 
had been in great agitation before, was instantly calmed upon pouring in only 
3 a small quantity of oil, and that to so great a distance round about the boat 
as seems a little incredible. I have since had the same account from others, 
but I suspect all of a little exaggeration. Pliny mentions this property of oil 
_ as known particularly to the divers, who made use of it in his days in order to 
_ have a more steady light at the bottom. The sailors, I have been told, have 
observed something of the same kind in our days—that the water is always 
‘remarkably smoother in the wake of a ship that hath been newly tallowed 
than it is in one that is foul. 
Old Pliny does not usually meet with all the credit I am inclined to think he 
deserves. I shall be glad to have an authentic account of the Keswick experi- 
ment ; and if it comes up to the representations that have been made of it, I 
_ Shall not much hesitate to believe the old gentleman in another more wonderful 
phenomenon he relates, of stilling a tempest only by throwing up a little vinegar 
_ in the air. 


40 


Mr. Pennant also mentions an observation of the like nature made by the 
seal-catchers in Scotland (Brit. Zool., Vol. iv.—Article, ‘Seal.’) When these 
animals are devouring a very oily fish, which they always do under water, the 
waves above are observed to be remarkably smooth; and by this mark the 
fisherman know where to look for them. 


(Note by Dr. Brownrigg. ) 


Sir Gilfred Lawson, who served long in the Army at Gibraltar, assures me 
that the fishermen in that place are accustomed to pour a little oil on the sea in 
order to still its motion, that they might be able to see the oysters lying at its 
bottom, which are there very large, and which they take up with a proper 
instrument. This Sir Gilfred had often seen performed, and said the same was 
practised on other parts of the Spanish coast. 


(Extract from a Letter of Dr. Franklin to Dr. Brownrigg. ) 
London, November 7th, 1773. 


Dear Sir,—I thank you for the remarks of your learned friend at Carlisle. 
I had when a youth, read and smiled at Pliny’s account of the practice among 
seamen of his time, to still the waves in a storm by pouring oil into the sea, 
which he mentions, as well as the use made of oil by the divers ; but the stilling 
of a tempest by throwing vinegar into the air escaped me. 

Perhaps you may not dislike to have an account of all I have heard, and 
learnt, and done. 

In 1757, being at sea in a fleet of ninety sail bound against Louisbourg, I 
observed the wakes of two of the ships to be remarkably smooth, while all the 
others were ruffled with the wind. I pointed it out to the captain, and asked 
him the meaning of it. ‘The cooks,’ says he, ‘have, I suppose, been just 
emptying their greasy water through the scuppers, which has greased the sides 
of those ships a little.’ 

Afterwards being again at sea in 1762, I first observed the wonderful quietness 
of oil on agitated water in the swinging glass lamp I made to hang up in the 
cabin. An old sea captain then a passenger with me, thought little of it, 
supposing it an effect of the same kind with that of a little oil put on water to 
smooth it, which he said was a practice of the Bermudians when they would 
strike fish which they could not see if the surface of the water was ruffled by 
the wind. The same gentleman told me he had heard it was a practice with 
the fishermen of Lisbon, when about to return into the river, if they saw too 
great a surf upon the bar, to empty a bottle or two of oil into the sea, which 
would suppress the breakers, and allow them to pass safely. Discoursing of it 
with another person who had often been in the Mediterranean, I was informed 
that the divers there who, when under water in their business, need light, 


41 


which the curling of the surface interrupts by the refraction of so many little 
waves, let a small quantity of oil now and then out of their mouths, which, 
rising to the surface, smooths it, and permits the light to come down on them. 


In his retirement at Ormathwaite, among other chemical studies, 
mineralogy was by no means neglected. His cabinet contained 
several rare metallic and fossil substances; and he was well 
acquainted with all the subterraneous productions of Cumberland; 
which in number, value, and curiosity are not inferior to those of 
any other county. To the minerals found in the neighbourhood 

of Keswick he paid particular regard. Having judiciously selected, 

he carefully analyzed the ores of black jack, ie. zinc, and black- 
lead, i.e. plumbago, extracted from the mines at Borrowdale, in 
order to discover their original properties and qualities ; and the 
public was much disappointed in not receiving the result of his 
accurate inquiries. 

Many of his leisure hours were employed in agricultural im- 
provements, which contributed not only to his private advantage 
in rendering his own estates more productive, but also to the 
inhabitants of Keswick and its vicinity ; as in consequence of the 
methods which he suggested of draining and cultivating lands, the 
fertility of the soil has been considerably increased. 

His pupil and biographer, Dr. Dixon, says:—‘“‘In this retirement 
he also indulged that passion for polite literature which had never 
been entirely sacrificed to more interesting pursuits. Much of his 
time was devoted to the perusal of the ancient and modern poets, 
which had often been to him a source of relaxation and amusement 
when engaged in severer studies. But influenced by religious 
motives, and admiring sublimity of conception, he read with 
serious care the sacred poets, whose compositions are far superior 

in unaffected grandeur of style, genuine pathos, and in elevation 
of sentiment, to the most celebrated productions of unassisted 
reason. 

“From this general statement it may be properly inferred that 
Dr. Brownrigg was possessed of every qualification necessary to 
form a chemical philosopher, a dogmatic physician, and an elegant 
scholar. By his conduct in a civil capacity, which required 


42 


different talents, he acquired additional honour. Long in the 
commission of the peace, an acting magistrate for the county of 
Cumberland, he discharged the duties of that important station 
not less with credit to himself than advantage to the community.” 


In the “Gentleman’s Magazine,” Vol. 70, part 1, pp. 386-7, 
there is an obituary notice from which the following extract is 
taken :— 


1800, Jan. 7th. At his seat at Ormathwaite, near Keswick, Co. Cumber- 
land, in his eighty-ninth year, the great and good William Brownrigg, M.D., 
F.R.S. To this place he had retired about twenty years since, withdrawing 
himself as much from the practice of phisick as his numerous connexions, his 
high character, and his friendliness of disposition would permit him; and 
purposing to divide his time and his taste between the romantic scenery of this 
delicious spot, and the profounder researches into that department of Natural 
Philosophy, which was already considered as his peculium. As it was Mr. B’s 
lot to choose his own profession, so he began his career under the most 
auspicious omens. The medical science of the University of Leyden was at 
that day shining in its highest noon. Albinus in Anatomy, Euler in Mathe- 
maticks, and other great names in the collateral sciences, thronged round the 
chair of Medicine and Chemistry, so ably occupied by the ingenious and 
indefatigable, the accomplished and instructive Beorhaave. Having made at 
Leyden a long and happy residence, and taken an honourable degree, he 
returned to his native country, and, in Whitehaven, married a lady of singular 
good sense, much information, and great vivacity; of a disposition most 
hospitable, manners most polite, of affections most warm and liberal, and 
possessing an address so versatile and superior as never failed to charm in 
whatever circle it was exerted. * 

He was author of an inaugural treatise, ‘De Praxi medica incunda,” 1737. 
Of a treatise ‘On the Art of Making Common Salt,’ printed at London in 1748, 
which procured for him the additional F.R.S.; a book now long out of print, 
but not of recollection, since it is by foreign chemists as well as by natives, 
by M. Chaptal as well as by our own Dr. Watson, cried up for its profound 
variety of excellence, and lamented for its scarceness. He also published ‘An 
Enquiry concerning the Mineral Elastic Spirit contained in the Water of Spa, 
in Germany,’ Philos. Trans. Vol. 55; and lastly, a treatise published in 1771, 
in octavo, ‘On the Means of Preventing the Communication of Pestilential 
Contagion.’ All which Dr. B. has effected by producing the various combina: 
tions of gases and vapours which constitute atmospheric air, and separating into 
many forms this long supposed one and indivisible, whilst he solidified its fluid 


* This lady was Mary, daughter of John Spedding, Esq., whom he married Aug. 3rd, 1741 


43 


essence into a hard substance. Whatever rapid genius may claim as his own, 
- that Dr. Brownrigg was the legitimate father of these vast discoveries, was not 

only known at the time to the doctor’s intimate and domestic circle, but also to 

the President of the Royal Society, Sir John Pringle ; who, when called upon 
to bestow upon Dr. Priestly the gold medal for his paper of ‘ Discoveries of the 
Nature and Properties of Air,’ thus critically observes : ‘And it is no disparagement 
to the learned Dr. Priestly that the vein of these discoveries was hit upon, and 
and its course successfully followed up, some years ago, by my very learned, 
very penetrating, very industrious, but too modest friend Dr. Brownrigg.’ 
To habits, indeed, of too much diffidence, and to too nice scrupulosity of 

taste, formed, perhaps, in the absence of keen animal spirits, the world has to 
attribute the fewness of his publications, and the difficulties which always 
; impeded his road to the press. Had our Doctor’s productions been allowed to 
make their own way into the world in due time, many a jay would have been 
_ plucked of his plume, and another philosopher of the western hemisphere had 
not been tempted to publish notes and observations which had been taken 
- down at Ormathwaite, and to give them to the world without the candid 
addition of the date of their origin. 


The writer of this article says he had “grounds for believing 
that a General History of the County of Cumberland was one of 
the Doctor’s literary projects, and that he had made several 
arrangements subservient to such an undertaking, particularly in 

the department of Natural History.” 

_ “Advanced in years, and increased in honours as he was, no 
_ Swiss ever pined more ardently for his native mountains and lakes 
than Dr. Brownrigg. The entreaties and solicitudes of the un- 
healthy, and the anxious prayers of a fond wife, might perhaps 
have retarded, but could not prevent his departure from White- 
haven, and sole residence at Ormathwaite. 

“The Doctor was overjoyed to see his native country become the 
_ object of travel, and the topic of praise and admiration; and 
observed with delight the taste for foreign tours cried down, whilst 
the new, the romantic, and the remote in our own island lay 
‘unexplored. It gladdened the heart of the veteran herbalist to 
behold young troops of both sexes ransacking the fields for botanic 
“rarities; and he seemed to congratulate with the spirit of Boer- 
haave when informed that Chemistry, always acknowledged as the 
" most important, was now coming ‘forth as the most popular of the 


44 


sciences. To these circumstances of gratification, it was a fortunate 
accession that at this time, a good scholar, and an amateur of the 
romantic, and a follower of the muses, by reason of prudence as 
well as by choice of affection visited the doctor. He was soliciting 
subscriptions for a Day Book of Antiquities. 


“He gained his object, and more than his object ; for our doctor 
finding the reverend Jesuit capable of making a popular book, and 
not indisposed to incur the labour for the sake of the reward, laid 
the plan of the Tour to the Lakes, and eagerly set Mr. West 
forward in the execution. The publication of this little book has 
answered the purposes of all concerned. It has had a great sale; 
it has sent shoals of visitors to the neighbourhood of Keswick ; 
and, though the author (so it has pleased Providence) was only 
allowed a glimpse in prospect of the success of his labours, and, 
perhaps for the first time in his life, to cherish for a moment the 
hopes of affluence, the projector of the plan has seen his passion 
for the improvement and notoriety of Keswick gratified; and the 
village is now become a post-town, a considerable market for a 
populous and opulent neighbourhood, and an annual fashionable 
resort for the learned and the ignorant, the rich and the curious, 
the young and the old, for him who wants exercise, and for he 
who is worn out for want of relaxation. ‘To occasional intenseness 
of thinking, and profound abstraction from external objects, he 
had always been subject; but as years multiplied, as bodily exercise 
became irksome, and as, by retiring from public business, he drew 
back from the occasion of fresh ideas, his intellectual powers 
seemed to turn the more in upon themselves, and the more eagerly 
to destroy their own energies. Mrs. Brownrigg was of a delicate 
frame, and too iritable habits to see without the symptoms of 
mortal anxiety the melancholy degradation of her husband’s 
understanding. Her earthly existence seemed involved in his 
mental superiority. As that declined and mouldered away, so did 
she. And how true were their mutual sympathies may be judged 
hence, that the last symptoms of worldly feeling which he showed 
were a flood of tears when the corpse of his excellent wife was 


46 


brought forth for her funeral. After this event, he walked about 

under the care of a couple of valuable relatives, for about five 

years, a monument of departed genius, but a picture of the most 

assiduous good manners, of perfect politeness of deportment, and 

of all the urbanities which adorn the gentleman and the scholar. 

Strange, very strange, that these manners and dispositions should 

so long survive the occasions and habits which gave them birth. 

_ But stranger still it was, that amidst the general wreck of all thought, 

and dissolution of every association of sensible ideas, a notion of 

_ religion should show itself to the last! Upon his own earnest 

_entreaty, he was allowed by his attendants to resort to the place of 
4 public worship. He was precise, collected, devout and fervent, 

~ compared with what, a few minutes before, he was without those 
"walls: he seemed as one of the just made perfect. And when he 
returned, he evinced a power of retaining somewhat of the com- 
forts, as well as the ideas, which God had bestowed from His holy 
place. 

-“Tndeed the religious sentiment was always uppermost with the 
; good doctor. And in his brightest days, though the classics of 
3 Greece, Rome, and Britain were present to his fancy, and enlivened 
and enriched his conversation, yet the sacred Scriptures were the 
4 topics of his delight, and the object of his veneration. And as his 
; quotations of his Virgil and Milton bore testimony to the elegance 
of his taste and the fervour of his genius, so, when Job and Isaiah 
were brought forward, he showed what his imagination would aspire 
at in the ranges of sublimity. In philosophical disquisitions, the 
fiat of God he pronounced to be the last link in the chain of effects 
‘and causes; and to the Word of God he bowed as to the first 
“moving power in the system of moral action. In the ordinary 
_ occurrence of good things, he never failed to give God the praise ; 
and in the more solemn dispensation, he closed his observations, 
‘or repressed his feelings, by a purpose of resignation to God’s will. 
Thus lived and thus died this great and good man.” 


When Crosthwaite Church was restored by the munificence of 
the late James Stanger, Esq., a very neat marble tablet was erected 


46 


at the east end of the Church by the late John Spedding, Esq,., J.P., j 
of Mirehouse, which bears the following inscription :— , 


WILLIAM BROWNRIGG, M.D., F.R.S., 

A PHYSICIAN AND PHILOSOPHER EMINENTLY DISTINGUISHED, 
DIED AT ORMATHWAITE, JANUARY 6TH, 1800, 
AGED 88 YEARS. 

MARY, HIs WIFE, 

THE DAUGHTER OF JOHN SPEDDING OF WHITEHAVEN, 
DIED AND WAS BURIED NEAR THIS PLACE, 
FEBRUARY I7TH, 1794. 


THEY HAD NO CHILDREN, 


Notr.—For the sketch of ORMATHWAITE, the residence of Dr. Brownrigg, 
I am indebted to my friend Mr. E. I. Grayson of West Cross, Swansea. The 
detached building was Dr. Brownrigg’s laboratory, and little, if any, alteration 
has been made on the premises since his day.—J. F. C. 


47 


THE BIRDS OF OUR MARSHES. 


By J. N. ROBINSON, oF Carco, 


(Read before the Carlisle Society. ) 


_ Tue scope of the present paper is intended to furnish a brief 
survey of the avifauna of Burgh and Rockliffe Salt Marshes, 
~ including an area of several thousand acres of pasture land, drained . 
by numerous winding creeks which frequently mislead strangers, 
and occasionally engulf unfortunate cattle in their treacherous 
bottoms. These marshes are respectively situated upon the right 
and left banks of the river Eden, but are flanked by the united 
waters of Esk and Eden. The edges of Burgh Marsh undergo 
constant demolition from the tide, which is at present increasing 
the area of Rockliffe Marsh. Both marshes lie within an easy 
distance of my home, and have consequently afforded me very 
“many opportunities of studying their bird-life. 

The marshes are devoid of any but the scantiest covert, and 
though stray migrants occasionally shelter in the drier creeks in 
stormy weather, yet in the main such insectivorous birds as visit 
the district are forced to search for food and shelter in the hedges 
and plantations at some distance from the marshes—of course 
‘there are exceptions. The Wheatear (Saxicola ananthe), for 
example, visits the edges of the marsh abutting on the water both 
in spring and autumn; the Dipper (C. aguaticus) occasionally 
appears at the mouth of the Eden during the first months of 
‘winter; the Pied Wagtail (JZ. /ugubris) secretes her nest among 


48 


the piles supporting the bridges which span the creeks ; and its 
rarer relative, the White Wagtail ( JZ alba), has been observed on 
Burgh in September, resting on migration (Macpherson). 

An interesting bird which nests sparingly on Rockliffe Marsh is 
the Rock Pipit (4. obscurus); far more numerous at all seasons, 
however, is the well-know Meadow Pipit (A. pratensis), which is 
only rivalled in numbers by the Skylark (Alauda arvensis). The 
Skylark seems to find abundance of food on the salt meadows 
throughout the year, and generaliy rears two broods in a season, 
the first broods flying about the middle of May. Frequenting the 
same broken ground as the Skylark, the Snow Bunting (P. zzvalis ) 
appears in flocks, but more frequently in twos and threes, about 
the beginning of November, and stragglers linger until the end of 
March. 

One species constantly to be seen in large droves upon the 
marshes during early autumn is the Starling (.S. vudgaris); indeed 
some individuals are present throughout the year. 

A less welcome visitor is the Carrion Crow (Corvus corone), 
which seems to find the young birds and eggs of other species to 
its taste, and wages a relentless war against wounded birds. ‘The 
Hooded Crow ( C. cornix ) likewise frequents the marshes in winter, 
but only at irregular intervals, and always singly, being on the 
coast, as inland, a somewhat scarce visitor to Cumberland. I have 
often met with specimens of the Kingfisher ( Alcedo ispida ) flying 
along the creeks during the dreariest periods of the year. 

Coming to the Birds of Prey, I may say at once that the only 
Owl which I have watched in the act of hunting over the marshes 
is the Barn Owl (Strix flammea); but the Tawny Owl, the Long- 
eared Owl, and the Short-eared Owl also occur either on the 
marshes or in their immediate vicinity. Of the diurnal Birds of 
Prey, the Kestrel, Merlin, and Sparrowhawk are most frequently 
seen ; but I have observed the rapid flight of the Peregrine ( Falco 
peregrinus ) on various occasions. ‘This Falcon passes through the 
air with quickly repeated beats of the wing, which to my mind 
somewhat recall the action of the Wood Pigeon ( Columba 
palumbus). The Falcon generally “means business” when he 


49 


_ visits the marshes, but occasionally he seems to condescend to 
effect wanton slaughter. An instance of this was observed by me 
in March, 1886, in the neighbourhood of King Garth, when a 
4 Peregrine struck a tame duck on the Eden, within full view of me, 
_ and contented himself with a successful stroke, not troubling to 
eat or carry off the quarry. 
Such, then, is a slight sketch of the land birds to be seen upon 
these two salt marshes. Did space permit, I could treat of a good 
: many more which have occurred at one time or another, e.g., the 
Redstart (Ruticilla phenicurus), the Wren, (TZ. europeus), the 
_ Redbreast (£. rubecula), the Stockdove (Columba enas), and 
_others.* But the land birds can be studied in most localities, and 
the interest of the marshes of necessity centres in the various 
aquatic species which avail themselves of the shelter afforded to 
rear their young, or frequent the channels of the estuary in search 
"of subsistence. 
Of the latter number, not the least prominent is the Common 
Cormorant (Phalacrocorax carbo), a bird which never entirely 
_ deserts us, though most plentiful in winter, notably in hard weather. 
It is interesting to watch wild Cormorants feeding in the Eden. 
_ Their prey, which consists of small fish, is constantly obtained by 
diving. If a fish be seized, the Cormorant at once returns to the 
‘surface, tosses its head until the fish assumes a proper position, 
and then bolts it head foremost. More rarely, the fish is thrown 
p into the air, caught in its descent, and promptly swallowed. 
The majority of the Cormorants that visit the Eden are immature 
white-breasted birds, and it was only with some difficulty that I 
succeeded in supplying my collection with a really good old speci- 
men.¢ Another bird which constantly fishes in the estuary is the 
eron (Adea cinerea), Rockliffe Marsh being one of its most 
favoured resorts. Yet another fish-eater is the Gannet (Sula 


*i.e. Wrens, Redstarts, and Redbreasts take shelter in the marsh creeks 
while resting on migration. The Stockdove I have only seen crossing the 
marshes incidentally.—M. 


50 


Coming to the order of Waders, we may pass the Moor-hen 
(Gallinula chloropus) and Coot ( Fulica atra) as sometimes seen. 
The Water Rail (Rallus aguaticus) has been shot once to my 
knowledge. The Common Snipe (G. celestis) and Jack Snipe 
( Scolopax gallinula) are commonly found in the autumn. Wood- 
cock (S. vusticula) are seen every winter. It is on Rockliffe Marsh 
that the Redshank ( Zotanus calidris ) is seen to the greatest advan- 
tage during the nesting season, and I have had ample opportunity 
of studying the breeding habits of this bird. In 1887, we found 
the first eggs on April r6th—rather later than usual. On the 24th 
we found them well started, but in no nest did we find a full clutch. 
From the number of unfinished nests to be found in close proximity 
to ones with eggs, I am of the opinion that two and sometimes 
three are started before the birds are satisfied with their position. 
The nest is placed in a tuft, and is composed of a few blades of 
grass carelessly arranged in a slight hollow. Four eggs are the 
usual number, although nests have been found containing five. 
While on the subject of eggs, I may be allowed to enter a protest 
against the way in which they are annually sold as Plovers’ eggs. 
Some hundreds are lifted every season, and I am told that some- 
times as much as twopence per egg is given. So great was the 
competition for them last season (1887), that it was with great 
difficulty I was able to get a bird in down. In the nesting season, 
should a person come within a quarter of a mile of its habitation, 
it is sure to greet him with clamorous cries, and advance towards 
him on wing, wheeling round and round, exhibiting great alarm 
lest he should discover its nest or young. Its flight is light, rapid, 
and wavering, as if undecided, being performed by quick jerks of 
the wing. Although the bird is very wary during the early stages 
of incubation, as the eggs get nearer hatching they sit a good deal 
closer ; indeed, so great has been the attachment of the bird for its 
eggs, that it has allowed me to lift it off its nest. The females are 
always a little larger than the males.* 


* In May, 1888, Mr. D. Mason captured on its nest a Redshank, which on 
dissection proved to be a male. It is thus ascertained that both sexes take part 
in the duties of nidification,—M. 


51 


Every year a Greenshank or two (7. canescens) are seen; but 
___ being very wary birds, theyare seldom shot. This species searches the 
muddy creeks for food, often walking into the water, until it nearly 
reaches the tarsal joint. It runs rather than walks, and almost 
continually vibrating its body. Mr. Dawson has seen a bird which 
was shot in the Ambrose Holme, above Carlisle. 
Of the Sandpipers, we have the Common Sandpiper ( Z7inga 
_ Aypoleucos ) as a regular summer visitant. My dates of the arrival 
of this elegant little bird for the last five years range between the 
_ 13th and 2oth of April. The Curlew Sandpiper (7: subarquata ) 
_ Thave twice come across in summer plumage, once while looking 
for Dunlin eggs with Mr. Dennis Mason, and on the 23rd of May, 
_ last year, Mr. George Dawson and I had a good opportunity of 
watching the habits of this bird in the early morning on Rockliffe 
Marsh. Generally mingling with Dunlins, it can scarcely be 
_ distinguished from them : but when seen apart, they have precisely 
_ the same habits as to the mode of feeding. Its cry differs, being 
harsh and not so soft as that of the Dunlin. The Knot, though 
_ abounding in great numbers lower down the Solway, is very seldom 
seen either on Burgh or Rockliffe Marsh. That very elegant 
species, the Green Sandpiper ( 7: wuropfus), which is sometimes 
met with on our marshes, is much larger than our Common Sand- 
piper. The Little Stint ( Z? mnuta), which in form and proportion 
_ closely resembles the Dunlin, although much inferior in size and 
“somewhat more slender, sometimes visits our marshes in autumn 
and the early part of winter. They are seldom seen in greater 
numbers than six or eight together. They can scarcely be called 


walking directly up to them, they will lie flat to the ground with 
the tail rather erected.” No Little Stints have been recorded as 


j We come now to the Dunlin (7: variabilis). It breeds in some 
Tumbers on Rockliffe Marsh. The nest is usually located under 
the shelter of some tuft, being often concealed intentionally or 


52 


unintentionally with great success. The eggs, which always 
number four (I have never found more), are deposited in the nest 
smaller end inwards. The female sits very assiduously, allowing a 
person to come quite close to her before leaving the nest, which 
she does in a fluttering and hesitating manner. Their flight is 
very rapid ; and it is very beautiful to see them stretching away in 
flocks, at one time scarcely discernible on account of the distance 
and their dull backs, but at the next moment glancing into light 
as they turn their lower surface to the view. The note of the 
Dunlin is feeble, but continually repeated. The female, like most 
Sandpipers, is considerably larger than the male. That I think is 
the only difference between them. This bird seems to me to be 
in a continual state of moult. As the breeding season draws to a 
close, the feathers on the breast—of which their terminal part is 
black—are substituted by others having a much smaller portion of 
their extremity of that colour, In September the grey feathers, 
characteristic of the winter plumage, appear here and there, and 
by degrees the whole is renewed. I have examined the marks 
left by these birds after feeding in the sand, and the place was 
covered by numberless small holes made by their bills. Some of 
these were mere hollows, not more than one-twelfth of an inch 
deep, while the deepest were nearly half an inch. On scraping 
away the sand I could find no worms or shells; going to another 
place, I found the sand marked in the same way, and here and 
there a much deeper and wider hole, accompanied by numerous 
scratchings. I think it is thus clear that they search for their food 
by gently tapping ; and it appears they discover the object of their 
search by the kind of resistance which it gives, and then insert 
their bills deeper to find it. Mr. George Dawson has in his collec- 
tion at Bellevue a Buff-breasted Sandpiper ( Z: rufescens ), which 
was shot by his brother on Burgh Marsh, in September, 1876. 
(8.107 -C,, D: 153-) 

The Curlew (Z: a@rguata) is well known on our marshes in 
winter.* It is an extremely shy bird, and very difficult to approach 
within shot. I have found the Curlew nesting on a piece of waste 


* Many frequent the marsh in August, probably birds bred on mosses 
adjacent to the Solway.—M. 


53 


ground between Beaumont and Burgh Marsh for the last two 
years. The Whimbrel (Z: preopus), similar in everything but size, 
now and again appears, mostly in the spring; but it has been shot 
in the autumn on Rockliffe Marsh. - Ruff and Reeves (AZ. pugnax) 
are seen every year. We have record of six shot on Rockliffe 
Marsh last autumn, all birds of the year. The Bartailed Godwit 
(Z. dapponica), though more plentiful lower down the Solway, has 
been got on both marshes. 

The Oyster-catcher (H. ostralegus), or “Sea-Piet,” as it is com- 
_ monly known with us, occurs in large flocks during the autumn 
and winter, a few pairs staying on Rockliffe Marsh to breed. They 
‘remain in flocks until April, when they disperse in pairs ; and by 
the beginning of May a few nests are always to be found. The 
nests on Rockliffe Marsh are slight saucer-like hollows in the 
"grass, generally at a short distance from the water. I have never 
4 found one among the pebbles, nor yet on the bare sand, which I 
believe is the ordinary nesting place of the Oyster-catcher. The 
_ eggs are three in number, but sometimes four are found. 

The Lapwing (Vanellus vnigaris) breeds in vast numbers on our 
“marshes ; but as it must be so well known to you all, it is not 
4 necessary to give a detailed account of this bird. The Golden 
_ Plover (Charadrius pluvialis) is with us during the autumn and 
winter. The same remark applies to the Grey Plover (S. helvetica), 
though it is of much rarer occurrence than the last named.* Although 
the Ringed Plover (4gitalis hiaticula) used formerly to breed on 
both marshes, I have never found a nest there; but I have found 
the birds as far up the river as Stainton gravel-bed. For the last 
three or four years one pair—and on one occasion two pairs—have 
hatched their clutches safely, except last year, when they were 
carried away by a flood. They formed another nest, but theit 
eggs were unfortunately trodden on by a fisherman. 

_ The Dotterel (Z. morineflus) makes its appearance on our marshes 
(or perhaps I ought to say used to do so) early in May, in small flocks, 


* i.e. ‘‘ Rarer” on the upper Solway marshes, which it only visits when the 
tides are very high. But many Grey Plover frequent the coast line from Port 
Carlisle to Maryport in autumn, their numbers varying in different years, —M, 


54 


eventually settling on our mountains for breeding purposes. The 
arrival of four last year caused great excitement among the haaf-net 
fishermen on Burgh Marsh. ‘They took their guns the next tide 
to shoot them—but only to find them gone. They were seen on 
Rockliffe Marsh the next day, but the following they were gone. 

The Sanderling (C. avenaria), appears in small flocks as early as 
the beginning of September, and remains with us until the beginning 
of May. It is generally considered a spring and autumn visitor, 
but I have shot them both in December and January. On the 4th 
of January, last year, I shot two as far up the river as Grinsdale. 
I have every reason to believe that Sanderlings are frequently 
mistaken for Dunlins in the winter. I think it is impossible to 
distinguish the two at a distance, but they may easily be known 
when procured, by the want of the hind toe in the Sanderling. 

Of the Geese, the Barnacle (4. /eucopsis) is certainly the most 
common. Large flocks visit Rockliffe Marsh every winter for 
feeding purposes. They can only be approached under cover of 
darkness, when occasionally a good shot can be got; but it very 
often happens that after hours of patient stalking, some little 
mishap occurs, which gives the birds warning of their coming 
danger. They immediately rise with a shrill scream, which you 
can hear for miles as they continue their flight down the Solway, 
Their call is loud and shrill, but strikes agreeably on the ear when 
the cries of a large flock come from a considerable distance. The 
Brent is seen on the marshes in some years, but is quite an unusual 
visitor. A bird in the possession of Mr. Storey, Demesne, Castle- 
town, was shot on Rockliffe Marsh by John Allen, about twelve 
years ago. The Bean, or “Grey Goose,” as it is locally called 
(A. segetum), is met with in the winter months, thoug Mr. Dennis 
Mason has shot them in the end of April. The Goosander 
(JZ. merganser) is a regular visitant. Being a shy and very active 
bird, it is not easily obtained, as it neither allows a near approach, 
nor usually remains above water until the shot reaches it. As it 
is a heavy bird, with a very flat body, it has the appearance of 
sitting deep in the water. It is an apt diver, and remains long 
under the surface. Immature males and females predominate ; 


55 


but I have seen some very fine old males lately in the game shops 
(sent from the neighbourhood of Gretna.—M.). 
Of the Ducks that frequent our marshes, the Wigeon (JZ. penelope) 
is perhaps the commonest.* They begin to make their appearance 
_ about the end of September, and leave us again in April. Being 
essentially night feeders, large numbers are shot by watching the 
floshes (as the small ponds of water left by the tide are called), 
where they come to feed as the night comes on. Mallards (A. 
boschas) are generally to be found distributed among the creeks. 
Teals (Q. crecca), though scarcer than the last named, are always 
to be seen during the winter months. That very beautiful bird 
the Shieldrake (Z: cornufa) is permanently met with; and last 
_ season I heard of at least half-a-dozen nests that were taken in the 
- neighbourhood of the marshes. One peculiarity I have noticed in 
connection with this bird is that it seems to continue in pairs all 
all the year round, although in winter and spring it may sometimes 
_ be seen in small flocks. In spring, or during the mating season, 
it has a habit of erecting itself, thrusting forward its neck, and 
f shaking its head as if it were choking or trying to swallow some 
hard substance ; which, when seen through a glass, looks very 
ridiculous ; but this appears to be only an act of attention to the 
female. Being a shy bird, and as it generally frequents the large 
flats of sand, it is not easily approached. Although several birds 
have been kept for years in a domesticated state in my district, I 
have never heard of them breeding under artificial conditions. 
The female is much smaller than the male ; it also differs in wanting 
‘the knob at the base of the bill. Goldeneyes (C. glaucion) are to 
be met with from the end of October to the early part of April in 
“fairly large numbers, especially the young and the females, which, 
with us go under the name of Wigeons. Goldeneyes have the 
faculty of sinking their bodies deeper into the water, which they 
do when at all suspicious of danger; but when undisturbed they 


_ *T should have thought that the Goldeneye was perhaps the commonest, but 
the Mallard is very abundant. I fancy the vaves¢ duck that visits the upper 
Solway is the Long-tailed Duck, which I only once met with, in Novembet, 
But young birds have been shot at King Garth.—M, 


56 


An instance of the Shoveller (.S. c/yfeata) breeding within a short 
distance of Burgh-by-Sands was recorded in 1886, and another nest 
was found last year. I have had specimens in the flesh since ; 
they have all been in female plumage. 

The Tufted Duck (/ cristata) is a rare visitor.* The Pintail, 
though formerly common to the marshes, is now scarce ; but two 
have been shot within the last month on the Eden. <A few Poch- 
ards (/ ferina) are shot every year. Scaups some years are fairly 
numerous ; in the winter of 1886-7, for instance, there was a good 
number up as far as Rockliffe Marsh—more plentiful on the Esk 
side than the Eden. Being essentially a sea-duck, it is not often 
met with far up our river; but early last December I shot a fine 
female as far up the Eden as the flat water between Grinsdale and 
the Coops stream. 

Two out of the three Scoters have come under my notice. The 
Common or Black Scoter (CZ. mzgra) is to be found every winter. 
Sometimes only a single specimen is recorded ; in other years they 
appear in small flocks of two or three together. I saw five in 
March, 1886, as far up the river as Grinsdale Island. I have 
specimens in my collection shot by my brother, who has been 
more fortunate than I in shooting Common Scoters. A bird 
erroneously recorded as a Velvet Scoter in the “Carlisle Journal,” 
was shot by William Railton in September last. The only Velvet 
Scoter (C2. fusca) which I have seen in the flesh is the one which 
I shot on the Eden, close to my home, on the 22nd December, 
1886. I had a good opportunity of observing this bird, as I 
watched it for more than an hour before going for my gun. The 
habits are exactly the same as the Common Scoter. It took 
several flights, but never rose more than two feet above the water ; 
it flew with considerable speed, moving its wings very rapidly, and 
always alighting hind end first. It sat lightly on the water, swam 
with moderate speed, was a wonderful diver, and remained a long 
time under the water. It rose at a very small angle, striking the 

* The Tufted Duck has often been shot off Burgh Marsh Point, but prefers 


inland waters such as afford its favourite diet of aquatic plants, which are absent 
from the estuary. —M, 


57 


water with its wing tips for several yards. The general colour is 
of course black, the head and neck having a violet sheen. A narrow 
strip of white extends from the front angle of the eye to a quarter 
of an inch behind it. On the wing is a large patch of white, which 
shows to advantage when flying, the greater part of the outer eleven 
secondaries and the tips of their coverts being of that colour. 

I shall simply give a list of the Gulls I have seen on the marshes, 
viz :—Greater and Lesser Black-backed, Common, Black-headed, 
Herring Gull, and the Kittiwake. The Little Gull (Zarus minutus) 
in the possession of Mr. G. Dawson was shot by him on Rockliffe 
Marsh in 1857, and is in winter dress. 

Mr. Smith, of Castletown, shot a Buffon’s Skua (S. parasiticus) 
in 1879. Another was shot by a fisherman named Baty at Stainton 
about three years ago. (B. of C, p. 179.) 

A number of Common Terns (Sterna fluviatilis) visit Rockliffe 
Marsh every May for breeding purposes. On going to their nests, 
one is sure to be met by several of them. As you draw near, they 
are all on the wing, wheeling around you, sometimes quite close to 
the ground, then high above you, but all the time uttering their 
harsh cries. They are indifferent walkers, but when on the wing 
their flight is easy and elegant. The Black Tern (& migra) is of 
rare occurrence in this neighbourhood. A bird shot by Mr. Wm. 
_ Dawson, on Rockliffe Marsh, more than twenty years ago, is now 
inthe Bellevue collection. On the 3rd of June, last year, I had 
the pleasure of watching a Black Tern on the Eden. Its flight, 
while hawking flies off the water among the weeds, was very rapid, 
and its turns short. 

The Puffin, Razorbill, and Guillemot have all been met with; 
but they have been mostly birds washed ashore, or else driven 
there for shelter. 

__ Of the Grebes, the Little Grebe, or Dabchick (Z: fluviatilis) is 
generally to be found. A Sclavonian Grebe (P. auritus) was killed 
in rather a curious manner by Mr. Thos. Sinclair, of Rockliffe, a few 
_ yearsago. While fishing for salmon on the Eden, near the Carbed 
3 islands, below Beaumont, he found his fly fast in something which 
__ he landed with great difficulty. On getting it ashore, it proved to 


58 


be a Sclavonian Grebe hooked fast by the tongue. The bird had 
evidently taken the fly for a natural one, much in the same manner 
as a fish does. The only occurrence, so far as I know, of the 
Great Crested Grebe (P. cristatus) was in 1884, when a fine male 
bird was shot near Cargo by my brother on the 4th of March. 
With this, my notes must end for the present. The Great Skua, 
Roseate Tern, Red-breasted Snipe, Temminck’s Stint, Little Auk, 
and other rare stragglers have been recorded from these marshes 
at one time or another, but I cannot add to the particulars already 
supplied in the “Birds of Cumberland.” The intention with which 
I set out has already been fulfilled, if the personal observations 
laid before you have enabled you to understand with some clear- 
ness the bird-life that characterises Burgh and Rockliffe Marshes. 
Acknowledgments for assistance received are due to various friends, 
especially to Mr. Smith and Mr. D. Mason of Rockliffe. Mr. G. 
Dawson has furnished much valuable information, and I have 
availed myself, freely, of reference to Macgillivray’s “ British Birds.” 


Note.—This MS. has been revised for the press by Rey. H. A. Macpherson, 
who concurs generally in the conclusions arrived at. 


59 


REPORT ON 
PALLAS SAND-GROUSE (SYRRHAPTES PARADOXUS) 
IN THE NORTH-WEST OF ENGLAND. 


H. A. MACPHERSON, M.B.O.U. 


_ Berore detailing the statistics regarding Pallas Sand-grouse, 

which constitute the raison a’étre of the present essay, it is pro- 
' posed to take a cursory glance at the general bearings of the 
___ subject, in order that such readers, as are not practised ornithologists, 
_ may be placed in a position to comprehend the interest which 
recent events have awakened in scientific quarters. Pallas Sand- 
grouse is essentially an Asiatic species, making its home in the 


1 


_ arid Kirghis steppes, the great Gobi desert, and extending its range 
eastward through Mongolia to the plains between Pekin and Tien- 
_ stin in North China. (Elliott.) Prjevalsky states that Syrrhaptes 
4 paradoxus “is one of the most characteristic birds of Mongolia, 
- inhabiting not only the steppes, but also the deserts. In summer 
they go north, even beyond Lake Baikal where they breed, but 
_ spend the winter in the Gobi desert in such localities as are free 
_ from snow, and in Ala-shan ; and from the middle of October we 
constantly meet with them there, sometimes in flocks of several 
thousands.” (Rowley. Orn. Misc. I. p. 382.) 

_ The first man to obtain a specimen was a Russian, Nicol 
_ Rytschkof, who forwarded it to Pallas, but in a mutilated condition, 

_ having lost the long tail feathers, which form so conspicuous an 

q ornament of the species. Not having a supplementary tail, Pallas 

_ figured the specimen without one (Russ. Reichs. I, App. 712, 


60 


Tab. F. 1773), and made some shrewd remarks upon the new 
species, which he referred to the genus Tetrao. He remarks :— 
‘Avis inter Lagopodes et Otides ambigua, multisque momentis 
anomala et a norma solita aliena.” Attention is called to the 
curious feet: “Pedes maxime insoliti fere usque ad ungues plumosi, 
breviculi, tridactyli, digitis brevissimis, coalitis, solo apice ungui- 
busque distinctis; unde planta triloba, latiuscula, papillis corneis 
imbricata.” He concludes: “Habitat in deserto Tartarico austra- 
liore, unde adlatum specimen farctum transmisit nobil Nicol 
Rytschkof.” Our countryman Latham, following Pallas, conferred 
on the species the title of ‘‘ Heteroclite grous.” 


It next concerns us to notice the first advent of Syrrhaptes 
paradoxus to the western palcearctic region, from which it had been 
excluded prior to 1853. It is now a fact of common information 
that in that year a horde of these Tartars invaded eastern Russia, 
and founded a permanent settlement in the neighbourhood of 
Sarepta. Some six years later the news came that specimens had 
reached the British Isles, examples being secured in Wales, in 
Kent, and in Norfolk (1859). These proved to have been the scouts 
of a large body which swept across Western Europe in 1863-4. 
Professor Newton, the historian of this incident, estimating the total 
number of the invading host at only less than seven hundred 


Dr. Sclater quotes the following passage from Emile Huc’s ‘‘Tartary, 
Tibet, and China,”’ and though an endeavour to verify his reference has failed, it 
is perhaps sufficiently amusing to be worth reproducing here. ‘‘ Tartary is 
peopled with migratory birds. Among these was one which I believe to be 
unknown to our naturalists. It is about the size of a quail, of an ash colour 
with black spots, and its eyes of a brilliant black, and surrounded with a bright 
sky-blue rim. Its legs have no feathers, but are covered with long rough hair; 
and its feet are not like those of any other bird, but resemble those of the green 
lizard, and are covered with a shell so hard as to resist the sharpest knife. This 
singular creature, which seems to partake at once of the character of the bird, 
the quadruped, and the reptile, is called by the Chinese Loung-Kio, that is 
Dragon’s Foot. They generally arrive in great flocks from the north, especially 
when much snow has fallen, flying with astounding rapidity, so that the move- 
ment of their wings is like a shower of hail. When caught, they are extremely 
fierce ; the hair on their legs bristles up if you approach them, and if you venture 
to caress them, you are sure to receive some violent blows from their beak,” 
(P. Z, S, 1861.) 


61 


individuals, a moderate calculation. The underlying causes of 
this movement were much discussed, although few British naturalists 
are sufficiently acquainted with the physical conditions prevailing 
on the steppes of Mongolia, to approach that difficult problem 
with much likelihood of success. Australia has furnished evidence 
that in that continent some well-known species are liable to appear 
in swarms in certain regions, and after an interval again to disappear ; 
while, even at home, some lessons are suggested by the remarkable 
increase of certain species, e.g. Sturnus vulgaris and Columba enas; 
the last named having of recent years colonised the north-east of 
Scotland, though formerly almost unknown in the most northern 
counties of England as a breeding species. Over-population, as 
long since suggested by Professor Newton, correlated with a scarcity 
of food, may probably continue to be accepted as the prime factor 
in the migration of Syrrhaptes ; at the same time we cannot forget 
that the species is accustomed, in Asia, to traverse vast distances, 
_ for which contingency it is admirably adapted by the development 
_ of the pectoral muscles and the shape of the long wing feathers. 


GENERAL HABITS OF PALLAS SAND GROUSE IN ENGLAND. 


So little has hitherto been written to explain the idiosyncrasies 
of this Sand-grouse, regarded as a British bird, that the writer feels 
that no apology is needed for presenting as full a statement on this 
head, as his own too limited opportunities of outdoor study enable 
him to furnish at the present juncture of events. 

Pallas Sand-grouse has proved, during the summer of 1888 in 
_ England, to be a highly gregarious bird ; constantly affecting the 
company of its fellows. It is possible that it may entertain some 
aversion to the company of other species ; at least it has not been 
_ observed by the writer to associate voluntarily with any other birds. 
In confinement, it has manifested some intolerance on this score. 
_ Thus, an example living at the Zoological Gardens (August) was 
observed to drive away a Woodlark (Alauda arboreus), and a 
second objected to the presence of a Pigeon placed in its enclosure 
_ to solace it supposed loneliness. In a state of nature, this Sand- 
_ grouse flies in parties of four or five birds, but more usually in 


62 


larger droves ; it manifestly seeks to live in a community, and if a 
flock be studied, their movements will be found to exhibit a high 
degree of unanimity. 

Ignorance of the signification of hedgerows, easily comprehended 
as characterising a species accustomed to range at will over vast 
tracts of unenclosed country, proved fatal to some individuals on 
their first arrival, but the survivors were not slow to adopt habits 
of increased vigilance. ‘Thus, when a flock of ten birds had been 
marked down into a ploughed field, and their propinquity obtained 
by a long détour a ventre, the writer had scarcely taken up a vantage 
point in a thick furze bush overlooking the birds, when they began 
to run together, and having packed on the ground, rose and 
abruptly departed, pausing only when they had gained the shelter 
of the sea beach. They were marked down afresh, but the like 
result followed. Rising sharply at forty yards distance, they 
executed a few rapid turns, and pitched in the field which they 
had quitted previously. On other occasions flocks, which had been 
shot at previously, showed similar wariness to that just described ; 
but at the same time it should be understood that when in full 
flight, parties of Sand-grouse will approach men within a few yards. 
Noticing a distant flock apparently making for the sea, a position 
in their probable line of flight was hastily secured, and with success, 
for the birds shot overhead across the heath like arrows, their wings 
beating the air audibly as they pursued their headlong course. On 
another occasion the writer happened to be walking beneath a bank 
of littoral sandhills, when a party of Sand-grouse dashed out over 
head, calling lustily. Away they sped across the beach, over long 
reaches of sand, away to the edge of a distant tide, and then 
following the water edge for about a mile, they swept westward 
towards Beckfoot, but checking their course before the village was 
reached, they rose high in the air and curving their course with 
one accord, travelled back to Wolstey, dropping once again in a 
favourite field. And at this point a word may be said about the 
flight of the Sand-grouse. Putting aside all preconceived notions, 
it must be held to bear a not inconsiderable similarity to that of 
the Golden Plover (Charadrius pluvialis) ; yet the flight of single 


63 


birds viewed at a distance served on more than one occasion to 
suggest some analogy with the flight of the Swift (Cypselus apus). 
To summarise their speed, it may be said that Sand-grouse fly on 
occasion like the wind. The flight of those that had chosen their 
feeding grounds was usually performed at a moderate elevation, 
often low; but occasionally mounting to three hundred feet, as 
nearly as the eye could form a trustworthy estimate. 

Sand-grouse appear to manifest a homing faculty for certain 
spots, and though jealous of intrusion, may frequent a certain area 
for many days if shielded from harassing intrusion. Upon the 
ground most of their movements are characterised by extreme 
leisureliness, so long as undisturbed. They are partial of course to 
dusting in sand, and as though conscious of their protective colour- 
ation, remain for hours together in a favourite sand dune, enjoying 
warm sunshine. 

Seen in confinement, Sand-grouse would appear to be a placid 
apathetic race. 

During the summer of 1888 three examples were sent to the 
Zoological Society from Scotland. A visit paid to the Western 
Aviary on August 17th found the birds apparently reconciled to 
their environment. ‘Their inactivity was marked, as they squatted 
together on the gravel, blinking their eyelids or lazily stretching a 
wing across a foot. This apathy was varied occasionally by their 
running to and fro and making a semblance of picking up seeds ; 
nevertheless it continued so strongly marked as to recall some 
remarks of Professor Parker, which will bear quoting here: “These 
_ beautiful and gentle birds are seen at once to have in them some- 
_thing both of the Ptarmigan and the Pigeon; but there is in their 
physiognomy a marked inferiority of expression quite in contrast 
with the sharp intelligent look of the typical Fowls, and very much 
below what we see in the Pigeon-tribe. This is exactly in harmony 
with what the skeleton reveals; for while the characters of both 
these types are almost inextricably interwoven, yet there is in many 
points a marked inferiority of character.” (P. Z. S. 1863, p. 257.) 

The fact is that, Sand-grouse are seen to best advantage when 
performing their graceful aerial evolutions. Only on the breezy moor 


64 


or among the long lines of sand dunes can the “beatific vision” 
of a flock in full cry be enjoyed to perfection, at least in the north- 
west of England. The writer was first introduced to such an 
experience by Mr. R. Mann on May 28th; a visit to their haunts 
two months later was scarcely less pleasurable. 

On August 3rd, Mr. Reynolds and the writer ferried across Drigg 
estuary, and after a few hundred yards of sand had been traversed, 
took up a position behind a long ridge of wind-drifted sand, A glance 
over the ridge revealed the existence of a strip of sandy ground, 
evidently saturated by recent rain; Sea Plantain and Glasswort 
were the only plants noticed. Conical sandhills rose and fell 
in the background, ridge flanking ridge until the sea beach was 
reached ; in the near foreground, scattered over a small area, were 
resting the members of a flock of three and twenty Sand-grouse. 
A few were feeding; some were scattered in two and threes 
around; in the centre ten or eleven birds were squatting close to 
one another. In spite of all precautions, they seemed to suspect 
danger, and began to run together with shambling gait. A moment 
later found fifteen birds at once within the focus of the field glass. 
Up to this juncture no cry was heard, but when the birds rose in a 
pack their cry was distinctly audible, notwithstanding the deafening 
clamour over head of a large colony of Common Terns (Szerna 
fluviatilis). 


MINOR HABITS. 


(1.) THE Cry.—The principal cry of the species is a loud 
chuckle, and this appears to be modified in more ways than one. 
It should be stated however that the writer feels considerable 
diffidence in speaking of the cries of birds, not from inattention to 
a subject which has engaged his earnest attention for many years, 
but from the want of a trained musical ear. Prjevalsky renders 
the cry of this Sand-grouse, as uttered in flight by males, in the 
syllables ‘“truck—turuk, truck—turuk,” and this is certainly an 
accurate rendering of a not unmelodious call note. But if a flock 
of Sand-grouse be startled at close quarters, their first alarm note 
is harder and more guttural than their usual chorus, and jars 


65 


sharply on the ear. When at rest, the males modify the chuckle, 
q to a sound which Mr. R. Mann and Mr. Tandy, hearing it at close 
quarters, compared to the call-note of the Partridge (Perdrix 
cinerea). On August 17th, a male bird at the Zoological Gardens, 
being studied carefully, was noticed to raise his head and cry as 
Mr. Mann had stated; a moment later he uttered the harsher 
chuckle, and two other Sand-grouse ran to him and squatted on 
the gravel beside him. It seems likely then, that the usual call- 
note is the chuckle described by the Russian explorer, modified 
into (1) a sexual call-note, or (2) an alarm note, according to 
circumstances. 
It has been stated by Dr. Hans Gadow that, “from their voice 
we cannot gather much information as to their (Sand-grouse) 
affinities ; but certainly #hey do not coo.” (P. Z. S. 1882, p. 329.) 
This hypothesis is now shaken by the discovery that Pallas 
 Sand-grouse does coo. 
Mr. R. Mann, having no knowledge that the question had ever 
been raised, wrote of a winged female (which he endeavoured with 
_ characteristic kindness, to keep alive for the writer): “We had it 
alive two days, when it died, having no doubt been hit in the body 
_ as well as the wing. When disturbed, it uttered a ‘coo,’ just like a 
_ pigeon willdo.” Desiring independent evidence on this point, refer- 
~ ence was made to the possessor of a living bird, Mr. Macleod of Dun- 
tulm, Skye. This gentleman at once replied: “The Sand-grouse 
was winged on May 28th. The bird does ‘coo’ when frightened. 
_ When pleased, he gives utterance to sounds like ‘cuck-cuck.’ Itis 
extremely fond of water. The only food it takes is oats.” Thus, 
evidence is furnished by two independent observers, unknown to 
one another, that this Sand-grouse sometimes at least does coo. 
Perhaps Dr. Gadow will kindly reconsider his statement. 


(2.) Drinxinc.—The writer has traced the feet of Sand-grouse 
at their watering-places, and is disposed to believe that they drink 
in the forenoon and again about four p.m. On one occasion he 
‘observed a flock arrive in the neighbourhood of some pools, 
_ apparently to satisfy thirst, at the hour indicated, though this may 

5 


66 


be found to vary seasonally. Certainly they repair daily to favourite 
pools and small streamlets. 

(3.) NrpiFicaTion.—Widespread disappointment has been ex- 
perienced on this score, for grass meadows and sandhills as well 
as ploughed fields frequented by the birds have been explored with 
great labour and only negative results. Information reached the 
writer at the end of June, that a dealer professed to have received 
eggs of this Sand-grouse taken at Carlisle, but all particulars were 
withheld until August 21st, when Messrs. Stevens of King Street, 
offered for sale in lot 67 two eggs of Péerocles alchata (not a British 
species) labelled as eggs of Syzrhaptes paradoxus taken at Carlisle 
in June, 1888. A reference to these eggs, accepting their genuine- 
ness, was inserted in the “Zoologist” of September by the Editor, 
whose private note to the writer only reached him when the type 
was set up. On applying to the owner of the eggs in question for 
the name of the man who had taken these eggs “at Carlisle,” he at 
once declared that he had been “duped” by his collector, and 
that there was “no truth in the story” that the eggs were authentic. 
This person had previously stated to a correspondent that he had 
found a brisk demand for Sand-grouse eggs, having sold twenty in 
two months. It may charitably be supposed that some at least of 
the number were eggs of Pallas Sand grouse, from abroad. 

But consigning to limbo this painful disclosure, it must be stated 
that on first arrival, a few birds paired off and seemed disposed to 
nest. Two females shewed hatching spots, the one being killed by 
a dog on June 7th, and a second shot by a labourer on June gth. 
More positive evidence is furnished by the fact that the writer sent 
to the “Field” Office the ovaries of two females (killed on May 
26th and May 28th), asking that a professed expert might give an 
official opinion as to whether they would have naturally nested. 
The Editor of that Journal replied that “both the hens would have 
nested, the one in the coure of a few days, the other in less than 
a fortnight.” It may be stated that no precautions were spared to 
secure the safety of nests, had such been discovered. 

(4.) Foop.—Pallas Sand-grouse appears to consume almost 
every variety of seed obtainable, judging from the experience ot 


a 


67 


brother ornithologists. But in the north-west of England it has 
shewn a strong partiality for the seeds of clover, turnip, and rye- 
grass, as also for the seeds of Glasswort. The gizzards neualy 
contain some fine pieces of quartz or grit. 

(5.) TERRESTRIAL PRocREssion.—The remarkable foot, a 
induced Illiger to propose the genus of Syrrhapies for Tetrao 
paradoxus, Pall.,—is doubtless well adapted to a sandy country. 
Mr. Reynolds wrote under date August 3rd: “‘The footprints are 
curious. ‘They are very small for a bird seemingly larger than a 
Partridge. The middle claw extends far beyond the other two, 
and the smallness of foot may account for a kind of roll or shuffle 
_ they have in walking or running.” On August 6th, hundreds of 
_ the impressions in wet sand were examined, in which no variation 
_ couldbedetected. The pad always seems to produce a depression, 
4 shallowest in front; where the three claws pierce the sand, and 
leave three round holes, the first in front of the other two. Although 
the legs of the Sand-grouse are so short, and their feet encased in 
pads, they caz run with considerable celerity if alarmed. A bird at 
7 the Zoological Gardens offered a close examination of the shambling 
; gait of the genus. He ran to and fro, but never hopped ; he always 
put out one foot, and then the other, using each alternately. 
 (6.) Moutt.—On August 6th it was found that the Ravenglass 
_ birds were moulting hard. The ground they frequented was strewn 
with their cast feathers. Their “mutes” also abounded, and these 
: when fresh are in colour lead-grey, varying above to a chalky 
white, and drying a yellowish brown. On August 17th, the birds at 
Regent’s Park were deep in moult. Evidently the species performs 
the moult in August. 


a 


ae 


ARRIVAL OF PALLAS SAND-GROUSE. 


_ I. Cumpertanp.—(a) East Cumberland. No birds have been 
teported from Penrith, Alston, or Renwick districts, though all 
enquiries were made by Messrs. Tandy, Walton, and Lawrence. 
‘It would appear that none have on this occasion appeared in those 
districts. But Mr. J. J. Baillie of Carlisle has informed the writer 
: Sand-grouse seen in Northumberland, about thirteen miles east 


68 


of Alston. Had these continued their course westward, no doubt 
they would have crossed Cumberland. As it is, only the north- 
eastern corner of the county is known to have been favoured. Near 
Stapleton, ‘a lot of five, and on the same day another lot of three,” 
were seen by Mr. H. J. Lorraine, of Westfield House. At Winter- 
shields, near Bewcastle, a flock of “about twenty” came under the 
notice of Mr. Richardson, while frequenting a small moss for two 
or three days. Neither of these gentlemen have been able to 
furnish an exact date, and both assigned the occurrence to April. 
Near Longtown, two flights of about a dozen birds were observed 
by Robert Moscrop, gamekeeper to Major Irwin, flying very 
rapidly towards the west. ‘At first I thought,” he writes, “they 
were Golden Plover, as they much resembled their flight, but they 
were larger, and darker in plumage, and uttered a peculiar ‘chuck- 
cho-chuck’ as they flew along well up in the air.” Mr. Moscrop 
was at first under the impression, like the gentlemen just mentioned, 
that he had seen the birds in April; but a reference to his diary 
proves indisputably that the correct date on which he observed the 
second drove was May 21st, and he accounts for his first impression 
by the coldness of the season. No more birds were seen (or at 
least reported) from East Cumberland until August roth, when a 
flock crossed the Esk at Birrell’s weir, near Floriston, in view of 
Major Hogg and Mr. Routledge, who were fishing at the time. 
Major Hogg has kindly furnished the following statement. “I 
should say that I saw about thirty-five birds, not more. I saw 
them twice, but they were the same flock evidently. They appeared 
to me darker in plumage than the bird we find in such numbers in 
India, where it is called by the natives ‘Guttoo,’ from the continued 
call it makes when flying.” 

(6) Cumbrian Plain. A flock of six or seven appeared in some 
fields near Orton, on the northern edge of the Cumbrian plain, on 
May roth, as reported by Mr. Davidson, and continued to frequent 
that locality until May 26th, when three were shot and brought in 
the flesh to George Dawson of Carlisle. About this time a flock 
of nine took up their abode on the mosses and grass fields near 
Bow. Mr. J. C. Robinson and Mr. Dawson, being well acquainted 


69 


with the farmers of the district, succeeded in rousing much interest 
in the preservation of the birds, and none being shot, the party 
haunted that district the entire summer. 

(c) The English Solway. Much interest attaches to the immi- 
gration of Sand-grouse to this district, from which their presence 
was first reported by that excellent out-door naturalist, Mr. Richard 
Mann. First seen here were a pair of birds seen by Mr. William- 
son, jun., near Allonby, on May 22nd. It is probable, from 
information obtained by Mr. Tom Duckworth and others, that 
about this date Sand-grouse appeared near Bowness and Abbey. 
But the earliest date of any number is May 27th. On the morning 
of that day a flock were seen near Silloth by Mr. Osborn. The 
same afternoon a flock of fifteen were seen at close quarters under 
cover of a hedgerow, by Mr. R. Mann, near Allonby. The writer 
reached the ground on the following forenoon, and with Mr. R. 
_ Mann as guide, observed a number of birds. They had however 
been shot at, and were growing wild. A flock of fifteen which 
were tame and had not previously been shot at, was seen in the 
locality the same day. On June sth, a flock of thirty birds flew 
past William Nicol, while shrimping near Silloth pier; and the 
same flock lingered in the neighbourhood until the 8th, when it 
was last seen, flying west. On June gth, Mr. Tandy discovered 
that a party of ten birds had frequented Wolstey farm since the 
3 beginning of the month, and there they remained until the 13th, 
when one report affirms that they were seen to cross the Solway 
firth to the Scotch side. 

_ Since June 13th, very few birds have been seen near the English 
Solway. On June 25th, a single bird was seen by W. Nicol to 
cross the Solway from the Scotch side, proceeding inland when it 
reached our coast. On the 28th June, ten or twelve birds visited 
the Grune Point. On the 2oth of July a flock of eight or nine 
_ birds crossed over to us from the Scottish side of the Solway. 

(2) West Cumberland. (1) Near Cockermouth, the Rev. A. 
_ Sutton, whose experience of Sand-grouse in the Soudan is extensive, 
observed three birds on the Tallantine Hill, July 2-3. When 
_ disturbed, they flew to Millstone Moss. 


70 


(2) At Sandwith, as reported by Mr. H. Nott, four Sand-grouse 
were seen on the high ground above St. Bees during the second 
week of July, by a young farmer, ‘‘ whose dog turned them out of 
the turnips.” 

(3) At Seascale, following the coast line south, a male and 
female were shot by Mr. John Porter on June 5th, out of a flock 
of nine. Both birds were killed at one shot, and the seven survivors 
departed in a southerly direction, information being kindly supplied 
by Dr. Parker of Gosforth, and Mr. Porter. 

(4) At Ravenglass, a flock of twenty-three settled among the 
sandhills protected by Lord Muncaster, the lord of the manor, on 
July 24th, as ascertained by Joseph Farren, who watched over 
their interests for many days. 

This at present concludes the report so far as concerns Cum- 
berland. 


II. LancasHire.—/urness. This district belongs to the diocesis 
of Carlisle, and Mr. F. S. Mitchell, the historian of the Birds of 
Lancashire, informed the writer that he considered it belonged to 
the faunal area of the Lake District, rather than to his own 
dependency. It is therefore included in this report without further 
apology. 

Watney Island. It will be remembered that in 1863 a flock of 
eight Sand-grouse visited the sandhills of Walney, and two were 
shot. These specimens are still preserved on the island. (Durnford, 
Zool. 1877, p. 277.) On the present occasion Mr. W. Duckworth 
visited Walney on June 4th and subsequently. He ascertained on 
that date the presence of a flock of fourteen, and another of seven, 
the first birds having arrived on May 19th. Betweeen that date 
and June 18th, seven were shot and sent to a taxidermist at Barrow. 
On June 11th a flock of forty, and another of seventeen, appeared 
at the north end of Walney; and on June 17th a flock of eight 
were seen at the south end of the island. 


III. WrestMoRLAND.—Local enquiries have hitherto failed to 
produce certain evidence of the presence of Sand-grouse in that 
part of our faunal area. But as Mr. W. Duckworth fell in with a 


71 


flock on Greenodd Sands in June, it is most probable that some 
birds visited fields in the vicinity of the Kent estuary. 

Having thus dealt with our own faunal area, it may be convenient 
to quote data for two quarters to which Sand-grouse frobably 
travelled through Cumberland. 


IsLE oF Man.—A flock of eight birds arrived in the island on 
May 22nd; and on the 28th one was shot out of a flock of fifteen. 
(P. M. C. Kermode, Zool. 1888, p. 265). Early in June a flock 
of about fifty visited the island. (T. H. Nelson, ib. p. 300). A 
third record must be passed over as anonymous. 


_ ScorrisH SoLway.—None were seen until June 7th, though the 
first news of the arrival of the birds in Cumberland had been tele- 
graphed to Mr. R. Service, and he had instructed local observers 
to expect them. Mr. Service’s report will of course appear in the 

_ general report for Scotland, and it is only necessary to say that at 

one time sixty birds visited him, of which number nine alone 

_ remained on August 17th, the remainder having been “squandered,” 

_ as we say in Cumberland. 


FIRST ARRIVAL. 


| At Dunbar, N.B., Sand-grouse first arrived on May 16th, as 
_teported by Mr. W. Evans, whose kind thoughtfulness enabled the 
_ writer to send out early warnings to all his local observers. 

In Cumberland, birds were first seen at Thursby, on May 19th} 
on Walney island, on the same day ; at the Isle of Man on May 
22nd; on the Scottish Solway on June 7th. The bulk of those 
that visited us appear to have arrived between May roth and the 
beginning of June. 

The earliest dates quoted by Mr. J. E. Harting are :—Hants, 
May 15th; Aberdeenshire. May 17th; Yorkshire, Oxfordshire, 
Herts, all May 18th. (Zool. 1888, p. 234.) To Mr. Cordeaux we 
are indebted for information from Mr. H. Gitke’s delightful bird 
_ observatory on Heligoland, and the following are a few of the 
dates furnished thence :—May 8th, twelve birds; 13th, a score; 
14th, some; 18th, flights of from twenty to two hundred head; 


72 


19th, a few; 22nd, many hundreds; 24th, many great flights 
25th, many flights. (Zool. ib., p. 267.) But the record should be 
read of course 2 extenso. It is only here quoted, because it bears 
out the writer’s belief that the ‘‘rush” reached English shores during 
the last week in May, and that birds, seen in the north-west of 
England before the 22nd, were only thepioneers of the hordes that 
were to follow immediately after. 


CENSUS OF NUMBERS. 


This is difficult to estimate with accuracy. Certainly the same 
frocks have been seen many times by different observers. Assuming 
that the birds seen in East Cumberland were afterwards observed 
on the Solway, and that the Allonby birds returned to Wolstey, we 
should be forced to admit that at least forty birds visited Allonby, 
and thirty others frequented Skinburness, giving at least a total of 
seventy birds. Granting that the Thursby and Orton birds belonged 
to the same flock, we have to admit the presence of at least twelve 
birds. The contingent of twenty-three at Ravenglass may have 
gathered up the Seascale birds, and those of Sandwith ; on this 
assumption we should have to account for twenty-five birds. Thus, 
a severe estimate would assure us that one hundred and seven 
birds visited Cumberland, and this excludes the birds which crossed 
to us from Scotland, on the consideration that they had probably 
crossed previously to Scotland from the English Solway. It may 
therefore be said with certainty that the number that visited Cum- 
berland between May and August slightly exceeded one hundred 
birds, on a very low estimate. It is not unlikely that the Raven- 
glass birds had previously visited Walney, where Mr. Duckworth’s 
numbers amounted to fifty-seven on June 11th. 


MORTALITY OF SAND-GROUSE. 


At Thursby, three were shot. At Silloth, four were shot, and 
another (perhaps a sitting bird,) killed bya dog. At Seascale, two 
were shot. At Allonby, twelve were shot or winged, giving a 
(corrected) total of twenty-two killed in Cumberland prior to 
June roth, since which date none are known to have been killed, 


Pans ae 


: 
4 


awe 


> ie 
so 


49 


73 


MIGRATION. 


The foregoing evidence suggests that the more northern division 
of Sand-grouse, visiting Cumberland, arrived on the east coast 
between Berwick and Holy Island, striking across the Bewcastle 
fells and proceeding westward to the Solway (and probably the 
Isle of Man,) via Floriston and Thursby. 

The southern division perhaps arrived at Spurn, and after 
following the Humber, crossed north-west Lancashire, pausing at 
Walney before travelling along the Cumbrian shores, or crossing 
the sea to the Isle of Man. There appears to bea recognised line 
of flight adopted by some birds, between Drigg point and the Isle 
of Man. It is more difficult to account for the shifting of the 
Sand-grouse from one place to another. In some instances the 


birds appear to have resented intrusion. At Silloth, for instance, 


ladies with parasols were observed by the writer to frequent the 
sandhills and beach favoured by the birds, and to cause them much 
needless inconvenience. The supply of food has also regulated 
their wanderings, since with us they have fed chiefly on the seed of 
clover, turnip, and rye, which can not be obtained everywhere. 
But their vagaries have proved them to be true Bedouins, inheriting 
a wandering disposition from their progenitors, whose prolonged 
sojourn in sterile regions has clearly induced them to transmit to 
their descendants a roving character. Nor should it be forgotten 
that these strangers landed on British shores whilst suffering from 
migratory fever, under the excitement of which their enormous 
journies appear to-have been executed with comparatively small 
losses. There is no reason to doubt that they will gradually become 
habituated to their new environment, if a few years of rest are 
accorded to them in this country. 


ACCLIMATISATION OF PALLAS SAND-GROUSE. 


During the summer of 1888, the birds have frequented mosses, 
grasslands, and, when possible, ranges of sandhills, feeding chiefly 
on arable fields in the occupation of farmers. They have shewn 
that they can subsist on a variety of seeds, and some of these are 
injurious to the agricultural interests. That they will eat insects 


74 


is also ascertained. On this score little anxiety will probably be 
felt by the public. As regards their natural enemies, they are 
most likely to suffer from foxes, stoats, and marauding cats, while 
roosting together on some flat ground, screened from the wind if 
possible, as their habit seems to be. In their native country, their 
only enemy is Falco hendersoni, a near ally of the well-known Sacer 
Falcon. But, though this fine hawk usually strikes at Sand-grouse 
when drinking, and, therefore, more than usually exposed to danger, 
Prjevalsky is careful to tell us that even “he can not always catch 
' them, as they are very quick.” No doubt a Peregrine would find 
an old Sand-grouse a worthy quarry, but Peregrines are now scarce 
in most parts of Britain. 

Anglo-Indians have repeatedly assured the writer that Sand- 
grouse offer excellent sport and are good eating, and Mr. J. H. 
Gurney, junr., has already recorded his opinion that a well-dressed 
Pallas Sand-grouse is a toothsome viand. 

But, the writer has been cautioned against encouraging an over 
sanguine temperament, because his expectations of Sand-grouse 
nesting in Cumberland for the moment remain unaccomplished. 
It has already been shewn that powder and shot are partly to blame 
for that. But consider the rainfall of the summer of 1888, At 
Carlisle, the rainfall in May was 1'20; June, 1°82; in July, the 
record rose to 5°66; and on the 28th of July, as much as 1°12 fell. 
In 1887, the local rainfall for June was 0°30; in July, 2°30. 

Nor should it be forgotten that the birds reached England in the 
middle of their breeding season. Though the writer only handled 
a dozen birds in the flesh, he has more than a suspicion that 
females and immature males predominated. But, it is argued with 
a show of plausibility, Sand-grouse are natives of hot countries, and 
could never endure the vicissitudes of English winters. This is 
based on the supposition that, because most Sand-grouse inhabit 
warm countries, Pallas Sand-grouse must be delicate. Doubtless 
our climate would deal harshly with any of the twelve species of 
Pteroclide which Elliot refers to the Ethiopian region, and the 
remark of course applies to such species as belong to the Oriental 
tegion, 


dy > 


i 


, 
Meee 


STS 


75 


But Pallas Sand-grouse is a hardy Asiatic, accustomed to winter 
in North China, where the winters are well known to be very severe. 
The evidence of Swinhoe has often been quoted. But glance at 
that of the Hon. J. F. Stuart Wortley, who gave the following 
account of the species, apropos of thirty-four living birds which he 
had purchased for the gardens of the Zoological Society, in the 
public market at Tientsin. The wild birds “were always to be 
seen in large packs such as you see grouse in, when they get wild 
in September, and seemed to like being by the side of the river on 
the mud banks when left dry by the tide. The temperature at the 
time the birds first began to be seen, was about 20° fahr., and later 
on considerably lower ; and on the day we finally steamed down 
through the ice, which covered the Peiho for about fifty miles o¢ 
its course, the temperature was as low as ro° fahr., and the Grouse 
were in large flocks on each side.” (P.Z.S., 1861, pp. 196-8). This 
statement, if viewed calmly and dispassionately, may be taken to 
disprove the likelihood of the alarmist theory that #izs Sand-grouse 
is too delicate to endure our English winters. Of the movements 
to our estuaries, which, under certain conditions, might take place ; 
or of the additions to the numbers of Sand-grouse in this country, 
which may not improbably occur, should the birds that visited 
Norway during the late great movements be induced by stress of 
weather to continue their suspended exertions, and cross the 
German ocean in a south-westerly direction, it would at present be 
premature to speak. 

It only remains that the writer should tender cordial thanks to 
his correspondents, whose timely responses to various enquiries 
have materially benefitted the accompanying report. Of friends 
at a distance, Mr. Edward Bidwell and Mr. A. C, Chapman 
interested themselves on his behalf. He has also had the advan- 
tage of consulting Professor Newton. 


a5 tet etsy ee. 1 Veet Br ae 
ign big 1piks aNianp Wadd peild es A al itr oe Ree 
ye a tail ail de od sancti: 64 Px cara vi ral = eee 3 
OM ia vise, aac 


qe 


; o> i 


Py sith int Seienged! a iivt Xs) LA ROE ge Coto 
Oty ae ay swhe ek deka Sid tae Ud Srcea US 


4 > AiMian, tai ye ie geben ety bie rea NOCEL & wh 
4. Me lie towne St , TOMAS we Wi ay? mi, ; J A wait tHe: 
le . 


in cy te etry ~~. 
SF ta RIL ar h ed ta 


a> A ; , 
7h WAL fi Soir Si Higa weak Tek) eae 
7 ~. 4 
r. > ‘ re __ i e f Jp 
- ATre . P } ahs lip. fy ee a ‘ bert sl 4 “yew el 
a: r M 
Brat Pay , 
a t . . a 
vip | ses Cee 
a) i 5 1) 
- 


Gata iaate Ss peas hiew.a oti et. Ces oFrehits tieG Y at 


fotitiv, sudbtetdiefeatr bl 


Its * he 4 bos mebiri te 
eelttors beedive iets 
a SRST HARE Te MOLT 


+, aren ste) vandal bid bigewg : 
WM aa ennise Or 2agngh af yf stati ay Fa Sie ry Leppert 


“eae hs ee Sees Arigna gma we PAINS : sal «llevan 
wey bd) Aa brs Hawiithe but ySSE) Ae tatal 
Sa ee: sah 9 Ph Taded zd ies. art eared se 
MONA coms VL waists nioe) 
7 vey: 


2 ~ 
> 
so. 4 
are Seige 
= > fad Pas eit 
t eas Ae 
a z rs At ther. 


17 


PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 
By R. A. ALLISON, Esa., M.P. 


(Delivered at Longtown, 1888.) 


You have now I believe reached the most northern limit of the 
realm over which your Association for the Advancement of Liter- 
ature and Science holds sway. Longtown is, I take it, the Ultima 
Thule of your dominions, and I can assure you I have great 
pleasure in being the mouthpiece through which the words of 
welcome that are usual on these occasions are addressed to you by 
your most northern, but not, I am sure I may say, your least loyal 
and devoted subjects. No doubt, in comparison with the places 
you have already visited at these annual meetings—places such as 
Carlisle, Cockermouth, Keswick, and many others—Longtown 
may seem to be lacking in importance and interest, just as I fear 
you have found it somewhat difficult and inconvenient to reach. 
Still, although those larger places may open to you fields of obser- 
vation with which here we cannot vie, and supply you with audiences 
whose numbers we cannot reach, we may claim that this little town 
standing, as it does, on the very threshold of the interesting Border 
district, has its claims on your appreciative notice, and that the 
neighbourhood of which it is the centre, is, from many points of 
view, one of not the least interesting and characteristic of those 
with which you have to deal. 

Let me say too, in passing, that one of its claims to your favour- 
able consideration is that it was one of the earliest branches to join 
your central Association, I think it did so in the third year of 


78 


your existence, and that though in numbers it has always been one 
of your smallest societies, it has nevertheless been one of the most 
constant and loyal, and that nowhere have the lecturers you have 
been good enough to supply met with more appreciative listeners. 
It is, indeed, just one of the places that, from being small, is most 
advantaged by contact with such a larger Association as yours. In 
many places in these modern days there is such a congestion of 
meetings, whether for amusement, business, or instruction, that 
tired and harassed human nature seems to revolt at any addition to 
its load, and to long to be left at peace, and, like the river, to wander 
in the paths of literature and science at its own sweet will. We 
have not quite reached that condition here. ‘They still have some 
time to digest and ponder upon the lectures you are able to supply. 
They still have some of that leisure which elsewhere has too often 
taken flight to return to us no more; and I believe I am only 
speaking what is sincerely felt by the members of the Longtown 
branch, when I say how indebted they are for the valuable assistance 
which on many occasions you have given them, and which they 
look forward to receiving from you in the future. They could not, 
of course, in a small place like this, expect to obtain such lecturers 
as you are able to obtain for them, and they are therefore propor- 
tionately grateful for the services you render. 

It is perhaps not quite the locality in which, even in times 
comparatively modern, lecturers would have found themselves at 
home. Thepeoplewho lived herehavenot always been distinguished 
for their devout attachment to law and order. I suppose, indeed, 
there are few places in which we may say that even in recent days, 
at any rate, within a century and a half, a more complete 
change has been brought about, as well in the characters of 
the people who live here, as in the natural features of the locality 
in which they dwell. It was thus described by the learned 
Dr. Stukely, when he visited it in the course of his travels in the 
north in the beginning of the last century. ‘From hence,” and 
if I remember right he was coming from a visit to the castle at 
Scaleby, “over a dismal boggy moor—an uncultivated desert— 
we travelled to Netherby. They told us that for sixty miles 


ee 


79 


further northward there is scarce a house or tree to be seen all the 
way—the valley by the river side is very good land with some 
shadow of nature’s beautiful face left, but everywhere else about 
us is the most melancholy dreary view I ever beheld, and as the 
backdoor of creation: here and there a castellated house by the 
river, whither at night the cattle are driven for security from the 
borderers : as for the houses of the cottagers they are mean beyond 
imagination, made of mud and thatched with turf, without windows, 
only one story, the people almost naked. We returned through 
Longtown, whose streets are entirely composed of such structures.” 

Well, wherever you may have arrived to-day, I hope you will not 
feel inclined to say that you have reached “the backdoor of 
creation,” and that you will be more complimentary to us in the 
name of Literature and Science than Dr. Stukely was. The 
learned doctor would have been somewhat astonished had he been 
asked to lecture. 

Longtown, if it has had the distinction, has also had the 
disadvantages which, perhaps, are more easily discerned, of being 
a frontier or outpost town. It is uncomfortably described by one 
of the old chroniclers as a certain region lying between England 
and Scotland. It does not need a very lively imagination to picture 
what that meant at certain periods of our history. For years it was 
claimed by both countries, and the prey of either in its turn. It 
was for centuries the scene of continuous fights and forays, which 
we all feel, in spite of the glamour of romance that is flung around 
them in the old Border ballads, or in the magic pages of Sir Walter 
Scott, must have inflicted terrible sorrow and suffering on all 
engaged in them. It was an outpost when first we hear of it in 
history in the days of the Roman occupation, when first we find 
ourselves on the firm ground of recorded facts. There is no doubt 
that at Netherby there was a station of very considerable size and 
importance. It was possibly one of those selected by Agricola 
himself when in the course of his British campaigns about the year 
80 A.D., having subdued those tribes of the Brigantes who dwelt 
in the modern counties of Lancashire and Yorkshire, he advanced 
by two routes, an eastern and a western, against the more northern 


80 


inhabitants of the kingdom. With his eastern route we are not 
concerned. His western road in all probability was from Carlisle 
through the territory of the Selgovee who occupied Dumfriesshire, 
and whose name is supposed to linger among us in that of the 
Solway Firth. 

The first station from Carlisle was at Netherby, and here perhaps, 
without any very great improbability, we may imagine, if we choose, 
with the Antiquary in Sir Walter Scott’s famous novel, Agricola 
himself to have been, and “ from this place,” as he said, ‘‘ we may 
suppose him to have looked forth.” You remember, I dare say, 
how—a warning and a caution to all future antiquarians—Sir 
Walter depicts the old gentleman waxing eloquent over a stone on 
which were engraved the magic letters A. D. L. L., which he 
interpreted to be “Agricola dicavit libens lubens,” and how on this 
foundation he raised a vast superstructure of Roman camps and 
campaigns, which he illustrated with great research and learning to 
his young companion. He had just fixed on the precise position 
of the preetorium, when he was rudely interrupted by the remark 
of the old beggar, destructive as the ponderous folio of the acutest 
critic, “ Praetorian here—Pretorian there ; I mind the bigging of 
it ;” who further proceeded to dash to pieces his ingenious rendering 
of the inscription by declaring it to be within his own knowledge 
that it stood for Aiken Drum’s Lang Ladle. The anecdote may 
warn us to leave the subject of Agricola. But whether he was 
here or not, so far as a Roman station is concerned we stand on 
surer ground ; and if we have no inscription that bears the name 
of Agricola himself, we have preserved for us a long series of 
inscriptions which conclusively prove that from his days onward 
throughout the whole period that they remained, the station here 
was occupied by troops, ; and that among those troops were some 
of the most distinguished legions that fought in Britain—the 2nd, 
the 6th, the 20th legion; the 1st cohort of the Spaniards; the 
cohors Nervana, which bore the name of the Emperor Nerva—all 
these were here, and all have left the traces of their presence. We 
have the monumental stone of a Rhetian lady—belonging to a 
people who lived in the modern district of the Tyrol—and who 


“Pres ae 


81 


died here probably on her way to join some of her own compatriots 
who were stationed a little further north at Middleby—the first 
recorded of the many strangers who at one time or another have 
passed through this little town. The inscription does not name 
her death—the Roman tombstones never did—it simply says she 
lived thirty-five years eight months and fifteen days. 

When at the beginning of the second century the Emperor 
Hadrian visited this district, and drew the line of stations that were 
to form the famous wall to be here the boundary of his empire, 
Netherby was left as an outpost to the north; and so, it may be, 
deserved the name with which it is usually identified—viz., that 
of Castra Exploratorum—the Camp of the Explorers. It is given in 
the 2nd Iter. of Antoninus in the list of Stations on the great road 
that extended from Richborough in Kent to Middleby, and is 
named as twelve miles north of ‘Carlislke—the Roman mile being 
somewhat shorter than our own, The name, however, is not found 
at a later date in the Roman Army list which we possess, and 
which, according to Dr. Bruce, was drawn up a few years before 
they finally left the country. It may be that this outpost had been 
already found untenable, and had been surrendered to the native 
tribes. But here for a long period the Roman troops remained ; 
and we cannot doubt that their presence exercised some permanent 
influence on the district. 

It was the practice of the Romans to use the inhabitants of one 
conquered country in the subjugation of another; and while here, 
we know there were gathered the representatives of various nation- 
alities, the natives, no doubt, from here would be drafted away to 
assist in that great task which fired the genius of Virgil when he 
wrote :— 

Be thine, O Rome, the glorious work the folks of earth to sway, 

For this shall be thy handicraft, peace on the world to lay. 
Well, it is not pleasant to speak of a period when we were a 
conquered country ; but I should not wonder if it was long before 
this district knew more settled days than those it spent under 
Roman rule; and there must have been a certain amount of life 
and interest, especially to the British ladies, in having amongst us 

6 


82 


the very best troops—the Guards, as it were—of the world’s great 
conquerors. But at last, as we know, towards the middle of the 
fifth century, they left us altogether. The British tribes, more or 
less Romanized, as the case may be, were left to protect themselves 
as best they could against their other foes—Picts and Scots and 
Angles, as the case might be. 

It is in the course of their struggles against the latter in the 
century following the departure of the Romans, that an interesting 
problem presents itself to us for solution in this locality—a problem 
which, if we could only solve in favour of the locality, connects us 
here with another famous name. We all know how large a part of 
the sentiment and imaginings of medizeval romance and poetry is 
centred on the story cf King Arthur and his table round; how, 
instead of being, as he was once supposed to be, a mere mythical 
hero, suited to adorn the nursery rhyme with which we used to be 
familiar, or the poetic stories that have delighted our maturer days, 
modern authorities have decided in favour of his real existence as 
a great leader of the native Britons in their sturdy endeavour to 
maintain their independence against the foes who pressed upon 
them. It is agreed then that Arthur was a real leader of the people 
—the dispute is as to the locality which was the scene of his 
operations—and there being on this head a conflict of opinion 
among equally high authorities, I think we who live here are fully 
justified in claiming him for our own, and giving our vote with 
those who hold him to have been the great chief of the northern 
Cymri of Strathclyde and Cumberland, and the great assertor 
of their liberties. It may be that the name Arthuret itself is con- 
nected with his presence in our midst; but, however this may be, 
there seems, at any rate, fair grounds for the assumption that this 
district was the scene of the exploits of one whose great achievements 
and personal qualities so impressed themselves upon his contem- 
poraries that he was handed down to posterity as the very model 
of a christian knight—a true leader of the people. 

It was here too a little later that is said to have been fought the 
great battle of Arderydd—a battle waged between the Christian and 
the pagan Cymri—between those who had come under the influence 


83 


of the teaching of Columba and his monks, and those who still 
adhered to the old Druidic and native worship. Rydderch Hael 
was the leader of the former, Gwendolen of the latter, whose name 
is said to be preserved for us in Carwinley—Caer-Gwendolen—the 
fort or strong place of Gwendolen. The battle was won by the 
Christian party, and led to the return of Kentigern, the great 
missionary Bishop of the Border, whose activity and success is 
attested by the many churches which are dedicated to his name. 
Your own is not one of them, though the antiquity of its foundation 
is proved by its dedication to St. Michael, who was a favourite 
saint with the early British churches in the seventh and eighth 
centuries. The advowson of Arthuret was given at a later date by 
Turgis de Russdale, who was lord of the barony of Lyddale in the 
twelfth century, and had his seat at the mote of Lyddale, of which 
Chancellor Ferguson gave so’excellent an account on a recent 
occasion—and which is one of the most interesting of your ancient 
monuments—to the Abbot and Convent of Jedworth, with which it 
may have previously been connected. We have an account in the 
reign of Edward III. of an inquisition that was held at Carlisle in 
1328, in which the Abbot lays claim to the advowson which 
Edward II. had taken from him. The claim was allowed, the 
inquisition finding that they had held it for time beyond memory; 
but a few years later it was again forfeited, and the connection 
finally dissolved, on the ground that the Abbot had become a 
Scotch enemy and rebel. 

The Barony of Lyddale passed, towards the close of the 12th 
century, to the De Stutevilles, a family of great repute and influence 
upon the Borders, one of whom, William, married a niece of 
Ranulf de Glanville, the famous statesman of Henry II.’s reign, 
and was High Sheriff of the County during the early years of King 
John, from 1199 to 1204. The Pipe Rolls, or annual accounts, are 
full of the irksome incidents which, in their and other cases, formed 
the tenure under which they held their possessions from the Crown 
—a very different thing from the fee simple of which we boast in 
modern days. Thus, in the third year of King John, Nicholas de 
Stuteville pays 45 we transfretet—to avoid military service abroad, 


84 


In the following year, Helewisa de Stuteville pays 60 marks to 
avoid being compelled to marry within the stipulated year and a 
day which was prescribed for widows in her position. The last of 
the family was Joanna, who died in 1276. We have a full account 
of the property which she held, as disclosed at the enquiry that took 
place upon her death at Carlisle. She held, we are told, the 
barony from the king in capite—‘“in chief.” Among other places 
named as belonging to it are Arthureth, Stubhille, Randolph 
Levington (Randalinton), Bracanhille, Katkledy (Catlowdy), Stand- 
garthsyde, Bayth, Nether-bayth, and Haytwayt. There was then, 
it seems, a church at Eston, the advowson of which was worth 
1o marks. Among her possessions are noted a bakery, three 
breweries, a fulling mill, and four water mills. Joanna had married 
Hugh de Wake, and her son Sir Baldewyn de Wake, who is declared 
at the enquiry to be of full age and more, succeeded her. He died 
1281, and in the description of the manor given at his death, it is 
said that “there is at Lydel the site of a castle containing these 
domiciles, viz.: a wooden hall, with 2 solars* and cellars, a chapel, 
a kitchen, a byre, a grange, and a wooden granary, which threaten, 
but might now be repaired for 5 marks.” “There is also,” it goes 
on, *‘a forest called Nichole} forest, 7 leagues in length, whereof 
4 are of 3 leagues breadth, and the remaining 3 of 1 league breadth 
by estimate. . . . There may be sold in the forest, of dead 
wood yearly, without destruction or waste, too shillings. 

And they of the forest must preserve the nests of sparrow hawks 
and eagles.” The value of the whole manor is returned at £295 
16s. 2d. In 1294, John Wake, his successor, is allowed to lease 
his manor for seven years. In 1300 he died. Among his posses- 
sions are recorded 6%% salt oxen, each 8s.; a cask wine, 66s. 8d.; 
an iron mounted cart and harness, 6s. 8d.; and 2 wagons, rad. 
By an order of the King, Edward I., made at La Rose, Sir Simon 
de Lyndeseye, of Arthuret, was appoited keeper of his lands and 
of the mote of Lydel, through the nonage of Sir John’s son and 
heir, the tower of Joanna his wife being reserved. Ata later period 


* Solar was a loft. 
+ Perhaps called after Nicholas de Stuteville. 


85 


Sir John de Seagrave was named by Edward II. to succeed Sir 
Simon, being allowed to retain out of the first issues of the manor, 
the sum of £513 18s. 8d., due to him for services rendered to the 
king as warden of Scotland. By 1319, Sir Thomas, the son, had 
come of age, and though not present in person, sent sixty-five 
soldiers to assist the king’s army at the Siege of Berwick. This 
Thomas married Blanche, daughter of, Henry Plantagenet, Earl of 
Lancaster, and in 1324 he is styled the king’s cousin, and is named 
as going in his service to Aquitaine, with thirty men-at-arms. At 
a later period, his loyalty to the king fell under suspicion, and his 
lands were seized, but restored upon his exonerating himself. Under 
Edward III. he was named, in 1340, along with Anthony de Lucy 
and Peter Tylliol, as commissioner to put down the evil doers who 
infest the woods and passes, and slay the king’s lieges both Scots 
and English. A year later (perhaps he was getting old and pre- 
paring for his latter end,) a safe conduct is granted to him to go on 
a pilgrimage to Saint Jake, Saint James at Melrose, Eight years, 
however, of life remained to him, for he did not die till-1349, on 
the vigil of Pentecost. The value of the manor is now returned 
at only £70 16s. 2d., or less than one-fourth of what it was in 
1276—so troublous the period that had been passed through. His 
wife Blanche survived him, and their son dying without issue, the 
next heir was his sister Margaret, married to Edward Plantagenet, 
Earl of Kent, third son of King Edward I. In the end the barony 
reverted to King Edward III., through failure of male issue, and 
remained in the Crown till 1604, when it was given by James I. to 
the Earls of Cumberland, who sold it in the reign of Charles I. to 
Richard Graham, who, following the fortunes of the king, was 
nearly killed at Edgehill. 

These centuries that followed the Normanconquest were centuries 
no doubt of trial for all who had the misfortune to inhabit this district. 
The constant incursions of the Scotch, and thereprisals to which they 
too naturally led, must have made residence here anything but an 
enviable position. It would be needless to pursue the details of 
these ever recurring Scottish raids. It is enough to say that they 
were incessant. John Halton, Bishop of Carlisle, in 1304, speaks 


86 


of their ‘daily aggressions.” ‘The chronicle of Lanercost says they 
came ‘‘more solito, in their usual fashion.” In 1317, William de 
Dacre reports that the country is so utterly wasted and burned, 
that from Lochmaben to Carlisle there is neither man or beast left. 
Can we wonder at the result that followed—that the people who 
lived here became the despair of the Wardens of the Marches— 
and that the district was at length described “as the sink and 
receptacle of proscribed wretches, who acknowledged neither 
kingdom, obeyed the laws of neither country, and feared no 
punishment.” No wonder that Lord William Howard, the Belted 
Will of Border history, looking upon the condition of affairs on his 
arrival in these parts, as he puts it in a letter of 1606, with the eye 
of “a southern novice,” was astonished at what he saw, and 
endeavoured to do something to restore at least a semblance of 
order and civilisation. ‘The Grahams, of innumerable places, are 
always singled out as being the chief offenders. ‘If the Grahams 
were not,” says Sir W. Lawson, in 1605, ‘‘these parts would be as free 
from blood and theft as Yorkshire.” Unwearying and continuous 
were the efforts that were made. A trial was made of exportation, 
and the leading offenders were sent abroad. ‘‘Change of air,” it 
was said, “will make in them an exchange of manners.” But again 
and again, we are told, they returned ; and other and more natural 
methods were employed that have proved more efficacious in the 
end. 

The record of progress here has been a slow one, but it has been 
a sure one; and our house has at length been set in order to receive 
an Association for the Advancement of the twin sisters of Litera- 
ture and Science. It is a result that fills one with hope in dealing 
with similar difficulties that have to be faced elsewhere. I think 
it was Napoleon who said there were only two powers—the power 
of the sabre and the power of the mind; and he added that in the 
end the power of the sabre must yield to the power of the mind. 
That has been the issue here; and the progress that has been 
made will, we hope, be maintained. We hope that the connection 
of Longtown with this Association will continue to your mutual 
profit, and that in these days of education, increasing numbers of 


* A Pee er a 


87 


the young people will avail themselves of the advantages you offer 
with your meetings in the winter, and your still more pleasant 
rambles in the summer, when we have one. No one of course 
supposes that lectures such as are delivered to your members are 
the highest or most important form of education. Nothing that 
anybody can tell you will ever be so useful as what you learn for 
yourselves. -Of all short cuts, short cuts to knowledge are the 
most delusive. There is room, I dare say, for the warning that 
Mr. Ruskin once gave when he was asked to lecture somewhere. 
‘Everybody wants to hear—nobody to read—nobody to think: to 
be excited for an hour, if possible amused: to have knowledge 
first sweetened up to make it palatable, and then kneaded into the 
smallest possible pills—and then to swallow them homceopathically 
and to be wise.” Well, we shall all agree with Mr. Ruskin that the 
thing cannot be done. He has expressed in forcible language 
what we all feel. But it is hoped—and I believe in practice it has 
been found to be the result of the work of this and similar Associ- 
ations—that they may in some measure lead people to read and 
think for themselves, by suggesting to them fresh subjects to read 
and think upon, and by bringing them into contact with other 
minds on those that have interested them before, 

Literature and Science—the two branches of study with which 
you undertake to deal—cover a vast field, over which you may 
range at will. Each will commend itself to different minds. 
Physical Science—the history of the world in which we dwell—of 
those laws of nature by which it has been brought to its present con- 
dition through countless ages, and which still we see at work before 


our eyes—the marvellous adaptation of causeand effect in the natural 


world around us—these are objects of the deepest interest to every 
thinking man. And besides their interest in the investigation of 


them, a precision is given to the thought, and an accuracy to the 


mind, which is of the utmost value in every occupation of our lives. 
But not less interesting certainly is the other subject with which 
you have to deal—the history of man himself—the history of the 
progress by which he has attained to the state we find him in to-day, 
and of the great works and deeds which have been the steps of that 


88 


progress, and by which the great men of the ages that are past 
being dead still speak to us with voice that it is our privilege to 
hear. These are the pleasurable pursuits that lie before you. 

This in olden days was called ‘‘the camp of the explorers;” let 
it be the camp of the explorers still; and let them take for their 
guides such as those who have come here to address us this after- 
noon, and to whom, without further preface, I shall now give 
place. 


89 


THE PHYSICAL HISTORY OF GREYSTOKE PARK 
AND THE VALLEY OF THE PETTERIL. 


By J. G. GOODCHILD, H.M. Gzou. SURVEY, F.G.S. 


An Address delivered before the Cumberland and Westmorland Societies in 1881, 
at Greystoke Park, Penrith. 


(REPRINTED FROM THE ‘‘PENRITH OBSERVER” OF AUGUST 9, 1881.) 


INTRODUCTION. 


Amonc the many subjects that an attentive study of the geology 
of a district is sure to bring more or less into prominence, one of 
the most interesting to the student of the present day is that of the 
history of the changes that have resulted in producing the surface 
features of the district around him. The subject is interesting 
even where the configuration of the surface happens to be tame 
and flat; but where we have to deal with a complex series of 
changes resulting in scenery of as varied a character as that we 
have the good fortune to find ourselves surrounded with here, so 
many features of interest present themselves that it becomes difficult 
to give to each its proper share of attention on such an occasion 
as the present. It will therefore be necessary to notice only the 
leading points of interest, and to do little more than refer to much 
that, if there were time, it would be well to discuss at greater 
length. 

Persons unacquainted with the results of modern geological 
research are apt to content themselves with the belief, well-expressed 
in the phrase, ‘‘as old as the hills,” that the natural features around 


90 


them date back from the earliest period of creation, and that they 
will remain unchanged and unchangeable to the end of all time. 
I do not now intend to enter upon the history of the changes of 
opinion that have led up to the views now commonly received ; 
most of us are well aware that Hutton and Playfair, Lyell, Ramsay, 
Jukes, Geikie, and others, have done much to place the subject 
before us in its true light ; while, from the members of the Cum- 
berland Association we have had a contribution on the “Physical 
History of the Lake District,” by Mr. Ward, which appeared some 
years ago inthe pages of ‘Science Gossip”; and we have more 
recently a paper by our Association Secretary, Mr. Kendall, dealing 
in the same way with West Cumberland, which has appeared in 
Part V. of our “Transactions.” Mr. Ward confined his attention 
chiefly to the area occupied by the Older Palozoic rocks of the 
Lake District, which alone furnished matter for an article of some 
length. I propose to supplement his observations by offering a 
few remarks upon such points in the history of our present sur- 
roundings as seem to present features likely to prove of general 
interest. 


THE HISTORY AND THE PHYSICAL RELATIONS OF THE ROCKS, 


Most of us are already well aware that the rocks around us form 
part of the Carboniferous series—rocks so called because the one 
feature that distinguishes them as a whole from the rocks above 
and below them, here, at least, is the occurrence of beds of coal, 
which, in one part of the kingdom or the other, may be found 
occurring at almost all horizons, from the top of the Coal Measures 
down to the very base of the series. The particular members that 
come before our notice on the present occasion belong to the lower 
part of the series, or Carboniferous Limestone. These rocks, with 
some few exceptions, were accumulated here, and over greater part 
of the British Isles, chiefly in the clear water of the open sea. The 
limestones consist very largely of the calcareous remains of the 
marine animals of that remote period, imbedded in a calcareous 
paste, which binds all the fossils together into compact rock. But 
in no case [ have yet seen do any of these represent old coral reefs. 


OS i ee 


a a 


re eee 


91 


If we were to follow these rocks for many miles, towards either 
the north-west or the south-east, keeping in a general way at much 
about the same distance from the Silurian area as we are here, we 
should find ourselves keeping to beds of nearly the same general char- 
acter, and often indeed we should keep to the self-same bed of rock. 
The beds would be found to be thicker and to increase in import- 
ance as rock features as we followed them towards the south-east, 
(where deeper water conditions prevailed when the rocks were 
formed,) while they would be seen in a general way to diminish in. 
thickness, and consequently come less into prominence as rock 
features as we followed them in a north-westerly direction. A 
traverse in a direction at right angles to this—from the Lake 
District outwards towards the Cross Fell Escarpment—would bring 
us, at almost every step, to rocks differing in some way or other 
from the rock we started from. We should find a series of layers 
of limestone, sandstone, and shale, piled one over the other, and 
tilted in such a way that one sheet of rock comes on above ancther, 
in the direction of the Cross Fell Escarpment, until we reach the 
highest beds exposed in that direction. To put it in another form 
one may say that, starting from the valley of the Petteril, over 
Penrith way, and walking up the gentle slope between there and 
here, we should come upon bed after bed rising out of the ground, 
at a rate somewhat faster than the general rise of the surface, until 
we eventually reached the very bottom of the series, and came 
down upon the central core of Siluro-Cambrian rocks, which rise 
from underneath the base of the higher group. Ii is important to 
realise that the older strata of the Lake District pass underneath 
the rocks where we now stand, and form a floor, extending hence 
right acrdss to the Pennine Fault, which abruptly elevates them 
from a great depth below the surface once more out to the day. 
This Sub-carboniferous floor or plain is the First Plain referred to 
below. 

If we were at a somewhat higher elevation than we are at the 
present moment, it would be apparent that, although we are standing 
on rocks known to be low down in the series, the higher rocks 
about Penrith form much lower ground than our present station ; 


92 


and it would also be seen that the minor inequalities of the surface 
that interrupt the general regularity of the slope do not much affect 
its character as a gently inclined plane. It hardly requires a 
trained eye to detect the evenness of this same plane where we 
catch its profile on the far side of the Eamont yonder between 
Hiuska and Cliburn. That slope is formed by the edges of well 
on to two thousand feet of strata, which strata once extended over 
the whole of this district, and which, thick as they are, form but a 
remnant of a once much greater mass. I believe we have evidence 
of the former existence here of some thousands of feet more of 
Carboniferous rocks than we now find around us, and a little 
reflection will convince any one that for this great thickness of rock to 
accumulate beneath the sea the rocks we are now upon must have 
been depressed to a corresponding depth beneath the surface. In 
other words, this limestone crag where we now stand, which is now 
well on to a thousand feet above the sea level, at one time went 
down several thousand feet below that level—probably as much as 
amile. We get evidence that the depression went on with extreme 
slowness, and that this depression was often interrupted, and the 
rocks sometimes remained stationary, or even oscillated between a 
movement downward and one in an upward direction. 


THE THREE PLAINS OF DENUDATION. 


At last came a time when the predominant downward movement 
of the earth’s crust at this point changed to a movement in the 
opposite direction. And, just as the downward movement had 
been unequal in various parts, so the rate of upheaval also was not 
by any means uniform over the whole district. The newly-formed 
rocks, in undergoing upheaval, may be said to have been bulged 
up from divers centres, and one of these centres, or groups of 
centres, lay over what is now the Lake District. So it happened 
that the sheets of newer rocks enveloping our Lake District were 
the first to be brought within the destroying action of the waves, 
and bed after bed was denuded—ground down into sand and mud 
and swept away to form rocks anew elsewhere—until in the end 
the very base of the series was cut through and the old Siluro- 


> ee 


93 


Cambrian rocks were once more exposed to the day. The 
destruction of a hundred or more cubic miles of rocks, which was 
stripped off the surface of this part of the country at the period I 
am referring to, did not, we may feel sure, take place in a year, or 
a hundred, or a thousand years. On the contrary, everythiug 
points to all these great geological events of the past having gone 
on as slowly and as imperceptible as such changes are known to be 
taking place at the present day. The end of it was that the whole 
surface of the country was shorn off to one general uniform level ; 
depressions and elevations there were, beyond a doubt, just as there 
are both depths and islands left on a modern plain of marine 
denudation ; but in the main the surface was tolerably uniform. 
The history of this plain is an important part of the history of the 
surface around us, and much of the rock scenery here has been 
carved out of re-exposed portions of that plain itself. I have 
generally referred to this plain between the New Red and the 
rocks beneath as the Second Plain: the First Plain being the one 
at the base of the Carboniferous rocks. Both, of course, have 
undergone more or less disturbance since their formation, and 
these disturbances affect the character of the plains themselves 
when they are re-exposed by the removal of the rocks that once 
covered them. It must not be supposed, however, that the minor 
features of Greystoke Park began their history at the date I refer 
to. We have yet a long series of changes to take notice of. 

What happened after the formation of this plain nobody knows 
for certain. It is quite possible that it may have again sunk 
beneath the waves and received other deposits on its surface that 
have gone and left us no trace of their existence behind. All we 


do know for certain is that a very long interval of time elapsed 


between the time of formation of the last of the Carboniferous 
series and the commencement of the next or New Red Period; 
time enough to admit of the consolidation, the upheaval, and the 
subsequent denudation of well on to twenty thousand feet of 
Carboniferous rocks; and time enough to admit of the gradual 
substitution of quite different forms of life for the forms whose 
remains we find entombed as fossils in the Carboniferous series, 


94 


NEOZOIC ROCKS. 

Then came a change once more. In place of the wide-spread 
marine conditions that prevailed during the Carboniferous period, 
we get evidence of this district having formed part of a large con- 
tinental area. Instead of accumulations of pure grey limestone 
taking place in the clear water of an open sea, we get evidence of 
the subaerial waste of an old continent somewhere out to the east 
of England being brought down by rivers, and swept about by strong 
and ever-changing currents, in a large inland lake, whose nearest 
analogues at the present day seem to be the Caspian, the Dead 
Sea, Lake Lahontan, &c. Instead of the varied and abundant life 
of the Carboniferous period, we find a few dwarfed and stunted 
forms, which seems to suggest by their form and their size that they 
struggled through life under conditions anything but suitable for 
their full development. Part of the time the waters of the old 
inland lake seem to have been so surcharged with the iron, the 
lime, the salt, the magnesia, and the various other substances 
carried down in solution by the rivers, that it was possible for only 
terrestrial, or, at the most, amphibious, animals to subsist there. 
Strange, uncouth-looking monsters many of these were, too, if one 
may form any idea of their shape from the scanty traces they have 
left here ; and it is far from unlikely that we may now, at this crag, 
be only a few feet below the former level of the surface where these 
gigantic frog-like, tortoise-like, lizard-like, and bird-like animals once 
roamed on the shores and waded in the shallows of the old lake. 
For we have evidence that this old lake, and the rocks that were 
accumulated in it once went completely over the spot we now stand ; 
and I believe there is also evidence that it extended also over the 
Lake District as well, for the Lake District, I believe, had not 
been upheaved and denuded into existence as a mountain region 
in those old days. 

Conditions similar to what I have endeavoured to describe pre- 
vailed throughout the entire period of formation of well on to four 
thousand feet of rock. ‘Then came a change, and the sea once 
more gained admittance. I would point out that in this fact we 
seem to get evidence that the old inland lake must have occupied 


95 


a position at a considerable elevation above the level of the sea. 
If this was not the case, then its continued existence as a lake 
through so long a series of depressions must have been due to great 
local irregularities of the downward movement of the earth’s crust. 
After the sea gained admittance here we know that the Lias at least 
was deposited ; and I see no reason whatever why the Oolites and 
other Secondary Rocks should not have overspread these parts as 
well. At any rate, and whatever view be taken, it is tolerably 
certain that this part was again submerged, and it may have been 
submerged to a considerable depth. 


THE THIRD PLAIN. 


Again the cycle of change brought about different conditions. 
The steady subsidence of the land that had been going on for 
untold ages—if we may trust the estimate of the time furnished by 
observation upon the modern rate of change in the organic world—— 
once again gave place to an equally slow movement in an upward 
direction. History is said to repeat itself. Geology, which is only 
history extended into the remotest periods of the past, seems to 
repeat itself also. The changes that took place at the close of the 
Carboniferous period were repeated at the period I now refer to. 
At some time after the formation of the Lias, and probably at a 
period following the deposition of the Oolites, the newly-formed 
rocks were once more brought to the level of the breakers, and 
planed off as before. The inequality of movement was repeated, 
and one at least of the centres of upheaval coincided, or nearly 
coincided, with the centres of upheaval of old. As before, the area 
that is now the Lake District went up faster than its surroundings. 
It suffered also denudation to a great extent. All the rocks that 
had covered it—the newer Secondaries, the New Red, and the 
Carboniferous rocks, where these existed—were one after the other 
swept clean away ; and the surface of the rocks exposed in conse- 
quence was shorn off to one nearly uniform level, which bore no 
relation to, and was in no way affected by, the diversities in structure 
and hardness of the rocks that composed it. I believe that it was 
at this period that the plain represented by the general summit 


96 


level of our Lake Country fell-tops was formed. The newest plain 
in Edenside—the plain that one can trace in a nearly continuous 
strip all along the foot of the Cross Fell escarpment, and round by 
Carlisle is also of this age. To the same period of formation would 
I also refer the plain of much of the great upland region extending 
away from Cross Fell eastward—for I believe that the summit levels 
of this upland tract once formed part of a continuous plain with 
that lying two thousand feet below it at its foot, and that it has 
been dislocated by the Faults at a late Tertiary period, and the 
separated fragments heaved asunder into their present respective 
position. This plain I have generally referred to as the Third, or 
Subcretaceous, Plain. 

Even at the period now referred to, which I regard as coeval with 
the earlier Cretaceous rocks, there seems to be no proof that any 
part of our district had assumed the character of a permanent 
terrestrial surface. Certain phenomena that I can now only refer 
to, seem to prove that the extensive plain I have last spoken of was 
covered nearly everywhere by yet a newer deposit. Unfortunately, 
we are not in the possession of any direct evidence as to what was 
the precise nature of this deposit; the scanty evidence we do get 
seems to point conclusively to it having been a rock more easily 
denuded than any of the stratified rocks in this district ; but what- 
ever the rock was, it was gone; and all I can say is that scraps of 
evidence gathered here and there all over the country seem to me 
to point to this rock having been the Chalk itself, or at all events 
some rock of that age and of that general nature. We may have 
had other rocks here as well, but there is not a scrap of evidence of 
any kind to prove that point. 


APPROXIMATE DATE OF THE LAST GREAT DISTURBANCE, 


It is now left to discuss the question at what geological period 
the last emergence of our district took place. Here again we are 
left very much in the dark. Hardly any feature existing in the 
whole district enables us to throw any light upon this question ; 
but by piecing together the evidence afforded by the geology of 
other parts around, we can get some kind of clue, which may serve 


97 


as a sort of guide in fixing approximately the date of this geological 
event, so important in an inquiry like the present. 

Many geologists are inclined to place the last emergence of this 
district at a period somewhere in the very remote past, and at first 
sight there does not seem to be any valid reason why it should not 
have been so. But when we turn to a study of the great physical 
features of the Continent of Asia, and of America, and observe the 
nature and the extent of the effects that geological causes have 
produced within a comparatively modern period of the earth’s 
history, we may well pause before assigning too remote an age to 
the comparatively trifling series of events that can be recorded 
here. Who is there that has fully realised what geological causes 
have effected in the Alps, in Auvergne, in the Western Isles of 
Scotland, in the Himalayas, and elsewhere, since Miocene times, 
that is prepared to maintain that similar results cannot have been 
produced here in the same time? We get evidence of movements 
of elevation and of depression surpassing in extent almost anything 
we can point to here. We have clear evidence of a prodigious 
amount of denudation, and thus, of course, proof of a corresponding 
amount of deposition of sediment. Almost the entire aspect of 
many parts of the Continent has been completely changed by 
these causes since the Miocene period, and it does not seem to be 
going too far, if we say that, so far as physical changes known to us 
by their results are concerned, the interval that has elapsed between 
this Miocene period and the present day is one of the most impor- 
tant the geologist has to deal with. It would be no very difficult 
matter to bring forward proof that since the last great physical 
changes have affected this district as a whole, and therefore the 
particular part of it we are more immediately concerned with, a 
comparatively trifling amount of denudation has been effected. I 
will refer to one, which will, I think, well exemplify this. Most of 
us know that a great series of dislocations, known collectively as 
the Pennine Fault, ranges along the foot of the Cross Fell Escarp- 
ment. The plane of that fault marks off the limit of the rocks 
composing the Escarpment. It is because of the Fault that they 
are there. The Fault cuts them off from their equivalents under 

7 


98 


the Red Rocks of the Eden Valley, and admitted of their upheaval 
to their present elevation ; therefore it is impossible that they can 
have ever extended farther in this direction at their present elevation 
than the plane, or upward continuation, of the fault. Now the 
very summit ridge of the Escarpment is frequently less than a mile 
back from. the fault; that is to say, the part that has been most 
cut back by denudation has receded only a mile. But the more 
prominent features of the Escarpment are at a much less distance 
than that, showing that the actual amount of denudation since the 
Escarpment first saw the light has been comparatively trifling. 
Subaerial conditions have affected similar rocks on the Continent 
and elsewhere to a much greater extent in post-Miocene times, 
and it therefore seems fair to conclude that, if less denudation has 
been accomplished here since a certain geological event, that event 
has in all probability taken place at a much more recent period. 
I would therefore approximately fix the date of the last upheavals 
here at the Miocene period, and would account for the compara- 
tively small amount of denudation the Escarpment and some other 
points have undergone since, by supposing that it is only in times 
much more recent that Edenside has been cleared of the Cretaceous 
rocks. Much of the denudation that every subaerial tract is 
inevitably exposed to having been expended in clearing out these 
newer deposits’; so that it is only at a comparatively recent period 
that the subaerial forces have been able to attack and to modify 
the features of a large part of the surface. 

Now, it was at some post-Miocene period, I believe, that the 
principal rivers of our district began to flow. I have endeavoured 
to show on a former occasion* that these rivers started into exist- 
ence at a time when the entire surface of the country was occupied 
with rock of one uniform character, and that the great water-shedding 
line of this part of England lay somewhere nearer this way than its 
present line along the Pennine range over there. Also that the 
rivers had their courses so well established in this rock of uniform 
character, that, when subaerial denudation had proceeded so far 


* Address at Nunnery Walks in 1880, published at the time in the Cardisle 
Patriot, &c. 


99 


that the old plains of marine denudation began to be re-exposed, 
the rivers still went on, as nearly as possible, in their old direction, 
regardless of the differences in hardness and in power of resistance 
to atmospheric forces presented by the rocks they were traversing. 
Now, all the rivers flowing outwards from the Lake District have 
had to cut their way across rocks that vary greatly in their rates of 
destructibility. One rock that will stand exposure to the weather 
for hundreds of thousands of years, and be in the end not much 
the worse for wear, may overlie, or may pass beneath, another rock 
that wastes away to an appreciable extent in a single lifetime. 
Only to-day I have been looking at two sets of glacial strie that 
I first examined no more than ten years ago. The first set is that 
on the surface of the sandstone we looked at at Blencowe to-day, 
which strize are just as sharp as they were ten years ago. The other 
set is close to Penrith, and occurs on limestone, near Redhills. 
Ten years ago they were quite fresh, and clear enough to catch the eye 
of a casual passer by ; but exposure for only ten years has resulted in 
reducing what was then a smoothed, or even polished surface, to 


_ one that is now perceptibly rough to the feel. The effect of the car- 


bonic acid in rain water has been to dissolve and carry away part 
of the limestone, and to remove some of the traces of glacial action 
with it. 

These two cases well exemplify what takes place on a larger 
scale all over the district. The beds around us here in Greystoke 
Park, first appeared as a nearly uniform slope, which was formed 
by the edges of rocks that present very different powers of resistance 
to the action of the weather. These inequalities of resistance to 
waste and decay may be slight in themselves, yet when the rocks 
are acted upon for a very long period, these differences tell up, 
and in the end give rise to diversities of surface of so much 
importance that one is disposed at first sight to attribute them to 
causes acting with more intensity. 


VARIED HISTORY OF THE PETTERIL. 


Our rivers here began to flow when the surface then existing at 
this point was nearly or quite two thousand feet higher relatively 


100 


to our present standpoint than it is at present—the rocks that 
composed that old surface having been long since entirely removed 
by the action of subaerial forces. As the general level of the 
surface wasted away and sank somewhat nearer to its present level, 
part of the last-formed plain—the Subcretaceous Plain that I have 
mentioned as being traceable here and there over greater part of 
the British Isles—began to be re-exposed, and the rivers that had 
already established their courses in the Cretaceous rocks began to be 
guided downward into rocks of quite a different character. Still, 
they went on all the same. Just as the acid used by the engraver 
bites downward into the hard plate of metal only along the lines 
where the etching ground has been scratched away, so the erosive 
action of the streams was guided downward through the upper 
rocks they began to flow in until their courses were fairly established 
in the harder and more diversified rocks beneath. Let us confine 
our attention for the present to the Petteril, as we are actually on 
the river banks of that stream at the present moment. According 
to the view here advocated, the Petteril at first started to flow 
somewhere out on this side of Stybarrow Dod, probably along 
the course now taken by the upper part of Aira Beck. Thence it 
flowed away between what is now Great and Little Mell Fells, across 
what is now a wide east and west valley. Then past Penruddock, 
Greystoke, Plumpton, and thence taking the valley south of Lazonby 
Fell, and joining the Eden near Great Salkeld. There are many 
reasons for believing that the Petteril maintained this channel for 
a considerable period—quite long enough to give rise to the 
formation of such valleys as this before us, where the Petteril has 
excavated a few cubic miles out of what might otherwise have 
been a continuous escarpment of Carboniferous rocks extending in 
an unbroken ridge across from Summerground Crags to Fluska 
Pike. 

But the rocks about the base of the Carboniferous Limestone 
series waste away at a faster rate than the beds higher up; in other 
words, if we had a level surface to start with, composed partly of 
the softer beds below, and partly of the limestone itself of Sum- 
merground Crags, this limestone would dissolve fast, but the softer 


«ig Chaar 


101 


beds below would go faster, and the lower rocks would soon begin 
to waste away into a gradually-deepening depression, until they sank 
far below the point reached by the limestone escarpment. In this 
case it has to be remembered, of course, that we are dealing with 
the outcrop, running transverse to the general course of the river, 
of a soft stratum occurring between two of a much more durable 
nature, and one that wastes faster than the rate at which the river 
itself erodes the harder beds above it and below. 

Thus it was, I believe, that the head waters of the Petteril were 
cut off, somewhere out between Penruddock and Mell Fell. The 
Petteril went on deepening and widening its channel here until 
the unequal waste of the surface formed by the soft rocks 
about Dacre developed a channel all along the line where 
these same soft rocks cropped out, that is to say, along 
a zone ranging transversely to the general direction of the river 
valley. Eventually the Petteril was cut in two by this unequal 
lowering of the surface it traversed, the water draining down from 
about Gowbarrow Fell being turned into the new channel that 
now contains Dacre Beck; while the remaining moiety of the 
Petteril had to make a fresh start as best it could, with such 
drainage as gathers about Motherby and Penruddock. 

The same kind of thing happened near Plumpton. The Petteril 
once flowed straight away from the Carboniferous area across what 
is now the escarpment of the Penrith Sandstone, instead of turning 
to the north as it does now. But this escarpment consists of an 
upper layer of hard and durable beds of sandstone, which overlies 
a lower series of beds of a much more perishable character. A 
surface consisting of beds belonging to the whole series would 
therefore naturally tend to waste to lower levels at a faster rate 
where the soft beds cropped out than where they were hard. The 
strike of these beds is here north and south, with an easterly dip. 
Consequently, in the general waste of the strata, there is a 
tendency to a general lowering of the surface in a north and south 
direction, along the outcrop of the softer beds ; while, on the other 
hand, the harder top beds continue all through in the form of an 
escarpment, which is receding towards the east. The hard beds 


102 


were left at nearly the original elevation, corresponding to a part 
of the Third, or Subcretaceous Plain; while the soft beds sank into 
a hollow ranging all along from Penrith to Wreay. So it came 
about that the waters of the Petteril gradually changed their course 
there also, and were turned into the new channel that they occupy 
at the present moment. In this case, as in the other, the deserted 
part of the river course remains as a col or pass cutting across the 
escarpment of the Penrith Sandstone. 

This instance of the severance of a river, which is afforded by 
the Petteril, is only one out of many that have come under my 
notice in England. There are numerous other examples of the 
same nature abroad in various parts of the world. I believe that 
the explanation above given will apply to nearly all cases of inoscu- 
lating valleys, and that the severance of a stream into two, which 
eventually flow in opposite directions, is almost a necessary conse- 
quence of the subaerial denudation of a river valley whose rocks 
differ so much in their relative durability, that subaerial waste 
lowers one part faster than the river itself frets its way across the 
outcrop of the harder beds at a lower point. 


ICE WORK. 


The last great change that has taken place here is one that, did 
time permit, I should be glad to dwell upon at considerable length. 
I refer to the Glacial period. I have elsewhere* given my reasons 
for believing that the whole of Edenside was once completely filled 
with ice, which ice attained a thickness of over two thousand feet 
at one period. This ice was propelled up the valley, from Carlisle 
towards Stainmoor, not from the mountain land of Stainmoor 
towards the low ground of the Solway, as it would seem natural 
it should do. Why it so moved it would take too long to discuss 
now, and I refer to the subject at all only because the effects of 
the ice action upon the rock surfaces around us cannot be passed 
over without some kind of notice. Subaerial denudation had 

* «Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society,” Vol. xxxi. (1874), and 


again in my paper on ‘‘ Ice Work in Edenside,” published in our Transactions 
g Yeu P 


for 1887. 


103 


shaped all the existing features of the surface pretty much as we 
find them to-day; but the ice that scooped out so many of our 
beautiful lake basins affected these rocks in a different way. When 
the ice came here it eroded and ground away the surface more 
where the rocks were rasped easily, than where compact rocks came 
in its way ; consequently where subaerial denudation would have 
fretted and corroded away the limestones, and left the sandstones 
and conglomerates nearly as they were (as it has caused the lime- 
stone scars to recede from over Mell Fell downto Dacre, leaving 
the comparatively indestructible conglomerates behind); the ice, on 
the other hand, glided more over the limestone, and scraped and - 
rasped away with greater effect on the beds above and below. So 
it has happened that the soluble and easily-corroded limestone has 
been left here to form broad sloping surfaces, while the less perish- 
able sandstones are ground back into steep banks. 


THE FUTURE OF THE SCENERY. 


Subaerial denudation is, however, re-asserting its sway, and we 
have but to look at the fretted and honeycombed character of the 
limestone rocks here to see that ere long, geologically speaking, the 
old order of things will be restored, and the beautiful scars of grey 
limestone that contribute so much to the natural beauty of Grey- 
stoke Park will waste away to the general level of the surface, or 
below it, and will thus give rise to scenery of a character decidedly 
different. 


CONCLUSION. 


I will now, in conclusion, briefly summarise the changes that have 
resulted in producing the present form of the surface here, 

These Carboniferous rocks were formed under the waters of the 
sea countless millions of years back in the past. As they were 
formed they sank down several thousands of feet below the level 
of the waves, received a thick pile of sediments, became hardened 
into compact rock, were upheaved, tilted, and faulted, and their 
edges shorn off into a great plain of marine denudation, which 
plain, re-exposed, forms much of the present general surface. Then 


104 


they sank again, received another pile of sediment, were consoli- 
dated, faulted, and upheaved as before. Then came the formation 
of another plain of marine denudation, shaped at this point out of 
the Red Rocks, which formerly extended over here. Yet again 
they went down, to be once more enveloped in newer deposits. 

Lastly, they were upheaved again, for the last time, in the 
Miocene period ; the rocks were exposed for a period that we are 
unable to form any conception of, and again denuded still further, 
so that the two prior-formed plains of marine denudation were re- 
exposed. Then, out of the rock composing these two older plains, 
subaerial denudation has since been unceasingly at work carving 
hiil and dale, escarpment and dip slope, out of the old marine 
surface. And, afterwards, came the ice of the great Glacial Period to 
smooth and round and impart flowing contours to the irregularities 
of the surface produced by weathering. And, last thing of all, 
comes in subaerial denudation again to replace the smooth contours 
and sweeping curves imparted by the ice with its own evidence of 
that waste and destruction which all we know of geology tells us 
has been going on from the remotest periods of the past, and which, 
we may feel sure, will go on until the very end of time. 


105 


THE OLD LAKES OF EDENSIDE. 
By J. G. GOODCHILD, H.M. Gero. Survey, F.G.S. 


Read at Long Meg, before the Carlisle and the Penrith Societies, in September, 


1883, and published in the CARLISLE JOURNAL of that week. 


Tue history and the mode of formation of the beautiful lakes that 
form so characteristic a feature of the mountain districts lying to 
the south of the lowland tract where we are now standing, has long 
been a fertile subject of controversy amongst geologists, and, if we 
may judge by different opinions that are constantly being put 
forward, many of the questions relating to the lakes are likely to 
_ remain for some time without satisfactory answers at all. But in 
_ the district referred to the lakes are there, at all events, and anyone 
has an opportunity of judging for himself how far this or that 
particular explanation may appear to him to be satisfactory. Where 
we now are, however, it will at once occur to many that there are 
no lakes to afford matter for discussion, and that, so far as can be 
_ seen, there are no signs of there ever having been any lakes in 

this part of Edenside at all. It is my object at present to direct 
attention to the evidence that has led me to the conclusion that 
_ such lakes have really existed here, leaving the discussion of their 
j origin as a question of lesser importance. To render the subject 
_ intelligible, it will be necessary at the outset to pass in review the 
characteristics met with in connection with the lakes, yet existing 
i as such, in other parts of the two counties, in order to see how far 
_ the same characteristics may admit of being traced at the present 
_ day here. 


106 


The leading features connected with the mode of occurrence of 
our lakes may be stated thus. They occur in greatest force in the 
most mountainous parts, and they usually occur in such a manner 
in relation to the stream that enters their upper end and emerges 
again at their point of outflow, as to suggest that they represent 
little else than a local dilation, or enlargement, of the banks of the 
river itself. I would refer, as familiar illustrations of this feature, 
to the course of the Eamont in relation to Ullswater; to that of 
the Derwent in relation to Derwentwater and Bassenthwaite; to 
Wyburn Beck in relation to Thirlmere; the Liza to Ennerdale 
Water, and to many other instances of the same general nature 
that will immediately occur to everyone in the least degree familiar 
with the physical geography of Cumberland and Westmorland. 
_In each and every one of these a little reflection will convince 
any one that the occurrence of the lake is but a temporary and 
accidental condition of the course of the river, brought about by 
exceptional events at a late period in the history of the valley where 
they occur. 

Another point that will be noticed is that there is a marked 
tendency in all grouped lakes to occur in chains, separated either 
by ordinary narrows, such as close in upon the sides of Thirlmere 
near Armboth, or else by long stretches of alluvial land, such as 
separate Buttermere from Crummock Water, or Derwentwater from 
Bassenthwaite. It will also be noticed in many cases, and it can 
be proved by soundings in many more, that the lowest parts of the 
bed of each lake are several feet below the rock occurring in the 
bed of the river at or near the spot where the lower end of the 
lake merges into the river. In other words, a line drawn from the 
lowest part of almost any one of our lakes to the first mass of solid 
rock that occupies the bed of the river at the outlet of the lake, 
would be found to run uphill, instead of downhill, as is the case in 
the bed of a river in its normal condition. Very commonly, also, 
this rock barrier at the foot of the lake rises on each side of the 
outlet in such a way as to suggest that it once extended across the 
outlet of the lake at a much higher level, which level has since 
been lowered by the erosive action of the river. This rock barrier 


., <a 
va 
is 
- 
"’ 


107 


also very frequently coincides more or less with the point where 
the rocky walls of the lake close in upon it, so as to hem in the 
waters within a narrow channel. Even where the rock barrier 
is not very obvious as such, its actual existence can be proved by 
the fact that the river has to chafe its way out from the lake over 
a stony bed consisting of the fundamental rock occurring at that 
part. It is quite obvious on inspection in either case that the 
river itself is constantly at work lowering this barrier; and, with 
the lowering of the barrier, it is tending also to lower the general 
level of the water dammed up by that barrier. 

Turning attention to the upper end, or inlet, of the lake, it is 
sufficiently obvious in the majority of cases that the lake is there 
being gradually silted up by the wasted materials swept down into 
it from the valley above. ‘The silt in such cases forms an alluvial 
flat. Such alluvial flats can usually be traced upwards from the 
gradually-shelving water at the head of the lake, through the rushy 
land above, up to high and dry holm land that may rise many feet 
above the general level of the water. There is hardly any one of 
our lakes that does not afford an illustration of this. But as 
examples of what is meant, I would refer to the alluvial flat at 
Patterdale, above Ullswater; to that at Grange, above Derwent- 
water; the alluvial flat west of Honister Crag, at the head of 
Buttermere, and many others. In all of these we may feel tolerably 


certain that,{to whatever height the alluvial tract may be traceable, 


that height marks one of the former levels of the water of the lake 
below it. We may also feel tolerably certain that any difference 
in level between the former height of the water of the lake and its 
level at present is due to the lowering of the outlet by the erosive 
action of the river. 

There are thus two causes constantly at work tending to restore 
the former conditions of things in the case of lakes, and to leave 
river courses of the ordinary kind at the bottom of the valleys in 


_ place of the lakes themselves. The first is the gradual lowering, 


by erosion, of the barrier at the foot of the lake; the other is the 
equally constant tendency to become silted up. Lakes act as most 


_ efficient filtering pools, mainly by checking the rate of flow of the 


108 


streams carrying material to them, whereby the transporting power 
of those streams is reduced almost to 77. 

The silting-up process proceeds with more or less rapidity, in 
proportion to the rate of waste of the drainage area above it. In 
some cases this goes on at a very slow rate, when measured by 
years, as can be shown by the existence of Roman stations on 
some of these old alluvial flats, which are even yet at no great 
distance from the head of the lake. That at the head of Winder- 
mere is an excellent example. If one may judge by this instance, 
it is clear that the Roman invaders of Britain must have seen our 
lakes in very much the same state as we see them at the present 
day ; so imperceptible is the rate of sedimentation in many such 
instances. 

In other cases, the easily-eroded nature of the barrier that 
dammed back the waters of the lakes, has caused the water to be 
drained off before much sediment had time to accumulate. An 
instance of this kind must have occurred in the neighbourhood of 
Threlkeld, where a rock barrier, consisting of Skidda Slates (a 
rock easily eroded), once extended in a south-westerly direction 
right across the Greta to the west of the Penrith-Keswick road. 
This barrier must have shut in a considerable hollow, that certainly 
contained a lake, before the Greta worked its way down through 
the confining ridge to its present level. Threlkeld stands only a 
little above one of the former shores of this old lake. 

In other cases the rate of lowering of the rock barrier has been 
sufficiently slow to admit of the accumulation of a considerable 
mass of sediment, especially in such cases as those where the 
drainage, and, consequently, the subaerial waste, of a large area is 
received by the stream. What I am aiming to show is, that every 
gradation may be traced between a perfect, unmodified lake, with 
little or no alluvium, and the wide-spread holms that (except during 
heavy floods) have nearly or quite ceased to resume the character 
of a lake at all. But, whatever may be the present condition of the 
lake, the features I have just referred to as the essential accompani- 
ments of the lakes are usually traceable. Every intermediate 
gradation may thus be traced between some of our largest sheets 


109 


of water, like Windermere or Ullswater, and irregular expansions 
of alluvium, such as would result from the silting-up of such lakes. 
When, therefore, we meet with similar chain-like expanses of alluvial 
flats occurring in connection with the courses of rivers, we are 
justified in regarding them as evidence of the former existence of 
lakes on their present site. This kind of evidence amounts to 
little short of absolute proof, if it can be shown that the termination 
of the alluvial tract coincides with the occurrence of a rocky 
channel in the river bed. If, in addition, that rocky channel is 
hemmed in on each side by steep walls, of the same rock, little or 
no further proof is needed, and we may safely regard the alluvial 
tract above the barrier as occupying the site of a veritable rock- 
basin, which, at a period not very remote, once contained the 
waters of a lake. 

It is hardly necessary to point out that the essential conditions 
I have referred to are all present in the case before us. Looking 
in the direction of Carlisle, we find here a rocky gorge, wherein the 
Eden is chafing its way seawards through some of the very toughest 
and least-easily eroded beds of the Penrith Sandstone, and the 
rocky walls that hem it in at this point occur in such a way as to 
suggest that at no very remote period the channel of the river lay 
many feet higher than its level is at present. Turning our attention, 
from our present standpoint near the rock barrier, in the direction 
of Appleby, we find a great alluvial flat, which is, as the farmers 
know to their cost at the present day, very often converted into a 
series of small lakes during heavy floods, when the quntity of river 
water flowing seawards is partly dammed back by this barrier. 
With minor narrows, this alluvial flat can be traced all the way up 
to Appleby, where it is found to terminate against the end of the 
gorge below Appleby Castle ; a gorge in that case, as in this before 
us, consisting of a hard barrier of Penrith Sandstone, notched into 
a deep groove by the action of the river. The lakes do not 
terminate at that point, however, for if we follow the Eden up as 
far as Clint Scar, the point where the Midland Railway now 
crosses, we come upon a very beautiful scar that evidently extended 
quite recently right across the river, The barrier here, and the 


110 


remains of its former extent represented by the scars on each side, 
occur in the same way in relation to a wide-spread series of alluvial 
flats extending above that point to near Winton, as this Eden Lacy 
rock barrier spans the Eden here and terminates the alluvial flat 
before us. That the Eden at Appleby Castle, at no very remote 
period, flowed at a much higher level than it now does is rendered 
tolerably evident by the occurrence, in the scar below the Castle, 
of vestiges of great pot-holes, exactly like the pot-holes that the 
Carlisle Society examined under my guidance a year or two ago in 
the course of the Ive below Highet Castle. These Appleby pot- 
holes were formed, beyond a doubt, in precisely the same way as 
those were. 

Turning our attention again in the direction of Carlisle, we find 
that the rock-barrier at Force Mill gradually falls in elevation, as 
it is traced towards the north-west ; so that within a few hundred 
yards of this point we again enter upon another wide alluvial tract, 
extending past Lazonby to just below Kirkoswald, where yet 
another rock barrier rises, and is continued past Nunnery Walks, 
Sampson’s Caves, and the beautiful scenery that adorns that part 
of the Eden, thence as far as Armathwaite. 

We have thus evidence of at least three lakes, which once formed a 
chain extending along what is now the course of the Eden, from Kirk- 
oswald to Lacy Caves; from Force Mill to Appleby; from Clint Scar 
up to Winton; and thus rivalling in extent, if not in the grandeur and 
beauty of their surroundings, with any of the lakes that can be shown 
to have existed at any former times within the Lake District itself. 
What has happened in these cases, as in so many others, is that 
what was originally a rock-basin filled from end to end with clear 
water, has gradually been drained by the lowering of the outlet ; 
while the rivers flowing into it have carried down, and spread out 
beneath the waters of the lake, the detrital matter they have trans- 
ported from the higher parts of their respective drainage areas. 
This detrital matter is now the alluvium. 

In the case of very large lakes the amount of sediment accumu- 
lated in this way, represents nearly the whole of the waste that has 
been stripped off the surface of the part above the point where the 


a ee Pe ene ee 


111 


stream enters the lake during the time intervening between the date 
of formation of the lake and the present day. The alluvium about 
Grange, above Keswick, thus represents the amount of waste of the 
rocks of the Borrodale area since Derwentwater was formed. The 
small amount of waste in this case is probably due to the slow rate 
of destructibility of the tough volcanic rocks that occupy the area 
drained by the streams whose united waters enter Derwentwater at 
this spot. The much-more extensive waste of the Skidda Slate 
area is evidenced by the correspondingly larger accumulation of 
alluvium that has been brought down into the lower part of the 
same sheet of water by the Greta; an accumulation large enough, 
when united with the waste of the Newlands area, to fill up the 
whole of the lake at the part where Keswick now stands, and thus 
to divide a once-continuous sheet of water into the separate lakes of 
Derwentwater and Bassenthwaite. 

I have referred to these instances, in some detail, in order to 
make a comparsion with the larger quantity of alluvium spread out 
in the bottom of these Edenside Lakes ; a quantity much in excess 
of anything that can be pointed to in the Lake District proper. 
This excess is due partly to the more rapid rate of destructibility 
of the rocks of Edenside as compared with the rocks of the Lake 
District ; but mainly to the waste of the wide-spread deposits of 
glacial drift that spreads over nearly the whole of the lower ground 
drained by the Eden. 

It will thus, I think, be tolerably evident that the date of the 
Jakes of Cumberland and Westmorland, including, of course, that 
of the old lakes before us, though remote enough when measured 
be the standard afforded by history, cannot be very remote when 
estimated by a geological standard of time. What that date approxi- 
mately is I will now endeavour to show. It is tolerably clear at the 
Outset that each lake is very much newer than the valley wherein 
it lies; for the quantity of material heaped up in the rock basin 


_ forms but a very minute fraction of the total quantity excavated 
: during the formation of the valley itself. It is also clear, from the 


occurrence of mounds of glacial drift here and there throughout 
these Edenside lakes, and especially in the case of this Langanby 


112 


Mere (as for convenience of reference I shall venture to call it)— 
it is tolerably clear that the rock basin must have been in existence 
at the close of the Glacial Period. Langanby Mere, however, did 
not, by any means, present the same appearance at that time that 
it did at a later time ; for there is evidence that soon after the close 
of the Glacial Period the waters of this Mere stood at a higher level 
by thirty feet, or more, than the level of the present alluvium. Here 
and there, all the way down the valley to near Kirkoswald, occur 
terraces that, to my mind, have clearly been formed along the 
margin ofthe old Mere; and the loam and sand composing these 
old terraces shows, in places, the most evident signs of the action 
of floating ice. Similar appearances are very common, in fact, are 
general, all over the higher lying terrace deposits of the rivers in the 
South of England.* These signs of glacial action consist of strange 
contortions of the beds of loam and sand, of exactly the same nature 
as would result from the bumping of large masses of floating ice 
against the soft sediment accumulating beneath the waters of the 
lake, and the consequent kneading of these soft masses into a con- 
fused mixture of sand, gravel, and loam. Now the drift occupying 
the bottom of the rock basin of this Langanby Mere contains a very 
large percentage of boulders, whose sources can be traced from the 
lower parts of Edenside, from the Lake District, and from Scotland. 
I want to call particular attention to this evidence of the transportal 
of boulders up the valley—from the low grounds towards the head 
of the valley, and over it into Yorkshire, because other people with 
whose theories this fact did not happen to agree, have hitherto 
persisted in ignoring it entirely. This upward transportal of drift 
must have taken place under very exceptional conditions, which it 
would take too much time at the present for me to discuss in detail. 
But, in brief, I may state that we have evidence, and what many of 
us consider very good evidence, too, of the former presence of a 
great mass of land ice, quite two thousand feet in thickness at our 
present standing place, which moved up the valley from the low 
ground of the Solway, in one direction over the Bewcastle Fells, 
into the valley of the Tyne, and in the other direction—that is to 


* Proc. Geol. Association, vol. ix., No. 3. 


113 


say, in this—it moved up the valley and over what are now the wild 
moory uplands of Stainmoor, out to the Yorkshire coast. That great 
ice sheet has scored and furrowed the whole of Edenside with deep 
grooves from end to end. It has scooped out rock basins innu- 
merable all along the Cross Fell side. It has ground the valley 
heads in many places into cirques, corries, or coums, such as the 
very perfect coums at Haska Fell and Ousby, and has left its impress 
in many other ways up and down all over the surface of the country 
it traversed. It was this ice sheet that scooped out the rock basins 
wherein Lazonby Mere, Langanby Mere, and the Appleby Meres 
once lay ; as it was ice belonging to the same period that scooped 
out the lakes and smoothed off the older weathered features of the 
rocks in other parts of Cumberland and Westmorland.* 

We have then, it seems to me, some kind of evidence of a toler- 
ably complete sequence of events here, dating from the close of the 
Glacial Period down to the present day; so that it is far from unlikely 
that Langanby Mere, Lazonby Mere, and Appleby Mere, may in 
times past, have formed the fishing grounds, or even the dwelling 
place, of some of the early races of men, such as have left vestiges 
of their existence here in the form of such megaliths as the stone 
circle Long Meg and her Daughters above us; or of the various 
peoples that have left us other traces of their existence here in the 
form of the Neolithic stone implements that are now and then found. 
To my mind the alluvial flats before us, and perhaps the much 
older terraces that occur at higher levels along their banks, may 
contain not only the fossil remains of these men and of their works, 
but also of the various races of wild animals—bears, beavers, wild 
oxen, horses, wolves, and of other animals that formerly peopled 


these parts, from the close of the Glacial Period down to the dawn 


of history. 


* See the present writer’s ‘‘Glacial Phenomena of the Eden Valley,” &c., 
Q.J.G.S. xxxi. (1874), and ‘Ice Work in Edenside,” Trans. Cumb. and West, 
Association, Part XII. 


114 


ADDITIONAL NOTES ON PALLAS SAND-GROUSE. 


ProressorR Newton has kindly asked me to supplement our 
paper on this species; and though my enquiries in Westmorland 
are still incomplete, I gladly adopt the suggestion so far as Cum- 
berland is concerned. The following lines refer to the most recent 
notices of Sand-grouse in our midst :—(a) Hast Cumberland. Mt. 
Tandy has ascertained that two parties of three and five Sand- 
grouse visited the Penrith district, apparently for the first time, on 
September 13th and 15th. Near Rockliffe, a single bird was 
constantly seen in October. (B) Cumbrian Plain. At Orton, 
Sand-grouse remained throughout September, and two were seen 
at Newby Cross on the 25th of that month. Mr. George Dawson 
states that on October 18th a flock of twenty-five flew over his 
house, calling loudly. (c) Azglish Solway. Near Workington an 
odd bird was seen by Mr. Hodgson early in September. At Beck- 
foot, near Silloth, five appeared at the beginning of October, but 
did not remain. (Dp) West Cumberland. The Ravenglass birds 
lingered on the coast between Eskmeals and Drigg until the middle 
of October. Our esteemed correspondent, Mr. Reynolds, wrote 
shortly after the event of their departure, “ Please note that the 
Sand-grouse left here on the 17th inst. They were seen to fly 
high, but in circles, on that day, and the police officer saw them 
flying in an easterly direction over Muncaster. They have not 
been seen since. ‘There were about forty of them.” 

We have to correct three errors which unfortunately crept into 
our original text. At p. 59, the reference to Pallas should read— 
Reise. Russ. Reichs, Il. App. 712. On p. 66, line 32, ‘‘the coure” 
should read ‘“‘the course”; lastly, the plant inadvertently alluded 
to at p. 67 as Glasswort is identical with the Sea Milkwort, Glaux 
maritima. 

And, with this, our remarks must close. I can only assure our 
local observers—I wish their number might be enlargened—that 
any notes on Sand-grouse (or other birds), that they may care to 
send to me from time to time, will be welcomed, acknowledged, 
and utilised. H. A. MAcPHERSON, 

OCTOBER 30TH, 1888. 


G. AND T. COWARD, PRINTERS, CARLISLE, 


: 


4 


4 


OF THE 


heat 


e 


FOR .THE 


‘ADVANCEMENT OF? LITERA LOR 
AND SCIENCE. . 


RP ae No. XIV.—1888-89. 
. : 
3 perteD BY? -Jx. G.? GOOREHILD;: FUG. 5.5 £283 


“7 MEMBER OF THE BRITISH ORNITHOLOGISTS’ UNION 3 
: H.M. GEOL. SURVEY. 


PRICE TO MEMBERS, ONE SHILLING. Mes 
_-. NON-MEMBERS, TWO SHILLINGS AND SIXPENCE. aes 


; Gian us> 
ES 
CS B § i> vay 


I 88 9: : fot ss au 


TRANSACTIONS 


OF THE 


Cumberland and CM estmorland 
Association 


FOR THE 


ADVANCEMENT OF LITERATURE 
AND SCIENCE. 


No. XIV.—1888-89. 


MepiteD sy J. G. GOODCHILD, F.G,S., F.Z.S., 


MEMBER OF THE BRITISH ORNITHOLOGISTS’ UNION ; 
H.M. GEOL. SURVEY. 


PRICE TO MEMBERS, ONE SHILLING. 
NON-MEMBERS, TWO SHILLINGS AND SIXPENCE. 


; CARLISLE: 
_ PRINTED BY G, & T. COWARD, THE WORDSWORTH PRESS, 
1889. 


Spare copies of Nos. Ill, IV., and X. of the TRANSACTIONS 
will be gladly received by the Hon. Secretary (Mr. J. B. BAILey, 
Eaglesfield Street, Maryport), avd One Shilling will be allowed 


Sor each copy. 


COUNT ENTS. 


Page 
RULES er ee es $58 AL ast a Vv. 
List OF OFFICERS ... ne a eas ae we Vill. 
ADDRESSES OF HONORARY SECRETARIES OF THE SEVERAL LOCAL 
SOCIETIES ae oe nae nas ves cor 1x. 
MEMORANDA FOR MEMBERS ... sae iss ah st x. 
List oF ASSOCIATION MEMBERS ia wee ei abe xi. 
_ REPORTS FROM THE ASSOCIATED SOCIETIES ase rie Sale 2 KL 
_ REPORT OF ASSOCIATION SECRETARY ... ae 06 wee XXIV. 
_ TREASURER’S ACCOUNT a “ea of ia ve) XXVili, 
Report oF SuB-COMMITTEE ... oe sn ne eh eet 
_ Report oF LiprARY SUB-COMMITTEE ... PS ake cat) AEN 
PRESIDENT’s ADDRESS: ‘‘ Weather Statistics in the Neighbourhood of 
Carlisle.” By R. A. ALLISON, Esq., M.P. (Carlisle) ae 95 
PAPERS COMMUNICATED TO THE SOCIETIES, AND SELECTED BY THE 
ASSOCIATION COUNCIL FOR PUBLICATION :— 
‘¢ Botanical Record for 1887-88.” By Wm. Hopcson, A.L.S. ... I 
‘Recollections of the Keswick Post Office, Past and Present.” 
By J. FISHER CROSTHWAITE, F.S.A. (Keswick) ... fat 13 


‘‘The Helm Wind.” By J. G. GooDcHILD, H.M. Geol. Survey 43 


‘The Botany of the Solway Shore.” Parts II. and III. By Wm. 
Hopeson, A.L.S., Botanical Recorder to the Association 


(Carlisle and Longtown) sts fie ie aan 49 
“The History of the Eden and of some Rivers adjacent.” By J. G. 

GOODCHILD, H.M. Geol. Survey (Carlisle) sac nae 73 
‘Report on the Helm Wind Inquiry.” By Wm. Marriott, 

F.R. Met. Soc. (Penrith) arf ns as Fete TOF 
“ Notabilia of Old Penrith,” By Gro, WATSON (Penrith) tee keg, 


ie, oy haa 


Sh bi et . My ek (e ae he enone oh ques Naa 


ah J 
NS ete 
gy ees = 
vie aa 
iy? ec 
my. "is 
a 


irae 
* i” 
<3 : > ene : 
Cee otekeyat ARX A OAM ATEN Ye so 
waa 4 7 “4 
4 = ¥ - \ “- 
F t Pe, ; ; 
. f ve wale a 
nd mal Te i ets ee Aes Bradt DASE OD 
vys ‘ » . | ; 
7 ar y. , fp ap 
ie ‘ day ' eR ATG BOW Alar 


aa a ee a 


a Vat g hae, 
~ t ‘es : 
a rn a4% “ei bed _* - 
> es 
Ny : eh) Pelee By 
Se ay ere ae ae’ “ f 
me, i 
Bi! ; ie *. % howd uettly br 7 eG ae by alae ‘ahem - Hest 
* ~- +e 
Ls As Caieiea) 9M gna SRI AOS tl iat 
+ Z a 
ae bee Va eRe ce Paral Sayin cS ee Ue 
a ” Mpa ae Te & Bis 
a j ae he rare ee a. 22 PRs? 
ar ee uty : ie a ‘ 
an Si “pee ive diy ettes alts fete ai 
ly SNS Sere eco tho 
‘i ORE: ; o~ 
Bes a eee fin} wu ete: mas AD: at,“ bs 
ra iy ot 


2 ae we ¥ atl ite {heme t):' Fic ¥. at Mii 


une’ aA ae c. spliiorns Ll m Dieadtd ‘ 


en (iC tis heal 


Diet sana she Mie sate | 1 fey iid 3 ails ele 


¥ 
te 


(we hg i) Ascii ; em ee Stel ie 


Ke Moe ; Roby ' t 
7 i p a“ ae 
Hinguldah® iat pe . seta ity imiahy Saif Us Tas 
tii sh A 4 “e i ae ‘- thie tind ae ° as. . 
, Ca : oie 


i $a. ie appasan 1% pina e Bch bgt ail : 


Rei 


OF THE 


Cumberland and Westmorland Association 


FOR THE 


Advancement of Literature and Science. 


1.—That the Association be called the ‘“‘CUMBERLAND AND 
WESTMORLAND ASSOCIATION FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OF LITERA- 
TURE AND SCIENCE.” 

2.—The Association shall consist of the following Societies :— 
Keswick Literary and Scientific Society, Maryport Literary and 
Scientific Society, Longtown Literary and Scientific Society, 
Carlisle Scientific Society and Field Naturalists’ Club, Ambleside 
and District Literary and Scientific Society, Silloth and Holme 
_ Cultram Literary and Scientific Society, Brampton Literary and 
Scientific Society and Field Naturalists’ Club, Penrith and District 
: Literary and Scientific Society, Windermere Literary and Scientific 
q Society ; and of such other Societies as shall be duly affiliated. 
~ Also of persons nominated by two members of the Council. Such 
‘members shall be termed “Association Members.” 

3.—All members of affiliated Societies, unless otherwise ruled 
_ by the regulations of their respective Societies, shall be members 


of the Cumberland and Westmorland Association, 


vi. 

4.—The Association shall be governed by a Council, consisting 
of a President, Vice-Presidents, two Secretaries, an Editcr, a 
Librarian, and of ordinary members, two to be elected by each 
affiliated Society. The President, Secretaries, Editor, and 
Librarian shall be elected annually at the Annual Meeting, 
and shall be capable of re-election. The Recorders shall be 
ex-officio members of the Council. 

5.—The Vice-Presidents shall consist of the Presidents of the 
various affiliated Societies; and the Delegates of the various 
Societies shall be elected annually by their respective Societies. 

6.—An Annual Meeting of the Association shall be held at such 
time and place as may be decided upon at the previous Annual 
Meeting, or (failing such appointment) as may be arranged by the 
Council. 

7.—At each Annual Meeting, after the delivery of the Presi- 
dent’s Address, and the reading of the reports from the affiliated 
Societies, the objects of the Association may be furthered by 
Lectures, Papers, Addresses, Discussions, Conversaziones, &c. 

8.—The Committee of each affiliated Society shall be entitled 
to recommend one original and local paper communicated to such 
Society (subject to the consent of the author) for publication in the 
Transactions of the Association ; but Societies contributing capi- 
tation grant on a number of members exceeding oue hundred and 
fifty shall have the privilege of sending two papers. The Council 
shall publish at the expense of the Association the papers recom- 
mended, either in full, or such an abstract of each or any of them 
as the author may prepare or sanction ; also those portions of the 
Association Transactions that may be deemed advisable. 


g.—The Council shall endeavour to promote co-operation among 


vil. 

existing Societies, and may assist in the formation of new ones ; it 
may also aid in the establishment of classes in connection with 
any of the associated societies, 

10.—Affiliated Societies shall contribute annually towards the 
general funds of the Association, Sixpence for each of their 
members; but when the number of members of the affiliated 
Societies exceeds one hundred and fifty, a reduction of fifty per 
cent. shall be made upon the payment for each member in excess 
of that number. 

11.—Association Members pay the sum of 6/- annually, or they 
may compound for their subscription for life by a payment of 
43 35. od. in one sum. ; 

12.—The Rules can be altered only by a majority of two-thirds 
of the members present at an Annual Meeting. Any member 
desiring to alter the Rules must send a copy of the proposed 
alterations to the Secretary, at least two weeks before the meeting 
is held. 

13.—Past Presidents of the Association shall be permanent 
members of the Council, and be described as Past-Presidents. 

14.—The travelling expenses of all who assist in carrying out 
the programme of the various affiliated Societies shall be defrayed 


by the Society assisted. 


The Fifteenth AnNuaL MEETING will be held in the Summer 
of 1890, and due notice of the place of Meeting and of the arrange- 
ments will be sent to all members of the Association. 

Members willing to contribute original Articles on subjects of 
local interest, or short JVotices of anything that may be considered 
worth recording of local and scientific value, should communicate 
with the Honorary Secretary, J. B. Baitey, Esq., Eaglesfield 
Street, Maryport, 


Vili. 


OFFICERS FOR THE SESSION 1889-90, 


President. 


Tue Rieut Rev. tHE BisHor or BARROW-IN-FURNESS. 


Past- Presidents. 


THe Lorp BisHop oF CARLISLE. 

THE LATE J. FietcHer, Esq., M.P., F.R.S. 
THe Hon. P. S. WynpHAm, M.P. 
Rogert Frercuson, Esq., M.P., F.S.A. 
Ricuarp 8. Frercuson, Esq., M.A., LL.M., F.S.A. 
Davip AinswortH, Esq. 

R, A. Auuison, Esq,, M.P. 


Vice-Presidents. 


Rev. H. D. Rawnsiry, M.A. ins a6 Keswick. 
Rev. J. I. Cummrins, 0.8.B. ae a Maryport. 
Dr. S. F. Me.Lacuian ... ao vas Longtown. | 
J. A. Wuuatizy, Esq. ... a on Carlisle. 
HS Me Jonms, Hsq, =. oF ae Ambleside. 
Rev. H. M. Topp, M.A. ... si 3a Silloth. 
G. J. Jonnson, Esq. iva im ca Brampton. 
Rev. H. WuitrrHEaD et tes cx Penrith. 
Rev. A. Rawson... Siac ei sae Windermere, 
Delegates. 

Rev. J. N. Hoarz, M.A. ... W. Woopine Netson, Esq. Keswick. 

H. Bumpy, Esq. ... .. RR. H. Hamizron, Esq. Maryport. 

J. Wiison, Esq. ... sce a LRN Wmecatiog TIERS oc Longtown. 

J. A. WuHeatiny, Esq. ... Dr. BARNES ... ie Carlisle. 

C. Smiru, Esq. an .. J. Bentiry, Esq. i Ambleside, 

H. L. Barker, Esq. .. J. M. Pavtt, Esq. F.G.S. Silloth. 

Rev. S. Faure ~... .. Rev. H, J. BULKELEY .., Brampton. 

Major ARNISON ... ... GEORGE Watson, Esq. Penrith. 

G. Heatzy, Esq. ... ... J. Houuanp, Esq. Sh Windermere. 


Hon. Association Secretaries. 


J. B. Batury, Esq., Eaglesfield Street, Maryport. 
H, L. Barker, Esq., Sunnyside, Silloth, 


ix. 


Editor. 


J. G. GoopeniLp, Esq., F.G.S., F.Z.S., M.B.0.U., H.M. Geol. Survey, 
Museum of Science and Art, Edinburgh. 


Librarian. 
Rev. M. Srpney Donatp, Thorpe, Penrith. 


Delegate to British Association. 


J. G. Goopcuitp, Esq., F.G.S., F.Z.S., M.B.0.U., H.M. Geol. Survey. 
Museum of Science and Art, Edinburgh. 


Zoological Recorders. 


Rev. H. A. Macpurrson, M.A., M.B.0.U., 20 Cecil Street, Carlisle. 
J. Norman Rosginson, Esq., Croft House, Cargo, Carlisle. 


Botanical Recorders. 


Rev. R. Woop, M.A., Rosley Vicarage, Carlisle. 
W. Hopeson, Esq., A.L.S., 202 Victoria Terrace, Harrington Road, 
Workington. 


General Sub-Committee. 
J. G. GoovcHiLp. Rev. J. I. Cummins. R. H. Hamirron. 


H. Bumpy. J. B. Barney. 


Library Committee. 


Rev. H. A. MacPHERson. Rev. M. Sipnry Dona.p. 
R. CRowpDEr. J. B. Batey. 


ADDRESSES OF HONORARY SECRETARIES 
OF THE SEVERAL LOCAL SOCIETIES, 


Keswick ... ... J. Broatcu, Esq., St. John Street, Keswick. 

M. sq., Hig r ; 
Maryport ... Ww. Ee OUAMiLE, Be Aes 
Longtown ... ... W. Ropen, Esq., Bridge Street, Longtown. 
Carlisle... .. J. Sinciarr, Esq., 6 Hawick Street, Carlisle. 
Ambleside... ... J. Brntiey, Esq., Ambleside. 
Silloth ae .. H. L. Barker, Esq., Silloth. 
Brampton ... .. I B. Hopeson, Esq., Brampton. 
Penrith... .. H. M‘Lean Whitson, Esq., M.B., C.M., Portland 


Place, Penrith. 


: Col. W. C. MacDoveatt. 
_ Windermere F. Barton, Esq., 8 Biskey Howe-Terr., Windermere, 


MEMORANDA FOR MEMBERS, &c. 


SUBSCRIPTIONS ARE DUE— 


Association Members... .. January Ist. 
For Transactions Bet ... February Ist. 
Lecturer’s Fee... ae ... February Ist. 
Capitation Fee... 860 ... April Ist. 


PAPERS INTENDED FOR PuBLIcATION to be sent not later than April 20th, 
to J. G. Goopcurip, Esq., Museum of Science and Art, Edinburgh. 


PRICE OF TRANSACTIONS— 
Current Number. Members, 1/- for the first copy, 2/- each for others ; 
Non-members, 2/6. 


For Back Numprrs— 
Apply to Messrs. G. & T. Cowarp, Booksellers, Carlisle. 


AvuTHoRS’ CoPplEs— 

Twenty copies, free. Extra copies at a small rate, if notice of the 
number required be given to the Printer when the proof is 
returned. There is a large stock of Authors’ copies in hand. 
The Council would be glad to reduce this stock. Application to 
be made to the Hon. Association Secretary. 


CircuLatTine LinraRy— 
Full particulars will be sent to each Society when arrangements are 
completed. 


NorvicEs RELATING To ZooLoey to be sent to Rev. H. A. MacpueErson, M.A., 
20 Cecil Street, Carlisle. | 


_ Novices RELATING To Borany to be sent to Wm. Honeson, Esq., A.L.S., 
202 Victoria Terrace, Harrington Road, Workington. 


N.B.—Rev. H. A. MacpHerson, and W. Honpason, Esq., will gladly answer 
any questions through the post that Members may wish to ask, with 
regard to any difficulty they may meet with in their reading on 
Zoological and Botanical matters respectively. 


ASSOCIATION MEMBERS, 
(RULES 2 & i1.) 


—-— 


J. Ortzy Argrxson, Esq., Stramongate, Kendal. 
*E. B. W. Batme, Esq., Cote Wall, Mirfield, Normanton. 

W. Browne, Esq., Tallentire Hall, Cockermouth. 

Amos Brarpstey, Esq., Grange, Lancashire. 

G. H. Barer, Esq., D.Sc., Ph.D., The Owens College, Manchester. 
F. W. Banks, Esq., 22 North Bank, Regent’s Park, London, N.W. 
J. Bareman, Esq., The Literary Institute, Kendal. 

Eric Stuart Bruce, Esq., 10 Observatory Avenue, Kensington, WW: 
*The Eart or CaRtiste, Naworth Castle, Carlisle, 
*The Countess oF CARLISLE, Naworth Castle, Carlisle. 
*H. F. Curwen, Esq., The Hall, Workington. 
*wW. G. Conzrmvewoop, Esq., Gillhead, Windermere. 

G. Cowarp, Esq., 75 Scotch Street, Carlisle. 

Tuomas Carrick, Esq., Haydon Bridge. 

R. Fercuson, Esq., Morton, Carlisle. 

W. C. Guuty, Esq., Q.C., M.P. 
_J. G. Goopcui1p, Esq., F.G.S., Museum of Science and Art, Edinburgh. 
T. V. Houmes, Esq., F.G.S., 28 Crooms Hill, Greenwich. 

R. H. Hamirron, Esq., Senhouse Street, Maryport. 

F. M. T. Jonzs, Esq., J.P., C.B., Lesketh How, Ambleside. 

G. Lowrstan, Esq., 58 Blenheim Crescent, Notting Hill, London, W. 
Rev. H. A. Macruerson, M.A., 20 Cecil Street, Carlisle. 

T. A. Mercer, Esq., Free Library, Barrow-in-Furness. 
’ R. D. MarsHatt, Esq., Keswick. 
*§. A. MarsHALL, Esq., Skelwith Fold, Ambleside. 

Mites MacInnes, Esq., M.P., Rickerby, Carlisle. 
T. Bartow Massicxs, Esq., Millom, Carnforth. 
Rev. H. H. Moors, St. John’s Vicarage, Darwen, Lancashire. 
G. H. Parxer, Esq., College Grove Road, Wakefield, Yorks. 
R. AttEyNe Rosson, Esq., J.P., South Lodge, Cockermouth. 

Rev. Dr. Trourseck, Dean’s Yard, Westminster. 

Dr. M. W. Taytor, F.S.A., 47 Inverleith Road, Edinburgh. 

Dr. TrrFry, The Limes, Wigton. 

Gro. Tuomrson, Esq., Alston, Cumberland. 
_ Major Varry, Stagstones, Penrith 
_ T. Witson, Esq., Aynam Lodge, Kendal 
R. J. Wurrwett, Esq., Airethwaite, Kendal. 

Rev. H. WurreHeap, Newton Reigny, Penrith. 


* Life Members. 


xii. 


AHeports from the Associated Societies, 


KESWICK LITERARY AND SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 


—_————_ 


20TH SESSION, 1888-89. 


President... a0 oor .. Rev. H. D. Rawnstery, M.A. 

Vice-President ee ets a J. PostLetHwaitTE, F.G.S. 

Hon. Secretary ... one afr 56 a ...J. BROATCH 

Hon. Treasurer ... wh ee ve ae T. E. HiaHTon 
Committee. 

Rev. W. CoLviLiE W. WItson 

J. Fisopr Crostawaits, F.S.A, LEIcEsTER COLLIER 

A. A. H. Knient, M.D. Isaac Hopeson 


Delegates to the Council of the OC. and W. Association. 
Rev. J. N. Hoare, M.A., F. Hist. S. | W. Woop1ne NELson 


Hon, Curators of the Museum. 
JOHN BIRKETT | J. PostterHwatre, F.G.S. 


The following MEETINGS were held during the Session: 


ORDINARY MEETINGS. 
1888. 
Oct. 22.—PreEsIDENT’s ADDRESS—‘‘ Bimetallism.” 


Nov. 5.—Mr. Leicester Cottier—‘‘ A Nation’s Noblest Heritage.” 

Nov. 26.—Mr. G. E. Lowrntan—‘“ Carbon and its Compounds,” illustrated 
experimentally. 

Dec. 10.—Mr. J. BroatcH—‘‘ The Folklore of Nursery Rhymes.” 


1889. 
Jan. 28.—Mr. W. Woopine Netson—‘‘ The Battle of Waterloo.” 


Feb, 25.—Rev. W. W. Havcnron—‘ A Glimpse at Hugh Lattimer and 
his Times,” 


xiii. 


Mar. 4.—Mr, J. Fisoer Crostuwaite, F.S.A.—‘‘ Recollections of the 
Keswick Post Office, past and present.” 
Mar. 11.—Mr. Tos. SmrrH—‘‘ Charles Mackay.” 
AnnvuaL MEETING. 


LECTURES. 


Oct. 32. —Mr. H. H. S. Pearse (War Correspondent of the Daily News in 
the Soudan)—‘‘ The British Square at Abu Klea.” 

Nov. 19.—Rev. J. N. Hoarz, M.A.—‘‘The Cuneiform Inscriptions of 
Assyria.” 

Dec. 3.—Rev. R. Woop, M.A.—‘‘Some Poisonous Plants of the Lake 
District.” 

Dec. 17.—Mr. R. PenpLeBury, M.A.—‘‘ Calculations.” 


Feo. —Dr. Buack—‘“‘ Dr. John Brown of Edinburgh.” 

Feb. 11.—Rev. H. D. Rawnstey, M.A.—‘‘Some more Royal Mummies,” 
with Limelight illustrations. 

Feb. 18.—Capt. Eric Stuart Bruce, M.A.—‘‘Electricity—the Coming 
Power,” illustrated by experiments. 


CommitTTEE’s REPoRT.—The Committee have much pleasure in 
reporting the progress of the Society during the past Session. The 
programme consisted of eight ordinary meetings and eight lectures, 
which may be classified as follows :—Scientific, four ; literary and 
biographical, five ; historical, four ; antiquarian and miscellaneous, 
three. The Rev. R. Wood kindly took the place of Dr. Knight, 
who was unable to deliver his lecture on “ Food.” 


The Council of the Association have been considering the 
desirability of having a course of University lectures in connection 
with the various local societies, and your Committee think that 
advantage should, if possible, be taken of the opportunity, as 
suggested by the Rev. H. D. Rawnsley in the Cvosthwaite Magazine 
for January last. The Committee have arranged with the Library 
Committee to pay half the subscription of the library to the Cum- 
berland and Westmorland Archeological Society, so that members 
may have the opportunity of perusing the valuable “Transactions” 
of that Society in the library. The Committee respectfully urge 
upon the members the absolute necessity of purchasing the Zrams- 
actions of the Association, as by so doing they will not only benefit 


xIv. 


themselves and add to the funds of the local Society, but will 
materially aid the Association. ‘The Committee feel that the time 
has arrived when the Rules of the Society may be revised, and, 
subject to the assent of the members, purpose either by themselves 
or the appointment of a sub-committee, to inquire into the matter 
and into the position of the Museum, and to report to the members 
early next Session. 


Tue Keswick Museum or LocaL Natura History.—The 
Curators have to report that during the past year they -com- 
pleted and printed five hundred copies of the catalogue, also two 
hundred and fifty show cards for hotels and lodging houses, and 
distributed a number of the latter in the town and neighbourhood. 
They have further to report that they succeeded in reducing the 
working expenses during the tourist season by nearly two thirds, 
without any material loss in efficiency. The receipts were a little 
in advance of the previous year, notwithstanding the vigorous 
advertising and free exhibition of both larger and smaller competi- 
tive models of the Lake District. The following articles have 
been added to the collection during the year:—A ‘“Pintail” (water- 
fowl) and an old English pipe, presented by R. D. Marshall, Esq. 
A block of Blencow Sandstone grooved by ice action, presented 
by Mr. John Finn. A piece of coarse volcanic ash containing a 
large fragment of Skiddaw Slate, presented by James Edmondson, 
Esq. A tinder-box and a combined rush-light holder and candle- 
stick, presented by Mrs. Wilkinson. 


TREASURER’S (Society) Accounts.—The receipts, including 
balance in hand, £4 15s. 2d.; members’ subscriptions, £21 135.; 
receipts at lectures, etc., £10 9s. 6d.; amounting to £39 2s. 5d. 
The expenditure includes lecturers’ expenses, £10 6s. 6d.; printing 
and advertising, £5 11s. 5d.; rent, £4; capitation grant, £3 35.; 
Transactions, £,2 108.; sundries, £2 14s. 6d.; leaving a balance 
in hand of £10 16s. rod. 


Museum Accounts.—Balance in hand, £55 18s. 6d.; receipts 
from 737 visitors, £31 17s. 4d.; contents of box, #1 1s. 5d.; 
interest, 19s. 2d.; sale of catalogues, 1s.; total, £89 17s. 8d, 


XV. 


_ Expenditure—caretaker, £9; assistant curator, £5; printing 
_ catalogues, &c., £ro ros.; insurance, £1 16s.; rent, £6; sundries, 
43 18.3 balance, £54 10s. 8d. 


MARYPORT LITERARY AND SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY, 
ASSEMBLY HALL, HIGH STREET. 


13TH SESSION, 1888-89. 


_—~_— 


President 32 ae ae Rev. Epwarp Sampson 
Vice-President ... mae ar ... Rev. J. I. Cummmns 


Past-Presidents. 
P. pp E. CoLiin | | ALFRED HINE | J. B. Battry 


Committee. 
WILFRID Hinz JOHN HEWETSON 
THomas CAREY R. H. Hamiton 
JoHN ELLWooD H. Bumey 
JOSEPH WATSON F. Ketry 
Delegates. 
H. Bumesy | EK. W. Licutroor 
Hon. Treasurer... dus aoe ..  C, EAGLESFIELD, junr. 
_ Hon. Secretury iv eh = .. Ernest W. Licutroor 


The following LECTURES were given during the Session :— 


1888. 
Oct. 30.—CoNVERSAZIONE. 


Nov. 6.—W. Hopesoy, Esq., A.L.S.—‘ Botanical Record for Cumberland 
a and Westmorland, 1887-88.” 

Noy. 20.—Rev. J. S. Crate.—‘‘Fiords, Waterfalls, and Glaciers of Norway.” 
. 4, —Rev. C. H. Gem, B. A.—*‘‘ Faith and Art.” 

ec. 11.—J. M. Pavut, Hsq., F.G.S.—‘‘ Retrospective and Prospective.” 


al 15.—ConVERSAZIONE. 
J an. 29.—Eric S. Bruce, Hsq., M.A.—‘‘ Natural Magic,” with numerous 
Experiments. 

B 


XVi. 


Feb. 12.—Rev. 8S. Heperr, M.A.—‘‘ Ancient and Modern Astronomy— 
a Contrast.” Illustrated by Lime-Light Lantern. 

Feb. 26.—H. Bumpy, Esq.—‘‘The Cave Dwellers.” Illustrated by Diagrams. 

Mar. 12.—Rey. G, Parrmerson—‘‘ John Ruskin.” 

Mar. 26.—C, J. VALENTINE, Esq.—‘‘ American Notes.” 

Ap]. 2.—Rev. 8. O. Riptey, M.A.—‘‘The Deep Sea and the Challenger 
Expedition of 1873-76.” Illustrated by Lime-Light Lantern. 

Apl. 9.—Annuat MEETING. 


Sixty-two copies of the Zvansactions have been distributed /ree 
to Members. 


LONGTOWN LITERARY AND SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 


12TH SESSION, 1888-89. 


President sis ee ee 8S. F. Mo. Lacuian, Esq., M.B. 


Vice- Presidents. 
R. A. Atrison, Esq., M.P. W. Easton Ropertson, Esq. 
Rev. P. CARRUTHERS J. G. Goovcnitp, Esq., F.G.S. 
Mr. Joun Witson 


Treasurer and Secretary a Be ie Mr. J. G. Toppy 
Committee. 
Mr. Little Dr. H. LeicH GILtcHRIstT 
Mr. J. Rice Mr. A. TWEDDLE 


Mr. A. P. WILKIE Mr. Jno. Ropertson 


Delegates... Xe ie ... Messrs. Witson AND WILKIE 


The following MEETINGS were held during the Session :— 


1888. 
Nov. 9—InavcurRAL TEA MertiIne. ‘‘Selections from Shakespeare.” 


Nov, 13—Mr. J. Paron—‘‘ Burns.” 

Nov. 20—Debate: ‘‘Are Theatres Elevating?” Aff. Dr. Le1gH GiLcuRist ; 
Neg. Mr. Joun Witson. 

Nov. 27—Mr. AnpERSon—‘‘ Co-Operation v. Competition.” 

Dec. 4—Mr. Joun Witson—‘“‘ Ice, and the Formation of Boulder Clay.” 

Dec. 11—Mr. J. G. Exitor—‘‘ Paper,” 

Dec. 18—Readings. 


XVil. 


1889. 
Jan. S—Dr. Lorrains—‘“‘ Cattle and Sheep Raising in Colarado.” 


Jan. 15—Debate: ‘‘Does the Literature of the Victorian compare favourably 
with that of the Elizabethan Era?” Aj. Mr. A. P. WILKIE; 
Neg. Dr. 8. F. Mc. Lacunan. 

Jan. 22—Dr. H. Leicu Gincurist—‘‘ Women.” 

Jan. 29—W. E. Ropertson, Esq.—Paper. 

Feb. 5—Enric S. Bruce, Esq., M.A.—‘‘ Natural Magic,” with numerous 
Experiments. 

Feb. 12—Rev. Jos. Wauzacs, M.A. —‘‘ Man not a Machine: a responsible 
free agent.” 

Feb. 19—Readings. 

Feb. 26—Mr. Ropren—Paper. 

Mar. 5—Rev. W. AtLAN—“ Biblomania, or Book Madness.” 

Mar. 12—G. G. Krrxuinton, Esq.—‘‘ The South Pacific.” 

Mar. 19—Mr. Gro. TraspaLe—‘‘ A Night with Cowper.” 

_ Apl. 1—Business of the Society, Election of Officers, &c. 


CARLISLE SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY AND FIELD 
NATURALIST CLUB. 


12TH SESSION, 1888-89. 


_ President S60 #e ae Br R. A. Atuison, Esq., M.P. 


Past Presidents. 
The Right Rev. the Lorp BisHop or CARLISLE. 
Rogzert Fercuson, Esq. 
Mires MacIyngs, Esq., M.P. 
The Worshipful Chancellor Fercuson, M.A., F.S.A. 
Rev. Cuaup H. Parnz, M.A. 


Vice-Presidents. 


S. J. Biynine, Esq. | Dr. CARLYLE. 
q Treasurer... - ... Rosr. Crowper, Esq., Eden Mount. 
_ Hon, Secretary wt ... Mr. Jonn Sinctarr, 6 Hawick Street. 
Committee. 


. Mr. Gro. Dawson. 
Mr. Isaac CaRTMELL. | Mr. T. Duckworrtu. 
_ Mr. J. A. WHEATLEY. | Mr. R. M. Ht. 
Dr. MacnarEen Dr. Leprarp. 

Dr. Barnes. Mr. J. N. Rosrnson. 
Mr, T, T. Scort. Mr. F, Harrison, 


XViil. 


The following MEETINGS have been held during the Session, and the 
undermentioned LECTURES given, viz :— 


1888. 
Nov. 8—R. J. Barium, Esq., F.R.A.S.—‘‘Earthquakes and Volcanoes.” 
Nov. 22—Rev. Roprrt Woop.—‘‘ Poisonous Plants’? mentioned in the 


“‘Lake Flora.” 
Dec. 6—Mr. Hy. Witson.—‘‘ Electricity.” 
Dec. 20—J. A. WuEatiy, Esq.— ‘‘ Cameos and Intaglios.” 


gear ae: H. A. Macpuerson, M.A., M.B.0.U.—‘“‘ Of Nestling Birds.” 

Jan, 24—R. A. Attison, Esq., M.P., President.—‘ Richard Mulcaster, a 
Cumberland Worthy of the days of Queen Elizabeth.” 

Feb. 7—Rev. Joun Puetps.—‘‘ Bees and Bee Keeping.” 

Feb. 21—Ertc Stuart Broce, Esq., M.A. Oxon.—‘‘ Fifty years of Scientific 


Progess.”’ 
Mar. 7—Rev. Cuaup H. Parez, M.A.—‘‘ Backbones.” 
Mar. 21—Mr. Posteate.—‘‘ Insects.” 


Apl. 4—Rev. H. A. Macpnerson, M.A., M.B.0O.U.—‘‘ Indian Birds.” 
Apl. 18—Mr. T. T. Scorr, Architect.—‘‘ Portland Cement—Its Manufacture 
and Uses.” &c. 
During the Season Three Field Meetings have been held. About 
one hundred copies of the Zyansactions have been distributed 
gratis among the Members. 


AMBLESIDE AND DISTRICT LITERARY AND 
SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. : 


12TH SESSION, 1888-89. 


—_ +> 


President... ae on Sot .. EH. M. T. Jones, Esq. 


Past-Presidents. 
R. Crewpson, Esq. | Rev. H. 8. CALLENDER 
Rev. E. M. Rrynoups 
Vice-Presidents. 
G. Gatry, Esq. | Rev. C. H. Case 


Treasurer .., cae ee ae aia .. Mr. W. Lister 
Secretary ., ee he os Dh .. Mr. J. BENTLEY 


XIX. 
Delegates. 
Mr. C. W. SmirH | Mr. J. BENTLEY 
Committee. 
4 Mr. T. BreLi Mr. E. Hirp 
Mr. H. Bei Mr. W. EH. PERcIVAL 
Mr. J. Brown H. Repmayne, Hsq. 
Mr. J. FLEMING Mr. STALKER, Senr. 
Mr. J. Hirp | Mr. C. W. Smita 


The following LECTURES were delivered during the Session’ :— 


1888. 
Oct. 23.—Rev. W. Tuckweitt, M.A.—‘‘Natural History for Busy 


Workers.”’ 
Oct. 30.—T. Lewis Banxs, F.R.I.B.A., Esq.—‘‘A few Architectural 
Principles, with Illustrations.” 
Noy. 13.—C. A. Raynn, Esq., M.D., Lond.—‘‘The Brain and its relation 
: to the Phenomena of Consciousness.” 
Nov. 27.—F. Barton, Esq., A.C.O.—‘‘ Mendelssohn.” 
‘Dec. 11.—Rey. J. Mites Moss, M.A.—‘‘Old English Ballads.” 


ioe —Mr. JoserH Stvers—‘A Trip to Paris.” A Popular Lecture, 
illustrated. 
Feb. 5.—JoHN Burrerworts, Esq., F.R.M.S.—‘‘ Unwritten History.” 
: ‘ Illustrated by Oxyhydrogen Light. 
Feb. 19.—Eric Stuart Bruce, Esq., M.A.-—‘‘ Electricity—the Coming 
Power.” 
Moh. 5.—Mr. J. Martinpate.,—‘‘ A Study in Lichens,” 
‘April 2,—Gxo. Buaok, Esq., M.D..—‘‘ Robert Burns.” 
Annuau MeetinG. Election of Officers after the Lecture. 


"SILLOTH AND HOLME CULTRAM LITERARY 
AND SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 


10tH SESSION, 1888-89. 


President... r Be .. J. M. Pautt, Esq., F.G.S. 


Vice-Presidents, 
Rev, S. Hepert, M.A. | JOHN GRAHAM. 


XX. 


Committee. 
G. T. Carr. W. M. Hupson. 
W. CRABB. T. JoHNSTON. 
JOHN GLAISTER. Rev. H. M. Topp, M.A. 
JOSEPH GLAISTER. Rev. W. A. WRIGLEY. 


W. F. Witson, Esq., J.P. 


... JOHN STRONACH. 


Hon. Treasurer 
Hon. Secretary . H. L. Barxer. 
The following LECTURES were given during the Session :— 
1888. 
Oct. 10—Rev. Hitpertc Frrenp. —‘‘ Oriental Manners and Customs.” 


Nov. 


Dec. 


1889, 


Jan, 
Feb. 


Mar. 
Apl. 


28—Rev. H. A. Maceuerson, M.A., M.B.O.U.—‘‘ The Wanderings 
of Birds, and Bird Nurseries.” 
19—Dr. GasrieL.—‘‘ Voice and Vocal Organs.” 


16—Rev. H. WHITEHEAD, Carlisle.—‘‘ Parish Registers.” 

22—Eric Sruart Bruce, Esq., M.A. Oxon.—‘‘ Electricity—the 
Coming Power.” 

6—Dr. Grorcr Brack, M.B., Keswick.—‘‘ Physical Culture.” 

10—AnnuaL MEETING. 


BRAMPTON LITERARY AND FIELD NATURALIST 


SOCIETY. 


SESSION 1888-89. 


G. J. Jounson, Esq. 


President 
Vice-Presidents. 
Rev. S. FALle | Rev. H. J. BULKELEY 
Delegates. 
Rev. 8S. FALLE | Rev. H. J. BuLKELEY 
Treasurer J. B. Lez, Esq. 


Hon. Secretary ... Ree aa Mr. Isaac B, Hopeson 


XXL. 


Committee. 
Mr. J. Farrer | Mrs. H. Y. THompson 
Mr. J. Nrxon Miss BELL 
Mr. Rice Miss Emma LEE 
Mr. James STEELE Miss MacQuEEN 
Dr. THOMPSON . Miss THom 


The following MEETINGS were held during the Session :— 


Oct. 9—OpeEnine Mzermne. 
Oct. 23—L. Jonzs, Esq.—‘‘Thebes.” Illustrated by Magic Lantern. 
Nov. 6—Rev. S. Hesert—‘‘ An Evening with the Stars.” Illustrated by 
Magic Lantern.” 
Novy. 20—Reading of Sheridan’s ‘‘ Critic.” 
Dec. 5—Rev. J. Witson—“‘ Old Carlisle Signboards.”’ 
Dec. 18—Debate: ‘State Interference with Individual Liberty—How far 


is it Justifiable ?” 
1889. 
Jan. 8—Rey. W. i, GiLLBANKS—“ Photography.” 


Jan. 22—Anonymous Papers with Discussion. 

Feb, 5—Rev. H. J. ButketEy—“ Eminent Men who died in 1888.” 
Feb 19—W. E. Ropertson, Esq.—‘‘ Border Heroes,”’ 

_ Mch, 5—Rev. 8. Fatte—‘‘ A Peep into Holland and Dutch History,” 
_ Mch. 19—Rev. H. WuritzeHeap—‘‘ A Walk round Brampton.” 


PENRITH AND DISTRICT LITERARY AND 
SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 


8tH SESSION, 1888-89. 


ore ac .. Rev. H. Wuirennap, M.A, 


Vice-Presidents. 
Rev. E. W. Cuapman, M.A. | Grorce Watson. 


Eo bat J. B. SHAWYVER. 
ee ... H. Mc.Lean Witson, M.B. 


Committee. 
Major W. B. Arnison. J. THOMPSON. 
Rev. W. M. ScHNIBBEN, J. Smweson YEATES, 
Rey. W. J. Marsa. C. H. Granam. 
T. Lester, E. K. Keep, M.A, 
F, Kine, W, BELu 


XXIi. 


The following LECTURES were given during the Session :— 


1888. 
Oct. 4—CoNVERSAZIONE. 


Six Special Fortnightly Lectures on ‘‘The Puritan Revolution,” 
by the Rev. W. Hupson Suaw, M.A., Oxford University 
Extension Lecturer. 


Jan. 3—Rev. H. Wurrvneap, M.A.—‘ Parish Registers.” 


Jan. 
Jan. 
Feb. 
Feb. 
Mar. 
Mar. 
Apl. 

ANNUAL MEETING. 


17—J. W. Lowtuer, Esq., M.P.—‘‘The House of Commons.” 
31—Miss Kuprr.—‘‘ From New York to Quebec.” 

14—J. Marriort, Esq., Sec. R.M.S.—‘‘ The Helm Wind.” 
28—W. bei, Esq.—‘‘ Lake Dwellings and Dwellers.” 

14—J. B. SHawyer, Esq.—‘‘ The Life of Darwin.” 

28—G. Watson, Esq. —‘‘ Notabilia of Old Penrith.” 

11—W. B. Arnison, Esq.—‘‘ The Everlasting Hills.” 


Election of Officers, &c. 


WINDERMERE LITERARY AND SCIENTIFIC 


7TH 


President 


Canon Stock 


Cot. MacDovGaLu 


Treasurer 


. G. HEALEY, 


. J. W. ATKINSON 
. S. ATKINSON 

. Jd. T. Bownass 
ee PELE 

Rev. F. Brownson 
Mr. R. CLece 

Mr. F. Clowes 

Mr. H. Courts 

Mr. T. Dopson 


SOCIETY. 


SESSION, 1888-89. 


Rev. A. Rawson 


Vice-Presidents. 
| Mr. B. A. Irvine 


Secretaries, 
| Mr. Frank Barton 


Mr. Joun Hotitanp 


Delegates. 
| Mr. Jonny HoLuanp 

Committee. 
Mr. G. HEALEY 
Mr. Lone 
Mr. J. Loneaton 
Mr. F. Marr 
Mr. G. H. Pattinson 
Mr. A. H. RarKkes 
Mr. J. Roprnson 
Mr. T. THompson 


Mr. W. V. YATES 


Oct. 


Jan. 


Jan. 


188 
Oct. 


Nov. 
Nov. 19—Mr. J. H. Lergh—Dramatic Recitals. 
Noy. 29—Mr. Denison W. ALLPoRT—‘‘ The Wives of Great Men.” 


xxiii. 
The following MEETINGS were held during the Session :-— 
8. 
18—Social Meeting, with Music. 


29—Rey. A. Rawson—‘‘ Common Things: Air.” 
5—Rey. J. N. HoarE—‘‘ The Ancient Egyptians.” 


6—Conversazione. 


. 17—Rev. Dr. Hayman—‘‘The Armada and Contemporaneous Facts.” 


7—Prof, FRANK Crowes, D.Sc., Principal of the University College, 
Nottingham—‘‘The Land of the Midnight Sun: an Account 
of a Summer Cruise and Drive in Norway,” illustrated by 
Limelight Photographic Views taken during the Trip. 

14—Col. Cooper Kine, Professor of Geology, Staff College, Sandhurst ; 
late Professor of Tactics R.M.A.—‘‘The Campaign of 1870-71: 
Why the Germans Won.” 

28—Mr. W. V. Yates, C.M.M.C.P.—‘‘ History of the Drama before 
the 17th Century.” 


. 20—Mr. E. S. Bruce—‘‘ Natural Magic,” with Illustrations. 


4—Mr. B. A. Irvine and Canon Srock—Popular Lecture, with 
Lantern Views. 
. 18—Mr. C. J. Hatt, Mus. Bac.—‘‘ Music under two Queens: a Com- 
parison and a Contrast ;’’ with Musical I)lustrations. 


XXIV, 


Report of Association Secretary. 


Tue Annual Meeting having been called somewhat earlier this 
year than of late, the whole of the returns have not yet been 
completed. Still, so far as they go, there is much reason to be 


satisfied with the year’s work. 


Compared with last year the results are as follows :— 


Members. Transactions taken. 
1888 1889 Part XII. Part XIII. 
KESWICK abo ae 130 130 60 50 
MARYPORT 20 i 100 go 62 60 
LONGTOWN “ec or 32 27 12 — 
CARLISLE es ze 122 120 105 100 
AMBLESIDE ies sah 90 85 10 10 
SILLOTH ae ae 50 40 7 6 
BRAMPTON x50 nde 79 go 12 8 
PENRITH 500 6h 170 202 140 140 
WINDERMERE .... ae 100 104 14 6 
ASSOCIATION MEMBERS... 37 38 37 38 


g10 926 459 418 


oe 


XXV. 


MEMBERS. 
Whilst regretting that there is yet no increase in the number of: 


Societies, the Council is glad to report that the ordinary member- 


ship has been maintained, whilst there has been a slight increase 


jn the number of Association Members. The rule passed at last 


Annual Meeting, by which such members might compound for 
their annual subscription by a Life Subscription, has worked well, 
and, in a large meastre, accounts for the very satisfactory balance 
in the hands of the Treasurer. A circular sent to the various 
Delegates, asking their help in securing additional Association 
Members, met with very moderate success. Seeing that the larger 
this list becomes the more efficient will be the aid extended by 
the Association, the Council earnestly appeals to the Delegates to 
use their utmost endeavours in this direction during the next few 


months. 


LECTURERS. 


The arrangements made by the Council for the Public Lecturer 
Eric Stuart Bruce, Esq.—were on a much more liberal scale 
than in previous years; and the Council trusts to be able to 


continue its aid on the same terms in the future. It is glad to 


_ report that Mr. Bruce, who lectured before seven of the Societies, 


"appears to have given general satisfaction. 


The best thanks of the Council are due and tendered to the 


Rev. R. Wood, for filling an engagement at Keswick on “short 


~ notice.” 


PROGRAMMES. 


The Council is fully conscious that more efficient help might be 


given to the Hon. Local Secs, in the compilation of their Pro- 


XXV1L 


grammes. ‘Theoretically there is plenty of talent upon which to 
draw, but practically there is great difficulty in getting hold of 
those best able to assist. The help of the Hon. Local Secs. and 
the Officers and Delegates is earnestly asked towards procuring a 
sufficient number of Lecturers, so as to render the formation of a 
satisfactory Programme—especially for the smaller Societies—a 
matter of comparative ease. 

Whilst fully aware of the arduous duties attached to the Hon. 
Secretaryship of a Local Society, the Council trusts that the 
subject of the supply of Lecturers, and Association work generally, 
will meet with their earnest consideration, otherwise the progress 
of the Association must necessarily be slow, and its power for good 
limited. The Council would gladly welcome any resolutions, etc., 
from the Local Societies or the Delegates bearing on the more 


efficient working of the Association. 


TRANSACTIONS, 


There has been a falling off in the sale of the current number of 
the Zvansactions, and this, for many reasons, is to be regretted. 
So far as Back Numbers are concerned,—although there has been 
a larger demand for them than usual, still much might be done to 
reduce the present large stock, and thus strengthen the hands of 
the Association. From the Statement included as part of the 
Balance Sheet it will be seen that, whilst there is a large stock of 
several of the Numbers, some three or four Numbers are practically 


out of print, 


ORGANISATION, ETC, 


Whilst unable to give as satisfactory a repott as the Council 


XXVii. 

~ would have liked, on matters more immediately connected with 
the organisation, etc., of the Association, still it bears willing 
testimony that a considerable amount of labour has been spent 
towards the settlement of the questions of University Extension 
and British Association matters, the Circulating Library, etc.; and 
"it is to be hoped that the time is not far distant when each will 


take its place in the work of the Association. 


Cumberland and Westmorland Association for the 
Adbuncement of Literature and Science. 


4\INI™ 
BALANCE SHEET FOR THE YEAR ENDING AUGUST 13, 1889 
RECEIPTS. EXPENDITURE, 
Balance brought forward £0 16 7]|E. S. Bruce, Esq., for 7 
Subscriptions towards Assoc. Lectures os oes £24 (ome) 
Lecturer’s Expenses ... 13 2 6 Editor's Postage Account.. 010 0 
Capitation on 824 Members 19 19 0} Hon. Sec.’s do. Hp cee hei pe) 
Subscriptions of 6 LifeMemb. 18 18 o Carriage Alc. 0 IO 10 
Do. of 28 Assoc. Members 8 13 0 Griffin’s Vear Book EO OneG, 
Transactions, Part XIII.* R. Adair—Post Cards and 
To Local Societies pen its @) ©) Printing : On 7a 
Back Numbers ... - 314 7| Messrs. Coward— Printing 
Authors’ Copies 2 O90 720 copies Part XIII. 23 5 o 
Arrears— Transactions Pt. XII 3. 2 o| Do. Doing up 700 ese seo 
», Capitation, nae 88 Do. Authors) Copies.” 4) sAeonns 
13 Members o 6 6] Do. Pasting in 700 Views of 
Bank Interest x80 OMS BES Ormathwaite ... igs NODES tO 
Do: for Stationery, ca...) eG 
Do. Expenses Annual Meet- 
ing (1888) _... po BH 
Do. Carriage 40 (OL Ta tart Ko) 
Messrs. Steel, Advertisement 
(Meeting, 1889) : Oo) 46 
Hon. Sec. for Back Numbers 1 11 0 
Balance in hand ice) 22 MnO 
£86 5 7 £86 5 7 


* Receipts for copies Transactions to 38 Association Members are included in 
their Subscriptions. 


Examined and compared with Vouchers and found correct, 
H. BUMBY, 


August 16th, 1889. R. H. HAMILTON, ATS 
ASSETS, LIABILITIES, 
Balance in hand ... mea22) Tiles 
Arrears—64 Members... I 12 0 
Do. Association Members 1 4 0 
Do. 60 Transactions Pt. XIII. 3 0 o (Nil. ) 
Do. Authors’ copies bo eh 
£29 9 2 


The following is the stock of Back Numbers of the 7vamsactions on hand 

September 13th, 1889 :— 
Farts) Le UE IIL. Vv... Vi, VIL VIllL. TX) x.) XESS 
69 71'=7 | 3, 98 229 250. 224 .238 37 169° 17g eran 


TRANSACTIONS, Part XIII. 


Sold to Societies vee aan sag ae 360 
Sold to Association Members... 38 
Sold to Non-Members ; ein ao ‘ies 2 
Presented nti ee 266 44 
On hand September 13th, 1889 or ab bes 256 


XxiX. 


REPORT OF SUB-COMMITTEE (Azstract). 


In submitting its Report on the various points named on p. xxvili. 
of Part XIII. of the Zvansactions, the Sub-Committee regrets to 
say that, under present conditions, united action this Session in 
the matter of University Extension is an impossibility. Such, 
however, was the character of the replies received in answer to 
their enquiries, that they. have every confidence that another 
Session success may be possible. They would recommend the 
Council to make a grant to Local Associations which choose the 


Extension Lectures in preference to the Association Lecturer. 


With regard to the “formation of classes,” they think that the 
Council should foster the growth of classes in Natural Science, 
especially if in connection with the Science and Art Department, 
South Kensington. If this could be done, they think it might 
prove a very useful auxiliary to the University Extension scheme. 
_ They would recommend that a prize, or prizes, be awarded to the 


- most successful student or students attending such classes. 


With regard to systematic work in connection with the syllabus 
; of the British Association (see p. xxxiv. Zvansactions, Part VIII.) 


_the Sub-Committee would suggest :— 


(1) The appointment of Recorders in other subjects in addition 


Eto Zoology and Botany, as at present. 


XXX, 


(2) That all such Recorders be asked if they would correspond 
with members on any difficulty they might meet with in the course 


of their study of such subject or subjects. 


(3) That each Local Society should appoint a permanent Sub- 
Committee, whose office should be to register such facts and 
phenomena as might come under their notice, and the record of 
which might be valuable. Such Sub-Committee might act under 
the direction and supervision of the Recorders, and the results of 
their observations be reported in the Zvansactions, under “ Notes 


and Memoranda.” 


REPORT OF LIBRARY SUB-COMMITTEE. 


Tue Rules, etc., have been drawn up, and the Rey. M. Sidney 
Donald is engaged in drawing up a Catalogue. The Books will 
be kept at the Museum, Carlisle, and will be ready for issue before 
next Session. Full particulars will be supplied to the Local Hon. 


Secretaries so soon as the Catalogue is completed. 


BOTANICAL RECORD FOR 1887-88. 
By WM. HODGSON, A.L.S. 


EVER since my appointment to the post of Botanical Recorder to 
the Association, conjointly with the Rev. R. Wood of Rosley, I 
__ have collected information bearing on the Botany of Cumberland 
and Westmorland, with a view to the publication of a Flora of the 
county. The manuscript has been examined and approved by 
Mr.*J. G. Baker, F.R.S., F.L.S., of Kew. I am largely indebted 
to Mr. Baker for many valuable suggestions, as well as for the free 
use of his own reports on the Alston and Gilsland neighbourhoods. 
The following local gentlemen have also courteously lent me all 
the aid in their power, viz: Mr. W. Duckworth, late of Carlisle ; 
Mr. Jos. Adair of Egremont; Mr. J. C. Smith of Nandana, 
Penrith ; the veteran Wilson Robinson of Whinfell Hall, Cocker- 
- mouth; Mr, R. H. Hamilton of Maryport; Dr. Leitch of Silloth ; 
_ Mr. T. Lister of Flimby, &c. 
Tam still open to receive further notice of localities for species 
other than the commonest forms of plant life, that may be found 
in Cumberland; particularly from Longtown district, and the 
extreme north of the county. Mr. Baker wrote to me on June 


_ 26th of the present year (1888): “I have studied your Flora with 


_ much interest. It is a great advance to have all the Cumberland 
_ records codified in this way, and so many new ones added. I 
_ hope Mr. J. A. Martindale of Staveley will do for Westmorland 
f what you are doing for Cumberland ; and that Mr. J. C. Melville 
will re-work Furness for his projected Flora of Lancashire.” 

1 


2 


Last summer it came to my knowledge that a son of Mr. Todd 
of Mereside, Bromfield, had made a collection of local plants, for 
which—beautifully dried and mounted—he had received the 
principal award at the Agricultural College, Aspatria. Being in 
Mr. Todd’s neighbourhood shortly afterwards, I called to see this 
collection, and was agreeably surprised to find that he had gathered 
two plants which I had never seen in a growing state, and for 
which hardly any previous County records existed. 

I will now enumerate the new records established within the 
two last seasons, keeping to the order and nomenclature of the 
London Catalogue of British Plants, 7th edition (1877). 


RANUNCULACEZ. 
9 Adonis autumnalts. A waif, found growing plentifully in a flax 
crop at Woodside farm, over Flimby. 


11 Ranunculus aquatilis, var. (a) drouettiiz, Found in 1887 ina 
tributary of the R. Cocker, between Scalehill and Lorton. 


23 . sceleratus. Near the Chemical Manure Works, Silloth. 
(Rev. H. Friend.) 


PAPAVERACE. 


42 Papaver rheas. This plant, common enough in my boyhood, 
is gradually dying out with the abandonment of tillage 
for cereal crops. Rubbish heaps at Risehow, Maryport. 


CRUCIFERA. 
58 Coronopus ruellit. Stray plants found in each of the last 
three summers on the ballast hills, Maryport. 


60 Thlaspi arvense. Hardly recognised as indigenous here, but 
found at Risehow, Maryport, and on the L. & N. W. 
Railway, near St. Helen’s signal box. 


65 Zeesdalia nudicaulis, Near Brackenthwaite, in Loweswater, 
1887. 


68 Lepidium draba. Near Risehow, on rubbish, 1887. 
71 L. ruderale. Ballast heaps at Maryport, 1887. 


3 


97 Barbarea precox. Behind the Lonsdale Dock on Workington 
North Shore, 1887-88. 


124 Raphanus maritimus. Growing luxuriantly on the North 
Shore, Workington, 1887-88. 


VIOLACE&. 


134 Viola hirta. Flowering beautifully in the spring of the present 
year (1888) at Broughton Crags, Cockermouth, on lime- 
stone. 


136 V. lutea. Abundant on the south side of the highway between 
Loweswater and Lamplugh, 1888. 


DROSERACEZ. 


139 Drosera intermedia. ‘Turfy moss, Nethertown, near Saint 
Bees, 1887. (Mr. Jos. Adair.) 


CARYOPHYLLACE. 
| 146 Dianthus armeria, Hedgebank at Mereside, Bromfield. 
(Master Jos. Todd.) 


_ 171 Sagina nodosa. Found in some plenty on peat moss at Salta, 
near Dubmill, 1887. 


180 Avenaria verna. Everywhere common about the lead mines, 
J from an elevation of five hundred yards over Garrigill 
é and Nenthead to Lower Nent Force. (J. G. Baker.) 


; 184 Stellaria nemorum. Ravine of the Ive, under Highhead 
4 Castle, near ‘“‘Carlin-pot,” 1888. Wood near Dearham 
Bridge, 1887. Skiprigg Wood, near Raughton Head, 
1888. 


194 Cerastium semidecandrum. Hillocks near Bankend, Maryport, 
on the beach ; also between Flimby and St. Helens. 

| 194*C, tetrandrum. Under the retaining wall of the railway 
abutting on the beach at Flimby, abundant. 


4 


MALVACEA. 


206 Malva rotundifolia. Specimens seen near the mill race below 
the Forge at Dalston, 1887 ; also seen near Lazonby by 
Mr. J. C. Smith, and in the neighbourhood of Silloth by 
Rev. R. Wood. 


HYPERICACE. 


223 Hypericum elodes. Lady Moss, Nethertown; Braystones 
Tarn, &c. (Mr. Jos. Adair.) 


GERANIACEZ. 


232 Geranium pyrenaicum. Appended to the station assigned to 
to this plant, viz. Yeorton Hall, near Beckermet, in Mr. 
Baker’s Flora of the Lake District, is the note, ‘‘requires 
confirmation.” A specimen sent to me by Mr. Adair 
was forwarded to Kew, and admitted by Mr. Baker to be 
“the true thing.” 


BALSAMINACE&. 


Impatiens parvifiora. A plant sent to me along with the preceding, 
and which was gathered in a garden at Millholme, near 
Bootle, has been identified as 7 parzvifora, naturalised 
in some parts of the kingdom, and stated by Mr. Baker 
to be a troublesome weed in the gardens at Kew. 


LEGUMINIFERA. 


255 Ononis spinosa. It was for some time in doubt whether genuine 
spinosa could be claimed as a Cumberland plant. It has, 
however, been recently reported from Rockcliffe and the 
neighbourhood, both by Mr. Duckworth and Mr. Friend. 
Mr. R. H. Hamilton of Maryport shows specimens from 
Dovenby; and Mr. T. Lister, a neighbour of mine, intro- 
duced me to the plant at Broughton Crags, near Cocker- 
mouth. I have also seen it growing in Rosegill, over the 
R. Ellen, about three miles from Maryport. These last 
stations are all on limestone, which O. sfzzosa seems to 
prefer. 


5 


262 Medicago denticulata. This plant appeared in the summer of 
1887 at the edge of a dunghill at St. Helen’s Colliery, 
Workington. One of the officials accounted for its 
presence by supposing that the seeds came among Irish 
hay imported for the use of the horses at the colliery. 
He was probably right. 

264 Melilotus officinalis. Grows at intervals along the beach 
between Workington and Maryport. On the ballast 
heaps at the latter place the var. Jarviflora grew plenti- 
fully in 1886-87. 

265 M. vulgaris. Remarkable for its sweet scent and white 
blossoms, characters which readily distinguish it from 
the preceding plant, which bears ye//ow flowers ; with the 
preceding at Maryport. 

271 Linum angustifolium. Howrigg quarry, near Curthwaite. 
(Rev. R. Wood.) 

310 Lathyrus sylvestris. Formerly supposed to grow only on 
Redness Point, near Parton. It now flourishes abun- 
dantly on the L. & N. W. Railway slopes a little to the 
east of Siddick Junction. 


ROSACE. 


353 Rosa arvensis. Grows in some abundance in the upper 


portions of Flimby Wood, and yet more plentifully in 
Aigle Gill Wood, about a mile further to the west. 


CRASSULACEA, 


418 Cotyledon umbilicus. Ehen side, Egremont. (Mr. Jos. Adair.) 


UMBELLIFERZ, 


; 479 Silaus pratensis is the only new species of this extensive order 


I have to note. Prevalent on the high moors of Ellen- 
borough, Broughton, and Seaton, 


DIpsAcEe&é. 


539 Dépsacus sylvestris. A few weeks ago I was fortunate enough 


to discover a large mass of these plants growing at the 


6 


bottom of an abandoned limestone quarry at Brigham, 
near Cockermouth. They must have numbered several 
hundreds altogether, and many of their stems measured 
over seven-and-a-half feet in height. The finest speci- 
mens grow by the edge of pools, which here and there 
fill up the inequalities of surface left by the workmen. 


CoMPOSITA. 


684 Hieracium umbellatum, Yound growing on the railway slopes, 
close to Siddick Junction, 1887-88. 

sox Cichorium intybus. A solitary specimen found growing within 
a few feet of the Senhouse Dock at Maryport; clearly 
adventive, and probably a remnant of corn cargoes 
discharged there. 

607 Carduus heterophyllus. Reported to me by Mr. R. H. 
Hamilton as growing in a railway cutting near the private 
station at Dovenby, where I have since seen it. Lyne- 
side, near the foot of Solport Burn, 1887. 

613 Centaurea scabiosa. Seen in the quarry at Brigham just 
referred to, and since reported by Mr. T. Lister of Flimby 
from the neighbourhood of Bertha Pit, Great Broughton, 
Park Head, Sebergham, 1887. 

630 Guaphalium sylvaticum. Found near Mereside, Bromfield, 
by Master Jos. Todd, 1887; and quite lately shown to 
me near Woodside farm, Flimby, by Mr. T. Lister. 

647 Senecio erucifolius. Reported formerly from Little Broughton 
by Wilson Robinson, and since seen by Mr. Lister and 
myself spreading over an extensive area about Broughton 
Crags. 

669 Anthemis cotula. On the Maryport ballast heaps for three 
consecutive seasons. A large patch seen on the gravel 
close to the Senhouse Dock. 


CAMPANULACEA. 


679 Campanula rapunculoides. Shown to me at Ivegill vicarage 
by Mrs. Phillips a few weeks ago, She reported it as 


7 


not uncommon in her neighbourhood. I have enly seen 
it in places where it was palpably a garden escape or relic 
of cultivation. Gatesgill, Oughterside, Flimby, &c. 


ERICACE&. 


699 Andromeda folifolia. Seen in abundance on the northern 
moors, as Scaleby Moss, Bolton Fell, &c. 1887. 


SCROPHULARIACE. 


780 Antirrhinum orontium. Seen as a garden weed near the 
Flimby Post Office, 1887. 


VERBENACE. 


798 Verbena oficinaits. A single plant seen on a rubbish heap 
behind the iron furnaces at Maryport, 1887. 


LAMIACE, 


812 Calamintha acinos. Gathered on a bank near High Lorton, 
and shown to me by Miss G. Musgrave, 1887. 


826 Leonurus cardiaca. Mr. Wood of Rosley regrets to report 
the disappearance of this plant from a previously known 
station in his parish. It was pointed out to me by Mr. 
Friend lately in a cottage garden near Flimby, where it 
is associated with Wormwood, Chamomile, Horehound, 
Comfrey, &c. Mr. Friend has also seen the plant not 
far from Carlisle. 


835 Galeopsis versicolor, Beautiful specimens of this species 
sprang up on a newly-formed railway embankment near 
Seaton Station in 1887. 


865 Asperugo procumbens. During the summers of 1886 and 
1887 a few specimens of this rare plant were noticed 
among other wazfs on the ballast at Maryport. No 
traces of it now remain, the place being covered with 
fresh layers of ballast, 


8 


PLUMBAGINACE. 


899 Statice binervosa. Specimens of this plant were received in 
1887 from Mr. Jos. Adair. They were gathered about 
the base of the cliffs at St. Bees Head, an old station for 
the species. 


CHENOPODIACE. 


I have experienced no slight difficulty in the correct identifica- 
tion of the various types of Goosefoot and Ovache that have 
appeared by thousands on the heaps of household mbbish and 
ships’-ballast deposited about Risehow and Maryport during the 
last five years, in addition to those species which are recognised as 
indigenous to the Solway shore. My doubts have been resolved 
in most instances by the ready courtesy of Mr. Baker. 


Of Chenopods proper, besides the ordinary Chenopodium album 
and its variety (b) wide, I have gathered C. urbicum and C. murale, 
but in consegence of the frequent changes of surface by fresh 
additions of ballast, I cannot look upon them as likely to maintain 
their footing or to become persistent. 


Of the Orache or Purslane family the following have been 
observed, viz. Atriplex laciniata, distinctly I think indigenous, being 
met with frequently along the beach; A. Aastata, with two or three 
varieties ; A. babingtonit, A. angustifolia, A. littoralis of several 
types ; A. deltoidea, also in variety. 


925 Leta maritima. Plentifully distributed over the ballast heaps 
nearest to the head of the Senhouse Dock since 1876. 
It is, however, indigenous to the coast, having been 
observed at several stations from Coulderton to Har- 
rington, though never very numerous. 


EUPHORBIACES. 


977 Mercurialis annua. A plant heretofore but little known in 
Cumberland, has been found on the ballast hills in 1886 
and 1887. Adventive doubtless. 


oes 


9 

: ORCHIDACEZ. 

: 1042 Cephalanthera ensifolia. Reported to me last year from 
Clifton House, Workington, by Mr. Geo. Coggins. 

1051 Orchis pyramidalis. Reported like the preceding from the 
same station, also by Mr. Coggins. 

1048 O. ustulata. This diminutive but handsome orchid has 


been gathered in the meadows at Edenhall, by Mr. J. C. 
Smith, who reports it as plentiful there. 


MELANTHIACEZ. 
| 1105 Colchicum autumnale. I note here with pleasure a remark 
able find of this rare species by Mr. J. C. Smith, who 
reports its occurrence in considerable abundance in a 
meadow on the R. Eamont, below the village of Tyrril, 
in Westmorland. I hope to hear more about it. 


POTAMACEA, 


1136 Zannichellia palustris. Seen lately in Broughton Beck, close 
to Papcastle Station. 


TYPHACE. 


1144 Sparganium minimum. Reported from Cliburn Moss in 
Westmorland by Mr. J. C. Smith, who saw it associated 
with Utricularia minor. I recollect seeing the latter 
plant at the same station in 1883, but not in flower at 
the time of my visit. Cliburn Moss resembles in many 
of its features the famous moss at Newton Reigny, near 
Penrith. In the Old Reservoir, Maryport, 1888. 


JUNCACE. 


1160 Juncus compressus, (b) gerardi. On the Cloffocks at Work- 
ington, with G/laux maritima. Reported also from 
Seascale by Mr. J. Adair, 1887. 


CyYPERACA. 


q 1180 Rhyncospora alba. Seen abundantly on Scaleby Moss, 
4 Bolton Fell, and the northern moors generally, 1887. 


10 


1190 Scirpus maritimus. Specimens were forwarded to me in 
1887 by Mr. J. Adair, which were gathered on the shore 
near Ravenglass. 


1222 Carex vulpina. Discovered last month in swampy ground 
in Flimby Wood, not far from the Robin Hood Pit. 
Only once before seen at the mouth of a stream at Saint 
Bees. 


1248 C. pendula. In July of last year I found this fine sedge 
growing luxuriantly in the Lyneside Woods, on the right 
bank of the river, under Shanks Castle. In 1824, Mr. 
N. J. Winch, an able Newcastle botanist, in ‘‘ Contribu- 
tions towards a Cumberland Flora,” speaks of this as 
common in our woods. This statement being at variance 
with my own experience, I would gladly know from those 
familiar with the Longtown district, and the Netherby 
Woods in particular, whether the Great Sedge abounds 
or not in this quarter of the county. 


GRAMINA. 


Having treated at length of the Grasses at the Workington 
Annual Meeting in 1882, I can here only briefly refer to the few 
species recently discovered, or indicate new stations for Grasses of 
comparative rarity. 


1267 Setaria viridis. Two or three examples seen on a rubbish 
heap behind the “slag” banks at the Maryport iron 
furnaces in 1887. 


1282 Alopecurus agrestis. On the Maryport ballast in 1886-87. 
Not seen this year. Its presence with us is undesirable. 
Under the name of “ Black Bent” it is a great pest to 
agriculturists in the Midland counties. 


1287 Milium effusum. In July, 1888, discovered in a gill by the 
Ive, under Highead Castle, close to ‘Carlin Pot.” 
Reported also by Mr, Friend from Orton Moss, near 
Carlisle, 


11 


q 1288 Apera spica-venti. Maryport ballast in 1886-87. Since 
4 disappeared. 


: d 1354 Bromus secalinus. Plentiful on the ballast along with the 
preceding. 

_ 1368 Hordeum murinum. Rubbish heaps at the north end of the 
g Maryport “slag” banks, 1887-88. 

q 1369 4. maritimum. Specimens from Silloth of this year’s growth 
: shown to me by Mr. Friend. 


FILICES. 


A few new stations for Ferns of comparative rarity have been 
_ kindly communicated to me; but in view of the wholesale destruc- 
_ tion of these interesting plants, I refrain from making them public. 


13 


RECOLLECTIONS OF THE KESWICK POST OFFICE, 
PAST AND PRESENT. 


By J. FISHER CROSTHWAITE, F.S.A. 


_ ArT the General Post Office there is no record of any Post Office 


at Keswick previous to the year 1789. In that year the name of 
Mary Southward appears as postmistress, and the salary is stated 
as £23 a year, with an allowance of £158 55. for riding work. 

Mrs. Southward was the widow of Mr. Southward, landlord of 
the Royal Oak inn; and from notices in an old diary which I 
possess, it appears that her husband had been postmaster before 
her, and she was.appointed on his decease. 

The riding work was done on horseback, and it would be from 
Keswick to Penrith, and Penrith to Keswick. 

The parish register shows that Mrs. Southward was married 


_ April 4th, 1790, by licence, to Mr. John I‘Anson, by Isaac Denton, 
_ vicar, the witnesses being Mark Mayson and John Tyndall. 


In 1791 John I‘Anson appears as postmaster, with a salary of 
#10 a year, and an allowance for riding work of £158 5s. The 


_ salary was raised to £15 in 1794. 


A Bye Letter Office was established in the year 1799, and the 
salary is stated as £14. For the Bye Letter Office £10; and 


_ the allowance for riding work was raised to £167 7s. 4d. There 
_ was no further alteration in the salary during Mr. I‘Anson’s service, 


which terminated in January, 1808, on his resignation. 
Before Mr. and Mrs. I‘Anson’s retirement, they built and went 
to reside at Acorn House, she giving it that suitable name because 


14 


it was the outcome of her residence at the “Oak,” as the inn was 
always called in those days. 

Governor Stephenson’s parents had sent their son out to India 
from the Royal Oak, and he returned after a successful and useful 
career to his native place, where he built Governor’s House on the 
site now occupied by Dr. Ring’s house. 

Mr. and Mrs. I‘Anson also sent out a son, in the hope that he 
might have equal success; but a tombstone in Crosthwaite 
churchyard records that “John I‘Anson, a Lieutenant in the 11th 
Regiment of Native Infantry, died at Tinnevelly, in the East 
Indies, September 12th, 1812, in the 22nd year of his age. By 
his Regiment universally beloved and deeply lamented.” 

The year before Mr. I‘Anson retired, the riding work was raised 
to £291 2s. 4d., and the salary of Mr. I‘Anson at the time of his 
retirement was £24. 

In 1808 Mr. James Atkinson was appointed, and the salary 
appears as £46, and the allowance for riding work £225 4s. od. 
There was no further alteration until 1841, when the salary was 
reduced to £40, and an allowance of £20 a year was granted for 
assistance; and at this it continued until February, 1846, when 
Mr. Atkinson resigned. 

Mr. James Atkinson was a Keswick man, and he had received a 
superior education. He had gone to Penrith to be clerk to Mr. 
Buchannan, the postmaster and keeper of the George Hotel at 
that place. He mentioned that as soon as the letters were ready 
for delivery, he used to go into the Square in front of the George, 
and blow a horn to apprize the townspeople. 

Mr. Atkinson married the widow of Mr. Daniel Dunglison, a 
woollen manufacturer who died young, and she carried on the 
business single-handed for some time with success, after her first 
husband’s decease. She was the mother of Professor Robley 
Dunglison, M.D., of Jefferson College, Philadelphia, U.S., whose 
medical works have a world-wide circulation and reputation. After 
thirty-six years absence in America, Dr. Robley Dunglison paid a 
visit to his mother at her residence in Keswick, where he was 
brought up. Many present will remember his genial conversation 


15 


with the friends of his youth. He presented his “Medical Dic- 
tionary” in two vols. to the Keswick Library. 

The riding work was done by men or boys on horseback, and 
the letter bags were conveyed in saddlebags. We remember 
hearing of John, Ben, and Will Brockbank performing this duty 
for years in Mr. I‘Anson’s time. The postman blew a horn to 
announce his approach, and this official is well described by the 
poet Cowper in Zhe Task, Book 4, “The Winter Evening.” 


‘‘ Hark ! ’tis the twanging horn o’er yonder bridge, 
That with its wearisome but needful length 
Bestrides the wintry flood, in which the moon 
Sees her unwrinkled face reflected bright ;— 

He comes, the herald of a noisy world, 

With spattered boots, strapped waist, and frozen locks ; 
News from all nations lumbering on his back. 
True to his charge, the close-packed load behind, 
Vet careless what he brings, his one concern 

Is to conduct it to the destined inn ; 

And, having dropped the expected bag, pass on. 
He whistles as he goes, light-hearted wretch, 
Cold and yet cheerful : messenger of grief 
Perhaps to thousands, and of joy to some ; 

To him indifferent whether grief or joy. 

Houses in ashes, and the fall of stocks, 

Births, deaths, and marriages, epistles wet 

With tears, that trickled down the writer’s cheeks 
Fast as the periods from his fluent quill, 

Or charged with am’rous sighs of absent swains, 
Or nymphs responsive, equally affect 

His horse and him, unconscious of them all.” 


Tradition still points to a plantation near Dacre road end, on 
the Penrith ride, where the postman was dismounted by footpads 
and tied to a tree, while the robbers emptied the postbag in 
 pootless search for booty, then decamped and left the poor wretch 
in the cold night till he was delivered by the first passer by in the 
morning. My predecessor once told me, that when he first took 
the office, he could have put all the letters which came to Keswick 
into his breeches pocket ; and we may be sure that of bank notes 
or gold there would be none. 

The remark about breeches pocket reminds me of a story of 


16 


President Lincoln, that grand American, who was once postmaster 
of a small place, and not as Benjamin Franklin was, postmaster 
general. Holland in his admirable life of Lincoln says: “ About 
this time Mr. Lincoln was appointed postmaster by President 
Jackson. The office was too insignificant to be considered 
politically ; and it was given to the young man because everybody 
liked him, and because he was the only man willing to make out 
the returns. He was exceedingly pleased with the appointment, 
because it gave him a chance to read every newspaper that was 
taken in the vicinity. He had never been able to get half the 
newspapers he wanted before, and the office gave him the prospect 
of a continual feast. Not wishing to be tied to the office, as it 
gave him no revenue that would reward him for the confinement, 
he made a post office of his hat. Whenever he went out, the letters 
were placed in his hat. When an anxious looker for a letter found 
the postmaster, he found his office; and the public officer, taking 
off his hat, looked over his mail wherever the public might find . 
him. He kept the office until it was discontinued or removed to 
Petersburgh.” 

I mentioned just now that in the year 1799 Keswick was estab- 
lished as a Bye Letter office. I was puzzled to know what this 
meant. I applied to the editor of the Blackfriars Magazine for 
information, which he obligingly supplied, as follows. (I may here 
inform you that the “Blackfriars” is an admirably conducted 
monthly magazine, published by officers of the General Post Office, 
and having the sanction of the Secretary.) Mr. H. J. Green said; 
“A bye letter office was a kind of sub-office that had no direct com- 
munication with head quarters. Originally all the post towns (which 
were, of course, comparatively few in number) were on the main 
roads, and any small town that lay ef the main road, and which 
from its position would be a good means of communication between 
two post-towns, would be called a dye /etter office.” 

From this I gather that previous to 1799 Keswick received all 
its correspondence from the Penrith office only, and that all letters 
were sent to that office. But when it was established as a Bye Letter 


I7 


office, it became a connecting link between Penrith, Cockermouth, 
Workington, and Whitehaven. 

Perhaps this development of the service will be better understood 
by the following quotations from Mr. Lewens’ book, Her Mayesty’s 
_ Mails, for which I am also indebted to Mr. Green. 

‘*The principal deputy postmasters are empowered to erect cross-fosts or 
stages, so that all parts of the country may have equal advantages as far as 
practicable, etc. 

3 ** Up to 1720 the lines of post had branched off, from London and Edinburgh 
respectively, on to the principal roads of the two kingdoms ; but the ‘cross-posts,’ 
even when established, had not been efficient, the towns off the main line of 


road not being well served, whilst some districts had no direct communication 
through them. 

**Ralph Allen, who became postmaster of Bath, developed the cross-post 
system largely. By his representations, he induced the Lords of the Treasury 
_ to grant him a lease of the cross-posts for life. His engagements were to bear 
all the cost of his new service, and pay a fixed rental of £6,000 a year, on 
which terms he was to retain all the surplus revenue. 

‘Tn 1764, the cross-posts had extended to all parts of the country. 

** Towards the last, the private project had become so gigantic as to be nearly 

unmanageable, and it was with something like satisfaction that the Post Office 
authorities saw it lapse to the crown. At this time it was considered one of the 
_ chief duties of the surveyors—whose business it was to visit each deputy post- 
master in the course of the year—to see that the distinction between the dye 
letters of the cross-post, the postage of which belonged to Mr. Allen, and the 
_ postage of the general post letters, which belonged to the Government, was 
_ properly kept up. 
*©On the death of Allen, the cross-posts were brought under the control of 
the Postmaster General. An officer, Mr. Ward, was appointed to take the 
Bye Letter Office, as the branch. was now called, at the salary of £300 a year. 
The success of the amalgamation was so complete that at the end of the first 
year, profits to the amount of £20,000 were handed over tothe Crown. After- 
_ wards, the proceeds continued to increase even still more rapidly, so much so, 
q that when in 1799 the Bye Letter Office was abolished, and its management 
transferred to the General Office, they had reached the enormous yearly sum of 
#200,000 ! 


In July, 1802, there arrived at the Queen’s Head, Keswick, in 
_a handsome well-appointed travelling carriage, but without any 
_ Servant, a stylish person who assumed the name of The Honour- 


_ able Alexander Augustus Hope, brother of the Earl of Hopetoun, 
; 2 


18 


and Member for Linglithgow. His real name was John Hatfield. 
He was born in the year 1759, of humble parentage, in Cheshire, 
but possessing great natural abilities. His face was handsome, his 
person genteel, and his complexion fair. In his boyhood he 
showed an evil disposition, and he quitted his family and became 
a rider to a linen-draper in the north of England. 

In the course of his journeys he discovered that a young person, 
the natural daughter of a nobleman, was to have a fortune of 
41,000 if she married with her father’s approbation. He courted 
the unsuspecting girl, and told her foster parents that he would on 
no account marry the young woman if her relations were not 
satisfied with their union. This seemed so honourable to the un- 
suspecting nobleman, that after seeing the man he consented, and 
the day after the marriage he presented Hatfield with a draft on 
his banker for £1,500. This took place in 1771 or 1772. 

He now went off into the fashionable parts of London, and soon 
dissipated the money, and left his wife with three daughters to 
depend on the charity of her relations. Wherever he went he 
vaunted his parks and his hounds, and earned for himself the 
appellation of “the lying Hatfield.” 

He next got into the King’s Bench prison for a debt of £160, 
and he had the impudence to induce a clergyman who visited the 
prison to ask the head of the house of his wife’s father to pay off 
this debt,—which he did out of pure benevolence on the bare 
statement that he was a poor unfortunate member of the same 
family. 

In 1792 he was again thrown into prison for debt, when a Miss 
Nation, of Devonshire, to whom he had become known, paid his 
debts, took him from prison, and married him. 

Soon after he was liberated, he prevailed upon some highly 
respectable merchants in Devonshire to take him into partnership 
with them; and with a clergyman to accept his drafts to a large 
amount. Upon this he made a splendid appearance in London, 
and, before the general election, even proceeded to canvas the 
borough of Queensborough. Suspicions now arose. He was 
declared bankrupt in order to unmask him. He then left his 


a ie 


19 


second wife with two children at Tiverton, borrowed the handsome 
carriage of a Mr. Prinsep of that place, and arrived as before stated 
in July, 1802, at the Queen’s Head inn, Keswick. From Keswick 
he made excursions among the neighbouring valleys, meeting with 
great attention on account of his handsome equipage, and still 
more from his visiting cards, which designated him ‘The Honour- 
able Alexander Augustus Hope.” He received letters under this 
assumed name, and he occasionally /ranked letters by that name. 
Now, ¢at being a capital offence, being not only a forgery, but (as 
a forgery on the Post Office) sure to be prosecuted, nobody pre- 
sumed to question his pretensions any longer, and he went to all 


_ places with the consideration attached to an Earl’s brother. 


In an evil hour he went to the Fish inn, Buttermere, kept by 
Mr. and Mrs. Robinson, aged people, who had an only daughter 
Mary, eighteen years of age, and paid his addresses to her. 

He now became acquainted with an Irish gentleman in Keswick 
who had been resident there with his family for some months. He 
was a member of the then Irish Parliament. There was likewise a 
young lady of fortune and great personal attractions in his charge. 
He took with him an army list, and pointed to his assumed name, 


_ the Honble. Alexander Augustus Hope, lieutenant colonel of the 


14th regiment of foot. This acquaintance grew rapidly. He paid 
his addresses to the young lady, and obtained her consent. The 
wedding clothes were bought; but previous to the wedding-day 


_ being fixed, she insisted that the pretended Colonel Hope should 


introduce the subject formally to her friends. He now pretended 
to write letters and await answers, and proposed to take a trip to 


_ the Earl of Hopetoun’s seat. 


From this time he played a double part; his visits to Keswick 
became frequent, and his suit to the young lady most assiduous. 


_ Still, both at Keswick and Buttermere, he was shy of appearing in 


public. He was sure to be engaged on a fishing expedition when 


_ any company was expected at Buttermere ; and he never attended 
_ the church at Keswick but once. He was twice at the museum, 


Keswick, and conversed with my late father for an hour each time, 


20 


but he could not induce him to put his name in the visitors’ book. 
He put it off by saying, ‘‘ My name is Ready Money.” 

Finding his scheme to gain the young lady and her fortune a 
failure, he induced Mary of Buttermere to give her hand in 
marriage. He, in company with a clergyman, procured a licence, 
and they were publicly married at Lorton church on Saturday, the 
2nd October, 1802. A romantic account appeared in the news- 
papers. This fell under the notice of several persons in Scotland 
who knew that the real Colonel Hope had been abroad all the 
summer, and was then residing at Vienna. 


After the marriage he took his young wife to Longtown, where 
he only stayed three days, and then returned to Buttermere. 


There happened at this time to be Mr. Harding, a barrister, and 
a Welsh judge passing through Keswick, who heard of the impostor. 
He sent a note by his servant, who at once said, “‘I brought this 
for Colonel Hope, but you are not the gentleman.” Hatfield 
observed that it was a mistake, and that it was for a brother of his. 
However, he sent for four horses, and came over to Keswick. He 
had already drawn a draft for £30, by permission, on a Mr. 
Crumpt of Liverpool, and he now drew another for £20, which 
the landlord of the Queen’s Head foolishly cashed. He made a 
blank denial that he had ever assumed the name of Colonel Hope, 
but that his name was Hope, but not M.P. for Linlithgow. 


Mr. John Sander, a most respectable person, was town constable 
for the year, and he was requested to take Hatfield into custody. 
When charged, he said, ‘“ Show me your authority, and a thread 
shall hold me.” It was then arranged that a warrant should be 
obtained from the nearest magistrate, who was Sir Frederick F. 
Vane, bart. Hatfield said, “I will get my old boatman and have 
a row upon the lake until the warrant arrives.” His boatman was 
old *Neddy Birkett, who took him to the head of the lake, when 
Hatfield decamped, and made his way over the fells to Ravenglass, 
where, disguised as a sailor, he lay till the wind was fair, and in a 


* T knew old Neddy Birkett. He died in 1843, at the great age of ninety- 
eight years. Jonathan Otley recorded his death in his MSS., and added— 
‘‘Was Hattfield’s guide.” 


21 


few days he set sail and harked back to Chester, his native county 
town. He was, however, arrested sixteen miles from Swansea, and 
brought through Keswick in irons, to be committed by Sir F. F. 
Vane, bart., at Armathwaite hall. 

The prosecution was taken up by the Post Office department, 
and the case opened by Mr. Scarlett®* at the Carlisle assizes, before 
the Honourable Alexander Thompson, knight. He was found 
guilty of forgery on three counts, the last of which was /ranking 
letters under the assumed name of A. Hope, M.P. 

From the G.P.O. I have been favoured with a remark of Lord 
Aucland (one of the Postmasters General in 1802) on a paper 
_ relating to the prosecution of Hatfield :— 

‘Mr. Hatfield has dealt so largely in frauds, perjuries, and forgeries, that I 
heartily wish we may succeed in bringing him to condign and exemplary 
_ punishment. 

‘Date Nov.’9, 1802.” 

___ Mary of Buttermere refused to take any part in the prosecution. 
_ The utmost she could be prevailed upon to do was to write to Sir 
Richard Ford, as follows :— 


_ **The man whom I had the misfortune to marry, and who has ruined me 
_ and my aged parents, always told me he was the Hon. Colonel Hope, the next 
brother of the Earl of Hopetoun. 
‘* Your grateful and unfortunate servant, 
‘“Mary ROBINSON.” 

Hatfield addressed the jury, and concluded with these words :— 
“Whatever will be my fate, I am content; it is the sword of 
justice, impartially and virtuously administered. But, I solemnly 
‘declare, that in all my transactions I never intended to defraud or 
_ injure the persons whose names have appeared in the prosecution, 
This I will maintain to the last of my life.” 
How he lied to the last will be seen by the concluding words of 
a letter from Hatfield to Mr. Freiling, secretary G.P.O., dated 
‘Carlisle, 30th July, 1803 :—‘‘ For you will not admit information 
from such sources to murder the peace and name of a truly venerable 


g 


Jamily for ever.” 


* Afterwards Sir James Scarlett, and eventually Lord Abinger, 


22 


On the day of his condemnation Wordsworth and Coleridge 
passed through Carlisle, and endeavoured to obtain an interview 
with him. Wordsworth succeeded; but from some unknown 
reason, Hatfield steadily refused to see Coleridge ; a caprice which 
could not be penetrated. It was true that he had, during his 
whole residence at Keswick, avoided Coleridge with a solicitude 
which had revived the original suspicions against him in some 
quarters, after they had generally subsided. However, if not him, 
Coleridge saw and examined his very interesting papers. These 
were chiefly from women whom he had injured pretty much in the 
same way, and by the same impostures, as he had so recently 
practised in Cumberland. Great was the emotion of Coleridge 
when he afterwards recurred to these letters, and bitter—almost 
vindictive—was the indignation with which he spoke of Hatfield. 

The execution took place at Carlisle on September 3rd, 1803, 
on an island formed by the river Eden on the north and south side 
of the city between the bridges. Three respectable men walked 
from Keswick to Carlisle—thirty miles—to witness the execution, 
so great was the excitement caused throughout the county by the 
event. One of them was Mr. Amos Richardson, the amiable and 
much-respected usher at Crosthwaite High School for a great 
number of years. I was a bit of a favourite with him, and I once 
had the temerity to ask him if he really did so. ‘ Well,” said he, 
“we were going to Carlisle, and we did see Hatfield hanged.” I _ 
thought then, and I have the same feeling still, that I would rather 
have gone thirty miles in the opposite direction, to keep as far 
away as I could from so sad a spectacle. 

Hatfield died with wonderful firmness, and acted the hero, dying 
as he had lived, the “lying Hatfield.” 

This all happened while Mr. I‘Anson was postmaster of 
Keswick. 

When Mr. Atkinson succeeded Mr. I‘Anson, the office was 
subsequently removed from the Oak inn to Museum Square. This 
Square used to be thought a grand improvement. A lady remem- 
bers when a child, before she had seen the squares of London, 
that she thought it a wonderful place. It was built by Words- 


23 


worth’s ‘“‘Waggoner,” who also built Greta Hall and Greta Lodge, 
and was the genial landlord of Southey and Coleridge. Museum 
House was built for a carrier’s inn, and an archway (now walled 
up) received his six-horse waggon for a few years, Licence was 
never applied for it as an inn, for he met with a tenant for the rest 
of the building in Mr. Peter Crosthwaite, who had just then 
commenced a museum for the entertainment of tourists. He 
began the museum on the opposite side of the Square in 1780, 
and removed to the opposite side in 1784. Mr. Atkinson, during 
the greater part of his postmastership, conducted the office opposite 
the museum, and he continued to do so till 1846, when he retired. 
It may amuse you to mention some of Mr. Atkinson’s subordin- 
ates in postal duties. Southey* thus mentions the letter carrier in 
writing to Grosvenor C. Bedford, Esq., on Dec. 28th, 1828 :— 


**Tt is not likely that you should recollect a poor, harmless, honest old man, 
who used to deliver the letters when you were at Keswick ; Joseph Littledale 
is his name, and, if you remember him, it will be bya chronic, husky cough, 
which generally announced his approach. Poor Littledale has this day 
explained the cause of our late rains, which have prevailed for the last five 
weeks, by a theory which will probably be as new to you as it istome, ‘I 


__ have observed,’ he says, ‘that when the moon is turned upward, we have fine 


_ weather after it; but if it is turned down, then we have a wet season. And 
the reason I think is, that when it is turned down it holds no water, like a 
bason, you know, and then down it all comes.’ 

“*There, Grosvenor, it will be a long while before the march of intellect shall 
produce a theory as original as this, which I find upon enquiry to be the popular 
_ opinion here.” 

Many still living will remember, as I do, old Joe Littledale. He 
was the town bellman, and always ended his announcements with 
the loyal peroration :— 
‘*God save the King, 
His noble Consort the Queen, and 
All the Royal Family !” 


He died in 1836, aged eighty-six years. 
Many will remember a successor as town letter-carrier. Peggy 
_ Hartley for many years filled the office, and she was a general 


* Life and Correspondence, by Rey, C, C, Southey, Vol, v., p. 341. 


24 


favourite. She lived at the back of Museum Square, and at 
valentine time she had quite a harvest. Letters were taken 
upstairs two stories to her room, the door deftly opened, the valen- 
tines thrown in upon the floor, the door closed, and a stampede 
made down the stairs, sometimes by little urchins in clogs, which 
made considerable clatter. 


Another successor was John Musgrave, a clock and watchmaker, 
and a good hand at the business. He was succeeded by “ post- 
man” Mary Pearson, of whom more hereafter. 


But I must make mention of the mode by which the postbags 
came to Keswick and were dispatched to other towns. ‘The riding 
boys were succeeded by men who drove a post-gig, depositing the 
leathern letter bags in a box which the driver sat upon. A pair of 
horse-pistols were delivered by the postmaster to each man when 
he set out on his journey, which he placed in holsters on either 
side of the splash-board in front of him. These were duly 
delivered up to the postmaster at the end of the day’s journey. In 
recollection of these times a friend writes thus to me from South 
Devon :— 


**So you are going to give an address upon the posting times of old. I think 
it would be about the year 1831 or 1832 that Mark Smith and Jacky Barnes 
drove the post-gigs. Jacky was a bit of a merchant ; for I remember it was he 
who first introduced lucifer matches into Keswick, at sixpence a box. I pre- 
sume they got to Whitehaven from Liverpool. The price was much too high 
for the boys at High School to use them instead of swinging the lighted peat in 
order to get a good kindle upon reaching the school; for I dare say you will 
remember the tinder was often too damp to take the light. Well! if such were 
called ‘good old times,’ the moderns have the advantage.” 


But a great change came for the better. The postman’s gig 
was discontinued, and we had from Lancaster to Whitehaven well- 
appointed four-horse coaches, with driver and guard in scarlet 
coats and gold lace hatbands. Arnold and Burdett were the 
guards, and Tom Preston and David Johnston the drivers. Mr. 
Fitzsimmons of Whitehaven was the contractor; and the service 
was performed with great regularity. A worthy magistrate once 
said to me, ‘“‘ We travelled in great state in those days. We gave 


Le OR Se oe ae, Os 


95 


up going to town in our private carriages, for the pleasure afforded 
by the speedy and safe conduct we had.” The distance is about 
eighty miles from Lancaster to Whitehaven. Leaving Lancaster, 
the mail coaches served Milnthorpe, Kendal, Bowness, (the town 
of Windermere did not then exist,) Ambleside, Keswick, Cocker- 
mouth, Workington, and Whitehaven. The coaches generally 
crossed each other on Dunmail Raise. Arnold was quite a 
character; and for a racy account of him I commend to your 
perusal Mr. Wm. Wilson’s little book on ‘Coaching, Past and 
Present.” 

Undoubtedly Tom Preston was one of the best whips in Britain. 


_ He would suffer no delays, and his blunt determination was some- 


times set down as boorishness, but a kinder-hearted man never 


lived. Many a lift did he give to poor people tramping home 


burdened with market-day stores, when the coach was not full, 
without fee or reward, and not in the least detrimental to his 
employer or the service. Poor fellow! he had an awkward descent 
from the coach one day, which scraped his shin against the wheel, 
and brought on inflammation. The complaint reached his head, 
his mind wandered, and his ruling passion was strong in death. I 
was told he called out my name frequently, explaining the cause 
of being a few minutes late. He left his widow and family in 
good circumstances, and afforded each of his children a good 
education. 

Burdett, a very smart guard, and a handsome man, left the 
service to become his father’s successor as gamekeeper to a noble- 
man. He was succeeded by George Needles. Mr. Anthony 


_ Gibson and I travelled with him by coach on Shrove Tuesday, 
1846, on our way to London. We went to see the great city 
_ together before I settled down to the office of postmaster, to which 
_ Icalculated I would become a prisoner, if I followed the example 
_ of my predecessor. George Needles told me that he was born in 
ba post office held by his parents in the central office in England, 
wherever that may be. He was an older man than Burdett, and 


continued in the service so long as Mr. Fitzsimmons had the 


contract for the mail service. After this the mail service was from 


26 


Windermere only, which was well carried out by Mr. John Rigg of 
Windermere hotel. 

My predecessor, Mr. Atkinson, was a gentleman of the old 
school. He put a proper value upon his office, and the responsi- 
bility attached to its duties. Mrs. Atkinson, his wife, was a most 
discreet and exemplary lady. During her husband’s long walks 
she attended to the office in Museum Square. I can see her still, 
dressed in a black silk gown, and a mob cap for head-gear—so 
seemly for matrons in those days. Mr. Atkinson used to indulge 
the townsfolk with many acts of kindness through sheer good 
nature ; but as he never told them he was going beyond his duty, 
nobody was aware of it. He was not a man to court popularity— 
that sort of thing so much chased after now-a-days, of which the 
great Lord Mansfield said, that “it is gained without merit, and 
lost without a crime.” He was master of the situation, and he did 
his duty most scrupulously and well; and as for the chatter of the 
multitude he cared nothing. 

He retired in 1846, and I succeeded him in the office. My 
preceptor was Mr. John St. Lawrence Beaufort, grandson of the 
Rt. Rev. Dr. John St. Lawrence, Bishop of Cork and Ross. He 
was a B.A. of Dublin University, an accomplished scholar, and a 
perfect gentleman. He entered the postal service under Mr. John 
Tilley (now Sir John Tilley, C.B.), and was then located at the 
Surveyor’s office, Penrith. During the greater part of Mr. Atkin- 
son’s tenure of office, the old scale of charges restricted the 
number of letters, as I have before stated. Mary Pearson, the 
town letter carrier, told me that in Mr. Atkinson’s time she had 
once gone to the office when the letters for the town were three in 
number, another time two, a third time one letter, and a fourth 
time when there were zone. To the best of my recollection, she 
served thirty-five years ; and I had the satisfaction of obtaining for 
her a small pension for good service. She performed the duties 
very well. 

The great influx of letters which followed the adoption first of 
the fourpenny, and then the penny postage, rather disgusted Mr. 
Atkinson, A letter for which a person paid 1s, 1d. or 10d. was a 


* 
_. 


27 


tespectable commodity ; but when a penny only had to be paid, 
he said people wrote about everything and nothing. 

The custom had been to send letters for farmers and others to 
their “‘host’s houses,” i.e. the public houses where the farmers put 
up on market days. This Mr. Beaufort (under instructions) put 
an entire stop to. The letters were usually put into a card rack 
at the various inns, and the people helped themselves when they 
came to town. This was held to be quite insecure, and the country 
letters had now to be called for. To carry this new regulation out 
was my unpopular duty. Many attempts were made to tire me 
out. Manufacturers in the country told all their work people to 
call at the office window every time they came to town; and for a 
time they did so. But they did not tire me out, but tired them- 
selves. 

But Mr. Beaufort was intent upon making the service more 
efficient, and he at once saw that Braithwaite would be a good 
place for a sub-office and a daily rural messenger. Accordingly, 
within six months, viz. October 27th, 1846, a sub-office was opened 
at Braithwaite, and Mr. Thomas Gibson was appointed sub- 
postmaster, and William Greenip the first rural postman. ‘Old 
Bill,” as he was familiarly called, was a notable man. He had 
served some years in the militia. He was a naturalist, mineralogist, 
an antiquary, and a great reader. ‘The military discipline he had 
learnt, made him exact in the performance of his duty. His route 
was by. way of Little Braithwaite, where he had to ford the river 
through floods which did not appal him, till once he was nearly 
taken away by the swollen river, when he asked, “Is I to gang to 
be drowned ?” whereupon I told him never again to risk his life, 
even in the important matter of the delivery of the letters. 

Mr. Stanger of Lairthwaite, writing of this beginning of rural 
posts, to his friend, the Rev. J. W. Whiteside, at Ripon, says :— 

‘*Mr. Atkinson resigned the post office as too confining and laborious, and 
is I think much better since he did so. Mrs. A. rather failing in memory, &c., 
but pretty well. I got F. Crosthwaite appointed through our county member, 


and we have a branch office at Braithwaite, to which I got Thomas Gibson 
appointed, and we have a running postman between.” 


28 


Mr. Beaufort was only able to be at Keswick ten days, when he 
was called away to take charge of the office at Berwick-upon Tweed, 
where he remained three months. He did the best he could to 
instruct me during his short stay. It was the season of the year 
when there is least correspondence. He invited me to his lodging 
in the evening, to read over the rules, and to ask questions where 
I wanted explanation. The evening before I took charge, while 
thus engaged, two friends called to seehim. He gave me holiday, 
and enjoyed the evening with Mr. Lawrence Harrison and Mr. 
John Feather. Mr. Beaufort had been subject to acute attacks of 
asthma from his infancy. He was seized in the night, and had 
propped himself up in bed with pillows. He sent me word to 
dispatch the Wigton mail the best I could, and he would come 
down later in the day. I did so. There was a letter for Carlisle 
which I should have passed unnoticed, but it was unstamped, and 
had to be charged twopence, I entered this to Wigton upon the 
letter bill, and told him what I had done. ‘You will be reported 
for that,” said he. Oddly, Mr. Tilley, his chief, called to see his 
friend Beaufort, and look into the office, just when we were 
opening the letter bags, when Mr. Beaufort spied the report and 
said, “ There you are—did not I tell you!” He knew how keen 
the apprentice assistants were in the Wigton office to report, as my 
predecessor knew to his disgust. I can hardly say how mortified 
I was. But I had a great deal to learn from reports after this, in 
the course of threading my way into the regulations which were 
even then so numerous that it took months to learn them all. I 
never, so long as I had the office, examined the official corre- 
spondence without a sense of relief when I had seenit all. But it 
was not always necessary to send reports, where people were 
friendly disposed. I had sent a Peterborough letter to Lancaster 
to forward by mistake. The postmistress, Mrs. Mc.Glasson, wrote 
upon the top of the letter bill, “ Your Peterborough letters should 
go to London.” ‘This photographed the information upon my 
memory much more agreeably than a formal report would have 
done. 

The delivery of letters at this time was by post-woman Mary 


29 


Pearson ; and as the higher part of the town was ordered to be 
delivered first, the people in the lower part of the town not un- 
frequently called at the window and asked for letters, which Mr. 
Atkinson good-naturedly gave them. Before the office was trans- 
ferred to my side of the square, Mr. Beaufort was telling Mr. 
Atkinson not on any account to give out town letters at the 
window. Mr. Beaufort was standing with his back to the fire, with 
his hands in his shooting coat pockets, when giving this positive 
mandate. A knock came to the window, and a soft female voice 
whispered gently, “Any letters, Mr. Atkinson?” When he 
mechanically turned to the letter boxes and handed one out, and 
Miss Nanny Clark thanked him and departed. ‘ There!” said 
Mr. Beaufort, “did I not tell you never to do that?” Mr. Atkin- 
son’s reply was, “Who could refuse a bonny lass like that?” I 
can still see the merry twinkle of Mr. Beaufort’s eyes through his 
spectacles, although he affected to be very severe upon this breach 
of the rule. 

It was the carrying out of this regulation which brought down 
upon me an attack in the Cumberland Pacquet, a Whitehaven 
newspaper. The letter was signed “A.B.,” and was written by a 
- manufacturer who lived down street. It was grossly inaccurate in 
all its statements. I cut it out and sent it to Mr. Beaufort at 
Berwick. He endorsed the letter thus, and sent it on to Mr. 
Tilley. ‘‘ Poor Crosthwaite! He seems to be aggrieved. I told 
him he would be wise to take no notice of it; but if he wished to 
disabuse the editor, for whom he has a respect, he might write to 
Gibson of Whitehaven, who would explain it to him. i Pts) oe) De ss 
_ Mr. Tilley’s endorsement was: “The postmaster must on no 
account answer this. An anonymous letter in a newspaper is 
_ never worthy of notice. J.T. May 17th, 1846.” 

I did write to Mr. John Gibson, and I quoted Mr. Beaufort’s 
words to me (in a separate letter) in which he said: “If you wish 
to disabuse the editor of the Pacguet of the bad impression the 
letter must have made upon him, provided he did not understand 
the subject sufficiently to see how absurd the writer’s statements 
were, perhaps Mr. Gibson, the postmaster of Whitehaven, would 


80 


tell him for you privately what an injustice he has done you by 
publishing the letter in question. It will scarcely be necessary to 
explain it to Mr. Gibson.” Ihave no doubt that Mr. John Gibson 
did me this little service, for I never again had any attack in the 
newspapers, either anonymously or otherwise, during my remaining 
term of office. 


Speaking of these anonymous scribblers in the county news- 
papers, our neighbour the late Mrs. Barbara Dent, once asked: 
“Did you ever see anything that was true in the newspapers which 
went from Keswick ?” 


When the Braithwaite rural messenger was put upon his walk, 
Mr. J. R. Smith, from the surveyor’s office, went the round with 
“old Bill.” Mr. Thomas Gibson tells me that Mr. Beaufort went 
out before this to determine upon the route. He rode a white 
horse, and turned round on the brow top before the mill and took 
a good view of the district. Mr. Smith’s duty was now to insist 
upon that route, to which old Bill’s superior knowledge of the 
floods in that quarter, made him anticipate serious danger and 
difficulty. While Mr. Smith was instructing Mr. Gibson in his 
duties as sub-postmaster, Bill kept putting in his word every now 
and then about some difficulty or other in the way, and how he 
was to doin such and such a case; but the only answer Mr. Smith 
gave him to every enquiry was: ‘You must come the way we 
have come to-day.” The way was round by Ullock and Little 
Braithwaite, terminating at Braithwaite village, the letters for 
Thornthwaite being taken on by the school children. At last Bill 
crowned the difficulties caused by bad roads and watery lonnings 
by saying that there were sometimes very deep floods at Little 
Braithwaite, when Mr. Smith got rather out of temper, and said 
somewhat sternly, ‘‘ Well, you are not to be drowned.” 


Mr. Gibson says: “I have always had a great respect for old 
Bill. I sometimes think of him sitting by our kitchen fire smoking 
his pipe and waiting his time, and admiring our cat. You know 
he was a naturalist, and we had then a very fine young cat, and 
Bill admired it immensely, whether it was moving about or lying 


31 


on the rug, every attitude and motion he said was so fine and 
tiger-like.” 

William Greenip was sixty years of age when he entered upon 
his postal duties. After fifteen years service he retired with a 
small pension, and died two years later, aged seventy-seven years. 

The next rural post was to Bassenthwaite. The messenger 
appointed had a much longer route. He had to go by Orma- 
thwaite, Applethwaite, Millbeck, and on to Bassenthwaite village, 
where a sub-office was established, with Mr. William Hodgson, 
land surveyor, as first postmaster. This was on Sept. 22nd, 1848. 
Thomas Murray, then twenty-one years of age, was appointed rural 
postman. He had been well recommended by his employer, a 
clergyman. The neighbours, however, were anxious to have 
another man appointed, and some one wrote to Mr. Tilley that 
Tom was not sharp. Mr. Tilley came from Penrith by coach, and 
called at the office on his way to see the man, and judge for 
himself. He was very active, and walked very quickly, to return 
by the Penrith coach. He was very soon back again, having gone 
the distance at the rate of five miles an hour. He lost his errand, 
however, for Tom was at Robin Hood, two miles from Bassen- 
_ thwaite, and there was no time to send for him. Mr. Tilley en- 
trusted me with judging as to his fitness. I saw that he was very 
shy, but I believed him to be thoroughly competent. I took him 
_to Mr. T. S. Spedding, J.P., Greta Bank, to make the declaration, 
which Mr. Spedding read over to him, and then said, “You know, 
Tommy, it means that you are not to take anything that is not 
your own.” To which Tommy replied, “No, sir, I wadden’t for 
the wardeld.” 

Never were truer words spoken. For nearly forty years he 
travelled that long route with a mule and spring cart, and I cannot 
bring to mind a single instance of any report against him for 
mis-delivery or mistake of any kind. He had a remarkably good 
memory, and did his service very efficiently. So well had he done 
his duty, that when in 1862 he was laid up for a week or ten days, 
a private gentleman voluntarily undertook his duties, and drove 
his mail cart, to the great satisfaction of the whole neighbourhood. 


32 


Mr. Carlisle Wm. Wake, of Ormathwaite House, did this good 
service, making the usual declaration, which I still hold as a relic 
of his good nature; it bears date June 3rd, 1862. When Tom 
attained his sixtieth year, he retired upon a well-earned pension, 
and when I told him the amount, he said, “ Well, Mr. Crostet, I’s 
varra satisfied.” 

In the year 1854, a sub-office was established at Rosthwaite, 
and James Langhorn got the appointment of rural messenger 
through the late Mr. John Steel, M.P., who believed him to be 
related to Mr. Ben Langhorn, an esteemed old clerk in his office. 
James was quick-footed, and went this ever-increasing distance 
until he was seventy years of age. He went through flooded roads 
as often as fifty times in one year. The distance was increased 
by having to go to Borrowdale Gates and the Ellers. Once he 
went through a flood over Grange bridge, which he only succeeded 
in doing by the help of a young farmer who took his arm. He 
had to delivera letter toa Welsh clergyman who was corresponding 
about aliving. Having delivered the letter, the clergyman insisted 
that James should call on his return to take back his reply. 
“ Begging your pardon, sir, but I cannot; the flood is rising, and I 
cannot get back.” ‘But you must,” was the reply, “it is a matter 
of the greatest consequence to me.” James replied, “ And so is 
my life to me; I’ve got a wife and a small family.” James had 
two daughters as tall as himself; but he quietly told me that they 
were small in number, if not in stature. At seventy years of age 
he retired from the route, taking a pension, but was allowed to 
take a short round near the town as auxiliary postman, which made 
up his former wage, which he enjoyed until within three months 
of his decease, at the age of seventy-four years. He was very 
kindly treated by the numerous tourists who visited Borrowdale, 
to whom he was most obliging ; and he was frequently remembered 
by presents of books, and other tokens of friendship, on their 
return home, at Christmas and other times. He was a most exact 
and worthy man.* 

* The following appreciative paragraph appeared in the newspapers at the 
time of James Langhorn’s partial retirement :— 


Our RvRAL PostMEN.—The inhabitants of Borrowdale will learn with 
regret that they have lost the services of one of the most useful of public 


33 


In 1856, a sub-office was established at Threlked, and John 
Gill was appointed rural postman, an office which he held with 
great credit until 1876. He retired, after twenty-and-a-half years 
service, upon a small pension. During part of the time, he rodea 
white ‘mule, and it was a unique sight to see him ride into the 


‘metropolis of the lake country (not unfrequently with his spectacles 


on) reminding one of the old prophets we have read about. I tried 
to get his steed toll free, but it was decided that he could not be 
allowed that privilege. 

In the same year a rural post was established to Newlands. 
Here there was no office established. It is what is called a 
circular route, William Greenip, son of “old Bill’ before men- 
tioned, was the first to take the office. He went this route for 
sixteen years and a half, when he retired through rheumatism. He 
was very highly respected by the dalesmen of Newlands, and on 
his retirement was presented with a purse containing #11 (the 
only postman who ever received such a recognition of his services 
here), which was all the more appreciated by him because it was 
headed by General Sir John G. Woodford and Mrs. Spencer Bell, 
who appreciated his merit. He has still a small pension, having 
retired seventeen years ago. He is, like his late father, a naturalist, 
and a man full of local information, residing at Plosh, in the same 
house as that in which his father ended his days.* 

On October 8, 1860, a circular post was established for Naddle 


servants. On Saturday last Mr. James Langhorn, who for twenty-nine years has 


fulfilled the office of rural postman for Borrowdale, was placed upon the retired 
list, Mr. W. E. White being oppointed to fill the vacancy. During six days in 


_ the week for twenty-nine years, in every kind of weather (many a time during 
_ the winter months having to ford the pathway waist deep in water). ‘‘ Old 
_ Jimmy,” as he is familiarly called by the inhabitants and visitors, has trudged 


on foot in the exercise of his duty eighteen miles per day, or upwards of 162,000 
miles during his period of service, nearly seven times the circumference of the 
earth. ‘‘Jimmy’s” familiar figure will be missed by many of the visitors to the 
district, by whom he was well known and respected for his civility and 
attention. 


_ * In Natural History he has studied Insects, Birds, Birds’ Eggs, Geology, 


Mineralogy, Fossils (Graptolites of the Skiddaw Slate). In Botany, Ferns and 


nearly allied plants only. Of each of these he has specimens, which he disposes 
of to purchasers. 


3 


34 


(Nathdale or Littledale), in the vale of St. John’s. This was not 
an official appointment, but an allowance to the postmaster of 
seven shillings a week to find a man. Being the first piece of 
patronage of which I was possessed, I hit upon an old and respected 
school-fellow, John Musgrave, who undertook the duties, which he 
is still performing to the satisfaction of the department and the 
dalesfolk. His route has been gradually increased until he is now 
paid thirteen shillings and sixpence a week. 

I have also to mention another circular post through the larger 
portion of the Vale of St. John’s. This was commenced on the 
30th of July, 1883. The authorities call it the Shundraw (or 
St. John’s Vale post), Shundraw being a corruption of the ancient 
name Shundray Howe. 

Thus it will be seen that from time to time the indefatigable 
surveyors of the district forecast the wants of the neighbourhood, 
and a system of local distribution of letters has been most ingeni- 
ously worked out. I was only too ready to fall in with every 
accommodation of this kind, and to help it forward. The result 
is, that there is scarcely a single outlying place within any reason- 
able distance which has not a daily delivery of letters, Sunday only 
excepted. 

When the Windermere railway was completed, Windermere 
(formerly Birthwaite) was created a head post office, and Keswick 
and Ambleside were reduced to sub-offices under Windermere. I 
did not much like giving up the direct bag to London, and to have 
tocorrespond through Windermere. Miss Mary Nicholson, of Amble- 
side, however, did not care, and said, ‘‘Let them take the honour— 
the salary is all the same.” She was a sprightly good clerk for her 
mother, who held the office for many years, and we became very 
intimate through official duties. This calls to memory how many 
ladies at that day had the sole charge of post offices. Miss Gott- 
waltz was postmistress of Preston ; Mrs. Mc.Glasson of Lancaster ; 
Mrs. Fenton of Kendal; Mrs. Nicholson of Ambleside; Miss Jane 
Kitchen of Maryport; and shortly before, Miss Collins of Work- 
ington. Iam bound to say that ladies are excellent employees in 
the post office. 


35 


Early in my tenure of office my two sisters gave me very efficient 
help; later on, my three daughters ; and all along, my wife; and 
for many years my sister-in-law, Miss Crowdon. The Telegraph 
service has brought in a large number of female clerks into the 
large offices especially. My relative, Miss Kate Crosthwaite, has 
been in the Liverpool office for some years, acting in various 
branches of the service, and was within the last few months raised 
to be a clerk of the first class. 

I 1870, Keswick was again raised to the dignity of a head office, 
much to my satisfaction. How the letters, newspapers, and book 
_ postage graduallyincreased may be readilyimagined. But the depart- 
ment added on to the duties in 1861, Post Office Savings Banks, 
which at Keswick has flourished without diminishing the deposits 
of the old Keswick Savings Bank, which has been presided over 
with untiring devotion by the Rev. John Taylor of St. John’s-in- 
the-Vale (coming in every Saturday through all kinds of sweather) 
for the last thirty-three years. This is an instance of perseverance 
in the good work which would have charmed the late Mr. William 
Denton, whose successor he became at his earnest request. ‘The 
present amount of deposits in that bank amount to £19,637 9s. 3d. 
Notwithstanding the steady prosperity of the old Savings Bank, the 
Post Office Savings Bank at the Keswick office has opened 1,354 
accounts for persons who have no deposits in the old bank. The 
two banks for savings never interfered with each other. The Post 
Office Savings Bank receives deposits from travelling tradesfolks 
and young people, who can deposit one shilling and upwards at a 
time. The transactions at Keswick branch during the year 1888 
were—number of deposits 828, and withdrawals 225. 

Thad held the office of Sub-Distributor of Stamps under the late 

Mr. William Wordsworth of Carlisle, since 1846, and in 1868 
Keswick was raised to be a head distributor’s office. I resigned 
this office, and it passed into three other hands, each in turn giving 
_ it up because it did not pay them. It came back to me, however, 
by order of the Post Office Department, and I held that post 
again until my retirement ; and so it continues with my successor. 

In 1870, the Telegraph Service was put upon the Post Office, 


36 


which brought a large amount of extra responsibility. Then came 
the Government Annuities scheme, which has been taken advan- 
tage of by several provident persons. Lastly came the Parcels 
Post, in the year 1884. I thought this was the last straw to break 
the camel’s back. But I never grumbled, but cheerfully carried 
out an arrangement which has proved to be a great success. I 
built a parcels office which answered admirably. 

In the year 1850, my predecessor as postmaster retired from the 
Cumberland Union Bank, for which he had been agent since 1837. 
He told me of his intention, and he advised me to apply for the 
office. The late Mr. James Stanger recommended me to the 
directors, and volunteered to be one of my sureties, as did also my 
friend the late Mr. Abraham Fisher, as soon as he heard of it. I 
called upon the Rev. Frederick Myers, who volunteered his support, 
and with quiet humour he asked me, “ How much have you for 
the Post Office?” I replied £60. ‘And how much will the 
Bank give?” I said £60. He smiled and said, “ Why, you will 
be as well off as our curates !” 

This was in the day of small things. I then gave up my own 
business, and devoted my time entirely to the development of the 
two offices. In the year 1864 the Cumberland Union Bank built 
a new bank and dwelling-house immediately opposite to Museum 
Square. In addition, a new office for my accommodation as post- 
master. ‘There was no allowance for office rent from the depart- 
ment until very recently, so that I was indebted to the bank for 
the improved accommodation which was given to the public 
according to a plan suggested by the surveyor. 

Mr. Atkinson was postmaster from 1808 to 1846, for the long 
period of thirty-eight years ; and I, from 1846 till 1888, giving me 
forty-two years tenure of office. So that between us we held the 
postmastership for eighty years. Perhaps there are few offices 
which have had a similar experience. 

For more than three years I was intent upon retiring from the 
postmastership, and I consulted the late Mr. James, my surveyor, 
upon the subject. He came to see me, and kindly promised me 
extra help, and said that I must have a holiday, and I must on no 


37 


account give it up. He was good enough to say, “You do it so 
well, we won’t let you.” Mr. James was a year or two my junior, 
and he himself found it necessary to retire, and he only lived six 
months after he left the service. He was a most amiable gentle- 
man, and the whole northern district regretted him. 


When in Manchester seeing the great Exhibition in 1887, I 
called upon my first preceptor, Mr. John St. Lawrence Beaufort, 
then postmaster of Manchester. I thought him looking very aged. 
I thought he might be ten years my senior. I reminded him of 
the attack of asthma he had at Keswick. He said, “ Yes, the 
attacks were violent when they came then ;” and, touching his 
chest, he added, “but now it is there always.” I had touched a 
chord of memory which led him to ask if I ever saw his good 
. friend Mr. Lawrence Harrison, and how he was. I told him that 
I had seen him shortly before, and he was still as straight as an 
arrow. He then said, ‘ Do you ever see Mrs, Teather? and how 
is she?” To this I was also able to answer him, that she was living 
at Keswick, and very well for her years. Ina few short weeks he 
passed away, and having died in harness, there was great respect 
shown to his worth by the public funeral, which took place at 
Prestwich, at which my friend Mr. J. D. Rich, the esteemed post 
master of Liverpool, and many officials of the Post Office far and 
near, attended. I was surprised to find, when I saw the notice of 
his decease, that he was only one year my senior. 


_ This event spurred me on in my determination to retire, I 

again applied to my chief, Mr. G. A. Yeld, for his advice and 
assistance, which he accorded to me in such a way as shall ever be 
gratefully remembered by me. 


I served under seven surveyors. Mr. John Tilley was the first. 
When he became secretary to the General Post Office, I wrote to 
congratulate him. He replied as follows :— 

‘**March 22nd, 1864. 

‘*My Dear Sir, 

*‘T am very much obliged to you indeed for writing to congratulate 


te on my appointment. It was very kind of you. Iam glad that you too 
have prospered, Very faithfully yours, j- TILLEy,” 


38 


When Mr. John St. L. Beaufort left the Northern District to be 
surveyor in Wales, I wrote to congratulate him, and here is his 


reply :-— 


** Dear Sir, 

“‘T am much obliged by your congratulations on my promotion, and 
your good wishes for my future prosperity. I should be glad if I could find 
even a few of my postmasters in this district as zealous and attentive as I always 
found you, and I wish you success and happiness. J. St. L. BEAUFORT.” 


‘*Oswestry, 18th Nov., 1854. 


Mr. John Patten Goode succeeded Mr. Tilley as surveyor of the 
Northern District, and he was Goode by name and good by nature. 
If I could extend my paper I could recount many kind and 
considerate acts of his to myself and my subordinates, but time 
forbids. He went into the south in the same capacity, and I 
believe he is still living, although retired from the service. 

My next surveyor was Mr. Christopher Hodgson, a Carlisle 
gentleman, and an intimate friend of the late Mr. Joseph Hall, 
solicitor, of Keswick. He died a comparatively young man, but 
he was as energetic and efficient in the service as any of his prede- 
cessors. 


Then came Mr. Richard Hobson, also a Cumberland gentleman, 
a most energetic officer, who left us to occupy the important post- 
mastership of Glasgow. He is also surveyor of his own office, 
and of a large district adjacent to Glasgow. I have had many 
proofs of his goodwill since he left us, and I believe there is not a 
more efficient officer in the public service anywhere. 


Mr. Hobson was succeeded by Mr. T. B. Harkness, another 
Cumberland gentleman. He retired from the service in middle 
age, and is since deceased. He was a most estimable man, and 
was much regretted. 


Mr. Henry James succeeded him, and I have already spoken of 
the kindly way in which he acted when I asked his advice as to 
my retirement. Mountains of difficulty arose to my mind’s eye in 
contemplating the change; the principal one, however, was, what 
would become of my subordinates. I had received an allowance 
for assistance, and had disbursed myself for this help far in excess 


39 


of the allowance. ‘This was perfectly right, so far as I was con- 
cerned, but how was it to be made up on my retirement? Mr. 
James set on foot a new organization of the office, which ended in 
my two eldest subordinates being made first and second clerks in 
the establishment, at the same pay which I had hitherto given to 
them. Mr. Daniel Crosthwaite became chief clerk, and Mr. 
Edward Peel second. ‘The unappointed clerks were also continued 
at the same remuneration as they had been receiving before. I 
now felt quite easy in the prospect of retirement. 


The seventh surveyor, Mr. G. A. Yeld (whom I had known 
before in this district) made my retirement as agreeable as possible, 
and thus assisted in every way in rewarding an old servant of the 
Post Office. My experience of the treatment which the depart- 
ment always accorded to me, leaves grateful recollection upon my 
memory. 


I am afraid I have wearied you with my long story. I have said 
nothing with regard to the present amount of labour, and the 
extent to which the service has grown, 


I have before me a return of letters, book packets and circulars, 
newspapers, and post cards, from 1870 to 1888. I give you the 
first and last years, which contrast with my predecessor’s remark, 
that he could put all the correspondence in his breeches pocket. 
I take a week in the month of August, which is perhaps the highest 
in the season :— 


Books and News- 
Letters Postal Circulars papers Post Cards Total Parcels 


1870 =. 7,691 1,517 885 639 10,732 — 
1888 10,660 2,106 1,772 °'' 1,179 15,717. 9 SS 


When it is considered that this increase has taken place despite 
the receding manufacturing industries of Keswick, especially the 
entire loss of woollen manufacture, I think it proves one thing, 
"which is, that the accommodation given by the Post Office depart- 
ment has anticipated the requirements of the neighbourhood, and 
helped on the prosperity of the country. 


The Telegraph Service has gradually developed, and the following 


40 


figures will show the aggregate for the year ending December 31st, 
1883 :— 
Forwarded Received Transmitted Total 


8,214 7,800 6,201 22,215 


The money business for the same period was as follows :— 


Money Orders issued... 1,479 


Do. paid ee Lj2r7 } ents 


The Postal Orders issued and paid far exceed the money orders, 
the numbers being for the same year (1888) as follows :— 


Postal Orders issued cet 11,239 


Do. paid 53 6,232 } otal a7 ate 


This enormous increase of the use of Postal Orders has caused a 
decrease in the number of letters registered during the last year, 
but they are still very numerous :— 


Year At Keswick At Sub-Offices Total 
1887 1,867 698 2,565 
18388 1,139 756 1,895 


Showing a Decrease of 670 


At the outset I mentioned that I had only one female letter 


carrier and myself to do the whole work of the office, except of 


course the assistance I had from my family. To contrast with 
this, the service had grown until there were, when I retired, no 
fewer than thirty-five persons in connexion with Keswick and the 
sub-offices under Keswick, viz :— 


Postmaster I 
Clerks and Assistants 4 
Sub-Postmasters 7 
Rural Postmen .... ia ate Ms °) 
Town Letter Carriers... i a 5 
Telegraph Messengers ... “es ave 6 
Sub-Office Rural Postmen nis ane 5 


Total 35 


FS 


41 


I retired from the postmastership on the 31st of May, 1888. I 
was completely relieved of my duties on that day by Mr. Christo- 
pher Newby, who came as officer in charge. This relief, coming 
before entering upon another summer’s duties, was so opportune, 
that I did not need to be exhorted to “rest and be thankful.” 

The office was advertised in the Weekly Postal Circular, which 
goes to every office in the United Kingdom. It was open to all 


officers of the Post Office department, and applications were made 


by candidates through their superior officers, from Manchester, 
_ Liverpool, Glasgow, Carlisle, Penrith, Whitehaven, and other places. 
These cases had each to be examined into, and, after six months, 
_ the appointment was given to Mr. Wm. Mc.Kenzie, chief clerk in 
the Whitehaven Post Office, with which he had been connected 
_ for eighteen years. From his long experience he is eminently 
qualified for the post, and he had my hearty congratulations on 
_ coming to take charge of the office, which I am sure he will fill to 
_ the entire satisfaction of the department; and the townspeople 
will find him in every way well qualified to discharge his onerous 
_ duties. He already likes Keswick, and I believe the people of 
Keswick will soon find cause to like him. I am sure that he will 
_ receive the same friendly reception which Keswick folks are in the 
_ habit of according to those who come to settle in the town. 


s ° 7 — 


43 


THE HELM WIND. 


By J. G. GOODCHILD, H.M. GEoL. SURVEY. 


One of the chief objects of the Cumberland and Westmorland 
- Association is the investigation of any local phenomena of special 
interest, particularly those that happen to be peculiar to the 
district, and that are at the same time imperfectly understood. It 
seems to me that the subject of the Helm Wind is pre-eminently 
_ of this nature. 

Sit is nearly peculiar to that part of Cumberland and West- 
-morland traversed by the river Eden, which, for want of a 
better name, I have commonly referred to as Edenside. Much 
has been written about the Helm Wind during the last two 
centuries (in both prose and verse), and yet it seems to me that 
the nature of the phenomenon, or at all events the exact nature of 
the causes that give rise to it, is as far off being well understood 
-asever. ‘The facts themselves are simple enough, and are known, 
only too well, to nearly every dweller by the fellsides where the 
wind prevails. Briefly stated they are something of this nature :— 
certain seasons of the year, most commonly in the late spring, 
a violent wind, with a prevalent easterly direction, rushes down- 
ward from the higher parts of the Cross Fell Escarpment, sweeps 
short distance outward across the lowlands at its foot, and then, 


44 


Helm Wind descends with greatest force in the neighbourhood of 
the highest elevation of the Escarpment, being strongest along a 
zone extending a few miles on each side of Cross Fell, and 
gradually diminishing in force in proportion to the distance on 
either side from this centre. 

But that is not its only peculiarity. While a furious gale is 
rushing down the lower part of the Escarpment, repeated observa- 
tion has shewn that on the summit, as well as on its windward 
side, the gale gradually declines in force; so that while ‘the 
Helm is on” at Milburn, for example, there is hardly any wind at 
all at the back of Dun Fell, although that lies in what seafaring 
men call the wind’s eye in relation to that village. 

While the wind prevails a long spindle-shaped mass of cloud 
remains in apparent suspension at a variable distance above the 
line of highest ground on both sides of Cross Fell. It is probably 
the almost constant accompaniment of this covering, or helm, of 
visible moisture, that has gained for the wind its popular name. 
The word helm, of course, is an old English word for a covering, 
cap, or something that conceals the head. 

Let us regard the facts in another light. If we are travelling, 
say, from Alston towards Penrith when the conditions suitable for 
the development of the wind obtain, we might travel upwards to 
the summit ridge without noticing more than a moderate breeze 
setting westwards, up the slopes, or in the direction of the Escarp- 
ment. The cloud hanging above the line of highest ground would 
be present, but would probably attract but little attention in a 
district where mists are so commonly present. On descending 
the road, however, we should find at first a strong breeze setting 
in; and, as we advance towards the foot of the declivity this 
breeze would seem to rapidly increase in force, until it eventually 
takes on the character of a violent gale, whose greatest force is 
experienced near the zone where the mountain slopes merge into 
the undulating lowlands that range at their foot. After passing 
through Melmerby, it would be noticed that the gale gradually 
diminished in force; and at the distance of a mile or so in the 
direction of Penrith it appears to drop entirely, The wind, so far, 


4 45 


has been blowing, in the main, from east to west; but on arriving 
oF. at the brow above Langanby we should commonly find a gentle 
breeze blowing from the opposite direction, or from west eastwards 
_ —from the lowlands in the direction of the Escarpment. 
Phenomena of exactly the same nature prevail all along the zone 
_ traversed by the Helm Wind, whether the observation be made at 
Melmerby, at Kirkland, at Milburn, or at Knock. There is a 
long narrow zone of country along the fell sides where the violent 
easterly wind prevails, while parallel to that zone lies another 
where there is a small belt of calms, which again has on its lowland 
side a zone of gentle breezes travelling from the west to the east. 

More extended observations upon the direction of the Helm 
Wind shew that we are dealing with a cyclone, which is generated 
by some peculiar local causes, and which is clearly advancing in a 
spiral direction from the S.E. towards the N.W. along an axis 
situated a few hundred feet above the ground at the foot of the 
_ Escarpment. We have, in fact, phenomena analagous to a water- 
fall, only that instead of the visible fluid water, our cataract consists 
of the invisible fluid air. 

Everyone that has considered the subject has perceived that 
there must be an intimate connection between this phenomenon 
and the shape of the ground in the locality where the Helm Wind 
‘is generated. To understand this we must examine the local 
‘physiography a little more closely. From Carlisle it is hardly 
possible to obtain anything like just ideas upon the features that 
are essential in the present case. The true nature of the surface 
telief is best gathered from such points of view as the summits of 
the hills west of the Eden, especially from those between Lazonby 
‘and Penrith. Eastward from such a standpoint the general level 
of the broader features of the surface gradually declines until it 
‘merges into a gently undulating plain, which the eye can easily 
trace past Melmerby, Milburn, Dufton, and Murton to Brough, on 
he one hand; and, in the other direction can be as easily followed 
until it merges into the plain bordering on the Solway.* 


_ * This plain is the Third Plain of my former papers, and is probably of 
-Precretaceous age. 


46 


Beyond the eastern limit of this plain rises abruptly the bold 
features of the Cross Fell Escarpment (or what fellsiders call the 
Black Fell Side); whose steep slopes and elevated summits form a 
most striking contrast with the lowlands at their feet. The 
average level of the plain is about seven hundred feet above the 
sea; that of the summit of the Escarpment rises above that level 
nearly two thousand feet. 

It should be noted that the Escarpment itself ranges from 
south-east to north-west, so that its slopes face in such a direction 
as to receive the full strength of the sun’s rays during the warmer 
parts of the day. There is, therefore, but little peat except in a 
few sheltered hollows. Moreover the steep slope tends to run the 
surface water off quickly, and thereby to keep the surface drier 
than it would be otherwise. More than that. The general inclin- 
ation of the strata there is inward from the face of the Escarpment ; 
so that even the underground drainage is conducted towards the 
east. All these causes tend to promote a warmer and a drier 
condition of the surface than would usually characterise uplands 
of the same general nature but differently placed. The general 
effect of the sun’s rays falling upon the Escarpment is to raise the 
temperature, and therefore to lower the density, of the air next it, 
to almost the same extent as prevails over the adjoining lowlands 
of Edenside. When, therefore, no extraneous currents intervene 
to cause disturbance, the air from the lowlands has a general 
tendency to rise. 

Now if we shift our place of observation to one of the eminences 
of the Escarpment and compare the physiography of the surface 
at the back of the fellside with that we have just seen, a marked 
contrast is at once evident. From the summit crest the mountain 
tops (which represent, nearly, the original level of a great plain 
inclined eastward) gradually fall in elevation as they are traced 
towards the north-east and the east. The valleys are mere 
accidental depressions due to the removal by denudation of part 
of the old plain; they may be left out of account in the present 
enquiry. Looking at the surface as a whole one sees that it 
consists of a vast extent of dark moory uplands, overspread nearly 


ee et ee 


oa ee 


47 


everywhere by a mantle of black, sodden, spongy peat, whence, at 
most seasons of the year, moisture oozes out and saturates every- 
thing within reach. It is only along a crag, or at the bottoms of 
a few valleys that drier conditions prevail. 

This marked difference in the physiography of the regions at the 
back of the fell and along its face, or on either side of the Escarp- 
ment, is intimately connected with the factors concerned in the 
generation of the Helm Wind. What happens I conceive to be 
this. A light breeze blowing from east to west strikes the shores 
of Durham and travels inland. Where the wind traverses the 


ay 


warmer and drier lowlands bordering the coast its temperature is 
slightly raised, and its density diminished in proportion. Travelling 
inland, it encounters, on the west side of a north and south line 
through Bishop Auckland, the commencement.of the slope whose 
westward continuation forms the moory uplands just referred to. 
Here the wind passes across a surface that is perennially moist, 
and, as it travels inland, it traverses for a distance of nearly thirty 
miles in a direct line, a surface wrapped in wet peat, whose 
‘moisture is in a condition the most favourable possible for rapid 
evaporation. Millions of tons of water must be withdrawn from 
_the wet peat daily by the action of the wind alone. As a result of 
this process of evaporation the temperature of the air becomes 
_ lower and lower by this cause, as it travels nearer to the Escarp- 
ment. With the lowering of the temperature the density of the 
air is increased, and reaches its maximum density where the 
culminating ridge is attained. Another factor may contribute to 
the same result, namely, the heaping up of the air driven from the 
sea level up a slope to an elevation of between two thousand and 
, ree thousand feet above the sea. Mr. William Atkinson of 
Knock considers that this is the most important factor of all in 
‘the generation of the Helm Wind. Be either factor the more 
important, or be both equally concerned, it is quite certain that 
the denser mass of air moving westward presently reaches the edge 
of the Escarpment, where, as we have seen, the surface rapidly 
alls to a level lower by nearly two thousand feet. It is along this 
zone that we meet with the thick stratum of warmer and lighter 


48 


air, which is constantly tending to rise from the lowlands of Eden- 
side and the face of the Escarpment. The two strata—the colder 
and denser stratum, and the warmer and rarer, therefore meet 
along this line. An abrupt disturbance of equilibrium ensues. 
The heavier mass (or that which is most compressed, according to 
Mr. Atkinson) at once begins to flow to the lower level, rapidly 
increasing in velocity as it descends, until its rate of motion 
amounts to that of a gale. On reaching the lowlands its momentum 
causes it to rebound, and to rise some distance above the surface, 
where it resumes its initial direction and flows on until it reaches 
the zone where complete equilibrium is restored. As the direction’ 
of the Escarpment, and therefore of the zone where the wind is 
generated, is inclined thirty degrees or more to the direction of 
the east wind, a spiral movement is propagated. This may be 
better understood by tracing the course taken by any light body 
transported by the wind. Such a body would reach the ground at 
Milburn from a starting place on Dufton Fell, it would travel from 
Milburn outwards to Blencarn, thence, rising in the air it would be 
carried over Ousby by the spiral current and then again to the 
low ground, say at Melmerby. 

The locus of strongest impact of the Helm Wind must vary 
greatly according to local circumstances. Usually it would sweep 
down directly upon the fell sides and expend its force before 
reaching the lowland area adjoining. But as there are necessarily 
considerable variations in both the direction and the force of the 
generating currents of air, the. zone where the wind strikes the 
ground with greatest force must vary accordingly. This enables 
us to account for the curious fact that sometimes the Helm Wind 
is blowing violently on the lower part of the fells, while a mile or 
two outward in the direction of the lowlands a comparative calm 
prevails ; or, on the other hand, that a strong wind may be blowing 
along a zone parallel to the fells while there is almost no wind at 
all on the slopes adjoining. 

The Helm Bar does not call for any special remark, as the 
mode of formation of any such apparently-stationary masses of 
visible moisture is already well known. 

[It is right to mention that this paper is based upon the paragraph on the 


“*Helm Wind” given in my ange “Westmorland” in the latest edition of the 
Lncyclopedia Britannica,—J. G 


49 


THE BOTANY OF THE SOLWAY SHORE.* 


Parts 2 and 3. 


By WM. HODGSON, Esa., A.L.S., BOTANICAL RECORDER TO 
THE ASSOCIATION. : 


' (Read at Carlisle and at Longtown. ) 


UMBELLIFERA. 


Hydrocotyle vulgaris, common in swamps and bogs quite down 
to shore level; very common in Salta Moss, by Dubmill. The 
smallest native umbellifer. Sanicula europea, not so closely 
_ approaching the coast as the foregoing, but conspicuously plentiful 
‘in Flimby Wood, and similar localities. Eryngium maritimum ; 
_ the Sea Holly is everywhere plentiful along the shore where. light . 
sand and gravel prevail, and is highly ornamental when seen in 
full bloom a little after midsummer. <Afium graveolens, on the 
contrary, is comparatively rare, and found only on muddy flats or 
_ by the edge of creeks, mostly within the reach of tidal influence, 
as the Cloffocks at Workington, Whitrigg Marsh, Kirkbride, &c 
_Lffelostiadium nodifiorum appears by the Old Reservoir at Maryport, 
and in the brook which empties into the sea close to Bank End farm; 
and H7. inundatum grows in abundance in a swampy little patch of 
ground close to the seaside pathway near the Workington Artillery 
‘storehouse. igopodium podagraria flourishes on rubbish heaps 
and patches of waste ground, whether on the beach or far removed 
‘inland. Bunium flexuosum, on the drier parts of the coast frequent, 
and very widely distributed. Pimpinella saxifraga abounds in 


* The publication of this paper was unavoidably postponed last year. 
4 


00 


similar situations, and is especially plentiful between Flimby and 
Workington. upleurum rotundifolium,; only once seen on the 
Silloth ballast heaps, with other casuals, in 1881, and not likely to 
be permanently established. Cnanthe fistulosa grew formerly in 
small quantity in swampy ground near the Old Kiln farm at Dub- 
mill, but not seen there in 1887 or 1888. (@. crocata; rather too 
plentiful by brooks or in swampy localities ; a somewhat dangerous 
plant, as cattle have been poisoned by cropping its foliage or 
masticating the digitate roots when rendered soft by exposure to 
the atmosphere, on banks where they have been carelessly thrown 
on clearing out watercourses in winter; it grows in great plenty 
and luxuriance on the south bank of the Old Reservoir at Mary- 
port, &c. Crithmum maritimum, the “‘Samphire” of Shakespeare, 
grows on the cliffs at St. Bees, and has occasionally taken root on 
the beach on both sides of that headland, doubtless lodged there 
by the tide. Angelica sylvestris, locally ‘‘Smooth Kesh,” is found 
from shore level at Maryport and elsewhere, almost up to an 
altitude of 2000 feet by some of our mountain streams. eracleum 
sphondylium, “ Rough Kesh,” or Hogweed, is almost universally 
distributed, though not reaching an elevation so lofty as the 
Smooth Kesh. Daucus carota; plentiful in friable or sandy soil 
all along the coast. Caucalis daucoides ; not reckoned indigenous, 
perhaps, in any part of Cumberland ; has appeared at Maryport, 
Whitehaven, and Silloth ; at the last mentioned station for several 
years in succession. Cherophyllum sylvestre; a common hedgerow 
plant, and one of the earliest-flowering members of this extensive 
order. C. temulum; equally plentiful with the last, but a little 
later in coming into flower, and further distinguished by its less 
robust habit, and purplish and hairy flower stalks; in full bloom 
about ten days before midsummer. JZyrrhis odorata ; usually not 
far from houses, leading to the inference that it has been cultivated 
by our ancestors for some economic purpose; in my boyhood, I 
have seen beekeepers rub the inside of empty hives with the 
fragrant leaves of ‘Sweet Cicely” as an inducement to the newly 
swarmed bees to take possession of their perfumed dwelling; I 
remain sceptical as to the efficacy of the proceeding. Svandix pec- 


51 


_ tenveneris once grew about the Bent-hills, Maryport, but has been 
quite obliterated there by unsightly slag-banks from the iron fur- 
naces. Conium maculatum, not unfrequently seen towards the 
coast, and is rather common about Workington, High Harrington, 
&e. 


ARALIACEA. 


The only British representative of this order is Hedera helix, 
Common Ivy, a well known ornament of old trees and ruined 
buildings. 


CAPRIFOLIACEA. 


' Adoxa moschatellina ; this pretty little species is to be found as 
_ early as April on dry hedgebanks ; from the peculiar arrangement 
_ of its flowers, Carlisle youngsters have nicknamed it ‘The Town 
_ Hall Clock.” Sambucus nigra; a well-known tree, from the fruit 
of which, or rather its expressed juice, a pleasant beverage known 
as ‘‘Elder-berry Syrup,” is concocted by village housewives. ovz- 
| cera periclymenum ; few shrubs are better known even by children 
than the Honeysuckle, the fragrance of whose blossoms we have 
all appreciated in the hedgerows of country lanes. 


RUBIACEZ. 


Many of the Bed-Straw family are to be met with during seaside 
rambles ; among others may be enumerated Galium cruciatum and 
_ G. verum, both with yellow blossoms ; while G. mollugo, G. saxatile, 
_G. palustre, G. uliginosum, and G. aparine all produce white 
flowers. Asperula odorata, better known as Sweet-scented Wood- 
‘tuffe, though sparsely found towards the shore, is yet remarkably 
abundant in Flimby Wood, and other places but little distant 
from it. 


VALERIANACES. 


_Valeriana dioica; though the swampy upland meadows of the 
Lake District are the proper home of this species, it is occasionally 
“met with near the shore where sufficient moisture prevails. 


52 


V. officinalis, also a swamp-loving plant, approaches the coast; I 
gathered very luxuriant specimens on the seaside rocks near Har- 
rington in 1888. Vaderianelia olitoria, cultivated in former times 
as a salad herb, under the name of “Lamb’s Lettuce,” appears 
plentifully on dry banks in the neighbourhood of Bowness and 
elsewhere ; its early maturity is leading to its re-introduction to 
garden culture in some parts of the kingdom. 


DIPSACE&. 


Scabiosa succisa is everywhere present in moist meadow and 
pasture ground. .S. arvensis, plentiful on dry banks among sand 
or gravel, particularly in the neighbourhood of Whitehaven, where 
its large lilac flowers are very showy. Mr. Duckworth tells that at 
an exhibition of wild flowers its introduction into a child’s bouquet 
led to disqualification, on the ground of its being a garden plant. 


ComMPposIT&. 


Carduus tenuifiorus, has grown in patches during several seasons 
on a railway embankment leading to the Senhouse Dock at Mary- 
port ; also observed at Silloth by Miss Glaister of Black Dyke. 
C. nutans, reported from Silloth both by Miss Glaister and Dr. 
Leitch ; other stations are assigned for this species, none of which 
are sufficiently near the coast to merit a place here. C. erispus, 
a very abundant species confined to light friable soils, on rubbish 
heaps and hedgebanks, and seldom found in ground under tillage ; 
at Workington, Flimby, Silloth, &c. C. danceolatus is but too well 
known as the Burr Thistle. C. palustris, frequently found with 
white flowers, is rarely absent from ancient meadows, especially 
where moisture is prevalent. C. arvensis is, however, the greatest 
pest to the agriculturist, being well nigh ubiquitous, and difficult to 
eradicate. Arctium lappa; the singularly hooked heads of the 
Burdock are familiar to every mischievous little urchin. Centaurea 
nigra, the ‘‘Horse-knops” of local farmers, is another well-known 
form of plant life. C. cyanus has been found on the bailast heaps 
at Maryport, associated with C. melitensis and C. calocephala, both 
of foreign origin, and probably introduced with grain cargoes ; the 


53 


bright yellow blossoms of the latter are strikingly handsome and 
showy. Chrysanthemum segetum, as a weed of tillage very 
abundant in green crops, especially in the St. Bees district; I 
remember during a wet season, when the weeds had not died 
down in the furrows after being pulled up, seeing a field of turnips 
there presenting the appearance of being covered with a gigantic 
carpeting, striped alternately green and yellow. C. deucanthemum,; 
in boyhood I remember hearing a nonagenarian yeoman assert 
that within his recollection—dating probably one hundred and fifty 
years back—the Ox-eyed Daisy was unknown in the neighbourhood 
of Carlisle, and owed its introduction to imperfectly dressed samples 
of seed corn (oats). Matricaria inodora, one of the most abundant 
and conspicuous plants of the coast line, sometimes seen in too 
great plenty among corn crops far inland; two distinct varieties 
are recognised. Zanacetum vulgare, seen at remote intervals, and 
_ generally on rubbish out-thrown from gardens. Anthemis cotula, a 
_ few plants noticed of late years among ballast and rubbish de- 
posited on the beach near Maryport; its permanence is doubtful, 
and certainly not desirable. Achillea millefolium ; common every-= 
where ; a variety with pink blossoms is not infrequent on the shore 
line. A. ptarmica; not so generally distributed as the foregoing 
_ species, but far from being rare; prefers moisture. Artemisia 
_ vulgaris; not rare, but towards the coast confined to mud heaps 
or deposits on waste ground: on the North Shore at Workington 
_ near the Lonsdale Dock, about Risehow, and at Maryport. Fi/ago 
_ minima; this species, the least of the Cudweeds, grows most 
abundantly about Silloth. Gnaphatium uliginosum; a densely 
_ cottony plant; grows commonly in ditch sides, or places where 
water has stood during winter. Senecio vulgaris is pretty nearly 
_ ubiquitous as a garden weed, and a tenant of waste ground. 
_S. sylvaticus grows close to the shore in the neighbourhood of 
Dubmill, and about the Saltpans. _S. véscosus, the stinking species, 
flourishes in very great abundance on the North Shore at Work- 
ington, between the iron furnaces and the sea, and is fairly plentiful 
_ along the coast to Silloth and Bowness, SS. jacodea and SS. aguaticus 
are also of common occurrence, the former in dry pastures, and 


54 


the latter in watery places. Bellis perennis, our oldest friend, the 
Daisy, common everywhere. Aster ¢ripolium; not infrequent on 
muddy banks overflowed by the tide, about river estuaries, from 
Millom to Bowness. Solidago virgo-aurea; rarely approaches the 
coast, though seen on the rocky bluffs between Harrington and 
Whitehaven. TZussilago farfara; a plant of wide distribution, and 
distinctly unpopular with the farming community, is the common 
Coltsfoot. Petasites vulgaris, sometimes called Giant Coltsfoot, is 
found by river banks quite down to their confluence with the sea. 
Eupatorium cannabinum flourishes in great abundance on the Har- 
rington rocks, just referred to in connection with Golden Rod. 
Cichorium intybus ; not indigenous here, but is sometimes found 
in forage crops, introduced probably among ryegrass or clover 
seeds; some years ago this very pretty plant was cultivated at 
Hayton, near Aspatria, on behalf of a firm of grocers in Liverpool 
who had family connections with Hayton, Lafsana vulcaris ; 
a plant of extensive distribution, as well towards the coast, as 
inland ; few rubbish heaps or patches of waste ground are without 
specimens. Ayfocheris radicata; not infrequent in sandy loam, 
which its roots penetrate to a considerable depth. Leontodon 
hirtus is reported from the coast sandhills at Drigg by Professor 
D. Oliver. Z. hispidus; like others of the family, flourishes in 
deep sandy loam. JZ. auéumnalis; the most frequently met with 
of any of the Hawkbits; common in fog-time in many of the 
meadows towards the shore. Zvagopogon pratensis; a common 
plant, found sparingly along the coast; but is plentiful along 
the line of the M. & C. Railway almost throughout its length. 
Taraxacum officinale ; almost universal in distribution ; the occur- 
rence of a somewhat rare variety, Z: erythrospermum, has been 
reported from Silloth by my colleague, the Rev. R. Wood of 
Rosley Vicarage.  Sonchus oleraceus, S. asper, S. arvensis; 
examples of each of these are not unusual. Cvepis virens; an 
abundant species, assuming many varieties of form in different 
soils and under different aspects. Aieracium pilosella; a pretty 
little occupant of dry hedgebanks. Few of the Hawkweeds are 
occupants of the shore line. A vudgatum; not infrequent, 


55 


especially about quarry banks or railway cuttings ; in such situ- 
ations it is sometimes found in abundance, and may be classed as 
local rather than rare. 4. umbellatum; I have recently gathered 
this species growing among loose sand and gravel a few yards 
only from the Railway Station at Siddick Junction, on the side 
next to Flimby.  doreale; a common species, appearing 
frequently along the shore; very abundant by the railway between 
Dearham Bridge and Bullgill stations; a large and coarse- 
looking plant, nicknamed “Grim the collier” in some parts of 
Cumberland. 


CAMPANULACEZ, 


Jasione montana; a common occupant of friable soils towards the 
coast as well as inland; I remember seeing some fields near 
New Cooper quite covered with it, and haying a distinctly azure 
tint in consequence. Campanula latifolia; a characteristic orna- 
ment of most of our river banks, and found thereon quite down 
to shore level; strangers to the district are loud in their admir- 
ation of this grand-looking wild flower, which I have heard 
designated as the White Foxglove. C. rotundifolia; more abundant 
and widely-distributed than the species just referred to; Mr. W. 
Duckworth notes that its flowers may be expected to appear about 
the last week in June, which closely agrees with my own experi- 
ence, save that in more elevated districts, towards the mountains, 
_ the date may be a few days later. I remember the late Rev. H. H. 
Wood, F.R.S., telling me once that in his Dorsetshire parish, near 
_ Sherborne, the Bluebell was unknown, and so also was Senecto 
_ jacobwa, the Common Ragwort. How greatly we should miss 
them here ! 


‘ ErIcAcEéi, 

Vaccinium oxycoccos; commonly found in swampy uplands, 
_heaths, and peat-bogs; and only finds a place in these notes 
from its appearance in Salta Moss, close to the shore, behind 
Dubmill, though but sparingly represented there. V. myrtillus, 
_ Bleaberry of our dalesmen, also approaches close to the shore 


56 


at many stations along the coast, although the fruit in such 
places is decidedly inferior to that gathered on the mountains. 
Andromeda polifolia; found in abundance on Bowness Moss, and 
less frequently on Salta Moss; in both cases not much above 
shore level. rica tetralix, E. cinerea, Calluna vulgaris, are all 
more or less common in the Mosses already referred to; Z. cinerea 
also grows between the West Cumberland Iron Works and the 
beach ; its proper home, however, is among the rugged bluffs 
of Ennerdale, Wastdale, or Borrowdale, where its purple bloom 
makes a splendid show in July and August; the Pyrolas, which 
stand next in the Catalogue, are seldom found in proximity to 
the sea, although Pyrola minor grows in the drier parts of Flimby 
Wood. 


GENTIANACE. 


Erythrea litoralis is reported from Cardurnock by Dr. Leitch 
of Silloth, as is also Z. /atifolia from Birkby, near Maryport, by 
the same gentleman; the common type of Centaury, such as 
is sold in our market, is frequent in all the stiff soil over Flimby, 
Broughton, and Ellenborough Moors, &c. Aenyanthes trifoliata 
is found in Salta Moss, associated with several of the peat-loving 
species already referred to. 


CONVOLVULACEA. 


Convolvulus arvensis is abundant in a garden hedgerow at 
Flimby Vicarage; and C. sepium may be seen close to the beach 
at Waterloo Terrace in the same small parish. C. soldonelia, 
also on the beach near Fothergill, and here and there along the 
coast as far as Seascale, where it appears very showy on the 
gravelly shore. 


SOLANACEA. 


Solanum dulcamara ; this trailing shrub is conspicuously plen- 
tiful in a sea-side hedgerow not far from Bank End, Maryport ; 
common also about Mossbay. Ayoscyamus niger; once plentiful 
about the Maryport Railway station, though now obliterated ; 


57 


_ stray specimens occur about the Senhouse Dock, also at Silloth, 
and on a patch of waste ground at Dubmill ; very poisonous. 


SCROPHULARIACE, 


Verbascum thapsus, not infrequent on the dry sandhills along 
the coast, especially in the neighbourhood of Coulderton, a 
little way beyond our limits to the south. Scrophularia nodosa, 
“Stinking Roger,” a plant of considerable repute among our 
local medicine men, may frequently be encountered on rubbish 
heaps by the shore. Digitalis purpurea ; a stately and handsome 
plant, like the Daisy, Buttercup, and Bluebell, calling up remi- 
_ niscences of our earliest wanderings by copse or hedgerow, wanting 
only to be a native of Mexico or the Burman empire to qualify it 
_ for becoming a florist’s treasure. JLznaria elatine; reported by 
_Miss Glaister as growing plentifully at Pow Hill, Kirkbride. 

L. vulgaris, ‘Butter and Eggs,” common at several points along 
the shore; apt to spring up where recent embankments have 
_ been formed; inland it seems to prefer deep sandy loam, and 
is very plentiful about Aspatria and Bullgill. Veronica hederifolia; 
not a common species in Cumberland, but fairly plentiful where 
found; seldom perhaps near the sea, yet large patches appear on 
hedgebanks of both sides of the highway near the bridge crossing 
_the railway at Risehow. V. folita, and V. agrestis, closely-allied 
" species, are not unfrequent agrestal weeds in the light sandy fields 


which fringe the coast; the former is perhaps more confined to 
gardens. V. buxbaumii, not long ago was looked upon as a 
botanical rarity in Cumberland; is now spreading rapidly and 
becoming permanently established. Several patches may be seen 
on the rubbish heaps carted upon the beach from Risehow to 
‘Maryport ; near the railway sheds at Aspatria it has been noticed 
for twenty years ; luxuriant specimens were observed last autumn 
about the old sandstone quarries near Stockdalewath bridge. 
_V. arvensis; this species is found in cultivated fields where the 
‘soil is light and friable, frequently too it is met with on wall tops 
‘that have been capped with turf, Its flowers are very small, but 
Of a brilliant blue. V. serpyliifolia; on rubbish heaps not ins 


58 


frequent, but subject to much variety in size and appearance in 
different soils and aspects. V. officinalis; in grassy places fairly 
plentiful, though neither so common nor so conspicuous as 
V. chamedrys, the lovely and brilliant azure of whose coralla 
forms so striking an ornament on dry hedgebanks and patches of 
waste ground, in which situations its distribution is all but universal. 
V. montana ; not exactly a common species, though locally plen- 
tiful; in Flimby Wood it may be seen in perfection— very much 
resembling a sickly Germander with its colour washed partly out; 
this leads me to mention that in drying Veronicas for the 
herbarium, it is desirable to subject them to pressure with as 
little delay as possible, as the flowers quickly fade and drop from 
the stem on removal of the plant from the soil. V. scutellata; 
in appearance very unlike the rest of the family, having a weak 
straggling stem, with very narrow pointed leaves and pale-coloured 
flowers; is found chiefly about the edges of boggy pools or marshes ; 
it grows about Salta Moss, and may probably be found wherever 
swamps line the coast. V. anagadlis; not a very common, but a 
widely distributed species, luxuriating in deep spongy bogs or by 
the edges of slow-running streams. The finest examples on the 
coast line appear in some “scughs” between Allonby and Edder- 
side; but these, fine as they are, must yield the palm to the 
gigantic specimens that flourish in the well-known Newton Reigny 
Moss, about three miles west of Penrith. V. deccabunga, better 
known as Brooklime, is a very common gutter-side plant, not 
without repute in Cumberland for its medicinal uses. Luphrasia 
officinalis; common everywhere on the shore-line as inland, 
Bartsia odontides is also a quite common species, preferring 
moist localities, and apparently succeeding as well on sterile clay 
or peaty soils as on better-class loams. edicularis palustris and 
P. sylvatica, are frequently found; the larger, or Marsh Louse- 
wort, has leaves pinnate in form, with deeply toothed segments ; 
these leaves disposed in the shape of a rosette, before the stem 
is pushed upwards, form a very pretty object. hinanthus crista- 
galli; “Hen-pens” is a common plant of all our meadows, not 
at all popular with those who formerly wielded the scythe, before 


59 


that implement was superseded by the mowing-machine; var. 
major, on the North Shore, Workington. 


LABIATA. 


Lycopus europeus; this species is comparatively rare with us, 
_ but grows by the edges of peaty pools on Salta Moss behind Dub- 
mill. Mentha hirsuta; by slow-running ditches very prevalent ; 
many a time when fagged and weary with a long day’s tramp, 
have I felt refreshed by the powerful odour of its leaves when 
crushed in the hand. JZ arvensis; often too prevalent in foul 
crops ; its odour is not unpleasant, though not nearly so pungent 
as that of the Horsemint just mentioned ; the dried leaves, when 
powdered, are sometimes used as a seasoning in black-puddings 
Thymus serpyllum, common on dry banks along the entire coast 
line; bees seem very fond of it. Calamintha clinopodium ; another 


- xerophilous species, not unusual, though far less abundant than 


the wild thyme. JVefefa glechoma appears but rarely in proximity 
to the shore; a few plants in a hedge bank near Flimby Post 
Office. Prunella vulgaris, common in heavy soil, and on waste 
_ banks; also on sterile or poorly farmed pasture ground. Sadlota 
a nigra, in old lists reporfed from Workington Marsh, where it still 
holds its ground, zeste Rev. H. Friend. Stachys betonica, on hedge 


_ banks and the drier parts of meadow ground, not infrequent ; 


largely sought after by herbalists. S. germanica, gathered in 1886 
_ onthe ballast heaps at Maryport ; now obliterated by fresh deposits 
 ofsoil. S. palustris, in most localities ; a troublesome weed where 
prevalent. S. sylvatica, an occupant of most rubbish heaps and un- 
_ disturbed corners near dwellings ; a coarse-looking species, giving 
~ out an offensive odour when handled. S. arvensis, an annual species, 
_ of humbler growth than the other Woundworts, and less common, 
though locally abundant; plentiful in fields between Aigle-Gill 
brickworks and the shore west of Flimby. Galeopsis versicolor is 
_ a plant which I found growing upon upon a newly-raised railway 
embankment near Seaton Station in the summer of 1886; I am 
informed by Mr. Duckworth that it grows plentifullly northward of 
Carlisle, in the direction of Gretna, G, defrahi¢ is almost univers- 


60 


ally distributed, and is known as the “Dead Nettle” or “Day 
Nettle” of the Border folks’ speech. Zamium amplexicaule is 
common on the ballast heaps at Maryport; and, about Flimby, 
Aspatria, &c., is a common weed of cultivation. Z. écisum, and 
L. purpureum, the “Bad Man’s Posy” of Carlisle children, are 
both common about hedgerows and rubbish heaps. A white 
flowering variety of the latter species grows by the roadside 
between Dalston Village and the Railway Station. JZ. album isa 
conspicuous wayside weed from Maryport to Whitehaven and 
further. Ajuga reptans is also common in moist shady spots ; 
nowhere have I seen it in such abundance as in Flimby Wood. 
Teucrium scorodonia, though properly a plant of the hills, is yet 
abundant in some of the dry sandy hillocks near the shore in the 
neighbourhood of Harrington, &c. 


BORAGINACE. 


Echium vulgare; appears along the shore at intervals ; the most 
considerable patch is found on the beach behind the slag-bank 
at St. Helen’s Colliery, on the Workington side, where Glauctum 
Zuteum also is conspicuous; I find no mention of these plants in 
the lists of the late Mr. W. Dickinson, F.L.S., of Thorncroft; or 
the late Mr. D. Tweddle, of Workington, both of whom were 
diligent observers, and lived many years in the immediate neigh- 
bourhood ; the absence of all mention by them of the existence 
of two such remarkable plants, justifies the assumption that their 
establishment is of comparatively recent date. Mertensia mart- 
tima; the Rev. John Harryman, early in the present century, 
reported the occurrence of the “Oyster plant,” as it is called, 
between “ Maryport and Workington, sfaringly ;” the remark still 
holds good; but perhaps very sparingly would better represent 
the present state of affairs ; at Coulderton, Parton, and elsewhere, 
it has been observed; but never in any great abundance; it is 
a lovely plant, with deep green glossy and fleshy leaves, and 
flowers of brilliant azure tint; the whole plant turns black in 
drying.  Lithospermum arvense; one of the rarer plants of Cum- 
berland; a weed of tillage, of which I found several specimens in 


61 


a cornfield at Waterloo-terrace, Flimby, in the summer of 1886; 
the field had not previously been ploughed out for many years. 
Of the AZyosotis or “‘Forget-me-not” family, four species may be 
found in the vicinity of the shore-line ; these include JZ. palustris, 
the Forget-me-not proper, in brooks and ditches; JZ. repens, also 
a dweller by the water brooks; JZ, arvensis and M. versicolor on 
drier banks ; other species are found inland. Azchusa arvensis ; 
this hirsute plant, which at first sight might be mistaken for 
Echium vulgare, is fairly common in light sandy ground all along 
the coast from St. Bees to Silloth, at which latter station, as well 
as about Allonby, it is plentiful. Sywphytum officinale, as a waif 
from cultivation, is found about Parton, Harrington, &c.; at 
Flimby I have seen it along with S. ¢wberosum, in the garden of 
a herbalist ; I suspect that neither of them has any strong claim to 
be classed among our indigenous plants. <Asperugo procumbens 
has appeared in three successive seasons, 1885-86-87, on 
heaps of household- and garden refuse deposited on the beach 
near Maryport; it is a low, creeping plant, with very minute 
purple flowers ; the stalks are square, with sharply defined edges, 
and the entire plant is rough to the touch. 


PINGUICULACEA. 


Utricularia vulgaris; this rare plant is found plentifully in the 
Old Reservoir at Maryport, which was formerly the ancient bed 
_ of the River Ellen; since the establishment of water-works in the 
~ town, the volume of water in.the reservoir has considerably dimin- 
ished ; owing to that, or to some other cause not rightly ascertained, 
the number of flower spikes has become inconsiderable, although 
_ the curiously-shaped floating stems are to be seen in plenty. 
UU. minor; rows ina “sough” at Dubmill; but during the recent 
_ dry season its existence was grievously imperilled by the drought; 
_ the same remark is applicable to Aippuris vulgaris, which is 
associated with the Bladderwort; I never saw the latter plant in 
flower at Dubmill; in the herbarium of the late Mr. Dickinson 
_ isa dried specimen in bloom, labelled “Bog near Carlisle—per 
_ T. C. Heysham, Esq.” Query—What bog is here meant? 


62 


PRIMULACE. 


Primula vulgaris, and P. officinalis, the Common Primrose 
and the Cowslip, are familiar to every child; the former is often 
seen close to the shore, the latter more rarely. Glaux maritima ; 
abundant in salt-water marshes and by the edges of creeks, as 
the Cloffocks at Workington, Whitrigg and Skinburness marshes, 
&c.; the finest examples I have seen grow on the beach about 
Anthorn and Cardurnock. Samolus valerandi; much less plentiful 
than the foregoing ; I have seen it on the beach near Coulderton, 
where a little rill empties into the sea; and again under similar 
circumstances a little to the west of Bowness-on-Solway. 


PLUMBAGINACE&. 


Armeria maritima; along the entire coast of Cumberland this 
plant, known locally as “Thrift,” flourishes abundantly ; nowhere 
is this more apparent than in the northern section, say from 
the mouth of the Ellen to Rockcliffe Marsh; near Cardurnock 
acres of it may be seen. Sfatice limonium ; grows sparingly in the 
neighbourhood of the Solway Viaduct ; also in salt marshes near 
St. Bees. .S. dinervosa, another form of Sea Lavender, is reported 
from the rocks at St. Bees Head, and is probably the same plant 
with that found at Fleswick, mentioned in the Whitehaven Cata- 
logue in Vol. VI. of the Transactions. 


PLANTAGINACEZ. 


All five British species of the Plantains are to be found at 
different stations along the shore; in addition to which I dis- 
covered an alien of the same group, P/antago arenaria, associated 
with Adonis autumnalis, in a crop of flax on the Woodside farm, 
Flimby, in 1884. 


CHENOPODIACEA. 


Salsola kali; on many parts of the coast, frequent; a prickly 
plant, not unlike a seedling Whin; the young sprouts are some- 


63 


_ times preserved in vinegar, and in that form are locally known as 
“Parton Pickle ;” a wanderer, so to speak, among plants, it has a 
habit of disappearing for years from stations which it previously 
occupied. Salicornia herbacea is also subjected to the same 
treatment as the preceding, and is called by the operators 
“samphire”—not to be confounded with the Samphire of Shake- 
speare, which, in these parts, grows only about the cliffs at 
St. Bees Head. Sadzcornia has been found at Ravenglass, Work- 
ington, near the Grune Point, Skinburness, and at Cardurnock, 
on the opposite side of the Wampool estuary. ela maritima; 
on the rocky shore near Parton, not plentiful. This plant has 
appeared in considerable numbers among heaps of ships’ ballast 
near Maryport harbour in 1887; where the ballast came from I 
have not been able to ascertain; from the many loose fragments 
of slate rock scattered about, I am inclined to think that it came 
from some Welsh port. Chenopodium album; the ‘‘meols” or 
“myles” of cottage gardeners is everywhere abundant; the var. 
b. viride gathered on household rubbish on the beach at Risehow. 
C. urbicum; a single example met with on the ballast heaps at 
Maryport in 1886. C. rubrum; associated with the foregoing ; 
the ground is just now being covered with fresh layers of ballast, 
and the plants may be looked upon as exterminated. C. bonus 
henricus ; about most of the old villages, hamlets, and farm tofts 
along the coast ; formerly in culinary request, but now superseded 
by Spinach. <AZriplex littoralis; associated with Beta maritima, 
Mercurialis annua, &c., on the ballast heaps already referred to ; 
it has also been reported from the sea shore at Parton, by the 
Rev. F. Addison, formerly of Cleator. A. angustifolia, and 
_ A. deltoidea ; both on the beach at Risehow and Maryport; the 
former is a common agrarian weed in many parts of the county. 
A. triangularis is mentioned in the Whitehaven Catalogue as 
occurring at St. Bees; possibly a mistake for déltoidea. A. babing- 
tonii ; this species has been observed at different stations on the 
coast, as at Coulderton, Lowca, Flimby, and Allonby; at Flimby 
the inroads of the sea seem to have exterminated it ; it grows with 
those already mentioned about Maryport. A. arenaria is, to all 


64 


appearance, on the coast line, the most widely-distributed member 
of the Orache family,{being found at Silloth, Allonby, Maryport, 
Workington, and St. Bees. 


POLYGONACE. 


Rumex nemorosus, var. b. sanguineus ; this Dock is far from uncom- 
mon towards the western coast line. I have seen it about St. Bees, 
Workington, Seaton, Flimby, Broughton, Maryport, and Old Maw- 
bray ; the characteristic bloody veins are more distinctly traceable 
in the root leaves in early spring, than in those of the stem at a 
more advanced stage of growth. A. obtusifolius; the Common 
Dock, so well known by farmers as a pest, haunts the shore, as 
well as the inland part of the county ; it is, however, largely out- 
numbered on the beach by A. crispus,a fine variety of which, 
distinguished as 2. ¢r7granulatus, is quite common from Maryport 
to Ravenglass. &. alfinus; a reputed alien; grown in gardens 
by the butter-wives, who use its fine large leaves for the purpose 
of keeping their pounded butter cool in hot weather ; is sometimes 
found in a half-wild state. &. acetosa, ‘Sour Dockin’,” and 
R. acetosella, “‘Sheep’s Sorrel,” are both quite common ; the latter 
luxuriates on the turfy soil of newly-reclaimed bog land. &. scu- 
tatus; an alien, occasionally cultivated as a salad herb; I was 
greatly surprised to find patches of this plant growing at the foot 
of the rocky bluffs that overlook the sea a little on the White- 
haven side of Harrington; how it came there, except through the 
agency of birds, I was at a loss to imagine; the fondness of 
linnets, finches, &c., for the seeds of the Common Sorrel I had 
frequently noticed, and I was fain to accept this theory as a 
probable solution of the puzzle. Polygonum fagopyrum is a plant 
which I have only met with about the docks at Silloth, imported 
by ballast as at Maryport. /. convolvulus, and P. aviculare, are 
both quite common; the former, as Black Bind Weed, has a 
bad habit of twisting itself spirally round any plant within its 
reach, and thereby seriously impeding its growth, P. razz 
resembles an overgrown, or luxuriant, type of P. aviculare, with 
long procumbent stems; it is, however, readily distinguishable 


65 


by its smooth and shining, concave-sided fruit. P. hydropiper appears 
sparingly by the side of ditches and brooks where they empty into 
the sea, but is mostly an inland plant. P. persicaria and P. lapathi- 
_ folium are common occupants of rubbish heaps; but the former, 
under the name of ‘“Redshanks,” is a sad pest to the tiller of 
undrained land in the Lake District. P. amphibium, very fine 
examples may be seen in a long narrow pool on the beach near 
Bank End farm, Maryport ; also in the reservoirs belonging to the 
West Cumberland Iron Works, Workington ; at this latter station 
it blooms somewhat earlier than usual, owing probably to the high 
temperature of the water, which is constantly tepid. 


EUPHORBIACE. 


Euphorbia helioscopia, commonly known as ‘ Wart Grass,” 
from its supposed efficacy in the removal of warts. The 
acrid yellow juice of the plant is employed for this purpose, 
being applied externally; and I well remember a neighbour 
_ of mine some twenty years ago, who suffered severe pain from 
 incautiously rubbing her eyes with her hand after doctoring 
_achild’s knuckles with the juice. , paralias, on the shore 
j at Harrington, Haverigg, and Flimby; at the latter station 
it has been swept away by encroachments of the sea. £. fort- 
_ landica, on the shore about Drigg, Braystones, and Coulderton, 
‘Sparingly. £. Zef/us,a common garden weed at Flimby, and on 
friable soils at several stations inland, notably about High Lorton. 
_ Mercurialis perennis, an abundant species, growing in woods and 
_ shady hedge-banks, and making its appearance early in the season 
-—poisonous. JZ annua, very rarely found in Cumberland, and 
_doubtfully indigenous; has appeared since 1884 on the ballast 
heaps at Maryport; not poisonous, like the preceding, and has 
_been used as a vegetable in cooking. 


‘ URTICACE. 

_ Ofrtica dioica, the common Stinging Nettle, is one of the best 
‘Known plants of England, sure to be found wherever man has 
taken up his abode. JU. wrens, Annual Nettle, not so ubiquitous 
5 


66 


as the preceding, but sufficiently common ; both species are in use 
by cottagers in the preparation of “nettle broth,” in early spring, 
when “pot greens” are scarce. 


AMENTIFERA, 


Passing over the Oak, Chestnut, Beech, Alder and Poplar as 
timber trees, and hardly within the scope of the present inquiry, I 
may just mention that JZyrica gale is found close to sea level at 
Salta Moss, Dubmill, and also on Bowness Moss; at the latter 
station in great abundance. Coming to the Willows, which are 
well represented in West Cumberland, I may particularise the 
following as occurring close to the shore: Salix pentandra, S. pur- 
purea, S. rubra, S. viminalis, S. smithiana, S. cinerea, S. aurita, 
S. caprea, S. nigricans, var. andersoniana, S. repens, with vars. fusca 
and argentea. 


TYPHACEA. 


Sparganium ramosum and S. simplex, two species of the Bur- 
Reed, may be seen side by side in the Old Reservoir at Maryport, 
and in boggy ditches or ‘‘soughs” between Allonby and Edderside. 


LEMNACE. 


Lemna minor; this diminutive plant is common here, as else- 
where, on the surface of stagnant pools or sluggish streams, 
associated frequently with Watercress, Starwort, Brooklime, &c. 


NAIADACES. 


Potamogeton natans is found plentifully in a long narrow pool 
forming a miniature 4aff, where a brooklet discharges its waters 
into the Solway Firth near Bank End, Maryport, and which has 
been already referred to. PP. rufescens, quite a rare species, growing 
in the dam at Dubmill, and found also in the brook at intervals 
up to Dubstangs, JP. crispus, in the Old Reservoir at Maryport, 
and higher up the river Ellen. PP. pusid/us, with the preceding, 
also at Bank End and Dubmill. Zannichellia palustris, in Old 
Ellen, near the Railway Sheds at Maryport Goods Station, and 
further up the course of the river. 


67 


ALISMACE. 


Triglochin palustre and T. maritimum; the two Arrow-Grasses 
grow in company on the north side of the Wampool estuary towards 
_ Cardurnock ; the latter species abounds about the creeks on the 
_ Cloffocks at Workington. Adisma plantago and A. ranunculoides 
are both found about the peaty pools on Salta Moss; the latter is 
a plant of some rarity, which I failed to observe at its old station 
in 1887, its absence|being probably owing to lack of moisture, in 
which it luxuriates. Butomus umbellatus; a small patch appears 
in the bed of the Wampool near Kirkbride. 


ORCHIDACES. 


Orchis latifolia, O. maculata, and Habenaria chlorantha, are all 

to be met with in a boggy field near Dubmill which appears to 
have been reclaimed from the adjoining peat moss. Zpipactis 
latifolia; in the summer of 1885 I gathered a very luxuriant 
‘specimen of this plant close to the shore at Flimby ; it is, however, 
unusual to find it growing so near the sea. 


IRIDACE. 


Tris pseudacorus, in moist places by the edges of pools or rivulets 
near the sea; not infrequent. 


LILIACE. 


Scilla nutans; the Wild Hyacinth, unlike the Snowdrop and 
Daffodil in a condition of nature, is frequently seen in dry situations 
on the bluffs that overlook the sea asfrom Harrington to Whitehaven ; 
also about Coulderton and elsewhere. Ad/ium vineale grows abun- 
dantly along the lower part of the valley of the river Ellen, and is 
found on the beach near the Dock Junction signal box on the 
rai way near Maryport. A. ursimum, the “Ramps” of our local 
agriculturists, who hold it in abhorrence, is not usually seen close 
to the beach, though it appears in myriads in Flimby Wood. 
Narthesium ossifragum, a plant commonly of mountain springs, 
may be met with on the boggy parts of Salta Moss, also on 


68 


JUNCACEA. 


Luszula pilosa is not infrequent, preferring shady woodland 
localities ; it abounds in Flimby wood, where also Z. sylvatica 
grows luxuriantly ; about the cliffs at St. Bees it is likewise plentiful. 
L. campestris is almost universally found alike in meadow, pasture, 
heath, and woodland. J. congesta, less plentiful anywhere than 
the preceding, is yet widely distributed. Coming to the Rushes 
proper, the following species are observable in moist situations 
along the coast line, viz., Juncus conglomeratus, J. glaucus, J. acutt- 
Jiorus, “Closs,” very abundant. /. /amprocarpus, about the 
Wampool estuary. /. supinus, J. bufonius, J. gerardi, the Cloffocks 
at Workington ; about Sellafield, zeste Mr. Jos. Adair; and prob- 
ably to be found generally about tidal creeks. /, sguarrosus, 
extremely common. 

CYPERACEZ. 


Blysmus rufus, on Whitrigg Flow, by the Wampool estuary. 
Scirpus palustris, a common species, growing about the swampy 
edges of lakes and tarns, is found in luxuriance by the long narrow 
pool (already frequently mentioned in these notes) on the beach 
near Bank End, Maryport. SS. cesfitosus, Salta and Bowness 
Mosses, rooting so firmly in peaty soil, as to be torn up with 
difficulty. S. f#uztans, floating in some of the “soughs” behind 
Dubmill, but not seen for the last few seasons, possibly owing to 
the absence of sufficient water. S. /acuwstris, the Bullrush, usually 
found in lakes and tarns, still grows in the ancient bed of the 
Ellen, at Maryport, where it seems in imminent peril of being 
obliterated, as the pool is gradually being filled up. S. maritimus 


has been quite recently forwarded to me by Mr. Jos. Adair, of © 


Egremont, and was gathered near Sellafield. 7zophorum vagin- 
atum and £. angustifolium, ‘“‘Mosscrops,” grow in great plenty at 
Salta and on Bowness Moss ; I have nowhere seen the broad-leaved 
species, which Mr. J. G. Baker thinks ought certainly to be found. 


Carex (Sedge Family). 


I will for the present content myself with an enumeration of the 
species noted at Salta Moss or the sandy beach from Workington 


69 


7 to Dubmill, during the summer months of 1885-6-7._ These were 
Carex pulicaris, C. disticha, sive intermedia; this latter species 

grows in a field on St. Helen’s farm, Workington, and on the left 
of the footpath ‘leading from Maryport to Bank End, near the 
Rifle-Butts. C. avenaria, everywhere rooting in the sandhills on 
_ the coast, its long creeping roots, with those of Psamma arenaria, 
_ Elymus, and Triticum junceum being very serviceable in preventing 
the sand from being blown about by the wind. C. wu/pina, where 
a brook enters the sea near the extreme south of the cliffs at 
‘St. Bees, scarce. C. stellulata, C. remota, C. ovalis, C. vulgaris, 
mc: glauca, “Pry,” C. panicea, C. binervis, C. fulva, C. Hava, C. hirta 
| (Flimby Railway Station), C. paludosa (mouth of the Ellen), 
BC. ampullacea. Where not otherwise specified, all the above 
forms may be found on Salta Moss. 


GRaAmINA (Grasses). 


_ Having already treated at some length of the Grasses of Mid- 
Cumberland in a paper read at the Annual Meeting at Workington 
n 1882, which appeared in Vol. VI. of Zransactions, pp. 31—46, 
I propose but briefly to notice some types or species not included 
in that list. The first of these is Sefavia viridis, which I found 
last summer, growing upon the ballast heaps south of Maryport 
Docks. Phalaris canariensis, growin g plentifully among household 
tubbish deposited at the same station, and apparently owing its 
introduction to bird-cage sweepings. A/opecurus agrestis, a worth- 
less alien, the ‘Black Bent” of agriculturists in the midland 
counties ; I have observed this grass on several occasions at Rise- 
ho w, Maryport, and Silloth ; its permanent establishment here is 
hardly probable, and certainly not desirable. Agrostis spica-venti, 
a very elegant species, though possessing slight claims to utility, 
as been gathered on the ballast about Maryport and Silloth 
Docks. Avena fatua, found on the North Shore at Workington ; 
is also reported from Sellafield and stations further south. Ca/a- 
rosa aquatica, in a boggy ditch near Dubmill. Bromus secalinus, 
jallast hills, Maryport. Zviticum acutum, on the sandy beach 
from Siddick to Risechow; common, and apparently quite indi- 


70 


genous. TZ: fungens appeared in two or three patches on the 
ballast near Maryport last summer, but fresh ballast having been 
lately spread over the place, it is probably obliterated. Lolium 
ttalicum, var. ramosumt ; of this luxuriant development of the Rye- 
Grass, several specimens have been gathered at Risehow and 
Maryport ; from the surroundings in both instances, I conclude 
that powerful stimulants of a manurial kind tend to produce this 
striking deviation from the type; at Risehow it grew where the 
sewage from neighbouring dwellings flows out upon the open beach, 
and at Maryport the fibrous roots were in immediate contact with 
night soil scattered among household refuse. /ymus arenarius 
is rapidly becoming established on the North Shore at Workington, 
between the Lonsdale Dock and high-water mark. Hordeum 
murinum once grew on the Maryport bent-hills, and along the 
beach in the direction of Flimby and St. Helen’s; the bent-hills 
are now covered with unsightly slag mounds from the iron furnaces, 
whilst at Flimby the encroachment of the sea in late years has led 
to its destruction—a stray plant may now and then be discovered, 
but practically it may be looked upon as annihilated. 


FILICES. 


The neighbourhood of the coast seems hardly so congenial to 
Fern life as the gills of the Lake District; yet even here fern- 
hunters are gradually extirpating many species that were once quite 
common. Even during the extreme drought of the past summer, 
at both Carlisle and Flimby I observed whole baskets being carried 
off at a period when the successful transplantation of the ferns was 
impossible. Only a few weeks ago, within seven miles of Carlisle, 
I was grieved to find one locality, where I gathered my earliest 
beech fern, stripped to the very last frond. Will anyone, there- 
fore, and especially any member of an Association like our own, 
consider it out of place to withhold information as to the locality 
in which a lover of plant life may have discovered anything rare, 
whether among ferns or flowering plants? I will, therefore, in 
treating of seaside ferns, refrain from noting any new station, but 
be content with mentioning such as long have been public property, 


71 


as referred to in local guide books, &c. Preris aguilina, grows on 
almost every dry hillock which tillage has never interfered with. 
Lomaria spicant, not infrequent, but, unlike the preceding, prefers 
moisture and shade. Asflenium ruta-muraria, seldom met with 
along the coast, and there only rooting in the crevices of the drier 
Tocks, apparently preferring the limestone inland to the Carbon- 
iferous sandstone that abuts upon the beach. A. ¢richomanes ; the 
remarks on the preceding species are equally applicable to the 
present, which is also frequently seen among the slate rocks of the 
lake hills. 4. marinum, frequent among the crevices of the cliffs 
at St. Bees Head. A. adiantum nigrum, on dry hedge-banks at 
intervals along the coast. Athyrium filix-femina, both the typical 
form and the var. rheticum abound in moist localities. Scolopen- 
drium vulgare is found luxuriantly at the base of the cliffs at 
St. Bees, where trickling rills approach the high water line; is also 
not infrequent in gills that open upon the coast; varieties with 
bifid or trifid fronds are not uncommon. Aspidium aculeatum, not 
uncommon in shady and secluded nooks. A. angudare also holds 
a place in aravine that I well wot of. Mephrodium, or Lastrea 
Jilix-mas, the ordinary Male Fern, is one of the commonest of the 
tribe ; it is the “ Meckin” of the dalesmen, as distinguished from 
the “ Breckin,” Preris aguilina,—the only sorts recognised by the 
unlearned ; the var. dorreri is far from uncommon. JV. spinulosum 
is reported from the neighbourhood of Whitehaven, probably 
along the St. Bees line of rocks. JV. dilatatum is a fairly common 
_ species; some four or five years after the opening of the Solway 
_ Junction Railway, I was interested to notice the way in which this 
fern was becoming established about the edges of the open cuts 
_ made for the drainage of the line, even in the deepest part of 
_ Bowness Moss. JV. emulum ; I have been shown living specimens 
_ of this fern which were brought from the St. Bees cliffs; I have 
_ hever seen the plant 7” siti. MV. oreopteris, an abundant species 
in the valleys of the Lake District; is also to be found on the 
_ coast at St. Bees, Maryport, Salta, and elsewhere. olypodium 
‘ ‘vulgare, common on walls, tree stumps, etc., throughout the district. 
 Osmunda regalis, known in some places as the “Bog Onion,” hag 


72 


long been the object of systematic and relentless plunder, and has 
been obliterated entirely from many erewhile noted stations ; it is 
doubtful if we may ever again see potatoe carts covered with its 
fronds, for the protection of the vegetables from frost during their 
transit to market, as was quite a common occurrence at White- 
haven and Egremont within living memory. Ophioglossum vulgatum, 
the common Adder’s Tongue, I take to be much more plentiful 
than is commonly supposed, being quickly shrouded from observa- 
tion in meadows by the surrounding vegetation, and cropped by 
cattle in ground devoted to grazing purposes. Botrychium lunaria, 
the last in our list of Ferns, is found within a stone’s cast of the 
beach at different stations ; a few plants had the temerity to spring 
up on Flimby Green, close to the houses, in 1886; I expect they 
were quickly removed, for I saw no trace of them in 1887. 


LYCOPODIACE. 


The Wolves’ Feet being natives of the hills, form no part of 
seaside vegetation, though I have met with one of their number, 
Lycopodium selago, at Salta. 


EQUISETACES. 


Equisetum arvense, ‘Paddock Pipes” and ‘‘Tead Pipes” of the 
husbandman, is abundant wherever moisture prevails ; on newly- 
formed railway embankments the female spikes are conspicuous 
objects in April and early May. £. maximum, abundant on the 
coast near Braystones, St. Bees, Harrington, Flimby. 


73 


THE HISTORY OF THE EDEN AND OF SOME 
RIVERS ADJACENT. 


By J. G. GOODCHILD, H.M. GrotocicaL SuRVEY. 


Based upon an Address given before the Carlisle Society, at Nunnery Walks, 
in August, 1880.* 


AFTER giving an outline of the various natural processes, which, 
separately, or in various combinations, have given rise to the 
present features of the earth’s surface, the paper treated in some 
detail of the three old plains of denudation to which most of the 
larger features of the topography of the North of England are 
capable of being referred. These plains are (1) the First Plain, 
or that fashioned out of the Older Paleozoic rocks, whereon the 

Carboniferous strata were spread out. (2) The Second Plain, 

which formed the (somewhat irregular) surface that received the 

‘New Red. (3) The Third Plain, represented by the denuded 


* The original address was entitled ‘‘An Outline of the History of the River 
Eden.”’ A few days after it was delivered, reports, containing the chief points 
_ in it, were published in several of the Cumberland and Westmorland news- 
papers. Reprints of the fullest of these reports were sent to many of our 
leading geologists, as well as to the principal scientific institutions ; so that the 
main conclusions stated in the article referred to, were pretty generally known, 

and were actually published, years ago. Being urged by several members of 
the Cumberland and Westmorland Association to insert the paper in our Zyans- 
_ actions, I have thought it better under the circumstances to re-cast it entirely, 
rather than to re-print it in its original form. The introductory matter has 
~ been given in abstract, and some additional passages have been added. But it 
will be seen that the arguments and conclusions remain as they were in the 
“edition” published in 1880, 


u 


74 


surface whereon the Upper Cretaceous rocks were formed. Each 
of these plains coincides with an important unconformity. The 
First Plain, for example, coinciding with a break equal in extent 
to a thickness of five miles of strata, which had been removed by 
denudation long after the Ludlow period, and yet prior to the 
commencement of the Carboniferous epoch in the North of 
England. (See the diagrams below). 

It was pointed out that such plains may appear at the surface 
through a variety of causes. They may represent the final result 
of prolonged marine action ; or they may be due, as Dr. A. Geikie 
has pointed out, to the action of subaerial forces, which have 
reduced the original inequalities of the land, in course of time, to 
one uniform level, that of the sea, and thus have formed what Dr. 
Geikie aptly terms a “base level of denudation.” They may, 
again, owe their present position, in many cases, to the re-exposure 
of old plains of any age, even of such as have formerly been covered 
by a considerable thickness of newer strata, which has afterwards 
been removed by the prolonged action of natural causes. 

In such cases as the last, the degree of perfection in which any 
such re-exposed plain may be left is related (1) to the nature and the 
extent of the disturbances that particular plain may have undergone 
in company with its immediate overburden of new rock; (2) to the 
ratio between the durability of the rocks forming the old plain and 
that of the strata—especially of their basement beds—to whose 
removal the re-exposure of the plain is due. Where the strata 
above the plain waste no faster than the rocks below, the regularity 
of the old floor will be destroyed as fast as it is reached by the 
denudants. But where, on the other hand, the beds above the 
plain waste at a higher rate than any part of the platform they 
repose upon, the newer strata recede laterally, and leave their 
original floor in a state of perfection dependent solely upon the 
total amount of disturbance that had affected the newer rocks since 
their formation. In the case of beds that have been upheaved 
with little or no resulting disturbance, a plateau may be brought 
to light with almost as even a contour as when it was formed 
originally. If the rock, again, happen to have been tilted, then 


St 


~ 


75 


the plain will be represented by a surface sloping in the same 
direction, and with the same inclination, as the original dip. If a 
synclinal is denuded, then the plain will be represented by a 
trough ; just as the denuded core of an anticlinal would represent 
a part of the old plain bent into a ridge; or as a quaquaversal dip 
would, when stripped of its newer rocks, leave behind a rock surface 
presenting the characters of a dome. These features are deter- 
mined, of course, by the movements of date posterior to that of 
the original plain, and are not in any way necessarily connected 
with the structure of the rocks out of whose edges the plain may 
be shaped. For example, an anticlinal in Cretaceous rocks may 
often coincide with a synclinal in the rocks below, or wice versa. 
In the original some further arguments were adduced in support 
of the view that the plain where Carlisle is now, extends without 
perceptible interruption in a south-easterly direction from the 
neighbourhood of that city, along the eastern margin of the low- 
lands of Edenside. Its characters are particularly-well displayed 
between Langanby and Melmerby, whence it extends for miles 
to the north west and south-east, with hardly any feature to disturb 
its uniformity. In this area, as around Carlisle, the Third Plain is 
shaped out of the ends of at least two thousand feet of New Red 
Rocks. By tracing the profile of almost any part of this plain— 
near Melmerby, for example—the fact becomes evident that the 
Third Plain, here, as elsewhere, gradually rises in the direction of 
the Lake District. Its slope prolonged just passes above the 
summit-levels of the Penrith Sandstone hills that range between 
Armathwaite and Penrith, which summits themselves appear to 
represent an undenuded strip of the old plain. Continued thence 
it rises a trifle above the present summits of any of the Carbon- 
iferous rocks (which are mainly calcareous) and extends thence to 
the level of the hill tops in the Lake District. The depressions 
that interrupt the continuity of the plain are exactly of such a 
nature as could be readily accounted for on the supposition that 
they are due to subaerial modifications of later date. In every 


_ case, except those manifestly due to river action, they are connected 


with the outcrop of some stratum more easily denuded than those 
adjoining, 


76 


The Plain of the Lake District fell tops (not their slopes any- 
where, which mainly consist of re-exposed areas of the Second,- 
and especially of the First, Plains) can be readily identified with the 
plain constituted by the summit levels of the great Carboniferous 
uplands on the east side of the Pennine and Craven Faults. The 
tops of the Howgill Fells form a triangular outlier as it were, of 
the same feature, which even now all but meets the plain just 
mentioned. The northern and the western slopes of the Howgill 
Fells belong, however, mainly to the Pre-carboniferous (or First) 
Plain, and represent the denuded core of a great Post-carboniferous 
flexure. 

Certain facts noted over a large area point to the conclusion 
that the Third Plain in and around Edenside has been formerly 
covered by a considerable thickness of newer deposits, which lay 
with a marked unconformity upon the denuded edges of all the 
strata from the Lias down to the lowest Siluro-Cambrian rocks. 
All the facts point to the conclusion that these newer strata lay 
with a remarkably-even junction upon these older rocks, and that, 
whatever their age, or their general nature, they were much-more 
easily wasted under subaerial denudation than even the softest of 
the strata that formed the platform whereon they once reposed. 
The only strata known to bear this kind of relation to rocks of the 
age mentioned, are the Upper Cretaceous. Possibly the Upper 
Greensand, the Chalk, and some of the Eocene strata may have 
formerly covered the whole of the North of England, and have 
connected the Later Neozoic rocks of Ireland with those now left 
in East Yorkshire. Many circumstances favour the conclusion 
that such was the case. 

The remarkable evenness of junction between the Cretaceous 
rocks and the surface of any older strata upon which they may 
happen to lie has long been noticed. It is well seen along the 
south coast of England where the Cretaceous beds are overstepping 
one after another of the Neozoic rocks as they trend westward into 
Devonshire. It is said to be the same in East Yorkshire, and in 
the North of Ireland, It is, again, very clearly shewn where the 
Cretaceous rocks of Belgium cut across the Carboniferous and 


77 


older rocks. Vide Coal Commission Reports, and also Prestwich’s 
“Geology,” II, fig. 44. 

We can easily fill in the details of such of the later events as 
bear upon the subject under notice. We know that in late Tertiary 
times, the whole of western Europe underwent more or less dis- 
turbance and upheaval—probably as one of the manifestations of 
that subterranean energy that gave rise to the great Tertiary 
volcanic outbursts of Antrim, the Western Islands of Scotland, 
Iceland, &c.* The waning of this important episode was marked 
by some important upheavals, which affected large areas all over 
the Kingdom. There is abundant evidence that these upheavals 
were by no means uniform in amount over large areas. Far from 
that. The upheavals nearly everywhere were marked by differ- 
ential movements, certain zones or tracts of country rising to a 
higher level by two thousand feet or more than other zones situated 
only a few miles off. 

The Lake District formed one of these independent (or nearly 
independent) areas of upheaval, as it was raised as a broad anti- 
clinal, whose axis passed through the Howgill Fells to Borradale. 
A second anticlinal running nearly at right angles to this, extended 
through Sca Fell Pikes and the Caldbeck Felis, dying out gradually 
as it passed through Penrith. Parallel to this last axis of upheaval 
ran the synclinal axis now occupied by the Solway. (I believe it 
possible that Chalk may exist even yet in the deeper parts of the 
Irish Sea off West Cumberland, or may even occur inland, 
between the drift and the New Red in the lowlands north-west of 
Carlisle.) 

Along the old belt of disturbed and fractured rocks known 
collectively as the Pennine and Craven Faults, differential move- 
ments had again and again occurred in various earlier geological 
periods. It is therefore no more than might be expected, that 
movements of the same nature should recur at the period specially 
under notice. So it happened that, while the strata as a whole 
were undergoing more or less upheaval, those on one side of the 


* See Dr. A. Geikie’s Wistory of the Tertiary Volcanic Period in the British 
Zsles, Trans, Roy. Soc. Edin., Vol. xxxv., pt. 2. 


78 


Faults should be lifted higher than those on the other. The base 
of the Cretaceous rocks here was raised to only a few hundred 
feet above the sea level on one side of this great line of weakness, 
while on the other it rose in places to a higher level by more than 
two thousand feet. Thus the last great movement of the Pennine 
Fault was caused. And thus, and at that time, were upheaved the 
massifs out of which denudation has since carved our valleys and 
dales, leaving the portions undenuded as our hills and mountains. 
It cannot be too often repeated that, not a single mountain now 
existing as such had come into existence at the period we are now 
now considering. In every case the mountains of North Western 
England are due to the unequal lowering of the old plateaux, 
whose history has just been sketched ; and this has been effected 
entirely by the conjoined action of rain and rivers, acting slowly 
and gently through untold millions of years. It is also important to 
remember that the rivers in every case are older than the mountains. 
Even the Eden itself is probably older than the Alps, the Hima- 
layas, the Andes, Vesuvius, Etna, or almost any mountain now 
existing as such. It is not intended, of course, that the vocks 
forming the mountains around Edenside are not of great antiquity 
—quite the contrary—but we are dealing with their form, and not 
with their history as a whole. The great depression of Edenside 
(the so-called Eden Valley) had no existence until much later. 
The excavation of that marked feature of Cumberland and West- 
morland, and consequently, the development of the steep edge of 
the Carboniferous uplands to the east of it, did not even commence 
until a very late period in the geological history of the North of 
England. It is, in fact, in process of further development at this 
very moment. So far from Edenside having always been an area of 
depression, the anomalous behaviour of the rivers in and around 
it can only be explained on the supposition that, at the time those 
rivers began to flow the whole of that area was filled to a higher 
level than any of the present mountain tops by rocks of some 
uniform character, which formed a surface whose highest ground 
rose far above that of any of the areas adjoining.* The central 
* Tt does not follow that the absolute elevation of this part was then much 


higher than at present ; but some part of the present elevation is almost certainly 
due to movements of later date than most of the principal valleys. 


79 


line of watershed at the time the Eden and its associated rivers 
began to flow would seem to have been somewhere along a line 
joining, say, Penrith and Kirkby Stephen, and the drainage flowed 
away from this zone to every point of the compass—The Eden, 
The Tyne, The Tees, The Yore, The Swale, as well as The 
Derwent, The Esk, The Kent, and The Lune, all rose here. 

But at that time the greater part of the rock forming the whole 
surface of these parts was of such a nature as to waste at a faster 
rate, even than the comparatively-soft beds of the New Red. 
Consequently, some time after the river-courses were quite estab- 
lished, the general denudation, always in progress, had lowered 
the surface sufficiently to expose, first the core of the Siluro- 
Cambrian rocks forming the Lake District, and, next, the higher 
parts of the Carboniferous framework adjacent to that on the east 
and the north-east. Important modifications of the river courses 
ensued. A further lowering of the surface gradually developed 
more and more of the Lake District and more and more of the 
Carboniferous uplands; until, eventually, even the higher-lying 
parts of the New Red appeared through the rapidly-wasting cover 
of newer rocks. (See fig. 4, pl. 1.) By the time this stage was 
attained, the rocks then forming the basin of the Eden presented 
very considerable diversities in their powers of resistance to atmos- 
pheric waste. Frost and thaw, rain and drought, heat and cold, 
affect all rocks more or less, and constantly tend to reduce them 
to a transportable form ready for their removal by the rivers, and 
their rearrangement beneath the waves of the sea. But rocks do 
not all yield alike : some may waste at even four or five times the 
rate that others do. Putting this ratio into figures, for the sake of 
illustration, we might say with regard to the rocks of the basin of 
the Eden, that the (now vanished) Cretaceous and Tertiary rocks 
wasted in a thousand years at the rate of one foot; the New Red 
at nine inches; the Carboniferous six inches; and the Siluro- 
Cambrian rocks generally at shee inches during the same time. 
(In regard to the last mentioned rocks, the Skidda Slates weathered 
at a higher-, and the Coniston Grits at a lower rate than the general 
average of the whole.) 


80 


It would be obvious, from a consideration of these facts, that a 
watershed formed of rocks wasting at the rate of one foot in a 
thousand years could not maintain its position if the rivers flowing 
from it traversed likewise strata whose average rate of removal 
amounted to only about half that quantity. A stream flowing from 
Appleby northward across what are now the Pennine Uplands 
maintained its course unchanged while the whole of it lay through 
rocks of uniform character. But as soon as the general lowering 
of the surface brought about the exposure of the older rocks—say, 
on Dufton Fell, then the course of the river must have been at 
once affected, for the softer rocks of Edenside wasted twice as 
fast as those of the newly-exposed Carboniferous rocks adjoining. 
(See fig. 3, pl. 1.) If I am correct in my inference that Maize 
Beck, for example, rose near where Cliburn is now, then the 
lowering of the surface there must, after a time, have proceeded at 
arate so much more rapid than it did to the North of Dufton Fell, 
that the head of the river must soon have fallen to a lower level 
than that of the hause, or co/, between Maize Beck and Haikable 
(“High Cup Gill.” The stream must consequently have been 
severed in two along the line where the softer strata had joined 
the harder. Maize Beck flowed on from then till now without 
important deviation; while the water collecting in its severed 
upper portion started anew, as it were, and, following the law of 
gravity, turned westward down the newly-formed declivity, and 
flowed into Edenside. 

I have little doubt that at one time all the rivers mentioned 
above, and—most especially—the Westmorland Lune, took their 
rise near Appleby, and that they have since had their several 
courses abbreviated by the diversion of part of the drainage in 
other directions consequent upon the differential lowering of the 
surface where they formerly originated. 

The same thing happened with some of the rivers of the Lake 
District. The Greta (at Keswick) once rose, if I am not mistaken, 
near Penrith, and it is only because the rocks that were formerly 
on the Penrith side have wasted more rapidly, that its head-waters 
have been tapped and diverted into other channels, Still, the old 


; eT ee ee 


81 


valley that it excavated, and that it occupied for so long, remains 
to this day, as an eloquent witness of the former magnitude of the 
Greta. Other rivers of the Lake District have had much the same 
history. I have already noticed the curious history of the Petteril 
in this connection.* In this river an additional complication was 
introduced in the shape of two transverse channels developed 
across the old river course along the outcrop of easily-wasted rocks, 
thereby cutting the river itself into ¢ivee, and letting off the water 
in new directions. 

Up to a certain point rivers are able to fret their way across an 
escarpment pari passu with its own rate of development, pro- 
vided that the rate of durability of the stratum forming the 
escarpment does not differ very greatly from that of the less 
durable strata above and below, to whose higher rate of waste 
its development is due. But where the nascent ridge owes its 
development to the weathering of strata whose relative durability 
is very low, such a ridge tends to develop, first, into a barrier 
across the river, and, eventually, into a new watershed, the severed 
parts of the old stream then flowing away from that ridge in 
opposite directions, and leaving an inosculating valley as a record 
of this part of its history. The sequence of events that have given 
rise to inosculating valleys in this district finds its parallel in many 
other areas of mountain drainage where the rivers have traversed 
rocks whose several rates of destructibility have varied greatly. 

Another point of interest bearing upon the history of the Eden 


_is the great variety in the character of any given valley, according 
_ to the nature of the rocks it traverses. The formation of a river- 
_ valley is dependent to a much greater extent upon waste of 


the surface by subaerial causes aided by the transporting action of 


the river than by the direct erosive action of the river itself. 
_ Subaerial denudation acting alone, affects the whole surface, con- 


stantly tending to reduce all inequalities to the general level of the 


sea. Its action, like that of the sea, may therefore be regarded as 
Mainly lateral. Rivers, on the other hand, by removing the 
material detached by weathering, tend to facilitate the destructive 


* Trans. Cumb. and West. Assoc,, No, XIII. p. 89. 
6 


82 


action of the subaerial forces to a greater extent in the parts imme- 
diately adjacent to their courses than they do at a greater distance. 
Moreover, the seaward transportal of the degraded material helps 
the rivers in many ways to erode their own beds. ‘Thus, on the 
whole, the general tendency of rivers is to cut vertically, and to 
deepen the valleys they occupy. Where the effects of weathering 
upon the rocks are at a minimum, the rivers have it all their own 
way, and the square-cut channel resulting from their unaided 
action is left with hardly any modification. Magnificent examples 
are presented by the caifions of Colorado. In the few cases where 
the rate of vertical erosion effected by the river and the lateral 
erosion of the rocks under the action of the weather are equal, 
banks are left with slopes of 45°.* More commonly, the rate of 
weathering near a river exceeds the rate of vertical erosion, and a 
valley with sides enclosing a very wide angle is the result. But in 
every case the nature of the rocks affected is apt to produce 
important modifications of detail. 

We will now pass from general considerations to review some 
of the minor details bearing upon the history of the rivers specially 
under notice. 

If we follow up nearly any stream flowing into the Eden, care- 
fully noting the variation in the form of its valley from point to 
point, we shall find, in nearly every case, that although the actual 
size of the valley may be very small where the stream flows through 
the New Red, yet when we reach its higher parts where its course 
traverses older and harder rocks, the valley expands into one of 
much-more striking proportions. The valley of Dale Beck, which 
extends upwards from Nunnery Walks to Croglin Fell by way of 
Renwick, is a good case in point. We find that in the lowlands 
of Edenside, where its course lies through the New Red, the valley 
is a shallow channel, whose depression below the general level of 
the adjoining surface is hardly perceptible from a little distance. 
But where the same stream flows over the rocks that form the 
Escarpment, it widens out into one of the largest valleys along the 
whole fell side. The explanation of this apparent anomaly is that 

* Upon this point see a paper by the writer in Geol, Mag. II. Vol. 2, p. 325. 


¥ 
" 
4 
_ 
a 


83 


Dale Beck, below Renwick, flowed in earlier times through a 
channel consisting of rocks whose lateral waste under the action of 
the weather proceeded at a much higher rate than the vertical 
lowering of the surface effected by Dale Beck itself. Consequently, 
before the New Red was reached, the old banks of the stream 
wasted so fast as to be removed by subaerial denudation almost as 
fast as they were formed. When the Third Plain supporting these 
newer rocks was laid bare, the stream found itself in a channel 
whose ratio of lateral to vertical waste was much more nearly equal. 
Along the Escarpment the course of the stream has lain, for a very 
long period, through rocks whose lateral waste is lower still. Con- 
sequently much more of the sides of the valley there has been left. 
The valley of Dale Beck above Nunnery Walks would have been 
at the present day well on to two thousand feet in depth, and 
several miles in width, if the rocks it traversed there had been of 
as durable a nature as they are along the upper part of its course. 
The Eden, again, supplies another illustration of the same fact. 
At Nunnery Walks, and for some distance above and below, its 
channel happens to be somewhat larger than usual. But if its 
valley here be compared with that at Wetheral, a marked difference 
is at once apparent. ‘There we find the river flowing in a square- 
cut groove, whose sides descend to the river-bed abruptly from the 
general level of the Carlisle Plain, without any marked declivities 
intervening. This comparative shallowness of the valley itself 
characterises the course of the Eden from its mouth up to Nateby, 
above Kirkby Stephen. Beyond that point the course of the river 
lies through Carboniferous rocks, tough and durable indeed as 
compared with most of the New Red. Yet although the volume 
of water flowing here is usually so small that one can generally 
ford the river without serious difficulty, the valley wherein it flows 
is one of the finest in Westmorland; it is three miles or more 


from side to side, and in places well on to two thousand feet in 


depth. 

Take the Eamon, one of the most important tributaries of the 
Eden, as an illustration of another feature of interest, intimately 
connected with the history of the Eden. This we will trace from 


84 


its source. The drainage of the great depression enclosed by the 
Matterdale Fells, Helvellyn, Fairfield, and High Street gathers in 
Ulleswater, and eventually flows thence by way of Poola Bridge, 
where the outflowing stream received the name of the Eamon. In 
truth, however, the Eamon rises in the mountain tops around 
Patterdale, and Ulleswater is nothing more than a local expansion 
of the upper part of the Eamon, which has been somewhat widened, 
and deepened, by glacial action. The Ulleswater depression is, 
simply, the upper part of the Eamon valley. Below Poola Bridge 
the river cuts across the big escarpment of the Mountain Limestone, 
which extends across from Askham to Penruddock. If we could 
fill up the gap (or only a little of it) that the river has made in 
excavating its channel through this escarpment, the stream could 
easily find an outlet past Dacre, Hutton, and Troutbeck, and 
thence down either the valley of the Cawda to Carlisle, or down 
that of the Greta to Keswick and Cockermouth. The rocks along 
much of this line are more easily eroded than are those through 
which the river now frets its way. After traversing this limestone 
escarpment the river reaches another transverse depression. A 
dam a hundred feet in height thrown across the Eamon just above 
Skirsgill, would turn the whole of the water north-westward into 
the Petteril below Catterlen. Nevertheless, the Eamon has not 
taken advantage of this easier course open to it, but has continued 
its course, without any important deviation, right across a second 
escarpment, formed in this case by the Penrith Sandstone. Thence 
it flows into the Eden. The valley of the Eamon below Penrith 
is nearly three miles in width, and is nearly five hundred feet in 
depth. Clearly, these gorges represent the least-modified parts of 
the old river valley, and the depressions that traverse the river 
valley elsewhere represent such parts of the surface as have been 
lowered by subaerial denudation at nearly or quite the same rate 
as the river has lowered its own channel. When the Eamon began 
to flow, its course was at a higher level by more than two thousand 
feet than it is at present. As the general level of the surface has 
been lowered by prolonged atmospheric waste, the river has main- 
tained its present course, without being in any way influenced by 


. 
“ 
q 
4 


85 


those transverse depressions which have resulted from the more- 
rapid lowering of the surface where the rocks happened to waste 
ata faster rate than those around. 

What is true of the Eamon is true also of the Eden. Both 
rivers are part of the same drainage system, and both have prac- 
tically the same history. 

Another case, which throws further light still upon the history of 
the Eden, is presented by the (Westmorland) River Lune. Some 
of the larger feeders of the Eden rise close to the principal sources 
of the Lune, in the north side of the Howegill Fells. Both sets of 
tributaries flow northward down the slopes left by the recession of 
the Carboniferous rocks as far as Ressondale (or “Ravenstone- 
dale”). Here, the two sets of streams find themselves in a wide 
valley, which ranges at this point nearly east and west, and 
coincides with the outcrop of the easily-wasted rocks at the base 
of the Carboniferous series. The slope the rivers have just left is, 
in fact, part of the First Plain, tilted by the movements that have 
affected the Carboniferous rocks, and since re-exposed by their 
gradual removal. The rocks forming the slope itself, as the Geo- 
logical Survey Map 98 N.E. will shew, consist of exceedingly-tough 
Silurian grits and argillites, whose rate of destructibility is much 
lower than that of the rocks now in process of being stripped from 
off them. The north side of the Ressondale valley, or the banks 
facing this slope, consists of a limestone escarpment, formed of the 
same beds, and presenting the same general features, as those 
which meet the Eamon on its emergence from Ulleswater. Like 
the Eamon, this other tributary of the Eden crosses the depression 
formed by the softer part of the Carboniferous rocks, makes straight 
away for the escarpment, cuts through it, and thence, as in the 
other case, flows northward into the main stream. Its history is, of 
course, identical with that of the Eamon. 

But the Lune behaves in a different manner, as I pointed out in 
the original paper. Arrived at Ressondale, it flows for a short 
distance close to the stream just referred to, and is in fact, separated 
from it by a barrier only a small number of feet in height. Then 


_ it turns to the west, flows a/ong the Ressondale depression, instead 


86 


of crossing it as the other happens to do, receives several tributaries 
from the Howgill Fells, and flows as faras Teba. Here it is joined 
by the Birkbeck, which occupies the hollow forming the north- 
western continuation of the Ressondale valley. At the confluence 
of the two branches the Lune abruptly merges its direction of flow 
into that of the Birkbeck—that is to say, it turns sharply to the 
south—and, with that direction, enters the fine mountain gorge 
below Teba, and frets its way there along a rocky channel formed 
of some of the toughest rocks of the whole Silurian series, cuts 
right across the physical axis of the Lake District, and thence, 
away southward, across the lowlands, to the sea near Lancaster. 
What upon earth, it may be asked, could have led the river to take 
so extraordinary a course? Why did it go out of its way to carry 
the watershed of the Lake District right out into the comparatively- 
low ground north of Orton, instead of continuing that line along 
the highest ground, as people used to believe all watersheds went ? 
To this question the answer has in great part already been given. 
Like the other rivers occurring near the Eden, the Lune began to 
flow at a level higher by more than two thousand feet above that 
of its median course. ‘The surface, then, consisted of rock of one 
uniform character, whose general level (if I read the evidence 
aright) sloped away to nearly all points of the compass from an 
area situated above where, say, Morland now is. In this rock the 
course of the Lune and its tributaries was well-established. By 
the time when denudation had nearly removed this rock from the 
higher points, one branch of the Lune flowed southward past 
Crosby Ravensworth, Teba, and Lowgill; another, the present 
Birkbeck, flowed nearly with its present direction, but along a 
position three or four miles to the west; a third tributary flowed 
westward along a line just to the north of where the highest point 
of the Howgill Fells now is. In the course of long ages, the old 
surface (The Third Plain) here formed of tough grits, began to 
appear in places, through the removal of the Cretaceous rocks, 
more especially along the summits of anticlinal ridges, where, as it 
is well known, denudation in nearly every case proceeds with 
greater rapidity than along the synclines. (Here it is important 


_ eee ee ae ee ee 
F y ea 


87 


to repeat the principle enunciated above, that the natural result of 
the denudation of an anticlinal of soft rocks folded over harder is 
to leave the central core or arch of older rocks asa ridge, whose 
summit axis corresponds with the axis of the anticlinal affecting 
the rocks undergoing removal. Under like circumstances a syn- 
clinal will of course weather into a depression. Both of these 
factors tend to produce important modifications in the courses of 
river valleys.) In the present case the Lune had cut through the 
covering of soft rocks down to a surface formed, over an area of 
several square miles, of the tough Silurian greywackés forming the 
Coniston Grits. For a time the stream maintained its course 
through these; being, however, modified in direction to some 
extent along the line where the soft strata joined the harder below. 
But the Third Plain at this part was shaped partly out of Car. 
boniferous rocks, which, long before, had been thrown into an 
anticlinal ; and had been already denuded through to below their 
base when the Third Plain was formed. The general direction of 
the particular anticlinal in question being north-westerly, or from 
The Calf, say, to Harrop Pike. The Carboniferous beds were 
therefore tilted to both the north-east and south-west of that axis. 
Another flexure crossed this above where Teba now is, slightly 
bending the Carboniferous strata downwards along a synclinal 
axis ranging south-westerly, or through Teba and Kendal.* The 
general result, so far as the present course of the Lune is concerned, 
was that the Carboniferous rocks enveloping the Howgill Fells 
tended, as fast as they were exposed, to recede towards the north 
the north-west and the west; and to leave behind them as they 
receded the old core of their anticlinal in a condition but little 
modified by the action of surface agencies. What is now the 


" Ressondale depression was in fact at first developed some miles 


farther up the slope to the south. Progressive denudation con- 


ducted it by degrees farther and farther down the northern and the 


Py 
is 


western slopes of the Howgill Fells, thereby exposing at each step 
more and more of the tough Silurian rocks, and removing more 


* The general direction of this synclinal axis is shown on the small contoured 
map annexed to the present paper, 


88 


and more of the Carboniferous ; until in the end, the Carboniferous 
rocks on the Appleby side of the old anticlinal were completely 
severed from their related rocks on the side around Kendal. The 
channel of the Lune for some distance above and below Borrow- 
bridge had already cut right through the Carboniferous rocks into 
the Silurian grits. 

A little consideration of these points, by the aid of the diagrams 
on Pl, 1, will readily enable one to understand the sequel. The 
tributaries of the Lune that began by flowing into the main stream 
by a direct westerly course from a position corresponding to the 
present summit of the Howgill Fells found their way into a channel 
whose bank on the south consisted of exceedingly tough grits, 
while its bank on the north was everywhere formed of the easily- 
eroded Upper Old Red and Lower Limestone Shales. The north 
bank consequently gave way readily everywhere, and receded down 
the slope as fast as the dissolution of the overlying calcareous beds 
laid it bare. Consequently these tributaries receded further and 
further northward as denudation proceeded, until their present 
position was reached. They are indeed in process of further 
recession even at the present moment. The drainage of the slope 
left by the northward recession of the Carboniferous rocks by 
degrees collected into new channels, which are now Uldale, Lang- 
dale, Ellergill, Weasdale, and Bowderdale. 

In the meantime the main stream north of Teba had also under- 
gone some modifications. ‘This, which I believe had its source 
originally somewhere above (ie. at a higher level than) where 
Gaythorn Hall is now, became detached as the Carboniferous rocks 
north of Orton were exposed by the northward recession of the 
New Red. Apart from the lowering of its higher gathering ground 
from the more rapid waste of the New Red, it is impossible for 
any river to collect water and to flow over an area of Mountain 
Limestone like that. The water sinks through the joints of the 
rock as fast as the rain falls; while, in addition, the northerly 
dip of the strata conducts the drainage well away to the north 
before the plane of underground saturation comes anywhere near 
the surface. So, with the comparatively-rapid lowering of the New 


e 


b 
| 


89 


Red rocks about its source, and the uneven waste of the Carbon- 
iferous rocks south of Orton Scars, this, the main branch of the 
older Lune, has ceased to be ariver valley. Subaerial denudation, 
acting upon the rocks of the old valley in a manner different from 


- that previously affected by the river, has modified the old features 


more or less ; but not beyond the point of recognition. Looking 
up to Orton Scars from Teba, it requires a good deal to convince 
those not accustomed to such questions, that at one time the river . 
at their feet had its main source above the bare scars of grey 
limestone lying before him. Yet such, I am convinced, was once 
the case. 

The history of the Lune is a complicated one; but is probably 
not more so than that of almost any other river. It merely 
happens in this case that the facts are somewhat more striking 
than usual—and perhaps, also, because the subject has been a 
good deal thought over. 

Attempt to explain the phenomena how one may, there is no 
escaping the conclusion that the Lune must have begun to flow at 
a much higher level than any part of its course occupies at present. 
It is clear also that it must have commenced its course in rocks of 
a very different nature from any that it traverses now. No one 
can doubt, now-a-days, that the Lune has excavated its own channel 
entirely, and has carried it out by the selfsame agencies that it 
employs at the present day. Nor can anyone reasonably doubt 
that its rate of erosion in the past has been, as a rule, much the 
same as it is to-day. The highest rate of erosion we could claim 


for the river certainly does not, and probably never did, much 


exceed a few inches in athousand years. Hence the valley of the 
Lune represents the result of steady, gradual excavation carried on 


_ through untold millions of years. The Lune as a river is older 


than any mountain in either Cumberland or Westmorland, for 
none of the mountains could ever have attained to that distinction 
if there had been no rivers to carve out the depressions that inter- 


- sect the various uplands in so many different directions. 


What is true of the Lune, applies also to most of the other rivers 


of North-western England, and is also true of the Eden. None 


90 


of them has always flowed everywhere in exactly the same direction 
as it does to-day. The course of each represents the net result of 
the long and varied series of changes the ancient stream has passed 
through in its descent from its original level to that it occupies at 
present. The whole face of nature has changed since the Eden 
began to flow. Mountains have been carved out, have been 
wasted away, and their materials have been spread out beneath 
the waves. Race after race of highly-organized beings have been 
evolved, have run their course, and have given place to others. 
And still the Eden flows on, as it will continue to flow until the 
whole of our mountain areas shall have been wasted down to the 
level of the sea. 


EXPLANATION OF THE DIAGRAM. 


Fig. 1. Shews the relation of the Lower Carboniferous Rocks, E, to the 
Upper Old Red, D, and of these as a whole to the Middle Old Red, C; and 
the Silurian rocks, B, and the Ordovician beds, A. (First plain.) 

Fig. 2. This shews diagramatically, the way in which the New Red and 
thr Jurassic rocks overspread the older rocks, from the Carboniferous rocks 
downward. The plane of junction is the Second Plain referred to. 

Fig. 3. Represents a later stage, when the whole district was covered by 
the Cretaceous (&c.) rocks. The Subcretaceous Plain is the Third Plain. 

Fig. 4. Shews the present relation of these three plains to each other and to 
the larger surface features. It is intended also to shew the initial position of 
the watershed, together with the positions occupied at present. 


EXPLANATION OF THE CONTOURED MAP. 


The small map appended is reduced from the map accompanying the writer’s 
paper on the Glacial Phenomena of the Eden Valley, &c. Q.J.G.S. xxxi., 
p. 55 et seg. It shews the distribution of the Shap Granite, and of the drifts 
from Galloway ; and it shews also some of the chief glacial strize, whose direction 
is shewn by that of the short line passing through a small ring. The old lake 
basins of Edenside are shewn by the contours; while the position of the principal 
rock barriers, e.g. those at Eden Lacy, Armathwaite, &c., are shewn by small 
crosses. 

The relation of the drainage area of the Lune to that of the Eden is shewn by 
the zone stippled between the goo feet and the 1000 feet contours. 

The same map will serve to convey a general idea of the Orography of the 
region where the Helm Wind prevails, 


{yas uPrWoy i 
oe Se aes wai 


Ste eS Se ae 


in 


{ 


SO RE a ap me 


Algo oy BO RD 
pe See cS 
eg BES! NR NIN DA. SS 
a OE AD ee Oot 


oo GS OR EOS a ea es 


aNvV 


1 


fae 


MOWLSAM HINON NI 


2 _ 
eee eee we 
= oan ARS Se Sania 


= 


a 


sage 
M 


an 


ee ee: oA Reeve te: qo Seats : z — am a” 


—sno0d a1 Vv0S 


Ala) aNoiSTqUW 
63a yns vaNwod 


4 A 
OA 2. 


a aaah atayh en tar kes hoe 2, ee Ae: F 
. f oe —< 3 vhs ; + is et ee ee fs go i a - 

La al ee ee - é yn Oe ss *~ Sy i ; 

bat IS ose oe me vr es nh 

Blatt enS al eno BABE ere S304 2s Sem ee ae ee aah 
et pene oe On reg wae eer Say Hi eS cay 
roo - ae . pe eT pal De MPN BEE OP mE ao qt" | 
oS Tg ge pre er eee Se a sh a Catan | 
Srey a : % at se oe a et ae: - 
—— <i. = ete. ~ oe. x 4 , 
St Oa es ew “ort <tr. f i 


at) ahaa mi, 


aie 


y Tt? i _—- a) oe i a _ 
eet Te BO FSAY 9 eo 


= ¥ 
Sg ee Ae Tre ——— 7 
2 Pd git a —— = < 
Ls Dea op ae 
x - +4 — ae A Ad Sd 
, a Chat ie ae ae = “pact 4 ye 5,3 , <2 
: ee ee = eile eg ra S 
‘ re < ; x pe te oa ee «Osa 7 =e - 
= : ; . & 7 ee ee en See | 
~ \ ¢, aks led vc = : a ih 
woes? ee AP : SNE i ian He) MR Omen eS, 5 ‘ f > 
ip aaa eae Her ee hs ge oy a dl Bs, Liane ee | ; : ey 
y mea oe ee tet = ; x Sos tomes om sie, : ” a 
y ak ut J ‘ a) at f ne na, ni ,- 
1 cet he Owe ves ote a ae sae : : . F a id ieee Pee = e x 7 


t ’ ~ 
he a 
— mn See | 7 


ens 


“ 
* ‘ 


x, 
miley 
4 


ANT EER 


95 


WEATHER STATISTICS IN THE NEIGHBOURHOOD 
OF CARLISLE. 


The Presidential Address given at the Annual Meeting of the Association 
at Carlisle, 


By R. A, ALLISON, Esq., M.P. 


I nave already protested in another place and on another occasion 
at the double impost which your President has to pay to your 
Chancellor of the Exchequer in the form of what is termed a 
second Inaugural Lecture. I propose on the present occasion, 
however—leaving to Mr. Wheatley the duty, which very fittingly 
falls upon him as president during the present year of the Carlisle 
branch, of welcoming you to the Border City—to say a few words 
as to a series of Weather Statistics which, during a period of twenty- 
five years, I have collected as to the climate in the neighbourhood 
of Carlisle. I began them at a time when I had not very much to 
do, rather with a view of cultivating habits of method and regularity 
_ by having some daily definite task to perform at a fixed time; and 
_ for such an object I can confidently recommend them. And 
though occupation has somewhat increased since then, yet finding 


_ that my interest in their collection had grown from year to year, 


they have been regularly carried on to the present time ; and now 
that they extend over so many years, afford some basis for an 
estimate of our climate, and considerable practice for one’s arith- 
metic. The instruments have all been verified, are properly 
exposed, and from time to time inspected from the Meteorological 
Office: and during my absence the records have been taken by a 
_ competent observer. 


96 


I fancy it is popularly assumed that every one who dabbles in 
meteorology is also something of a seer ; that with the purchase of 
a rain-gauge he also assumes the prophet’s garb. This is, I fear, 
a flattering misconception of our powers. Ordinary meteorology, 
like political meteorology, is not a science of accurate and unerring 
forecasts. It has indeed made some advance since 1846, when 
Arago declared that “never, whatever may be the progress of 
science, will scientific men of good repute, and careful of their 
reputation, venture to predict the weather ;” but the advance has 
been a limited one. It is possible now, in many cases, to forecast 
with a fair amount of accuracy the weather of one day from 
conditions known to have prevailed on the preceding day ; and 
this power it may reasonably be hoped will be extended as years 
goon. But for any approach to a forecast of the character of the 
coming season, or even the coming month, still more for any 
perception of those cycles of seasons which recur, though we may 
not say that they are beyond the range of scientific possibility, as 
yet at any rate we look in vain. Meteorology remains a science 
in the stage of observation. ‘Those who follow it are like those of 
whom Burke speaks, as lights in the stern of a vessel, illumining 
only the course over which it has passed. Their aim is to collect 
as wide a series of observations as they can, in the belief that some 
day there will come, as has been said, “the gifted mind, trained 
into the habit of broad generalisation, who shall bring together out 
of the vast accumulation of observations which we shall place in 
his hands, the established facts which they hold buried, and from 
them draw those philosophical deductions which are required to 
advance meteorology to a science but little inferior in exactness to 
astronomy, with which it is so closely allied.” In the meantime 
we must be content to be observers, and from our observations 
something, at all events, may be gathered. The doctrine of aver- 
ages at least holds true, and we usually find that the excess or 
defect of one season—whether in rain or heat or cold—is corrected 
by something corresponding in that which follows it. We find, 
too, that there is in them some basis for that popular meteorology 
which is enshrined in the trite sayings and rhymes of the common 


97 


people, in which they have handed down to us the: result of 
centuries of observation by men to whom the coming weather was 
a matter of extreme importance—and in many cases of life or 
death. The weather proverbially is a subject of interest to us 
English ; I only hope you may not find twenty-five years of it rather | 
too large a dose. 

You are, I dare say, familiar with the variety in the distribution 
of rainfall that prevails in Great Britain. The lowest annual aver- 
ages are confined to districts in the south-east and along the eastern 
coasts of England and Scotland. But towards the west, in Ireland, 
and especially wherever there are lofty hills to arrest the winds 
laden with the moisture of the Atlantic, or where there are firths 
like the Solway or the Severn or the Clyde opening up the 
adjacent country to the sea, here we have a much larger quantity 
of rain. Cumberland belongs to the wettest counties, but Carlisle 
itself, you will be glad to know, is situated at the most favourable 


point, and has apparently the least rainfall of any station in the 


county. The average of twenty-five years to 1887 was 30°97 inches; 
whereas further north, at Scaleby, over a similar period, I have 
32°32 inches ; while Mr. Taylor, at Kirkandrews, beats me with an 
avetage of over 38 inches; and at Dumfries you find one exceeding 
40 inches. Again, if you go westward, Wigton and Silloth have 
over 35; while to the south, at Penrith, it is 31°20; at Pillar Top, 
among the hills, it is over 80 ; and lastly, you reach the culminating 
point at Seathwaite, where you have no less than 143 inches in the 


_ year—the highest average in the British isles. 


It is interesting to compare our present rainfall with that of 


_ previous periods which have been recorded. The late Dr. Barnes, 


of Bunker’s Hill, some years ago contributed to the Transactions 


_ of the Royal Society of Edinburgh some notes of such records in 
_ this district, reaching back to the middle of the last century. The 
earliest were those kept by Dr. George Carlyle in Abbey Street 


—who, according to Miss Ferguson’s book, lies buried at St. Cuth- 


 bert’s, and was father of Joseph Dacre Carlyle, Chancellor of 
-Carlisle—from 1757 to 1783, the year before his death, during 
which period the mean average seems to have been only 24°39— 


7 


98 


six inches less than it is to-day. But these years include the great 
drought which came to an end in 1763, and was one of the most 
striking that ever visited this country. Then we have a record 
from the Rev. Joseph Golding, at Aikbank, Wigton, from 1792 to 
1810, the mean average of which is close on 35 inches, or very 
nearly the same as the average of Wigton for the last twenty-five 
years. Finally, we have that of Dr. Barnes himself, kept at 
Bunker’s Hill from 1852 to 1870, with an average of 26'04 inches, 
some four inches less than that registered at the Cemetery from 
1863 to 1887, which included, however, that unfortunate cycle of 
wet years that lasted from 1872 to 1881. That, as we all remember, 
was a most disastrous period for our agriculturists. Mr. Bright, in 
one of his famous speeches, reckoned up the loss that it inflicted 
on them at many millions. It culminated in the cold, sunless, 
rainy summers of 1877 and the two succeeding years, when no kind 
of crop could thrive, and the very heart seemed to be washed out 
of the soil by copious deluges of chilling rain. 1877 was the 
wettest year I have registered at Scaleby. It had a rainfall of 
45°31 inches—nearly fifty per cent. above the average—13°68 of 
which fell in the months of June, July, and August. At Carlisle 
in the same three months you had 1504 inches. That August 
was the wettest month upon my record, with a fall of 7°34 inches ; 
and it also contained the wettest day—August 18th—when 1°92 
inches fell. It was indeed a troublous time. We began to think 
that the seasons had degenerated altogether, and old people were 
found affirming that since their youth the climate had changed 
greatly for the worse. Enquiry, however, leads one to the more 
comforting belief, that no radical change has really occurred, and 
that there have been at all times cycles more or less prolonged of 
good and bad seasons alike ; and that when you have had the one, 
you are pretty sure, if you only wait, in its turn to have the other. 
The wettest average month for twenty-five years at Scaleby is 
July, with an average of 3°72 inches ; September follows with 3°38, 
and August with 3:27; and this accords with the experience of 
Dr. Barnes, who also describes those as the three wettest months, 
and speaks of it as a happy arrangement of nature to us poor 


re , 


pein 1 


99 


mortals. I do not know that we poor farmers are always able to 
say ditto to that sentiment; and for us to do so certainly needs 
something of the philosophy displayed in such a season by a 
certain David Hope, on the shores of the Solway, in an anecdote 
related by Carlyle in his “ Reminiscences.” There had been days 
and days of continued downpour; at last a brief spell of fine 
weather intervened, and David’s corn was dry. He was at family 
worship before proceeding to the field, when some one rushed in 
and bade him come at once, for a storm had arisen that was 
driving the stooks into the sea. ‘“‘ Wind,” answered David, “wind 
canna get ae straw that has been appointed mine. Sit down, and 
let us worship God.” 

Let us turn to a somewhat pleasanter subject of contemplation, 
viz., the driest month. And here again my experience accords 
that of Dr. Barnes, and also of Mr. Golding—that April is one of 
the driest months of the year. The average of February is 1°66, 
and of April 1°67: so they run each other pretty close. Mr. 
Golding remarks, “I never knew till now that April was the driest 
month in the year. April showers are so frequently mentioned, 
as to give a general idea that it is rather a wet month than other- 
wise: but the showers in April are seldom stormy or attended 
with great falls of rain.” The driest month registered at Scaleby, 
however, was one very exceptional November in 1867, when only 
‘20 or one-fifth of an inch fell. It being the month preceding my 
marriage, I should have been inclined to think I had made some 
mistake if I did not find it generally described as a most remark- 
able month by all observers ; one from Otterburn, I see, remarking 
that “moors were burnt all the month, and the oldest person 
cannot remember seeing moors burning in November at all.” 
The next driest month was April, 1873, when ‘36 was the amount 
of rain registered. 

The orderly progression of the period of greatest dryness over 
Europe is rather singular ; and for those who wish to take a holiday 
without an umbrella, it may be useful to give it. January is the 


_ season of least rain in countries adjoining on the Volga, February 


in Russia, March in Northern France and Southern Britain, April 


100 


in the North of England, May in Scotland, June in Orkney and 
regions further north. It always seems to me a little unfortunate 
that the popular period for visiting Scotland and our own Lake 
District should be July, August, and September, or the very months 
of greatest rainfall. For those indeed who go on grouse intent, 
August no doubt is a grim necessity ; but ordinary tourists, I think, 
might well choose an earlier portion of the year. 

The mean temperature of the year at Scaleby for the fifteen 
years ending 1888, was 46°6; that of Carlisle for the twenty-five 
years ending 1888, 46°8: so there is not very much difference 
between us. In order to give you an idea of how we stand in this 
point, let me quote you the mean temperatures of one or two 
other places. That of Edinburgh is 46’9, Dublin 49°3, Greenwich 
50°3, Brussels 50°6, Paris 51'5. ‘The highest mean temperature 
was in 1884, when it rose to 48°3; the lowest was the ungenial 
year of 1879, to which I have already put a black mark, when it 
was only 44°2. The warmest month of the period was July, 1878, 
whose mean temperature was 62°3; July, 1874, and the July of 
the Jubilee year being next, with 61°4 and 61°2._ August 14th and 
15th, 1876, were the hottest days I have recorded, when the 
temperature rose to 93 in shade. The greatest cold, on the other 
hand, took place in that series of severe winters which occurred 
in 1878-9, 1879-80, and 1880-81—delightful specimens of those 
old-fashioned winters which in some quarters are so rapturously 
received—a rapture which I confess myself Iam not young enough 
to share. To me,as I look back upon them, I confess that distance 
lends enchantment to the view. ‘The history of them dispels at 
once the idea of there being any truth in the old adage, “‘A green 
Christmas makes a full kirkyard,” though it is found in more 
languages than one. The advent of extreme cold is marked in 
every case by an alarming increase of the death rate. The mean 
temperature of December, 1878, was 27°; of December, 1879, 31°73 
and of January, 1887, only 26°4; on the 5th of December, 1878, 
the thermometer fell to 5°, and at 9 a.m. there were no less than 
24 degrees of frost, the thermometer remaining under 32° from the 
Ist to the 8th of the month. On the 3rd of December, 1879, the 


101 


lowest reading was 3°, and at 9 a.m. there were 28 degrees of frost. 
But in January, 1881, the cold was even more intense. On Sunday, 
January 16th, the lowest reading for the previous night was 
7 degrees below zero: and at 9 a.m. it was still 4°5 below zero, 
having thus remained at or below zero from 9 o’clock on Saturday 
night to ro-30 on Sunday morning—a temperature not calculated 
to secure attention to the eloquent sermons which were no doubt 
preached in our churches on that day. From the 8th to the 26th 
the thermometer, with one exception, never rose above the freezing 
point. The waterfall at Hardraw Scar, Yorkshire, was frozen into 
a single icicle—an event which had not apparently occurred since 
the middle of the last century. The weather was the severest 
which had occurred since the famous cold of Christmas, 1860, 
which is I believe the most intense that has been known in Britain 
during the present century ; and when it is said that in London as 
many died, as fell victims to the visitation of cholera in 1848. In 
many places, from 7 o'clock on Christmas Eve till 11 the next 
day, the thermometer was below zero, precisely as it was in my 
own case in 1881. By sheep-farmers I am told, that year, 1860, 
has been remembered as “the bad year.” 

Of other such exceptional seasons that are recorded we may 
name that of 1838; of 1814, when the Solway was frozen over 
from the English to the Scottish side, and presented the appear- 
ance of a vast plain covered with rugged ridges of frozen snow— 
all access to even Maryport and Workington being blocked; and 
lastly, of 1796, when in London the thermometer is said to have 
fallen no less than 48 degrees below the freezing point to 16 under 
zero. Some people may like such winters. One of those I have 
named was, if I remember right, the scene of one of the Mid- 
lothian campaigns. But for ordinary mortals, I think many of us 
will be inclined to say with the Italians, In verno inferno. 

In the period over which my observations extend there have 
been many memorable storms, the most notable of which was the 
terrible gale of the 26th of January, 1884, so destructive to the 


trees and plantations of this country. It was indeed a winter of 
_ storms, as painful experience too well reminds me, each succeeding 


102 


gale exploring and enlarging on the fatal legacies of that which 
went before—and at its close one felt—I know I did—as though 
one was upon a weather-beaten ship putting into port to repair and 
refit one’s dismantled gear, and rejoiced as when to Ulysses of 


old— 
Kind Athene poured upon him sleep, 


Rest to his eyelids, surcease from his toils. * 


There was first a severe gale on the r2th of December, 1883, 
described in the journals of the day as the most violent experienced 
for many years. Then on the 23rd of the succeeding month the 
winds were again let loose, and on the 26th the storm reached its 
greatest height, the reading of the barometer corrected and reduced 
at ten o’clock at night on Saturday being one of the lowest ever 
recorded—27'759. On Monday not a single telegraph wire was 
left in working order between Edinburgh and London. There 
were in Tuesday’s journals no news from foreign parts, and 
no weather forecast. Editors were left to their own devices. The 
wind was as variable in its changes as it was sudden in its coming. 
On Saturday down to six p.m. it raged from the east, then suddenly 
shifted to the N.W. as the centre of the depression passed on, and 
raged with equal violence from that quarter—the direction of its 
onset distinctly marked by the trees as they lay prostrate on the 
ground. It was a storm of which no certain forecast had been 
made—a conspicuous instance of how far we still are from that 
period of accurate prediction to which meteorologists look forward. 
Of other such visitations I may recall the storm of November 29th, 
1874, when the Za lata foundered in the Bay of Biscay, the 
barometer here being 29'005; that of January 24th, 1875, with a 
reading of 28°850, very destructive in Carlisle, and recalling to its 
older inhabitants recollections of that of January, 1838; and finally, 
that in which the Tay Bridge went down on the 28th of December, 
1879, the barometer falling to 29'486—not in itself a low reading, 
but low when compared with 30°103, the reading of the preceding 
day. A window of my own was blown in almost at the very time 
that—as we learned the next day—the terrible disaster had 


* Homer's ‘‘ Odyssy,” Bk. V., adfin, Lord Carnarvon’s Translation, 


103 


occurred upon the Tay. I may also name the storm of October 
13th and 14th, 1881, when the lowest reading was 28°455 at 
9 a.m. on the 14th—which laid low in a single night 4,200 trees 
at Alnwick, in Northumberland. 

The more accurate forecasting of such visitations is, I need not 
say, greatly to be desired; it is a matter to which, if I remember 


_ rightly, our own Bishop on one occasion called the attention of the 


Upper House—but is, as I need not say, greatly complicated by 
our peculiar position, having the vast breeding ground of the 
Atlantic Ocean to our west, which, if on the one hand it brings 
us with its currents the milder temperature of warmer regions, 
renders us also unfortunately liable to these sudden outbursts of 
unexpected storms. The Atlantic, indeed, is to our ordinary, what 
Ireland is to our political meteorology. 

Of other phenomena, the only ones to which I shall allude are 
those strange afterglows at sunset which in November and Decem- 
ber, 1883, enthralled all the lovers of nature to an astonishing 
degree; and which, beautiful in themselves, were still more 
interesting from the circumstance that, in the opinion of scientific 
men, they were the results of certain volcanic eruptions effected 
by Dame Nature on a stupendous scale so far back as the preceding 
August, far far away in the Straits of Sunda, between Java and 
Sumatra, and which resulted in the entire disappearance of an 
island 3000 feet in height. I have noted them as exceptionally 
brilliant on the 25th and 26th of November, and again on the 4th 
and 5th of December. It seems, as Mr. Norman Lockyer said at 
the time, somewhat difficult to imagine that a sunset in England 
in December, should owe its colouration to an event which took 
place many thousand miles away in August; but he and other 
observers were led, after full consideration of the evidence, to 
believe this really had been the case. Such an origin gave fresh 
interest to the phenomena; and as we watched the beauties of the 
‘skies, we were reminded once more that nothing in fiction is so 
Strange as facts ; and that the romance of Nature, as unfolded by 
science, throws into the shade the imaginings of the most fertile 
fancy, 


104 


I fear I have somewhat trespassed on your patience even on 
such a subject as the weather. Dr. Johnson has explained to us 
the philosophy of the interest attaching to it in these regions, and 
I will quote his words in my defence. ‘‘An Englishman’s notice 
of the weather,” he says, ‘‘is the natural consequence of changing 
skies and uncertain seasons. In many parts of the world wet 
weather and dry are regularly expected at certain periods; but 
in our island every man goes to sleep unable to guess whether he 
shall behold in the morning a bright or cloudy atmosphere— 
whether his rest shall be lulled by a shower, or broken by a tempest. 
We therefore rejoice mutually at good weather, as an escape from 
something that we feared ; and mutually complain of bad as the 
loss of something which we hoped. Such is the reason of our 
practice, and who shall treat it with contempt? . . The weather 
is a noble and an interesting subject: it is the present state of the 
skies and of the earth, on which plenty and famine are suspended, 
on which millions depend for the necessaries of life.” It may be 
that since Dr. Johnson’s time we have taken some steps in advance 
towards forecasting these ‘‘changeable skies and uncertain seasons.” 
“It cannot be disputed,” wrote a man of science long ago, “that 
all the changes which happen in the mass of our atmosphere, 
involved, capricious, and irregular as they may appear, are yet the 
necessary result of principles as fixed, and perhaps as simple, as 
those which direct the revolution of the solar system.” Let us 
hope they may one day be discovered. The progress of science 
in other directions is full of promise and of hope. Here every- 
thing comes to him who waits—and in this case observes. 

If any one wishes to take his part as an observer, I am sure he 
will find every encouragement from Mr. Marriott, the active 
secretary of the Meteorological Society. One of his stations in 
this neighbourhood—that at Stapleton—is about, he told me the 
other day, to be discontinued ; and he would, I am sure, be glad 
if some one would undertake to fill the gap. I hope you will not 
be discouraged by the fact that, even of to-morrow I dare not 
prophecy. Even in a matter of such limited extent, I fear 
before I prophecy I like to know—but I sincerely wish that you 


105 


, may have fine weather for an excursion, when fine weather is even 
- more than usually a necessary adjunct to enjoyment—and that for 

another day the most genial May I have ever recorded, with a 
mean temperature down to to-day of 552 (I see the finest May at 
Carlisle from 1863 to 1885—that of 1868—had only a mean of 
_ 54'2) may continue to hold its own. And if it should, your visit 
to this district will, I trust, be not one of the least pleasant your 


Association has had. 


{ 
q 
x 


Pee eee 8 ee Ea NL ae Pane OT oe Tee ne 
Py 1 : 7 Tey. wf a = uF e i 
4 f ‘ 
- 2 v4 ' 
- 4 c ¥ 
Py 3 ¥ a - 
7 viene v4 
‘ if ca 
3 
—- 
* X% 
r 
. 
. i 
Fs 
‘ - 
: 2 
4 
\ 
7 . 
‘ 
~ 


107 


REPORT ON THE HELM WIND INQUIRY. 
By WILLIAM MARRIOTT, F.R.MeEt.Soc. 


[From the QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL METEOROLOGICAL 
Society, Vol. XV. No. 70. April 1889.] 


(Read at Penrith, February 14th, 1889. ) 


THE subject of the Helm Wind has been brought before the Royal 
Meteorological Society on three occasions. On June 18th, 1884, 
‘a paper by the Rev. J. Brunskill on ‘The Helm Wind”* was read. 
This created a great deal of interest in the phenomenon, and 
subsequently the Council appointed a Committee to collect 
information on the subject. A report of this Committee ‘on the 
occurrences of the Helm Wind from 1871 to 1884”t was read on 
April rsth, 188s. 

At the meeting on November r8th, 1885, I gave an account of 
‘the visit which I made to the district on August roth to 21st, 
1885, in company with Mr. T. G. Benn, F.R.Met.Soc.t We made 
the ascent of Cross Fell, drove through most of the villages between 
the mountain and the river Eden, and also went over Hartside 
Fell to Alston, on the eastern side of Cross Fell. By this means 
we gathered a great deal of general information, but nothing very 


came to the conclusion that if we were ever to get at the cause of 


* Quarterly Journal, Vol. X. p. 267. 
+ Quarterly Fournal, Vol. XI. p. 227. 
t Quarterly Fournal, Vol. XII. p. 1. 


108 


the Helm Wind, it would be necessary to have observations made 
on a systematic plan. 

The contour of the country is as follows :— 

The Cross Fell range of mountains forms part of the Pennine 
Chain, which runs from north-north-west to south-south-east. The 


7 Pe on “ 


range from Hartside Fell on the north to Hillbeck Fell on the ~ 


south is high and continuous, and is not cut through by any valley. 
Behind this range on the east there is a high mass of land deeply 
cut by dales and valleys, but the tops of the mountains form a 
high table-land. Cross Fell is 2,900 feet, Dun Fell 2,780 feet, 
Dufton Fell 2,292 feet, and Hartside Fell 2,046 feet above sea- 
level. On the west there is the Vale of Eden, a plain some twenty 
miles broad, extending to the hills in the Lake District. From 
the top of the mountain to the plain on the west there is an abrupt 
fall of from 1,000 to 1,500 feet in about a mile and ahalf. At 


the southern end of the range the fall is but slight, there being a — 


gradual fall of from 800 to goo feet in five miles from Hilbeck to 
Winton. 

At times when the wind is from some Easterly point, the Helm 
forms over this district; the chief features of the phenomenon 
being the following. A heavy bank of cloud rests along the Cross 
Fell range, at times reaching some distance down the western 
slopes, and at others hovering just above the summit; while at a 
distance of three or four miles from the foot of the Fell a slender 
roll of dark cloud appears in mid-air and parallel with the Helm 
Cloud; this is the Helm Bar. The space between the Helm 
Cloud and the Bar is usually quite clear, while to the westward 


the sky is at times completely covered with cloud. The Bar — 


does not appear to extend further west than about the river Eden. 
A cold wind rushes down the sides of the fell and blows violently 
till it reaches a spot nearly underneath the Helm Bar, when it 
suddenly ceases. 

On August 19th, 1885, Mr. Benn and I ascended Cross Fell in 
company with Mr. R. W. Crosby* and his nephew, and when 


* Since this Paper was read I have heard with much regret of the death of 
Mr. Crosby, He was a most careful observer, and rendered very great assists 
ance in the Helm Wind inquiry. 


cs 109 


_ descending in the evening we were so fortunate as to witness a slight 
Helm. We left Kirkland at 3-45 p.m., when the temperature of 
the air was 65°, the wind blowing lightly from the North-north-east. 
At 5 p.m. we were 1,950 feet above sea-level, the temperature 
being 57°, and the wind blowing steadily from North-north-east, 
force 4. By 6 p.m. we had reached 2,670 feet above sea-level, 
_ when the temperature was 52°. We gained the summit, 2,900 feet 
7 _aboye sea-level, at 6-40 p.m., a few minutes before a mist came on 
7 and obscured the view on ie east side of the Fell. The air was 
colder and damper, and the wind stronger; the temperature was 
46°, and the wind North-north-east, force 5. 
_ Fig. 1 gives a section of Cross Fell, with the temperatures 
observed during the ascent from Kirkland to the summit of the 


: mountain. 
Fic. 1. 


AUGUST 197# 
1885. 


; SECTION OF CROSS FELL WITH TEMPERATURE OSSERVATIONS, 
Horizontal Scale about 1 in. to 7,000 ft. Vertical Scale about 1 in. to 2,000 ft. 


The misty cloud soon covered the top of the Fell, and as we 
descended the wind increased in force till it reached force 6. 

_ About 8 p.m. we saw the Helm Bar suspended in mid-aira little 
Below our level, but away apparently over Melmerby, Ousby, 
Kirkland, Milburn, &c. The Bar was really in two parts, there 
being a decided clear space between them. The northern portion 
_ Of the bar had a tendency to move southwards, while the southern 
portion had a tendency to move northwards. The middle of the 


110 


Bar appeared to be nearly over Kirkland, while the northern 
extremity reached to about Renwick, and the southern extremity 
to Knock Pike. I have endeavoured in Fig. 2 to give a rough 
sketch of the Bar as seen from Cross Fell. 


Fic. 2. 
Motion to NORTH Motion TO SouTH 


HELM BAR. As seen From Cross Fert Aveust 19,1885. ~ 


Although the Bar appeared to be nearly stationary, it was quite 
evident that there was much commotion in the cloud itself, as 
portions of the upper and lower surfaces were whirled about in all 
sorts of ways. We saw this commotion to advantage, as the moon 
was nearly behind the cloud during the greater part of the time we 
were descending the mountain. Just before reaching Kirkland at 
10-30 p.m., we became conscious that the wind had suddenly 
ceased, and that the air was much warmer. This fact seemed so 
strange that Mr. Benn went back about fifty yards and there found 
the wind blowing quite strongly from the Fell, while where I was 
standing the air was calm or nearly so, with an occasional light 
puff of wind from the South-west. The Helm Bar was now nearly 
overhead. This showed that under the Bar there was an upward 
current. 

Mr. Crosby, who left us at 7-15 p.m. to return to Kirkby Thore, 
while Mr. Benn and I proceeded northwards to Ardle Head Mine, 
observed the same peculiarities. The next day he sent me the 
following account :— 

‘‘In coming down the face of the ledge I noticed little scraps of vapour 
beginning to condense in the clear space South-west of us, and remarked to my 
companion that we should probably get out of the wind before we got home, as 
there was a very strong indication of the setting of the Helm Bar. 

“We crossed the stream forming the County Boundary, about 300 yards above 
the fence wall of the Fell, and followed the track along the outgang towards 


Milburn. The condensing was still going on, and there was now a slender string 
of cloud standing over Milburn town-head ;—the white mist was clinging close to 


111 


the Fell tops, and all the other parts were clear, the slender Bar stretching from 
about Howgill Castle to Kirkland, at about the apparent level of the second 
ledge of Cross Fell, or that of the Silver Band Mine. About half way between 
the Fell foot and Milburn, say # mile from the bar, we suddenly became aware 
that we had lost the wind and it was dead calm,—so still that a lighted candle 
might easily have been carried bare. We searched our pockets for matches to 
test it, but unfortunately they were not there; however, though we did not 
actually prove it, we were both certain that it could have been done, and we had 
ocular demonstration a little latter. We stopped and listened, and the peculiar 
sighing, murmuring sound of the Helm Wind could be distinctly heard, coming 
from the quarter where we parted with our friends. The sound was not loud,— 
the whole affair being of course on a much smaller scale than it often is ; but 
the characteristics of the Helm Wind were plainly there. The air, which had 
been very cold, was now warm and balmy as a summer evening, and before 
we got 200 yards from the place where we first noticed the calm we met several 
_ very light puffs of air from the South-west. We reached Milburn about 8-45 
_ p.m., the Bar being directly over-head just before we entered the village. It 
“was now dark except for the moon, and as we passed the School, one of a group 
of men sitting on the step struck a match to light his pipe, but hearing our foot- 


Fic. 3. 


1885 
AUG. IQT# 
6 P.M. 


WEATHER CHART, 


112 


steps he turned and had a good look at us, holding the pipe in one hand and 
the match in the other. After satisfying his curiosity he kindled his tobacco 
without losing his light, and so demonstrated the perfect stillness of the air at 
that point. We took the road by Milburn Mill and Hale Grange to Kirkby 
Thore ; just after passing the mill we had a steady breeze from South-west for 
about five minutes, force about 3; but on the whole it was calm all the way 
home, where we arrived at 9-45 p.m.” 


The Daily Weather Chart for 6 p.m. is represented in Fig. 3. 
From this it will be seen that the gradients were slight, and that 
fine weather prevailed over the greater part of the British Isles ; 
the only part covered with cloud being the North-east coast of 
England. 


Having witnessed a slight Helm, we were enabled to request 
observations on certain definite features. Special forms were 
prepared and sent to a number of persons in the district who had 
promised to fill them up, 

Observations and reports have been received from the following 
places :— 


Alston (Love Lady Shield) T. W. Dickinson 


Appleby (Fair Hill) W. Wallace 

Ardle Head Mine J. C. Russell 
Askham W. T. Nicholson 
Blencowe T. Fawcett 

Cashwell Mine A. Shield 

Culgaith Rey. G. W. Atkinson 
Dufton C. Liddle 

Edenhall B. W. Lovejoy 
Kirkby Stephen J. Rennison 

Kirkby Thore R. W. Crosby 
Kirkland Rev. A. Edwards 
Langwathby J. Powley 

Lazonby Rev. B. W. Wilson 
Little Salkeld W. Arthur 
Melmerby Rev. A. C. Pittar 
Milburn J. W. Harrison and D, Smith 


Newton Reigny 


T, G, Benn 


113 


Ousby Miss Golding 
Renwick T. Savage 
Skelton T. Toppin 
Temple Sowerby J. Byres 
Tynehead T. Richardson 


In order to discuss the observations I prepared some small 
charts comprising the northern part of England and the south of 
Scotland, and on these I plotted the direction and force of the 
:. _ wind, the temperature of the air, and the amount of cloud, at all 
the stations over the whole of that area, which were available on 
each day when a Helm Wind was reported. It was at once seen 
that the Helm occurred mostly when the general direction of the 
wind was East or North-east, although it occasionally occurred 
when the wind was North or South-east. 

In the accompanying Table I have given for each month of the 
three years 1885-87, the number of days (1) on which the wind over 
_ the greater part of the country blew from some Easterly point (that 
is from North to South-east); (2) when the local wind was from 
the Eastward (for this the observations at Newton Reigny have 
_ been used) ; (3) when there was a Helm formation; and (4) when 
_ there was a Helm Bar. 

Days or EASTERLY (NorTH TO SouTH-EAST) AND HELM WINDs, 

1885-1887 


General Local Helm 


East Wind East Wind | Formation Helm Bar 


Months 


wm ie} ~~ wW \o ~~ WwW ‘Oo ™~ w \O ™~ 

~o eve) eve) oo ao Co oO ive) ao oO love) o 

Beg So ok rea ea acon ela Ba 

Sjajanuary ........ 14] 11] 6] 19/10] tof 12} 8| of 8] 8] o 
Webruary ...:..| 2| 10 | 8 f\12| 14) 12] 2/).12| 5] o| 9] 2 
March ......... 8} 16] 61716] 18] 8] 12/16] IT] 41] 13] oO 
| Ee | D7 ele econ ito IES een t yO) inlay I 4 
Ree its 7|15| 16113); 16| 19} 5] 12]/ 12] o| 4] 8 
Beaeaes isicas OD CS Sal OMENIa lero sronl orl s6)) 21 2) 3° "o 

eee ccs Fe\ 3 Tif Ox 6.) 2 I I 2 I I fe) 

TAY |S ecole 4 Ol 3.) 20 7 | oO}. o 

PPOs Mest eeOn ar ealezaih Os sOn|- Ale <On I'S) |) =F 

QO; SIOR teas ieromieots| ay enoninrs Iau Oi 5} 2 

_November...... 12) AqtOul onary ron Fl 7 te 7 | 3 || -2 
| December ACCOM Suiee levee hgh bo 5 lo 


8 


114 


From this Table it will be seen that the Helm occurs at all 
seasons of the year; and that it is not such a rare occurrence as 
was generally supposed to be the case—the Helm Bar having 
been observed on 41 occasions in 1885, 63 in 1886, and 19 in 
1887. In the Appendix I have given the observers’ notes on 
several Helms, in order to show that the phenomenon is not 
restricted to any particular season. 

As already stated, the wind blows strongly down the Fell sides 
until it comes nearly under the Bar; it then rushes upwards, and 
so produces a calm beneath the Bar. The air in rushing upwards 
draws the air inwards and upwards along with it on the other or 
western side. This accounts for the Westerly wind which blows 
on the western side of the Bar. Further to the westward, away 
from the influence of this eddy, there should be a downward 
current from the eastward. This has been confirmed by observa- 
tions made by Mr. Dent, on April 21st, 1888. (See Appendix, 
p. 126. 

The ends of the Bar are frequently joined to the Helm Cloud, 
so that the clear space between assumes an oval or an elliptical 
form. 

Fig. 4 gives a section of the Cross Fell range and the Eden 
valley, and shows approximately the position of the Helm Cloud 
and the Bar, with the direction of the wind. 


Fic. 4. 


HIGH CLOUDS—NEARLY STATIONARY. 
MSS SS ns SS SSS 


TERE? W. S.W. 


Section of Cross Fell Range and the Eden Valley, showing approximately the 
position of Clouds and Wind Movement during the prevalence ; 
of the Helm Wind, 


115 


On examining the charts already referred to it was seen that 
whenever the Helm occurred the sky was almost invariably cloudy 
to the eastward; and probably the stratum of cloud was of no 
great altitude. The distribution of pressure was mostly of a 
cyclonic character. 

The phenomenon appears to be due to the abrupt descent of 
the hills on the west, the air in pouring over the declivity is 
warmed in its descent and is consequently able to hold a greater 
amount of moisture in suspension. The cloud therefore is dis- 
solved on the western side of the Fell, and only re-forms at a 
distance of several miles after the disturbance caused by the 
irregularity in the contour of the land has been overcome. The 
Bar is produced by a rebound or ricochet of the air at the foot of 
the Fell, the Bar indicating the width of the upward current and 
also the point at which condensation takes place. ‘The roaring 
sound which is heard when the Helm Wind blows is no doubt 
_ due to the rush of cold air down the sides of the Fell. 

Similar winds occur on Table Mountain, Cape Colony, and on 
the Hackgalla Mountain in Ceylon. 


Sir John F. W. Herschel, in his A/eteorology, pp. 95-97, gives 
the following account of the “Table-cloth” :— 


‘*That the mere self-expansion of the ascending air is sufficient to cause pre- 
cipitation of some of its vapour, when abundant, is rendered matter of ocular 
demonstration in that very striking phenomenon so common at the Cape of 
- Good Hope, where the South or South-easterly wind which sweeps over the 
Southern Ocean, impinging on the long range of rocks which terminate in the 
FIG. 5. 
TABLE CLOTH 


CF CERCA 
NAS Na 
al Re ol fe es 
S: SS SA 
fa) 
ft X 


__ The “Table Cloth” on Table Mountain. Rough schematic diagram with 
vertical distances purposely exaggerated, modified from Herschel’s Meteorology. 


116 


Table Mountain is thrown up by them (as marked by the arrows in the 
direction of fig. 5), makes a clear sweep over the flat table land which forms 
the summit of that mountain (about 3,850 feet high), and then plunges down 
with the violence of a cataract, clinging close to the mural precipices that form 
a kind of background to Cape Town, which it fills with dust and uproar. A 
perfectly cloudless sky meanwhile prevails over the town, the sea, and the level 
country, but the mountain is covered with a dense white cloud reaching to no 
great height above its summit, and quite level, which, though evidently swept 
along by the wind, and hurried furiously over the edge of the precipice, dissolves 
and completely disappears on a definite level, suggesting the idea (whence it 
derives its name) of a ‘table-cloth.’ 

** Occasionally, when the wind is very violent, a ripple is formed in the aerial 
current, which, by a sort of rebound in the hollow of the amphitheatre in which 
Cape Town stands, is again thrown up, just over the edge of the sea, vertically 
over the jetty, where we have stood for hours watching a small white patch of 
cloud in the zenith, a few acres in extent, in violent internal agitation (from the 
hurricane of wind blowing through it), yet immovable, as if fixed by some spell, 
the material ever changing, the form and aspect unvarying. The Table-cloth is 
formed also at the commencement of a ‘North-wester,’ but its fringes then 
descend on the opposite side of the mountain, which is no less precipitous.” 


Sir Samuel W. Baker in his Aight Years in Ceylon, pp. 145-148, 
gives the following account of a wind similar to the Helm Wind, 
but without the Bar, which occurs on the Hackgalla Mountain in 
Ceylon :— 

**From June to November, the South-west Monsoon brings wind and mist 
across the Newera Ellia mountains. Clouds of white fog boil up from the 
Dimboola Valley, like the steam from a huge cauldron, and invade the Newera 
Ellia plain through the gaps in the mountains to the westward. The wind 
howls over the high ridges, cutting the jungle with its keen edge, so that it 
remains as stunted brushwood, and the opaque screen of driving fog and 
drizzling rain is so dense that one feels convinced there is no sun visible within 
at least 100 miles. 

‘‘There is a peculiar phenomenon, however, in this locality. When the 
weather described prevails at Newera Ellia, there is actually not one drop of 
rain within four miles of my house in the direction of Badulla. Dusty roads, a 
cloudless sky, and dazzling sunshine astonish the thoroughly soaked traveller, 
who rides out of the rain and mist into a genial climate as though he passed 
through acurtain. The wet weather terminates at a mountain called Hackgalla 
(or more properly Yakkadagalla, or Iron Rock). This bold rock, whose sum- 
mit is about 6,500 feet above the sea, breasts the driving wind, and seems to 
command the storm, The rushing clouds halt in their mad course upon its 


117 


crest, and curl in sudden impotence around the craggy summits. The deep 
ravine formed by an opposite mountain is filled with the vanquished mist, which 


4 
[ 
p.-- 


; spreads a perpetual rainbow upon the gauze-like cloud of fog which settles in 


sinks powerless in its dark gorge ; and the bright sun, shining from the east, 


the deep hollow. 

‘*This is exceedingly beautiful. The perfect circle of the rainbow stands 
like a fairy spell in the giddy depth of the hollow, and seems to forbid the 
advance of the monsoon. All before is bright and cloudless, the panorama of 
__ the Ouva country spreads before the eye for many miles beneath the feet. All 
behind is dark and stormy ; the wind is howling, the forests are groaning, the 


rain is pelting upon the hills. 

“*The change appears impossible; but there it is, ever the same; season 
after season, year after year, the rugged top of Hackgalla struggles with the 
storms, and ever victorious the cliffs smile in the sunshine on the Eastern side, 
the rainbow reappears with the monsoon, and its vivid circle remains like the 
guardian spirit of the valley. 

“*Tt is impossible to do justice to the extraordinary appearance of this scene 
by description. The panoramic view in itself is celebrated, but as the point in 
the road is reached where the termination of the monsoon dissolves the cloud 
and rain into a thin veil of mist, the panorama seen through the gauze-like 
atmosphere has the exact appearance of a dissolving view: the depth, height, 
_ and distance of every object, all great in reality, are magnified by the dim and 
unnatural appearance; and by a few steps onward the veil gradually fades 
away, and the distant prospect lies before the eye with a glassy clearness made 

doubly striking by the sudden contrast. 

__ “The road winds along about midway up the mountain, bounded on the right 
by the towering cliffs and sloping forest of Hackgalla, and on the left by the 
almost precipitous descent of nearly 1,000 feet, the sides of which are clothed 
by alternate forest and waving grass. At the bottom flows a torrent, whose 


Yoar ascending from the hidden depth increases the gloomy mystery of the 
_ scene. 


“On the North-east and South-east of Newera Ellia the sunshine is perpetual 
during the reign of the misty atmosphere, which the South-west monsoon drives 
upon the western side of the mountains, Thus there is always an escape oper 
from the wet season at Newera Ellia by a short walk of three or four miles, 

“A long line of dark cloud is then seen, terminated by a bright blue sky, 
So abrupt is the line, and the cessation of the rain, that it is difficult to imagine 
How the moisture is absorbed. 

“This sudden termination of the cloud-capped mountain gives rise to a violent 
wind in the sunny valleys and bare hills beneath. The chilled air of Newera 
Ellia pours down into the sun-warmed atmosphere below, and creates a gale 
that sweeps across the grassy hill-tops with great force, giving the sturdy 


118 


rhododendrons an inclination to the North-east, which clearly marks the stead- 
iness of the monsoon,” 


I am indebted to Mr. R. H. Scott, F.R.S., for the translation 
of the subjoined notice of “An interesting Cloud Formation over 
the Bay of Buccari,” by Prof. H. Mohorovicic, which appeared in 
the ALeteorologische Zeitschrift for February 1889, p. 56, and which 
bears upon the subject of the Helm Bar :— 

‘*We do not often read of a whirlwind with its axis horizontal, and I have 


not been able to find any notice of such a phenomenon in the AZeteorologische 
Zeitschrift. 1 think, therefore, that what I say may be of interest. 


‘‘The following are the observations taken at Buccari (lat. 45° 18’ N, long. 
14° 33E) on October 17th, 18th, and 19th, 1888 -— 


o Wind Motion of Clouds 
5 S oe i 
> sae fie} aes eS “7 
October, Bs 5 o3 eee § 9 EU 
1888 aq er Seign| o | 3 20! Cirrus Cumulus 
isa) 4 espa ses eld 
QA 
Tansee eee | pela ny 
17th, 7 a.m.| 30°134| 53°4| 236] 58 | E 3 ON aerate Not measurable 
TO acta os cya PRRSERM lp SAS ese | ee Stylleaeyaon tcc S 60° E 
2p.m. 067 5871 "209! 43 E 4 Ye Not measurable 
4 p.m... s.: secill taceeell ms ad le a beta S 60° E S75 E 
Q)p:m0- | 307020)53 0) 282157 EG) | 2) eaeenae i 
18th, 7.a.m.|29°914| 53°38] ‘232 56| N| 3] 7] S15°E N 50 E 
TOA-Ts | ieee erent |littavagl aeeau ale oe lee std S 5 E N 85° E 
paca  SO2Oll sce || cose lficow Ivac Mle OWlRG csenaei © al eae 
2p.m.| °882/56°7)*209| 45 | SE} 6] 9 |Notm’surable) N 70° E 
ASSUME SOOT) eeial exch | toes! force .1)| shaw hee Ob Sabre Wi S 80° W 
9 p.m.| 29969] 55°6| 228] 51 | E | 6] I] ...... Not measurable 
EOth,e7/a-m. ||30'03)44-2|13c}'45. || Ey) 27) Sol] 9.22... N 45° E 
2)pe | 207138|'4O.r 03430 +(e 3 bool 7) ees NNE 


““On October 18th at 10 a.m. the drift of the upper strato-cumulus was 
N 45°E, and of the lower N 80°E; about 4 p.m, the drift of the strato-cumulus 
was N 65°E. 

‘* Karly in the morning on October 18th the sky was densely overcast and the 
barometer falling. On the mountains to the North-east we saw a long row of 
cumulus stretching from North-west to South-east, with its summits torn into a 
fringe. From these masses of scud of various sizes broke off, and they con- 
stantly diminished in bulk as they approached the zenith. Not one of these 
reached the altitude of 50°, and a strongly-marked descending motion was 
observable in them. In the South-west there was a similar mass of cumulus, as 
far as could be seen, It was parallel to that previously noticed, and it extended 


119 


{ _ from the altitude of 70° to 20°, so that the zenith was quite clear of cumulus, 
and over the hills of Kostrena we could see in parts blue sky and in parts the 
upper clouds. Above the cumulus two layers of small strato-cumulus were 
visible, which distinguished themselves from each other by differences in their 
motion. Through the interspaces of the strato-cumulus some long streaks of 
cirrus running North and South appeared ; these moved to the Southward. 

‘*Over the middle of the Bay of Buccari small patches of cloud were forming 
themselves throughout the day, and had no horizontal movement at first, but 
__ when they grew bigger and began to ascend, they moved quickly to the North- 
east and East, at a rate I estimated at 15 or 16 metres per second, and they 
disappeared in the main mass of the cumulus. Just over Kostrena similar 


cloud patches could be seen, growing smaller and smaller and at last vanishing. 
The main mass of the cumulus showed no progressive motion. 

‘*Farly in the morning the wind was North, force 3, Afterwards it came from 
all directions, at times North-west, South-west, South-east, and North-east. 
Towards noon the axis of the cumulus shifted towards South, and it broke up into 
separate fragments. In the afternoon it became compact again. Below Kostrena, 
in the Gulf of Fiume, the. wind blew in frightful squalls from West and North- 
west. In the harbour of Portoré there were violent squalls from all directions. 
_ The local steamer which plies between Fiume and Buccari had some heavy sacks 
actually blown off her deck. It is impossible to imagine the existence of sucha 
permanent mass of cumulus unless on the assumption of a rotatory motion about a 
horizontal axis.” [The author illustrates this by a diagram which shows a marked 
ascending movement over Buccari as evidenced by the constant fresh formation 
_ of cumulus, and the influx of air from all sides. ] 

‘‘ Above a horizontal motion from South-west, and at noon from West, appears, 
and over the Gulf of Fiume there was a descending and returning motion, as 
_ proved by the loose fragments of cumulus and by the wind. It is probable there 
"was a similar mass of cumulus over the mountains to the North-east. The 
phenomenon lasted till five p.m. 
** The same phenomena were observed on the afternoon of the 17th, hut not so 
distinctly. Such circulations are not rare here, and are probably dite to the 
formation of the ground, which is in terraces. When there is a Bora, which 
there was on the days in question, there is usually a long bank of cumulus 
in the N orth-east, from which particles break loose but never reach the zenith, 
oyer Buccari, In the South-west they reappear and vanish on the horizon, 
This shows a descending followed by an ascending motion,” 


Dr. Hann appends a note pointing out the analogy between the 
‘phenomena described in the paper, and the Table-cloth at the 
Cape, and the Helm Wind, 


120 


APPENDIX. 
Extract from the Observers Notes on several Helm Winds. 
NOVEMBER IQTH, 1885. 


ARDLE HEAD, Oussy, Mr. J. C. RUSSELL. 3-30 p.m. Helm Cloud about 
300 feet below the summit of Cross Fell. The Bar apparently over and parallel 
to the Eden, the north end being somewhere about Croglin and the south end 
about Stainmore in Westmorland. Both ends of the Bar are joined to the Helm 
Cloud. The wind is East. Clouds and vapour near the Bar move about as 
though in a whirlwind. Thaw set in, with some very fine snow falling. Very 
strong wind up here on the Fell, but hardly any wind down in the valley. The 
Helm only lasted about 22 hours; it began about 5 p.m. on Wednesday. 


Oussy Recrory, Miss GOLDING. 3 p.m. The Helm Cloud covering the top 
of Cross Fell, and extending the whole length of the Fell as far as can be seen. 
No Bar to be seen, but a mass of heavy clouds all round the horizon without a 
break, joining the Helm Cloud on each side at the north and south ends, and 
apparently reaching on the west about halfway between Penrith and Ullswater. 
The direction of the wind is East. <A few higher clouds are slightly whirling in 
and out, but not moving in any particular direction. The belt of clouds seemed 
to have a centre a little to the north of the top of the Fell, and the wind seemed 
to push the clouds north and south from that centre, and to chase them all 
round till they met in the west, where they made a bank a little higher than 
the Ullswater Fells. Cross Fell was a little hazy. 


MELMERBY Rectory, Rev. A. C. PITTAR. 10-45 a.m. The top of Cross 
Fell is hidden. The Bar consists of fragmentary light clouds to the west. The 
north end of the Bar is rather close, apparently not much further than Gam- 
blesby ; the south end is a good distance off, probably at Appleby. The north 
end of the Bar is very distinctly joined to the Helm Cloud, and the south end 
seems to be. The direction of the wind is South-east. The weather cold, dry 
and windy, with blue sky. 

3p.m. The Bar seemed a long distance off to the west, and joined all round 
with the Helm Cloud. There was not much wind, and towards evening the 
Helm Cloud began to sink behind the Fells. There was a quiet night and but 
little of the Helm visible next morning, and no Bar. 

The Helm Cloud appeared yesterday afternoon. The wind blew at times 
keenly in the night ; blowing this morning in strong gusts. The Bar at the 
north end is well defined, but does not seem to extend far, and ends in frag- 
mentary clouds which continue across the western sky in the direction of the 
south end, 


121 


LitTLE SALKELD, Mr. W. ArtHUR. Midday. Helm Cloud covering 
Cross Fell. No Bar. Wind East. 


LANGWATHBY, Mr. J. POWLEY. 9-30a.m. Helm Cloud on the top of 
Cross Fell; mountain slope clear. No Bar. Wind East. Clouds rising in 
front of Helm. 


Se ee ee 


TEMPLE SOWERBY, Mr. J. ByRES. 9g a.m. Helm Cloud along the top of 
Cross Fell and quite down the mountain : very dense. No Bar. Wind East. 
Slight Clouds coming out of the Helm. 

Helm wind came on during the night ; strong constant East wind all day; 
no Bar, but at times broken clouds coming from the East. The cloud over 
the mountain one dense mass at 3 p.m., more into cumulus over Dun Fell. 
Towards evening very cloudy. 


MILpurN, Mr. J. W. Harrison. 6p.m. Helm Cloud just covering the 
summit. The Bar is about on a line with the Eden; the north end might be 
about as far as Lazonby and the south end about Brough. The Bar is joined 
at both ends with the Helm Cloud. The wind is North-north-east. 


When I left home for the mine after dinner all was clear overhead and very 
fine, with dark cloud on the other (west) side of the country. Before I got to 
the mine thin fleecy clouds began to gather on the top of the Fell, and sharp 
puffs of wind, almost like whirlwinds, began to blow, and soon the Helm 
formed. 


MiLgurn, Mr. D. SMITH. 10-30 a.m. Helm Cloud extending from 600 
ft. below the summit of Cross Fell to 200 ft. above. The Bar lying apparently 
from south-east to west of north. The north end of the Bar over Morland, and 
the south reaching south of Dufton. The south end of the Bar is joined to the 
Helm apparently at Dufton. Wind East. Small cloudlets breaking off from 
the Helm and moving eastwards. Much agitation on the south-east of the Bar, 
clouds breaking off and moving north-west. Intensely cold and dry. 

2p.m. Wind changing fitfully and blowing from the South-east. Fleecy 
clouds covering the west and north. Weather becoming milder; and a little 
Tain. 


Kirksy THoRE, Mr. R. W. Crosspy. 9ga.m. Dense Helm on Cross Fell. 
Wind East-north-east. 

Helm set on Fell at 4 p.m. yesterday (18th). Bar broken and general 
North-east wind. 


APPLEBY, FAIR Hitt, Mr. W. WALLACE. About 7-30 a.m. I observed 
the Helm wind blowing from the Fell towards Appleby with great velocity, 
The sky over the vale of the Eden to the west was, in a great measure, clear, 

_ and there was no cloud Bar formed in connection with the wind. I observed 


122 


that when the Helm clouds reached Appleby they were checked in their course 
to the west, by nothing visible, and portions of the swiftly moving clouds were 
thrown back to the east for a short distance. ‘There were three strata of 
scattered small clouds to the east. The cirrus seemed quite still; at least I 
could detect no motion. I however detected a very slight motion to the east 
in the middle stratum. In about an hour and a half the whole of the sky in 
the upper part of the Eden was clouded over ; the sky, however, in the lower 
part continued tolerably clear until about noon, 

At 1-30 p.m, the appearance of the Helm Cloud was truly magnificent. The 
whole of the vale of the Eden was clouded over, but the sun shone brightly on 
the Helm Cloud, which was far above the top of Cross Fell. There was great 
disturbance where the Helm Cloud and Bar joined at the north end of Cross 
Fell, and the resplendent clouds rapidly changed their forms into fantastic 
shapes. The Bar drifted in the direction of the wind, and small dark clouds 
rose out of the Helm, and moved in almost every direction except to the East 
and in the direction of the wind. As soon as these small dark clouds approached 
the Bar they turned from it and fell back towards the Helm Cloud ; but in 
every case that came under my observation they faded away and became invis- 
ible before reaching the Helm Cloud. 


FEBRUARY I8TH AND IQTH, 1886. 


MELMERBY, Rev. A. C. PITTAR. 18th, 5 p.m. Bar to the westward, the 
north end being about Unthank, and the south end a little beyond Ousby. 
The north and south ends of the Bar are joined to the Helm Cloud. Wind 
East, moderately strong. 

LITTLE SALKELD, Mr. W. ArTHUR. Helm on three days. Cloud high 
above Cross Fell. Bar close ; about 2 miles from the bottom of the Fell. We 
had no wind here, and never have when the Bar is close to us at Little Salkeld, 
Wind North-east. 


KIRKLAND, Rev. A. EpwArDs. 19th, 9a.m, Fells hidden. Wind East, 
light. Frost and snow. ‘Temperature 30°'5. 

Kirksy THore, Mr. R. W. Crossy. 18th, 9 am. Helm with broken 
Bar. Wind East-north-east, overcast. Temperature 36°:2. 

igth, 9a.m. Helm with Bar close to the Fell. Wind South-east, overcast, 
with snow showers. Temperature 31°°S. 


May 13TH, 1886, 
CASHWELL Ming, Mr, A, SHIELD, 9a.m. Wind Northeast. Tempets 
ature 37°. 


LANGWATHBY, Mr, J. PowLEY, 10 a.m. Helm Cloud on the top of 
Cross Fell, and not far down. Bar to the eastward of this place, and pretty 


123 


close to the?Fell; the north end is about Gamblesby, and the south about 
Appleby. Bar at the north end joined to Helm Cloud. Wind North-east. 
Bar joined by black cloud to west, and stretching from Lazonby to about 
Appleby. Bitterly cold; snow on the hills. 

1 p.m. Mountain nearly clear, Helm breaking off, Bar disappearing. Wind 
East, but not so strong ; no roaring sound, 

On the day before (12th) Cross Fell was quite invisible, but the mighty roar 
of the wind was very distinctly heard. 


KIRKLAND, Rev. A. EDWARDS. 9 a.m. Helm Wind. Overcast ; rain, 
hail, and snow. Severe storm. Temperature 40°. 


Kirksey THORE, Mr. R. W. CROSBY. 7 P,™. Helm Cloud covering the 
high points of Cross Fell, and reaching nearly down to the first ledge from the 
top, The Bar is to the eastward of this place ; the north end stretches as far 
as can be seen, and the south end is over the Stainmore depression. The south 
end of the Bar is joined to a continuation of the Helm Cloud on the Cross Fell 
range. Wind West-north-west, force 5. Bar cloud is moving from the North- 
east, force 6. High clouds between the Helm and the Bar apparently stationary, 
with perhaps a slight drift from North-north-west. Ragged clouds on the 
eastern edge of the Bar ascending and condensing. Temperature 41°. 

There has been more or less Helm since Sunday (9th), but the wind was 
strongest yesterday (12th), and through last night ; about noon to-day it moder- 
ated and turned warmer ; but is rising again this evening and turning cold. 


Lancricc, NEAR Muscrave, Mr. J. RENNISON. 6-20 p.m. Helm on 
north fells ; much broken south of Roman Fell ; but wind roaring about Hilbeck. 
The Bar seemed to be 1 or 2 miles from the fells, until it got opposite to Roman 
Fell, when it turned west over Crosby Garrett. It then swept round by Kirkby 
Stephen and South Stainmore ; a stream of clouds connecting it with the Helm 
Cloud at Windermere end. Though not under the Bar the wind was quite calm, 
except gusts from both East and West. The Helm Cloud along Warcop and 
Hilbeck Fells drifted north to Roman Fell, whema stream of clouds blew across 
towards the Bar but wasted away before they got to it. 

I heard from some shepherds that the wind was very strong on the Fell. One 
young man said it took him completely off his feet, and that he came down on 
his back. Others said that they could scarcely stand at all. 


May 28TH, 1887. 


Kirxpy THore, Mr. R. W. Crossy says :—There was a splendid specimen 
of the Helm Wind this morning. On looking out a little before 6 a.m., I found. 
that the whole of the range of hills visible from our house was closely covered 
with a thick fleecy sheet of cloud, which fitted the ground so exactly that one 
could see the shape of the prominent parts reproduced on the upper surface of 


124 


the cloud, although it must have been some hundreds of feet thick at the 
summit. 

This cloud was driving rapidly down the slope, the surface having a sort of 
billowy appearance but retaining its consistency until it reached the Fell foot, 
where it seemed to break up like spray at the foot of a waterfall, and then dis- 
appear ; there was a great quantity of this spray-like vapour in some places,— 
notably on both sides of Knock Pike, for some distance along the Fell foot. 

Murton Pike was enclosed in the cloud,—Dufton and Knock Pikes stood out 
but there was a thick cap on the top of Dufton Pike, retaining the shape of the 
Pike on its upper surface. I was reminded of the description given by Mr, 
Wallace and printed by the Royal Meteorological Society in their report.* On 
close observation one could see that immense masses of vapour were being 
driven rapidly down Dufton Gill, and, striking against the almost perpendicular 
eastern face of the Pike, were projected high into the air, until bent over by the 
upper current, when they fell downwards over the top of the Pike, and melted 
away about a qnarter of the way down the Pike side. Looking towards the 
East or East-south-east, the rolling billowy masses of vapour showed very dis- 
tinctly, and had a most magnificent appearance, lit up with the bright morning 
sun. 

The Bar was formed of a dense roll of cloud, at a low elevation, and stood a 
little west of the river Eden. It joined the Helm Cloud at both ends, and thus 
an almost clear space of blue sky was surrounded by dense masses of vapour. 
The form of this space was a tolerably regular ellipse, extending, roughly 
speaking, from Brough to Langwathby, the ends being rounded by the connec- 
tion between the Helm Cloud and the Bar. Looking South-west directly at the 
Bar (distant then short of half a mile) both ends appeared to be drifting towards 
the centre, or rather, towards a point straight opposite to where I stood. I 
believe, however, that this was merely an optical deception, caused by the laws 
of perspective, by which the vapour drifting South-westwards in parallel lines 
appeared to converge towards the point of sight. On going to a place directly 
under the Bar I found the vapour overhead driving straight towards South-west, 
streaming out of the clear air from North-east, and condensing as it approached 
the thick part of the Bar, just in the same way as is usual when the Bar stands 
nearer the Fell, and the endwise motion could not be discerned from that 
standpoint. 

There were no scraps of cloud driving across between the Helm Cloud and 
Bar, all the lower air being quite clear and bright between, from the place 
where the spray-like vapour disappeared to that where the condensation began, 
There was, however, a light fleecy cloud about the centre of the ellipse at a 
considerably higher elevation than the Helm Cloud, which had a gentle motion 
from East-north-east, with whirling eddies ; this cloud, though in constant 


* Quarterly Journal, Vol, XI. p, 283, 


125 


motion, retained its position in the same way as the Bar does, the waste on the 
South-west being constantly replenished from North-east. 

The wind at our house was blowing strongly from a little East of North-east, 
a moderate gale somewhat gusty and irregular in force. The movement of the 
yapours on the Fell side showed that there a furious blast was raging. 

Wishing to observe the condition of things under the Bar, I walked towards 
the South-west to a point about 200 yards beyond the River Eden. Every step 
westward found the wind decreasing in force, until about half-way, there began 
to be slight puffs in a contrary direction : the smoke of a chimney by the main 
road side was blown from North-west, but the currents at that point were unsteady. 
I got under the North-east edge of the Bar a little before reaching the Eden, and 
found that it was gradually advancing towards the Fell. Standing on the wooden 
bridge across the Eden, I found a steady breeze from North-west blowing up the 
river. I went about 200 yards further, and met a steady gentle breeze from the 
West,—-the usual feature of a Helm witha regular Bar, but which I was anxious 
to test when the Bar stood far away from the Fell, as in thisinstance. I stayed 
here a few minutes to make observations; the whole sky westward was 
obscured with clouds, of which the Bar formed the eastern edge ; overhead the 
cloud, which was low, was so dense and compact that its motion could not be 
discerned, although the rapid drift at the edge showed that a strong current was 
passing overhead. The loud roaring of the wind on the Fell could be distinctly 
heard, resembling the sound of a heavy train on the railway,—indeed, but for its 
continuity, a stranger to the Helm would have judged the sound to be that of a 
train. On returning homewards I found that, as the sun got higher, the Bar was 
advancing towards the Fell, and growing less dense. I had the wind from the 
West at my back all the way home, but on reaching the house met again the 
North-east current, much decreased in force since I went away, the North-east 
edge of the Bar being now nearly over the house,—this would be about 7 a.m. 

On making the usual observations at 9 a.m., I found the Bar closed up to 
about half-way between Kirkby Thore and the Fell; the clouds overhead were 
much thinner, and their speed decreased to that of a moderate breeze, the direction 


__ being still from East-north-east. The ground wind was now a light breeze from 


the South. As the day advanced the dense vapours of the Bar were dispersed, 
and broken into fragments of cirrus cloud, at a higher level ; the wind lessened 
in force, and the Helm Cloud drew back towards the Fell top, leaving the 
principal part of the slopes clear of vapour. 


APRIL 21st, 1888. 
Krrksy THore. Mr. R. W. Crospy. ga.m. Strong Helm. Fell tops 


thick. Overcast. Surface wind West-south-west, force 2. Upper wind 
North-east, force 5. Temperature 40°. 


Mr, W. Dent, of Street House, told me that as he left home about 9 a.m. for 


126 


Appleby market, the wind at that point was furious from North-east, and seemed 
to fall down upon him. When he got to Bolton, about a mile nearer the Fell, 
he found the wind was gently blowing in the opposite direction, as it was at 
Kirkby Thore. This settles a point I have long suspected but never proved 
before, viz., that the current comes down again after its bounce up at the Bar. 
Street House is about a mile and a half South-south-west from Kirkby Thore, 


127 


NOTABILIA OF OLD PENRITH. 
By GEORGE WATSON. 
(Read at Penrith. ) 


Tue Manor oF PENRITH. 


From the earliest historical times, Cumberland was a bone of 
contention between English and Scottish royalty. At length, in 
1236 Henry III. of England and Alexander II. of Scotland agreed 
to a compromise by which certain large districts in Cumberland 
and Northumberland where no castles existed, were assigned to 
the Kings of Scotland, to be held in fealty to the English King. 
Penrith, with the Forest of Inglewood, was one of the manors so 
assigned ; and for the next half century Penrith, nominally English 
but practically Scottish, enjoyed peace—a luxury probably never 
previously experienced, and not again to be enjoyed for some 
centuries. 

This happy state of things came to an end in 1295, when 
Edward I., having quarrelled with the Scottish king, regained the 
ceded manors, and sent the Scots back over the Borders, where, 
however, they would not stop, but were continually coming back, 
not to “Take a cup o’ kindness for auld lang syne,” but to claim 
outgoing tenants’ compensation, by carrying off what was movable 
and destroying what was not. 

Next the manor of Penrith was given to Anthony Beck, the 
watrior Bishop of Durham, who wasa terrible fellow for fighting— 
much more at home in the saddle clad in armour, than in the 
peaceful duties of a bishop. 


128 


At that time the Bishops of Durham were princes claiming to 
be independent of the king ; and Beck, treating a command of the 
king with contempt, Penrith manor was taken from him. He was, 
however, no loss to Penrith, for there is no record of him bringing 
his fighting proclivities to the protection of Cumberland. 

No further grant of the manor was made by the Crown for eighty 
years, when in 1378 Richard II. gave it to the Duke of Brittany 
in exchange for Brest, that town being of value to the English King 
as a key to France, This arrangement held for eighteen years, 
when the King gave up Brest and regained Penrith, and in 1397 
granted it to Ralph Nevill, the powerful lord of Raby. Nevill 
had married as his second wife Joanna Beauford, the King’s kins- 
woman. He had just been created Earl of Westmorland, and 
appointed to several high offices of state; amongst others he was 
made Lord Warden of the Western Marches, in which he held 
large powers, military and magisterially, for the protection of the 
north-west against the Scots. Then Penrith Castle would be com- 
menced: for we know that when the manor was granted to the 
Scottish Kings, it was a condition of the grant that there was no 
castle there ; and in the time intervening between their occupation 
and the grant to Nevill, there is no reason to suppose a castle 
would be built. The grant is to Ralph Nevill and his heirs male 
by his second wife, Joanna Beauford. 

A busy life had Penrith’s feudal lord. Born in 1365, he’ was a 
warrior from his youth upwards; a ready and efficient servant of 
whatever king wore the crown, without troubling himself much 
about whys and wherefores. He served three kings in succesaion 
without quarrelling with one of them; he also had the great good 
fortune, or the clever tact, to be always on the winning side—a 
position ever dear to the heart of an Englishman. 

King Richard II. had commenced his reign as a boy, petted and 
loved by the people; but as a man he became tyrannical and 
unconstitutional ; and when he granted the manor of Penrith to 
Ralph Nevill, he was already tottering on his throne, from which 
in two years time he was driven by the decree of Parliament a 
poverty-stricken exile, never more to occupy English soil until 
brought to be buried in it. 


129 


This ill-fated king may be claimed as one of Penrith’s notabilities, 
as it is undoubtedly his portrait (not a very lovely one, certainly) 
which is preserved in the fragment of stained glass now in the 
most eastern window of the north aisle of St. Andrew’s Church. 

The unfortunate Richard being deposed, there came from exile 
his cousin Henry, known as Bolingbroke, called by the decree of 
Parliament to reign as Henry IV.; and among the foremost to meet 
and welcome him when he landed was Ralph Nevill, Earl of West- 
morland. Under the new king Penrith’s feudal lord suffered no 
eclipse ; he stands more nearly related to the throne than before, 


_ his countess being half-sister to the new king. He is created Earl 


Marshal of England, an office of great dignity and responsibility. 

All through the fourteen years of Henry IV.’s reign Nevill is 
never at rest ; what with aggressive Scots and rebellious nobles his 
wits never get dull nor his armour rusty. Then the king dies, and 
is succeeded by Shakespeare’s “merry wag,” Prince Hal, who 
now, however, becomes a discreet and valiant monarch, bent on 
recovering English prestige and territory in France. He is followed 
there by his nobles and a powerful army, foremost amongst whom 
is Ralph Nevill, then fifty years old, and with a prospect of a 
harassing campaign and much desperate fighting ;—it indicates a 
man of immense pluck and endurance. 

Rapin the historian says, “Just as Henry and his army were 
about to embark, intelligence was received that the Scots were 


meditating an invasion. A council was held, when Ralph Nevill, 


Earl of Westmorland and Lord President of the North, endeavoured 
to persuade the king to disable the Scots before going to France ; 


- but Nevill was over-ruled, and to France they went;” and the 


historian adds, ‘“‘ Cumberland was ravaged and Penrith burned.” 
From the terrible campaign, terminating with the battle of 

Agincourt, Ralph Nevill returned with the small residue of 

victorious English warriors. And now he appears as if he thought 


_ he had had enough of that kind of thing. And at a time when 


the soldier’s regimental tailor was a blacksmith, and he fought in 

an iron uniform, with his head in a metal cupola, thirty years of it 

was enough even for a Nevill; so he retires from military life, but 
9 


130 


continues to take a prominent part in the civil administration of 
the affairs of the north until his death in 1425, at the age of sixty. 

Ralph Nevill had two families: nine by his first wife, and 
thirteen by his second, the youngest of the latter being Cicely, a 
great celebrity not only of her time, but for all history. She was 
a great favourite of the Londoners, who styled her ‘“ proud Ciss, 
the Rose of Raby.” Her portrait in stained glass in the third 
window from the west of the south aisle of Penrith church, is said 
to be the only portrait of her extant; it is a brilliant piece of 
stained glass, worth many times its weight in gold. In it the 
illustrious lady looks every inch a “proud Ciss ;” her head is clad 
with jewels, and the portrait gives one the idea of a matronly lady 
doing her best to preserve the beauty of the once blooming “ Rose 
of Raby.” ‘This relic of medizevalism entitles us to claim Cicely 
as the belle of Penrith notabilities. She was married to Richard 
Plantagenet, Duke of York, whose portrait is in the same window 
with that of his wife. Richard was in point of direct succession 
the rightful heir to the crown; but the Lancastrian branch, whose 
hereditary claim was less distinct, held the crown by Parliamentary 
decree, and out of this complication sprang the terrible Wars of the 
Roses, as the series of bloody conflicts between the rival houses of 
York and Lancaster is designated. 

The life of Cicely, Duchess of York, was indeed a wonderful one, 
being by her mother’s side a great-grand-daughter of Edward III., 
she had royal blood in her veins. As wife of Richard, Duke of 
York, she was near the throne, of which at one time her husband 
appeared almost certain; but the cruel vicissitudes of war more 
than once placed her in dire distress. At the disastrous battle of 
Wakefield, her illustrious husband and devoted brother, the Earl 
of Salisbury (who had succeeded to the manor of Penrith) were 
executed on the battle field, and her son Edmond butchered in 
cold blood by the ruthless Clifford ; and when at length her dark 
days were past, and her two sons, Edward and Richard, occupied 
the throne in succession, she had scant pleasure and no credit in 
either of them. Cicely was daughter, sister, aunt and mother of 
four successive lords of Penrith manor, all men of celebrity, whose 


131 


career extended over a century, and whose occupation of the 
manor covered eighty-six years. 

Moreover, she was mother of two kings, grandmother of 
Henry VII.’s queen, and consequently ancestress of all the 
English monarchs from Henry VIII. down to Queen Victoria. 
Her lifetime was a remarkable epoch in the history and civilization 
of England. Whena girl, books were written by hand, and were so 
scarce, that it is on record that her mother petitioned the court for 
the return of a book she had lent to the late King Henry V. During 
the reign of her son Edward printing was introduced ; and in the 
_ short reign of her son Richard the laws of the land were first 
printed. She witnessed the downfall of feudalism, its enormous 
power having been turned against itself in desperate conflict for 


is 


_ the supremacy of two rival monarchical dynasties ; and out of the 
tuins of the feudal system she saw the rise of the supremacy of the 
English middle classes. 

Two years after the miserable death of Cicely’s son George, the 
ill-fated Clarence, done to death by his brother the besotted fourth 
_ Edward, she retired to her castle of Birkhamstead, and there for 
fifteen years lived the life of a nun, until in 1495, in probably the 
_ eightieth year of her age, she left this (to her truly) troublesome 
world. 

After the death of Ralph Nevill, in 1425, the manor was held 
by his son Richard, Earl of Salisbury, until the last day of 1460, 
when at or just after the disastrous battle of Wakefield he was 
executed by martial law, and his family attainted by Henry VI. 
_This—for the time—crushing defeat of the Yorkists, however, 
only lasted until the following Palm Sunday, when the great battle 
_ of Towton gave final supremacy to the House of York, and placed 
_ Cicely Nevill’s son Edward on the throne. 

Salisbury’s son Richard, Earl of Warwick, was heir to the manor 
of Penrith, to which he succeeded on the reversion of the attainder 
by Edward IV.; but whether in consequence of the attainder a 
_ ew grant was necessary, may perhaps be a moot point. Warwick, 
_ known in history as the king-maker, got his title and immense 
df possessions by his marriage with the heiress of the former Earl of 


182 


Warwick. He possessed one hundred manors; thirty thousand 
persons were fed daily at his tables; and when at court, his six 
hundred attendants bearing on their livery the Warwick badge of 
the bear and ragged staff, overawed London. 

While the king-maker held the manor of Penrith and the office 
of Lord Warden of the Marches, Penrith would probably see much 
of him for the first few years at least, whilst King Edward IV. 
occupied the throne upon which the great Warwick had placed 
him ; a peace, however, soon to be broken by another desperate 
attempt to regain power by the House of Lancaster, when Warwick, 
for reasons as yet ill understood, deserted his own kindred of the 
House of York, and carried his immense power over to the rival 
House of Lancaster, drove Edward from the throne, and set up 
once more the old Lancastrian King Henry VI. 

Another turn of the wheel, and the desperate battle of Barnet 
crushes for ever the Lancastrian cause. Warwick is slain, his 
immense estates confiscated, and his mighty career terminated 
for ever. 

Thus ended the ten years reign of the bear and ragged staff in 
Penrith. The manor now reverted to the crown, and was given 
by King Edward to his brother Richard, Duke of Gloucester, who 
for the next twelve years was a power in the north of England, 
residing at times at the castles of Carlisle, Penrith, and Barnard 
Castle, as well as being much in Yorkshire. He appeared to be 
ubiquitous, and all-powerful ; and notwithstanding the odium after- 
wards attached to his name in the south, nothing but good was 
known or believed of him in the north. 

Doubtless they were palmy days for Penrith when the white 
boars of the Duke of Gloucester replaced the bear and ragged 
staff of the traitor Warwick ; and when the Gloucester Arms were 
set up at the castle hostlery in Dockray, which perhaps was before 
the Warwick Arms. 

When after one short year’s reign as Richard III. this extra- 
ordinary man was treacherously betrayed and butchered on the 
battle field of Bosworth, the connection of Penrith manor with 
national history came to an end, 


138 


BIsHOP STRICKLAND. 


The earliest on record, and—the conditions of the time con- 
sidered—the most judicious and munificent of Penrith’s benefactors, 
was William Strickland, who was Bishop of Carlisle from 1400 to 
1419. He conferred three great benefits upon the town, each 
peculiarly suited to the exigencies of the time. 

He built a tower to the castle—or as the initial erection of the 
castle afterwards built—for we can scarcely think he could have 
built it after the manor was given to Ralph Nevill, whose first 


duty it would be to commence the erection of a castle. The tower 


was known as the Bishop’s Tower, and also as the White Tower, 
being constructed of white stones. 

Dixon, in his pamphlet of 1821 on Penrith Charities, says this 
tower remained in an almost perfect state of preservation until 
about seventy years before he wrote, and that a painting of it 
then existed at Sandgate Hall, the house of Thomas Scott, Esq., 
afterwards of Brent House. 

The Bishop’s Tower was no piece of useless ostentation, but a 
necessity of the time, being no doubt a watch tower to enable the 
inhabitants of the town to keep a look out for the approach of the 
ever-dreaded foe from over the Borders; and by building his 
tower, Strickland shewed himself, in consideration for the town, to 
be in advance of the royal owner of the manor. 

The Bishop’s second good work was procuring a constant supply 
of running water for the town from the river Petteril. The mere 
work of cutting the new water course was the least important part 
of the scheme; he had to surmount the greater difficulty of 
obtaining from the riparian owners the right to abstract the water 


_ from the river ; and the difficulties of the negotiation are strongly 
_ indicated by the curious stipulation— now obsolete—that no more 


water was to be taken than would pass through the eye of a mill- 
stone. The stream of water thus secured must have been an 


_ immense boon to the often plague-stricken and beleaguered town. 


It may be only fancy, but I cannot help thinking as I look ata 


_ map of Penrith, that its large open areas, with very narrow inlets 


134 


(much narrower once than now), speak of the troublous times the 
town has gone through ; that these areas received the cattle driven 
in for refuge when the watchman on the Bishop’s Tower descried 
the ancient enemy on the war path, the narrow inlets making 
defence more possible. At such times of siege the good bishop’s 
watercourse running through the town must have proved an 
inestimable blessing. 

This work of Strickland’s, as a piece of engineering, has often 
been greatly exaggerated by old writers ; but in this respect Thomas 
Fuller, in his Worthies of England, carries off the palm. You will 
probably be surprised to learn from the worthy Thomas that 
Penrith is somewhat of a seaport; he coolly asserting that Bishop 
Strickland at great cost constructed a canal from the town to the 
river Petteril, for the conveyance of boatage into the Irish Sea. 

In concluding his Westmorland Worthies, Fuller makes a quaint 
apology, which it is certain applies equally to Cumberland, and 
fully accounts for both his shortcomings and his overdoings. He 
confidingly says: ‘Reader, I must confess myself sorry and 
ashamed that I cannot do more right to the natives of this county, 
so far distant north that I never had yet the opportunity to behold 
it; but,” he adds, “‘time, tide, and the printer’s press are three 
unmannerly things that will stay for no man, and therefore I 
request that my defective endeavours may be well accepted.” Let 
us then kindly accept the apology; and when Penrithians seek 
the gay dissipations of the Naples of the Solway—Silloth—let them 
not sigh for Fuller’s boatage, via Thackay Beck and the Petteril, 
but meekly content themselves with the railway train. 

The third of Bishop Stricklands benefactions was the endowment 
of a chantry at Penrith church with six pounds a year, that the 
chantry priest migh teach the inhabitants grammar and music. 

Now, six pounds a year may at first sight appear no great matter; 
but when the value of money in the fourteenth century is con- 
sidered, it was really a substantial endowment. 

Mr. Walter Besant has written the life of Sir Richard Whittington 
—not a work of imagination such as that clever author usually 
delights us with, but a veritable history, dealing with authentic 


135 


data—and in order to give a just idea of the value of Whittington’s 
benefactions, he adduces data to show the value of money at the 
latter part of the fourteenth century; and as Whittington and 
Strickland were contemporaries, the calculation applies equally to 
the benefactions of the latter. 

From the data adduced, Mr. Besant estimates that money was then 


_ twenty-one times greater in value than at the present day ; but as he 


says by the end of the century it was somewhat advanced, we may 
safely multiply Wm. Strickland’s endowment in 1395 of £6 a year 
by eighteen times, which gives a modern equivalent of £108 a year; 
and if the mantle of the good bishop could but fall upon some rich 
shoulders now, whereby £108 a year should accrue to Penrith 
Grammar School, great would be the joy under the shadow of 
St. Andrew’s church. Bishop Strickland’s benefactions, it will be 


"seen, were in their nature threefold—military, sanitary, and educa- 


tional. When at the Reformation the chantries were dissolved, 
the preamble of the Bill provided that their revenues were to be 
employed for educational and charitable objects; but instead of 
that, they went into the pockets of greedy courtiers, or into the 
equally needy exchequer of the king. The Bill promised to do 
just what Bishop Strickland had done at Penrith one hundred and 
fifty years before, only Strickland did it, while the Tudor king 
promised but did it not; when therefore Queen Elizabeth, under 
pressure, refunded the £6 a year to the Grammar School, she 


- graciously disgorged what she had no right to keep. 


With the career of William Strickland as an ecclesiastic, the 
records of the diocese of Carlisle make us generally acquainted ; 


i but of his parentage and birthplace there is conjecture only. 


Camden says he was descended from a famous family in these 
parts, doubtless meaning the Stricklands of Sizergh Castle, near 
Kendal ; and all other writers on the subject have followed Cam- 
den’s lead, and with more or less positiveness have stated him to 


_ belong to that family. 


This family had in early times settled at Strickland, in the parish 
of Moreland, and had adopted the name of that manor as the 
family name, as was usual in those times, 


136 


In 1239 the Strickland of the day married Elizabeth Deincourt, 
heiress of Sizergh, and settled there; and from that time to the 
present there has been an unbroken line of Stricklands at that 
place. The Cumberland and Westmorland Antiquarian Society 
visited Sizergh last year, when Mr. E. Bellasis, Lancaster Herald 
of H.M. College of Arms, read an interesting paper on the Strick- 
lands, which, with a pedigree chart, will be published in the 
forthcoming “Transactions” of that Society. Being desirous of 
obtaining some biographical account of Bishop Strickland, to find 
out if possible to what circumstances Penrith was indebted to his 
consideration, I wrote to Mr. Bellasis asking for particulars. It so 
happened that my letter reached him at Sizergh, where he was 
visiting at the time; and from there he kindly replied, surprising 
me with the fact that William Strickland’s connection with the 
Sizergh family was only suppositious. He says, “I am sorry to 
say there is nothing here (Sizergh) bearing on Bishop Strickland of 
Carlisle. He is supposed to be a member of the Sizergh people. 
Sir R. Bigland, Garter at the College of Arms last century and 
this, notes him as son of a Robert Strickland, whose father, 
Sir William Strickland, married Miss Deincourt. Making these 
latter the Bishop’s grandparents, puts him rather earlier as to dates 
than we should expect. 

“Phillippe’s Yorkshire makes a Thomas to be the Bishop, which 
is of course an error; but the position assigned to the Bishop 
herein as a son of Sir Thomas Strickland and Cicely Wells fits in 
better chronologically were there any William among Thomas and 
Cecily’s sons, which no pedigree asserts there to have been. All 
this will be noted on the chart pedigree of S. now printing for 
our local Archzological Society. I am sorry that there should 
be conjecture only as to the Bishop’s place on the tree. I have 
seen no proofs as to his position thereon.” 

Mr. Bellasis gives me another interesting item about the Bishop. 
He says, “I observe that St. George’s Westmorland 1615 visitation 
makes a daughter and heir of Bishop Strickland marry a Lancaster, 
and the Strickland quartering is put in.” Mr. Bellasis adds, “I 
should have questioned this ; later Lancaster pedigree say no more 
about it armorially or genealogically,” 


e. 


137 


Now, where all is conjecture only, there can be no harm in 
hazarding two or three conjectures more. First: He may not 
have been a born Strickland at all, but only a native of Strickland, 
who on coming into public life was known as William of Strickland, 
in accordance with the general custom of the time. Secondly: 
He may have been a Strickland from a distant branch struck off 
from the old stock before the main family settled at Sizergh, the 


Bishop’s family remaining in this neighbourhood. Thirdly: Not- 


withstanding the absence of documentary evidence of the fact, he 
might have been the son of Sir Thomas Strickland and his wife 
Cicely Wells of Sizergh, which fits in well enough chronologically 
with the known dates of his various preferments, supposing him to 


have been between twenty-five and thirty years of age when made 


rector of Stapleton, and from seventy-five to eighty at his death. 
The absence of his name from the archives of Sizergh, and his 
evident attachment to this neighbourhood, may possibly be ac- 
counted for in this way. The manor of Hackthorpe belonged to 
the Stricklands, and was settled on Cicely Wells on her marriage 
with Sir Thomas; and the possession of the manor carried with it 


_ the right of alternate presentation to the rectory of Lowther. 


Possibly then Cicely’s son William, when a boy, might be sent to 
Hackthorpe to be educated and trained for priestly duties by the 
rector of Lowther ; and then to bring in the little bit of romance 
about the alleged daughter who was married to a Lancaster (pre- 


sumably of Sockbridge), we may suppose that William, forsaking 


his priestly intentions, fell in love with a fair heiress on the banks 


of the Lowther or Eamont and married her; lost her early ; was 
_ left with a baby daughter; returned to his first love—the Church, 


and took holy orders; in this way he may have become owner of 


those lands at Penrith out of which Burn and Nicolson say he 


endowed his chantry at Penrith, And may he not have built his 
watch tower upon his own land, before the Nevill’s acquired it as 


_asite for Penrith Castle. 


It is difficult, however, to reconcile the Bishop’s entire isolation 


_ from the archives of Sizergh with the supposition that he belonged 


to that family. Again, his devotion to the see of Carlisle, instead 


138 


of that of Chester, in which Sizergh was then situate, favoured 
the idea that he was locally a Penrith man, In the pages of 
Burn and Nicolson, we first meet with him in 1368 exchanging 
the rectory of Stapleton for that of Ousby, the nearest location to 
Penrith we find him occupying. He held Ousby, however, only a 
few months. 

It is to be noted in Nicolson and Burn that the adoption of 
native place names for surnames was especially practised by the 
clergy of Strickland’s time; thus at Stapleton we find John de 
Stapleton, Robert de Bolton, John de Kirby, and at Ousby Adam 
de Appleby, Thomas de Caldbeck, William de Wilton, Richard de 
Ulvesby (Ousby), and Thomas de Azrkland, while Strickland’s 
ordinary and patron was Thomas de Affleby. It is therefore 
evident that his bearing the name or designation of de Strickland 
is in itself no reason for assigning his origin to Sizergh. There is 
no evidence that Strickland was ever vicar of Penrith; but as 
there is a blank in the list of Penrith vicars from 1355 to 1428, it 
is possible be may have held the living between his leaving Ousby 
in 1368 or 1369, and his appointment as chaplain to Bishop 
Appleby, which position he occupied before that Bishop (1388) 
presented him to the living of Horncastle in Lincolnshire, then 
attached to the see of Carlisle. 

In 1395 he was elected by the Chapter of Carlisle to be Bishop, 
but was refused by the Pope, who would have none but foreign 
priests for English bishops. He was again elected in 1400, when 
by intercession of Henry IV. he was accepted by the Pope. 

Bishop Strickland had the same liberal hand for Carlisle as he 
had for Penrith. He built the cathedral tower, and furnished it 
with four bells ; he gave the choir stalls and tabernacle work ; and 
built a tower at Rose Castle, which long continued to be known 
as the Strickland tower. 

As before mentioned, Strickland was contemporaneous with 
Sir Richard Whittington. He would probably be born twenty 
years before Whittington, but died only four years earlier. Both 
employed their means in works of philanthropy and piety, each 
according to his means, the one as a city millionare, the other asa 


: 
4 
; 
: 
¥ 
: 


ous Vat 


aici eps ale a 


139 


country gentleman. Each founded a chantry. Whittington’s 
chantry priest, however, had only the duty of praying for departed 
souls. The Bishop did better with his, giving him something 
useful to do for the living, and making it worth his while to do it. 

Bishop Strickland died in 1419, and was buried in the north 
aisle of Carlisle cathedral, where is, says Dr. Todd, his portraiture 
elegantly cut in stone and gilded. 

Bishop Kennet says he was a very worthy Bishop, influencing 
the peace and happiness of the north by his residence in these 
parts, and leaving the best sign and effects of it. 


Tue Huttons oF Hutron HAtt, PENRITH. 


Tuis ancient family occupy a prominent place in the Notabilia of 
Penrith. They can be traced back to Adam de Hotten, in the 
reign of Edward I., from whom there was a regular succession of 
Huttons at Penrith down to 1746. Hutton Hall was a mesne 
manor within the manor of Penrith. The only remains of the 
original hall is the square tower now to be seen behind the modern 
existing house which still bears the ancient name. 

There were two other families of Hutton in this neighbourhood, 
probably all from the same stock—the Huttons of Hutton John, 
and the Huttons of Hutton in the Forest. The former became 
extinct in the reign of Queen Elizabeth, when the estate went by 
marriage to the Huddlestones. 

The Hutton in the Forest family became extinct as a county 


_ family by the sale of the estate to the Fletchers, which afterwards 
passed by marriage to a branch of the old family of Vanes of the 


county of Durham. 

The Penrith Huttons were ever notable men, taking honourable 
part in the learned professions as well as in county and local 
affairs. 

The most ancient recorded monument in the old church is 
mentioned by Jefferson as having been the tomb of Thomas de 
Hutton and Helen his wife, temp. Henry V., which was under a 
south window in the chancel, their effigies being painted in the 


140 


window with this inscription: ‘‘Orate pro animabus Thomae 
et Elanae uxoris ejus.” 

In the reign of Henry VIII. the Hutton of Penrith was a John; 
and noting in Knight’s A/zstory of England that a John Hutton was 
ambassador at Brussels in 1538, I have been seeking for proof 
that he was the Penrith John Hutton, but as yet I have met with 
no positive evidence to that effect. If, however, the ambassador 
was a Cumberland Hutton, it must have been he of Penrith, for 
the Hutton of Hutton John of that time was a Cuthbert, while 
the Hutton of the Forest was a William ; this I gather from Burn 
and Nicolson. 

The historical incident which brings the ambassador John 
Hutton before us, is a somewhat curious incident in history. 
That much-marrying monarch, Henry VIII., was then looking out 
for a fourth wife, and his minister Cromwell, an ardent favourer 
of the Reformation, determined if possible to give his royal master 
a Lutheran wife, sent instructions to the ambassadors at various 
courts, to report upon all eligible ladies. John Hutton, ambas- 
sador at Brussels, writes favourably of the Duchess of Milan. He 
says: “She is not so pure white as was the last queen, but she 
hath a singular good countenance, and when she chanceth to 
smile there appeareth two pits in her cheeks and one in her chin, 
which becometh her right excellently well.” He gives an account 
of other ladies, and then goes on to say: ‘‘The Duke of Cleves 
has a daughter, but I hear no great praise neither of her personage 
nor beauty.” Hutton is aware that in such ticklish affairs his 
frank opinion might get him into trouble, and he adds: “I have 
not much experience amongst ladies, and therefore this commission 
is to me very hard; so that if in anything I offend, I beseech your 
lordship to be my mean for pardon.” He then advises the leaving 
of the further judgment to others that are better skilled in such 
matters. The historian adds that, the time would come when 
Cromwell himself would regret that he had not imitated the 
prudence of John Hutton, the ambassador to the Netherlands. 

The dimpled Duchess was not chosen. One account says she 
teplied that, if she had had two heads, one of them should have 


141 


been at the service of King Henry; but having only one, she 
would not risk the losing of it. When she said this, I should 
think the two pits in her cheeks and one in her chin would be a 
sight worth seeing. 

Surely there never was such a matrimonial bungle made as this 
fourth marriage of Henry VIII. Ann of Cleves, the lady John 
Hutton had such grave doubts about, was chosen by Cromwell for 
recommendation to the king; other more compliant agents than 
Hutton were employed to work out Cromwell’s scheme, who gave 
glowing accounts of the lady. Holbein was employed to paint 
her portrait for the king, which he did to too great perfection, for 
it secured the king’s approval of the lady, only to increase his 
disappointment when he saw her after her arrival in England. 

Ann was a plain, common-place person, speaking no language 
but her own native Dutch, of which Henry understood not one 
word; and she was destitute of such accomplishments as were 
usual for ladies of rank. Henry was terribly disappointed, and in 


_ rage asked why they had brought that Flanders mare. He tried 


hard to be let off the engagement to marry her, but the matter had 
gone too far for that, and he married her sorely against his will. 
Of course the result was a speedy divorce on some hollow pretext; 
and the ill-used Ann, glad to be free from so dangerous a husband, 
willingly went back to Flanders, with an unbisected neck and a 
nice little pension. Hutton, the ambassador, was well out of the 
mess; thanks to his own great caution. Henry never forgave 
Cromwell, who fell under royal displéasure, and very shortly after 
came to the block. 

A younger son of the same family of Huttons was a distinguished 
judge in the reign of Charles I., and is this spoken of by Fuller in 
his “ Worthies of England” :—‘‘ Sir Richard Hutton was born at 
Penrith, of a worshipful family ; his elder brother was a knight (he 
refers of course to Sir William Hutton, of Hutton Hall, Penrith). 
He (the judge) intended his studies for divinity, but dissuaded by 
the importunity of his friends—amongst whom George, Earl of 


Cumberland, was most eminent—he became a barrister in Gray’s 


Inn, but in expression of his former affection for divinity, he seldom 


142 


if ever took a fee of a clergyman. Afterwards, being Recorder of 
York, he was knighted and made Judge of Common Pleas. In 
the case of ship money, though he was against the King—or rather 
for the Commons—yet His Majesty manifested not the least 
distaste, continuing to call him the honest judge.” 

It is not much known that a direct ancestress of Baroness 
Burdett Couts was buried in the Hutton place of sepulchre— 
St. Andrew’s choir of old Penrith church, as was also her daughter, 
Elizabeth Burdett, married to Mr. Anthony Hutton. It was in 
this way. Robert Burdett married Mary, daughter of Thomas 
Wilson, D.D., Dean of Durham, and Secretary of State to Queen 
Elizabeth ; and from her the Baroness Burdett Couts is lineally 
descended. Mary Burdett surviving her husband, was married to 
Sir Christopher Lowther; and her daughter, Elizabeth Burdett, 
was married to Anthony Hutton of Hutton Hall. 

On the death of Sir Christopher Lowther, his widow took up 
her residence with her daughter and son-in-law at Hutton Hall, 
where she continued to reside until her death in 1622. She was 
buried in St. Andrew’s choir, and a brass plate to her memory 
there is recorded by Bishop Nicolson in 1704. Her daughter 
on the death of her husband Anthony Hutton in 1637, erected a 
marble monument in St. Andrew’s choir, bearing the recumbent 
figures of her lamented husband and herself. There were two 
brass plates bearing inscriptions, one to the memory of the departed 
husband, the other telling what the yet living wife had done. 
“Here lyes the portraiture of Elizabeth Hutton, the wife of the 
late deceased Anthony Hutton, who, though living, desired thus 
to be placed, in token of her union with him here interred, and of 
her own expected mortality.” In this case, at least, we may infer 
that marriage was of “‘a failure.” 

It was a curious episode in a family history when Baroness 
Burdett Couts’ very great aunt stood in St. Andrew’s choir (where 
the choir vestry now is) and contemplated her own sepulchral 
effigy. 

The last of the family name was Addison Hutton, Doctor of 
Physic, who died in 1742. 


143 


Further reference to the monuments once existing of the 


_ Huttons in old Penrith Church will be made in speaking of the 


Church. 


THE CASTLE. 


In speaking of Bishop Strickland’s benefactions, reference was 
made to the recorded facts, that he was a landowner at Penrith, 
and that he built a tower at the castle. I now suggest the proba- 
bility that he built his tower upon his own land, which Ralph 
Nevill afterwards acquired as a site for a castle, and allowed the 
bishop’s tower to remain as part of the castle. Hutchinson believes 
the site to have been a Roman fort, and says the ground on which 
the castle stands has the strongest marks of an ancient camp of 


_ square figure, an outward fosse and agger with an inward walled 


rampier, of which the distinct remains are now to be seen. Cam- 
den says, ‘“‘the castle was repaired out of the ruins of Maburg, a 
Roman fort hard by.” This is of course an error, so far as May- 


brongh is concerned. In the first place, Maybrough is in no sense 


“hard by”; and in the second, it never was a Roman fort, and did 
not afford blocks of building stone. Camden’s statement appears 
to confirm in a vague way Hutchinson’s surmise that the site had 
been a Roman fort ; and it is further strengthened by the fact that 
while the bulk of the stone used in the castle is the local red 
sandstone, a quantity of white stone, apparently from Blencow or 
Lamonby, is to be seen in the walls, especially about the south- 
east angle. Bishop Strickland’s tower was of white stone, and with 
other materials there is also much white stone debris in the concrete 


_ Of the interior of the walls, all appearing to indicate that the builders 


of the castle found this exceptional material on or near the site, 
ready to their hands; and that, in short, it was the material of the 
Roman fort. 

There is much doubt as to the share that Ralph Nevill, his son, 
and grandson (the two Richard Nevills), and his grandson Richard, 
Duke of Gloucester, had in building the castle. But by whomsoever 


_ it was built, it has no claim to such antiquity as generally pertains 


_ to feudal castles. It was never a family residential place, but 


144 


mainly a fortress. It was a child of feudalisms, old-age born when 
that system of military despotism was becoming a thing of the 
past ; and when the introduction of gunpowder and ordnance was 
making stone walls useless as places of defiant entrenchment. Its 
first use was in the defence of the district against the Scots; but 
afterwards, mainly as a stronghold in the hands of the House 
of York in overawing the adherents of the rival House of Lancaster; 
and with the final overthrow of the Plantagenets in the person of 
Richard III. its work was done, and it sank into ruin. 

In accordance with the popular idea that there could be no 
devastation and ruin without Oliver Cromwell having a hand in it, 
we are told that he bombarded and knocked down the greater part 
of the castle. It is, however, on record, that in Queen Elizabeth’s 
time it was in a ruinous condition ; and Cromwell’s soldiers would 
not be likely to waste their powder and shot in blazing away at a 
ruin. They might add to its delapidation by demolishing roofs to 
obtain lead for bullets ; but I believe the greatest destroyers of the 
walls were the Penrithians, who found the old castle a convenient 
quarry for building stones. I have myself seen some internal house 
walls composed of time-worn blocks undoubtedly from that source. 
It is true small cannon balls have been found in the rubbish of the 
castle, but they were more likely to have been fired by enemies of 
much earlier date, or to have been part of the castle’s stock of 
ammunition. 


THE PARISH CHURCH. 


Ir was probably during the occupation of the manor by the 
Scottish kings—1236 to 1295—that the old church, demolished 
in 1720, was built. The fine massive arch spanning the entire 
width of the east side of the tower is distinctly of that period ; and 
the dedication of the church to St. Andrew, the patron saint of 
Scotland, although no positive proof, seems to favour the asumption. 
The existence of this arch shows that the tower was ritually part of 
the church, and not, as in some of the old Cumberland churches, 
a fortress or place of refuge—an arrangement indicative of peaceful 
times when the church was built. 


eo es 


v. 


145 


There is unfortunately no record of the architectural character 
of the church demolished in 1720 to make way for Dr. Todd’s 
Georgian fabric; but Bishop Nicolson, in his accounts of the 
condition of the church and monuments sixteen years before its 
demolition, in describing the monuments and church fittings, 
makes several allusions to parts of the church, which, being collated 
and fitted on to the grand old tower happily left to us, we get a 
rough idea of the plan of the church ;—which I venture to describe 
as—first, a nave the width of the tower, and open to it; secondly, 
a south aisle of lofty dimensions, terminated eastward by a choir 
dedicated to St. Andrew; thirdly, the nave was terminated east- 
ward by a choir dedicated to St. Mary, called also the Bishop’s 
choir: this was the ritual choir or chancel, containing the altar. 
Dr. Todd’s account of the old church is, that it was rude and 
unequal, as having been built at different times; that it opened 
into two, and had at the east end two altars, dedicated to St. Mary 
and St. Andrew. From Bishop Nicolson’s references, it is not 
clear that a north aisle existed; but from some of his allusions, 
and from ‘the words, “repairing the low leads,” occurring in the 
churchwardens’ accounts, I think there was a north aisle having a 
low lean-to roof covered with lead.. Of course, between the nave 
and aisles there would be the usual arcades of pillars and arches. 

From the Bishop’s account we learn that there was a door to 
the south aisle, and a south door to St. Andrew’s choir. We also 
know there was a great north door, because he refers to it in 


_ describing the position of the giant’s grave. 


St. Andrew’s choir was devoted to the reception of sepulchral 
monuments, principally—perhaps exclusively—those of the Huttons 
of Hutton Hall, Penrith, who claimed to be proprietors of that 
choir. 

I cannot believe there was any practical reason for demolishing 
the old church beyond the fashion of the period—to condemn all 
old Gothic work as worthless, and the rage for building imitations 
—many of them bad imitations—of Wren’s Italian churches ; and 
T feel sure that if Dr. Todd and Bishop Nicolson had possessed 


any love or reverence for ancient Gothic architecture, they would 
10 


146 


have been able to preserve the ancient fabric. That, however, was 
not the feeling of the age. And so the historical old church was 
swept away, and with it—to complete the work of destruction—all 
the most important of the monuments were destroyed. The 
Puritan revolutionists might have been blamed for this vandalism, 
had we not had the painstaking account of Bishop Nicolson of 
the monuments in and about the church only sixteen years before 
its demolition ; from which we learn that there was then nearly a 
score of monuments and brasses of great interest, only five of 
which can now be found—and these the least important of the 
number mentioned. We are therefore forced to the conclusion 
that the missing monuments of the ancient family of the Huttons 
and others were ruthlessly destroyed with the old church. 

The tower of the church is of massive proportions, being at its 
base twenty feet square, with walls six feet thick; the top, or 
belfrey, stage is twenty-two feet square, with walls four feet thick, 
the total height from ground to top of parapet is seventy-one feet. 
Up to the belfrey stage it is the original 13th century tower, which 
has been much tampered with; some small mean windows have 
been inserted, and angle buttresses added, and—greatest abortion 
of all!—an Italian doorway and Grecian pediment stuck to the 
old Gothic tower. From structural indications it appears probable 
there was a large west window, which, seen from the interior of 
the church through the great arch now spanning the gallery stairs, 
would be a fine feature. The belfry stage was, from the architec- 
tural details of its eight two-light windows, added in the latter part 
of the 15th century ; and there is good reason to suppose it was 
built by the Earl of Warwick, when he held the manor (1460—70). 
The reasons for this supposition are, that upon the north-west 
angle of the parapet there is what tradition calls the Warwick 
ragged staff; and it is noticeable on examination of the parapet, 
that similar ragged staffs were originally placed on all four angles 
and the centre of each side. It may also be observed that while 
all other parts of the tower are of red stone, the ragged staff is of 
white, that being the proper colour for Warwick’s staff, another 
nobleman having a black one. Again, the belfrey windows are of 


9 er oa en tS a 


ae ae 


147 


the same character and details as some of those in the castle—in 
all probability also Warwick’s work, for their details are those of 
his time. Of the eight ragged staffs it may be asked, Where are 
seven? To answer this, we have only to remember the odium 
afterwards attached to Warwick’s name by the adherents of the 
House of York, and to imagine with what glee the Duke of 
Gloucester’s retainers would destroy the Warwick badges. The 
only wonder is that even one was left; it, however, has been 
broken in the middle, and the point is gone. Perhaps after 
Richard III.’s day, someone having a grateful remembrance of the 
mighty Earl, restored the solitary white staff which remains to this 
day; and may there never be wanting an appreciative church- 
warden to preserve this the last relic of the king-maker in Penrith, 


THE GIANT’S GRAVE. 


In connection with the old church, the “ Giant’s Grave” must 
be noticed as one of the most interesting objects of antiquity. 
With the all but obliterated carving upon the two crosses and the 
intervening hog-backed stones, and the interpretation thereof, I 
will not presume to deal ; they are in the able hands of the Rev. 
W. S. Calverley, who I understand is about to give the result of 
his investigation thereupon. I will only here speak of the site of 
the monuments, and the history of the Giant tradition. 

In preparing for a concrete foundation for the base stones on 
which the hogg-backs have just been placed, the earth to a depth 
of seven feet was found to consist of filled-in soil mixed with broken 
brick, freestone, and broken cobbles, and some shattered human 
bones, but none perfect. This mixture of material was uniform to 
the depth mentioned, and quite at the bottom was found a bit of 
blue willow-pattern pot; attesting the fact that to that depth the 
formation of the ground was comparatively modern. The excay- 
ations were made as near to each pillar as was deemed safe, and 
I am satisfied that the pillars are set upon the same artificial 
formation. The excavation was continued downward into the 
natural boulder clay, which had certainly never before been dis- 
turbed. The excavation showed that the earth near the western 


148 


cross was much firmer than at the eastern one, where it was a very 
gruesome mixture of fragmentary bones and loose earth, which 
had evidently sunk under the weight of the cross, the socket-stone 
of which is ten inches lower than that of the western cross; and if 
any other proof of the modern re-erection of the monuments is 
needed, it is afforded by the fact that the eastern cross is socketed 
into a rough square block of local soft red freestone the same as 
the church ; all other parts of the crosses and hogg-backs, as also 
the large round socket-stone of the western cross, are of white or 
flesh-coloured stone from Blencow or Lamonby. ‘The eastern 
cross has evidently been broken off from its original socket-stone, 
and re-set in the modern socket-stone in a rough and ready way 
by tapering the end to fit a hole much too small to receive the 
entire pillar—a slovenly bit of work which the original erectors of 
the crosses would have been ashamed of. 

Both Bishop Nicolson and Dr. Todd have left it on record 
that the Giant’s Grave was “before the great north door of the 
church”—of the old church. Both these great authorities recount 
the since often-recited romance, of the mighty hunter of Inglewood 
Forest, and his boars; and both dismiss the tradition, each being 
in favour of an hypothesis of his own. The Bishop thinks that 
the “two pyrimidal stones” and ‘‘the several segments of circular 
stones erected betwixt them,” have ‘‘been erected on no other 
design than for an ornament (such as it is) to the porch before 
which they stand.” Dr. Todd’s idea was that the stones were put 
there to rest the bodies of the dead while the souls of the departed 
were being prayed for. Both ideas were crude, and unworthy of 
the learned authors. It evidently did not occur to them that the 
monument might be a few centuries older even than the old 
church itself, and that the church might have been brought to the 
giant’s grave, and not the grave to the church. If the giant’s grave, 
as we see it, was before the north door of the church, the door 
must have been considerably further east than north doors usually 
were placed, which was generally near the west end of the church, 
in fact about the position of the present north door. From all 
these facts, I am inclined to think that before the rebuilding of 


149 


the church, the monuments were more westward, and that while 
the building operations were going on, they were taken down, and 
afterwards re-erected where we now see them, so as to leave an 
uninterrupted approach to the present north door. 

That the ground around the church should be of the character 
indicated by the excavation mentioned, need be no matter for 
surprise, if it is, as I suspect, the debris cleared out of the old 
church when getting in foundations for pillars and internal walls 
of the new church ; for we find by the old churchwardens’ books 
that burials in the church were regularly permitted on payment of 
three shillings and fourpence each. This went on up to within 
two years of the demolition of the old church ; and it appears that 
during the fifty years preceding the re-building, upwards of one 
hundred such burials took place in the church. This abominable 
practice, however, was quite common in the 17th century, and in 
one place inspired an epitaph writer thus :— 

‘* Here lies I outside the dooer, 
Here lies I because Ise pooer ; 
The further in the more to pay ;— 
Here lies I as warm as they.” 

When the “giant” idea first came in, and from whence, does 
not clearly appear. Camden, in his “ Britannia,” (1586) mentions 
“Perith,” its “pretty handsome church,” its castle, market-house 
of wood, beautified with bears climbing up a ragged staff, the 


device of the Earls of Warwick. King Arthur’s Round Table, 


Maybrugh, and Bishop Strickland’s water-course from the Petteril; 
but strange to say, profound antiquarian though he was, he makes 
no allusion to the giant’s grave. 

The next writer in point of date is Sandford, who (Jefferson in 
his “ History of Leath Ward,” says) wrote his manuscript history 
in 1670, in which he states that he was told by Mr. Page, of 
Penrith, who from 1581 to 1591 was schoolmaster, marshal-man, 
and bailiff, that a strange gentleman came to Penrith in search of 
antiquities, and produced a written account of a “Sir Hugh 
Cesario, a knight-errant, killing monster, man, and beast, and was 
buried in the north side of the church, ith green field.” Sandford 


190 


then goes on to say: ‘They went to the church; and on the 
north side ther is 2 crosses distant the lenth of a man, one at head 
and other at feet. And was opened when I was a scholler there 
by William Turner, and there found the great long shank bones 
and other bones of a man, and a broad sword besides, fonde there 
by the church wardens.” 

In this account it is to be noted that neither the unknown 
antiquarian who introduced the story of the hero of the grave, 
Mr. Page, or Mr. Sandford, say anything about a giant. On the 
contrary, Mr. Page distinctly states that the crosses were the 
length of a man (i.e. an ordinary man) apart. The great long 
shank bone does not, I think, mean more than the long bone of 
the leg above the knee, as distinguished from the shorter one 
below it. Gibson’s edition of Camden’s “ Britannia” (1695) has 
*“* Additions to Cumberland,” written by Dr. Todd four years before 
he became vicar of Penrith, in which the crosses—spoken of as 
pillars—are described as about five yards apart, and the “giant” 
first comes before us thus :—‘“’Tis said they were set in memory 
of one Sir Ewan Ceesarius, knight in old time, a famous warrior of 
great strength and stature, who lived in these parts, and killed wild 
boars in the forest of Englewood, which much infested the country. 
He was buried here, they say, and was of such prodigious stature 
as to reach from one pillar to the other; and they tell you that 
the rude figures of boars, which were done in stone and erected 
two on each side between the pillars, are in memory of his great 
exploits upon these creatures. Thus it appears that between 1591, 
when the unknown antiquarian visited the monuments, and 1695, 
when Dr. Todd wrote about them, the grave had grown from the 
length of a man to that of a giant. 


THE GIANT’S THUMB. 


Or the ancient mutilated cross known as “ The Giant’s Thumb,” I 
have spoken in a former paper (Zvansactions, No. XIII. p. 1), and 
will only here add, that it has occurred to me, that the origin of 
its popular designation may have been in the resemblance which 
the mutilated cross, when standing only part of its height out of 


ata yt 


= 


151 


the ground, bore to the thumb bone. Did some wag of a grave- 
digger, accustomed to the sight of such gruesome fragments of 
humanity, recognise the likeness, and give the name to the old cross? 


WILLIAM ROBINSON. 


Witt1aM Rosrnson, a great benefactor of Penrith in the 17th 
century, well deserves our notice. Of William Robinson, grocer, 
of St. Dunstan-in-the-East, London, and his munificent benefaction 
of £55 a year through the Grocers’ Company to Penrith, for 
charitable, educational, and religious purposes, every Penrithian 
knows much; but of the connection of the benefactor with the 
town, or the cause of his great regard for it, nothing is known 
beyond a vague tradition mentioned by Dixon in his book on 
Penrith charities, to the effect that when William Robinson was 
going as a boy to London, to try his fortune there, he was helped 
by kind persons in Penrith. 

On looking through an old Survey of London, I came across an 
account of benefactions in the hands of the Grocers’ Company; and 
looking for William Robinson’s benefaction to Penrith, was surprised 
to find no mention of it. There was, however, one endowment 
by William Robinson mentioned, of £20 a year to the Grammar 
School at Topcliffein Yorkshire. Now then, I thought, some clue 
to William Robinson may be found, so I drew a bow at a venture, 
and wrote a note of enquiry to the vicar or rector of Topcliffe, and 
received a courteous reply, that it was a fact that the Grammar 
School there received an annual payment of twenty pounds a year 
from the Grocers’ Company from the benefaction of William Rob- 
inson, but of William Robinson himself nothing whatever was 
known ; thus the beneficent grocer becomes doubly mysterious. 

William Robinson’s will in favour of Penrith is dated 1660, but 


_ the bequest was not to accrue until after the death of his widow, 
_ but when that took place does not appear. The churchwardens’ 
old book takes no notice of it; for although the churchwardens 
_ received and distributed the money, they did not enter either 


teceipt or distribution in the church book, at least for about eighty 


years after it first came in, 


152 

It has been assumed that the date on Robinson’s school, 1670, 
indicates the time when the benefaction first accrued. This, I 
think, is a mistake. Taking the date and the inscription together, 
“Ex sumptibus Will. Robinson civis Lond. 1670,” plainly means 
that the school was erected at the cost of William Robinson in 
1670; and the inference I draw is, that William Robinson in his 
lifetime sent money to pay for the erection of the school, so as to 
give effect to his bequest when it fell in; and the fact that there is 
no provision in his will for building a school favours such a con- 
clusion. 

The bequest of £55 a year is even now a handsome one; but 
if we estimate it by the value of money at that time, it cannot 
represent less than £200; and further, as Walker in his history of 
Penrith says: “In Mr. Robinson’s time, his property in Grub 
Street, the rent of which was charged with the £55, would be of 
much less value than at present ; and had he left the property, or 
a certain proportion, to the parish, instead of a fixed sum, what 
might have been its present value?” This is only one out of 
hundreds of cases in which a testator in olden times bequeathed a 
specific sum out of property, not thinking that in course of time 
the value of the property might increase. An extreme case is at 
(I think) Rochester, where the rent of certain land, then a little 
over five pounds a year, was left in trust to the Dean and Chapter 
to pay five pounds a year to the Grammar School, the small residue 
of the rent to be taken by the Dean and Chapter for the trouble 
of dealing with the trust. The land now produces some hundreds 
a year, but five pounds is all that is legally due to the school— 
more is actually given, but the Chapter still takes the lion’s share. 

William Robinson also gave the sum of ten pounds to the 
church stock. ‘This is not provided for in his will, and therefore 
if not given in his lifetime, must have been arranged for in some 
other way than through the Grocers’ Company. The receipt of 
the second half of this £10 is noted in the old churchwardens’ 
book thus: “ April 23rd, 1676, #5 more of Mr. William Robin- 
son’s money, to be put forth (ie. invested) for the use of the 
Parish.” 


; 
4. 
4 
3 
tp 


153 


As has been noticed, the old churchwardens gave no place in 
the church book to William Robinson’s bequest and its distribu- 
tion, yet occasionally indirect mention is made of it, when the 
weary and thirsty parish officials enter in the book—‘ Spent (so 
much) going about with Mr. Robinson’s money ;” or, “Spent at 
the George consulting about Mr. Robinson’s money.” As we 
shall see presently, the charges to the parish account for refresh- 
ments were tolerably numerous. 


REMINISCENCES FROM THE OLD CHURCHWARDENS’ BOOK. 


Tue old Churchwardens’ Book is in two folio volumes, ultimately 
bound in one. The first commences in 1655, and contains four 
quires of foolscap paper, and its three hundred and thirty-five 
pages cover a period of one hundred and ten years; the old men 
cannot therefore be censured for waste of paper and ink. The 
paper of this book is not only foolscap in size, but is actually so, 
since it bears the original water-mark of the fool’s cap and bells. 
As to the origin of the term, I have somewhere read, that the 
Parliament during the Commonwealth, in derision of royalty, 
adopted it instead of the crown. Dr. Brewer, however, who is an 
indisputable authority, says, “‘foolscap” is a corruption of the 
Italian folio capo, a term applied, he says, from very ancient times 
to that size of sheet. 

The entries in the old book are very meagre, and consist gener- 
ally of items of money received or paid; rarely indeed did the old 
men venture upon a remark or note not directly connected with 
pounds shillings and pence. A revolution or an earthquake might 
occur, but if it did not result in money expenditure, no notice was 
taken of it. 

Those who studied the subject of the Puritan Revolution 
during the recent Oxford Extension lectures, will remember that 


when the old book begins in 1655, the revolution had nearly 


expended itself. It began with an arbitrary king trying to govern 
and tax the people without the interference of Parliament, and now 
in 1655 the wheel of revolution had gone completely round, and 
Oliver Cromwell, after trying various experiments in the construc- 


154 


tion of parliaments, finds himself just where King Charles was 
when the revolution began—without a Parliament, and trying to 
govern alone. 

At Penrith the old vicar, John Hastie, had been ejected, and 
Roger Baldwin, a Presbyterian, was reigning in his stead. This 
we know from other sources ; but the old book never once mentions 
his name. There is no historical record of the date of John 
Hastie’s ejection and Roger Baldwin’s appointment by the revo- 
lutionary leaders; but his advent was evidently quite recent, as 
the entries in the book bear the aspect of a new broom, just 
beginning to sweep very clean. The book itself was only then 
started, for in the list of first payments there is this item: ‘ For 
this paper book with the ordinances bound therein, 5s. 8d.” 

The churchwardens’ names for the year are old Penrith names 
(three of them at least): Peter Mawson the younger, Christopher 
Rumney, William Cookson, and Thomas Steaphenson—the last 
not quite clear. The writing is of an obsolete character, and the 
spelling capricious and abbreviated, making the deciphering of the 
entries extremely difficult except to an expert. 

John Hastie when ejected must have been a very old man, for 
he came to the living in 1600, three years before the death of 
Queen Elizabeth. He must have come to an almost depopulated 
parish ; for only two years had gone by since the fearful visitation 
of the plague had subsided, when it is recorded, 2,260 persons in 
Penrith and its neighbourhood had perished; and hardly had he 
got settled in his parish, when the town and neighbourhood was 
harrassed by their old Border enemies, and such watching had to 
be kept up day and night as had not been experienced for a century 
before. History has often shown how soon nations and communi- 
ties forget their distresses—and, phoenix-like, Penrith was well used 
to rising out of its ashes. 

John Hastie’s ministry at Penrith extended over an eventful 
period of English history. He saw the closing years of Queen 
Elizabeth’s reign, the reign of James I., Charles I. reign and 
miserable death, and the period of the Puritan revolution. All 
local historians represent John Hastie as living at the Restoration, 


i 


155 


and replaced in the living; but the Rev. H. Whitehead proves 
this to be erroneous. I was led to accept the error myself, from 
observing the name of John Hastie in the list of debtors to the 
parish stock up to 1661; but that was evidently another John 
Hastie, perhaps son of the old vicar. 

Returning to Roger Baldwin and the old book, we find in the 
first list of receipts from interest on the church money lent out, 
called “use money,” two or even three years’ arrears are got in, 
apparently as one of the results of Roger Baldwin’s clean sweeping. 
On the other side of the account there is a heavy expenditure for 
repairs of the church, and a general putting in order of things 
parochial, shewing that the old parish church was being well cared 
for under Puritan rule. I have always supposed that Puritans of 
that period had a great aversion to church bell ringing ; I suppose 
I must have got wrong information, for the very first item of 
expenditure is for new ropes for the chimes, and various items for 
mending the fittings of the five bells then in the tower. 

A curious page in the year 1655 is an account of fines. It is 
headed, “Recd. of Thomas Langhom, Esaqr., justice of the peace 
for the county, as penalties inflicted upon several offenders, to be 
distributed to the poor people of the parish.” These fines are for 
Sabbath-breaking, swearing, and drunkenness, and vary from one 
shilling to half-a-crown. 

Some of the offenders are from neighbouring places—Greystoke, 
Lowther, Askham, and Plumpton. These must have been dropped 
upon on market-days; consequently, under Puritan rule, the 
market-day people had to mind their P’s and Q’s when they came 
into Penrith. The ladies did not escape: one offender, Ann, the 
wife of William Davison, had to pay a shilling for swearing. Now 
a shilling was then no trifle; for a skilled mechanic’s wages for a 
day was a shilling, and a labourer’s eightpence ; therefore, if Ann’s 
husband was a mechanic, she would begin to think when a whole 
day’s wages went, that swearing was likely to become an expensive 
luxury. 

There was, it appears, a custom for well to do people to pay 
what one may call a mortuary tax. On the death of a member of 


156 


the family, a sum of money—generally ten shillings, sometimes 
more—was given for distribution amongst the poor. In this year 
(1655) it is recorded, that Sir Thomas Sandford of Howgill Castle 
gives £2 10s. od. on the death of his child at widow Fallowfields 
in Penrith. These voluntary benefactions and fines were distributed 
to the poor in sums of from fourpence to a shilling. These bene- 
factions are distinct from mortuary fees to the priest on the death 
of a head of the family. 

Roger Baldwin’s first year at Penrith parish church closes with 
a list of church properties to be handed over to the succeeding 
churchwardens ; and a very characteristic list it is, as the following 
items will show. ‘One large bible. Sundry paper books of church 
accounts and transactions. One green cloth for the communion 
table. One linen cloth for the same. One pewter flagon. One 
silver bowl with a stand for it. One shovel, one spade, one rake. 
One long post of wood in St. Andrew’s choir. One wood pan for 
casting of lead ;’—this must mean a wood trough or shallow box 
to hold the sand upon which sheets of lead for the church roof 
were cast; for at that time, and for long after, rolled sheet lead 
was unknown, and all roofing lead was cast in sand. I have seen 
such cast sheets taken out of old houses in Penrith: they were 
very heavy, and of irregular thickness. 

The inventory mentions certain bonds for church stock lent 
out, and for apprentices’ indentures; for the vicar and church- 
wardens had the paternal duty of paying for the apprenticing of 
boys to trades. The fee paid was three pounds ; and occasionally 
a further sum for an outfit of clothes. They also had the (to our 
notions) anomalous liability of paying premiums for the destruction 
of foxes, ravens, magpies, and other predatory animals. In 1658 
we have an entry of this sort: “Paid for killing a fox, 2s. 6d.” 
Orthographically this fox is a curious animal—he is spelt “ffoxx,” 
and so has two heads and two tails. 

Another curious item of expenditure is whipping of dogs out of 
the church, for which service two shillings is annually paid for 
many years. This was not peculiar to Penrith; indeed, it was a 
general custom, and the dog whipper was quite a parochial institu- 


—" 


aren eee Sees 


157 


tion. The intrusion of dogs into churches gave rise to the closing 
in of the communion table with close rails and gates ; and bishops 
in their charges not unfrequently pressed upon churchwardens the 
necessity for providing such close enclosures to the communion 
table. 

In Wotes and Queries a short time ago a dog-in-church legend is 
given; it says, once upon a time a dog entered the church of 
St. Crux at York and stole a consecrated wafer. He was pursued 
and slain in that part of the street called Colliergate. The sac- 
religious act excited general indignation, and either by civic 
ordinance or licensed custom it became the practice of the town 


- boys to have an annual whip-dog day in that street, which in this 


way gradually acquired the name of Whipma Whipmagate. 
After the year 1655 parish affairs, like those of the nation, are 
in a state of chaos. The following year there is only an account 


_of eight mortuary gifts to the poor, amounting to £43 13s. 8d., 


and its distribution amongst one hundred and seventy-three poor 
persons. 

For the next two years there is no entry of receipts or expendi- 
ture. Two blank pages were left, probably to receive them, but 
they were never filled up. In 1658, the year of the Restoration 
of the monarchy, the accounts are resumed by three churchwardens, 
Richard Hyndson, John Clarke and Henry Smith, continued in 


1659 by Bowerbank, Rayson, and Martin, in 1660 by Nelson 


Curwen and a name something like Beadman, in 1661 by a Simp- 
son, Robinson, Clarkson, and Jefferey Blamire. I note these 


_ names as they are mostly old Penrith names. 


From the commencement of the book in 1655, a vicar’s name is 
not mentioned until we come across this entry: “The 18th day of 


_ April, 1663. We, the Minister and Churchwardens for this year, 


with the consent of Mrs. Elizabeth Hutton, conjointly and unani- 
mously agree to the binding of John Steward an apprentice with 
the money paid by the said Mrs. Hutton. Signed, Simon Webster, 
vicar, (and, bracketed together as churchwardens) Edward Page 
—his mark, Richard Shepard—his mark, Charles Carter—his 
mark, Launcelot Harrison—his mark,” 


158 


Of course there were no School Boards in those days, yet all 
the same, four churchwardens a// marksmen was a curious incident. 

The principal source of churchwardens’ revenue was a capitation 
tax called “powle pense” (poll pence). In 1661 this amounts to 
43 19s. od., representing nine hundred and forty-eight payments 
of one penny presumably on all adults. 

This poll pence appears to have been the precursor of church 
rates or assessments on property. The last collection of poll 
pence was in 1682, when it produced £4 5s. rod. Afterwards 
we find the revenue to be derived from “assessments laid.” This 
appears to be the commencement of church rates, in Penrith at 
least. In 1687 the tower roof was newly laid with lead, and an 
assessment made yielding 427 14s. od. 

In 1671 there is a note not very intelligible, but to the effect that 
the church plate and linen is all gone; and in 1678 we finda 
subscription list for new plate and linen in sums from ten shillings 
down to one penny, producing £9 1s. 8d. 

About this time the name of Robert Wilson occurs several 
times in the book ; no doubt the Robert Wilson mentioned by the 
Countess of Pembroke as postmaster and wine merchant. In 
February 12th, 1676, the venerable lady writes: “In the morning 
did I see Mr. Robert Wilson of Penrith, paid for a rundlet of sack; 
but I was very angry with him because I thought it too dear, and 
told him I would have no more of him; and then he slipped away 
from me in a hurry.” 

It was a pity Robert should have been so crusty with the good 
old Countess. Mrs. Wilson evidently thought so too, and tried to 
make peace, as we find the Countess writes, March 2nd, “And 
this day there dined without in the painted room with my folks 
Mrs. Wilson of Penrith, and after dinner I had her into my 
chamber and kissed her (Countesses don’t kiss tradesmen’s wives 
now-a-days), and took her by the hand, but I told her I would 
have no more wine of her husband, because he used me so badly, 
and then she went away.” Mrs. Wilson would long remember the 
kiss and grasp of the hand, for on the 22nd of the same month 
the venerable Countess died, 


159 


To return to the old book. There were no less than five vicars 
at Penrith in seven years; but in the year 1669 a very worthy 
man—John Child—was appointed, who held the living doing his 
duty faithfully for twenty-three years. After him, for five years, 
there was a Mr. Farrington; and in 1699 a new era in parochial 
life began, by the collation of the learned and indefatigable Dr. 
Hugh Todd, who immediately became a power in the parish. 
Dr. Todd was born at Blencowe about 1660, was educated at 
Queen’s College, Oxford. He was learned as a divine, and 
accounted a great authority as an antiquarian. He was a pre- 
bendary of Carlisle Cathedral as well as vicar of Penrith. On 
coming to the living he at once took in hand the Grammar School 
and instituted many reforms and renovations, as the school account 
book kept by himself plainly shows. The Doctor was evidently a 
stickler for church discipline, as a result of which there is in the 
churchwardens’ book a note in the Doctor’s own well-known hand, 
which one finds it difficult to believe could have occurred so late 
in Protestant times. This is it: “May 12, 1700. Susana Hen- 
derson was relaxed (ie. relieved) from excommunication, and 
performed penance according to the canon. The congregation 
gave in charity to her (bastard) child 8s. and 1od., it being sick, 
and she poor.” It appears then, that the ancient rag of priestly 
tyranny—excommunication—was still occasionally brought out, 
and seven years later Dr. Todd himself got a taste of it, for the 
bishop excommunicated him. 

Jefferson’s account of it is this. In the year 1707, on the 
appointment of that fiery spirit, Dr. Atterbury, to the deanery of 
Carlisle, Dr. Todd became involved in a most unhappy dispute 
with Bishop Nicolson, who at length suspended him and then 
excommunicated him. The Doctor petitioned the House of 
Commons, who allowed him to be heard by counsel. We hear 
nothing, however, in his case about penance, as in that of poor 
Susana Henderson. Bishop Nicolson and Dr. Todd were, how- 
ever, soon after on the most friendly terms, and the Doctor none 
the worse for the Bishop’s ban. Dr. Todd’s great work at Penrith 
was the building of the present church, which occupied his great 
energies for several years, and was completed in 1722, 


160 


In the year 1710 the church stock amounted to £174; and at 
the head of the borrowers stands Dr. Todd for £20. This appears 
curious ; but five years after comes the explanation. ‘‘Dr. Todd’s 
arrears was all applied to the alteration of the Free School”; and 
evidently the capital sum of £20 went the same way, as it disappears 
from the book. Clever Dr. Todd! 

The particulars of the rebuilding of the Parish Church are so well 
known that I need not repeat them now. Negotiations for the 
scheme commenced in 1716, and the church was completed in 
1722; but in the churchwardens’ book no direct mention of it is 
to be found. There are a few items of expenditure for postage, 
paper, and parchment which no doubt refer to it, as also do some 
of the very numerous charges for drink about that period, when 
the churchwardens appeared to think that their chief duty was to 
drink, and make the public drink. Such items are defined as— 
“ Ale at the cross,” and “Spent at night,” or “Spent when distri- 
buting Wm. Robinson’s money.” Here are two typical items, in 
1717. “To Mr. Wm. Rowell for expenses, distributing Mr. 
Robison’s charity and several times consulting about brief, and 
writing letters by Dr. Todd and Mr, Pattinson’s orders, 16s. 8d.” 
“‘To Mr. James Webster for expenses at cross and with the company 
rejoicing for the victory over the Turks, 18s. 8d.” For the year 
1716, out of the year’s expenditure of £22 6s. od., the sum of 
46 6s. 4d. went in “ale at the cross” and “spent at night ;” 
£6 16s. 3d. is expended for wine, besides sundry charges for tar 
barrels. (These were very wet years indeed in Penrith, and Dr. 
Todd does not seem to have found any musty old ecclesiastical 
canon condemning the practice, but, on the contrary, appears to 
have looked on approvingly. 

The first time the churchwardens mention the new church is— 
“In 1722, Treated Mr. Stubbs when he preached the first time in 
the new church.” Several strange preachers are also treated (Le. 
their expenses were paid). 

In 1725, thirty items for drink and tar barrels, amounting to 
46 6s. od. In 1728 Dr. Todd died, but no mention is made of 
the event ; but several strange preachers are “treated” that year 


a 


161 


and the next—doubtless during the Doctor’s illness and the interval 
between his death and the collation of his successor, John Mor- 
land. 

The loyalty of the Penrith churchwardens was enormous ; the 
expression of it being limited only by their ability to procure church 
money for ‘“‘ale at the cross” and “‘tar barrels” for bonfires, and for 
“spending at night”; and during the second quarter of the 18th 
century no occasion was lost for a display of exuberant spirits in 
this way. 

A few years ago it will be remembered we were a little startled 
by observing a new sign board erected in the Penrith market-place 
defining the premises to which it was attached as a “bibulous 
emporium”; whereupon much discussion arose as to the signifi- 
cance of the novel term. Nobody then seemed to know that it 
was only an old hereditary disease breaking out afresh with a slight 
change of symptoms—for had not Penrith market-place been a 
veritable 18th century “ bibulous emporium ?” 

Of course the 5th of November was the great orgie of the year, 
when ale at the cross and tar barrels were in greatest force ; and 
probably that accounts for the strong traditional feeling in the 
popular mind for fiery demonstrations on that day, which have of 
late years given the police authorities so much trouble. About 
thirty years ago an attempt to suppress the practice produced 
something like a riot. 

The old bibulous propensities received a mild check in 1750, 
when there appears for the first time in the churchwardens’ book 
a minute apparently of a vestry meeting, although it is not so 
stated. It runs: “Penrith, July 9, 1750. It is hereby agreed 
that no sum or sums of money expended on the usual rejoicing 
days be for the future charged on account of the parish, except 
the expenses of the bonfire and the ringers and the ale which shall 
be then drunk at the cross.” To this thirteen signatures are 
attached. The exception, however, allowed in the agreement was 
so fully taken advantage of, that little difference can be observed 
in the cost of rejoicing days ; perhaps there was less “spending at 
nights” charged in the book afterwards. 

1l 


162 


It is seen from some entries of expenditure, that when the 
church was rebuilt, the roof was covered with the local thin flags 
known as red slates. The old church had been covered in the 
same way, and caused the continual expenditure called in the old 
book “ mossing the church,” that is, stuffing the interstices between 
the flag stones or red slates with moss to keep out wind and 
snow. The old church red slates had been used again upon the 
new church, and their excessive weight proved too much for the 
roof timbers, which were of old second-hand beams—tradition 
says, from Brougham Castle, which was about that time dismantled 
and the materials sold? Some of the principal rafters broke, 
and caused the roof to spread, forcing the south wall and pillars 
out of perpendicular. In 1758, the book records that the centre 
roof was repaired and re-slated with blue slates at a cost of 
£86 16s. od.; and in 1781 the side roofs were treated in the 
same way at a further cost of £66 16s. od. These expenditures, 
amongst many others up to the present day have shown that Dr. 
Todd’s builders set themselves too much to accomplish for the 
money ; neither the materials used nor the details of construction 
being up to the standard of excellence required for a church of the 
size and style attempted. 

In 1764 particulars of the new ring of bells are fully stated ; all 
of which have been given to the public by the Rev. H. Whitehead 
more fully than I can attempt. 

I will conclude these rambling notes of Old Penrith by noticing 
a townsman of the last century, Mr. James Clarke, land surveyor, 
and host of the Swan Inn. In 1787 he published a Survey of the 
Lakes of Cumberland and Westmorland, together with an account 
historical, topographical, and descriptive of the adjacent country. 
In it he gives a map of Penrith, which is the earliest I have met 
with, and is interesting as showing what changes have been made 
in the town within the last hundred years. 

Mr. Clarke gives a cheery and glowing description of Penrith 
and its society in his time, and with it I will conclude. 

“Though an inland town, there are some very considerable 
manufactories of checks, which are daily increasing ; two common 


= ee 


yo 


163 


breweries in good employ; two hair merchants, who, (limited as 
their business may seem to be) are both men of property; and a 
tannery, where some business is done. Yet, as these employ but 
a small portion of the inhabitants, perhaps the manners of no place 
are more strongly or generally stamped with the marks of ease and 
peace. Few are rich, but as few are miserably poor. 

“Whoever wishes to enjoy a social glass is seldom at a loss for 
a companion (here mine host of the Swan comes to the front). A 
regular card assembly during the winter, and small though agreeable 
private parties all the year round, furnish the fair sex with ample 
amusement; whilst two well frequented bowling greens afford 


during the fine weather exercise and amusement to such of the 


males as have no better employment. During the races and 
assizes, a more gay and agreeable place cannot be imagined ; the 
more than usual bustle of those times rousing the inhabitants out 
of that placid dream of existence they at other times enjoy, and 
animating them to a degree of real mirth and festivity rarely met 
with in more populous places.” 

Who does not wish he had lived in Penrith one hundred years 
ago? 


G. AND T. COWARD, PRINTERS, CARLISLE. 


va ir: Teil oe ene y: Barc sili, oie 
“ale Supe. inane, > Feri ilsaat ; ont. fel GF, be “way Rts 
Bees MPG Nt 62 wat, CRG Bir bogb. pi oto. bei $10Q8'9F 
Freche cc tegtmle, 0 20 srobinndd aay Sahat ‘oa liea date song sea 
Boe. ape gen ae bean cigar registra Bes) my 
= es %, Ang; acing 2 sw esLes ulti hae i fi 
ah og eet a Unsteh lar ape: | ike 8, wah “Ol 4803 i hint, ? 
es, ie Gi aly fe, weeagey 12 we sea). ious sashes, sith a ; By: es s3 
oe j *okferume daucily Pct br doer our eft Canoe Oi 
: aks icin: tity. Laie atte Tru! ,buseion 9, 3 Uae 
a ond Was Ms wD Boiled. Raphanus: fewag lida "ai 
: comet Yo. sEpee aa. ye dostcnee Grip: ‘gion _apeae aoe $ 
,, tink’ Longe epiag his: “Snape lings ohh iainay 
i, pian éhoginagn ae. offi a, Seek) glides mat hig. a orally 
re. © Srp ceontieliatiay arts. OMY ‘Ramil sade. ie laos tient 
Sa hhh ole: Bry -ayetro sa vues vongiti uu te eae 
| par aa: inhi) bua Apior ah g sl A raat 
SS SS Sar Oe eee a dish i 
=n bantiauitend BRO donk qi bind akc arab ie 


= 
= 4 v o> 70> ws ( Cres i ' j y 
Ts ‘ « ~ 1) a ed he ; 
. 7 7 ‘Se « 
, ®. ¥ < 
» > ee LEN 4, ys <> ¢ ’ gh «i oh 
’ — ~~ = ri 
" ul 1 a " - 
i es 8 it. ar ness ea eth ; a AS 
SILA oh | 
i oe 
« "= ee 
, . H 4 
lh Ye et , ee, Sb me ; Ph 
i ‘Pe oY _ J 7 
aa &- 
_4 el le < aid ate a= 
ft ~ — 
ie Wl ai: A - Geis Wikis am 
~ Ye 
~ c= | =i 
79) maNG ye 7 ‘A : ne 
i am 
< + 
a’ le . 
rae a ee att ae > eT te » 
; : 
, ~ ( - 
mores a 4c r vi . ‘2 
Lo 4 & ‘ 1 
wie Seb tars ' Daayez 
~ ” - 
‘ ‘ > caelt 
ae Ce rg 3 Yisfca 
i. i a at «la Saal 
~. i) f 
. . ~ > ¢ , 
eal ; sitet Be ; cr ee 


ve - See os aie 


SRO ganas union.) Haye ae 


, “vy 
Psa ahd p ® te ; oe =~ 
rane ah ee is tk 

- a ae Vaal ‘Ve: 
: ay - aA ~ 
A Le Oy a . bd 
ee aA eee 
wy ase oh of a" 7 Te Moa * 


~y 


OF THE 


Cumberland and @@estmorland 
Association 


FOR THE 


No. XV.—1889-90. | eae a 


DiPED, BY J. G. GOODCHILD, -F.G'S., F.Z.s 


MEMBER OF THE BRITISH ORNITHOLOGISTS’ UNION ; 
H.M. GEOL, SURVEY. 


PRICE TO MEMBERS, ONE SHILLING, 


-NON-MEMBERS, TWO SHILLINGS AND SIXPENCE. 


CARLISLE: hire 
TED BY G. & T. COWARD, THE WORDSWORTH PRESS 


1891. 


TRANSACTIONS 


OF THE 


Cumberland and @estmorland 
Association 


FOR THE 


Advancement of Literature and Sclence. 


No. XV.—1889-90. 


Perea ) ey-f.).G.- GOODCHILD, -F.G:S., F.2:8 


MEMBER OF THE BRITISH ORNITHOLOGISTS’ UNION 3 
H.M. GEOL. SURVEY. 


PRICE TO MEMBERS, ONE SHILLING. 


NON-MEMBERS, TWO SHILLINGS AND SIXPENCE. 


2 CARLISLE: 
PRINTED BY G. & T. COWARD, THE WORDSWORTH PRESS. 
1891. 


Spare copies of Nos. Ill., IV., and X. of the Transactions 
will be gladly received by the Hon, Secretary (Mr. J. B. BAILey, 
Eaglesfield Street, Maryport), avd One Shilling will be allowed 


Jor each copy. 


CO.N-T-E-N TS: 


Page 
PROCEEDINGS AT THE ANNUAL MEETING AT AMBLESIDE ... a v. 
RULES aah Aes SSN ass 2 mt ee Wile 
List oF OFFICERS mat ae a3 as a ue xe 
ADDRESSES OF HoNORARY SECRETARIES OF THE SEVERAL LOCAL 
SocrETIes eg He ae a: Hee eh xi. 
Locat Sus-CoMMITTEES a Koa un see SYU5N), | SXATe 
MEMORANDA FOR MEMBERS se... Ms wh <5 ity Ku 
List or AssocraATION MEMBERS sae 5a iia ee fhe 
REPORTS FROM THE ASSOCIATED SOCIETIES aos soe ein PERV 
Report oF ASsocrIATION SECRETARY ... ae ae wee XXVIL 
TREASURER’S ACCOUNT iis ee ane Me wae RRS 
PrEsIDENT’S ADDRESS: ‘‘Some of the Changes of Social Life in 
England during the last Sixty Years.” By the Right Rev. 
The BisHoe oF BARROW-IN-FURNESS iA Ae ibs 87 
Paver READ AT THE ANNUAL MEETING :— 
‘The Deposits of Metallic and other Minerals surrounding the 
Skiddaw Granite.” By JoHN POSTLETHWAITE ... se 75 
Papers CoMMUNICATED TO THE SOCIETIES, AND SELECTED BY THE 
ASSOCIATION COUNCIL FOR PUBLICATION :— 
‘The Study of Lichens, with especial reference to those of the 
Lake District.” By J. A. MartinpatE (Ambleside) a5 1 
«© Simon Senhouse, Prior of Carlisle.” By Rev. J. I. Cummins, 
O.S.B. (Maryport)... bere eee cee Ri 25 
“Old Roads and Paths.” By F. Harrison (Carlisle) Se 35 


“‘The Identification of the Roman Stations in Cumberland.” 
By J. B. Baruey (Maryport) ... re 508 so 6 AD 


> ) in 
ser | a, EE ARE ALT oe Ae. dated F Nee teas ; 
: me a 2000 y ae 


eX ; 1% ia ea 
RE ees » Helorametek yrds: Kae = 
has f J wh 1 SOUPS ie ney me h alee: ce 


a 


MPRED LT TT ie ee Sry AAAS by Pert ta fer 


nih Ste Gains rie emae « sheisghbite cbt 
: - i “apt tera nea ba bi Sie sis an. Sette - ao ie tod 
, TH + Pe 1 OPK any whe Ste CEE hire 


4e : 


Me hs . FT, Cee ray Heep BA ee 


4 


a eh. at Fates der ie apd ‘hee “apa seule A mH 
2 Ba i Lawes caeete yreeb we re ase Pst. Pam 


7 > ‘ ‘ 9 
eM tere alee ts 


= ma of aaa a ‘ 


ae on eed aa ay Sp ae sai 
a * “dike ane nt agit: 8 At ba 
H tk skitw iy yet fi ceca rita . pd 


i, 


PROCEEDINGS AT THE ANNUAL MEETING. 


THE FIFTEENTH ANNUAL MeeErING of the Association was held 
this year in the Lecture Hall, AMBLESIDE, on Tuesday and 
Wednesday, July 1st and 2nd. 

The proceedings of the first day commenced at 1-30 p.m., with 
a Council Meeting presided over by the President, the Right Rev. 
the Bishop of Barrow-in-Furness. The Annual Report and 
Balance Sheet having been read by the Hon. Secretary (Mr. J. B. 
Bailey), were then thoroughly discussed and adopted. The 
general position of the Association was considered to be very 
satisfactory, and hopes were expressed that the various Local 
Societies would be able during the next session to consider the 
various points raised in the Report, and communicate the results 
to the Hon. Secretaries. If this could be done, it was felt that 
such united action would be greatly to the advantage not only of 
the Association, but also of the Local Societies. Various matters 
connected with the Zvansactions, the Library, and the furtherance 
of Science Teaching, were also discussed. 

At 2-15 p.m. the President delivered his address, the subject 
being, “‘Some of the Changes of Social Life in England during 
the last Sixty Years.” A hearty vote of thanks having been 
accorded to the President for his able and interesting address, the 
Rev. C. H. Chase, in the unavoidable absence of F. M. T, 
Jones, Esq., President of the Ambleside Society, addressed a few 
words of welcome to the members present. He was sorry that 
there was so small an attendance, but the exceedingly inclement 
state of the weather was undoubtedly answerable for it. The 
general business of the Association was next proceeded with, the 
various Reports, etc., being taken as read. Hearty votes of thanks 
were then accorded to the President, on the motion of the Rev. 
C. H. Chase, seconded by Mr. Healy, and to the Hon. Secretaries, 
Editor, and Recorders, on the motion of Mr. Fleming, seconded 
by Mr. Atkinson. 

On the motion of the Rev. H. A. Macpherson, The BisHor oF 
BARROW-IN-FURNESS was re-elected to the office of President, 
after which all the other Officers and Sub-Committees were also 
re-elected, together with the following Association Members. 


Life Member. 
BISHOP OF BARROW-IN-FURNESS, 


V1. 


Annual Members. 


R.-A. Atiison, Esq., M.P. 
Rev. F. H. J. Mc.Cormick, F.S.A. (Scot.) 
J. Roginson, Esq., C.E. 
W. Ditton, Esq. 
Dr. W. R. PARKER. 


The selection of the place for next Annual Meeting was dis- 
cussed, and left in the hands of the General Sub-Committee, but 
it was understood that the question of localizing the Annual 
Meeting be considered. 

At 3-30 the following papers were read, viz:—The Rarer Birds 
of Westmorland,” by the Rev. H. A. Macpherson, M.A.; and 
“The Deposits of Metallic and other Minerals surrounding the 
Skiddaw Granite,” by J. Postlethwaite, Esq., F.G.S. 

The second session commenced at 7 p.m. In the unavoidable 
absence of J. G. Goodchild, Esq., who had been announced to 
deliver a lecture on ‘“ Humming Birds,” the Rev. H. A. Mac- 
pherson, at very short notice, kindly undertook to deliver a lecture 
on “The Migration of Birds,” after which refreshments were 
served out in an adjoining room ; Dr. G. H. Bailey giving such as 
cared, the opportunity of tasting tea sweetened with saccharine. 

The next lecture was entitled “Some Recent Advances in 
Science,” by G. H. Bailey, D.Sc., Ph.D., lecturer to the Victoria 
University. 

The usual votes of thanks were awarded to the lecturers on the 
motion of Mr. C. W. Smith, seconded by Mr J. Holland, and the 
first day’s proceedings closed with a vote of thanks to the President, 
on the motion of Mr. J. B. Bailey, seconded by Mr. J. Bentley ; 
also to the President and Committee of the Ambleside Society for 
the admirable arrangements made for the Association Meeting. 

On Wednesday, the weather having cleared up, an Excursion 
was made to the Thirlmere Water Works, thrown open by the 
kind permission of the Mayor and Corporation of Manchester. 
The party, which was under the very efficient guidance of E. P. 
Hill, Esq., drove from Ambleside to Bridge End farm, near the 
north end of Thirlmere, where the work at the dam, and the 
boring machines in the tunnel, were inspected. Thence they 
drove to the south end of the lake, and examined the straining 
weil, the south end of Dunmail Raise tunnel, and the stone-breaking 
machines. A very pleasant excursion was brought to a close at 
The Nook (Rydal Park), where the syphon well was inspected. 

It is needless to add that Mr. Hill greatly added to the interest 
of the excursion by his lucid explanation of all the details con- 
nected with the working of the Water Works. Hearty votes of 
thanks were accorded to the Mayor and Corporation of Manchester, 
and to Mr. Hill. 


58 a ie 


OF THE 


Cumberland and Westmorland Association 


FOR THE 


Advancement of Literature and Seienee. 


1.—That the Association be called the “CUMBERLAND AND 
WESTMORLAND ASSOCIATION FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OF LITERA- 
TURE AND SCIENCE.” 

2.—The Association shall consist of the following Societies :— 
Keswick Literary and Scientific Society, Maryport Literary and 
Scientific Society, Longtown Literary and Scientific Society, 
Carlisle Scientific Society and Field Naturalists’ Club, Ambleside 
and District Literary and Scientific Society, Silloth and Holme 
Cultram Literary and Scientific Society, Brampton Literary and 
Scientific Society and Field Naturalists’ Club, Penrith and District 
Literary and Scientific Society, Windermere Literary and Scientific 
Society; and of such other Societies as shall be duly affiliated. 
Also of persons nominated by two members of the Council. Such 
members shall be termed ‘‘ Association Members.” 
~~ 3.—All members of affiliated Societies, unless otherwise ruled 
by the regulations of their respective Societies, shall be membets 


of the Cumberland and Westmorland Association, 


Vill. 

4.—The Association shall be governed by a Council, consisting 
of a President, Vice-Presidents, two Secretaries, an Editor, a 
Librarian, and of ordinary members, two to be elected by each 
affiliated Society. The President, Secretaries, Editor, and 
Librarian shall be elected annually at the Annual Meeting, 
and shall be capable of re-election. The Recorders shall be 
ex-officio members of the Council. 

5.-—The Vice-Presidents shall consist of the Presidents of the 
various affiliated Societies; and the Delegates of the various 
Societies shall be elected annually by their respective Societies. 

6.—An Annual Meeting of the Association shall be held at such 
time and place as may be decided upon at the previous Annual 
Meeting, or (failing such appointment) as may be arranged by the 
Council. 

7.—At each Annual Meeting, after the Delivery of the Presi- 
dent’s Address, and the reading of the reports from the affiliated 
Societies, the objects of the Association may be furthered by 
Lectures, Papers, Addresses, Discussions, Conversaziones, &c. 

8.—The Committee of each affiliated Society shall be entitled 
to recommend one original and local paper communicated to such 
Society (subject to the consent of the author) for publication in the 
Transactions of the Association ; but Societies contributing capi- 
tation grant on a number of members exceeding one hundred and 
fifty shall have the privilege of sending two papers. The Council 
shall publish at the expense of the Association the papers recom- 
mended, either in full, or such an abstract of each or any of them 
as the author may prepare or sanction ; also those portions of the 
Association Transactions that may be deemed advisable. 


9.—The Council shall endeavour to promote co-operation among 


1X. 


existing Societies, and may assist in the formation of new ones; it 
may also aid in the establishment of classes in connection with 
any of the associated societies. 

10.—Affiliated Societies shall contribute annually towards the 
general funds of the Association, Sixpence for each of their 
members ; but when the number of members of the affliated 
Societies exceeds one hundred and fifty, a reduction of fifty per 
cent. shall be made upon the payment for each member in excess 
of that number. 

11.—Association Members pay the sum of 6/- annually, or they 
may compound for their subscription for life by a payment of 
43 3S. od. in one sum. 

12.—The Rules can be altered only by a majority of two-thirds 
of the members present at an Annual Meeting. Any member 
desiring to alter the Rules must send a copy of the proposed 
alterations to the Secretary, at least two weeks before the Meeting 
is held. 

13.—Past Presidents of the Association shall be permanent 
members of the Council, and be described as past-Presidents. 

14.—The travelling expenses of all who assist in carrying out 
the programme of the various affiliated Societies shall be defrayed 


by the Society assisted. 


The Sixteenth ANNUAL MEETING will be held in the Summer 
of 1891, and due notice of the place of Meeting and of the arrange- 
ments will be sent to all members of the Association. 

Members willing to contribute original Articles on subjects of 
local interest, or short JVofices of anything that may be considered 
worth recording of local and scientific value, should communicate 
with the Honorary Secretaries, J. B. Bartey, Esq., Eaglesfield 
Street, Maryport ; or H. L. Barker. Esq., Sunnyside, Silloth. 


OFFICERS FOR THE SESSION 1890-91. 


President. 


Tue Ricut Rey. THE Bishop oF BARROW-IN-FURNESS. 


Past-Presidents. 
Tuer Lorp BisHop oF CARLISLE. 
THE LATE I. FrercuEr, Esq., M.P., F.R.S. 
Tue Hon. P. S. WynpuHam, M.P. 

Rosvert Fercuson, Esq., M.P., F.S.A. 
RicHAkD 8. Ferguson, Esq., M.A., LU.M., F.S.A. 
Davin Arnsworth, Esq. 

R. A. Axuison, Esq., M.P. 


Vice-Presidents. 


Dr. Gore Rine .., oe bee Rne Keswick. 
H. Bumpy, Esq. ... ee ace Maryport. 
Dr. 8S. F. Me. Lacuian, M. B. ane 600 Longtown. 
J. A. WHEATLEY, Esq... es ass Carlisle. 
F. M. T. Jonuzs, Esq. My 00 ae Ambleside. 
Rev. W. A. WRIGLEY Boe Ase sia Silloth. 
G. J. Jounson, Esq. Sa ae aes Brampton. 
J. B. SHawyer, Esq. Bae oa 550 Penrith, 
Rev, A. Rawson ... ae ou eee Windermere. 
Delegates. 
Rev. J. N. Hoarn, M.A., ... J. Broatcn, Esq. =. Keswick. 
F.R.H.S. 
J. CARTMELL, Esq.... . R. H. Hamitton, Esq. Maryport. 
J. Witson, Esq... wool) Ag ea WTS HIS: Longtown. 
Rev. H. A. Macrpnerson, M. at J. A. WHEATLEY, Esq. Carlisle. 
J. BenTLEY, Esq. ... Bing Cm spn S NEL TET eg HIS (sere Ambleside. 
JoHN Grauam, Esq. .. H. L. Barker, Esq. ... Silloth. 
Rev. 8. FALLE ah .. Rev. J. Ropinson ... Brampton. 
J. 8. Yeates, Hsq.... ... G, Watson, Esq. ar Penrith. 
G. Heatry, Esq. ... ... J. HoLuann, Esq. Ae Windermere, 


Hon. Association Secretaries. 


J. B. Battey, Esq., Eaglesfield Street, Maryport. 
H. L. Barker, Esq., Sunnyside, Silloth, 


x1. 


Editor. 


J. G. GoopcuiLp, Esq., F.G.S., F.Z.S8., M.B.0.U., H.M. Geol. Survey, 
Museum of Science and Art, Edinburgh. 


Librarian. 


Rev. M. Srpney Donaup, Thorpe, Penrith. 


Delegate to British Association. 


J. G. GoopceuiLp, Esq., F.G.S., F.Z.S., M.B.0.U., H.M. Geol. Survey, 
Museum of Science of Art, Edinburgh. 


Zoological Recorders. 


Rev. H. A. Macpuerson, M.A., M.B.O.U., 20 Cecil Street, Carlisle. 
J. Norman Rosinson, Esq., Croft House, Cargo, Carlisle. 


Botanical Recorders. 


Rev. R. Woop, M.A., Rosley Vicarage, Carlisle. 
W. Hopeson, Esq., A.L.S., 202 Victoria Terrace, Harrington Road, 
Workington. 


General Sub-Committec. 


J. G. GoopdcHILD. Rev. J. I. Cummins. R. H. Hamriton. 
H. Bumey. J. B. Batey. H. L. Barker. 


Library Committee. 


Rey. H. A. MAcPHERSON. Rev. M. Srpney DoNnALpD. 
R. CROWDER. J. B. Batey. 


ADDRESSES OF HONORARY SECRETARIES OF 
THE SEVERAL LOCAL SOCIETIES, 


Keswick ... ... J. PosTLeTHWAITE, Esq., F.G.S., Keswick. 
Maryport ... .. J. L. Pumps, Esq. Ellenborough, Maryport. 
Longtown ... ... W, Ropgn, Esq., Penton. 

Carlisle... ... J. Smyciair, Esq., 6 Hawick Street, Carlisle. 
Ambleside... ... J. Bentiey, Esq., Ambleside. 

Silloth... .. H.L. Barker, Ksq., Sunnyside, Silloth. 
Brampton ... ... Isaac B, Hoveson, Esq., Brampton. 

Penrith ... .. E. H. Resp, Esq., Penrith. 


: Col. W. C. MacDovucaLt. 
Windermere F. Barton, Esq., 8 Biskey Howe-Terr., Windermere. 


Geology 
Meterology ... 


Archeology 


Geology 
Botany 
Marine Zoology 


Botanu 


Entomology ... 
Geology 


Icthyology 


Ornithology 


Xi. 


LOCAL SUB-COMMITTEES, 


KESWICK. 


Mr. PostLeTHWAITE, F.G.S. 
Mr. J. F. Crostuwaire, F.S.A. 


MARYPORT. 
Rev. J. I. Cummrns, Mr. J. B. Battey, Mr T. Carey, 
Mr. J. CLARK 
. Mr. H. Bompy 
Mr. R. H. HAMILTON 
Rev. Sruarr O. Rrpiey, M.A. 
CARLISLE. 


Mr. T. DuckworrH, Dr. CarLyLe, Rev. R. Woop, 
Rey. H. FRIEND 


Mr. Eauzs, Mr. Posteats, Rev. F. O. P. CAMBRIDGE 
Mr. D. Burns, Mr. R. Crowper, M.A. 


Rev. H. A. Macrpyerson, Mr. J. N. ROoBinson, 
Mr. W. Nicuot, Mr. H. Levers 


Rev. H. A. Macryerson, Mr. T. DuckworrTs, 
Mr. J. N. Ropinson, Mr. G. Dawson 


XI. 


MEMORANDA FOR MEMBERS, 


SUBSCRIPTIONS ARE DUE— 


Association Members... ... January Ist. 
For Transactions Je ... February Ist. 
Lecturer’s Fee ... ae ... February Ist. 
Capitation Fee ... EE ... April Ist. 


PAPERS INTENDED FOR PUBLICATION to be sent not later than April 20th, 
to J. G. GoopcuiLp, Esq., Museum of Science and Art, Edinburgh. 


PRICE OF TRANSACTIONS— 
Current Number. Members, 1/- for the first copy, 2/- each for others ; 
Non-members, 2/6. 


For Back NumBers— 
Apply to Messrs. G. & T. Cowarp, Booksellers, Carlisle. 


AvutHors’ CoPples— 

Twenty copies, free. Extra copies at a small rate, if notice of the 
number required be given to the Printer when the proof is 
returned. There is a large stock of Authors’ copies in hand. 
The Council would be glad to reduce this stock. Application to 
be made to the Hon. Association Secretary. 


CircutaTinc LispRARY— 
Full particulars will be sent to each Society when arrangements are 
completed. 


Novices RELATING To ZooLoey to be sent to Rev. H. A. MacpueErson, M.A., 
20 Cecil Street, Carlisle. 


Novices RELATING To Borany to be sent to Wm. Hopeson, Esq., A.L.S., 
202 Victoria Terrace, Harrington Road, Workington. 


N.B.—Rev. H. A. Macruerson, and W. Honesoy, Esq., will gladly answer 
any questions through the post that Members may wish to ask, with 
regard to any difficulty they may meet with in their reading on 
Zoological and Botanical matters respectively. 


XIV, 


ASSOCIATION MEMBERS, 
(RULES 2 & 11.) 


Life Members. 
The EArt or CARListe, Naworth Castle, Carlisle. 
The CounTESs OF CARLISLE, Naworth Castle, Carlisle. 
The Ricur Rev. THE BrsHop or BARRow-IN-FurngEss, The Abbey, Carlisle. 
E. B. W. Batmg, Esq., Cote Wall, Mirfield, Normanton. 
H. F. Curwen, Esq., The Hall, Workington. 
W. G. Contrnewoon, Esq., Gillhead, Windermere. 
SrePHEN A. MArsHatt, Esq., Skelwith Fold, Ambleside. 


Annual Members. 
R. A. Arison, Esq,, M.P., Scaleby Castle, Carlisle. 
J. OrLtEY ATKINSON, Esq., Stramongate, Kendal. 
Amos Brarpstezy, Esq,, Grange, Lancashire. 
G. H. Battey, Esq., D.Sc., Ph.D., The Owens College, Manchester. 
F. W. Banks, Esq., 22 North Bank, Regent’s Park, London, N.W. 
J. Bateman, Esq., The Literary Institute, Kendal. 
G. CowarD, Esq., 75 Scotch Street, Carlisle. 
Tuomas Carrick, Esq., Haydon Bridge. 
W. Ditton, Esq., High Street, Maryport. 
R. Fercuson, Esq., Morton, Carlisle. 
W.C. Gutty, Esq., Q.C., M.P., Farrer’s Buildings, The Temple, London, E.C. 
J. G. Goopcm1p, Esq., F.G.S., Museum of Science and Art, Edinburgh. 
T. V. Houmes, Esq., F.G.S., 28 Crooms Hill, Greenwich. 
R. H. Hamitron, Esq., Senhouse Street, Maryport. 
EF. M. T. Jonus, Esq., J.P., C.B., Lesketh How, Ambleside. 
G. Lowratan, Esq., 58 Blenheim Crescent, Notting Hill, London, W. 
Rev. H. A. Macrpuerson, M.A., 20 Cecil Street, Carlisle. 
T. A. Mercer, Esq., Free Library, Barrow-in- Furness. 
R. D. MarsHatt, Esq., Keswick. 
Rev. F. H. J. Mc.Cormick, F.S.A. (Scot.), Derby. 
Mixes MacInnes, Esq., M.P., Rickerby, Carlisle. 
T. Bartow Massicks, Esq., Millom, Carnforth. 
Rev. H. H. Moors, St. Jobn’s Vicarage, Darwen, Lancashire. 
G. H. Parke, Esq., College Grove Road, Wakefield, Yorks. 
J. Roprnson, Esq., C.E., East Barry, Cardiff. 
R. Atteyne Ropryson, Esq., J.P., South Lodge, Cockermouth. 
Rev. Dr. Trourseck, Dean’s Yard, Westminster. 
Dr. M. W. Taytor, F.S.A., 202 Earl’s Court Road, London. 
Dr. Trrriy, The Limes, Wigton. 
Major Varry, Stagstones, Penrith. 
T. Wiison, Esq., Aynam Lodge, Kendal. 
R. J. WuitweE tt, Esq., Airethwaite, Kendal. 
Rey. H. Wuireneap, Newton Reigny, Penrith. 


.. == 


eT Oe ea 


XV. 


AHeports from the Associated Societies. 


KESWICK LITERARY AND SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 


2ist SESSION, 1889-90. 


President oi ca Su .. Rev. H. D. Rawnstzy, M.A. 
Vice-President oe ~ a J. PostLETHWAITE, F.G.S. 
Hon. Secretary 2 a sai +s .. J. BRoatcH 
Hon. Treasurer s 8 as ae ..  T, Hicuron 
Committee. 

Rev. W. CoLvVILLE J. FISHER CROSTHWAITE, F.S. A. 

A. A. H. Knieut, M.D. W. WILson 

L, CoLiLieR Isaac Hopeson 


Delegates to the Council of the C. and W. Association. 
Rev. J. N. Hoarz, M.A., F. Hist. S. | W. Wooprne NELson 


Hon. Curators of the Museum. 


JOHN BIRKETT | J. PostuetHwaire, F.G.S. 


The following MEETINGS were held during the Session :— 


ORDINARY MEETINGS. 


Oct. 28 —Prustpent’s AppREss. 

Noy. 4—Mr. Letcesrer Cottier—‘ Charles and Mary Lamb.” 

Nov. 25—Mr. R. Hetton, Ph.D., F.1.C.—‘‘The Chemistry of Photography,” 
with experiments. 


Dec, 9—Rev, C. W. Sruszs, M.A.—‘‘ Poetry and Life,” 


XV1. 


1890. 
Jan. 20—Rev. H. A. Macpuerson, M.A.—‘‘ Our Feathered Friends.” 


Feb. 3—Mr. J. H. Mipcerry—‘‘ The Locomotion of Animals,” illustrated 
by diagrams. 

Feb. 17—Mr. W. R. Frrzparrick—“ Frederick the Great.” 

Mar. 3—Rev. Canon Barpstry, M.A.—‘‘The History of Christian 

Names.” 

Mar. 3—Rev. S. R. Crockerr, M.A.—‘‘Over Central Europe with a 

Knapsack.” 
ANNUAL MEETING. 


LECTURES, 


1889. 
Nov. 18—Mr. J. R. Anprrson, B.A.—‘‘ Our Norseman Forefathers ; their 


Feats and their Faith.” 
Dec. 2—Mr. Irvine Montacu—‘‘Scuffles and Sketches, being Wanderings 
of a War Artist at the Front,” with lime-light illustrations. 
Dec. 16—Professor BALDWIN Brown, M.A.—‘‘The Architecture of our 
great Cathedrals,” with lime-light illustrations. 


1890. 
A course of Six Special Fortnightly Lectures on ‘‘The Age of Elizabeth,” 


by the Rev. W. Hupson Suaw, M.A., Oxford University 
Extension Lecturer. 


CommITTre’s Report.—Your Committee have much pleasure 
in reporting the progress of the Society, which now consists of 
one hundred and fifty-two members, as against one hundred and 
thirty last Session. ‘The programme consisted of eight ordinary 
- meetings and three lectures, in addition to which there was a 
course of six University Lectures delivered under the Oxford 
University Extension Scheme, by the Rev. W. Hupson Suaw, M A., 
his subject being the ‘‘Age of Elizabeth.” The ordinary papers 
and lectures may be classified as follows:—Literary, one; scientific, 
one ; biographical, two; natural history, two; architecture, one ; 
miscellaneous, four. The attendance at the lectures and meetings 
has been above the average, and the Committee feel that the work 
done by the Society is generally appreciated in the town. 

At the suggestion of the President a lantern has been purchased 
by the Society, the cost being borne in great measure by a small 
subscription. The lantern has proved a most valuable acquisition 
to the Society, as a means of illustrating the lectures and thus 


Xvil. 


increasing their popularity. There was a deficit in the amount for 
the lantern of £46 5s., which has been provided out of the funds of 
the Society. The Committee wish to record their indebtedness to 
Mr. E. W. Cowan and to Mr. Still for their valuable suggestions and 
assistance in the purchase and management of the lantern; and to 
Mr. Collier for his help in the arrangement of the purchase. 

Officers nominated for Session 1890-91. President: Dr. Gore 
Ring. Delegates: Rev. J. N. Hoare and Mr. J. Broatch. Secretary: 
Mr. J. Postlethwaite. 


MARYPORT LITERARY AND SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 


14TH SESSION, 1889-90. 


President ate Me sak Rev. J. I. Cummins, O.8.B. 
Vice-President "56 vis. -< it H. BumBy 


Past-Presidents. 


Rey. E. Sampson | P. DE E. Coniin A. Hine 
Committee. 
J. HEWETSON R. H. Hamitton 
F, KEeLiy J. B. BarLEy 
K. W. Licgutroor C. EAGLESFIELD 
Rev. T. Herp J. HAMILTON 
Rev. G. PATTERSON Rev. S. O. RIDLEY 
W. HInE J. WILLIAMSON 
Delegates. 
H. Bumpy | R. H. Hamitron 
Hon. Treasurer... Ae mee 7 28; J. S. ADAIR 


Hon. Secretaries, 


WILuiam DILLION | Manice A. Regan 


XVI. 


The following MEETINGS were held during the Session. 
1889 
Oct. 22—ConversAzIoNE. President’s Address, ‘‘Simon Senhouse, Prior 
of Carlisle.” 
Nov. 5—R. A. Atiison, Esq., M.P.—‘’ Edmund Burke.” 
Nov. 19—Rev. C. H. Parnz, M.A—*‘ Quintilian on Education.” 
Dec. 3—Irvine Moyracue, Esq.—‘‘ Scuffles and Sketches, or Wanderings 
of a War Artist,” illustrated with lime-light. 
Dec. 17 J. A. Wueattey, Esq.—‘‘Gems and Precious Stones,’’ with 


Specimens, and Replicas of famous Gems. 
1390. 
Jan. 14—Wrtrrip Lawson, Esq.—‘‘ Notes of a Tour in the East.” 


Jan. 28—CoNVERSAZIONE and EXHIBITION. 

Feb. 11—W. H. Gouprne, Esq.—‘‘Cloistered Cathedrals and Ancient 
Abbeys,” with lime-light illustrations. 

Feb. 22—Rev. J. N. Hoare, M.A., F.H.S—‘‘ The Ancient Egyptians.” 

Mar. 11—The Right Rev. Abbot SNow—‘ Dreams.” 

Mar. 25—J. B. Battey, Esq.--‘‘ The Identification of Roman Stations in 
Cumberland.” 

Apr. 8—Rev. H. A. Macruerson, M.A., M.B.O.U.—‘‘ The Wild Birds 
of the Sunny South.” 

Apr. 29—Annual Meeting, Election of Officers, &c. 


LONGTOWN LITERARY AND SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 


13raH SESSION, 1889-90. 


President aor 300 an S. F. Mc. Lacuian, Hsq., M.B, 
Vice-Presidents. 

R. A. Atxison, Esq., M.P. W. Easton Rozertson, Esq. 
Rey. P. CARRUTHERS J. G. GoopcutILp, Esq., F.G.S. 
Mr. Jonn WILson 
Treasurer and Secretary... a Bes .. Mr. Wm. Roven 
Committee. 

Mr. I. Rice Mr. A. TWEDDLE 
Mr. A. P. WILKI5 Mr. J. ROBERTSON 
Dr. H. LeigH GILcHRIs’ Mr. J. G. Toprix 


Delegates ae i Messrs. WILSON AND WILKIE 


xIx, 


The following MEETINGS were held during the Session :-— 


1889. 
Nov. 5—Inavucurat Tea Meetine. Music and Readings. 


Noy, 12—A. Mounsry-HerysHam, Esq.—‘‘ Egypt,” with lime-light views. 

Noy, 19—Mr. A. P. WiLKrE—*‘ Now and Then.” 

Nov. 26—Mr. Prars, V.S.—‘‘ The Breeding of Horses.” 

Dec. 3—Rev, A. C. Wetsu, B.D.—‘‘ German Student Life.” 

Dec. 6-—Mr. Irvine MontacuE—‘‘Scuffles and Sketches,” with lime- 
light views. 

Dec. 10—Debate: ‘‘Is Phrenology True?” Af. Mr. Joun Wut1son; 
Neg. Dr. Mc. LAcHLAN. 

Kee. 17—Mr. Dawson—‘‘ Birds of our Marshes.” 


1890. 
Jan. 7—Music and Readings. 


Jan. 14—Dr. S. F. Mc. Lacuian, M.B,—‘‘ Narcotics.” 


Jan, 21—Debate: ‘‘ Cremation v. Burial.” Openers: Mr, W, RoprEn and 
Dr. GILCHRIST. 


Jan, 28—Mr. J. Sinciarr—‘‘ Our Dales Folk and Wit of Cumberland.” 
Feb. 4—Rev. H. A. MacpHerson—‘“‘ Bird Life on the Rhine.”’ 

Feb. 11—Dr. Leprarp—‘‘ Climate and Disease.” 

Feb. 18—Dr. Happon—‘‘ Facets of Irish History.” 

Feb. 25—Dr. LrtcH GitcHRiIst—‘‘ Men and Manners.” 

Mar, 4—Dr. Mc. Laren—‘‘ Alpine Climbing.” 


Mar. 11—Mr. Wm. Ropren—‘‘In the Wonderland of Chemistry,” with 
numerous illustrations and experiments. 


Mar. 18—Rev. P. CarrutHEers—‘‘Sir Walter Scott.” 
Mar. 25—Business of the Society, Election of Officers, &c. 


CARLISLE SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY AND FIELD 
NATURALIST CLUB. 


13TH SESSION, 1889-90. 


President ee wes di a J. A. WHEATLEY, Esq. 


Past Presidents. 


The Right Rev. Taz Lorp BisHop or CARLISLE. 
RoserT FERGUSON, Esq. 
Mixes MacInnzs, Esq., M.P. 
The Worshipful Chancellor Ferguson, M.A., F.S.A. 
Rev. Cuaup H. Pargz, M.A. 
R. A, Atxison, Esq., M.P, 


XX, 


Vice-Presidents. 


S. J. Brynine, Esq. | Dr, CARLYLE 
Treasurer ss 3% ...  Ropert Crowper, Esq., Eden Mount 
Hon. Secretary oo Pa Joun Srycuair, 6 Hawick Street 
Committee. 
Mr. R. J. BATLiiz Mr. R. M. Hci 
Dr. BARNES Dr. LEDIARD 
Mr. KE. F. Bei Dr. MACLARLN 
Mr. GrorGE Dawson. Rev. H. A. MacPHERSON 
Mr, T, DuckKworRTtH Mr. J. N. RoBrnson 
Mr. F. HARRISON Mr. T. T. Scorr 
Delegates. 
J, A. WHEATLY, Esq. | Rev. H. A. MAcPHERSON 


The following MEETINGS have been held during the Session, and 
the undermentioned LECTURES given, viz :— 
1889. 

Nov. 4—Mr. J. A. WaHeratteEy—‘‘Sir John Hawkwood and the Free 
Lances of Italy, in the 14th Century.”’ 

Nov. 18—Mr. Twos. 8S. Picron—‘‘Congoland, its people, constitution, 
wealth, and future development.” 

Nov. 25—Mr. J. G. Goopcuitp, F.G.S.—“‘ British Cliffs, Caves, and River 
Gorges.” 

Dec. 5—Mr. Irving Monracu—‘‘ Wanderings of a War Artist,” with 
illustrations. 

Dec. 16—Rev. Canon Ricomonp—‘‘ Gainsborough and Romney.” 


1890. 
Jan. 13—Rev. H. Wurrenrav—“ Parish Registers.” 


Feb. 10—Hy. J. Wess, Esq., Ph.D. B.Sc.—‘‘ Different Forms of Life.” 
Feb, 24—Rev. H. A. MacpHerson—“ Birds.” 

Mar. 10—Rev, C. H. Gem—‘‘ Tom Hood, the Poet of Wit and Humour.” 
Mar. 24—Mr. E. F. Bert—‘‘ Folk Tales.” 

Apr. 21—Mr. F, Harritson—‘‘ Old Roads and Paths.” 


During the Season three Field Meetings have been held, and 
about ninety copies of the Zvansactions have been distributed gratis 
among the Members. 


re ale, ge 


XXL 


AMBLESIDE AND DISTRICT LITERARY AND 
SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 


13TH SESSION, 1889-90. 


President ai ai oe nb .. FE. M. T. Jonzs, Esq. 


Vice-Presidents. 


G. Gatey, Esq. | Rev. C. H. CHasz 
Treasurer... vas ott oe ree ... Mr. W. LisTER 
Secretary... oh at SBC ae Mr. J. BENTLEY 

Delegates. 
Mr. C, W. Smita | Mr, J. BENTLEY 
Committee. 

Mr. T. Bey Mr. E, Hrrp 

Mr. H. BELL Rev. C. W. Rawson 

Mr. J. BRowN H. RepMayng, Hsq. 


Mr. W. Drxon Mr. STALKER, Senr, 
Mr. J. FLEmMIne Mr. C. W. Smita 


The following MEETINGS were held during the Session :— 


1889. 
Oct. 15—Rev. J. SHarPe Ostiz, M.A.—‘‘Notes on the Cumberland 
Dialect.” 
Oct. 29—Rev. H. Wurrenzap, M.A.—“ Parish Registers.” 
Nov. 12—J, A. WHEATLEY, Esq.—‘‘ Diamonds and Precious Stones.” 
Nov. 26—J. G. Goopcu1Lp, Esq.—‘‘ Dogs and their Ancestry.” 
Dec. 10—Invine Montacu, Esq.—‘‘ Wanderings of a War Artist at the 
Front,” illustrated by lime light, 
1890. 
Jan. 21—J. F. Curwen, Esq.—‘‘ Warming and Ventilation.” 
Feb. 4—R. J. Wuitwett, Esq.—“ Dictionaries—Dictionary Makers and 
Dictionary Making.” 
Feb. 18—Rev. H. D. Rawnstry, M.A.—‘‘Some more Royal Mummies,”’ 
Mar. 4—B. A. Irvine, Esq.—‘‘ Herculaneum and Pompeii.” 
Mar. 18—Rev. W. Tuckwett, M.A,—‘‘ The Lake Flora.” 


XxXIl. 


SILLOTH AND HOLME CULTRAM LITERARY 


AND SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 


lltaH SESSION, 1889-90. 


President ree ve ss ise Rev. H. M. Topp, M.A. 


Hon. 
Hon. 


1889, 


Oct. 
Nov. 
Dec. 


Jan. 
Feb. 
Mar. 
Apr. 


Vice-Presidents. 


JOSEPH GLAISTER | J. M. Pautt, F.G.S. 
Committee. 

J. BLENKINSOP Rev. S. Hrpurt, M.A. 

G. T. CaRR W. M. Hupson 

W. CRABB Rey. W. P. INGLEDOW 

JOHN GRAHAM THOMAS JOHNSTON 


Rev. W. A WRIGLEY 


Treasurer ... a ek ais Jes JOHN STRONACH 


Secretary ... ae Bs x v8 H. L. BarKER 


The following MEETINGS were held during the Session :— 


16—Mr. R. J. Baiuurk, F.R.A.S.—‘‘ Lord Tennyson as a Poet.” 
13—Rev. H. Wuireneap, M.A.—‘“‘ Parish Registers,’’—continued. 
11—Mr. Irvine Montacu—‘‘Scufiles and Sketches, or the Wanderings 
of a War Artist.” 


90. 
15—Rev. J. N. Hoars, M.A., F.R.H.S.—‘‘ The Ancient Egyptians.” 


19—Rev. C. H. Gem, M.A.—‘‘ Art and Faith.” 
19—-Rev. Cuaup H. Parzz, M.A.—‘‘ Eyes.” 
9—ANNUAL MEETING. 


ce Pea 


XXlil. 


BRAMPTON LITERARY AND FIELD NATURALIST 


SOCIETY. 


SESSION 1889-90. 


President... is dee si hae G. J. Jounson, Esq. 
Vice-Presidents. 
Rev. 8. FALLe | Rev. H. J. BULKELEY 
Delegates. 

Rev. 8S. FALLE | Rev. J. Roprnson 
Treasurer... ies a ee ree J. B. Luz, Esq. 
Secretary Se 2 as nee ... Mr. Isaac B. Hobeson 

Committee, 

Mr, J. FARRER Mr. Riee 

Mr. HverLi Rey. J. RoBInson 

Mr. JAcKSON Mr. J. STEEL 

Mr. JAMES Mrs, H. Y. THOMPSON 

Miss MacQuEEN Dr. THompson 


188 


Sept. 
Oct. 
Oct. 
Nov. 
Nov. 


Jan, 
Jan, 


Jan. 

Feb. 
Mar, 
Mar, 


The following MEETINGS were held during the Session :— 


9. 


3, 5, 10—Rev. A. Jonnson—“ The French Revolution.” 

15—Neyv. J. Brunskitt—‘‘Church Ales.” Annual General Meeting, 

29—Reading of Goldsmith's Good-Natured Man. 

12—Rev. R. Bowrr=‘‘ Norway.” 

26—Rev. J. N. Hoarze— Cuneiform Inscriptions of Assyria,” 
illustrated by diagrams. 

4—Mr, Irvine Montracu—‘“ Wanderings of a War Artist,” with 
lantern illustrations. 


» 10—Mr. Posteatz—‘' The Life History of a Butterfly.” 


90. 
14—Mr. J. Stnctarr—‘‘ Our Dales Folk and Wit of Cumberland.” 


17—Rey. C. F. Guyton and Dr. Taompson—‘ A Trip to Paris, with 
description of Paris, Exhibition, and Eiffel Tower,” with — 
lantern illustrations. 

28—Rev. Canon THoRNLEY—“' Evolution.” 

18—Reyv. H. J. BuLKELEY—‘‘ Eminent Persons who died in 1889. 

11—Rev. W. Grsson—‘‘ Thomas Carlyle.” 

25—Rev. H. Wuireneap—‘‘ A Walk round Brampton.” 


XXIV. 


PENRITH AND DISTRICT LITERARY AND 
SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 


9rH SESSION, 1889-90. 


President ii ee Lay oe Rev. H. Wurreurap, M.A. 


Vice-Presidents. 


GEORGE WATSON | W. B. ARNISON 
Treasurer Se sae ak Lm ens J. B. SHAWYER 
Secretary set 5a st Aa ... H. McLean Witson 
Committee. 
Rev. W. B. ScHNIBBEN C. H. GRAHAM 
Rev. T. P. MonninaTon F. Kine 
J. THOMPSON EK. H. Keep 
T. Lester JAMES YATES 
Rev. W. Marsu W. BELL 
Delegates. 
GEORGE WATSON | W. B. ARNISON 


The following LECTURES were given during the Session :— 


1889. 
An Oxford Course of Six Lectures on the French Revolution, by C. 
Mattet, Esq. 
Dec. 19—Mrs. IRELAND—‘‘ Browning.” 


1890. 
Jan. 16—CONVERSAZIONE. 


Jan, 23—Rev. Canon Marruews--“‘ Physiognomy.” 

Feb. 6—J. F. Curwen, Esq.—‘‘ Domestic Sanitation.” 
Feb. 20—Rev. J. ForpHam—Chinese Buddhism.” 

Mar. 6—Rev. H. A. MacpHERSON. 

Mar. 28—J. AurHAm. Esq., M.B.—‘‘ Music and Medicine.” 


a a 


XXV. 


WINDERMERE LITERARY AND SCIENTIFIC 
SOCIETY. 


8TH SESSION, 1889-90. 


President ee os ae a8 a Rev. A. Rawson 


Vice-Presidents. 


Canon Stock | Mr, B. A. Irvine 
Secretaries, 

Cot. MacDoveaty | Mr. FRANK BARTON 

Treasurer aaa ike ae 2. .. Mr. Joun Hoitanp 

Delegates. 

Mr. G. HEALEY | Mr. J. HotLanp 
Committee. 

Mr. J. W. ATKINSON Mr. W. Lone 

Mr. S. ATKINSON Mr. J. Lonetown 

Mr. J. T. Bownass Mr. F. Marr 

Mr. J. BELL Mr. G. Mor 

Mr. J. Bonny Rev. J. M. Moss 

Rev. F. Brownson Mr. G. H. Parrinson 

Mr. R. CLece Mr. A. H. RarKes 

Mr. H. Coutts Mr. 'T. THompson 

Mr. C. J. Hatt Mr. W. V. Yates 


Mr. G. HEALEY 
The following MEETINGS were held during the Session :— 
9 


Oct. 24OPENING CoNVERSAZIONE. 
Nov. 4—Rev. A. Rawson—“ Uses of an Atmosphere.” 


Nov. 18—Mr. E. S. Bruce—‘‘Fifty Years of Scientific Progress.” 
Illustrated by Dioramic Views, Photographs, &c. 


Dec. 2—Rev. G. E. P. Reapze—‘“‘ Popular Delusions of the Past.” 


Dec. 9—Mr. Irvine Montague (Special War Artist for the Illustrated 
London News)—‘* Wanderings of a War Artist at the Front.” 
Illustrated by Lime Light. 


Dec. 27—Promenade Concert by Mr. Johnson’s Band. 


1890. 
Jan. 7—Mr. Joun E. Marr—‘“‘Greenland’s Icy Mountains.” 


Jan. 16—Professor FRANK CLowEs—‘‘Accidents from Gas and Petroleum.” 
Illustrated by Experiments and Lime Light Photos. 


Feb. 10—Mr. W. H. Go.pinc—‘‘ Engineering Triumphs of our Age.” 
Illustrated by the Oxy-Hydrogen Light. 


Feb. 25—Dr. Mason—‘‘ Westmorland Characteristics and Descent,” 


XXV1. 


Report of Association Secretary. 


Your Council has great pleasure in submitting its Sixteenth 


Annual Report. 


Compared with last year the results are as follows :— 


Members. Transactions taken, 

1889 1890 Part XIII. Part XIV. 
KESWICK te Sou 130 152 50 50 
MARYPORT 500 Si go 130 60 50 
LONGTOWN a aes 27 41 — 6 
CARLISLE $00 dc 120 130 100 109 
AMBLESIDE rr a 85 71 10 20 
SILLOTH ae sii 40 44 6 — 
BRAMPTON bo ae 90 99 8 4 
PENRITH eas be 202 180 140 120 
WINDERMERE ... ite 104. 120 6 20 
ASSOCIATION MEMBERS... 38 40 38 40 

926 1007 418 419 

MEMBERSHIP, 


The best thanks of the Council are due to the various Local 
Committees, and éspecially to the Local Secretaries, for the very 


satisfactory increase in the number of Members, testifying as it 


XXVIL 


does to much earnest work on their part. The Council trusts the 
increase will be maintained. 

With regard to the Association Members, there is, again, a 
small increase, and the Council can only express a hope, over 
and over again expressed, that this list will extend with greater 
rapidity than it has hitherto done. If this could be accomplished, 


much more important results might be obtained. 


THE TRANSACTIONS 


Have been enlarged from 114 pages in Part XIII. to 194 pages in 
Part XIV. Many new features have been introduced, and these 
might be almost indefinitely extended were the demand greater. 
The Council would be glad if the Local Societies could hit upon 
some plan by which this desirable end could be obtained. If 
each Local Society would briefly state on its Annual Programme, 
that the Zransactions are published annually, at a cost to Members 
of 1/- each, also that all the Back Numbers are still in Stock, 
this might greatly decrease an ever increasing Surplus Stock, and 
thus tend much to the prosperity of the Association. 

As it is, each Local Society, by Rule 8, is “ entitled to recom- 
mend one original and local paper communicated to such Society 
for publication in the Z7ansactions of the Association, but Societies 
contributing a capitation grant on a number of Members exceeding 
150 Members shall have the privilege of sending two papers.” 

In addition to this (Resolution, Council Meeting, May, 25th, 
1886) “When any affiliated Society would like papers printed 
other than those in accordance with Rule 8, abstracts of the same 
can be inserted, subject in each case to the decision of the 
Council.” Thus, even though a Society has not any paper for 
publication i extenso, still a summary or abstract of other papers 


may be published. 


XXVIL. 


The Editor will gladly summarise such papers, and submit the 


same to the author before publication. 


Susp-COMMITTEES. 


In another direction the work of the Association has grown, 
and it is one to which great importance is to be attached, as 
it is an attempt to work on the lines laid down by the British 
Association, with which our Association is affiliated. (See Part viii). 

For this purpose your Council recommended the election of 
permanent Sub-Committees, each of which should engage in some 
definite work. 

The following Sub-Committees have already been appointed, 
Viz. :— 

At Keswick, in Meterology and Geology. 

At Maryport, in Archeology, Marine Zoology, Botany, and 
Geology. 

At CARLISLE, in Botany, Entomology, Geology, Icthyology, 
and Ornithology. 

When these Sub-Committees get fairly to work, the Council 
anticipates that much good will result therefrom, and it trusts next 
Annual Meeting not only to notify a still larger number of such 


Committees, but also the general result of their deliberations. 


UNIVERSITY EXTENSION. 


In the matter of University Extension the Council has also 
made a forward movement, ¢wo Local Associations having elected 
their Extension Lecturer through the offices of the Hon. Associa. 
tion Secretary. During the coming year the action of Reading 
Circles as an adjunct to University Extension, or as a separate 


organisation, will be anxiously watched. 


S.-C... 


oar, 


XXIX. 


LocaL COMMITTEES. 


The Council would suggest that the various Local Committees, 
Delegates, &c., be elected at the end of the Session, rather than 
at the beginning, as is the case in one or two Societies. The 
benefits of such are obvious. 

Local Associations would do infinite benefit to the Council if 
they would, from time to time, send up Resolutions bearing on 
the work of the Association. ‘Too much is left to the Council, 
which cannot thoroughly understand the exact wants of the Local 
Societies. 

The Council would like to see each Local Society take a more 
real and active interest in the welfare of the Association, in short 
to look upon itself as an integral part of this larger Association, 
which, in its turn, is an integral part—in fact one of the largest 
branches in connection with the British Association. At the head 
(in 1888) stood the Yorkshire Naturalists’ Union, with 2,484 
members ; then in succession we have the Midland Union of 


Natural History Society, with 2,000 members; Royal Scottish 
Geological Society, with 1,162; East of Scotland Union of 


Naturalists’ Society, 1,053; Cumberland and Westmorland Asso- 
ciation, 910 (in 1889 the number was 1,007). 

For the guidance of Local Committees, the Council would 
suggest the following as suitable subjects for consideration during 
the Coming Session, viz. :— 

1. How can the issue of the Zvansactions be improved and 
extended ? 

2. What can be done in the matter of University Extension, 
Reading Circles, &c. ? 

_ 3. What is the best method of working a Local Association ? 

4. How can Local Associations be formed in other centres 
than as at present ? 


XXX. 


5. How can the Library be made of real and permanent 
benefit ? 

6. How can the Association aid in Science Teaching ? 

7. Howcan the work of the Sub-Committees be most efficiently 
done, and the results preserved ? 

8. How can inter-communication between the Local Societies 
be best fostered ? 

The Council ask for special reports on Nos. 6, 7, and 8. 

In suggesting these topics the Council is fully aware that the 
arrangement of a Programme is the great point ; still a flourishing 
General Association may do much to facilitate the success of the 


Local Associations. 


LECTURERS. 


A list of gentlemen who might give Lectures at neighbouring 
centres has been prepared, and will be sent to each Society 
requiring it. By this means the Programme can be very easily 
completed. ‘The Council would refer the Local Societies to 
Rule 14, viz., that “the travelling expenses of all who assist in 
carrying out the Programme . . . . . shall be defrayed by 
the Society assisted.” 


The following is the stock of Back Numbers of the 7vamsactions on hand 
January 15th, 1891 :— 


Noo Lei LV Ve VI. yl VU Xe xX. axa oan. 
45 66 6 2 95 227 248 220 232 33 163 156 222 245 


Cumberland and Westmorland Association for the 
Adbancement of Literature and Science. 


BALANCE SHEET FOR THE YEAR ENDING AUGUST 13, 1890 


RECEIPTS. EXPENDITURE. 
Balance forward ... ... £22 11 6] Assoc. Lecturer, $ Lectures s £42 oOo 
Subscriptions towards Assoc. Postages—Editor o12 0 
Lecturer’s ees enna? Sie ONES 5 Librarian olr 6 
Capitation 803 Members... 21 19 0 os Hon. Sec. 118 6 
Subscriptions from 28 Associ- Carriage— es ONS 
ation Members (Annual) 7 © o| Back No.— ,, Oo I 4 
Transactions, Part XIV. Part Expenses, Annual Meet- 
To Local Societies (291) 14 II O ing (1890) ac Toes 
,, Assoc. Members (30) 1 10 O| Messrs. Coward— Printing 
Back Numbers .. U2 LGAYO 720 se Part XIV., 
Authors’ Copies ... 2 12 II 194 pp. . ne <ngU5)..0 
Arrears—T'ransactions, 89 4 9 0O| Do. Sewing... ae Sur4 Oo) 
“ Capitation, 98 M’brs.2. 9 o| Do. Authors’ Copies soo 14 Oe 
Assoc, Members, a 0 15 0o| Do. Stationery . Io 6 
Bank Interest o 3 11] Do. Expenses Annual Meet- 
ing (1889) 26.33 
Do. Postages nS O10 4 
Mr. R. Adair—Stationery... Of: 4 ep 
Messrs. Griffin & Co,—Year 
Book .. ; 0 6 0 
Dr. Wilson—Towards Lec- 
turer’s Expenses Sache ee 
Rev. J. I. Cummins—By 
Overcharge ... OF Sy 59 


Balance in hand of Treas- 
urer, asper Bank Book 11 I 3 


4103 5 1 £103 5 1 


Examined and found correct, 


_ ~ August 13th, 1890. 
r ASSETS. LIABILITIES. 


To Balance : TA 3 
of Arrears—Authors’ Copies I 2 0 
», Assoc. Members’ Subs. 4 13 0 
», Capitation 79 Members 1 19 6 
», Lransactions, XII. 13, 

XIV. 90_—Ci.., Fra eres teat) 


(Nil.) 


TRANSACTIONS, Part XIV. 


Sold to Societies ae mos ee =a 23) 379 
Association Members ... Bot pin 2 es tee, asl Al 
Presented or Exchanged 566 oo a 008 36 
In hand... ar 59 xbe can eo ee 244 


700 


The Council would earnestly impress on the Local Societies the necessity for 
extending the sale of the TRANSACTIONS, as on an average AIO or £12 is lost 
to the Funds annually through the limited sale. 

Back Numbers may be had from Messrs. Coward. 


gee nc Ta i i Tie ee le 


ee 


THE STUDY OF LICHENS, WITH ESPECIAL 
REFERENCE TO THOSE OF THE LAKE DISTRICT. 


By J. A. MARTINDALE. 


(Read at Ambleside. ) 


THE study of Lichens has never to any extent been popular in 
England. There have always been, indeed, since botanists became 
something more than mere herbalists, a few men who have devoted 
considerable time and attention to their examination and to the 
elucidation of species and genera; and among these, some—as 
Dawson Turner, Borrer, Taylor, Mudd, Leighton, and Crombie— 
have cbtained a wide and well-deserved fame for their skill and 
knowledge. But though we have had leaders, followers have at 
all times been far too few in number, and, if I may venture to say 
so without offence, somewhat half-hearted in the pursuit. To 
speak from my own experience, during the twenty years that I 
have been engaged in the examination of Lichens, I have only 
twice had the pleasure of meeting and speaking with anyone that 
had taken up the study with heartiness. Of course, scattered up 
and down the country—alas! at too wide intervals—are several 
persons more or less enthusiastic in the matter; and with some of 
these I have enjoyed pleasurable and instructive correspondence. 
But the fact remains, that comparatively few English botanists, of 
late years at all events, ever give more than a cursory glance at 
Lichens. Other cryptogamous plants have aroused much more 
general attention. Fungus-hunters gather together in their forays 
in large numbers; in every botanical society there are several 
1 


to 


bryologists and students of hepatice; lovers of ferns abound 
everywhere: but the lichenologist is, for the most part, a solitary 
being, and seems to have become shy of making his predilection 
known. 

The consequence of this general neglect of the study is seen in 
the meagre knowledge we have at present of the extent of our 
lichen-flora, and of the distribution of species through our islands. 
So far as flowering plants and ferns are concerned, I believe there 
is no country in which plant distribution has been so fully worked 
out as it has been in our own. But with Lichens the reverse is the 
case. A few districts have been well searched, as North Yorkshire 
by Mudd, Shropshire and some parts of Wales by Leighton, and 
some of the Scotch counties by Crombie ; but of by far the greater 
part of our island we seem to know next to nothing of the lichen- 
flora. 

And if, through the dearth of observers, we are behind-hand in 
a satisfactory knowledge of the number of species which grow with 
us, and of their distribution, there is another portion of the study, 
and that a still more important one, in which we are much more 
backward. As regards the life-history of Lichens, their morphology 
and the relation they bear to other allied classes, there can hardly 
be said to be any native literature at all. Almost everything we 
have on these points has been drawn from foreign sources, and we 
do not seem to have a single observer who has made any extended 
researches calculated to illustrate the life and development. of 
Lichens. 

It is hard to find any valid reason for the almost total disregard 
of these questions by English botanists. It is true that there are 
difficulties to be encountered in the investigation. Lichens are of 
slow growth, and long-continued watching reveals few changes in 
them. The cells of which they are built up are in general so 
minute that it is hard to trace the course of their development, 
and the difficulty is increased by the circumstance that almost 
every attempt to cultivate them has signally failed. In these 
respects they are, perhaps, less promising objects of study than 
Algze or Fungi, which offer more facilities for investigation, in 


+, 
>. 


some instances from the greater size of their component cells and 
the distinctness of their contents, and, in others, from the rapidity 
of their development and the readiness with which they can be 
cultivated in a form rendering them easy of microscopical examin- 
ation. Whatever may be the reason, an erroneous opinion has 
certainly been prevalent respecting them. Schleiden, in his 
“Principles of Scientific Botany,” made the strange assertion, 
“ Lichens offer little worthy of notice,”—a statement echoed, if I 
mistake not, by Dr. Lankester. The remark of the eminent Swiss 
lichenographer, Schirer, is sometimes quoted, that the texture of 
Lichens is too dense and compact to permit their satisfactory 
examination under the microscope; but a look at the context 
shows that he was speaking of the difficulty he should himself find, 
at his advanced age, in cutting sections sufficiently fine. 

But if it is to be regretted that Lichens have attracted the 
attention of so few scientific observers, it is not a matter for much 
wonder that they have not greatly aroused the curiosity of the 
unscientific. They are in general too subdued in colour, there is 
too great a sameness and monotony in their circular outlines, or 
vagueness in the indefinite patches they form, as they spread over 
rock, tree, or earth, to draw upon themselves the notice of the 
people. Many of them indeed are so minute, that a large rock or 
an aged tree might be covered with them and yet they would be 
invisible to a person standing but a short distance away. In such 
cases the only thing that indicates their presence is a delicate 
suffusion of various shades, which has excited the admiration of 
poet and painter, but is not pronounced enough to waken interest 
in the uneducated mind. Looked at more closely, however, we 
find them, like all else in Nature, clothed with beauty. Let us 


assist our feeble sight with a magnifying glass, and there are few 


that do not show an elegance of contour, charming to the eye and 
wonderful to reflect upon. 

“Handsome is as handsome does” is an old saying, and had 
our Lichens been found of some economic use, they might, in 
spite of their external insignificance, have come in for some share 
of attention. But as they lack striking features, so also they want 


the attraction of utility. Formerly, in many parts of the country, 
several species were used as sources from which to obtain dyes, 
but the Lichens of sunnier countries possess these colorific qualities 
in greater degree, and for many years our native species have been 
left quite unused, and they are thus completely passed over as 
things of neither use nor beauty. 

Such being the case, we need not be surprised that we have no 
English name for these plants, and that botanists have had to 
borrow from another tongue a designation for the class. There 
are certainly a few local names given to those species formerly 
used for the manufacture of dyes. In some parts of Scotland, for 
instance, such plants are known as crott/es, in the Highlands as 
kork or korkalett, in Wales as kenkerig, and in Durham and North- 
umberland as sfony-rag; but the more general name is moss. Thus 
those tiny grey cups, edged round with scarlet, are called cup-mosses, 
and we have also the veindeer-moss and the Lceland-moss. ‘These 
latter names were indeed given to the species they denote by 
botanists, and do not spring from the folk. They fit in, however, 
very well with popular opinion, for almost universally, by persons 
unacquainted with modern botanical classification, such Lichens 
as are by any chance brought before their notice are considered to 
be species of moss. Both the notion and the names are relics of 
older views, and if we wish to discover what species of Lichens 
were known to the herbalists of the sixteenth and seventeenth 
centuries, we must search and shall find them under such names 
as Muscus, Lithobryon, or rock-moss; and Dendrobryon, that is, 
tree-moss. 

Tournefort, a French botanist and a native of Provence, was the 
first who separated them from the various dissimilar plants among 
which they had previously been confounded, and gave them the 
name Lichen. ‘This was at the close of the seventeenth century. 
The word was not a new coinage, but one which before his time 
had been used by medizval writers to designate some kinds of 
liverwort. They in their turn had borrowed the word from Greek 
authors, who meant by it some plant that grew on wet rocks. 
What it was is uncertain, as the meagre terms in which it is 


5 


mentioned do not permit of its satisfactory determination. Very 
likely it was not what we call a Lichen, as our plants seem to have 
been known to the Greeks under the name Sflachnon, Phascon, 
and sometimes 4ryon, names which now, curiously enough, are 
applied to genera of true mosses. 

In attempting to describe as briefly as possible the leading 
features in the appearance and structure of Lichens, it seems 
advisable to depart in some measure from the usual arrangement 
in botanical treatises, and to avoid, as much as possible, the use 
of technical language; and perhaps no better method can be 
adopted than to suppose ourselves engaged in collecting Lichens 
somewhere in the immediate neighbourhood of Ambleside, and to 
discuss such plants as we should be likely to meet with. 

The best time for collecting Lichens is a bright day that has 
followed some rainy weather. It does not do very well to gather 
them when everything is saturated, for the substance of these plants 
swells with moisture, and when the weather is very wet they swell 
so much that their shape is considerably altered. But a change 
greater than that of shape takes place in such circumstances in their 
colour. In wet weather, their distinctive tints are for the most 
part lost, as the moisture renders their outer layers translucent, and 
permits the green colour of the internal cells to shine through and 
thus modify and obscure the usual colours of the plants. Neither 
is a very dry day the best that can be chosen, especially if it has 
been preceded by any long continuance of drought. Under such 
circumstances, Lichens become very brittle, and_ satisfactory 
specimens of some species cannot be obtained, as they break in 
pieces either while being removed, or in taking them home. 

Speaking of the influence of the weather induces me to notice a 
peculiarity of Lichens which is sufficiently remarkable. It is that 
they lead a sort of intermittent life. In moist weather growth goes 
on continuously, but with the occurrence of dry days all progress 
ceases fora time. The plants dry up and become as it were dead, 
so that one may take many of them, and crumble them to pieces 
in one’s hand. Their life and activity, however, are only arrested. 
On the recurrence of favourable weather, they awaken to new life 


6 


and proceed on their course of development as if they had received 
no check. Even the fragments of a plant we may have crushed to 
pieces are living, and, blown by the wind, may reach some sheltered 
corner, where they will set about slowly to build up new plants. 

Westmorland weather, we all know, is humid, almost to a proverb, 
and it is not often that in this county we shall be deterred from 
collecting because of drought. All seasons are equally favourable 
to the lichen-gatherer, who may almost be said to have no winter. 
Of course, plants cannot be searched for with any prospect of 
success when everything is covered with snow, but /Aat being 
absent, we shall obtain quite as satisfactory specimens in December 
or January as we can in June or July. In this the lichenologist 
has a great advantage over the student of flowering plants. He 
must seek each in its season, whereas Lichens seem to know no 
season, and they are as perfectly developed, and as fit for 
examination, in the midst of winter as they are at any other time 
of the year. 

The appliances we must take with us are neither numerous nor 
very cumbersome, though, if our excursion be fortunate, we shall 
find the weight of our “plunder” rather heavy as we return. We 
shall need a hammer—such a one as geologists use is the best— 
for many of the plants we seek are so closely fixed to the rocks and 
stones over which they spread that to detach them is impossible, 
and we shall have to take a chip off the stone in order to secure 
our specimen. For the same reason, we must also have with us a 
stout sharp knife to remove pieces of bark when we wish to collect 
plants growing upon trees. The other requisites are a lens of 
moderate magnifying power, some paper—old newspapers serve the 
purpose—to wrap our specimens in as they are procured (so that 
they may not be injured by rubbing against each other on our 
journey home), and a bag or collecting case in which to carry them. 

Living as we do in the country, surrounded on all sides by rocky 
mountains and moors, we shall not have to go many steps before 
we meet with examples of the plants we are about to study: neither 
for a first essay is it of much importance which way we turn. 
Around Ambleside are many places where a rich harvest of Lichens 


) 


“I 


may be gathered, and whether we remain on the low ground, 
ascend the slopes of Wansfell or of Loughrigg, or stray further 
to Nab Scar or Red Screes, we may be sure of obtaining specimens 
sufficient for several days’ leisurely examination. 

Red Screes is one of my favourite mountains, as on it I have 
gathered five or six species not previously described, besides others 
that are considered rare. There is nothing very wonderful in this, 
for, as I have said before, England has not yet been thoroughly 
searched. When it is, there is no doubt that these plants at present 
known only from Red Screes will be found to grow elsewhere. 
Indeed, with respect to one of them that is already the case, for I 
have met with it also on Coniston Old Man, on the northern face 
of High Street overlooking Mardale, and on the mountains above 
Mallerstang in the extreme east of the county. 

For a first excursion, let us get on to the hills. We need not 
climb to the top; any place will do where we may have a chance 
of examining exposures of rock and of searching patches of moory 
ground. We can examine the walls and trees as we go along, and 
should also endeavour to spend a little time beside a beck, on the 
stones in whose bed we shall find species that love moisture. 

There may be in our party some young botanist who cannot tell 
how to distinguish a Lichen from a moss, and it may not be amiss, 
therefore, to point out one of the more obvious differences. Mosses 
may readily be known from Lichens by the possession of distinct 
stems and leaves, much more minute of course than, but similar in 
appearance to, those of flowering plants. Most of their near allies, 
the Liverworts, may be distinguished by the same character, but 
among these latter are a few genera, as Marchantia, FPellia, 
Lunularia, Riccia, which approach Lichens in their form. In these 
cases, however, the beginner will soon discover essential differences 
when he examines them with the microscope, for their internal 
structure is much the same as in the higher plants, and not at all 
like that of Lichens. 

Let us take it then as a general distinction between Lichens and 
all higher plants, that the latter possess leaves and stems which the 
former never have, Of course this character by no means 


8 


represents the entire difference between Lichens and the classes 
above them in the scale of vegetable organization, but it is one 
sufficiently obvious in the great majority of species, and it is the 
character which gives name to the group of plants to which Lichens 
belong. The distinction between Lichens and other lowly organisms 
of the same group—the so-called Algze and Fungi of our botanical 
books—must be looked for in other morphological differences, and 
we had better defer its consideration. 

Suppose us now upon our hunting-ground and ready to begin 
our search. All around us, overspreading the rocks, covering the 
walls from foundation to coping stone, and encrusting such portions 
of the ground as have been left bare of other vegetation, we see 
countless stains and patches ; some small, hardly an inch across, 
others a foot wide or more ; many of them nearly circular in outline, 
others of no definite shape, but extending themselves vaguely and 
diffusely. Very various in colour are these patches, grey and white 
being perhaps the most common, though shades of yellow, bronze, 
and olive abound, while not a few deepen nearly to black. All 
spread flat upon the surfaces they grow on, clinging so closely 
that the thinner and duller patches hardly seem distinct from 
the substratum itself. A greater contrast than they present to the 
rest of vegetation can hardly be conceived: earthy, arid, to all 
appearance dead, they seem the last things to which a name 
originally meaning “full of life,” could be applied. Every one has 
seen them, comparatively few reflect on the mystery of their being, 
nor many note their exceeding variety in form, consistence, and 
colour. 

These patches, earthy-looking, powdery, or filmy, are individual 
plants. For the species to which they belong they represent and 
perform all the functions of the roots, stems, and leaves of higher 
plants. Botanists have given the name of ¢had/us to such vegetable 
structures as these, in which we can recognise no differentiation of 
parts, no member of separate origin, no organ with definite function. 
And however greatly we might at first sight be inclined to ascribe 
leaves or stems to some Lichens, in these we can make no such 
mistake. Their upper surface from centre to circumference is of 


9 


uniform character, presenting nothing like a stem; nor when we 
remove a portion of a plant from its base of support do we discover 
the slightest trace of a root. All parts of the thallus are perfectly 
alike, and, so far as regards the absorption and assimilation of 
food materials, whatever function one part of it can perform is 
equally shared in by the rest. 

In the great diversity of Lichen thalli of this kind, it is quite 
impossible, in a general survey, to notice and describe all their 
variations. We have supposed ourselves to be upon a botanical 
excursion, but reality is too strong for me, and language fails to 
convey correctly the many differences our eyes, armed with a 
magnifying glass, would readily detect were we actually among the 
plants in their place of growth. Let us notice a few species where 
the differences are more pronounced. 

The thallus of one, Zecidea lucida, which we meet with very 
commonly, may be taken as the type of several others. You have 
doubtless noticed it frequently, spreading irregularly over the shady 
parts of stones in walls. To the naked eye it looks like a thin 
powder of a pale yellow colour, but examined under a lens it is seen 
to have in reality greater consistence. The magnifying glass also 
reveals what the eye fails to distinguish—minute round bodies 
scattered here and there over the surface. ‘These are also yellow, 
but more shining than the thallus. They are the organs of 
reproduction, which I shall speak of presently. In other Lichens 
the substance of the thallus, instead of being powdery, is aggregated 
in little granular heaps, and the granulations vary greatly in size, 
not merely in different species, but also frequently in one and the 
same. Such a Lichen is Z. decolorans, or granulosa, which we 
should certainly meet with abundantly in the course of our search, 
covering large spaces of peaty earth, with its gray granulations. 
This Lichen has borne various names, for, from the different 
appearances it assumes, forms of it have often been mistaken for 
distinct species. One name formerly given to it was Z. guadricolor, 
from plants of it being sometimes parti-coloured, the thallus being 
gray, and the fruit varying from flesh colour when young through 
a livid green to a dull black in old age. 


10 


As the granulations increase in size they have a tendency to 
become flat, and so scale-like thalli are formed which have a very 
distinct aspect. Some botanists, indeed, have founded genera to 
contain these squamulose species, but the distinction is entirely 
artificial, and every gradation can be found between the granulose 
and the squamulose thallus. On the moors around us, also 
growing on earth, there is a species, Z. atrorufa, with a thallus of 
this kind, good specimens of which are very handsome; and I 
remember well how much I admired it when for the first time, now 
many years ago, I gathered it near the foot of Ravensbarrow Crag. 
Better examples, however, of the squamulose thallus are afforded 
by species met with in limestone districts, and some of them are 
very common to the south of Kendal. 

But the most frequent type of these crustaceous thalli is neither 
powdery, like Z. Zucida, granulose like ZL. decolorans, nor scaly like 
L. atrorufa. To the naked eye it seems smooth and continuous, 
though it is rarely really so, for through the lens we find the 
surface to be minutely cracked. The cracks penetrate more or 
less deeply into the substance of the thallus, and, when numerous, 
divide it out into tiny irregular spaces called aveole. ‘This type of 
thallus can, in most instances, be shown to have been formed by 
the confluence of separate scales or grains which, as they increased 
in size, crowded upon each other, and finally coalescing, left nothing 
but the narrow chinks to tell of their original separation. 

A very common Lichen of this sort, and when well developed a 
cheerful-looking plant, is Z. geographica, which has derived its 
trivial name from the map-like aggregations formed when several 
plants grow contiguously. Each plant is surrounded by a radiating 
black border, and when neighbouring individuals meet as they 
spread over the stone, the borders serve to separate each from the 
others, and the whole group looks like a map divided into counties 
or provinces. ‘This resemblance is heightened by the round black 
fruit with which each plant is dotted over. 

Species with continuous or areolated thalli are so numerous that 
it would be wearisome to mention a tithe of their names, and 
perhaps the most animated description of them would fail to give 


| 


11 


pleasure. No words can adequately express their character, and 
to be enjoyed they must be actually and carefully examined. 

In thus briefly sketching some of the forms of crustaceous 
Lichens, one very attractive feature has been almost entirely passed 
over. Lichens owe a great deal of their beauty and interest to the 
forms and colours of their organs of reproduction. These are of 
two kinds, but one of them is so minute in size as seldom to be 
noticed. The larger one, which botanists call an afothecitum, is the 
organ in which the spores—bodies representing the seeds of 
flowering plants—are elaborated. The apothecia vary to a much 
greater extent than the thalli; though their external differences are 
few in comparison with their internal. 

All the examples I have chosen as illustrative of the forms and 
variations of the crustaceous thallus have been taken from one 
genus. But exactly similar forms occur in other genera, the generic 
characters being found in the structure of the fruit. 

Thus the difference which separates the two genera, Zecidea and 
Lecanora, is the kind of border which surrounds the apothecia; in 
Lecanora this border is composed of the thalline substance, in 
Lecidea it is formed of a different tissue. 

Very interesting apothecia are those characteristic of the Verru- 
carie. Here each fruit is a little black or coloured cone having a 
minute pore at the summit through which, when mature, the spores 
are emitted. The stalked apothecia of the Ca/icia are extremely 
peculiar, looking like Lilliputian pins or nails, and their dusty 
heads are usually crowded with a brown mass made up of thousands 
of spores. 

But perhaps the strangest and most striking of all lichen-fruits are 
those found in certain Graphids, or letter-lichens. We have several 
species of them in Westmorland, some growing on trees, others on 
stone. The name given to this tribe is derived from the shape 
of the apothecia, which instead of being round, as in most genera, 
are long and narrow, sometimes simple, but often forked at various 
angles. A branch of a tree on which these plants have located 


_ themselves appears as if written over with characters having a 


wonderful resemblance to Eastern writing—Hebrew, Arabic, or 


12 


Chinese. One might fancy on looking at a stone or tree so taken 
up, that one had come upon some fairy inscriptions, and that, 
could the writing be deciphered, they would give information 
respecting the politics or the amusements of the “canny folk.” 

But I must hasten on and draw your attention to plants with a 
different form of thallus. Mingled with the crustaceous species 
already noticed, are others much more vegetable in appearance. 
These also lie flat upon the surface, but are not so closely attached, 
and when moist most of them can with a little trouble be removed 
entire from the substance they clothe. On their under side we 
often observe tufts of fibres which might be supposed to perform 
the office of roots. This is not so, however, and it has been made 
out that their only duty is to hold the Lichen to its support. 
Most frequently thalli of this kind are foliaceous in appearance, 
but it would be a great mistake to consider them leaves. They 
make up the whole vegetative body, and to regard them as leaves 
would be equivalent to making an entire plant to consist of one 
leaf. The popular notion of a leaf is derived from the ordinary 
growths of our trees and flowering plants, and the name would be 
denied to the thorns of berberries and gorse, to the tendrils of 
vetches, and the bladders of the U~¢ricularte, which, however 
different in appearance and use, botanists recognise as modifications 
of leaves. The common opinion, then, that the distinction between 
Jeaves and stems is to be found in their shape and colour, does not 
stand the test of scientific examination, and the only valid distinction 
is one of position. Stems or axes bear leaves—leaves and organs 
of foliar origin are borne upon axes. ‘Tried, therefore, by this test, 
these thalli cannot be leaves, for they form the whole substance of 
the individual plant. 

The number of Lichens with foliaceous thalli is not nearly so 
great as that of the crustaceous kinds ; but even here they are too 
many for me to describe individually, and I must content myself 
with one or two instances. 

The bright yellow Physcia parietina, though much smaller than 
many others, seems to deserve first notice from its cheerful aspect. 
Everyone must have noted it, clinging around farm buildings, 


ee we ee 


13 


barns, and stables, which seem to have a speciai attraction for it, 
though it by no means exclusively confines its presence to such 
edifices, but may be found generally distributed in lowland districts. 
It is one of the Lichens, too, that seems to like a seaside residence, 
and maritime rocks are frequently brightened by its gay circles. 

Other common species of similar shape, but differing in colour 
and in the internal structure of the apothecia, are members of the 
genus Parmelia. Everywhere we meet with the crispy-looking 
P. saxitilis, which does not restrict itself to stones, as it should do 
if it acted up to its name. Then there is the pale greenish-yellow 
P. conspersa, the lobes of whose thallus are so frequently sprinkled 
with black dots, which indicate in this species the second and 
complementary reproductive organ. 

The brown circles of P. fuliginosa, a great part of whose upper 
surface is covered with a soft-looking growth resembling the pile 
of velvet, are also extremely abundant. I always regard this plant 
with a feeling akin to gratitude, as it was through it I first made 
the acquaintance of Dr. Nylander, the man most versed in lichen- 
lore of this or any other time, whose kind assistance and advice 
have been so freely given to me for almost twenty years. 

The Peltigere are large, coarse-looking, somewhat leathery plants, 
creeping over moss and rock, and bearing their shield-like apothecia 
on marginal lobes, which they often erect like fingers. One of 
them, Pe/tigera canina, was at one time thought serviceable in cases 
of hydrophobia; and another, Peltidea aphthosa, a bright apple. 
green plant with brown warts, was held to be a specific in the 
infantile disorder called “the thrush.” Needless to say they are 
neither used at the present day. 

I shall only mention one more, ZLobaria pulmonacea, which can 
be found in this neighbourhood on trees. Its thallus is lobed in a 
Strikingly divergent manner, and the upper surface is marked by 
numerous depressions, the elevations between which give it a 
peculiar reticulated appearance. In those times when plants were 
believed to carry in their form and appearance a key to their 
medical properties, the “lung of the oak,” as it was called, was 
supposed of great efficacy in diseases of the chest. ‘The tribe to 


14 


which it belongs is that in which Lichens attain their maximum 
development, and in tropical countries there are numerous species 
of great luxuriance and beauty. 

These are but a few of the foliaceous Lichens we meet with in 
this neighbourhood, but time will not permit me to mention more, 
as there are other forms to notice, and the internal structure yet to 
be considered, and I must hasten forward as quickly as I can. 

The third modification of the thallus is that of those Lichens 
which assume the form of miniature leafless shrubs. Some species, 
indeed, carry this mimicry of higher plants a step further, and add 
to their stems and branches simulacra of leaves. I need hardly 
say again that these are only instances of the playful humour of 
Dame Nature, and that in these particular plants we still have 
only one organ, the thallus, which performs, as in all other 
Lichens, the functions distributed in flowering plants between root 
and stem and leaf. 

Of these shrubby Lichens a very good instance is to be found in 
a species widely spread throughout the British Islands on moorish 
ground, where among the ling, heath, and short grasses, its gray 
bushy growths fill up the gaps left by other vegetation. In more 
northern countries, as in Scandinavia, and in mountainous districts 
like Switzerland, its development is much finer than with us. In 
Norway, during winter, it is often fed upon by reindeer, which seek 
it under the snow, and on this account Linnezeus called it Lichen 
rangiferinus, which has been Englished into “reindeer moss.” 

In reality there are two species so closely alike as to be with 
difficulty separated without recourse to chemical tests, and that to 
which Dr. Nylander has restricted the name, does not seem to be 
at all common in England. Our form, sub-species, species, or 
what you will, is the Cladina sylvatica of Nylander, but it may well 
keep the popular name of reindeer moss, especially as it is not 
probable the reindeer themselves would know the difference. 

The reindeer lichen belongs to a tribe the members of which are 
almost protean in their diversity, and which has always been the 
crux of lichenographers. Forms of them may be met with almost 
everywhere, growing on earth and dead wood. Among the most 


15 


charming of them is the pretty cup-moss, which is doubtless well 
known by sight to every one. 

Besides the Cladonie, species of two other genera of similar 
structure are to be met with commonly enough on rocks and walls 
in this neighbourhood. Some of them are coralline in appearance, 
and from this circumstance one species in each genus bears the 
name coralloides. Very beautiful they are when closely examined, 
but our Westmorland representatives lose much of their interest 
from being so frequently being barren. 

Whoever has spent a short time in larch plantations must have 
been much struck by the grisly beards which depend thickly from 
stems and branches. None, however, of our British plants emulate 
the luxuriance they attain in continental forests. A few inches in 
length is the utmost they reach to here, while there they frequently 
exceed a yard. These beards are species of Usnea, to one of 
which the name darbaza, or ‘‘the bearded,” was given, and it is to 
this species that our British forms belong. I cannot do more than 
mention the names of other genera,—Aamalina, Evernia, Alectoria 
(one species of which looks almost like tangled pieces of hair from a 
horse’s tail), and Cefraria. ‘To this last genus belongs a somewhat 
leafy species, the so-called ‘“‘Iceland moss” of the druggist, but 
which may be found on the summits of many of our Westmorland 
hills—not that it confines itself to elevated places, for I have 
gathered it on Cliburn Moss at a very moderate elevation indeed. 

The three modifications thus hurriedly described—the Crus- 
taceous, the Foliaceous, and the Shrubby—include all the forms 
that the thallus of Lichens assumes as regards external shape and 
division. From the most powdery to the most shrub-like there is 
an unbroken connexion of intermediates that shows the absolute 
identity of the organ so modified. All the plants I have referred 
to belong to the main section or family of Lichens. ‘There remain 
some aberrant plants differing not so much in shape as in colour 
and consistence. We meet with examples of these around Amble- 
side, but they are more plentiful and diversified upon limestone 
rocks and earth. 

When wet many of these Collemacee, as they are called, seem 


16 


almost shapeless pieces of brown, dull green, or olive jelly, and 
when dry they shrink remarkably into thin films or flakes of a dull 
black. The two principal genera are Cod/ema and Leptogium ; the 
species of the latter being much the more shapely. But if exter- 
nally they yield in graceful form to the species of the true Lichens, 
yet as microscopic objects they have compensating advantages. 
The gelatinous nature of their thallus permits their internal organ- 
ization to be most distinctly seen, and their examination is productive 
of much pleasurable instruction. 

It is probable that within a short distance around Ambleside 
there are about three hundred Lichens to be found growing. No 
catalogue of these plants for any part of Westmorland has yet been 
drawn up, and this number is merely a guess, though I think it will 
be found to be a close approximation to the truth. From this 
estimate it will be seen how few comparatively of the species I 
have been able to notice on this occasion. But the plants 
adduced are all in some way or other representative, and give a 
fairly accurate view of the external characters of the whole class. 

It is the universal experience of beginners that they mistake at 
times different varieties or states of the same plant for entirely 
different species, and w7ce versa, that they confound, from their 
external similarity, totally distinct plants. In the beginning of the 
study, the most learned professors fell into the same errors, and 
examination of the herbaria left by Acharius and other distinguished 
botanists of the last and early part of the present century proves 
how mistaken they often were in their notions of species. 

The only way to determine these plants correctly is to submit 
them to examination under the microscope. ‘This is often a slow 
process, but is always an interesting one. The microscope reveals 
to us the inner structure of the minutest plants, and we are often 
astonished that Lichens, whose thallus or whose reproductive 
organs betray hardly the slightest outward dissimilarity, are yet 
quite different in their internal anatomy. But not only is the 
microscope necessary for the discrimination of species; it is also 
of the highest use in enabling us to unriddle their nature and 
kinship. Not that by its means we are quite able to do this, as 


_- -.-) se. 6h— CU 


ii 


witness the strife which has gone on now for twenty years as to 
whether Lichens are a distinct class, or only slightly modified 
Fungi. 

It will not be without use, nor I hope without interest, therefore, 
if I delay you a short time longer to consider these plants under 
the aspect revealed by the microscope. 

When sufficiently thin sections of a Lichen thallus are placed on 
the stage of this instrument, and examined with an adequate 
power, we perceive that in every instance they are made up of 
cells of two kinds, one of which contains chlorophyll, or some 
modification of it, while the contents of the other are transparent. 
In this respect Lichens agree with all higher plants, a few species 
excepted, and with the Algz, but they are completely different 
from the plants known as Fungi. 

The function of chlorophyll, which gives the green appearance to 
vegetation, you are doubtless acquainted with. It is by its means 
that plants are enabled to assimilate the carbonic oxide of the air 
and so to obtain materials for building up their structure. Plants 
destitute of it are, like animals, unable to live on inorganic sub- 
stances, and are compelled to make use of organic matter elaborated 
previously by some chlorophyll-producing plant. Thus Fungi live 
on vegetable and animal matter already organized, and it is to this 
necessity that their destructive—and also in many cases their 
useful—action in the general economy of the world depends. 
Though some of them do us very considerable damage, as in the 
case of “dry rot,” which destroys our timber, and in the various 
blights which make a prey of our crops, yet there are others whose 
activity is beneficial, either as in the case of the yeast plant by 
altering and preparing for us useful products, or in other instances 
by removing or changing putrid matter which might become a 
source of danger. 

But to return to our Lichens. All of them possess cells con- 
taining chlorophyll or some modification of it, but the manner in 
which the green cells are arranged among the clear or non- 
chlorophyllous cells is not the same in all. In the larger number 
of Lichens the green cells occupy a definite position and appear 

2 


18 


stratified, as it were, between different layers of the remaining 
tissue ; in the rest no such stratification exists, but the green cells 
are distributed throughout the whole thallus, or in a few instances 
seem to form the greater part of it. 


In every case, whether stratified or unstratified, the coloured 
cells seem to lie loose and unattached among the other anatomical 
elements. This want of connexion at first gave rise to the opinion 
that they were asexual reproductive organs, analogous in some 
degree to the gemme and bulbils of higher plants, and accordingly 
the name gonidia was given to them. The supposed function of 
reproduction attributed to them seemed to early botanists to 
explain everything that was necessary respecting them, and for a 
long time no inquiry as to their mode of origin was entered upon. 

At length a French botanist, Tulasne, conducted a very skilful 
series of researches into the nature of various organs of Lichens 
and Fungi. In the course of his enquiry he sowed some Lichen 
spores, and watched their development over a space of many 
months. He saw that the spore put out filamentous cells which 
branched again and again. At certain points on these cells he 
discovered that others of a different order arose, and he watched 
their development till gradually a tissue was formed which produced 
in its interior chlorophyllous cells like those of mature plants. Not 
having his work at hand while I write, I am uncertain whether the 
plants lived to produce perfect thalli, but I believe they did not. 
However, he had seen enough to convince himself that the green 
cells—the gonidia—were produced from the other primitive tissue 
by a process of differentiation. 


Dr. Nylander, to whom I have already referred as the greatest 
living authority on Lichens, took up the question of the origin of 
these green cells with reference to their production in later stages 
of the life of the plant. His examination proved to him that they 
arose amongst the hyaline cells which lie just above the gonidial 
layer—I am referring to stratified thalli-or in that part of the 
plant where its vital activity is greatest, that at first they were in 
direct connexion with the tissue which produced them, and that it 


Ti i ie Os eal a i el ae ee 


19 


was not till the generating cells were resorbed that the gonidia lay 
loose among the other tissue. 

These researches by Tulasne and Nylander as to the origin of 
the gonidia were in neither case entered upon from any doubt as 
to the complete unity of the Lichen thallus, for at that time 
Lichens were taken by everyone without question to be what they 
seemed— simple autonomous plants, just as much as a daisy or an 
oak. It was not till rather more than twenty years ago that any 
doubt whatever was thrown on this belief, or that the teaching of 
Tulasne and Nylander was challenged. 

To understand the reason which led to the assertion of a dual 
nature in Lichens, we must refer to certain differences among the 
gonidia themselves. Not only do they occupy, as we have seen, 
different positions in the thallus, but there are other differences of 
moment between the gonidia of one plant and those of another. 
These differences are in respect to the character of their cell wall, 
the colour of their contents, and their mode of division and aggre- 
gation. Dr. Nylander has carefully studied them with regard to 
all these points, and classified the different forms that occur, 
giving to each distinctive names. I do not purpose to trouble you 
with these distinctions, as it would occupy too long. It is only 
necessary to remember that gonidia do differ to some considerable 
extent in different species of Lichens. 

Well, rather more than twenty years ago, Professor Schwendener, 
a German botanist, began to study the thallus of Lichens, and, in 
two out of three parts of the work in which he gave to the world 
the result of his investigations, he represented the gonidia as growing 
in natural and orderly course out of the other tissue, and described 
and figured the way in which he conceived them to arise from the 
other thalline cells. 

About this time Schwendener’s attention seems to have been 
drawn to the great resemblance some gonidia bore to organisms 
known as uni-cellular Algee or Protophytes, which lead an appar- 
ently free and independent life on moist rocks, earth, and the bark 
of trees. He then suddenly and completely changed his views, 
and asserted that he had never had any reason to believe that the 


20 


gonidia grew out of the rest of the thallus, but that such connexion 
as he had seen and described between these various parts of a 
Lichen, might be better explained as a parasitism of a fungus upon 
an alga. His new view he embodied in a small work that he 
published in 1869. The theory at once aroused great attention 
among botanists, and it was discussed from various standpoints. 
From that day to this the dispute has gone on, and, though 
lichenologists still oppose the theory as contrary to many certain 
facts, it has latterly obtained a large number of adherents, chiefly 
owing to its acceptance by Sachs, whose text-book on Botany is so 
generally used and admired; and perhaps it may be true to say 
that the advocates of the hypothesis are at the present time in the 
majority. 

But the theory now accepted is a modification of that originally 
proposed. As now explained, it is much more plausible than the 
crude view Schwendener enunciated at first. The assertion that 
the clear cells of a Lichen, or what he called the fungus, preyed 
upon and destroyed the green cells, was too contrary to every-day 
experience to be long persisted in. Some advocates of the theory 
present it now in another guise, and assert that each Lichen is 
made up of two plants differing in origin and nature, and belonging 
indeed to quite distinct classes, which lead together a mutually 
dependent life. The clear cells, they say, form the body of a 
fungus which is unable of itself to assimilate carbonic-oxide, and 
therefore lives on the waste products of the green cells or alge, 
which in turn benefit so greatly from the shelter afforded by the 
fungus, that it is doubtful whether they could in some instances 
live without it. 

To consider all the vos and cons of the argument, which already 
has given rise to a considerable literature of its own, is quite 
impossible now. I shall only say that I do not yet see my way to 
accept it even so far as to admit that there are two plants in each 
Lichen ; while all the facts that I have been able to glean respecting 
the morphology of Fungi are quite inconsistent with what I know 
to be the case in Lichens. Even if it could be proved that the 
green cells are no part of the Lichen—that is, of the plant whose 


21 


reproductive organs are so well known—it seems to me that 
Lichens would still remain distinct and apart as a class by them- 
selves. The only change would be that Lichens must be considered 
less perfect plants than they had previously been thought to be by 
lichenologists, and it might entail some alteration in the classifica- 
tion of certain genera. But, except in a few imperfect species, the 
mode in which the gonidia first make their appearance in the 
thallus is totally opposed to the view that they are extraneous 
bodies, and I hold, with Dr. Nylander, that it is more likely to be 
true that the so-called algze are imperfect states of Lichens, than 
that a Lichen should consist of two distinct plants. 

But interesting as is this subject, I must leave it, as it is necessary 
to say a few words on those organs which produce the young 
germs of new individuals, and so preserve the species from gener- 
ation to generation. 

Every individual plant, from the time of its maturity to its decay, 
not only spends its energies on obtaining food for its own nourish- 
ment, but makes preparation for the continuance of its species 
after its own death, and each is fitted with organs necessary for 
this distinct function. In flowering plants two organs have been 
long known whose co-operation is necessary for the production of 
perfect seed, but it is only recently that the corresponding parts 
have been discovered in those tribes which do not bear flowers. 
Even now there are many plants in which after the most careful 
search they have not been discovered, but, as time goes on, the 
number of these constantly diminishes, and doubtless it will ulti- 
mately be found, that those which prove to be quite destitute of 
them are nothing more than imperfect states of other perfect 
plants. 

In Lichens the two organs of reproduction seem to be certainly 
identified, though the precise manner of their action still requires 
further investigation. 

Of the two, one has been long known, being often the most 
conspicuous part of the plant it belongs to. This is the apothecium, 
whose varied external shape among crustaceous Lichens I have 
already briefly sketched, 


22 


The other has not long been identified. Owing to its extreme 
minuteness, and the depth to which it is sunk in the thallus, it for 
the most part escaped notice, while in the few cases in which it 
was obvious enough to attract attention, its nature was misappre- 
hended. ‘Tulasne was the first to find it in many plants, to suggest 
its importance, and to give it aname. The sfermogonium, as this 
organ is called, is a tiny sac either sunk in the thallus to its very 
summit, or nearly so. Its boundary wall is formed of a very fine 
tissue of interlacing filaments, and on its inner face project a 
multitude of very minute elongated cells either simple or jointed. 
From the ends of each cell, or from each joint, a still more minute 
cell buds out, which, when mature, separates from its parent and 
falls into the internal cavity, where it mingles with the myriads of 
other similar cells produced in the same way. 

These tiny cells, or ssermazia, are so minute that it would take 
a thousand of the longest placed end to end to reach an inch, 
while it would need eight times as many of the smallest ; and as to 
their breadth, many of them are only the fifty-thousandth part of 
an inch across. 

But we must say a few words about the apothecium, in whose 
interior are produced the spores, which, when mature, are capable 
of reproducing new individuals. In order to examine it under the 
microscope, it is necessary to cut a very thin slice vertically. From 
such a slice the structure of the whole and the relation of its parts 
may be clearly made out. 

The base and sides are made up of a tissue which, varying much 
in different species and genera, is evidently of the same origin and 
function in all. From the upper part of the basal tissue a large 
number of filaments grow out parallel to each other and fill the 
whole space within the border, their upper ends forming the disc 
of the apothecium as viewed from above. Lying between the 
filaments just mentioned are a number of larger cells, also springing 
out of the basal tissue, and in these, which are called asc, the 
spores are produced. 

Although all apothecia are composed of the same simple 
elements, there are such numerous differences of detail, that in no 


23 


two species are they exactly alike, every separate part of their 
structure being subject to a large number of modifications, either 
of size, or colour, or else of arrangement. 

The border in some genera encloses nearly the whole of the 
internal organs, covering them over at the top, and leaving only a 
tiny pore by which the spores may escape into the external world. 
In others it is reduced to the smallest dimensions, and is thrown 
back out of sight by the growth of the internal parts. In the same 
way the basal tissue varies, now being thick and dense, now loose 
and thin. The filaments, the asci, the spores, in fine, every part, 
is subject to almost innumerable variations. 

But, of all the parts, none exceed the spores for variety of 
form and beauty of organization, Varying in size from the ten- 
thousandth to the eightieth part of an inch, in shape from a simple 
sphere to a long slender worm-like body, in colour from the utmost 
transparency to an almost inky black, and being, moreover, either 
_ simple or variously divided by internal partitions, they are objects 
of the most surprising beauty and delicacy. 

The first beginnings of the apothecium have been observed in 
very few Lichens, and only in very few instances has the part 
played by the spermatia been observed, and it is quite uncertain 
whether the apothecia of different families and tribes all arise in 
the same way. Stahl is the only one who has published details of 
its early development, and that only for species of Codlema. From 
his observations it would seem that the course of development is 
very like that which occurs in certain seaweeds, and quite different 
from what fungologists say takes place among the Fungi. I can 
confirm this so far, that after dissecting many apothecia in their 
very early stages I have never been able to see anything resembling 
the organs described for such plants as Ascobolus, Peziza, and 
others. 

I must now bring my necessarily brief account of these plants to 
anend. I should lke to speak more fully on several points than I 
have been able to do, especially on the internal structure of the 
apothecia and thallus, but limits imposed upon me by circumstances 
forbid. I can only add that I shall be extremely gratified if I have 


24 


given any one of my hearers a little pleasnre, and if I shall have 
shown that even in the humble plants most of us pass by without 
a glance or without a thought, there is a variety and a beauty of 
structure worthy of the Divine hand that made all things. 

How mysterious it is that in things so small, with so little 
external grace, there should yet be in their most secret parts— 
where, from the beginning of creation till these latter days, the eye 
of man has never pried—so much that is exquisite in design, so 
lavish a profusion of detail, and such fitness and perfection in the 
whole. 


SIMON SENHOUSE, PRIOR OF CARLISLE. 
By Rev. J. I. CUMMINS, O.S.B. 
(Read at Maryport. ) 


Tuose who are acquainted with Carlisle Cathedral may recollect 
a large ancient tomb which stands very prominently in the north 
transept. It is an altar-tomb, covered with a plain, black marble 
slab. The inscription, which had long been defaced, was restored 
a few years ago by the present representative of his family, and 
now declares the tomb to be that of Simon Senhouse, Prior of 
Carlisle. There is always something pathetic about the last of an 
ancient line; and the last of the old Priors who for four hundred 
years ruled in unbroken succession the Cathedral Monastery of 
Carlisle has not a little of this pathetic interest gathering round 
his name. The fate of the monks of England was tragic enough 
to stir a chord of sympathy even after three centuries have passed 
away. But Prior Senhouse’s name excites our interest for other 
reasons. He is not quite a stranger to us. The scene of his life 
is laid in “‘ merrie Carlisle,” the capital of our county. In person 
he was the scion of an old Cumbrian family long and honourably 
connected with Maryport. And he lived in the early part of that 
wonderful 16th century, which saw so many changes, and which is 
still so full of interest to us as the great debateable ground of 
English history. 

The city of Carlisle, though built on the site of a Roman station, 
a British town, and a Saxon settlement, really owes its foundation 

3 


to William Rufus, and has the distinction of being about the only 
good deed of one of the worst kings that ever sat upon the English 
throne. Its important position as a border fortress and the capital 
of a newly-conquered district led to its rapid development. During 
the next reign a noble church was built here by the priest Ethel- 
wald and dedicated in honour of the Blessed Virgin Mary. When 
finished the munificent founder offered it to the Augustinian canons, 
then recently introduced into England, built them a monastery, 
and became their first prior. Seeing the importance of the city, 
and that there was no bishop nearer than Durham and York, 
Henry I. erected it into a bishopric. This was in 1133; the 
Episcopal chair was fixed in the church of the Augustinians, and 
their prior, Ethelwald, became the first bishop. These details are 
necessary to explain the unique position which Carlisle held 
amongst the English bishoprics. It was the only cathedral of 
Austin canons in England. ‘The older English cathedrals were 
divided into two classes, the Monastic and the Secular, according 
as they were served by the regular order of monks or by secular 
canons. The distinction disappeared in the changes under 
Henry VIIL., though traces of it still survive in the very different 
constitution of the Chapters of the new and the old foundation. 
Previous to the 12th century the regular cathedrals, the minsters, 
were exclusively in the hands of the Black Monks or Benedictines. 
They had retained many of the bishoprics founded by the early 
apostles of England (who were members of their order) such as 
Winchester, Rochester, Durham, and the Primatial See of Canter- 
bury. The rest of the cathedrals were served by secular canons. 
When Henry IL, therefore, founded his new see at Carlisle and 
gave it to the canons of St. Augustine, it was an innovation but a 
natural one. They were a new order in England, and at that time 
very popular. King Henry had recently endowed convents for 
them in other towns. The monastery and church at Carlisle were 
already in existence, and when the new Cumbrian bishopric was 
fixed in the revived city, and the existing church was chosen as 
the cathedral, it was only right that the honours of the Chapter 
should be conferred on the community to whom the church 


27 


belonged. But the example was never imitated, and Carlisle 
remained to the end the solitary instance of a Cathedral Priory 
which was regular but not Benedictine. These monastic cathedrals 
had certain characteristics which marked them off from their 
fellows. Besides fulfilling the usual duties of Divine service in the 
church, their canons lived together in community, observing a 
special rule of life and governed by their own superior. The 
head of the Chapter was not styled Dean as in the secular 
cathedrals, but Prior, or Cathedral Prior, to distinguish him from 
other priors who were only collegiate. All the members of the 
community were canons. They had the right to elect their own 
prior, and originally the bishop also. In course of time the 
freedom of election in case of the bishop was much curtailed, but 
the choice of the prior remained free and was one of the most 
valued rights of the monastery. Carlisle convent had been liber- 
ally endowed by Bishop Ethelwald and King Henry ; and in spite 
of many losses and the ravages of incessant war it acquired 
considerable property in the course of four centuries. Many 
livings were in its gift, such as Stanwix, Hayton, Thursby, Seberg- 
ham, Dalston, etc. The Austin canons, differing in this respect 
from other religious Orders, used to appoint their own members 
to these parishes; the work of the parent convent being thus 
diversified by parochial duties in the country where the village 
churches, dependent upon the cathedral, were often served by 
small communities of two or three canons. 

The position of Carlisle on the English Border gives it great 
prominence in the annals of the period, a prominence which the 
priory shares with the castle. For instance, during the troubled 
reign of Stephen the city was occupied by the Scots. Thither 
King David fled after the battle of the Standard. There, too, in 
the cathedral he knighted Henry Fitz-Empress, in 1149; and it 
was in the castle that he himself, ‘‘the sair saint for the crown,” 
died in 1153. So disturbed was the country at this time that the 
bishopric was vacant for nearly sixty years, its possessions were 
alienated, and for a time the canons were driven away from their 
convent. A century or so later the cathedral saw some stirring 


28 


scenes. More than one Parliament met here, the sessions being 
perhaps held in the convent as they were at Westminster in the 
chapter-house of the abbey. In 1305, standing before the High 
Altar, the bishop (Halton) solemnly excommunicated Robert 
Bruce for the murder of his rival, Earl Cummin, in the church at 
Dumfries. The next year King Edward was at Carlisle, and 
again in his presence the Papal Legate, Cardinal D’Espagna, 
“accursed in terrible wise Robert Bruce, the usurper of the crown 
of Scotland.” In 1307 the aged King, dying but still dauntless, 
offered up in the cathedral the litter in which his failing limbs had 
been borne; and then—resolute old hero as he was—mounted 
his war horse at the Priory gates for his last march to Scotland. 
And here, a few days later, the dead body of England’s greatest 
warrior and wisest king was borne sadly back on its way to his last 
resting place at Westminster. It was only when his feeble son 
renounced the wise policy of his father that Cumberland felt the 
full brunt of the calamities in which the successful rebellion of 
Bruce had involved both countries. The weary border warfare 
that ensued dragged on for centuries. As they looked out from 
their walls over ravaged fields and burning homesteads, the burghers 
of Carlisle learnt what was meant—in the 14th century at least— 
by “Home Rule for Scotland!” Rapine and bloodshed, siege 
and foray varied with their changing fortunes the monotony of life 
in the “merrie citie!” Bands of mosstroopers, headed by a 
Musgrave or a Douglas, rode through the valleys ; and not unfre- 
quently on some fine day, when “the sun shone fair on Carlisle 
wa’,” a sheaf of them would hang dangling by the neck over the 
Scots gate!” Sometimes even the sturdy monks of the priory had 
to lenda hand for the defence of the city. Their convent was close 
up against the west walls, and at least on one occasion, in 1315, the 
canons amply justified their name by successfully defending the 
cathedral against the Scots; though three years afterwards they could 
not save it from the ravages of fire. So the story of the Priory 
passes on, uneventful, save when marauding Scots appeared 
beneath its walls, or a Lord Warden gathered troops there for a 
foray over the Border; one Prior and Bishop passing away after 


x 
d 


me ae Ne Ds als 


Ee Ne i ed) Sata ed ie Be 


29 


another, until we come, about the middle of the 15th century, to 
the days when it received into its ranks the humble hero of our 
story, the youthful Simon Senhouse. 

I am afraid we can’t claim Prior Senhouse as strictly a native of 
Maryport, for he was not born at Netherhall, or Alneburgh, as it 
was then called. We might like to imagine him climbing as a 
boy over the hill on which the town now stands, or playing about 
the old manor house down by the Ellen, the peel-tower of which 
still remains. But unfortunately for the accuracy of this pretty 
picture, the Senhouses did not come to Netherhall until some time 
after his death. Our hero sprang from the family whilst it was 
still in its old home at Seascale ; and there he was born somewhere 
about the middle of the 15th century. The genealogy tells us that 
he was the son of Thomas de Sevenhouse, or Senhouse, of Sea- 
scale Hall, in the parish of Gosforth, by his wife, a daughter of 
Sir Richard Huddlestone, Knight-Banneret, of Millum Castle. It 
was his nephew, John Senhouse, who, in 1528, married Elizabeth, 
heiress of the Eaglesfields of Alneburgh, and thus brought Nether- 
hall into the possession of his family. Nor must you expect very 
full details of his youth, or indeed of any part of his uneventful 
life. He would probably be sent as a boy to be brought up in the 
cloister-school of the cathedral city. The school is historical ; 
many traces of its existence meet us in the old records; and it is 
the lineal predecessor of the present Grammar School. It was 
taught by the canons, one of whom enjoyed the title of “‘Scholarcha,” 
or Rector Scholarum, the office being endowed with portions of 
the livings at Stanwix and Dalston. Here we can fancy young 
Senhouse attracted by the blameless lives of his masters and the 
beauty of the services of the Church, and these early impressions 
may have determined the course of his life. Perhaps he was of 
gentle, studious disposition, with little zest for the more active 
professions. His youth coincided with the Wars of the Roses, 
when England was rent asunder by civil strife, and none but the 
most combative could have found pleasure in public life. From 
the school he would pass to the novitiate, where he would be 
exercised in new duties, proved in patience, obedience and the 


30 


unselfishness needed for conventual life, until his vocation tested 
by a year’s probation, he would then be admitted to profession 
and received into the ranks of the community. This would be 
under the priorship of Thomas Haithwaite. Likely enough he 
would then be sent to complete his studies at one of the Universi- 
ties. The regular orders had the custom of sending their more 
promising youths to study there, the Austin canons having a 
famous house at Oxford, St. Frideswide’s, afterwards the cathedral 
of that city. I have not found any record that Senhouse did 
actually study at Oxford, but the practice is certain; and we may 
well suppose that one who afterwards became prior of his house 
was in his younger years amongst its more promising members. 
Returning home, his days would pass by in the peaceful round of 
conventual duties, engaged in teaching and private study, in 
priestly work among the people, and above all, in the punctual 
performance of the daily service, the stately ritual of the cathedral 
church. So passed quietly by the uneventful life of our hero, until 
the day when on the death of Prior Gondebour, in 1507, the votes 
of his brethren called him to the highest position within their gift, 
and he was duly installed Cathedral Prior of Carlisle. 

Carlisle Cathedral was not then the fragment, beautiful but 
mutilated, which we know it now. The church is only about half 
the size that it was in Prior Senhouse’s time. The Norman nave 
was standing then as Ethelwald had built it four hundred years 
before—a miniature Durham, with its simple, massive piers, its 
plain rounded arches, and its barbaric dog-tooth decoration. Our 
old enemies the Scots destroyed this as well as many of the 
conventual buildings in the 17th century; and only two bays are 
now left to suggest to antiquarian eyes its former grandeur. But 
of the monastery which Senhouse governed considerable portions 
remain, nearly all of which are in some way connected with him. 
The later Priors of Carlisle were not idle rulers. They had all 
the Churchman’s fondness for architecture ; and their works show 
them to have been liberal patrons of all the arts. It has been 
remarked that ‘the half-century preceding the destruction of the 
monasteries witnessed a great revival of architectural activity.” 


31 


Painting, sculpture, and the allied arts flourished as well; there 
were schools for music and singing, besides the free school in the 
cathedrals; and at this very time, in Senhouse’s youth, the first 
printing press ever seen in England was being set up in the Abbey 
of Westminster. Now, tastes of this kind, great works nobly con- 
ceived and well achieved are not bad tokens of the discipline of a 
house ; they are hardly compatible with great disorders; they are 
signs of good administration at least, of wealth worthily employed. 
Senhouse and his brethren deserve whatever credit may be inferred 
from the fact that during this time extensive buildings, with all 
that these imply, were going on in Carlisle. Not long before, for 
instance, that beautiful chancel which is still the glory of the city 
had been completed ; and each prior in turn took pride in adding 
to its beauty. To Senhouse himself are attributed the curious 
paintings on the screens behind the stalls, representing scenes 
from the Legends of St. Augustine and St. Anthony. Prior 
Gondebour, under whom Senhouse passed much of his religious 
life, built the Fratry or Refectory, which is still standing—a mag- 
nificent hall, eighty feet by thirty, in the late perpendicular style. 
He, too, may have begun the Tower of the Prior’s Lodge, now the 
Deanery ; but it was Senhouse who completed or added to it, and 
he certainly decorated it. The quaintly painted oak rafters of the 
principal room are his’ work, and bear his name and device. The 
gatehouse leading to the Cathedral close dates from nearly the 
same time, the inscription round its archway recording that it was 
built by Christopher Slee, his immediate successor. One other 
personal trait of Prior Senhouse has been recorded, suggestive of 
his religious feeling. He used as his device or motto, the well- 
known distich :—“ Vudnera quingue Dei sint medicina mei” —an old 
Latin pentameter, which may be thus freely paraphrased :— 


May the five wounds of my God 
Be the healing of my soul. 


Veneration for the Wounds of our Lord was widely spread in 
those days in the North of England—a soldier’s devotion perhaps, 
well suited to men who lived near the Scots border. More than 
a century before the Banner of the Five Wounds had rallied to 


32 


unexpected victory our knights and bowmen at Neville’s Cross ; 
and a few years later when the Northern Counties rose in the 
Pilgrimage of Grace to protest against the suppression of the 
monasteries, the same banner waved over their ranks, It is an 
interesting coincidence that the last popular rising in defence of 
the monks should have been made under the sacred emblem which 
Senhouse used as his device. 

Simon Senhouse died in 1520, the last of the Priors of Carlisle 
—the last at least who died Prior and was buried as such in his 
cathedral. Happily for himself he did not live to see the storm 
which was soon to break over his monastic home and to sweep 
away the order to which he belonged. I may but distantly allude 
to this subject. This is neither the time nor the place to discuss 
the suppression of the monasteries under Henry VIII. But I 
may be pardoned for saying that by the most competent modern 
authorities another judgment than the old one is now being passed 
upon the monks, and one much more favourable to them. For 
the first time the original records of those days of terror are being 
thrown open to the public. Men are beginning to realise that the 
old accusations against the monasteries rest upon nothing better 
than the word of enemies and plunderers ; and as Edmund Burke 
has said of a similar subject, “It is not with much credulity that I 
listen to any when they speak ill of those whom they are going to 
plunder. I rather suspect that vices are feigned and exaggerated 
when profit is looked for in the punishment. An enemy is a bad 
witness ; a robber is a worse.” Few then will regret if they see at 
length lifted the cloud of calumny which has hung so long over 
these old monks ; few but will be glad to learn that Senhouse and 
his brethren were not the idle, dissolute men that they have been 
represented ; and that the’ life led by them in Carlisle Priory, as 
elsewhere, was an earnest, religious life—one spent in the worship 
of God and in faithful service of their neighbours. But whatever 
the varying verdict that may be passed upon it by the changing 
ages, the Order of which Prior Senhouse was a representative 
passed away. A few broken arches are all that is left of the 
cloisters which he often paced. But the halls which he built or 


33 


beautified still shelter the Dean who stands in his stead. The 
refectory in which he presided still speaks of the stately splendour 
of his old home. The church in which he worshipped still exists 
in most of its former beauty. And—most pathetic relic of all— 
there may still be seen in his cathedral the plain marble tomb, 
long voiceless, speaking now once more, beneath which all that is 
mortal of him rests! A curious custom grew up in later days in 
regard to this tomb, and was continued for centuries. It was 
used as the table whereon the tenants of the cathedral came each 
year to lay their tithes and rents. A strange usage !—and if it is 
not fanciful so to regard it, an act of unconscious homage from the 
tenants to the last representative of those old monks who had 
been their lords so long! 


: ayes eran ne ie Sie ality) was eet thea rs) itd ar 
i : mule atc ‘ atti; uf nls yy eae K. A hee Be 
hehe ley bend Lyme hd rl edavurh stated ‘9 coan'gect fee 
oiplape tay, cen saa emnets eae chile ae TAS pasa 
ictal sic wale? a! A ie) Pe) Be a By 24 om ss ea 
Raed: ite eter veered pus cut gniieneqen — 
ae 2 trad | A ate lufewsics. “iN A te weit iy 
P 


he Gite At muivieie:n we joke ape Aha ‘cae cute 


i sem. ce ayia tt halon 29 gil rata Laks Po bae vi 
ss ypmad betes’ vekgh | sie 


pa Fee Vs ere ego 
bbs mink Stents Sandiewot Bs hop aii yi Caretta 
' web! '‘ salici Ieee z rae sey PS . ‘Shiite 


ferl ddiwenn 


“3 % 
é he 
A, fe ? 
oer 
\ i - Mary SS, 
a aT 
f 
oh i =. 
: . 
~ t a \ 
r- = f 
° J 
_ . c 
i - “ 
~~ 4 e 
7 a 
a a 
nae 
a 
; = i 
, i ‘ as 
“e : Fy 
¥ ‘ 
‘ a. \ 
hd 
he hn 
* ; 
2 4 
ae 
ve ihe 
f sey’ 
” _ ‘. 
“4 
A rs 
= fe 4 
ets ; ' 
“ + 
re 
i 
P 7 
Wire ty 
. inl». 
M4 py i- a .4°° 
+ 4 
ONS ae ‘ Z : 
= ory " 
» - . 
t > ae & 


35 


OLD ROADS AND PATHS. 
By F. HARRISON. 
(Read at Carlisle.) 


Tue study of this subject has the advantage of being within the 
reach of all. They are objects that must be familiar to most of 
you. No one can take a walk abroad without getting on to some 


road or pathway. If you are making for the open country, possibly 


k 
, 


some lovely rural lane will invite you on and on by the attractions 
of its rural splendours. Some ancient highway may carry you cver 
the country upon a longer and more important journey, or you may 
wander in the solitude of some lonely footpath. But any or all of 
these abound with interest, and will not fail to supply matter for 


_ Teflection to the thoughtful mind. 


When we consider the origin of some of our ancient roads and 
paths, we are carried at once to the earliest races of men that 


_ wandered over the hills and through the valleys of this fair land of 


ours—glorious old England. But if in our walk we should begin 
to note all the objects of interest that may be seen from almost any 
of our old roads and paths, we see opening out subjects for a course 
of lectures, rather than for a short paper of a few minutes’ duration. 

“All roads lead to Rome” was undoubtedly true when the 


_ Imperial sceptre of the Czesar’s ruled the whole known world; when 
Rome was the centre of civilization and the seat of government of 


the greater portion of the civilized world. And here in our district 
we have the impress of Rome, “ Proud mistress of the world,” in 
many of the old roads and paths of this district even to-day. 


36 


I purpose to take you for a few minutes on to some of the old 
roads and paths of our own district. It matters little where we 
begin, we find the earliest origin, if not of our roads, of our ancient 
paths, some of which in remote districts have been trodden by 
human feet without interruption for thousands of years. There isa 
right of way over Crossfell top, which has never been questioned ; 
and we have evidence that men have passed that way for two 
thousand years. Until the Roman occupation we had few, if any, 
roads in these islands. The wandering tribes of the earliest races 
were perfectly satisfied to find a track or path through the forest, 
which was all they needed in the way of communication. Watling 
Street, it is said, existed from the earliest times as a highway, but 
this is open to question, as it was probably only a well-beaten track. 

Few, if any, examples of pre-Roman roads can be pointed out 
in this country, although “tracks” exist which have been used from 
the very earliest times, dating in fact from the pre-historical period. 

But as soon as the Roman legions landed on our shores, road 
making began in earnest. They had chariots and wheeled carriages, 
and baggage to convey and take with them, and there being no 
roads, they of course had to make them, which they did. We can 
trace their movements over these islands to-day by the wonderful 
roads which they constructed, many of them serving the purposes 
to-day for which they were first constructed. Notwithstanding 
nearly two thousand years having passed away, they are still 
wonderful examples of engineering skill and human enterprise. 

The Romans gave great attention and prodigious labour and 
expense to the making of military roads. They were too skilful 
generals to advance far into an unknown region without having a 
certain way of retreat if it should be required. It is recorded that 
the Emperor Severus lost fifty thousand men in the construction 
of the great North Road which enters Cumberland at Brougham 
Castle. The great highway was made regardless of the cost either 
of material, wealth, or human life, the natives being pressed into 
the work as well as his own well trained legions. 

Possibly the oldest road in England is the Watling Street, which 
runs all the way from the wall in Northumberland, through Durham 


— 


37 


and Yorkshire, right away to Dover. From the great road from 
York, over Stainmore, leading to Carlisle by way of Penrith, there 
is a branch from Brougham to Kirkbythore, which striking from 
Kirkbythore, almost due north, goes nearly over Crossfell top. 
Still continuing its northerly direction, and dropping down towards 
the Tyne valley near to Whitley Castle on the border of North- 
umberland, it continues its course on to the wall which it strikes at 
Carvoran, or Green Head, from which it still goes on right to 
Bewcastle and thence into Scotland. You can trace this road for 
miles over the great wastes over which it passes still—in dry seasons 
in particular. Owing to the soil having been disturbed, the herbage 
is quite of another kind, short and grassy as compared with the 
heather by which it is bounded. For miles on the east side of 
Crossfell you may follow through what is now one vast solitude, 


although no one can do so without thinking of the wonderful 


people who once ruled there, and made those ancient solitudes 


_ echo and re-echo to the prancing of the war horse ; and that upon 


those craggy heights fluttered the banner of Imperial Rome. The 
market town of Alston, as many of you will know, is planted on a 
steep bank of the Tyne. The main street is remarkably steep; I 
do not know what the gradient may be, but few market towns have 
so steep a main thoroughfare. This Alston street has always 


been a severe strain upon horses with heavy loads. 


Now there has very lately been laid down in this main street of 
Alston a paved causeway in the centre of the street, to relieve 
heavily-laden horses—an exact fac simile of the old Roman system 
for getting heavy weights up steep gradients, and this was the great 
principle laid down in the construction of the Maiden Way over 
Crossfell nearly two thousand years ago. These roads varied in 


width from four to fourteen yards, crossing the rivers and streams 


mostly by fords. The Romans did not build bridges, except 
where positively needed. I do not think any remains of a bridge 
have yet been found on this mountain range. The road generally 
consisted of a regular pavement, formed by boulders or rock laid 


; in gravel, and joined together. 


The Maiden Way over Crossfell, which I have already dwelt upon, 


38 


possibly might not have been made until a later period than the 
great road over Stainmore, which would, no doubt, be the most 
important, coming as it did right down the great plain of Cumber- 
land upon Wragmire Moss—a splendid specimen of engineering 
skill, and which may still be seen. The road was carried over the 
mire upon a frame-work of solid oak, which sank with the weight 
of the material placed upon it. This has served its purpose for 
long ages, and is still serving it to-day. 

It is a singular fact, that after the construction of the Maiden 
Way by the Romans, no further attempt at road making over the 
Crossfell range of mountains was attempted for about one thousand 
six hundred years. There wasa track over Hartside for pack-horses 
and foot passengers, but nothing in the shape of a road until early 
in this century, when Macadam carried over his splendid road from 
Alston to Melmerby—undoubtedly the greatest undertaking over the 
Pennine range since the Maiden Way was constructed. Macadam 
has placed his stamp upon the country almost as strongly as the 
engineers of ancient Rome themselves. 

The pack-horses seem to have passed in a regular gang from 
Penrith to Alston twice a week, by a road over Penrith Fell to the 
old bridge over the Eden, between the two Salkelds. Langwathby 
bridge was not built until 1682. 

The old drove roads, most of which were mere tracks, abound 
with interest. The rights to drive to certain old established fairs 
are very curious, and the origin of them is entirely lost. This can 
only be accounted for on the ground that before the enclosure of 
these lands a right was exercised that even the Enclosure Acts did 
not interfere with. 

These old drove roads are altogether very peculiar, but the 
decline of the great fairs, and railway communication, has caused 
many of them to be entirely lost. Nothing has interfered more 
with our old roads and paths than the railway system throughout 
the country. Some have been diverted, whilst many a lovely path 
has been entirely lost even in this immediate vicinity. For 
example, the beautiful path to the Spa Well, notwithstanding the 
efforts of the Footpaths Association, is in danger of being lost, the 


oe 


uy +, eee % 


—— 


39 


Caledonian Railway Company having made no provision whatever 
for the public. Under the circumstances it has been robbed of its 
rural character, by the fact that you have to pick your way over a 
dozen lines of rails, and at the same time keep a sharp lookout for 
engines and stray railway waggons. Let us in imagination take a 
walk outside the city of Carlisle, on a pleasant evening in medieval 
times. We pass through the gate at the Citadel, and get on to one 
of our old roads, old even then. One is now known as the Collier 
Lane, the oldest highway into the city of Carlisle that I know of. 
We pass on, leaving the Water Gate Lonning on our right, and so 
on over what is now Lancaster Street, past the Hospital for Lepers, 
which is still known as Old St. Nicholas, and near what is now 
known as Regent Street, to a point at Millholme Bank, formerly 
an inn, where even to-day you can find the old road, with little 
change from medieval times, coming out at what is now the low 
end of the village of Upperby. 

In other words, you have the old road which was there before 
the time of the Romans, from Millholme Bank to Upperby, 
and it has undergone little if any change. From about Regent 
Street to Millholme Bank it has been diverted and lost, other roads 
being substituted. But up the Collier Lane it is again original, over 
the same land, so far as I can make out. I venture to say, without 
much fear of contradiction, that the Collier Lane has been a road 
for two thousand years. Aye, when Botchergate was green fields, 
and the populous district in the rear of the station was only 
disturbed by the citizens taking their “dander” along the Water 
Gate Lonning. 

To the north of the city you would pass out over the old bridges, 
past the end of the houses called Eden Terrace, coming out nearly 
opposite Stanwix Church. Upon the banks you can distinctly see 
the track of the old road to the north. This track, and that down 
the river at Etterby Wath, were the only roads leading north until 
comparatively modern times, when the new bridge was built, and 
the great road to Scotland opened out. I have no time to say 
anything about them ; they would form an excellent subject for a 


40 


paper themselves, with all the halo of the old coaching days, and 
all the romance of the road from Carlisle to Gretna Green. 

I will just mention the road leading to the west, and then I have 
done with the roads leading out of Carlisle. Passing out at the Irish 
Gate, the great highway ran along Caldcotes, and certain historical 
facts go to show this to be an old road. We know that King 
Edward I. passed along Caldcotes with his army in 1307, on his ill- 
fated expedition against Scotland; and that his body would becarried 
through Caldcotes again from Burgh-on-Sands there can be little 
doubt. From the fact that about this time the king’s magazines for 
supplying the armies engaged against the Scots were situate at 
Skinburness, there would be a deal of traffic along Caldcotes, and 
not only that, but it would be the road from Carlisle to the great 
Abbey of Holme Cultram, which would be in its palmy days about 
this period (1307), and for a long time after. Several of the kings 
of England have visited the Abbey, and knelt before the high altar, 
so that, without doubt, many a splendid pageant has passed along 
Caldcotes in its time. 

I am reminded that the title of my paper is ‘Old Roads and 
Footpaths,” so I must endeavour to say a few words upon footpaths, 
with which our own district is rich in the extreme ; possibly no city 
in the kingdom is surrounded by finer, or has more of them. 
Almost in every direction you can, if you will, leave the highway, 
and wander along some ancient pathway, “far from the madding 
crowd,” and through scenery of the lovliest kind, along the rivers 
and streams of the great plain of Cumberland. We have seen that 
some of our old roads date from pre-historic times. The paths are 
more ancient still. Men wandered upon these tracks before the 
time of roads at all, and in particular those by our river sides. 

Primeeval man, when he wandered through our valleys, would no 
doubt have good reason to keep by the river sides for the supply 
of his natural wants; and it is a remarkable fact that by nearly all 
our river banks the public have a right of way, constantly used for 
the most part by the people. Where there is not such aright, you 
may be sure that it has been interfered with at some time by some 


_~.. =< 


£7 


‘ae 


eee ee | 


41 


selfish mortal who wanted to monopolise to his own enjoyment 
what was the birthright of his countrymen of every class and degree. 
Whilst advocating the free exercise of public rights at all times, I 
believe trespass should ever be denounced. Property in land has 
its rights, and also its responsibilities. These should ever be 
observed by all interested, and much would thus be done to 
preserve and conserve to the people their ancient rights of way, 
which have come down to us a priceless boon from the earliest 
times. 


LIST OF FOOTPATHS. 


BOTCHERGATE, BOTCHERBY, AND WETHERAL DISTRICT. 


1.—Around Sauceries, and along side of River Eden. 
2.—Across Sauceries by the Weavers’ Bank. 
3.—From Eden Bridge, around Swifts, by Eden Side. 
4.—From Swifts Row, across Swifts from Turf Hotel. 
5.—From Eden Bridge, across Sands to Swifts at Turf Hotel. 
6.—From Botcherby Lane End, along Eden Side to Pow Maughan Beck, 
thence to Warwick Road near Waterloo Inn. 
7-—From River Eden, along Old Eden by California Cottage to Warwick 
Road. 
8.—From Eden Bridge, across Sands to Swifts at Watering Place. 
9g.—From Eden Bridge, along River side to Swifts. 
10.—Skirting Stoney Holme, and continuing by Eden side to Botcherby Lane 
End. 
11.—Across Stoney Holme, joining No. to. 
12,—From the Waterworks, Sy Petteril side, and over Bridge to Petteril Bridge 
and Warwick Road. 
13.—From Petteril Bridge to Botcherby Mill. 
14.—From Broad Street to Botcherby Mill. 
15.—From Warwick Road through Durran Hill Park. 
16.—From Botcherby Village to bottom of hill near Durran Hill House. 
17.—From Harraby Toll Bar to lane near Petteril Bank. 
18.—From Hill Top, London Road, along Petteril side to Carleton. 
19.—From Carleton to Newbiggin Bridge and to Wreay, along the Petteril. 
20.—From Upperby to Blackwell. 
4 


42 


21.—From Carlisle to Durdar by the east side of Caldew, under Railway Arch 
and behind wood at Rifle Range. 

22,—From Rifle Range foot Bridge east side of Caldew, past Farm House to 
Durdar and Dalston. 

23.—From Carleton to Brisco. 

24.—From lane nearly opposite Scotby Station, Midland Railway, to lane near 
Garlands. 

25.—From lane at extreme south end of Scotby, by way of Scotby Shields 
to Wetheral Pasture. 

26.—From Scotby, under North Eastern Railway, across Warwick Moor to 
Moorhouse. 

27.—From Inn at Warwick to Holme House. 


CALDEWGATE DISTRICT. 


1.—From Moorhouse Road, below Cornhill, through lands belonging to Mr. 
James Sibson and Mrs. Mark, to Prior Rigg. 

2.—Along the Banks of the Eden va the Bone Mill to Grinsdale. 

3.—From Dalston Road by way of Newlaithes Hall to the Wigton Road. 

4.—From Newtown to Raffles. 

5.—From Newtown to behind Bellevue. 

6.—From Cummersdale to Blackwell. 

7.—From Holme Head to Cummersdale and Dalston on both sides of the 
River Caldew. 

8.—From Holme Head Bridge to Blackwell Road. 

9.—From Grinsdale to Kirkandrews and Beaumont. 

10.—From King Rigg on the Wigton Road to Newby. 

11.—From Little Orton to Prior Wood. 

12. —From Cummersdale to Halfway Houses on Dalston Road. 


STANWIX DISTRICT. 


1.—From Eden Bridge, along Cricket Field, past and above the Baths, to 
Etterby Scaur. 

2.—The Old Footpath from St. Ann’s Hill to Spa Well. (The Caledonian 
Railway Company have placed engine sheds and lines across this 
footpath. ) 

3.—From Edentown to Belah Gardens. (This was blocked some years ago 
by the late Mr. John Wright.) 

4.—From the North British Crossing, Stainton, to Spa Well. 

5.—Aiong the River side from Etterby Wath to Cargo, and then on to 
Rockliffe. 

6.—Across Kingmoor, past Park House, to Kingstown Old Toll Bar. 


43 


7.—From St. Ann’s Hill to Moorville, through Belah Gardens. 
8.—From Kingmoor to Brunthill, by Chapel House. 
9.—From Stanwix, through Knowefield Nursery to Tarraby, 
10.—From the Mill House to Linstock. 
11.—From Rickerby Park to White Close Gate. 
12,—From Tarraby to Houghton. 
13.—From bottom of White Close Gate, through Lane to Knowefield and 
Tarraby. 
14.—From Eden Terrace, along Eden side to Rickerby Holmes. 
15.—From Houghton to Greymoor Hill. 
16.—From Tarraby to Houghton, thence to Kingstown. 
17.—Four a’Butt Lonning, from Gosling Bridge, Moorville, to Harker Grange, 
and thence to Houghton House. 
18.—From Kingmoor, by Lowry Hill to Kingstown. 
19.—From Kingmoor, by South Wakefield to Moorville. 
20.—From the Smithy at Houghton to Brunstock. 
21.—From Etterby to Stainton. 


7 
Tae 


"ee, 
a we } 


> ine 
ho 


wy alee at" he 


© at, ey 
J i 


z 
| onal 
‘ 


pile’ en - 


OUYPIO ee 


ean aug 


- P. 


Cf SsaULQuTye 


Loe QLASOUIUDT 
- if \ 


49 


THE IDENTIFICATION OF THE ROMAN STATIONS 
IN CUMBERLAND. 


By J. B. BAILEY. 
(Read at Maryport. ) 


I must ask your kind indulgence in bringing the following paper 
under your notice. That the subject is an important one will be 
almost generally allowed, at least by antiquarians. That justice 
has been done to it in the past will not, at any rate, pass muster 
so easily ; at least, to judge from the perfect maze in which we 
find ourselves when we come to ask what are the names of the 
various stations along the line of the Roman Wall. True, the 
names of the stations within the limits of Northumberland are 
given—and accepted almost without hesitation ; but once across 
the Cumberland Border, this state of things exists no longer— 
chaos is at once evident. ‘That this is no mere figure of speech, 
may be seen from the following list, which gives a few of the 
names that have been applied to each successive station after 
Amboglanna. 

Petriana has been placed at Castlesteads, Old Carlisle, Lanercost. 

Aballaba, at Watchcross, Stanwix, Brampton, Papcastle, and 
Castlesteads. 

_Congavata, at Watchcross, Stanwix, Burgh, Moresby, Brampton. 

Axelodunum, at Burgh, Stanwix, Maryport, Drumburgh, Hexham, 
Bowness, Watchcross. 

Gabrosentis, at Drumburgh, Burgh, Bowness, Malbrey, Skinbur- 
ness, and Linstock, 


46 


Tunnocellum, at Bowness, Drumburgh, Skinburness, Stanwix, 
South Shields and Tynemouth. 

Glannibanta, at Bowness, Lanchester, Old Carlisle, Ravenglass, 
Maryport, Morpeth, Tynemouth, Kirksteads, Whitley Castle. 

Alionis, at Whitley Castle, Bowness, Jarrow, Burgh. 

Lremetenracum, at Brampton, Drumburgh, North Shields, Rib- 
chester, Boustead Hill, Whitbarrow. 

Olenacum, at Maryport, Old Carlisle, Burgh, Drumburgh, 
Wardley, Blackrode, Ilkiey. 

Virosidum, at Maryport, Stanwix, Gateshead, Warwick, Adel, 
Warrington, Bowness. 

That the whole subject is in an unsatisfactory state, we are not 
alone in thinking, for no less an authority than Dr. J. Collingwood 
Bruce, speaking on this state of affairs in his “ Lapidarium 
Septentrionale,” says:—‘‘In this state of uncertainty, it will be 
better for us to forbear attempting to give to the camps we meet 
with their ancient designation. In due time the key may be 
found which, without the application of force, will send back the 
bolt and make all plain; till then we must be careful to confess 
our ignorance.” 

If, then, it be only to endeavour to dissipate this ignorance, it 
will be well to consider the various methods that have been 
employed from time to time to find “the key which will make all 
plain.” 

One theory can at once be dismissed ;—for even the following 
absurdity is advocated by a writer who is apparently anxious to 
secure a Notitia name for a pet station. Near it was found a coin 
of Constantine, hence he infers it must have been occupied at any 
rate within measurable distance of Notitia times; ergo—it may 
have been a Notitia station ! 

In saying this much, I have not the slightest wish to throw 
ridicule on the labours of the many eminent antiquarians who have 
produced the list to which I have just referred ; my only wish is to 
examine the methods by which they have arrived at their conclu- 
sions, as in the face of such a complicated list the matter can lose 
nothing by the ventilation. Of course one cannot treat so wide a 


— 


} 
| 
. 


47 


subject with the consideration it deserves, in the limits of a single 
paper ; still, enough can be given in outline to bring out the main 
arguments, and to point out a fresh theory, should the old ones be 
found wanting. 

We shall begin, then, by considering the principles that have 
been advocated by antiquarians in their attempts to unravel the 
much-vexed question as to the identification of the various stations, 
but specially with regard to those more immediately connected 
with Cumberland. For this purpose we shall divide the various 
authorities dealing with the subject into three classes, viz: First, 
Those who have been mainly guided by sound; Secondly, Those 
who have considered the question almost entirely as an etymological 
one; and, Thirdly, Those who have followed a much more rational 
principle, namely, that of geographical sequence, such sequence 
being decided—so far as the Rornan Wall is concerned—by the 
Notitia. 

Before dealing with these various classes, it may be as well, for 
a few moments, to clear the ground by a few general explanations. 
Thus, the ‘‘Notitia” of which we shall often have to speak, was the 
Military and Civil Service List of the Roman Empire. It is 
generally supposed to have been compiled towards the close of the 
Roman occupation of Britain; in fact, we are told that we may 
for certain reasons ‘‘infer, with some degree of confidence, that it 
was compiled in or about the year 403.” (Hodgson Hinde, Intro- 
duction to History of Northumberland, p. 19.) It contains, so far as 
Britain is concerned, lists of the various stations, together with the 
garrisons, under the immediate government of the Dux Britanniarum 
and the Comes littoris Saxonici. 

The ‘Itineraries of Antonine” give us the names and distances 
from each other of the towns and stations on the principal military 
roads. ‘This great Itinerarium is supposed to have been compiled 
about A D. 320. (Celt, Roman, and Saxon, 3rd Ed., p. 145.) 

Another list is known as the Ravenna List. This was compiled 
by an ‘anonymous geographer of Ravenna, who wrote about the 
middle of the 7th century,” this list being probably made from 
maps of the various provinces on which he treats. (Celt, Roman, 
and Saxon, pp. 145, 536.) 


48 


The Rudge Cup, of which we shall also have to speak, is an 
“ornamental bronze cup which was found in a rubbish pit at 
Rudge in Wiltshire more than a century ago, having the names of 
five towns (in connection with the Roman Wall) in an inscription 
round the rim. It seems to have been made for a club or society 
of persons belonging to these towns, probably hunters.” (Ce/t, 
Roman, and Saxon, p. 257.) Dr. Bruce (Lapidarium Septentrionale, 
p. 206,) says, ‘it was intended as an offering to the presiding 
deity of some spring,” and he apparently suggests Gilsland. 

Having said so much, we are now free to enter upon the discus- 
sion of our question. As we have said, the first set of antiquarians 
has mainly determined its allocations on the strength of the 
similarity of sounds ; i.e., granted that the modern name of a town 
bears a somewhat fanciful resemblance to the name of a Roman 
station, it was held that a correct allocation had been made. Thus 
Appleby, on this account, is supposed to be the modern repre- 
sentative of the ancient Aballaba; Ireby, of Arbeia; Moresby, of 
Morbium ; Hexham (= Hextoldesham), of Axelodunum, etc. As 
a variation of this method, the Maryport camp is supposed to be 
the ancient Olenacum, from the fact of the camp being near the 
Alne or Olne (now Ellen); the name Derventione, for a similar 
reason, being given to the camp at Papcastle. We can at once 
dismiss this method from our consideration, as, by the light of 
more recent investigations it has been shown, with a tolerable 
degree of certainty, that at least Arbeia and Morbium are in 
Yorkshire, and Derventione either in Durham or Yorkshire. 
(Trans. C.and W. Arch. and Antig. Soc., pt. 1, vol. iii. p. 93; Arch. 
Ailiana, pt. 24, vol. viii. p. 287.) Axelodunum and Aballaba are 
also as clearly at other stations, as we shall shortly see. 

The allocations made on the strength of etymology are likewise 
open to very serious objections ; in fact, many leading antiquarians 
of the present day are apparently quite agreed that there can be 
no more uncertain method employed—and in truth we seem as 
though we ought to accept this as a final decision, But why? 
In the first place, too frequently the descriptions conveyed by an 
etymological rendering are such, that they may be made to suit, 


lage’ 


ee ee ee eS ee ee 


49 


not one station only, but several stations on the wall. Thus, 
following the Gaelic source, we have :— 

Aballaba = The town on the bank. 

Gabrosentis = The fortress on the river. 

Axelodunum = The fortress on high ground. 

Olenacum = The station on the hill. 
All of which are certainly more general in their terms than we 
should have wished ; and hence, as such, the possibility of arriving 
at a just decision is rendered doubly difficult. But this difficulty, 
great as it is, is still further increased by the fact that such deriva- 
tions are not derived from one stock, but from two. I of course 
refer to the Gaelic and Cymric branches of the great Celtic stock. 
Granted, however, that allocations were made on the strength of 
etymology, we shall evidently have to decide, in the first place, 
whether a// the towns, or how many, owe their names to this 
method ; and, in the second place, from which of the two stocks 
the derivation has been made. 

Clearly, it is assumed by those who have engaged in etymological 
speculations, that the names of a// the towns have been so given ; 
i.e., in accordance with some geographical or other local feature in 
the immediate vicinity of such station. Now-a-days new towns 
are constantly coming into existence in different parts of the world, 
and their names, far from being etymologically derived, are the 
familiar names of the old country. Had the old Roman soldier 
no such sentimental ideas—no such love of home—no dwelling 
on old associations in his new home in a foreign country? Surely 
such names as Uxellodum, Segodunum, Aballo, Alicana, Condate, 
Mediolanum, etc., speak strongly in favour of this love of home. 
Can we wonder, then, at the uncertainty of this method? But 
this uncertainty can be shown in a still clearer light ; for not only 
do the authorities of each separate school differ in every allocation 
they make, but even when two or more allocations are made from 
the same stock, the same uncertainty exists—there are as many 
different names resulting as there are derivations. This may be 
better understood from the following table, where the first set of 
derivations are from the Gaelic, and the second from the Cymric, 


50 


cc TYS9Y OY} JO YUL OY, ,, 
yjnowaut J, eee pee see queq £ ur ee 


UK, Surpo119ua ILL ,, ie 
Spjarys ynog 4 eee yO[OOIO) UAT ea||) “=e 


«USTEU IO [[2f 7204),, 
ssoumog ae Se sour yey | * 


ysanquiniqg see vee ee wes woe tee 


« PUNOL MOTTOY OYL s5 


ysing te pyes dwog=pryeo uog | ** 
ce TIT ODT PUL 5» 
XIMUR]S cn 3 ‘" upeq epeq Af 
uouvIoy yy 
uUdapopy fuouvarsag 241d 


, dures sao1ay ayy, 


qioddivyyy | eyuryyq vu ypr[d (Zz) 
, ured ay} ut 
Wysiay sy} uo uoNLs IYT,, 
, urerd agi jo 
Arepunog oy} Je uonrys ayy,, 
yys1ay ‘A1zpunoq 
spea]sylyy =ueg ‘ured ‘uajs=uepy (1) | °- VINVdINNVIX) 
cot OUP FO 10 ys 
SSOUMOG : ad Torys 2 ung (z) 
XIMUR}S eine 4 *$ (Gad) |e WATIAOONNDA LT, 
«AVAL BY} UO SSIJIOJ 9YL,, 
uo =uq 
‘IAL @=asnO ‘ZO ‘sO 
I0}sSULT ‘ssa1jIOJ V=Upey “Ipeg “qv er “* SILNUSOUGV®) 
«{PUNOIT YSIY UO ssa.rj1OF aT, 
ssornyoyeAy | joy =uncy *ysiy=payoQ : WANNAGOTAXY 
{P10} Yoou ayy 
ye WYySIoy 9Yy} UO uONR}s ay L,, 
ploy V=VA, 
uojduvig | o[sue uve=ey ‘jySieyq oy} =u0D VLVAVONOD 
« Ueq BY} UO UMO} YL,, 
Spv¥9}SaT}Se_) yueq = eg ‘UMO} & = Ue oe bas VaVTIIVSV 
10u0I0;) 7 uounis fo aunyy 
udapory yMOuDatsag? I17aV+) DYMON 


oO — — 


51 


peoyseyey 


Aap pre 


SPS YON 


Morse [ 


uounIoyyy 
usapopy 


‘oS ‘d ‘g ‘Joa ‘xx "\d ‘vung ‘yop 


Sed wea = 
ppAsoxr YL [Jef Ie =sor UT 


« 12yeM Jo Jood sy 5, 
see see tee yor uAT] A 


: « TMYXO,, 
vale :* (uApeur) uAIpeut sig 


« SPOOp ay} JO Suyjoour ayL,, 
wee er eae aee uO, x 


Luouwatsag I24utD 


a SSOUMOGd 


“* ysinquiniq 


IH peeysnog 


Bee ysing 


uonvooy 
usapoyy 


4 2dUIN GPUs yy 

SuLI2aA09 pueq Suyoafoid ayy, 
souenyuos v=j] 

‘uoypeford=sQ ‘pueq v= 


« IEY 94} UO UOTWeIS BY L,, 
= wae ao ovu £ 10 


«,/}8v09 Ax9019 
dy} UO OF W[Mq-au0}s ay L,, 
yaad B=dvY “ySvOo 
=nyj, ‘auojs=(ulewm) ue 
‘UMO} peyIoY V=(vsiIg) sg 


. Urey 
Aysreur oy} uo duivo oyy,, 
ass “+ ured Aysieu=vuo0T 


touwarsagd 2490 


‘voz ‘d ‘it ‘oa ‘z ‘yd fgb1 ‘og ‘dd ‘1 ‘Joa ‘2 yd ‘vossp “byup pun yI4V “75944 PUY “QUIN “SUDLT » 


“*  WOGISONIA 


“*  WAOVNETO 


WAOVUNALANAYT 


ane SINOITY 


uous fo auvay 
DUUON 


52 


From the above list it will be gathered that on the strength of the 
Gaelic derivations, all the twenty-three stations are placed actually 
on the wall, ie., between Wallsend and Bowness, the apparent 
inference being that the Wall in itself was a perfect military barrier ; 
whilst according to the Cymric derivation, only eighteen have been 
placed actually on the Wall, the superfluous names being placed at 
the mouth of the Tyne; the apparent inference here being that 
the Wall was zo¢ a perfect barrier, but that its weak point was at 
the mouth of the Tyne. 

The question then is, Was the Wall in itself a perfect barrier, or 
was it not? and if not, where was its weak point? We should 
have no hesitation in allowing that it was wot a perfect barrier, as 
indeed a mere glance at the map would show. Are we then to 
cast a reflection on the builder of the Wall? Granted that Hadrian 
planned and carried out the building of this mighty Wall—-whose 
remains still speak eloquently of its former grandeur—we must 
allow that so great a master mind would certainly grasp the weak- 
ness of the situation, and guard against a possible outflanking of 
the Wall, by including a series of camps whose garrisons should 
effectually prevent such a thing taking place, or at least, render it 
exceedingly difficult of accomplishment if attempted. That the 
danger was real we have abundant proof in the appearances 
presented by the camps at Maryport (Celt, Roman, and Saxon, 
p. 452), Ribchester (did p. 211), Papcastle C. and W. Antig. 
Soc. Jour., pt. 2, vol. 3, p. 342), and other places, for when they 
have been explored, abundant traces of fire were everywhere 
evident. 

Thus, at a very early date there was an absolute necessity for a 
series of forts or camps on the west, the object of which was the 
prevention of the outflanking of the Wall by the Picts and Scots, 
who were ever ready to take any advantage that might arise. It is 
also certain that there was a series of camps to protect the eastern 
extremity of the Wall; but the necessity for such apparently 
occurred only at a much later period, i.e. when the Saxon pirates 
commenced their periodical descents on the coast. To check 
their ravages was the duty of the Comes littoris Saxonici (Warden 


ee 


53 


of the Saxon shore). Under him the fleet could act effectively so 
far as the northern half of the coast was concerned, although the 
camp at the mouth of the Tyne would be a very useful auxiliary. 

If anything else were wanting to disprove this etymological 
theory, it may be found in the strange conclusions to which the 
various allocations bring us. Thus the 1st Cohort Spaniards— 
a military cohort--is placed at Drumburgh, 1.e., in a camp which 
has an area of only three-quarters of an acre. To get them 
packed in so small a space would have been a sheer impossibility. 
Besides, even if the camp had been large enough, there seems no 
reason to account for the presence of so important a cohort in 
such a cramped position. The same remark applies also to the 
Ala Herculea, also placed at Drumburgh. 

Again, the Elia Classica is placed at Stanwix merely on the 
supposition that this .place may have been a seaport in Roman 
times. Where is the proof that it was? More than this, the 
Rudge Cup and Ravenna lists clearly disprove the allocations, as 
will appear shortly. 

Speaking broadly, the third set of antiquarians, namely, those 
who favour geographical sequence, are divided into two classes :— 
(t) Those who, whilst agreeing to geographical sequence, fancy 
that the altars found at the western stations, when read by the 
light of the Notitia, seem to imply that there has been some 
inversion of the names in the Notitia list. (2) Those who agree 
that seventeen or eighteen of the stations are actually on the Wall 
itself, between Wallsend-on-Tyne and Bowness-on-Solway, the 
remaining stations being looked upon as supporting stations to the 
south of the Wall, either stretched across the county from E. to W., 
or at the western extremity. To these we might add a third set, 
namely, those who have indulged in etymological speculations, but 
we have shown such speculations to be of very doubtful character. 
Besides, arguments used during the discussion as to the views of 
the first two sets, will be useful in further deciding as to the 
strength or weakness of the contentions of this third set. We 
must first deal with those who apparently place such confidence in 
the power of the altars to unravel the mystery. 


54 


It has been stated that the Roman cohorts continued to reside 
in the stations which were assigned to them on their coming into 
Britain, and that they never moved from these stations without the 
most urgent necessity. (Zyson’s Cumberland, c. \xiii.) This may 
have been the rule, but it certainly was one which had many 
exceptions, especially in the immediate vicinity of the Wall. Thus 
any allocation made on the strength of such rule ought to be 
received with a certain degree of caution. Still there are undoubted 
cases in which the allocations can be accepted as conclusive. 

It has been stated that ‘“‘when in the ruins of a station inscribed 
stones are found, bearing the name of a cohort mentioned in the 
Notitia, the inference is natural that, in most cases at least, the 
imperial Notitia will furnish us with a key to the ancient designation 
of the station. The argument becomes irresistible when, in several 
successive instances, the designations thus obtained correspond 
exactly with the order of the places as given in the Notitia.” 
(Cumb. and West. Antig. and Arch. Soc. Trans., pt. i. vol. 3, p. 64.) 
On the face of it, this seems a most reasonable and effective 
method ; still, it is one that we cannot accept without the strictest 
investigation, as on the very surface difficulties appear. Thus, 
two or more cohorts may be shown by the altars or inscriptions to 
have been stationed at the same camp. According to the Notitia, 
each of these cohorts may have been stationed at a different 
camp. How are we to decide in such a case? for two or more 
names could not be applied to the same station. As a case in 
point, the 2nd Cohort of the Lingones, according to the Notitia, 
was at Congavata, and the znd Cohort of the Thracians at Gabro- 
sentis, both stations “per lineam valli.” Altars dedicated by each 
of these cohorts have been found at Moresby. Hence, according 
to the theory above propounded, this place may be either Congavata 
or Gabrosentis. As it cannot be both, which is the right one, if 
either ? 

To reverse the case. Altars or inscriptions by the 1st Cohort 
of the Dacians, stationed at Amboglanna, according to the Notitia, 
have been found at Birdoswald, Lanercost, Netherby, Old Wall, 
and Bewcastle; by the Ala Petriana, stationed at Petriana, at 


i» 


55 


Lanercost, Hexham, Kirkby Thore, Plumpton Wall, and Carlisle ; 
and by the 1st Cohort of Spaniards, stationed at Axelodunum, at 
Maryport, Netherby, and Ardoch. In such cases, how can we 
hope to have the slightest chance of deciding to which stations we 
shall apply the Notitia names ? 

But, for another reason, this theory is uncertain, for it cannot be 
final. One might well ask, Supposing that within the next few 
years we have discoveries of other important altars, how would the 
allocations be affected thereby? Shall we in such cases have to 
begin the allocations over again? If so, this is not a very cheering 
prospect for those who expect to find “the key that shall unravel 
the mystery” in the altar theory. That this is no fanciful argument, 
we shall see by taking the case of Ribchester. Originally con- 
sidered to be the Rigodunum of Ptolemy, the name next selected 
for it was Coccium (Iter x.), but even this name is now in danger 
of giving place to another, for we are told (Celt, Roman, and Saxon, 
p. 64) that “an altar, now preserved in St. John’s College, Cam- 
bridge, which has only recently been correctly read, seems to 
identify Ribchester with Bremetonacz, in which case the Roman 
topography of this district requires a new investigation and re- 
arrangement.” J. Hodgson Hinde again, suggests that the name 
on the altar is not Bremetonacz, but Bremetenracum. (A7ch. 
liana, vol. iv. pt. 2 0.S., p. 112.) How then are we to secure 
finality ? 

Surely, then, a theory which introduces so many probabilities 
and possibilities, ought to be looked upon with grave suspicion. 
Moreover, we must not expect the Notitia to prove anything and 
everything. When it states that a cohort was present in a certain 
camp, we are surely to infer that such statement refers to a fact 
which was true in Notitia times; but to infer that therefore it was 
true for times far removed from Notitia times, is to put upon it a 
construction that it evidently will not bear. 

As there seems, then, no possibility of proving geographical 
sequence by altars. An ingenious method has been devised to 
account for the apparent failure in the plan. Altars having been 
found at Papcastle, Moresby, and Maryport, apparently identifying 


56 


them as Aballaba, Congavata, and Axelodunum, the idea grew that 
somehow the list had got inverted. The following list illustrates 
this method. 


Ferguson. Longstaffe. Watkin. 
Petriana Castlesteads Old Carlisle Old Carlisle 
Aballaba Papcastle Papcastle Papcastle 
Congavata Moresby Moresby Moresby 
Axelodunum Maryport Maryport Maryport 
Gabrosentis Malbrey Skinburness 
Tunnocellum Skinburness Bowness 
Glannibanta Old Carlisle (?) Whitley Castle 
Alionis Bowness 
Lremetenracum  Drumburgh 
Olenacum Burgh 
Virosidum Stanwix 


But it may not be unreasonable to point out that several apparent 
inconsistencies appear in the allocations already named on this 
plan. 

Thus, at Old Carlisle, if it be Glanoventa, we have in Notitia 
times the Coh. I. Morini. But such a regiment stationed here 
would surely be of but little use ; apparently we require a cavalry 
regiment, to judge from the network of roads radiating to all points 
of the compass, and that such a regiment was stationed there, we 
have abundant testimony in the altars found near the station. 
For the same reason, the 6th Cohort Nervians would scarcely be 
a satisfactory garrison for Stanwix, with its important connections. 
Here, especially, would a cavalry regiment be an absolute necessity. 

Again, the position cf a cavalry regiment at Burgh seems quite 
inexplicable; and although the presence of a cavalry regiment in 
the earlier portion of the Roman occupation was an absolute 
necessity at Maryport, such does not seem to have been the case 
at a later period. 

Still, we may fairly ask whether there is any probability that we 
may ever be able to rely upon the unsupported testimony of altars. 
To do so implicitly, we should require to have certain information 
on at least two points, viz: (1) That the cohort mentioned in the 


ee a 


57 


Notitia can be definitely proved to have been at the station to 
which we wish to give the name, in or near Notitia times. (2) That 
all the altars have been found that are likely to be found. The 
bearing of the latter has already been shown when speaking of 
Ribchester. To these a third point has been insisted on, viz., 
that there is a certain amount of credibility to be attached to an 
allocation, when it can be proved that a cohort has been ata 
station for a considerable period of time. 

As to this idea of continuity, we might endeavour to settle this 
matter by a consideration of the various dates at which the stations 
were held by certain cohorts, in so far as these dates can be inferred 
from the altars. Let us, in the endeavour to do this, take the 
Maryport camp as a typical example. According to the Notitia, 
the 1st Cohort of the Spaniards was stationed at Axelodunum, of 
course in Notitia times. Now, some sixteen altars, by six different 
dedicators, have been found near this camp, and hence it has been 
inferred that the position of the ancient Axelodunum has been 
determined. Apparently such inference is the only one that could 
logically be drawn; but, after all, a close consideration of the 
matter will show that the reality is in appearance only, not in fact. 

Of course, the finding of these altars points indisputably to the 
fact that Spanish cohorts were in garrison at the Maryport camp, 
but they do not therefore prove that the cohorts were present in 
Notitia times. But to remove the matter from the range of mere 
speculation, the date of such occupation can be certainly fixed, 
for some four of the altars were dedicated by Marcus Menius 
Agrippa, a tribune of the Spanish cohort who lived during the reign 
of Hadrian, and therefore about the year A.D. 117. That they left 
is certain, for not only have we proof of their presence in North 
Britain, but they were at Netherby about A.D. 221. More than 
this; we have unmistakeable proof of the presence of Dalmatians 
during the reign of Antonius Pius, A.D. 137—160. And we have 
to account for the presence of at least a third cohort, the Beetasians 
—but whether before the Dalmatians or after them, we have no 
direct evidence. But a careful consideration of the great find of 
altars in 1870 may probably answer, not only that question, but 
also that of the cohort that buried the altars. 

5 


58 


Two facts are brought very prominently under our notice in the 
account that is given us respecting the discovery of these altars 
in the Lapidarium Septentrionale. They were not buried each in 
a separate pit, but in some cases two and three in one pit, one 
above the other. Nor do the altars interred in the same pit all 
belong to the same cohort. But the question as to who buried 
them is apparently set at rest, for in one case at least, a Spanish 
altar is buried adove a Beetasian one, from which we must infer 
that the Beetasians at least buried the altars in that pit, for the 
Spaniards could not bury their altars adove those of their successors. 
In the same way, we have a Dalmatian altar buried above a 
Beetasian altar ; and this apparently points to the conclusion that 
the Beetasians buried this lot also. Moreover, they must all have 
been buried, almost certainly, at the same time, else the second 
burial would have discovered those of a previous one. 

If this be so, then we have the sequence of cohorts as—first 
Spaniards, then Dalmatians, and after these Bzetasians ; and, indeed, 
the general appearance of the altars bears out this theory, as I 
have attempted to show in an earlier paper (“The Maryport Camp 
—What was its Name?” Zransactions, No. xii.) As certainly the 
date of the interment must have been an early one. Strangely, 
the list of coins found shows a break in continuity between 
A.D. 200 and A.D. 240. Can the interment have taken place 
somewhere between these two dates? Dr. Bruce agrees that it 
was so, for he says (Zrans. C. and W. Arch. and Antig. Assoc., 
1870, p. 175), “The latest of these altars probably belongs to the 
reign of Antonius Pius,” and “they were buried at least two 
centuries before Stilicho.” 

It is evident that, if buried by either Dalmatians or Beetasians, 
the date could not have been in Notitia times, for then the Dal- 
matians were at Brancaster and Broughton, and the Beetasians 
at Reculver (Ce/t, Roman, and Saxon, p. 307). But if it be held 
that they were buried by Spaniards, then it must have been by 
a returned cohort. But where are the altars that prove this point? 
for those found in 1870 and 1880—and almost as certainly those 
found previously—are clearly out of evidence, 


59 


That a cohort ad occupy the camp after the withdrawal of the 
Beetasians we may argue from the acknowledged importance of the 
station, as also from the unbroken succession of coins after 
A.D. 240 down to Notitia times. 

That the Spanish cohort did xof return, I shall attempt to show 
shortly, its presence in the later empire being apparently required 
elsewhere. 

So far, then, as the Maryport camp is concerned, we have found 
no proof of continuity; but, on the contrary, frequent changes. Had 
we taken other stations along the line of the Wall, in connection 
with the Dacians, Tungrians, Ala Petriana, etc., we should doubt- 
less have arrived at the same conclusion. In fact, the words used 
by Dr. Bruce with regard to the Maryport camp may, with equal 
justice, be applied to other camps. He says (Zvans. C. and W. 
Arch. and Ant. Assoc., vol. i. p. 187), “The diversity of troops 
named on the altars shows that a quicker exchange took place 
than was usual.” 

It is true that altars have been found apparently supporting the 
idea of an inversion ; but then, as I have attempted to show, altars 
may be made to prove almost anything ; and only let the idea of 
inversion be granted, the chaos in which we are now placed will 
become even more pronounced. We must first clear away the 
altars from our minds altogether—they have not been found 
necessary in deciding hundreds of places in other parts of Britain, 
and they are not an absolute necessity even here. 

If, then, our argument be sound with regard to the Maryport 
camp, the case for inversion fails in a very important particular. 
Moreover, only three stations out of eleven have been decided on 
the strength of altars, namely, Maryport, Moresby, and Papcastle. 
The very slender character of the clue, so far as the two former 
places are concerned, has already been pointed out, and we shall 
presently have something to say to the same intent with regard to 
Papcastle. Still, without accepting this as a final decision, we 
shall have to consider the question by the light of other existing 
lists, to see whether they corroborate or refute such conclusions, 


60 


At least two lists will need our consideration. First we shall 
take the list of names on the Rudge cup, and secondly, a selection 
from the Ravenna list. These two lists are :— 


Rudge Cup. Ravenna, 
Banna /Esica 
Amboglanna Banna 
Uxelodum Uxeludiano 
Aballava Avalaria 
Mais Maia 
Fanocedi 


Taking the first of these lists, we may be fairly allowed to draw 
the inference that all the stations were placed somewhat closely 
together. It may, of course, be argued that this is but a gratuitous 
assumption ; still, we must remember that it was the policy of the 
Romans to isolate the cohorts of like nationality, and for very 
obvious reasons. Thus, in all probability, friendships sprang up 
amongst the garrisons of the neighbouring stations. Hence we 
may with tolerable certainty assume that the hunters of Banna, 
whoever they may have been, drew round themselves a set of 
kindred spirits, actuated by the same object, and selected from the 
neighbouring stations. What that object was we can only surmise, 
but Dr. Bruce seems to think that the Rudge Cup was a libation cup. 
If so, and Maryport was the Axelodunum of the Notitia, we might 
well ask what interest the hunters of Banna could have in a station 
so distant as Axelodunum, or how the garrison at the latter station 
could ever join in the libation, the hunt, or whatever else was 
intended ; for we must remember that wherever Banna was—and 
its position is by no means certain—still it was in the neigbour- 
hood of Esica and Amboglanna—a fact very clearly demonstrated. 
The Ravenna list points to the same conclusion. 

Apparently, then, these lists lend no authority to the theory of 
inversion. We may still ask with propriety what use an inverted 
list would be. The Notitia is either a correct list or an incorrect 
one. If correct, it cannot be inverted ; if inverted, it cannot be a 
record of what existed. As the last important Roman list connected 


61 


with this country, we should expect it to be at least of equal 
authority to the Itineraries of Antonine. That the necessities of 
the case required a perfect list we may rest assured ; otherwise 
what use would an inverted list—accidentally inverted, too !—be 
to a Roman general, unless indeed to lead him on to disaster. 
That such was not the characteristic of the Roman topographer 
we may readily allow. 

Baines, in his story of Yorkshire, bt I, vol. i, p. 316, says: 
“Tt gives one a very high impression, not merely of the industry 
of Ptolemy and the earlier geographers, but of the immense pains 
taken by the Roman government, that even an attempt should 
have been made to fix the position of so many places, especially 
in the British Islands, at a time when not more than one half of 
their total area was subject to the Roman dominion, and when 
even that portion which they professed to rule was very partially 
subdued.” And this statement applies to those of later date with 
even greater force. 

Clearly, then, the Romans were very particular as to having a 
correct knowledge of the leading topographical details of the 
country. Their military roads, as given in the various Itineraries 
of Antonine, are wonderful specimens of their work, and show the 
places in almost unbroken sequence ;—as military lists they would 
otherwise have been valueless. It would seem very unlikely that 
the Notitia should be of less authority than the older Itineraries. 


But it has been remarked that many of the sepulchral monu- 
ments refer to the heirs of the deceased persons, and that this 
might be looked upon as a proof of continuity. Thus, amongst 
others found near the Maryport camp, is one inscribed :— 


D. M. 
Mori REGIS 
Filit Heredes 

Eius Substitue 
Runt vix a lxx 


But this proves little, as, even should it prove continuity, it does 


not necessarily prove the continuity of the Spanish cohorts ; for 


62 


there is nothing by which we can show that Morus-Rex was a 
Spaniard, or that the stone itself was representative of the Spanish 
cohorts. More than this, if the argument is to hold good, we 
may the more certainly argue that the Spanish cohorts settled for 
some considerable period at Ardoch in North Britain, for they 
were clearly there after they had been at the Maryport Camp. 
There we have a sepulchral monument by the heirs of a centurion 
of the 1st Cohort of the Spaniards. The inscription is— 


Dis Manibus 

Ammonius Da 

mionis C Coh 

1 Hispanorum 

Stipendiorum 

xxvil Heredes. 
FC 


(For a fuller discussion of this question, see ‘‘The Maryport 
Camp—What was its Name?” Zvransactions, No. xii.) 

There is thus an undoubted weakness running through the 
length and breadth of this method of allocation, and till some 
better method of allocation be propounded, we must continue to 
doubt the correctness of the allocations fixed by this method. 
Time, or continuity, mst be proved ; probability is not certainty, 
and no system can be sound which tries to patch up a method to 
suit the altars. Should the altars suit the allocations arrived at by 
another method, so much the better. We must draw our inferences 
from observed facts, not seek facts to establish a theory, however 
plausible it may appear. 

But not to multiply cases,—a very simple argument might have 
shown how very unreliable this method would be likely to be. 
Suppose a cohort to have been stationed at, say Maryport. Suppose 
further, that its presence there was testified to by the erection of 
altars. Suppose yet again, that the same cohort had also been 
stationed at Papcastle, and to have testified to its presence there 
by an entry of the name of the station in a book or official list. 
Suppose yet again, that after a lapse of 1500 years some enthusi- 


63 


astic antiquarian unearths the altars at Maryport, would he be 
justified in saying that the ancient camp of Papcastle had been 
found, merely because there is agreement between altars and list? 
Clearly such reasoning would be absurd. 

For a few moments we shall now have to consider the views of 
the other set of antiquarians, who, leaving altars entirely out of 
consideration, agree as to the fact of geographical sequence pure 
and simple. Even this set is not unanimous in its allocations, for 
whilst one portion accepts Watchcross as a permanent station, 
another portion rejects its claims. Thus, zw’ Watchcross as a 
station, we have eighteen stations—and wzthout it, seventeen 
stations—actually on the Wall, the remaining six, in the latter 
case, being drawn across the isthmus from Tynemouth to Maryport. 
These views are shown in the following table :— 


Horsley and Wright. Hodgson. 
Tunnocellum Bowness Tynemouth 
Glannibanta _ Lanchester (Horsley) Lanchester 
A lionts Whitley Castle Whitley Castle 
Bremetenracum Brampton or Plumpton Brampton or Plumpton 
Olenacum Old Carlisle Old Carlisle 
Virosidum Maryport Maryport 


J. Hodgson Hinde (Ach. 42/1. Vol. iv. pt. ii. p. 109,0.8.), however, 
combats this view of supporting stations, placing Bremetenracum 
at Ribchester, Olenacum at Ilkley, and Virosidum at Adel. In 
the face, however, of the unanimous testimony of both sections of 
antiquarians who favour geographical sequence, whether by means 
of altars or otherwise, we can leave this objection without further 
consideration. 

We must therefore at once face the difficulty if we are to hope 
for success. True, the idea of geographical sequence is practically 
conceded ; but how it is to be applied is by no means so 
unanimously agreed upon. Speaking on this point, Dr. Bruce 
(Lapidarium Septentrionale, p. 270), says, “as all stations which 
have been indisputably identified form an unbroken chain 
proceeding from east to west, we should expect the same state of 


64 


things to continue until the catalogue was exhausted.” Whilst 
Mr. Ferguson, (C. and W. Antig. Trans., vol. 3, p. 93), after 
discussing the two sets of stations in sections 52 and 63 of the 
Notitia, says “that the Notitia always gives military stations in 
geographical sequence, and not any how.” Granted then that the 
accuracy of the Notitia list has been so abundantly proved to be 
correct up to Amboglanna, it appears as though we might take it 
as a safe guide in fixing the remaining stations. Of course in this 
case there will be an undoubted difficulty, as there are more camps 
than there are available names, but that this difficulty is more 
apparent than real will appear as we proceed with our argument. 
We need scarcely ask to whom we owe the Notitia list. Clearly 
it is not a complete list of a/7 the camps on the Wall, or in its 
immediate vicinity. Why then are some admitted, and others 
omitted ? 

It must be remembered that when the Duke of Britain assumed 
the sole command, his forces were much less than his predecessors 
had, and this through the withdrawal of the 2oth legion. Conse- 
quently he would have to make the most of the reduced forces 
under his command, and that numerous changes took place in the 
various garrisons we may assume with a tolerable degree of certainty. 
If this be so, we have an additional element of uncertainty as to 
the altar test. 

Clearly there was no necessity that he should preserve to us in 
his list the name of every camp within his command—certain of 
them were of much greater importance to him than others—what 
then more natural than that he should select those most fitted for 
his wants, and that therefore the names of these places alone are 
preserved to us? That the majority of the changes would be on 
the western flank we have shown to be a fair subject for discussion. 

We ought, then, if we are to identify these places, to look upon 
the Notitia list as an exact skeleton, so to speak, of all the more 
important stations under the command of the Duke of Britain— 
important, so far as those not actually on the Wall itself are 
concerned, as strategic points; as opposed to mere, what we may 
term, way side stations. Such places would most certainly be 


—— po 


fa ee 


7 Ser 


65 


placed at the intersection of important strategic roads, so as to 
cover every possible want in the matter of providing ready and 
efficient help in all dangers that might threaten both the eastern 
and western ends of the Wall. In short, his organisation would be 
military rather than political, and its centre was evidently Eburacum, 
the legionary headquarters. A glance at a road map will show 
how perfect these arrangements were on both hands. 

The road running northward from Eburacum divides at Catarac- 
tonium. One part—lIter. 1—pursues its northward course, crosses 
the Tees (ad Tisam) at Piercebridge (Magee ?), and soon arrives at 
the important strategic centre Vinovia, (Binchester on Wear), 
whence the road runs to Chester-le-Street (Epiacum ?) on the one 
hand, and to Lanchester (Longovicum ?) on the other, each of 
these places in turn becoming the centre of a series of roads 
communicating with various points on the eastern half of the wall. 

Returning to Cataractonium, the second part of the road—lIters. 
2 and 5—crosses Stainmore, successively passing Lavatre (Bowes) 
and Verterz (Brough), till it arrives at Braboniacum, which has 
been identified with the modern Kirkby Thore. As on the eastern 
branch, so on this western, a number of strategic roads break away 
covering the western half of the Wall, as those on the east covered 
the eastern half. Thus, the first road radiating from Kirkby Thore 
was the Maiden Way, vid Whitley Castle (Fanocedi?) to Magna, 
then—Iter. 2 and 5—via Brocavum and Voreda to Luguvallum, 
and lastly via Whitbarrow, thus communicating by a series of 
strategic points with all the most assailable portion of the command 
of the Duke of Britain, i.e., from Birdoswald to Moresby. 

We have then first to fix the names of the stations from 
Amboglanna up to and including Moresby. In all there are at 
least twelve camps. These camps are Lanercost, Castlesteads, 
Brampton, Watchcross, Stanwix, Burgh, Drumburgh, Bowness, 
Skinburness, Malbrey, Maryport, and Moresby. Now some of 
these stations are of much less importance than others, hence, 
according to the ideas already advanced, they would not have 
Notitia names. Thus, Watcheross is favoured as a Notitia station 
by Lysons, Horsley, Wright, and Mc.Lauchlan alone. Dr. Bruce 


66 


(Roman Wall, ed. 3,) says “it was probably not a permanent 
camp, but only a summer camp, as no remains of ramparts have 
been found other than of earth.” Drumburgh we have already 
shown to have been wanting in the essentials of a Nofitia camp, 
whilst, according to the principles we have already enunciated, 
Skinburness and Malbrey must be rejected with the two former. 
We are thus left with eight places, all of which show tolerably 
satisfactory claims to being Notitia stations; hence to these we 
allot the eight Notitia names after Amboglanna, as follows :— 


Recognised as Notitia stations by 
Petriana Lanercost Maughan 


Godwin, Camden, Horsley, 
Aballaba Brampton Hodgson, Wright, Maughan, 
Mc. Lauchlan 


Congavata Castlesteads 

Axelodunum Stanwix 

Gabrosentis Burgh Practically unanimous 
Tunnocellum Bowness | 

Glannibanta Maryport J 

Alionis Moresby Ferguson, Longstaffe 


The garrison of Petriana, according to the Notitia, was the Ala 
Petriana. Inscriptions by this 4/a@ have been found at Hexham, 
Carlisle, Plumpton Wall, and Kirkby Thore, together with Laner- 
cost. Hexham could scarcely claim to be the Petriana of the 
Notitia, and the names of Carlisle, Plumpton Wall, and Kirkby 
Thore, are known almost beyond dispute. We are therefore left 
with Lanercost, to which, being next in order to Amboglanna, we 
give the name Petriana. This, it may be noticed, is an allocation 
corroborated by inscriptions, and as such ranks with the North- 
umberland stations. Besides, it was a very suitable station for the 
Ala Petriana. 

Brampton was apparently a strong position; hundreds of cart- 
loads of stone have been taken from it, and the ground is still 
strewn with stony fragments, tiles, etc.; and, more important still, 
it appears to have been held at a late period, as some five thousand 


TS = 


| 


67 


coins of the later empire have been found. True, it was almost 
direct south of Castlesteads, but it was on what is known as the 
Stangate, and in direct communication with Castlesteads, and also 
with Voreda and Brocavum: and hence was of strategic importance. 
According to the Notitia, its garrison was a Numerus Maurorum 
Aurelianorum—clearly not an old established company on the 
Wall, as indeed the term Numerus implies. (Arch. Handbook, God- 
win, p. 22.) The Rudge Cup apparently favours this allocation. 
As we have already said, its intention was apparently that of a 
libation cup, used by the Hunters of Banna and their friends, in a 
circuit comprising the towns named on the cup. Thus, beginning 
at Banna, we leave Magna (Mais?), and then by way of the Stangate 
via’ Aballaba, arriving at Axelodunum (see next paragraph); 
returning to Amboglanna by the Wall, where it was again near 
Banna. And this order also agrees with the Ravenna, which, 
keeping the Wall, passes Esica, Banna, and Axelodunum ; 
returning by the Stangate to Aballaba and Maia, both to the 
south of the Wall, and so on to Fanocedi (Whitley ?), and 
Brocara (Brougham). 

We now come to the name Axelodunum (Uxelodunum). This 
name appears in the following three lists, viz :— 


Notitia. Rudge Cup. Ravenna, 
Esica Banna ZEsica 
Magna Amboglanna Banna 
Amboglanna Uxelodum Uxeludiano 
Petriana Aballava Avalaria 
Aballava Mais Maia 
Congavata Fanocedi 
Axelodunum Brocara 


Here then we have three independent lists, all pointing to the 
fact that Axelodunum—wherever it was—was in the neighbourhood 
of Amboglanna, the last of our identified stations. Taking the 
Notitia as our guide, it is the fourth station after Amboglanna, and 
is therefore probably within some fifteen or sixteen miles of that 
station. If this be so, the name must unquestionably be given to 


68 


Stanwix, the striking similarity between the three lists strongly 
favouring such conclusion. 

If this allocation be correct, the garrison was the 1s¢ Cohort of 
the Spaniards. Now an equestrian cohort would be undoubtedly 
placed at such an important station, at any rate late in the empire. 
To go back a little in the history of this cohort; about the year 120, 
as we have shown, it was at Maryport, but removed a short time 
afterwards, apparently into North Britain, at Ardoch, in advance of 
the Antonine Wall. In the ordinary course of events it would then 
return, and doubtless take up its position at Stanwix. The position 
of this station seems to necessitate the presence of a cavalry cohort. 
True, the station was only a small one—too small, in fact, for so 
large a cohort; but, when we consider that it would probably have 
to assist in the defence of Luguvallum, as well as the advanced post 
at Netherby—the Castra Exploratorum of the Notitia—the difficulty 
at once vanishes ; at least one authority, Mc. Lauchlan, agrees with 
this allocation. 

That Bowness—or at any rate Skinburness—is Tunnocellum, 
is strongly supported by eminent antiquarians, including Lysons, 
Ferguson, Longstaffe, Horsley, and Wright. According to the 
Notitia, the garrison of ‘Tunnocellum, the 18th station in the Iter. 
“per Lineam Valli,” consisted of the rst Cohort Elia Classica, ie, a 
Cohort of Marines. Hence, we may very reasonably suppose that 
Tunnocellum was a town on the sea coast, and, following the order 
of sequence, on the West Coast. Although altars, etc., have been 
found here, still there are none that testify to the presence of the 
Elia Classica, but, as I have attempted to show, they are not needed. 
But etymology—without, however, placing too much trust in it— 
comes to our aid. The Rev. W. Lytteil, writing to me on the 
subject, says, ‘‘I regard Tunnocellum as derived from the Gaelic 
dun @ chaoil, signifying “the fort of the firth—or, the fortress of the 
strait.” By adopting this derivation the difficulty vanishes. How 
very aptly it suits the position of the camp at Bowness, the map of 
Cumberland bears abundant testimony; of the two places I should 
certainly prefer Bowness as the site of the ancient Tunnocellum, 

The claims of the Maryport camp to be G/anoventa (Glannibanta), 


Te 


ii a nt 


69 


I have already discussed at length (“The Maryport Camp—What 
was its Name?” Zvransactions, No. xii.), but a short resumé may 
be not out of place. Amongst the various names applied to this 
station we find Axelodunum, Glanoventa, Olenacum, Virosidum, 
and Volantium. The name Volantium may be speedily dismissed, 
whilst of the other four, one—Axelodunum—has been decided 
merely on the testimony of altars; but as I have shown the ineffi- 
ciency of this method of proof, and have placed Axelodunum 
elsewhere, we must also dismiss this name, if the argument be sound. 
I shall have occasion shortly to speak of two of the remaining 
three in connection with other stations, and thus, for the present, 
we shall merely refer to the name G/lanoventa, which is next in 
sequence. There is probably not any direct authority favouring 
this allocation, though it has been stated by Dr. Bennet (Lysons’ 
Cumberland, p. cxlii.), that, in his time an opinion prevailed, which 
apparently favours Maryport “as not unsuitable to the position of 
that town in the roth Iter. of Antonius,” whilst Baines (Astory 
of Yorkshire, vol. 1, p. 331) says it is either Cockermouth 
(Papcastle ?), or some town on the coast of Cumberland. That it 
would form an admirable termination to the roth Iter., must, I 
think, be admitted ; and if this be allowed, it at once places the 
toth Iter. on an equality with all the other Itinera with regard to 
their apparent plan of starting or ending at a seaport. Into the 
vexed question of the roth Iter. we cannot enter, that would require 
a paper by itself; but, granted that Maryport is Glanoventa, and 
that authorities are also correct in allocating Galava at Keswick, 
Alone at Ambleside, and Galacum at Kendal, much has been 
done to decide this vexed point. 

Canon Mathews, in a recent paper, says that “the total mileage 
to Glanoventa agrees with the position of either Whitley Castle 
or Old Carlisle.” We may add that Maryport fulfils the same 
conditions. 

That Moresby was a Notitia station we may well accept on such 
eminent authority as that of Longstaffe, Watkin, Dr. Bruce, and 
Ferguson, and its name, still in sequence after Glannibanta, would 
be Alionis, According to the Notitia, the garrison was the 3rd 


70 


Cohort of the Nervians, but no altars or inscriptions have, as yet, 
been found testifying to their presence here. Still, having been at 
Whitley Castle, Chesterholm, and Brough (Stainmore), all of them 
within the immediate defences of the wall, they might very easily 
have been transferred to Moresby in the Notitia times, when the 
Duke of Britain clearly made a re-disposition of at least some of 
his troops. 

We are now clearly at the limit, so far as the main defences of 
the Wall are concerned, and we have three Notitia names 
yet to account for. We must hence enquire what camps are 
best suited for communicating readily and expeditiously with the 
stations already named, i.e., from Moresby to Birdoswald, and con- 
necting them in turn with the head-quarters (Eburacum). Acting 
on the suggestions already thrown out, there are, strangely, just 
sufficient strategic points to exactly conicide with the three names 
still remaining. Hence our allocations will be :— 


Recognised as a Notitia Station by 
Ferguson, Longstaffe, Hiibner, 


Bremetenracum Papcastle | Watkin, Jacleon 
Olenacum Old Carlisle Generally agreed on 
Virosidum Whitbarrow _—_ Lysons 


According to the Notitia, the garrison of Bremetenracum was a 
Cuneus Armaturarum, i.e., a body of men-at-arms. We must not, 
I think, assume that this was necessarily a saad? body, and that, 
therefore, it would only require a small camp for its protection. 
Lavatre, Verteree, and Braboniacum were, at the same time, 
defended by detachments, and yet they were camps of undoubted 
size and strength. ‘Two inscribed stones have been found at Pap- 
castle, both referring to the Cuneus Frisionum Aballavensium. 
Mr. Jackson says (Vol. 4, C. and W. Antig. and Arch. Assoc, 
p. 136) that this proves Papcastle tc have been Aballaba, whilst 
Dr. Bruce (Roman Wall, Ed. 3, p. 373), speaking of the inscription, 
says, that ‘it is a designation which it is difficult to describe.” To 
my mind there is no difficulty at all, if we at once divest our minds 
as to any preconceived notions derived from altars, &c. Is it not 


— oe 


Ee ————— a ee 


ae Or ee 


more likely to relate to a Cuneus from Aballaba, rather than to one 
actually a¢ Aballaba? It must be observed that the Notitia 
garrison of Aballaba was a Numerus A/aurorum Aurelianorum, i.e., 
a company of J/Zoors—the Aurelian, whilst the Papcastle inscription 
is a “Cuneus Frisionum Aballavensium,” i.e., clearly a company of 
Frisians, the Aballavensium, otherwise, a company of Frisians from, 
or belonging to, Aballava. 

Now, Frisians were from the coast of Holland, and hence could 
have no claim to be called Moors. Thus the Papcastle inscriptions 
cannot by any stretch of the imagination give the slightest counte- 
nance to the name Aballava as applied to Papcastle. 

True, the inscription refers to the presence of a company of 
Frisians—the Aballavensian—but this does not necessarily prove 
that Papcastle was Aballava. We may as well argue that because 
acertain English regiment is called the Cumberland regiment, 
that therefore the place where it is stationed is necessarily Cum- 
berland. The very idea is absurd. 

But we may probably have some little confirmation of our 
allocation. The Notitia garrison of Bremetenracum is a Cuneus 
Armaturarum, i.e., a company of men-at-arms—whether Moors or 
Frisians is not stated—but still it is a Cuneus, and in so far is in 
perfect agreement with both the inscriptions found. 

Time will not allow us to enter more fully into the antiquities of 
Papcastle, although to clearly establish our claim it must be 
pointed out that Papcastle was a most important strategic centre, 
roads running to Moresby, Maryport, Old Carlisle, and the Wall. 

The next point of strategic importance—I might say the most 
important point—is Old Carlisle. That it was a Notitia station is 
almost generally allowed, though its Notitia name varies according 
to the different writers. The perfect network of roads radiating 
from this station at once bear direct testimony to its great strategic 
importance. Its name—following again in direct sequence—would 
be Olenacum ; and this is the name that has already been given 
to it by Horsley, Hodgson, Wright, Mc.Lauchlan, and Godwin. 

The Notitia states that the garrison of Olenacum was the Ala 
Herculea. That an Ala, as distinguished from a Cohort, should 


72 


be stationed here, seems to confirm the allocation. Besides, 
several altars of the Ala Augusta have been found here, and it has 
been suggested that this same Ala had various names, according 
to the Emperor. If so, and the continuity be proved, then the 
allocation is fairly assured. 

Moving still further away, but in the direction of the direct 
communication with the Iters. 2 and 5, the next important station 
to my mind seems to be Whitbarrow. To this station, then, I 
propose to give the last remaining name on our list, namely, 
Virosidum. ‘That it was an important camp, its size, position, and 
connections at once prove. ‘True, it is a station that has received 
but passing notice, yet Lysons (Ast. of Cumberland, p. cxxxvii.) 
considers it ‘‘to have been a place of some importance,” whilst 
(Zid. p. cxlv.) he further seems to have considered it to have 
claims to rank as a Notitia station, and to have been named 
Bremetenracum. Its garrison must have been the 6th Cohort 
of the Nervians, as this cohort was apparently stationed at 
Esica (Great Chesters), and also at Brugh (Yorks), it would have 
been easy to transfer it to Whitbarrow. A mere glauce at the 
map of Roman Cumberland will at once show its strategic import- 
ance, and a visit to the camp will more than bear this view out. 
In fact, roads radiate to all points between Magna—which it 
reaches vid Plumpton—and Whitley Castle, and Moresby. Its 
most important connection is that with Iters. 2 and 5, by which 
the line of communication was kept up with Eburacum, the head- 
quarters of the Duke of Britain, as I have already shown. 

Thus, its position amongst the camps at Kirkby Thore, 
Brougham, Plumpton, Keswick, Old Carlisle, places it, so to speak, 
as practically the focus of all the strategic points, covering from 
Moresby to Magna, and their connecting link with headquarters. 
More than this, Whitbarrow and Papcastle bear exactly the same 
relation to one another that Bowes and Brough do, for whilst the 
latter are placed one on each side of the pass over Stainmore, so 
guarding that important pass, the former guard the pass through 
the heart of the lake mountains, being likewise placed one at each 
end of such pass; this may be something more than an undesigned 


: 73 


coincidence. We have thus established an unbroken circuit of 
camps from Eburacum via the rst. Iter., thence along the Wall 
from east to west, and back again to Eburacum vid the supporting 
stations and the 2nd or sth Iters.; and if there be no other merit 
in such an arrangement, it is, at any rate, a reflex of the Roman 
character, as indeed exhibited in all their works, namely, 
straightforwardness. 


To conclude, the allocations suggested in this paper are :— 


: Petriana Lanercost 

| Aballaba Brampton 

| Congavata Castlesteads 

q Axelodunum Stanwix 
Gabrosentis Burgh 
Tunnocellum Bowness 
Glannibanta Maryport 
Alionis Moresby 
Bremetenracum Papcastle 
Olenacum Old Carlisle 
Virosidum Whitbarrow 


ree, 
a i 


ie ep «3 
LP tle alge oe the on nee 


ee cares tehige 


“ i 


ape awe 


| ( Showing the postiions of the Skiddaw 
|| \ Grancte and assooiaded Rocks. and the 

principul Mines tr the Skiddaw group 
Q\ Sf Mountains. Drawn by 


=, JS POSTLETHWAITE, | 
cat) —F.G. §. —_2—= 


ee SCALE :— ; 
Ke /uven 108 MILE. 
Sys 


SS 
————} 
—————+} 


I 


R 


J {...CSC~SsS<(i*w 
LE vi 


REFERENCES. 
pies ee 


di POSILETIWATE__ 
SQ]. Sene 


Linen 70” MILE. 


wr 4 


——d i : 


aN 


= = 


Biliiy' y, t iM ot 
\ ae eu 


~I 
Or 


THE DEPOSITS OF METALLIC 
AND OTHER MINERALS SURROUNDING THE 
SKIDDAW GRANITE. 
By JOHN POSTLETHWAITE, F.G.S. 


(Read at the Ambleside Annual Meeting. ) 


A TREATISE on the mineral deposits which surround the Skiddaw 
Granite, must necessarily deal with the whole of the area embraced 
in the Skiddaw group of mountains, comprising a surface of about 
eighty square miles, mostly mountain and moorland. The 
- dominant rock of this area is Skiddaw Slate, but there is a broad 
belt of volcanic rock, of the Eycott Hill series, extending along 
_ the northern side of the area; also several intrusive masses and 
: dykes of felsite, diorite, gabbro, and picrite, in addition to the 
' granite, which occupies the central portion of the area. Very 
‘little of the granite is visible on the surface, a small patch being 
exposed in Syning Gill, between Skiddaw and Blencathra, a larger 
Mass at the upper end of the Caldew valley, and a third a little 
lower down the course of the river. The largest exposure measures 
about a mile in length and half a mile in width, and the three no 
doubt form portions of one mass which extends over a large area 
at a moderate depth beneath the surface; its presence being 
in dicated by the changes produced in the surrounding and over- 
lying Skiddaw Slate. These changes have been described in detail 
elsewhere, therefore, it will be sufficient to state here that there are 
traces of metamorphism, in a higher or less degree, extending over 


76 


an area which measures about six miles from east to west, and five 
miles from north to south, being rather more than one-third of the 
area under consideration. Of the remaining two-thirds, on which 
the granite has not produced any change, there are portions which 
have been subjected to a considerable amount of lateral pressure, 
the slate being tilted, crumpled, and cleaved; indeed, the once 
horizontal beds may now be seen in a vertical position, or inclining 
at any angle between the vertical and the horizontal. In some 
places, however, there is no trace of cleavage, and the slate splits 
readily along the bedding planes. 

The volcanic rocks on the northern margin of the Skiddaw group 
of mountains consist of ancient lavas and ashes which have 
undergone a considerable amount of alteration. The materials 
composing these ash beds and lava flows may have issued, either 
from the great vent near Keswick or from a subsidiary vent 
situated somewhere between Eycott Hill and High Pike, and the 
beds as they now exist probably represent the remains of a covering 
which once overspread the whole of the Skiddaw group, and may 
have extended some distance to the north and west of it. Near 
the eastern end of this belt of volcanic rock, and adjoining the 
Skiddaw Granite in the lower part of the Caldew valley, there are 
several intrusive masses of felsite, diorite, and gabbro. The felsite 
occupies a considerable area on the top of Carrock, and a somewhat 
smaller area on Great Lingy. It is a coarsely grained felsite, of a 
pale red or brownish-grey colour, with scattered greenish crystals 
which show a spherulitic structure. Between Brandy Gill and the 
summit of Carrock there is a mass of diorite composed chiefly of 
felspar and hornblende, highly crystalline, and rather coarse 
grained. At the north-western end of the diorite, near the head of 
Brandy Gill, there is a small exposure of granitic rock in which the 
crystallization is imperfectly developed. Below, and to the east 
of the spherulitic felsite on Great Lingy, and below the same rock 
on Carrock, there is an exposure of gabbro, the base of which 
consists of large crystals of opaque white felspar (plagioclase) and 
interstitial quartz, and through it are scattered crystals of dark 
olive-green diallage, a mineral very nearly allied to hypersthene, 


77 


also occasional grains of magnetite and apatite. This rock is 
generally coarsely crystalline, but sometimes fine grained. 

The hornblende picrite of Little Knot is a coarsely crystalline 
rock of a dark olive-green colour. It is composed largely of horn- 
blende; but it also contains small quantities of quartz, felspar, 
iron peroxide, epidote, apatite, and calcite. It forms an oblong 
mass, about six hundred yards in length, by forty yards in width, 
and extends from the ridge of Little Knot, at the northern end of 
Longside, down nearly to the bottom of Southern Dale. There 
is also a large mass of hornblende picrite of like nature exposed 
in Hause Gill, a tributary of Dash Beck, a little to the north of 
Dash Farm. 

On the Dodd (Skiddaw) there are several dykes of Mica-trap. 
They consist chiefly of felspar and mica, with a little quartz and 
hornblende, also some calc spar in cavities. The felspar is 
generally much altered. 

Two small masses of diorite, probably portions of dykes, are 
exposed at Threlkeld Mine, in Gategill, Blencathra, where they 
have been cut into by the stream at the bottom of the gill. A 
slender dyke of similar character occurs at Robin Hood Mine, 
Bassenthwaite ; the latter is about half a mile in length, and from 
three to six feet in width. 

The Skiddaw group of mountains is intersected by an important 
fault, which extends through the depression occupied by Winder- 
mere, Rydal and Grasmere Lakes, thence through Dunmail Pass 
and the Thirlmere Naddle and Glenderaterra Valleys. In Skiddaw 
Forest it appears to bifurcate, the eastern branch passing along the 
valley of the Caldew, and the western branch along the depression 
occupied by Dash Beck, thus dividing the Skiddaw group into 
_ three sections of nearly equal size. The mountain mass is also 
flanked on the south by the great fault which forms the boundary 
between the Skiddaw Slates and the volcanic rocks, and on the 
west by the fault which passes through the valley of the Derwent. 
The outer portion of the mountain area is much cut up on every 
side by mineral veins, of which there are two sets, one having a 
prevailing east-and-west, and the other a north-and-south bearing. 


78 


On the northern margin these veins have been very productive, 
and on the south-eastern margin scarcely less so; but those on the 
southern and western sides, although perhaps quite as numerous, 
have yielded very little ore. One of the latter—a copper vein— 
may be traced for a distance of four or five miles, and at one part 
of its course, called White Stones, on the south-western flank of 
Skiddaw, where several other veins intersect or diverge from it at 
various angles, an immense mass of quartz has been thrown out; 
indeed, so great is the quantity, that a mining engineer with whom 
I once visited the piace, remarked that it appeared to be the home, 
or headquarters, of all the veins in the district. 

The mineral deposits occurring in the Skiddaw group of moun- 
tains, and in the rocks and veins just described, are of very varied 
character; they contain many rare and beautiful varieties, more 
probably than are to be found in any area of equal size in the 
United Kingdom, or even in Europe. ‘The deposits occur almost 
exclusively at the edges of the mountain area, and appear to be more 
closely associated with the intrusive masses and dykes of diorite, 
felsite, and gabbro, than with the granite itself; indeed, the central 
portion of the area has hitherto proved to be entirely barren. The 
prolific veins of the Caldbeck Fells area are in close proximity to the 
felsite, gabbro, and bastard granite on Carrock and Great Lingy, 
and the bearings of those that have yielded the largest quantities 
of ore are east and west, being nearly parallel to the longest axis 
of the intrusive masses of igneous rock. Owing to the position of 
these veins, lying as they do between the masses of igneous rock 
and the lower ground to the north, they must have received the 
drainage from the igneous rocks during the whole of the time that 
these rocks and veins have occupied their relative positions. Both 
the veins and igneous rocks probably owe their origin to the 
volcanic disturbances which took place during the Silurian period, 
and the early part of the Old Red Sandstone period. The opening 
of the fissures, now occupied by veins, no doubt gave rise to an 
upward flow and circulation of highly-heated water, charged with 
mineral matter of various kinds, which would be thrown down on 
the sides of the fissures when the temperature became sufficiently 


a 


Da 


79 


reduced, either by approaching the surface or by mingling with 
colder currents. The deposits first formed were probably at a higher 
level than any part of the surface of the Lake District, as it now 
exists, and have since been removed by denudation, together with 
some thousands of feet of rock, consisting of Silurian and Carbon- 
iferous strata, which at one time probably extended over the whole 
district. The many valuable deposits of ore found on high 
mountains, prove that these deposits must have been formed when 
the surface was at a much higher level than it is now. Of these I 
may mention Greenside, Roughtengill, Threlkeld, Dale Head, 
Goldscope, Yewthwaite, and Old Brandley ; the first named being 
two thousand four hundred feet above the sea. At Old Brandley 
there was a valuable deposit of lead ore at the ridge of the moun- 
tain,—one thousand four hundred feet above the sea—and extending 
downwards to a depth of about thirty fathoms. Below that point 
there was no ore found worth naming, although several long levels 
were driven, and extensive explorations made. 

Mr. J. Clifton Ward calculated from the size of the vacuities in 
the liquid cavities, of the quartz in the Skiddaw Granite, Eskdale 
Granite, Buttermere Syenite, St. John’s Quartz Felsite, and other 
granitic and granitoid rock; also in the vein quartz occurring in 
the central portion of the Lake District, that these rocks must have 
been formed, and the vein fissures filled, under a pressure equal to 
from twenty thousand to thirty thousand feet of rock. And further, 
that the water by which the quartz and other minerals were 
deposited must have been at a very high temperature. As the 
voleanic energy gradually decreased, the deposition of mineral 
matter would proceed to lower, and lower, levels ; and thus those 
portions of the vein fissures nearest the surface would be filled first, 
and the deep-seated portions more recently. The flow of thermal 
water was not confined to the vein fissures, but also accompanied 
the intrusive masses of igneous rock, and probably continued to 
find its way upwards, around the sides and through the joints of 
these rocks for a considerable time after they were solidified and 
partly cooled. Satisfactory proof of this has been obtained during 
the quarrying operations in the St. John’s Quartz Felsite at 


80 


Threlkeld Quarry, several joints having been met with, the sides 
of which are coated with crystalline quartz, galena, and blende. 
Similar quarrying or mining operations in other masses of igneous 
rock would no doubt afford like evidence of thermal action. 

In process of time the last trace of volcanic energy disappeared, 
the thermal waters ceased to flow, and the veins became conduits 
for the reception of surface drainage; then the water flowing in 
the opposite direction, that is downwards instead of upwards, 
would attack and dissolve some of the minerals previously deposited, 
and where circumstances were favourable, re-deposit them at lower 
levels in the same veins but under altered conditions, fresh 
combinations being formed by the addition of other minerals held 
in solution by the solvent fluid. This process has prevailed to a 
large extent in the veins of the Caldbeck Fells, decomposition 
products forming the largest proportion of the ores raised, while 
the sulphides of lead, copper, and zinc, were of secondary import- 
ance. This is no doubt due to the proximity of large masses 
of igneous rock on the side from which drainage would fall into 
the veins. The rain descending upon the igneous masses, having 
in its passage through the rock dissolved and carried away a certain 
amount of mineral matter, which on reaching the veins would unite 
with the minerals already deposited, or with those which were then 
being deposited there. It is to this combination of influences that 
the mines of the Caldbeck Fells are so justly famed for the great 
variety of rare and beautiful minerals which they yield, and of 
these, Roughtengill stands pre-eminent. It also stands foremost 
with regard to the richness of its deposits, which extend over a 
length of six hundred fathoms, yielding lead, copper, and zinc ores 
in workable quantities, and in a great variety of forms and colours, 
together with manganese and iron (limonite), also barytes and 
other non-metallic minerals. 

Driggeth, or Sandbed Mine, ranks next to Roughtengill in im- 
portance. It too, has yielded lead and copper in considerable 
quantities, also some zinc ore and barytes. There was very little 
galena raised at Driggeth, almost the entire yield of lead ore 
consisting of decomposition products. 


”_ “TT? 


SS --  e 


ee ee ee 


Se SY Ie eee eee eS ne ee 


ye 4 


mies axa 


ste 


81 


Silvergill, Hay Gill, Red Gill, Dry Gill, and Carrock End Mines, 
all situated in the Caldbeck Fells District, and more or less under 
the same conditions as Roughtengill and Driggeth, have yielded 
small quantities of lead and copper ores, chiefly decomposition 
products. 

Brandy Gill can scarcely take rank as a mine, so little has been 
done in it, but its veins rank next to those of Roughtengill with 
regard to the number of rare and beautiful minerals which they 
contain. Their position between the masses of felsite and gabbro 
on Carrock and Great Lingy, on the eastern and western sides, with 
the bastard granite on the north, and the Skiddaw granite on the 
south, is peculiarly favourable for the production of these rare 
minerals. 

On the southern side of the igneous rocks on Great Lingy, and 
within the area of metamorphosed Skiddaw Slate, surrounding the 
Skiddaw Granite, there are some veins of manganese. These may 
be seen in Burdell Gill, Wiley Gill, and at Knot. They seem to 
have been formed and filled under conditions totally different from 
those which were brought to bear upon the veins on the northern 
side of the igneous rocks, as there is in the former a total absence 
of that variety in their mineral contents, which is the most prominent 
feature in the latter, indeed there is only a little limonite, crystallized 
quartz and calcite associated with the manganese. 

Leaving the Caldbeck Felis District, and journeying round to 
the south-east, the Blencathra veins and mines next claim our 
attention. Most of these veins are like the Caldbeck Fells veins, 
in being associated more or less with igneous rocks, but differ 
widely from them in other respects. The Woodend and Gategill 
veins are the most noteworthy of the group, and they have yielded, 
and are still yielding large quantities of lead and zinc ores, which 
have remained in the condition in which they were first deposited, 
no decomposition nor combination with other minerals having 
taken place. Formerly these veins were worked by separate mines, 
under their respective names, but they are now embraced in one, 
called Threlkeld Mine. The bearing of Woodend vein is about 
to degrees east of north, and of Gategill vein 25 degrees west of 


82 


north ; they form a junction in the northern part of the mine, and 
Gategill vein being the older, is displaced about 20 fathoms. 
These veins do not, like the principal veins in the Caldbeck Fells, 
skirt the mountains, and run parallel with the igneous rocks, but 
they pierce both the mountain and the dykes of igneous rock at 
right angles, and probably penetrate the Skiddaw Granite, although 
they cannot be traced into it on the surface. Both of the veins 
contain ore in fair workable quantities on each side of the junction, 
but the twenty fathoms of ground between the points where the 
Gategill vein joins the Woodend vein on the eastern, and leaves it 
on the western side, is the richest portion of the mine. The dykes 
of diorite which are older than the veins, were probably formed at 
the same time as the system of east and west faults, and the diorite 
was consolidated, although the flow of thermal water had probably 
not ceased when Gategill vein fissure was formed and gave fresh 
impetus to it. The thermal action having continued until Gategill 
vein was filled, a fresh disturbance took place, Woodend vein fissure 
was formed, and the thermal action again revived, and continued 
in operation until the new fissure was filled. Thus, the deposition 
of ore between the points of junction, would continue double the 
length of time that it was in operation in other portions of the 
veins, the junction being re-opened, and becoming part of Woodend 
vein, as it had previously been of Gategill vein. 

A remarkable feature in these veins, is the small quantity of 
quartz associated with the ores, donk being a more prominent 
concomitant; but they contain, in addition to the ores of lead and 
zinc, a great deal of iron pyrites, which is undergoing decomposition 
at a rapid rate, the water flowing from some parts of the mine being 
highly charged with oxide of iron in solution. A deposit of 
limonite formed by this mineralized water in the low level at Wood- 
end (now Threlkeld) mine, is described in a paper on “ Mineral 
Springs near Keswick.”* 

A decomposition similar to the one in progress at Threlkeld 
mine was completed long ago in some of the neighbouring veins. 
The large vein at Saddleback Old Mine, in the Glenderamakin 

* Trans. Cumb, and West. Assoc., No. xi. p. 142. 


: 
A 


t 


oe ee ee See ll 


ee ae ee ee ee 


ed 


> 


nd 


83 


Valley, is almost filled with lhmonite of a dark brown and orange 
colour ; indeed, it is so plentiful, that an attempt was made a few 
years ago to mine and send it to market as a pigment, but the cost 
of carriage rendered it impracticable. A considerable quantiy of 
limonite also occurs in some of the veins in the Glenderaterra 
valley. 

There are several important veins in the last named valley, and 
one of the number no doubt occupies the great fault fissure which 
has formed the line of weakness, along which the valley has been 
excavated. This vein bears some resemblance to the Caldbeck 
Fells veins with regard both to the number and character of the 
minerals it contains, consisting of the ores of lead, copper, zinc, 
and iron, together with large quantities of friable quartz, and a 
little barytes and chalcedony. Some of the ores are decomposition 
products. The mining operations on this vein are of a superficial 
character, and very little ore has been raised. A shaft was sunk 
on one portion of it to a depth of thirty fathoms, and levels were 
driven off north and south at fifteen fathoms below the surface, 
and two more at the bottom of the shaft, but not to any great 
distance ; and from these workings about one hundred tons of lead 
ore, and four or five tons of copper ore were raised. Some lead and 
copper ores were also obtained from a level about fifty fathoms north 
of this shaft. A little lower down the valley another shaft was sunk 
a few fathoms, and some ore was obtained from it. It appears that 
wherever these veins have been worked a little ore has been found, 
but hitherto they have not yielded sufficient to cover expenses. 
The whole of these works are either in the chiastolite slate, spotted 
schist, or mica schist adjoining the granite in Syning Gill, and it is 
much to be regretted that there is not sufficient ore to render the 
works profitable, and cause deeper and more extensive excavations 
to be made in these interesting metamorphic rocks; which, no 
doubt, bear the same share in the formation of the decomposition 
products in the Glenderaterra veins as that borne by the igneous 
rocks in the Caldbeck Fells District. 

Proceeding further to the west we come to the great vein of 
Skiddaw, which stretches from near Ravenstone to Lonscale, along 


84 


the lower part of the mountain. It occupies the very position, 
which, according to some authorities, should be most favourable 
for the deposition of minerals, but the most noteworthy feature 
connected with its mineral contents is extreme barrenness. It 
contains in some places abundance of quartz, with traces of copper 
throughout the greater part of its length, also here and there a little 
maganese and barytes. ‘The reason for this barrenness is not very 
apparent, the presence of quartz shows that there has been a certain 
amount of thermal action throughout the entire length of the vein, 
while at White Stones it has been remarkable for its intensity, and 
must have continued a great length of time. There are no igneous 
rocks between the vein and the higher ground, but it is very nearly, 
if not quite, in touch with the chiastolite slate on that side, both 
in Millbeck and Applethwaite Gills). The Trap dykes en Dodd 
cannot influence the vein, as they are on the wrong side. Short 
levels have been driven on the vein in Sandy Gill, above Mirehouse, 
and in Applethwaite Gill, small pits have also been sunk at various 
points on the back of the vein, but they did not open out anything 
that would warrant more extensive explorations. 

Some of the veins which join the Skiddaw vein at White Stones 
contain immense quantities of quartz, and one of them, in which a 
mine was opened a few years ago, yielded about one hundred and 
fifty tons of sulphate barytes, also some fine lumps of galena 
embedded in the barytes. 

The strongest of the veins which unite with the Skiddaw vein at 
White Stones, is one that takes a north-westerly course down Skill 
Beck Gill, to near Mirehouse, where it disappears beneath the 
thick alluvial soil. It contains abundance of quartz, and some 
galena; anda level has been driven on it, just above the road, near 
Mirehouse, but it does not appear to have yielded much ore. 
There are also lead veins on Cockup, in Dead Beck and Dash 
Beck Gills, and extensive excavations have been made in some 
of them, but they have not been remunerative. 

At Robin Hood there is a vein closely associated with the slender 
dyke of diorite at that place. It runs parallel with and close to 


—————— eee —— 


ein 


85 


the dyke, and contains a considerable quantity of white opaque 
quartz, in some of which may be detected small specks and flakes 
of antimony. A shaft was sunk a few fathoms at the point where 
antimony was first found, and afterwards a level was driven on the 
vein for the purpose of unwatering the shaft. About twenty tons 
of oxide of antimony were obtained, chiefly in the shaft, but it is 
doubtful whether the quantity raised was sufficient to cover expenses. 
There are now few traces of the work done in this mine, the upper 
part of the shaft has been covered over and filled in, the mouth of 
the level walled up, and all the material brought out of both shaft 
and level has been removed and used for road repairs. 

Thus, we find that all the veins on the southern and western 
sides of the Skiddaw group of mountains are practically barren. 
They have been proved to be lacking in workable deposits of ore 
like those at Threlkeld and some of the Caldbeck Fells mines ; 
and, with the exception of the antimony at Robin Hood, there is 
an almost entire absence of those rare minerals for which the 
Caldbeck Fells mines are so famed. 


There is nothing in the position and surroundings of the veins 
and mineral deposits of the Skiddaw group that would tend to 
reveal the laws which govern the deposition of minerals, or afford 
any evidence that would be of service in guiding miners in their 
search for metalliferous ores, either here or elsewhere. We may 
learn something of the laws which regulate the decomposition and 
changes which take place in minerals already deposited, but those 
which governed the original deposition are still wrapped in obscurity. 
In the Caldbeck Fells District the best ore-bearing veins run 
parallel to the axis of the higher ground, and in a position which 
causes them to receive the drainage from the higher ground ; while 
in the Blencathra mines the best deposits are found in veins which 
penetrate the mountain at right angles. On the other hand, the 
Skiddaw vein, which occupies the same position on the south as 
that occupied by the best Caldbeck Fells veins on the north, 


86 


contains little more than a trace of ore: the same may also be 
said of a vein at White Stones, which occupies the same relative 
position as the most fruitful of the Blencathra veins. We may, 
therefore, safely infer that the surface configuration of the ground 
did not in any way influence the original deposition of the ores, 
but that it did, to a considerable extent, influence the formation of 


secondary, or decomposition products. 


87 


SOME OF THE CHANGES OF SOCIAL LIFE 
IN ENGLAND DURING THE LAST SIXTY YEARS. 


The Presidential Address given at the Annual Meeting of the 
Association at Ambleside, July, 1890, 


By THE RicHT REV. THE BISHOP OF BARROW-IN-FURNESS. 


Ir is my duty as filling the honorable office of President of this 
Association for the present year, to give a short address to you at 
your annual meeting. We are finishing this year one of the 
decades of the roth century—only ten years more remain to it. 
And the fact reminds me that if I live to see the end of the present 
century, I shall have reached the threescore years and ten, which 
are the ordinary limit of human life. As we grow older, anni- 
versaries are perhaps not such pleasant things as they were when 
we were young. We are more ready to look back to our own 
youth, and to think pensively of the times that are gone, than to 
look forward hopefully to the future. And so, my duty of giving 
an address to you to-day has set me thinking of the many and 
great changes that have passed over England since my own birth, 
just sixty years ago, and of the very different state of things which 
Surrounded me in my own childhood, and in the days of my 
earliest recollections. 

It is one of the privileges of advancing years to prose about the 
memories of youth. And at the risk of being egotistical, I should 
like to talk to you about some of those things, and (so far as can 
be done in a brief sketch) to compare the England of fifty or sixty 


88 


years ago with the England of to-day. I shall not touch upon 
anything ecclesiastical or political, though much might be said 
under both of those heads. 

It seems to me almost as if I had been born into a different 
world from that in which we live now. ‘The nation had then 
recovered itself from the great strain of the long European war, 
in which England had (at one time almost alone against combined 
Europe) withstood the power of the first Napoleon. During that 
war, every other thought had been thrown into the background: 
taxation was at the highest possible point, and most people lived 
very simply and frugally. I have heard my father say that, as 
soon as the peace came, there was at once a very marked change, 
in the growth of comparative luxury in every rank and class of 
society. And soon the nation woke up to that great outburst of 
activity—social, scientific, intellectual, industrial—which has lasted 
to our own day. 

I have lately read over again two books which embody in the 
form of fiction accounts of the life and manners of the times to 
which they relate. One is Charles Reade’s novel, “The Cloister 
and the Hearth.” It gives many excellent sketches of life and 
manners on the continent of Europe, as they were about four 
hundred years ago—not entirely drawn from the writer’s imagin- 
ation, but founded largely upon a contemporary book, the 
Colloquies of Erasmus. The other is a work familiar (I hope) to 
you all, for there is no book better worthy of study, as giving a 
good idea of the England of fifty or sixty years ago. The 
“Pickwick Papers” were completed in 1837, and I well remember 
spelling out the green covered monthly numbers which my big 
brothers left about in my nursery (though of course I understood 
them very imperfectly), and the fascination which the pictures 
exercised upon my childish mind. And you know every Naturalist 
Society of the present day ought to look back with respect to the 
Pickwick Club, as being in some sense its forerunner! It was 
Mr. Pickwick’s essay on the Natural History of the Sticklebacks in 
Hampstead Ponds which had established his greatness. What a 
curious change it marks in the manner in which the two gener- 


89 


ations regard natural history! In 1836, to study Sticklebacks 
seemed ludicrous! What an interesting account has been given 
of them by a well-known naturalist within the last few years, of the 
nests which they make, and of their habits of life generally! How 
much more have we learnt to watch and love the minutest details 
of God’s works in Nature ! 

Reading over again those two books, “ The Cloister and the 
Hearth,” and the “ Pickwick Papers,” it seems to me that (except 
for the great religious change of the Reformation) the world of 
1830 was more “ke the world of 7490 than of 1890, and that the 
last sixty years have wrought greater changes than the three 
centuries which went before: certainly no period of sixty years in 
the whole history of the world has seen so many. 

Take first this great fact, that railways have been practically the 
growth of the last sixty years. The small line from Stockton to 
Darlington began (I believe) about 1825; but the railway from 
Liverpool to Manchester was first opened in September, 1830, and 
at that time the communication between the north and south of 
England was still by the old stage coaches, travelling seven or 
eight miles an hour. These, of course, were chiefly for the 
wealthier classes, who wished to travel fast and could afford the 
expense. If the poor travelled at all, they went in wagons, and a 
journey which is now performed in a day, would take them two or 
three weeks. I well remember the weary length of a journey from 
London into Suffolk in the stuffy inside of a stage coach. And 


_ among the pleasanter memories of my childhood are the long 


drives from London to Brighton, or some other seaside place, or 
to a house in the country, sleeping at an inn on the road. It is 


_ difficult now to realize that, within the memory of some of us, 


Cumberland was practically farther from London than Rome or 
Madrid are now. I suppose, if I had been told then that my own 


__ later years were to be passed in Cumberland, it would have seemed 


to me a greater banishment than it does now to your own children 
if they have to go out and settle in Canada. And this tendency 


_ to draw together the different parts of the world seems to be 
increasing. How strange would have appeared, even twenty years 


90 


ago, the practice by which so many persons who happen to have 
sufficient wealth or leisure go habitually to the south of France or 
to some other warm climate, to avoid the cold of an English 
winter! Certainly the various nations of Europe are more closely 
bound together in commerce, and have more intercourse with each 
other than the north and south, east and west of England had, 
only sixty years since! 

I might go on to speak of smaller changes, yet changes which 
would strike us very forcibly, if they came suddenly, For instance, 
imagine London, as it was sixty years ago, without a cab or an 
omnibus! or think that in those days there were no policemen, 
only the old watchmen. One wonders how in the world order 
was preserved, or crime checked! Or compare Mrs. Gamp with 
the modern trained nurse—a sufficiently startling contrast ! 

But I pass on to the social state of England in other respects. 
I have already said that I know no more instructive reading, more 
especially as regards the state and habits of the middle classes 
fifty or sixty years ago, than the earlier works of Charles Dickens. 
Take for instance the description in the ‘‘Pickwick Papers” of the 
life of the well-to-do Kentish yeoman, at Dingley Dell, a personage 
who (I fear) has nearly vanished out of the land during the last fifty 
years. One of the few changes which I very greatly regret, is the 
decay of purely rural life—the yeomen and statesmen now well 
nigh extinct—the farmers in many districts more or less impover- 
ished—while the agricultural labourers are indeed more educated 
and better off, but are changed in character and far less numerous. 
I confess to a regret for the loss of the smock-frocked labourers of 
my boyhood. For it seems to me that the village folk, ignorant 
perhaps ‘and prejudiced, but kindly, simple, hardy,’ healthy, and 
the most numerous class of the community, were the backbone of 
England. 

Or, to turn to changes which are very markedly for the Jeter. 
Throughout the book to which I have been referring, you will see 
on almost every page some evidence of the general _drinking habits 
of the nation, for instance the large consumption of brandy and 
water at all times and on every possible excuse, Drunkenness 


91 


(and that in the case of personages whom we are meant to like 
and rather to respect) is represented as frequent, and as no cause 
for shame. And my own remembrance of school and college life 
entirely corresponds to this. The habitual or confirmed drunkard, 
of course, is not often found among the young. But we were all 
from childhood accustomed to the free use of stimulants. The 
young schoolboy at a boarding school had his beer at dinner as a 
matter of course; little boys and girls coming down to dessert 
after dinner to see their parents’ guests, were supplied with their 
half-glass of wine. In my undergraduate days the tankard of ale 
was habitually passed round after every breakfast party, and nearly 
every one drank some. I suppose my statement will astonish 
some of the younger total abstainers here (for no doubt there are 
some such present); but it is a simple fact, that up to the time 
when I came to be vicar of Kirkby Lonsdale in 1862, I had in my 
whole life (so far as I can now recal to my memory) only known 
personally ove total abstainer! Now of course I do not for a 
moment wish to imply that total abstainers are the only people 
interested in true temperance (in fact I am not one myself) but I 
do think that all these things point to a very extraordinary change 
of the general sentiment in such matters. 

Again, what some boarding schools (at all events) were 
like, we may read in the pages of “Nicholas Nickleby.” It 
may be hoped and believed that few schools were altogether 
like that conducted by Mr. Squeers. But let me remind 
you that Dickens did habitually draw from life. He saw 
the grotesque side of things, but he wrote what he saw: 
and almost always with the distinct purpose of abating evils 
which he knew to exist. And I have to-night with me a curious 
illustration of the fact, which I can show to any one interested in 
it. It is the original advertisement of Mr. Squeers’ academy, cut 
out from the Zzmes by a relative of my own, at the time when 
“‘Nicholas Nickleby” was being published. And I do not envy 
the feelings of the prototype of Mr. Squeers, if he bought that 
green covered number to beguile the tedium of the long stage 
coach journey from the George and Blue Boar, Holborn, to the 


92 


north. I will just read it. Those of you who know “ Nicholas 
Nickleby” well, will recognise it at once, as almost word for word 
the advertisement of Mr. Squeers. I omit the names. 


‘© EDUCATION.—By Mr. mE Academy, near Barnard Castle, 
Durham, youth are carefully instructed in the English, Latin, and Greek 
languages, writing, common and decimal arithmetic, book-keeping, mensur- 
ation, surveying, geometry, geography, and navigation, with the most useful 
branches of the mathematics, and provided with board, clothes, and every 
necessary, at 20 guineas per annum each. No extra charges. No vacations. 
Further particulars may be known on application to Mr. 
Marylebone Street. Mr. 
from 12 to 2, daily.” 


, agent, — Great 
attends at the George and Blue Boar, Holborn, 


I must turn now to a more important change still. I mean the 
change in the social condition of the poor. But as to this, I must 
have recourse to the memory and the writings of others; for 
naturally a child or a little schoolboy (as I was then) would not 
concern himself greatly with such matters. Thus, I do not 
remember to have heard much, at the time, of the sufferings of the 
children employed in mines, or of the efforts made for their relief 
by Lord Shaftesbury, to whom chiefly the nation owes its deliver- 
ance from that crying sin. But I have a vivid recollection of the 
chimney sweeps of those days—boys, sometimes stolen for the 
purpose as children*—more often sold by their parents; and 
driven by their masters to climb up chimneys; beaten if they 
would not or could not go up—fires lighted underneath to smoke 
them out, if they would not come down again—backs and elbows 
and knees bruised and torn by the bricks in climbing—half-starved 
—left unwashed, though the neglect of this in their occupation 
brought on a dreadful disease. And yet, whatever philanthropists 
might say, it was impossible to persuade people to have their 
chimneys swept by machines. Happily after a time the employ- 
ment of these boys was forbidden by law. 

As to the state of the pauper, or the criminal class, let me once 


*T knew very well in later years an old man who had been so stolen, and who 
was I believe the original of the Sweep in Charles Kingsley’s ‘‘ Waterbaby.” 


93 


more refer to the writings of Charles Dickens. Read “Oliver 
Twist,” published (I think) about 1833; and see how utterly 
impossible it would be for such a book to be written in the present 
day. Of course it is (more or less) a caricature of the state of 
things which Dickens saw around him. But a caricature loses all 
its point, if it does not possess some sort of real likeness to the 
life. And (as I have said) in almost all his writings Dickens had 
some serious moral purpose. Those purposes have, for the most 
part, been now so completely achieved, that the old evil state of 
affairs is forgotten, and we are apt to say that such things can 
never have been! Compare our workhouses and our workhouse 
schools with the description presented in “Oliver Twist.” Look 
at the picture of the utterly neglected London poor, and especially 
of the criminal classes, there given, cut off wholly from any hope of 
better things; and think of the swarm of charitable and religious 
agencies which are at work now—inadequate indeed still to cope 
with the needs of the case, and yet presenting a very different 
aspect from that given in “Oliver Twist,” and resulting in an 
immense diminution of crime and misery. 

But the honest and respectable working man—what was his 
condition? With regard to his wages, let me refer to a very 
remarkable pamphlet, published in 1884, by Mr. Robert Giffen, 
President of the Statistical Society, on ‘“‘The Progress of the 
Working Classes in the last Half Century,” which gives a more 
trustworthy account of the change than any mere impressions 
could do.* The conclusion to which Mr. Giffen comes is shortly 
this—that in fifty years the workman’s wages have risen between 
50 and oo per cent.—that his food, and all articles consumed by 
him, are on the whole somewhat cheaper, bread in particular 
being much cheaper and freed from the great fluctuations of price 

*I may‘also mention an interesting lecture by Mr. C. S, Roundell, on ‘‘The 


Progress of the,,Working Classes during the Reign of the present Queen,” to 
which I owe several thoughts for this address. 


94 


which in old times caused occasionally severe distress. Butcher’s 
meat is dearer, but then fifty or sixty years ago it was not ordinarily 
consumed by the labouring classes at all—it was quite beyond 
their reach. House rent also is higher; but the houses are much 
better, so that this increase chiefly represents the interest upon the 
increased capital invested in building. And with all this, the 
workman’s hours of labour have been diminished about 20 per 
cent., and are still diminishing. 

Fifty or sixty years ago, certainly less than half of the labouring 
classes could read and write. Of course the memory of many of 
us here can testify to a great and continuous improvement in this 
respect. No doubt it was more needed in the south of England 
than here in the north, where there was a larger number of old 
endowed schools. In fact, as regards the N.W. of England, I 
doubt whether the changes of modern legislation (such as the new 
schemes promoted by the Endowed Schools Commission and the 
throwing open of so many local scholarships at the Universities,) 
may not have made it rather more difficult for the poor man’s 
clever son to rise in the world than it was then. 

But, speaking broadly, the working man is better fed, better 
housed, better clothed, better educated, his working hours are 
shorter, he puts more money into savings banks, he has better 
literature, better amusements, he goes about more, he is better man- 
nered, he has a larger share in the comforts and even the luxuries 
of civilized life. And one result is shown by this fact—that, 
according to the life tables, there has been in about forty years, a 
distinct gain in the average duration of life—two years in the case 
of males, three-and-a-half years in the case of females. Think 
how much more health and strength this represents—what a 
diminution of sickness and sorrow in the world! 

Yes, “the good old times,” which we so often talk of, owe their 
existence far more to the affection with which we look back on 
the past as we advance in life, than to any real superiority which 


95 


they possessed in themselves. And the words of the Preacher, 
Ecclesiastes, are true still, “Say not thou, What is the cause that 
the former times were better than these ? for thou dost not inquire 
wisely concerning this.” Much, as we know, still remains to be 
done—much for our own moral and spiritual progress and for the 
_ good of those around us. But I am convined that England is 
now a better country to live in, and that (as a whole) Englishmen 
are happier, and I hope better, to-day, than they were fifty or sixty 


years ago. 


8 JUN. 92 


G AND T. COWARD, PRINTERS, CARLISLE. 


1 | 
a ; 7 4 
‘ mt a et ae ; 
J ' 5 ; ari ™ % 
os i i - a Z 
i i 
tea | k Bie 5! 
.. i ot is J on 
x i 
NA 
ee © . Ly - 
t +t, Veh ahireay atc e ca yee ss ay 
is x a ‘ Re thnk 
a Le 
G 
a ’ i 
a “ 
4 * i 4 
¥ 7 a yi 
he \ i ‘ Ke - } 
sao ’ rie 
5 ed a he ek, F 4 ree i 
dae ery a \ te af Font 
a ; af ! ; ah 
x , S 
ps - +p 
x. * . ¢ f 
I fe 
¥ Ewe t ss. ‘ ft sé - 1 ~~ . 
~ = . 4 ‘ 
q } 
oa : 
; : v hen 
i ie 7 
i - 3 Fi es ? img 
- . ~ 
. 
* nm ). 
‘ 
' 
5 ¥ ~ > - 
5 
A 
a — t 
« < 
> ’ - 
. y 
i f , 
: - 
“sh 
r or 
. ! : co 
An 
. e 
4 
<i vat 
ie a iy 
r 4i, 
>» 
/ 
t 
> t 
’ 


el 


Weak a ce OR OR Gta oe ke eee 


am 


7 yx 
a ei Way, 


" “Cumberland and Westmorland 
Assortation 


FOR THE 


=i eo Ni6, “-XVE—1690-91) 


‘Bprte> ny J. G. GOODCHILD, F.G.S, BeZ,Sing 


-MEMBER . OF THE BRITISH ORNITHOLOGISTS’ UNION ; 
H.M, GEOL. SURVEY.. 


PRICE TO MEMBERS, ONE SHILLING. 


NON-MEMBERS, TWO SHILLINGS AND SIXPENCE. 


a CARLISLE: : 
TED BY G. age COWARD, THE WORDSWORTH PRESS. eS 
ae iE 

bs 7 ‘- we < ei 


FRANSAC TIONS 


OF THE 


Cumberland and G@estmorland 
Assoctation 


FOR THE 


Advancement of Literature and Science. 


No. XVI.—1890-91. 


Peace sy j. .G; GOODCHILD, F:.G:S.,.-EZ.S- 


MEMBER OF THE BRITISH ORNITHOLOGISTS’ UNION ; 
H.M. GEOL. SURVEY. 


PRICE TO MEMBERS, ONE SHILLING. 


NON-MEMBERS, TWO SHILLINGS AND SIXPENCE. 


CARLISLE: 
PRINTED BY G. & T. COWARD, THE WORDSWORTH PRESS. 
1892. 


CONTENT S. 


Page 
RULES ae oh nS ne AY ie Aes v. 
List oF OFFICERS ... ee Sway oy a Wy Wavaire 
ADDRESSES OF HoNoRARY SECRETARIES OF THE SEVERAL LOocAL 
SocIETIES cs ar nee vie ae sir x. 
Loca Sus-ComMMITTEES Be ne pa So a55 x 
MEMORANDA FOR MEMBERS _... ES tes Re nae Xi. 
List or AssocraATION MEMBERS sal Me ae cosy 
REPORTS FROM THE ASSOCIATED SOCIETIES aS a bee) ipa ELLIS 
REPORT OF ASSOCIATION SECRETARY ... ape ae wa. XXIV. 
TREASURER’S ACCOUNT oe “BH sae sae ee XL 
CATALOGUE OF ASSOCIATION LIBRARY ... one Wie FEO 
PRESIDENT’s ADDRESS: ‘‘On the Study of Local doateaty? By 
the Right Rev. The BisHop oF BARROW-IN-FURNESS ahs 1 
Papers READ AT THE ANNUAL MEETING :— 
“The Cleaved Ashes and Preccias of the Volcanic Series of 
Borrowdale.” By J. Postietruwairs, F.G.S. ... Pr 41 


‘* Notes on some of the Limestones of Cumberland and West- 
morland.” By J. G. Goopcuttp, H.M. Geol. Survey, 
F.G.8., &e. ies ae ae a beta tly) Weta! 
Papers COMMUNICATED TO THE SOCIETIES, AND SELECTED BY THE 
ASSOCIATION COUNCIL FOR PUBLICATION :— 
‘“*A Roman Recreation Ground: The Campus Martius of 
Glanoventa.” By the Rev. J. I. Cummins, O.S.B. 


(Maryport)... We og 5 ace a 13 
‘* Botanical ‘Waifs’ in Cumberland.” By Wr1LLt1am Hopeson, - 
A.L.S. (Maryport and Carlisle) ... ee ae Pot 23 
‘*Notabilia of Old Penrith.” Part IL. a“ GrorcEe WATSON. 

(Penrith) ... us 55 


“Mr. W. Kinsey Dover, F.G.S.” By J. asi F. G. 8. 93 

a “The Story of Gough and his Dog.” me the Rev. H. D. 

‘G Rawnstey, M.A. ... sc 95 

“‘ Additional Notes on the Land and Fresh Water Shetty's of : 
Cumberland and Westmorland,” By C, W.SmirH ..._—-139 


RULES 


OF THE 


Cumberland and Westmorland Association 


FOR THE 


Advancement of Litevature and Science. 


1.—That the Association be called the “CUMBERLAND AND 
WESTMORLAND ASSOCIATION FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OF LITERA- 
TURE AND SCIENCE.” 
2.—The Association shall consist of the following Societies :— 
Keswick Literary and Scientific Society, Maryport Literary and 
Scientific Society, Longtown Literary and Scientific Society, 
Carlisle Scientific Society and Field Naturalists’ Club, Ambleside 
and District Literary and Scientific Society, Silloth and Holme 
Cultram Literary and Scientific Society, Brampton Literary and 
- Scientific Society and Field Naturalists’ Club, Penrith and District 
_ Literary and Scientific Society, Windermere Literary and Scientific 
Society ; and of such other Societies as shall be duly affiliated. 
_ Also of persons nominated by two members of the Council. Such 
members shall be termed “Association Members.” 
_ 3.—All Members of affiliated Societies, unless otherwise ruled 
by the regulations of their respective Societies, shall be members 


of the Cumberland and Westmorland Association. 


v1. 

4.—The Association shall be governed by_a Council, consisting 
of a President, Vice-Presidents, Two Secretaries, an Editor, a 
Librarian, and of ordinary members, two to be elected by each 
affiliated ' Society. The President, Secretaries, Editor, and 
Librarian shall be elected annually at the Annual Meeting, 
and shall be capable of re-election. The Recorders shall be 
ex-officio members of the Council. 

5.—The Vice-Presidents shall consist of the Presidents of the 
various affiliated Societies; and the Delegates of the various 
Societies shall be elected annually by their respective Societies. 

6.—An Annual Meeting of the Association shall be held at such 
time and place as may be decided upon at the previous Annual 
Meeting, or (failing such appointment) as may be arranged by the 
Council. 

7.—At each Annual Meeting, after the Delivery of the Presi- 
dent’s Address, and the reading of the reports from the affiliated 
Societies, the objects of the Association may be furthered by 
Lectures, Papers, Addresses, Discussions, Conversaziones, &c. 

8.—The Committee of each affiliated Society shall be entitled 
to recommend one original and local paper communicated to such 
Society (subject to the consent of the author) for publication in the 
Transactions of the Association ; but Societies contributing capi- 
tation grant on a number of members exceeding one hundred and 
fifty shall have the privilege of sending two papers. The Council 
shall publish at the expense of the Association the papers recom- 
mended, either in full, or such an abstract of each or any of them 
as the author may prepare or sanction ; also those portions of the 
Association Transactions that may be deemed advisable. 


g:—The Council shall endeavour to promote co-operation among 


ll a mc a i ee 


= 


Vil. 


existing Societies, and may assist in the formation of new ones; it 
may also aid in the establishment of classes in connection with 
any of the associated societies. 

10.—Affiliated Societies shall contribute annually towards the 
general funds of the Association, Sixpence for each of their 
members ; but when the number of members of the affiliated 
Societies exceeds one hundred and fifty, a reduction of fifty per 
cent. shall be made upon the payment for each member in excess 
of that number. 

11.—Association Members pay the sum of 6/- annually, or they 
may compound for their subscription for life by a payment of 
43 38. od. in one sum. 

12.—The Rules can be altered only by a majority of two-thirds 
of the members present at an Annual Meeting. Any member 


desiring to alter the Rules must send a copy of the proposed 


-alterations to the Secretary, at least two weeks before the Meeting 


is held. 
13.-—Past Presidents of the Association shall be permanent 
members of the Council, and be described as past Presidents. 
14.—The travelling expenses of all who assist in carrying out 
the programme of the various affiliated Societies shall be defrayed 


by the Society assisted. 


The Seventeenth ANNUAL MEETING will be held in the Summer 
of 1892, and due notice of the place of Meeting and of the arrange- 
ments will be sent direct to all members of the Association. 


Members willing to contribute original Avéicles on subjects of 
local interest, or short /Votices of anything that may be considered 
worth recording of local and scientific value, should communicate 
with the Honorary Secretaries, J. B. BaiLey, Esq. Eaglesfield 
Street, Maryport; or H. L. Barker, Esq., Sunnyside, Silloth. 


OFFICERS FOR THE SESSION 1891-92. 


President. 


W. C. Guity, Esq., Q.C., M.P. 


Past-Presidents. 


THE LATE Lorp BrsHoP oF CARLISLE. 
Tue Late I. Fiercuer, Esq., M.P., F.R.S. 
Tuer Hon. P. S. WynpHaAm, M.P. 

Rosert Frereuson, Esq., M.P., F.S.A. 
RicHArD 8S. FrrGuson, Esq., M.A., LL.M., F.S.A. 
Davip AInsworTH, Esq. 

R. A. Auttson, Esq., M.P. 

Tue Ricur Rey. THE BisHop or BARROW-IN-FURNESS. 


Vice- Presidents. 


Keswick es a ae J. J. SpeDpING, Esq. 
Maryport... Fs de E. W. Licurroor, Esq. 
Carlisle sen bs wee Rev. H. A. MacpHERsoNn 
Ambleside ... see se 
Silloth Ba neh ac Rev. H. M. Topp, M.A. 
Brampton : 4108 eo 
Penrith ays ve can Rev. T. P. Monnineton, M.A. 
Windermere bas ve B. A. Irvine, Esq. 
Delegates. 
Keswick ... Rev. J. N. Hoare ... Mr. THos. CARRICK 
Maryport ... J. B. Baruey, Hsq. ... J. CARTMELL, Esq. 
Carlisle ... J. A. WHEATLEY, Esq. 
Ambleside 
Silloth .. H. L. Barker, Esq. 
Brampton 
Penrith ... G, Watson, Esq. .. J. 8S. YEATES, Esq. 
Windermere ... 


Hon. Association Secretary. 


H. L. Barker, Esq., Sunnyside, Silloth, 


1x. 
Editor. 


J. G. Goopcuixp, Esq., F.G.S., F.Z.S., M.B.O.U., H.M. Geol. Survey, 
Museum of Science and Art, Edinburgh. 


Librarian. 


R. Crowner, Esq., M.A., Stanwix, Carlisle. 


Delegate to British Association. 


J. G. Goopcuitp, Esq., F.G.S., F.Z.S., M.B.0.U., H.M. Geol. ii 
Museum of Science and Art, Edinburgh. 


Zoological Recorders. 


Rey. H. A. MacpHerson, M.A., M.B.O.U., 20 Cecil Street, Carlisle. 
J. Norman Roszrnson, Esq., Croft House, Cargo, Carlisle. 


Botanical Recorders. 


Rev. R. Woop, M.A., Rosley Vicarage, Carlisle. 


W. Honeson, Esq., A.L.S., 202 Victoria Terrace, Harrington Road, 
Workington. ~- 


General Sub-Committee. 


J. G. GooDCHILD. Rev. J. I. Cummins. R. H. Hamitton. 
H. Bumpy. J. B. BAILEy. H. L. BARKER. 


Library Committee. 


Rev. H. A. MACPHERSON. R. CROWDER. 
J. B. BArLey. H. L. Barker. 


ADDRESSES OF HONORARY SECRETARIES OF 
THE SEVERAL LOCAL SOCIETIES, 


J. Broatcw, Esq., Keswick. 

K. A. Hryz, Esq., Camp Hill, Maryport. 
(Vacant. ) 

J. Styciatr, Esq., 6 Hawick Street, Carlisle. 
J. Bentiey, Esq., Ambleside. 

H. L.. Barker, Esq., Sunnyside, Silloth, 
Isaac B. Hopeson, Esq., Brampton. 

E. H. Keep, Esq., Penrith. 


Col. W. C. MacDoucatt. 
F, Barton, Esq., 8 Biskey Howe Terr., Windermere 


Windermere 


Geology 
Meteorology 


Archeology 
Geology 
Botany 
Entomology 


Botany 


Entomology ... 


Geology 


Icthyology 


Ornithology 


LOCAL SUB-COMMITTEES. 


KESWICK. 


Mr. PosrLeTHwaIrTE, F.G.S. 
Mr. J. F. Crostuwairtr, F.S.A. 


MARYPORT. 


Mr. J. B. Battzy, Mr. T. Carey, Mr. J. CLARK. 
Mr. H. Bumpy. 
Mr, R. H. Hamiuton. 


Mr. Swatnston, Mr. Hotmgs. 


CARLISLE. 


Mr. T. DuckwortH, Dr. CARLYLE, Rev. R. Woop, 
Rev. H. FRIEND. 


Mr. Eaters, Mr. Posrearr, Rev. F. O. P. CAMBRIDGE. 
Mr. D. Burns, Mr. R. Crowpsr, M.A. 


Rev. H. A. Macryrrson, Mr. J. N. Rostnson, 
Mr. W. Nicuou, Mr. H. Levers. 


Rev. H. A. Macpymrson, Mr. T. Duckwortu, 
Mr. J. N. Rozinson, Mr. G. Dawson. 


MEMORANDA FOR MEMBERS. 


SUBSCRIPTIONS ARE DuE— 


Association Members... ... January Ist. 
For Trausactions ih ... February Ist. 
Lecturer’s Fee ... as ... February Ist. 
Capitation Fee ... see ... April Ist. 


PAPERS INTENDED FOR PUBLICATION to be sent not later than April 20th, 
to J. G. Goopcuitp, Esq., Museum of Science and Art, Edinburgh. 


PRICE OF TRANSACTIONS— 
Current Number. Members, 1/- for the first copy, 2/- each for others ; 
Non-members, 2/6. 


For Back NuMBERS— 
Apply to Messrs. G. & T. Cowarp, Booksellers, Carlisle. 


AvtTHors’ CoPIEs— 

Twenty copies, free. Extra copies at a small rate, if notice of the 
number required be given to the Printer when the proof is 
returned. There is a large stock of Authors’ copies in hand. 
The Council would be glad to reduce this stock. Application to 
be made to the Hon. Association Secretary. 


CrrcutaTinec Linrary— 
Books may now be obtained (by paying carriage) from R. CrowpEr, 
Hsq., Carlisle. 


Notices RELATING TO ZooLoey to be sent to Rev. H. A. MacpHerson, M.A., 
20 Cecil Street, Carlisle. 


NorTicrs RELATING TO Borany to be sent to Wu. Hopeson, Esq., A.L.S., 
202 Victoria Terrace, Harrington Road, Workington. 


_N.B.—Rev. H. A. Macpuerson, and W. Hopeson, Esq., will gladly answer 


any questions through the post that Members may wish to ask, with 
regard to avy difficulty they may meet with in their reading on 
Zoological and Botanical matters respectively. 


xii. 


ASSOCIATION MEMBERS. 
(RULES 2 & 11.) 


Life Members. 


The Ear or CARLISLE, Naworth Castle, Carlisle. 

The Countess oF CarLIstE, Naworth Castle, Carlisle. 

The Rieut Rey, THE Bisnor or BaRrRow-1N-FuRNEsS, The Abbey, Carlisle. 
E. B. W. Bate, Esq., Cote Wall, Mirfield, Normanton. 

H. F. Curwen, Esq., The Hall, Workington. 

W. G. Cottincwoop, Esq., Gillhead, Windermere. 

SrepHen A. MarsHatt, Esq., Skelwith Fold, Ambleside. 

The Lorp BisHoP oF CARLISLE. 


Annual Membevs. 


R. A. Atrtson, Esq., M.P., Scaleby Castle, Carlisle. 

J. OTLey ATKINSON, Esq., Stramongate, Kendal. 

G. H. Batty, Esq., D.Se., Ph.D., The Owens College, Manchester. 
J. B. Baitny, Esq., 28 Haglesfield Street, Maryport. 

F. W. Banks, Esq., 22 North Bank, Regent’s Park, London, N.W. 
H. L. Barker, Esq., Sunnyside, Silloth. 

J. BareMAN, Esq., ‘Lhe Literary Institute, Kendal. 

Dr. G. Ctark BurMAN, Alnwick. 

LEICESTER COLLIER, Esq., Ormathwaite Hall, Keswick, 

G. Cowarp, Hsq., 75 Scotch Street, Carlisle. 

THomas Carrick, Esq., Haydon Bridge. 

W. Ditton, Esq., High Street, Maryport. 

R. Ferauson, Esq., Morton, Carlisle. 

W.C. Guity, Esq., Q.C.. M. P., Farrer’s Buildings, The Temple, London, E.C. 
J. G. Goopeniip, Esq., F.G.S., Museum of Science and Art, Edinburgh. 
Dr. Gore Rine, Keswick. 

I. B. Hopeson, Esq., Brampton. 

T. V. Homes, Esq., F.G.S., 28 Crooms Hill, Greenwich. 

R. H. Hamirton, Esq., Senhouse Street, Maryport. 

F, M. T. Jongs, Esq., J.P., C.B., Lesketh How, Ambleside. 

Rev. H. A. MacpHerson, M.A., 20 Cecil Street, Carlisle. 

T. A. Mercer, Esq., Free Library, Barrow-in-Furness. 

R. D. MarsHatt, Esq., Keswick. 

Mites MactInnzs, Esq., M.P., Rickerby, Carlisle. 

T. Bartow-Massicks, Esq., Millom, Carnforth. 

Rev. H. H. Moors, St. John’s Vicarage, Darwen, Lancashire. 

G. H. Parks, Esq., College Grove Road, Wakefield, Yorks. 

Dr. W. R. Parker, Stricklandgate, Kendal. 

J. Roptnson, Esq., C.E., East Barry, Cardiff. 

R. ALLEYNE-RosBinson, Esq., J.P., South Lodge, Cockermouth. 
Rev. Dr. TrRouTBECK, Dean’s Yard, Westminster. 

Dr. M. W. Taytor, F.S.A., 202 Earl’s Court Road, London. 

Dr. Trrrin, The Limes, Wigton. 

Major Varty, Stagstones, Penrith. 

T. Witson, Esq., Aynam Lodge, Kendal. 

R. J. WHItTWeELt, Esq., Airethwaite, Kendal, 

Rev, H. Wuireneap, Newton Reigney, Penrith, 


xiii. 


Heports trom the Associated Societies. 


KESWICK LITERARY AND SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 


22npD SESSION, 1890-91. 


President fe 50% te ass ae Dr. C. GorE Rive 
Vice-President wed or .. Rev. H. D. Rawnsutey, M.A. 
Secretary oe ie ar a J. PosrteTHwaitr, F.G.S. 
Treasurer... Be 3 a T. E. HicHton 
Committee. 

J. FisHER CrosTHWAITH, F.S.A. Rev. A. J. HEELIS 

T. CarRiIok I. Hopeson 

L. CoLLIER Dr. A. A. H. Kyieut 


Delegates to the Council of the C. and W. Association. 


Rev. J. N. Hoang, M.A., F. Hist. S. | J. BRoatcH 


Hon. Curators of the Museum. 


JOHN BIRKETT | J. PostLETHWAITE, F.G.S. 


The following MEETINGS were held during the Session :— 
ORDINARY MEETINGS. 
1890. 
Oct. 20—PReEsmDENT’s ADDRESS. 
Oct. 27—R. Hetton, Esq.—‘‘ The Chemistry of Photography.” 
Noy. 24—T. Carrick, Esq.—‘‘Our Forefathers.” Limelight illustrations, 
and coins and implements exhibited. 


Dec. S8—Rev. H. Wuitenxad, M.A.—‘‘ Parish Registers.” 


xiv. 


1891. 

Jan. 19—Rev. R.«M. Mc.CitumpHa.—‘‘ The Tyranny of Fashion.” 

Feb. 2—Tnomas Smiru, Esq-—‘‘ Thomas Hood.” 

Feb. 16—Lertcestrr CoLuier, Esq.—‘‘ Venice and the Lagoon Islands.” 

Mar. 16—Rev. G. Crrewpson—‘‘ The Coniston Series of Rocks.” 

Mar. 30—Rev. 8. R. Crockrerr—‘‘ Siberia.” 

Apr. 6—AnnuaL MEETING. 

LECTURES. 
1890. 

Nov. 38—Miss H. M. Wooitry—‘‘Shakspere’s Philosophy of Joy and 
Pain” 

Nov. 17—Rev. J. N. Hoarz, M.A.—“‘ Astronomy.” 

Dec. 1—Rev. Arruur Mate—‘‘Through the Wild -Kyber Pass.” 
Thrilling experiences among the Soldiers and Sepoys in 
the Afghan War. 

Dec. 15--Rev. H. D. Rawwnsiry, M.A.—‘‘The Inhabitants of the Bass 


Rock, past, and present.” 
1891. 


Course of Six University Extension Lectures, by Rev. W. Hupson Suaw, 
M.A. :— 

Jan. 12—‘‘ The Early History of Florence.” 

Jan. 26—‘‘ Dante.” 

Feb. 9—‘‘The Golden Age of Florence.” 

Feb. 23—‘‘The Medici and the Renaissance.” 

Mar. 9—‘‘Savonarola.” 

Mar. 23—‘‘The Fall of the Republic.” ‘‘ Machiavelli— Michelangelo.” 


Commi1Ter’s Report.—Your Committee have pleasure in 
reporting that the interest taken in the work of the Society, both 
by members and by the public, has not suffered any diminution 
during the past Session. The attendance at ordinary meetings 
and lectures has been much the same as in former years, while 
there has been a slight increase in the numbers attending the 
University Extension Course. The programme consisted of eleven 
ordinary meetings and ten public lectures, including the University 
Extension Course. All engagements were met, with one exception, 
and on that occasion Mr. J. F. Curwen, of Kendal, kindly filled up 
the vacancy. 

Application has been made to the County Council for a grant in 
aid of the educational work done by the Society. 


XV. 


In the early part of the Session an effort was made to organize 
a summer programme, jointly with the Trustees and Curators of 
the Museum, and thus promote among the members of the Society 
and others, a taste for the study of Natural Science. One long 
day excursion and a series of short half-day excursions were 
arranged for the purpose of studying and collecting specimens 
representing the Geology, Botany, and Entomology of the district, 
but the effort was not successful. 

The number of members now on the books is one hundred and 
fifty-five, as compared with one hundred and ninety-two recorded 
at the end of last Session. 

THe Museum.—The Curators have to report that during the 
past year 1,041 visitors paid for admission to the Museum. 
Amongst those who visited the Museum last summer were 
Professor Hughes, of Cambridge, and thirty of his students. 

Owing to the defective structure of the cases in which the 
Entomological portion of the collection was placed, the colours of 
many of the specimens were almost destroyed, but Mr. Bedale came 
forward and offered, not only to prepare new and suitable cases, from 
which the light should be excluded, but also to replace the damaged 
specimens and add a number that had not previously been in the 
collection. 

Three specimens of wild Water-fowl have been added to the 
Ornithological section of the collection since last Annual Meeting ; 
also a primitive Theodolite, a Barometer, and a Blow Pipe. 


Xvi. 


MARYPORT LITERARY AND SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 


15TH SESSION, 1890-91. 


President ses ae ees Pon H. Bumpy 


Vice-President 5H 500 ace ... EH. W. LicHrroor 


Past Presidents. 


Rey. J. I. Cummines, 0.8.B.| Rev. E. Sampson |  P. DEE, Couiin 
Committee. 
J. HEwETson R. H. Hamittron 
F. KEeiiy J. B. BAtLey 
A. HINE C, EAGLESFIELD 
Rev. T. Herp J. HamILTon 
Rev. G. PaTTERSON J. CARTMELL 
W. HINnE J. WILLIAMSON 
Delegates. 
H. Bumpy | R. H. Hamitton 
Hon. Treasurer... an ae os, J. S. ADAIR 
Hon. Secretary... 530 as is J, L. PHILLIPS 


The following MEETINGS were held during the Session :— 
90. 


Nov. 4—Conversazione. Addresses by the President and Vice-President. 

Nov. 11—J. Crum, Esq.—‘‘ Michael Faraday,” with experiments. 

Nov. 25—R. J. Bariite, Esq., F.R.A.S.—‘‘ The Poetry of Lord Tennyson.” 

Dec. 9—Rev. F. H. J. Mc.Cormicx, F.S,A. (Scot.)—‘‘ Folk Lore.” 

1891. 

Jan. 13—CoNVERSAZIONE and EXHIBITION. 

Jan. 20—J. ArrHur TuHomson, M,A. (Association Lecturer)—‘“‘ Shifts fora 
Living among Animals.” 

Feb, 3—W. Hopason, Esq., A.L.S.—‘‘ Stray Plants recently gathered at 
Workington, Maryport, and Silloth.” 

Feb. 17—Rev. A. Surron—‘‘ From Cairo to Khartoum.” 

Mar. 17—Rev. H. Wuirrenrap—‘ Parish Registers.” 

Mar, 31—Rev. G. Parrerson—‘‘ Ruskin’s Views of Political and Social 
Science and of Art.” 


XVil. 


CARLISLE SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY AND FIELD 
NATURALISTS’ CLUB. 


147s SESSION, 1890-91. 


President As Bet a ae ... J. A. WHEATLEY, Esq. 


Past Presidents. 


Right Rev. THz L¢TE Lorp BisHor oF CARLISLE. 
Rosert Fercvuson, Esq. 
Mites Mac Innes, Esq., M.P. 
The Worshipful CHancELLor Fercuson, M.A., F.S.A. 
Rev. Cuaup H. Parnz, M.A. 
R. A. Auiison, Esq., M.P. 


Vice-Presidents. 


: S. J. Brynine, Esq. | Dr. CARLYLE 
Delegates. 

J. A. WHeEatLey, Esa. | Rev. H. A. MacPHERSON 
Treasurer... is sd RoBEeRT CROWDER, Esq., Eden Mount 
Hon. Secretary se Sez Mr. Joun Srycxiair, 6 Hawick Street 

Committee. 
Mr. R. J. BAILulE Mr. R. M. Hr 
Dr. BARNES Dr. LEDIARD 
Mr. E. F. BELL Dr. MacLaren 
Mr. Gro. Dawson Rev. H. A. MAcPHERSON 
Mr. T. DockwortH Mr. J. N. Roprnson 
Mr. F. Harrison Mr. T. T. Scorr 


The following MEETINGS were held during the Session :— 
1890. 
Nov. 3—InavucuraL ADpREss by the President, J. A. WHEATLEY, Esq.— 
“* Technical Education.” 
Nov. 17—Mr. Tom Duckworta—‘‘ A Country Ramble.” 
Dec. 1—Mr. R. J. Barus, F.R.A. Soc.—‘‘ Light, the Eye, and the 
Telescope.” 
Dec. 15—Rey. H. WurrrnEap—“‘ Parish Registers” (continued). 
B 


XVill. 


1891. 

Jan. 12—Dr. CartyLE—‘‘ Fungi,” with illustrations and specimens. 

Jan. 19—J. A. THompson, Esq., Assoc. Lecturer, and Lecturer on Zoology 
in the School of Medicine, Edinburgh——‘‘ Shifts for a Living 
among Animals.” 

Feb. 9—R. A. Attison, Esq., M.P.—‘‘Sir Walter Scott.” 

Feb. 23—Mr. Witu1am Hopesoy, A.L.S., Workington—‘‘ Cumberland 
Botany—Waifs on the West Coast.” 

Mar. 2—Rev.H. A. MacpHerson—‘‘ Humming Birds.” 

Mar. 9—Mr. H. L. Waueattey—‘‘Rio de Janeiro—some Personal 

Experiences of Brazil.” 

Mar. 23—Rev. H. A. MacpHerson—“ Birds of China.” 

Apr. 6—Mr. Joun Hotnipay—‘ A Gas Jet,” with experiments. 

Apr. 20—Mr. Jonny Srycrarr—‘‘ Musgrave Lewthwaite Watson—a 
Cumberland Worthy.” 


AMBLESIDE AND DISTRICT LITERARY AND 
SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 


14rH SESSION, 1890-91. 


President. 
F. M. T. Jonzs, Esq. 


Past Presidents. 


R. Crewpson, Esq. | Rev. H. S. Cattunper | Rev. E. M. ReYNoLps 


Vice- Presidents. 


G. Garey, Esq. | Rey. C. H. CHASE 
Treasurer Roe He abe Lai Mr. W. LisTER 
Secretary bie wet a ius Mr. J. BENTLEY 


Delegates. 
Mr. C. W. Smite | Mr, J, BENTLEY 


xix. 


Committee. 
Mr. T. BELu Mr. E. Hrrp 
| Mr. H. BEty H. Repmayne, Esq. 
Mr. J. BRown Mr. STALKER, senr. 
Mr. W. Drxon Mr. C. W. Smita 
Mr. J. FLEMING Mr. M. Taytor 


The following MEETINGS were held during the Session :— 
1890. 
Oct. 28—Rey. H. D. Rawnstey, M.A.—‘‘ Some more Royal Mummies.” 
Nov. 11—Rev. Joun Taytor, M. A,—‘‘ Erasmus.” 
Nov. 25—Rev. R. VaucHan—‘‘Sleep and Dreams~” 
Dec. 9—Miss Wakerterp—‘‘ English - Melodies from 18th to 19th 


2 


; 
: 
: Century.” Illustrations sung. 

: 1891. 

} Jan. 21—J. A. THomson, M.A., Lecturer on Zoology, School of Medicine, 
: Edinburgh—‘‘ Some Shifts among Animals for a Living.” 
Feb. 3—Rev. G. Crewpson, M.A.—‘‘ Some Peculiarities of Insect Life.” 
Feb. 17—Col. Cargitu—‘‘ The Border Regiment.” 

. Mar. 3—Rev. L. Owen Lewis, M.A.-—‘t Some Phases of Plant Life. 


Mar. 17—Rev. C. H. CHasz, M.A.—‘‘ The Catacombs.” 


SILLOTH AND HOLME CULTRAM LITERARY 
AND° SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 


12TH SESSION, 1890-91. 


President nas oe Bs, sh ... Rev. W. A. WRIGLEY. 


Vice-Presidents. 


Rev. H. M. Topp, M.A. | JoHN GRAHAM 


Committee. 


J. G. BRANDSTETTER THOMAS JOHNSTONE 
W. Crass, Esq., J.P. Dr. LAIDLER 
JOSEPH GLAISTER J. M. Pauut, F.G.S. 
_ Hon. Treasurer ay ere — ane JOHN STRONACH 


_ Hon. Secretary “45 oa oon ee A. L, Barker 


XX. 


The following MEETINGS were held during the Session :— 
1890. 
Oct. 24—CoNVERSAZIONE. President's Address, Selections of Music, &c. 
Nov. 7—Rev. W. SHErwen, M.A., Dean—‘‘ War as itis.” Illustrated 
with Lantern Slides. 
Noy. 21—J. B. Batty, Esq., Maryport—‘‘ The Order of St. John of 
Jerusalem and the Knights Templars.” 
Dee. 5—Rev. A. Surron, M.A., Bridekirk—‘‘ Cairo to Khartoum.” 
Dec. 19—Rev. F. H. J. Mc.Cormick, F.S8.A., Whitehaven.—‘‘Folk Lore.” 
1891. 
Jan, 9—Rev. G. E. Girpanxs, M.A., Abbey Town—‘‘A Trip to the 
West Indies.” Illustrated with Lantern Slides. 
Jan. 23—J. ArrHur THomson, M.A., Edinburgh, Lecturer on Zoology in 
the School of Medicine —‘‘ Domestic Life of Animals.” 
Feb. 5—Mr. Grornce Dawson, Carlisle—‘‘ Butterflies of Cumberland.” 
Feb. 20—Rev. S. Farie, M.A., Brampton—‘‘ Epitaphs.” 
Mar. 6—Rev. J. H. Rippgrre, Liverpool—‘‘ The Transvaal.” Illustrated 
with Lantern Slides. 
Mar. 20—Rev. W. P. InaLEDow, Millom. 


BRAMPTON LITERARY AND FIELD NATURALIST 
SOCIETY. 


SEASON 1890-91. 


Mr. A, Lez Dr, THOMPSON 


President... eee isp se on G. J. Jounson, Esq. 
Vice-Presidents. 
Rev. S. Fae | J. B, Les, Esq. 
Delegates. 

Rev. 8S. FALLE | Rev. J. Roprnson. 
Treasurer... oe ase ibe Ae Mr. Cuiirron LEE 
Secretary... ses Sac oe ... Mr. Isaac B, Hopeson 

Committee. 

Mr. Benson Miss MacQuEEN 

Mrs. FALLE Mr. Marwoop 

Mr. HueiLi Mr. J. STEEL 

Mr. JAMES | Mrs. H. Y. THompson 


XX1: 


The following MEETINGS were held during the Session :— 
1890. 
Sept. 30—Mr. W. Witson—‘‘ Former Social Life in Cumberland and 
Westmorland.” 
Oct. 14—Dr. Toompson—‘“ Central Africa.” Tllustrated with Limelight 
Lantern. 
Oct. 28—Rev A. Surron—‘ Cairo to Khartoum.” 
Nov. 11—Mr. Hucitr—‘‘ British Policy in Africa.” 
Nov. 25—Mr. J. A. WHEATLEY—‘‘ Gems and Precious Stones.” 
Dec. 9—Rev. H. A. MaceHERson—“‘ Birds.” 
1891. 
Jan. 20—Rev. C. H. Parez—‘‘ The Floor of the Ocean.” 
Jan. 27—Mr. J. A. THompsox, M.A., Lecturer on Zoology, School of 
Medicine, Edinburgh—“‘Shifts for a Living among Animals,” 
Feb. 10—Mr. E. Westmortanp—‘‘ Phrenology.” 
Feb. 24—Rev. H. J. BuLEuLEy—‘‘Eminent Persons who died in 1890.” 
Mar. 10—Mrmpers—‘ Reading of Sheridan’s School for Scandal.” 
Mar. 24—Keyv. J. 8. Ostru—‘‘ Charles Stuart Calverley.”’ 


PENRITH AND DISTRICT LITERARY AND 
SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 


10TH SESSION, 1890-91. 


President ahs ht as Sas see J. B. SHawver 
Vice-Presidents. 

GEORGE WATSON | Rev. H. WHITEHEAD, M.A. 
Treasurer... See oes Ne a oe T. LESTER 
Secretary 3m nee se is H. M‘Lean Witson, M.D. 

Committee. 

W. B. ARNISON F. Kine 

W. BELL Rev. T. P. Monnineton, M.A, 

Rev. J. Scorr CocKBURN Rev. W. J. Marsu, M.A, 


C. H. GraHam, J.P. J. THOMPSON 
E, H. Keep, M.A, J. Stupson YEATES 


XXII. 


The following LECT URES were given during the Session :-— 
1890. 
Oct. 9—CoNVERSAZIONE and Meeting of the Society. 
Oct.’ 23—Miss H. M. Wooitry—‘‘Shakespeare’s Philosophy of Joy and 
Pain.” 
Nov. 6—G. Watson, Esq.—‘‘Notabilia of Old Penrith,”—continued. 
Nov. 20—Rev. T. D. SrepHEenson, M.A.—‘‘ Mendelssohn.” 


Dee. 4—Rev. Canon Ricumonp, M.A.—‘“ Dr. Samuel Johnson.” 
Dec. 18—J. A. WueEatiey, Esq.—‘‘Gems and Precious Stones.” 
1891. 


Jan. 8—G, A. Rimineron, Esq.—‘‘ South Africa.” 


Jan. 22—J. Arruur THompson, Esq., M.A.—‘‘ Facts and Fables about 
Curious Animals.”’ 

Feb. 5—Joun Watson, Esq., F.L.S.—‘* Caves and Cave Contents.” 

Feb. 19—Reyv. H. Wurreneap, M.A.—“‘ Parish Registers,” continued. 

Mar. 19—J. E, Bowser, Esq., M. B.—‘‘ Hypnotism.” 


WINDERMERE LITERARY AND SCIENTIFIC 
SOCIETY. 


9TH SESSION, 1890-91. 


President es ei Bae a a Rev. A. RAwson 


Vice- Presidents. 
Canon Srock | Mr. B. A. Irvine 


Secretaries. 
Col. MacDouGaLu | Mr. Frank Barton 


Treasurer nh na Se hte ae Mr. Jonn HoLuanp 


Delegates. 
Mr. G, HEALEY | Mr. B, A. Irvine 


XXill. 


Committee. 
Mr. J. W. ATKINSON Mr. W. Lone 
Mr. 8. ATKINSON Mr.’ J. Loneron 
Mr. J. T. Bownass Mr. F. Marr 
Mr. J. BELL Mr. G. Morr 
Mr. J. Bonny Rev. J. M. Moss 
Rev, F. BrRowNson Mr. G. H. Patrrinson 
Mr. R. CLEce Mr. A. H. RaArKsEs 
Mr. H. Coutts Mr. T. THompson 
Mr. C. J. Hatt Mr. W. V. YATES 


Mr. G. HEALEY 


The following MEETINGS were held during the Session :— 
1890. 

Oct. 20—Miss WaxerreLp—‘‘ English National Melodies, from the 13th 
to the 19th Centuries, comprising Musical Illustrations of 
each Century, and of the different classes into which English 
Melodies may be divided.” Specimens from Dowland, 
Lawes, Arne, &c. 

Nov. 3—J. W. Batuantyne, Esq., M.D., F.R.C.P.E.—‘‘The Dawn of 
the Intellect in the Child.” 

Nov. 24—E. S. Brucz, Esq.—‘‘Fifty Years of Scientific Progress.” Illus- 
trated by Dioramic Views, Photographs, &c. 

Dec. 1—J. Snvers, Esq.—‘‘The Pyramid Plateau of Egypt.” With 
Limelight Illustrations. 

Dec. 8—W. H. Goxpine, Esq.—‘‘Stanley’s Travels.” With Limelight 


Views. 
1891. 
Jan.—Major HENpDERsoN, Royal Military College, Sandhurst—‘‘ Modern 
War,” 


Jan. 26—J. A. THompson, Esq., M.A., Lecturer in the School of Medicine, 
Edinburgh—‘‘ Domestic Life among Animals.” 

Feb. 9—Rev. T. Mackenrera, F.R.A.S.—‘‘ The Sun.” 

Feb. 23—RB. A. Irvine, Esq., M.A.—‘ William Shakespeare of Stratford: 
on-Avon was not William Shakespeare the Dramatist.” 


XXIV. 


REPORT OF ASSOCIATION SECRETARY. 


IN presenting its SEVENTEENTH ANNUAL REporRT, your Council, 
whilst able to express its congratulations with regard to steady 
progress and much earnest work on the part of the Local Societies, 
still has to regret the temporary withdrawal of the Longtown 
Society, and a slight decrease in the total membership. 

Compared with last year the results are as follows :—- 


Members. Transactions. 
1890 1894 XIY. KY. 

KESWICK ... Px. abe 152 145 50 50 
MARYPORT sts De 130 110 50 70 
LoncTtowNn oe its 41 —_— 6 — 
CARLISLE Ae a8 130 84 109 go 
AMBLESIDE oye 26e 71 84 20 20 
SILLOTH i is 44 38 — a 
BRAMPTON ie es 99 84 4 6 
PENRITH ae BS 180 138 120 100 
WINDERMERE ae SAC 120 120 20 20 
ASSOCIATION MEMBERS ae 40 45 40 45 
1007 848 419 401 


ASSOCIATION LECTURER. 


J. Arthur Thompson, Esq., Lecturer on Zoology in the Edin- 
burgh School of Medicine, was engaged by the Council as 
Association Lecturer. As such he lectured before seven of the 
Local Societies, together with the Wordsworth Institute, Cocker- 
mouth ; and, it is pleasing to add, gave general satisfaction, 


XXV. 


ORGANIZATION. 


This most important matter is, the Council feels, proceeding, if 
slowly, still surely. During the past Session a Circular was issued 
to the various Local Societies, and the replies received were emi- 
nently satisfactory. With regard to the first question, bearing on 


Tue TRANSACTIONS, 


the Carlisle Society states: “It seems to this Society, that as the 
Volume issued annually is the only enduring record of the work of 
the Association, and contains the result of much patient labour 
and valuable research, every effort should be used to place them 
in the hands of the members. The most effectual and simple plan 
is to adopt that pursued by us, i.e., make the charge for membership 
include the cost of a copy of the ‘Transactions, which would then be 
forwarded by the Secretary to every member, and would bea great 
inducement to join the Local Society.” 

If this could be done generally, the hands of the Council would 
be greatly strengthened, whilst generous arrangements would be 
made with regard to the sale of back numbers. If each Local 
Society would briefly state in its annual Programme, that the 
Transactions are published annually, at a cost to members of 1/- 


. each, and also that with two exceptions (Parts III. and IV.) all 


the Back Numbers are still in stock, this would doubtless tend 
much to the prosperity of the Association. 


UNIVERSITY EXTENSION. 


- Still no satisfactory solution of this question has been arrived at. 
‘Three Societies propose taking the Course during the coming 
Session, whilst three others would like to do so; but financial 
difficulties stand in the way. 

The Council is now, however, in a position to help the Local 
Societies for the first time: and as its list of Association Members 
increases, so in like ratio it is to be hoped the aid given will 
increase. 


XXV1. 


SCIENCE TEACHING. 


Several of the Societies refer to this matter, but the suggestions 
do not afford the Council sufficient ground on which to formulate 
a scheme. One Society proposes that a prize be awarded to such 
students in connection with any of the Local Societies as shall 
obtain a first class in the Advanced Course of the Science Examin- 
ations held in connection with South Kensington. Another 
suggests a prize to the member of a Local Society who shall 
during the year produce the best Botanical, &c. Collection, with 
essay on the same. But the matter requires consideration. 


SuB-COMMITTEES. 


In addition to the Sub-Committees already appointed for the 
systematic recording of such matters as might be valuable in 
Geology, &c., the Maryport Society has appointed another in 
Entomology, whilst the Keswick Society is also appointing others. 
For the guidance of such Committees, we may quote from the 
last British Association Report (Leeds). Several of the Com- 
mittees then appointed are desirous of obtaining assistance from 
Local Societies, so that their reports may be more valuable. 


Amongst the subjects we may notice the following :— 


. The application of Photography to the elucidation of the 
Meteorological Phenomena. 


| 


tN 


. Seasonal Variations in the Temperature of Lakes, Rivers, and 
Estuaries in various parts of the United Kingdom. 


3. Recording the Position, Height above the Sea, Lithological 
Character, Size, and Origin of the Erratic Blocks of England, 
Wales, and Ireland, reporting other matters of interest con- 
nected with the same, and taking measures for their pres- 
ervation. 


4. The Collection, Preservation, and Systematic Registration of 
Photographs of Geological interest. 


5. Disappearance of Native Plants from their Local Habitats, 


XXvVIi. 


6. The Rate of Increase of Underground Temperature downwards 
in various localities of Dry Land and under Water. 


7. The Rate of Erosion of the Sea Coasts of England and Wales, 
and the Influence of the Artificial Abstraction of Shingle 
or other material in that action. 


8. Considering the advisability and possibility of establishing in 
other parts of the country Observations upon the Prevalence 
of Earth Tremors similar to those now being made in 
Durham in connection with Coal Mine Explosions. 


g. Ascertaining the Localities in the British Islands in which 
Evidences of the Pre-historic Inhabitants of the Country 
are found. 


The Hon. Secretaries will gladly supply information on any of 
these points. 


LIBRARY. 


A List of Books, &c., received from the Exchanging Societies is 
given, and members may have the use of them on payment of 
carriage. Application may be made to the Librarian (R. Crow- 
der, Esq., Stanwix) through the Local Secretary. 


Tue CIRCULATING LIBRARY. 


The Library is now an accomplished fact. The Rules are as 
follows :— 


1. That the Books be lent only to Members, who must apply 
to the Librarian through the Local Hon. Secretary; or, in the case 
‘of Association Members, to the Librarian direct. 


2. That the books be kept for a period not exceeding a month, 


unless by permission of the Librarian. 


3. That not more than Six Books be sent to each member at 
one time, unless the series contain a larger number, when the 
Librarian will exercise his discretion, 


XXViIL. 
4. That the member borrowing the Books pay the carriage both 
ways. 


5. That Books lost be made good, or their value paid by the 
person losing them. 


The Council would gladly welcome additions to the Library. 


TRANSACTIONS IN STOCK SeEpremBeEr 21, 1891. 


‘NOL ec ioe he 10) 10 7 8 9. 10 LI VIZ Sr ee 
Af OOM 7) 63) 105227) 247 218) 231) 20) TOs. etl 4u 2aosomoAO 


XXIX. 


CUMBERLAND AND WESTMORLAND ASSOCIATION FOR THE 
ADVANCEMENT OF LITERATURE AND SCIENCE. 


Balance Shect for the Wear ending August 30th, 1891. 


RECEIPTS. PAYMENTS. 
Balance forward ... ..£1i 1 3) Assoc. Lecturer, 8 Lectures £16 16 oO 
Towards Assoc. Lecturer’s Postages— 
Expenses : DI 10) Oil autor. J. Bc fi, OOM LO 
Capitation Grant on 803 Librarian 12 IO 
Members ace f ¥20" HASO Hon. Sec. Ann. “Meet. 90 g Tr 6 
Subscriptions—31 Associ- TBR *91 O10 Q 
ation Members .. ey ASO: 3 General Bp) bi Fekare’ 
Do. 2 Life Members... 6 6 0| Carriage : Me ee Omr ot 
Transactions — Cheque Book =60 ee ON 25510 
308 to Local Societies... 15 8 © Back Numbers ls 2 
30 to Assoc. Members... I 10 0 Messrs. Coward— 
Back Numbers ... -. 210 0] Printing 720copies Pt. XV. 20 13 0 
Arrears—I12 Transactions 5 12 oO} Sewing 700 3 a5 MT (9) 
Do. Capitation 66 M’brs. I 13 0 Authors’ copies ... Dj 19 
Authors’ Copies ... o 12 3| Exs. Annual Meeting, 1890 2250 
Postages ... Oo 10 3 
Messrs. Griffin, Year Book, oO 69 
Mr, R. Adair, Stationery’... 2 4 8 
Dr. G. H. Bailey, Exs. Ann. 
Meeting (1890) ... eas it, 
Mr. Highton. towards Lectu- 
rer’s Expenses ne 25 (OUTER LS 
SA eae Balance... oh "30 2 10 
£83 18 © £83 18 0 


Sept. 19th, 1891—Examined and found correct, 


J. DAVIDSON. 
JNO. HODGSON. 


ASSETS. LIABILITIES. 
To Balance = 30) 4 2eLO 
3 Arrears— 
Capitation’°30 Members 0 15 0 
Transactions, 28 copies I 8 O (Nil) 
Association Members I 10 O 
£33 15 10 
TRANSACTIONS, Part XV. 

’ Sold to Societies a oe ae ae 334 

», Association Members ... ne “ae 4I 

;, Non-Members Se se aoe 2 

Presented or Exchanged Bet Le ik 77 

In hand nae ees eh ae By 246 


XXX, 


LIST OF PUBLICATIONS OF SOCIETIES RECEIVED 


Io 


II 


BY THE ASSOCIATION IN EXCHANGE FOR 
THE “TRANSACTIONS.” 


Berwickshire Naturalists’ Club, Proceedings of, for 1882 to 
1887 (inclusive). 8 vols. 

Bristol Naturalists’ Society, Proceedings of, 1882-3 to 1890-91. 
9 vols. 

British Association Reports, 1886, 1887, 1888, 1889, 1890. 

Burnley Literary and Scientific Club, 1874-83, 1884, 1885, 
1886, 1887. 5 vols. . 

Canadian Institute, Proceedings, November 1886, October 
1887, April and October 1888, April and October 1889, 
April and October, 1890, March 1891. 9 vols. 

Canadian Institute, Annual Report of, 1887, 1888, 1880, 
1890. 4 vols. ; 

Cornwall Royal Institution, Journal of, October 1886, 
December 1887, October 1888, May 1890, March 1891. 

Essex Field Club, Transactions of. 27 vols. (Incomplete— 
about two Monthly Parts wanting.) 

Geologists’ Association, Proceedings of, February 1887, to 
August 1891. 12 vols. 

London, Geological Society of, Proceedings, 1880-1881 to 
1890-1891. 11 vols. 

Hertfordshire Natural History Society, Transactions of, Feb- 
ruary 1886, to December 1890. 22 vols. (Monthly or 
longer. Incomplete.) 


Xxx1. 


Liverpool Geological Association, Journal of, 1887-8 and 
and 1888-9. 2 vols. 

Manchester Microscopical Society, 1887 and 1889. 2 vols. 

Midland Naturalist. Monthly Parts, from January 1881, to 
September 1891. (January 1885 missing.) 

United States Geological Survey, Report of, 1880-81 to 
1887-88. 9g vols. (1886-7 in 2 Parts.) 


Manchester Geographical Society. Vol. 6, January to March 
1890. 


Opp VOLS. RECEIVED IN EXCHANGE. 
Birmingham Natural History and Microscopical Society 
Transactions, 1883. 1 vol. 
City of London College Science Society, 1887-8. 1 vol. 
Liverpool Science Students’ Association, 1884-5. 1 vol. 


Lewisham and Blackheath Scientific Association Proceedings, 
1886. 1 vol. 


Norfolk and Norwich Naturalists’Society Transactions, 1884-5. 
1 vol. 


Stirling Natural History and Archeological Society Trans- 
actions, 1885-86. 1 vol. 


Stockport Society of Naturalists’, Report, 1887. 1 vol. 
Leeds Geological Association Transactions, 1886-7. 1 vol. 
Yorkshire Naturalists’ Union, 1882, 1883, 1884. 3 vols. 


Allgemeine Geologische Karte von Russeland, 1885. 1 vol. 


VOLUMES GIVEN. 
Memoirs of Geological Survey, 1846 and 1848 (2 Pts.) 3 vols. 
Do. Mineral Statistics, 1864—-1873. 10 vols. 
- Do. Iron Ores of Great Britain, Parts 2 and 3. 2 vols. 
Do. British Organic Remains. Decades I. to XIII. 13 vols. 
Catalogue of Minerals (Jermyn Street). 1 vol. 


Catalogue of Models (Jermyn Street). 1 vol. 


XXXIi. 


The Publications of Geological Survey, 1884. 1 vol. 
Guide to Geology of London (Whitaker, 1875). 1 vol. 


Portlock’s Geological Report on Londonderry, Tyrone, and 
Fermanagh (1843). 1 vol. 


26 Pamphlets (Geological) by Professor Harkness. 26 vols. 


Microscopy and Natural Science, Journal of, January 1884. 
1 vol. 


Naturalist, The, August 1884. 1 vol. 


British Astronomical Association, Journal of, October 1890. 
rt vol. 


Time-Reckoning for the zoth Century, 1886. 1 vol. 
L’Exposition Geographico Botanique de Copenhagen. vol. 
The Cause of Light. Rev. G. T. Carruthers. 1 vol. 


Arguments on Treaty of Limits between Costa Rica and 
Nicaragua. 3 vols. 
BouGut. 


Official Year Book of Scientific and Learned Societies. 
(Griffin & Co.) 1888 and 1889, 1890 and 1891. 


ON THE STUDY OF LOCAL ARCHAOLOGY. 


INAUGURAL ADDRESS, DELIVERED AT MARYPORT. 
BY THE 


RIGHT Rey. THE] BISHOP OF BARROW-IN-FURNESS. 


Ir has been the custom of your Association that your President 
should occupy his honourable position for two successive years. 
It appears to me that, whatever the advantages or disadvantages 
of that course in other respects, at all events both the President 
and those over whom he presides might well be released from a 
second inaugural address. Such, however, has not, I am told, 
been your rule ; and therefore it is my duty to address you to-day. 
But on this second occasion, I need not detain you by any very 
lengthy remarks, especially as we have before us a somewhat full 
programme of papers to be read. 

Your Association exists chiefly for the purpose of encouraging 
the various local literary, scientific, and naturalist societies 
which exist in Cumberland and Westmorland, and making their 
proceedings better known to each other. These smaller local 
associations are of very great benefit. They ought by all means to 
be perpetuated and encouraged ; not only because they collect and 
record a number of local facts and observations which are of value 
and might otherwise be lost, but also because they extend the love 
of such studies to a great number of people whose position and 
avocations do not permit them often to travel far from home, 
but who may derive from them great pleasure and benefit. 
We are all only too apt to let our minds be confined to the 


narrow round of our own daily employment. And it seems to me 
1 


2 


that there can hardly be a greater benefit to any young person 
than to lead him to a taste for some intellectual pursuit outside 
the groove of that which is to be his own special work in life. 
People may call, and do call, such things “fads.” In my opinion, 
one of the best gifts we can make to a lad, is such a wholesome 
“fad.” 

I purpose to-day to say a few words to encourage one such 
pursuit, namely, the study of local Archeology. I cannot call 
myself a real archeologist: I have never had the time to take up 
such pursuits very seriously. But an educated man can hardly live 
in such a country as ours without desiring to know something about 
the history and character of those who have lived here before him, 
and whose record he sees, in their handiwork, on every side. And 
thus local antiquities have been to me, as I said just now, a 
pleasant and wholesome “fad,” an interesting and useful relaxation 
from the more serious work of life. 

In our Northern part of England there is much work to be done 
by persons interested in antiquarian subjects, because of the rapid 
changes which have taken place during the later part of this 
century, or which are still in progress. Thus, old words and 
modes of speech, are passing rapidly away under the influence of 
educationists, who consider the language of a Cockney Training 
College to be far superior to the good old tongue of Cumberland 
and Westmorland. South-countryman as I am myself by birth 
and education, I have no sympathy with a parent who told me 
exultingly concerning her children: ‘They tak’ greit pains wid 
them ; they’re gitten’ quite to speak wid a sooth-country twang.” 
And if there are any other south-countrymen here, let me urge 
them to make careful notes of phrases or terms of language (as 
well as words) to which their ears are unaccustomed, for after a 
time they will not be equally sensitive to them. Old customs, 
too, are rapidly passing away in consequence of increased inter- 
course between different parts of England. And in some districts 
enclosures and extended cultivation, in others the changes caused 
by the growth of population, have destroyed or are destroying the 
relics of ancient times. And although the larger and more con- 


a 


3 


spicuous remains of antiquity are well known, almost every district 
contains some which are hardly known beyond the immediate 
vicinity, but are not less worthy of study.* Let me take as an 
illustration some of the objects of antiquarian interest within a 
moderate walk of Kirkby Lonsdale, the home in which I spent 
twenty-six years. You will see that they may be used to illustrate 
almost every part of the history of Britain, and yet the district was 
not exceptionally rich in such objects. Of the earliest periods of 
British history, before the Romans came to this country, there are 
in that immediate neighbourhood few certain remains. There is 
a stone circle on Casterton Fell, which might perhaps be found, 
on careful investigation with the spade, to be sepulchral. There 
is what may possibly be a circular hill fort near Leck, and some 
barrows have been opened without much result. 

When, however, we come to the Roman period we find many 
important remains of that great people. The ‘Maiden Way” ran 
up the valley of the Lune, in one place on a high causeway over 
marshy ground ; and, it would be very desirable to trace it out in 
detail throughout its course. A large and important camp was 
situated at Overburrow, two miles from Kirkby Lonsdale: parts of 
the rampart may still be seen, and some capitals of pillars and 
other sculptured stones are preserved. I have in my possession a 
stone mortar, said to come from the camp, but it is too bulky to 


_ bring here to-day. 


The Romans left Britain, but the native tribes retained some of 
the Roman civilization, and probably some intermixture of Roman 
blood. Have we any relics of that period? Yes; two miles from 
Kirkby Lonsdale, there are remains of a British settlement, traces 
of huts and cattle-pens surrounded by an earthwork. And the 
iron implement, of which this is a drawing, which we found in 
excavating the remains of a circular hut, fixes the date. This is 
one of a very distinctive class of implements, called “hipposandals,’» 
about the use of which archeologists are not altogether agreed, 

*T should like to call the attention of any who have not seen it, to a most 


interesting work, Forty Years in a Moorland Parish, by the Rev. J. C, 
Atkinson, published by Macmillan. 


4 


but it is probably a peculiar kind of horseshoe. Only a few have 
been discovered in England and on the continent of Europe: but 
all those known have been found among remains of the late 
Roman civilization. Therefore this implement fixes the date of 
the settlement in which it was found: it was about the time when 
the Romans left Britain. 

To the Briton, who had received a certain varnish of civilization 
from his Roman master, succeeded the stronger and ruder Saxon 
conqueror. All down the Lune valley the Saxons have left the 
earthen mounds which were their castles and homesteads. Some, 
as in the vicarage grounds at Kirkby Lonsdale, a simple mound 
surrounded by a ditch; others on a larger scale, as at Burton-in- 
Lonsdale, an inner fortress for the lord and his household, an 
outer enclosure for the serfs and cattle. The Saxon came, a 
heathen ; before long, the church sought him out, in this district 
through Celtic missionaries from the North and West, and 
converted him to Christianity. The earliest trace of Christianity 
in the Lune valley is the rude stone cross at Barbon, specially 
interesting because it stands close to the old Roman road; and 
there is some reason to think that the stone was placed there as a 
heathen emblem, long before the cross was cut upon it to make it 
Christian. 

Once more came heathen invaders: the Danes forced their way 
up the valley of the Lune from Morecambe Bay, as they did into 
many other of our peaceful dales. Here is a trace of them. Some 
heathen Danish chief wore this silver brooch to fasten his plaid or 
cloak ; and as he went along the Roman road, the one highway 
then and for many centuries afterwards, death overtook him. It 
may have been from some sudden illness ; it may more probably 
have been by the sword or arrow of one of the natives of the valley 
he was plundering. But at all events, there he died and was 
buried hard by the side of the Roman road, some time in the 
roth century; and, nine hundred years after, his brooch was 
ploughed up, and then put away in a cupboard and forgotten 
for another fifty years, and then was just going to be sold for 
a few pence as old metal, when happily, by a mere accident, 


a 


2 — 
inte etn poesia ela 


5 


attention was- called to it, and its history was routed out. I 
tell you the story now, that you may realize the good of local 
archzeological societies, which would keep alive the memory of 
such finds in their several localities, and perhaps provide museums 
in which they might be preserved. 

And then the Dane’s children or grandchildren in their turn 
became Christian, and the name of Kirkby Lonsdale, the church- 
town of the Lune valley, commemorates the change, and the 
foundation of a parish church. And then came the Norman, and 
began to rebuild it; and each century from then till now has left 
its marks still legible upon the fabric. 

I have taken the neighbourhood which I happen to know best, 
as an illustration of the manner in which materials for archzo- 
logical illustrations of the history of two thousand years may be 
found within an afternoon’s walk by many or most of us; and by 
following these up we may not only provide a most interesting and 
healthy pursuit for our leisure time, but also help in preserving the 
record of many noteworthy objects which might otherwise pass 
away and be forgotten. I know much less personally of this 
immediate neighbourhood, but I have seen or read enough to be 
sure that it also may furnish materials for interesting study and 
provide many illustrations of our national history. Thus, to begin 
with the prehistoric age. You have near here (as is recorded in 
the Transactions of the Cumberland and Westmorland Archzeo- 
logical Society) instances of those cup-and-ring marked stones, the 
meaning of which is a problem yet unsolved. You havea Roman 
camp within a few hundred yards of this place, and in its immediate 
neighbourhood has been discovered perhaps the most remarkable 


_ collection of Roman altars which has ever been found in England. 


They are preserved safely and close to you at Netherhall, and we 
shall visit them, I hope, this afternoon. At Dearham and Cross- 


_ canonby churches, are hog-backed tombstones and carved crosses 


of Early Saxon times, when the Christianity of the English people 


was still isolated from that of southern Europe, and retained 


something both of the thoughts and of the art of their heathen 


6 


gravestones and in the fabric of the churches themselves. Of the 
character of this neighbourhood in Later Medizeval times, you have 
a most interesting illustration in the fortified church tower at 
Dearham, which was meant less for a belfry than to be a fortress 
for the parish. The fact that almost every old manor house has 
grown, like Netherhall, around an old peel tower, is remarkable 
enough as an evidence of the unsettled state of the district three 
or four hundred years ago: but these fortress churches tell the tale 
of border frays in a more striking manner still. 

Let me urge then all members of this Association to interest 
themselves in observing and recording the antiquities of their own 
neighbourhoods. ‘The study will greatly increase the interest of 
your reading of- history, and the vividness of your historical 
knowledge : 


“* Segnius irritant animos demissa per aures 
Quam que sunt oculis submissa fidelibus.” 


You may often be enabled to record or preserve things which 
might otherwise be entirely lost. And as regards those around us 
in encouraging, more especially in the young, the observant eye, 
and the intelligent interest in what is seen, whether in antiquities, 
or in natural history, or in art, we are developing the higher parts 
of our human nature, and adding immensely to the store of human 
enjoyment. 


4 
ad 
: 
F 
: 


THE LAKE FLORA. 


By THE Rev. W. TUCKWELL, M.A. 


(Read at Ambleside. Inadvertently omitted from the last Number. ) 


For botanical purposes the Lake District is bounded on the east 
by the river Lune, so far as to Low Gill station, thence, as far as 
Penrith, by the Lancaster and Carlisle railway ; on the north by a 
line loosely drawn from Penrith to Allonby through Wigton; on 
the west by the Irish Sea; on the south by Morecambe Bay ;— 
containing mountain, moor, plain, river, lake, sea-shore, bog ; 
including in its geological formation igneous rock, slate, Old-and 
New Red Sandstone, Mountain and Magnesian Limestone—it 
presents all the conditions of a rich and varied flora. 

Of the 1430 wild plants recognised as British, aboriginal or 
introduced, about goo are found in the Lake District. Of these 
eleven only are strays from eastern England; twelve only from 
western England; no less than two hundred ascend from southern 
England; all the rest are either general in their distribution 
throughout our island, or have their head-quarters in Scotland and 
in northern England. 

You are aware that the prevalence of particular floral types is 
largely influenced by height above the sea. The majority of your 
Lake plants grow to goo feet, at wnich point the Blackberry, Crab, 
Alder, Gueldres Rose, Bay Willow (\S. fragilis) cease to thrive, 
arable cultivation becomes rare, and inhabited houses are few. 
Scattered farmhouses there are even at a height of 1800 feet, 


8 


considerably higher than the little inn of Kirkstone Pass, which is 
only 1500 feet above the sea, and whose supremacy in elevation is 
a guide-book myth. Nearly all the mountain tarns are found 
between goo and 1800 feet ; above which point Bracken, Foxglove, 
Heather, Lousewort, Grass of Parnassus—no longer grow ; nor are 
any trees met with, except a scanty Juniper or Rowan on the 
higher crags. Between 1800 and 2700 feet two tarns only exist, 
Red Tarn and Sprinkling Tarn; the rest is bare hill and slate, 
containing an Alpine flora, with mosses and aquatic plants 
bordering the highest springs. Above 2700 feet, on the summits of 
the highest hills, are two plants only, the Dwarf Willow (Salix 
herbacea), and an Alpine variety of Carex (C. vigida). 

The following plants, familiar or not uncommon in many parts 
of England, are, so far as I know, altogether absent from the 
Lakes :—Mousetail, Stock, Cabbage, Tamarisk, Sea Mallow, Field 
Eryngo, Parsnip, Madder, Small Teasle, Milk Thistle, Large 
Burdock, Ivy-leaved Hairbell, Dodder, Fringed Bogbean, Pointed 
Toadflax (Zinaria elatine), Cornish Moneywort, Broomrape, Wild 
Sage, Water Violet, Large Water Dock, Annual Mercury, Sa/oza 
verbenacea, Sweet Rush, Stinking Iris, Frog-bit, Chara. Rarer 
plants not found within your boundaries are Pasque Flower, 
Cotoneaster, Marsh Sowthistle, Lovage, Linnzea, Meadow Sage, 
Blue Gromwell, Gibbous Duckweed, Galingale. 

Plants not altogether wanting, but rarely met with in the Lakes, 
are the Medlar, of which two trees only are recorded wild, both in 
Walney ; Small Mallow, Pennywort, Samphire, Miseltoe, Scotch 
Thistle, Bird’s Nest, Common Bindweed, two Fleabanes (Z7igeron 
acre and Znula dysenterica), the two Horehounds (AZarrubium and 
Ballota), Calaminth, the Spiked- and the Ivy-leaved Speedwells, Sea 
Convolvulus, Dewberry, Weaselsnout, Bugloss, Viper’s Bugloss, 
Houndstongue, Pyramidal Orchis, Fritillary, Autumn Crocus, 
Water Soldier, and the four ferns— Woodsia, Thelypteris, Asplenium 
septentrionale and A. lanceolatum. 

Plants on the other hand, comparatively rare elsewhere, but met 
with in the Lakes, are the Spearwort, Baneberry, Barrenwort, 
Moss Campion, Balsam, Dryas, Shrubby Cinquefoil, Alpine Lady’s 


9 


Mantle, Alpine Enchanter’s Nightshade, Cloudberry (Rubus chame- 
morus), Fly Honeysuckle, Pyrenzan Valerian, Salsify, Orange 
Hawkweed, Broad-leaved Ragwort (Senecio saracenicus), Leopard’s 
Bane, Elecampane, Bearberry, Goldilocks, Tufted Loosestrife 
(Lysimachia thyrsifiora), Trientalis, Sweet Daphne, Asarum, Lady’s 
‘Slipper, Snowdrop, Snowflake, Chives, Lily of the Valley, Herb 
Paris, Film Fern, Feather Grass. 

More especially characteristic of the Lakes are the Bird Cherry 
and Wild Cherry, Orpine, Grass of Parnassus, Saxz/raga aizoides, 
Butterwort, Giant Bellflower, Water Lobelia and Quillwort, Mealy 
Primrose, Crowberry, Juniper, Parsley Fern, Club-moss, Buck-bean, 
Wych Elm. 

The Isle of Walney {flora is so interesting, so varied, and so 
little studied, as to call for separate notice. It includes the Sea 
Meadow-rue, Hairy Buttercup (Ranunculus hirsutus), Sea Rocket 
and Sea Kale, Danish-and English Scurvygrass, Four-stamened 

Cerastium, Marsh St. John’swort, a variety of Violet known as 
Curtisit, of Geranium known as Lancastriense, of Erodium known 
as pilosum; Medlar, Burnet Rose, Sea Holly, Sea Wormwood, 
_ Marsh Gentian, Sea Bindweed, Henbane, Saltwort, Glaux maritima, 
_ Buck-horn Plantain, Sea-mat (Ammophila arundinacea),’Sea Mer- 


ne a SF ee ee 


4 tensia, the Sea Lavender known as Statice bahusiensis, the Sea 
Purslane, Portland Spurge, Z7¢ttcum littorale. 

_ [have so far given the established English names wherever they 
exist; but it will be interesting to notice certain local names of 
_ obvious or unintelligible origin. Everyone can interpret Jeg zz’ 
_ mony feet for the Creeping Buttercup, Old woman’s purse for the 
} Touch-me-not, Robin run by ? dyke for the Cleaver Grass, Ca?’s 
_ foot for the soft pad-like head of the wild Everlasting, Kops 
for the Devil’s-bit Scabious, Crones or cranes for the Cranberry, a 
_ word borrowed from Denmark, where the plant flourishes when 
q the cranes return, Candlewicks for the great Reed Mace or Bull- 
Tush. The name Queen of the Meadow, belonging elsewhere to 
_ Meadow-sweet, is applied in Langdale to Claytonia; Meadow-sweet 
“itself is Burnet; old man or Southernwood is Laa’s Jove, a name 
due, thinks Dr, Prior, to the fact that an ointment distilled from the 


10 


plant and applied to the face was much used formerly by lads 
impatient for the growth of abeard. dZay/éower is not inappropriate 
to the Cuckoo flower, nor Cuckoo’s bread and cheese to the Wood 
Sorrel, both blossoming when that “wandering voice” is first 
heard. Zasterledge for the Bistort is corrupted from os¢erzck, with a 
conjectural and mistaken reference to avéstolochia, a name belonging 
to another plant. Ling-berry is a confusion of the somewhat 
similar crowberry with ling or heather. Aeckberry for the bird 
cherry is hedge-berry ; Paddock’s pipe or toad’s pipe applies easily 
to the long slender tubes of horse tail; (elon grass, the green 
hellebore, was used by herbalists to cure whitlows, called in 
medical Latin “little thieves” or “felons.” Aud toppins is pool 
toppings, from. the tuft-like trusses of the Azra cespitosa, growing 
in pools and bogs. Moss crops belongs to the woolly crop or head 
of the mossgrowing Cotton plant. esi, in midland England 
kecks, in Shakespeare hecksies, is a name given to any of the hollow 
stalked umbellifers, and is either from the old English eek, to 
peep through the stems, or corrupted from cicuta, hemlock. The 
name Keswick is said to be derived from it. Henpens is Yellow 
Rattle, in reference probably to the round flat seeds, altered from 
henpence, used in Lincolnshire for the money payment to the lord 
of the manor for liberty to keep hens. Yorkshire fog is the soft 
meadow grass, fog being in general use for aftermath. Why 
Houseleek should be Syphell, ragwort ooins, oxlip Goupil and 
Sinkin, some present may be able to explain; I have failed to find 
the clue. In fact it must be understood that several of my state- 
ments are made “under correction.” My Lake flower lore belongs 
to me in botanical language as an “alien,” not as a “‘native;” and 
though I have botanised in the district much and often, and have 
availed myself of all published records and of many verbal com- 
munications, there must be points on which habitual residents are 
able to supplement, modify, or negative facts which I have accepted 
and alleged. 

What has the Poet of Nature and of the Lakes to say about the 
flowers of his home? Less than we could have wished; and that 
little encumbered by the fact that Wordsworth was no naturalist ; 


11 


had failed, that is, to qualify as a teacher from the book of nature, 
by studying the grammar of its language. Like his contemporaries 
Southey, Moore, Keble, Scott—though unlike Crabbe, who alone 
amongst the brotherhood was an accomplished geologist and botanist 
—he gazed on nature with an uneducated eye, stumbling now and 
then upon a scientific truth, and handling it with tantalising power; 
but missing at every turn lessons, suggestions, principles, pregnant 
with poetic force. One graceful poem he disfigures by a sneer at 
botanists, unconscious that though a primrose by a river's brim 
was vastly more to Peter Bell’s creator than to Peter Bell, the one 
was as ignorant as the other of the wondrous life-history which the 
flower unfolds to the humblest botanical student. Yet we may be 
deeply thankful for that which he has given us; for the primrose 
tuft veiling the wren’s nest, for the circlet of snowdrops edging the 
orchard rock, and the somewhat thin sonnet to the same flower— 
for Love lies Bleeding, for the Oak and Broom—for the exquisite 
picture of the Osmunda, so often quoted, so rarely quoted rightly 
for the delicate Pantheism evolved from the torn hazel boughs 
_for the belief, repeated oftentimes in varied words, that “the 
meanest flower enjoys the air it preathes”—for the awful grandeur 
of thought and diction which has apotheosised the Borrowdale 
yew trees—the plea for strawberry blossoms—the rustic hats 
trimmed with stag-horn moss—the glorification of the lesser 
celandine—the daisy protecting the dewdrop, and embroidering its 
star-shaped shadow on the stone—the three special odes to the 
daisy—the loving description of the moss campion ; above all, the 
delightful poem on the daffodils, instinct and resonant in every 
line with the rustling toss of the flowers and the crisping ripple of 
the Ullswater waves, and containing the two perfect lines ascribed 
to Mrs. Wordsworth, the only two, apparently, which she ever 
contributed to his creations. [Here followed a description of the 
Lake plants, whose English names were suggestive of interesting 
facts, historical, mythical, scientific. | 

Let me end with two practical suggestions. One, that you 
should form a society not only for the preservation of your 


precious flora, with the diffusion of your rare species, but also for 
| 


12 


the education and enlightenment of your annual visitors, by the 
publication of leaflets on the flora of the district, and the organi- 
zation of field excursions judiciously shepherded by local naturalists. 
‘The other—a recommendation emitted not for the first or second 


time—that you should lay out and stock in Ambleside or else- 


where a small botanic garden, containing specimens, systematically 
arranged, of all except the commonest plants which the Lake 
District has been ascertained to yieid. Charge for admission ; 
cultivate rare species for sale; and you will at once protect those 
plants which amateurs will collect from your depository rather 
than eradicate from their native haunts, and will create an insti- 
tution not only self-supporting but remunerative. One parenthesis 
let me here interpose. If this proposal—if any proposal for the 
good of the district—is to thrive, you must jealously guard for 
yourselves and for your visitors the right of access to these beautiful 
spots, rich in botany, in geology, in scenery, which virtually consti- 
tute the Lakes. On all grounds, social or economic, landowners 
and lords of manors are amongst the worst enemies of the com- 
munity—leave us to extirpate them elsewhere, as we shall do, by 
socialistic legislation—but, here in Lakeland, band yourselves at 
once to keep their hands off what is a source of income to some of 
you, a source of joy and health to all. Otherwise, if strangers 
come to realise that the approach to Skiddaw is mutilated, 
convenient access to Easdale debarred, Wansfell a prey to 
‘“‘sufferance,” ascent to Loughrigg traversed by the devious bullets of 
experimenting patriots, their yearly influx will be diverted to less 
servile and less sophisticated regions, Lake tradesmen and inn- 
keepers will be ruined, and it will serve them right. It has pleased 
God to plant your life-long and abiding home in a spot which, for 
a few weeks in intermittent years, is to most of us a glimpse of 
Paradise ; is it too much to indicate, in such an enterprise as I 
suppose, some recognition of your less blessed fellows’ claims, 
some repayment of your own debt to Providence ? 


13 


A ROMAN RECREATION GROUND: 
THE CAMPUS MARTIUS OF GLANOVENTA. 


By THE REv J. I. CUMMINS, O.S.B. 
(Read at Maryport.) 


To one who cares to muse upon the changing pageant of the 
world’s history, and to call up the story of bygone days, the scanty 
remains of our Roman station are full of interest. Let such a one 
take his stand on the mounds by the north-east gate of the Camp, 
- the Preetorian gate of Glanoventa. ‘There he will see still standing 
the lintels of doors that once kept out the Picts and Scots, the ruts 
made by chariot wheels in the pavement, courses of stones as they 
were laid in the wall seventeen hundred years ago and never since 
disturbed ; and all around the shapeless mounds that hide the 
ruins of the streets and dwellings of the Station. How eloquently 
those stones, still speak of the might and the broad dominion of 
the empire that carved such lasting traces even on the hills of 
far-off Britain! But one who looks carefully may notice another 
and more familiar mark. Deeply stamped on those historic stones 
is the seal of the nation that has succeeded to the world-wide sway 
of Rome. ‘The Empire of Great Britain, as though to claim the 
heritage of universal dominion, has put its mark—the fingers of an 
outstretched hand—upon these old ruins ; and the broad arrow of 
the government ot Victoria is stamped upon the gate posts of the 
camp of Agricola. 

Another striking coincidence in this connection has often been - 
noticed. From the days of Tacitus people have remarked how 


14 


well chosen were the sites of Agricola’s encampments. One of 
them was this great Watch Camp on the Solway, and a curious 
confirmation of the judgment of his biographer was afforded a few 
years ago when this very site was chosen as a station for coast- 
guards and a battery for our naval reserve. The same causes 
produce the same results, similar needs require similar remedies. 
When modern England therefore wants a station for the protection 
of the Solway, she chooses the identical spot on our historic hill 
which Agricola selected and Hadrian approved for the same 
purpose eighteen hundred years ago. 

I would now draw attention to another curious coincidence ofa like 
kind, There is good reason to believe that the recreation ground 
of modern Maryport is identical with the playground of ancient 
Glanoventa. ,A few months back the Trustees, with commendable 
public spirit, decided to provide a playground for “the mercurial 
youth” of the town ; and after casting about for a suitable site they 
selected a vacant field near the hill top. I believe that they have 
unconsciously chosen the very spot that was used for a similar 
purpose sixteen and seventeen centuries ago; and that the same 
sense of the fitness of things, the same instinct which led the 
Admiralty to choose the Roman camp for their coastguard station 
has guided the Trustees to adopt as our children’s playground the 
Campus Martius of Glanoventa. 

No one who carefully examines the new recreation field can fail 
to notice two features in its conformation. First, and very con- 
spicuous, is the mound or circular elevation which rises towards 
the sea-face of the field, and has recently been furnished with 
some rustic seats. Second, not so noticeable at first sight, but 
easily recognised when pointed out, is a remarkable piece of 
perfectly level ground lying at the foot of this mound. The 
mound, which is certainly artificial, is popularly known as “ Pud- 
ding Pie Hill,” a name adopted by the Ordnance Survey but 
probably not older than the last century. It was long thought to 
be an ancient tumulus, or grave of some forgotten chieftain ; 
and was at one time known as ‘The King’s Burying Place.” It 
certainly bears a striking resemblance to a tumulus; and if 


15 


not of Roman work, might have dated from the later ages of 
the Danish invaders or the British kingdom of Strathclyde. 
But when the mound was explored in 1742, and a trench dug 
through the centre, though there were clear signs of its artificial 
character, yet nothing was found in it—no coins, no urn, nor 
anything to indicate a human burial place. The bones of some 
animals were found, together with a few wood ashes; these are 
probably the remains of a dedicatory sacrifice, and their presence 
fits in perfectly with another explanation of the purpose of the 
place—with the new theory which I have now to suggest. 

The general surface of the field in question is not at all level 
naturally, being the ridge of a hill which slopes downwards and 
with some regularity, on every side except on the north-east where 
it adjoins the camp. But about the middle of the field we suddenly 
come across a space which is perfectly level, somewhat in the shape 
of a square. It looks like some prehistoric cricket ground: in 
fact, the level is so perfect that a few years ago a local club wanted 
it for their pitch, and boys even now use it for their improvised 
cricket games. It is the only level spot on the whole hill, and 
can hardly be natural. Moreover, one can see plainly where the 
ground on the east side has been sharply cut away out of the 
natural slope; and again on the opposite side, where the made 
earth ends abruptly. One suspects that this level clearing must © 
have had some relation with the mound that rises about the middle 
of its north-west face. If one is artificial then so is the other; 
_ and if both are, the conclusion is hard to evade that both are the 
work of one and the same time and people. Who made them, 
then? Well, who made all the artificial works in this neighbour- 
hood—the mounds and slopes of which our hill-top, from the 
Camp to the Mote, bears such distinct traces? There is no 
record of any settlement here later than Roman-British times. 
The long dim centuries between the destruction of the Station and 
the building of the first farmhouse on the Brow are the Dark 
Ages of our local history; and nothing remains to suggest that 
_ during them the site of the Station was anything but a waste, with 
at most a solitary homestead upon it, The inference is irresistible 


16 


that both the level and the mound date from the era of Romans 
Britain, the only era in which our hill-top was inhabited, the only 
era whence any explanation is forthcoming as to the purpose of such 
works. We might notice further that no remains have ever been found 
in this field, and no traces of buildings’ or roads. All the streets, 
houses, temples of the station appear to have been either within 
the camp, or on its opposite side; a valid argument that the town 
did not extend in this direction, and that the field in Roman times 
was a large open space. 

Going on next to enquire what could be the purpose of such a 
place near a Roman station, archeology comes to our aid, and 
guides us to an anwer by what it tells of similar places in other 
parts of the Roman world. I would suggest, then, that this 
curious field was the circus or amphitheatre of the Station, the 
place where the games and races were held, the exercise ground 
for the garrison of the camp, perhaps sometimes the scene of 
gladiators’ combats. The mound I take to be the site of the 
president’s seat, or raised place of honour overlooking the plain 
whereon would be fixed the standard of the legion, and beneath it 
the chair of the tribune or governor of the camp. To suggest a 
comparison with the Coliseum of Rome, or even with thé less 
famous amphitheatres of the great provincial cities, may seem too 
ambitious. But I really believe that we shall get the most appro- 
priate name for the field, and the best idea of its object, if we call 
it the Field of Mars, the Campus Martius, the Champ de Mars. 
To some of you the latter form of the name will suggest very 
different associations, recalling perchance the great plain in the 
heart of a gay capital, where all the peoples of the world were 
lately assembled beneath the shadow of the Eiffel tower. There 
is more in the comparison than you might fancy. The Champ de 
Mars at Paris, whereon the Universal Exhibition lately stood, is 
merely the Campus Martius of the old Roman station, Lutetia 
Parisiorum. It bore the same relation to the colony of an obscure 
Gallic tribe settled by “the mud banks” of the Seine as this 
field of ours did to a less famous, but hardly less ancient, 
settlement among the Britons. The chief difference between the 


17 


two is an accidental one. The British colony of Glanoventa, after 
flourishing for three centuries, sank at last beneath the onslaught 
of the Picts sixty years before the Franks had crossed the Rhine; 
more hardy or more fortunate, the Parisian colony survived centuries 
of conquest and contest and grew to be the capital of the French 
nation. But the purpose, if not the name, of the two sites was 
similar. The same martial exercises, the same games and combats 
took place on this level field outside the walls of Glanoventa as 
were held in the Campus Martius of Paris, and of every colony in 
the Roman world. 

You must ali have heard of the love which the Romans had for 
the sports of the circus, and how the passion increased with the 
declining years of the Empire until the degenerate children of the 
Republic bartered even their liberties for Bread and Games. 
Panem et Circenses; Food and Fun! Any tyrant or usurper could 
secure popular support, and allay the deepest discontent if he 
would but satisfy this incessant cry. Huge amphitheatres were 
erected, of which the Coliseum is only the most famous, where 
month by month the people crowded to witness their favourite 
sports, or feast their eyes on the savage contests of the gladiators. 
The passion spreading throughout the provinces left its traces on 
the very confines of the Empire. Wherever a Roman soldier or 
citizen settled he took with him this taste for the excitement of the 
ting. No important city in Italy or Gaul was without its circus ; 
and when all else is gone, their gigantic ruins still witness to the 
wealth and labour that were lavished on these buildings, In their 
own humble way, the cities of distant Britain imitated the glories 
of the capital. Rude but spacious amphitheatres may be found 
amongst the ruins of our old British towns; and on the bare hill 
sides above the Tyne, near the stations of the Roman Wall, the 
trained eye of the antiquarian can still trace the outline of circus 
or theatre where the legionaries beguiled the weariness of peace 
and trained themselves for actual war. Of course the theatre or 
Campus Martius of a small frontier station was often fashioned 
in the most primitive way. The nearest level sward was chosen 


for the purpose, or the circus was cut out of the side of a hill 
2 


18 


where the slope furnished a natural vantage-ground for watching 
the sports beneath. Such has been the procedure at Maryport. 
The remarkable terraces in Geltsdale have had a similar origin 
ascribed to them. Something of the same kind may be seen at 
Mayborough near the gates of Lowther Park, though these are 
more probably of British than of Roman work; and a level field 
by the camp at Hardknott, in Eskdale, bears a very close resem- 
blance to this one at Maryport. 

The following description from a classical dictionary of the 
original Campus Martius at Rome will give some idea of the 
object of these places :—“ It was a plain without the walls of the 
city where the youth performed exercises, learnt to wrestle and 
box, to throw the discus, hurl the javelin, ride the horse and drive 
the chariot. Public assemblies were held here, the officers of state 
chosen, and audience given to ambassadors.” 

In our field then we have, as I believe, the recreation ground 
of the station and the place of exercise for the garrison. ‘There is 
ample room for sports such as foot-racing, boxing, and wrestling, 
and even for races with chariots. The actual level space is a 
parallelogram about ninety-five yards in length and ninety-three in 
breadth, which would leave plenty of room for a good-sized track 
for either foot or chariot races. The spectators would stand on 
the elevated ground to the north-east, which rises sonie eight feet, 
or on the mound already mentioned, which is about four feet above 
the plain. There must have been some level place near the camp 
where the infantry could exercise and drill. Inscriptions on the 
votive-altars found here indicate that cavalry also was attached to 
the garrison, at least during some periods; if so, the field would 
serve for their drill also. 

To sum up briefly the points of my argument. A circus or 
Campus Martius was provided at nearly all great Roman stations ; 
and might therefore be looked for at Maryport. No site in all the 
neighbourhood is so suitable for the purpose as the one we are 
examining. ‘There is evidence that it has always been an open 
space unencumbered by buildings: and the surface shows distinct 
traces of having been artificially levelled. An artificial mound 


19 


(misnamed a tumulus) rises on one side, just as though it were a 
platform for the president or umpire. The only explanation forth- 
coming of all this is that the field has been shaped and levelled for 
the purpose mentioned; in a word that we have discovered the 
“Campus Martius of Glanoventa.” 

If my conjecture is trustworthy, and we have really identified 
the Campus Martius of our Station,—then that little mound with 
the ridiculous name must have witnessed some strange scenes! 
The eagles of Rome have been planted there, and beneath them 
have stood mighty men who have made history, and whose names 
will never die. Agricola, our founder and first citizen, can hardly 
have made time in his hurried campaigns to arrange for the sports 
of his legions, and there was no need of mimic warfare for those 
who served under him. But Marcus Menius Agrippa, who 
commanded the fleet in these waters forty years later, and who 
certainly dedicated four altars here—he may well have presided on 
this spot ; as perhaps did his friend the Emperor Hadrian, when 
building his famous Wall ; and if so the visit would give occasion to 
the commemorative tablets which have been found. The aged 
Severus may have come here after his victorious campaign against 
the Picts, when he was strengthening the Wall which sometimes 
bears his name ; and if accompanied by his two sons, Geta and the 
fratricide Caracalla, who both made the campaign with him, then 
the old Station has seen some of the very worst as well as the best 
of the masters of the world, The Cesar, Constantius, during his 
long and vigorous government of Britain from the capital at York, 
surely visited so important a Station, even if his son Constantine the 
Great did not. Half a century later Theodosius or Stilicho may 
have passed through on their expeditions against the Picts, when 

‘the failing Empire turned to bay, and for the last time drove 
off its foes. And here, probably about the same time, dwelt a 
Roman officer, one Calphurnius, with his child Patrick, who lived 
to become the “Light of the West!” 

Some may think that this is giving reins rather freely to the 
historical imagination: but one object of a society like ours is to 
impart a literary flavour to antiquarian pursuits. We must try to 


20 


make the old days live again, to clothe with flesh and blood the 
dry bones of archzology, and to people these old stations with 
living men and women. Suppose then we call up in fancy some 
such scene as the camp must have often witnessed during its three 
centuries of existence. Imagine the inhabitants of the station 
gathered together on this spot for some review or sports, in 
celebration of a visit from the governor of the Province, or even 
from Czsar Augustus. Here stand the stalwart forms of the 
auxiliaries, Dalmatians, Spaniards, Mauritanians, who compose the 
garrison—veterans who have settled down and made a home in 
the country ; here are a few of the better classes of the district, 
chieftains of subject tribes, or provincials connected with the 
officers of the legion; and there are groups of the native Britons, 
rough-looking people, but not clothed merely in blue paint, as we 
used to be so falsely taught. Most of the latter are standing or 
seated on the slope to the north-east, where the rising ground 
enables those behind to see easily over the heads of the spectators 
in front. Amid the blare of trumpets the standard-bearer of the 
legion advances and plants the eagle on the mound; and there, 
taking his place beneath, stands the tribune or prefect in command 
of the Station, or occasionally the governor of the Province, or 
even the Divine Emperor himself! Around him are a group of 
officers ; near at hand a few patrician ladies, some of whom have 
seen the glories of the City, and look with a sneer on their 
fair lips at these provincial assemblies, though not even in the 
Coliseum have they witnessed greater valour than that with which 
the poor captive here defends his life. The sports proceed. 
Wrestling, racing, boxing were popular in Cumberland then as 
they are now, and perhaps were not much more rough. Even a 
Roman athlete or wrestler might have dreaded the grip of a 
Cumberland champion, and have shrunk from a scuffle at Rugby 
football! Perhaps the large crowds are attracted by a gladiatorial 
contest. Some poor Pict from the wilds of Galloway across the 
Frith has thrown himself in desperate raid against the walls of a 
Roman fortress, or the wall-like phalanx of a Roman legion. He 
is given a chance of life now with his rude native weapons in his 


21 


hands. See with what despairing courage he offers his painted 
body to his well-armed foe; see him at length, amid the yells of 
the spectators, stretched bleeding on the turf, “butchered to make 
a Roman holiday,’—on that very sward where now romp our 
‘young barbarians all at play.” ‘Truly, if ghosts ever walk, the 
peaceful slopes of that field should witness some gruesome sights, 
and the householders of Camp Road, looking from their windows 
on some moonlight night, might hear horrid sounds, and see 
strange spectres, as the wraithes of captives and gladiators haunt 
the field where they last struggled in death. ‘There is nothing 
new under the sun. What has been shall be again, when the 
wheel of time and fortune has revolved. Who shall say that the 
past never returns when English sailors are at exercise on the 
very slopes that were trodden by the legions of Rome, when our 
coastguard still watch the shores once held by Spanish and 
Dalmatian auxiliaries, when the cannon of Victoria sound over the 
Solway from the ramparts of a fortress of Agricola? More than 
that, on the very spot where the youth of bygone Glanoventa raced 
and wrestled and fought, the children of modern Maryport play 
cricket and football—and sometimes fight! Even the perilous 
sports of the gladiators there are paralleled by the dangers of the 
gymnasium and giant-stride. One thing further is still wanting : 
but perhaps before long our local bands may discourse sweet music 
to a peaceful people from that historic mound where Agrippa 
or Constantius once stood beneath the Roman eagles, to watch 
the sports and direct the drill of the legions that garrisoned 
Glanoventa. 


23 


BOTANICAL “WAIFS” IN CUMBERLAND, 
By WM. HODGSON, A.L.S. 
(Read at Maryport and at Carlisle. ) 


Tue date of my earliest investigations on this question may be set 
down as co-eval with. the opening of the first floating dock con- 
structed in Cumberland, viz., the Marshall Dock at Silloth. This 
was shortly succeeded by the Elizabeth Dock at Maryport, the 
Lonsdale Dock at Workington, the Whitehaven Dock, and the 
Senhouse Dock at Maryport. The ballast from merchant ships 
and the sweepings from the holds of vessels when exposed upon 
the beach—especially at Silloth and Maryport—have been found 
covered with vegetation differing widely in character, according to 
the localities from which the ballast, etc., has been brought. 
Perhaps as much as 75 per cent. of the whole may be credited to 
vessels engaged in the shipment of foreign grain to this country, 
chiefly by the following firms, viz., Messrs. Carr & Co., Carlisle ; 
Messrs. Seatree & Sons, Penrith; Messrs. Irving, Maryport; and 
Messrs. Pattinsons & Winter, Whitehaven. Many of the species 
gathered are classed as indigenous to countries bordering on the 
Mediterranean, chiefly from Italy and the islands of Sicily, Sar- 
dinia, and Corsica. In North America, from the United States 
and California. In South America, from Chili, Monte Video, 
Rosario, and Brazil. I may note that I have not so far met with 
any species that can be distinctly classed as indigenous to Aus- 
tralia, New Zealand, or the Cape Colony. Intermingled with 
species of undoubted foreign origin, plants are occasionally gathered 


24 


which, though not indigenous to the North Western counties of 
England, are yet included in the London Catalogue of British 
Plants. 

With the exception of the Silloth station, I am individually 
responsible for the lists which accompany the present notes. At 
Silloth I have received courteous and able assistance from Dr. 
Leitch of that place, who, besides his acknowledged ability as an 
exponent of botanical science, has the great advantage of being 
constantly on the spot, and able at all times to examine and report 
on the occurrence of anything unusual in the plant line. From 
the Rev. Hilderic Friend, F.L.S., late of Carlisle, I have also 
received useful and accurate information ; and I deeply regret his 
departure from the neighbourhood. Last, but by no means least, 
I must acknowledge the ready and cheerful assistance of Miss E. J. 
Glaister, of Blackdyke, Silloth, and her brother, whose names. must 
be associated in my memory with many a seaside ramble enjoyed in 
their congenial society. I must travel yet further afield in my 
acknowledgments, and express our joint obligations to Mr. J. G. 
Baker, F.R.S., of the Herbarium at Kew Gardens, London, for 
his courtesy in identifying specimens regarding which any doubts 
existed. His services in that respect have been invaluable, and 
we justly congratulate ourselves on having been fortunate enough 
to receive the benefit of his almost world-wide experience. 

The lists which are appended to these remarks must not be 
considered as anything but an approximate catalogue of the species 
that have appeared from time to time during the last fifteen or 
twenty years. From the very exposed situation of the refuse 
heaps, it will easily be understood how readily any attractive 
flower would be appropriated as an addition to a child’s- or grown- 
up person’s- bouquet, and so fail to be noticed by an occasional 
visitor. 

Nor is it to be supposed that these adventive species will (except 
in very rare instances) become acclimatized or established here. 
Take Maryport as an illustration. The ground surface there has 
been covered with successive layers of ballast, during the seven 
years of my residence at Flimby or Workington, each layer obliter- 


25 


ating probably for all time the vegetation of the preceding one. 
Again; the variety of the ballast matter, consisting as it does of 
granite, chalk or flint, sandstone, the refuse of slate quarries, clay, 
alluvium of divers kinds, etc., must be taken into consideration ; 
and more important still may be the variation of climate of our 
northern latitudes from that of the lands from which the several 
substances were originally procured. It is quite reasonable to 
assume that but for the notice taken of them by my co-workers 
and myself, all record of their existence upon our coast-line would 
quickly have perished. 

The case is somewhat different at Silloth. There the dressings 
from Messrs. Carr’s large corn mills, consisting of what a native 
Cumbrian would designate as ‘‘popple,” are either gratuitously 
distributed or sold at a nominal figure to the mill-workers and 
other labourers for poultry-keeping purposes. Scattered about the 
banks contiguous to the dwellings, the waste corn is quickly picked 
up by the fowls, and the residue, consisting of the smaller seeds, 
by and bye germinates, and the hillocks are quickly clad with vege- 
tation of home, or more commonly of foreign origin. The few 
opportunities that occur to me of visiting this station, never fail to 
result in the discovery of some plants not previously noted. 

I have gathered at Silloth the following different species classed 
as indigenous to some portion or other of the United Kingdom. 
This is probably the stage at which I may most appropriately 
refer to the recent alterations that have been made in the arrange- 
ment of plants in the 8th or latest edition of the London Catalogue, 
as compared with preceding issues. The former editions contained 
at the end an appendix, which embraced a large number of species 
considered as aliens, casuals, waifs of cultivation, etc. The great 
majority of these have been re-introduced by Mr. Fred J. Han- 
bury and his editorial co-workers. The change can hardly be 
classed as a popular one, and I fear that it may be productive of 
confusion in quarters where the science of Botany is but imperfectly 
understood. As, however, the members of the British Association 
have accepted the new order of things, I have followed their 
example. Many such stragglers have been found at Silloth, 


INDIGENOUS 


Delphinium consolida 

Alyssum incanum 

Sisymbrium sophia 

Lrysimum orientale 

Camelina sativa 

Brassica napus 

Senebiera coronopus 

Lepidium ruderale 

Raphanus raphanistrum 
Saponaria vaccaria 

Trifolium resupinatum 

Vicia lutea 

—— angustifolia 

—— varia 

Lathyrus aphaca 

Bupleurum rotundifolium 
Coriandrum sativum 

Caucalis daucotdes 

Peucedanum sativum (Parsnep) 
Galium tricorne (Rev. H. F.) 
Asperula arvensis (Miss E. J. G.) 
Xanthium spinosum (Do. ) 
Anthemis cotula 

Senecio erucifolius 

Carduus nutans (Miss E, J. G.) 


26 


TO BRITAIN. 


Silene conica 

—— gallica 
Althea hirsuta 
Malva rotundifolia 
—— parviflora 
—— borealis 
Geranium pyrenaicum 
Medicago falcata 
—— minima 
Melilotus officinalis 
—— parviflora 
Centaurea. cyanus 
—— caleitrapa 


Ssolstitialts 

Cichorium intybus (Chicory) 
Anagallis coerulea 

Asperugo procumbens 
Anchusa sempervirens 
Hyoscyamus niger 

Stachys annua 

Ballota nigra 

Plantago arenaria 
Chenopodium viride 
Polygonum maritimum 

—— maculatum (Rev. H. F.) 


Onopordon acanthium (Do.)  Fagopyrum esculentum 
Scandix pecten-veneris Ruppia rostellata (Miss E. J. G.) 
Triticum acutum Bromus erectus 
Cynosurus echinatus —— tectorum 
Phalaris canariensis —— maximus 
Apera spica-venti 
ALIENS. 
Echinospermum lappula Hemizonia 
Amsinckia lycopsoides Phacelia 


27 


Centaurea melitensis Omphalodes verna 
—— (?) Aegilops 
Heracleum hirsutum Hordeum barbatum 
Triticum capitatum Bromus schradert 
Salvia squarrosus 


Sisymbrium pannonicum 


Plants gathered at Maryport from 1884 to 1891. Included in 
the London Catalogue, 8th Edition, 1887. 


Adonis autumnalis Anagallis cerulea 
Sisymbrium sophia Asperugo procumbens 
Camelina sativa Borago officinalis 
Brassica rapa Lithospermum arvense 
—— nigra Solanum nigrum 
—— alba LFyoscyamus niger 
Diplotaxis tenuifolia Antirrhinum orontium 
Senebiera coronopus Veronica buxbaumit 
Lepidium ruderale . Marrubium vulgare 
—— draba Stachys germanica 
Thlaspi arvense Plantago arenaria 
Raphanus raphanistrum (2) Amaranthus retroflexus 
Saponaria vaccaria Chenopodium opulifolium 
Silene noctiflora —— urbicum 
Cerastium tetrandrum —— rubrum 
Malva rotundifolia —— botrys 
Medicago denticulata Atriplex littoralis 
apiculata —— angustifolia 
maculata —— adlto-idea 
Melilotus officinalis Mercurialis annua 
alba 
parviflora GRASSES. 
Vicia angustifolia Selaria viridis 
Anthemis cotula Phalaris canariensis 
_—— arvensis Alopecurus agrestis 
—— nobilis Phieum arenarium 


Centaurea cyanus Polypogon monspeliensis 


28 


Cichorium intybus Apera spita-venti 
Verbena officinalis Lromus erectus 
Beta maritima —— secalinus 

JX vy ign, Shs 
Echinospermum lappula Ximenesia australis 
Amsinckia lycopsoides (California) Centaurea melitensis 
Chrysanthemum coronarium —— calocephala 
Lemizonia pungens (Chili) Bowlesia tenera 
Senecio (?) Bromus schradert 
Rapistrum rugosum (2) Neslia paniculata 
Sisymbrium pannonicum Verbascum pheniceum 


Nore.—The following plants were all collected upon one mound 
of a peculiarly heavy and tenacious loam, which formed a part of 
the ballast of a ship trading to South America, and is believed to 
have come from the Rio dela Plata. A giant form of Chenopodium, 
which never developed flowers, and could not on that account be 
definitely named—but its nearest British representative is Cheno- 
podium album.  Ximenesia australis, Bowlesia tenera, Medicago 
denticulata, M. maculata, Bromus schraderi, Verbascum pheniceum, 
and a very pretty sevecio, with finely divided leaves, which has not 
been identified. 


DERWENT TIN PLATE WorkKS, WORKINGTON.—Quite a different 
and in many ways a remarkable condition of things is apparent 
here. Behind the works on the east side is a large accumulation 
of ashes and cinders, mixed with other rubbish, forming a raised 
embankment four or five yards in depth, and about forty or fifty 
yards in extreme length. A footpath used by the workpeople 
passes along the southern base. During the early summer of 
1889 I noticed along this track a large number of plants unknown 
to me previously. On inquiry at the works, I was informed that 
the material upon which the plants were growing consisted of 
refuse from the tin plate works. It came by sea from Liverpool, 
and, after being applied while in a heated state for imparting a 
polish to newly-made tin plates (on much the same principle as 
pins and needles are rendered bright by rapidly revolving in heated 


29 


bran), it was cast forth as worthless. So far as I have been en- 
abled to discover, the refuse consists of shoddy or waste from 
woollen and flax mills, probably from south-east Lancashire or the 
adjacent West Riding of Yorkshire. Traces both of wool and flax 
are apparent here and there, but I failed to detect any appearance 
of cotton. Many plants are there observable which, though 
recognized as being British, are only seen on very rare occasions 
in Cumberland as adventive or casuals, though many are also of 
undoubted foreign origin. ‘The season of 1889 was probably too 
dry for the full development of plant life on a bank of dry ashes, 
although the southern aspect was decidedly favourable. At any 
rate, the same species attained more luxuriant growth in 18go0 than 
during the preceding season. Children destroyed a few species 
before identification was practicable. Others again, fell victims at 
an immature stage to the wild storms of October last year. The 
species gathered and identified during 1889 included the following 
plants presumably of British origin, viz :— 


Lepidium draba Melilotus alba 
_ —— ruderale —— officinalis 
Sinapis alba —— parviflora (in abundance) 
—— nigra (abundant) Trifolium fragiferum, v. resupi- 
Brassica rapa natum 
Sisymbrium sophia Carduus arvensis (spineless form) 
Raphanus raphanistrum (two Anthemis cotula (plentiful) 
varieties) —— arvensis 
Thlaspi arvense —— nobilis (wanting ray florets) 
Diplotaxis tenutfolia Solanum nigrum (also at Mary- 
Camelina sativa (abundant) port) 
Barbarea intermedia (seen only Hyoscyamus niger 
once) Calamintha acinos 
_ Reseda lutea Anagallis cerulea 
Silene anglica Chenopodium olidum 
—— noctiflora —— opulifolium 
_ Lychnis viscaria —— botrys (also at Flimby) 
 Malva rotundifolia (also at + —— murale 


Silloth) —— viride 


80 


Medicago denticulata,v.apiculata Mercurialis annua 
—— maculata Amaranthus retroflexus 


—— sativa 


Grasses _ (British). 


Cynodon dactylon Bromus erectus 
Setaria viridis (also at Maryport) Echinochloa crus-galli 


Polypogon monspeliensis (very Gastridium lendigerum 


fine) Poa compressa 
Festuca bromoides Phalaris canariensis 
Bromus arvensis (one plant) Lolium linicola 


—— maximus (also at Silloth) 


ALIENS, OR ADVENTIVE. 


Sisymbrium pannonicum Centaurea melitensis 

Erysimum orientale Plantago arenaria 

—— hypericifolium Saponaria vaccaria 

Trigonella polycerata Brassica ? 

—— corniculata Silene inaperta 

Trifolium lappaceum Lycopersicum esculentum (tomato) 
Ammi bisnaga Amaranthus alba 

--— i Nicotiana tabacum (tobacco) 


Senecio vernalis 
Grasses (Aliens). 


Panicum capillare Selaria glauca 


Additional Plants gathered in 1890. Reputed British species. 


Trifolium incarnatum Medicago sativa 

Blitum virgatum Cichorium intybus (chicory) 
GRASSES. 

Glyceria maritima Bromus squarrosus (very fine) 

Lolium perenne, v. ramosum Lolium temulentum 


Agrostis spica-venti (abundant) 


$1 


ALIENS, OR ADVENTIVES. 


Malcolmia maritima Mentha requiem (I. of Corsica) 
Arabis retrofracta Trifolium, allied to T. maritimum 
Silene linicola? from N. America 

Artemisia scoparia Verbascum pheeniceum 


FOREIGN GRASSES. 


Panicum ? Eragrostis verticillata 


From the above list, embracing as it does about ninety distinct 
species (exclusive of varieties), those not reputedly of exotic origin 
being all more or less rare in the north-west of England, it will be 
readily concluded that the task of identification would have 
exceeded my capacity, had it not been for the experienced aid 
already referred to in this paper. I can most fully endorse the 
following remarks by Dr. F. Arnold Lees, F.R.C.S., of Leeds, 
contained in a note in the appendix to his excellent and compre- 
hensive “Flora of the West Riding of Yorkshire” (1888) :—“ For 
those who want a downright good botanical puzzle, and a rousing 
lesson in plant character by the way, these foreign weeds answer 
admirably. It is only necessary to purchase a stone or two of 
hen-corn at different mills, strew it at intervals in spring on waste 
garden ground, allowing the fowls a few minutes to pick the wheat, 
and in a few short weeks—voila/ a parterre more bewildering to 
the lover of the botanically curious in its variety than it is possible 
to attain otherwise with so little trouble.” 

I may just notice in passing, that upon heaps clearly consisting 
of household rubbish or sweepings, I have found the following 
species associated. viz:—Linum usitatissimum, l’halaris canari- 
ensis, Cannabis sativa, and less commonly perhaps 4 maranthus 
retroflecus. At Flimby, Risehow, Maryport, and at the Derwent 
Tin Plate Works, Workington, they have been observed in con- 
junction—but the last mentioned was also seen upon the shoddy, 
and independent of home origin. I infer that such refuse came 
from dwellings where feathered pets were kept, and sprang from 
the sweepings of bird-cages. 

A remarkable illustration of the rapidity with which uncommon 


82 


species will sometimes multiply and extend themselves under 
peculiar circumstances, is afforded by the open beach between the 
West Cumberland Iron Works and the sea. Here, upon a wide 
expanse of shingle, consisting entirely of triturated slag from the 
neighbouring furnaces, the great Yellow Horned Poppy ( Glaucium 
Iutewm ) has found a congenial home, and multiplied amazingly. 
In 1884, probably half-a-dozen examples might have been seen ; 
now the entire area of nearly two acres in extent is thickly over- 
spread with plants, and their beautiful silver-grey foliage has a 
most charming appearance even during the depth of winter. It is 
interesting further to notice the manner in which the plants are 
gradually creeping up the sloping bank of slag on the north side 
of the main station; and it is obvious that the whole shore will 
soon be occupied. No mention of the plant in connection with 
the North Shore occurs in the notes of my immediate botanical 
predecessors—W. Dickinson, Esq., F.L.S., of Thorncroft, or his 
equally observant colleague, the late Mr. David Tweddle, bank 
manager, of Workington. Of soil in the ordinary sense of the 
word there is practically none—bare grey shingle is alone visible. 
Towards the northern extremity a fine colony of Hchiwm vulgare 
is noticeable, the brilliant azure flowers of which must be familiar 
to all summer strollers over Silloth banks. 

A singular find occurred at Parton during the summer of 1889. 
On the strip of ground separating the railway from the sea, and in 
close proximity to the railway station, within a distance of about 
one hundred yards in length, I noticed in early summer some fifty 
or sixty plants, at about equal distances apart, with potato-like 
foliage. When the yellow blossoms appeared, they too seemed to 
connect the plants with the Nightshade family. Not, however, 
until the fruit developed to considerable size, did it dawn upon me 
that the plants were veritable Tomatoes (Lycopersicum esculentum). 
How the plants came there remains unexplained. I have men- 
tioned elsewhere that a solitary Tomato plant was seen on the 
shoddy bank at Derwent Tin Plate Works during the same season. 

In bringing these remarks to a conclusion, allow me briefly to 
refer to a singular side issue which has been raised in connection 


33 


with the find at the Derwent Tin Plate Works in 1889. I had 
made some reference to the discovery in course of a conversation 
with my friend Mr. H. Thompson, F.R.C.V.S., of Aspatria, the 
energetic Secretary to the Directors of the Aspatria Agricultural 
College ; and he was anxious to know the degree of heat to which 
the material would be exposed, when in use at the Tin Plate 
Works. On inquiry, I was told that no reliable record was kept, 
but that approximately I might take the extreme as ranging from 
85° to go° Fah. The question was then started as to what amount 
of heat some of these necessarily very minute seeds—those of 
Mentha requiem for example—were calculated to sustain without 
injury to their germinating power. Mr. Thompson, who is presi- 
dent for the year of an association of his professional brethren, at 
their annual meeting held in Edinburgh, made incidental reference 
to the facts communicated to him by myself. He was asked by a 
gentleman present—Mr. Phillips, an army V.S. attached to a 
cavalry regiment stationed at Jock’s Lodge Barracks, Edinburgh— 
whether the seeds might not have been wind-blown from plants in 
the immediate neighbourhood of the Tin Plate Works. The 
president’s reply distinctly negatived the suggestion ; whereupon 
Mr. Phillips replied that, taking into account the heat and friction 
described without injury to the germinating powers of the seeds, it 
was not unreasonable to suggest that the bacilli of anthrax might 
be contained in cotton cake, surviving the heat and pressure em- 
_ ployed in the manufacture or preparation of the cake from the 
seeds of the cotton plant. The question thus raised remains for 
decision experimentally or otherwise. 
On the other hand, singular instances are not wanting to show 
_ that seeds retain their vitality unimpaired under circumstances of 
_amost unfavourable nature. In the summer of 1852, the second 
year of my residence at Aspatria, the season was exceptionally dry, 
and the large pond known as Brandraw was sufficiently reduced in 
bulk to allow of the bottom being cleared of twenty years’ accumu- 
lation of mudand sludge. This was laid aside against an adjoining 
wall until it should become sufficiently solidified to admit of its 
being carted away for agricultural purposes. In an incredibly 
3 


34 


short space of time the entire surface became covered thickly with 
young grass. The species were never identified, as the material 
was removed before the flowering spikes became visible. A yet 
more remarkable instance is recorded in the Linnean Society’s 
Transactions, some three or four years ago, when a short paper 
was read before the members to the following purport. Shortly 
before the date of the paper referred to, the River Avon Navigation 
Commissioners effected considerable improvement in the channel 
towards Bristol, by dredging the bed of the river. An old quarry- 
hole of considerable extent adjoined the river, and into this handy 
receptacle the mud was tipped until the excavation was made level 
with the surrounding surface. No sooner was it sufficiently indu- 
rated by the escape or evaporation of the water, than the top was 
overspread with vegetation of a miscellaneons character, mostly, 
however, of exotic origin, and bearing a striking resemblance to 
that found about Silloth. The port of Bristol is some centuries 
older than Silloth, and it is impossible to imagine how long some 
of the mud thus brought to the surface may have remained 
undisturbed at the bottom. The similarity in species of the 
plants collected at these two widely separated stations leads to the 
inference that grain importation is probably the common origin of 
both. The matter is worthy of further thought and investigation. 


35 


NOTES ON A BOX USED IN SMUGGLING ON 
THE BORDER FIFTY YEARS AGO. 


By T. V. HOLMES, F.G.S. 


(Read at the Maryport Annual Meeting.) 


Two years ago (being then President of the Geologists’ Association 
of London) I arranged with Mr. J. G. Goodchild for a week’s 
excursion of the Association to north-west Cumberland and Eden- 
side. But before leaving London it occurred to me to make some 
provision against wet weather during the stay of the Association at 
Carlisle by taking various books and maps, and by drawing up a 
short paper in which I noted certain differences between the 
aspects of things in south-eastern and in north-western England. 
I commented, in the first place, on the results of geological 
structure in their influence on the scenery of the two regions, both 
as regards their effect on the landscape generally and in the nature 
of the trees which were most abundant. In a typical Kentish 
landscape, for instance, the Elm (Udmus campestris) is the char- 
acteristic tree, while in Cumberland this Elm is rare, its place 
being taken by the Wych Elm (U/mus montana), the Oak, and the 
Ash. I then noticed the comparatively grim and unadorned 
villages and churches of Cumberland as indicating the very late 
date at which the county had begun to enjoy anything like material 
prosperity, pointing out that an Act of Parliament to check moss- 
troopers had been passed so late as the reign of Charles II. Since 
the failure of the insurrection of 1745 a more settled state of things 


36 


had existed; but Hutchinson, writing about a century ago, had 
many passages (some of which I quoted) showing either the back- 
ward condition of agriculture in certain districts, or the very recent 
date of important improvements. 

I added that though mosstrooping might be considered to have 
become extinct about a century and a half ago, successive govern- 
ments had, since its extinction, practically endeavoured to keep 
alive a law-breaking spirit by the creation of smuggling between 
England and Scotland. This almost incredible piece of folly had 
been achieved by the exaction of very different amounts of excise 
duty on certain commodities north and south of the Border, and 
was bearing evil fruit when Sir Walter Scott denounced it in 
Redgauntlet about the year 1825. 

But I found on talking over the matter with some members of 
the Geologists’ Association, that they were inclined to be more or 
less sceptical as to the former existence of smuggling between 
England and Scotland, thinking either that I had somehow mis- 
taken Sir Walter Scott, or that Sir Walter had taken a romancer’s 
license. And TI could point to no writer who had treated of the 
subject but the great novelist. 

Feeling the desirability of obtaining corroborative evidence, I 
called on an aged and respected citizen of Carlisle, who was also 
an old friend of my own, knowing that he would be able to aid me in 
some way. Aftersome talk on the subject he produced a box, which 
he kindly gave me, and which he said had been used in smuggling 
about the year 1842. It is a square wooden box, about 9} inches 
long by 7} inches broad, externally, and about 7} inches deep. 
The lid is fastened down by four screws, and would consequently 
take some little time to open, a work that could have been done 
only with care and deliberation. Inside the box is a small keg, 
capable of holding half a gallon of whiskey. The space between 
the exterior of the keg and the lid of the box was filled with small 
pebbles, which alone would be visible on the partial loosening of 
one or more of the screws. While, if merely seized and shaken 
by an exciseman, no sound would be heard but the rattling of the 
pebbles, And we can hardly doubt that to the revenue official of 


37 


fifty or sixty years ago, a collector of stones must have seemed a 
necessarily harmless if somewhat feckless person, incapable of 
anything so manly as smuggling whiskey. This barrel, I am 
informed, never held anything but whiskey at gs. per gallon, the 
duty being ros. 

My friend’s name I do not give, lest some slur should seem to 
attach to it in the eyes of a younger generation of Cumbrians, to 
whom opportunities of amateur smuggling are unknown, except on 
the occasion of a visit to the continent. From some notes which 
he copied from his notebook and sent to me after I had left 
Carlisle, I learned that salt, as well as whiskey, had at one time 
been subject to a much higher excise duty in England than in 
Scotland. In the year 1822 a man named Harding, of Great 
Corby, was shot by an exciseman named Forster, while endeav- 
ouring to smuggle three stones of salt in order to cure his pig; an 
incident which may have had some influence in causing the great 
reduction of the salt duty in 1823. Whiskey, however, remained 
in its old position in spite of a desperate affray which took place 
on Eden Bridge in 1824 between smugglers and excisemen, followed 
a few days after by one hundred and twenty informations against 
publicans for selling smuggled spirits ; a fact which testifies in the 
most unquestionable way to the immense demand in Carlisle for 
whiskey at Scottish prices. Yet more than a quarter of a century 
was to elapse before the equalisation of the excise duty on spirits 
on both sides of the Border, an event which happened in 1852 or 
1853. 

Perhaps in few matters has necessity more often been the 
mother of invention than in smuggling. To turn for a moment to 
south-eastern England. ‘Ina letter to the Hastings Observer dated 
November 15th, 1880, and headed ‘Reminiscences of Old Times,” 
the writer, Mr. E. Wenham,* relates that between 1820 and 1830 
smugglers at Hastings were detected in one case landing kegs of 
spirits hidden in what were apparently blocks of sandstone; 
while in another instance kegs were concealed in lumps of chalk 
On the south-eastern coast, however, smuggling was wholly carried 


*Mr. Wenham lived most of his life at Greenwich, and was well known to me, 


38 


on by professional men for purely commercial purposes, for we 
can hardly dignify the squires, farmers, and others who were glad 
to receive good brandy at a low price, and to remain in ignorance 
of its previous history, as amateurs. That title must remain for 
those who, like the former owner of this box, smuggled mainly 
from a love of adventure tinged more or less by desire to demon- 
strate the folly of an enactment which prevented the purchase of 
whiskey at a reasonable price at Carlisle or Wigton, and allowed 
it at Gretna or Annan. But as it is obvious that the genuine 
amateurs risked more in person, though not in purse, than the 
professional Trumbulls and Nanty Ewarts, it is evident that inven- 
tive ingenuity must have been active in their protection. Admirably 
designed as this box appears to be to accomplish the purpose for 
which it was made, the noble army of amateurs could never have 
trusted with safety to any single pattern. The same result must 
have been attained in so many different ways as to prevent the 
exciseman from regarding with special suspicion receptacles of any 
one particular make. I therefore hope that a result of the public- 
ation of these notes may be to induce some resident of this Border 
district to collect and lay before this Association the whole of the 
available evidence bearing upon Border smuggling, both as regards 
its extent and the various contrivances of those engaged in it either 
as professionals or amateurs. In a very few years all smugglers of 
both classes must have passed away. 

It may be suggested, perhaps, that the Cumberland Archzo- 
logical Society should be the recipient of communications of this 
kind rather than this Association. I do not know what the rule 
of the Archzological Society may be as regards the period dealt 
with in a paper, but the London Society of Antiquaries excludes 
all material less than a century old; a regulation which doubtless, 
on the whole, works well. I think besides, that in matters like 
Border smuggling, Gretna Green marriages, pack-horse traffic, etc., 
which have become extinct during the present century, the inquirer 
who will do the best work in collecting information from the oldest 
inhabitants will not do it as the result of his superior archzological 
knowledge, but rather as a consequence of his knowledge of men 


39 


and women, and of the way to obtain the greatest amount of 
information from those most competent to give it. He will 
proceed, in short, as Mr. Rawnsley did when collecting the 
materials for his delightful paper giving the opinions entertained 
of Wordsworth by the people of the Lake Country who in various 
ways came into contact with the great poet. But as it is evident 
that Mr. Rawnsley would have been too late had he waited 
another ten years, so will it be with the collector of reminiscences 
of Border smuggling, which expired about two years after the 
death of Wordsworth. And I believe that Cumberland will be 
found to offer a more interesting field of research than any other 
English county, to those who are qualified to obtain information 
from the oldest inhabitants, about old manners, customs, and folk- 
lore ; information of which people fifty or sixty years of age, living 
in the same districts, may be entirely destitute. 


te ae + ase iS, 


Ro 


Mites, 


Bands of sedimentary rock interstratified with andesitic tuff, 
No. 2 showing the elongation of the fragments of lava along 


the cleavage planes. From Yew Crag Quarry, near Buttermere. 


(1) Section parallel to the plane of cleavage. *° 
2) Section in a plane at right angles to the cleavage. 
P 8 § g 


]..G. G azirejen: 


Gal. Cowaro,LitHs 


41 


THE CLEAVED ASHES 
AND BRECCIAS OF THE VOLCANIC SERIES OF 
BORROWDALE.* |. 


By J. POSTLETHWAITE, F.G.S. 
(Read at the Maryport Annual Meeting.) 


Tue rocks known as the Volcanic Series of Borrowdale occupy 
an oblong area, which stretches across the Lake Country in a north- 
easterly and south-westerly direction. This area measures about 
thirty-four miles in length by twelve miles in width, comprising 
about four hundred square miles; on the north-west it is bounded 
by Skiddaw Slate, except where it abuts against the Buttermere 
and Ennerdale Syenitic Granite. On the north-east, it is succeeded 
partly by Carboniferous Limestone, partly by Conglomerate, and 
partly by Skiddaw Slate. The south-western boundary is formed 
partly of St. Bees Sandstone, partly of Eskdale Granite, and partly 
of the Skiddaw Slate of Black Combe, and the south-eastern mar- 
gin is formed of Coniston Limestone. ‘This area contains several 
lakes, some of the highest mountains in England, and the most 
varied and beautiful scenery that can be found in the British Isles. 
The volcanic rocks of the Borrowdale series consist of ashes and 

* The Rocks of the Volcanic Series of Borrowdale, as well as those belonging 
to other formations in the Lake District, have been described and illustrated 
in a very full and able manner in the Memoirs, Maps, and Sections prepared 
and published by the former Editor of these 7vamsactions, the late Rev. JAMES 


CLIFTON WARD, F.G.S., and I have to acknowledge my indebtedness to his 
works in the preparation of this and other papers. 


42 


breccias, alternating with sheets of lava; the whole being traversed 
by dykes and masses of igneous rock. Of the last named, two 
masses, namely, the Ennerdale Syenitic Granite and the St. John’s 
Quartz Felsite are on the course of the fault which separates the 
volcanic rocks from the main area of the Skiddaw Slates, and it is 
probable that the fault was the channel through which the materials 
composing these masses welled up from beneath in a molten state, 
not to the surface, but into huge caverns formed by the folding 
and crumpling of the strata, which took place during the earth 
movements that produced the fault. The condition of the quartz 
which constitutes an important part of nearly all the igneous rocks 
of the district, proves that they were solidified under great pressure, 
and at a considerable depth beneath the surface. 

The Ennerdale Syenitic Granite occupies an area of about 
twenty square miles, extending from Buttermere on the north, to 
Wastwater on the south. The rock is generally of a pale red 
colour, sometimes changing to dark grey, and it is fairly uniform 
in appearance. It consists of pink felspar (plagioclase and ortho- 
clase), dark green hornblende, and transparent quartz. Usually it 
is very hard, but on the mountain tops it is much decomposed, 
often crumbling into a coarse sand. 

The St. John’s Quartz Felsite is exposed in two masses of about 
equal size, they occupy both sides of the lower end of the vale of 
St. John, and are, in all probability, connected beneath the alluvium 
which forms the floor of the valley. The masses each measure 
about a mile from north to south, and from half to three-quarters 
of a mile from east to west. The colour of the felsite is generally 
light grey, but in some places it assumes a reddish tint. It consists 
of microline and orthoclase felspar, quartz, calcite, and schorl; also 
some epidote and serpentine, part of the last named has probably 
replaced mica. The rock is usually well jointed, and contains 
large fragments that have been much altered. 

The Eskdale Granite is the largest exposure of igneous rock in 
the Lake District, covering an area of about thirty-five square miles. 
It lies at the south-western margin of the area occupied by the 
yolcanic series, and is succeeded on the western side by New Red 


43 


strata. Generally the rock is rather coarse, but in some parts 
there are bands of fine-grained granite. It consists of quartz, 
orthoclase and triclinic felspar, and dark brown mica; in some 
portions of the fine-grained granite the mica is absent. The felspar 
is more or less impregnated with hematite, which gives a reddish 
tint to the rock, and that tint is more apparent on a weathered 
surface than where it has been recently fractured, as the hematite, 
when liberated from the decomposed felspar, overspreads the whole 
surface of the rock. There are also three small exposures of 
granite, which are in all probability connected with the Eskdale 
mass, namely, at Burnmoor Tarn, at the foot of Wastwater, and 
foot of Scawfell. The first named is rather coarse, and the two 
latter fine-grained, but all have the reddish tint which characterizes 
the Eskdale Granite. 

On the opposite margin of the volcanic series, near Shap, there 
is a much smaller, but in some respects a more interesting exposure 
of granite. The rock consists of a base made up of grains of white 
felspar, crystalline quartz, and black mica, in this base are embedded 
large oblong crystals of pink felspar (orthoclase), which are often 
of gigantic size, and form the distinguishing feature of the granite. 
It is much altered where it is in contact with the surrounding 
rocks, the latter also being greatly metamorphosed. The mass, as 
it now exists, measures about two miles in length by one anda 
quarter in width, but it has suffered greatly by denudation, multi- 
tudes of boulders of all sizes being scattered over the country to 
the south and east of the parent mass, some of them having been 
carried to a distance of sixty miles from their original home. 

On Seatoliar Fell, Borrowdale, there is a dyke of diorite lying 
between two masses of intrusive diabase. The masses of diabase 
together measure about three-quarters of a mile in length by about 
a quarter of a mile in width. The rock is very compact, and of a 
dark blue colour ; it consists of a felsitic base, in which there are 
crystals of triclinic felspar, quartz, augite, and some magnetite. 
The diorite, which is much altered, is made up of numerous small 
crystals of felspar, hornblende, magnetite, and chlorite. The dyke 
is about one-third of a mile in length, and forty or fifty feet in width. 


44 


It is in connection with these masses of blue diabase, and the dyke 
of diorite, that the rich deposits of plumbago have been found. 

There is a small exposure of diorite on Swirral Edge, Helvellyn. 
The rock is very hard and compact, and consists of small crystals 
of plagioclase and orthoclase felspar, augite, and magnetite, also a 
few scattered cubes of iron pyrites. 

The Armboth Dyke is a quartz felsite, being precisely the same 
in chemical composition as the St. John’s Quartz Felsite. It is a 
very beautiful rock, consisting of a dull red felsitic base, studded 
with numerous crystals of pink felspar and transparent quartz, also 
a little serpentine, and occasional grains of green mica. The dyke 
is from twenty to thirty feet in width, and extends in a NN.W. and 
SS.E. direction across Armboth Fell, where it may be traced for a 
distance of about one and a half miles. It appears again on the 
opposite side of the valley, near the seventh milestone on the road 
from Keswick to Ambleside, and extends in a S.E. direction beyond 
the crest of Helvellyn. 

There are several branching dykes stretching across the upper 
part of Langstrath valley, in Borrowdale. The rock of which they 
are composed consists of crystals of felspar embedded in a felsitic 
base. There is a good deal of chloritic matter disseminated 
through the base, which also contains some augite, magnetite, and 
pyrites. Occasionally the mass is traversed by veins of red felsitic 
material. There are also dykes on Scafell, Kirkfell, Watendlath 
Fell, and others of minor importance. 

The sheets of lava that are interstratified with the ashes and 
breccias of the volcanic series, are mostly very hard and compact, 
of a grey or bluish green colour, and they often contain crystals of 
augite, quartz, calcite, and other minerals. The best section of 
lavas and ashes to be found in the whole series occurs on the 
eastern shore of Derwentwater, extending from the margin of the 
lake to the summit of Bleaberry Fell. In this section there are 
twelve distinct sheets of lava, which vary in thickness from fifteen 
to one hundred and fifty feet, the upper and under surface in each 
case being more or less vesicular and cinder-like, while the 
remainder is massive and compact. One of the number, which 


45 


occurs about the middle of the series, differs considerably from the 
rest; it was originally extremely vesicular throughout, but the 
vesicles have since been filled with quartz, calcite, and a dark green 
or blackish earthy mineral, the product of decomposed augite. 
Small, but beautiful, specimens of agate, carnelian, and jasper are 
frequently found in this lava. It is easily recognized owing to its 
distinctive features, and may be traced a considerable distance. 
Numbers of small fissures have been formed in some of the lavas, 
and these have been filled subsequently with chlorite, epidote, 
quartz, calcite, and other minerals. Some of them are also very 
much jointed, and break into irregular and splintery fragments. 

There is a series of lava flows exposed on Eycott Hill, near 
Berrier, much smaller, and less important, than the series on 
Bleaberry Fell, but one of the former is a very handsome rock, 
containing large crystals of felspar, sometimes more than an inch 
in length. Single sheets of lava may also be seen a little to the 
east of Stanah, in St. John’s Vale, and at the back of Lodore hotel, 
Borrowdale. The former contains numerous crystals of augite, 
but the latter, which is very compact, contains no crystals that are 
visible to the naked eye. 

The ashes and breccias compose the largest portion, probably 
nine-tenths of the rocks of the volcanic series; they are alike, in 
being formed of materials that have been ejected from volcanoes, 
but differ with regard to the size of the fragments they contain. 
The ash, properly so called, varies from a rock containing frag- 
ments of the size of walnuts, which is considered a very coarse ash, 
to a rock formed of fine impalpable powder. Breccias are of all 
degrees of coarseness, from rocks formed chiefly of fragments about 
the size of walnuts, to those in which they measure five or six 
inches across ; but there is one locality on the north-east of Base 
Brown, near Sourmilk Gill, where the breccia contains huge blocks 
several yards in diameter, In both coarse ashes and breccias the 
fragments are generally angular and unworn at the edges, but in 
some rare instances they are water-worn like a conglomerate. In 
colour the ashes and breccias vary from dark green to light grey, 
or sometimes purple. The green tints, which are very prevalent, 


46 


are due to the presence of chlorite diffused through the rock, in a 
greater or less degree, the red and purple tints being due to hematite. 

There is generally more or less stratification discernable in the 
ashes, shown in some cases by clearly defined bands of light and 
darker colour, and in others by fine and coarser materials. These 
alternating beds or layers of finer and coarser ash are often very 
irregular, some layers thinning out and others thickening; and 
occasionally very clear examples of false-bedding are seen amongst 
the finer varieties. Sometimes a single fragment of older rock of 
considerable size, showing all its original structure, may be seen 
embedded in a mass of fine ash. 

The materials of which the coarser ashes and breccias are 
formed, consist chiefly of fragments of older ashes and lavas, but 
in the purple breccia, at the base of Falcon Crag or Bleaberry Fell 
section, which is probably the oldest member of the volcanic series, 
there are numerous fragments of altered Skiddaw Slate. ‘The fine 
ash has no doubt been formed of the same material as that which 
is sometimes ejected so copiously from modern volcanoes when in 
a state of activity, and which is merely lava reduced to powder bya 
succession of violent explosions of steam and gas; indeed, the 
ashes, breccias and lavas of the Borrowdale series afford abundant 
evidence in their structure and composition that they were derived 
from a similar source, and in a similar manner to the beds of 
recently formed volcanic ejectamenta which may_be seen surround- 
ing the cone of an active volcano. 

All the rocks of the volcanic series, as well as the underlying 
Skiddaw Slates, have been subjected to great lateral pressure, 
caused in all probability by the shrinking of the earth’s crust in 
cooling; and this pressure, which acted in a N.E. and S.W. direction, 
has produced cleavage in a higher or less degree in nearly all the 
beds of both these formations, by causing them to expand in a 
direction perpendicular to that in which the pressure was applied, 
the particles constituting the rock being flattened and rearranged 
during the process, with their longer axis in the direction in which 
the expansion was made. This change in the structure of the rock 
causes it to split readily across the old planes of stratification at a 


47 


more or less oblique angle. Apart from the cleavage, the effect 
produced on the two formations has been very different, the 
Skiddaw Slates, being less able to resist the pressure, are much 
contorted and crumpled, except where the soft beds are interstrat- 
ified with beds of grit; while the hard volcanic rocks have merely 
been thrown into a series of low curves. Most of the dykes and 
masses of igneous rock probably owe their origin to the earth 
movements which caused the contortion and cleavage. There is, 
however, a notable exception in the case of the quartz felsite dyke on 
the summit of Kirkfell, which is highly cleaved, while the adjoining 
ash beds are not so. Cleavage is very highly developed in some of 
the beds of ash and breccia, while in others, with which the highly 
cleaved beds are in contact above and beneath, it is very imperfect, 
This difference appears to be due in some cases to the finer quality 
of the material of which the highly cleaved beds are formed, but it 
is not always so, because the beds that are made up chiefly of fine 
materials are not uniform throughout, but have in them, here and 
there, portions that are very coarse, and in these coarse portions 
the cleavage is often as perfect as where the material is of the finest 
quality. There is, moreover, a marked want of uniformity in the 
cleavage in beds where it is most perfectly developed. The beds may 
sometimes be traced for a great distance by certain well defined 
bands of colour, and in some parts of their course cleavage has 
been developed in its greatest intensity, and large quantities of 
slate of the best quality are obtained from it, while in the adjacent 
parts, on each side, the cleavage is so imperfect, that it will not 
yield slate at all. ‘The same irregularity would, no doubt, be found 
in following the beds downwards that has already been proved to 
exist in tracing them horizontally, but it has yet to be ascertained. 
On the surface, the highly cleaved portions of a bed occur at 
uncertain intervals, and measure from fifty to two hundred and 
fifty feet in diameter, the vertical and horizontal measurement 
_ being much the same; and if a series of bore-holes were put down 
on the dip of the bed, by means of the diamond borer, they would 
in all probability reveal the same irregular succession of perfectly 
and imperfectly cleaved patches in following it downwards. The 


48 


whole of the phenomena connected with slaty cleavage point to the 
conclusion that the highly cleaved beds were in a more plastic 
condition than the overlying and underlying strata when the lateral 
pressure which caused the cleavage was applied to them, and that 
those portions of the cleaved beds where cleavage occurs in its 
greatest intensity had yielded sufficiently to the pressure, while the 
remainder had only yielded partially. 

There are two beds at the base, and seven or eight beds near 
the top of the volcanic series, in which there is more or less slaty 
cleavage, but in all the middle portion of the series, with the 
exception of one place, near Eagle Crag, in Borrowdale, it appears 
to be altogether absent. The beds at the base have been, and are 
now being, worked in Borrowdale and near Buttermere; and those 
near the top of the series, at Walna Scar, Coniston, Tilberthwaite, 
Elterwater, Langdale, Rydal, Grasmere, Kentmere, and Cawdale 
Moor. The Borrowdale and Buttermere quarries yield about three 
thousand five hundred tons of slate per annum, and give employ- 
ment to about one hundred and twenty men; and the Westmorland 
and Lancashire quarries yield about four thousand tons per annum, 
and give employment to about two hundred men, thus constituting 
one of the most important industries in the Lake Country. The 
slate obtained from these quarries is unrivalled for beauty, strength, 
and durability. In the two latter qualities it is greatly superior to 
Welsh sedimentary slate, but it has the disadvantage of being 
slightly heavier; the best quality of green slate yields four slates 
to the inch, and one ton will cover about thirty-two square yards 
of roof. 

The two beds of fine cleaved ash, called locally, “slate metal,” 
which occur at the base of the volcanic series, lie parallel to the 
great fault which separates that series from the Skiddaw Slates, the 
strike of the beds agreeing to a considerable extent with the strike 
of the fault, the lower bed being about one thousand or one thou- 
sand one hundred feet from it. The general dip of the slate metal 
also coincides with that of the fault, and of the underlying and over- 
lying beds, being about thirty degrees towards the south-east; the 
direction of the cleavage planes is nearly vertical. The beds of 


49 


slate metal may be traced along the outcrop, from Bouldering End, 
by Rigg Head and Honister, to near Scarf Gap, at the head of the 
vale of Ennerdale; beyond these points they no doubt have an 
extension westwards towards Egremont, and eastwards towards 
Mellfell, but in these portions cleavage is very slightly developed ; 
indeed, the true slaty cleavage occurs only between the igneous 
masses of St. John’s Quartz Felsite and the Ennerdale Syenitic 
Granite, and,it is probable that the increased lateral pressure 
caused by the irruption of these masses may have assisted materially 
in producing the requisite amount of cleavage. Trials have been 
made at several points along the outcrop of the beds, but the slaty 
cleavage is insufficiently developed, except at Rigg Head, Honister, 
and Dubs. A little slate has been obtained from the quarries at 
Castle Crag and Dubs, but all the other trials appear to have been 
unsuccessful. The two beds are from fifty to sixty yards apart, 
and the lower or northern one is about sixteen feet in thickness, 
its upper and under surface being clearly defined. The upper or 
southern bed is much thicker, but not so well defined. The former 
has been worked extensively in the quarries at Honister Crag, and 
the latter at Yew Crag, on the opposite side of the pass. Honister 
Crag has been pierced by ten, and Yew Crag by six levels, some 
of which are from one hundred to one hundred and twenty fathoms 
in length. The united length of the levels on both sides of the 
pass is near three miles; and the tramways in use in these levels, 
and from the levels to the head of the pass, where the slate is 
discharged, including the tramway to Dubs quarry, measure about 
six miles. 

The beds of ‘slate metal” from which the slate is obtained in 
these quarries is composed chiefly of fine ash, but at irregular 
intervals layers occur that are much coarser, and occasionally 
fragments of older rock of considerable size are found embedded 
in the fine ash. Near the top of the upper or southern bed there 
is a thin band or stripe of very fine and compact ash, of a pale 
purple colour, varying in thickness from three-quarters of an inch 
to one-and-a-half or two inches. The lower edge of the band is 
more clearly defined than the upper edge, the material is also finer 

4 


50 


and the purple colour more intense near the lower edge. The 
cleavage planes are almost invariably more or less deflected in 
passing through the band, and like the colouring and texture of 
the slate, the deflection is most acute at the lower edge. After 
carefully examining and comparing a large number of specimens 
from various parts of Yew Crag quarry, I was led to conclude, so 
far as I dared to do without microscopic examination, that the 
deflection in the cleavage planes, together with the altered colour 
and texture of the slate, were probably due to vertical pressure, to 
which the bed had yielded subsequently to the period when 
cleavage was developed.* For the purpose of obtaining clearer 
evidence on this point I had some slides prepared from the band, 
and Professor Bonney kindly examined them for me, and gave 
permission for his notes on the slides to be printed as an appendix 
to my paper. Mr. Goodchild also kindly made drawings of two 
of the slides, which are annexed hereto.t The result of Professor 
Bonney’s examination being unfavourable to the theory of meta- 
morphism produced by vertical pressure, it would seem, therefore, 
more probable that the deflection in the cleavage planes has been 
caused by the abrupt passage from very fine to somewhat coarser 
materials. The fine dust of which the red band is composed 
(especially the lower part of it) appears to have been impregnated 
with an unusually large amount of ferric oxide, while there has 
been a corresponding diminution in the quantity of chloritic 
colouring matter which is so prevalent in the adjoining beds. 

Rigg Head quarry has been worked thirty years or more, in the 
same beds as Yew Crags, Honister, and Dubs quarries ; extensive 
excavations have been made and a considerable quantity of slate 
of good quality has been obtained from it. 


* Note by the Editor. When this paper was read I expressed to Mr. 
Postlethwaite my opinion that these dark purple bands were not due to meta- 
morphic action, as he then supposed; but were simply bands of the same 
sedimentary material as that composing the Skidda Slates; and a careful 
examination of the slides under the microscope when drawing them for the 
annexed figures, has confirmed that view. 


++I am greatly indebted to Professor Bonney and Mr. Goodchild for the 
yaluable assistance they have so kindly rendered in these matters. 


51 


Some of the beds of ash and breccia beneath the two beds of 
slate metal are sufficiently cleaved in places to yield slate. The 
most important of these is the breccia worked at Queyfoot quarry, 
which lies about midway between the lower bed of slate metal and 
the base of the volcanic series. It has yielded a large quantity of 
slate of fairly good quality, although somewhat heavier than that 
obtained from the beds of slate metal above. It has also yielded, 
and is still yielding, an abundant supply of strong, durable, and 
very beautiful building stone. 

In the rocks on the north east of Ladder Brow, and just above 
the road between Lodore and High Lodore, there is a disused 
quarry from which some slate has been obtained ; this quarry is in 
the basement bed of the volcanic series. The great fault skirts 
the base of the rocky escarpment all the way from Lodore water- 
fall, to the head of Troutdale; and although it is not exposed 
immediately beneath the quarry, the latter cannot be more than 
about forty or fifty feet above it. 

In Langstrath valley, Borrowdale, about half a mile south of 
Eagle Crag, there is an old quarry of considerable extent. The 
bed of ash from which the slate has been obtained at this place is 
near the middle of the volcanic series, and it would seem that it is 
the only point, either in this or the adjoining beds, where cleavage 
has been sufficiently developed. 

In the upper part of the volcanic series there are seven or eight 
distinct beds which yield slate in large quantities; they are all 
much alike in quality, the slate being somewhat finer than that 
obtained from the older beds in Borrowdale. In thickness the 
beds vary from ten to one hundred and twenty feet, and the dip is 
towards the south-east, except in some places where it is changed 
by the curving and crumpling of the strata. A case of this kind 
occurs on the northern side of Little Langdale, where the dip is 
towards the north, and at Pennyrigg quarry, near Tilberthwaite, 
where the bedding planes are vertical. Slaty cleavage has been 
well developed at a great number of points in these beds, extending 
from Cawdale quarry, on the north-eastern side of Kirkstone Pass, 
to Walna Scar, about three miles south-west of Coniston, A large 


52 


number of quarries have been opened, and extensive excavations 
made, especially at Loughrigg, Elterwater, Hallgarth, Moss Rigg, 
Hodge Close, Tilberthwaite, and Saddle Stone; the last named 
is at a high elevation on Coniston Old Man. In some of the 
quarries, notably those worked by the Elterwater Green Slate Co., 
and the Tilberthwaite Green Slate Co., powerful and well equipped 
steam and hydraulic machinery has been erected for the purpose 
of raising the slate from the deep portions of the quarries, also 
self-acting and other tramways. Rock-drills and air-compressors 
have been introduced into the quarries of the Elterwater Company, 
and good results have been obtained by their use. Most of the 
slate obtained is of the bright sea-green colour which is so prevalent 
in the rocks of the volcanic series; but in some localities the 
chloritic colouring matter is absent, and the slate is grey or drab. 
Narrow bands of still lighter colour, sometimes almost white, pass 
through it, and occasionally these light and darker portions are 
contorted and intermingled together in an extraordinary manner ; 
they are also often broken up and shifted by miniature faults ; and 
not infrequently specimens may be found showing false-bedding 
and ripple-marking. 

In the uppermost beds of the volcanic series the fine ashes are 
mixed with water-borne sediment, and there are beds of moderately 
pure ash interstratified with beds of equally pure aqueous sediment. 
The more or less pure ash retains its characteristic colours of green 
or drab, but the sedimentary beds are much darker; in some 
places they have a purple tint, and in others are almost black. 
Some roofing slate is obtained from the dark beds, but generally 
the material is more suitable for flags. 

The beds of cleaved ash near the top of the volcanic series are 
more in number, they are also in most cases much thicker, and 
slaty cleavage extends over a much greater length along the outcrop, 
than in the slate-producing beds at the base of the series. In the 
latter the distance between the two extremities of the slate-producing 
area does not exceed seven miles, while in the former it measures 
thirteen miles. The beds in the upper part of the series are 
parallel to, and occupy ths same relative position with regard to 


53 


masses of intrusive igneous rock as those at the base of the series ; 
the latter stretch between the St. John’s Quartz Felsite and the 
Ennerdale Syenitic Granite, and the former between the Shap 
Granite and the southern part of the Eskdale Granite; and it is 
highly probable that the irruption of the igneous masses, in both 
- cases, may have assisted in producing slaty cleavage in the beds 
which lie between them. A line drawn on the map from Elter- 
water to the southern end of Eel Crags marks the centre of the 
area in which slaty cleavage occurs in both the upper and lower 
beds ; and similar lines drawn from Walna Scar to Scarf Gap, and 
from Cawdale Moor to Lodore waterfall, mark the south-western 
and north-eastern boundaries of that area. Extending these lines 
forward beyond the points named, they form a junction at Green- 
banks, near Cockermouth, and enclose a triangular area having for 
its base the outcrop of the Coniston Limestone, and its apex the 
farm of Greenbanks. This triangle, therefore, encloses the rocks 
that were subjected to the maximum of pressure during the earth 
movements by which cleavage was caused. 


APPENDIX. 


On the Structure of some Volcanic Ash from the Borrowdale Series, 
by Professor Bonney, D.Sc, LL.D., F-G.S., FR.S. 


No. 1 and the coarser part of the other slides consist of small 
mineral and rock fragments, angular and subangular in outline, 
and seldom exceeding ‘03” in longest diameter, commonly rather 
less. The majority of the mineral fragments were evidently felspar. 
All are more or less altered, being replaced by a filmy mineral 
which gives bright tints with crossed nicols and by thin lines of viri- 
dite (this may result from infiltration). A minute description of 
the changes is needless, for there is nothing unusual. A few 
fragments are wholly or almost wholly replaced by viridite; these 


54 


may have been a pyroxenic mineral. Of the rock constituents, part 
is blackish opacite, exhibiting here or there a felspar microlith, 
no doubt a fragment of scoria; part shows frequent felspar micro- 
liths, fragments probably of andesite; part is earthy, barely trans- 
lucent, and practically without effect on polarized light, very 
probably decomposed glass. With these viridite is interspersed. 
I think the materials are not water-worn. The rock, in short, is 
one of the ordinary fine-grained volcanic grits or rather coarse 
slates, with secondary micromineralogical changes. The red band 
consists of much finer materials, so that the discrimination and 
identification of the constituents is much more difficult; but I 
have no doubt it is a volcanic dust or mud. ‘The finest part of it 
changes rather abruptly into the ordinary coarser rock, though one 
or two fairly large fragments lie (boulder-fashion) in it, and here is 
a zone or streak of darker colour. On the other side it passes 
more gradually into the coarser rock. ‘The slide cut transverse to 
the plane of cleavage, shows that both the coarser and the finer 
fragments are compressed and elongated in the usual way. I 
cannot see any signs of a disturbance later than the date of the 
cleavage. TeGeb: 


4 
4) 


Nh PI 
i} 
ny 


} a9 
Whitehaven Mee 
Aut . 


ft 


Skiddaw Slate 


rowdale 


Coal Measures 


aS % Highly Cleaved Ashes 
Breccias 


SCALB — 5 miles to r inch. 


| 
/ 


Volcanic Series of Ba We 


AY % 
Granite syeitsN ——SaS ee 
& Quartz Felsite N _————\ wad 
IS 


Rae 
A 


Ly 
ee: 
Sys, 

rare, 
= 


BV, FE 
+S at gE 3 
zs ae IEE 


SAG 


‘a 
— 


— 


AYES AIO 


55 


NOTABILIA OF OLD PENRITH.—Part II. 
By GEORGE WATSON. 
(Read at Penrith. ) 


AFTER reading my former paper on “Notabilia of the Old Town 
of Penrith” (Zransactions, No. XIV., 1888-9), it occurred to me 
that the few notes I then made of citizen life in the old town— 
mainly derived from the old churchwardens’ book—might be 
advantageously extended by research in the Parish Registers ; and 
having made the attempt, the present paper was read at Penrith 
last Session. 

In the interim, however, between reading this paper and revising 
it for publication in the Zvansactions, further investigation has 
thrown new light upon some of the subjects, and in such cases I 
have not hesitated to amend the text accordingly. 

Each successive vicar appears to have kept the registers himself, 
er to have been responsible for them; I will therefore notice them - 
under the respective vicars’ names. 


Mr. WiLu1aM WALLEIS. 

The first vicar the register makes us acquainted with is Mr. 
William Walleis, who held the living from 1575 to 1601, i.e., from 
the 17th to the 43rd year of Queen Elizabeth. 

The registers really commence in 1556, in the reign of Queen 


‘ Mary, of sanguinary memory, William Walleis having with com- 


mendable assiduity preserved all entries from that date, probably 
on paper, fast becoming illegible, which, with his own entries, he 


56 


copied on to parchment in the last two years of his twenty-six 
years’ incumbency. This we learn from the headings he has given 
to the two first pages of his work, in large Old English characters. 
The first page is headed in Latin, meaning a “Book of Registers 
of Penrith, written in 1599, in the 41st year of Queen Elizabeth.” 
There is nothing further on this page properly relating to the 
registers, but the otherwise blank space has been filled with some 
miscellaneous notes to which I will refer presently. The second 
page has also a heading in similar Old English characters, as 
follows: “A Trewe Copie of the Register Booke of Penrith, of all 
Christenings, Marriages, and Burialls, beginning in the year of our 
Lord God, 1556, written (on) parchment ;” and under this is 
written in small letters, and with a different ink, “By me, William 
Walleis, vicarius quonda,” i.e., at one time vicar; making it clear 
that William Walleis added this record after he had ceased to be 
vicar of Penrith. 

I will notice a few of the earliest entries, to show that some 
familiar personal names of this day were in existence in Queen 
Mary’s time. ‘'1656, last day of May, Niclas (Nicholas) Apulby 
and Katherine Emetson, was married.” ‘Robert Goodburn and 
Isabel Watson married ;” and from that time to the present century 
the name of Goodburn has been continually turning up in the 
register. ‘Rolland Atkinson and Grace Bartram married.” 
“William, son of Henry Simpson, buried.” 

The difficulty of reading these early registers is considerable, 
owing to the antiquated style of writing, the capricious spelling, 
and, worst of all, the faded ink. The names of Railton, Roper, 
Pattinson, Hewer, Bowerbank, Winder, Nelson, and Carleton 
occur from the earliest to modern times. The name of Hutton is, 
of course, of frequent occurrence. Some of these entries evidently 
relate to the ancient family of Hutton Hall, Penrith, but other 
Huttons of more plebian families are also numerous. The brevity 
of the entries of the early registers—neither ages being stated nor, 
as a rule, occupations mentioned—renders the bulk of them of no 
special interest. The only guidance we have in identifying families 
is in the use of the prefixes—Sir, Mr., and Mrs. ; and in the 


57 


affixes—knight, squire, or gentlewoman. The prefix “ Mr.” may 
mean a gentleman of position, or a clergyman holding a University 
degree. In latter times, ‘‘ Mr. is applied to attorneys-at-law and to 
leading tradesmen. ‘“‘ Mrs.” does not necessarily mean a married 
lady or widow, it is applied also to young unmarried ladies of the 
better class. The prefix ‘Sir’ was formerly applied to a clergy- 
man who had not taken a University degree. William Walleis 
never gives himself the title of Mr., nor does he call himself Sir, as 
I see in some lists of vicars he isso styled. Readers of Shakespeare 
will call to mind Sr Hugh Evans, the Welsh Parson in “The 
Merry Wives of Windsor.” This custom of designating the inferior 
clergyman “Sir,” is said to have given rise to the practise of 
knights, after using the prefix ‘Sir,” adding the affix “knight” 
or “baronet,” to distinguish themselves from the poor parsons. 

Occasionally in the registers we are treated with tit-bits of inform- 
ation on spare spaces, or on margins, sometimes running into 
the other writing, for the old men were wonderfully economical in 
the matter of parchment and paper. On the first page of the 
register book, below the heading, we find “ Proper nots (notes) 
worth keeping, as followeth :—Flodden Field was in Anno Dom. 
1535. The writer was evidently afraid that English History might 
not record the fact. Other similar well-known events are noted. 
One “proper not,” however, touches a matter in local history worth 
special notice. ‘Commotion in these north parts, 1536.” 


“ AsKE’s REBELLION.” 


This brief note refers to the great rising in the time of 
Henry VIII., known as “Aske’s Rebellion,” and also as the 
“ Pilgrimage of Grace,” when the popular mind was roused to 
rebellion by the priests, who were opposed to the King’s notions 
of Church Reformation, especially that part of it which consisted 
of the spoliation and robbery of monasteries and chantries. This 
great rising prevailed all along the eastern side of the island, in 
Lincolnshire, Yorkshire, Durham, and Northumberland, and as far 
west as Penrith, where the measure would create indignation by 


58 


the confiscation of the revenues of Bishop Strickland’s Chantry at 
Penrith Church. 

Chancellor Ferguson, in his recently published story of 
Cumberland, speaking of this rising, says :—‘* The Act of 1536 for 
the suppression of the smaller religious houses affected all the 
religious houses in the county but those of St. Mary’s, Carlisle, 
and of Holm Cultram. This excited much discontent, and ‘Aske’s 
Rebellion,’ or ‘The Pilgrimage of Grace,’ found local sympathisers 
in the Abbot of Holm, the Chancellor of Carlisle, the Prior of 
Lanercost, and the Vicar of Penrith, who busied themselves in 
collecting men at Penrith and sending them to the insurgents at 
York.” Penrith would be a convenient centre where bodies of 
men could be massed and marched over Hartside to the Tyne 
Valley, thence to join the main body of insurgents in the east. 
When I was a small boy, in my native county, Durham, we used 
to repeat some strange doggerel lines running thus :— 


Roberty, Boberty, big fat hen, 

Ate the Church and all the men, 

He ate the Church, ate the steeple, 
He ate the parson and all the people ; 
Roberty, Boberty, big fat hen. 


This grotesque doggerel lingered in my memory for sixty years 
before it struck me that it was a relic of a seditious song of the 
“Pilgrimage of Grace.” ‘“ Robberty, Bobberty” was, I think, 
originally Robbery, Robbery; the big fat hen was the corpulent 
Henry the VIII., and the big fat hen’s voracious appetite for 
things ecclesiastical was a burlesque of the fat King’s absorption 
of monastic and chantry revenues, with which he filled his own 
and his courtiers’ pockets. I wonder if the original of “ Roberty, 
Boberty” was sung in Penrith when, as the “proper not” quaintly 
says:—‘‘There was commotion in these North parts, 1536.” Other 
notes may be passed over, for English History has evidently pirated 
them and made them common property. 


THE PLAGUE. 
Near the bottom of the page we find this note:—‘A sore 
plague in Richmond, Kendal, Penrith, Carlisle, and Appleby, and 


59 


other places in Cumberland and Westmorland in 1598 ; of this 
plague there died at Kendal ” Here the rest of the informa- 
tion is eaten away by vermin, which is greatly to be regretted, as it 


might possibly have explained the dubious record on the old stone 
tablet, afterwards copied on to the brass plate now on the wall of 
the north chancel aisle of Penrith Church, to which I will refer 
presently. 

The average number of deaths at Penrith for a year in William 
Walleis’ time was about 50; but in 1585-6-7, the number rose to 
79, 105, and 196 respectively ; then for six years fell to 50 again, 
only .to rise in 1597-8 to the frightful magnitude of the great plague 
at Penrith, alluded to in the note on the first page of the register. 
In 1597, September 22, there is this entry :—“ Here began the 
plague, God’s punishment, in Penrith.” This is followed by an 
explanation that ‘‘ all who died of the infection are noted with the 
letter P, and all who were buried on the Fell, with the letter F,” 
and this notation was systematically carried out, except that after a 
short time the word “ Fell” is written in full) Amongst the early 
victims were five Railtons and four Hewers, after which the names 
indicate that every family in the town paid its fatal contribution. 
During the fifteen months of the pestilence, I find 687 deaths in 
all, of which 662 are noted with the ominous letter “ P,” leaving 
only 25 to be set down to ordinary causes. This may, perhaps, be 
accounted for by the supposition that many enfeebled or diseased 
persons who would have died in the ordinary course of things were 
ready victims to the pestilence. Of the 662 plague victims, only 
213 are noted as being buried on the Fell, leaving 450 as buried 
in the Churchyard, Schoolyard, and in some few cases in private 
yards. The term “Fell” to some may require explanation. It 
must be understood that all the Beacon and Beacon Side above 
Brent House Grounds, the top of Arthur Street, and Mr. Robert 
Scott’s house in Wordsworth Street, were then, and for 300 years 
after, all open Common, called Fell, and the place where tradition 
says the plague victims were buried was behind a barn which stood, 
as many will remember, about the top of Mr. Robert Scott’s ground. 
Why so large a proportion of plague victims were buried in the 


60 


town is extraordinary, and cannot be explained by supposing that 
the Fell was only resorted to as a late expedient, the fact being, as 
the notation in the register shows, that burying in the Churchyard 
and on the Fell went on simultaneously. 

During this terrible time the register was kept with the utmost 
regularity, no gaps are to be found in it, it is a perfect day by day 
record of the ravages of the pestilence, and must be taken as an 
authentic enumeration of the number of victims, being, as I have 
stated, 662. How then, is the number 2,240, given on the brass 
plate in the Church as having died at Penrith, to be accounted 
for? The thing was impossible, seeing that a parish with an 
ordinary death rate of 50, and birth rate of 60 in the year could 
not well have contained that number of inhabitants. The only 
feasible supposition, and the one generally accepted, is that the 
number 2,240 represents a large district having Penrith as a centre. 
The pestilence was at the worst in the months of July, August, and 
September, when 115, 104, and 102 died in these months respect- 
ively ; the greatest number in any one day, according to my 
investigation, was 19. One of the entries of burial not marked 
with the fatal P is this :—‘ Margaret, the daughter of Willm 
Seatree buried chappele.” By which I think it must be understood 
that the burial took place in the chancel, then known as St. Mary’s 
Chapel. 

The 27th of November afforded a unique experience in the 
life of William Walleis, for on that day he, while the pestilence 
(although abating) was still claiming its victims, united William 
Dobson and Mabel Dobson in the bonds of holy matrimony, and 
same day buried John Winder and Ann Winder, his wife, both in 
one grave, and opposite the entry are placed the two fatal P’s, 
indicating that they were victims of the plague. Amongst the 
earlier victims we find the wife and son of the vicar, who thus, as 
the previous registers show, is for the third time a widower ; not 
for long, however, for on the 8th day of December, the pestilence 
having almost disappeared, we read this entry—‘“ William Walleis, 
vicar, was married to Dorothy Machell by Szv John Knott.” 

Mr, Walker, in his History of Penrith, writing on the “ plague,” 


61 


says, “ Not a solitary marriage is registered all the summer.” My 
investigation is somewhat different, I find that during the first four 
months of the visitation there were 17 marriages, equal to the 
average number for a year, and with the exception of the two 
months of March and May, there were some every month ; and 
that during the fifteen months of the pestilence and the three 
months succeeding there were 55 marriages, being at the rate of 36 
per annum, as against the normal average of 16. The result, no 
doubt, of the bereaved of both sexes hastening to console each 
other at the altar. 

The three years following the plague show a great increase in 
the number of marriages and baptisms, while the burials only 
average 28 fora year. The latter may perhaps be accounted for 
in two ways, the survival of the strongest and the diminished 

population, resulting from the abstraction of upwards of 600 
inhabitants, in a little over a year, from a probable population of 


2,000. 


ScoTTISH MARAUDERS. 


Another kind of plague, from which Penrith had long suffered, 
was the incursions of Scottish marauders, who infested Cumberland 
and Westmorland, thieving and killing with impunity; and no 
sooner had the plague disappeared than the Scottish land pirates 
made their appearance in greater force than ever. William Walleis’s 
register gives a pitiable account of their depredations in the years 
1600 and 1601, which may be seen in Dixon’s Charities, pub- 
lished 1820. 

The last entry William Walleis makes in his book of registers 1s 
to the effect that after having been vicar of Penrith for twenty-six 
years, he is vacating the living for Thursby, near Carlisle. Let us 
hope that in the twenty-two years he is known to have spent at 
that place, he had better fortune in his domestic relations, and 
enjoyed such happiness as compensated him for the heavy domestic 
and parochial troubles he had gone through at Penrith with the 
courage and endurance of a hero. William Walleis was succeeded 
by Mr. John Hastie, 


Joun Hastie, VICAR. 


Mr. Hastie commenced his register with a memorandum of his 
induction, thus :—“ Mr. John Hastie, M.A., was inducted Vicar of 
Penrith, April 28th,16o1, in the presence of Mr. Anthony Page, 
steward, and Mr. Thomas Atkinson, and many others.” Close to 
this, and squeezed into the margin, is a note, “ the brewing lead 
was all cut to pieces by the Scots soldiers to make bullets of.” 
This is a little perplexing. If the depredators were really the 
Scottish soldiers in time of war, Mr. Hastie was going a good way 
back in history, but if he referred to the Border thieves of his own 
day, he was really too complimentary in dignifying the miscreants 
with the title of “ soldiers.” 

This Mr. Anthony Page, who witnessed John Hastie’s induction, 
must be the person mentioned in my former paper in connection 
with Sandford’s story of the visit of a strange antiquary, when Mr. 
Page was schoolmaster as well as steward of the Manor, between 
1581 and 1591, It will be remembered that Mr. Page and others 
were invited to sup with the stranger at the Crown, and discuss the 
ancient monuments in the churchyard. Mr. Page was evidently a 
man of importance in Penrith. I have traced him in the registers, 
and find that in 1586, when he was schoolmaster, his marriage is 
thus recorded :—‘‘ 1586, June 12th, Anthony Page and Isabella 
Lancaster were married at Mardell Chapel by Parson Burton.” 
Four of his children, Ann, Grace, Anthony, and Elizabeth, were 
baptized before the year of the plague, and in that terrible year his 
son Edmund was born, and his wife and son Anthony carried off 
with the plague. Mr. Page’s burial is registered in 1623. Mr. 
John Hastie was a native of Catterlen, and from his time to the 
end of the last century, the name of Hastie frequently occurs in 
the Penrith registers. Mr. Hastie’s wife died in 1607, after which 
he married Grace Page, the daughter of Mr. Anthony Page, she 
then being eighteen years of age. During John Hastie’s time 
Penrith Vicarage saw eighteen births and eight deaths, 


63 


A YEAR OF ExcEssIvVE MortTAtirty. 


In 1623, the registers show a year of excessive mortality, but 
whether it was another outbreak of the plague, or epidemic of 
another character, no word of hint is given; in this year the 
normal annual death rate of 50 rose to 239 ; there were two cases 
of burying “on the Fell,” but the reason assigned for the excep- 
tions is ecclesiastical, rather than sanitary. The entries stand 
thus :—“ August 29th, Lanc Wood, being excommunicate, buried 
on the Fell. September 5th, Richd. Gibbon, being excommunicate, 
buried on the Fell.” As a contrast to the ravages of disease of 
this year, it may be worth noting that during the year of the great 
plague of London, 1665, and for the years immediately preceding 
and following, the mortality at Penrith was below the average, 
being 48, 42, and 45, for the years respectively, instead of 50. 

John Hastie’s incumbency was a long one; commencing two 
years before the death of Queen Elizabeth, he saw the reigns of 
James I. and Charles I., and although ejected during the Puritan 
Revolution, he lived on until the dawn of the restoration of 
Monarchy and Episcopacy. 


Mr. Hastier’s EJECTION. 


At what date John Hastie’s ejection from the living took place 
there is no direct evidence. In my former paper, judging only 
from the old churchwarden’s book, which commences in 1656, I 
ventured the opinion that Roger Baldwin, the Presbyterian, had 
only lately superseded the old vicar, but in the additional light of 
the parish registers, I find that surmise was incorrect. Students of 
history will remember that the Monarchy was rudely dethroned 
and Episcopacy abolished in 1645, when Commissioners, called 
“Triers,” were appointed to eject all clergymen from Church 
livings who refused to accept the new form of Church government 
and religious worship, or were in their opinion unfit by character 
or infirmity of age to be ministers. Of the time when John 
Hastie was “tried” by the Commissioners there is no record. It 
may be that like the apocryphal Vicar of Bray, he assented to the 
new state of things, and so retained his living until the infirmities 


64 


of age afforded the “Triers” a reason for his ejection. When that 
took place is uncertain, but the parish register book, if it does not 
settle the point, at least throws considerable light upon it. On the 
fly leaf of the register book is found a formal memorandum of the 
age of John Hastie. It stands thus :—“ A true copy of the age of 
Mr. Hastie, Vicar of Penrith, set down here July 2nd, 1650,” 
“The 27th day of January was baptised John Hastie, son of 
William Hastie, of Catterlen, Anno Dom. 1575.” ‘‘ Witness the 
register book of Newton per me, Jacobum Pearson, Minister.” 
Observe that John Hastie is here (July 2nd, 1650) styled “ Vicar 
of Penrith,” indicating that he was at that date still vicar. Had he 
then been ejected, it would surely have styled him “ late vicar.” 
That this formal record of the old vicar’s age was a factor in the 
process of his ejection by the “Triers” can hardly be doubted, 
and it is further significant that (as the Rev. Mr. Whitehead informs 
me) the leaf of the Newton register, containing the original of the 
entry, copied into the Penrith register book, has been abstracted, 
probably for evidence before the Triers. 


ROGER BALDWIN, THE PRESBYTERIAN VICAR. 

Turning to the registers of that time we find that Roger Baldwin 
was in Penrith with his family, as shown by this entry, ‘‘ 1650, 
June, the 9th day, Willm. the son of Mr. Baldwin bapt.” Now, it 
is certain that the name of Baldwin never before occurred in the 
Penrith registers, but that it was the real. Roger Baldwin is proved 
by an entry fifteen months later, when another little Baldwin is 
baptised as the daughter of Mr. Roger Baldwin. I submit then 
that the memorandum dated July 2nd, 1650, in which John Hastie 
is styled “vicar,” and the baptismal registers showing that Roger 
Baldwin was resident in Penrith in that year, is good evidence 
that John Hastie’s ejection was in 1650. It may be of no great 
importance, perhaps, to prove this, but at least it shows how parish 
registers may sometimes help out history. 


THE REGISTERS DURING THE COMMONWEALTH. 
The registers during the Commonwealth, unlike those of many 
parishes, were continued without interruption or change of form, 


eee eee 


65 


but with a marked difference as to marriages. From 1649 to 
1654, the number of marriages recorded for the year was only 
from three to five, after which they ceased altogether until the 
Restoration in 1660. This is accounted for by the historical fact 
that Parliament had instituted secular marriages before a magistrate, 
and had finally abolished marriages in churches altogether ; the 
banns were stil! published in the church preparatory to the civil 
marriage, but no record of such publications appears to have been 
kept. Nine years after the date I have supposed John Hastie to 
have been ejected, there is this entry; “1659, June 6, Mr. John 
Hastie, late Vicar of Penrith, buried.” He would then be eighty- 
four years of age. 


THE RESTORATION AND Mr. SIMON WEBSTER, VICAR. 


The year of the Restoration, 1660, brought Roger Baldwin’s 
occupation of the living of Penrith to an end. During that year 
the re-establishment of the Episcopal Church proceeded apace. 
On the 13th September, an Act was passed and received the royal 
sanction, for restoring some ministers to their places, and under this 
Act John Hastie would have been restored had he been alive. As 
we have seen, he had then been dead fifteen months, consequently 
all the historians who have stated that John Hastie was restored, 
have been in error. After passing this Act, the King immediately 
published a proclamation re-establishing the old bishops who were 
still living, and appointing others to the vacant sees, amongst 
whom was Dr. Stern, to Carlisle; and on October 4th all the 
bishops assembled at Westminster Abbey. <vight’s History of 
England says :—“ For twenty years there had been no display of 
capes and surplices in the services of cathedrals, the young had 
never heard organs and choral services.” Pepys, the prince of 
diarists, was there, and in his quaint style tells how “the bishops 
assembled in Westminster Abbey, all in their habits; but Lord (he 
adds) at their going out how people did most of them look upon 
them as strange creatures, and few with any kind of love or respect.” 
On the 2oth of the same month, Mr. Simon Webster, the newly- 
appointed Episcopalian Vicar cf Penrith, was inducted, and recorded 

5 


66 


the fact in the register book by squeezing into the margin the brief 
note that on October 2oth, Mr. Simon Webster was inducted into 
the vicarage of Penrith, Then immediately we see once more 
marriages crowding into the register. Next was passed the cruel 
and persecuting Act of Conformity, by which all Presbyterian and 
Independent ministers in the possession of Church livings, who, on 
St. Bartholomew’s Day, 1662, refused to conform to Episcopal 
Church government and liturgy, were to be ejected. The result 
was, on that day two thousand ministers went out into the world 
with no visible means of subsistence. At Penrith, Roger Baldwin 
had already been ejected under the Act of September, 1660, so 
that on the momentous St. Bartholomew’s Day, Simon Webster, 
the Episcopalian Vicar, nothing loth, had only to go through the 
form of reading the required declaration in the Church and recording 
the event in the registers in these words:—“ 1662, August, the 
24th day, being St. Bartholomew’s Day, was the declaration con- 
tained in the Act for Uniformity, together with the certificate, read 
in the Church in time of divine service by Mr. Simon Webster, 
Vicar.” 

Simon Webster held the living only two years, and was followed 
in rapid succession by Robert Fisher, Charles Carter, Marius de 
Assigney, a Frenchman, and Joshua Bunting, whose combined 
incumbencies covered only nine years. 

The French Vicar made a radical change in the form of the 
parish registers by adopting separate books for marriages, baptisms, 
and burials, instead of the mixed registration which had before 
been practised. 


Mr. JOHN CHILD, VICAR. 


Succeeding the five clerical birds of passage, a vicar was collated 
in 1670, who was destined to remain at Penrith many years. This 
was Mr. John Child, who recorded his induction in the registers, 
not by squeezing half-a-dozen words into the margin, as Simon 
Webster had done, but by making a prolix record of the important 
event, formally signed by four churchwardens and seven other 
parishioners. 


67 


Mr. Child greatly improved the form of registration by adding 
the Christian name of mothers in baptismal entries ; and in those 
of burials by adding “infant,” “young maid,” ‘young man,” or 
other designations, giving an approximate idea of the age of the 
deceased. Mr. Child was a man of exactness and extreme neatness 
in the keeping of the register. I should judge him to have been 
near-sighted. His writing is so small and his lines so close that 
while an ordinary writer gets about three hundred words on a page 
of foolscap, he gets 1,000 or more. 


THE BurRIAL IN WOOLLEN AcT, 1678. 


It was in Mr. Child’s time, in the reign of Charles II., the most 
insane Act of Parliament that ever was passed came into operation, 
by which all persons burying their dead were required to wrap the 
corpse in “‘wooline,” the legislature thinking by this foolish enact- 
ment to bolster up the declining wool trade. The attempt was 
futile for the purpose intended, but was productive of great trouble 
to the clergy and irritation to the people, a heavy penalty for non- 
compliance being inflicted, and an affidavit and certificate that the 
Act had been complied with, enforced. In Mr. Child’s register of 
burials in August, 1678, five entries bracketted together and noted 
in the margin “no affidavits or certificates sent. I had not the 
Act then. A certificate sent by me August roth.” The next 
entry is August 23, ‘‘ Isabella Robinson, widow, buried in wooline, 
affidavit and certificate was brought September 5th,” and then for 
twenty-two years, to the register of each burial is added, “affidavit 
and certificate sent.” This foolish Act was repealed in 1699. 

During the twenty-two years the Act ran, there were 1,137 burials 
at Penrith, out of which only in four cases-was the law defied. The 
first was “1684, April 29, Mrs. Elizabeth: Bowes, buried in linen 
and £5 paid to the informant and the poor.” From this we learn 
what the penalty was, and when we take into account that 45 at 
that time was equal to £25 now, we see how severe was the 
penalty. The other cases were October, 1687, Mr. Robert Wilson; 
“March, 1692, Margarett Mawson, a young maid, was buried in 
linen, and ye penalty paid according to order ;” November, 1693, 


68 


Mr. Thomas Langhorn, gentleman ; and same year, John Lowther, 
gentleman. 

On December roth, 1694, Mr. John Child made his last entry 
in the register of burials, and on the zoth in that of baptisms, and 
twenty days after his own burial is registered. Of Mr. Child’s 
immediate successor and the subsequent advent of Dr. Hugh 
Todd, I have already alluded to in my former paper, and will only 
add that in 1714, during Dr. Todd’s incumbency, separate register 
books were abandoned and the mixed form again adopted, which 
continued up to 1754 when a separate book for marriages was 
commenced as one of the results of the Marriages Act of 1753. 


Quaint ENTRIES. 


Uncommon, or oddly expressed entries are sometimes met with 
in the registers. Thus :— 


1662—Isabell Burn als (alias) Lucky Weel, a nickname perhaps 
from the sign of a public-house kept by her “ The Lucky 
Wiheel:” 

1665—One Gillbanks drowned at the Skirsgill Well. 

1714— Matthew Varty, killed by a sudden fall, buried. 

1717—Lancelot Hubb, an old piper, buried. 

1719—Henry Taylor, an old man aged ros years. (This was sixty 
years before ages were systematically registered.) 

1726—William, son of Anthony Otto, a German, baptized. 

1744—Mary Penrith, a foundling, baptized. 

1759—Noel Josette, a French officer on parole, buried. Same 
year, Captain Prevot, French prisoner, buried. (French 
Canadian prisoners of war.) 

1772—December 13. James Bell, a German, aged 113, buried. 
This very aged German, with a thoroughly British name, 
is certainly a curiosity. Can he be the same person 
referred to in a baptismal register in 1739—Mary, daughter 
of James Bell, a piper. If so, even at thirty-three years 
before his death, he must have been an ancient parent, 

1773—April. Jane Martin, poor, aged 108, 


Se 


69 


1777—November 19. Elizabeth Greenhow, spinster, aged 100. 
(No doubt about Elizabeth being an o/d maid.) 

1784—Mrs. French, a widow lady and an adult, baptized. 

In 1785, we have a doubly-distinguished personage in George 
Thompson, rattan-catcher and pauper, buried. 

1788—Edward Whitehead, aged 21, and Sarah Redhead, aged 26, 
married. (Let us hope that this union of hearts and 
colours proved harmonious, notwithstanding the trifling 
disparity of years.) 

1772—What appears then to have been a curiosity, is a man 
registered as “ John Hill,” a Methodist, aged 85, buried. 


The registers having gone on for 200 years without any per- 
ceptible break, in 1760, when Mr. John Cowper was vicar, 
experienced a hitch, as stated in the following memorandum in 
the register book :—‘ There are no entries of baptisms or burials 
from January 17th to October 5th, 1760, occasioned by Mr. Joseph 
Tickell leaving the curacy and going into Virginia.” (Wrong, no 
doubt, of Mr. Joseph Tickell, but where was the vicar ?) 

Clockmaking is said to have been a speciality in Penrith during 
the last century. I find the following names of clockmakers 
mentioned in the registers and churchwardens’ book :— 


1712—Aaron Cheesbrough made a new clock for the church, as 
per churchwardens’ book. 

1713—John Washington buried. He mended clock and chimes 
in 1664. 

1741—William Porthouse, daughter baptized. (He is mentioned 
in the churchwardens’ book several times as repairing the 
clock and chimes up to 1765, as the Rev. H. Whitehead 
mentions. ) : 

1757—John Porthouse, clockmaker, daughter baptized. 

1771—John Cheesbrough, clockmaker, aged 85, buried. 

1773—Miles Henderson, clockmaker, daughter buried. 

1777—John Savage, clockmaker, daughter buried. 

1780—George Porthouse, watchmaker, child baptized. 

1790—William Porthouse, clockmaker, aged 84, buried. 

1791—Hugh Lough, clockmaker, aged 51, buried, 

1817—George Porthouse, aged 74, buried, 


70 


Tue PATTENSONS OF PENRITH. 


In the latter part of the 17th and the beginning of the 18th 
centuries, there were two leading men in Penrith, John Pattenson, 
father and son, both attorneys-at-law. John Pattenson, the elder, 
married Mary, the daughter of Roger Sleddel, Esq., and Susanna, 
his wife, April, 1672. Mr. Pattensen purchased the estate of 
Berks, or Breeks, in Westmorland, where his eldest son Thomas 
eventually resided, and from whence he came to Melmerby to 
marry Elizabeth, heiress of William Threlkeld, owner of the 
Melmerby Hall estate, and became founder of the family of 
Melmerby Pattensons. John Pattenson, the younger, purchased 
Carleton Hall and estate from the heiress of Robert Carleton, the 
last of his line. Now going back to the first John Pattenson, we 
will notice the baptismal register of his third child— 


1677—June. Susanna, daughter of Mr. John Pattenson, and 
Mary, his wife. 


Eighteen months earlier we find— 


1675—November. Richard, son of Anthony Hutton, Esq., and 
Ann his wife, baptized. 


Now following these two babies up until Richard is of the mature 
age of r9 and Susanna is nearly 18, let us see if we cannot get a 
bit of romance out of the musty old registers, which tell us as 
follows :— 


1695—April 23. Mr. Richard Hutton, of Gale, and Mrs. Susanna 
Pattenson, of Penrith, were married at Salkeld by Mr. 
Archdeacon Nicolson. 


A stolen wedding evidently, a sort of young Lochinvar affair. The 
Gale here given, as the gallant Richard’s residence, is a small 
Manor and Hall on the Fellsides near Melmerby, then belonging 
to the Penrith Huttons. Now, from what we have seen of the 
Pattensons of Penrith, the pretty Susanna was no mean match for 
a Hutton of Hutton Hall, but it can be readily understood that 
the venerable aristocrats of Hutton Hall thought otherwise, and 
banished poor Dick to the Gale, with the expectation that the 


71 


Helm wind would cool his love for the fair Susanna. But love 
laughs at locksmiths and sometimes even mocks at stern parents, 
and Susanna (at least, I fancy so) suddenly remembered a pressing 
invitation from her old schoolfellow, Dorothy, at Great Salkeld, to 
pay a long visit, and went accordingly. The thought that she 
would be a few miles nearer to Dick, poor fellow, might have some 
influence with her in coming to that decision. This, of course, 
was long before the days of rural posts and post cards, but it was 
not long before a little bird whispered in Dick’s ear that somebody 
was at Salkeld, and as Dick, like young Lochinvar, could boast 
that along all the Fellsides “his steed was the best,” he rode off 
“all unarmed and rode all alone.” He had no need to swim the 
broad Eden, even if the flood were out, for Langwathby Bridge 
had lately been finished and opened to the public. (How the 
progress of civilisation does knock romance out of time!) I need 
not tell you how soon our young Lochinvar arrived at Salkeld, nor 
repeat all the soft nothings when there, but I will venture to tell 
that he stabled his steed that night at Carlisle instead of the Gale, 
and returned next day, not unarmed as he went, but provided with 
legal and ecelesiastical authority to wed the fair Susanna, which 
mandate was duly obeyed by the rector, Mr. Archdeacon Nicolson, 
the future Bishop of Carlisle. That must be true you know, 
because the Penrith register says so. If Richard took his bride up 
into the teeth of the Helm wind, he did not keep her there long, 
for the registers in due time inform us of their residence at Penrith. 
Let us hope that the stern parents relented, and received the bride 
with open arms; and, say you, lived happy ever after. Alas, no! 
That is only in story books. The inexorable parish regisfers say 
different. This is what they tell us :— 


1696—July. Susanna, daughter of Mr. Richard Hutton and 
Susanna his wife, baptized. 

1698—February. Anthony, son of ditto, ditto, baptized. Same 
year, November, Anthony, son of ditto, ditto, buried. 

1700—February. Susanna, daughter of ditto, ditto, buried. Same 
year, William, son of ditto, ditto, baptized. 

1701—William, son of ditto, ditto, buried. 


72 


1702—June. Mary, daughter of Mr. Richard Hutton, baptized. 
And then, alas! on the 30th of the next month (July), 
Susanna, wife of Mr. Richard Hutton, buried. 
In 1706 a new wife comes upon the scene. In May, “ Addison, 
son of Richard Hutton, Esq., and Bridget his wife,” is 
baptized; and same date, “Bridget, wife of Richard 
Hutton, Esq.,” is buried. (This is sad, indeed.) 
1715, and again another wife. In June, “John, son of Richard 
Hutton, Esq., and Barbara his wife,” is baptized. 
Then a daughter, Barbara, is baptized in 1716, and on May 10, 
1717, Richard Hutton, Esq., is buried, and a month later baby 
Barbara is buried. Richard Hutton died at the early age of 41. 
He was High Sheriff for Cumberland in 1710, and his name stands 
in the church books as churchwarden in 1701 and 1702. Of the 
son John, nothing more is heard. He must have died young, since 
his half-brother, Addison, was sole survivor, who lived to manhood, 
and was a doctor of medicine. He sold his ancestral estate in 
1734, to Mr. John Gasgarth, whose son sold it to the Lowthers ; 
and Addison Hutton dying in 1742 without issue, the long line of 
Penrith Huttons became extinct. 


THE CooKsoNs OF PENRITH, MATERNAL ANCESTORS OF 
Wm. WorDSwWoRTH, PoET LAUREATE. 


A notable citizen family, were the Cooksons of Penrith. They 
first appear in the registers with the regular recurrence of established 
families in 1639, about which time the names of William, Lancelot, 
and Anthony Cookson, frequently occur as family men. There 
were, however, Cooksons in Penrith forty years before, as appears 
by the following entries in the parish registers :—1597, Janet, wife 
of William Cookson, buried; 1599, William Cookson and Elizabeth 
Cookson, married ; and 1600, William Cookson, ‘‘tincler,” buried. 
It is not improbable that this ancient “ tincler,” t.e., brazier (for 
tin plate, the material of the modern “tinker,” was then unknown) 
was the father of the three later Cooksons, William, Lancelot, and 
Anthony, but if so, it would appear that they had left Penrith as 
boys and returned as married men, there being no mention of them 


——————————— 


73 


in the registers in the 7zterim. The descendants of William, 
Lancelot, and Anthony are so mixed up in the registers as to make 
it difficult to trace with certainty the genealogies of some of them, 
the entries being of the briefest, no ages of persons buried are 
given, and until 1670, the names of mothers were not stated in 
baptismal registrations ; and then, as increasing the difficulty no 
little, for some years during the Commonwealth, marriages in 
churches were abolished, and civil contracts instituted, of which no 
registration has been preserved; then again the number of William 
Cooksons is perplexing: between 1639 and 1742, no less than six 
William Cookson’s appear in the registers as fathers of families. 

The William Cookson first mentioned, 1639, was no doubt the 
churchwarden of that name in 1556, when, during the Common- 
wealth, Roger Baldwin, the Presbyterian, was Vicar of Penrith; 
the second William Cookson, who by strong circumstantial evidence, 
was son of the Presbyterian churchwarden, had by his wife Alice 
six sons and two daughters, and was the immediate ancestor of the 
principal Cookson family; this second William appears to have 
inherited his father’s Presbyterian proclivities, for we find his name 
and that of his wife Alice, amongst others in the register book as 
being excommunicated for nonconformity, but notwithstanding 
this, his childrens’ names appear regularly in the baptismal register, 
with the exception of one daughter omitted, and one son errone- 
ously entered by the same name as his brother Joseph. 

All the children of William and Alice having been born before 
the passing of the Toleration Act of 1689, baptism at Church was 
in their case inevitable, notwithstanding the Nonconformist prin- 
ciples of the parents. 

It is to this family I now ask your attention, since from them, 
by his mother’s side, was descended William Wordsworth, Poet 
Laureate. 

In the middle and latter part of the last century, there were two 
William Cooksons, first cousins, both leading citizens of Penrith, 
one a grocer and the other a mercer. The name of William 
Cookson, “ grocer,” frequently occurs in the registers as the father 
of ten children, and in the churchwardens’ book as four times 


74 


churchwarden, and as supplying tar barrels to burn at public 
rejoicings, when “ale at the cross” flowed so freely at the Parish 
expense. William, the grocer, was son of William Cookson, eldest 
son of William and Alice, who in 1693 married Dorothy Fothergill, 
who added considerably to the already numerous Cooksons of 
Penrith. Dorothy died 1706, and after her there was a second 
wife, Susanna, whose existence, and that of her children, are only 
learned from the elder William Cookson’s will, none of their names 
appearing in the parish registers. The parentage of William 
Cookson, mercer, maternal grandfather of Wordsworth, was for 
long somewhat of a mystery; dying in 1787 (when ages of persons 
buried had begun to be recorded in the register), he being at his 
death seventy-six years of age, we learn that he was born in 1711, 
but searching the registers of that period, no trace of him is to be 
found ; there is the burial of a Thomas Cookson, mercer, in 1721, 
who might have been the father of William, the mercer, but no 
baptisms of any children of his are to be found. 

Burke, in his Landed Gentry says William Cookson, mercer, who 
married Dorothy Crackenthorpe, was younger brother of Isaac 
Cookson, silversmith, of Newcastle-on-Tyne, who was born in 1680, 
and was a son of a William Cookson, whose family came originally 
from Settle, in Yorkshire, but as this puts thirty-one years between 
the alleged brothers, the statement looked perplexing. 

All was made plain, however, by reference to the will of William 
Cookson, “the husband of Alice Cookson,” as the parish register 
puts it. He died in 1712, and his will was proved at Carlisle the 
same year; from it we learn that he was a brazier, as was his 
probable ancestor, William Cookson, the ‘“‘tincler” of 1600, his sons 
enumerated in the will stand the same as in the registers, with the 
exception that one of the two, erroneously registered as Joseph, 
turns out to be the notable Isaac, of Newcastle. The sons of 
William and Alice were William (also a brazier, as appears from 
another source), Thomas, the mercer, Joseph, who died in 1720, 
Isaac, the goldsmith, of Newcastle, Benjamin, and James. The 
old brazier’s will is a most interesting document ; in it he bequeaths 
ten shillings each to all adult members of his family and several 


75 


friends, in all twenty-four, “‘to buy them mourning rings. He had 
no great amount of money to dispose of in legacies, having gener- 
ously given to each son and daughter their portion on their entering 
into business, or on their marriage. To his eldest son, William, 
he says: “I bequeath one oval table and six rushed chairs, now 
belonging to my dining room, one large map now in my staircase, 
one jack and spit, and my large Bible wherein are written the 
names of my several children, which legacy, together with what I 
settled upon him by deed bearing date the 29th day of December, 
1691, is and shail be his full part and portion,” etc., etc. 

Another bequest is to his daughter Agnes, whose marriage in 
1694, to Mr. James Coningham, is recorded in the parish 
registers. Walker, in his history of Penrith, says: ‘‘ James Con- 
ingham, M.A., a native of Scotland, who was educated at the 
University of Edinburgh, and was connected with the Established 
Church of Scotland, is first mentioned as minister of the Presby- 
terian congregation in Penrith in the year 1694. In 1700 he 
removed to Manchester, and afterwards to London.” 

William Cookson thus remembers his daughter Agnes and her 
reverend husband in his will:—‘“‘I give and bequeath to my eldest 
daughter, Agnes Coningham, the sum of five pounds with one 
silver porringer, and ten shillings to buy a mourning ring, which, 
with what I gave her at the time of her marriage, is in full for her 
part and portion. I give and bequeath to my son-in-law, Mr. 
James Coningham my Clark’s Bible in folio and ten shillings to 
buy a mourning ring.” Amongst his grandchildren, to whom he 
left five pounds each, he mentions ‘‘John Coningham, the son of 
the Rev. James Coningham.” 

To his daughter Isabel, wife of William Jeffray, he bequeaths 
“twenty pounds and one silver porringer, and ten shillings for a 
mourning ring ;” to his son-in-law, William Jeffray, “ten shillings 
to his grandsons, Thomas and Richard 
Jeffray, twenty pounds each, and to his grand-daughter, Agnes 


” 


for a mourning ring; 


Jeffray, the sum of ten pounds ; but none of the legacies to grand- 
children were to be paid until they came of age. ‘The absence of 
any mention of Isabella having had a dowry on her marriage, and 


76 


the comparative largeness of the bequests to her and her children, 
perhaps indicate that William Jeffray had not stood so high in the 
testator’s estimation as a son-in-law as had the Rev. James Con 
ingham. 

Amongst twelve grandchildren to whom he leaves legacies, we 
clearly identify “William Cookson, son of Thomas Cookson,” as 
the future William Cookson, mercer, of Penrith, maternal grand- 
father of Wordsworth. 

To his sons Thomas and Benjamin, he leaves small legacies, 
which, with what he had already settled upon them, he says, ‘‘is 
and shall be his full part and portion ;” and to his youngest son, 
James (evidently not before benefitted), he bequeaths one hundred 
pounds, and fifty more after his mother’s death.” To his son 
Isaac he bequeaths “five pounds, and also one pound to buy 
mourning rings for himself and for my daughter-in-law Hannah, 
his wife.” Also to Isaac he bequeaths ‘all that my dwelling 
house which my father purchased of Widow Ashbridge, situate 
lying and being in the Netherend, etc., etc., from and after the 
decease of my beloved wife, Alice Cookson ;” in consideration of 
which Isaac had to pay the legacies charged thereon. ‘The testator 
further provides that ‘“‘all the rest of my real and personal estates, 
etc., etc., I give and bequeath to my loving wife Alice Cookson, 
and to my son Isaac Cookson, now living in Newcastle, whom I 
nominate and appoint executors of this my last will and testament? 
and it is my will and desire that after my interment a decent grave- 
stone be procured and laid over my body with such inscription as 
to my executors shall seem suitable ; for which use and purpose I 
leave to my fore-named executors the sum of two pounds ten 
shillings.” It must be borne in mind that at that date the wages 
of masons and joiners were one shilling per day, and of labourers 
sixpence to eightpence ; the cost of the tombstone was therefore 
equivalent to twelve or fifteen pounds at the present day. 

Knowing what we do of the Nonconformist principles of William 
and Alice, as gathered from the parish registers and the incidents 
of his will, it is evident that this family were staunch Presbyterians, 
and accounts for the fact that many of their grandchildren were 


77 


not baptized at Church, their parents having availed themselves of 
the liberty given by the Toleration Act of 1689, to have their 
children baptized by their own minister ; and hence the dead-lock 
experienced in trying to trace the parentage of the poet’s grand- 
father in the parish registers; it also probably accounts for the 
error of Burke’s Landed Gentry, in making William, the mercer, 
brother of Isaac Cookson of Newcastle, zzstead of his nephew. 

Having enquired in the WVewcastle Weekly Chronicle for any 
information about Isaac Cookson of Newcastle, goldsmith, I was 
favoured by a reply in the literary supplement of that journal, from 
Mr, Richard Welford, author of the admirable series of “ Men of 
Mark ’twixt Tyne and Tweed,” now appearing in that paper. Mr. 
Welford adduces some legal documents showing that Isaac Cook- 
son of Newcastle, goldsmith, William Cookson of Penrith, and 
others, had been associated in carrying on iron works in the 
neighbourhood of Newcastle; also that William Cookson had a 
close called Highfield, at Little Clifton (near Workington), in 
Cumberland, and ‘had built thereon a furnace, etc., for an iron 
foundry, and that this private adventure of his had been merged 
in a company concern in which the Cooksons and certain partners 
carried on ironworks at Clifton, Gateshead, and Newcastle, from 
September, 1729. Thus it appears that William, the eldest son 
of William and Alice Cookson, was a pioneer in the iron trade of 
Cumberland and Newcastle. 

Mr. Welford says, “Isaac Cookson of Newcastle, merchant 
adventurer, purchased considerable property and erected a spacious 
mansion. He was interred in St. Nicholas’ church in that town, 
where also lie the remains of Hannah his vife, and was succeeded 
by his only son John, who purchased in 1745 the estate of White- 
hill, near Chester-le-Street. He married Elizabeth, eldest daughter 
and co-heir of Thomas Ludwige, Esq., of Whitehaven, and had 
issue (among others), Isaac Cookson of Whitehill, who had seven 
sons and three daughters: rst, John, of Whitehill; 2nd, James, 
colonel in the army ; 3rd, Isaac, of Meldon Park, &c. . 


78 


WILLIAM COOKSON OF PENRITH, MERCER. 


William Cookson of Penrith, mercer, son of Thomas the mercer, 
and grandson cf William and Alice, married Dorothy Crakenthorpe, 
daughter of Mr. Christopher Crackenthorpe of Newbiggin Hall, 
Westmorland, the last but one of that ancient line, his son James 
(Mrs. Cookson’s brother) being the last. Wordsworth’s biographer, 
his nephew, Christopher Wordsworth, D.D., says Mrs. Cookson 
was James’ daughter, but this is an error. Nicolson and Burn, 
and all other authorities I have met with, say that James, although 
married, died without issue, leaving the estates to his widow for 
life, and after her to his sister Darotha and her heirs (male), failing 
which they were to go to the Rev. Adam Askew of Newcastle, 
whose mother was a Crackenthorpe, and second cousin to the said 
James. The first indication that Penrith was to produce an heir 
to Newbiggin, and not Newcastle, appears in the following entry 
in registers :— 

1742, Oct. 26—Crackenthorpe, Richard, son of Mr. William 
Cookson, baptized. 


This prospective heir to the Newbiggin estates died at two years 
of age. However, another is again forthcoming, as the following 
baptismal register indicates :— 

1745, May 2o—Christopher Crackenthorpe, son of Mr, William 
Cookson, baptized. 


Next we have -— 
1748, Jan. 20o—Ann, daughter of Mr. Cookson, mercer, baptized. 


Here we meet for the first time, with the future mother of 
Wordsworth, the poet. In 1750 Thomas is baptized; he died in 
1771. 1754, Dec. 26, we have William, son of Mr. William 
Cookson, mercer, and Dorothy his wife, baptized. Then, after a 
few years’ interval we come to a very interesting entry in the 
marriage registers :— 

John Wordsworth, of Cockermouth, bachelor, and Annie Cookson, 
of Penrith, spinster, a minor, Feb. 5, 1766. 


These are the future parents of the poet. 


79 


THE WoRDSWORTHS. 


This will be a suitable place to speak about the Wordsworths of 
Westmorland and Cumberland. The first of the name was Mr. 
Richard Wordsworth, attorney at law. He came to Westmorland 
to manage the law business of the Lowthers. He was of a good 
old family of Wordsworths in Yorkshire. On coming into West- 
morland he purchased a house and small estate at Sockbridge, 
and married Mary Robinson, of a notable Appleby family. Mrs. 
Wordsworth is said to have been a clever, brave: woman—valuable 
qualities for the times in which she lived. At the time of the 1745 
rebellion, Mr. Wordsworth was receiver-general for the county, 
and for the security of the public money in his charge, on the 
approach of the rebels, he went off with his money bags to a 
remote glen at Patterdale, leaving his wife to face the foe; and 
this she well knew how to do. Her plan was to stock the larder 
abundantly, make them smilingly welcome, and so send them 
away contented. This estimable couple’s family consisted of two 
sons, Richard and John, and one daughter, Anne. Richard was 
sent into Yorkshire to his father’s friends to complete his education, 
which he did in a way of his own by marrying his cousin while he 
was yet a mere youth, which so offended his father that it is said 
he disinherited him. John appears to have been always a good 
boy. He served his articles with his father at Sockbridge, and as 
from that place it was only a short pleasant walk to Penrith, no 
doubt he frequently took it. ‘ Perhaps also he got a cup of tea 
and had a delightful hour or two at the house of Mr. William 
Cookson, mercer—not at Mr. William Cookson’s, grocer—oh, no! 
there was no attraction there! Mr. Cookson, mercer, lived in the 
house, since rebuilt, and now the premises of Messrs. Arnison, 
drapers. The situation was then called Burrowgate, which then 
comprised the Market-place—in fact all the heart of the business 
part of the town. 

When John Wordsworth became a fully fledged attorney at law, 
he went to Cockermouth to manage the law business of the 
Lowther estates in West Cumberland; and to that town, as we 


80 


have'seen, he eventually carried off his Penrith bride, aged eighteen. 
Five baptismal registers are entered at Cockermouth, and then a 
very sad one at Penrith, as follows :— 


1778, March 11th—Mrs. Wordsworth, wife of John Wordsworth, 
Esq., of Cockermouth, aged 30. Buried. 


The poor lady had been on a visit to friends at London, who 
had honoured her with the use of the best bed, which being, as 
best beds often were, a damp one, sent her back to the north with 
the hand of death upon her to die at her father’s house in Penrith. 
Mrs. Wordsworth left four sons and one daughter—Richard ; 
William, the poet; Dorothy; John, captain in the E. I. Marine, 
who perished at sea; and Christopher, D.D., Master of Trinity 
College, Cambridge. The bereaved husband never recovered 
his loss, and five years and a few months afterwards died in 
consequence of exposure all night upon an open moor, having 
lost his way in the dark when on a professional journey. Much 
of William Wordsworth’s childhood was spent at his grandfather’s 
house at Penrith, where he received the first rudiments of his 
education, under a worthy old dame teacher, Mrs. Birkett, who 
had taught three generations of young Penrithians of the better 
class. Little William shared the smiles and frowns of the good 
old dame with little Mary Hutchinson, the daughter of Mr. John 
Hutchinson, a leading tradesman in Penrith, variously styled 
“tobacconist” and “merchant.” It looks like a case of child love 
with little William Wordsworth and Mary Hutchinson, destined to 
mature in after life into mutual attachment, for Mary eventually 
became the poet’s wife. 

Wordsworth himself, writing of his childhood’s days at Penrith, 
says: “The time of my infancy and early boyhood was passed 
partly at Cockermouth and partly with my mother’s parents at 
Penrith.” He tells of once going into the attics of his grandfather’s 
house upon some indignity having been put upon him, with the 
intention of destroying himself with one of the foils kept there, 
but, he adds, “I took the foil in hand, but my heart failed.” 
“Upon another occasion,” he says, “while I was at my grandfather’s 


81 


house, along with my eldest brother, Richard, we were whipping 
tops together in the drawing-room, on which the carpet was only 
laid down upon particular occasions. The walls were hung round 
with family pictures, and I said to my brother, ‘Dare you strike 
your whip through that old lady’s petticoats?’ He replied, ‘No, I 
wont.’ ‘Then,’ said I, ‘here goes,’ and I struck my lash through 
the old lady’s petticoats, for which, no doubt, though I have 
forgotten it, I was properly punished.” 

On the death of Mr. John Wordsworth, his children were left 
but ill-provided for, Sir Jas. Lowther (afterwards Earl of Lonsdale) 
had got from him, ostensibly as a loan, all his savings, amounting 
to £5,000, and refused to restore it, even for the benefit of the 
orphan children. This lawless and inhuman act was unatoned 
for to the day of the earl’s death. However, his successor, about 
1801, nobly restored the money with interest, amounting in all to 
£8,500. In the meantime, the two uncles—Mr. Richard Words- 
worth, of Whitehaven, and Mr. Christopher Crackenthorpe—did 
their duty by the children, and gave them a good education. Mr. 
Christopher Crackenthorpe Cookson, the heir of the Newbiggin 
estates, was at the age of forty-three, still only heir, and still a 
bachelor. James Crackenthorpe’s widow must have had a long 
widowhood, and Christopher was evidently in no haste to marry. 
At length, however, our unfailing parish register comes to the front 
again, and presents us with the following marriage register :— 


27th of August, 1788—Christopher Crackenthorpe Cookson, of 

this parish, bachelor, aged 43, and Charlotte Cust, of this 

parish, spinster, aged 32—by me W. Cookson, officiating 

minister, in the presence of Martha Cust and G. Raincock. 
The officiating minister is the Lridegroom’s brother, Doctor 
Cookson, Fellow of St. John’s College, Cambridge, and afterwards 
Canon of Windsor, grandfather of Mr. Montague Cookson Crack- 
enthorpe, who now inherits the Newbiggin estates in succession to 
his great-uncle, the late Mr. William Crackenthorpe, who was 
never married. The bride of Mr. Christopher Crackenthorpe 
Cookson—Charlotte Cust—was daughter of Mr. Cust, surgeon 
and apothecary, Penrith. 

6 


82 


Dorothy Wordsworth, the poet’s famous sister, also spent much 
of her early life at her grandfather Cookson’s house, and so long 
as the worthy old mercer lived there was a home at Penrith for 
his orphan grandchildren. 


Returning to the registers of the Cookson family, we see in— 


1790, Feb. 26—William, son of Mr. Christopher Crackenthorpe 
Cookson, baptized. 


This is the late well-known Mr. Crackenthorpe, of Newbiggin 
Hall, who died about three years ago; so we see how near he was 
to being a centenarian. It will be observed that Mr. Cracken- 
thorpe and the poet were first cousins, with a difference of twenty 
years in their respective ages, Wordsworth having been born in 
1770, and Mr. William Crackenthorpe in 1790. 

Mr. Christopher Crackenthorpe Cookson had a daughter Char- 
lotte, born in 1791, and a daughter Sarah in 1794, on which latter 
occasion he stands in the register as ‘‘Christopher Crackenthorpe, 
Esq.” His mother having enjoyed the Newbiggin estates for one 
year after the death of James Crackenthorpe’s widow, died in 
1792, when he succeeding her in the inheritance, dropped the 
name of Cookson and assumed that of Crackenthorpe. 


There is just one more Cookson register to notice, and that is 
the marriage of the Rev. Dr. William Cookson, who comes to 
Penrith to wed Dorothy Cowper, daughter of the Rev. John 
Cowper, vicar of Penrith. The marriage is dated October 17th, 
1788, and is witnessed by William Monkhouse and Dorothy 
Wordsworth. Dorothy was then about seventeen years of age. 
She had been of late living much with her uncle, the rev. bride- 
groom, at Froncett, and probably came to Penrith with him for 
the auspicious occasion. ‘There is a rather curious circumstance 
in connection with the register of this marriage—the bridegroom’s 
age is stated to be thirty, whereas by the baptismal register it was 
thirty-three ; the bride’s age is also stated as thirty, while the bap- 
tismal register makes it out to be thirty-four years. 


Wordsworth went to Cambridge in 1787, and during the 


83 


summer vacation of 1788, after visiting Esthwaite, the scene of his 
schoolboy days, and other parts of the Lake District, he during 
the latter part of the vacation visited Penrith. His biographer 
thus alludes to this visit:—‘‘ His mother’s relatives resided at 
Penrith, on the southern frontier of Cumberland. Here he was 
restored to the society of his sister, and of one who was one day 
to be nearer to him than a sister (Mary Hutchinson). He enjoyed 
with them those delightful scenes by which Penrith is surrounded. 
He mounted the Border Beacon on the north-east of the town; 
and on that eminence, now (1851) overgrown with fir trees which 
intercept the view, but which was then free and open and displayed 
a glorious panorama, he beheld the wide plain stretched far and 
near below, closed by the dark hills of Ullswater on the west and 
by the dim ridges of Scotland on the north.” 

Wordsworth’s visit thus so eloquently described must have been 
just before his uncle’s marriage, the vacation ending on October 
ist, and the marriage being on the 17th. There is no record of 
Wordsworth again visiting Penrith until 1794, when he was there 
for some months attending to his friend Raisley Calvert, who, as 
an invalid, had come to Penrith. On that occasion Wordsworth 
lodged with Mrs. Sowerby, at the Robin Hood Inn, the premises 
now occupied by Mr. Cockbain, in King-street. Raisley Calvert 
died at Penrith, but was not buried there. After his death it was 
found he had by his will left Wordsworth the sum of 4g00, which 
little fortune enabled him to devote himself to a literary life 
without the dread of poverty. Mary Hutchinson, the poet’s 
future wife, lost her mother in 1783; her brother William died 
the year following, and her father the year after that. Their 
tombstone, a large flat, blue slab, level with the ground, may be 
seen near the north-west corner of the church tower, in a line with 
the raised tomb of the Monkhouses, of which family Mrs. Hutch- 
inson was a member. After the death of her parents, Mary 
Hutchinson with her brother and sisters left Penrith for Sockburn, 
in Durham, and afterwards went into Yorkshire, whither in 1802, 
Wordsworth, aided and abetted by Dorothy, his loved and indis- 
pensable sister, went to claim Mary as his wife. Wordsworth and 


84 


Mary Hutchinson were married at Brompton church, near Scar- 
borough. De Quincey has said that Mary Hutchinson was 
Wordsworth’s cousin, but this was certainly not the case; her 
mother was Mary, eldest child of Mr. John Monkhouse, attorney 
at law, and the Penrith registers, as also the Wordsworth pedigrees, 
make it certain that no marriage connections had ever existed 
between either the Hutchinsons or Monkhouses, with the Cook- 
sons or Wordsworths, so that there could be no kind of cousinship 
between the poet and his wife. 

The life-long devotion of Dorothy Wordsworth to her poet 
brother, prompting his genius, supporting and encouraging him in 
every phase of life, and his loving reliance upon her, would appear 
to have afforded no place for a wife; and yet Mary Hutchinson, 
as the poet’s wife, was in the most perfect harmony with both. 
Surely such a human trinity of love and concord seldom existed 
in the world ! 

Another much-loved member of the poet’s family at Rydal was 
his wife’s sister, Sarah Hutchinson. Wordsworth’s biographer 
says of her: “She was a person of cultured mind, sound judgment, 
refined taste, tender affections, and fervent piety.” Sarah Hutch- 
inson’s grave is one of the Wordsworth group in Grasmere 
churchyard. Her epitaph describes her as “the beloved sister 
and faithful friend,” and records that she was born at Penrith, 
ist of January, 1775. 

I will now as briefly as possible allude to Wordsworth’s relations 
who resided at Penrith. His uncle Richard was receiver of 
customs at Whitehaven, and his son John, who was a captain in 
the East India Company’s Marine in 1804, came to Penrith and 
purchased the house now occupied by Dr. Montgomery, from Mr. 
Isaac Parker, who had built it in 1792. The adjoining house, 
lately occupied by Miss Bleaymire, was built by Mr. William 
Wilson at the same time and from the same design. Upon the 
leaden spout heads of the houses may be seen the initials of the 
original proprietors. Upon the corner of the house towards 
Portland-place the initials are those of Isaac and Sophia Parker, 
and upon the other the initials of William and Mary Wilson. 


. 


85 


The parish marriage registers tell us that in 1788, “ William 
Wilson, Esq., aged thirty-eight, of the parish of Hesket, married 
Mary Grave, aged twenty-two ;” and that in 1790, “Isaac Field 
Parker, Esq., aged twenty-two, of the parish of Hesket, married 
Sophia Grave, a minor.” Each of the marriages is witnessed by 
Matthew Grave. Then turning to the baptismal register, guided 
by the age of one bride and the inferred age of the other, it is 
found that Mr. Matthew Grave was father of both brides. This 
then is the story of the pair of houses erected in 1792 by the 
husbands of two sisters. Captain John Wordsworth resided in 
the house he had purchased until 1820, when by accident or 
insane intention to get through the skylight in the front part of 
the roof, he fell to the ground and was killed. The late Mr. 
Jacob Thompson, then a boy going to school, witnessed the 
catastrophe. The house occupied by Miss Bleaymire has lately 
been called ‘Wordsworth House,” but it never had the slightest 
connection, except perhaps that of the party wall, with any of the 
Wordsworths ; neither is there any evidence that the poet ever 
entered the other house occupied by his unfortunate cousin John. 
When our Society lately visited Grasmere, all were struck with 
admiration of the well cared for Wordsworth graves and monu- 
ments, but I then thought with regret that the poet’s mother and 
her ancestors were lying in unknown graves in Penrith churchyard, 
without a stone to mark their resting place; and that the mother 
of an illustrious poet and a learned Master of Trinity, and grand- 
mother of two bishops, should be so forgotten that no one can 
point out where she lies. There may, however, have been a 
Cookson monument of perishable stone, now lost. The dilapidated 
state of the old monuments is indeed deplorable, in consequence 
of the barbarous condition of the churchyard up to the early part 
of this century. In fact, it was literally an open village green with 
footpaths crossing it in various directions ; no wonder then that 
monuments were broken or trodden out of recognition, and brasses 
torn from the stones and sold for old metal. The enclosure of 
the churchyard in 1824 was an excellent work, but it came too 
late—the mischief had been done, and can never be repaired, 


86 


We have seen from the will of William Cookson, that a grave- 
stone with a suitable inscription had to be laid over his grave ; it 
is therefore almost a certainty that one of the four blank sandstone 
slabs now lying on the surface of Penrith churchyard, from which 
time and ill usage have obliterated every vestige of inscription, 
would, if intact, mark the burial place of the poet’s immediate 
maternal ancestors, and, as a natural sequence, that of his revered 
mother; but, while the monumental slabs of Mary Hutchinson’s 
and her mother’s family, the Monkhouses, are, owing to the 
enduring character of the slate stone employed, almost as fresh as 
the day they were laid down, that of the Cooksons, if in existence, 
is a complete blank. 


ADDENDA TO FORMER PAPER, 1888-89. 


As supplementary to some subjects treated of under special 
headings in my former paper on “Notabilia of Old Penrith” 
( Transactions No. XVI, 1888-9), I subjoin the following as 
tending to clear up the doubts as to Bishop Strickland’s parentage. 


BisHOP STRICKLAND. 


The Lowther pedigree at Lowther Castle states that Robert 
Lowther married a Strickland, but without giving her family. 
Nicolson and Burn, however, say she was Margaret, daughter of 
Bishop Strickland, and this appears to be confirmed by the record 
in Queen Elizabeth’s Foundation Charter of Penrith Grammar 
School, that the lands in Penrith parish chargeable with the 
payment of six pounds a year to Strickland’s chantry were then in 
the possession of Richard Lowther, making it pretty clear that the 
Bishop’s estate at Penrith had passed by the marriage of his 
daughter and heiress to the family of Lowther. Nicolson and 
Burn, in describing the Lowther armorial bearings, amongst other 


0 ee ee 


87 


quarterings therein give “Sable three escalops within a bordure 
ingrailed argent, by the name of Strickland.” Now as this 
quartering is identical with the Sizergh Strickland arms, it follows 
that if Robert Lowther’s wife was the Bishop’s daughter, then her 
father was entitled to bear the Sizergh Strickland arms, thereby 
proving him to have been of that family, notwithstanding the 
absence of his name from the family archives. 

Nicolson and Burn, and also the Lowther Castle pedigree, make 
Mabel, daughter of Robert Lowther and his wife, marry a Lancaster 
of Sockbridge; it was therefore a grand-daughter, not the daughter 
of the Bishop, whose marriage into that family is alluded to by St. 
George’s Westmorland, 1615 visitation. 


THe Huttons or Hutron HA.L, PENRITH. 


Adam de Hoton, the founder of this family, first appears at 
Penrith in the reign of Edward I., in which also the manor of 
Penrith was granted to Anthony Beck, the warrior Bishop of 
Durham. Nowas Hoton, Houghton, Hutton (and other variations 
of the spelling of the name) was a common name in the north-east, 
it appears very probable that Adam of Hoton came from bishop 
Beck’s country as a trusty henchman of the Bishop to represent 
him in the manor, for the history of that period plainly indicates 
that the military bishop had occupation enough at home in 
repelling the aggressive Scots in the east, to satisfy even his 
combative proclivities. 

Supposing this to have been the origin of Adam de Hoton’s 
advent to Penrith, what would be more likely than that a slice of 
the manor of Penrith should be carved out for his maintenance, 
and thus originate the mense manor of Hutton Hall, Penrith ? 

My surmise that the John Hutton who was ambassador at 
Brussels in 1538, and who so diplomatically evaded the dangerous 
responsibility sought to be put upon him by Henry VIII.’s 
minister Cromwell, of recommending a fourth wife for the King, 
was the Penrith John Hutton of the period, was repeated in the 
Westmorland Note Book as a query, asking for information on the 
subject. The enquiry elicited the following cogent reply;— 


88 


“One would imagine it must be difficult for any man, at this 
distance of time, to say quite certainly whether the John Hutton 
‘required by Henry VIII.’s minister (Cromwell) to report’ as 
referred to above, was John de Hoton, of Penrith, unless he had 
documentary proof of it. But, as to the probability of it, there 
cannot be very much question. The father of the John Hoton of 
Penrith, who was of Henry VIII.’s time, was named William ; and 
the son and heir of John was Anthony. According to Stow, 
King Henry VIIL, in 1495, sent certain persons to Calais to 
entice over to this country ‘Sir Robert Clifford, who, with others, 
was plotting for Perkin Warbeck, believing him to be the son 
of King Edward IV.’ The ‘Privy Purse’ expenses of King 
Henry VII. show that on the zoth January, 1495, William Hoton 
and Harry Wodeford received £26 13s. 4d. as a reward for 
successfully negotiating with Sir Robert Clifford*, who came over 
and was pardoned. 

“The ‘household expenses’ of Clifford, Earl of Cumberland, 
(quoted in Whittakers History of Craven), show that in 1525, 
Anthony Hoton, and five other Westmorland (and Cumberland) 
gentlemen, were attendants on the Earl at the Court (seemingly at 
Greenwich, at the time referred to).t That would be, very probably, 
a group of youthful gentlemen. We may presume that it would 
be a man with an older and cooler head and heart, that would be 
asked by Cromwell, a few years later, to report upon a suitable 
fourth wife for the eighth King Henry. Anthony, of Penrith, 
would be as fitted by his age for the position with the Earl of 
Cumberland, as John, his father, would be, by his age, for the 
more delicate and difficult task of the minister Cromwell. And it 
therefore seems very “probable,” at least, that we thus see three 
successive generations of the Penrith Huttons (William, John, 
and Anthony) engaged, in one way or auother, for or about the 


Court. (1381). 
“W, HutTTon-BRAYSHAY.” 


* A descendant of a distant branch of the Westmorland Cliffords. 


+ This would probably be on the occasion of Elenry Clifford, son and heir 
of the Shepherd Lord, being created Earl of Cumberland by Henry VIIL., 
Hes whom Henry Clifford had, as boy and man, been a close companion and 
‘avourite, 


a — 


89 


In my former paper I mentioned the Hutton monuments in 
the Choir of St. Andrew of the demolished church, and referred to 
the effigies of Mr. Anthony Hutton and his wife Elizabeth, so 
minutely described by Bishop Nicolson in 1704. The inscriptions, 
according to the Bishop, were two in number, one was— 


“Here lyes interr’'d Anthony Hutton Esqr who was a Grave, 
faithful and judicious Counsellor at Law, and one of the Masters 
of the High Court of Chancery; Son and Heir of that renowned 
Kt S' William Hutton of Penrith; and was matched into the 
Noble Family of S' Thomas Burdett of Bramcourt in the County 
of Warwick Baronet, by the marriage of his vertuous sister 
Elizabeth Burdett; whose pious care and religious bounty hath 
erected this marble tomb to perpetuate the memory of such a 
worthy Commonwealth’s-man, and of so dear a Husband who 
dyed the roth of July, 1637.” 


The second inscription was— 


“ Here lies the Portrature of Elizabeth Hutton, the wife of the 
late deceased Anthony Hutton ; who, though living, desired. thus 
to be placed in token of her union with him here interr’d, and of 
her own expected mortality.” 


How long the widow continued to gaze upon her own sepulchral 
effigy and expect her death, the burial registers inform us by the 
following entry which I think there can be no doubt refers to her :— 


1673—Elizabeth Hutton, gentlewoman, widow, buried. 


She therefore lived in widowhood 36 years after the erection of 
the monument. This contrasts curiously with a similar case in 
Cornwall, where the widow erected effigies of her deceased husband 
and herself, and married another husband within three months. 
These Hutton Hall monuments, along with other brasses and 
tablets, recorded by Bishop Nicolson in 1704, have been missing 
ever since the church was rebuilt in 1720-22. It is probable they 
were taken to Hutton Hall for security while the church was being 
rebuilt, with the intention of re-erecting them in the new chureh 
when completed, but the misfortunes of the Hutton family at that 


90 


time prevented it. Richard Hutton, as we have seen, died three 
years before the re-building of the church commenced, leaving his 
heir Addison Hutton, a boy in his teens; and it looks as if no one 
was found to care sufficient about the monuments to restore them, 
and that they remained neglected and uncared for at Hutton Hall 
until it was sold to Mr. Gasgarth, when the monuments were 
destroyed or carried away. That it was the intention of the church 
builders to provide for their restoration to the church appears from 
the fact that the east end of the south aisle corresponding to the 
old St. Andrew’s Choir, was left vacant, and continued so until the 
church was re-seated about twenty-five years ago, when it was 
utilised as a vestry. In the floor of this space there is a large slab 
of blue stone bearing just sufficient traces of an inscription to 
identify it with the slab described by Nicholson and Burn, as the 
monument of Mr. Richard Hutton and his daughter Barbara, of 
whom we have just been hearing. This slab is now covered with 
the wood floor of the vestry, but if exposed, would be unin- 
telligible. The inscription, originally, very slightly incised, is all 
but worn away by being walked upon. It would be a graceful act 
to place a brass plate upon the wall containing the original inscrip- 
tion, as recorded by Nicolson and Burn. The lost Hutton effigies 
have lately been found at Nunwick Hall, lying in an open yard 
exposed to weather and injury, and being only of plaster of Paris 
(as Nicolson and Burn say they were), are sadly mutilated ; they 
have been removed to Great Salkeld churchyard, where, of course, 
they have no right to remain, Penrith Church being their proper 
home. 


WILLIAM ROBINSON. 


The mystery attached to William Robinson, the seventeenth 
century benefactor of Penrith, referred to in my former paper, has 
now been cleared up. Hitherto he has only been known through 
his public benefaction to Penrith, an extract from his will relating 
thereto being all the documentary information known. The 
benefaction to Penrith, consisting of £55 a year for religious, 
charitable, and educational purposes, is in the hands of the 


91 


Grocers’ Company, London; and a personal application at that 
Company’s Hall for information about William Robinson having 
been met with the utmost courtesy and attention, it was ascertained 
that the William Robinson who left a benefaction to Topcliffe 
Grammar School, as mentioned in my former paper, was another 
and earlier man, and a native of Topcliffe. The information 
obtained about the benefactor of Penrith was, that his will was 
dated August oth, 1661, and proved on the 2oth of the same 
month, thus fixing the time of his death within a few days. Then 
with a view to ascertaining his age at death, so as if possible to 
find the entry of his baptism in the Penrith registers, the registers 
and monuments of his parish church, St. Dunstan’s, in the east of 
London, were searched; but of the munificent grocer no trace 
could be found. 

However, with the ascertained date of the proving of his will, I 
soon had the satisfaction of perusing that document in its entirety 
at Somerset House. From it we learn that he was an owner of 
property in Penrith, which property he bequeathed to his sister 
Barbara, wife of John Stephenson of Penrith, besides considerable 
money bequests to her and her son William and daughter Mabel, 
the latter then living with him at London; both nephew and neice 
being minors. Other legacies were left to his cousins Richard 
and Thomas Bresby of Penrith, also to his cousin John Stephenson 
of the Nuke (Nook), Penrith, and others, all of whom can be 
identified in the Penrith registers, as also can the place-name 
“Nuke.” 

William Robinson’s place in the registers cannot be determined 
with certainty, in consequence of the very numerous Robinson 
entries at that period. But I take him to be the William, son of 
Thomas Robinson, baptized August 29th, 1613, the said Thomas 
being no doubt the Thomas Robinson who in 1606 married Mabel 
Bresby, aunt, we may suppose, of William Robinson’s cousins 
Richard and Thomas Bresby, to whom he left the legacies men- 
tioned in his will. 


93 


Mr. W. KINSEY DOVER, -F.G.S. 
By J. POSTLETHWAITE, F.G.S. 


IT is with extreme regret that I have to record the death of 
Mr. Witi1am Kinsey Dover, F.G.S., at Low Nest, on the 27th 
of March, 1891, in his seventy-fifth year. Mr. Dover’s education 
began under the tutorship of the Rev. E. Wilson, of St. John’s 
Vale ; subsequently he was sent to Hawkshead Grammar School, 
which was then under the management of Dr. Hickey, a teacher 
of some repute in his day. After leaving school Mr. Dover went 
to London, where he was engaged for some years in mercantile 
pursuits ; but not feeling himself adapted for commercial life, he 
left the city and entered the Cumberland Militia, being gazetted 
as ensign in 1855, lieutenant in 1861, and captain in 1865. He 
served some time with his regiment in Ireland, where the Militia 
was on garrison duty during the Crimean War. On returning 
from active duty in 1868, he devoted himself to field sports and 
the study of Natural Science, spending a portion of each year in 
the West of Ireland, or in Scotland, amongst the wild fowl. 
Occasionally he contributed to the Natural History column of the 
Field, articles on shooting, fishing, and the habits of birds. He 
also formed a collection of fresh-water shells. 

Mr. Dover had passed the meridian of life when he took up the 
study of paleontology, but he entered into it with the same energy 
which had formed a prominent feature in all his pursuits. He 
began to collect Skiddaw Slate fossils about 1870 ; and as very little 
had been done prior to that time, he had the field practically to 


94 


himself. Being unencumbered by either family or business cares, 
he took lodgings at some farm-house near the section he wished 
to work, and when that was exhausted, moved to another locality. 
With these advantages, and the assiduity with which they were 
applied, Mr. Dover obtained a magnificent collection of fossils, 
and largely advanced our knowledge of the fauna of the Skiddaw 
Slates. 

Mr. Dover was elected a Fellow of the Geological Society in 
1880, and became a Member of the Geologists’ Association in 
1881. He acted as one of the directors of the Long Excursion to 
Keswick and the Lake District in 1881, and was associated with 
Professor Morris, Mr. W. H. Huddleston, and Mr, E. de Rance in 
preparing a report of that excursion; but beyond that, he was not 
a contributor to geological literature. 

In the summer of 1890 Mr. Dover presented his collection of 
Skiddaw Slate fossils to the Woodwardian Museum, where they 
will remain as a monument of his patient and persevering industry 
in the cause of geological science. 


95 


THE STORY OF GOUGH AND HIS DOG. 
By THE Rev. H. D. RAWNSLEY, M.A. 


WE had been talking about the sagacity of our Cumberland 
collies, ‘‘But there is no tale so touching,” said *my friend, “as the 
story of that Rizpah among dogs, who watched for three months 
her dead master ‘fade away’ in the ‘savage place’ by the Red Tarn, 
on Helvellyn. I have been lately collecting from the Classics, 
from prose writers and poets in many lands, some pictures and 
incidents of dog-life. The ‘Friend of Man’ has nowhere appeared 
so human in its tender kindness, so faithful and affectionate in its 
memory, as in this instance of terrible vigil. 

“The unburied corpse with the lone watcher on the mountain 
has seemed more solemn to my imagination than the graves by 
which so many dogs have hungered till they died. How one 
wishes that some record of that heroic little creature could be 
placed where passers by might see it and ponder.” 

“The thing can be easily done,” I answered. ‘We have but 
to get leave from the Lord of the Manor to erect a cairn upon 
Helvellyn overlooking Striding Edge, and build into it a simple 
slate-stone slab that shall record the fact, and shall serve to remind 
its readers, of the tragedy, and the pathetic incident which so 
touched the hearts of three poets in the memorable year 1805. 
Memorable to Scott for that in the April of that year he gave his 
‘Lay of the Last Minstrel’ to the world; memorable to Wordsworth 
because that he finished in mid-May of that year the poem that 


* Miss Frances Power Cobbe. 


96 


described the marvellous making of his own mind in ‘The 
Prelude.’” 

So the thing was agreed-upon, and the inscription to be 
engraved was written; and not\without much writing in and 
writing out did it take final shape as follows :— 


“Beneath this spot were found in 180s the remains of Charles 
Gough, killed by a fall from the rocks, His dog was still guarding 
the skeleton. 


“Walter Scott describes the event in the poem— 
‘I climbed the dark brow of the mighty Helvellyn.’ ° 


“Wordsworth records it in his lines on ‘Fidelity,’ which 
conclude as follows :— 


‘The dog which still was hovering nigh, 
Repeating the same timid cry, 
This dog had been through three months space 
A dweller in that savage place. 


How nourished there through such long time, 
He knows who gave that love sublime, 

And gave that strength of feeling great 
Above all human estimate.’ 


“In memory of that love, and strength of feeling, this stone is 
erected.” 


The Stone-cutter set to work, and had barely finished the 
lettering of the first line, when a correspondent put into my hands 
an extract from a letter of one of the guide-writers of the Lake 
District :—“ You are perhaps aware that Charles Gough was not 
after all found on Striding Edge, but on Swirrel Edge, on the 
slope overlooking Keppelcove Tarn. I had the information from 
one R at Windermere, who got it from a man at Grasmere 
whose informant was the finder of the body, and I think there can 
be no mistake.” 

One had more faith in Wordsworth’ and Sir Walter’s accuracy 
of description than to be much put out by this bit of hearsay. 


97 


Walter Scott, in his poem entitled “Helvellyn,” would never 
have written :-— 


‘¢On the right, Striding Edge round the Red Tarn was bending, 
And Catchedecam its left verge was defending, 
One huge nameless rock in the front was impending, 
When I marked the sad spot where the wanderer had died,” 


-if he had not actually visited the place and asked, as was his 
wont, a thousand and one local questions of the shepherds who 
bore him company. 

Wordsworth too is very particular in his description :— 


‘It was a cove, a huge recess, 
That keeps till June December’s snow ; 
A lofty precipice in front, 
A silent tarn below 


7? 


He had evidently in his mind a tarn deep-bosomed in the 
mountain, from which the rocks rise sheer; he calls them further 
on “abrupt and perilous rocks.” And when he adds :— 


‘“Thither comes . .. .« 


the sounding blast, 
That, if it could, would hurry past, 
But that enormous barrier binds it fast.” 


he makes one feel how near to the Tarn these ofty precipices are. 

Now, anyone who knows Keppelcove Tarn, will remember that 
it does not lie under lofty precipices that stand up straitly from it, 
or hem it in with abruptness; while on the other hand, as the 
traveller approaches Red Tarn from the east, he sees the “enor- 
mous barrier” of the “Cove Head” rocks rise up for several 
hundred feet, dark and fearfully, above the Red Tarn, and the 
“arms of Helvellyn and Catchedecam” fairly seem to clasp the 
steel-white water-jewel of the Tarn to the rugged mountain breast. 

The modern guide-writer was perhaps unaware that an older 
writer of guides, one Forbes, the then curate of Wythburn, who 
would have every chance of being accurately informed, had written 

7 


98 


half a century ago (in 1839), that Gough’s body had been dis- 
covered accidentally by shepherds on the edge of Red Tarn. 

But it was easy to ask the informant R of Windermere for 
particulars, and his answer was as follows :—‘ Dear Sir,—The 
place where Gough was supposed to be killed was Striding Edge. 
He was found by John Grisedale of Patterdale, who is dead, and 
his grandson is dead, and none of the family are living.” The 
letter went on to tell me of one old man still living in Patterdale 
who made a mark where the body was found and sowed the spot 
with grass seeds. 

It looked as if the Wizard of the North had been more accurate 
than ever, when he described the place :— 


‘* Dark green was that spot, ’mid the brown mountain-heather, 
Where the Pilgrim of Nature lay stretched in decay.” 


And when one remembered how in the autumn of the same year 
in which Gough had died, Walter Scott and Humphrey Davy had 
left their white pony at the stake by the Red Tarn; gazed at the 
ill-fated Striding Edge and that to this day “huge nameless rock” 
from which the traveller fell to his death, and then had “climbed 
the dark brow of the mighty Helvellyn,” one was quite sure that 
the writers of the poems “Helvellyn” and ‘Fidelity’ had made up 
their minds as to the whereabouts of the accident and the scene of 
the lonely watching of the faithful dog. 

What a day was that! Scott we know was in one of his raciest 
moods, overflowing with mirth and anecdote, though doubtless 
not a little disconcerted by that untimely salutation from the jovial 
host of the Swan, that Miss Martineau has chronicled: “Why, 
sir, ye’ve coomed seun for ya glass to-day.” An untimely speech, 
which told the water-drinking bard that the Swan Inn had been 
making up any deficiencies in the Dove Cottage hospitality. One 
can imagine how the matter if touched on at all, was made subject 
ef banter as they went up Grisedale. But there would fall upon 
the company silence and a cloud, as they rode round Grisedale 
Tarn; for it was here where Wordsworth had parted from his 
beloved brother John, who perished by the shipwreck of the Za7/ 


— 


99 


of Abergavenny on February 6th of the same year, 1805. And he 
may have murmured the stanza, written probably in the July 
preceding :— 
‘* Here did we stop, and here looked round, 
While each unto himself descends 


For that last thought of parting friends 
That is not to be found.” 


How the silence and the cloud would again fall on them, as they 
walked round the Red Tarn, startled the eagle, saw the hill fox 
steal away, heard the cry of the raven and buzzard, and the pipe 
of the grey plover, clambered with difficulty along the sheep track 
among the scattered rocks of Striding Edge, to the place where 
poor Gough’s body was found, or sat on the great boulder stone 
that lies by the track up Swirrel Edge and gazed across the Red 
Tarn at the “nameless crag,” “the cliff huge in stature,” which 
had witnessed the wanderer’s dying and the faithful dog’s watch by 
the side of its master “in the arms of Helvellyn and Catchede- 
cam.” 

But as they climbed up by Swirrel Edge to Helvellyn brow the 
sun would chase even these dark shadows quite away, the spirits 
of Scott and Wordsworth would revive, so that thirty-two years 
after, Wordsworth, when on a tour with Crabbe Robinson in Italy, 
goes back in thought to that occasion and his genial guest, and in 
his “Musings near Aquapendente,” describes glowingly the view 
he obtained on that serene autumnal day when he stood with the 
Wizard of the North on old Helvellyn’s brow— 


‘* Where once together, in his day of strength, 
We stood rejoicing, as if earth were free 
From sorrow, like the sky above our heads.”’ 


Lockhart in his “Life of Sir Walter Scott,” vol. ii. p. 70, thus 
chronicles the incident :— 


** About this time Mr. and Mrs. Scott made a short excursion to the Lakes 
of Cumberland and Westmorland, and visited some of their finest scenery, in 
company with Mr. Wordsworth. I have found no written narrative of this 
little tour, but I have often heard Scott speak with enthusiastic delight of the 


100 


reception he met with in the humble cottage which his brother poet then 
inhabited on the banks of Grasmere; and at least one of the days they spent 
together was destined to furnish a theme for the verse of each, namely that 
which they gave to the ascent of Helvellyn, where, in the course of the pre- 
ceding spring, a young gentleman having lost his way and perished by falling 
over a precipice, his remains were discovered, three months afterwards, still 
watched by ‘a faithful terrier-bitch, his constant attendant during frequent 
rambles among the wilds.” This day they were accompanied by an illustrious 
philosopher, who was also a true poet—and might have been one of the greatest 
of poets had he chosen; and I have heard Mr. Wordsworth say, that it 
would be difficult to express the feelings with which he, who so often had 
climbed Helvellyn alone, found himself standing on its summit with two such 
men as Scott and Davy.” 


But it was not only Scott and Wordsworth who had been 
touched to the heart by the faithfulness of Gough’s dog. Ryan, 
in his “Poetry and Poets,” tells us, as a prefatory note to the 
poem “Helvellyn,” that Walter Scott and Campbell walking 
together and speaking of this incident each agreed in the spirit of 
amiable rivalship to make it the subject of a poem. Scott on his 
way home composed the following exquisite lines, which he sent 
next day to Campbell, who returned them with this reply :—“I 
confess myself vanquished. If I were to live a thousand years 
I could never write anything equal to this on the same subject ? 
and he never attempted it. 

Wordsworth was evidently struck by Scott’s poem, for after 
telling us that Scott and he without either of them knowing that the 
other had taken up the subject, had written a poem in admiration 
of the dog’s fidelity, added, “his contains a most beautiful stanza— 


‘ How long didst thou think that his silence was slumber ? 
When the wind waved his garment how oft didst thou start?’ ” 


The subject was touched on by minor poets also. Thomas 
Wilkinson of Yanwath—whose spade Wordsworth once apostro- 
phised—speaks thus in a poem entitled “‘Eamont Vale” :— 


‘¢ The moon had thrice revolvéd through the sky, 
When a lone shepherd heard a wailful cry 
Far in Helvellyn. Following the sound, 
The dog, the robes, the owner’s name were found, 


101 


His scattered bones a train of shepherds brought 
Down the steep mountain and the valley sought ; 
By Lady-Beck his light remains they bore, 

And dug his sepulchre on her peaceful shore,” 


The verses are interesting only as being written by a man who lived 
within hail of Helvellyn and of the little Quakers’ burial ground 
at Tirril, who knew well the facts of the finding of the body and 
was present at Gough’s funeral. 

“T attended,” he writes, “the interment of the remains of the 
poor young man, when they appeared so light, that it would not 
have been difficult to have borne them to the grave under one’s 
arm.” 

A Mrs. Ryves who in 1812 dedicated a small volume of Cum- 
brian legends to H.R.H. the Princess Charlotte of Wales, in a 
poem called “Fragment of the Recluse,” speaking of the noble- 
ness of dog nature incidentally alludes to the death of Gough 
thus :— 

“* And when the distant wand’rer yields his breath, 
No friend to dress his limbs in decent death, 
Patient, his faithful dog, unhoused, unfed, 
Alone defends the precincts of the dead ; 


Pious by instinct, guards the sacred clay, 
And sullen howls the midnight hoursjaway.”’ 


This is poor stuff, but the authoress appends a note which is of 
interest :— 


‘© circumstance occurred in Cumberland, during the author’s residence 
there, of a remarkably affecting nature. A stranger who had been for some 
time exploring the lakes and fells, was attended by his faithful dog in the midst 
of those wild regions, and without any decided habitation from which he might 
be missed. It was supposed by those who found him that his death was 
occasioned by a sudden precipitation from the top of the cliff beneath which he 
was discovered ; he appeared to have been about six weeks dead. Close at his 
head lay his faithful spaniel, which had during the interval pupped and was 
rearing her pups beside her master. She was almost famished, yet had not 
been known to seek for shelter or support in any human habitation.” 


Here was the story as it was current in the Lake District within 
seven years of the event ; but one wished to hear the contemporary 


102 


accounts of the matter, and so a hunt was made in the county 
newspapers of the day. 
The Carlisle Fournal of 27th July, 1805, reports as follows :— 


** About five weeks ago a Mr. Goff (sic) of Manchester, who had come to 
the neighbourhood of Keswick, Cumberland, in order to view and take a plan 
of the lakes, set out one morning from where he lodged at Wighburn (sic) with 
his rod and instruments, and was never heard of until Monday last, 22nd inst., 
when he was discovered upon the summit of a mountain Helvellyn, near a lake 
there, dead, and in the attitude of a person drawing, by a shepheard (sic) who 
had been attracted to the spot by the barking of a spaniel-bitch which had 
attended the deceased. The bitch had pupped in a furze bush near the body 
of her master, and, shocking to relate, had torn the cloaths (sic) from the body 
and eaten him to a perfect skeleton. It is supposed he had been taking a view 
of the lake when he was seized with a fit, and no assistance been at hand, had 
unfortunately perished. Another account say (sic) that the deceased has been 
missing since April last, and that no part of the head has yet been found.” 


This account is copied into the ewcastle Chronicle of August 
3rd, 1805, and is full of error. Gough did not start from Wyth- 
burn, but from Patterdale. His body was discovered Saturday 
2oth; the inquest was held on Monday the 22nd, as the enclosed 
document from the Coroner attests. I have to thank the Clerk of 
the Peace of Westmorland for this, 


““Robinson Cartmell for inquisitions, 1805, July 22nd. 
1805, July 22nd, West Ward, to an inquisition taken on view of the body of 
a person unknown at Patterdale. 
Distance 23 miles. PEE ee Be 


The Lancaster Gazette of July 27th, 1805, gives another 
version :— 


“©On Sunday last was found, at the foot of a precipice called Cat’s-tree, on 
the mountain Helvellyn, near Patterdale, Cumberland, the remains of a man 
named Charles Gough, of Manchester, he had spent two or three fishing 
seasons at Grasmere ; was at Patterdale the Ist of May last, on his way thither, 
and had not been seen since. He had with him a small spaniel bitch, which 
had staid near him and pupped, and, by her barking at some shepherds, led to 
the discovery. She had only one whelp with her. The man’s head was not 
found, and most of his flesh was gone, supposed to have been devoured by 
birds of prey. He had a watch and money in his pocket, and papers in his 


103 


pocket-book, which identified him. His remains were interred in the Quaker’s 
burial ground, at Tirril, on Thursday last, he having been a member of that 
society till about two years ago, when he was excluded for joining a Volunteer 
corps.” 


The correspondent evidently did not know that it was the 18th 
of April when poor Gough was last seen or heard of in Patterdale ; 
but there is much of detailed knowledge in the account which 
must have been the result of some local enquiry. 

Three days after the publication of these papers, appeared the 
two following accounts in the Cumberland Pacquet under date 
July 30th, 1805 :— 


“©On Saturday the 20th ult., the dead body of a gentleman was found near 
Red Tarn Crag in Patterdale, in this county. 

“‘From the name being engraved on his gold watch, it is known to be the 
remains of a Mr. Charles Gough, a young man, supposed to belong to Man- 
chester, who had been some time before in that neighbourhood, for the 
amusement of fishing: and about five weeks before the discovery of the body 
(probably the day upon which he died), had dined at Mr. Dobson’s, a house of 
entertainment in Patterdale. 

**Red Tarn is situate near the high mountain, called Helvellyn; and 
whether the unfortunate man had fallen from one of the adjoining eminences, 
or by what other means he came by his death, cannot be known from the 
putrid and mangled state of the body, for, it appears that a small brown bitch, 
which accompanied him, had: pupped after the fatal event: which, together 
with her litter, was found near his remains, uncommonly fat! And the flesh 
of the latter was mostly consumed.” 


From another correspondent, we have the following account of 
this melancholy circumstance :— 


“On the 18th April, Mr. Gough was at Patterdale, on his road to Wyburn, 
a place he frequently visited in summer, for the amusement of fishing. 
After receiving some refreshment at the inn, he requested the asststance of a 
guide, to conduct him over the mountains; but, it being a general review day 
of the Volunteers in that neighbourhood, he could not procure one. He there- 
fore proceeded on his journey, without any other companion than a favourite 
spaniel, and had never been heard of since, till Saturday the 20th, when a 
shepherd’s boy passing near the fatal spot was attracted by the howling of the 
dog, who was still watching over his master. The boy immediately informed 
some of the-inhabitants of Patterdale of the circumstance, who hastened to the 


104 


place, and found the entire skeleton except™the skull, which was about seven 
yards off, lying at the bottom of a precipice of about 200 yards, His fishing 
rod was at the top, and a small bundle about half way down. 

‘Tn contradiction of the report that the dog had eaten his master, I have to 
state, from the opinion of some well-informed people in the neighbourhood, 
that from the frequency of the carcases of animals being devoured by birds of 
prey (which assemble there in great numbers), there can be little doubt that his 
body had fallen a sacrifice to those voracious birds. About an hour after he set 
out from Patterdale a great quantity of hail fell, accompanied with a heavy fog, 
which continued over the mountain the whole day, so that it is most probable 
he had missed his way, when he met with the fatal accident, and was not 
taking a view of the adjoining mountains, as has been intimated. His remains 
were collected and decently interred in the Friend’s burying ground at Tirril on 
the 22nd. The deceased was born in the Society of Quakers, of which he 
remained a member till about two years ago, when (in conformity with the 
professed principles of the Society) he was excluded for joining a Volunteer 
Corps.” 


A comparison of these two accounts in the Cumberland Pacquet 
leaves no doubt on one’s mind as to which was the better informed 
of the two correspondents. In the former there is complete 
ignorance of the date when Gough was lost, and of the hailstorm 
and fog that probably led to his fall from Striding Edge, and the 
writer’s one idea appears to be to account for the “uncommonly 
fat” condition of the dog and her litter, found near her master’s 
remains. 

The latter correspondent has evidently made himself acquainted 
with much detail, he has seen the letter in the Carlisle Fournad, 
contradicts flatly, upon what he considers good authority from the 
lips of some “well-informed people in the neighbourhood,” the 
sinister suggestion that the dog had fattened upon her master’s 
body, and pooh-poohs the suggestion that Gough perished of cold 
as he sat making a sketch. 

The letter is the letter of a well-read man, and emanated 
probably from a certain member of the Friends’ Society named 
John Slee, who was a noted scholar, and kept an advanced school 
or academy near Tirril in those days. 

Such were the contemporary accounts which have furnished 
writers all the way down to to-day with their accounts of Gough’s 


105 


death and of his canine friend. There are other accounts in print 
that require brief notice. 

Of these, in order of date we have first the Rev. Joseph Wilkin- 
son’s, for whose “Select Views in Cumberland and Westmorland 
and Lancashire,” Wordsworth wrote the preface, 1810—1821. 
He speaks of Red Tarn as “‘a desolate spot formerly haunted by 
eagles that built in the precipice which forms its western barrier. 
These birds used to wheel and hover round the head of the solitary 
angler.” Alas for the angler! The eagles were last seen upon 
Helvellyn in 1836. Eagles and tourists do not seem to get on 
well together. 

“Tt also,” continues Wilkinson, “now derives a melancholy 
interest from the fate of a young man, a stranger, who perished 
here a few years ago, by falling down the rocks in his attempts to 
cross over to Grasmere. His remains were discovered by means 
of a faithful dog who had lingered here for the space of three 
months, self-supported, and probably retaining to the last an 
attachment to the skeleton of its dead master.” It is clear that 
Wilkinson did not believe that the dog had turned cannibal. 

John Robinson wrote his “Guide to the Lakes” in 1819; he 
was rector of Clifton in Westmorland, and would be able easily to 
make any enquiries in Patterdale that he thought necessary, and it 
is probable that he had met Gough. He tells us that “in the 
spring of 1805 a young gentleman of talent and of a most amiable 
disposition, who was making a solitary tour, and had left Patter- 
dale with the hopes of reaching Wythburn, unhappily trusted too 
much to his own local knowledge, lost his way and perished 
beneath ‘the dark brow of the mighty Helvellyn.” ‘This gentle- 
man, whose name was Charles Gough, had inquired at Patterdale 
for a guide to Wythburn; but there being, as it is believed, a 
review of the Volunteers in the neighbourhood on that day, no 
person could be procured to direct him. It snowed too on that 
day. He was therefore advised to remain at Patterdale till the 
day following ; but unhappily he did not comply with this advice. 
The remains of this unfortunate gentleman were not discovered 
till three months afterwards, when they were found guarded by a 


106 


faithful female terrier, his constant attendant during his rambles 
through the wilds of Cumberland and Westmorland.” Then 
follows the poem of “Mr. Walter Scott,” and the concluding 
stanza of Wordsworth’s “ Fidelity.” 

It is evident that the compiler of Allison’s ‘‘Northern Tourists’ 
Guide to the Lakes,” which was published first at Penrith in 1827, 
and passed through many editions, got his inspiration from Robin- 
son, but a foot-note of considerable importance was added, 
probably from local knowledge. “The whitened bones of the 
hapless dead, the only remains of this unfortunate tourist, were 
interred at Tirril, and were so light that it would not have been 
difficult to have borne them to the grave under a person’s arm.” 
This Allison got from Wilkinson of Yanwath. Perhaps he was 
indebted to Wilkinson for the following facts also: “ Fourteen 
weeks after the time he left Patterdale, his remains were discovered 
by George Harrison, a servant at Hallsteads, who was attracted to 
the spot, by seeing a dog and hat and some clothes. It is sup- 
posed he was precipitated from Red Cove Head Rock, his penknife 
having been found there, with his name engraved upon it. His 
fishing-rod was discovered thirty yards from the summit. Two 
guineas and a half in gold and fifteen shillings in silver were found 
in his clothes and given to the overseer at Patterdale.” 

It was clear from this account that Christopher North had in 
one particular romanced in his terrible story of the “Red Tarn 
Club Raven Orgy.” ‘There must have been great difficulty,” 
wrote Christopher in 1825, “to the most accomplished of 
the carrion in stripping the Quaker of his drab. ‘The broad-brim 
had probably escaped with the first intention, and after going 
before the wind half across the unfrozen Tarn, capsized, filled, 
and sunk.” And yet one almost forgives a man the ghastliness of 
his humour; and humour there certainly is, not only in the 
account he gives of the difficulties the ravens had to get through 
the well-swathed wrappings of decent drab, and at the poor 
Quaker’s body, but in that grim comical ending of the feast when 
one old bird, who spoke the Westmorland dialect, exclaimed after 
half an hour’s silence: “‘I’se weel nee brussen! there be’s Muster 


107 


Wudsworth. Ho! ho! ho!” and when “The Red Tarn Club,” 
afraid of having their orgies put into blank verse by “the bard 
benighted in the Excursion from Patterdale to Jobson’s Cherry- 
tree,” sailed away in floating fragments beneath the moon and 
stars. 

I say one almost forgives Christopher North for his grim humour, 
and this because of his opening sentence: “There can be no 
doubt that that foolish Quaker who some twenty years ago perished 
at the foot of a crag near Red Tarn was devoured of ravens.” For 
Christopher North was well acquainted with raven land, and raven 
ways, and doubtless had stood many a time on Helvellyn High 
Man and heard, as Budworth, the writer of “A Fortnight’s 
Ramble to the Lakes,” (quoted by Harrison in his Guide of 1802, 
p. 159) had heard, “the ravens croaking” when he gazed down 
upon Red Tarn, “shaped like a Bury pear” in the cove beneath! 

And better far does it seem that the poor traveller should have 
fallen a prey to the fowls of the air, those natural scavengers 
of the mountain side, than that the honour and fidelity of his 
faithful four-footed friend and mourner should be called in 
question. 

Without endorsing De Quincey’s statement that the poor little 
creature “could never have obtained food or shelter through his 
long winter’s imprisonment,” we gladly gives his account of the 
accident, for he is in sympathy with the subject. His information 
was probably gathered during his stay at Grasmere between 1808 
and 1819 :— 


‘©The case of Mr. Gough, who perished in the bosom of Helvellyn, and was 
supposed to have been disabled by a sprain of the ankle, whilst others believed 
him to have received that injury and his death simultaneously in a fall from the 
lower shelf of a precipice, became well known to the public, in all its details, 
through the accident of having been recorded in verse by two writer's nearly at 
the same time, viz., Sir Walter Scott and Wordsworth. But here again, as in 
the case of the Greens, it was not the naked fact of his death amongst the 
solitudes of the mountain that would have won the public attention, or have 
obtained the honour of a metrical commemoration. Indeed, to say the truth, 
the general sympathy with this tragic event was not derived chiefly from the 
unhappy tourist’s melancholy end, for that was too shocking to be even hinted 


108 


at by either of the two writers (in fact, there was too much reason to fear that 
it had been the lingering death of famine)—not ,the personal sufferings of the 
principal figure in the little drama—but the sublime and mysterious fidelity of 
the secondary figure, his dog; this it was which won the imperishable remem- 
brance of the vales, and which accounted for the profound interest that immedi- 
ately gathered round the incidents—an interest that still continues to hallow the 
memory of the dog. Not the dog of Athens, nor the dog of Pompeii, so well 
deserve the immortality of history or verse. Mr. Gough was a young man, 
belonging to the Society of Friends, who took an interest in the mountain 
scenery of the Lake District, both as a lover of the picturesque and as a man of 
science. It was in this latter character, I believe, that he had ascended 
Helvellyn at the time when he met with his melancholy end. From his 
familiarity with the ground—for he had been an annual visitant to the Lakes— 
he slighted the usual precaution of taking a guide. 

‘*Mist, unfortunately—impenetrable volumes of mist—came floating over (as 
so often they do) from the gloomy fells that compose a common centre for 
Easedale, Langdale, Eskdale, Borrowdale, Wastdale, Gatesgarthdale (pro- 
nounced Keskadale), and Ennerdale. Ten or fifteen minutes afford ample 
time for their aerial navigation ; within that short interval, sunlight, moonlight, 
starlight, alike disappear ; all paths are lost ; vast precipices are concealed, or 
filled up by treacherous draperies of vapour; the points of the compass are 
irrecoverably confounded ; and one vast cloud, too ,often the cloud of death 
even to the experienced shepherd, sits like a vast pavilion upon the summit and 
gloomy coves of Helvellyn, Mr. Gough ought to have allowed for this not 
unfrequent accident, and for its bewildering effects, under which all local know- 
ledge (even that of shepherds) becomes in an instant unavailing. What was 
the course and succession of his dismal adventures, after he became hidden from 
the world by the vapoury screen, could not be fully deciphered even by the most 
sagacious of mountaineers, although, in most cases they manifest an Indian 
truth of eye, together with an Indian felicity of weaving all the signs that the 
eye can gather into a significant tale, by connecting links of judgment and 
natural inference, especially where the whole case ranges within certain known 
limits of time and of space. But in this case two accidents forbade the appli- 
cation of their customary skill to the circumstances. One was, the want of 
snow at the time, to receive the impression of his feet ; the other, the unusual 
length of time through which his remains lay undiscovered. He had made the 
ascent at the latter end of October, a season when the final garment of snow, 
which clothes Helvellyn from the setting in of winter to the sunny days of June, 
has frequently not made its appearance. He was not discovered until the 
following spring, when a shepherd, traversing the coves of Helvellyn or of 
Fairfield in quest of a stray sheep, was struck by the unusual sound (and its 
echo from the neighbouring rocks) of a short quick bark, or cry of distress, as 


109 


if from a dog or young fox. Mr. Gough had not been missed ; for those who 
saw or knew of his ascent from the Wythburn side of the mountain, took it for 
granted that he had fulfilled his intention of descending in the opposite direction 
into the valley of Patterdale, or into the Duke of Norfolk’s deer-park on 
Ullswater, or possibly into Matterdale; and that he had finally quitted the 
country by way of Penrith. Having no reason, therefore, to expect a domestic 
animal in a region so far from human habitations, the shepherd was the more 
surprised at the sound, and its continued iteration. He followed its guiding, 
and came to a deep hollow, near the awful curtain of rock called Striding 
Edge. There, at the ‘foot of a tremendous precipice, lay the body of the 
unfortunate tourist; and, watching by his side, a meagre shadow, literally 
reduced to a skin and ‘to bones that could be counted (for it is a matter of 
absolute demonstration that he never could have obtained either food or shelter 
through his long winter’s imprisonment) sat this most faithful of servants— 
mounting guard upon his master’s honoured body, and protecting it (as he had 
done effectually) from all violation by the birds of prey which haunt the central 
solitudes of Helvellyn :— 


‘How nourished through that length of time, 
He knows, who gave that love sublime, 
And sense of loyal duty—great 


Beyond all human estimate.’ ” 


Edward Baines in his “Companion to the Lakes,” 1830, adds 
nothing to our knowledge. W. A. Chatto, under the xom de plume 
of “Stephen Oliver,” in 1834, in his “Recollections of Fly Fishing 
in Northumberland, Cumberland, and Westmorland,” simply copies 
the account that Slee may have written to the Cumberland Pacquet in 
1805, but emphasises the fact of the presence of foxes and wild 
birds which haunt the fells and prey upon the carcases of the 
sheep and lambs which lie among the hills, as accounting for the 
destruction of the flesh from the body of the unfortunate traveller. 

During my search among records of Gough’s death a corre- 
spondent sent me an extract from the “Papers, Letters, and 
Journals,” by William Pearson, printed for private circulation in 
1863. William Pearson was born at Borderside in 1780, and he 
writes—“On the zoth of August, 1822, I set out and went from 
Crosthwaite (Westmorland) to Keswick that day . . . was 
told by the landlord at Wythburn, who knew Mr. ons who 
perished on Helvellyn, that his dog was a little brown cocker, but 


110 


had turned grey on the back while on the mountain, and become 
wild.” 

This looked like a determining of the question of the kind of 
dog that had accompanied his master, and had the landlord been 
of the Cherry-tree, and not of the Horse Head, one might have 
been satisfied; but it was at the Cherry-tree, and not at the 
Horse Head, where young Gough usually stayed, as evidenced by 
a writer in “ Hone’s Table-book,” p. 535, under date July 24th, 1827. 
“Opposite Wytheburn Chapel, which is the smallest I ever saw, I 
entered into conversation with a labouring man, who was well 
acquainted with the late Charles Gouche (sic), the gentle ‘pilgrim of 
nature’ who met an untimely death by falling over the precipice of 
Helvellyn. Some time previous to his death he had lodged at the 
Cherry-tree, near Wytheburn. The man related many anecdotes 
of him, but none particularly interesting. Mr. Gouche (sic) was 
an enthusiastic admirer of poetry, which he would frequently recite 
to him and others of his friends.” 

It was at the homely Cherry-tree inn, where, according to Bud- 
worth, at the end of the last century and the beginning of this, a 
breakfast of mutton, ham, eggs, butter-milk whey, tea, bread, and 
butter, and cheese, were served for 7d. a head—that the. young 
arist who loved the poets had his intermittent habitation. Thence 
from time to time, leaving his trunk behind him, he ascended the 
slopes of Helvellyn for a spell of fishing in Patterdale. Thither 
he descended from time to time, sketch-book, bundle, and fishing- 
rod in hand, and doubtless he beguiled many a long evening in 
the humble kitchen parlour with his recitations. The “Waggoner” 
may have seen him and heard him at the famous “merry-neet” 
that he lingered there, on his way from Ambleside to Keswick, for 
the Cherry-tree was “half-way house of call” in those days. 

One had learnt as much as one could learn from records of 
Gough and his dog or dogs, for it was plain that opinion from an 
early date was divided as to the kind of dog that had accompanied 
him. Was it terrier or cocker spaniel that had won immortality 
at the mouths of Scott and Wordsworth ? 

All that Wordsworth had told us was that ‘‘it was not of mountain 


111 


breed ;” not a collie dog, and that it barked like a mountain fox. 
The spaniel’s voice hardly answers to this description, there is a 
yap in the wild fox cry which I do not think will be found in 
spaniels or cockers. 

Perhaps the painters would be able to help us. The artists 
would surely have seized on such a subject and made it their own. 
So far as could be ascertained only four pictures were in existence, 
one by Daniell, R.A., which was exhibited in the Royal Academy 
about 1833,a woodcut of which is given in “Domesticated Animals,” 
published by Parker in 1834. The dog there depicted above the 
dead master, clad in tartan kilt, is a huge white terrier of mongrel 
breed. Another picture by Pettitt is described by King Matthew, 
in which he tells us “the faithful dog (a little white terrier bitch 
which lived in Grasmere many years after the event) is keeping watch 
over the remains.” Landseer’s picture makes it appear like a 
retriever, if memory serves me. The fourth was a beautiful 
water-colour drawing, full of meaning, by Harry Goodwin, and 
therein the dog suggested is a black and tan collie. 

It was high time to obtain some news direct from any repre- 
sentative of the family who might chance to be alive; and good 
fortune allowed me an introduction to the sole surviving member, 
in the direct male line, Miss Agnes Gough, the grandniece of 
the faithful dog’s master, only daughter of the late rector of 
Charlton-on-Otmoor, near Oxford, who was a Fellow of Queen’s 
College, and who died in 1862. I had previously gathered that 
the young man was known in Manchester as the son of a wool- 
stapler who was sprung from Crosby Garrett and had cousins in 
Kendal. He was believed to be in the office of a firm named 
Wadkin, acting as traveller for them. « It was clear that what with 
his love for the poets and the pencil, his devotion to animals, his 
care for fishing, and his enthusiasm for the Volunteers, he had 
departed from the tradition of his fathers, but it was in vain that I 
attempted to get a copy of the “minute of disownment” which 
was, it is said, found in the young man’s pocket after death, 
because this expulsion from the ranks of the Friends had taken 
place before the Hardshaw Monthly Meeting at Manchester was 
divided into East and West. 


112 


The mother of my informant as to Gough’s Manchester connexion 
had lived in the same street as the Goughs resided in, in Man- 
chester, and had said that she remembered Mr. Gough always 
went out with a dog and a walking-stick—small evidence this, 
perhaps, of his anti-Friendly ways; ‘and was a pleasant-looking 
young man. 

Miss Gough had kept by her some old family deeds, and 
kindly forwarded me any documents that seemed likely to let 
in light as to Charles Gough’s early history; from these I 
learned that Joseph Gough, son of Joseph Gough of Man- 
chester, gentleman, and Esther his late wife deceased, and 
Margaret Gough, daughter of Joseph Gough of Kirkby Kendal, 
shearman dyer, and Elizabeth his wife, had declared their intention 
of marrying before several meetings of the people called Quakers, 
and in the fear of God and before the assembly of the aforesaid 
people in the meeting house of Preston Patrick, Westmorland, did 
solemnly take one another for better or worse on the 26th day of 
the 6th month called June, in the year 1779. Sixteen friends and 
relatives witnessed the document of marriage. And I imagine, 
from the oil paintings that have come down to us of Joseph, in 
stock and wig, and his cousin Margaret in magnificent head-dress 
of silken damask, that they were as pretty a pair of lovers as might 
well be found at Preston Patrick meeting. 

Charles Gough, the son, was born, as an entry in the family 
Bible put it with preciseness, “on the eighteenth day of April, 
1782, at three-quarters of an hour past five o’clock in the 
morning.” And as I write there lies before me a little time-stained 
piece of parchment of interest, on which is written in the old 
Quaker birth-note style :— 

‘On the Eighteenth Day of the Fourth Month, called April, one thousand 
seven hundred and eighty-two, was born at Manchester, in the Parish of Man- 
chester, in the County of Lancaster, unto Joseph Gough, junr., and Margaret 
his wife, a son, who was named Charles. 


‘‘We who were present at the said Birth, have subscribed our names as 


witnesses thereof. 
*“DoroTHY STRETCH. 


‘SHANNAH Hopcson.” 


113 


It was a coincidence that at about five o’clock of the afternoon of 
the 18th day of April, 1805, the young man should have perished 
by the Red Tarn. 

The father died young, leaving the widow with the two sons, 
Charles and Harry, and one daughter, Elizabeth, who afterwards 
married Dr. Flint of Leek, a gentleman in comfortable circum- 
stances. This disposes of the pitiable tale of forlornness and 
bankruptcy and family heartlessness, as told by Christopher in his 
“Aviary.” The Professor’s tale is pure romance—though living 
at Elleray as he did, he doubtless could have got to know any 
facts he might wish of the Gough family. 

That the young man was a passionate lover of nature and archi- 
tecture is seen in eight old mezzotint drawings of landscape and 
architecture, made on a Scotch tour, 18031805, and signed by 
Charles Gough in a clear, fine, copperplate hand. 

These old drawings, while they show care and anxiety to give 
faithful renderings of form and scene, show also that the young 
man had been self-taught, and that he had yet much to learn as 
an artist. 

Charles Gough’s love of the mountains and of lonely wanderings 
among the fells, is a matter of tradition in the family. That 
Gough was fond of sport was remembered by an old gardener of 
Miss Gough’s grandmother at Kirkby Stephen, who told a person 
now living, that he often went with Mr. Charles fishing, and when 
his body was brought down from the fells, this old man got hold 
of a bit of the plaid it was wrapped in, and the family kept it in 
their possession till quite lately. 

There seems to be uncertainty whether this branch of the family 
migrated from Kendal prior to young Gough’s death, but they 
claim a joint descent, with the family of the famous blind John 
Gough, from Goff the Parliamentarian general. They pronounce 
their name as “Goff,” and it is probable that they were sprung 
from the common Wyresdale stock. Distant cousins of the name 
of Wilson, and of the Friend Society connexion, have long dwelt 
in Kendal. Portraits in oil of Charles Gough’s father and mother 
exist at Abingdon, but no portrait or drawing of Charles is in 

ye 8 


114 


existence.* I can not learn what happened to the silver pencil 
case or gold watch, said to have been found upon Charles’ body 
with his name engraved thereon; but when the present Miss 
Gough’s father and mother were making a tour of the Lakes in 
1857, the egg-cups and toast-rack which poor Charles used at the 
old Cherry-tree were shewn to them, kept lovingly as memorials of 
the wanderer who died upon Helvellyn. 

Making enquiries in the Wythburn dale, it was well remembered 
by old men whose fathers “kenned” young Gough, that he was a 
“particlar nice young man, varra free, and most particlar fond of 
fishin’ an’ aw, an’ knew ivery beck this side o’ t’ Raise.” It was 
remembered that “he mostly-what in a general way stayed at t’ 
Cherry-tree wi’ t’ oald chap as was afoor Mark Allison, and went 
ower to Patterdeal for a spell, and wad then coom back for a bit 
to Wyburn, ye kna, but nivver a wud 0’ warnin’, it was coom and 
goa wid him, and so fwoaks in Patterdeal thowt he wad be ower 
? Wyburn, and fwoaks in Wyburn likely thowt he was still in 
Patterdeal, and nivver nea search nor nowt.” 

As to the kind of dog that had watched by his master’s body, “‘it 
was just a laal yallow short-haired tarrier dog, that was t’ common 
repwort ; hooivver, it’s said ’at it hed hed pups, but pups war aw 
deead, an’ t’ tarrier was varra nar pinched to deeath an’ aw, and 
varra wild, cudn’t git it, ye kna, but hed to lay hounds on and 
hunt it down.” 

What did it live on? “Leeve! Theer was plenty o’ carrion 
sheep for it to leeve on ?’ t’ ghylls at that time o’ year.” 

This I heard was the accepted version among the Helvellyn 
shepherds, who, one and all, averred that they had ‘“‘niver h’ard sec 
a thing spokken till, that t’ laal dog eat t’ maister on im, and they 
didn’t believe a dog cud or wad neather, it ud hunger to deeath 
first, for dogs war sensible things, and varra human.” 

From a lady whose parents and grand-parents had resided in 
the Wythburn vale, I ascertained that her grandfather had often 
seen young Gough at “that house of prayer, as lowly as the 
lowliest dwelling—Wythburn Chapel—with his dog, which was a 


* Charles Flint had the watch, and it was stolen from him by a tramp. 


115 


dark, short-haired, rough terrier, rather like a Dandie, with small 
ears, she thought.” 

But it was necessary to enquire in Patterdale, and, with a friend 
—that so out of the witness of two mouths whatever we heard of 
the truth might, be established—I set off early in November, 1890, 
to make enquiry there. 

Two witnesses shall be called, the first a little dark-eyed man 
whom we found sitting with his terrier dog in a tiny bedroom 
lumbered up with old curiosities, among which were the Latin and 
French and Greek books of his grandfather’s day, for his grand- 
father had been a village schoolmaster out Ouseby way, in the 
time when the Dale schools gave a really liberal education, and 
who, as old W. put it, hed t? makkin’ o’ a deal o’ priests, and yan 
on ’em a bishop.” 

He had “sarraed his time as a gardener,” and had mixed up 
politics with his plants. “Was bworn a Whig, and wad deea 
Whig an’ aw.” Had cared for the poets, too, as he had cared for 
plants and politics. Could remember “ald Wudsworth,” as he 
irreverently called him, and had “many a time cracked wi’ lile 
Coleridge.” “It was Hartley, ye kna, as writ that piece on t’ 
heeadstean in t’ churchyard.” I didn’t know it, but I kept the old 
man on this track of remembrance of the bard, and he went on: 
“Eh dear! but I can’ see him sitting now wi’ a pot o’ beer afoor 
him, makkin’ gham o’ a piece o’ potery as Wudsworth hed meead 
about a pet lamb.” 

He was a character! The old man had tired of the narrow world 
in which he lived as a gardener, and determined to tramp to 
London to see Westminster and the Tower; had gone, for love of 
the statesman, out of his way to see Sir Robert Peel’s house at 
Tamworth ; and stayed a week at Lichfield because of Dr. Johnson 
and his Dictionary. 

He could not tell us his age, but he remembered toddling to 
the inquest, held upon Gough’s body at Braysteads farm, where 
one Errol or Earle, he thought, lived in those days. 

The young man Gough, to the best of his knowledge, had called 
at Thomas Dobson’s—the inn was actually owned by one Lancelot 


116 


Dobson. He had been seen to go up the old road by Grasthwaite 
How, without a guide, and a great mist and sleet came on, with a 
storm of hail, about four in the afternoon, and it was supposed he 
had fallen from Tarn Crag. The dog that was with him was a 
terrier much like his own in breed, so he had heard, he never saw 
it; it was “a yallow short-haired un,” he had been told. The 
three pups were found dead all round her when she was discovered, 
and she was starved very nearly to death, but very wild, and no 
fight in her at all, so he had been told, when they loosened the 
- hounds. 

It was one they called Young, and another—he thought it might 
have been Grisedale, but of this he was not sure—that went up to 
bring the body down on Sunday, but it was George Harrison that 
found the body on the Saturday, when he was “lating woolled 
sheep, for sheep getherin’ on t’ fells, or clippin’, he could not 
mind whether.” 

George Harrison and his brother William were shepherds “for 
yan John Mounsey, last King o’ Patterdeal,” and he had heard 
tell that “the skull was clean picked o’ flesh, and was a gay good 
way off frae t’ body, but aw t’ rest o’ t’ body was togidder, and t’ 
beans war inside t’ cleas” (clothes). 

The old man knew the place where the body was found, but 
never heard about grass seeds being sown. He was too infirm to 
attempt to get up to the spot now. 

One fact that interested me much was the existence of a great 
“bowder stean” by the side of the old path up Swirrel Edge, or 
rather, where the old path zigzags into the newer path. ‘On that 
stean,” he had heard his father say, ‘‘Sir Walter Scott sat, the day 
they came to see the place where the young gentleman was found, 
and to write their bits of potery about it.” He knew all about Sir 
Walter, had read his poems, and was evidently of opinion that 
Sir Walter had gone to the “‘girt stean” to have a good look at the 
fatal cliff. 

This was a hint to my friend and myself as to the whereabouts 
of the “huge nameless rock.” When we afterwards climbed up to 
the Tarn, and leaving it on our left began to ascend Swirrel Edge, 


117 


we had little difficulty in identifying the isolated boulder upon 
whose broad back (carved with the letter O—I say this for identi- 
fication’s sake) had sat Scott in the autumn of 1805; and from 
that moment we felt assured that it was from the tall crag opposite, 
that goes somewhat into a hummock and then drops to the hause 
that connects Striding Edge with Helvellyn, that the storm-blinded 
traveller had fallen. And how like Scott it was to go off to such 
a vantage ground to get the view of that 


‘Huge nameless rock which in front was impending, " 
and to 
‘- Mark the sad spot where the wanderer had died,” 


As to the Crag’s name, old W. thought “it mostly-what got 
Tarn Crag,” but of that he was not sure. As to the dog, “‘it was 
a tarrier, a laal yallow-brown tarrier dog, so far as he knew, not a 
spaniel nor collie dog, just a laal yallow-brown dog, so far as he 
could tell, that had watched by the body, and pups was aw liggin’ 
deead round her when they found her, and she was starved ameeast 
till a skeleton hersel’, But what, if we wanted to kna mair, we 
mud gang across t’ deale and caw on George, son o’ William, him 
’at was shepherd in t’ ald days to Mr. Mounsey o’ Patterdeal 
Ha.” ; 

Right gladly did we “gang across t’ deale,” and were soon busily 
engaged in recalling the old memories of the event, with the son 
of one of those who helped to bring the poor body down to the 
inquest, ‘‘just lapped up in a hay-sheet, for t’ beeans was aw lowse, 
and t’ body was withered till a perfect skeleton,” so H. had heard 
his father say. 

H. had heard tell that the young man was very venturesome, 
and would not be dissuaded by the host at the inn from going up, 
notwithstanding the day was a “‘dark day.” He had heard too of 
the review of the Volunteers at Penrith, which had taken place at 
the time, and seemed to have prevented the possibility of a guide, 
and he had been told that heavy hail fell an hour after Gough had 
set out up towards Striding Edge. 

As to the place, he had heard from one R., who is a Patterdale 


118 


man over seventy years of age, a shepherd, and one who has 
hunted the fells ever since he could run, that the crag Gough fell 
from was a crag at the back of Lad Crag that faces out toward 
Grisedale, only a few yards from the far end of Striding Edge, as 
you go along it to climb Helvellyn. He had never heard of grass 
seeds being sown to mark the place, but R. had told him that 
there was a small heap of stones laid up near the foot of the crag 
from which Gough fell, and about one hundred and fifty or two 
hundred yards from its summit. He had never heard the crag get 
any name, nor had R., but he knew that our first informant, old W., 
believed it was called Tarn Crag. He thought W. was mistaken. 

About the dog, he had heard his father say that the little dog 
was a fox-terrier, with hard short hair, and close coated. He had 
not heard that it was “poor” when it was found. It ran for some 
time when the fox-hounds were set after it, backwards and forwards, 
would not leave the place far, and ran to bay close to the spot 
where the body was found. He had heard that it ran well, and 
looked better than anyone could have expected. 

G. H. had never known his father, or anyone, say what they 
thought had eaten the flesh of the dog’s master, but he was quite 
sure that it would never have been the dog, it was not the way of 
them. ‘T’ laal dog would likely find plenty o’ carrion in t’ crags 
or t’ ghylls,” and it was lambing time on the fells. 

I asked if he had ever heard that the dog had eaten his master’s 
body, and old H. said, “nowt o’ t’ soort, a dog wad nivver dea sic 
a thing; and he kenned dogs, for he’d been amang ’em aw his 
daays ; it isn’t t’ naatur o’t’ animal. But they did say that ravens 
hed picked at him a bit; and,” he added, “I suddent wonder 
neather, there used to be a canny few theer away when I wur a 
lad.” 

He had heard old people talk about eagles on Helvellyn, but 
could not give the date of their last appearance. He had not 
heard that any part of the body was missing, but knew that the 
skull was separate from the body. Nor had he heard that the 
bones were broken at all, as they would have been if a dog had 
tried to get at the marrow ; this confirmed old W.’s account. I 


119 


had previously asked W. if he had heard whether any of the bones 
were broken or lost, and his answer was, “No, they were inside 
the clothes, and all there, so he had been told.” 

He told us that the dog had been carried away after the inquest 
by some relation, his father had told him, but whither he knew 
not. 

How it came to pass that the body was discovered was, that it 
was “sheep-getherin’ time, and Mounsey’ lads war off latin’ woolled 
uns on t’ high fells,” so H. thought. 

The Shepherds’ Meeting on Helvellyn is fixed by law, as 
unalterable as the laws of the Medes and Persians, for the first 
Monday after the 2oth of July, and this would account for the 
fact of the shepherds going up to the high fells, and scouring the 
recesses of that cove and the dark skirts of the screes that sweep 
down to the Red Tarn. 

We had been well repaid for our Patterdale excursion, and a 
week or two later, the joint story of the Patterdale men was con- 
firmed by one of the oldest living Helvellyn shepherds, who had 
always believed that the dog was “a laal wiry-haired tarrier dog, 
that was varra poor when runned to bay.” He scouted the idea 
of her having lived upon her master, and had known, ‘“‘a gay good 
lock o’ years sen,” a collie that remained till it was pined almost 
to death by the side of her master’s body, near Wanthwaite Crags 
on Helvellyn, and had then come home; and he argued that if, 
rather than feed upon its master, the collie came back, the “laal 
tarrier,” had it not chanced upon a carrion sheep, would probably 
also have returned, for it would “ken” its way, as Gough frequently 
went from Patterdale to Wythburn, and it had only got to go down 
by the ghyll from the Tarn to find its road to the valley. ‘‘Fwoaks 
as thinks that a dog would mell of its maister’s body knas nowt 0’ 
t’ natur o’ sec like things.” So Willy W. said, as he knocked the 
ashes out of his pipe with great emphasis, and stowed it away with 
a look of pity and disgust: “They might as weel talk of a barn 
eatin’ its deead fadder or mudder”—and there the matter ended. 

I was glad of old Willy’s word, for if any man knew dogs or 
dog-nature he did, and it was well to haye some weight of opinion 


120 


against the suggestions of sinister import that had been born of 
the ill-informed correspondent’s letter in the Cumberland Pacquet, 
in 1805, doubtless to be repeated by scoffers at dog-nature from 
time to time still. Indeed, since writing the above, I find an 
anonymous scribbler in the G/ode of 15th July, trying to bring the 
poor little heroine of the Poems into contempt by asserting “ that 
it is notorious in Patterdale, that the men who actually found the 
remains of poor Gough answered the question that puzzled Words- 
worth, as to with what food the animal was sustained during the 
months that elapsed before its master’s body was found, without 
any difficulty whatever.” To this gentleman it will be enough 
to rejoin, that, having made very careful enquiries amongst 
those best qualified to give a judgment, I find every voice lifted 
up in reasonable contradiction to his statement, and in full accord 
with the well-informed correspondent’s view who wrote the second 
letter in the Cumberland Pacquet of July 27th, 1805. 

But if it was difficult to ascertain what kind of dog the faithful 
little guardian had been, it was still more difficult to trace what 
became of her after the inquest. All that was known in Patterdale 
was, that she was taken away by some one that came to the funeral 
in the Friends’ burial ground at Tirril, beyond Pooley Bridge. 


A paragraph appeared in the Westmorland Gazette of November 
Sth, 1890, as follows :— 


“‘What kind of a dog was that which kept watch and ward over Gough 
through the weary days and nights its master lay a corpse near Red Tarn in 
1805? Scott has immortalised the faithful creature in his poem on Helvellyn, 
and in a note he says it was a terrier bitch. This week I have received two 
enquiries on the subject from different parts of England, ‘and as I happen to 
have been told by a dear old friend, now long passed away, that he well 
remembered this interesting dog, and had whena child often played with it, 
it may be well to put his account of the facts on record. After poor Gough’s 
remains were interred, the dog was handed over to a cousin, I believe, of Mr. 
Gough’s, who resided in Stricklandgate, Kendal. My old friend said the dog 
was a cocker. Whether it was a cocker, or a terrier, as Sir Walter has it, 
the wonderful endurance and fidelity shewn through these thirteen weeks of 
watching will always arouse admiration of the dog’s attachment.” 


This, no doubt, was the cocker spoken of to Mr. Pearson by the 
Wythburn hostel keeper in 1824. 


121 


The late Mr. Foster Braithwaite of Kendal, in his “ Angle 
Reminiscences,” says, “This dog was sent to Mrs. Gough, an aunt 
of the unfortunate gentleman, residing at Kendal, and was frequently 
the playfellow of our worthy townsman Mr, Thomas Atkinson, when 
a boy.” 

Another claimant to the possession of the dog in the Kendal 
neighbourhood, is a certain Mr. John Gandy, who lived in the 
middle of this century with his brother James at Milnthorpe, and 
who, it is said by a friend, believed that the dog had preyed upon 
her master, ‘‘as the bitch was found with pups about her, and so 
she was not likely to have left her pups to seek for food.” 

In answer to whom, one has the testimony of the contemporaries 
and the tradition in the dales, that the pups were all dead about 
her, another argument for the suggestion that the poor little mother 
had, in her love for her master, even conquered her natural affection 
for her young, and gone off in quest for food even to the loss of 
her own little ones. 

But was this cocker spaniel that went to Kendal ever with 
Gough’s body at the Red Tarn on Helvellyn at all? Enquiry of 
the distant connexion of the Gough family still resident in Kendal, 
shewed that a dog, believed to be the faithful one, died there and 
was buried in ‘‘Sandys” Close, now Sandys Avenue; but Mr. W., 
the descendant of the dog’s reputed protector in Kendal, writes, 
“Nothing but general impressions remain about the event or the 
dog here in Kendal. My impression has been and is that it was 
a terrier. I have heard it called a mountain-terrier.” 

By a happy chance it was my fortune to interview an old man 
in his ninety-second year, one Stamper by name, who had worked 
side by side with the one-time host of the Cherry-tree, and after- 
wards, so the old man thought, host of the Horse Head, in the 
days when, I suppose, having tired of public-house keeping, he 
had taken to joiner’s work in a shop at Braithwaite, He “kenned” 
Jopson well. ‘And now,” said I, “Did you ever hear of the 
young man who perished by Red Tarn on Helvellyn?” ‘ What, 
him ’at lodged at t’ Cherry-tree a lang while sen?” “Yes,” I 
replied. “Oh, I kenned what fwoaks said about him, and oft 


122 


heard Jopson crack.” Well, what kind of a dog was it that 
watched by the dead body by the tarn all those weeks?” “It was 
a lile brown yallow spaniel dog,” said he, “kind of a lapdog mak.” 
“\ cocker spaniel?” said I. “No, noa; a lile bit tarrier—fancy 
dog, ye kna, that’s what it was.” And so the secret was out. 
“Spaniel” in Cumbrian vernacular meant a lapdog, and the 
addition of the word ‘‘cocker” was a needless addition to the 
word spaniel, as spoken of to William Pearson of Borderside in 
1822. My informant died the week after our talk. It was a 
happy chance that took me to his door. 

I could learn nothing of the white terrier that doubtless was 
shewn to admiring tourists at Grasmere, as the heroine of Helvellyn, 
but was much interested in hearing that there was still living at 
Crosby Garrett an old body, Betty W., who had been in service as 
nurse with Charles Gough’s brother Harry. ‘Through the kindness 
of the great-niece of the lost traveller, and her friend Mrs. T. of 
Kirkby Stephen, I was enabled to push enquiry of this old 
servant. 

Now in her ninety-sixth or ninety-seventh year, Betty asserted 
that she could remember well when she was a child a messenger 
coming with the sad news of Mr. Charles’ death, and of Mrs, 
Gough, the mother, weeping over her lost son. She remembered 
that a man named Thomas Brunskill went with Mr. H. Gough for 
the corpse andthe dog. Brunskill’s son only died last year. As to 
Mr. Charles Gough, she remembered that he used to come on visits 
at Crosby Garrett; that he was very fond of fishing and walking 
about ; that te had two dogs with him, one larger and smoother 
hatred and darker in colour than the other which she called ‘‘the 
Faithful one.” 

Old Betty said the Faithful one’s name was Foxey ; it was a 
small light-brown or tawny smooth-haired dog, not so large as the 
black and tan terrier the interviewer had with her. On another 
occasion she said ‘“‘it was a bonnie little thing, and she had nursed 
it many times when she was nursemaid at Mrs. Gough’s of Crosby 
Garrett.” Old Brunskill brought back from the funeral of Charles 
a plaid and the little dog, and she asserted that when it died, Brun- 


123 


skill buried it under an apple-tree in an orchard belonging to the 
house, where the family of Goughs were then living at Crosby 
Garrett, and put up some little mark with the words, ‘‘To the 
memory of Foxey,” written upon it. 

Here was what looked like a solution of the mystery of the two 
dogs that shared the honours of fidelity—Charles had two dogs 
with him. The Cocker Spaniel may have been “the larger 
smoother-haired and darker in colour” than the Faithful one that 
old Betty described, and it may either have been left at the 
Cherry-tree during Charles Gough’s absence in Patterdale, or it 
may have survived the faithful little terrier Foxey, and have gone 
to Kendal when the wife of Harry, Charles’ brother, died at 
Kirkby Stephen, whither they had removed from Crosby Garrett, 
and when the family, or some members of it, migrated to their 
grandmother Gough’s at Kendal. 

It was clear that this very old servant of the Gough family, who 
had nursed all the nephews and nieces of poor Charles, had a 
marvellous memory, from the details she gave about her charges 
in old nursery days. And I sent a drawing of a cocker spaniel to 
her by my correspondent, in order that she might say whether 
Foxey the Faithful was at all like it, and she was quite clear that 
Foxey was not like it either in shape or size or make of ears. So 
that one believes that the little lover of her master, who for her 
master’s sake through three months cold and frost, rain and wind, 
watched him fading before her eyes—who perhaps did what she 
could, when not off seeking food, to “scare the hill-fox and the 
raven away”—who gave up even the joy of motherhood in her 
anxious concern for the fast dissolving body—who even when the 
hounds were set upon her refused to leave it, but circling round 
and round stood to bay, at last, by the side of that helpless, headless 
heap of silence and decay, was none other than a Terrier whose name 
may tell its colour, perhaps its breed. The faithful old nurse died 
within three months of her evidence, but she had helped the little 
smooth-haired Irish terrier to its right. 

That devotion in the little watcher by the dead, has been long 
ago crowned with song, and when in memory of— 


124 


‘*that strength of feeling, great 
Beyond all human estimate !” 


we toiled up Helvellyn, through the heat of a long Midsummer 
day—June 18th, 1891—behind the sledge that, not without much 
difficulty, bore the record of “Fidelity” to the mountain top, we 
felt that the chains of love that bind man to the so-called brute 
creatures were stronger than had been thought of, and that the 
interchange of spirit between two worlds that seem so wide apart, 
was more possible than had been imagined. 

There on the wind-combed mountain-top, above the dreadful 
precipice where Gough perished, the haulers of stone, the worker of 
mortar, the builder of the memorial cairn worked hard for a couple 
of days, and left behind them in what has been called “the Temple 
of the Winds and of the Sun,” a stone that may with its simple 
tale, touch the hearts of passers-by, for generations to come, and 
stand a monument to an heroic vigil, and to the Fidelity and 
Love, no death could quench, of the humble “Friend of Man.” 


125 


NOTES ON SOME OF THE LIMESTONES OF 
CUMBERLAND AND WESTMORLAND. 


By J. G. GOODCHILD, H. M. Grout. Survey, F.G.S., &c. 


( The substance of a Lecture given at the Maryport 
Annual Meeting, August, 1891.) 


THE principal modes of formation of limestones in general were 
reviewed, with especial reference to the geological history of those 
occurring in Cumberland and Westmorland. Most of these lime- 
stones are of marine origin, and are due mainly to combined chemical 
action and the agency of organisms both animal and vegetable. 
The carbonates of lime set free as one of the results of atmospheric 
action upon various rocks containing calcium compounds, is carried 
by rivers towards the sea. At the zone of confluence of the river 
with the sea, most of the dissolved carbonate of lime is converted, 
by complex chemical reactions between the sea-water and that of 
the river, into sulphate and other salts of lime. In these forms it 
is widely diffused throughout ocean waters, and is thence asimi- 
lated by living organisms, which re-convert the various lime-salts 
into carbonate, in which form it constitutes greater part of the hard 
portions of their structure. On their death the organic carbonate 
of lime is left on the sea bottom as one of the chief constituents of 
limestone. But the ground mass, or paste, which, in all limestones, 
binds these organic constituents into compact rock, originates in a 
different manner. During the lifetime of marine organisms the 
diffusion of their own products of organic waste through the 
surrounding waters, of itself brings about chemical reaction upon 


126 


the lime salts existing in sea water, especially upon the sulphate of 
lime. This results in a small precipitate of carbonate of lime, 
which descends amongst the organic remains, and eventually forms 
the paste that binds the whole together into rock. Seeing that 
every fathom of sea water contains more or less decomposing 
organic matter of the natures referred to, a steady, if slow, precipi- 
tation of carbonate of lime must be always in progress of formation. 
Therefore, while the greater part of every limestone of marine 
origin is due directly to organic agencies, chemical action is 
accountable for the remainder. Concisely stated, the sequence of 
events resulting in the formation of limestone is as follows :— 


(1) Liberation of lime salts by the action of Hz COs: from a 
land surface. 

(2) Transportal in solution seawards. 

(3) Conversion into CaSOx, and other lime salts. 

(4) Diffusion of these through oceanic waters. 

(5) Assimilation of these lime salts by organic agencies, which 
reconvert these lime salts into CaCOs (generally with the 
crystalline form of aragonite) which is subsequently left on 
the sea bottom. 

(6) Concurrent precipitation of CaCOg by the action of dead 
organisms, &c., upon CaSOx4 

(7) Cementation of the compound. 

(8) Conversion of the unstable form aragonite into the stable 
calcite. 

(9) Upheaval, and consequent formation of joints in the rock. 

(10) Further upheaval, exposure to denuding agents, and so 
through the same cycle of changes over again. 


The following table exhibits the chief modes of origin of lime- 
stones :— 
CLASSIFICATION OF LIMESTONES ACCORDING TO THEIR ORIGIN. 


Conditions of Formatioi. 
A. Subaqueous. 
(a) Organic agencies more prominent than the chemical, 


a 


5 a a 


127 


1. Marine. Calcareous matter predominating. 
Formed chiefly by animals. 
Encrinital limestone. 
Coral limestone. 
Foraminiferal limestone. 
Shell limestone. 
Polyzoanal limestone. 
Hydrocoralline limestone. 
Formed chiefly by plants. 
Nullipore limestone (oolites). 
More or less siliceous in composition. 
Diatom limestones. 
Radiolarian limestones. 
Poriferan limestones. 
2. Sweet-water limestones. 
Shell marls. 
Chara limestones. 
Indusial limestones. 
(b) Chemical agencies more prominent than the organic. 
1. Deposits in Saline waters. 
Lagoon deposits. 
Lacustrine limestones. 


B. Terrestrial. Mainly of chemical origin. 
1. Calcareous deposits from springs. 
(a) Travertine, &c. 
(b) Stalagmite and stalactite. 
C. Subterranean. 

1. Infiltration products. 

2. Results of concretionary action. 

3. Extrusions resulting from the liberation of lime 
during the transmutation of one silicate into 
another; e.g., when augite is transmuted 
into hornblende or into biotite. 


D. Dolomitized, ferrified, silicified, marmorized, or other later 
modifications of any of the foregoing. 


128 


GENERAL SUCCESSION OF THE STRATIFIED ROCKS 
OF CUMBERLAND AND WESTMORLAND, WITH ESPECIAL REFERENCE 
TO THE LIMESTONES. 


? Cretaceous Rocks in maritime North-West Cumberland. 

Remains of the Jurassic Rocks (Lias Limestones at Great 
Orton. 

Upper New Red, with their magnesian limestones at Stanwix. 

Magnesian Limestone and Plant Beds. 

Lower New Red. 

Coal Measures, with their impure limestones. 

Millstone Grit, with their impure limestones. 

Yoredale Rocks, very persistent and important limestones. 

Mountain Limestone, thinning to the north-west, passing into 
the Calciferous Sandstone Series to the N. and the NE. 

Lower Limestone Shale, and cornstones. 

Upper Old Red Series, and cornstones. 

? Middle Old Red, with their limestones [may be concealed on 
the E.] 

Silurian Rocks, with calcareous nodules, &c. 

Ordovician Rocks, with the Coniston Limestone Series at the 
top, and the Helton Moor Limestones, 2000 feet down. 
Below these come the Borradale Volcanic Rocks, the 
Ingleton Green Slate Series, the Milburn Rocks, and 
then in part :— 

Cambrian, the Skidda Slates. 


Reviewing next the limestones of the district in chronological 
order, the lecturer began by describing those of Bala age. Two 
sets of these, occupying different geological horizons, occur 
within the district. Of these two the older (and least known) is 
found in the form of thin argillaceous bands in calcareous shale, on 
the fell-side slopes S.W. of Roman Fell summit, rather more than 
a mile to the S.E. of Helton, near Appleby. Here occurs a most 
important set of beds, which contain a considerable number of 
Ordovician fossils of Lower Bala types.* These beds dip towards 


* See Woodward's Geology of England and Wales, 2nd Edition, p. and 
Proc, Geol, Assoc., vol. Xi, p. Xvi. 


OS a a 


129 


the north, and are succeeded in that direction (i.e. as we approach 
Roman Fell summit) by a thick series of ashy shales, ashy sand- 
stones, tuffs, and lavas, having an aggregate thickness of at least 
1100 feet. For this series, including the fossiliferous beds, the 
lecturer proposed the name of the Helton Moor Series. Their 
highest beds are not seen; but independent evidence, admitted 
on all hands, shews that these beds are older than the rhyolitic 
tuffs of the Seat, on Helton Fell. These latter are known to be 
identical with the tuffs of Knock Pike and Dufton Pike. Above 
these last comes the true Coniston Limestone series, which is seen 
in detached faulted blocks at Helton Smelt Mill, Keisley, Pusgill, 
Swindale Beck, Melmerby, &c.; and as a nearly continuous band 
extending from Shap Wells southwestward past the head of Winder- 
mere, Coniston, to Furness. It is seen again in and around the 
higher waters of the Rawtha, on the east side of the Howgill Fells. 
The Coniston Limestone series as a whole is of marine origin (like 
the older Helton Moor Shales), and it may be regarded as a series 
of fossiliferous calcareous shales in which calcareous matter pre- 
dominates on different horizons in different localities. So that a 
bed of limestone in one locality may be represented by a bed of 
calcareous shale at a second locality not far off. The lecturer 
regarded the well-known and very fossiliferous limestone of Keisley 
as simply a less-argillaceous representative of the limestone seen in 
the higher part of the Coniston Limestone series in Swindale Beck, 
above the village of Knock. The existence of a thin calcareous 
band full of fossils in the volcanic rocks near the head of the river 
Sprint, midway between Shap Wells and the head of Windermere, 
has long been known; but the actual existence of any limestones 
near this geological horizon outside the Lake District was not 
recognized until the Helton Moor series was discovered by the 
lecturer in 1878. Beds of lava, tuff, trass, and flows of felspathic 
mud occur in connection with both the Coniston Limestone and 
the Helton Moor series. It is just possible that the remarkable 
series of fossiliferous beds discovered by Mr. J. E. Marr at Dry 


Gill in the Caldbeck Fells, may be the equivalent in time of the 
9 


130 


Helton Moor beds. The lecturer had previously indicated the 
possibility of such a discovery being made.* 

Strictly speaking, no true limestones of Silurian age occur in 
Cumberland and Westmorland. ‘There is, however, a calcareous 
band at the very base of the Silurians in eastern Westmorland, that 
corresponds to the Pentamerus Beds of Wales. Calcareous concre- 
tions, often aggregated together in sufficient quantity to be almost 
entitled to be described as limestones, also occur here and there 
on various horizons in the Silurian rocks. Some of the lower of 
these must represent, in time, the well-known Dudley Limestone ; 
while the higher concretionary zones must correspond with that of 
Aymestry. 

Above the Silurian rocks occurs the greatest unconformity 
known in the whole geological series: a thickness of not less than 
five miles of strata being absent in places between the Older- 
Paleozoic rocks and the succeeding rocks of Carboniferous age. 
Part of this gap—but only a small part—is filled up by the Middle 
or Caledoniant Old Red, which in central Scotland consists of a 
vast thickness—many thousands of feet—of conglomerates and 
sandstones, with volcanic rocks in their higher parts. The whole 
series lies unconformably upon all the older rocks ; so it is probable 
that the greater part of the unconformity traceable in Cumberland 
may date from times posterior to the highest of the Silurians, but 
anterior to the deposition of the Caledonian Old Red. There are 
reasons for believing that the Caledonian Old Red, or the higher 
members of that series, formerly covered the Lake District; and 
that it included some (possibly thin) beds of émestonet The 


* «7 think it quite possible that, in some areas [referring to the north of the 
Lake District] beds even low down in the Skidda Slate series might be directly 
surmounted by the equivalents of the Coniston Limestone.”-—/Pvoc. Geol. 
Association, Vol. 1X. No. 7, p. 9 of Reprint. 

+The lecturer proposed this as a convenient designation for the ‘‘Old Red” 
which is unconformable to the Silurians on the one hand and to the true, or 
Upper, Old Red, on the other ; thereby confining the term ‘‘ Lower Old Red 
Sandstone” to that group which graduates downward into the Ludlow rocks. 

+ These may have been of marine origin, and therefore equivalent to the 
limestones of the Devonian rocks. 


131 


rearranged materials of rocks undistinguishable from such forms 
of the Caledonian Old Red as now remain in the Cheviots consti- 
tute a large part of the materials of the Upper (or Carboniferous) 
Old Red. These materials include (along with greywackes, etc., 
from the South of Scotland) many fragments of a limestone now 
no longer found in the district. ‘Their source, like that of the 
greywackes just referred to, need, therefore, no longer be a source 
of conjecture. 

In the period succeeding the Upper Old Red, i.e. the Lower 
Carboniferous Period proper, the greater part of the available 
evidence points to the area now represented by the Lake District 
having been, not an island, as many have concluded without 
studying the evidence, but an area that remained submerged from 
an early date, and for a prolonged period, beneath c/ear water. The 
present uplands there are simply the cores of old anticlinals 
exposed by subsequent denudation. ‘The general configuration of 
much of the surface upon which the Carboniferous Limestone was 
deposited can still be made out with some approximation to 
certainty, and the physical character of some of the remainder can 
be inferred. It did wot present the appearance of a mountain 
chain ; nor, on the other hand, was it quite flat. A ridge, with 
long and gentle slopes éess han one degree in gradient, extended 
from the higher parts of Teesdale through where Temple Sowerby 
is now, and thence across Ullswater, and Derwentwater westward. 
To the south of that bank lay deeper, and, certainly, clearer water, 
for along time. On its north-east side for a long time went on 
more rapid subsidence, which was, however, balanced by the thicker 
deposits of sediment brought down from the old land lying to the 
north-west, and the direction of transport was towards the south-east 
in consequence, Limestones, accumulating in clear water, in the 
manner just described, were slowly and quietly deposited, sheet 
upon sheet, in the form of thin wedges, attenuating gradually 
towards the north-west. In the south-eastern part of the area the 
pile of thin wedges of limestone accumulated with hardly any 
admixture of mechanical sedimentary matter, until nearly two 
thousand feet of limestone had been built up. The thinning of 


132 


these wedges of limestone north-westward does not exceed fifty 
feet in a mile in any case that has yet been discovered, so that the 
gradient in the highest rate of thinning observed is only about 
1 in 105, a slope so gentle even in that extreme case as to be 
practically imperceptible. Now and then, during the slight pauses 
in the depression of the land, the deltas advancing from the north- 
west carried out thin sheets of sediment, which were spread out 
far and wide over the newly-formed limestone ; but in much less 
quantity towards the west than in the opposite direction. Then, 
as more rapid sinking ensued, and the shore line and its deltas 
were carried again far to the north-west, more thin wedges of lime- 
stone were formed. So sheet upon sheet, each a trifle thicker 
towards the south-east, and thinner in the opposite direction, were 
laid down, and the Mountain Limestone was formed. To the 
east of the Lake District it is true that the coarser nature of the 
sediment, and the larger percentage of deposits of mechanical 
origin to those of organic, shew that the delta in that area had 
early advanced farther towards the south than in the present area 
of the Lake District. But around what is now the Lake District, 
it is a very remarkable fact that the limestones accumulated during 
this period are singularly pure in themselves, and are also much 
less interbedded with sedimentary material, than are the beds of 
the same age only a few miles to the east. 

We have, then, to picture to ourselves the present Lake District 
as a submerged area, nearly flat in shape, and slowly becoming 
buried beneath a pile of wedges of pure limestone. What shoals 
and islands there were lay, not where the Lake District is now, 
but in the areas to the eas¢ of it; and what land there was lay to 
the north and north-west. So, if we study the beds forming the 
Mountain Limestone in Cumberland and Westmorland, we find 
those beds thickest towards the south and south-east, and thinnest 
towards the north and north-west. Hence, instead of being fully 
two thousand feet in thickness as it is in the southern part of the 
area, the Mountain Limestone on the northern side of the Lake 
District may, in places, not much exceed thirty or forty feet. So, 
also, in regard to the mechanical sediments deposited between the 


133 


successive layers of limestone, we find these becoming much 
thicker towards the east, where the delta was advancing most 
rapidly; while on the west, where clearer-water conditions obtained 
throughout the whole period, the drifted materials become finer 
and finer as they are traced from east to west, until they nearly 
disappear altogether, and nothing but limestone is left. 

Geologists recognize in the Lower Carbouiferous Rocks of the 
North of England three, or four, subdivisions. These are, counting 
from below upward, (1) the Upper Old Red, (2) the Lower 
Limestone Shales, (3) the Mountain Limestone proper, which is 
represented by the Calciferous Sandstone Series in Scotland ; and 
(4) the Yoredale Rocks, which as yet have not been referred to 
here. 

The Yoredale Rocks, which succeed the Mountain Limestone, 
consist of a series of alternations of beds of limestone, with beds 
of sandstone, shale, chert, and coal. These are the rocks that 
constitute the greater part of the so-called Mountain Limestone in 
North Cumberland, in Scotland, and especially along the Pennine 
Escarpment. Most of the dales of North-West Yorkshire have 
been carved out of the same rocks. 

Their geological history forms a continuation of that described 
under the Mountain Limestone. ‘The chief difference between the 
two lies in the fact that the individual limestones forming the most 
conspicuous members of the Yoredale Rocks, are even more 
persistent than the beds of the Mountain Limestone proper. On 
this account each bed of limestone has received a definite name, 
which is recognized by miners and others over many hundreds of 
square miles, from North Yorkshire through Westmorland, Durham, 
Cumberland, and Northumberland. These limestones, being so 
persistent, can be traced over a very large area; and we now know 
that, north of an east and west line through, say, Penrith, most of 
the Lower Carboniferous Limestones appertain, not to the Mountain 
Limestone properly so called, but to the higher subdivision known 
as the Yoredale Rocks.* The individual beds of Yoredale Lime- 
stone thin slightly towards the north, but the rate of thinning is so 


* The Yoredale age of the Carboniferous Limestones of North Cumberland 
was determined by the writer nearly twenty years ago, and has been repeatedly 
communicated without reserve to various fellow-workers ; one of whom, in 
publishing the information, has virtually claimed the discovery as his own. 


134 


gradual that it can only be detected by comparing the thicknesses 
of these rocks at points widely separated. Each bed of limestone, 
as a rule, is based upon a bed of sandstone, which often bears a 
coal seam, and the limestone, in its turn, is almost invariably 
succeeded by more or less shale. In the eastern part of the district 
these drifted materials are thicker than they are to the west; the 
proportion being four or more of sediment to one of limestone on 
the east, three of sediment to one of limestone on the western side 
of the Eden, while as the rocks are traced round the north side of 
the Lake District towards the Whitehaven area the Yoredale 
sediments, as Mr. J. D. Kendall pointed out some years ago 
(and was well known long previously to those who mapped the 
district, Mr. Colvin, Mr. Ward, and the author), gradually become 
thinner and thinner, until eventually we reach a point where the 
limestones of the Yoredale Series, from the Great, Main, or Twelve 
Fadom Limestone, downward, have nearly coalesced into one 
undivided mass of limestone. The top of the Lower Yoredales is 
thus made to appear as the top of the Mountain Limestone; 
which, however, is almost entirely absent in North-West Cumber- 
land. The very same feature is observable in the very same beds 
in the eastern part of the Craven area. The obvious explan- 
ation in both cases is that the areas where the limestones were 
deposited without intermixture with materials of sedimentary origin 
were, all through the period they represent, areas of clear water. 
How that fact is compatible with the existence of islands and 
mountains, etc., on the same spot must be left to others to 
explain. 

The normal succession of the Yoredale Rocks is as follows; 
the highest beds being stated first, and the local names given in 
square brackets :— 

Millstone Grit, with several coals of workable thickness and 
quality. 
Yoredale Rocks. (1) Upper Section :— 
Thickness about 500 feet, beds very persistent everywhere, and not 
subject to the westerly thinning that affects the sedimentary beds 
belonging to the Lower Section :— 


135 


Sandstones and shales, with coal [Tanhill Seam] to 4 feet in 
thickness. 

Shales with [Fell Top] Limestones. 

Shale. 

Limestone, [Crag Limestone of Alston, Crow Limestone and 
Chert, of Yorkshire. ] 

Sandstone (with two or more coals locally worked), | Firestone, 
Ten Fadom Grit. ] 

Shale. 

Limestone, | Little Limestone, Red Beds Limestone and Chert. ] 

Coarse grits [Coal Sills] with a very constant seam of coal, 
[Tindal Fell Seam] to 4 ft. 6 in. 

Shales, and cherts. 


Yoredale Rocks. (2) Lower Section :— 
Thickness ranging from 500 in the west to 1200 on the east :-— 


Limestone [Main, Twelve Fadom, or Great, Limestone. ] 

Coal, sandstone, shale. 

Limestone Post = Upper Undersett of N.W. Yorkshire. 

Coarse Grit [the Quarry Hazel, of Alston. ] 

Shales. 

Siliceous limestone (i.e. containing organic silica, and not 
sand) Four Fadom [or Lower Undersett Limestone. ] 

Sandstones and shales, thinning westward. 

[Three Yards] Limestone, persistent. 

Sandstones and shales, thinning westward. 

[Five Yards] Limestone, persistent. 

Sandstones and shales, thinning westward. 

[Scar] Limestone [= Middle, or Fourth Sett,] persistent. 

Sandstones, persistent coal, and shales, thinning westward. 

Two thin, but very persistent, limestones [Cockle Shell, and 
Post. } 

Sandstones and shales, thinning westward. 

[Tyne Bottom, Simonstone, or Fifth Sett, Limestone] persistent, 

Sandstones, shales, and some thin limestones, the two former 
thinning westward. 


136 


[Hardra Limestone, Jew, or Sixth Sett] persistent. 

Sandstones and shales, thinning westward. 

[Top of the Mountain Limestone, already referred to as. 
thinning steadily toward the north-west, and passing into 
the Calciferous Sandstone Series towards the north and the 
north-east. | 


CONSTITUTION OF THE LIMESTONES. 


This varies to some extent; but in the main the organic 
constituents of the Mountain Limestone may be said to be 
Brachiopods, Mollusca, Foraminfera, some Polyzoa, and Corals. 
Of the corals not a single case anywhere can be demonstrated 
to be of the nature of a veef Coral stools there are, and in 
abundance, especially around Kendal; but of zee/s, or anything 
approaching reefs, there are none. Indeed it is doubtful if any 
case of a pre-tertiary coral reef has yet been made out. 

The constituents of the Yoredale Limestones are much the 
same as those of the limestones below, except that the percentage 
of mollusca entering into their composition is higher, and that 
Encrinites in these beds sometimes form nearly the entire organic 
constituents of masses of vast extent. Spirorbis also occurs on 
many horizons. 

In some of the higher limestones of the Yoredale Rocks sponge 
spicules occur in large numbers, whereby the rocks are often found 
to be largely replaced by silica. ‘That is to say, they are sz/iceous 
(not avenaceous). 

In the true Millstone Grit thin beds of more or less earthy 
limestone (which probably represent ironstones and coals towards 
the north-west) occur at many places in eastern and south-eastern 
Westmorland. 

In the Coal Measures proper (seen in Argill, near Brough) 
similar beds of impure, chemically-formed, limestone occur. In 
both this case and that of the Millstone Grit, these impure lime- 
stones may represent middle terms between coals towards the 
north-west, and thicker limestones of organic origin towards the 
south-east. It is far from unlikely, considering the nature of the 


137 


changes the whole of the Carboniferous rocks undergo as they are 
traced from N.W. to S.E., that some of these thin impure limestones 
may represent the thin edges of beds of limestone of Upper Car- 
boniferous age, which occur in Belgium and other areas to the 
south-east. We have too long regarded the advent of the North 
of England Millstone Grit as marking the close of the Carboniferous 
Limestone. Yet the deposition of limestone must have gone on 
even into Coal Measure times, only that the area of deposit was 
carried, by the gradual advance of the delta, farther and farther 
towards the south-east as time went on. If these Belgian Carbon- 
iferous Limestones be regarded (as suggested here for the first 
time) as being contemporaneous with the British Millstone Grit 
and Coal Measures, it would serve to explain the marked 
discrepancy between the faunas of the limestones in the two areas. 
The difference would be due, not so much to different conditions, 
as to difference in age. 

Of the remaining limestones of Cumberland and Westmorland 
not much need be said here. Long after all the Carboniferous 
rocks were formed they underwent much disturbance, upheaval, 
and denudation ; and part of the Lake District was for a time 
temporarily exposed. Upon the upturned edges of the older strata 
were afterwards laid down in succession (1) the Lower New Red, 
(2) the Magnesian Limestone, (3) the Upper New Red, including 
the Lower Gypseous or Bunter Marls, the St. Bees and Kirklinton 
or Bunter Sandstones, and the Keuper or Stanwix Marls. Later 
on, ferriferous and magnesian solutions, percolating downward 
into the older rocks from these Red Rocks, gave rise to the 
dolomitization of many of the older calcareous deposits ; and at the 
same time, replaced much of the calcareous matter by H#MATITE. 
This process may even be going on now. 

After the deposition of the Red Rocks, whose higher members 
certainly overspread the newly-exposed Lake District, followed the 
Jurassic period. Rocks of this age almost certainly overspread 
the whole of the North of England, Ireland, and the South of 
Scotland. The Lias Limestone of Great Orton is the last 
remnant of these undenuded. 


138 


Then followed a third period of extensive denudation, and the 
Cretaceous rocks were laid down, to be, in their turn, denuded 
away in late Tertiary times. 

Finally came the great period of elevation, when the mountain 
masses were slowly brought up to a position higher above the sea 
than they have at present. ‘Then it was that thermal springs, 
connected with the waning volcanic action of the period, carried 
up the minerals that now fill the metalliferous veins. In connection 
with these, limestones, as in the case of the hematite deposits, 
play a most important part. 

Later still came the great Glacial episode, which resulted in the 
removal of enormous quantities of rock from the areas under 
notice, and which, in doing so, shaped the limestones of the district 
into surface forms quite different from what they would have taken 
under ordinary atmospheric denudation. 

Then, later, subaerial denudation reasserted its sway upon the 
limestones, and is etching and wearing them into something like 
their preglacial forms. 


139 


ADDITIONAL NOTES ON | 
THE LAND AND FRESH-WATER SHELLS OF 
CUMBERLAND AND WESTMORLAND. 


By C. W. SMITH, PENRITH, 


It may be interesting to note a few localities, not before recorded, 

for a few of the more uncommon species :— 

Unio margaritifer, L. River Lowther, the finest specimen being 
obtained near Askham. 

Anodonta cygnea, L. In Old Eden, near Great Salkeld, they seem 
to approach the var. zzcrassada, as the shell is more swollen 
and solid. 

Planorbis nautileus, var. cristata. Edenhall Pond. 

Linnea peregra, vax. candida. In a stream near Edenhall. These 
shells were identified for me through the kindness of Mr. 
George Roberts, of Lofthouse. 

L. palustris, vax. tincta. Pond, near Langwathby. 

L. palustris m. decollatum, Jeff. Langwathby. 

L. glabra. Mill. I have found this somewhat rare mollusc in a 
pond near Calthwaite railway station, where they are fine 
and abundant. 

Helix aculeata, Mill. Near the Iron Bridge, Tirril. 

H. arbustorum, var. minima, Pfr. Edenhall. 

H. puicheila, Mill. This small shell is very plentiful on the 

* limestone at Red Hills, near Penrith, and associated with 
Bulimus obscurus and H. caperata. 


140 


Vertigo pygmea, Drap. Red Hills, Penrith. 

Clausilia rugosa, var. tumidula. A few specimens at Red Hills, 
Penrith. 

C. laminata, Mont. On the Yoredale limestones in a wood near 

Melkinthorpe, Westmorland. * 

_Cochlicopa tridens, Pult. I have only found this shell on the 
banks of the River Leith, near Hackthorpe. 

var, crystallina, Dupuy. With the type form, near Hackthorpe. 

Balia perversa, L. This scarce shell occurs on the limestone walls 

near Newton, and at Melkinthorpe, Westmorland. 


& ik 
2 JUN 99 


_ 


G. AND T. COWARD, PRINTERS, THE WORDSWORTH PRESS, CARLISLE. 


iad robbie