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Fibrarp of the Museum 


OF 


COMPARATIVE ZOOLOGY, 


AY HARVARD COLLEGE, CAMBRIDGE, WASS. 


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TRANSACTIONS 


OF THE 


New York ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 


TRANSACTIONS 


OV THE 


New York ACADEMY or SCIENCES, 


LATE 


LYCEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY. 


VOLUME, TL- 


NEW YORK: 
PUBLISHED FOR THE ACADEMY, 
“4882-1883. 


OFFICERS OF THE ACADEMY. 


1882. 


Bre sident. 


JOHN S. NEWBERRY, - - = - Columbia College, N. Y. City. 


> . op . 
OM ce~ Preside nto. 


BENJ. N. MARTIN. ALEXIS A. JULIEN, 


Corresponding Seczetary. 
ALBERT R. LEEDS, = = = = = - Hoboken, N. J. 


Mecording Secretary. 
MN > 


OLIVER P. HUBBARD, | - - - - 65 West roth Street. 
Creasurer. 
JouN H. HINTON, - - - - - 41 West 32d Street. 


Libearian. 


LoulIs ELSBERG, - - - - - - 614 Fifth Avenue. 
Cou neil. 
DANIEL S. MARTIN, ALFRED C. Post, 
GEORGE N. LAWRENCE, WILLIAM P. TROWBRIDGE, 
THOMAS EGLESTON, Louis ELSBERG. 


ia ral : 
Finance Committee. 


T. B. CODDINGTON, PHILIP SCHUYLER, THOMAS BLAND, 


. ») . . 
Committee of Publication. 


D. S. MARTIN, J. S. NEWBERRY, 
G. N. LAWRENCE, A. R. LEEDS, 
W. P. TROWBRIDGE. 


Sditor of Annals. Bditor of Bransactions. 
D. S. MARTIN. ALEXIS A. JULIEN. 


CONTENTS. 
VotumeE II. 


GENERAL TRANSACTIONS. 


PAGE. 
PME OLOO Vary rises chaucts Scene ceuee Sees Seek A cians Aly 57, 167. 
EMO ge sR csc 20 fu = ge A SVAADS. ped MOR We 299 5, Sh ene aa aty was 151 
PBMSINESS cla, ois Sorts elec ae mags wil, 24; 742,162,179, 95.100; 138, T54) 
ABR SIMISEL Voges ere soe a ert maapeis ata. coe oy ead 26).53,,02, 1OF, 102, ELI 
Geology and Minerdlogy 60. 62% faci ae ae z eae ie 
ARGCUUIRES Eee e cretare en Pen Pale cee ors S Jin30, 63795. 114, 116, 156 
hy sicstanG “AStrOnOMly 1.13.94. ta 0 rota iii a eae ates oe 18, 51 


REPORTS OF OFFICERS AND COMMITTEES. 


Gorresponding, Secretary A asevy sine te levee cilev eclane asus Me ent 95 
PIRCASUEE Sc DOO Ks h. Meyhose. Serer Nl ctnne akin On aed Sia seats hie 96-97 
Ree COL GUNG CORCEALY rai shone ems naays Sethe noes taped A caiatons. oa) s 97-98 
PP t pat MUR AMM Re cys alt Soran sce as Ae A ea ccher eines yo. tls soar'deSrore wtaraR ape ade se 98 
PMlicaeonaeOmMmittee sn 25 0/ sa ckc. ac ste + ss oe ccaheltl sete. 98-99, 154 


ABSTRACTS “OF. PAPERS: 
THOMAS BLAND. 


Notes on the Terrestrial Mollusks which Inhabit the Islands of 
Aruba, Curacao, and Buen Ayre, (May 28, 1883)......... I51 


H. CARRINGTON BOLTON. 
History of Chemical Notation, Part I., Metallurgic Astronomy 


and.its “Symbols, (Decembena1jrs62)yye.. 50. .-. sccm. 53 
Part II., History of Chemical Notation, (March 12, 1883)........ 102 
H. CARRINGTON BOLTON and ALEXIS A. JULIEN. 

The Singing Beach of Manchester, Mass., (May Tao 1883)ira nse. 147 


N. L. BRITTON. 
Notes on the Cretaceous Marl-Belt of New Jersey, (October 23, 
RSE) A Saye SESS eee AN MPM RCO T Note sh tes Lo EN 9 
On the Finding of Prehistoric Indian Skeletons at Far Rock- 
away, Long island,: (May 7, 1883)' o.\.0:3. 2 cseee 6 BL wets 140 


2 


B. B. CHAMBERLIN. 


The Minerals of the Weehawken Tunnel, (February 12, 1883)... 


N. H. DARTON. 
On the Disintegrated Sandstone at New Durham,!N. J., (April 30, 
BOON oe ce ewsiee simile, sinGleteete we See icde teres eine io aac een cae 2 ee 
ROMYN HITCHCOCK. 
The Reticulate Structure of Living Matter, Bioplasson, (February 
Gy. DOGZ) sveemeeb ices o) cnencninletoneiera : sek «oe ce eee 
HORACE C. HOVEY. 
Subterranean Scenery, (Lecture, November 20, 1882).......... 


ALEXIS A. JULIEN. 
The Genesis of the Crystalline Iron Ores, (October 16, 1882)... 
The Decay of the Building Stones of New York City, Part L., 
(January 20,1883) = c:..ctidek se cmds Sota oes oe, ee ee 
On the Decay of Building Stone, Part II., (April 30, 1883)..... 
On a Form of Graphite found at Ticonderoga, N. Y., (May 14, 
ESOS) MEE Scias deteginscag ae ees selec om SRE ee wee eens < eee 
GEORGE F. N. KUNZ. 
On a Large Mass of Cretaceous Amber from%Gloucester County, 
New Jersey, (Pebraary 5, £003) so.cnae ters oem ee eee 
WILLIAM L. LAY. 
On the Deposits of Earth-Wax (Ozokerite) in Europe and 
mmerica, (December 458682) 2°... 226.400. 22s Son eee See 


ALBERT R. LEEDS. 


Five New Organic Compounds, viz.:——-CEnantholaniline, GEnan- 
tholxylidine, GEnantholnapthylamine, Cryptidine, and Acro- 
leinnreide; (January 8, 1883)... .oc 2c, 4c sues eee 

An Actinic Method for the Determination of Organic Matter in 
Potable Water, (April 9, °1883):s2 5.2.2.5. 22 eee ee 

DANIEL S. MARTIN. 

A New Eurypterid from the Catskill Group, (October 16, 

1982) sc 5 Jc eee cc set Geen. be eee Eee tee eeees 
JOHN S. NEWBERRY. 

On the Origin of Crystalline Iron Ores, (October 23, 1882)...... 

Notes on the Botany, Geology, and Resources of Southern Texas 
and, Chihyahua,. (Jandary, 22,0603) ss. oss 0-522 ee tees 

The Botany and Geology of the Country Bordering the Rio 
Grande, in Texas and Chihuahua, (February 12, 1883)..... 


PaGE, 


88 


117 


79 


85 


43 


62 


DOE 


Some Interesting Remains of Fossil Fishes, recently discovered, 

CEG Fe Bee a ete nein wre deine riSactt sess ciee ae ers 

The Evidences of Ancient Glaciation in North eewen and their 
Bearing on the Theory of an Ice Period, (June 4, 1883).... 

JOHN K. REES. 

Resumé of Observations on Gould’s Comet, now visible, (October 

31S), TEP) RRO RR BO OC. en ED” cic iE Cone cree or Corea 

Observations of the Transit of Venus, (December 11, 1882) 


eee 


P. DE P. RICKETTS. 


Analysis of the Franklinite Ores of New Jersey, and Methods for 
the Separation of the Red Oxide of Zinc, (November 13, 1882) 
On Certain Ores from North Carolina, (May 14, 1883) 


ERMINNIE A. SMITH. 
Language of the Iroquois Indians, (December 18, 1882) 
HAMILTON L. SMITH. 


Ch aOe RC 


The Great Pyramid, and Theories Concerning it. (Lecture, April 
BaP OOS teri. ti yd Sea sess nce, essen woe Seon ee 
EDWARD P. THWING. 
The Treatment of Seasickness by the Trance State, (Jan. 22, 1883) 
CHARLES B. WARRING. 


A Study of the Chaldean “ Account of Creation,” (March 26, 
[totetg 8) os Ate 2 Re ere Bie ae OER tree Am, Se fe Heer 


PAPERS WITHOUT ABSTRACTS. 


THOMAS BLAND. 


Description of Two New Species of Zonites from Tennessee, 
(May 21, 1883), read by title 


EDWARD D. COPE. 


The Evolution of the Vertebrata, (January 15, 1883), wzthout 
abstract 


ee) 


sets 0 ec. a) ev © 0 eo (e's) olm mie a # ele \e\wit ule es) 0a) @) «| ©),6). is) e.etnle) ee 


N. H. DARTON, 


On the Genesis of the Ores and Minerals in the Granular Lime- 
stone of Sussex County, N.J., (November 6, 1882), wethout 
abstract 


e)a)nl one) o a eielel@, oe =e) 6 6.0 «es 6.0; s Mie mie) @)\a.e; a] minilo, 610) pie soleus le, 


ARTHUR H. ELLIOTT. 
An Improved Method for Gas-Analysis, (March 5, 1883), wzthout 
GESIRAEL Oise to 2 : 


ee 


PAGE. 


149 


114 


64 


107 


150 


64 ° 


25 


6 


ERNST VON HESSE-WARTEGG. 
Southern Egypt and the Countries of the False Prophet, (Lecture, 
Asprili23 51 S83): tet 0 ue LOSE GEL: setesees 5 fs bien io letd wai OE 
ALEXIS A. JULIEN. 
Notes on the Flora and Fauna of the Islands of Curacao, Buen 
Ayre and Aruba, W. I., (May 28, 1883), wzthout abstract.. 
GEORGE N. LAWRENCE: 
Characters of a New Species of the Family Cypselide, (October 


2, G82), Fead Oy Liles vs. ok 2 nine ete ees See Oe ‘ 


Descriptions of New Species of Birds of the Genera Chrysotis, 
Formicivora, and Spermophila, (May 28, 1883), read by tzt/e. 
ADR. LEEDS, 
Health-Foods, Invalid-Foods and Infant-Foods, eS Feb- 
ruaty .10,.1883), 2zthout abstract. \10%0. 3 eee i ee 
EDWARD V. MARTENS, 
Description of Two Species of Land Shells from Porto Rico, (May 
Ql, OOS), TEAL OY CLUE = cop eeias Ch ceca kehet orn: Tae te 
JOHN S. NEWBERRY. 
The Physical Conditions under which Coal was Formed, (Decem- 
ber 4, 0082), ez’ howtiaostr wer: x. 14s bee es i os Stee coe Oe 
An Inquiry into the Origin of the Carbon Present in Bituminous 
Shales; (April’2, 1883)) wetoul abstract... 2 dei a sere 


J. S. PHENE. 
Recent Archzological Discoveries Relating to the Mound- 
Builders, (November 27, 1882), wzthout abstract........... 
J.) k.sREES, 
The Great Telescopes of the World, (Lecture, May 21, 1883), 
WIEUROUL GUSLTACE o/s cies sate sik. 4 ab pee Seas ta be er ee 


ROBERT H. THURSTON. 

Note in Reference toa Newly Discovered Absolute Limit to 
Economical Expansion in Steam Engines, (October 2, 1882), 
WHOL. AOSTRAGL AE acini os doin eRe ee ee oie Cee 

WILLIAM P. TROWBRIDGE. 

Importance of Experimental Researches in Mechanical Science, 

(October 30,°1882), "77 haul aoseraGhee. we ae eel el 
F, COPE WHITEHOUSE. 

The Caves of the Island of Staffa ; Are they not Artificial ? (Octo- 

IDEE'O; TSO2), 2ULZ HOME AUSICOCE wei ac cee ine ses tithe A see 


PaGE. 


116 


151 


151 


95 


150 


50 


IIo 


AI 


150 


18 


GENERAL INDEX. 


For all names in Botany and Zoology, see Index of Nomenclature, 


following the General Index. 


For full titles of papers in this volume, and names of Hier authors, 


see Table of Contents. 
- PAGE. 
Absolute limit to economical 
expansion in steam en- 


GUIRES Jeers pubes eels bicteas I 
Account of Creation, Chal- 

EAI Nets ia acces ¢. 107-110 
Acetic acid, use in analysis of 

ZAMCHOLES «Joie ec 2 as 31-36 
APTOlMMUTEIGG: > + 6 sk: <:0,2) 5; 0/2 40.02 


Actinic method ot determina- 
tion of organic mat- 
ter III-I14 

oate trem Mexico. \ i). 2!!.)<. 


Agencies in decay of stone... 74 
PNUD Pa ataeras seat) eeqeteeyel as 42, 119 
Alchemical symbols...... 102-104 
PREMIER Pc ferc tice are fish aca 53-57 
P2500) 5 2 OE ees ee es 13, 85-87 
RGESUNYS DESI aici ety oo 89, 117 
Ameoebe, structure and mo- 

HONS aus pie 5-04 . 79-82 
PUTIAIGUG 7. a Sere ah Monee remeron 88 
Analyses of Franklinite ores.26—-35 

GAS hte we eet IOI-I02 
sandstones 49~ 2) 118-119 
Ancient glaciation in North 

ATH CLICAT Ach sa ote 155- oe 
PUES ANUSIEGS fo. 2 5 hai pase at a eller 
AMMUAClECHOM ; ..-)2:.)) 2 ogee ae 

PERO sri! > orca Soke 95-100 
Anthracitein- China... 2.2 151 
PATIL E SS Tee ictcs 3, 14-16, 147 
POOP OVE oo) atic ew one's. 89 
PMUAINANINE = y's ese nS oes ss 117 
ATCRBOLOSY «52 Sed ae 3, 106-110 
Arkose beneath the Palisades, 

ING ra]iaseeee acne) eyetetes tens 117-120 
Artificial origin of caves..... 3-6 
Aruba, flora and fauna..... 151 

terrestrial molluscs...... 151 


PaGE, 
Asphalt of Utah and Can- 
ENG ier es nate eS Selon Ae 50 
Astronomical drawings, Trub- 
Claws. 3. Sao Scheie tae a 9 
| Austria, ozokerite deposits. . 43-48 
Bacteria, development of. . 113-114 
Baltigvambeby... aves ws i. 85-86 
[aS aller ik 8 ite eeesye ais 3-6 
Beach, singing, at Manchester, 
147-148 
Berylees < pilcitewiat Sige sas 2s 
Berzelian notation... 105-106 
| Bioplasson, structure of..... 79-84 
Birds, mew Species.s.. 1. a+ 43; I51 
Bituminous shales, carbon in, 
IIO-II!I 
Blende: foie ee tora eres go-94 


Blood corpuscle, structure of.80-82 
Bluestone, durability of...126, 136 


Bone-cave of Gailenreuth.... 37 
Bone=Oil eee alas ose to sieraks 63 
Borislau, ozokerite mines. ...43-48 
Botany of Texas and Chi- 
Duala se. ses. « 66,90 94 
Brooklyn, buildings of......67—71 


Brownstone, durability of, 
122-124, 136 
Buen Ayre, flora and fauna... 151 
terrestrial molluscs. ..152-154 
Building-stone, decay of.67—79, 
120-138 
Caen limestone, durability.... 128 
Calcite 64, 89 
Carbon in bituminous shales, 
IIO-III 


e/(e] ¢ ea jee) @ vie a) © win) elelete 


Carbonate iron-ore of coal- 
meaSuresig- sa eres oc I4-15 
Caribs in North America..... 142 


Carrara marble, durability.129-133 


PAGE. 

Cascade Mountains, glaciation 
Re ree ne 2 nee Sats 155 
Catania, Sicily, amber....... 85 
EatSEVEr so rE ee ee 26, 42 
Catskill sroupey ts. 2 ee 8 
AES ele ietininie cpus eee 36-41 
Of Staten. og) te 3-6 


Cemeteries, decay of stone in, 


~ 124, 129-133, 135 
Ceresine from ozokerite...... 48 
Ghalcedonye-Gep eee 117 
Chalcophaite sen. se 64 
Chaleopyrite: tose aae eee 25, 149 
Chaldean Account of Crea- 
tiON coe 5 5. 3. ....107-I110 
Champlain clays) 22252. 025. 2 


Chemical notation, history of, 


53-57, 102-1¢6 | 


Chihuahua, botany and geology, . 
66, 90-95 

China, mesozoic coal-plants.. 151 

Chromium in iron ores 


SA erate 17 
Chrysobetyl s.05e. . 0s os. 42, 64 
Climate, aridity near Rio 
Granden ert ase Tons go-91 
Clinton iron-ore...>....... 15-16 
Clintonites: 72.66. ee ae 26 
Coaltinglexasie 2's 9.) eae 94 
physical conditions in for- 
mation Of. .. 2-0 "6c 50 


plants from Chinas) I51 
Coal-measures, carbonates. .14-15 


TOY Neate hls es, ee 50 
Massilon;|Ohiow..5- 5404 87 
Columbitese eee nes oe) ee 42 
Comet, Gould’s, observations 
ONE Skreet 18-23 
Concretions of pyrite..... 138-139 
Copper, carbonate... 32.0; 150 
NAUIVE ties ioe hoe [50 
silicate Peet ene 2h eh 150 
Sulphureterome ec waren. e 150 
Corundum from Mexico...... 117 
Creation, account of...... 106-110 


Cretaceous in Chihuahua and 


MEXaAS ena ---90, 94-95 
marl-belt of N. J...9-13, 85, 
138-139 

Cry ptidine “ek see ‘ 63 


Curagao, flora and fauna..... 


151 
terrestrial molluscs... 151-152 
Damourite 25 


CC i et Se er 


PAGE. 
Dates of erection of pyramids, 
I15-116 
Mattes... 2..45-S0 actin 88 
Decay of building-stone. . . .67—79, 
120-138 
Determination of organic mat- 
ten ml water ese. see III-II4 
Devonian formation. ......... I 
Dioptric and diffractive images 83 
Dionytes: coccec see: 94-95, 149 
Discovery of tablets in valley 
of Rpphrates see 110 
Disintegrated sandstone at 
New Durham......117—120 
Dolomyte, durability...... 128-130 
Draper, Dr. H. W., memorial 
Ofs2 Se. ae 36 
Dufreynite:-o...552ee eee eens 
Durability of blue sandstone, 
126, 136 
brown sandstone. 122-124, 136 
building-stone......... View! 
SneiSs!:2U hey ee 135-136 
granyte..... 134-135, 136, 138 
limestone == =e eee 128, 136-137 
marble's./.2+ ee: 128, 133, 136 
Dorchester sandstone, 
124-12 , 136 
Ohio sandstone. . 125-126, 136 
Duties on specimens..... Ja = 
Earth-wax, deposits of...... 43-50 
Economical expansion in steam 
engines, absolute limit. 1! 
Egypt, pyramids of....... 114-116 
obelisks of. .2.:7....¢ 0a 138 
Election, annual..:......50. 98 
Emerald from North Carolina. 3 
Ee pidote <3..55 sene oo ee 25,150 
Erection of building-stone on 
edge. bet eee 122 
Erosion of caves....... 3-6, 39-40 
Eurypterid, new, from Catskill 
STOMP: v2 fel. Sts eee 8 
Evolution of vertebrata...... 64 


Experiments on durability of 


Samad Stonesianeiens secre oe 127 

Fat invhumanemilkicso..s. oe 140 

MING aS Cavern t= cts ero ole ee 37 
Fishes, Devonian, from Ohio 

and New York..... 144-147 

from St. Lawrence....... I 


Flexibility of marble...... 130-133 


PAGE. 

Fluid cavities in topaz....... 42 
ID oy at Ueaeron anes ooo ae 25 
HOOKS sh, cea aot anaes 95 
FLOSSili reSins < sects oekelene 85-87 
Rranklinitesseerim pce ae ces 64 
ores, analyses of.... 26-35 
Gailenreuth, bone-cave....... 37 
Galena fo ice aoe aed 94-95, 149 


Garnet from New York Island. 9 
Gas-analysis,improved method 
1OI-I02 
Geikie on decay of marble. ,132—133 
Genesis of crystalline iron ores, 
6-8, 13-17 
Geodes of chalcedony... 
Geology of Texas and Chihua- 


hitare; atievckeel Sint 66, 94-95 
Giants Causeway. s.2).\2.5... 3-5 
RE AGVAUEIOIN eae « Sasedessar shes’ 1th laters 2 

in North America....155-159 
Glauconite .......-. . 10; 12,85 
MESS ea atte Hla ee 70-72 
durability of... 0.22.% 135-136 


Gold...50, 79, 94-95, 100-101, 149 
Gould’s comet, spectrum..... 20 
(Granytermr rats erect 25, 70-72 

durability of .134-135, 136, 138 


Graphite-vein at Bloomfield.. 147 
PICONMELOPAas., 3s)» a2 148-149 
Great Pyramid sn). . io. don 114-116 
Great telescopes of the 
0) 00 Ne OE ee nee 150 
Greensandisns ee: KO; 12; 85 
Grotto of Cannes. 25-h.psarrs 37/ 
Gy PpsSunT in CAVES! <0 Sn... cies 38-40 
Flealth-foods (0.0 sso. 5 5 OF 
Heat of sun, action on stone. 123 
RUEMatite se aes eee 7-8, 14-17 
History of chemical notation, 
53-57, 102-106 
Hoboken, N. J., buildings 
Cle: A eee Le 67-71 
Horseshoe crab, larve. ... 106-107 
Human milk, new fat in...... 140 
Huronian iron ores...... .6-7, 17 
Ice-period, theory of...... 157-159 
MAQELASC Rea Ria otee 72-4 '3 ais 3 25 
indians, Irequois........<. . 57-61 
skeletons at Far Rocka- 
Wich Voroesh hn seants or Pa ok 140-144 
Enfant-(OG0S— or. stot ad « 95 


PAGE. 

EONS OLCSSe eye iaeron stokes oncnorats 64 

crystalline..........-.-. 6-8 

GENESIS MMP ie <taile. cyetar=i <i: 13-17 

of Iron Mountain........ 15 
Iron sands, concentration of, 

7-8, 14-17 

Iroquois Indians, language. . 57-61 

Italy, ozokerite deposit...... 46-47 

Jeo camcogdoduccouca Duar 117 

Jersey City, buildings of..... 67-71 

Kjoekken moeddens...... 141-143 


Koch’s method for develop- 
ment of bacteria...113-I14 
Land-shells of Curacao, Buen 


Ayre and Aruba.. .151-154 

POLto RICO corsair 150 
Language of Iroquois Indians 

57-61 

Larve of Limulus... 106-107 

ILegoonorinlts, aGoceccoe aucooooc 89 

Waurentiany LonmatiOns arses, 

TLONMOLES sersiere rele 7-8, 14-17 

AW a CAVES. 2 5. 5 ot rie stacte 36 

Lichens, attack on stone..... 123 


Life of building stones, in New 


Workre raise ticheason ae 136 
| Bisa ore Memeo amon es cla 86 
Limestone. . 11, 16, 25, 69-72, » 95 
CAVES Abe. ays eincrs irre teee 30-41 
durability 9.; 255.12 28, 136, 137 
Limit to economical Se araien 
in steam engines...... I 
Mimonitesemet sarc 7, 14-17 
Limulus, larve of...... . 106-107 
Living matter, strncture of. .79-84 
oxoclasepfeldspat...(1s..7.5 1. 147 
Wunays Cavienna. ..1¢=- si! 38-41 
Mapnetites cee sa0.-- 7-8, 13-17, 94 
Mammiothi@ave seer. cite 38-41 
Manganese-oxide...... 14, 17, 100 
Weis) Seem aee be 38, 71-72 
durability of... .128-133, 136 
flexibility 6f. . 2... 22 130-133 


Marl-belt of New Jersey. .9-13, 85 
Mechanical science, researches 


1 GeO ee once 18 
Meeting, annual,.......... 95-100 
Members, election...... 24, 42, 62, 

79, 100 

resignation...9, 42, 57, 62, 154 

GeCEASende ser: sete: 2:36, ? 
Menatcanites. 2-5 ..cte oes 


* 


10 


PaGE. 

Mesozoic coal-plants | from 
NGA esac eee ee 15! 
Metallurgic astronomy...... 53-54 
Meteorite of Alfianello....... 117 
Methods of analysis..... .. 26-35 
ee cheno s,s ayorc poate ce) eee 3,0A7 
Slabecie ats. Gites see ipa 3 

Microscopic examination of 
OTES a's. kanes wera 34 
observations, errors in. .81-83 
Milk, human, new fat in...... 140 

Minerals of Weehawken tun- 
11s] GREE Snes eer eons © 88-90 


Mineral wax or ozokerite, . . .43-50 


Mining, Chihuahua........ 94-95 
OZOKeHITA o> care. ee 43-50 
Moisture, aserosiveagent.... 4 
Monazite from Maine........ 42 
Motions of amoebe..... 82 
Mound-builders........ 4I 
WAISCOVALO TE Ata her tseresee 147 
Myths Chaldeans .senisier 106-110 
Nantucketamiber. > 25-120). ss 
INatroliies jhe eer ee acs 89 
New Durham, sandstone of, 
117-120 
New Jersey, amber..... 13, 85-87 
franklinite ores...._....26-35 
MAPS DEL EAs tes car etae 9-13, 85 
shell mounds. co.cc sae ee 143 


New Yorkand Brooklyn bridge 
building stone.67-79, 120-138 
North America, ancient glaci- 


QUOI MMe ick e-fete ss 155-159 
Ganibsminwpee ns ci oa ae 142 
North Carolina, amber ...... 86 
SOIR Paetacias wet’ fete 79 
OES eerie nies shs 149-150 


Notation, chemical.......102-106 


72 | 


PAGE 
Ox bitsiof cometsaeee eee 22-23 
Ores and minerals of Sussex 
County, (No Jee seer « 125 
North Carolinavea.ae 149-150 
Organic compounds, new.. 62-63 
matter in water, deter- 
MinationlOless «eee III-I14 
structure in graphite..... 148 
Origin of carbon in shales. 110-111 
(21 G2) 6) ty Roem enr ny Oe eee 148-149 
MON. OFS). «ocean 6-8, 13-17 
Orsat-apparatus. 2. ci2eeere IOI 
Oxthoclase.,j. --.eeseeemee 25, 147 
in sandstones. 2 moc oe 119-120 
Oxidation of pyrite 2). 47550 139 
Ozokerite, deposits.j.....-.. 43-50 
Paint, use on building-stone.. 78 


Paraffine from ozokerite....48-49 


Pargasité...22.£2.2 <<a 149 
Pectolite . js tc side ieee 88 
PetnoOlewm yee sea eee 43 
Photographs of caves........ 41 
Physical conditions in forma- 
tionvol coals 5)-t..4 ae 50 
Pointing of building-stone.... 123 
PoOrpuyryer-e-i~ (sade ace 94 
Prehattie 2s bs feces copies 88 
Preservation of stone, artifi- 

Clal area ack. cays See ee 77—78 
Priestley, Dr. Jos., decease. 2) ims 
Products of ozokerite....... 48-49 
Protection of building stone. 76-77 
Pyramids of Egypt....... 114-116 
Pyrite....25, 90, 94, 138-139, 149 
PYrOXENE. . 3¢./< . » eee eee Q, 25 
IPyiinotitee. seek eee 2h a7 
QUATEZHajai3 cx bh otra eee 100, 118 


Remains of fossil fishes. . . 144-147 
Report of Corresponding Sec- 


Nova Scotia stone, durability HEtANY j:'-.. e+ ete eee 95 
Giles Soe on 124-125, 136 Librarian ,,4.\..\5 <5 eee 98 
Nuggets obs Sold. treet crc) < 79 Publication Committee. . 
Observations on Gould's Comet, 98-99, 154 
1ou23 Recording Secretary. ..97, 98 
of transit of Venus..... 51-52 DREASUNEH, vo>2> se Aa ties 96, 97 
@psidian 401.33 250 eyes ede tteners 36 WIRES insyfOssil a aieiac irs otto 85-87 
(Enantholaniline.... .. ...-. 62 | Resolutions passed. 24, 62, 79, 100 
CEnantholnaphthylamine..... 62 EDL, 116; 54 
GEnantholxylidine..... Babe, 62 | Reticulate structure of living 
@hio,coal-beds..;, :-; = igeneee 87 IMAGED A. e0 or ola eiaete 79-84 
sandstone, durability of RHOCQCHTOSIFE < 2k coe isnt oes 64 
125-126, 1g RMOdOMIEC <. 22,6 cielactere =e 28-35 


11 


PAGE. 

Rio Grande, botany and ge- 
ology néar.s. 5. -- 66, 90-95 
Rutile enclosed in emerald... 3 
saguenay Valley. ~.0. 2.4. - I-2 
San Carlos mine 94-95 


Sands, iron, concentration of. 7-8, 
14=17 

Saharayeer-eyaes 4 oe: 148 
SONOKOUSWers fo Nour a5 nee 148 


Sandstone. 68, 72, 117-120, 122-127 
Sea-salt, influence on decay of 


SWIMS 55 Sec ucod- 123 
sickness, treatment by 
tan Ceyaeiey. See ae 64-66 


Seasoning of building-stone.76-77 
Separation of red oxide of zinc 
26-35 
Serpentine as building-stone.. 71 
Shell heaps I4I-143 
Shellsye land's: 2.12. (yes een. 
land, distribution in 
West Indies ee 
Sierra Nevada, glaciation in.. 155 
DUIIVICE Perepa ine cut ds cv etonisl Sg a een 94-95 
Singing beach of Manchester. 
147-148 
Skeletons found at Far Rock- 
away. 140-144 
sees ceaan es 72, 149-150 
Soapstone at Norwich, Ct... 18 
Sonorous sands 147-148 
Sotol whiskey of Chihuahua. 93-94 


ee 


Sect) OF ute 


sie eis) Sale, wires 


Southemm Wey pt. sal ve Les 116 
Specific gravity of amber.... 85 
Spectrum of Gould’s comet... 20 
Spodumeney.y ues. «eee ee 25 
Statias cavestoleaeaeee 3-6, 37 
Stalactites...... . 39-40 
Staten Island, N. Y., buildings 

Ole ers. 5 ck Ee 67-71 


Steam engincs, absolute limit 


to economical expan- 

SLOT syd ae he ate Se I 
STILTS cei ce 89 
St. Lawrence, Devonian fossil 

SMES LOM) no a. fh) 2 = 3 I 
Stoneham, Me., minerals from 25 
Subterranean scenery........ 36 
SENS POLS wets Noa pclens 35 
Surgery, use of trance in..... 66 


Pace, 

Sussex County, N. J., ores and 
TMM hAIS ers eee alse 2 25 
Symbols, alchemical...... 102-104 
chemical notation... . 53-57 


|Table of chemical characters. 56 
PPephroites ys sete gests lass 2 34 
Terrestrial molluscs. ....150-154 
Texas, botany and geology.. 
66, 90-95 

Theories concerning Great 
Pyramid: (23... EI4—116 
Min, indications. of. 242. <2 100 
aitaniteyn sn. ct4 coe Bem ck 
Titanium in iron ores....7, 14, 17 
Tombstones, durability of.... 75 
OPAL sree ate |. 25:42, 100 

ourmalineseaet sac. 22 Waste 25 
dirachyitere wuts soi 94 
Trance, treatment of sea sick- 

MESS 24 cee ease ee 64-66 
Dransitof Veuusey.% -.0). 2 51-52 
WTAD sai seie eee 2 oes 71-72 

of Palisadesetes seu < 117-120 

iiremolitesec4— oases. . 149 
Trial of building-stone, methods, 

75-76 

Triassic sandstone....... 117-120 

‘Trlobitet ees esse se 3, 8, 107 
Mripmylites ss weet Peters 25, 42 
MU APIItE Se sc che Seales odie ie 25 
Tuscarora Indians......... 58, 60 
Use of trance in surgery..... 66 

proposed for alchemical 

SymibOls? ste ci-ht 54-56 

Witahyeiromsoresa. =... -- aie Bias 

OZOKEHITCMaeias orion 46 
Venus) transitors): .. . 2.0: 51-52 
Vertebrata, evolution of...... 64 
Vivianite from New Jersey... 13 
WA epee icitea.ctereua cone 18 

_ Wasatch range, glaciation in. 155 
Water, organic matter in. . 111-114 
Waves, destructive action of.. 4 


Weehawken tunnel, minerals.88—90 
Willenvtes su t-)hs toe ete 26-35 


Wohler, Prof. F., memorial of. 2 
Zeolites mercer eae: 154-155 
Zimeite: 45.5 cee ee = ee 26-35 
Zine red ORide fs gee xe ant ts 26-35 
ZANCOM la peer ter tel. eet eee 3, 25 


INDEX OF 


ENCACIAD . ac's on bw linraepaae wee 2 
Agave.. dy ehciiayeRebewevayscsmancons 2 

heterocantha . 94 
AMMODILESe psa | eee IT, 94 
PANTING Dasa areca stevei cet ta'sia eo he 79-82 
Amphipleura pellucida....... 79 
PNECA ne ee tee gee cts de hae II 
ASaphus gigas.) i venaes hose 3 
Aturia Vanuxemi...... Sp aUZ 
IBEICUINUES pats) aahole dob oaees II, 94 
Belemnitella mucronata.. IO 
iBerberis? trifoliata sa. eeece 2 
IV OZOA. ois) sic heissoys scores 85 
Bulimulus elongatus..... 151-152 

multilineatus ........ I bine 53 
Cardiospermum.... g2 
Gardiner ste toes. see It 
@eltis occidentalis. ::.. <i) 0a. 92 
Geratodusmee een donee 146 
Chimesray. yee cckle Use eee 145 
Chondropoma Tortolense.... 150 


Chrysotis canifrons, n. sp.... 151 
GionellawGloynet:. : se. 152 
Crs till ater yas jase eek I51-153 

CONSEP La Mnis Pie ctochierter. 150 

IMA CUlataynen SD etm eran 152 

Raveniceromnccn. iti. 151 
Coccostets: semen: 3G si) 2 aie 144 
Conulus3 Uae ee Sas weU52 
Crassatella Delawarensis 12-13 
Ctenodusieeseeeree eee 145-146 
Cucullesatyseni seats Gis. II 
Cylindrellacee comes acct 152-153 

Ravens: .cueceuce eee 152 
Cyprinad Mormisitie;. hone. pees 12 
Cypsclidavosee ce. eee I 
Dasylirion Texanum. . 93 
Diniehthys) ...:.-c/ascseanemee 147 
Diploonathus cc. was cede 147 
IDiptendss. cc tex Oe 146 
Echinarachnius parma....... 26 


NOMENCLATURE. 


Echinorhynchus..sassee 

EOZOOD I «i-f0tee) mn sea eS I 
Eschata, digitata. =. eee 12 
Exepyra’ costata® «70. 10 


Formicivora griseigula, n. sp. 


Fouquieria splendens. ........ 92 
Geostilbiae 45 oie nae ee 152 
Gnathodonit2s os. 141 
Grypheac2o.c).- ee eee 94 
Pitcheniiee nee ye eee 85 
vesicularis..... 10-13, 85 

Guy acunGoulterie cc. ts(2ee 92 
ElabranthuS.ea.es oe eee 92 
Flelicocetastr.2 105. honk sae O4 
elixipentodone 42 25.2 -eee 153 
Holacanthas.-2 canta a eee g2 
NOOSA . Goacauabesocne 94 
Juglans; rupestris.: <02...524. 92 
IGE Sool eh: hres am Aarne ee eta tc 85 
jearrea Mexicana... our ates g2 
Pile aranel iis ey cieeere see se ae ee ees 8 
polyphemus....... 106-107 
VWfacroceramusie nee 152-153 
(GoOSSEIZ25 Shei. 0k eee 152 
INETIMIS! gatas cee cee 152 
Mdiola; plicatula.....=5)-see 141 
Montlivaltia Atlantica....... 12 
Mosasaurussi 2! 30 eee II 
Mvlostoma’ > ./.2.-.c 1a esa 145 
variabilis, n. sp 4 eae 146 
Terrelli, (nspaiee see 147 
Neithea, Mortoni- esr. 10 
Natica ../)eoiaee oe eee 26 
Nautilusye seis ae Tee 94 
Desai yiacrde tastes 12 
Nucleolitesmeruerfers 2. 12s: 12-13 
Opuntia y. epee ror g2 
Ostreaeqeoodes Sore oti 26, 94 
DOTEAlis Smemrenick ae eet 141 
NEVA enc ihi tere ev ths re. o> vcccran ie) 
Paledaphus™.cc Mi. aiee.oe oer 146 


: PAGE. PAGE. 
ectem’. 5. mt vine metres sarees I1 | Stenogyra octonoides...... Bo as 
Pinwsredulisteeeeecrer weecbe, SRC ILEN pts) 860) 0) 0) haere ie ie ae ee 152-153 
Polorthusseeeeee eee 85 ING eria eer. 5s 

tibialisnerstmpeeciresciac.s- 072 VAG ra me (tehy acre oevore + 152-153 
Populus angustifolia........ g2 | Stylonurus excelsior......... 8 
MGHIeran es ee 070 “5. '92)| Suceiiiea pyrata yc. 4). +... 151-152 
Prosopis glandulosa......... 92) Lerebratularplicata.. 3.7)... fe) 
Plementhys a... % eins bene 144 | Eaten tee. pe as spokes 5s 11, 85 
EV GMOCEKAS. o626. users cs oes 94 SPAGIIS er aise ceisler cise Sel 
PGaMONPUTION... cose: s: sss 152 Trochosmilia conoides...... 12 
Quercus Emoryi...... ..... 91 | Tudora..... ett sees cers 151-153 
Raventa Blandi. 24. 222. : . 154 megacheila ... ........ I5I 
Saturnia (Samia) Cecropia... 117_ versicolor.........-..+. 2 
SEe22) ge ores Anes ate Sa capa Q2 | Ungnadia speciosa.......... oe 
; LW Sri eyes cig io hise core OS Binior Nene 142 
Scutellaria. . hee eet aed o2 'Venericardia perantiqua..... 12 
Sequoia... .. +. sees reer ee 87 Venus mercenaria.......... 141 
Sigillaria.... ........+..-.. 5°) Yucceapangustifolia oci0.0:.5..5. 93 
Spermophila parva, n. sp..... 51 baccata vee costes 93 
SPIRARISE Cio, Sikh ae core se ote ee 154 Zonites petrophilus, n. sp.... 150 
Spirulacarotula:.. <0. Se Wheatleyijnesspr <= 150 

ERRATA. 


Page 3, 11th line from top, for Asaphas, ead Asaphus. 

«8, 9th and 11th lines from bottom: for Stylomurus, vead 

Stylonurus. 
50, 14th line from bottom: for graduation, read gradation. 

tails (oldol ec CC for Palorthis, xead Polorthus. 

““ 92, 2d line from top: for Prozopis, vead Prosopis. 

“ 92,6th “ “ “ for monolifera, yead monilifera. 

Peo2, 02th“ “ for Eonaquiertay sega, Fouquieria. 

“ 92, 18th “ ‘ bottom: for Scutillaria, yead Scutellaria. 

pee nOZeat pthgs6h) .* “ for Cardioz permum, vead Cardio- 
spermum, 

“ 93, 6th line from top: for vaccata, read baccata. 

93,20st.““) bottom: for rexamum, 7e72 ‘Vexanum. 

Fs. O4, roth ©. .* 4 for Gryphea, read Grypheza. 

PLOA A Sth se) 6 me for fortris, read fortis. 

“ 151, 14th“ ‘“ top: for caniformis, ead canifrons. 

sD ES USthytt. sc «for grivigula read griseigula. 


TRANSACTIONS 


OF THE 


NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 


October 2, 1882. 


REGULAR BUSINESS MEETING, 


The President, Dr. J. S. NEWBERRY, in the Chair. 


Thirty-three persons present. 
A paper was read by Prof. Ropert H. Tuursrov, entitled: 


NOTE IN REFERENCE TO A NEWLY-DISCOVERED ABSOLUTE LIMIT TO 
ECONOMICAL EXPANSION IN STEAM ENGINES. 


(Published in the Annals.) 


The paper was discussed by Prof. W. P. TROWBRIDGE. 
The following paper, by Mr. Geo. N. LAwRENCE, was then read 
by title: 
CHARACTERS OF A NEW SPECIES OF BIRD OF THE FAMILY CYPSE- 
LID. 


In accordance with the usual custom at the first meeting of the 
season, observations and notes made during the past summer were 


presented. 

The PRESIDENT referred to various papers of interest before the 
recent meeting of the American Association for the Advancement of 
Science at Montreal, by Drs. RAE, CARPENTER, and others; to the 
collection of the Geological Survey of Canada at Ottawa, including its 
full series of specimens of Zozoéx ; and especially to the remarkable 
series of Devonian fossil fishes from the North side of the St. Law- 
rence, collected and described by Mr. WHITEAVES. Of these a large 
number of specimens were collected from two localities. They re- 
semble those described by HUGH MILLER, being almost precise coun- 
terparts of the Devonian fishes of Scotland. Most American deposits of 
the kind were derived from the sediments of the open sea, but these 
must have come from a bay. 

Dr. NEWBERRY had also visited the Saguenay, which occupies a 
fiord like those which fringe the coast toward the north and along the 
coast of Northern Europe. It consists of a valley cut deep into the old 
coast, now forming, in its submerged position, a tideway for a distance 
of a hundred miles, with tides sometimes reaching a height of eighteen 


Trans. N. Y. Ac. Set. 2 Oct. 2, 


feet. At its upper end the valley is supplied by only two or three in- 
significant streams. It is, in fact, a glacial channel, bearing on its 
sides abundant marks of glaciation, with cliffs towering up, sometimes 
to a height of 2000 feet. There are also deposits of clays belonging 
to the category of the Champlain clays, stratified and often terraced. 
Clays of this age have been observed, at Polaris Bay, up to a height of 
1800 feet above the sea, often enclosing Arctic shells. These terraces 
may be traced for miles along the Saguenay and indicate interesting 
alternations of level. Similar terraces are found along the Hudson 
River. The subsidence during which they were produced affected the 
whole eastern and, perhaps, western part of the Continent. These 
clays are only the wash from the ancient glaciers, and formed the sedi- 
ment of an icy-cold sea, which stood higher than it does now. The 
subject of the causes of glaciation had met with a spirited discussion at 
the recent meeting at Montreal, especially on the part of Dr. DAW- 
SON, whose views, largely founded on the peculiar action of shore-ice 
in the St. Lawrence, would meet with wide modification by a visit to 
other portions of the glaciated area of the Continent. 

Prof. A. R. LEEDS called attention to the recent death ofa very illus- 
trious member of the Academy, Prof. FRIEDRICH WOHLER, whose 
life, linked with the progress of science for three-quarters of a century 
marked an epoch in its history. He was born in 1800, ana, without 
awaiting a further advance in his years, a great Jubilee was arranged 
‘and carried out, in connection with his eightieth birthday, among the 
chemists of the German Universities; and in this many American 
chemists united. A large bronze medal was struck off for distribution 
in commemoration of this event. He was one of the favorite pupils of 
BERZELIUS, and has given an interesting account of his studies with 
that master, at that time a mere country doctor, in the kitchen of his 
house and on the kitchen tables, the simple articles used being washed 
up by the old “ hausfrau” at the end of the day. We owe to him the 
discovery of the true constitution of many mineral compounds. Many 
American students gradually resorted to his laboratory and to them he 
became the favorite teacher. Prof. BOOTH was the first American 
chemist to go abroad and was the first American student under 
WOHLER'S care. It is a wonderful fact that the life of this one 
man should have been sufficient to include most of the important 
discoveries of modern chemical science. He was the first to unlock 
the mysteries of organic compounds, by his classic investigation into the 
constitution of urea, showing that this was made up of inorganic con- 
stituents. His life, in fact, links the modern discoveries in organic 
chemistry with the glorious achievements of the first quarter of the 
present century. 


1882. 3 Trans. N. Y. Ac. Set. 


October 9, 1882. 


SECTION OF GEOLOGY. 


The President, Dr. J. S. NEWBERRY, in the Chair. 

Forty-five persons present. 

The following specimens were exhibited; by Mr. W. L. CHAMBER- 
LIN, apatite from Renfrew, Canada, and crystals of emerald enclos- 
ing crystals of red rutile, from Hiddenite mine, N. C.; by Mr.G. F. 
Kunz, “star mica” from St. Lawrence County, N. Y., and a crys- 
tal of zircon, weighing twenty-eight Troy ounces, from Sebastopol, 
Renfrew County, Ontario, Canada ; by the PRESIDENT, a cast ofa 
trilobite (Asaphas gigas), from Illinois, which clearly exhibited the 
legs, and is remarkable as being the first specimen in which any 
locomotive organs have been discovered; and by Mr. Douc ass, a 
beautifully carved pipe from San Salvador, found fourteen feet be- 
low the surface, in old Indian workings, and which is regarded as 
antedating the Spanish invasion. 

A paper was read by Mr. F. Cope WHITEHOUSE, largely illus- 
trated by magic lantern views, entitled: 


THE CAVES OF THE ISLAND OF STAFFA: ARE THEY NOT ARTI- 
FICIAL ? 


(This is embodied in a paper in the Popular Sczence Monthly, Decem- 


ber, 1882.) 
DISCUSSION. 


Prof. E. H. Day remarked on the great interest of the subject, and 
at the same time on the large amount of caution required in the in- 
vestigation and acceptance of such views. Nature, having been the 
undoubted author of so many caves, can very well afford to man the 
credit of having made one here or there, and these perhaps amongst 
them. But to establish this claim we need, either direct proofs of man’s 
handiwork, which, if beyond dispute, would be conclusive evi- 
dence; or else proof that geological action could not have produced 
such results, a proposition that it would be impossible to solve beyond 
greater or less probability. In the first line of proof, Prof. DAy had 
heard scarcely a word of direct evidence that would stand scientific 
test, and in the second, he thought that the author had ignored some 
of the most important geological factors. 

Perhaps the strongest geological evidence, in favor of the artificial 
origin of the caves in Staffa, was the fact that at the Giant’s Cause- 
way, in similarly formed basaltic and columnar rocks, there are no 
caves, although the coast there is exposed to the full force of the At- 


Trans, NAV Age Séz. 4 Oct. 9, 


lantic seas; whilst in the neighboring chalk cliffs there are several 
deep caves. Prof. DAy described one of these caves which can be de- 
scended into at the landward end. (Mr.WHITEHOUSE here exhibited to 
the audience a view of this cave, which he said was ‘“‘ the very one that 
first suggested to him, that the caves of Staffa, as well as these, were 
artificial.’’) In continuation, Prof. DAY stated that Mr. WHITEHOUSE 
laid great stress on the necessity of very heavy waves to produce such 
caves. He reminded him that water charged with gravel and sand was 
the real agent of erosion, and that water so charged, even if only gently 
moved, could in the course of time produce great destruction. More- 
over, waves of very limited size have very great destructive powers, as 
evidenced in the displacement of the granite blocks, that form the tur- 
tleback built to protect Execution Lighthouse in the Sound. Nor is 
there any proof, that the speaker knew of, that heavy ocean waves do 
bore caves into cliffs in the direction of their impact. The very vi- 
olence and evenness of their attack is opposed to such a result. If one 
section of a cliff is weaker or more exposed than the rest, a bay will be 
formed ; and a projecting headland between two such bays may be 
eaten through from each side, not by the direct attack of the heavy 
breakers, but rather by the incessant swirl of the waters, as they eddy 
around in the bays at its base. In such case, first a cave, then a high 
arch, and finally a chasm would be formed, but transversely to, not in 
the line of attack of, the ocean waves. Such arches, and the isolated 
pinnacles which are the final results, are common features on every rock- 
bound coast. 

Moisture laden with sea-salts was a powerful though slow agent of 
erosion, very effective, as the speaker had seen, alike on churches on 
the south coast of England, built of perishable marlstone, and on 
the granite cliffs of Cornwall. To assume, as the author did, that frost 
had played no part in the formation of these caves, because there was at 
the present day no frost to speak of in that locality, and to argue that 
the sea could not at its present level have its share in the work, is to 
assume that there have been no changes of level in the coast of Scotland, 
and no changes of climate, since the commencement of the formation 
of these caves—a proposition that begs the whole question of the date 
of their origin. 

Again, the author had totally ignored the action of water percolating 
through rocks, as another assistant in the work of erosion. That water 
did percolate through these rocks was evident from the mention made 
of stalactites in these caves ; and, in some of the pictures shown, it cer- 
tainly appeared as if the caves had been formed along lines of fissure. 
(Mr. WHITEHOUSE stated positively, however, that there were no fis- 
sures.) In all limestone cliffs we may expect to find caves which had 


1882. 5 Trans. IN. VY. Ac) Scz. 


been underground water-courses, when the land stood at a different 
level; and the very form and arrangement of the cave, just now alluded 
to, in the chalk, near the Giant’s Causeway, as Deing of artificial origin, 
showed that it was nothing but an ordinary limestone cave, which had 
been laid open by the encroachment of the ocean, and subsequently 
modified by atmospheric and aqueous agencies. 

The argument, that the three caves described, on Staffa, were placed 
by design directly opposite Iona, would have more force if there were 
not other caves on the island not so situated; nor could great stress 
be laid on the approximate similarity of the measurements in case of 
two of the caves. 

In conclusion, it seemed futile to argue that the action of the sea 
and of running water and of the atmosphere, as we find them at Staffa 
now, were unable to have excavated these caves in times past. Much 
less was it safe to drag in chalk caves as evidence of the artificial 
character of caves in basalt. The only argument of any weight in 
support of the whole theory seemed to be the general statement that 
caves such as these are not ordinarily met with in rocks at all resemb- 
ling in character those of Staffa. 

Mr. KUNZ enquired as to the depth of water and form of the ter- 
minal slopes in the caves. 

Mr. WHITEHOUSE replied that there were no appearances of change 
of level at Staffa, and that the force of the waves did not reach the 
upper part of the caves. The depth of water in the Clamshell Cave 
was nine feet at the inner end, and the cave there terminated in an ir- 
regular steep slope. In recapitulation of the principal arguments : 

1. There is no probability that five caves in a thousand yards would 
be formed by five different causes. 

2. If a trap dyke formed Fingal’s cave, it is geologically impossible 
that there was any “ fault” in Boat, Cormorant’s or Clam Shell. 

3. There is no “‘ fissure” above Cormorant’s cave. The triangular 
opening in its columnar basalt corresponds to that in the confused 
basalt above Fingal’s. 

4. Confused basalt could not crack in a long straight fissure. 

5. Tuff, underlying columnar basalt, makes a rocky shore sur- 
mounted by a steep slope of basalt. The basalt is practically solid— 
forms a “ pier’ not a “hay.” 

6. Why was the debris removed to an unknown distance ? 

7. Why did the momentum of the waves limit itself without appa- 
rent cause, and leave thin walls of tuff or basalt ? 

The PRESIDENT stated the impossibility of deciding such a question 
without a visit to the locality. He had seen many coasts undergoing 
erosion, but never any excavated like this, merely by the force of the 


Trans. N. ¥. Ac. Sct. 6 Oct. 16, 


waves. Ifin fact no dykes nor fissures existed, such tunnel-like cham- 
bers could hardly have been perforated by natural causes, for they are 
on various sides of the island, in various kinds of rocks, and the debris 
is entirely cleared away. If the caves had been produced by causes 
now in action, the fallen blocks would remain. The material of the 
blocks is tough and not liable to disintegration ; nevertheless it has 
been thoroughly cleared out, as though by the hand of man; no shin- 
gle being found on the shore. It is important to notice that the ap- 
proaches to the caves are over low, flat ground, furrowed by canals 
leading up to their entrances, z. ¢., as if artificially excavated for the 
entrance. 


October 16, 1882. 


SECTION OF GEOLOGY. 


The President, Dr. J. S. NEWBERRY, in the Chair. 
Twenty-four persons present. 
A paper was read by Dr. ALexis A. JULIEN, on 
THE GENESIS OF THE CRYSTALLINE IRON ORES. 
(Abstract.) 


Theories of two classes have been advanced, referring the origin of 
the crystalline ores to extraneous and indigenous origin. Under the 
first class, three may be mentioned : 

1. Meteoric fall.—This was suggested in reference to the huge 
hematite deposit of Cerro de Mercado, in Mexico. 

2. Eruption as dykes._-A theory advanced to account for many 
foreign deposits, and also those of Huronian age in the vicinity of 
Lake Superior, etc. 

3. Sublimation into fissures.—A theory founded on the observation 
of crusts of specular oxide of iron in the lavas of Vesuvius, etc. | 

Objections to these theories were briefly presented. The theories at- 
tributing the origin of crystalline ores to indigenous origin are of two’ 
kinds, chemical and mechanical. Several chemical theories have been 
proposed : 

4. Concentration from ferriferous rocks, or lean ores: if silicious, by 
thermal solutions: if calcareous, by carbonated waters. Subaerial 
processes of this kind cannot account for the origin of submarine sedi- 
ments, such as the crystalline iron ores. 

5. Saturation of porous strata by infiltrating ferriferous solutions.—— 
Such a process could not produce huge bodies of pure ore, nor the 
alternation of pure materials in the lean laminated ores. 

6. Infiltration into subterranean chambers.—The form, lamination, 


1882. T divans. IN VYA-AGaSce. 


and coincidence with the bedding planes, separate the ore bodies of 
crystalline character from recent deposits formed in this way. 

7. Derivation from deep-sea deposits——The form and structure of 
the nodules in the ooze differ widely from those of the ores under dis- 
cussion, while the strata associated with the latter are evidently shal- 
low-water deposits. 

8. The metamorphism of ancient bog-ores.—This theory, now com- 
monly accepted and taught in all the text-books, is unsatisfactory, from 
the absence of evidence, within the crystalline strata, of any terres- 
trial or subaerial surfaces on which such bogs or marshes could have 
rested ; all the surfaces appear to be submarine. 

Two theories of mechanical origin remain yet to be considered : 

g. Violent abrasion and transport, by volcanic agencies combined 
with powerful currents.—To this it has been properly objected that 
the results of such violent agencies would be altogether conglomeritic. 

1o. Concentration and metamorphism of iron-sands.—Abundant 
instances of such concentration are shown along our coasts, and the 
deposits found along the St. Lawrence often contain but five or six per 
cent. of siliceous impurity. As the loose sands so concentrated 
consist at various localities of quartz, garnet, ehrysolite, menaccanite, 
magnetite, etc., so we find in the metamorphic rocks their indurated 
counterparts, quartzyte, garnetyte, dunyte, menaccanyte, magnetyte, 
etc. The intermixture of garnet with magnetite, or its intercalation 
in separate alternating beds, is as common in the rocks as in the pres- 
ent oceanic sands. The thin interlamination of magnetite, martite or 
hematite with jasper, in the Huronian jasper-schist, corresponds to the 
still more frequent association now found along our sea-beaches. The 
abundance of ore beds of pure magnetite, free from apatite, in the strata 
of the Lower Laurentian of Ontario, and of menaccanite, more or less 
mixed with the other ore, in those of the Upper Laurentian of Quebec, 
Canada, appear to correspond with the general distribution of magnetite 
grains through the gneisses of the former, and grains of menaccanite 
through the anorthosites and traps of the latter formation. In bog 
ores no concentration of titanic acid has ever been found; its abun- 
dance in the form of menaccanite seems to necessarily involve a me- 
chanical origin, and a vast source of that mineral is presented in its 
form of fine distribution through the rocks mentioned. 


DISCUSSION. 


Dr. J. S. NEWBERRY said that he would not claim that the chemical 
theory best explained the origin of all bodies of iron ore, but, he 
thought, it was applicable to most. It was not limited to mere terres- 
trial deposits like bog ores, but equally well accounted for marine 


Trans. N. Y. Ac. Sez. 8 Oct. 16, 


deposits like the the Clinton ore, which in his view was most like the 
magnetites and hematites of the Archzan rocks. At various places 
iron-sands are accumulating on our present coasts, as at Moisé, on the 
St. Lawrence, on Long Island, and on the coasts of Japan and New 
Zealand. It is only reasonable to suppose that such accumulations 
took place in ancient times, and that these were represented in some 
of the ore beds now known. The suggestion of Mr. JULIEN was new 
and important ; but various facts, such as the presence of phosphorus, 
the absence of foreign minerals and the retention of limonite structure, 
seem to indicate that nearly all of our important iron ore deposits had 
been formed by chemical rather than organic processes. 


Prof. D. S. Martin then remarked upon 
A NEW EURYPTERID FROM THE CATSKILL GROUP. 
(Abstract). 


The specimen of the fossil referred to had recently been seen by him 
in the State Geological Collection at Albany. The family of the 
Eurypterids forms an exceedingly interesting group of crustaceans, 
constituting, with the Trilobites and the Xiphosura or Limuloids, the 
order Merostomata—which has by some authors been separated 
from the other crustacea and raised to the rank of a distinct class, or 
at least sub-class. The existing Zzmu/us, or “ horse-shoe crab,” of our 
own seéa-coast, is a familiar type of the group, which is otherwise almost 
wholly extinct ; its relations to the other orders were briefly referred to. 
The Eurypterid family was best developed in the Water-lime Group of 
the Upper Silurian, but has been found to range through a large part 
of the Palceozoic rocks, both of our own country and of Europe—Mr, 
Walcott’s lately-described genus, Echznorhynchus, carrying it down to 
the Utica Slate of the Lower Silurian, while others are known even as 
high as the Carboniferous. The specimen in question consists of a 
very large head-shield—nearly a foot in length and breadth—and is 
named Stylolurus excelstor. It was found in the Catskill group, at 
Andes, in Delaware County, N. Y., and from its form and the position 
of the eyes, has been referred to the genus Styloyturus, which has not 
before been recognized in this country. 


DISCUSSION. 


The PRESIDENT stated that the original specimen, to which reference 
was made by Prof. Martin, was now in the possession of Prof. Geo. H. 
Cook of New Jersey. The rocks of the Catskill group were generally 
barren of fossils, only a few fishes and plants having been found. It 
was a local deposit, probably of fresh water origin, corresponding in 
character to parts of the Old Red Sandstone of England, but it was not 


1882. 9 Trans. N. Y. Ac. Sez. 


of Devonian age. The coal measures of Pennsylvania contain similar 
crustacea, many having recently been discovered at Darlington. 


October 23. 


SECTION OF GEOLOGY. 


The President, Dr. J. S. NEWBERRY, in the Chair. 

Forty-two persons present. 

The resignation of Mr. STRANG was accepted. 

The following specimens were exhibited: by Mr. G. F. Kunz, 
white pyroxene, found associated with white garnet in the vicinity 
of the Gatineau River, Canada, and also geodes of calcedony, 
filled with water, from Uraguay; by Mr. W. F. CHAMBERLIN, a 
garnet weighing 2 pounds and rx ounces, 3? inches in diameter, 
with faces curiously striated parallel to the lines of cleavage, found 
on New York Island, near 145th street, where another had been 
also seen, 5 inches in diameter, but broken. 

The PresipENT remarked that he had found geodes in cavities of 
the tufaceous rocks of Oregon. These had been once filled by hot 
water, carrying silica in solution, then partly or completely occupied 
by a deposition of agate, onyx, etc., and on the erosion and re- 
moval of the surrounding matrix, the geodes remained, thus repre- 
senting casts of the cavities. 

A series of TRUBELOW’S astronomical drawings was then ex- 
hibited by Dr. NewBerry, and pronounced the most striking and 
satisfactory ever made. 

Dr. N. L. Brrrron then presented the following paper, illustrated 
by a collection of fossils : 


NOTES ON THE CRETACEOUS MARL-BELT OF NEW JERSEY. 
(Abstract.) 


The notes had been taken during a six weeks’ collecting tour, in con- 
nection with the Geological Survey of New Jersey. The special 
object was to procure invertebrate fossils from the different marl beds 
and associated strata, in order to aid in the preparation of a report, on 
the invertebrate palzontology of the State, by Prof. R. P. WHITFIELD. 

The geological structure, and the relations of the three marl beds, to 
the other Cretaceous and Tertiary strata, were described.* The beds 
are all referred to the Cretaceous Age, with the exception of the upper 


* For a detailed description, see ‘‘ Geology of New Jersey,’’ 1868. 


Trans. N. Y. Ac. Sez. 10 Oct. 23, 


layers of the Upper Bed, which are supposed to belong to the Eocene 
Tertiary. 

The strike of the marl outcrops is about S. 55° W., and these crop- 
pings extend from the Highlands of Navesink and Deal Beach on the 
Atlantic coast, to the head of Delaware Bay, the outcrops of the beds 
running in a general way parallel with each other. The Lower and 
Middle Beds outcrop at points throughout this entire distance of one 
hundred miles, while the Upper Bed croppings are not found further 
southwest than Clementon, about sixty miles from Deal Beach. 
Beyond this place the Upper Bed does not come to the surface and 
is not known to exist. 


The strata dip toward the southeast about thirty feet to the mile. 


The Lower Marl Bed. 


This bed rests on strata of laminated sands, which compose the 
upper layers of the deposits called the “Clay Marls,’ from the 
nature of the materials of which they are constituted. These clay 
marls contain numerous fossils ; but few openings have been made on 
them, as the material is less valuable for fertilizing purposes than the 
greensand marls occurring higher in the series. The component 
layers of the Lower Bed are: (1), two to four feet of sandy marl, 
containing a small percentage of greensand; (2), twelve to sixteen 
feet of blue marl, with much greensand and considerable carbonate 
of lime; and (3), a layer of about ten feet of clay and marl mixed, 
which shades off into (2), the upper part of (3) containing little green- 
sand. Much sulphate of iron occurs in the upper layer, often render- 
ing the marl very astringent. 

One of the prominent features of this bed is the “shell layer.’’ 
This stratum is about half-way through the blue marl (2), and is 
almost entirely made up of shells of Gryphea vestcular¢s, Cuv. It 
varies from six to fourteen inches in thickness and extends entirely 
across the State. The shells are generally large—many of them 
six or eight inches across, frequently even larger—the convex valve 
commonly well preserved, the flat one mostly imperfect. The marl 
which underlies this “shell layer” contains the rarer fossils of the 
bed, mostly as casts, the substance of their shells being very gener- 
ally removed. Above the shell layer are most of the more common 
fossils, whose shells are generally preserved. Among these are 
Exogyra costata, Say; Ostrea larva, Lam. (most abundant in the 
clay and marl layer (3); Zerebratella plicata, Say ; Belemnitella mu- 
cronata, Schloth (the phragmocones of this species are abundant at 
some localities); and Mezthea Mortonz, D’Orb. (abundant in frag- 
ments). Under the Gryfh@a layer occur most of the other fossils 


1882. i Trans. N. Y. Ac. Set. 


of the Lower Bed, and it seems that, the deeper the marl is pene- 
trated, the more numerous and varied do these become. Here occur 
the Ammonztes and Baculttes; the Pectens, Cuculleas, <Arcas, 
Cardiums and the many forms of gasteropods. 

Above the Lower Marl Bed lies a stratum of sand, colored more or 
less red by sesquioxide of iron, and hence termed the “ Red Sand 
Bed.” This attains in places a thickness of one hundred feet and 
contains Lower Bed fossils, as at Mullica Hill, where the very 
numerous fossils are found in a hard indurated marl, which there 
occurs near the summit of this Red Sand Bed, 


Thz Middle Marl Bed. 


This overlies the Red Sand and is composed of three well defined 
layers, viz. ; 

(1), A green marl layer, made up almost entirely of greensand 
grains; this merges into the indurated marl of the Red Sand Bed, 
or into a chocolate colored marl, in its southwestern extension. This 
layer contains few shells, but many bones and teeth of saurians ; 
and some very perfect skeletons of AZosasaurus, etc., have been taken 
from it. 

(2), A shell layer; this is another feature in the marl bed geology. 
It averages about five feet in thickness, and is composed of two 
species of shells, thickly imbedded in greensand. The lower two- 
thirds of its thickness are made up of Gryfhea vestcularzs, Cuv., of 
a very uniform size-—about three inches across—none of the very 
large ones which compose the shelly layer of the Lower Bed being 
here observable. The upper third is composed of shells and casts 
of Terebratula Harlanz, Mort., and occasionally some of the very 
closely allied 7. fragzlis, Mort. The TYerebratulas are commonly 
called ‘‘squirrel-heads,”” and when well preserved make beautiful 
fossils. This shell layer extends from Long Branch to the Delaware. 
It is overlain by (3), the stratum of limestone and less compact lime- 
sand, generally of a white or light yellow color, which forms the top of 
this bed and is a deep water deposit. It is thickest in the south- 
western part of the marl belt, attaining a thickness of over twenty 
feet in Salem County. It may be traced entirely across the State, 
being observable, on the Atlantic coast, about Long Branch, where 
the rock is occasionally washed out by the waves. Here, however, 
its thickness is much less. In Monmouth County, it is almost all 
“Jimesand,” but parts of it become more compact as we proceed 
southwestwardly, and the rock is sufficiently hard to be burned for 
lime. 

This stratum contains numerous fossils. Bryozoa of many species 


Trans. N. Y. Ac. Sez. 12 Oct. 23; 


occur, the most common one being Lschara digitata, Mort. A few 
foraminifera of quite large size have been found at this horizon in 
Monmouth County. The spines of echinoderms are abundant, and 
rarely a well preserved test is found. Thecoral, .Wontcvalt¢a Atlantica, 
Mort., occurs (scarce). Quantities of Polorthus tzbzalzs, Mort., the tubes 
varying greatly in size, and some other small lamellibranchs occur; 
there are also a few gasteropods. The coiled articulate, Spzrulea 
rotula, Mort., is abundant. 

The limesand layer becomes somewhat mixed with quartz sand in 
its upper portion, and finally changes into the Yellow Sand Bed, which 
is forty or fifty feet thick in Monmouth County, but only ten to twenty 
feet thick in the western part of the State. This stratum is barren of 
fossils. 

The Upper Marl Bed. 

This rests on the Yellow Sand. As has already been stated, its out- 
crop is not so extensive as those of the other two beds; for further 
southwest than Clementon, Camden County, it has not been noticed. 
Its greatest development is in eastern Monmouth County, in the vicinity 
of Farmingdale, Squankum, Shark River and Deal Beach. Here it is 
represented by : 

(1), Seventeen feet of green marl, mainly composed of glauconite 
(greensand), with numerous fossils. Among these may be noted the 
lamellibranchs, Cyprzma Morrzszz, Con,, Crassatella Delawarensts, 
Gabb, and a small unnamed Gryfhea ; two or three species of gas- 
teropods, which are not abundant; the coral, 7rochosimzlza conozdes, 
Gabb and Horn ; the echinoderm, Wuc/leolztes cructfer, Mort., and num- 
erous teeth of sharks and rays of several species. 

(2), About eight feet of the “ash marl,” so-called from the ashy ap- 
pearance of the heaps. This contains no greensand, but is composed 
of fine quartz sand, mixed with a greenish white clay; it is nearly bar- 
ren of fossils. 

(3), About eleven feet of blue marl, which tops this series of marl 
beds. The upper two to four feet of this layer is a hard, rock-like, light 
blue substance, which is full of fossils and has been referred to the 
Eocene. This stony marl is well exposed at Shark River, Deal Beach, 
and along the Manasquan River, near Squankum, but is unknown in the 
western continuation of the bed. Among its fossils are the large coiled 
cephalopods, JVaudzlus Dekayz, Mort., and the rarer Aturza 
Vanuxemz, Conrad ; the conchifer, Venerccardza perantigua, Con., 
which is the most common fossil occurring in it, and several other 
bivalves and gasteropods of a large size, abundant and of several 
species. 

From the eastern Monmouth County localities, above mentioned, to 


1882. 13 Trans. N. Y. Ac. Sct. 


the vicinity of New Egypt, Ocean County, a distance of thirty miles, 
there are no outcrops of the Upper Marl Bed. When it reappears at 
the last mentioned place, the layers referred to the Eocene are absent, 
and they do not again appear further towards the west. 

The fossils, Crassatclla Delawarensis, Gabb, and Mucleoletes crucifer, 
Mort., are more abundant at New Egypt than in eastern Monmouth 
County. Here occurs also another unnamed bivalve, in the green marl 
layer, which has not been noticed about Farmingdale, etc. This green 
layer is dug at Poke Hill and Vincentown, Burlington County, and con- 
tains the shells of a small Gryphea, apparently G. vestcularts, Cuv., 
in a dwarfed condition, about one and a half inches across. 


DISCUSSION. 


Mr. G. F. KUNZ remarked that he had observed abundant creta- 
ceous fossils at Ruby’s, including a piece of amber of the dimensions 
of 1 by 6 by 20 inches: also, at Mullica Hill, dufreynite, vivianite, 
etc., in abundance, the latter sometimes in crystals one inch in length. 

Dr. BRITTON stated that vivianite occurred in great abundance in the 
sands of the lower marl-bed, entirely replacing many of the shells; also 
at the well-known locality, still unexhausted, at Mullica Hill, in radiated 
forms and often occupying the casts of belemnitella; at Colson’s Pits, 
on the drift; in clays on the Delaware River, at Fishhouse Sta- 
tion, etc. 


A paper was then read by Dr. J. S. NEWBERRY, 
ON THE ORIGIN OF CRYSTALLINE IRON ORES. 


(Abstract.) 


At a recent meeting of the Academy, Dr. JULIEN read an interesting 
and instructive paper on the origin of crystalline iron ores, in which he 
attempted to show that they are the product of mechanical rather than 
chemical agencies. 

In bringing this subject again before the Academy, it is not my pur- 
pose to attempt to refute, but rather to supplement and limit, the theory 
of Dr. JULIEN. 

I will not deny that some of the beds of magnetic iron ore, described 
by Dr. JULIEN, in the Alleghany belt, have been formed by the sorting 
power of shore waves, and that he has made an important contribution 
to the literature of iron, by his careful study and description of these 
beds ; but that such cases, if they exist, are exceptional, and do not 
affect the truth and validity of the organico-chemical theory, I shall en- 
deavor to prove by a brief report of some facts which have come under 
my observation. 


TGANS. INS Vlei (O62. 14 Octi25, 


The most important deposits of iron ore, known to exist in the 
United States, may be grouped as follows : 

1. Magnetic ores of the Laurentian rocks of Canada, the Adiron- 
dacks, and the Alleghany belt. 

. The Huronian hematites of Lake Superior and Missouri. 

. The crystalline ores of the Rocky Mountains and the Wasatch. 

. The limonite ores of the Atlantic slope and the Mississippi Valley. 
. The Clinton ores. 

. The carbonates of the Coal-Measures. 

7. The spathic carbonates of New England, Idaho, etc. 

The Laurentian magnetites form lenticular sheets, sometimes more 
than one hundred feet in thickness, and extending half a mile or more. 
In many instances they are enclosed in walls of gneiss, slate, or marble. 
They often contain much titanium, and have, as almost universal impuri- 
ties (somewhat vicarious with titanium,) pyrite and apatite. Some of 
the beds are also highly charged with manganese ; they usually contain 
but little silica and alumina, and are the richest of our iron ores. 

The characters they present, which seem incompatible with the theory 
of mechanical accumulation, are the following. First, their great magni- 
tude, combined with their prevailing purity. Secondly, the large quantity 
of apatite contained, which we must regard as of organic origin and there- 
fore supporting the chemical’theory, and so different from the magne- 
tite in gravity as impossible to be mingled with it by any mechanical 
agency. ‘Thirdly, the occurrence of great sheets of magnetite between 
strata of limestone, like the Franklinite ore, or enclosed in layers of 
limestone and argillite, like the bog-bed at Marmora, Canada. The 
fact, that the slate and the limestone are deposits from deep and quiet 
water, seems incompatible with the view that these strata have been 
brought into their present association by mechanical means. Fourthly, 
the frequent impregnation of magnetites with manganese, a material of 
much lighter gravity, and an almost constant constituent of limonite, 
goes far to prove such magnetic beds chemical rather than mechanical 
deposits. Fifthly, the aluminous magnetites, like that of Croton Land- 
ing, which contain almost no silica, could hardly have been formed by the 
agency of shore waves, which always mingle more or less sand with 
whatever they deposit. 

For these reasons, I must consider the mechanical theory as inade- 
quate to account for the genesis of most of the magnetites of Canada 
and the Eastern States. 

The specular ores of Lake Superior and Missouri offer objections to 
the mechanical theory, in both their regularity of deposition, and their 
mineral character. First, they are sometimes interstratified with jasper 
—once fine silicious sand—in layers of great regularity and of extreme 


Aw PW N 


1882. 16 Trans. N. V. Ac. Sez. 


thinness: a structure which would be the natural product of sedimen- 
tation but hardly of mechanical washing. Secondly, they could never 
have been deposited as hematite by shore waves, since this mineral 
forms animpalpable powder which never accumulates by itself. We 
must therefore suppose that all these great iron ore beds are pseudo- 
morphs after magnetite, or that they are the result of sedimentation by 
organic agencies and subsequent metamorphism. 

The iron ore of Iron Mountain is enclosed in “ porphyry ’—probably 
a metamorphosed sediment really fused in place,—but some of the 
masses of ore are thickly set with crystals of apatite, which afford an 
equally conclusive argument against the volcanic and the mechanical 
theories. In the ore of Simmons Mountain, masses of magnetite occur 
which retain perfectly their radiated, limonite structure ; and there can 
be no question but that this has been deposited by a chemico-organic 
process. 

The deposits of magnetic iron in Southern Utah,—the most exten- 
sive of which I have any knowledge,—are in places very conspicuously 
and evenly stratified and thus exhibit all the signs of having been de- 
posited as sediments. They are associated with limestone and a grani- 
toid metamorphic rock. Along certain lines, the ore is thickly set with 
crystals of apatite, and some of the largest masses are in great part com- 
posed of magnetite, which shows everywhere limonite structure. From 
these facts it is easy to see that these great deposits have not been 
formed by mechanical agencies. 

In regard to the sparry carbonates which form vein-stones, and the 
earthy carbonates of the Coal measures, there can be no question of 
their origin. They have all been formed by chemical precipitation. 

The Clinton ores are interstratified with limestone, form continuous 
sheets of great extent, and constitute on the whole the most consider- 
able deposits of iron ore in this country. They were apparently formed 
in the same way that the granular lake ores are now deposited, by the 
precipitation of iron from solution in a water basin, surrounded by land 
having a ferruginous drainage. The quantity of phosphorus they 
contain, derived from the organic matter deposited with them, is a con- 
spicuous feature in the composition of the Clinton ores, and apparently 
explains its abundance in many of our crystalline ores. After a careful 
study of the structure, composition and surroundings of our most im- 
portant deposits of magnetic and specular ores, I am compelled to con- 
clude that they have generally been derived from stratified deposits, 
accumulated by chemico-organic agencies, and once closely resembled 
our stratified ores of the upper Silurian and Devonian ; and that any beds 
which accumulated as iron sand on beaches must be rare exceptions 
to the general rule. 


Trans. N. Y. Ae. Scz. 16 Oct. 23, 


DISCUSSION. 

Mr. A. A. JULIEN pointed out that the theory thus presented by Dr. 
Newberry was a new one, and might be designated as the ‘“‘ Lake ore 
theory,” in contradistinction from the marsh or bog ore theory now 
commonly accepted. The difference is sharply defined in the following 
quotations from the Manual of Geology by Prof. J. D. DANA. In his 
discussion of the Upper Silurian deposits, that author states (p. 231): 
“the beds of argillaceous iron ore . . . could not have been formed 
in an open sea, for clayey iron deposits do not accumulate under such 
circumstances. They are proof of extensive marshes, and, therefore, 
of land near the sea level. The fragments of crinoids and shells found 
in these beds are evidence that they were, in part at least, salt water 
marshes, and that the tides sometimes reached them.’’ Again he re- 
marks (p. 357), concerning the American continent during the Carbon- 
iferous age: ‘‘ It may have been long a region of barren marshes, and 
in this condition it might have received its iron ore deposits, as now 
marshes become occupied by bog ores.” 

In reference to the Laurentian deposits (p. 155), he states: ‘“ Lime- 
stone strata occurred among the alternations, and argillaceous iron ores, 
though vastly more extensive.” And again, “ the argillaceous iron ore 
has become the bright hematite or magnetite, and it is banded by or 
alternates with schist and quartz, etc., which were once accompanying 
clay and sand-layers.” 

However, it is hard to conceive the growth of crinoids and shells in 
salt water marshes, even if reached by the tides, in the free abundance 
indicated by the crowded organic forms in the Clinton ore beds, and of 
these the lake ore theory presents a more satisfactory explanation. It 
also well accounts for the origin of the enormous ore deposits of hema- 
tite, of magnetite still retaining a pseudomorphous structure after 
limonite, and of all iron ores rich in calcium phosphate. This theory 
is not necessary to account for the presence of pyrite, since the presence 
of any vegetable matter, e. ¢., alge growing and decaying in sands or 
mud, is always likely to produce the de-oxidation of sulphates and iron 
oxide; nor does it account at all for the abundance of titanic acid and 
alumina in many iron ores. 

On the other hand, the mechanical accumulation of iron sands, by agi- 
tation of the waves and currents, would appear to account more simply 
for the smaller but more numerous deposits thickly dispersed through- 
out the crystalline rocks, varying in size from scattered grains to little 
flakes and lenses a few centimeters in length, and even thick ore beds 
many meters in thickness and diameter. The close association, often 
observed, of materials of widely different specific gravity, e. g., shale 
and limestone with the magnetic ores, need not appear anomalous, 


1882. 17 Trans. N. VY. Ac. Séz. 


since they may all have a shallow water origin, deposited by marine 
currents differing in force and direction at different times. The absence 
of such mechanical deposits from the sedimentary formations is not 
established, since even some of the hematites and bog ores may re- 
present the results of oxidation and hydration of original magnetite 
sands; while, on the other hand, the huge beds of menaccanite found in 
Canada and elsewhere, which have not yet found their parallel among 
the sedimentary strata, may indeed show a certain difference of conditions 
during the deposit of the ancient crystalline rocks. The comparative 
regularity of the thin alternating lamin, which make up the ferruginous © 
jasper schists of Huronian terranes, appears analogous to that every- 
where prevailing in a cross section of beach sands along our oceanic 
border ; while the mountain masses of this rock, with lamine of magne- 
tite, or of octahedra of martite after magnetite, or of hematite in triangu- 
lar scales after martite—all these ores being remarkably free from cal- 
cium phosphate—are most simply explained by the accumulations upon 
a sea bottom, strewn alternately with fine silicious silt, and with octahe- 
dra of magnetite. The presence of manganese oxide in iron ores may 
often be due, as at the Buckhorn mine tn North Carolina,* merely to the 
decomposition of a manganese garnet originally concentrated as a me- 
chanical sediment, while the concentration of titanic acid and of alu- 
mina, in many iron ores, is perfectly explained by the accumulation of 
heavy sands of menaccanite, corundum, etc. Ina magnetic iron ore of 
S. G. 4.5, occurring in serpentine at South Ham, Quebec, Canada, the 
percentage constitution reported + (Fe 44.69, Cr 2O# 8.31, Ti O? 21.64) 
is equivalent to a mixture of three minerals known to occur in iron 
sands: magnetite, 50, chromite, 13, and menaccanite, 37 per cent. 

The consideration of these facts would lead to the conclusion that 
the mode of genesis of a bed of magnetic iron ore may be often deter- 
mined by the following diagnosis : 

When the ore presents structural characteristics allied to those of 
limonite, or when hematite occurs in included masses, or when the ore 
contains a notable amount of phosphorus, a chemical origin is prob- 
ably indicated. 

When the ore is almost free from phosphorus or isrich in titanic or 
chromic acid or alumina, or closely associated or mixed with granular 
garnet or olivine, a mechanical origin may be inferred. 

Mr. N. F. DARTON stated that he had found over two per cent. of 
chromic acid in the limonite ores of Staten Island, and Mr. N. L. BRIT= 
TON, from 1.6 to 3 per cent. in the ores of the same region. 


* W. C. Kerr, Geol. of N. C., I, 222. 
t B. J. Harrington, Can. Nat., 1881, IX, 309. 


Trans. N. Y. Ac. Sct. 18 Oct. 30, 


October 30, 1882. 


SECTION OF PHYSICS. 


The President, Dr. J. S. Newserry, in the Chair. 

Fifty-two persons present. 

The following specimens were exhibited : 

By the PRESIDENT, proustite or ruby silver from Chile, remarka- 
ble for rich color and beautiful crystallization. 

By the SecrEeTaRyY, wad (bog manganese) from Norwich, Vt. 
made up of aggregated nodules easily crushed by the fingers and 
entirely dissolved in chlorhydric acid. It is found near outcrops of 
mica slate, on high ground overlooking the Connecticut river, in 
a bed six inches thick, directly below the turf of a pasture, and in 
masses of 6 or 8 pounds. 

Also soapstone, from one of two transported masses, lying above 
high water mark on the west bank of the Connecticut river, at 
Olcott’s Falls, Norwich, Vt. These masses are about 6 ft. x 2 ft. 
x 1 ft. each, entirely unworn, and transported, we may fairly con- 
clude, in the glacial period, and from the nearest northern locality, 
which is Sunday Mountain in Oxford, N. H., about 20 miles. 
directly north. No transported masses of this material are men- 
tioned in the Geological Reports of New Hampshire or Vermont. 

The PREsIDENT remarked on the somewhat frequent occurrence 
of such forms of “bog manganese,” and the similarity of its pro- 
duction, in the chemical processes involved, to that of “ bog iron 
ore.” 


A paper was read by Prof. W. P. TRowsripcE, entitled, 


IMPORTANCE OF EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCHES IN MECHANICAL 
SCIENCE. 


(Published in full in the Mew Hnglander, February, 1883.) 
The following paper was read, by Prof. Joun K. REEs: 
RESUME OF OBSERVATIONS ON GOULD’S COMET (NOW VISIBLE). 


LI, Discovery. 


In accordance with the custom of naming a comet after its discoverer, 
it appears that this grand visitor to our system should be called Gould’s 
Comet. M. CRULS, of Rio de Janeiro, saw the comet in the morning 
sky on Sept. 12th, and, as he was thought for some time to have been 
the first to see the comet, it was called after him. 

DAVID GILL, writing from the observatory at the Cape of Good 


1882. 19 Trans. N. Y. Ac. Scé. 


Hope, remarked that Mr. FINLAY, the First Assistant, saw the comet 
at 5 A. M., Sept 8. 

Dr. GOULD, of Cordoba, ma ‘letter. dated Sept. 15, to S.,¢. 
CHANDLER, Jr., of Boston, stated that he had been observing a large 
comet for over a week. This undoubtedly was the one now visible» 
and Dr. GOULD appears to have been the first to see it. 

The comet was first observed in England, by Mr. A. A. COMMON. 
He was observing the sun ‘‘with a special telescope (reflector with 
glass reflecting surfaces only),” on the morning of September 17th, 
when he found a “ bright comet,” “ five minutes preceding the sun, and 
approaching fast.” This observation was madeat 10.45 A. M. 

Mr. CRULS thought his comet might be the expected Comet Pons of 
1812. This is considered an oversight, as the comet of 1812 should ap- 
pear much further north or south of the present comet, depending on 
whether the 18:2 comet was approaching, or receding from, peri- 
helion. 

Since the discovery of this grand comet, much attention has been. 
given it by observers here and abroad. The bad weather has greatly 
interfered with the observations. 


Ll. Aspect and Form. 


This comet will rank among the remarkable comets of the century. 
Mr. COMMON, as we have mentioned, saw the comet close to the sun 
at almost noontime ; and Mr. GILL observed the “ sudden disappearance 
of the comet at ingress on the sun's desc.” The comet was not visible 
onthesun. “ Mr. Gill’s remarkable observation,” says Vacure, ‘is with- 
out a precedent, and an extraordinary illustration of the intense bril- 
liancy which the comet attained at perihelion.” The comet swept 
around the sun, passing the perihelion point in three and a half hours. 
The velocity in turning about must have been enormous. 

The tail, before the comet passed around the sun, does not seem to 
have been of any great visible extent. Mr. COMMON estimated the 
length of the tail, on the 17th of September, just before reaching the 
perihelion, as 4’ in length. But the bright sunlight undoubtedly hid 
from view much of the tail’s faint light. 

Since the passage of perihelion, many observers have been watch- 
ing the comet with every means in their power—telescope, spectroscope 
and polariscope. ; 

M. BULARD, of Algiers, gives, in Vature for Oct. 12, a drawing of the 
head of the comet, showing the system of envelopes rising from the 
nucleus. Several recent bright comets have exhibited this same pecu- 
liarity. 

In Nature for Oct. 19, sketches by RICCO of Palermo are given. Prof, 


Lrans. N. Y. Ac. Scz. 20 Oct. 30, 


YOUNG, at Princeton, has sent me a letter from which I obtain the fol- 
lowing data: 


“The weather has been so bad here that we have been able to make 
but few observations of the comet. ° 

“1 send a note, from the Szderzal Messenger, of observations made here 
on the 19th and 20th of September. It has since been observed at 
the Halsted Observatory (with the 23-inch telescope) on October 2, 4 
and 15 (czvel ¢éme), and at the S.S. Observatory with the 9% tele- 
scope, on the roth and 24th. 

“On the 2d, the Spectrum showed very plainly the D lines in addition 
to the usual cometary (carbon) bands.* There was no sensible dis- 
placement due to motion. In the middle carbon band (near 4), the 
three bright lines, observed in the comet of 1881, came out finely. No 
dark lines could be seen, though there was a pretty strong continuous 
spectrum from the nucleus of the comet. 

“On the 4th, the D lines were barely visible, and since then the spec- 
trum has been simply that ordinarily shown by comets. The three 
bands have been visible in the spectrum of the tail to a considerable 
distance from the head. This I mention in opposition to the statement 
(which I think a mistake) that the spectrum of the tail is simply con- 
tinuous. 

“ In the Telescope.— On the 2d, the nucleus was elliptical, about 4” by 
8”. There was one well-formed parabolic envelope, and there was a 
dark streak following the nucleus. _ The edges of the streak were 
nearly parallel, pretty well defined, and it could be followed for about 
20’, till it lost itself in the tail. 

“On the 4th, the nucleus had become much elongated —something 
like an Indian club in form—large end towards the sun. The envelope 
had lost all definiteness of outline. The dark stripe beyond the nu- 
cleus was very faint, and along the northern edge of it there was a 
bright streak. 

“On the roth, the nucleus had assumed the appearance it has since 
retained, consisting of a spindle-shaped, slightly curved, nebulous 
streak of light, with five or six knots or centres of brightness scattered 
through it. The brightest of these knots (perhaps the true nucleus) 


* In the Dun Echt circular No. 56, sent from Lord Crawford’s Observatory, England, we 
read: ‘‘ The spectrum of the nucleus continuous, with many bright lines, of which D is 
by far the brightest ; all the bright lines displaced towards the red by about one-eighth of 
the interval of the D lines.’”? This separation would correspond to a motion of recession of 
about twenty miles per second. Prof. Youna’s observation was made after the comet had 

assed perihelion ; so also were the observations made at Dun Echt. The date of the Dun 
Bent observations was September 18. Ifa displacement showing motion really occurred, it 
will be the first time that such a phenomenon has been noted with reference to a comet. 
The observation is one of such delicacy that we must wait further corroboration before ac~ 
cepting the Dun Echt observation, especially as Prof. YounG has not been able to discover 
any sensible displacement. 


1882. 21 Trans. N. Y¥. Ac. Scé. 


was the ¢izrd from the sunward end of the spectrum; the fourth was 
nearly as bright, and the nebulosity between them was so much fainter 
than elsewhere, that in a small telescope, or in the large one after day- 
dawn, the nucleus seemed to be broken in two at this point.t+ 

“The nuclear streak was slightly curved, and the knots in it were a lit- 
tle out of line. A bright wisp extended from the end of it out into the 
tail. These appearances were well seen on the roth with the 9%-inch 
glass, and still better on the 15th with the 23-inch; on the 24th the 
moonlight was very strong, and the comet rather faint, but the same 
features could be still made out. 

“On the 15th, the nuclear streak measured 48" in length. 

“On the 15th and 24th, the companion comet was looked for, but I 
could not find it. 

“On the 2d, the head of the comet was brighter than Regulus, but 
not so bright as Sirius. It disappeared in the dawn, before Procyon 
even, but Procyon was farther from the sunrise. The tail was very 
bright, and well defined at both edges—about 144° long. 

“On the 4th, the head equalled Regulus. On the concave side of the 
tail (the northern), there was near the head a good deal of scattered 
nebulosity, visible to the naked eye, and veiling the outline of the tail 
in that region. 

“On the roth, nothing of special interest was noted, except that the 
outline of the tail, near the head, was less definite than before. 

“On the 15th, a very curious phenomenon* was noted, to which my 
attention had been called by a letter from Prof. SMITH, of Kansas State 
University. From the head of the comet there extended toward the sun 
a faint streamer of light, about %° wide, with nearly parallel edges, 
which were pretty sharply defined. It seemed to originate in the ¢az/ 
of the comet, a degree or so above the head, and extended towards the 
sun about 314° or so below the head, being 4° or 5° long in all. It 
faded away at the lower (sunward) end, without any definite boundary. 
It could be faintly made out with the naked eye, but was best seen 
with a small telescope of two inches aperture, magnifying about ten 
times. 

“The tail was nearly 20° long, and distinctly forked at the end, the 
convex side being prolonged by an oblique streamer. Head on the 
15th brighter than « Hydra, not so bright as Regulus. On the 24th, 
the head was about fourth magnitude star. I believe this embodies 
everything of importance noted here.” 


+ This will account for the many reports of the breaking up of the nucleus of the comet. 
Three condensation points were noted at Washington with the 26-inch glass, but nothing 
like a s#/zt was observed. 


* This same phenomenon was observed at Washington as early as October 8, when the 


sonyard appendage was between 30’ and 50’ long, and on the morning of the roth it was 3° 
ong. 


Trans N.Y. Ac. Sct. = Oct. 30, 


ITI. Orbit and Motion. 

Prof. Boss, Director ot the Dudley Observatory at Albany, was the 
first to point out the supposed identity of this comet with the comets 
of 1843 and 1880, and prophesied its speedy return. 

Mr. H1Np’s elements also lead us to believe that the 1843 comet and 
this one are the same. 

Mr. PROCTOR explains, in the last number of K7ow/edge, how he was 
misled, by the careless marking of a diagram, into a promise to show 
that the great comet is to be seen where the comets of 1843 and 
1880 could not have been seen. “I am unable to do so,” he says, 
“simply because there is every reason to believe that the comet, 
which circled close around the sun on September 17, is no other 
than our friend, the Menacing Comet, come back in less than two 
years and eight months. The observations agree so well with the 
theory that the comet is moving in the orbit of the comets of 1843 
and 1880 (at least in the part of the orbit near the sun, for at aphe- 
lion the orbit has been entirely changed), as to leave scarcely any 
room for any doubt that the comet has come back again long be- 
fore it was expected—how soon to return yet again, and how soon 
to be finally absorbed by the sun, it were at present somewhat rash 
to say.” But after some further calculations, he says: “for my 
own part—so far as observations hitherto made enable me to judge 
——I expect. the comet back in less than half a year.” 

Some of you will recall the grand comet of 1843. All remember the 
beautiful appearance of the comet of 1880. The period calculated for 
the 1843 comet was 175 years. If the supposition of Prof. Boss is 
correct, we have achange in the period of the comet from 175 to thirty- 
seven years, and then to about three years. This immense change 
must be ascribed to the resistance the comet meets with in passing so 
close to the sun’s surface, thus diminishing the linear velocity of the 
comet, but increasing its angular velocity, and shortening its time of 
revolution. The inevitable result of this must be a precipitation of 
the comet into the sun. 

The comet of 1843 came within 500,000 miles of the sun’s centre, or 
70,000 miles of the sun’s circumference. The comets of 1880 and of 
1882 came nearly as close, if not closer. We know that the terrible 
solar cyclones and volcanoes, if I may use the term, throw up masses of 
hydrogen and other gases to a height more than sufficient to surround 
the head of the comet, when so near the sun. Moreover we know that 
the mysterious coronal atmosphere extends many millions of miles out 
from the sun. Thus the comet has to plough through this atmosphere, 
and one would expect as a result a retardation in the motion of the 
comet. 


a882. 23 Trans. N. Y¥.. Ac. Sct 


The result of this retardation would be a shortening of the comet’s 
period ; and, after a few returns, the comet would not have sufficient cen- 
trifugal force to overcome the sun’s attraction, and so would plunge into 
the photosphere. Although this plunge might be made at the velocity 
of 200 miles per second (according to PROCTOR), yet no results disas- 
trous for the earth are likely to follow. The study of the comets, at 
their successive returns, shows us that they decrease in mass and size, 
owing to the heat of the sun; and moreover the mathematical astro- 
nomers have never been able to find the least effect of the attractions of 
the comets on the planets or satellites. 

Comets have been entangled among the satellites of our planets— 
notably, LEXELL’S comet of 1770, and have been swung off in the planets’ 
attraction to pursue totally different orbits. Yet the comets never af- 
fected the motions of the smallest satellites, thus showing that the mass 
of comets must be small compared with the planets and satellites. The 
result, therefore, of a collision with the sun, might be only a solar dis- 
turbance, which would evidence itself ina large spot and cause a dis- 
play of auroras here, and the swinging of the magnetic needles. At 
least the mathematical chances are in favor of some such slight dis- 
turbance. But if this comet is to return in about six months, it may be 
our good fortune to test the truth of these statements very soon. Per 
contra, there are those among the astronomers who do not consider that 
theidentity of the comets of 1843, 1880 and 1882 have been proved. 

Mr. S. C. CHANDLER of Harvard Observatory points out the fact that 
the orbit of the comet of 1843 was computed from observations after 
its perihelion passage, and therefore after zt had expertenced all the 
perturbing effect of the passage so close to the sun; it was found 
that it could not return for 175 years, and that the orbit of the comet ot 
1880 was in like manner computed from observations after its perihe- 
lion passage, and that comet cannot return for at least ten years. He 
now computes the orbit of the present comet, representing all obser- 
vations from nine days before the perihelion passage to thirty-two 
days after it, and shows, not only that its orbit is an ellipse so ex- 
tended that the comet cannot return for many years, but also that the 
passage in close proximity to the sun did not materially affect the orbit. 
This testimony is a severe blow to the theory of theidentity of the 
comets of 1843, 1880 and 1882. 

[The paper was supplemented by explanatory remarks in regard to 
the chemical and physical constitution of comets. In the lantern exhi- 
bition, the following points were dwelt upon. 1. Connection between 
comets and meteors. 2. Various forms of comets. 3. Observations 
made on the tails of comets. Theory of a repulsive force emanating 
from the sun. 4. The immense extent of the sun’s “ atmosphere”’ 
through which some comets plunge. ] 


Trans. N.Y. Ac. Sct. 2a Nov. 6, 


November 6. 
SECTION OF GEOLOGY. 


The President, Dr. J. S. NEwBerry, in the Chair. 


Thirty-six persons present. 
The following persons were elected as Resident Members : 


EK. L. Snow, J. McDona tp, 
N. A. DaRTOoN, C. E. PeLLew ; 


and, as Corresponding Members : 
H. A. ALFRED NICHOLS, of Dominica, W. I. 
F. W. STOEBNER, of State Normal School at Westfield, Mass. 


“The following resolutions were passed by unanimous vote: 

Resolved, That authors of papers offered for reading before the 
Academy be earnestly invited to present them previously in full, or 
in satisfactory abstract ; and that, except by vote of Council, prefer- 
ence shall always be given by the Committee on Papers to those 
which shall be so presented in writing. 

Resolved, That all addresses or remarks before any meeting of 
the Academy, on scientific subjects or on business, which may not 
have been previously accepted and announced on the weekly card, 
shall be limited (with the exception of the Reports of Council, 
Officers or Committees) to five minutes, unless by special vote and 
permission of the Academy ; and they must at any time be discon- 
tinued at the request of the Chairman, whenever in his judgment 
they are not pertinent to the subject before the Academy. 

A communication was received from Jas. C. Cox, M. D., Presi- 
dent of the LInNEAN SociEty of Sydney, New South Wales, 
announcing the entire destruction by fire, on September 22, of all 
its property—library, correspondence, records, instruments, and 
collections—in the burning of the Garden Palace, a loss estimated 
in money at £3,000. On motion, it was resolved to send an 
expression of the regrets and sympathy of the NEw YoRK ACADEMY 
OF SCIENCES and to supply the Linnean Society with as complete a 
series as possible of the Annais and ‘Transactions of the Academy. 

Mr. G. F. Kunz remarked on an interesting series of minerals, 
collected during the past summer by Mr. C. D. Mimms, of Phila- 
delphia, Jefferson County, N. Y., from a new locality at the village 
of Fine, St. Lawrence County, N. Y., twelve miles from Edwards 
and forty miles from Philadelphia, N. Y., on the border of the Adi- 
rondacks. ‘Titanite occurs in very large crystals, only equaled by 
those of Renfrew, Canada, one group of three crystals measuring 


1882. 25 Trans. N. Y. Ae. Scz. 


Over 30 centimeters across and weighing 45 pounds, a single crystal 
weighing 20 pounds, etc.; all the faces are unpolished. Pyroxene 
is found in huge crystals, one being 120 cm. long and 45 cm. 
through. Orthoclase, in crystals 5 to 15 cm. through. Zircon and 
fine green fluorite also occur. 

Mr. Kunz also exhibited minerals, from a new locality at Stone- 
ham, Maine, which very much resemble those described by Profs. 
Dana and Brush, from Branchville, Conn. Among these may be 
mentioned triphylite, triplite, damourite, spodumene, and a pink 
mineral, as yet unidentified. He had also recognized topaz, a 
mineral new in that association, never before found in that State, 
and known to occur at but one locality in New England. A crys- 
tal of this mineral observed was well-formed but much broken, and 
measured 38 cm. across the brachydiagonal; though others, 15 to 
18 cm. in length, were destroyed in the process of blasting. He 
also exhibited a specimen of chalcopyrite, in a rare association, with 
pyrrhotite and pyrite, from Untersalzbach, Tyrol. 


A paper was read by Mr. N. F. Darron, entitled: 


ON THE GENESIS OF THE ORES AND MINERALS IN THE GRANU- 
LAR LIMESTONE OF SUSSEX COUNTY, N. J. 


DISCUSSION. 


A meméer pointed out that the content of crystallized tourmaline, 
epidote, and beryl, in the “dykes of granite” mentioned by the 
author, identified these as granite veins instead of true eruptive 
dykes. 


Prof. T. EcLEston remarked that all the crystals of so-called 
“‘idocrase” from this region, which he had examined, turned out 
to be tourmaline. 


Mr. G. F. Kunz reported that fifty crystals of supposed ‘ido- 
crase” from this region, now in the cabinet of the Pennsylvania 
Geological Survey, were really tourmaline. 

Mr. Darton stated that, at Sparta, the granite holding tourma- 
line, cut across the limestone beds, and might occur in true veins, 
and that he believed that crystals of idocrase from Franklin had 
been identified by analysis. 


LLOUS INS We eAGINS CZ: 26 LVov. 13, 


November 13, 1882. 
SECTION OF CHEMISTRY. 


Vice-President, Dr. B. N. Marti, in the Chair. 

Sixteen persons present. 

The following specimens were exhibited: by Mr. G. F. Kunz, cro- 
cidolite catseye, from Cape of Good Hope: by Mr. JULIEN, a young 
echinus, curious shelly aggregates of sand, ten cm. in diam- 
eter, from the beach off the Navesink Highlands, N. J., and a fos- 
sil Ostrea, found in the boulder clay, in 112th street, between 
Ninth and Tenth avenues, New York city: by Mr. N. H. Darron, 
supposed clintonite, from a vein five cm. thick in serpentine, at 
Honolulu, Sandwich Islands. 

Prof. D. S. Martin identified the echinus as a very small and 
young individual of Achznarachnius parma, belonging to the New 
England coast at its southward limit, hardly ever found before on 
the beaches of New Jersey, though reported to occur on a far out 
bank. 

The CHatRMAN showed that the sandy aggregates were the egg- 
casts of a large species of the mollusk, Va¢zca, known to occur along 
that beach, and that the fossil exhibited, probably Ostrea, was the 
first he had seen from the till of New York Island; and further re- 
marked on the distribution of the oyster along the Atlantic coast 
of this continent. 

A paper was read by Dr. Pierre De P. Ricketts, entitled: 


ANALYSIS OF THE FRANKLINITE ORES OF NEW JERSEY, AND METH- 
ODS FOR THE SEPARATION OF THE RED OXIDE OF ZINC. 


(Abstract.) 

Some time since, my attention was called to the question of deter- 
mining a method for estimating the amount of Red Oxide of Zinc, con- 
tained in certain deposits of these Franklinite Ores. Some of the re- 
sults obtained have not been published, other than in the testimony 
taken in law suits about these deposits. 

The methods employed were briefly as follows: 

The first was a mechanical separation, made by Mr. A. F. Wendt 
and myself, for the purpose of obtaining the mineral constituents of the 
samples treated, as nearly as possible. 

The ore was crushed down to below 4o meshes to the inch, and 
sieved. The Franklinite was then extracted by the magnet from an 
average portion of the sample, and the red oxide separated by hand, 


1882. oT trans, IN. VY. AG Sez. 


under a powerful magnifying glass, from the residue, by using a fine 
wire with a small hook at the end. 
The result of the separation was: 


A; Be 
Hrankdiniteaee sae nee AG Der COME ses 2 otc. 44.7 per cent. 
Redi@xid eae aes ee: 2g) ESET OPEN rs rs 7.4 6 
Silicates & Carbonates 49.1 Ean ie ae hear hes AT Opa 
100.0 100.0 


The next method adopted was to take average samples of the Frank- 
linite ore, carefully separate from a portion of the sample the mineral 
constituents contained in the same, and analyze the separated miner- 
als. Several analyses of average samples were then made, and from 
these, and the analysis of the separated minerals, the mineralogical 
constitution of the ores was calculated. 


The complete analyses of the average samples were as follows: 


A B. G ) aay 

SILICA erersfan ats ela sistevers’s 11.85 II.59 8.64 | 10.70 
Oxidevom7ine wae eae 34.13 40.83 34.70 33.09 
Proto-sesqui-oxide of iron. 28.48 29.94. 28.34 | 31.05 
PAIN dessert eis trae a oe = 0.58 trace. trace. trace. 
Protoxide of manganese: . 14.13 8.35 15.50 | I5.51 
LTT a eee Hein 4.16 eyou || 4.59 
IMialamESIains os cioce.s)eeeoec 0.13 0.79 1.44 | 0.27 
@arboniciacid’ 42. +... 205- 4.96 4.12 6.26 4.38 
@oppenecdassus. tos. 0.07 undetermined. trace. trace. 

99-84 99-78 100.58 | 99-59 


The analysis of the constituent minerals gave the following figures, 
as representative of their constitution, after separating and cleaning 
them from adhering gangue, etc., under a magnifying glass: 


A. Franklinite. B. Zincite. €- Piet 

Silica, and insoluble matter.......... 2.62 0.81 24.36 
OxXideGlohZiIMOx. a. 4-1 0) ra5- eres erie Aner 21.60 95-23 48.06 
Proto-sequi-oxide of iron............. 55.80 trace. 1.97 
PAsInamm tn ae yerorrev a Safereiars tales aie cos aaeays ieee trace. trace. eye 
Brotoxide of manganese... 2.5 20460-- 17.c6 Byisut 12.25 
LITE Boaciccese cates a Oc AOR ASE yee 1.28 0.32 6.29 
IMIPIRTOSEN ae oitecot One ee eee on oe 0.30 0.10 0.99 
Car bonicra cider mascots 2aclesle.ss ies 0.37 6.28 
@Oppe mje eee secre a crc lere auavens none. undetermined. trace. 

100.04 LOO. 34. 100,20 


Trans Nee VaeAGHSGe 28 Nov. 13, 

The Franklinite, after deducting foreign constituents, such as silica, 
magnesia, lime, etc., would have the following composition: oxide of 
zinc, 22,90, protoxide of manganese, 18.08, and proto-sesqui-oxide of 
iron, 59.15. The Zincite, allowing for the impurities which even careful 
picking could not separate, would have the following constitution : 
oxide of zinc, 96.44, protoxide of manganese, 3.55, proto-sesqui-oxide 
of iron, a trace. 

The Willemite analyzed evidently contained considerable limestone 
and impurities, and although the analysis is stated, it was thought safer 
to take the composition of Willemite as given by Dana, in calculating 
the mineralogical constituents of the ore. 

Taking the analysis of sample marked “A,” considering the constitu- 
tion of the Franklinite and Zincite as determined, and using the mechan- 
ical separation marked “ A,” we would have the following as the min- 
eralogical composition of the sample: 


Zincite. Franklinite. Wrillemite (Dana). 
LOW emcee iaeetcterns QO:Aal | Reinert iscremenciee Z2iGO|lWeer eer seks 72.90 per cent. 
ING KOS as Aso mene oan se CEilmere o> DuOOOnTeICOnan 18.08] SiO...... 2710) se 
Sos OMERe coat 5 A GABAA Ae MEARE. a: aeosnue andes 59-15 


( Franklinite .. 48.2 
| PZANGILE St 27, 
| Silicates and. 

| Carbonates 49.1 


Mechanical separation of 1,700 ton sample gave: 


48.2 per cent Franklinite = 11.04 per cent. Zn0. 
27. es Zincite’....= 2i6o" 


ZO sea B. MR rece | AVS. SRR PED LTD IES 34.13 


20.49 per cent. for Willemite: 
which will require 7.617 per cent. of SiOz and correspond to 28.107 of 
Willemite. 


SiOz in 1,700 ton sample= 11.850 
BE Nie ZANO) 5 soacccdons = Alani) 


“ MnO and Al.Os 4.233 
SiO, for AlzOs, etc. deace. @  O.gaospen cent 


3.893=Balance SiOz. 
Wihich:would require.) ..ccc .ee eee 4.589 per cent. of MnO. 


8.482 per cent. of Rhodonite. 


1882. 


Willem 


ite= 


Rhodonite= 
Silicate of Alumina, etc.= 0.920 


Total Silicate 
Carb. of CaO & MgO.. 


aja) tel elec! ©, \e, 6,6 0a © 6 =| @,¢ 4) « 


28.107 
8.482 


37.509 


tizans: Ne. VoAGYSce 


‘Total Silicates and Carbonates.... 47.619 
OMNGUDVINVENOES 06 Secu 7 Sete 8 oe ale ake 49.100 
Difference= 1.481 
Carb. of Manganese, calculated from 
excess of Carbonic Acid.......,... 1.270 
2h h— Cus etes 
STATEMENT. 
| 
= | 
~ 
2 2 : S 
ee a S Ue ed CS aS 
of S aS S = S 8 Ss) 
2) | N x 5 N S S S 
| | 
Hnamklinites=.. 32 2-o-- a=. snas ae 1t.04| 28.51| 8.77 See tee ae 200) 
Willemites=<.,. 22-92. sos cas5 TOL Ti 2O04G|| Vee aaly y zoe Ee al ees eee 28.107 
Silicate of Alumina, etc ------ 0.340 Be Ah eee Ses (ossoua ese all Mees 0.920 
edi@xides_0= 4-7-2 == eee are 2100) ses |) Ost Le Pe mies 2.700 
RRedomite cent 3a. 22 See 3.803 235 eee 4.589 E Sei! Boe 8.482 
Carb. of Manganese .-...----- meee Seal, Mecca a O75 eet Or4giy) a= 1.270 
IsimestOne ae ase oan Fe gues | Me ee Sis See asa rls 104 I0.110 
Coppers cto a2 ss eee Ee te A Se sats BN EAN eee 0.211 
Totalsee seach oue sete’ 11.850 | 34.13 | 28.51 | 14.179 | 0.58 | 4.96 | 5.64 | 100.000 
| 
Found by Analysis-----...--- 11.85 | 34.13 | 28.48 | 14.13 | 0.58 | 4.96 | 5.64 99-77 


To check this calculation, the average composition of Franklinite, 
Willemite and Zincite, as given by Dana, were used in connection with 
the mechanical separation already referred to, and the following calcu- 


lation made as to the composition of Sample “ A. 


” 


Zincite. 


Franklinite. 


se eee cece occ 


Willemite. 


ZOO i aatee tee: ee O9LO7, 
Mn Omer ease os doag. tem 
Hes © gear aieeteetsisrons trace 
SiO ye Besa cers secrets 26.81 


UTES) ING, S%5 AIP SAE 30 Nov. 13? 


Mechanical separation } Franklinite.... 48.2 

eNO SA Siac. cA SG GSE ANCHE. or te 227; 
Silicates and 

Carbonates } Ag-X 


48.2 per cent. Franklinite= 9.99 per cent. ZnO. 
2.4 per cent. Zincite= 2.57 “ ss 


12.56 36 a 


Total ZnO in sample= 34.13 
12.56 
(mite. 
21.57 per cent.ZnO due to Wille- 
8.27 SiOs. 


30.84 per cent. Silicate of Zince 


Total SiOz in sample= 11.85 

8.27 
(donite. 
3.58 per cent. SiO» due to Rho- 
4.22 per cent. MnO. 


7.80 per cent. Rhodonite. 


By analysis;;.+\-- +2 ee sess: . 10,11 per cent. Limestone. 
Carb. Manganese for excess COz..... 127, 
arm kchinnitemewenepstae ctor susie 48.2 
Zincite. SFR. Wade shoo : Deg] 
ara td ieee 37.80 ¢ =38:64 Silicates 
TMEStOM es terns see eee ike hs © Be eee 
Carb. Manganese... 52-25... 1.27 | aa ee Eahesn ies, 

—_—— (Carbonates. 


100.92 50.02 per cent. Silicates and 


Other methods of calculation were employed, such as applying the 
various standard analyses of Franklinite to the complete analysis given, 
considering that all the iron found came from the Franklinite, and us- 
ing that as a starting point. For instance, taking an analysis of 
Franklinite as given by Cook, and applying it to complete analysis 
marked “ D,’’ we should obtain the following calculation and results: 

The analysis of Franklinite gives sesqui-oxide of iron, 62.36—equi- 
valent to proto-sesqui-oxide, 60.28; oxide of zinc, 22.95; protoxide of 
manganese, 17.20. Taking the proto-sesqui-oxide of iron in the 
sample at 31.05, and comparing with the proto-sesqui-oxide of iron in, 
100 parts, as found in the Franklinite, the amount of Franklinite 
corresponding to 31.05 is easily obtained. Calculating the silicate of 
manganese as rhodonite, taking all the oxide of zinc necessary for 


1882. Sil Trans. IN: Y¥. Ac. Scz. 


silica, etc., and calling what remains red oxide, we would have the 
approximate mineralogical composition of Sample “ D”’: 


BMA. ee cod ceboodhoopac Puce cmolec 51.51 
IRedeO xi tOMAIMNC. es. oso ose e-aes meee ae Sea 6.40 
Runvodomittsyne e aeas 6 cierto sisi pie WN Bete Thtgrhs 
Wail STC PPS A relly isu chic cltatencte water easitseseea noisy: 20.23 
Carbonatevole Manganese. cncessees sae ees: 1.24 
MeMeESTONE. Sais: cs eee a ss = Rea tr 5 oO 76 

99.27 


The next trial made was to determine some solvent which would dis- 
solve the red oxide of zinc, and practically leave the other mineral con- 
stituents, with the exception of the limestone, unacted on. 

The experiments made by Prof. H. Carrington Bolton, of Trinity 
College, with organic acids, upon minerals, suggested to me the use of 
an organic acid for the quantitative estimation of the red oxide. Citric 
acid was first employed, but without satisfactory results; and, after 
several experiments, acetic acid was adopted as the best solvent ob- 
tainable. 

The first step was to determine the solubility of Franklinite, Zincite, 
Willemite, Rhodonite, etc., in acetic acid, and a number of experiments 
were made with this object, the results being as follows: 


Solubility of Franklinite. 


Specimen. Locality. Amount Dissolved. 

Hiden a crcrct alae cette ts cere tates Franklinite (analyzed)=~ ebciiate os 5.42 per cent 

INO ZH ire PRA tera slaekeds Minox ELilllver sy eorstclewy acta crete: 2.63 

ING 5G oy Settee gatas oars IVI Tes TPM «thay to ahaa coajeyonleys PAS 

INI AON Shae a edieide ation Crystal Ses its sccisepetep ers ah Ba O15 ane ee 
JAWEIDIUO cn. 5 WeoRboUeoouL 66h ovaccd eed opedae BiG Dees 

Time I hr. 30 min. 50 per cent. acid; 50 per cent. water. 


Solubzlity of Red Oxtde. 


Dark Red—Entirely soluble. 
Light Red—Ség/z¢ residue reacting for Manganese. 


Solubzlity of Rhodonzte. 


Specimen. Locality. Amount Dissolved. 

PU Ore Boris c ateicvs (aa a's 4+ « ave MAES ELI yarre. sae siatctatar eves 1.66 per cent. 

NOs 2 sore toc SS eR ere Sterlinwsc 2... actin eerste ae 238 < 

Re eens ep sinus sca: = 6 Brankliny 05 yaya e. saan Foxe 

ING ee Ate enter seme A | Miner tilts. 5 tank ones cheer 2.18 Os 
PANETT etic caters a ss Pehte lei e at eye a aaa are E:SOM Ra 


Time 1 hr. 30 min. 50 per cent. acid ; 50 per cent. water. 


ivans, IN; VAG. Sez. 32, Nov. 13, 


Solubslity of Wellemzte. 


Specimen. Locality, Amount Dissolved. 

ING Ue pre sie | sites. oteleiage Ve AMES aire. o oe «carte acseae 22.53 per cent. 

INOS Dictate kom <. vl Se ee HUAI ce Sis ore wales Seecenets 32230 

NOM eer sits ac echee Ly Wyse] UNAS ae ey a a Oe 28:43, 9 

BOs Dc ae Aa A et Prankling ac. neath. aceen 34:08 
AVE SEs. salem er ene Sys e SMaSIRa st OS acy LOSS ee ina 

Time 1 hr. 30 min. 50 per cent. acid ; 50 per cent. water. 


Comparing these various solubilities, we arrive at the following con- 
clusions: 


Ist. That /ranklcnzte, if pure, is practically insoluble. 

2d. That Red Oxzde of Zinc is entirely soluble. 

3d. That Rhodonzte is slightly soluble. 

4th. That W7?/em7te is partially soluble. 

5th. That the Cardonates, etc., are almost totally soluble. There- . 
fore in the solution from the treatment with acetic acid, there would be: 
silica, from the Willemite and Silicate of Manganese, oxide of man- 
ganese, in small quantities, and oxide of zinc, from the Red Oxide and 
Willemite, provided a definite method of treatment be adopted, and all 
contact with the acid be avoided, as soon as examination shows that 
the red particles in the ore are dissolved. 


The following method of analysis was therefore adhered to: - 


A. Sampfling.—Crushing and quartering through three successive 
stages, until the sample was sufficiently fine for analysis. 

B. Method.—Weiglh out two grms. and treat with a mixture of 
acetic acid and water (fifty per cent. No. 8 acetic acid, and fifty per 
cent. of water). Allow to stand approximately one and one-half 
hours, examining occasionally under a powerful magnifying glass ; 
heat gently, if any red particles are visible, and continue the treatment 
until no red oxide is contained in the residue. Filter and wash. 


Residue A. Solution A. 
Dry and weigh on Acidify with HCl, and evaporate to 
weighed filter. dryness; take up with HCl and 


water ; warm, filter and wash. 


Residue B. Solutzon B. 
Silica—dry, ignite Neutralize with Na,COs, acidify with 
and weigh. acetic acid, and precipitate with H,S 


gas. 


1882. 33 UGanss Ne VerAGe Gh 


Solution C. Precipitate C. 
Boil with KC1O;,to oxidize sulphur.| Wash with H.S water, diss. in 
Neutralize carefully and precipitate | HCI, oxidize sulphur, re-precipitate 
Manganese with Br water asusual.| with Na:CO;. Dry, ignite and 
Filter and wash, diss. in HCl, and | weigh the ZO. 
re-precipitate with Na2COs. 
Ignite and weigh MnsQOu. 


Results, -1st. Residue insoluble in acetic acid. 
2d. Silica in acetic acid solution. 
3d. ZnO dissolved by acetic acid. 
4th. MnO, dissolved by acetic acid. 
Undetermined ; CaO and MgO dissolved. 


Taking into consideration the previous determinations of the solu- 
bilities of the Silicates of Zinc and Manganese, etc., we have the fol- 
lowing data: 

- Ratio of Solubzlztzes.—29.32 (solubility of Willemite) is to 1.80 (solu- 
bility of Rhodonite) as 16.5 is to 1. 

Ratio of Silica in these minerals (Dana), 27 to 46. Occurrence of 
these minerals by supposition in these ores, 1 to 1. Multiplying these 
ratios together we have 445.5 to 46. Hence, approximately 90.64 per 
cent. of the silica 2 solu¢zon will be due to the Willemite, and 9.36 
per cent. to the Rhodonite—say 9-10 and I-10. Applying this method 
and adopting this basis of calculation, J obtained the following results 
from a series of analyses made on ten different samples : 


1 2 3 dt 5 

RESICUEC Peter etl eicit> sees ao cieic ete 78.35 74.81 79.86 80 17 80.86 
SUMehinepcomanooNeeoguoD aos maces 1.82 2.39 Pp I 80 £7 
Oxidey70Ge ace ee eee cee eee 8.66 8.14 Fai II.29 11.63 
‘Oxide Manganese etsiere sists tse) 3.32 2.83 3.46 Sng 2.71 
OxadeyZine for silican cess ecle 4.42 5.80 6.58 4.37 4-15 
Oxide Zinc for Red Oxide......... 4.24 2.34 1.19 6.92 7.48 
RedlORXRIG 6s: )5. Hs shale eerie vente: 4.42 2 43 1.24 7.23 7.79 

6 rai 8 9 10 |Average 
PNESIGUE ie 5 s)s acts chess) oy2°< 80.22 74.76 75-31 72.97 70.86 78.042 
SSlliGatneeraticieraeice site ss ere 2.34 2.74 23 3.86 fata) 2.227 
©)xide Zine. -e\\sier-xi=:<ie << 12.56 | 1.59 14.57 II.42 II.99 10.778 
Oxide Manganese...... 3-76 3.29 3.06 Bees 3.22 3.185 
Oxide Zinc for Silica.... 5 68 6.65 5.61 9.38 5.66 5-407 
Oxide Zinc for RedOxide| 6.88 4.94 8.96 2.04 6.33 5.370 
fred Oxide yjae,~ ce -30 ees. | 7.16 5.14 9.33 2.13 6.59 5-593 


Trans. NAVs ACs SCZ. 34 Nov. 13, 


Other experiments and analyses were made, and the basis of calcula- 
tion changed by allowing 75 per cent. of the silica found in solution for 
the Willemite. The red oxide might also be slightly raised by adding 
some of the manganese found in solution, the amount to be added 
being calculated by comparison with the analysis of Zincite already 
given. Rhodonite has been taken as the silicate of manganese found 
in these ores, instead of Tephroite, although the latter occurs to some 
extent—the ratio of occurrence of the Willemite and Rhodonite as- 
sumed, 7.¢., I to I, being thought to more than compensate for any 
silicate of manganese which might go into solution from the presence 
of Tephroite. This mineral is somewhat more soluble in acetic acid 
than Rhodonite, and some allowance should, therefore be made for its 
possible occurrence. 

The foregoing method, owing to slight variations in solubility, may 
not be accepted as an exact analytical process, but it undoubtedly gives, 
within close limits, the red oxide of zinc in the sample treated, pro- 
vided that proper care be taken in the analysis that the ore is not too 
finely pulverized, and that the treatment with acid is stopped at the point 
where the last trace of red disappears. 

Of course, if this latter be continued beyond this point, or the ore be 
too fine, more silicates will be dissolved than is absolutely necessary, 
and the error in calculating will be increased, the results being propor- 
tionally incorrect. 


DISCUSSION. 


Mr. A. H. ELLIOTT enquired concerning the condition in which 
the copper probably existed. 

Mr. N. H. DARTON stated his observation of the occurrence of sili- 
cate of copper at Franklin; and that Dr. Hayes had established by 
microscopic examination that the color of red oxide of zinc was due 
entirely to disseminated scales of specular oxide of iron. 

Mr. JULIEN remarked on the importance of the discovery of the 
complete solubility of the red oxide of zinc in acetic acid. The purity 
of the minerals used in the analyses might have been ensured by 
previous microscopic examination, all but the Franklinite being trans- 
lucent in thin section. The variation in the recorded analyses of 
Willemite, etc., may be largely due to the absence of this precaution. 
The proportion of the minerals. present in the ore might have been as- 
certained in the fine powder, by microscopic examination. It was a 
question whether both the alumina and oxide of copper may not have 
existed in replacement of oxides of iron and zinc. Dependence upon 
the inexactly defined ratio of solubilities seemed of doubtful value for 
the determination of the proportion of Willemite and Rhodonite, the 


1882. 35 Liransy iN. Ves AGw ce. 


quantities of these minerals in the powder under treatment being un- 
equal. 

Dr. RICKETTS replied that the investigations in which he had been 
engaged were entirely of a practical nature, in which an accuracy 
within one-fourth to one-half per cent. was aimed at, and for this the 
use of a powerful magnifying glass was sufficient. The determina- 
tion of the condition of the alumina and copper was not essential for 
his purpose ; both probably existed as silicates. The method founded 
on the solubilities of certain minerals had been found practically use- 
ful, closely agreeing with the general run of analyses. The pure 
zincite was considered the dark red mineral, colored by oxides of 
manganese and iron, and its average amount in the ores of Franklin 
had been determined and admitted as about six per cent. 

The CHAIRMAN remarked on the intricacy of the problem, which had 
been the subject of this investigation, and on the interesting and sug- 
gestive solution which had been presented: the recognition of the 
proportion of so large a number of minerals as occur .in this ore being 
extraordinarily accurate. 


November 20, 1882. 
LECTURE EVENING. 


The President, Dr. J. S. NEWBERRY, in the Chair. 

The large Hall was filled to overflowing. 

The following letter from Prof. J. K. REEs, Director of the Ob- 
servatory of Columbia College was read : 


(Abstract.) 

“I beg leave to call the attention of those members of the Academy pos- 
sessing telescopes to the grand sunspot on the western portion of the 
sun. Many of them have seen notices of this spot in the daily papers. 
It deserves especial study in connection with the late displays of auro- 
ras and the great electric storm, also as throwing some light on the con- 
nection of comets and sunspots. This spot I have seen at noon, and 
at four o’clock without a telescope, by protecting the eye with colored 
glass. I sawit once without any protection to the‘eye, by looking 
through a narrow slit formed by my fingers. 

The great spot is really made up of several mutually encroaching 
spots. Three nuclei are very well defined, and out into the darkest one 
protrudes a penumbral finger. 

The disturbed region about this spot is about 80,000 miles square, 
or covering 6,400,000,000 square miles. 

There are four other spots on the sun, three near the center’of,the 


Trans: Ni Ve Acy Sez 36 NVov. 20, 


sun of quite small size, and a fourth near the eastern limb, consisting 
really of a group of three conjoined.”’ 


The PrEsIDENT ‘referred to the death this morning, from acute 
disease, of a resident member of the Academy, Dr. HENRY W. 
DrapPER, at the [age of 45—a great loss to science—and to his 
distinguished researches and labors in celestial physics. 

The lecture of the evening was delivered by Rev. Horace C. 
Hovey, of Fair Haven, Conn., on the subject of— 


SUBTERRANEAN SCENERY. 
(Abstract.) 


An impression prevails that having seen one cave you have seen all 
caves. As well might you say that, *having seen one hill you have seen all 
hills, or that, having seen one cataract,you have seen all cataracts. There 
is variety in the subterranean world, almost as great and striking as 
that encountered in the surface-region men are more familiar with. 
Just as there are prairies and table-lands without the semblance of a 
hill, so there are broad areas of non-cavernous rocks; and indeed only 
a limited portion of the globe is favorable to the formation of large 
cavities beneath its crust. The causes producing those that exist are 
as unlike and distinct as those carving the contour of the mountains. 

Volcanic agencies are conspicuous in undermining the earth. Exam- 
ples of flaming caves, like those in the mountains of Cumana, are due 
to the fires of still active volcanoes. Caves of great size and beauty 
are sometimes caused in beds of lava by the over-lapping of the fiery 
torrent, or by the sinking away of a portion of the fluid mass from the 
cooling crust—in either case leaving walls lined with blister-holes and 
lava-froth. Iceland claims the finest of known lava caves, adorned 
with superb black icicles of obsidian, rivaling in beauty the rarest 
zeolites. 

Marine caves differ materially from those formed by volcanic causes. 
They are found wherever the swell and lash of the billows have exca- 
vated rocks too hard to be wholly displaced by their action. Long 
galleries join each other in bold and grotesque arches, whose walls are 
polished by the waves and painted by the sea-water. At low tide it is 
often as if one were walking at the bottom of a deep sea, and examin- 
ing objects ordinarily brought to view only by dredging. Here 
and there one encounters deep pools where fishes swim ; while in shal- 
lower waters are star-—fishes, sea-urchins, and sea-anemones, under a 
vaulted roof decked by a living tapestry. 

A celebrated example of marine caves is the Grotto Azuro, in the 


1882. 37 Trans. N. Y. Ac. Sct. 


Island of Capri, where the walls, the stalactites and every object is 
tinted blue by the rays reflected from the brilliant skies of Italy. 

Fingal’s Cave, and others in the basaltic district around the Island 
of Staffa, may probably be ascribed toa combination of causes, of 
which oceanic violence was but one. The broken ends of columns, 
above which rise lofty ranges of those that are entire, the plash of the 
waves, the play of colors in the soft twilight that fills the cave, and the 
tall gothic archway with its archeological suggestions, have been re- 
peatedly described. 

Probably the most exquisite grottoes in the world are the ice-caves 
occasionally formed in the heart of glaciers, and also, in severe winters, 
under great cataracts, such as Niagara Falls. 

Beauty of a far different sort characterizes some of the caves in tropi- 
cal regions ; for example, that of Cacahuamilpa in Mexico, and the cave 
of the Guacharo, in South America. You enter the abyss through a 
luxuriant grove, and find the vegetation continuing far under ground. 
Pale plants lift their blanched stalks amid sparry growths, while the 
oil-birds flit through the mazes of subterranean shrubs and vines. 

Some of the most noted caverns are hardly worth describing so far 
as their scenery is concerned ; for the reason that their fame is due to 
the quantities of old bones that encumber the floor and lie buried in the 
dripstone. Of these the cave of Gailenreuth, whence were exhumed 
the remains of 800 gigantic bears, may serve as a specimen. 

Contrasted with bone caves is the elaborate temple-cave of Ela- 
phanta, whose chambers of imagery are guarded by colossal figures. 
The views exhibited of this cavern were taken a few months ago for the 
Rev. Joseph Cook, by whose permission lantern-slides have been pre- 
pared for this occasion. 

As has often been remarked, marine caves are usually of little depth. 
“ Along the whole Atlantic coast”, observes Prof. N. S. Shaler, ‘“ from 
Nova Scotia to Mexico, I do not know of a single cavern deep enough 
to give darkness, and above the present level of the sea. The exis- 
tence of deep caverns is a sign that the region has long been above 
the sea.” 

Hence, he who would explore those vast labyrinths, where one may 
wander on for miles, must forsake the sea-board for the interior. 

One reason for this is purely lithological. The rocks along the At- 
lantic sea-coast are usually quite heterogeneous, and are split by fis- 
sures and crossed by veins, so that a cave could not extend very far into 
them, without destroying itself. This, indeed, is sometimes done in re- 
gions remote from the sea. An instance may,be seen at Madison, In- 
diana, where thin strata of the Lower Silurian are overlaid by thick 
strata of the Upper. Grottoes are here washed out by the removal ot 


LPZ-GHSSHIN GV A RAGS SCz: 38 Vou. 20, 


the softer material, leaving the harderledges above. After a while the 
weight of the over-hanging mass causes it to fall. Thus valleys are 
made with precipitous sides and encumbered by rocky debris. Thus 
also natural bridges are left, like that farnous one in Rockbridge County, 
Virginia, which is but a remnant of the roof that once over-arched the 
valley. 

The homogeneity of the limestones of the Ohio Valley is extremely 
favorable for the formation of extensive caverns. It is estimated that 
there are 8000 square miles of cavernous limestone in Kentucky alone. 
I remember seeing, ina marble quarry in that region, a block without 
a flaw, 150 feet long by 30 feet square, cut simply to show what could 
be done. 

The thickness of the sub-carboniferous limestone, from which Mam- 
moth and Wyandot Caves are excavated, varies from 100 to I,oco feet. 
This makes possible the formation of long, winding avenues, with here 
and there extraordinary enlargements, spacious halls, deep pits and lofty 
domes, cutting through all galleries from the surface down to the drain- 
age level. 

The Virginia caves, on the other hand, of which Luray Cave is the 
noblest specimen, are examples of excavations from rock tilted and 
fractured by upheavals, the resulting seams having often been after- 
wards filled with crystalline material. Hence, instead of well defined 
arcades, and symmetrical halls and domes, there are extremely irregular 
rooms, adorned with such a profusion of stalactitic ornamentation, that 
in Luray Cavern, there seems to be hardly a square yard left eae 
showing the naked rock ! 

Subterranean scenery is also effected by various mineralogical modi- 
fications. The sharp, glassy needles of obsidian, in the lava cave of 
Surtsheller, differ greatly from the snowy embellishments found in the 
Grotto of Antiparos, carved from statuary marble. And again, the 
majestic columns of basalt, that guard Fingal’s Cave, strike the eye 
differently from the frowning arches of the granite caves of Norway or 
of Maine. 

Certain metallic ores may stain the cavern walls red, yellow, blue or 
black. And when this incrustation is broken through by the efflor- 
escence of the shining white crystals of the sulphate of lime, of mag- 
nesia, or of soda, remarkable effects are produced. 

Gigantic silhouettes seem to be cut from the ceiling of creamy 
limestone ; grotesque forms start out from the darkness; grim spectres 
seem to wave their shadowy arms. These illusions are purely miner- 
alogical. A strangely beautiful example of such transformations may 
be seen in the so-called Star Chamber of Mammoth Cave ; where the 
gray walls support a lofty ceiling coated with the black oxide of man- 


1882. 39 Trans. N. YV. Ac. Séz. 


ganese, which is studded with thousands of white spots caused by the 
efflorescence of the sulphate of magnesia. 

Cleveland’s Cabinet, in the same cave, is a very treasure house of 
alabaster brilliants. Imagine symmetrical arches of fifty feet span, 
where the fancy is at once enlivened and bewildered by a mimicry of 
every flower that grows. Similar crystalline conservatories are to be 
seen in other parts of Mammoth Cave, and also in Wyandot and other 
Western caves. 

Earthquakes have had comparatively little to do with subterranean 
scenery, though generally credited with having wrought many changes. 
Among possible effects of earthquake shocks one of the most remark- 
able is the dislodgment of huge masses of dripstone in Luray cavern ; 
upon which new formations have since grown, whose brilliant white 
contrasts vividly with the rusty red or rich bronze of the more ancient 
deposit. Examples of this fresh formation are Titania’s Vail, the Em- 
press Column, and Brand’s Cascade. The Fallen Column, twenty-one 
feet long and twelve feet thick, has been regarded as cast down by an 
earthquake shock. It was evidently wrenched away at some remote 
period from its point of attachment above, and fell swaying to and 
fro. 

Most of the variations in subterranean scenery, usually ascribed to 
earthquakes, are really due to the chemical and mechanical action of 
water. Acidulated water cuts into the limestone, searching out the 
lines of weakness, until channels are made leading down to some sub- 
terranean outlet. The agency of running streams carries on the work 
begun by water freighted with carbonic acid. Sand and gravel borne 
in with these streams make of them powerful cutting-engines. 

Thus may be explained the huge pits and domes of Mammoth Cave ; 
and in the same way the deep chasm known as Pluto’s Ravine, in 
Luray Cave. To the same cause I attribute the dislodgment of 
the Fallen Column and other great stalactites in the latter cavern. My 
theory is that Luray Cave was first hollowed out by acidulated water ; 
then it was partly filled by dripstone; then the outlet was stopped and 
the entire cavern flooded with strongly acidulated water, whereby the 
first set of stalactites was partly destroyed; and when the outlet was 
re-opened, or a new one found, then came the catastrophe that hurled 
mighty masses down and left them as proofs that water may be as 
energetic as fire. And finally the fresh set of stalactites was created, 
out of the already refined materials, by the beauty of which the eyes of 
the civilized world have been attracted. 

The scenery of certain caves is modified by the presence of consid- 
erable bodies of running of standing water. Echo River, in Mammoth 
Cave, is about three-quarters of a mile long, from 20 to 200 feet wide, 


DAs VAs Scr. 40 LVov. 20, 


and from Io to 40 feet deep. The “Dead Sea,” “Lake Lethe” and 
the “River Styx,” are smaller bodies in the same cave. These all 
have secret communication with the adjacent Green River, and are lia- . 
ble to sudden floods, sometimes rising 60 feet, and one result is the 
deposit of immense mud-banks. (It is aside from the purpose of this 
paper to describe the living objects found in these waters, or the re- 
markable acoustic properties of Echo River passage-way.) 

Agreeably contrasted with these dismal lakes are the exquis- 
itely clear pools occupying the crystal basins of Luray Cavern. These 
build their own walls, by the process of crystallization, till some of them 
are more than five feet high and enclose lakes fifty feet across. 
There are more than a hundred of them in this cave, as clear as ether, 
and holding their unruffled surface as a mirror to reflect) the countless 
stalactites hanging above them. . By as careful an estimate as could be 
conveniently made, the Imperial Spring is adorned by 48,000 such stal- 
actites! The “Castles on the Rhine” are but the incrusted stalag- 
mites remaining where one of these pools once lay, but whose waters 
have long ago been drained. . 

Stalactites and stalagmites are referred to in every description of 
cavern scenery, and their causes are well understood. The carbonate 
of lime left by the water, on evaporation, makes a ring on the ceiling, 
followed by ring after ring, till a cylinder grows that finally is thick- ~ 
ened into an elongated cone; and this is a stalactite. The deposit on 
the floor is a thin film, which by repeated coating grows into the blunt 
stalagmite. The two are often united into a column. The Pillar of 
the Constitution, in Wyandot Cave, is one of the largest known sta- 
lacto-stalagmitic columns, being 4o feet high and 25 feet thick, and 
homogeneous throughout. The material is Oriental alabaster (to be 
distinguished from the softer gypsum, being a very hard carbonate of 
lime), and this stately pillar was once resorted to by the Indians as a 
quarry for materials from which to make amulets and images. Some 
of the stalactites in Luray Cavern are 50 feet long; and the Double 
Column, composed of two consolidated stalagmites, rises to the height 
of perhaps sixty feet above the floor. Stalactites sometimes are blade- 
like and highly sonorous. Again they hang like scarfs or shawls, 
pure white or striated: many fine examples of which are found in 
Luray. Stalactitic distortion is quite a study in itself. Among assign- 
able causes are the growth of fungi, the influence of atmospheric cur- 
rents, and the outgrowth of lateral crystals. 

The lantern views of Subterranean Scenery represent Fingal’s Cave, 
the Cavern-Temple of Elephanta, the Ice Caves of Niagara, the Bone 
Cave of Gailenreuth, and several other miscellaneous selections; but 
the great majority of them were taken from scenes in Wyandot, Mam- 


1882. 41 Tans INE Mey AiG SCR 


moth and Luray caverns, and were made expressly for this exhibi- 
tion. 

The efforts of Mr. Charles Waldach to take photographs by aid of 
magnesium light resulted in a number of interesting pictures of locali- 
ties in Mammoth Cave. His magnesium alone cost him $500. But 
for practical use these photographs were not found so desirable as a 
series of sketches, made in black and white, under my supervision, by 
Mr. J. Barton Smith. This artist also made the sketches from Wyan- 
dot Cave. These were prepared for the lantern by Mr. J. M. Blake, of 
New Haven. The advantages for taking views in Luray Cavern were 
superior, since it waslighted by aseries of electric lamps placed at the 
most interesting localities. The thirty-six lantern views now shown 
to illustrate Luray Cave, were taken and prepared by Mr. C. H. James, 
of Philadelphia. Special mention should be made of Col. Francis 
Klett, manager of Mammoth Cave, and Mr. R. R. Corson, manager of 
Luray Cavern, by whom every needed facility was cheerfully given for 
obtaining the facts of a scientific nature sought, and also the pictorial 
representations exhibited of subterranean scenery. 


At the close of the lecture a resolution was passed, conveying 


thanks to Mr. Hovey, for his very interesting and instructive lec- 
ture. 


November 27, 1882. 


The President, Dr. J. S. NewBerRrRY, in the Chair, 
The audience filled the large hall. 


A lecture was delivered by Dr. J. S. Peng, of London, 
England, illustrated with a large number of diagram views, and 
entitled : 


RECENT ARCH/OLOGICAL DISCOVERIES RELATING TO THE MOUND- 
BUILDERS. 


At the close of the lecture the PResmenr remarked that the 
geological evidence rendered it by no means impossible that the 
theory of the lecturer might be well founded, of the contempora- 
neous existence of the mound-building race with the ancient horse, 
whose remains, exactly like those of the modern horse, have been 
found in deposits of very recent age in Oregon, etc., and with an- 


TECHS IN Se VPA Ge SCLs L9, Dec. 4, 


imals of the elephant family, whose remains, (both the elephant 
and mastodon) occur abundantly in many quaternary deposits. 
As to the camel, there is less evidence, but no impossibility of its 
existence at the same time. 


A resolution of thanks to Dr. PHENE, for his interesting lecture, 
was passed, and, on motion, Dr. PHENE was nominated and unani- 
mously elected Corresponding Member of the N. Y. ACADEMY OF 
SCIENCES. 


December 4, 1882. 
REGULAR BUSINESS MEETING. 


The President, Dr. J. S. Ni&wperry, in the Chair. 

Thirty-two persons present. 

The following persons were elected : 

Resident Member, IstpORE Osorio. 

Corresponding Member, Dr. Henry R. Rocers, of Dunkirk, 


IN: Y. 
Honorary Member, Sir HENRY CRrESWICKE Raw inson, LL.D. 


The resignation of the following members, on account of re- 
moval from the city, etc., were accepted: 


I. DEVLIN, C. HEITZMAN, 
R. DUNLAP, A. A. REDFIELD, 
Q. A. GILLMORE, I. H. STEBBINS, JR., 


W. H. Van ARSDALE. 


Mr. G. F. Kunz exhibited a specimen of topaz from the new 
locality at Stoneham, Me., as the finest ever found in America ; 
also a number of smaller crystals of the same, ail full of fluid 
cavities, and some showing a curious iridescence when looked 
upon from one direction, z.¢., from the O plane; also crystals 
of monazite from the same locality, there associated with albite, 
columbite, triphyllite, etc.; also a fine crystal of chrysoberyl from 
Brazil, a crystal of andalusite, and a catseye. 

Prof. EGLESTON pronounced the topaz crystal as certainly the 
largest ever found on the continent, its iridescence being due to 
fine lines produced by the easy cleavage parallel to the base. 
The crystals of chrysoberyl were now very uncommon, though such 


1882, 438 DRAUSS ING AGI SGz. 


were not rare 25 to 30 years ago. ‘The crystal of andalusite pre- 
sented faces and distortion which were novel and well worth de- 


scription in detail. 
A paper was then read by Mr. Witttam L. Lay, 


ON THE DEPOSITS OF EARTH-WAX (OZOKERITE) IN EUROPE AND 
AMERICA. 


(Abstract). 


There exists a large mining and manufacturing industry in Austria, 
that of ozokerite, or earth-wax—which has nothing like it in any other 
part of the known world, an industry that supplies Europe with a part 
of its beeswax, without the aid of the bees. It may not be generally 
known that the mining of petroleum was a profitable industry in Austria 
long before it was in this country. In 1852, a drug@ist near Tarnow dis- 
tilled the oil and had an exhibit of it in the first World’s Fair in Lon- 
don. In America the first borings were made in 1859. Indeed, the 
use of petroleum as an illuminator was common at a very early age in 
the world’s history. In Persia at Baku, in India on the [rawada, also 
in the Crimea, and on the river Kuban in Russia, petroleum has been 
used in lamps for thousands of years. At Baku the fire worshippers 
have a never-ceasing flame, which has burned from time immemorial. 
The mines of ozokerite are lacated in Austrian Poland, now known as 
Galicia. Near the city of Drohabich, on the railway line running from 
Cracow to Lemberg, is a town of six thousand inhabitants, called Bor- 
islau, which is entirely supported by the ozokerite industry. It lies at 
the foot of the Carpathian Mountains. About the year 1862, a shaft 
was sunk for petroleum at that place. After descending about one 
hundred and eighty feet, the miners found all the cracks in the clay or 
rock filled with a brown substance, resembling beeswax. At first, the 
layers were not thicker than writing paper ; but they grew thicker grad- 
ually below, until at a depth of three hurdred feet they attained a thick- 
ness of three or four inches. Upon examination, it was found that a 
yellow wax could be made of a portion of this substance, and at once a 
substitute for wax was manufactured. 

The discovery caused an excitement like the oil fever of 1865, in 
America. A large number of leases were made. When I saw the 
wells of Pennsylvania, in 1879, there were more than two thousand. 
The owner of the land received one-fourth of the product and the 
miners three-fourths. In the petroleum region, the leases at first 
were whole farms, then they were reduced to 20, then Io, then five, 
and at last to one acre, which is a square of 209 feet. 

But in the ozokerite region of Poland, where everything is done on a 


Trans. N. Y. Ac. Scz. 44 Dec. 4, 


small scale, when compared with like enterprises in this country, the 
leases were on tracts thirty-two feet square. These were so small that 
the surface was not large enough to contain the earth that had to be 
raised to sink the shaft ; consequently the earth had to be transported 
to a distance, and, when I saw it, there was a mound sixty or seventy 
feet high. Its weight had become so great that it caused a sinking 
of the earth, and endangered the shafts to such an extent that the Gov- 
ernment ordered its removal to a distance and its deposit on ground 
that was not undermined. The shafts are four feet square, and the 
sides are supported by timbers six inches through, which leaves a shaft 
three feet square. The miner digs the well or shaft just as we dig our 
water wells, and the dirt and rock is hoisted up in a bucket by a rope 
and windlass. But one man can work in the shaft at atime. For 
many years no water was found; but, as there is a deposit of petro- 
Jeum under the ozokgrite, at a depth of six hundred feet from the sur- 
face, the miners were troubled with gas. This is got rid of by blowing 
a current of fresh air froma rotary fan, through a pipe extending down 
the shaft as fast as the curbing of timber is putin place. The ozokerite 
is imbedded in a very stiff blue clay for a depth of several hundred 
feet; bolow, it is interlaid with rock. [Specimens of crude and manu- 
factured ozokerite were on exhibition, through the kindness of Dr. J. S. 
Newberry]. 

That part of the earth’s surface has more miners’ shafts to 
the acre than any other part of the globe. As wages are very iow in 
Poland, averaging not more than forty cents a day for men and ten 
cents for children, a very small quantity of ozokerite pays for the 
working. If thirty or forty pounds a day is obtained, it remunerates 
the two men and one or two children required to work each lease. 
When the bucket, containing the earth, rock and wax, is dumped in 
the little shed covering the shaft, it is picked over by the children, 
who detach the wax from the clay or rock with knives. The miners 
use galvanized wire ropes and wooden buckets. When preparing to 
descend, they invariably cross themselves and utter a short prayer. 
The business is not free from danger, carelessness on the part of 
the boy supplying the fresh air, or the caving in of the unsupported 
roof, causing a large number of deaths. One of the Government in- 
spectors of the mines informed me that in one week there had been 
eight deaths from accidents. 

The ozokerite is taken to a crude furnace, and put into a common 
cast-iron kettle, and melted. This allows the dirt to sink to the 
bottom, and the ozokerite, freed from all other solids, is skimmed 
off with a ladle, poured into conical moulds, and allowed to cool, 
in which form it is sold to the refiners, for about six cents per 


1882. 45 Trans. IN. VY. Ac. Séz, 


pound. The quantity produced is uncertain, as the miners take care 
to understate it, for the reason that the Government lays a tax upon 
all incomes, and the landowner demands his one-fourth of the quan- 
tity mined. Tne best authority is Leo Strippelman, who states the 
quantity produced in fifteen years at from 375,000,000 to 400,000,000 
pounds, worth twenty-four millions of dollars. As the owners of the 
land get one-fourth of the sum, they received six millions. This is 
at the rate of four hundred thousand a year, a rather valuable crop 
from some two hundred acres of land, 

The miners do not support the earth by timber or pillars, as they 
should; the result is that the whole plot of about two hundred acres 
is gradually sinking, and this will eventually ruin the industry in 
that part of the deposit. In another part of the same field, a French 
company has purchased forty acres, and it is mining the whole tract 
and hoisting through one shaft by steam power. In that shaft they 
have sunk to a depth of six hundred feet, and are troubled with 
water and petroleum. These they pump out very much the same 
way asin coal and other mines, worked in a scientific manner. The 
thickest layer of ozokerite found is about eighteen inches, and this layer 
‘or pocket was a great curiosity. When first removed at the bottom of 
the shaft, it was found to be so soft that it was shovelled out like putty. 
During the night it oozed into the space that had been emptied the day 
before; this continued for weeks, or until the pressure of the gas had 
become too weak to force it out. 

I have been occupied in the petroleum region of Pennsylvania since 
1860, have seen all the wonderful development of the oil wells, and was 
very much interested in contrasting the Austrian ozokerite and petro- 
leum industry with the American. It is a good illustration of the differ- 
ence between the lower class of Poles and Jews and the Yankee. Boris- 
lau, after twenty years work, was unimproved, dirty, squalid and 
brutal. It contained one school house, but no church nor printing office. 
None of its streets were paved, and, in the main road through the 
town, the mud came up to the hubs of the wagon wheels for over a 
mile of its length. In places, plank had to be set up on edge to keep 
the mud out of the houses, which were lower than the road. It con- 
tained numerous shops, where potato whiskey was sold to men, women 
and children. It depends on a dirty, muddy creek for its supply of 
water. Its houses were generally one-story, built of logs and mud. 

On the other hand, Oil City, a town of the same age and size, con- 
tained eight school houses (one a high school building), twelve churches, 
and two printing offices. It has paved streets, which, in 1863, were as 
deep with mud as that in Borislau, in 1879. It has no whiskey shops 
where women and children can drink. Many of its houses are of brick, 


Trans, IN. VAC, iSEz. 46 Dees As 


es 


two, three, four and five-stories high. Its water-works cost one hundred 
and fifty thousand dollars. All this has been done since 1860, when it 
did not contain forty houses. 

I saw in the market-place of Borislau women, standing ankle deep in 
the mud, selling vegetables. One woman really had to build a platform 
of straw, on which to place a bushel of potatoes ; if the straw founda- 
tion had not been there, the potatoes would have sunk out of sight. 
Borislau is three miles from Drohobich, a city of thirty thousand inhabi- 
tants ; between the two places, in wet weather, the road was impassa- 
ble. For a third of the way, it was in the bed of the creek ; and I had 
to wait a day for the water to fall so as to navigate it in a wagon. On 
enquiring why they did not improve the road, I found the same diffi- 
culty as the Arkansas settler encountered with his leaky roof; when it 
‘rained he could not repair it, and when it was dry it did not need repair: 
so with the road to Borislau. 

Ozokerite (from the Greek words, “‘ Ozein,”’ to smell and ‘‘ Keros,” 
wax), is found in Turkistan, East of the Caspian Sea—in the Cauca- 
sian Mountains, in Russia—in the Carpathian Mountains, in Austria— 
in the Appenines, in Italy—in Texas, California, and in the Wasatch 
Mountains, in the United States. Commercially, it is not worked any- 
where but in Austria; although, I believe, we have in Utah a larger 
deposit than in any other place. I made two journeys to examine the 
deposits in the Wasatch Mountains. Fora distance of forty miles, it 
crops out in many places, and on the Minnie Maud, a stream empty- 
ing into the Colorado, I found a strata of sand-rock, from ten to twelve 
feet thick, filled with ozokerite. 

No systematic effort has been made to ascertain the quantity of 
ozokerite in Utah. I saw a drift of some fourteen feet, at one place, 
and a shaft twenty-three feet deep, at another. In this shaft, the vein 
was about ten inches wide ; and it could be traced along the slope of 
the hill, for several hundred feet. The largest vein of pure ozokerite 
is seen on Soldiers’ fork of Spanish Cafion, which enters Salt Lake 
Valley near the town of Provo. This vein is very much like the 
ozokerite of Austria, and contains between thirty and forty per cent. of 
white ceresin (which resembles bleached beeswax), about thirty per 
cent. of yellow ceresin (which resembles yellow wax), and twenty per 
cent. of black petroleum; the residue is dirt. Dr. J. S. Newberry, of 
Columbia College, and Prof. S. B. Newberry, of Cornell University, 
made examinations of the ozokerite found in Utah; those who are 
interested in the subject will find the papers published in the Azgzmeer- 
tng and Mining Journal for the year 1879. 

A deposit of white ozokerite occurs on the top of the Apennine 
Mountains, in Italy, of which a specimen is here exhibited. An interest- 


1882. AT Trans, IN. Vo Ac. See: 


ing story is told of its discovery. A church at Modena was robbed; 
among other articles taken was a quantity of wax candles. A short 
time afterwards, a woman brought to a druggist a quantity of wax and 
offered it for sale. The druggist bought it and afterwards suspected it 
consisted of the stolen candles melted down. Soon afterward she 
brought another lot. He had her arrested. When questioned by the 
magistrate, she said she found the wax in the clay on her farm, about 
twenty miles from the city. This story confirmed him in the belief 
that she had stolen the candles, or was the receiver of the stolen goods ; 
for such a thing as a deposit of wax in the soil was unheard of. She 
was therefore remanded to jail. On three several days, she was 
brought before the Court, and, when questioned, told the same story. 
She was a member of the church, and requested the priest to be sent for. 
He came, and, after an interview between them, he said it was easy to 
disprove her story, if it was a lie, by sending her home, in company 
with an officer, to investigate. The Court sent the priest, who was the 
only one who believed her. On coming to her house, she took her pick 
and shovel, and going to the place at the top of the hill, she dug out of 
the clay a quantity of white ozokerite, proved her case, and was at once 
set at liberty. She performed the same service for me, and I saw her 
dig the specimen and heard her tell the story as I have told it to you. 
The hill was composed of loose clay and stones. It appeared as if it 
had been forced up by gas or some power trom below the surface. 
The quantity that could be gathered, by one person, laboring con- 
stantly for a week, was only twenty-five or thirty pounds. An attempt 
had been made to sink a shaft; but, at a depth of fourteen feet, the 
pressure of the clay was sufficient to break the boards that held up the 
sides. The earth caved in and the shaft was abandoned. 

It is not necessary here to describe the various processes of manu- 
facture, it will be sufficient to enumerate some of the forms of ozoke- 
rite, and the uses to which it is put. At Borislau, there are several 
refineries, where candles, tapers and lubricating oils are made. In 
Vienna, there are five factories ; in one pf these, they make white wax, 
wax candles, matches, yellow beeswax, black heel-ball, colored tapers, 
and crayon pencils. In Europe, large quantities of the yellow wax are 
uséd to wax the floors of the houses, many of the finer ones being 
waxed every day, It is acurious fact that the Catholic Church does 
not allow the use of paraffine, sperm or stearine candles; at the 
same time nearly all the candles used in the churches in Europe are 
made from ozokerite,which is a natural paraffine, made from petroleum 
in nature’s laboratory. In the United States, the only uses made of 
ozokerite, so far as I know, are chewing gum and the adulteration of 
beeswax. In this the Yankee gives another illustration of the ruling 


Trans. N. VY. Ac. Sez. 48 Dec. 4, 


passion strong in money-making, which gives us wooden nutmegs, 
woocen hams, shoddy-cloth, glucose-candy, chicory-coffee, oleomarga- 
rine-butter, mineral sperm-oil made from petroleum, and beeswax 
made without bees. 

After this paper was written, the following translation from a pam- 
phlet, published by the First Hungarian Galician Railway Company, 
in 1879, cameto my notice. The writer’s name is not published. 

“Mineral wax, in the conditionin which it is taken from the shafts, 
is not well adapted for exportation, since it occurs with much earthy 
matter; and, at any rate, an expensive packing in sacks would be 
necessary. It is therefore first freed from all foreign substances by 
melting, and cooled in conical cakes of about 25 kilos. weight, and these 
cakes are exported. There are now, in Borislau, 25 melting works, 
which, in 1877, with one steam and Go fire kettles, produced 95,000 
metric centners (9,500,000 Ibs.). 

The melted earth-wax is sent from Borislau to almost all European 
countries, to be farther refined. Outside of Austro-Hungary, we may 
specially mention Germany, England, Italy, France, Belgium and 
Russia, as large purchasers of this article of commerce. 


Products and thecr Applications. 


The products of mineral wax are: 

(a.) Ceresine, also called ozocerotine or refined ozokerite, a product 
which possesses a striking resemblance to ordinarily refined beeswax. 
It replaces this in almost all its uses, and, by its cheapness, is em- 
ployed for many purposes for which beeswax is too dear. It is much 
used for wax candles, for waxing floors. and for dressing linen and 
colored papers. Wax-crayons must be mentioned among these pro- 
ducts. The house of Offenheim & Ziffer, in Elbeteinitz, makes them 
of many colors. These crayons are especially adapted to marking 
wood, stone and iron; also, for marking linen and paper, as well as 
for writing and drawing. The writings and drawings made with 
these crayons, can be effaced neither by water, by acids, nor by rubbing. 

Concerning the technical process for the production of ceresine, it 
should be said that, when the industry was new (the production of 
ceresine has been known only about eight years, since 1874), it was-con- 
trolled by patents, which are kept secret. This much is known, that 
the color and odor are removed by fuming sulphuric acid. 

From mineral wax of good quality about 70 per cent. of white cere- 
sine is obtained. The yellow ceresine is tinted by the addition of col- 
oring matter (annatto). 

(6.) Paraffine, a firm, white, translucent substance, without odor. 
It is used, chiefly, in the manufacture of candles, and also as a protec- 


1882, AO Trans. NV. VA. Sez. 


tion against the action of acids, and to make casks and other wooden ves- 
sels water-tight, for coating corks,etc.,for air-tight wrappings,and, finally, 
for the preparation of tracing paper. There are several methods of 
obtaining paraffine from ozokerite (see the Encyclopedic Handbook of 
Chemistry, by Benno Karl and F, Strohmann, Vol. 1V., Brunswick, 
1877). 

The details of the technical process consist, in every case, in the dis- 
tillation of the crude material, pressure of the distillate by hydraulic 
presses, melting, and treating by sulphuric acid. 

In the manufacture of paraffine from ozokerite, there are produced 
from 2 to 8 per cent. of benzine, from 15 to 20 per cent. of naphtha, 
36 to 50per cent. of paraffine, 15 to 20 per cent. of heavy oil for lubri- 
cating, and 10 to 20 per cent. of coke, as a residue. 

(c.) Mineral ozls, which are obtained at the same time with paraffine, 
and are the same as those produced from crude petroleum, described 
above. The process consists, as in the natural rock oils, besides the 
distillation, in the treatment of the incidental products with acids and 
alkalies. 

Of the products of ozokerite, manufactured in Galicia, the greater 
part goes to Russia, Roumania, Turkey, Italy and Upper Hungary. The 
common paraffine candles made in Galicia—which are of various sizes, 
from 28 to 160 per kilo—are used by the Jews in all Galicia, Bukowuina, 
Roumania, Upper Hungary and Southern Russia, and form an impor- 
tant article of commerce. Ceresine is exported to all the parts of the 
world. Of late a considerable quantity is said to have been sent to the 
East Indies, where it is used in the printing of cotton.”’ 


DISCUSSION. 


Mr. Kunz enquired whether any rocksalt occurred in Galicia ; 
as aspecimen in his possession was lined with ozokerite. 

Mr. Lay replied that no salt was found in that region. 

The PRESIDENT stated that ozokerite was undoubtedly a product 
of petroleum. Little was known by the public concerning its use 
and value. He exhibited specimens of natural brown ozokerite, of 
yellow ozokerite, sold as beeswax, and of a white purified torm, 
which had been treated by sulphuric acid. Specimens from Utah 
had already been shown before the Academy. ‘There was no mys- 
tery as to its genesis in either region, as it had been shown to be 
the result of inspissation of a thick and viscid variety of petroleum. 
The term “petroleum ” includes a great variety of substances, from 
a limpid liquid,- too light to burn, to one that is thick and 


Trams. N. Y. Ac. Sc. 50 Dee. ti, 


tamy. These Gifer widely 2ko m chemical composition: some 
im turpentine ; some contaimine so much parafine, that 2 considera— 
ble quaniity can be stamed oat m cold weather. The asphalt m 
igs Natural formis 2 solid rock_ to which the term “sum beds” has 
been appited m Canada These differences im consiiiution have 
Grisinated m the differences in the bitummods shales from which the 
petroleum, ozokerie, cic, have been dertved. Im Canad2. as exca- 
and imally pesses mio petrolemm Tiss i abo the case m Utah 
Mr Lay has become interested m the material has visited all the 
localittes of is occurrence, and is best acquainted with them 

A peper wes then read by Dr. Jons S. Newserry, on 

THE PHYSICAL CONDITIONS UNDER WHICH COAL WAS FORMED. 

[Published m School of Mimes Quarterly, 1833} 
Dsscussiow. 

Dr. B. N_ Mazes enquired whether any sraduation has been re- 
Cognized im the typ=s of planfs_ m passmg throwzh the Coalmeas- 
ures from below upwards. 
lerely Interiocked’ by msensible changes. Some floras prevail 
strowgaom: the series: while, on the other hand, other types, «g., the 


The President, Dr. J. S Newerrey, in the Chaz 

Fifty-six persons present 

A aysizlized speamen of native gold of remarkable beanty, 
from El Dorado, Cal, belonging to Mr. Trxry, was exhibited by 


1882. 51 Leans. INS VasAen sce 


the President. Prof. J. K. Ress, Director of the Columbia College 
Observatory, presented a report (published in the Annals) upon 


OBSERVATIONS OF THE TRANSIT OF VENUS. 


(Abstract). 

The station occupied was the roof of the unfinished observatory of 
the college. The telescope was placed in the southwest corner of the 
roof. This roof is extraordinarily strong and solid, the beams being of 
iron, twelve inches in depth. Solid brick arches spring from beam to 
beam. The height of the roof from the sireet is about one hundred 
and ten feet. The walls supporting the roof are four feet thick. An 
unobstructed view was had of the whole transit. The position of the 
instrument was only a few feet from the old observatory, so that we 
may take the longitude and latitude of our instrument from the Ameri- 
can ephemeris :— 

Latitude,+ 40° 45’ 23” .I. 

Longitude :—From Washington,—oh. 12m, 18.40s. 

Longitude :—From Greenwich,+ 4h, 55m. 53.69s. 

“The timepieces used were a mean time chronometer, No. 1853, 
made by Parkinson & Frodsham, of London, England, and a sidereal 
chronometer, No. 1564, made by Negus & Co., of New York City. The 
instrument used in the observations was an equatorially mounted refrac- 
tor by Alvan Clark & Sons. Aperture, 5.09 inches; focal length of 
object glass, 74.3 inches. The magnifying powers used were 48 on the 
I. contact, 165 on the II. and III. contacts, 95 on the IV. contact. 
The telescope was moved by clockwork, supplied with a Bond spring 
governor. In making chronometer comparisons, the sidereal chronome- 
‘ter was left at the college, and the mean time chronometer was carried 
to the instruments on which signals were to be received. 

Professor Rees had prepared, but omitted to give, an elaborate 
system of chronometer comparisons with the Western Union time sig- 
nals and the Washington time signals. The object of the comparisons 
was to obtain the exact error of the chronometer used at the time of 
the observations. 

ADOPTED CONTACT TIMES. 


Mean. Time Mean Time 

of Columbia in Wash- 

College. ington. 

H. M. Ss His, Mas 3S: 
ot oa = hee eee ‘2S . 50:0 201/50) .3)E.6 
Se a Sere es SE 216206 45.9 21) Or 27.5 
LE SOS i So ee OP Zab 2en tos PENG ISH 
LE GROEN aA ee er ibe Sap Sead 2 50. °33:7 


* Notch plainly on. Estimated a minute late. 
+ Poor contact. Cloudy. 


Trans, DI. V. Ac, Scz. 5Y, Dec ti. 


The observation of the first contact was interfered with by the 
clouds. Between the first contact and the second contact the light 
shining through Venus’ atmosphere was a fine sight. I should say that 
it first appeared to my eye when the planet was a little more than 
half way on the sun, and disappeared about a minute before the planet 
reached second contact. 

The line of light, marking out the portion of Venus’ disk not on 
the sun, changed its appearance considerably while my attention was 
fixed uponit. I first saw a faint curved line of light off of the sun, 
and apparently marking out the part of Venus’ disk not on the sun, 
this curved line being entirely disconnected from the sun, A little later 
this arc of light was lengthened to a semi-circular thread and touched 
the edge of the sun, marking out the complete outline of the part of 
Venus’ disk not on the sun. The semi-circular gold thread seemed to 
be an exact continuation of the dark rim of the planet. Finally this 
line broadened at the point where it touched the sun’s rim, or edge, 
and the summit of the arch disappeared. The wings of light thus 
formed were, at their base, not in the exact continuation of the dark 
outline of the planet. I watched for the repetition of these appearances 
between the third and fourth contacts, but failed to see anything, The 
sky between the first and second contacts was much clearer of haze 
than between the third and fourth contacts. 

At second contact I saw no indication of the black drop. The tan- 
gency of Venus’ and the sun’s disks was well seen. During the pas- 
sage of Venus cver the sun’s face I observed her disk with magnifying 
powers of 48, 95, 165 and 345, but saw no indications of an atmosphere. 
The dsk of Venus did not appear to be uniform in blackness, but to 
be spotted with grayish or whitish matter, reminding one of patches 
of snow. This was seen under the different magnifying powers used. 

When Venus neared the third contact, a very peculiar phenomenon 
was noticed. The preceding edge of Venus was seen to be darker than 
the central portion. Later the edge of the planet became of a bluish 
black color, and this extended around to the following edge. The 
phenomena connected with this were very distinct. When the planet 
was near third contact, these appearances were not seen longer. Just 
before third contact, a faint black drop was observed for a short time. 
It disappeared very quickly and third contact was finely seen. 

The fourth contact was interfered with by the haze and clouds and 
was probably called too early. 


1882. 53 Trans. N. VY. Aé Se. 


Prof. H. CarrIncron Botton of Trinity College, Hartford, 
Conn., read a paper entitled: 


HISTORY OF CHEMICAL NOTATION, PART I., METALLURGIC 
ASTRONOMY AND ITS SYMBOLS. 


(Abstract.) 


He defined chemical notation as a method of expressing in symbolic 
characters and abbreviations the composition and mutual relations of 
chemical substances, and showed that it has been a marked feature of the 
science of chemistry in all stages of its history. Symbols occur in Greek 
alchemical manuscripts of the roth and 41th centuries, several hun- 
dred of which are preserved inthe foremost Libraries of Europe. The 
fact that symbols were in common use at a very early period is indicat- 
ed by the existence of manuscripts containing keys to these signs, the 
so called “‘ Lexicons of the sacred art ;’’ these however are unsatisfac- 
tory, being alinost unintelligible. We are told, for example, that ‘‘ mag- 
nesia is the female antimony of Macedonia,’ and the expression, ‘‘ sa~ 
cred water,” is applied to substances as diverse in nature as marble, 
litharge, asbestos, antimony, and white-of-egg. Among the earliest 
signs are those which were applied indifferently to the metals and 
the heavenly bodies and are still used in astronomy. 

The influence of astrological ideas on alchemy was prodigious, and it 
is not surprising, if we reflect on the intellectual degradation of the 
period referred to. Several authors have discussed the mystical as- 
sociations of the planets and the seven metals, and have sought to dis- 
cover the origin of their common symbols. Some claim that the signs 
were first given to the metals and then transferred to the planets: this 
view was held by those influenced by the vagaries of alchemy. Others 
derive them from supposed resemblances to symbolic articles associated 
with the divinities who presided over the corresponding planets. Ac- 
cording to the celebrated philologist Scaliger, the signs have the fol- 
lowing origin : 
the scythe of Time, or Saturn. 
the thunderbolt of Jupiter. 
the lance and buckler of Mars. 
the disk of the Sun. 
the crescent of the Moon. 
the mirror of Venus. 


Wt DBD OeR om 


tne caduceus of Mercury. 


L7ans, Ne Ve Ac. Sez. 54 Der Rs: 


This symbolic derivation of the signs was very generally adopted 
by the historians of astronomy, especially by Lalande, Huet and Roger 
Long. 

Salmasius regarded the symbols for the sun and the moon as _ ideo- 
graphic, and traced the origin of the remaining five signs to hastily 
written initial letters of the Greek names of the planets. This is illus- 
trated in the following table : ; 


Ripa c MEE  e ee 
Lead Saturn Kooves % pk } 
Tin Jupiter Zeus a Z ae 
Iron Mars (EX oper eae a 
Gold Sol 7 260s © 6 
Copper Venus org opos 3 2 9 9 
Mercury Mercury ZriAge Ys ¥y a) rs) 
Silver Luna Zea 7» a y »)) 


Salmasius’ theory is ingenious, and has been favorably regarded by 
Letronne, Delambre and others; it has, however, weak points. Mars 
was commonly called rvpéece or “Apyc, and the epithet Oovpor, “impetuous,” 
is rare. Again, the derivation of % from =riAPwv seems forced, but 
Beckmann defends it in this wise: the old form for = was indisputably 
C, and this turned on its back and written above a 7 resembles the char- 
acter formercury. The speaker stated that, in confirmation of this, 
he had found a sign for mercury thus y. Early Greek MSS. abound 
in ligatures and abbreviations, which are not farther removed from their 
parent letters, than this sign from the initials of itsancient name. 

The paper was illustrated by several diagrams giving early forms of 
the symbols used to designate planets and metals. The subject of 
alchemical symbolism in general was reserved for a future paper. 


DISCUSSION. 


Prof. W. Gootp LrEvison remarked that, however obscure may 
be the origin of these long neglected symbols, Prof. BoLton’s effort 
to trace it may be encouraged by an interest of more dignity than 
mere curiosity. It is no less appropriate to designate apparatuses 
by such symbols than the elements themselves, although in the form- 
er case they can never serve so important a purpose. For many 
years he has used such symbols as a short-hand method of record- 


1882. 55 Trans: Ns VeAceSce. 


ing the results of quantitative work and has suggested the use of 
them to his students. When, for instance, the word “crucible” 
must be repeatedly entered upon a record, it is very convenient to 
indicate it by a cross (x) (the object from which it is derived), or 
by across within a triangle, a cross within a circle, or, if preferred, 
by the abbreviation “ble” all of which were used by the alchem- 
ists. Again the letter V may conveniently be used as an abbrevia- 
tion of the word precipitate, and the same symbol, inverted thus 4, 
may be applied to indicate a gas. 

As an illustration of the use of symbols in this way take the fol- 
lowing common form of record of an analytical operation : 


Weight of the crucible and cover containing the 


precipitate and <ash 7-2... 26.4573 

“ “crucible and cover alone... .. . 26.1729 
Weicht cf the precipitate and ash:..5:52...:; .2844 
a SUA STM ae ar cgl to nai Salsia-aidalara A cape Un A .OOIO 

ee | sprecipttate==AllOs. «acct cutee .2834 


and note how much more conveniently it may be represented by 
symbols as follows : 


WES Steyr Pe taicidia’ Hota de dee cei doe: 26.4573 
WW Se CH OMe chs anc ee s Ste EAE eg kk 26.172 
SAG Sea EU a A Oe er Pe eae a 2844 
WS, Sa en cn rete oe Aaa hoe J; Sie .OOTO 
W, V=—AI.O; Siielimilelel alezlellwieaeelic/euibie le a) eee) ee) ails el clie a sie 2834 


The signs he has personally used were adopted with no especial 
respect to conventionality, but in “ Hall’s Encyclopeedia,” a book 
published in 1812, he lately met witha table of “ Chymical, &c., 
Characters, ” which was engraved in 1793, and he found that many 
of them were identical with those he was using. So he has inserted 
on the inside cover of his Laboratory note book, a photographic 
copy of the table which seems quite complete, and such of its sym- 
bols as are appropriate he applies to a practical use.” 


Trans. lV. 


VRPAG SCL. 


56 


Dec. I! 


C Qo ynial oe Characters, 


Do Abswact A. 

dad Far. 

— Marne 2 Or -O -O 

—- Mirus -O-~D Or-O 

——Masphoric xt 

—ligedable 

———Hinolic. -D “Ox G-O 
Folatile Sulphureous % 

Athy A, A. 

tir AA A. 

— Mind A TA. 

——Miphitic mad. 

AMlcahest or Alcohol of Wine 

An Membic T XX XX XX. 

Mihai DP 8- 

———, Caustic Fixed c Ov: 

Volatile ¢.Q>- 

___— Fired Ov Gv Gr Ot 

__—— Milder Fired m Ov. 

Tol OO © Ox 

Amalgam aa A. 

Antimony OOD é. 

Flowers of oO s 

Agua Fortis A AF VC TY 

Kegia AR MR v. 

~__Vitae AV V" 203. 

Misenic Xook Vi. 

>-—— Prgulus of 

Ash or Asher KAT E OC. 


Auripigment OO CO © 
Bah PB. 

——__Jand AB BA. 
— Vipour VB. 

—— Water TM MB. 
Bismuth Ty W. 

Blood Stone 2 

Bole Armenian AB Q: 
BoawWATHhSG OD 
Bottle Av. 

Brandy AV'V" toS. 
Bras ? ¥ 

Calamine Stone LC Ten 
Lo Calne A © > 
Camphor >> yr- 

Coput Mortuum 9 DD O 
To Cement Z Z . 

lirufs fi 

Cinabur 3 & & 23, 
Clay “F. 

Cpr Q.- 

frab 

AGuclle X FF OT, 
Curubit A &- 

Day o o. 

Die 38 8, 


Ls Difiolve amt E 
BDistill I §8 3d D'acn- 
Dram - 
Boa O° 
Drp G gt-gut.> 
Eah Aa i 
Lath JF 
absorbent VJ. 

ofAlttunm AT Q. 
—Calrareous c4- J 
— Fluor arfisible Lo 
Staled 7. 
Sihicous or Vitrrscible Ze 
Lfrence Els ¥. 

Fire A. 

— Circular ©, 

— Reverberaung AR « 
Fluors yTa 

Glog XX O- >O 

Gold © 

— Filings of Of 
Lag 

___ Potable OP 

A Gian gv.0 

Gum EX 

Cypsum ¥ 

Half MT Ls « 
Farts Horn CC. 

Honey mjc + 


Pot or Peart UW | _An Hour &. 


tron . 

ign OaOwOe 
Layer upon Layer SSS« 
Lead WI) 

Lime C @. 

Litharge SV. 
Magnesia MV M. 
Mercury 3 

oe Ox. 
of Saturn ‘ 
Sublined -9 x. 
Metallic Bodies CM. 
Substances SM MS, 
Mix mm. 

Modius M. 

AMonh X O. 
Nickel WN 

Night OF. 

Nire O- 

iL OOO. OP, 
—Lfrential Eoe A 
—Lind ¥, 

— Olive % 

An Ounce uF B - 
ALlart psp. 

Pilegm (2) 


Lhlogiston & A ‘ 
Phosphorus A ‘ 

A Pound P% p Ace 
Preepitate ~r Fe 
Prpare PP.pp- 

A Lagil Pp. 

Quick Lime CVYY OF Y. 
Outcksilver fe) . 

Quintifsence QE 

A Recerver ® 

Regulus Ef 2, 

of Antimony Stellated, Uv xe 
Stellated 3X 

Retore OIAR, 


Sofffon ®. 
of Copper Ge. 
of Lron 3. 
Jat @ 


22 Milaline Qin 

—_ Ammoniac XY I XO GE 

—— Common B i 

Se Cend! (Ono 

__ sae @6 

—— Sedatire Ss 

Sand 

1 Scruple 2 

Seal Hermehcally SH. 

Steel DB 

—— Lilags of aX 

Spirit —™ O- <S 

of Wine NV = 
P. ‘roof Vee Brandy 
Rectited TR 


— 


wee lee 


Sublimate 
Sublime } 
Sulphur & & 
Liver of O% 
Mineral cond SuprurPina&, 
Tale X X. 
Tartar qa Bs 
Tin 2 
Tutty OO 
Une OO 
Verdigrise @® 
DistWed = 15] dd ° 
Vinegar Fe ilo ol 
Distilled & xe 
Virol @ G@ OF OF. 
Volatile ~-D VQ 
Mater V 
—e Lime v. 
War -Qr Oe 
Wine V. 
——_Les €. 
AY¥ear Q.- 


Zine J 3H 


» * The accompanying reproduction is taken from a copy of the work in the Library of 
Mr. D. B. Brainerd, of Brooklyn, N. Y. 


1882. 57 ivans, IN. ¥oA6é. Sez, 


Dr. Botton referred to the symbol, still in use by physicians 
at the head of their inscriptions, as probably an altered form of the 
symbol of a planet, formerly adopted for the purpose of invocation. 

Prof. O. P. Hupparp stated that the specimens of Col. Gibb’s 
famous Cabinet, Yale College, imported from Europe in 1805, ori- 
ginally in large part brought from Russia, still retained, as late as 
the year 1836, circular labels marked with these ancient symbols of 
the metals. 

The PRESIDENT stated that the heading of the prescriptions of 
modern physicians was commonly understood to be an antique R, 
standing for the Latin word, Recipe (Take!) However, this 
explanation was probably incorrect, the symbol having descended 
from antiquity. 

The subject was further discussed by Mr. Hawkins and other 
members. 


December 18, 1882. 


The President, Dr. J. S. NEWBERRY, in the Chair. 
Sixty-four persons present. 


The resignation of Dr. W. I. BAvErR, as a Resident Member, was 
accepted. 


A paper was read by Mrs. ErmINNIE A. Situ, illustrated with 
early and remarkable manuscripts, dictionaries, etc., entitled: 


LANGUAGE OF THE IROQUOIS INDIANS. 


The impossibility of clearly understanding a people or its literature, 
especially the latter if it be unwritten, without some knowledge of its 
language or medium of thought, cannot be disputed. 

Admitted as they are to be the most remarkable of all our American 
Indians, and those most intimately connected with our early national 
history, it is unaccountable that so little has been known of the six Iro- 
quois dialects. 

A brief, but as it has since proven most important Mohawk vocabu- 
lary, taken down in the 16th century by Jacques Cartier; a small Latin- 


Trans. IN, Ve AGH SCZ. 58 Dec. 18, 


Mohawk dictionary by the Jesuit Father Bruyas, and another in French- 
Onondaga by a priest of the same order of the 17th century, have for 
some time been in the possession of students. Beyond this, the Mo- 
hawk prayer-book by Brant, a few gospels and hymns in several of the 
dialects, a few numbers of a Seneca periodical, edited by their mission- 
ary, Mr. Wright, a spelling-book by the same author, together with nu- 
merous very incorrect short vocabularies in each of the dialects, and 
later, a few interesting pamphlets concerning the Mohawk by Pére 
Cuogq, constitute all the published material heretofore within reach of 
the historian, philologist or ethnologist. 

Some account therefore of my labors in this direction, after the uni- 
form scientific system, originated by the Bureau of Ethnology, and in 
use by those engaged in its service, may prove of interest. 

That these Six Tribes were originally but one is obvious from a com- 
parison of the six dialects. The chart on exhibition contains some of the 
words in most frequent use, and illustrates the character of their dis- 
similarities. The dialect spoken by the Tuscaroras, who were for a 
time widely separated from the others, presents the greatest differences. 

That this period of separation was not of necessity one of 
great length, may be inferred from the remarkable differences which 
have arisen between two portions of the Mohawk tribe, less widely 
separated fora little more than two centuries. 

On exhibition are the completed chrestomathies of the Seneca, Onon- 
daga, Mohawk and Tuscarora dialects, prepared for the Bureau of 
Ethnology, after its admirable system ot phonetic spelling and with its 
highly perfected alphabet for Indian dialects. 

To obtain synonyms for the newly collected 8,000 Tuscarora words, 
the nucleus to an Iroquoian dictionary, the Catholic missions on the 
Canadian banks of the St. Lawrence were selected as the field for in- 
quiry. f 

Over two hundred years ago, the ancestors of these Mohawks were 
christianized and transplanted to these missions from among their 
pagan surroundings, south of Lake Ontario, by the zealous Jesuit mis- 
sionaries. 

The archives of the old Catholic Church at Caughnawaga were found 
to contain, among other interesting and remarkable manuscripts, the 
most valuable French-Mohawk dictionary, now before you, compiled by 
Father Marcoux in the early part of this century. 

Through the kindness of Superior Antoine and Pére Burtin, this will 
furnish the desired synonyms, many of which would otherwise have 
been unobtainable. 

Through their courtesy and that of Pére le Clair, the Superior of the 
Sulpician Seminary at Oka, several hundred new titles were, during the 


1882. 59 Trans. N.. VY. Ac. Scz. 


past summer, added to the catalogue of Indian Linguistics, being edited 
by Mr. Pilling at Washington. 

The black-board illustrations show the extreme length of some of the 
words, and, in their dissection, illustrate their marvelous composition. 

For example, the following shows how the accidents of an Indian 
verb may affect its length, to the extent of producing in one word a 
very complicated phrase, viz. : 

Le-cén-wé-tt-at-é-wit-se-ra-h-nt-non-se-r on-nt-67-lin-ha-ti-es.—43 
letters, 21 syllables. 

The translation of this word is as follows: 

Some one has just come here expressly to buy again all kinds of 
clothes with that (money).—66 letters, 20 syllables. 

There is in this verb, 1st, the relation of the third person indefinite 
to the third masculine. 

2d. Composition of the verb, 2-20 (¢o buy), with the noun, 4-¢z-é¢- 
a-w7t (clothes.) 

3d. Final relative, (¢o duy for some one). 

ath. Movement, se-vo2 (come to buy). 

5th. Frequentation, 72-07. 

6th. Causality, 2éz, added to the perfect. 

7th. Reduplication and locality, together denoted by Ze before the 
person. 

8th. Transition, Za-tz-e, added to the perfect of the verb, denoting 
the transition from one place or one state to another, or the progress of 
the same state or action. This word is of unusual length. 

What the possibilities of this group were, we can at present only con- 
jecture, and should hasten tc preserve them with all their hidden lore, 
ere they have been forever displaced by that more rapid vehicle of 
thought, the English language. 


DISCUSSION. 


Bishop Stimpson, of Ontario, Canada, confirmed the general ac- 
curacy of Mrs. Smith’s observations. He stated also, that at 
Rice Lake, opposite Rochester, one of the tribes resident there, 
which still refuses to accept Christianity, had come originally from 
the Mohawk Valley, in New York. 

In reply to enquiries of Prof. O. P. HuBBARD, Mrs. Situ stated 
that the league of the Six Tribes probably occurred over 300 years 
ago, but the date was uncertain. Contrary to a general opinion, 


irans. IV: ¥. Ae: SL. 60 Dec. 18, 


however, such leagues were not rare, but had been commonly 
formed among other Indian tribes. 

The reason of the great difference in the language of the Tus- 
caroras from those of the other tribes, was due to the fact 
that the Tuscaroras formerly lived in North Carolina, and 
were thence driven out, in 1712, came North to the Confederation 
of the five tribes of the Iroquois, and formed the sixth tribe. 
Their original isolation had probably caused these dialectic differ- 
ences. 


General EL_y PARKER, spoke on the early history of the Tus- 
caroras, and the necessary conciseness of their language, which 
contains no circumlocutions, hardly any words with double-mean- 
ing. A similar mythology runs through all the tribes, which em- 
braces a multiplicity of gods, z.e., the spirits of familiar but 1m- 
portant objects, e.g., of the strawberry, maple, chestnut, oak, etc. 
At the annual festivals, as that of First Fruits (the strawberry), or 
that of Green Corn, they refer to all these spirits, but at the same 
time to a great Good Spirit, who presides over them all. They 
believe also in many evil spirits, They have never had any writ- 
ten language; oral tradition was their only possible means for 
handing down matters of history ; but it was necessary to present 
them in a fanciful form in order to impress the youthful mind—not 
merely the bare abstract facts. These people are dying out, and 
the valuable materials of their history, language, etc., are passing 
beyond our reach. Even in New York State, the few remaining 
Indians on the Reservation, are being affected by the influences of 
civilization around them, and will soon lose their tribal connection, 
their Indian habits and Indian memories. It is important to col- 
lect this material now, and assist investigations of this kind. 


Dr. B. N. MartTIN expressed his gratification over researches so 
original, novel, and interesting, and remarked, that it sounded 
strangely to speak of the history of the races, who so recently trod 
and ruled over our soil, asa novel subject. ‘The peculiar feature of 
the Indian language, the use of undivided long words, conveying 
all shades of thought without separation, throws light on the origin 
of language among primitive peoples. 


Rev. Dr. Dacosta referred to recent re-searches of a student of 
the Indian languages, who by means of carefully compiled tables, 


1882. 61 Trans. N.Y. Ac. Sez. 


had found a similarity in the system of nomenclature of rivers, 
something resembling the Latin, agua. 

The subject was further discussed by Mr. R. JOoHNson, in re- 
gard to the poetry of the Indians, and by a visiror, who had 
found apparent resemblances between words of the Chippewa and 
Oriental languages. For the names of rivers, very figurative ex- 
pressions were used by the Chippewas, e.g., the great gathering of 
waters (Mississippi), the river that follows the shore, the straight 
river (Hiwassee), the middle river, the river beyond the land, etc. 

Mrs. SmirH had remarked that, in the Iroquois names of rivers, 
some terms imply “flowing,” but no definite system prevailed. 
Five hundred Indian tongues have been spoken in the United 
States, but little is yet known concerning any of these; and it 
seems both difficult and unwise to endeavor to trace analogies 
among them, before a single one has been thoroughly studied. 

The PRESIDENT stated that the literature and destiny of the In- 
dians had always been a subject of great interest tohim. He had 
been among forty tribes, and had known something of the value 
of the materials, as bearing on the origin, structure and muta- 
tions of languages, which are soon to be lost. He had been 
associated for a time with George Gibbs, and with Turner, whose 
linguistic investigations were of the greatest value, and whose early 
death was much to be deplored. The subject under discussion 
was of the highest scientific character. The work of the Bureau of 
Ethnology promises to give a very important and well-digested ser- 
ies of investigations in regard to the Red Men, in place of the 
hasty observations and generalizations of Schoolcraft, and even 
those of Parkman, which are for the most part guess-work. Only 
by going among this people is their real spirit to be understood, 
and in this way the basis for a true history of the aboriginal 
occupants of this country will soon be gained. The policy of the 
early Government and colonists of Canada, and of some of our own 
colonists, ¢.g., those of Penn, was a just one in the treatment of 
the Red Men, and very useful in the collection of ancient records 
which are now doubly precious. A very important contribution to 
history will be acquired when all these materials shall be properly 
arranged and written out. 


Trans. NN. Y. Ac. Scz. 62 Jane, 


January 8, 1883. 
REGULAR BusINEss MEETING. 


Vice-President, Dr. B. N. Martin, in the Chair. 
Twenty persons present. 


Mr. C, E. Cotsy was elected Resident Member, and the resig- 
nation of Mr. E. VANSYCHEL was accepted. 


It was “ Resolved, that the Publication Committee be authorized 
to prepare and publish an appeal for additions to the General 
Publication Fund.” 

Dr. ALBERT R. LEEDS read a paper, illustrated by specimens, upon 


FIVE NEW ORGANIC COMPOUNDS, VIZ :— CNANTHOLANILINE, 
(NANTHOLXYLIDINE, @NANTHOLNAPHTHYLAMINE, CRYPTIDINE, 
AND ACROLEINUREIDE. 


(Abstract). 


(£nanthol was prepared by fractional distillation at 150° of castor 
oil in partial vacuo. It unites, with great energy and elevation of tem- 
perature, with the aromatic bases, to form oils of closely related physi- 
cal properties. 

Purification by distillation was found impracticable, as was also the 
use of solvents, such as alcohol, benzol, chloroform and carbon disul- 
phide. Finally the following plan proved successful. Each of the three 
compounds was dissolved in 150 grms. glacial acetic acid, heated for 
some hours on the water-bath, and, after complete combination of the 
excess of aromatic base, was converted into its respective acetic ac’d 
salt. A large excess of water was added, which precipitated the 
cenanthol compound, whilst the salt of the aromatic base remained 
in solution. After complete washing with water and drying at 100° C., 
the new compounds were submitted to analysis. 

(Enantholaniline, C;H;N, C,H,,O, is a reddish mobile oil of pleas- 
ant etherial smell; so is cenantholxylidine, CsH,,N, C;HisO, and 
cenantholnaphthylamine, C,,H,N, C;,H.,O.. In the last case, the 
etherial smell is very pronounced and agreeable, resembling the oder . 
of pineapple. 

It is remarkable that these compounds, formed synthetically by the 
direct union of a molecule of cenanthol with a molecule of the aromatic 
base, without the elimination of molecule, should evolve so great heat 
of combination. They are permanent compounds, and can be sublimed 
with only partial decomposition. The sublimates are not crystalline, 


1883. 63 TF AHS, Ns VeRAGW SG 


and are identical in their physical and chemical properties with the or- 
iginal bodies. 

By careful sublimation of xylidinacrolein, an oil is obtained which has 
an unpleasant smell and very bitter taste. It forms crystalline salts 
with sulphuric, hydrochloric and other acids. That with hydrochloric 
acid, after repeated purification by crystallization, was decomposed with 
caustic potash. The oil thus obtained was distilled at 270°, and yielded 
an oil of reddish color, unpleasant smell, and having the composition 
of cryptidine, C,,H,,N. 

This is the first successful attempt to isolate this member of the 
pyridine series, only its salts having been obtained before, and it is of 
further interest as being accomplished by a process of synthesis. 

This synthesis moreover throws light on the composition of these 
pyridine bases ; since the mode of formation renders it probable that 
cryptidine contains one benzol ring, united with a side ring formed 
from the pre-existent members of the acrolein derivative of the fatty 
bodies. 

The various oils derived from castor-oil were then described, and the 
different views of the constitution of these compounds. 

Finally, the compounds of acrolein and urea were discussed, and 
the various statements put torth by HUGO SCHIFF concerning 
them. 


DISCUSSION. 


Mr. A. H. ELtiorr pointed out the apparent identity in odor of 
cryptodine with a substance found in bone-oil, which he had 
obtained in considerable quantity in the oil derived from the 
destructive distillation of bones. This oil was nearly colorless, 
yielded the same odor as the one exhibited, had a specific gravity 
0.835, and afforded, with hydrochloric and sulphuric acids, red 
salts which turned jet black in the air, though both their color and 
this change might have been due to some other substance present. 

The subject was further discussed by Profs. Marrin and LEEDs. 


January 15, 1883. 
LECTURE EVENING. 


The President, Dr. J. S. NEWBERRY, in the Chair. 
The large hall was filled by an audience who listened with inter- 


PTGS. INS WerAGe Sou 64 Jan. 22, 


est to a lecture, illustrated by many diagrams, by Prof. Epwarp D. 
Corr, of Philadelphia, on 


THE EVOLUTION OF THE VERTEBRATA. 


January 22, 1883. 


The President, Dr. J. S. NEwBERRY, in the Chair. 

Seventy-five persons present. 

Mr. G. F. N. Kunz exhibited specimens of chrysoberyl, of remark- 
able size (one five by three inches), and crystalline marking, from 
Canton and Stowe, Me., and of rhodochrosite on drusy quartz from 
the Clay mine, Lake City, Col. ; and Mr. N. L. Darron, specimens 
of franklinite and chalcophanite from Sterling, N. J., iron ores from 
Marquette, Mich., and tabular calcite with drusy quartz from 
Anthony’s Nose, N. Y. 


A paper was read by Prof. Epwarp P. THWwING on 


THE TREATMENT OF SEA-SICKNESS BY THE TRANCE STATE. 


(Abstract). 


The phenomena of the trance have interested me for more than 
twenty years. For two years my experiments have confirmed the 
theory of Dr. Geo. M. Beard, that the concentration of the mind’s 
attention in one direction induces an insensibility to other things, more 
or less complete. President Porter (Elements of Intellectual Science, 
section 81) says that pure sensation is simply an ideal or imaginary 
experience, and that, as the perceptional element is made stronger, the 
sensational is weakened. The intensity of the one is the suppression 
of the other. Some persons can excite expectancy sooner than others, 
and so gain control quicker. Some subjects take a consenting attitude 
more readily than others. One yields instantly, another only after 
repeated interviews, and some, perhaps, may never yield at all. 

Nine cases of sea-sickness, occurring in the Atlantic and in foreign seas, 
are selected from many, to illustrate the speedy relief, often the complete 
. cure, of this distressing ailment. Some showed little somnolence, while 
others sunk into as complete insensibility as in ordinary anesthesia by 
chloroform. 

One patient had been unable to retain any nourishment on the 
stomach after leaving port, two days’ previous. Manipulations began 
about the temporal and frontal regions, particularly along the super- 


1853. 65 Trans. N. Y. Ac. Sez. 


ciliary ridges, and the patient at once exclaimed: “ What a heaven to 
be relieved of pain!” Food was administered in small quantities, and, 
two hours after, a dinner of roast mutton was relished and retained. 
The other cases were treated in a similar manner, without the “ passes” 
of the old-time mesmeriser, or the pretentious and dramatic display 
seen in stage exhibitions, without even fixing the gaze or standing 
before the individual. The voice probably did more than the hand, but 
in one case that, too, seemed superfluous; for the sufferer, a brawny 
Welshman, not understanding English, while busy casting his bread 
upon the waters, yielded to a pantomime, was led away from the ship 
side and made to recline on the shoulder of the operator. The trance 
became at once so profound that a pin introduced and left in the skin 
covering the back of the hand caused no wincing. Surgical operations 
have also been performed, some of which will be described by Prof. 
Jarvis of Bellevue College. Four facts may be stated as results: 


1. The trance state in many cases relieves sea-sickness by restoring 
nervous equilibrium, and in surgery-is sometimes an adequate substitute 
for ether. Not every one responds. Not every one is able to awaken 
that faith, belief, expectancy, which Dr. Beard has already shown 
before this Academy to be the subjective state out of which all these 
phenomena are evolved. This persuasion cometh not readily to every 
willing, yielding soul, still less to a reluctant, incredulous mind. Fail- 
ures are mostly found in two classes. 1. The querulous, dogged, 
despairing sort, who, at home or afloat, nurse their pains and “ enjoy 
poor health,’’ as they say. 2. The curious, voluble and volatile, who 
wish to listen to and join in conversation. But failures with these, at 
the first or second meeting, are by no means final or decisive. Seques- 
tration and silence on the part of the patient, and perseverance on the 
part of the operator, often secure success in apparently obstinate cases. 


2. Tranciform states, z. ¢., where control is partial and unconscious- 
ness is incomplete, frequently afford proportionate relief. 


3. The sense of subjugation and helplessness that comes over one, 
when in the grasp of Neptune or the surgeon, is sometimes a helpful 
accessory. It is analogous to the yielding attitude of the animal under 
a tamer or trainer, and not unlike the paralyzing influence of a panic. 

4. The feeling of certainty on the part of the operator is a vital 
factor of success. It cannot be taught. It is gained by victorious 
achievement. Nothing is so successful as success. One subject under 
control will spread psychical contagion through a whole assembly, and 
at once exalt their ideas of the power of the controller. In private 
practice assurance is better shown by gentleness than by bluster, by 
undemonstrative, quiet tones, and by the general air of one who speaks 


LP AHS UNG VE RAG SGE 66 Jan. 22, 


a personal, private, authoritative message, which he is accustomed to 
have immediately obeyed. Possunt quza posse videntur. Uardly 
anything is more contagious than confidence. Nothing is more master- 
ful in power. 


DISCUSSION. 


Dr. W. C. Jarvis presented a patient from whose nasal fossa he 
had cut diseased turbinated tissue, while made to sleep by Prof. 
Thwing. There was in the second operation no wincing and no 
memory of pain. Respiration through the right nostril had thus 
been resumed after a year’s closure. Another patient, so terrified 
on a previous occasion as to require three attendants to hold her, 
was enabled by the trance treatment to submit to the removal of 
a tumor behind the palate, near the base of the brain, remaining 
in a state of complete insensibility during the operation. He re- 
marked upon the benefit of the possession of an influence so potent 
in preventing pain, especially in nervous cases, which are peculiarly 
susceptible to pain. 

The CHAIRMAN remarked that these phenomena were not new 
but had been repeated for ages. Twenty-five years ago, when he 
was a medical student in Paris, he had seen Dr. Malgaigne, the dis- 
tinguished surgeon, utilize this power in surgery. It could not al- 
ways be depended upon, as a considerable number, perhaps the 
majority of cases would resist the influence, and with them the 
power is useless. There was no propriety or policy in denouncing 
it as a humbug, though unnecessary to clothe it with any wonder 
or mystery. It was a beneficial, wholesome influence, worthy all 
the attention being paid toit. It had been taken out of the hands 
of charlatanism and was now being properly studied and _ util- 
ized. 

A paper was then read by Dr. Joun S. NeEwserry, illustrated 
by a collection of plants and by lantern views, entitled : 


NOTES ON THE BOTANY, GEOLOGY AND RESOURCES OF SOUTHERN 
TEXAS AND CHIHUAHUA. 


(Published beyond, under report of meeting of Feb. 12). 


on TOSS ING ConA GanSGe 


_ 


1883. 


January 29, 1883. 
SECTION OF GEOLOGY. 


The President, Dr. J. S. NEWBERRY, in the Chair. 

Seventy-five persons present in the large Hall. 

The President announced the death of a Resident Member, 
Dr. Grorce M. Bearp, and remarked on his scientific attain- 
ments, and investigations of the phenomena of mesmerism and 
the trance state. 

Dr. A. A. JULIEN read a paper on 


“‘ THE DECAY OF THE BUILDING STONES OF NEW YORK CITY,” 
(with Lantern Illustrations from American and Foreign Archi- 
tecture). 

(Abstract). 


The paper, which will be published in full by the Building-Stone 
Department of the Tenth Census of the United States, considers the 
building stones employed in New York City and its suburbs, ze., 
Brooklyn, Staten Island, Jersey City and Hoboken. 


I. The buildings, thecr numbers and common materzals. 


The materials of general construction occur in the following per- 
centage proportion to the total number of buildings in the cities stated 
in the table below : 


# s ac eS | Fi vi 
o = ue) > 
ee ae Pee eta) aa (hee 
2 SB | mS a | $ Ho 
Z | | q = 
No. of buildings. .|100,193 | 75,526 | 72S | 20,880 | 6,284 | 210,608 
Brick and stucco. 63.2 | 39.9 | 95 | 22.8 BOF, 47.9 
Fo GAM yas totes 24.3), 50:9 |, 92.0 | Fine 64.7 42.5 
COME. ss: 11.6 Oi 20-5 2.0 2.6 g.1 
Tromec se. 0.9 Omi | 0.5 


In New York City proper, the several varieties of stone are used in 
the following proportion to the entire number of stone buildings : 


Brown sandstone.......... jo Om OMOonsaRadstones. 4s eae 1.6 
Nova Scotia sandstone..... go lAGmeics 8 ete ee Ose) 
UCI) i eee ae 23.5 FRG Porcionm sandstone...0 «A O.1 
Mem G Garni Dee tlds: 4 a 504s 1.8 | bluestone and limestose....0.1 


~ In Brooklyn, the Connecticut brownstone is the variety predominating 


LP-GHS INS) VOM AGausG2 6S San.c29n 


among the stone buildings (95.7 percent), and is employed almost al- 
together for the fronts of residences. Very few iron buildings occu). but 
over three times as many stucco-fronts as in New York. The frame 
buildings predominate, particularly in the outskirts, e..¢., Long Island 
City (80.5 per cent). 

In Staten Island, stone enters in very small proportion into the 
fronts of buildings, though commonly employed, as in New York and 
throughout this district, for the dressing of apertures, the walls of en-- 
closures, and other masonry. 

In Jersey City, the proportions of the materials are much as in 
Staten Island. The selection of the dark trap from the Heights behind 
the city, for the construction of many fronts or entire buildings, is a 
local feature of interest. ‘ 

In Hoboken, the same general. features prevail as in Jersey City. 

The annual reports of the Committee on Fire Patrol of the New 
York Board of Fire Underwriters, for the years 1881 and 1882, have 
yielded the following statistics, which, so far as they go, closely ap- 


proximate my own: 
Number of buildings. 


South: jofiCanall “Stree tih tae Neb, silo arene emcee 10,553 
BetweennCanalvald imounteemthistheetSe sence scree nee 26,700 
Between Fourteenth and Fifty-ninth streets......... 1d). wes Sious 
Between Fifty-ninth street and Harlem River.......... 18,746 
AOU Stee Pd cee crete oh rae SP RONEE atte o ohs MR 89,814 


The materials of construction for this district, which does nct include 
the 23d and 24th Wards, North of the Harlem river, are reported as. 
follows : 

Brick, with stone trimmings, and, in part, with. stone 


FACIES) a5 on are eth ave Se ye ssae teed x i hoh hae OMe ee 64,783 
Biackvangd vinannGs..ce koe ecient ee 3,016 
FQEATHG geidci telus aethucd eke eee eit ei Re Ee rien 6/21. 


Il. The Buzlding Stones, their Vardeties, Localities, and Edifices 
Constructed of Each. 


An exceedingly rich and varied series is brought to our docks, and 
the number and variety are constantly increasing. A few of the more 
important may be here mentioned. 

Freestones (Carboniferous Sandstone), commonly styled ‘Nova 
Scotia Stone,” or ‘‘ Dorchester Stone,” in various shades of buff, olive- 
yellow, etc., from Hopewell and Mary’s Point, Albert, N. B., and from. 
Wood Point, Sackville, Harvey, and Weston, N. B., Kennetcook, N. S., 
etc. A very large number of private residences in New York and 


1883. 69 Trans. N. Y. Ac. Scz. 


Brooklyn, etc., the fences, bridges, etc., in Central and Prospect Parks, 
many churches, banks, etc. 

Freestone (Mesozoic Sandstone), commonly styled ‘“ brownstone,” 
from East Longmeadow and Springfield, Mass., but chiefly from Port- 
land, Conn., in dark shades of reddish-brown, inclining to chocolate. 
This isthe most common stone used in the fronts of private residences, 
many churches, Academy of Design in Brooklyn, etc. 

Freestone (Mesozoic Sandstone), “ brownstone,”’ from Middletown, 
Conn. Trinity Church, Brooklyn, etc. 

Red Sandstone (Potsdam Sandstone), Potsdam, N. Y. Several resi- 
dences, buildings of Columbia College, etc. 

Freestone (Potsdam Sandstone), ‘“ brownstone,” Oswego, N. Y. 
Part of Masonic Temple in 23d street. 

Freestone (Mesozoic Sandstone), ‘‘ brownstone,” in several shades of 
light reddish-brown, orange-brown, etc., and generally fine-grained, 
from Belleville, N. J. Very many of the best residences and churches, 
é.g., cor. 60th and 64th streets and Madison avenue, etc. 

Also, varieties of the same ‘“ brownstone” from Little Falls, N. J. 
(Trinity Church, New York), from the base of the Palisades (part of the 
wall around Central Park), etc. 

Freestone (Lower Carboniferous Sandstone), commonly styled 
“Ohio Stone,” from Amherst, East Cleveland, Independence, Berea, 
Portsmouth, Waverly, etc., Ohio, in various shades of buff, white, drab, 
dove-colored, etc. Many private residences and stores, the Boreel 
building, Williamsburgh Saving Bank, Rosssmore Hotel, etc. 

Freestone (Mesozoic Sandstone), often styled “‘ Carlisle Stone,” from 
the English shipping port, or ‘Scotch Stone,” from Corsehill, Bal- 
lochmile and Gatelaw Bridge, Scotland; in shades of dark red to 
bright pink. Fronts of several residences, trimmings of Murray Hill 
Hotel, the “ Berkshire” building, etc. 

Also, varieties from Frankfort-on-the-Main, Germany, etc. 

Blue Sandstone (Devonian Sandstone), commonty styled “ Blue- 
stone,” from many quarries in Albany, Greene, Ulster and Delaware 
counties, N. Y., and Pike county, Penn. The trimmings of many 
private residences and business buildings, walls and bridges in the 
Parks, part of Academy of Design in 23d street, Penitentiary on 
Blackwell’s Island, house at 72d street and Madison avenue, etc. 

Freestone (Oolite Limestone), “ Caenstone,”. from Caen, France. 
Fronts of several residences in 9th street, trimmings of Trinity Chapel, 
the reredos in Trinity Church, New York, etc. 


Limestone (Niagara Limestone), Lockport, N. Y. Lenox Library, 
trimmings of Presbyterian Hospital, etc. 


Trans. N. ¥. Ac, Scz. 76) Jan, 29, 


Limestone (Lower Carboniferous), styled ‘‘ Oolitic Limestone,” from 
Ellitsville,{,Ind. Several private residences, (e.¢., cor. 52d street and 
Fifth avenue), trimmings of business buildings, etc. 

Also, varieties of limestone from Kingston and Rondout, N.Y., Isle 
LajMotte, Lake Champlain, Mott Haven, and Greenwich, Conn., etc. 
Part of the anchorages of the Brooklyn Bridge, walls in Central Park, 
etc. 

Granyte, Bay of Fundy, N. S. Columns in Stock Exchange, etc. 

Red Granyte, Blue Hills, Me. U.S. Barge Office. 

Gray Granyte, East Blue Hills, Me. Part of towers and approaches 
of New York and Brooklyn Bridge, etc. 

Granyte, Spruce Head, Me. Part of towers of Brooklyn Bridge, 
bridges of Fourth Avenue Improvement, Jersey City Reservoir, etc. 

Gray Granyte, Hurricane Island, Me. Part of New York Post Office 
and of towers and approaches of Brooklyn Bridge, etc. 

Granyte, Fox Island, Me. Basement of Stock Exchange, etc. 

Granyte, Hallowell, Me. Trimmings in St. Patrick’s Cathedral, 
Jersey City Heights, etc. 

Granyte, Round Point, Me. Seventh Regiment Armory, etc. 

Granyte, Jonesborough, Me. Welles’ building, panels in Williams- 
burgh Savings Bank, etc. 

Granyte, Frankfort, Me. Part of towers and approaches of Brook- 
lyn Bridge, etc. 

Granyte, Dix Island, Me. New York Post Office, part of Szaats 
Zeitung building, etc. 

Also, varieties from Calais, Red Beach, East Boston, Clark’s Island, 
Mt. Waldo, Musquito Mountain, Mt. Desert, Ratcliff’s Island, etc.. 
Me. 

G-anyte, Concord, N. H. Booth’s Theatre, German Savings Bank, 
etc. 

Granyte, Cape Ann, Mass. Dark isase-stone and spandrel stones of 
towers and approaches of Brooklyn Bridge, etc. 

Granyte, Quincy, Mass. Astor House, Custom House, etc. 

Granyte, Westerly, R. I. Part of Brooklyn anchorage of Brooklyn 
Bridge. 

Granyte, Stony Creek, Conn. Part of New York anchorage of Brook- 
lyn Bridge. 

Also, varieties from St. Johnsville, Vt., Millstone Point, Conn., Corn- 
wall, N. Y., Charlottesburg, N. J., Rubislaw and Peterhead, Scotland, 
etc. 

Gray Gneiss, New York Island and Westchester County, N. Y. A 
large number of churches, Bellevue Hospital, the Reservoir at 42d 


£883. 71 Trans. N. ¥. Ac. Sz. 


street, etc., and the fouidations of most of the buildings throughout 
the city. 

Gray Gneiss, Willett’s Point and Hallett’s Point, Kings County, 
N.Y. Many churches in Brooklyn, the Naval Hospital, etc. 


Marble, Manchester, Vt. Drexel & Morgan’s building, church cor- 
ner 29th street and Fifth avenue, etc. ™ 


Also, many varieties from Swanton, West Rutland, Burlington, Isle 
La Motte, etc., Vt. The “Sutherland” building at 63d street and Madi- 
son avenue, residences at 58th street and Fifth avenue, etc. 

Marble, Lee, Mass. Turrets of St. Patrick’s Cathedral, etc. 

Marble, Stockbridge, Mass. Part of old City Hall, New York. 

Marble, Hastings, N. Y. The University building, etc. 

Marble, Tuckahoe, N. Y. Part of St. Patrick’s Cathedral, residence 
on the corner of 34th street and Fifth avenue, etc. 

Marble, Pleasantville, N. Y., styled ‘‘ Snowflake Marble.” Greater part 
of St. Patrick’s Cathedral, Union Dime Savings Bank, many residences 
and stores, etc. 

Also, many varieties from Canaan, Conn., Williamsport, Penn., Knox- 
ville, Tenn., Carrara and Sienna, Italy, etc.; used generally, especially 
for interior decoration, etc. 

Trap (Mesozoic Diabase), from many quarries along the “ Palisades,” 
at Jersey City Heights, Weehawken, etc. Stevens’ Insti-ute, Hoboken, 
N. J., Court House on Jersey City Heights, old rubble-work buildings 
at New Utrecht, etc., on the outskirts of Brooklyn, etc. 

Trap (Mesozoic Diabase), styled ‘‘ Norwood Stone,” from Closter, 
N. J. Grace Episcopal Church, Harlem. 

Also, varieties from Graniteville, Staten Island, N. Y., and Wechaw - 
ken, N. J. 

Serpentine, Hoboken, N. J. Many private residences, masonry, etc., 
in Hoboken. Also, varieties from Chester, Penn. 

In addition to the edifices referred to above, many public buildings 
of importance are constructed of stone, ¢,¢.: Prisons in the city and 
on the islands, bridges in the Parks and over the Harlem river, in which 
sandstone, limestone, granyte and goeiss are used. 

The sewers are constructed of gneiss from New York Island and 
Vicinity, as well as of boulders of trap, granyte, etc., from excavations. 

The Croton Aqueduct, the High Bridge, the Reservoirs in the Cen- 
tral and Prospect Parks andat 42d St., in which gneiss from the 
vicinity and granyte from New England were used. 

The walls, buildings, bridges and general masonry in the Parks 
are constructed of the following varieties of stone : 

Freestone (sandstone), from Albert, Dorchester, and Weston, N. B. 


Trarss N ViOAG. Sez. 72 Jah. 20, 


l 


Brownstone, from Belleville and the base of the Pal sades, N. J. 
Bluestone and “ mountain graywacke,” from the Hudson River. 
Limestone, from Mott Haven and Greenwich, Conn. 

Granyte, from Radcliffe’s Island, etc., Me. 

Gneiss, from New York, Westchester and Kings counties, N. Y, 

Marble, from Westchester county, N. Y. 

The fortifications in the Harbor and entrance to the Sound, con- 
structed of granyte from Dix Island, Spruce Head, etc., Me., gneiss 
from the vicinity, brownstone from Conn., etc. 

The stonework of the New York and Brooklyn Bridge, as I am kindly 
informed by Mr. F. Collingwood, the engineerin charge of the New 
York Approach, is constructed ofthe following materials : 

Granyte, from Frankfert, Spruce Head, Hurricane Island, East Blue 
Hill, and Mt. Desert, Me., Concord, N. H., Cape Ann, Mass., Westerly, 
R. I., Stony Creek, Conn., and Charlottesburg, N. J. 

Limestone, from Rondout and Kingston, N. Y., also from Isle La 
Motte and Willsboro Point, Lake Champlain, and vicinity of Catskill, 
IRON. 

Inthe Anchorages, the corner-stones, exterior of the cornice and coping, 
and the stones resting on anchor-plates, consist of granyte from Char- 
lottesburg and Stony Creek, in the New York Anchorage, and from 
Westerly, in the Brooklyn Anchorage. The rest of the material is entirely 
limestone, mainly from Rondout, largely from Lake Champlain. In the 
Towers, limestone was chiefly employed below the water lie, and, abcve, 
granyte from all the localities named, except Charlottesburg, Westerly 
and Stony Creek. Inthe Approaches, the materials were arranged in 
about the same way asin the Towers. Additional particulars ate 
given concerning the quantity, prices, tests of strength and reasons for 
selection of the varieties of stone. 

For roofing, slate is largely employed throughout these cities, being 
mainly derived from Poultney, Castleton, Fairhaven, etc., Vt., and Slat- 
ington, Lynnport, Bethlehem, etc., Penn. 


For pavements, the boulders of trap and granyte from excavations 
have been widely used in the ‘“cobbletone” pavements. The 
trap (or diabase) of the Palisades across the Hudson, immedi- 
ately opposite New York City, and from Graniteville, Staten Island, is 
used in the “ Russ” and Belgian pavement; also, granyte from the 
Highlands of the Hudson, from Maine, etc., in the ‘granite block ”’ 
pavement in both New York and Brooklyn ; large quantities of crushed 
trap from Weehawken and Graniteville, for the macadamized streets 
and roads in the Parks end outskirts ; and also wood, concrete and as- 
phalt in various combinations, 


1883. We) Trans. Ns Va Acs, Ste 


For sidewalks and curb-stones, the material generally employed is 
the flagstone, a thinly bedded blue sandstone or graywacke from the 
interior of the S:ate, the Catskill Mountains, and from Pennsylvania ; 
also, granyte, chiefly from Maine. In the older streets, a mica-slate 
from Bolton, Conn , and micaceous slaty gneiss from Haddam, Conn., 
were Once largely used, and may still be occasionally observed in 
scattered slabs. 

Additional facts were given concerning the ruling prices for the va- 
rieties of stone, tables presenting all the determinations obtainable, in 
reference to the crushing strength of the varieties used in New York, 
lists of the dealers in building and ornamental stones, etc. 

Ill. Durability of Buclding-Stones, in. New York City and vicinity. 

All varieties of soft, porous and untested stones are being hurried 
into the masonry of the buildings of New York City and its vicinity. 
On many of them the ravages of the weather and the need of the re- 
pairer are apparent within five years after their erection, and a resist- 
ance to much decay for twenty or thirty years is Tere considered 
wonderful and perfectly satisfactory. 

Notwithstanding the general injury to the appearance of the rotten 
stone, and the enormous losses annually involved in the extensive re- 
pairs, painting, or demclition, little concern is yet manifested by ei her 
architects, piilders. or house owners. Hardly any department of 
technical science is so much neglected as that which embraces the 
study of the nature of stone, and all the varied resources of litho!- 
ogy in chemical, microscopic:l, and physical methods of investigation, 
wonderfully developed within the last quarter century, have never yet 
been properly applied to the selection and protection of stone, as used 
for building purposes. Much alarm has been caused abroad in the 
rapid decay and fast approaching ruin of the most important monu- 
ments, cathedrals, and public buildings, but in many instances the 
means have been found for their artificial protection, ¢.¢., the Louvre 
and many palaces in and near Paris, France, St. Charles church in 
Vienna, Austria, the Houses of Parliament, etc., in London, England, 
etc. 

In New York, the Commissioners of the Croton Aqueduct Depart- 
ment complained, twenty years ago, of the crumbling away of varieties 
of the gneiss used in embankments ; the marbles of Italy, Vermont, 
and of Westchester County, soon become discolored, are now all more 
or less pitted or softened upon the surface (e,g., the U. S. Treasury),. 
and are not likely to last a century in satisfactory condition (e.¢., the 
U. S. Hotel); the coarser brown sandstones are exfoliating in the most 
offensive way throughout all of our older streets and in many of the 


Leas IN, AG SCH "4. Jan, 29, 


newer (e.¢., the old City Hall); the few limestones yet brought into 
use are beginning to lose their dressed surfaces and to be traversed 
by cracks (e,¢., the Lenox Library); and even the granytes, within a 
half century, show both discoloration, pitting (e,¢., the Custom House), 
or exfoliation (e,¢., the Tombs). To meet and properly cope with this 
destructive action, requires, first, a clear recognition of the hostile ex- 
ternal agencies concerned in the process. These belong to three 
‘Classes, chemical, physical, and organic. 


The chemical agencies discussed were the following : sulphurous 
and sulphuric acids, discharged in vast quantities into the air of the city, 
-by the combustion of coal and gas, the decomposition of street refuse 
and sewer-gas, etc.: carbonic, nitric, and hydrochloric acids ; carbolic, 
hippuric, and many other organic acids, derived from smoke, street 
dust, sewer vapors, etc.: oxygen and ozone, ammonia, and sea-salt. 


The mechanical and physical agencies. discussed were the following : 
frost: extreme variations in temperature, amounting in our climate to 
120° F, in a year, and even 70° in a single day: wind and rain, most 
efficient on fronts facing the north, northeast, and east: crystallization 
by efflorescence: pressure of superincumbent masonry: friction: and 
fire. 

The organic agencies consist of vegetable growths, mostly conferve, 
etc., within the city, and lichens and mosses, without, and of boring 
molluscs, sponges, etc. 

The internal elements of durability in a stone depend, first, upon the 
chemical composition of its constituent minerals and of their cement. 
Tnis involves a consideration of their solubility in atmospheric waters, 
é.g., the calcium-carbonate of a marble or limestone, the ferric oxide of 
certain sandstones, etc.: their tendency to oxidation, hydra- 
tion, and decomposition, e.g., of the sulphides (especially mar- 
casite) in a roofing-slate or marble, the biotite and ferruginous 
orthoclase in a granyte or sandstone, etc.: the enclosure of fluids and 
moisture, ¢.¢@., as “ quarry-sap,’’ in chemical combination as hydrated 
silicates (chlorite, kaolin, etc.) and iron-oxides, and as fluid-cavities 
locked up in quartz, etc. 


The durability of a stone depends again upon its physical structure, 
in regard to which the following points were discussed : the size, form, 
.and position of its constituent minerals; ¢,g., an excess of mica-plates 
in parallel-position ray serve as an element of weakness: the porosity 
of the rock, permitting the percolation of water through its interstices, 
especially important in the case of the soft freestones and leading to 
varieties of discoloration upon the light-colored stones, which were 
described in detail: the hardness and toughness, particularly in relation 


1883. 75 Mi dehy ING We NG SQA 


to use for pavements, sidewalks, and stoops: the crystalline structure, 
which, if well-developed, increases the strength of its resistance: the 
tension of the grains, which appears to explain especially the disruption 
of many crystalline marbles: the contiguity of the grains and the pro- 
portion of cement in their interstices: and the homogeneity of the 
rock. 

Again, the durability of a rock may depend upon the character of its 
surface, whether polished, smoothly dressed, or rough-kewn, since 
upon this circumstance may rest the rapidity with which atmos- 
pheric waters are shed, or with which the deposition of soot, street- 
dust, etc., may be favored: also upon the inclination and position of 
the surface, as affecting the retention of rainwater and moisture, ex- 
posure to northeast gales and to burning sun, etc. 


1V. Methods of Trzal of Buzlding-Stone. 


In such methods, two classes may be distinguished, the natural and 
the artificial. 

The former embrace, first, the examination of quarry-outcrops, where 
the exposure of the surface of the rock during ages may give some in- 
dication of its power of resistance to decomposition, e¢. z., the dolomitic 
marbles of New York and Westchester counties, some of which pre- 
sent a surface crumbling into sand: and, secondly, the examination of 
old masonry. Few old buildings have survived the changes in our 
restless city, but many observations were presented in regard to the 
condition of many materials, usually after an exposure of less than half 
a century. 

Another source of information, in this regard, was found in the study 
of the stones erected in our oldest cemeteries, ¢.g., that of Trinity 
Church. There could hardly be “devised a superior method for 
thoroughly testing, by natural means, the durability of the stone, than 
by its erection in this way, with partialinsertion in the moist earth, 
complete exposure to the winds, rain, and sun on every side, its bed- 
ding-lamination standing on edge, and several of its surfaces smoothed 
and polished and sharply incised with dates, inscriptions, and carvings, 
by which to detect and to measure the character and extent of its 
decay. In Trinity Church-yard, the stones are vertical, and stand 
facing the east. The most common material is a red sandstone, pro- 
bably from Little Falls, N. J., whose erection dates back as faras 1681, 
and which remains, in most cases, in very fair condition. Its dark 
color, however, has led to a frequent tendency to spli ting on the western 
side of the slabs, z.e., that which faces the afternoon sun. Other 
materials stud’ed consisted of bluestone, probably from the Catskills,. 
black slate, gray slate, green hydromicaceous schist, and white oolitic 


rans, IN; Vo vAcr Sez. "6 Jan. 29, 


‘limestone, all in good condition, and white marble, in a decided state 
of decay. 

The artificial methods of trial of stone, now occasionally in vogue, 
whenever some extraordinary pressure is brought upon architects to 
pay a little attention to the durability of the material they propose to 
employ, are, from their obsolete antiquity, imperfection, or absolute 
‘inaccuracy, unworthy of the age and of so honorable a profession. They 
usually consist of trials of solubility in acids, of absorptive power for 
water, of resistance to frost, tested by the efflorescence of sodium- 
sulphate, and of resistance to crushing. The latter may have the re- 
motest relationship to the elements of durability in many rocks, and yet 
is one on which much reliance of the architectural world is now 
placed. Sooner or later a wide departure will take place from these 
incomplete and antique methods, in the light of modern discovery. 

Reference was made to certain experiments by Prof. J. C. Draper on 
the brownstone and Nova-Scotia stone used in this city, by Dr. Page on 
a series of the building-stones, and by Profs. J. Henry and W. R. John- 
son on American marbles, in some cases with conflicting results, which 
were probably due to the limited number and methods of the experi- 
‘ments. 

V. Means of Protection and Preservation of Stone. 


We have here to consider certain natural principles of construction, 
and then the methods for the artificial preservation of the stone used 
in buildings. Under the first head, there are four divisions. 


Selection of stone. As it is universally agreed that the utmost impor- 
tance rests upon the original selection of the building-material, it is here 
that all the resources of lithological science should be called in. Only 
one investigation, aiming at thorough work, has ever been carried 
through, that of the Royal Commission appointed for the selection of stone 
for the Houses of Parliament. But the efforts of these able men were 
restricted by the little progress made at that time in the general study 
of rocks, and were afterwards completely thwarted by the discharge of 
the Committee and by the delivery of the execution of the work of 
selection to incompetent hands. There will be hereafter, from investi- 
gations made in the light of modern researches, no excuse for such an- 
noying results and enormous expenses as those which attended the end- 
less repairs which have been required, since a period of four or five years 
after the completion of the great building referred to. 


Seasoning. The recommendations of Viturvius, 2000 years ago, have 
been observed at times down to the day of Sir Christopher Wren, 
who would not accept the stone, which he proposed to use in the erec- 
tion of St. Paul’s Cathedral, in London, until it had lain for three 


1883. veg Trans. N. VAG. oCes 


years, seasoning upon the seashore. Since then little or no attention 
appears to have been paid to this important requirement by modern 
architects, in the heedless haste of the energy of the times. Build- 
ing-stone, even for many notable edifices, is hurried from the quarries 
into its position in masonry, long before the ‘“ quarry-sap’’ has been 
permitted, by its evaporation, to produce solid cementation in the 
interstices of the stone. 


Posztion. The danger of setting up any lamina‘ed material on edge, 
rather than on its natural bedding-plane, has been widely acknow- 
ledged ; yet it is of the rarest occurrence, in New York City, to observe 
any attention paid to this rule, except where, from the small size or square 
form of the blocks of stone employed, it has been really cheapest and 
most convenient to pile them up on their flat sides. 


Form of projections. The principle is maintained by all the best 
Engl'sh and French architects that projections (z.2., cornices, sills, lin- 
tels, etc.) should be “throated,” that is undercut in such a way as to 
throw off the dripping of rainwater, etc., from the front of the building 
but in New York this principle is almost universally neglected. It was 
pointed out that the severity of our climate even requires the further 
‘care that the upper surface of projections should be so cut as to pre- 
vent the lodgment or long retention of deposits either of rainwater or 
snow. It is immediately above and below such deposits that the ash- 
lar_of our fronts is most rapidly corroded and exfoliated, an effect evi- 
dently due mainly to the repeated thawing and solution, freezing and 
‘disintegration, which are caused by the water, slush and snow, which 
rest, often for weeks, upon a window-sill, balcony, cornice, etc. Thus 
from the initial and inexcusable carelessness in the construction and 
form of the projections, and, later, the neglect of the houseowner, due 
to ignorance of the results involved, to remove the deposits of snow, 
etc., as fast as they accumulate on the projections, is derived a large part 
of the discoloration of the marble, Nova Scotia stone, or light colored 
granyte, and especially the exfoliation of the brownstone beneath the 
window-sills, balconies, etc., by the water alternately tr.ckling down 
the front and freezing, by day and by night, for long periods. 


The artificial means of preservation are of two classes, organic 
and inorganic. The former depend on the application of some organic 
substance in a coating or on the injection of fatty matters; but, as 
the substances are with greater or less rapidity oxidized, dissolved, 
and carried away by the atmospheric fluids, the methods founded on 
their use have been properly denounced by many authorities as only 
costly palliatives, needing frequent repetition, and therefore exerting 
an influence toward the destruction of delicate carving. The following 


Frans. IN. V, Ac. iScé. 13 Jan, 29, 


were discussed: coal-tar: paint, which has been used in New York 
for many res‘dences, as in Washington for the Capitol and in London 
for Buckingham Palace, etc., but lasts only a few years and often even 
permits the disintegration to progress beneath it : oil, often used in New 
York, but as objectionable as paint: soap and alum-solution : and 
paraffine, beeswax, rosin,. tellow, etc., dissolved in naphtha, turpentine, 
camphine, oil, etc. 

The preparations ofan inorganic nature, which have been proposed 
and used abroad, have in some cases met with success; but the exact na- 
ture of their ection, and the conditions to which they are each suited, are 
yet to be investigated, especially with reference tothe entirely different 
climate by which the stone in our city is being tried. The processes 
which have been proposed, and in some cases practically used, involve 
the application of the following substances : waterglass, in connection 
with salts of calcium or barium, or bitumen: oxalate of aluminium: 
barium solution, in connection with calcium superphosphate or ferro- 
silicic acid: copper salts, used by Dr. Robert in Paris to stop the growth 
of vegetation cn stone, etc.. There is certainly a call for processes by 
which, at least, those stones which are used in isolated, exposed, and 
unnatural positicns, may receive artificial protection, such as the stone- 
sills and lintels of windows, stone balusters, projecting cornices, and 
ashlar-stone set up on edge. It will doubtless be tound that only those 
stones, which possess a coirse porous texture and strong abscrptive 
power for liquids, will be found particularly available for protection by 
artificial preservatives, and that such stones should indeed never be 
used in construction in a raw or crude state. In the spongy brown 
and light olive free-stones, a marble full of minute crevices, and a cellu- 
lar fossiliferous limestone, a pe'rifying liquid may permeate to some 
depth, close up the pores by its deposits, and encase the stone in solid 
armor; while, upon a more compact rock, such as a granyte or solid 
limestone, it can only deposit a shelly crust or enamel, which time may 
soon peel off. The carelessness with which stone is selected and used,. 
and the ignorance in regard to i's proper preservation, when the decay 
of a poor stone becomes apparent, have led to ap increased use of 
brick and terra cotta, much to be deplored; durable stones are to 
be obtained in great variety, methods for the preservation of the porous 
stones can easily be devised, and stones ofa fire-proof character do exist 
in this country in abundance. 


In conclusion, three suggestions were offered: Ist, that householders 
invoke the magic use of the broom on the fronts of their residences as 
carefully asupon the sidewalks: 2d, that house builders insist upon the 
undercutting of all projections, and the exclusion of brackets or other 


1883. 79 Tyans. IN. MV. AG.Scr. 


supports to sills and cornices, which only lead to the oozing of water and 
a line of corrosion down the ashlar: 3d, that house repairers recut the 
projections in this way, whenever possible, and entirely avoid the use 
of paint, oil, or other organic preservatives. 


February 5, 1883. 
REGULAR BUSINESS MEETING. 


The President, Dr. J. S. NEWBERRY, in the Chair. 

Fifty-five persons present. 

The following Resolution was passed, ‘‘that the New York 
Academy of Sciences endorse a petition for Congress to remove all 
duties on specimens of minerals and fossils, whether imported for 
sale by dealers, or by institutions of learning, or by private collec- 
tors, so long as they are intended for cabinet specimens and not 
for use in the arts.” 

The following elections took place: 

Mr. J. W. SmitH of Newark, N. J., as Resident Member. 

Marquis ANTONIO DI GREGORIO of Molo, Palermo, Sicily, as 
Corresponding Member. 

Mr. W. E. Hipven exhibited nuggets of gold from Burke Co., 
N. C., from ten to fifty pennyweights in weight, an extraordinary 
size for that region. They were found in superficial deposits, and 
had evidently not traveled far. 


Mr. Romyn Hircucock read a paper entitled: 


THE RETICULATE STRUCTURE OF LIVING MATTER (Bioplasson), 
with exhibition under the microscope of blood corpuscles and 
amcebe, showing granular in place of reticulated structures, of corpuscles 
of blood and pus treated by potassium dichromate, and of the resolution 
of the lines, 5s$09 of an inch apart, upon the diatom, amphipleura 
pellucida. 

(Abstract). 


The living matter of plants and animals, from the lowest proto- 
type to the highest form of animal life, is, so far as our knowledge ex- 
tends, identical. It is variously named protoplasm, bioplasm, sarcode, 
and, not having a sufficient number of names, still another has been 
applied to it—-bioplasson—and a new hypothesis of the structure of 
living matter, termed the “bioplasson theory,’ has recently been put 


Trans. N,V; Aci Sez, 80 Feb. 5, 


forward and upheld in this country, mainly by Drs. Carl Heitzmann 
and Louis Elsberg. It is of this so-called theory, which at the most is 
merely a hypothesis, that I desire to speak this evening. I shall rely 
upon ocular proof to show that there is no reticulum in the blood cells, 

The microscope, likeSevery other instrument of research, requires to 
be manipulated by a person of experience, to yield trustworthy and the 
most perfect results. Yet there is a vast difference between the ability 
to manipulate it and the ability to see what it reveals. Perhaps only 
a small proportion of this audience could use the instrument fairly well ; 
yet I doubt if there is one person here who could not see the most 
minute details of any object, after the proper adjustments have been 
made. 

We may consistently confine the discussion to three objects, viz., the 
amoeba, and the red and the white blood-corpuscles. As those who have 
heard Dr. Elsberg’s remarks before the Academy know very well, the 
theory is, essentially, that all living tissues are constituted of a fine 
net-work of very contractile, living matter, with inert matter filling the 
meshes. It is not necessary to explain the theory more at length, 
for the reason that the existence of such a net-work, readily seen by the 
aid of a microscope, forms the foundation of every observation in sup- 
port of it. Moreover, as the reticulum is said to be clearly visible in 
all living matter, we have only to prove either that it does or does not 
exist in the aaa, or ina white blood-corpuscle, to sustain, or to utterly 
refute the theory. 

I propose to demonstrate that there is absolutely no trace of 
such a net-work in a blood-corpuscle. When the object-glass is 
properly corrected and focused, no reticulum whatever can be 
seen. In other words, the apparent reticulum which Dr. Heitz- 
mann showsis, undoubtedly, the result of faulty observation of some 
kind ; but probably the faults are not of a kind that a student or inex- 
perienced microscopist would be able to detect, or to point out with 
any assurance. It is said that the movements of a homogeneous jelly, 
such as protoplasm has been described to be, would be impossible— 
that some kind of reticulated structure is necessary to enable us to 
explain its power of movement. At present it is merely a question 
of fact whether there is a reticulum or not. After its existence has been 
demonstrated it will be time enough to theorize how it enables us to 
understand the phenomena of life. 

The reticulum is supposed to explain the movement of living matter ; 
movement is due to contractility ; the contractility resides in the nodes 
and connecting threads of the net-work; the extension or contraction 
of the net-work explains the movement of the am@éa and the blood- 
cell. It is aningenious, mechanical explanation of a mystery that has 


1883. 81 Trans, Ne VeoAc. sce: 


puzzled the scientific world for ages. All the motions of life are due 
to the contraction and expansion of a reticulate structure, which is 
common to all living things. How easily all the observed facts are 
explained! What an admirable machine the ameéa is! Perhaps 
somebody will ask, by what means the reticulum itself is enabled to 
extend and contract. Iam not aware that any effort has yet been 
made to solve this problem. Enough, that the movements we see are 
explained upon mechanical principles. Like the thousands of persons 
who are satisfied to understand mesmerism as animal magnetism, 
and strange phenomena as due to electricity in the air, these gentle- 
men present, in the name of science, an explanation that does not ex- 
plain. 

The sources of error in microscopical observation are: 1. Improper 
illlumination. 2. Imperfect correction of the objectives. 3. Incorrect 
focussing. The first source of error does not concern us in the case 
under consideration, for no special niceties of illumination are required. 
The second is of more consequence; but, in order to eliminate it from 
my own observations, I have used objectives which were either adjusted 
by the makers and set in fixed mountings, so that their corrections 
could not be changed, or else I have adjusted the lenses myself by the 
use of suitable objectives, so that their correction was as perfect as pos- 
sible. Finally, errors of focussing alone remain as the only ones which 
cannot be absolutely eliminated. Yet these, in the special objects of 
study, the amq@ba and the blood-cells, are of no consequence what- 
ever ; for no experienced observer can be in doubt as to the exact focus 
for a white blood-corpuscle. 

A few words now about the appearance of blood-corpuscles when 
highly magnified. The red corpuscles, when examined in the serum, 
are double concave disks. When lying flat, in the focus of a good 
objective, they appear to be quite homogeneous in structure ; the cen- 
tral portion of the disk, owing to the concave shape, appearing slightly 
darker than the rest. I am not aware that it is claimed that a reticu- 
lum can be seen in the red corpuscles under such circumstances. To 
demonstrate the net-work, it is necessary to use some reagent, and a 
saturated solution of potassic bichromate, diluted with about an equal 
volume of water, is recommended for the purpose. The addition of 
such a solution to fresh blood produces a great change in the appear- 
ance of the corpuscles. They become granular, and some of them 
undergo slow changes of form, budding, etc., as Dr. Heitzmann has 
described in his bcok, recently published. When the corpuscles begin 
to become granular, there is a time when they present an appearance 
of reticulation. But careful observation with high-powers fails to show 
any connecting net-work. There is nothing but a breaking up of the 


Trans, N; Vo Ace Sz. 89 Feb. 5, 


contents into separate granules; and, as the action of the reagent con- 
tinues, the granules become more distinct, uutil they can be very clearly 
defined by a good objective. 

It is a fact well known to observers with the microscope, that any 
body, regularly marked with fine and close dots, can be made to appear 
as though covered with fine, continuous lines. The dots merge into 
each other and form lines in the image. Thus, in the diatom, pleuro- 
sigma angulatum, an inferior objective will show the markings as fine, 
distinct lines, but a better lens will resolve the lines into rows of dots, 
a fact familiar to every microscopist. It is doubtless owing to this that 
the granular structure of protoplasm has been taken for a reticulum. 

I believe the strongest and the most convincing argument, against this 
bioplasson doctrine, is the fact that the reticulum, which these gentlemen 
declare is so readily observed, has hitherto entirely escaped the notice 
of the best histologists in the world. Dr. Heitzmann has used these 
words: “Take a drop of pus, fresh, without adding anything, and you 
will see the wonderful structure in each pus-corpuscle wzth great 
ease.” 

I will ask if it is reasonable to suppose that a structure, that can be 
seen “‘ with great ease,’’ could have been overlooked by such men as 
Beale, Balfour, Carpenter, Frey, Biitschli, and a host of other equally 
competent observers, and reserved for an individual of to-day to dis- 
cover. Yet this is what Dr. Heitzmann declares he has discovered, and 
upon this discovery he has built up a totally new and comprehensive 
theory of the structure, not only of living matter, but of the whole liv- 
ing world, connecting all the different tissues of the animal and vegeta- 
ble body through this reticulum, and utterly discarding the cell-doctrine, 
which has rendered such excellent service to science for thirty years. 
To an experienced microscopist the idea seems preposterous. The 
objects most familiar to the histologist and pathologist, coming almost 
daily under the eye of the physician who uses the microscope in his 
practice, are now declared to possess a distinctly reticulate structure, 
never before even dreamed of. 


DISCUSSION. 


The CHAIRMAN enquired whether it had been established that the 
motions of the amcebz were dependent on cilia or otherwise. 

Mr. Hircucock replied that at present there is no evidence nor 
knowledge of the structure of the amcebze ; indeed, they appear to 
be absolutely without visible structure. 


Dr. L. SCHOENEY remarked that to see or not to see is the real ques- 
tion in regard to structure. More stress, however, is now laid upon 


1883. 83 Trans. N. Y. Ac. Sct. 


the interpretation than on the supposed reticulum itself. In regard to 
the first, z.e., seeing reticular structure, the verdict of independent mi- 
croscopists has, in the majority of cases, been unfavorable. The best 
authorities among those gentlemen have discussed and contested it. 
That which is described by the founder of this doctrine, as threads 
of a network, appears under the best objectives, well focussed, as a 
mass of granules, irregularly heaped, more or less approaching each 
other, and here and there leaving interstices ; but nothing is seen which 
would mark a distinction between mere granules, distinctly attached 
to each other, and a homogeneous line of thread. At the locomotion of 
an amceba, the granules within flow along, more or less adherent to 
each other, as globules of blood are seen to flow, attached to each 
other, during circulation—nothing more. 

In regard to discrepancies in observation with the microscope, we 
may be permitted to refer here to the most remarkable discovery re- 
cently made in optics by Prof. Abbe, which may throw light in the 
future on many errors of observation with the microscope. Prof. Abbe 
distinguishes two kinds of microscopic vision: one like the ordinary 
vision, by rays directly from the object to the eye, which he calls 
dioptric image: the other, diffractive image, produced by rays that 
travel around the edge of a line or a minute object, so fine as to be but 
a small multiple of a wave-length of light. These images are formed 
by recomposition of the spectra, produced by these fine lines of objects. 
They are less than 1-3000 of aninch. Since these granules are smaller, 
the apparent blurred lines or threads are only diffractiveimages of gran- 
ules. This would account for some objective errors, But are there not 
also some subjective, personal errors, to be accounted for in microscopy, 
as there exist in her sister science, telescopy—if astronomy may be 
so termed, by analogy. We know astronomers have to allow for per- 
sonal equation, errors owing to the difference in time between the im- 
pression on the retina and the record by speaking or drawing, in dif- 
ferent observers. May not microscopists be distinguished by individual 
delicacies of vision? Moreover there are other subjective errors, in- 
dividual anomalies, to be accounted for. 

The fine pictures of Turner’s, notwithstanding their beauty, have 
encountered much severe criticism. In fact it has been ascertained 
by Liebreich, who carefully examined Turner’s gallery, that the painter 
was affected by astigmatism, producing oddities in color and chiefly in 
perspective, which formed the incongruities in his art. So, too, the 
great physicists of the future will doubtless determine the personal 
errors of one nature or another, which have attended the labors of 
former workers with the microscope. So much for the wondrous net- 
work itself. 


Trans. N. Y. Ae. Sez. 84 Feb. 5; 


But far more important is its supposed mode of motion. If we at- 
tempt to analyze the elements of this reticulum, in order to demonstrate 
by it the motion of living matter, even the Drzaum movens of muscu- 
lar fibre, we have to imagine one mesh of this network as a rhombus 
or a triangle, whose sides have granules at their angles, and which are 
impelled forward by the contraction of the sides, acting in the diagonal] 
of a parallelogram of forces, of which these sides represent two. We 
have to deal, in the first place, with two forces instead of one, which 
we wish to define, and withal forces similar to the one to be defined. 
We are reasoning in a circle. The syllogism includes the postulate of 
contractility of the elements of the reticulum. To demonstrate in this 
way the contractility of muscular fibre is a @ demonstratio ad ab- 
surdum. 

The importance of this controversy cannot be overrated, if we con- 
sider that the question of the motion of protoplasm involves the high- 
est reflection in regard to the origin of life—the przmum movens 
vite. 

Dr. L.S. BEALE, in the last edition of his great work on protoplasm,has 
an appendix, in which he treats upon the influence which this’ concep- 
tion of vital motion exerts on the highest fundamental truths of Chris- 
tianity. In this he discusses the connection between protoplasm and 
the machinery of the motion of life. If living matter hasa mode of mo- 
tion, this must be analogous to other modes produced by cosmic forces, 
or it must be peculiar and unique. But even if—as some suggest—liv- 
ing force and motion are evoluted from other inorganic or cosmic forces, 
we are, at the present state of physical science, where all the different 
wave and vortex motions are not at all yet determined, far from being 
able to venture a hypothesis on the mode of motion of living matter. 
Until then, we must content ourselves with the distant analogy, look- 
ing up to those stars that possess their given motion in their own cen- 
tre, and applying the same inherent individual force, given to the sim- 
plest unit of organic matter, whether in the brain-cell (Hoeckel’s sou?) of 
human beings, or in the lump of protoplasm dredged up from the bot- 
tom of the ocean; and observing it to move of itself, we exclaim ‘‘ de 
profund:s.” 


Mr. A. H. Ettiotr referred to the experiments of Dr. Crookes 
on “radiant matter,” and enquired whether there were any means 
of explanation of the motion of the granules of living matter anal- 
ogous to the molecular motion observed by that investigator. 


Dr. SCHOENEY remarked that mere molecular motions were sim- 
ply helped or retarded by the different physical forces, but that the 


1883. 85 Trans. Ni Mi Ab Scé 


agencies concerned in the phenomena of life were quite different 
from the other cosmic forces. 

Mr. Hircucock stated that it had been suggested, in regard to 
the distinction between living and non-living matter, that they may 
differ in the same way, as in inorganic bodies, atoms of the same 
substance are subject to different arrangements--one mode of ar- 
rangement being peculiar to living matter. 


Mr. Greorce F. N. Kunz then exhibited specimens of the blue 
amber from Catania, on the coast of Sicily, and a mass, three- 
fourths of a pound in weight, of a very good amber color, and partly 
covered with recent bryozoa, from the Tertiary deposits of Nan- 
tucket, Mass. He also read a paper: 


ON A LARGE MASS OF CRETACEOUS AMBER FROM GLOUCESTER 
COUNTY, NEW JERSEY. 


(Abstract). 


About twelve months ago, a mass of amber of uncommon size and 
form, (being twenty inches long, six inches wide, and one inch thick, 
weighing sixty-four ounces) was found at Kirby’s marl pit, on Old 
Man’s creek, near Harrisonville, Gloucester Co., N. J. A quarter-inch 
section showed alight greyish-yellow color. A section one and one- 
quarter of an inch thick showed a light yellowish-brown color. The 
entire mass (surface and interior) contained botryoidal shaped 
cavities, filled with glauconite, or green sand, and a trace of vivianite. 
The hardness is the same as that of the Baitic amber; but it is slightly 
tougher, and cuts more like horn, the cut surface showing a curious 
pearly lustre, differing in this respect from any other amber I have yet 
examined. This lustre is not produced by the impurities, for the clearest 
parts show it best. It takes a very good polish. The specific gravity 
of a piece of carefully selected amber is 1.061, and is the lowest density 
on record ; the usual range being from 1.065 to 1.081. It was found 
at a depth of twenty-eight feet, covered with twenty feet of 
green sand or marl, in a six foot stratum of fossils, consisting mostly of 
Gryphea vestcularis, Gryphea Pitchert, Terebratula Harlanz, and 
others. The upper part of the marl consists of a layer of limestone, 
several feet in thickness, filled with Palorthzs, echinoid spines, and an 
occasional shark’s tooth of the genus Lamua, and this covered by 
eight feet of earth. The marl belongs to the middle bed of the Upper 
Cretaceous series. 

No analysis has as yet been made ofthis amber, but the similarity 
of the specific gravity, the hardness, and the ignition, leave little 


Avans. IN; Vs wAcrSer: 86 Feb. 5, 


doubt of its being a true amber, very closely resembling the Baltic 
and other ambers. 


DISCUSSION. 


Dr. N. L. Brirron enquired whether any lignite had been found 
with the amber. The Middle marl-bed was about a mile distant, 
and contained lignite. Also, in the clays of the Raritan river, a 
lignite-bed of coniferous wood occurred, containing many small 
pieces of fossil gum, one inch or so in length. 

A MEMBER suggested that the identity of these fossil resins, 
from this and other American localities, with true amber, had not 
yet been established, no analyses ever having yet been made, to 
his knowledge, to determine the presence or predominance of suc- 
cinic acid. 

Prof. D. S. Martin remarked that it is a curious and inter- 
esting fact that the hardness of fossil resius, as a rule, increases 
with their age. Thus true Tertiary amber is much harder than the 
later Copals, etc., yet still it is easily cut and carved; while, in the 
lower beds of the Cretaceous, the amber is brittle and difficult to 
work. 

Mr. W. E. HIDDEN stated that amber had been found last sum- 

mer in the marl-beds of North Carolina, and the specimens were 
now deposited in the Geological Museum at Raleigh. 
~ Dr. B. N. Martin had heard the well-known worker in amber 
in this city, Mr. Kaldenberg, remark that the largest specimen of 
amber he had ever seen was one from New Jersey, “found on 
the shore of Raritan Bay,” and now deposited in the museum at 
Berlin, Germany. 

Mr. Kunz was not aware of any analyses of the New Jersey 
specimens, but pointed out that they possessed the specific gravity, 
hardness and general physical properties of true amber. In fact, 
there was now great danger of making too many species in miner- 
alogical determinations. 

The CHartrMan observed that it was remarkable that amber was 
found in so few places in any large quantity, such as occurred on 
the shores of the Baltic. The fossilgums introduced into com- 
merce, ¢.g., kauri, copal, etc., were all resins of different and gen- 
erally known trees, but that of the Baltic—yellow, hard and aroma- 
tic—belonged to an an older formation. At present, there was a 


1883. 87 Trans: IN. Vu dew Sez: 


considerable number of coniferous trees which yielded resins. In 
the clay-beds, underlying this locality in Gloucester County, N. J., 
a great number of coniferous trees had been found, of remarkable 
beauty and interest, all differing from the conifers found elsewhere, 
and their resins must be different.. This fossil gum therefore does 
not deserve to be called by the same name as that of the Baltic. 
In one pit a whole barrelful had been found and burned by the 
workmen. From Japan also a resin had been brought, called 
amber, upon which there were impressions of leaves (Segzoia). 


February 12, 1883. 
SECTION OF GEOLOGY. 


The President, Dr. J. S. NEWBERRY, in the Chair. 

Forty-one persons present. 

The CHarrMaN called attention to the specimens of coal, ex- 
hibited by Mr. McDonald, from the Brier Hill seam at Massilon, 
Ohio, in the lower beds of the Carboniferous The material con- 
sisted of thin alternations of bright and lustreless laminze, the latter 
forming partitions by which the bituminous matter was shut up in 
cells and thus prevented from melting together when used as fuel. 
As it does not cake nor agglutinate, it is the finest grate-fuel in the 
world. It is found in local basins of limited extent, corresponding, 
in origin and general features, to the peat-marshes now found in the 
game region, and which have sometimes filled up a deep cafion or 
valley to the depth of fifty feet or more. 

Mr. McDonatp stated that the beds of coal appear to occupy 
great elongated basins, trending about ten degrees east of south 
or west of north, seldom exceeding five feet in thickness and thin- 
ning out at the edges. This basin embraces about one hundred 
acres of workable coal, from two and a half to five feet in thickness. 
The stratum is the lowest of the series, and is largely made up of de- 
tached basins, which are from ten to one hundred and fifty acres in 
extent. 

The CuarrMan explained that the elongated form and trend of 
these basins was due to the excavation of the containing valleys by 
the ancient streams, which then as now must have, in general 


Trans. N. Y. Ac. Scz. 88 Feo, 52: 


flowed southward from Lake Erie and Northern Ohio. Many 
were sluggish and became elongated peat-marshes. A submer- 
gence of this area, and the deposit of gravel and sand upon the 
marshes, would naturally produce such basin-like masses of coal. 


A paper was read by Mr. B. B. CHAMBERLIN, with an exhibition 
of a large number of specimens, on 


THE MINERALS OF THE WEEHAWKEN TUNNEL. 
‘ 


(Abstract). 


The Palisade range, with its continuation southward, is a vast store- 
house of minerals, increasing in quantity and quality with the depths 
from which they are obtained. 

The question, “‘ Why has the Weehawken tunnel yielded less plenti- 
fully than the tunnels west of Hoboken ?” is partially explained by one 
fact, that it does not Jie as far beneath the surface of the ground as the 
other tunnels, save in one portion of its course. 

This section, nearest the Hudson, embracing shafts numbers 1 and 2, 
has proved fully as prolific of mineral trophies as an equal space in the 
tunnels below, where no less than six shafts in each received the atten- 
tions of collectors of the prized zeolites. 

Most of the usual list of this class of minerals, obtainable in our 
Vicinity, appeared in greater or less quantity at Weehawken, a descrip- 
tion of which is here given: 

Pectoléte.—Weehawken tunnel has furnished science with perhaps 
some of the finest crystalline forms yet discovered. 


A curious feature of much of the Weehawken pectolite consists in 
the numerous clefts and fissures, as though made by a knife or saw, an 
explanation of which is perhaps yet to be given. 


Datolzte —This mineral, so common in the other tunnels of the ridge, 
here appears in very limited quantity. These few specimens are char- 
acterized by great brilliancy and beauty. The color is a delicate green, 
considerably lighter than usual in specimens from this vicinity. 

Analcime.—The specimens of analcime are quite showy as cabinet 
specimens, and superior to those found elsewhere along the ridge. 

The crystals are rarely over half an inch in diameter, in color often 
snow-white. Many present curious depressions on certain faces of the 
crystals. 

Prehnite-—Much of the prehnite here found was intimately associ- 
ated with an inferior quality of natrolite and pectolite, quite unattrac- 
tive to a collector. Two or three small bits of green incrustation, some- 


1883. 89 Trans. N. Y.. AésSez. 


what paler than the ideal tint, are all which my cabinet contains to re- 
present this noted mineral in this locality. 
Calczte.—Many of the calcite specimens are peculiar to the locality. 


The prevailing form is the scalenohedron, with a great variety of 
changes, sometimes carried to such an extent as to present rounded sur- 
faces of great beauty. Compound groups and twinned crystals are un- 
usually numerous. Forms highly modified are symmetrically associated 
with others equally interesting—varying in color as well as in shape. 


Natrolite—Seldom has this highly prized mineral appeared in 
greater abundance than at Weehawken. Between Shafts Nos. 1 and 2, 
large spaces of rock were coated with the mineral. The workmen gave 
glowing accounts of a blast, which released a block of stone “as large 
as a cooking-stove,’’ one surface of which was white with natrolite— 
in some places finely rosetted. The stone was broken into sections 
and fragments, and carried away for disposal to collectors. One of the 
most interesting of these specimens is about eight inches square, 
supporting some twenty rosettes in fine condition. Incrustations of 
interlaced crystals, resembling cocoanut candy, several inches square 
and of asnowy whiteness, are among the specimens offered on this 
occasion. At other times, the acicular variety appeared in consid- 
erable quantity. An outburst of flowing water unfortunately injured 
a mass of the most promising material. Specimens from other cavi- 
ties resemble snow-white plush. Aggregations of a globular form are 
among the most charming trophies the tunnel has yielded, especially 
when mounted on a surface of cream-colored stilbite. 


Apophyliite.—Weehawken claims the honor of affording the first 
discovered pink apophyllite in the United States. The crystalline 
forms are generally simple. In size, some are an inch in length. Ina 
few cases crystals are finely striated, the terminations vanishing into 
smaller crystals—a profusion of which cover the surface of the gangue. 
Interesting also are cases where opaque pinkish crystals present trans- 
parent terminations. Some few choice crystals of the usual color 
appeared, among them the glassy variety. In a drusy form, the min- 
eral was quite as plentiful as datolite proved to be, in the tunnels back 
of Hoboken. 

Amethyst.—Of interest to a local collector are the fragments of a 
lavender-colored amethyst, associated with the pink apophyllite of 
Shaft No. 1. 

Stzlozte.—The stilbite found varies in tint, from a snow-white to 
cream color and light brown. 


The only other zeolite to be referred to is Laumontzte, of which there 
appeared a few unimportant fragments. Ihave met no trace of chaba- 


ivans: Ns Vo Ags Sez. 90 Feb. 12, 


zite or its relative, gmelinite. Some good bits of Blende are worthy of 
preservation. - 

No allusion need be made to thomsonite, unless the name be applied 
to certain mysterious specimens, the nature of which has not yet been 
determined. The crystals are acicular, of remarkable length, radiating 
from a globular nucleus of considerable hardness. 

Pyrite, in brilliant and finely modified crystals, was brought out plen- 
tifuily from Shaft No.1. Some of the finest of these were half an inch 
in diameter. 


The subject was further discussed by Mr. Kunz and the Chair- 
man. 


Dr. Joun S. NewBerry then read the concluding part of his 
paper on 


THE BOTANY AND GEOLOGY OF THE COUNTRY BORDERING THE RIO 
GRANDE, IN TEXAS AND CHIHUAHUA. 


(Abstract). 


Having recently spent some time in Southern Texas and Eastern 
Chihuahua, a country until recently overrun by the Comanches and 
Lepans, and, hence, but imperfectly known, [ venture to hope that a few 
words of description of its aspects, geological structure, botany and re- 
sources, may not be unwelcome, especially as the attention of our people 
is being drawn in that direction, since it offers a new field for our sur- 
plus population and for the investment of capital, 

The eastern and central portions of Texas are so weil known, as to 
require no detailed description. Near the Gulf, the climate is warm 
and moist, and sugar and cotton are successfully raised. Beyond this 
belt, we pass on to plains on which there is little timber but mesquite, 
but the surface is covered with rich grass, and it is already one of the 
most productive grazing districts of the United States. The underlying 
rocks are, for the most part, of the cretaceous formation, without useful 
minerals, and the climate is dry. 

On the western side of these plains, the country is traversed by 
mountain-chains, which belong to the Rocky Mountain system, and 
which form the outer rim to a region, of which the topography is more 
varied, the mineral resources greater, and the agricultural capabilities 
less, than those of central or eastern Texas. This is, in fact, part of 
a great table-land, that fills the interval between the eastern and 
western mountain ranges, here nearly a thousand miles apart, and 
which extends with diminished breadth, southward throughout the 
central portion of Mexico. The Rio Grande has cut deeply into this 
plateau, and, where it has forced its way through the mountains that 


1883. 9] Tipans. IN. VAC. Scz: 


form its eastern rim, has excavated a series of deep and rocky cagions, 
which are impassable by boats and rival in their wild scenery those of 
the Colorado of the West. The country, immediately bordering the 
river, is much broken, but north and south there are intervals be- 
tween the numerous and disconnected mountain-ranges, which are 
grassy plains, presenting on a smaller scale the features of the Llano 
Estacado on the north, and the Bolson de Mapimi on the south. 

Further west, wereach a still more broken and arid country, in New 
Mexico, Arizona, Chihuahua and Sonora, where the ragged outlines 
of the mountains, and the peculiar vegetation+mostly cactus—give a 
special aspect to the scenery. This latter country, the home of the 
Apaches, has been the theatre of active mining operations, for many 
years, and the scene of unnumbered bloody tragedies. The country 
lying within southwestern Texas, eastern Chihuahua and western 
Coahuila, less rich in gold and silver, seems not to have proved suf- 
ficiently attractive to the Mexicans to induce them to brave the danger 
of its occupation, and it has been not only unoccupied, but much of it 
unexplored. The line of the Mexican Central Railway, which is 
being pushed southward from El] Paso to the City of Mexico, passes 
about 200 miles west of the belt of country referred to; and the rail- 
way which crosses the Rio Grande at Laredo, and is now extended 
southwest to Monterey and Saltillo, is about as far away on the east. 
A concession has been granted by the Mexican Government to Euro- 
pean capitalists, to build a road from Presidio del Norte, or Eagle 
Pass, or both, to Topolovampo, on the Gulf of California, and this 
road will probably traverse, almost centrally, the district under con- 
sideration. The general altitude of this country is from 4000 to 
5000 feet, the Rio Grande, as it passes through it, falling from 3000 
to 1000 feet above the sea level. 


BOTANY. 


The country bordering the Rio Grande, in Chihuahua and Texas, is 
nearly destitute of trees, a feature which marks the aridity of the cli- 
mate; yet, in certain localities, as on the bottom lands of the Rio 
Grande and Rio Concho, a vigorous and somewhat varied forest-growth 
was found at the advent of the whites. No better illustration of the 
relation between the kind of vegetation and the water supply in a 
country can be found, than that afforded by the luxuriant growth of 
trees of several kinds along the Cibola in the Chinati Mountains, Texas ; 
while on all sides this oasis is surrounded by an apparently boundless, 
grass-covered prairie, where the rain-fall 1s inadequate for trees. On the 
mountain-summits, south of the Rio Grande, is a sparse growth of 
Ppifion (Pznus edulcs), and evergreen oak, (Quercus Emoryz). The 


Trans. No ¥.' Ac. Sez. 92 Feb, 12, 


low lands, in certain localities over thousands of acres, are thickly set 
with mesquite, (Prozopis glandulosa), here a strong spreading shrub, 
never a tree, but with roots disproportionately large, composed of very 
dense tissue and furnishing a large amount of excellent fuel. Along 
the arroyos, cottonwood may occasionally be seen, either the narrow 
or the broad-leaved forms, (Populus monolifera or P. angustifolia), 
and more commonly the hacksberry, (Ce/¢zs occzdenta/is), and the nogal, 
the little black walnut (/uglaus rupestris), the Mexican Buckeye 
(Ungnadia speciosa), and the Guyacon (Guyacum Coulterz). The 
dryer portions, especially the gravel terraces bordering the Rio Grande, 
are frequently covered with the creosote plant, (Larrea Mexicana) 
and Zonguzeria splendens. The latter forms a cluster of fifteen or 
twenty canes, ten or twelve feet high, springing from the same root, 
and bristling with spines, aninch or more in length, of which the bases 
are in contact. Usually it is without leaves, and seems as though 
dead, but, for a brief interval in the rainy season, it is covered with 
small crowded obovate leaves, and from the summits of each stem 
springs one or more spikes of brilliant crimson flowers. 

Among the shrubs which form the “ chapparal” or thickets, the 
Holacantha is the most conspicuous, and Sa/zzarza the most inter- 
esting. The former, as its name implies, is a mass of thorns which 
are often as large and strong as those of the honey locust. The 
branches and spines are covered with a green epidermis, which per- 
forms the functions of leaves, and, in the spring, these bear bunches of 
yellow flowers similar to those of Berderzs. The Sadzzarza is a labiate 
allied to Scu¢z//arza, and the seed is enclosed in a balloon-like capsule, 
similar to that of the balloon vine (Cardzoz permum), also found 
here and having the same function, namely, dissemination by the wind. 
Two species of Acacza and one of Berberis, (B. trifoliata) all spiry, 
help to make the chapparal as nearly impenetrable as the thickets of 
cactus further west. We are here fairly within the confines of the 
cactus country, but not in its heart. Many species differing much in 
habit are constantly in sight—the “nopal,” an Ofuntza, being the 
most common, one species growing in a mass ten feet or more in 
height, with each leaf-like subdivision of the stem a foot in diameter. 
Though covered with spines, this plant is largely eaten by cattle, and 
nothing is more common than to see a patch of it trampled down, half 
eaten, and the flattened stems notched by their semi-circular bites. 
One species or variety of Opuntda, growing abundantly in Chihuahua, is 
of a deep purple color, which makes it conspicuous and often ornamen- 
tal. 

The most striking feature in the botany of this region is formed by 
the century plant and its allies: other species of Agave, Habranthus, 


4 


1883. 93 Trans. N. V. Ac. Scz. 


and Dasylirion, and the yuccas. In many places these are the only 
plants attaining any large size, and are very numerous, scattered over 
the plains, and slopes of the mountains; the plants not crowded, but 
separated by intervals of a few feet, which are occupied with a luxur- 
iant growth of gramma grass. The yuccas belong to four species or 
three species and two varieties, Yucca angustifoléa and Y. vaccata, 
Of these, two rise to the height of five to fifteen feet, with trunks 
from six to twelve inches in diameter, the crowded radiating leaves 
crowning the summit in a round or oval mass, six feet or more in 
diameter, the old leaves hanging perpendicularly and forming a pecu- 
liar thatch around the trunk and extending to the ground. 

The century plant is, in Chihuahua, represented by a variety with 
shorter and broader leaves than that commonly cultivated. From the 
center of the tuft, the flower stalk rises from 10 to 25 feet in height, 
composed of woody tissue and standing some years after bearing flow- 
ers. These persistent flower-stalks, crowning the ridges and visible for 
miles, give a peculiar aspect to the scenery. The century plants are, 
however, nowhere as numerous as the species of Dasylzrzon, with 
which they are associated, and which do not die with the effort of flor- 
escence. Further south, the agave supplies, from its sweet juice, the 
material from which an intoxicating drink is produced. In, this region, 
however, an alcoholic beverage is obtained from the “ Sotol”’ (Dasy- 
Lirton Texamum), which, from its abundance and the use made of it, 
deserves a prominent place among the economical plants of the coun- 
try. Hundreds of thousands of acres are covered with this Sotol, and 
it would seem that it might be much more largely utilized than it is, for 
the manufacture of alcohol. The leaves are three to three and a half 
feet long, by one and a half inches wide at the base, straight, flat and 
garnished on either side by strong recurved hooks. The color is yellow 
green, and the leaves are very numerous. From the center rises, at a 
certain stage of growth, a woody flower-stalk, ten feet high and at the 
base as large as one’s arm. The trunk rises but a few inches above 
the ground and is completely concealed. The top of this trunk, com- 
posed of the closely imbricated leaf-bases, which are broad, yellow, shin- 
ing, succulent and sweet—with a pulpy mass at the center, containing 
much saccharine matter, raw, or better roasted, is palatable and nutri- 
tious; so much so, that in the country where it grows, it is said the 
Indians never really suffer for want of food, as this affords them an 
abundant if not varied aliment. 

In the preparation of Sotol whiskey—a liquid called mesca/, as is 
also that made further west from other plants, the portion of the plant 
which has been described is trimmed so as to resemble a head of cabbage, 
then roasted and fermented, the product of the vinous fermentation being 


Tyans. INV; VY. Ac: Scz. 94 Feb. 12, 


distilled in the ordinary way. For roasting the Sotol, a pit is dug, some 
ten feet in diameter and four feet deep, lined with rude masonry. In 
this a fire is built, and when it has been burned down, the pit is filled 
with several hundred Sotol heads. When roasted, they are chopped 
in pieces and fermented in vats. 

Another interesting plant, the companion of the Sotol, is the ‘‘ Lechu- 
guilla,’ (Agave heterocantha), of which the leaves furnish a strong 
fibre, universally employed for ropes, sacks, etc., in Northern Mexico. 
This grows on the mountain slopes, generally at an elevation of about 
4000 to 5000 feet, is common in all northern Chihuahua, and especi- 
ally abundant on the Chinati Mountains in Texas. 


GEOLOGY. 


The prevailing rocks of Chihuahua and Texas, are cretaceous sedi- 
ments, chiefly limestones, broken through at frequent intervals by erup- 
tions of trap of various kinds, trachyte, porphyry, diorite, etc. Presidio 
del Norte is surrounded by mountains, partly eruptive, partly upheaved 
sediments, with open intervals between them, occupied by the cretace- 
ous strata, generally much disturbed. Between Presidio and the Sierra 
Rica, the middle and upper cretaceous rocks prevail—-apparently the 
Colorado and Laramie Groups, the lower shales with bands of calca- 
reous concretions filled with fossils, the upper sandstones and shales 
containing impressions of plants and thin coal. The concretions 
referred to above contain immense numbers of well defined cretaceous 
fossils, consisting of Ammonites, Nautilus, Helicoceras, Ptychoceras, 
Baculttes, Gryphea, Ostrea, Inoceramus, etc. The Colorado shales here 
are very black, though much metamorphosed, and containing //ocera- 
mus, form the walls of the vein of the Sierra Rica mine, a clean cut 
fissure, crossing the bedding of the shales nearly at right angles, hav- 
ing a quartz gangue, containing some very rich but very compound ore, 
copper, zinc, lead, silver and iron. 

Seventy-five miles southeast from Presidio are the San Carlos Moun- 
tains, composed of cretaceous limestones set at a high angle and very 
much metamorphosed. The San Carlos cafion cuts through the greater 
part of the range, showing a section of several thousand feet of rock, 
mostly light blue, but sometimes black limestones highly metamor- 
phosed, yet often crowded with characteristic cretaceous fossils. 

The ore deposit at the San Carlos mine is of extraordinary magni- 
tude and of special interest. It fills a series of chambers in limestone, 
one of which is several hundred feet in length and more than 200 feet 
in depth and breadth. It is evidently a chemical deposit, filling cavi- 
ties made by solution, and consists of black, often crystalline magne- 
tite, pyrites, galena, and blende, containing both gold and silver. Of 


1883. 95 Drans, IN, VoAe. (Scz. 


this ore there are apparently many millions of tons, and in character it 
is, so far as I know, without parallel among all the ore deposits of the 
country. Ata distance of half a mile, the limestones are cut through 
by a great dyke of diorite, which has doubtless furnished the heat that 
was the mainspring of the chemical affinities, but it has apparently 
contributed nothing to the mineral matter of the ore deposit. Ata 
point further south, the dyke crosses the zone of limestone which holds 
the ore. It is there metamorphosed, but not at all mineralized. 

In the same region are other mineral deposits, which will probably 
prove to be of considerable value. Among these is another series of 
chambers in limestone, filled with hard carbonate of lead and galena. 
Others still, which are rich in copper, also carry silver and gold. 


February 19, 1883. 
LECTURE EVENING. 
The President, Dr. J. S. NEWBERRY, in the Chair. 
The large Hall was occupied by the audience. 


Dr. ALBERT R. LEEDs, of Stevens’ Institute, Hoboken, delivered 
a lecture on 


HEALTH-FOODS, INVALID-FOODS, AND INFANT-FOODS, 


illustrated by an analytical table and a series of specimens. 


February 26, 1883. 
ANNUAL MEETING. 


The President, Dr. J. S. NEWBERRY, in the Chair. 

The CoRRESPONDING SECRETARY reported as follows : 

“During the past year, six names have been added to our list of 
Corresponding Members. The Academy has suffered the loss of two 
eminent Honorary Members, Charles Darwin and Friedrich Wohler. 
The vacancy caused by the death of the former has been filled by the 
election of Major-General Sir Henry Creswicke Rawlinson; that by the 


latter has not yet been filled. 
ALBERT R. LEEDS, 
Corresponding Secretary.” 


From the book of the TREASURER, the Epiror has compiled the 
following statement, for the year ending February 26, 1883: 


LALO ING NAS HE, Sak 96 Feb. 25, 


RECEIPTS. 
Initiation Fees. 
Feb., 1882, to Feb., 1883, fees of 17 new members..... wee es POG ae 


Annual Dues. 
Feb;, 1982; to, Meb:, 1863, 270 dues and back dues... ....:....< 1,380.00 


Subscriptions to Annals, 
Feb. 27, 1882, to Jan., 1883, 134 annual subscriptions. . $268.00 


Sales of annals and transactions, per D.S. Martin... 53.72 
— 321,92 
Interest on Bonds. 
rse2. “April 1, "July 1; Oct.25 and ant, 1883 cere eee 164.00 
Sundry. 
1882. Feb. 9. A. J. Todd, donation for transactions $25.09 
# NZ "CxS. Pusher a : a 15.00 
Apr alo: 0G... Beard,.rent of hall... 25. 13.50 
aa eee 
A Otdl  TECEIpES) oSettee et ais. oa eee ree e See $2,004.22 
EXPENDITURES. 
1882. Feb. 27. Amount advanced by Treasurer..... soo $2025T9 
Treasurer. 
1882. Apr. 28. Gregory Bros., printing receipts, etc. $6.50 
Sept.14. G. P. Putnam’s Sons, printing 
memorandum of fees........... Fens 
1883. Jan. 17. J. Cornelssen, collection of fees..... 93.20 
Feb. 7. J. H. Hinton, postage and stationery 20.00 
—— 126.95 
Recording Secretary. 
T6602. Feb, 27, O. PaHubbard spastage; ete. <.. «1. $5.14 
Nov.16. C. H. Clayton, minute book....... 3-75 
~— 8.89 
Library. 
1882. Mar. 7. A. Woodward, services in library.. $22.83 
Apr. 15. “ol. Heleston; postage... s,s 25.00 
Nov. 3. B. Westermann & Co., importation 
GHAFRES osc ciceieeleteeuen serie 6.65 
« -g. C. G. & F. Neumann, bookbinding. 100.10 


9. 4) ȴ30.00 
«29. A. Woodward, services in library... 17.75 
—_—— 302.33 


1883. 97 Tnans:. Ni Vo Aca Sez. 


Annals. 
1882. May 4. B. B. Chamberlin, engraving maps, 
CGH ryote 2a ons stores afore. Hoes 17.00 
« 8. Gregory Bros., printing Annals, Ll, 
. IOSMI A DINGO Ne craic) Sov cee i ott wie. e 227.61 
“tr, D.S. Martin, services as editor of 
PAUANV AGH AS 2 ators 2,5: 82: a5 a eict S0ision d ais 100.00 
July 15. G. Gregory, printing Annals, II,No.g 128.93 
= AT 54 
Transactions. 
1882. Dec. 4. A.A. Julien, bills paid for printing. 100.00 
1883) Heb. 13. The Spectator Co., printing... .. = 50:00 
——— 150.00 
Lectures. 
1882. Apr. 10. J.S Newberry, lecture expenses. . 5.00 
June 20. A. H. Elliott, cf 25) a EUE5O 
—— 16.50 
Weekly Meetings. 
moo2, Heb. 27.. D. S. Marti, postal cards, etc... 55:73 
Apr, 4. ae “ “ Se 12510 
May 8. Gregory Bros., printing  ballot- 
GatrdSMeter traces eslerscicrersceie ce 50.75 
daly 15a GiiGrecory: (printing. 3. sic. «2s... 2 20.25 
Nov. 3. D.S. Martin, postal cards, etc.... 37.92 
— 176.75 
General Expenses. 
1882. Apr.10. J.S. Newberry, postage, etc....... 10.18 
May 13. Hussey’s Post, delivery of notices. . 17.74 
Nov. 25. L. R. Weeks, addressing notices, 
AMM ANS) GUC os, otal sped aye since, ec ccchncec ahs 61.59 
——— 89.51 
Rent of Rooms. 
1882. May 12. N.Y. Academy of Medicine....... 118.75 
Sept. 26. ss nS ae aera 3LOOL2S 
Nov. 3. “ 7 Spal hers’ 106.25 
1683, Keb. 7. s “ oe A actos 106.25 
wr ano oe 
Wotaltexpenseea..myins sceiates selteess Seekers ae ecc ar, tok $1,984.16 
February 26, 1883, Balance on hand ....... Sine Rusuee $20,06 


The REcoRDING SECRETARY reported as follows : 


“The annual meeting was held Feb. 27, 1882, when the officers of 
the Academy were elected and the ordinary business was transacted. 

There have been nine sessions of the Council and thirty-four meet- 
ings of the Academy—fifteen before the summer recess and nineteen 
since. 

The Proceedings of the Academy are well-known to the members. 


Trans. N. Y. Ac. Sez. 98 Feb. 26, 


The attendance on the regular meetings is unchanged, and that on 
the lectures indicates a high appreciation of their value. 

The communications, oral and written, have been numerous and 
very varied. They have been fully illustrated by specimens, instru- 
ments, diagrams and the lantern, and may be classed as follows: 


Pwo node on roD TOE eD 3) (Geology ai ge os) tok 15 
Archesolopyr savas hls «arc. Ty Mineralogie. 5 1...<-,14-822 
ASEFONOMY) Ge. 0 2 «Nat. History. .-) 6.08 2 
CHEMISE eh rice es 8) Sbsychology > cs. soos: 2 
enginecninge.. ys. yee 20" (Physiologie. wt 4 

Total yisit. 4 se ce ee oe tee Renee 71 


Nine lectures have been given by members and other gentlemen, on 
invitation of the Academy—on Archeology, Chemistry, Geology, 
Physiology and Zoélogy, and all well attended. 


The number of new Resident Members............. 17 
The resignations): see. ae es. eee th ca 8 ioe ee we 
Wherdeceasedinee.: ace: ccroiap he cereale otis ee Lae 4 


beside one Honorary and one Corresponding Member. 
The Academy greatly needs re-inforcement by an increase of its 


Membership. Splat 
a ARD, 


Recording Secretary.” 


The LIBRARIAN reported “ the number of publications constituting 
our Library, at the end of the last year, aggregate to about 6500 
volumes and 2000 pamphlets ; and the addition received up to Nov. 
27, 1882, to 205 volumes and 25 pamphlets. Since that date, 20 vol- 
umes, 135 parts and 197 pamphlets, reports, etc., have been received, 
amounting to a total accession, during the fiscal year of 1882, of 225 
volumes and 357 pamphlets; which makes a grand total of 6725 vol- 
umes and 2357 pamphlets in our Library at the present time, exclusive 
of the publications presented this evening. 

During the past year 211 volumes have been bound, leaving about 
500 unbound volumes now on our shelves. The large number of 
periodical publications continually received, makes an arrangement for 
binding a continual necessity, to prevent our again falling behindhand, 


as we have done during many former years. 
L. ELSBERG, 


Librarian.” 


The Chairman of the Publication Committee presented the following 
report : 

“During the year ending February 26th, 1883, there have been pub- 
lished three numbers of the Society’s ANNALS, Nos. 9, 10 and 11, of 
Volume II. There remains still another part, No. 12, belonging to the 


1883. 99 Trans: iN. Vs AGwSce. 


regular issue for 1882, and with which the second volume would close, 
which is not yet published and is still due to subscribers for that year. 
This part, it is hoped soon to issue. 

Besides these, there were also published during the year covered by 
this report, although belonging to the issue for 1881, Nos. 7 and 8 of 
Vol. Il: 

The Academy is indebted to Dr. LAURENCE JOHNSON for Plate 
XVIII.,—the original map illustrating his article,—the entire cost of 
which was borne by himself; also, to Mr. Thomas Bland, Dr. New- 
berry, Mr. F. G. Wiechmann, and Prof. Thurston,*for aid in the cost 
of illustrating with plates or cuts. 

During the coming year, it will be necessary for the Academy to pro- 
vide the additional amount needed for publishing the Index to the 
second volume. 

The issue of the Transactions, which was begun in the fall of 1881, 
_ and referred to in the Committee’s report, one year ago, has been car- 
ried on successfully during the year. Eight numbers,—one for each 
month of the Academy’s session,--have been issued ; and the second 
volume has been begun, for the session of 1882-3; although it is 
matter for regret that the means have not been provided to secure that 
promptness of publication so desirable, and so much hoped for, in 
a journal of this kind. D.S. MARTIN, 

Chairman Publ. Com.” 

The following officers were elected for the ensuing year: 

President, J. S. NEWBERRY. 

Vice-Presidents, B. N. Martin and A. A. JULIEN. 

Corresponding Secretary, A. R. LEEps. 

Recording Secretary, O. P. Hupparp. 

Treasurer, J. H. HINTON. 

Librarian, L. ELsBErRG. 


Council. 
D. S. MarTIN. W. P. TROWBRIDGE 
G. N. LAWRENCE. AUC. Posn. 
T. EGLESTON. L. ELSBERG 
Curators. 
B. G. AMEND. C.F. Cox. 
B. B. CHAMBERLIN. H. L. FArrcuHibp. 


N. L. BrirrTon. 


Finance Committee. 


T. B. CopDINGTON. P. SCHUYLER. T. BLAND. 


LANs: Nes Vi wA Ca SGe. 100 Mar. 5, 


The PRESIDENT communicated to the Academy that a Commit- 
tee of the Council had conferred with the Trustees of Columbia 
College, in reference to a room in their new building on East 
Forty-ninth street, in which to hold the meetings of the Academy, 
and that they had given permission to occupy a room for this pur- 
pose, free of rent. It was 

Resolved, that the thanks fof the Academy be presented to the 
Trustees of Columbia College for the permission they have given 
the Academy to hold its meetings in the College-buildings. 


March 5, 1883. 
REGULAR BUSINEsS MEETING. 


The President, Dr. J. S. NEwBERRy, in the Chair. 

Fifteen persons present. 

The following persons were elected Corresponding Members: 

Prof. Luict Bompicci, University of Bologna, Italy. 

Prof. ANTonio D’AcuHtARDI, University of Pisa, Italy. 

Prof. G. GRATTAROLA, Inst. Superior, Florence, Italy. 

Dr. A. WerssBacH, Bergakademie, Freiberg, Saxony. 

M. EmILE BERTRAND, 15 Rue du Tournon, Paris, France. 

M. A. JANNETAZ, College Sorbonne, Paris, France. 

Prof. F. P1sant, Paris, France. 

The CuatrMAN exhibited a fine specimen of gold, associated 
with black oxide of manganese, from near the surface of a vein of 
quartz, in Southwestern Colorado, and also crystals of topaz, locally 
denominated quartz, from Nevada. 

Dr. T. EGLEsTON stated, that in 1862, two topazes were brought — 
in by the Pacific Railroad Survey, which, after careful examination, — 
lead him to announce that tin would be found in the vicinity from 
which they came. In 1874, he saw at ‘Salt Lake City several 
specimens which were supposed to be a curious distortion of quartz, 
from Southern Utah, which turned out to be topaz. The discovery 
of these crystals, with the same associations, and of exactly the same 
form, as in Xacatecas, in the vicinity of tin mines already worked, 
is extremely important, as it implies the presence of tin, associated 
with these crystals, within the borders of the United States. 

In speaking of the crystallized gold specimens, exhibited by Dr. 


1883. 101 Trans. N.Y. Ace. 


NEWBERRY, he pointed out that the native gold of the specimens 
was contained in the cavities left by the decomposition of 
pyrites. 

Mr. ArtHuR H. Exuiort read a paper, illustrated by the appara- 
tus, on 


AN IMPROVED METHOD FOR GAS-ANALYSIS. 
(Published in the Annals, 1883). 
DISCUSSION. 


Mr. G. F. Kuwz stated that, in assisting Prof. Wurtz in a series 
of gas-analyses, they had found that the Orsat-apparatus required 
several days for each analysis. All joints of the apparatus were 
kept lubricated with glycerine. 

Dr. T. EGLESTON remarked that the Orsat-apparatus, which re- 
sembled somewhat that of Mr. Elliott, possessed very great advan- 
tages in making commercial analyses of gas, in the quickness and con- 
venience of its use. It was very portable, and he had carried it up a 
high ladder, to a vat, in a whitelead works, made there the analysis 
of a gas, and brought it down to the ground again without any diffi- 
culty. It was, however, expensive, and was sometimes sluggish, 
especially in the determinations of carbonic oxide. It is, however, 
very suitable for the commercial analyses of gases. Mr. Elliott’s 
apparatus is more suitable for the laboratory than for the works, be- 
cause it isso very fragile. It is likely, also, to be sensitive to changes 
of temperature, which would necessitate making corrections for the 
variations of the volume of the gas, especially in very cold or very hot 
weather, when it might be necessary to have the apparatus jacketed, 
to allow sufficient time for the observations. How quickly the volume 
of gas will change by temperature, is shown in the oscillations which 
occur in the delicate air-thermometer, used in the Doyer apparatus. 
The special advantage, which is very apparent im Mr. Ellott’s ap- 
paratus, is that the efficiency of the apparatus is always at a maxi- 
mum, since the chemicals used are always new, and are arranged 
in such a way that they are exposed to a very large surface ; for, 
while the surface is not as large as in the Orsat apparatus, in gen- 
eral, either in the tube or in the gauze part of the apparatus, it is 
amply sufficient with fresh chemicals for all practical purposes, 
While this apparatus does not have the same relation to commercial 


Trans..N. Vr Aey Sez. 102 Mar. 12, 


work that the Orsat does, and is not so scientifically accurate as 
the Doyer, it must be regarded as a very great advance in laboratory 
work, both on account of its simplicity and its cheapness. 

Mr. Extiorr stated his preference for vaseline for the lubrication 
of the joints of the apparatus. In regard to the absorption of car- 
bonic oxide, he had compared analyses with those by the Bunsen 
method, and, in one instance, had obtained 27 per cent., by his 
apparatus, against 26.7 per cent., by that of Bunsen. He did not 
claim any greater accuracy for his apparatus, beyond the determina- 
tion of constituents which amounted to tenths of a per cent. He 
had never observed any changes of volume, due to tempera- 
ture, greater than a few tenths of a cubic centimeter in 15 or 20 
minutes, while he and other persons were standing near the ap- 
paratus. 


March 12, 1883. 
SECTION OF CHEMISTRY. 


The President, Dr. J. S. NEWBERRY, in the Chair. 

Thirty-one persons present. 

Prof. H. Carrincron Botton, of Trinity College, Hartford, 
Conn., read the second part of his paper 


ON THE HISTORY OF CHEMICAL NOTATION. | 


(Abstract). 


He had discussed on a previous occasion (December 11th) the early 
association of metals and planets, and the supposed origin of the signs 
used for both; he now took up the subject of alchemical symbolism, 
and traced also the later developments in chemical notation from the 
days of Geoffroy to Berzelius. 

The indefatigable alchemists discovered new chemical substances 
more rapidly than they became acquainted with their proper relation to 
known bodies and to each other, so that the names assigned to them 
were arbitrarily chosen and frequently misleading. The love of the 
mystical also influenced alchemical terminology, very greatly obscuring 
it; in forming their vocabulary, the alchemists used the names of ani- 
mals, plants, and of organic substances, as well as letters, numbers, 
signs of the zodiac, and an innumerable variety of arbitrary and con- 
ventional characters. To conceal their knowledge from the uninitiated, 


1883. 103 Dy ans. INS Ke AG. S62. 


they gave the same name to many unlike bodies, and used also a great 
number of synonyms. A highly metaphorical language arose, and 
when certain enthusiasts attempted to graft .Egyptian mythology 
and Greek fables on to alchemy, the height of absurdity in nomencla- 
ture was attained. Nitre, for example, was called a ‘‘ venomous 
worm,” a “‘ scorpion devouring his children,” and a “dragon.” The 
labors of Hercules, the Argonautic expedition, in search of the Golden 
Fleece, and similar legends received alchemical interpretations. The 
method of notation, which existed at this period, was no less astonish- 
ing ; sal ammoniac, for example, being called an eagle, on account of 
its volatility, was represented pictorially as the bird of prey; antimony 
being denoted as a wolf, and gold asa king, the fusion of the two metals 
was represented by the picture of a wolf devouring a prostrate and 
crowned man. Allegorical formule of this character were especially 
cultivated by Dr. Michael Maier, physician to Rudolph II., and author 
of several illustrated works now much sought by bibliophiles. 

As early as the thirteenth century, the four Aristotelian elements were 
represented as follows : 


AArr. 
A Fire. 
W Earth. 


V Water. 


At some uncertain period, the elementary principles of alchemical 
theories were represented thus : 


ke) Sulphur. 


O Salt. 


4A Mercury. 


These are among the earliest of an enormous number of characters 
which the alchemists introduced into their writings. Many keys to 
these singular characters have been published ; one of the earliest is 
that of Heinrich Eschenreuter, a reputed Bavarian priest of the fifteenth 
century; similar keys are found in the works ‘of Crollius, Kircher, 
Juncker, Lefévre, Lemery, Blancardus, e¢ a. 

The multiplicity of names in vogue among the alchemists gave rise 
to a large number of symbols, each synonyme having its appropriate 
character ; thus mercury had at least 4o signs, borax 35, a crucible 
18, cream-of-tartar 31, cinnabar 22, and soon. Dictionaries of these 
signs exist, the most noteworthy being that entitled the Alchymzs- 


Trans. Na Yo Aes Sek 104 Mar. i2, 


tesches Oraculum, published; at Ulm, in 1772, and a 400 page folio by 
J. C. Sommerhoff, published in 1701. 

The speaker said he had carefully studied the abundant material 
afforded by these and other lists, and had sought some method of 
classifying these signs. He proposed the following scheme of classifi- 
cation : 


LI. Abbreviations. LIT. Pictorial Signs. 


JVB Balneum mariz. 


yt Feather alum (halotri- 
) Spiritus vini rectificatus. wt chite.) 
ay Water. 
a & & Amalgama. 
ec Cucurbita. eee or 322 sand. 
Ss = Sucrum. (a e~ Retort. 
fe} A river. W Crucible. 


tin, iron, mercury and copper, and probably the signs for lead. 
III, Symbolical Signs. 


S Hour. 


| a 
»}5 Crucible (crux) or +t Gi Cream of Tartar. 
‘YY Common Salt or D4 


IV. Arbitrary Signs. 
Vinegar. 


WY Lime (calx, a spur). 


© Gold (sol). VV Water. 
»D Silver (luna). a Realgar. 
(XX) Metallic regulus. ol, Burnt Alum. 


oo Oil (three drops ?) <+-+ Iron. 


and a very large number of numerals, for example : 


4 Crucible. 33 Cinnabar. 
25 Rock Salt. 18 Common Salt. 
80 Realgar. 63 Cream of Tartar. 


V. Complex Signs, formed by uniting two or more of the preced- 
ing groups. 


mR Reverbertory Fire. Gold Leaf. 
wae Aqua Fortris. ey Silver Leaf. 
F oe Balneum Arene. 
Ve Aqua Regia. sists 2 St 
vA ua Regia. 
CIF; Tartar Emetic. re - 


2st. Aes Ustum. 


\e Vinum Emeticum. 


w% Antimonii Regulus. 


1883. 105 Trans. N. Y. Ac. Sct. 


By far the larger number of'signs fall under Group IV, Arbitrary, but 
it is highly probable that many in this class are in reality distortions of 
signs belonging to one of the other groups. 

The first intelligent use of these signs seems to have been made by 
the distinguished French chemist, Geoffroy, in 1718. He was the 
first to prepare tables showing the relative chemical affinity of sub- 
stances; and he arranged the existing signs in columns to indicate 
their mutual relations. He added little to the notation, but discovered 
a new power in the symbols. The next step in advance was made 
by Torbern Bergman, who proposed to denote analogous bodies by 
similar signs having minor distinctions. His fundamental or basic 
characters were a triangle, a circle, a crown and a cross, and these 
he modified and combined in various ways to represent a great num- 
ber of substances. Bergmann, however, carried out his excellent prop- 
osition very imperfectly. In Bergmann’s Dissertation on Elective 
Affinities, we find the earliest style of chemical equations. 

The speaker then referred to Lavoisier’s scheme of notation, to 
the elaborate plan of Hassenfratz and Adet, and to the improvements 
introduced by Dalton, who revived the atomic philosophy and clothed 
it with new significance. None of these schemes were, however, 
destined to survive. 

In 1814, the eminent Swedish chemist, Berzelius, published a 
memoir on nitrous acid, in which he discusses the different degrees 
of oxidation which nitrogen undergoes; in a modest foot note, he 
incidentally mentions that he frequently employs, in private memoranda, 
a convenient system of abbreviations for representing chemical 
bodies. ‘This was the germ of the present rational system of notation, 
which has dohe so much to advance chemical science and to lighten 
the labors of students of every nationality. The Berzelian notation 
was not the result of any premeditated plan, carefully elaborated and 
presented to a Scientific Academy for their endorsement, but a simple 
device of a master mind, seeking to embody theoretical views in a 
practical manner. Twelve years later, Berzelius published a brief 
paper “On a method of expressing in formule the Composition of 
Bodies, as respects both their elements and the number of their atoms.” 

In this he describes the system, which, with slight modifications, 
now prevails wherever chemical science is known. 

He proposes to denote each element by the initial letter or letters 
of its Latin name, and that such symbol shall represent the relative 
weight of one atom of the body designated. Berzelius remarks in this 
connection that the French mineralogist, Beudant, had the national 
vanity to employ the initial letters of French names, and suggests 
the desirability of employing Latin names, in consequence of the obvious 


TH ANS ING Ve CACSEA 106 | Mar. 19, 


inconvenience attending the use of English, German and _ Italian 
names. He then quotes Sir H. Davy’s remark, ‘Science, like that 
Nature to which it belongs, is neither limited by time nor space; it 
belongs to the world and is of no country and of no age.” 

Berzelius gives a list of the then known elementary bodies—forty- 
nine in number—and explains the use of co-efficients, both small and 
large, of barred letters for double atoms and of dotted letters for 
oxides. He employs the plus sign with very nearly the same signifi- 
cance as that of the period used at present. In all essential points, the 
existing system is identical with that introduced nearly seventy years 
ago. 

With the rapid growth of the science, the Berzelian notation was 
found insufficient to express fully the mutual relations of constituent 
atoms, and constitutional formule were devised; these displayed formule 
gradually developed under the influence of the theory of atomicity 
into graphic formule, and, for educational uses, into glyptic formulz. 

The multiplication of the compounds of carbon, and the necessity 
of presenting accurate views of the differences in the constitution 
of isomeric bodies have led to the construction of prismatic formule, 
the development of which is still in progress. 


The subject was further discussed by Prof. Leeps, the PRESIDENT 
and the author. 


March 109, 1883. 


LECTURE EVENING. 


No meeting was held, on account of the unavoidable detention 
of the lecturer in a Western city, by sickness in his family. 


March 26, 1883. 


The President, Dr. J. S. NEWBERRY, in the Chair. 
Seventy persons present. 


A private communication was presented, from PRoF. WILLIAM B, 
Dwicut, of Vassar College, Poughkeepsie, N. Y.: 


“In some zoological explorations which I was making at Martha’s 
Vineyard last summer, I was so fortunate as to find, what I never found 
before, a nest of newly hatched larve of Lzmulus folyphemus. As they 
are objects of much interest to zoologists, on account of their forming a 


1883. 107 Trans. No VoAcScz: 


connecting link with the ancient trilobite, and as few succeed in getting 
hold of any, I think it very likely that some of them might be desired, 
and shall be most happy to donate some of my specimens. They are 4 
mm. or less in length, and without the abdominal spine... . Staining 1m- 
proves them very much and brings out a curious oval spot on the head- 
shield, external and somewhat anterior to the compound eyes; but it 
is somewhat difficult to get the color to strike in. Moreover, the saline 
matter retained within the outer crust makes some trouble with the 
coloring. The latter cause is now partially removed, as I have several 
times changed the alcohol, and is probably quite removable by longer 
soaking and changing.” 

The CHaIRMAN remarked on the interesting relationship of the 
“horseshoe crab” (LimuZus), and the ancient trilobite, and the 
difficulty of obtaining the larvee, in spite of the abundance with 
which they somewhere breed. 

About 200 specimens of the larvzee were distributed, later in the 


evening, among the members of the Academy present. 


Prof. CHARLES B. WaRRING, of Poughkeepsie, N. Y., then read 
a paper, entitled: . 


A STUDY OF THE CHALDEAN ‘ACCOUNT OF CREATION,” 


as translated by Mr. George Smith and Profs. Sayce and Lenor- 
mant, and also of the account of Berosus, in reference to their con- 
nection with the first chapter of Genesis. 


(Abstract). 

There are three kinds of Chaldean myths; those purely mytholog- 
ical; those referring to the Deluge; and those said to give an account of 
the Creation,* and, which, it is claimed, are the originals of the story, in 
the first chapter of Genesis. Of these ‘“creation’’ myths there are 
three: that on a series of tablets—the most famous one, that found on 
the tablet of Cutha, and the story related by Berosus. 

The object of the present paper is to examine this claim, first, by 
inquiring whether there is historical evidence in its favor. There ap- 
pears to be none. Secondly, are there strong probabilities in its favor, 
which themselves rest on admitted facts ? Only two have been named, 
the great age of these myths, and the fact that the Hebrews were car- 
ried to Babylon and remained there many years. However it may be 
as to the other myths, all admit that the “creation” myth was writ- 
ten in the reign of Assur-bani-pul, 670 B. C., no very great age as 


‘“*No Chaldean account of the Fall has as yet been found.’ Prof. Sayce’s Smith’s Chal- 
dean Genesis, page 88. 


UR ANS Ve VG RAG BSCE. 108 Mar. 26, 


compared with the epoch of Ezra, and many centuries after the time 
of Moses. 

As to the Hebrews being in Babylon, it is an historical fact that 
those who returned to Judea did so with the most intense hatred of 
every form of idolatry; it is therefore incredible that they adopted 
the religious myths of hated and despised idolators and embodied 
them in their own sacred books, even giving them the place of honor, 

As some will say, ‘‘ however strange it may appear, nevertheless 
the Hebrews did take the heathen myths and adopt them, for here they 
are.’ This can be met only by a careful examination of the myths 
and of the Creative account in Genesis. If the two are identical in 
their teachings, then we may conclude that one was the source of the 
other. Butif their agreements are few and of little importance, if, ¢.¢., 
both speak of earth and heavens, of plants and animals, such agree- 
ment would be of little value, because by no possibility could a cos- 
mogony be written and not speak of these. If at the same time their 
disagreements are many and important, if in fact their statements are 
radically opposite, then it is impossible that the one should have been 
derived from the other. The paper then went into an extended com- 
parison of the myths with the story in Genesis. The myths were 
given in full, and their few resemblances to the Hebrew account, to- 
gether with their many flat contradictions were pointed out. For ex- 
ample, the myths place the heavens and earth before the gods. Gen- 
esis says, God was first. The whole first tablet is occupied with the 
origin of the gods. The “beginning,” it says, was that point in the 
existence of the heavens and earth when the great gods began to be. 
In Genesis, {the beginning is that point in the existence of God at 
which the heavens and earth began to be. 

In the fifth tablet (all the others are missing, except possibly one lit- 
tle fragment which says only this: ‘‘ The foundation of the caverns of 
rock thou didst form ’’), which is claimed to correspond to the fourth 
period in Genesis, it is said that one of the gods arranged the stars 
in three rows of constellations. Genesis says God sade the stars. 
The myth says that the god made a stair-case in the midst of the 
earth. Nothing like this is found in Genesis. The myth gives great 
prominence to the stars, Genesis says little of them. The myth makes 
the month, and the moon in connection with its office as a measurer 
of months, by far the most prominent things in it. Genesis says abso- 
lutely nothing about months—does not mention them.” 

There is one more fragment. In this it is said that the gods made 
“cattle of the field, and beasts of the field, and creeping things.’’ This 
is the only real resemblance to Genesis, and this could not well be 
avoided if both were to speak of animals. 


1883. 109 TEATS IN VAS VAI SEER 


The tablet of Cutha is so grotesquely absurd, that no one claims 
that it, or any part of it, is embodied in the Hebrew account. The 
same is true even in a stronger degree of the story related by Berosus. 

The myths have no division into creative days. They have no fiats. 
The gods do not pronounce their work good. The Hebrew account 
is divided by the creative day verses into six periods. Every creative 
act is preceded by a fiat, and six times God pronounces His work 
good, and then He sees all that He has made and pronounces it very 
good. 

There is nothing like this in the myths. It is therefore absurd to 
say that these were the sources from which was taken the account in 
our Bibles. In conclusion, it was stated that these myths are not a 
cosmogony at all, or, at least, this is not their primary purpose. They 
form atheogony. They set forth the origin and descent of the gods, 
and join to each his supposed share in arranging the world and the 
heavens. As such they are intelligible and duly proportioned. 


DISCUSSION. 


Dr. B. N. Martin remarked on the interest of the comparisons 
which had been made, and assented to the conclusion, in regard to 
the scanty similarity of the two accounts. In the many gods wor- 
shipped by the Greeks, Egyptians, and Chaldeans, there was noth- 
ing ultimate, and the question always presented itself—whence 
these gods came. In the Hebrew account, however, the Supreme 
Agent was self-existent and self-dependent. Also, in modern phil- 
osophy, there is a continual tendency to the resolution of all the 
varied physical forces intoa single, infinite, always existing Force— 
the ‘Force of the Infinite” of Herbert Spencer. It was an im- 
portant distinction, made by the author of the paper, that all the 
other ancient philosophies were theogonies, while that of the He- 
brews was a cosmogony, one produced by a personal Infinite Force. 

Rev. H. C. Hovey observed that from a purely historical and 
rational point of view, although, on the one hand, the Hebrews 
had been closely associated with the Chaldeans, through their Chal- 
dean progenitor Abraham, and in the early intercourse of his sons 
and grand-sons with that people—on the other hand, a long break 
of four centuries took place in that intercourse, while the Israelites 
were in Egypt; so that Moses was far more likely to have been 
influenced from Egypt than from Chaldea, in writing his cosmogony. 


Trans, NS Ve vAGa Sez. aI) April 2, 


The CuHarRMAN considered the facts yet too few and imperfect 
to establish any fair criticism. 

There was, however, another Chaldean account, that of the Del- 
uge, which was very interesting and clear—so close to the Biblical 
account, indeed, that there must be some connection between 
them. The tablets under discussion were comparatively modern, 
reaching back not over 800 years B, C.; there was, therefore, no 
proof that the undoubtedly far more ancient Biblical account had 
been derived from these. He called attention to the recent dis- 
coveries by Mr. Rassam of ancient records, at Aboo Habba, in the 
valley of the Euphrates, in one place, of nearly 40,000 tablets, 
which, although composed of soft clay, had been nearly all pre- 
served intact by the discoverer, by a method of careful baking. ° 
So, too, in the ruins of the so-called Tower of Babel, masonry, 
timbers, etc., had been recently found in such a state of preserva- 
tion as to render probable the discovery soon of records of some 
kind at that locality. 

At present there was too great an ~ aperfection in the records, 
and also too little acquaintance with the languages of those rec- 
ords, as had been illustrated by the discrepancies of the several 
translations presented in this paper, to justify positive statements. 

Nevertheless, it was a remarkable fact that, for the last two 
or three thousand years, a detailed record of the Creation has 
stood before the world. In the progress of geological discovery, 
astonishing correspondences have been established, in reference 
to this Biblical record, incomprehensible unless derived from a 
supernatural Power. 


Apnil 2, 1883. 
SECTION OF GEOLOGY. 
The President, Dr. J. S. NEWBERRY, in the Chair. 


Thirty-four persons present. 
A paper was read by Dr. J. S. NEWBERRY, on 


AN INQUIRY INTO THE ORIGIN OF THE CARBON PRESENT IN 
BITUMINOUS SHALES. 


(Published in the Annals.) 


DISCUSSION, 
A MEMBER assented to the general view maintained in the paper 
but inquired whether it was intended to draw any analogy between the 


1883. 111 Trans. N. Y. Ac. Sez. 


vegetation from which the carbon in the shales was derived, and the 
aggregations of gulf-weed in the “ Sargasso Sea,” etc. It was entirely 
improbable that, however dense the vegetation might be upon the sur- 
face of the ocean in such regions, any accumulation of carbonaceous 
matter could take place upon the oceanic bottom, from the exceed- 
ingly slow rate at which mineral detritus can be there deposited to pro- 
tect such organic matter from oxidation ; nor have any such accumula- 
tions been found in the deep-sea dredgings of the Challenger or other 
expeditions. 

Dr. NEWBERRY «loubted whether any dredgings had ever been made 
beneath the Sargasso Sea, but he also disbelieved in the possibility of 
such a carbonaceous deposit in the deep ocean. He had only desired,by 
the allusion to the Sargasso Sea, to indicate the probability of a similar 
aggregation of floating algae upon the surface of the shallow waters 
beneath which these shales must have been formed. 


April 9, 1883. 
SECTION OF CHEMISTRY. 


The President, Dr. J. S. NEwsBeErRy, in the Chair. 

Thirty-five persons present. 

The CorRRESPONDING SECRETARY Called attention to the recent 
death of Dr. JosepH PriesrLey, of Northumberland, Penn., the 
last surviving descendant of the eminent chemist of that name, 
and remarked on his genial kindness and eminent talent as a 
physician, and the influence of his character and position, by which 
he generously assisted in the success of the Centennial Celebration 
of American Chemists at Northumberland, in the summer of 1874. 
After discussion by Mr. Exttiorr and the President, it was 

Resolved, that the Corresponding Secretary be requested to con- 
vey to the family of the deceased our sincere sympathy in their 
bereavement, and our high appreciation of his character. 

Dr. ALBERT R. LEEDs then read a paper, entitled: 


AN ACTINIC METHOD FOR THE DETERMINATION OF ORGANIC 
MATTER IN POTABLE WATER, 
with the application of the method to the water supplies of Philadel- 
phia, Newark, Jersey City, Brooklyn, and New York. 
At the present time there is no method known of determining ac- 


curately the amounts and kinds of organic matter existing in the water 
we drink. The amounts are so small, the kinds so various, the in- 


Trans. N. VY. Ac. Sez. Wy, Afr. 9, 


stability of much of the organic matter so great, that the best we can 
do is to make a tolerably accurate estimation of the total amount, and 
endeavor to find out what portion of this is safe and what is possibly 
dangerous to health. To make this scientific guess, so to speak, various 
expedients have been hit upon, and a vast deal of thought, controversy 
and time have been expended. The mode most in vogue is to heat the 
drinking-water with an alkali and a powerful oxidizing agent, and to 
find how much ammonia distils off from it. The ammonia thus ob- 
tained is regarded as a measure of the putrefiable organic matter 
present. Another way is to find out just how much nitrogen and how 
much carbon are present, and, from the fact that animal substances 
have a much higher proportion of nitrogen to carbon than vegetable 
substances, to conclude whether any dangerous bodies of animal origin 
are present. These two ways are greatly in use in England. The 
Germans place great confidence in a third method, which is to find how 
much of the organic matter is capable of being oxidized by per- 
manganate of potash when the water is being boiled with this strong 
oxidizer, and to regard this oxidizable fraction of the organic matter as 
the part dangerous to health, and of importance therefore to consider. 
In France, again, much stress is laid upon finding out how large an 
amount of oxygen is dissolved in the water, on the ground that if there 
is much less present than is always found in really pure water, there is 
reason for believing that the deficiency is due to the absorption of 
oxygen by bodies undergoing decay and putrefaction. 

The new method, I am about to propose, depends upon the fact that 
compounds of silver are not decomposed by light, when they are in 
solution in water, unless organic matter is present in the water also. 
If sufficient care is taken to exclude every trace of organic matter, even 
such as might accidentally enter from the dust of a room, silver 
solutions may be kept in the sunlight for years without change. 
Another fact lying at the foundation of this new process is, that stable 
organic bodies, like sugar, starch, gum, etc., have very littie influence, 
while decomposing substances, like excreta of all kinds, throw down 
the silver very rapidly. 

[Here a bottle was shown in which some sewage-water had been 
added to a solution of nitrate of silver, and then exposed to sun- 
light. The whole interior of the bottle was covered with a bright 
mirror of metallic silver. Another bottle was shown containing 
some Croton water drawn at the Christopher St. Ferry last Saturday. 
It was covered at the bottom with a black deposit of metallic silver, 
nearly but not quite so great in amount as a similar sample taken from 
the Passaic River (the water-supply of Newark and Jersey City) a 
week before. | 


1883. 113 FOROS. ING My AIG SEX 


The amount of silver thus thrown down can be readily weighed, and 
the relative amounts of organic matter present in the water thus deter- 
mined. A sample of Brooklyn water, taken Mar. 4th, when the water 
had deteriorated, showed this fact by the large amount of silver which 
it precipitated. And during the month of January, when I was called 
on to Philadelphia to examine their water-supply, at that time very 
offensive to both smell and taste, this method of examination was ex- 
tensively used. 1t showed, among other things, that when sufficient air 
was passed through the Philadelphia water to raise the percentage of 
oxygen to the proper amount, the decomposable organic matter was 
largely destroyed ; and samples thus treated threw down just so much 
less silver, on exposure to sunlight, as there had been organic matter 
destroyed by previous oxidation in contact with air. This elucidated 
the origin of the difficulty with the Philadelphia water. It had not 
been aerated sufficiently to get rid of the decomposable organic matter 
which it contained, and which communicated its offensive taste and 
smell. 


DISCUSSION. 


Mr. A. H. Et.iorr remarked, in reference to the determination 
of free ammonia in water by distillation with sodium-carbonate, that 
albuminoids are decomposed in this way, and that the method 
is fallacious : since, for example, in the case of urea, ammonia is 
given off before potassium-permanganate and caustic potassa are 
added. 

The potassium-permanganate is itself full of ammonia, unless it has 
been previously purified. 

The methods of Wanklyn and Frankland were brought up in vio- 
lent controversy at the meetings of the Chemical Society of London. 
Frankland’s method was found to be too cumbrous, and there was 
nothing to be gained by it, since, like Wanklyn’s, it only afforded 
an index of the organic matter present. The distinction between 
free and albuminoid ammonia was of little value. 

The connection of the healthfulness of waters with their content 
of organic matter was but vaguely established, since, for example, 
that of the Dismal Swamp was dark-colored and teeming with or- 
ganic matter, and yet was not proved unhealthful. Prof. Huxley 
could see only one use in the determination of the organic matter, 
with reference to it as a basis for the development of germs. Prof. 
Kegch had proposed a method of the development of bacteria in 
gelatine-films, which had not yet apparently been sufficiently tested, 


Trans. N. VY. Ac. Scz. 114 Apr. 16, 


He farther inquired whether the solution of tartaric acid, and that 
of milk-sugar with silver nitrate, were not affected by light. 


Dr, ScHoENEy described the precautions to be observed in 
Koch’s method, and inquired whether the living germs in a water 
became recorded by the same results—envelopment in a cloudy 
vesicle—as the merely decomposable organic matter. 


Prof. LeEps replied that he had applied his method to a series of 
polluted drinking waters and many organic substances. 

He had applied Koch’s method, according to the plan 
recently suggested by Dr. Angus Smith, to the Philadelphia water, 
in tall jars, compared with others containing sewage and a hay-in- 
fusion. But, strange to say, no action occurred even in the two 
latter after five days, only a slight turbidity appearing upon the 
surface of the hay-infusion. Eventually. the liquefaction and tur- 
bidity of the gelatine took place in all and the resalts fell to the 
bottom, only microcci and bacteria, not bacilli, being detected in 
the liquid. 

The products of decomposition of the gelatine, that which had 
been transformed and stinking under the action of the microcci 
and bacteria, and in which these organisms were now dead, affected 
the silver salts powerfully ; the gelatine, which had not been trans- 
formed, but was in its original condition, exerted little influence 
upon the silver salts in the presence of light. 


April 16, 1883. 
LECTURE EVENING. 


The President, Dr. J. S. NEWBERRY, in the Chair. 

The large hall was filled by an interested audience, who _lis- 
tened to a lecture, illustrated with diagrams and lantern-slides, by 
Prof. Hamitron L. Smiru of Hobart College, Geneva, N. Y., on 


THE GREAT PYRAMID, AND THEORIES CONCERNING IT. 
(Abstract). 
After a short sketch of the geographical position of the pyramids 
of Lower Egypt, illustrated by charts and maps, and a notice of their 


difference in structure, considered as tombs, from all the other tombs 
injthe neighborhood, and a somewhat extended study of the monu- 


1883. 115 LHS ING AACE SCE: 


ments of the fourth dynasty, followed by a minute account of the Great 
Pyramid, and its peculiarities, and a notice of some of the fanciful 
theories with regard to it, the lecturer proceeded to show that the 
hitherto neglected difference of angle, between the descending and 
ascending entrance passage of the Great Pyramid, was really the key 
to the explanation of the otherwise unexplained fact, that all the pyra- 
mids have the entrance passage on the northern side, and approxi- 
mately pointing toward the pole of the heavens. That these passages 
were intended, or rather that of the Great Pyramid, for some reason, 
to point as near as might be to the then polar star (Alpha Draconis) had 
already been generally admitted, but, in attempting to make this a basis for 
chronology, there isan uncertainty of some 1300 years in the case of the 
Great Pyramid, which has the entrance passage pointing about 3° 42’ 
from the true pole. Twicein the processional movement of the stars, Alpha 
Draconis has been at this distance, once 3400 years B. C. and again 2160 
years B.C. The former era is adopted by Mr. Proctor in his recent book ; 
the latter, or near this, by Prof. Piazzi Smyth. Neither of these authors 
seems to have considered that the difference of angle between descending 
and ascending passages was of any particular significance. Mr Proc- 
tor supposes that observations were made down the ascending passage, 
by reflection, for purposes of orientation. Some five years ago, the 
lecturer had suggested this use, not for purposes of orientation, but as 
indicating, by the change of angle of elevation of the pole star, the in- 
terval elapsed between the date of the commencement of the pyramid, 
and the time of arriving at the altitude of the king’s chamber, and this 
difference, 9 minutes of arc, corresponded to twenty-five years. More- 
over, the angle of the ascending passage being the smaller, indicated 
that Alpha Draconis had already made its nearest approach to the 
pole, and was now receding, thus deciding for the later of the two per- 
iods, z. é., 2160, or thereabouts, for the date of erection of this pyramid. 

The lecturer proceeded to apply this hypothesis to the other pyra- 
mids. The so-called third pyramid on the Jeezeh hill, that of Myce- 
renus, is acknowledged by all to be later than the Great Pyramid, and 
the angle of the descending passage of this pyramid, as given by Vyse 
and Perring, when compared with the angle of that of the Great Pyra- 
mid, as measured by Prof. Smyth, indicates that it was builtsome 80 
years later. 

The angles of the entrance passages of most of the pyramids have 
been very loosely measured, but taking them as they are, and applying 
the same hypothesis, the lecturer obtained the following results : 

1. Great Northern of Dashoor, about ... 

Zu Nomen Of ADGUSEER, ADOUES cir. eins seca sena yoke oer 2260 B. C 

gmvhers Second; of the seezeh: Stroup. sss. «: as cia 21701 Bue: 


TANS NAGASE 116 Afr. 23; 


4. The ‘‘Great” of the Jeezeh group, at elevation of Kgs. ch. 2136 B.C 


5. Lhe Southerniotm@ashoor cic. 5.) atin ae ae tee ake ee 2153 Bac 
6) The Pyramidiot Mycerentts, 3d)Jeezeh. 2"). sapien seine 2090 B. C. 
7. che Stepped Byramid,(oakkarala. 2:6 siecle oi Ge Soyer 2010; BaG: 


The last named had already been attributed by ablest Egyptologists, 
to the 5th dynasty; and inregard-to the third in the list, it had already 
been assigned to Cheops by Bunsen, and the fourth, the “ Great,” to 
his successor Shafre, or Cephren, this being the hieroglyphic name of 
the pyramid of this monarch. It would seem, then, that the so-called 
“first” or ‘Great Pyramid ”’ on the Jeezeh hill, was really the second, 
and it hardly seems probable, if it really was the first, that it 
would have been nearly pushed off the hill, when the whole situation 
was yet clear. The chalk marks, names of Shofo (Cheops) and 
Nu-Shofo, on some of the stones of the Great Pyramid, in places where 
it was never intended they should be seen, are of no value as deter- 
mining that either of these kings built the pyramid; they were merely 
scribblings of the workmen. ‘The lecturer showed that the builders of 
the pyramids had tube-drills and saws, charged probably with beryls, for 
cutting basalt, syenyte and dioryte; and that the testimony of the monu- 
ments, as interpreted by Mariette, Maspero, Brugsch and other scholars, 
contradicted the statements of Herodotus and proved that, so far from 
being a degraded people, tyrannized over by despotic monarchs, they 
were a highly intelligent and happy people, well governed, and witha 
comparatively pure and simple religious belief. 


At the conclusion of the lecture, Dr. B. N. Martin moved a 
vote of thanks to the lecturer, which was carried unanimously. 


April 23, 1883. 


' 


LECTURE EVENING. 


The President, Dr. J.S. NEwBerry, in the Chair. 

The large hall was filled by an audience to listen to the lecture 
of Chevalier Ernst von Hxsse-Warrecc, postponed from March 
19, on the subject of ; 


SOUTHERN EGYPT AND THE COUNTRIES OF THE FALSE PROPHET. 


The lecture was illustrated by a large map and many photo- 
graphs, and at its close a vote of thanks was passed to Chevalier 
von Hesse-WarteEGG for his instructive and pleasantly delivered 
lecture. 


1883. Ia 7¢ Trans, Ni V.Ac. Scz. 


April 30, 1883. 
SECTION OF GEOLOGY. 


The President, Dr. J. S. NEWBERRY, in the Chair. 

Forty persons present. 

Mr. G. F. Kunz exhibited a fragment of the meteoric stone 
which fell at Alfianello, Lombardy, on Feb. 16, 1883, at 3.30 P. 
M.; also cut specimens of Siberian amethyst of wonderful color 
and brilliancy, and Siberian aquamarine, the finest gems of these 
kinds he had ever seen. He also stated that, in a large bag of 
pebbles of jasper, agate and chalcedony, from San Geronimo, Es- 
tado de Oaxaca, Mexico, near the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, he had 
found a worn pebble of blue and yellow corundum, weighing over 
nineteen grammes. The specific gravity is 3.9002, which is low, but 
probably caused by internal fissures, partly occupied by other ma- 
terial. It retains no trace of crystalline form, but the cleavage- 
planes reflect very plainly a pearly lustre. The discovery of this 
mineral in so good a form may imply its possible occurrence in 
‘quantity and perhaps with a gem value. 

Mr. Wixpur exhibited, through Prof. D. S. MarTIN, a specimen 
of our finest and largest moth, Saturnia (Samia) Cecropia, which 
had been hatched out unusually early this spring, probably in 
in some sheltered spot. 

The PRESIDENT stated that the meteorite, of which a fragment 
was exhibited, fell in a clover-field, and attracted such a crowd of 
visitors that the enraged proprietor of the field had it broken up 
and thrown out into the road. A portion of the fragments thence 
obtained was sold soon afterward for about 7000 lire (or francs), in 
which the proprietor of the field had no share. 

A paper was then read by Mr. N. H. Darron, 

ON THE DISINTEGRATED SANDSTONE AT NEW DURHAM N. J. 

(Abstract.) 

In the construction of the road-bed for the New York, West Shore 
and Buffalo Railroad, numerous interesting exposures of the Trias in 
New jersey have been revealed in its cuts, tunnels, etc. At several 
points the contacts of the trap and sandstone have been uncovered. 
One of the most remarkable of these is at the western entrance to the 
tunnel through the Palisades, between Weehawken and New Durham 
where the sandstone is very soft and friable, containing a large amount 
of water, and of nearly pure white or chromiferous green color. On 


Trans. N. Y.Ac. Sez. 118 Apr. 30, 


drying, it falls toa fine powder, most of which will pass through a sieve of 
sixty meshes to the inch. It is composed of a mixture of about equal 
parts of a porous earthy substance and of grains or crystals of quartz. 
These crystals are frequently two or three lines in length; quite pure 
and transparent, and of simple habit; often their edges are rounded 
and show signs of abrasion. Whether they contain fluid—cavities or 
not, has not been determined. In places a few pebbles and sharp frag- 
ments of trap occur, besides a fair representation of all the formations. 
below it, especially of Potsdam sandstone; of granyte no fragments 
characteristic of any particular locality were found. 

The strata thus conditioned lie against the trap, and have a thickness 
of about two hundred feet; overlying them is a hard, light colored 
granular sandstone. Their dip, and that of all the sandstone exposed 
here, is 20° to N. 50° W. The trap stands at an inclination of about 
80°, and at its contact the sandstone shows no marked signs of fusion. 

There are a few other localities in the State where the sandstone is 
similar to this, viz.: about four miles from Trenton, and at two points. 
north of the locality at New Durham. In the reports of the State geo- 
logical survey they have been termed “crumbling sandstones,” and 
described as a mixture of quartz-grains and of a decomposing feldspar. 
Samples were collected at New Durham in such a manner as to fairly 
represent the formation from the contact with the trap, and between 
this and the trap, at several points. The trap was also analyzed, and 
the results are given in the last column of the following table. Anal- 
yses of characteristic unaltered sandstones, made some years ago by 
Dr. P. Schweitzer, are also given for comparison. The alkalies were 
determined by Dr. J. Lawrence Smith’s method, and the remaining 
constituents by fusion with carbonate of soda. Iron was estimated 
volumetrically. 


| Dr.SCHWEITZER. 
| | | 
No. 1 | No. 2 | No. 3 | No. 4 | No. 5 | No. 1 | No. 2) 
| 
1 | wn ‘ } wes WSS 
R I Riles Sas x > ies 8s 
Ss SS PS are (Mee Se es $& 8 
OF | S8s | Sse | Ses] S | 8 | Re ae 
aE tcs meine Vivant aepissribrsa: [loc 
Saar | | 
SiO, eek eese ene se- 70.01 74.41 73-24 75-18 79.10 | 80.53 | 77-70 Ee} 
AlgQgecsescse=-28t 22.92 18.23 15.34 18.01 14.08 | 9.92 11.81 16.14. 
GOR =coeceencie=o= 76 1.03 2.10 1.42 83 | 1.99 | 1.89 14.34 
30 Reese ee 1.21 (ob 1.78 72 1.40 63 43 6.03 
Ming Ogu steel oe oss | 09 Nil Nil. .06 Nil. | trace. | trace Nil. 
Ga. See ease ae | saz eS ie Nil. 23 63 55 6.75 
INET 0) Seetsee eee 2.18 2.70 1.04 2.16 1.12 5.67 | 6.89 2.1L 
KIO reese eae eeniene Nil. | Nil. 04 Nil 09 Nil. | Nil 1.47 
1s IO) Eis See oaa Serene .433 2.46 168!) ill Se t (tienes 
CORT one [tea aNal | NGL) (ah 233 81 Wee Reem nner nee 
Ogee. assesses eee -03 .23 | trace. .07 Nil. Nally | Nal. Nil. 
CuO meres see! Nil. .OL Nil. Nil. | trace. Se eee a 
Lotalsse222 sene= ror.71 | 99.98 | 100.22 99-95 | 100,03 | 100.51 | 100.09 100.40 


1883, 119 UtOUS. AN V3 AC, S6t. 


SOLUBLE IN HypROCHLORIC ACID. 


SHOWS: bape eee 24 71 .48 21 .87 30 | 42 
AO sase oe eee 16 .08 74 Bal -40 12 36 
Fe,O3 74 1.06 2 04 1.48 87 2.01 1.87 
MgO_. 1.21 go 1.82 79 1.46 31 43 
CaO -. 03 = esaq | Sese +25 33 37 
Na,O - 17 29 .06 24 14 37) We to2 
SOs etches seco seee i 06 34 .02 10 .07 .00 Nil. 
Solublesss == | 2.61 3.38 5.16 2.84 4.06 3-44 3-47 
Insoluble --_----) 92.92 94.16 88.16 94.83 92.76 95-42 On7n) || 
Water and CO,-) 4.47 2.46 6.68 2.33 3-18 1.14 .82 
Motalso2---2ncc2 | 100.90 | 100.00 | 100.00 | 100.00 | 100.00 | 100.00 | 100.00 


The analyses show a nearly uniform composition for the entire thick- 
ness, and the only marked difference from the unaltered sandstone is in 
the soda. Whether this is the remains of a triclinic feldspar or not, I 
do not feel confident to claim, as the granytic areas, forming the basin 
in which the Triassic beds of the Eastern States lie, and from which we 
have supposed them to be derived, are not albitic in character, except 
in some very localinstances. However, in a formation of this character, 
the content of soda is generally attributed to albite, of wnich, from the 
analysis, it would seem that there is from fifteen to twenty per cent. 
present in the disintegrated sandstone, and about fifty per cent. in the 
unaltered. These are very appreciable proportions and quite constant 
throughout the Triassic stratum. By our latest calculations the thickness 
of this seems to reach at least twenty-five thousand feet, on the western 
side of the uplifted granytic area, which separates the Triassic deposits 
represented in New England and in the South Central States. 


_ DISCUSSION. 


The PRESIDENT stated that the rock in question was called arkose, 
but often so rich in feldspar as to be a true feldspathic sandstone. 

A MEMBER remarked that an outcrop of the same rock, in en- 
tirely unaltered condition, occurred all along the eastern foot of the 
Palisade range, from Jersey City to Weehawken. The absence of 
albite might possibly have been derived from the degradation of some 
albitic granyte on the shore of the Triassic sea, though he was not 
aware of the occurrence of such a rock in the Laurentian of 
Northern New Jersey; more probably it had been caused by the 
entire decomposition of the ferruginous orthoclase in the granyte 
derived from that region, with the corresponding concentration of 
the associated soda-feldspars. 

Mr. Darron referred to the existence of albitic granytes near 
the borders of the Triassic basin in Virginia, etc. 


LP QHS UNG Ve PAG SCE 120 Afr. 30, 

Prof. D. S. MarTIN observed that on the east side of the Pali- 
sade range, back of Hoboken, an exceedingly beautiful arkose was 
formerly seen at a locality, since largely destroyed, known as Fox 
Hill, but the feldspar in it was to all appearance orthoclase. In 
the rocks of New York island, the orthoclase has sometimes passed 
completely into kaolin, leaving the other feldspars unchanged. It 
is possible that a stratum of these rocks may once have formed 
the eastern shore of the Triassic basin, and their debris must have 
been rich in orthoclase. He had long ago adopted the view, since 
fully detailed in a paper by Mr. I. C. Russell, in our Annals, of the 
former union of the two Triassic sheets of New Jersey and the Con- 
necticut valley, afterward separated by the elevation of the central 
ridge passing at present through New York island. A part of the 
Triassic deposits in our vicinity may have been then derived from 
the old eastern border of the original basin, in Connecticut, where 
albitic granytes occur. 

The PRESIDENT referred to the confusion which had once existed 
in the views entertained regarding the sandstones and traps, the 
latter having been considered by some merely as the results of a 
metamorphic action along certain layers of the Triassic sediments. 
At that time he had initiated an investigation, which had been car- 
ried on to a satisfactory result by Dr. P. ScHweITzEr, demonstrating 
the complete difference of the sandstone and trap, and the true in- 
trusive character of the latter. 


A paper was then read by Dr. ALexts A. JULIEN, 


ON THE DECAY OF BUILDING STONE, PART II, 


with illustrations from the old cemeteries of New Utrecht, Flat- 
bush, etc. 
(Abstract). 

The present and increasing magnitude of building operations in this 
city and vicinity must serve as an apology for bringing the subject of 
the decay of stone a second time before the Academy this season. 
The various suburbs and vacant districts have been gradually ap- 
proaching a character sufficiently settled to justify the erection of entire 
and numerous blocks of private residences, huge buildings for business 
offices in the lower part of the city and for family flats in the central 
and upper wards, besides large numbers of public edifices, storage 
houses, manufactories, etc. The failure of stone to resist fire in the 
business district, and the offensive results of discoloration or serious 


1883. 191 Lrans, No ViaAG. SGz. 


exfoliation, which the poor durability of many varieties of. stone has 
rendered manifest in all parts of the city, have already largely dimin- 
ished its proportionate use, in reference to brick. Nevertheless great 
quantities of stone of many kinds are yet introduced, as ashlar or the 
trimmings of apertures, into the buildings now in progress, and will 
soon be further employed, if the present activity in building be con- 
tinued, not only in the private enterprises already mentioned, but others 
of more lasting and public importance; e,g., the projected improve- 
ments and additions in connection with our water supply, as aqueducts 
and reservoirs; the new bridges proposed over our rivers ; the replace- 
ment of our rotting wooden docks by more permanent structures; and 
perhaps, we may hope, the huge pedestal to support the Statue of 
Liberty on an island in our harbor. As the kinds of building-stone 
brought to this market for these purposes are increasing in number 
and variety, and their selection and mode of use, as it seems to me, are 
irregular and indiscriminate, whether from the ignorance or the care- 
lessness likely to prevail in a busy money-getting community, it would 
appear proper that a voice of warning should now be heard, from a 
member of the Academy of Sciences, calling attention to the dangers 
involved in the use of bad stone or the bad use of good stone; in the 
enormous waste and expense soon required for repairs in our severe 
climate ; or, in the consequent disuse of stone in favor of brick, by a | 
natural reaction, to the injury of the beauty and comfort of our city. 

There are three classes in the community to which such a warning 
is addressed : 


1. A considerable number of house-owners, to whom it seems to 
come too late, since they have already expended tens of thousands of 
dollars in temporary repairs, patching and painting decayed stone, and 
many of whom have doubtless made rash vows to use hereafter, in 
construction, brick, iron, terracotta, wood—anything but stone. 


2. House-owners, not yet aware of the coming dilapidation, and who 
can yet take precautions to delay or prevent its arrival—or others 
about to build, and who have implicit faith in the eternity of building- 
s‘one, since it comes from the “everlasting rock,” or at least in a dura- 
tion which will last their lifetimes—and, also a certain proportion of 
builders and architects willing to learn, and who have much to learn, 
since the practical scientific study of building-stones is yet to be made. 

3. And lastly, the architects, builders and contractors, who know all 
about the subject, or who do not care what happens to the houses they 
build—and that large part of our population who never expect to 
own any houses. To all these the decay of the stone in this city 
is a matter of indifference, and the quotation recently presented 


Trans. N. VY. Ac. Scz. 122 Apr. 30, 


from an encyclopedia of architecture, “‘no modern building will stand a 
thousand years” —few of them, indeed, over a century or two, in fair con- 
dition —is only a matter of jest. 

The following additional facts, observed in reference to the decay of 
stone in this city, have been gathered partly by observation in our streets, 
and partly by a study of the tomb-stones in the old cemeteries at New 
Utrecht and Flatbush, on the southern and northeastern outskirts of the 
city of Brooklyn, L. I., and in that of St. Paul’s Church, at the corner of 
Broadway and Fulton street, in this city. In my last paper I presented 
observations on the stones in the churchyard of Trinity Church, built in 
1841-6 (the first building having been erected on that site in 1696). 
St. Paul’s Chapel was erected 1766, and, although this structure is 
older than that of Trinity, its cemetery is much more recent in its 
origin. 

BROWN SANDSTONE. 

In addition to the varieties already described, there is one quite re- 
cently introduced into this city from Hammelstown, Penn., in a building 
on Fifth avenue above 41st street. It has been largely used in Phila- 
delphia, and is said to resist the weather very well. 

The causes of the general decay of brown-stone may be definitely 
connected with some of the agencies which were detailed in my 
former paper. 

Erection on edge of lamtnation.—Instances are very rare in this 
city where the stone has been laid “on its bed,” with a deliberate re- 
gard to its durability : e..¢., a few houses on Fifth avenue above 51st 
street, the new wings of the Astor library, etc. On the other hand, 
from mere convenience in construction, many buildings, especially of 
our older churches, are fortunately so constructed, the blocks having 
been small and square and conveniently so laid. In some instances, 
(e.g., the church on the southeast corner of 35th ‘street and Fifth 
avenue), blocks occur in both positions and in both are affected by in- 
cipient decay ; in others (e. ¢., the church on southwest corner of 2Ist 
street and Fifth avenue), the blocks, although all on bed, are often 
deeply decayed. In the old City Hall, erected in 1812, the north face, 
although on the side usually least affected by decay, presents the 
brownstone of its ashlar set on edge and exfoliating in entire sheets, 
often traversed by fissures across the lamination, parallel to the joints. 
Notwithstanding these warnings, most of our newest edifices exhibit 
the same faulty construction : é. g., the sandstone (from Massachusetts) 
n the trinmings and even partly in the pillars of the Union League 
Club on Fifth avenue, the fine new residences in the upper part of 
Madison avenue, the trimmings, etc., in the huge new buildings for 
“flats” and business offices throughout the city, often nine to eleven 


1883. 123 LPGRWSHINAVAEAGH SCH 


or more stories in height, in whose walls the crushing force exerted 
upon this soft stone must be excessive. 


Sea-salt in the atmosphere A comparison of the forms of decay of 
‘stone observed in the cemeteries within this city and in those nearer the 
ocean, é,g., at New Utrecht, yielded no evidence of any results, attribut- 
able to this agency, in greater action at the latter locality. Thus, too, in 
England, the sandstone of Sandysfoot Castle, near Weymouth, which 
has been washed by salt spray since the time of Henry VIII., remains 
as perfect as ever. 

Heat of the sun.— There can be no doubt that this is one of the agen- 
‘cies which most severely attack our brown-stone. On _ the cross 
streets, the west sides of stoops become decayed and ragged, long 
before the eastern; so also the southern before the northern sides, 
on our north and south avenues. The ashlar at the base of 
the steeple of the church at 37th street and Fifth avenue is 
beginning to decay on the south side, but not on the north or east 
sides (the west side not being visible). The slender balusters of the 
balustrades of balconies and along the sides of stoops are commonly 
constructed of soft sandstone, with the lamination vertical and its plane 
set irregularly, either parallel or at right angles to that of the house 
front; the ill-judged exposure of the soft stone in such a way has led 
to the common mutilation of the carved work by exfoliation on the 
side exposed to the sun, z. ¢., on the west side of the stoop-balustrades 
in the cross streets, and on the south side along the avenues. 


Lichens.— It has been stated that these abound upon the brown-stone 
within the city, but, though found upon trees, I have never discovered 
them encrusting hewn stone within the city. Thus they never occur 
in the churchyards of Trinity church and St. Paul’s chapel, though 
found abundantly in those of New Utrecht and Flatbush; e. g., three 
species were distinguished upon a single tombstone (Rutgert Denyse, 
1795) at New Utrecht. On their removal, the surface of the stone 
beneath is not found corroded, but only retains a fresh color. 


Imperfect pointing. —The admitted energetic agencies of decay— 
frost, solution, hydration, etc.—have been largely favored by the im- 
perfect and hasty construction of the masonry throughout the city, its 
joints when new often admitting a trowel. A cement-mortar of 
poor quality is largely employed and, soon dropping out, the joints are 
often allowed to remain open for years. The atmospheric attack is 
thus made, as it were in flank, directly through the exposed edges of 
the outer laminz of the stone, and the decay rapidly affects the stone 
to a considerable depth, several inches in many cases, and even through- 
out the entire block, although the exfoliation may appear superficial. 


LY AUS MIN GNA CAS CZe 194 Apr. 30, 


Cemetery at New Utrecht.—Two varieties of sandstone were found 
commonly employed here, the stones standing vertically and facing 
the east. 


I. Fine-grained and compact, warm red to reddish brown in color,. 
apparently derived from Little Falls, N. J. The stones dated from 
1830 back to 1785, and are in excellent condition, especially in propor- 
tion to compactness and fineness of grain (e.g.,C. Van P., 1796). 


2. Red, often fine-grained, and generally laminated, the laminz 
being one-eighth to one-half inch in thickness, with alternations of 
reddish shades of color. The stones date from 1854 back to 1820, 
and have weathered very poorly, splitting first near the west face of 
the stone and finally throughout, often with fissures cutting the 
stone across the lamination and parallel to the edges (¢. g., W. B., 
1826). 

A light gray graywacke also occurs (S. B., 1852), but is thinly 
laminated and split in fine cracks throughout. 


Cemetery at Flathush.—The same varieties are here employed and 
the stones stand in the same position. Those of the compact va- 
riety date from 1800 back to 1754, and are in excellent condition 
(é. g., Marrytie D., 1797.) Tnose of the laminated structure date 
from 1826 back to 1754 and are generally in wretched condition 
(e. g., Adriantie L., 1761), especially on and near the top and edge 
and the west face. Sometimes, however, the lamination has not 
allowed any decay (e. g., Geljam C., 1754). In both cemeteries, 
however, the decay at its worst has split up the stone, but has lit- 
tle affected the sharpness of inscriptions, 


St. Paul’s Churchyard.-—One variety of fine-grained sandstone 
predominates, dating from 1813 back to 1768. The finest-grained 
and most compact are often in perfect condition (J. J., 1768), but 
many coarser or more laminated stones, and sometimes fine and 
compact stones, are very badly split, and show exfoliation near the 
ground (A. Van B., 1813)—sometimes with fissures across the stone 
(J. A., 1813). The splitting begins, as usual, near the west face 
and near the edges. 


LIGHT-COLORED SANDSTONES. 


Nova Scotia Sandstone.—In regard to this name, I have indicated 
already, but it is fair to explain more fully here, that it originated many 
years ago, when grindstone-dealers obtained their supplies from some 
small surface-quarries located in and near Nova Scotia. As that stone 
was of a yellow color, the stone-trade has persisted ever since in calling 
every light-colored stone coming from anywhere in that section, ‘‘ Nova 

a 


1883. 125 LG OHS a NEVA Gy SCL 


Scotia stone.’’ However, 95 per cent. of the imported stone is derived 
from New Brunswick (probably 85 per cent. from Dorchester, N. B.), 
and the remainder from Nova Scotia and other points. The popular 
name has been applied to light-colored stones of every quality, quarried 
at various points of Eastern Canada, over a wide section of country, hun- 
dreds of square miles in extent, and variously worked out at tide-level, 
under tide-water from exposed reefs running out into the sea, or, as at 
Dorchester, N. B., from a hillside goo feet high and a quarter of a mile 
from tide-water. The small quarries usually work out only such stones 
as they can obtain from outcropping ledges and boulders, and these 
are apt to be of bad and varying color, more or less full of iron and 
other defects; for example, the surface-quarries of Hillsboro, N. B., 
long since abandoned, used in the houses in 42nd street near Madison 
avenue, in Second avenue near 55th street, some of the bridges in Cen- 
tral Park, etc. At the quarries of Dorchester, N. B., it is stated that 
from 35 to 50 feet of inferior rock and debris are first stripped off to 
reach the sound rock which is sent to this market. The introduction of 
this stone into the city as a building material has been too recent to 
allow any measure of its durability. A little exfoliation may be how- 
ever distinguished near the ground-line, and on the sides and posts of 
stoops, in many cases. Also, in panels, under heavy projecting mould- 
ings, cornices, etc., where the sun has nochance tor each and dry up the 
dampness, the stone moulders away slightly over the surface. In the 
cemeteries it is rarely or never used ; in one example, possibly of this 
material, in St. Paul’s churchyard (W. J. M., 1841), the decay is plainly 
beginning around the carvings. The discoloration of good varieties of 
the stone would be very slow to affect vertical surfaces, properly pro- 
tected by drips; but on sloping, horizontal, or shaded surfaces, espe- 
cially near the street-level, street-dust is sure to lodge and cling, all the 
more after the surface becomes roughened by a slight disintegration > 
while the rough usage to which the stone of balustrades and stoops is 
always subjected in a busy street, renders this, as well as all other soft 
varieties of freestone, liable to chipping as well as offensive discoloration 
(é. g., in the courses, trimmings, and posts of the church on the 
corner of 42d street and Madison avenue, etc.) and unsuitable for 
use near the ground-line. 


Ohio Sandstone—-The buff variety from Amherst is said to contain 
“97 percent of pure sand.” Buildings constructed of this material 
in this city since 1857 (e. g., on the corner of Barclay street and 
Broadway, on the corner of Howard and Crosby streets, etc.), 
show no decay, but only discoloration. In other instances (e. 2., 
rows of houses on 50th street,west of Fifth avenue, on Madison avenue 


U7 ANS ING AGS See 126 Apr. 30. 


between 34th and 43d streets, etc.) the blackened discoloration and 
frequent chipping of edges of the soft stone are quite offensive. On the 
other hand, it must be admitted that a stone which cleans itself, by the 
disintegration of its surface, the grains dropping out and so carrying 
away the dirt, as in the poorer and softer varieties of brown-stone or of 
Nova Scotia stone, is by that very action still more objectionable from 
its want of durability ; and the discoloration of the Ohio stone is offset, 
at least in part, in the best varieties, by their hardness and promise of 
durability. 


Medina sandstone.—This material is of recent introduction (e. g¢., 
Baptist church on 57th street, west of 6th avenue), and its true dura- 
bility cannot yet be estimated. 


Bluestone (graywacke).—This stone is yearly coming into more gen- 
eral use, and, though somewhat sombre in tone and difficult to dress, 
seems likely to prove a material of remarkable durability. In one 
building in 24th street, between Madison and Fourth avenues, its con- 
dition appears to be excellent, after fifteen years exposure, perfectly 
retaining the tool-marks. The variety reported to come from the Wyo- 
ming valley (e. g., in the building on the north side of Union Square) 
is really derived, as I am informed by Prof. H. L. Fairchild, from 
Meshoppen, Penn. 


In this connection, we may refer to the experiments made by Dr. 
Hiram A. Cutting, of Vermont, on a series of American sandstones, in 
regard to specific gravity, weight, absorptive power, and resistance to 
fire. The results on varieties like those used in New York City are 
quoted in the following table (7he Weekly Underwriter, 1880, Vol. 
XXII., p. 288) : 


‘spunod SS1 ayvunrxoidde 03 pres st yoryM ‘yySI9M on17 94} 93¥ISIOpuN SoinSy ISoy} JY} Poswreo st 4] y 


joaqan?) ‘stoureyneag, so oceeeesce=-9U0ISpuUES WeEpsjog 


| 


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**9uo}|spuvg snolajiuoqies 


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22 DODO OOLOMATRORE SEI, 


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Dales ail eeu art ‘ le+1S S€1 
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1883, 


Ke ‘'N ‘Ayunog J9}s[Q)|° Ce ad “= "9001S aSOIUOI 


"+ pueSuq jo yWJION SPD SATO RIOR ADS TOMO OCT on Satta) 


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“A417 0I07T | ‘AWVYN TVI0T, 


Trans: N.Y. Ac. Sez: 128 Apr. 30, 


LIMESTONE. 


The coarse fossiliferous stone from Lockport owes its rapid disinte- 
gration within ten years, wherever used in this city, in part to its care- 
less arrangement in masonry. Thus, in the building of the Lenox 
Library, at 7oth street and Fifth avenue, about 40 per cent of the 
material is set on edge, é. g., the alternate receding courses of the ash- 
lar, trimmings of apertures, gate-posts, etc.; so also, in part, in the 
stone used in the Presbyterian Hospital. The oolitic stone from Ellits- 
ville, Indiana, shows an almost immediate and irregular discoloration, 
said to be produced by the exudation of oil. The oolite from Caen, 
France, has also been used in many buildings, and, unless protected 
by a coating of paint, has shown decay in several instances. Mr. G. 
Godwin, of London, has stated (Soc. of Arts, 1881,) that ‘the 
Caen stone which was sent to this country (England) could not now 
be depended on and ought not to be used for external work.” The 
extensive decay of this, with other oolitic and magnesian limestones, in 
the walls of Westminster Abbey, has recently caused great alarm and 
will necessitate the renewal of its outer masonry at enormous expense. 

One of the most thorough investigations, in regard to the porosity of 
a series of American building-stones, was made by Dr. T. 8. Hunt in 
1864, and with the foliowing conclusion (Chem. and Geol. Essays, p+ 
164) : 

“Other things being equal, it may probably be said that the value of 
a stone for building purposes is inversely as its porosity or absorbing 
power.” From the results given on 39 specimens, the following may 
be here quoted as pertinent to stones used in New York City: 


No. of Specimens. Absorption Percentage. 
1. Potsdam sandstone, hard and white. 0.50— 3.96 (usually about 1) 
2. Medina sandstone........ ete & 3.3I— 4.04 
37 Ohiotsandstone josie... 14 laser np wear 9.59—10.22 
8.1 Cach dimestoner.) bien caece eae 14.48—16.05 


Of course the proviso, “‘ other things being equal,” covers a great 
deal of important ground, including the solvency of the material of a 
stone in the acidified rain-waters of a city. Some of the most im- 
pervious and non-absorbent readily decompose; while others, which 
are porous or even cellular, may afford an excellent resistance to 
decay. But judged in regard to both points, porosity and solvency, 
the Caen stone may be safely rejected hereafter as unfit for our 
climate. 

MARBLE. 

The dolomitic marble of Westchester County has been largely em- 
ployed in our buildings, and some idea of its character for durability 
may now be gained. A fine-grained variety was used in the building 


1883. 129 Trans. N. Y. Ac. Sez. 


of the U. S. Assay Office in Wall street ; its surface is now much dis- 
colored, and the edges of many of the blocks show cracks. A variety 
of medium texture was employed in the hotel at the corner of Fulton 
and Pearl streets, erected in 1823 ; the surface is decomposed, after the 
exposure of exactly sixty years, with a gray exterior, ina crust % to 
¥ inch in thickness, soft and orange-colored in section. Many crys- 
tals have fallen out of tne surface on the weathered eastern face, pro- 
ducing a pitted appearance. A very coarse variety has been used in 
the Bank-building at Thirty-second street and Broadway, in large part 
being set on edge ; very many of the blocks are more or less cracked, 
even in the highest story. In the U. S. Treasury building, in Wall 
street, a rather coarse dolomyte-marble, rich in tremolite and phlog- 
opite, was used, the blocks being laid on bed in the plinth and most of 
the ashlar, but largely on edge in the pillars, pilasters, etc.; in the lat- 
ter case vertical fissures commonly mark the decay, but even else- 
where a deep pitting has been produced by the weathering out of the 
tremolite. The marble used in many other prominent buildings has 
been improperly laid, ¢. g., in both of the buildings of the City Hall, the 
Drexel building at the corner of Broad and Wall streets, the Academy 
of Design at 23d street and Fourth avenue, etc. 


Cemetery at New Utrecht.—Here a very fine white marble is used 
in many stones, perhaps that of Carrara—a few stones dating about or 
a little before 1800. These are in excellent condition, but on the 
east face are much roughened. 

Another variety is a tremolitic dolomyte-marble, white, fine to coarse 
in texture, probably from Westchester County. It is in fair to good 
condition, but the weathered tops, sides, and east faces of the stones are 
in a pulverulent state. Sometimes the west face is the one rough- 
ened, and the stone is split near it. 

Stones of a white veined marble, probably from Vermont, date from 
1853 back to 1828. They are in good condition, but the east face is 
pulverulent. 

A blue marble (C. Groenendyke, 1797) and a black and white marble 
(N. G., 1795) are in excellent condition, but the eastern faces of the 
stones are decidedly roughened, the inscriptions remaining sharp and 
distinct. 


Flatbush Cemetery.—Marble here predominates in two varieties. 
The stones of a fine white marble (Italian), date from 1859 back to 
1809. They are generally in good to excellent condition, but their 
surfaces are more or less roughened, becoming pulverulent when dat- 
ing from 1836. That of 1809 (N. R. C.), a horizontal tablet, is black- 
ened by a minute lichen, /epra antiquztatzs (also J. V., 1800). 


Trans. N. VY. Ac. S¢z. 130 Apr. 3°, 


The stones of a coarse tremolitic dolomyte-marble date from 1847 
back to 1818. They weather grayish and become much roughened 
over the east face, top and sides, and sometimes over a third of the sur- 
face down the west face. Fissures in the edges of the stone begin 
after about 30'years exposure. The polish has survived for about 40 
years on the faces of some stones of this class, even when the edges 
are disintegrated. Near the ground for a foot the polish remains even 
much longer, ¢..z., the double stone of Femetie and Peter Stryker 


(1730). 


St. Paul's Churchyard.—The stones here date from 1851 back to 
1798, and consist of a coarse white marble. It weathers grayish white, 
and becomes roughened. Only a small proportion of the stones are 
split. About one-tenth have their inscriptions entirely obliterated, and 
this fact, due doubtless to the acid rain-waters of the city, was not ob- 
served in the suburban cemeteries; in one case (A. W., 1851) it has 
been largely affected in a little over 30 years. 


The horizontal tablets, supported on masonry, which has partially 
settled (¢..¢., J. G., 1821), generally show a slight curvature in centre, 
only in part possibly produced through solution by standing rain- 
water. 

Dolomieu first made the observation on an Italian marble called 
Betullio, that it possessed a degree of flexibility alhed to that of the 
itacolumyte of Brazil. Gwilt states (Encyc. of Arch., p. 1274): 


“Some extremely fine specimens of white marble are to be seen in 
the Borghese Palace at Rome, which, on being suspended by the centre 
on a hard body, bend very considerably. It is found that statuary 
marble exposed to the sun acquires, in time, this property, thus indi- 
cating a less degree of adhesion of its parts than it naturally pos- 
sessed.” 


In the white marble-veneering of the facade of St. Marks, Venice, the 
same effect has been observed by Mr. C. M. Burns, Jr., in the lower 
half of a slab of veined marble, two inches thick, on the south side of 
the northernmost of the five portals, just behind the columnsand about 
five feet from the pavement. The slab is eleven feet and two inches 
long, and one foot and six inches wide; it is hung to the backing by 
copper hooks driven into the brickwork, but the lower part, for a dis- 
tance of five feet and seven inches, bulges out two and three-quarter 
inches from the backing. ‘The exposure is directly westward, and I 
found that it became decidedly warm: in the afternoon sun, while the 
backing would be likely to keep its temperature lower. Though the 
outer surface is somewhat weatherworn, I could not find the slightest 


1883. 131 Trans, NN. VY. Ac. Scz- 


tendency to fracture in any part.” (Zhe Am. Arch. and Build. News, 
1882, p. 118). 

Also at the palace of the Alhambra, in Grenada, Spain, one of the 
two doors that have been christened ‘“ La Mezquita,”’ exhibits an ancient 
facing of three slabs of marble, the upper resting as a lintel upon the 
two others, which form uprights, eleven feet in height, nine inches in 
width, and only two and one-half inches in thickness. At eighteen and 
one-half inches from the top of the door, the slab on the right begins 
to curve and to detach itself from the wall, attaining the distance of 
three inches at about three feet from the bottom. From a subsidence 
of the material of the wall, an enormous thrust has been exerted upon 
the right, and the marble, instead of breaking or of rupturing its casings. 
has simply bent and curved as if it were wood. (La Nature, 1882.) 

I have also been informed at Sutherland Falls and other quarries 
near Rutland, Vermont, that the bending of thin slabs of marble, 
exposed to the sunshine in the open air and accidentally supported only 
at the ends, has been there repeatedly observed. 

Fleurian de Bellevue discovered a dolomyte possessed of the same 
property in the Val-Levantine, of Mt. St. Gothard. Dolomieu attri- 
buted the property to ‘“‘a state of desiccation which has lessened the 
adherence of the molecules of the stone,’ and this was supposed to be 
confirmed by experiments of De Bellevue, who, on heating inflexible 
varieties of marble, found that they became flexible. 

This change, however, cannot be connected with the remarkably 
small content of water existing in marbles, but with a peculiarity of 
their texture, which has been briefly discussed by Archibald Geikie 
(Proc. Roy. Soc. Edinb., 1880), in an interesting investigation on the 
decay of the stones used in Scotch cemeteries. He has pointed out 
that the irregular and closely contiguous grains of calcite, which make 
up a white marble, are united by no cement, and have apparently a 
very feeble coherence. 

It appears to me probable also that their contiguous crystallization 
has left them in a state of tension, on account of which the least force 
applied, through pressure from without or of the unsupported weight 
of the stone, or from internal expansion by heat or frost, produces a 
separation of the interstitial planes in minute rifts. Sucha condition 
permits a play of the grains upon each other and considerable motion, 
as illustrated in the commonly observed sharp foldings of strata of 
granular limestones, without fractures or faults. In such cases, also, 
I have observed that the, mutual attrition of the grains has been 
sometimes sufficient to convert their angular, often rhomboidal, orig- 
inal contours into circular outlines, the interstices between the rounded 
grains being evidently filled up by much smaller fragments and rubbed- 


PERS IN SE AG, SE 132 ; Afr. 39, 


off particles ; e. g., in the white marble of the anticlinal axis at Suther- 
land Falls, Vt. 

These results are confirmed by the appearances, familiar to all lithol- 
ogists, in the study of thin sections of marble, the latent interstices 
between the grains of calcite having been often developed by the insin- 
uation of films and veinlets of iron-oxide, manganese-oxide, etc. While 
a polished slab of marble, fresh from the stone-yard, may not be par- 
ticularly sensitive to stains; after it has been erected and used as a 
mantelpiece over a fire-place, its increased absorbence for ink, fruit- 
juices, etc., becomes strongly marked. On this property are founded 
the processes, always preceded by heat, for the artificial coloring of 
marbles. 

In the decay of the marble, largely Italian, in the atmosphere of 
Edinburgh, Geikie has recognized three phases: 

1. Loss of polish, superficial solution, and production of a rough, 
loosely granular surface. This is effected, Geikie states, by ‘‘ exposure 
for not more than a year or two to our prevalent westerly rains.’ The 
solution of the surface may sometimes reach the depth of about a 
quarter of an inch, and the inscriptions may become almost illegible 
in sixteen years. 

In our own dry climate, however, these results do not appear. The 
polish often survives ten years in our city cemeteries, and even for 
over half a century near the ground, in the suburban cemeteries; in 
one instance, at Flatbush, it has remained intact for over 150 years, on 
the tombstone of F. and P. Stryker, dated 1730. Inscriptions are 
decipherable in St. Paul’s churchyard back to the date of 1798, but 
about one-tenth are illegible or obliterated ; the latter effect was never 
seen in a single instance on the suburban stones, and is evidently due to 
the acid vapors in the rain-waters of the city. 

2. Incrustation of the marble with a begrimed blackish film, some- 
times a millimeter in thickness, consisting of town-dust, cemented by 
calcium sulphate, and thorough internal disintegration of the stone, 
sufficient, after a century, to cause it to crumble into powder by very 
slight pressure. 

Neither the crust nor any deep disintegration has been observed 
in the oldest marble-tombstones in the cemeteries of New York; 
their absence is plainly attributable to the inferior humidity of 
our atmosphere and the absence of smoke from soft coals. 

3. Curvature and fracture, observed in slabs of marble, firmly in- 
serted into a solid framework of sandstone. , This process consists in the 
bulging out of the marble, accompanied with a series of fractures, and 
has been accomplished by expansion due to frost. Tombstones are 
never constructed in this way, in our cemeteries ; but the curvature of 


1883. 133 Deans Ne MecACa S62: 


horiz .ntal slabs, observed in St. Paul’s churchyard, produced by the sag- 
ging of the supporting masonry beneath the centre of the slab, is sim- 
ply indicative of the flexibility of the material. 

Geikie states : “ The results of my observations among our burial- 
grounds show that, save in exceptionally sheltered situations, slabs ot 
marble, exposed to the weather in such a climate and atmosphere as 
that of Edinburgh, are entirely destroyed in less than a century. 
Where this destruction takes place by simple comparatively rapid 
superficial solution and removal of the stone, the rate of lowering of the 
surface amounts sometimes to about a third of an inch (or roughly 9 
millimetres) in a century. Where it is effected by internal displace- 
ment, a curvature of 212 inches, with abundant rents, a partial efface- 
ment of the inscription, and a reduction of the marble to a pulver- 
ulent condition, may be produced in about forty years, and a total dis- 
ruption and effacement of the stone within one hundred. It is evident 
that white marble is here utterly unsuited for out-of-door use.” My 
own conclusions, from observations in New York, is that, in the ceme- 
teries within the city, the polish on vertical slabs is usually destroyed in 
about ten years; that the inscriptions are only in small part effaced within 
thirty to fifty years, and are for the most part perfectly legible on the 
oldest tombstones, dating 1798; and that, although the reduction of 
the surface to a loose granular condition may reach the depth of ten 
millimetres, the actual lowering of the surface seldom exceeds five 
or six millimetres, the internal disintegration is never sufficient to 
affect sensibly the strength of the stone during the periods of exposure 
which have been noted, and a slight flexure, sometimes to the amount 
of twelve or fifteen millimetres, sometimes affects the centre of horizon- 
tal slabs, two metres in length. 

In the cemeteries without the city, the polish may often survive 
near the ground, on the faces of vertical slabs, for over one hundred 
and fifty years ; the granulation of the surface rarely exceeds a depth of 
three or four millimetres; and all the inscriptions remain perfect on 
the oldest vertical tombstones, suffering partial effacement only on 
horizontal slabs. 

Although these facts show the far greater durability of marble in 
our dry and pure atmosphere, the frequent obliteration of inscriptions, 
the general, and often rapid, granulation of the surface, and the occa- 
sional fissuring of slabs, show that the decay of marble—in the varieties 
hitherto long used in New York City—is steady, inevitable, and but a 
question of time; and with Geikie, I, too, am convinced that, if un- 
protected, such materials are utterly unsuited for out-of-door use, at 
least for decorative purposes or cemetery-records, within the atmo- 
sphere of a city. 


Trans. NN. V. Ac. Sc. 134 Apr. 30, 


GRANYTE. 


The bluish variety from Quincy, Mass., has been used in many build- 
ings and rarely shows as yet many signs of decay. In the U.S. Custom 
House on Wall street, most of the huge blocks appear laid “on bed,”’ 
but, nevertheless, show some pitting in places, by the attack and par- 
tial removal of the larger grains of hornblende. In the church at 
Fourth street and Lafayette Place, erected in 1830, a little exfoliation 
has been produced by street-dust on the faces of some steps. In the 
Astor House, at Barclay street and Broadway, no decay was observed. 

In the fine-grained granyte from Concord, N. H., employed in the 
building on the southeast corner of Twenty-third street and Sixth 
avenue, many of the blocks are set on edge, but the only change yet 
seen is that of discoloration by street-dust and iron-oxide from the 
Elevated Railway. 


The light-colored and fine-grained granyte of Hallowell, Me., has 
been used for the construction of the City Prison, the Halls of Justice 
or ‘‘ Tombs,” in Centre street. This stone consists of a white feldspar, 
which predominates, a greyish-white quartz, which is abundant, and a 
considerable quantity of a silvery white mica, thoroughly intermixed. 
The rock possesses several properties—fineness of grain, homogene- 
ity of structure, and freedom from iron, as shown by the color of the 
feldspar—likely to render it durable; the only unfavorable conditions 
are the predominance of feldspar and the laminated structure. The 
rock is a granitoid gneiss, with lamination often clearly marked ; these 
markings at once show to the eye that most of the blocks are set, not 
on bed, but irregularly on edge. 


The building is square and occupies an entire block. On a 
study of the weathering, the south face was found to present an 
exfoliation to the depth of one-eighth to one-fourth of an inch at many 
points, up to the very summit of the building, particularly on the sides 
of the pillars at the southeast entrance, on the ashlar near the south- 
west gate, under and over the cornice and string pieces. In some 
places the stone was loosened or peeled off in sheets of the area of a 
square foot. The west front presents much exfoliation all over the sur- 
face, though always thin; it seems to begin chiefly along and near the 
joints. In places, fragments have separated from the corners of the 
blocks. The north front exhibits very little exfoliation ; so also the east 
front, in a few small scattered spots. 


The exfoliation appears to be the result directly of the sun’s heat, ex- 
erted most intensely on the southern and western sides of the building. 
An examination of the disintegrated material shows but little decom- 
position ; a little kaolin may be distinguished in films, but the bulk of 


1883. 135 ELAUSS IN VePAGa SCZ. 


the feldspar, the weakest constituent, remains with bright facets, with- 
out change in color or lustre. It is by no means characteristic of the 
“‘maladie du granit,”’ first described by Dolomieu and later studied by 
Dr. T. Sterry Hunt; but here the action seems to be mainly and simply 
a disintegration of the grains, initiated by expansion under the sun’s 
heat, during the summer, and developed by the expansion caused by 
frost during the winter. An architect of the city recently stated that 
““he had built several large granite offices and considered Quincy 
granite the most durable of all building material. He thought the 
weathering of granite would hardly amount to one-thirty-secondth of 
an inch in a hundred years. According to that calculation many build- 
ings might hope for a longer span than the thousand years spoken of 
by the professor.” 

However, it is a well-known fact that the weathering of granyte does 
not proceed by a merely superficial wear, which can be measured or 
limited by fractions of an inch; but by a deep insinuation along the 
lines of weakness, between grains, through cleavage-planes, and into 
latent fissures. Thus, long before the surface has become much cor- 
roded or removed, a deep disintegration has taken place by which large 
fragments are ready for sep2ration by frost, from the edges and argles 
of a block. When directly exposed to the heat of the sun, an addi- 
tional agency of destruction is involved, and the stone is suddenly 
found ready to exfoliate, layer after layer, concentrically. As yet we 
have little to guide us in the estimation of durability in years, since the 
best known granyte monuments are those which have been exposed to 
the exceptionally mild climate of Egypt ; but even there some exfolia- 
tion has been noticed, ¢. g., on the inner walls of the so-called Temple 
of the Sphynx. 

In the cemeteries within the city and on Long Island, much granyte 
is now used in slabs and monuments, but its introduction has been 
everywhere of too recent a date to afford any measure of its durability. 
Geikie remarks : “ traces of decay in some of its feldspar crystals may 
be detected, yet in no case that I have seen is the decay of a polished 
granite surface sensibly apparent after exposure for fifteen or twenty 
years. Even the most durable granite will probably be far surpassed 
in permanence by the best of our silicious sandstones. But as yet the 
data do not exist for making any satisfactory comparison between them.” 


GNEISS. 


The oldest building in this city, in which this material has been used, 
appears to be that of St. Matthews Lutheran Church, on the northeast 
corner of Broome and Elizabeth streets, erected in 1841. The stone is 
the micaceous gneiss, in part hornblendic, from excavations on the 


Trans. N. Y. Ac. Scz. 136 Apr. 30, 


island, with trimmings, string-pieces, etc., of brown stone, the latter, as. 
usual, being in a state of decay. On the west front, the gneiss is in 
excellent condition, occurring in small blocks, mostly laid on tbe bed- 
ding-plane. In the south front, many of the quoins are set on edge and 
are much decayed along the joints, sometimes with splitting or exfolia- 
tion, fracture of corners, and irregular chipping out of the surface to the 
depth of one-half to one inch below the level of the projecting cement- 
joints. 
GENERAL CONCLUSIONS. 

If a rough estimate be desired, founded merely on these observations,. 
of the comparative durability of the common varieties of building- 
stone, used in New York city and vicinity, there may be found some 
truth in the following approximative figures for the ‘life’? of each 
stone, signifying by that term, without regard to discoloration or other 
objectionable qualities, merely the period after which the incipient decay 
of the variety becomes sufficiently offensive to the eye to demand 


repair or renewal. 
Life, in Years. 


CODFSE OTOL STONE NEN atc netlag sae ane lee ete RS erat 5-15 
Laminated fine brownstone...........+.4-- gale avedttelaaree ara ne 20-50: 
COMPUGL EME DE OLITUSL ONE, ayn iad «to che hetteh vara ke fotos) > Lhe enka oe ICO-200 
WBILUESUOIEE 3S an Nosh cia epee Cope IL ee Clee Untried, probably centuries. 
INOUE SSCOLDE SLOME pins ecto ie. iSie ia 32 Sita Ae 2 ets ers Untried, perhaps 50-200 
Ohzo sandstone, (best silicious variety), perhaps from I to many centuries. 
ampestone coarse tOssiliieraus’. .125. 00 3. 6a ey eee eee 20-40. 
iBimestone, ine oolitic((Prench) isse.5. eee sere oe ee 30-40 
46 o (Asmenrican) iy. Shee ee iete acres Untried here. 
Marble | POLOMLYLE NCC OATSE. cic cis. pi iepsteie o> Sal: eo ee ee 40 
is et MME 2 in icwise eee ermine chis esg aera ere tae 60-80 
Nar ble Miners 26a e ee Oak Nee ee ONS ee ee 50-200 
GRAN YEN Big ee nes Gta s toe Oe a cre ere meer rete 75-200: 
(IEEE SS ihe See echt hete se teacics hee east eer ta ....50 years to many centuries. 


Within a very few years past, it has become frequent to introduce 
rude varieties of rusticated work into the masonry of buildings in this 
city, or to leave the stone rough and undressed in huge blocks, espe- 
cially in the basement or lowest stories, where it is under close and 
continuous inspection, and the results of its decay will be disguised by 
its original rough surface. Although there are certain large buildings 
in which such a massive treatment of stone may be appropriate, its 
common use, with stones of known feebleness or Jack of durability, is a 
disingenuous evasion of responsibility and a mere confession of ignor- 
ance, want of enterprise, and despair, in regard to the proper selection 
of building material and in regard to its protection. 

Finally, it may be pointed out that many of the best building stones 
of the country have never yet been brought into this city ; ¢. ¢., silicious. 


1883. 137 TPAUS els Ovo, ACA SCt 


limestones of the highest promise of durability, allied to that employed 
in Salisbury Cathedral: refractory sandstones, like some of those of 
Ohio and other Western States, particularly fitted for introduction 
into business buildings in the ‘‘ drygoods district,”’ storage houses, etc., 
where a fire-proof stone is needed; and highly silicious varieties of 
Lower Silurian sandstones, such as occur near Lake Champlain, quartz- 
ytic and hard to work, like the Craigleith stone of Edinburgh, but 
possessing the valuable qualities of that fine stone, in resisting discol- 
oration, notwithstanding its light color, and in remarkable resistance to 
disintegration. 

As it is, we have many and need many varieties of stone for our va- 
rious objects, but do not know how to use them. It is pitiable to see 
our new buildings erected in soft and often untried varieties of stone, 
covered with delicate carvings of foliage and flower-garlands, which 
are almost certain to be nipped off by the frost before the second gen- 
eration of the owner shall enter the house. It is now time for one who 
loves stone to express his indignation at the careless and wasteful way 
in which a good material is being misused. 


DISCUSSION. 


Mr. F. CoLtincwoop remarked on the durability of the stone 
(Trenton limestone) used in Montreal, and on the general need of 
well established rules for the selection of stone. He suggested for 
investigation, the subject of the effect of internal moisture on ce- 
ments, z. ¢., whether the slow percolation of rain-water through the 
cement in the joints of masonry, e. g., In an arch, is likely to in- 
jure the integrity of the structure, producing serious damage by 
the disintegration of the cement. 

A Visiror, a practical builder, stated that at present, in New 
York, the struggle of competition tended to produce satisfaction 
with temporary effects, and the mere question of cost was at the 
bottom of the hasty selection and cheap construction. Neverthe- 
less, as nice workmanship in stone could be seen, and was being 
executed in New York to-day, as in any other place in the world. 
He asked for further explanation, and felt it due to the trade to 
say that stones were generally treated badly from ignorance rather 
than from intention. It was the duty of those who know all about 
these things, to inform those who had to build and work the stone 
all about its properties and capabilities, and then some good result 
might ensue. He himself felt the necessity of further knowledge 


LP GnS INA VE PAGE SCE 138 May 7, 


on this important subject, and was sure that most of those in the 
trade felt as he did. 

On invitation, Dr. T. SrERRy Hunt observed that frost was the 
main agent of the disintegration of stone in our climate, often 
suddenly succeeding the moistening of the material by long rains, 
and thus producing violent expansion and crumbling. In England, 
no such extremes occurred. However, in visiting York Minster, 
a few years ago, he found the workmen engaged in repairing the 
magnesian limestone at one of the gates. He had climbed up the 
ladder, and, on examination of the stone, found a remarkable dis- 
integration near the middle, to the depth of one or two inches, by 
which bars of the rock projected, marking the less absorbent layers. 

As to the granytes, that of Hallowell, Me., and that vicinity, is 
only a granytoid gneiss, and not as compact as a true granyte; its 
exfoliation he knew to bea mere disintegration, favored by the 
greater porosity of its texture. The material of the granyte obelisk 
in Central Park is one likely to offer great resistance to disintegra- 
tion and chemical decay, as the similar obelisks at Rome and Paris 
seem to show little or no effect of weathering. 

The subject was further discussed by Messrs. BERG, TROTTER, 
and by the PRESIDENT, who expressed a cordial welcome to practical 
men to attend the meetings of the Academy, and to contribute to 
their interest through the valuable materials acquired by their ex- 


perience. 


May 7, 1883. 


The President, Dr. J. S. NEwBeErry, in the Chair. 

Thirty-three persons present. 

Mr. B. B. CHAMBERLIN exhibited some curious concretions of 
pyrite from the clay-pits at Amboy, N. J. They presented oval, 
spherical, and sometimes annular forms, with radiated structure, 
or with finely granular nuclei and beautifully crystallized envelopes. 

Prof. D. S. Martin remarked that similar concretions, some- 
times exceedingly handsome and with curved crystals, occurred in 
the white clay beds of New Jersey, belonging to the base of the 
Cretaceous, and in the plastic clays of the same horizon, which may 
perhaps represent the Wealden in this country. 

The PRESIDENT stated that these specimens were certainly con- 


1883. | 139 LTTansoiNs. Vis Ace Sez: 


cretionary, and similar to those found in the clays of Ohio, the 
Connecticut Valley, etc. A peculiarity of this mineral is the readi- 
ness with which some specimens oxidize, while others, apparently 
similar in all other respects, remain brilliant. Few more beautiful 
minerals ever enter a collection ; but many of the specimens of 
pyrite in the cabinet of the School of Mines, particularly those 
from Schoharie, N. Y., decomposed rapidly, absorbing oxygen and 
water, thus forming sulphuric acid, which has destroyed labels and 
trays, and has even cut through the bottom of the drawer in which 
they were placed. Others, like those from Roxbury, Conn., and 
from certain gold mines of Colorado, have remained unchanged, 
though for years lying ina room over the chemical laboratories. No 
facts in chemical geology were more interesting and mysterious 
than those connected with pyrite: such as its close companionship 
with gold, the conditions of which have not been determined; its 
unchangeableness in some cases, its destructibility in others. Some- 
times its crystals or concretions are completely changed to limonite, 
with not the least change of form or markings; sometimes, by 
oxidation, it is converted into sulphate of iron, which is washed 
away, leaving cubical cavities, or a spongy mass of quartz; and 
sometimes even the iron has disappeared, leaving the cavities lined 
with sulphur. These differences have not yet been satisfactorily 
explained, and they constitute an inviting subject of investigation 
for the chemist and mineralogist. 


Dr. Newserry had noticed that the pyrites so common in coal, 
and pyrite replacing wood, are particularly prone to oxidation, the 
concretions in clays liable to it, and the brilliant crystallizations in 
mineral veins and in metamorphic slates less so. 


Prof. D. S. MarTIN observed that these specimens do decom- 
pose with wonderful readiness at Keyport, and in a peculiar way, 
where exposed to the salt water, the ordinary alteration into sul- 
phate of iron being there replaced by a change into limonite, 
apparently through some action of the sea-water, the pebbles in the 
vicinity being also encrusted by limonite. 


The CoRRESPONDING SECRETARY read letters from Dr. WEIss- 
BACH, of Freiburg, Prof. JANNETAZ and M. EMILE BERTRAND, of 


Trans, IN. Va Aca Sez. 140 May 7, 


Paris, and Prof. A. D’AcHtaRDI, of Pisa, accepting their election 
as Corresponding Members of the Academy. 


Prof. A..R. LEEDs exhibited a crystalline body obtained from 
human milk. The examination of the ratio between the constitu- 
ents of milk afforded a subject of much interest and importance. 
In the course of an investigation of this subject, he had recently 
procured, through Doctors Thomas and K. Parker, sixty speci- 
mens, of two ounces each, of human milk. The albuminoid sub- 
stances were first precipitated by a salt of copper, the filtrate 
evaporated, and from this residue an etherial extract was prepared. 
The ether carries into solution an organic fatty salt of copper 
which was not present in cow’s milk. Inthe latter, the fats are 
colorless and solid at ordinary temperatures ; in human milk, they 
are liquid. The object of his investigation was to determine the 
exact nature of the fatty bodies in human milk, and these results 
appeared to show that there may be a new fat which forms a crys- 
talline salt soluble in ether. These fats must be numerous, but 
hitherto we have been content to know their general nature. 


Dr. N. L. Brirron read a paper, illustrated with specimens and 
drawings, 


ON THE FINDING OF PREHISTORIC INDIAN SKELETONS AT FAR 
ROCKAWAY, LONG ISLAND. 


The skeletons here described were discovered in an excavation made 
for the cellar of a new house, erected for Mr. W. T. Bailey in Septem- 
ber, 1882. The locality is locally called “ Breezy Point,” and is one 
and one-half miles west from the Far Rockaway Station on the Long 
Island Railroad. The cellar is 225 feet from the shore of a part of 
Jamaica Bay, and about five feet above high water mark. 

Nine skeletons were unearthed, six of them from near the south- 
eastern corner of the house, and three from along the eastern side. 
They had evidently been thrown into holes without much or any 
regard for the manner of burial. The positions of the former holes 
were plainly indicated by the difference in color of the materials filling 
them, and that of the undisturbed soil. The former was quite a dark 
brown ; the latter, a light yellow. 

The natural soil of the vicinity is the pre-glacial yellow sand and 
gravel drift, which is indistinctly stratified. The holes were filled with 
this soil for the most part, but mixed with shells of clams and oysters. 


1883. 141 LANSING VieeAG SCZ 


Some rude pottery was taken out in fragments. The brown coloration 
was probably derived from the decomposition of the bodies. 

Of the six skeletons found in the larger hole, three had already been 
removed piece-meal, when he visited the spot on September gth. They 
were about two feet from the surface of the ground. He found three 
still remaining in this hole. One was the skeleton of a very large man, 
and measured six feet and eleven inches in length, as it lay in the 
ground. The legs were drawn up, bringing the knees even with the 
breast, and the hands were seemingly clasped at a level with the face. 
This skeleton he secured and brought with him. 

A child lay to the left of this man, and a fully grown person to his 
right ; the bones of both were badly decomposed. The bones had all 
been removed from the smaller hole, and he was informed that these had 
all belonged to adults. 

Shell heaps, composed of single valves of Venus mercenaria, the 
hard clam, of Ostrea borealzs, the oyster, and of Modzola plicatula, 
occur all along the shore in the vicinity ; these are as much as three 
feet in thickness in places, and twenty feet wide. 


His attention was first called to these skeletons by Mr. Wm. A, 
Torrey. 


DISCUSSION, 


In answer to an inquiry, Dr. Brirron stated that a tomahawk 
and several arrow-heads had been dug up in the vicinity. 

Professor MarrIn remarked that the pottery showed the type of 
incised ornamentation, effected by some small hard point. 

The PrestDENT referred to similar collections of shells at 
many other points along the Atlantic coast. Some on this side of 
the peninsula of NovaScotia were found to contain the bones of the 
great auk and of the walrus. Walrus bones have also been discov- 
ered further south, near Long Branch, but were partially silicified and 
probably much older. Many kjoekken moeddens also occur on 
the west coast of Florida, and have been described by Professor 
JEFFREYS WyMAN andothers. One of these near Cedar Keys, which 
had been examined by Dr. Newserry, is half a mile long, twenty to 
- forty feet high, and covered with large live oaks and palmettoes. 
Further west, along the Gulf coast, the shell mounds are largely 
composed of Guathodon, and have furnished the material for the 
famous shell roads. They are also found in the interior, and one 
on the Tennessee, near Chattanooga, gives its name to Shell 
- Mound Railroad Station. The shells which compose these are 


Trans. N. VY. Ac. Sct. 142 May. 7. 


mostly species of Unio. One near Palatka, Florida, is chiefly 
made up of univalves, belonging to a species of Unio (Campeloma). 

The shell mounds of the Gulf coast are apparently the work of 
a peculiar people, who subsisted chiefly on mollusks ; and the At- 
lantic coast mounds are also probably the work of maritime tribes, 
but not certainly the same with those living on the Gulf. They 
had this in common, however, that both were cannibals. This is 
learned from the condition of the human bones found in the 
mounds, some of which are split longitudinally for the extraction 
of the marrow. 

The date of the shell mounds is uncertain, but we have evidence 
that they belong to a period long anterior to the advent of the 
whites. They are generally overgrown by the forest, and bear 
trees of many hundred years of age, so that the process of accumu- 
lation ceased hundreds of years ago. The Florida shell mounds 
exhibit another feature indicative of age, 7. ¢., they are in part 
composed of shells which are rare in the vicinity or not found there, 
and the specimens obtained from the shell mounds are often larger 
than any that can now be procured in that region. The early nar- 
ratives of the experience of the whites in the Gulf mention the 
Caribs as the most important Indian tribe met with. These were 
maritime in their habits, living largely upon mollusks and fish, 
and were cannibals. It is quite possible therefore that the build- 
ers of the shell heaps on the Gulf coast were Caribs, who may 
have had formerly a more extended range than when seen by the 
Spanish historians. A skull, taken by Dr. NEwperry from a shell 
mound near Cedar Keys, must have belonged to a man of good 
size and creditable cranial development. It exhibited a character 
common to most of the crania of these coast tribes, namely, that 
the under jaw projected so that the upper and under teeth were in 
direct opposition, and;worn down around the whole half-circle with 
great regularity. It is not uncommon to find sets of teeth nearly 
complete, but worn quite to the alveolus. This extensive wearing 
away of the teeth was probably caused by the use of food contain- 
ing much silica, either that was not properly freed from sand, or more 
likely the seeds of plants which contained considerable silica in 
their tissues. The elongation of the under jaw gave greater space 
for the teeth than orthognathus races have. By the use of tender 
and cooked food, the work of the jaw in mastication has been di- 


1883. 143 Trans. INN. VY. Ae. Sez. 


minished ; and as nutrition is measured by action, and growth by 
nutrition, the jaw of civilized man is shorter, and the posterior molar 
(wisdom-tooth) appearing last, is cramped for room, imperfectly 
developed, and usually temporary. In the jaws of the shell mound 
people, the wisdom-tooth was one of the largest and most service- 
able of the series. | 

The Far Rockaway skeletons were evidently many hundred 
years old—how many, none can say. ‘The bones were extremely 
light and friable ; but this is as often the result of special conditions 
as of time. From the relations of the skeletons to the shell heaps, 
it may fairly be inferred that they were the remains of the shell 
mound builders, and were consequently cannibals ; but if so, the 
conditions of the bones indicate that they were rather the eaters 
than the eaten. The skeleton procured by Mr. Brirron was that 
of a man fully six feet in height, well-proportioned, and with good 
cranial development. 


Mr. B. B. CHAMBERLIN referred to a shell-mound which existed 
some years ago at Tarrytown, on the Hudson ’river, 28 miles from 
the coast. It was mostly made up of oyster shells, containing 
many arrow-heads, but has since been removed by the extension of 
a neighboring brickyard. 

Prof. MartTIN stated that the late Mr. Leavitt had spoken of a 
shell-mound which formerly existed near Inwood, on New York 
Island. In New England large shell-mounds occur, such as 
one at Damariscotta, Maine, thirty feet in height above the river, 
but which was quarried several years ago for lime. In this the 
common shells were those of the oyster, but very large, long and 
narrow, a species which no longer exists there. 


Dr. Brirron remarked that there was formerly a shell-mound, 
which was a constant resort for collectors of arrow-heads, at Old 
Bridge, N. J., ten miles up the Raritan and four miles distant from 
the river. 


Dr. JULIEN referred to the very numerous shell-mounds upon the 
salt-marshes all along the New Jersey coast, and some of which had 
- been partially or wholly submerged, in the progress of the subsidence 
of that region, forming shell-banks beneath the bays and salt-creeks, 
as near Barnegat, Manahawkin, Tuckerton, etc. In the early 
settlement of that country, tribes of Indians were known to make 


Trans. N. Y. Ac. Sez. 144 May7, 


periodical visits to the coast, collecting vast quantities of clams and 
oysters, drying and stringing them, and thus transporting them in- 
land. It would therefore appear that, in that region, the accumu- 
lation of shells did not particularly imply the consumption of mol- 
lusks by the Indians who gathered them, as they were probably 
distributed in the interior. 

In reply to an inquiry, the PRESIDENT stated that there was 
nothing characteristic about the fragment of pottery found at Rock- 
away. It is extremely rude, this mode of ornamentation being very 
common on such Indian pottery, having been effected by a small 
point, by the dentated edge of a shell, or by a cord. 


Dr. Da Costa stated that pottery of this character was found 
abundantly near Cape Truro, and was not regarded as very ancient. 


A MEMBER pointed out that the position of the skeleton, with the 
knees bent forward, so as to touch the chin, was a common one in 
Indian burial. It was noteworthy that the skeletons occurred in 
groups of three, as if the wife and child had been sacrificed at the 
grave of the warrior. 


Dr. BrirTon replied that only one skeleton, the largest, was 
drawn up in this position, the others lying extended. The three 
skeletons of the upper group did not lie at the same level, as if 
they had been irregularly thrown in. 


The PRESIDENT remarked on the frequency of-burial in the sit- 
ting posture, to which reference is made in Longfellow’s lines on 
the “Skeleton in Armor,” found at Newport, R. I. Elsewhere the 
bones are found extended, and, as in Europe, many have suffered 
cremation. 


A paper was then read by Dr. JoHN S. NEWBERRY, on 


SOME INTERESTING REMAINS OF FOSSIL FISHES, RECENTLY 
DISCOVERED. 


The specimens, now exhibited to the Academy, are the teeth and den- 
tal plates of some new and remarkable fishes, from the Devonian rocks 
of Ohio and New York. One group represents parts of the dentition 
of large ganoids, which have up to the present time afforded no other 
portions of their bony structure. The others are plates which com- 
posed parts of the armor of a new placoderm, allied to Coccosteus and 
Pterichthys. Fuller descriptions with figures will eventually be given 
to the public, but in the meantime the following notes upon them are 


1883. 145 Trans. N.Y. Ac. Sct. 


submitted to the Academy, and will probably suffice for the identifica- 
tion of any similar fossils which may hereafter be found. 


MYLOSTOMA, nov. gen. 


Ctenodipterme ganoids of large size, of which as yet only the denti- 
tion is known. The teeth consist of strong and massive tables of 
bony tissue becoming more dense and resembling enamel above, 
and forming pairs in the upper and lower jaw. The dental plates of 
the lower jaw consist of long-oval or spatulate crowns, three to six 
inches in length by one to two inches in width, and half an inch or 
more in thickness, supported by strong, vertical, spatulate bones, 
which project downward and backward, terminating posteriorly in 
thin rounded margins. The upper surface of the crown of the in- 
ferior dental plates is raised into a more or less prominent tubercle or 
boss, which rises from the exterior margin a little anterior to the mid- 
dle. The dental plates of the upper jaw are tables of dense tissue, 
apparently forming two or more pairs on each side of the median line. 
The largest of these is three inches in length, by an inch and a 
quarter wide in the widest part, somewhat triangular in outline, flat- 
tened where it rested on the probably cartilaginous floor of the crani- 
um. Itis about half an inch in thickness, the free surface somewhat 
irregularly excavated to receive the prominences of the opposing den- 
tal plates. Another of these palatal teeth is shorter and broader, with 
one margin concave, apparently for co-adaptation with the tooth pre- 
viously described. 

It is probable that we have not yet obtained all the elements in the 
peculiar dentition of this fish ; and the parts yet discovered are so pe- 
culiar and anomalous as to make it difficult to co-ordinate them satis- 
factorily with any hitherto known. The flattened tabular dental 
plates, which I have supposed formed the roof of the mouth, have a 
general analogy in form and texture with those of Chzmera, and, it is 
evident, are their analogues and functionally their representatives. 
Still the teeth of the under jaw. found with these and exhibiting the 
same microscopic structure, differ widely from any portion of the 
dentition of chimeroid fishes and exhibit a striking resemblance to the 
dental plates of the Dipterine ganoids. They evidently form pairs ; for 
we have the corresponding teeth of the right and left sides, and the 
triturating surface oval in outline, though wanting the radiating ridges 
of the Ctenodonts, seems to have occupied a corresponding position ; 
and they are mounted on heavy vertical supports which, except that 
they are flattened vertically instead of horizontally, correspond with 
the splenial bones which support the dental plates of Crenodus. 

The resemblance of the teeth, which I have supposed formed the 


Trans. N. Y. Ac. Sez. 146 May 7, 


roof of the mouth, to those of Ceratodus, will strike any one who ex- 
amines them ; and no other analogy in the whole range of ichthyic den- 
tition suggests itself. 


Until we shall obtain further information in regard to this strange 
system of dentition, it will be safest therefore to refer these fishes 
to the group which includes Dzplerus, Paledaphus, Clenodus and 
Ceratodus. 


MYLOSTOMA VARIABILIS, N. 


Inferior dental plates, ovoid, or short-spatulate in outline, 3 inches 
long by 1% wide in the widest part; crown composed of dense bony 
tissue, becoming enamel-like near the surface, 6 lines thick anteriorly 
but thinner toward the narrow posterior end. Surface granular or 
roughened with a vermicular marking, raised, near the middle and 
on the outer side, into a strong, oblique tubercle or boss. Below, the 
anterior portion of the tooth is excavated into rudely concentric fur- 
rows, from the centre of which descends, beginning at the anterior 
third, the obliquely compressed splenial bone, which projects down- 
ward and backward, to the length of several inches, becoming 1 5 inches 
wide at its widest part. 


Considerable diversity is shown in the degree of irregularity of the 
crown surface in corresponding teeth. Three of these, nearly of the 
same size, show in one a rudimentary irregular boss near the outer 
angle; another, the opposite tooth, rises in a strong furrowed, poster- 
iorly depressed, obtuse tubercle, half an inch in height ; while the third, 
corresponding in position to the last, is a little shorter and broader, and 
the tubercle is latterly deflected and compressed, till it forms a blunt 
edge. 

Still another and very imperfect tooth, of a smaller size, has a 
crown elliptical in outline and a blunted, furrowed tubercle, relatively 
much larger than either of the others. This smaller tooth varies so 
much from the others, with which it is associated, as to lead to the 
suspicion that the dentition of the lower jaw like the upper consisted of 
more than one pair of dental plates. 


The dental plates of the upper jaw, in one or several pairs, are 
rudely triangular in outline, with a flattened or concave triturating 
surface, bearing, as do some of the inferior teeth, evidences of the 
wear occasioned by the prominent bosses of the opposing teeth. 
The surface of attachment of these dental plates to the cranium is 
flat or concave, and somewhat rough from the coarse cellular tissue 
of the bone. The sides are straight or beveled, apparently for 
co-adaptation, and, by their character, favor the conclusion that the 


1883, 147 tiranse Ne VaxAG. Sct: 


dentition consisted of many pairs of plates, constituting a tesselated 
pavement. 

Like those of the associated species, the remains of this very re- 
marXable fish are part of the fruit of the enthusiasm and indefatigable 
industry of Mr. Jay Terrell of Oberlin, Ohio, the discoverer of the great 
species of Dznzchthys which bears his name, the only remains known 
of Diplognathus and various other interesting ichthyic fossils. 


MYLOSTOMA TERRELLI, nN. sp. 


Inferior palatal teeth in pairs, each of which is spatulate in outline, 
with one margin nearly straight, the other strongly arched toward 
the exterior ; length, 6 to 7 inches, by 14 inches in greatest breadth ; 
crown composed of dense enamel-like tissue, 8 lines in thickness 
toward the front, and gradually thinning toward the narrowed 
posterior end. Triturating surface punctate or vermicularly roughened | 
slightly arched from front to rear, and rising into a low rounded boss 
near the external margin, where the tooth is broadest, and about one- 
third of the length from the anterior extremity. Below, the crown is 
supported by a strong bony keel which begins at the anterior fourth 
of the length and gradually descends backward until it has a width of 
2% inches, terminating in a thin irregularly rounded margin, Io inches 
or more from the anterior extremity of the crown. 

With all the other specimens of the genus, these teeth were dis- 
covered. by Mr. Jay Terrell in the Huron shale on the banks of Ver- 
mi ion River, Ohio. 


May 14, 1883. 

The President, Dr. J. S. NEwBERRY, in the Chair. 

Thirty-six persons present. 

Mr. G. F. Kunz exhibited a specimen of graphite, containing 
apparently over twenty per cent. of carbon, from a vein at Bloom- 
field, Morris county, New Jersey. The vein has been traced for 
a distance of four or five miles, and contains, in association with 
the graphite, pyrrhotite, apatite, loxoclase feldspar, and muscovite. 
A shaft was sunk upon it twenty years ago, but mining operations 
have been recently resumed at this locality, with promise of. 
success. 

Dr. ALEXIS A. JULIEN read a paper, by Dr. H. CarrincTon 
Botton and himself, on 

THE SINGING BEACH OF MANCHESTER, MASS. 

The paper was illustrated by a series of specimens of beach 

sands, from many American and foreign localities, some with the 


UT AHSIN ae PAGES Gze 148 May 14, 


same sonorous property as that displayed on any disturbance or 
sudden pressure of the sands of the beach at Manchester, and 
others without it. The limited literature of the subject was dis- 
cussed ; the results of the microscopic examination of the sands 
given in detail; and a theory suggested in explanation of the 
peculiar sounds. 

Dr. P. DE P. Ricketts remarked on a specimen of sand in his 
possession, from the Desert of Sahara, which fell upon the deck of 
a ship fifty miles off the coast of Africa. 

Dr. JULIEN then read a paper 


ON A FORM OF GRAPHITE FOUND AT TICONDEROGA, N. Y. 


(Abstract). 

The presence of carbon, in amorphous form or in combination, in 
meteorites, its wide distribution through a certain band of the Archean 
strata, and the further evidences of an enormous amount of deoxidation, 
can be explained, in the present state of our knowledge, only by refer- 
ence to the life-force. The occurrence of organic structure, more or less 
perfectly preserved, in the Cambrian strata of Great Britain, the Cam- 
brian and Huronian of Canada, the Huronian of Michigan, and many 
strata of Cambrian or Siluro-Cambrian age along the Appalachian belt, 
as far south as Georgia, corroborate in part this view. The distribution 
of graphite in the crystalline rocks of Canada, and the obscure fibrous 
structures therein detected by Dawson, were then discussed, and its 
more limited dissemination through the crystalline rocks within the 
boundaries of the United States. A description was then given of the 
graphite vein at Ticonderoga, N. Y., and of a bed of fine-grained white 
marble penetrated by graphite in slender blades, with fine longitudinal 
fibration, which suggested the similar form and structure of the leaves 
of a water-plant. 


DISCUSSION. 


The PRESIDENT remarked that the comparison, made by Dawson, 
of the amounts of carbonaceous matter in the Laurentian and coal 
formations can only be accepted as local. In either case, it is far 
exceeded by the amount of carbon now found in the bituminous 
shales, etc., of Devonian, Carboniferous, and later age. 

Graphite must be of organic origin and derived mostly from 
plant life. It is true that limestones are often found saturated with 
carbon derived from animal remains, at least in some portion ; 
since there are usually only traces of animal organisms, and the 


1883. 149 Trans. IN. Ys Ac. Sez. 


presence of sulphur and nitrogen is an additional indication. Still 
these facts are not decisive, since sulphur and nitrogen occur also in 
plant tissue, and the soft material of seaweeds becomes so broken 
down by decay that its structure readily disappears. We cannot 
but believe that we must credit part of the carbon in some lime- 
stones to vegetable matter; and this may be true of the clouded 
marbles, presenting dark lines on a white ground, with wavy struc- 
ture due to mechanical violence. Carbon often occurs in marbles 
as graphite, which is the residue from the distillation of hydro- 
carbons. Its quantity is sometimes small, but sometimes sufficient 
to color them even absolutely black. In metamorphism the carbon 
largely disappears, so that the graphite remaining may represent but 
a tenth part of that originally present. At Newport, R. L., films of 
carbon occur, converted into graphite, covering the impression of 
ferns, etc. Graphite is also capable of condensation and segre- 
gration, asillustrated by the graphitic carbon in cast iron, sometimes 
beautifully crystallized in cavities. Hereit has been plainly derived 
from the carbon of the coal, z. ¢., it is really of organic origin. 
So also in limestones beautiful crystallizations of carbon occur, the 
conditions having been favorable for its crystallization along with 
other crystallized minerals, ¢. g., pargasite, tremolite, etc.; thus the 
purest of all graphites have been formed. 


Dr. P. DE P. Rickerrs then made an exhibition of specimens, 
and spoke on the subject of 


CERTAIN ORES FROM NORTH CAROLINA. 


(Abstract.) 


Dr. RICKETTS first gave an account of avisit to Fisher Hill, near 
Greensboro, N. C. 

The country rock there is crossed by veins of quartz, with dykes of 
dioryte. 

Reference was also made to a visit to some mines in Montgomery 
County, where the gold is native to a much greater depth than in the 
case of the Fisher Hill veins, and occurs along the line of contact be- 
tween a silicified slate and quartzyte, the latter forming what might be 
called the hanging wall of the vein. The gold occurs native in thin 
films in zinc blende, which is associated with galena, and iron and cop- 
per pyrites. The richest portion of the deposit is along the line of the 
hanging wall mentioned ; but the seams are very thin and uncertain. 

A visit to some copper deposits in Person and Granville Counties 


LF OHS INE VAC SCL: 150 May 21, 


was also described. The veins in this region were first opened dur- 
ing the past summer. 

The Gillis mine is the only one with a history, having been repevied 
upon by Prof. JACKSON at the close of the war. 

The country rock is slate, which dips east, with a strike north 10° 
east. Dykes occur, and evidences of the metamorphism of the slates, 
which, along the line of contact, contain metallic copper. The dykes 
themselves are sometimes strongly impregnated with sulphuret of 
copper and metallic copper, averaging a content of two per cent., at 
one place visited, in metallic copper. Epidote is also largely found 
along the centre of the ridge, or line of contact. 

The quartz veins in this region carry carbonate, silicate, and sul- 
phuret of copper, and generally strike north 10° east. One vein, 
however, which Dr. RICKETTS inspected, about 2% feet in width, 
crosses this direction at right angles, dipping to the north. 

The first-class ore from this vein yields forty per cent. of copper and 
25 ounces of silver to the ton. A large number of specimens from 
these veins were exhibited. 

These remarks were briefly discussed by the President, Dr. 


Ricketts, and others. 


May 235, 1883. 
LECTURE EVENING. 


The President, Dr. J. S. NEwBerRY, in the Chair. 
The large Hall was filled by the audience. 

Prof. D. S. Martin read by title the two following papers: by 
Prof. Epbwarp V. MARTENS, communicated by Mr. THomas BLAND, 
DESCRIPTION OF TWO SPECIES OF LAND SHELLS FROM PORTO RICO— 
Cistula consepta, ou. sf. 

Chondropoma ‘Tortolense—Pfr., var. major. 
and by THomas BLanp, 
DESCRIPTION OF TWO NEW SPECIES OF ZONITES FROM TENNESSEE— 
Zonites Wheatleyi, mov. sf. 
* Zonites petrophilus, xov. sf. 
Prof. Joun K. Rees, of the Observatory of Columbia College, 
New York City, then delivered the monthly lecture, on the sub- 


ject of 
THE GREAT TELESCOPES OF THE WORLD. 


1883. 151 Trans. N. Y. Ac, Scz. 


May 28, 1883. 

The President, Dr. J. S. NEwBERRY, in the Chair. 

Thirty persons present. 

The PResIvENT exhibited specimens of coal plants, brought by 
Mr. Hague, from the northeastern part of China. These speci- 
mens were of Mesozoic age, like those of the Richmond basin. 
There is, however, a large development in the northern part of 
China of the true Carboniferous series, with anthracite, and includ- 
ing the remains of plants of that formation. 

Prof. D. S. Martin then read a paper by Mr. Gro. N. LAWRENCE, 
entitled 
DESCRIPTIONS OF NEW SPECIES OF BIRDS OF THE GENERA CHRYSOTIS, 

FORMICIVORA AND SPERMOPHILA 

Chrysotis caniformis, ov. sf., from the Island of Aruba, W. I. 

Formicivora grivigula, zov. sf., from British Guiana. 

Spermophila parva, zov. sf., from Mexico. 

Dr. ALExis A. JULIEN read a paper entitled, 


NOTES ON THE FLORA AND FAUNA OF THE ISLANDS OF CURACAO, 
BUEN AYRE, AND ARUBA, W. I. 

This paper discussed in some detail the most characteristic fea- 
tures of the flora and fauna of these rarely visited islands, and 
concluded with the following contribution, by 

Mr. Tuomas BLAND, entitled, 

NOTES ON THE TERRESTRIAL MOLLUSKS WHICH INHABIT THE 
ISLANDS OF ARUBA, CURACAO, AND BUEN AYRE. 

In 1882, my friend Dr. Alexis A. Julien, visited the islands above 
named, and collected a number of land shells, which he lately sub- 
mitted to me for examination. 

The following is a list of all the species known at this date to in- 
habit those islands. 

It should be mentioned that the islands are at no great distance from 
the mainland of Venezuela, and within the roo fathom line of soundings. 
ARUBA. 

* Tudora megachezla, Pot. & Mich. 

* Bulimulus elongatus, Bolt. 

CURAGAO. 

* Tudora megachezla, P. & M. 

* Tudora megacheila, var. ? 

* Cistula Ravczz, Crosse. 

* Succinea gyrata, Gibbons. 


Trans. N.Y. Ac. Sez. 152 May 28, 


Bulimulus multilineatus, Say. Also New Granada, Venezuela and 
Florida. 

* Bulimulus elongatus, Bolt. Also Porto Rico, Virgin Is., St. Croix, 
and several of the Lesser Antilles ; also Central America. 

* Cionella Gloynez, Gibbons, has dentition of the genus, W. G. 
Binney. 

Geostilbia ? Sp. indet. 

* Strophia wva, L. Gibbons found a young dead specimen at Sta. 
Martha, but supposed it to have been brought from Curacao. Wood- 
ward and Paetel erroneously refer the species to Guadeloupe. 

Pupa longurzo, Crosse. 

* Macroceramus inermis, Gund. Also Cuba. I considered the 
Curagao species to be M. Gossez, Pfr., which is found in Jamaica, 
Cuba, Bahamas and Florida. Dentition same as of Gossez, W. G. 
Binney. 

* Cylindrella Ravenz, Bland. 

Stenogyra octonoides, C. B. Ad., Gibbons. Also Jamaica, Cuba, 
Bahamas, Hayti, and other of the West India islands. 


BUEN AYRE. 


* Tudora megacheila, P. & M. 
* Tudora versicolor, Ptr. 

* Tudora verszcolor, ? var ? 

* Cistula maculata, nov. sp. 


I add the following description, which will serve to identify it. Shell, 
rimate, elongate, thin, finely striate, pale horn colored, with 4 to 6 spiral 
bands, on each whorl, of reddish-brown spots arranged in longitudinal 
lines ; bands and spots sometimes more or less obsolete ; suture deep, 
whoris, 7 to 8, convex ;—the upper 3 whorls usually absent, the last 
descending, solute; aperture, circular; peristome, simple, slightly 
thickened. Operculum, closely fitting upon, scarcely extending beyond 
the margin of the peristome. 


Length of the shell, entire, 10 mill; of remaining whorls, 8 mill, 
breadth of penultimate whorl, 4 mill; diameter of aperture, 2 mill. 

* Succinea gyrvata, Gibbons. 

* Conulus ?—indet., one dead specimen found. 

* Bulimulus elongatus, Bolt. 

* Cionella Gloynez, Gibbens. 

* Strophia wva, L. 

* Macroceramus zzermzs, Gundl. 

* Cylindrella Ravenz, Bland. 


The species, to the names of which an asterisk is prefixed were col- 


1883. 153 Trans. N. ¥. Ae. Sez. 


lected by Dr. JULIEN. The species whose specific names are printed 
in italics, are peculiar to the islands named. 

Helix pentodon, Mke., has been included in lists of Curagao shells, but 
it is unquestionably a young S¢rophzéa, and probably of S. wva, L. 
PFEIFFER suggests (Mon. VIII) that it may be the young of S. Mzdlerz, 
Pfr., found in the Bahamas. 

It will readily be admitted, seeing the genera represented, that the 
fauna of the islands under consideration, is, as remarked by Gibbons 
with respect to Curacao, by no means of the character one might expect 
from their geographical situation. 

Tudora and Czstula, of the operculates, are alone represented. Of 
the former, nearly all the known species inhabit Jamaica, Cuba, and 
Hayti. The genus has no representative in the Lesser Antilles. The 
greater part of the species of Czstuda are from Jamaica, Cuba, Hayti, 
and Porto Rico, in each of the islands of Sombrero, St. Croix, Anti- 
gua, and Trinidad there is one species. 

The occurrence, in Curacao and Buen Ayre, of Strofhza and Ma- 
croceramus, is peculiarly interesting. Both genera are unrepresented in 
the Lesser Antilles. Nearly all the known species of Strophza inhabit 
the Bahamas and Cuba. In Hayti and Porto Rico are two, the same 
species—one in the Virgin Islands, one fossil, in St. Croix, and the im- 
pression of one is found in the phosphatic iime rocks of Sombrero. 

Strophia is represented on the American continents, by one species 
only, in Florida and several of the adjacent Keys—a species which 
belongs to Cuba and the Bahamas. 

With regard to Macroceramus, a large majority of the known species 
belong to Cuba and Hayti; to Jamaica, Porto Rico, and the Virgin 
Islands, 2; Bahamas and Turk Islands, 2; Anguilla, 1. There are 
four or five species in Florida, Mexico, and Central America. 

Of Cylindrella, about three-fourths of the known species are found 
in Jamaica, Cuba, and Hayti. There are five or six species only in the 
Lesser Antilles. 

I have thus conclusively shown that the land shell fauna of Aruba, 
Curagao, and Buen Ayre has very marked alliance with the faunas, 
especially of Jamaica, Cuba, and Hayti; very little with that of the 
Lesser Antilles, in which Zudora, Strophia, and Macroceramus are 
wanting, and Czstwla and Cylindrella have trifling representation. 

The fauna of the three islands under special consideration has no 
appreciable connection with the adjacent continent, save, perhaps, as 
regards B. mudltzleneatus. 

Looking at the remarkable fauna of the the three islands, I may call 
attention to the interesting result of the soundings taken across the 
Caribbean Sea, in the winter of 1878-9, and reported to the Superin- 


LTrans.V. Y. Ac. Sci. 154 June 4, 


tendent of the Coast Survey, by Prof. Alex. Agassiz, in a letter which 
was published in the Bulletin of the Mus. of Comp. Zoology, vol. v., No. 
14. 

NOTE.—In Los Roques, not far to the eastward of Buen Ayre, a 
peculiar form was discovered, described by M. Crosse in 1873, as 
Ravenia Bland?,—allied to Spzraxzs, but with a tooth on the outer lip. 


The paper was discussed by Dr. B. N. Martin, Dr. Wm. Or- 
MISTON, and the PRESIDENT. 


June 4, 1883. 
Business MEETING. 


The President, Dr. J. S. NEWBERRY, in the Chair. 

Forty persons present. 

Certain recommendations of the Council were adams and it 
was voted to adjourn the sessions of the Academy, as usual, for 
the summer. Notice was given by the President that when the 
meetings are resumed, at the beginning of October, they will be 
held in a Lecture-room of the new building of Columbia Col- 
lege, in East 4oth street, where the Academy would be accom- 
modated free of rent, according to the proposal made and accepted 
last spring. 

Prof. D. S. Martin, the Chairman of the Publication Committee, 
was authorized to remove all the property of the Academy, now at 
No. 12 West 31st street, to a room provided without charge in the 
building of Columbia College. 

It was ‘‘ Resolved, that the Secretary of the Academy be em- 
powered to act for the Academy in extending an invitation to.the 
American Association for the Advancement of Science to hold its 
meeting of 1884 in New York city, and to communicate on the 
subject with the Permanent Secretary of the Association and with 
the other scientific societies of the city.” 

The resignation of Dr. RYLANCE was accepted. 

The Publication Committee reported, through its Chairman, 
Prof. D. S. Martin, that Number 12, the closing part of Volume 
II. of the Annals, was in type, and nearly ready for issue and dis- 
tribution. 

Mr. Georce F. Kunz exhibited a number of remarkable and 
‘interesting minerals, comprising a large set of fine zeolites from 


1883. 155 Trans. N. Y. Ac. Sct. 


several tunnels through the trap ridge of Bergen Hill, and other 
species from North Carolina. 
Dr. J. S. NEwBERRY then read the following paper : 


THE EVIDENCES OF ANCIENT GLACIATION IN NORTH AMERICA, 
AND THEIR BEARING ON THE THEORY OF AN ICE PERIOD. 


(Abstract). 


Prof. Newberry exhibited a map of North America, on which he had 
represented all the known glaciated areas, and described, chiefiy from 
his own observations, such as lie within the limits of the United 
States. He showed from the facts given, first, that glaciers once cov- 
ered most of the elevated portions of the mountain belts in the Far 
West, as far south as the 36th and, in the eastern half of the Continent, 
the 4oth parallels ; second, that the ancient glaciers were not pheno- 
mena produced by local causes, but were evidences of a general 
climatic condition ; third, that they could not have been produced by a 
warm climate and an abundant precipitation of moisture ; fourth, that 
they were the products of a general depression of temperature, and 
therefore were proofs of the truth of the glacial theory. The facts pre- 
sented may be briefly summarized as follows. 

The glaciation of the Sierra Nevada is general and very striking ; it 
has been described by Whitney, King, Le Conte, and others, who have 
given abundant proof that all the highest portion of the range was once 
covered with snow-fields, and that glaciers descended from these down 
the valleys on either side. 

Mt. Shasta once bore many great glaciers, of which miniature repre- 
sentatives still remain. 

The Cascade Mountains exhibit perhaps the most stupendous record 
of ice-action known. All the higher portions of the range are planed 
down and furrowed by glaciers, which descended into the valley of the 
Des Chutes on the east, and that of the Willamette on the west, as 
shown by the observations of the speaker in 1855, at least 2,500 feet 
below the present snow-line. Mt. Ranier still carries glaciers of con- 
siderable size; and all the country around, as well as about Puget’s 
Sound and on Vancouver’s Island, shows evidence of former glaciation 
In British Columbia the signs of ancient glacial action, as shown by 
George M. Dawson, Dr. Hector, Richardson, etc., are conspicuous in 
all the high country explored. The valleys of the Wasatch range were 
once filled with masses of ice as far south as central Utah. A type of 
these was the Little Cottonwood glacier of which the record has been 
carefully studied by Dr. Newberry. It formed in a cirque at Alta, 
10,000 to 11,000 feet above the sea, had a length of about ten miles, a 
thickness—as shown by the line of granitic blocks left along its sides— 


Trans. N.Y. Ac. Sez. 156 June 4, 


of 500 feet or more, and its lower end was only 5,500 feet above the sea. 

The glaciation of the Uinta range has been graphically described by 
King, who says that the ancient glaciers of these mountains occupied a 
greater area than all those of the Alps. 

In the Rocky Mountain belt the signs of glaciers abound, from the 
northern part of New Mexico through Colorado, and along the great 
divide in Wyoming, Montana and Idaho. 

In these Western mountain ranges the glaciers were far more ex- 
tensive than any now to be found on the earth’s surface, unless on the 
Antarctic continent or Greenland. The record they have left consists 
of planed, grooved and striated rocks, covering immense areas, lateral 
and terminal moraines, moraine lakes, etc., etc..—a record which is 
as legible and reliable as any printed page. 

In the country east of the Mississippi, the evidence of ancient glacia- 
tion is even more widespread and impressive than in the Far West. 
All the surface rocks of Canada, of New England, of New York, and 
the greater part of Ohio, Indiana, Illinois and Wisconsin, bear marks of 
ice-action, and are generally covered with a sheet of drift material 
which has been carried by glaciers from the north southward, often 
many hundred miles. This glaciated and drift-covered area extends 
from Maine and Massachusetts westward in a belt parallel with the 
arch of the Canadian Highlands, 500 miles wide and more than 2,000 
miles long. Its extension northward from the head-waters of the 
Mississippi has not been traced further than ‘Lake Winnipeg, where it 
was studied by Hind ; but there are good reasons for believing that it 
extends to the Arctic Ocean, and that the great lakes of the North, like 
those of the St. Lawrence chain (Superior, Huron, Michigan, etc.), are 
old river-valleys scooped out and: modified by glaciers. Above the 
Canadian line, George M. Dawson reports that the glacial drift from 
the Canadian Highlands extends westward till it meets that which 
was spread eastward from the Rocky Mountain belt. 

From the facts already gathered, it is a justifiable inference that 
fully one-half of the continent of North America, north of the 36th 
parallel, was at one time covered with ice or perpetual snow, and, so 
far as we can now judge, the glaciation of all the areas enumerated 
was synchronous, and that it occurred at the same time with the great 
expansion of the glaciers of Europe. 

Some writers have attempted to prove that a large part of the glacial 
phenomena described are‘really the work of icebergs, and the conse- 
quences of a great’ continental subsidence ; but no man who has studied 
‘the inscriptions made by glaciers will hold to such a theory, when he 
has traversed much of the glaciated areas east or west of the Missis- 


sippi. 


1883. 157 Trans. N. Y, Ac. Sci. 


While the phenomena described above are unmistakable, and con- 
stitute an indisputable record of the prevalence of ice-sheets over 
great areas of our continent, much speculation has been lavished upon 
the possible causes of such accumulations of ice and snow as have here 
left their marks. In a voluminous and elaborate review of the subject 
recently published by Prof. J. D. Whitney, the glacial record is mis- 
represented and belittled. By this author it is stated that ice has little 
or no eroding power, while every one who has traveled through the 
glaciated areas has noticed the peculiar impress left upon the topo- 
graphy by the old glaciers ; and the sheet of drift material now remain- 
ing, as the result of ice-erosion,—over one area, 2,000 miles long and 
500 miles wide, from 30 to 50 feet thick—is in itself a sufficient answer 
to this assertion. 

But our drift deposits are only a remnant of the mass of material 
eroded by the glaciers. Most of the flour they ground—the clay—-has 
been washed away, and, over great areas, only the bran—gravel, sand 
and boulders--remains. All the streams flowing from glaciers are 
turbid with sediment supplied by the grinding of rocks by ice. This 
has been measured in some cases, andthe erosive power of glaciers 
has then been not only demonstrated but quantitatively determined ; 
for example, the daily transport of sediment from the Aar glaciers in 
August is 280 tons, and Helland states that 69,000 cubic meters of 
solid rock are annually worn away by the Justedal glacier of Norway 
(Geikie) ; and yet we are told that ice has little or no eroding power ! 

By Professor WHITNEY the few glaciers, of which the record cannot 
be ignored or sophisticated, are considered as the product of local 
causes, and not as evidence of an zce ferzod, which it is the great object 
of his book to disprove. The immense extent, however, of the glaciated 
area, reaching as it does, from the Atlantic to the Pacific, from the 36th 
parallel northward on high lands, and the goth on low lands, as well as 
the evidence of approximate or exact synchronism in the phenomena, 
make it impossible to accept the theory of local causes. 

We are in fact driven to the necessity of referring the record toa 
general climatic condition. What this condition was, is the next point 
for investigation ; its cause or causes still another. Professor WHITNEY, 
following LECOQ and others, claims that since snow and ice are mois- 
ture evaporated elsewhere by heat, the extension of glaciers at any time 
or place is simply an effect of increased heat and not cold; and hence 
if there ever was an ice period—meaning a time when glaciers were 
‘more widespread than now—it must have been:a warmer period than 
the present, with more copious precipitation. Only a few of many facts 
need be cited to show that this theory is untenable. First, glaciers are 
-now. confined to altitudes and latitudes, where the temperatureis low— 


Transv iV, V.Ac. See. 158 June 4, 


Alpine summits and the Arctic and Antarctic continents. To widen 
and intensify the conditions which now produce glaciers would neces- 
sarily induce an extension of snow and ice. Second, on the Cascade 
mountains we find a copious precipitation of rain and snow, but no ice, 
where great glaciers formerly existed. The snow-line is 7,000 feet 
above the ocean ; and there the temperature is high enough to permit 
the most vigorous growth of trees and smaller plants. The fir forests 
here meet the snow-banks in actual mechanical conflict, and the front 
ranks of trees, though of good size, are weighed down by the snow, 
and grow prone and interlaced upon the ground. 

The snow-fields rise 3,000 to 4,000 feet above the snow-line, and there 
are miniature glaciers at the heads of the valleys—relics of the great 
glaciers that once filled these valleys to their mouths. The precipita- 
tion remains, the snow fall remains, but the glaciers are gone! 

Here we have just the conditions most favorable to the formation of 
glaciers, according to the theory of those who regard them as thermal 
phenomena, but no glaciers, because of the high annual temperature. 
With a depression of temperature, which should cause the rain-bearing 
winds from the Pacific to do all the year what they now do only in 
winter, viz., heap up snow on the highlands, the mountain slopes and 
draining valleys would soon be occupied by glaciers again. So if win- 
ter conditions could be made permanent on the great water-shed of the 
Canadian Highlands, and the flow of the St. Lawrence, Mississippi and 
Red River be retained in the form of snow and ice, glaciers would 
soon fill again the lake basins, over-ride the highest summits, and cover 
with an ice-sheet all the old glaciated areas. Evenif the evaporation 
from adjacent seas was somewhat diminished by the cold, that would 
not change the result, though it would prolong the time. If the evap- 
oration in the region surrounding the North and South poles is, as we 
have demonstrative evidence, sufficient to produce continental glaciers 
on Greenland and the Antarctic continent, it requires no argument to 
show that like conditions would produce like results in what is now the 
temperate zone. 

The relations which the ancient great lakes of the Far West bore to 
the former glaciation of the same region is an interesting subject of in- 
quiry. It has been suggested that it is the relation of cause and effect, 
but this seems hardly possible. They may have been synchronous, and 
to some extent co-operative phenomena, but the relationship was rather 
fraternal than filial. The cause of the former great breadth of water- 
surface was either an increased precipitation or a diminished evapora- 
tion. We not only have no record of any change in the relationship of 
the North American continent to the Pacific, in modern times geolog- 
ically speaking, but the evidence against any change is conclusive. 


TANS. iN OS eAGe Ce. 159 June 4, 


Everything indicates that the system of rain-bearing winds, the topo- 
graphy, and hence the precipitation have been substantially the same 
for a long period. But any cause which could produce a depression of 
temperature would certainly diminish evaporation, and form lakes in 
the valleys and glaciers onthe mountains. To prove this, we have only 
to cite the phenomena presented by summer and winter in the western 
territories. In winter, the snow-fall on the highlands is heavy, and the 
accumulation of moisture in this form 1s large. The skies are cloudy, 
and evaporation is small. In summer, the sky is cloudless, the heat in- 
tense, evaporation and desiccation rapid. In the spring the snows 
melt, flood the valleys and form temporary lakes, which in midsummer 
dry up to flayas. A perpetuation of the conditions of winter and 
spring would inevitably produce glaciers and lakes, and these would 
be essentially synchronous. A depression of temperature, which should 
intensify and prolong the present winter, and make midsummer like 
the present May, would inevitably produce glaciers and lakes, in the 
main synchronous, and thus would accomplish all that we find recorded. 
But to intensify and prolong summer by an elevation of temperature, 
would not produce either lakes or glaciers. 

That the ice period was cold and not warm, is further proved by the 
prevalence of an Arctic flora and fauna onthe land and in the sea, in 
all regions near the old glaciers. The Arctic shells of the Champlain, 
the Arctic plants in the Quatenary clays, the reindeer, musk ox, woolly 
mammoth and woolly rhinoceres, all tell the same undeniable story. 

From the facts cited, and others of similar import in the southern and 
northern hemispheres, we must conclude, Ist, that a glacial period has 
prevailed simultaneously or alternately in both hemispheres ; and 2d, 
that the glacial period or periods were periods of lower temperature 
than that of the present day. 

An inquiry into the cazse of the cold of the ice period would open a 
question beyond the scope of this paper, and one too broad and sugges- 
tive to be discussed to any purpose in the time at our command. | 
may say, however, in passing, that I have elsewhere shown that no ar- 
rangement of land and sea, consistent with the known facts of Tertiary 
and Quaternary history, will enable.us to refer that cold to any topo- 
graphical or even telluric cause. Some extraneous influence, such as a 
variation in the heat radiated by the sun, as suggested by NEWCOmp, 
or a variation in the eccentricity of the earth’s orbit, as advocated by 
CROLL, or some other cosmical cause, must be credited with effects so 
widespread and stupendous as the ice period has left behind it. 

The Academy then adjourned to meet October 1 in the new 
building of Columbia College, at Forty-ninth street and Madison 
avenue. 


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US Cyeeale pene m 


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