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TRANSACTIONS 


OF THE 


ROYAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH. 


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PRINTED FOR T. CADELL JUN. AND W: DAVIES 


(SUCCESSORS TO MR CADELL) IN THE STRAND, LONDON, 
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J. DICKSON, AND E. BALFOUR, EDINBURGH, 


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CONTENTS 


FOURTH VOLUME. 


POAC et 
AIS TOR Yof- the SOCIETY. 
Four Theorems for refolving all the Cafes of Plane and Spheri- 


cal Triangles, by the Reverend Mr Fither, - Page. 4. 
Differtation on the Philofophy of oe Heat, and Fire, by 
Dr Hutton, . = - - vB 
Improvement of the Mercurial bee by Mr Keith, be 17. 
Experiments on the Effects of Opium on the Living Animal, by 
Dr Wilfon, = - -- - 18... 
On the Diurnal Variations of the Barometer, by Dr Balfour 
of Calcutta, - ~ - 255. 
On the Sulpburating of ie by Dr Hiaton, - 27. 
New Obfervatory at Aberdeen, ~ 29. 
Mak ee N Dat X., 
Office. Bearers of the Society; - - = ar. 
List of MEemsBeERs, continued from the third Volume, - Ba, 
- MEMBERS DECEASED, -. = - 36. 
Donations, = * = at 38. 
I. Biographical Account of Lord Abercromby, . (1). 
NH. Biographical Account of William ret Efq; of Wood- 
| heufelee, ~ - - (47): 


Ill. Biogra-- 


vi 4 EO IN eT ied 6-6, 


MW. Bzggraphical Account of Mr William Hamilton, late 
Profeffor of Anatomy and see in the Univerfity of 


| Glafgow, = = - Page (35). 
IV. Biographical Account of John Racback, MeuDi = (65). 
i ae Py od Daeg 3 
PAPERS READ BEFORE THE SOCIETY: 
he 


PAPERS OF THE PHYSICAL CLASS. 


I. Account of a Mineral from Strontian, and of a peculiar 
Species of Earth which it contains. By Thomas 
Charles Hope, Profeffor * Ae Medicine in the Uni- 


verfity of Glafgow, Page 3. 
Il. Obfervations on the Natural Ht sffory of Guiana. By 

William Lochead, Efq; - = 4I. 
Ill. On the Principles of the Antecedental Calculus. By , 

James Glenie, Efq; - = 65. 


IV. Obfervations on the Trigonometrical Tables of the Brab~ 
mins. By John Playfair, Profeffor of Mathematics 
in the Univerfity of Edinburgh, - - 8 3. 
V. Some Geometrical Porifms, with Examples of their Ap- 
plication to the Solution of Problems. By Mr Wil- 
liam Wallace, Afiflant-Teacher of the Mathematics 


in the Academy of Perth, ~ - 107. 

V+. On the Latitude and Longitude of Aberdeen. By An- — 
drew Mackay, LL. D. & F. R. S. Edin. - 135: 
VI. 


* Now Joint Profeffor of Chemiftry in the Univerfity of Edinburgh. 


+ By miftake No. V. is repeated. 


COIN ee. BING Ts, Se 


VI. dn Account of certain Motions which fmall lighied 
Wicks acquire, when fwimming on a Bafon of Oil. 


By Patrick Wilfon, F. R. S. Edin. and Profeffor of 


Vil 


Praétical Aftronomy in the Univerfity of Glafgow, Page 163: 


VII. Account of a Singular Halo of the Moon. By William 
Hall, Efq; of Whitehall, F. R. S. Edin. “ 
VII. A New Series for the Rectification of the Ellipfis, with 
Obfervations on the Evolution of a certain Algebraic 
Formula. By James Ivory, A. M. as 


IX. Mineralogical Defcription of the Mountain of Gibral- — 


tar. By Major Imrie. . - 

X. Defcription of a Thermometer, which marks the great- 
eff Degree of Heat and Cold from one Time of Ob- 
fervation to another.. By Alexander Keith, Big: 
F.R. S. & F. A. S. Edin. . 

XI. Defeription of a Barometer which marks the Rife and 
Fall of the Mercury from two different Times of Ob- 
Jervation. By Alexander Keith, Efq; F. R. S. & 


F. A. 5, Edin. : ss = 
XII.- Meteorological Abfiradt for the Years 1794 1705; 
1796, « “ 


II. 
PAPERS OF THE LITERARY CLASS. 


¥. On the Origin and Principles of Gothic Architecture. By 
‘Sir James Hall, Bart. F. R. & A. S. S. Edin. - 
II. M. CHEVALIER’s Tableau de la Plaine de Troye idlu- 
Jtrated and confirmed from the Obfervations of fub- 
Sequent Travellers and others. By Andrew Dalzel, 
M.A. F.R.S. Edin. Profeffor of Greek in the 
Univerfity of Edinburgh, - - 


174. 


177: 


1g!. 


209. 


213. 


2g. 


ADVER- 


ADVERTISEMENT. 


Edinburgh, February. 15. 1798. 


AT a Meeting of the Council of the Royal Society it was,. 
this day, Re/olved, That a Publication of Papers, communicated 
to the Society, fhall hereafter be made annually, whether fuch 
Papers be fufficient to form an entire Volume, or only a Part. 


of a Volume. 


TRANS- 


ffi JG OF Of Ren 


pS PY a 8 Na Bre a ONS aa a 


FICHE Third Volume of thefe Tran/actions brings down the 

_ Hiftory of the Society no farther than the end of the 
year 1792, though it contains feveral Papers that are of a later 
date. 


Phyf. Cl. Dr Monro read a paper, entitled, Obfervations on ae 
the Mufcles, and particularly on the Effects of the Oblique Fi- ps Monro on d 
the muicles, an 


bres.. This paper is inferted in the Third Volume of the Tranf- onthe efiedtsof 
actions, Part II. No. XIII. p. 250. Hae cli Be 


Lit. Cl. Mr Stewart read the firft part of his Biographical ‘Jan. aI. 
Account of the late ADam Smrru, LL. D.. [See Vol. I. Hitt. osehc 
. ? Smith, 

P- 55-1] 


5 


a. 2: Lit, 


61793: 
"Mas. 2ae 
Eiographical 
account of Dr 
Smith. 

April 3. 
Mr Playfair on 
porifms. 


Mr Fither on 
*trigonometry. 


4 HISTORY of the SOCIETY. 


Lit. Cl, Mr Stewart read the remainder of the Biographi- 
cal Account of the late ADAm SmiTH, LL. D. 


~ Phyf. Cl. Mr Puayratr read fome Obfervations on Porifms, 
additional to thofe formerly communicated. Thefe were in- 
tended to prove, that the propofitions called Porifms do not, as 
fome mathematicians have alleged, involve in them any viola- 
tion of the daw of continuity. ‘This fubje@ belongs to the fecond 
part of the paper, No. VII. of the preceding volume; which fe- 


cond part has not yet been fully communicated to the Society. 


Ar this meeting was alfo read a paper on Trigonometry, 
entitled, An Eafy and General Method for, folving all the Cafes 
of Plane and Spherical Triangles, by the Reverend WALTER 
FisHER, minifter at Cranftoun. 

Ir has long been an object with mathematicians to reduce the 


rules of trigonometry to the fmalleft number poflible, and to 


give them the form moft eafily retained in the memory. Lord 
Napier, whofe difcoveries have fo much facilitated and abrid- 
ged the labour of numerical calculation, applied himfelf to fim- 
plify the rules of trigonometry with great fuccefs. He in- 
vented the rule of the Circular Parts, which gives an apparent 
unity to theorems, where a real unity is wanting, and is per- 
haps the moft fortunate attempt toward an artificial memory that 
has been made by any of the moderns. 

Various improvements of this rule have fince been pro- 
pofed. That of M. Pincre# is one of the beft: He retains 
Lord Napier’s arrangement of the circular parts, and reduces 


the rules of fpherical trigonometry to four; the two firft of 


which are NapPrer’s, and the other two a generalization of the 
common theorems refpeCting the fegments, into which the 
perpendicular, drawn to any fide of a fpherical triangle, di- 


vides that fide, and alfo the angle from which it is drawn. See 
Mem. 


HISTORY of the SOCIETY. c 


Mem. Acad. Sciences, 1756, p. 301. ‘There is a fifth rule, it 
muft be obferved, neceflary for the cafe, when the three fides, 
or three angles of the triangle, are given, as this cafe refufes to 
fubmit to NAPIER’s rule in any form of it. © 

Tue author of the paper, now communicated to the Society, 
has alfo been fuccefsful in his attempt to render the rules of tri- 
gonometry eafily retained in the memory. He employs the 
circular parts, and makes ufe of fewer rules than M. PINGRE, 
as he has only four, including one for the cafe juft mentioned. 

Tue theorems Mr FisHER employs are’not new, but they 
are judicioufly feleéted, and are lefs embarrafling in the ap- 
plication than either thofe of Napier or PINGRE. They are as 
‘little as poflible fubje& to ambiguity ; they do not require the 
letting fall a perpendicular, and res apply both to plane and 
{pherical triangles. 


1. M denotes the middle part of the triangle, and muft al- 
ways be affumed betwixt two given parts. It is either a fide or 
the fupplement of an angle. 

2. A and a are the two parts adjacent to the middle, and of 
a different denomination from it. : 

3- O and o denote the two parts oppofite to the adjacent 
parts, and of the fame denomination with the middle part. 

4. lis the laft or moft diftant part, and of a different deno- 
mination from the middle part. 


THEOR. 


1793- 

OV, As 
Dr Hope on a 
mineral from 
Strontian. 


6 HISTORY of the SOCIETY. 


TEL foe 
. ; 


Pe ae A NE ire ae 


THEOR. . I, 
Sin ars : fin peers ; tan Oa 3 tan 258 
2 . 2 2 
THEOR. II. 
Tan. Gage ose Os eee 
2 2 2 
THEOR. i 
Sin AX fina:1:: —— x fin —— fi 


m 


Mr FisHEer recommends, for the purpofe of remembering 
thefe rules, to commit to memory the words Sao, Satom, Tao, 
Sarfalm, formed from the abreviation of the terms of the above 
proportions. It is obvious that thefe four theorems apply to 
plane triangles, providing that, inftead of the fine or tangent of 
a fide, you take the fide itfelf. 


Phyf. Cl. Dr Hore read a paper, giving an account of a Mi- 
neral from Strontian in Argylefhire, and of a Peculiar Species of 
Earth contained in it. A fhort abftract of this paper was in- 

ferted 


HISTORY of the SOCIETY. : 


ferted in the laft volume of the Tranfactions. The paper it- 
felf is the firft of the Phyfical Clafs in this volume. [See Part II. 


Pte | 


Phyf. Cl. Dr Monro read a paper, being Experiments on 
the Nervous Syftem with Opium and Metalline Subftances, 
with a view of determining the Nature and Effects of Animal 
Electricity. This paper is publifhed feparately. 


AT this meeting a paper was alfo communicated from AN- 
prew Mackay, LL. D. containing an Account of a Series of 
Obfervations, made by him in the Obfervatory at Aberdeen, 
for determining the Latitude of that place. 


Dr Mackay alfo promifed to fend his Obfervations for de- 
termining the Longitude of the Obfervatory. Thefe were not 
received till September 1796. Both papers are inferted in this 
volume, Part II. Hs or Vip. P35. 


Dr James ANDERSON read a paper, entitled, Obfervations 
on Peat Mofs. ‘This paper has been publifhed feparately. 


Phyf. Cl. A paper was read from Mr Locueap, F. R. S. 
Edin. on the Natural Hiftory of Guiana. It is inferted in this 
volume, Part II. No. II. p. 41. 


Phyf. Cl. Dr Wurron read the firft part of a paper, being a 
Differtation on the Philofophy of Light, Heat, and Fire. This 
paper, which confifted of feveral parts, was read at the different 
Meetings of the Society in May, June, July, Auguft, and De- 
cember, of this year. It has been fince publifhed feparately in 
one volume 8vo. ‘The following abftra@t contains an account 


of 


1793> 
Dec. 2. 
Dr Monro on 
the nervous fy- 
ftem. 


Dr Mackay on 
the latitude of 
Aberdeen. = 


1794. 
Jan. 6. 
Dr Anderfon on 

peat mois. 


March 3. 
Mr Lochead on 
the natural hi 
tory of Guiana» 


April 7, 
Dr Hutton on 
the philofophy 
of light, heat, 
and fire. 


8 HISTORY of the SOCIETY. 


of the object of the PaePaow: he of fome of the remlodivie 
employed in it. 

Dr Hutton was led into the fpeculations contained in the 
Differtation, by an account of two experiments made by M M. DE 
SAussuRE and PicreT of Geneva. In the firft of thefe experi- 
ments, two concave {pecula were placed oppofite and parallel to 
one another, about twelve feet diftant; and in the focus of one of 
them was a ball of iron, which had been heated to incandefcence, 
but allowed to cool till it was no longer luminous, even in the 
dark, In the focus of the other fpeculum a thermometer was 
placed, which prefently rofe 8° (of ReEaumur’s fcale) above 
another that {tood near it, but without the focus. Voyages dans 
les Alpes, tom. LI. § 926. 

To account for this phenomenon, M. DE Saussure fuppofes, 
that there exifts what M. Lambert and fome other philofophers 
have called radiant heat, and that this heat may be obfcure, and 
not accompanied with light.. This radiant heat he conceives to 
be reflected in the fame manner that lights, and by that means 
to have produced the effect on a thermometer that has juft 
been defcribed. 

To this folution Dr Hutton objects, alleging, that it afcribes 
properties or capacities to heat which are inconfiftent altogether 
with our notions of it. We know heat only as a quality of 
bodies, and as acting either in expanding them, when it is call- 
ed fenfible heat, or in giving them fluidity, when it is termed la- 
tent heat. We never perceive it as exifting in any other fhape, 
and therefore, to fuppofe it capable of moving through fpace, 
independently of body, and of being reflected from a polifhed 
furface, is to afcribe to heat properties not predicable of it, and 
quite inconfiftent with its nature, fo far as we have information 
concerning it. 

Dr Hutton therefore propofes another explanation. From 


experiments which he had made, long fince, he had found that 
the 


HISTORY of the SOCIETY. 9 


the different fpecies of light, when of equal intenfity, as eftima- 
ted by the eye, are of unequal intenfity when their effect is 
meafured by the thermometer. In thefe experiments he ren- 
dered light of different colours equally intenfe to the eye, 
by increafing or diminifhing the diftance from’ the luminous 
body, till he could juft read by the light of it. In this way he 
compared the red light from a fire of coals, with the white light 
of flame, and found, that while they were equally powerful in 
affording vifion, the red was incomparably the moft powerful 
in producing heat. 

Wuen a body, therefore, is heated to incandefcence, like the 
iron ball in M. pe Saussure’s experiment, it emits at firft the 
white or compound light, but as it cools, the light which it 
emits becomes of the red fpecies, and this is the laft that difap- 
pears. As the body cools, therefore, the power of its light, to 
produce heat, increafes in proportion to its power to afford vi- 
fion, and, therefore, when this laft vanifhes, or ceafes entirely, 
the other may {till remain in a certain degree. Thus, in the 
experiment juft defcribed, the iron ball, after it had loft all light 
to the eye, continued to emit rays of light, which, though they 
made no impreflion on the organ of vifion, had power to pro- 
duce heat, and expand the mercury in the thermometer. To the 
principle, therefore, of the irradiation of obfcure heat, by which 
M. DE Saussure explains the above phenomenon, Dr Hutron 
fubftitutes that of ob/cure, or invifible light, which, though it be 
in appearance more paradoxical, is in reality free from the very 
{trong objections which prefs againft the other hypothefis. 

WE mutt not omit to obferve, that M. Picret varied the ex- 
periment, by placing a matrafs full of boiling water, inftead of 
the iron ball, in the focus of one of the fpecula. The thermome- 
ter im the other was ftill affe¢ted, and raifed a little more than a 
degree. The irradiation of invifible light explains this alfo; for it 
_is natural to fuppofe, that fuch an irradiation takes place from 
Vou. EV. b all 


10 AYTSTORY of. the. SOCTEMF. 


all bodies, when above a certain temperature, whether they be 
im the act of cooling down from incandefcence or not. 

Tue fame ingenious and accurate obferver, made another 
change in the circumftances of the experiment, by fmoking the 
bulb of the thermometer; in confequence of which it was heat- 
_ ed fooner, and rofe higher than before. This appearance is per- 
feftly conformable to Dr Hurron’s theory, and feems quite 
inconfiftent with the other. ‘The black coating of the bulb, by 
its well known property of abforbing light, tended to accelerate 
and increafe the effect of the light in heating the thermometer ; 
but the fame coating being of fmoke, and a very bad con- 
ductor of heat, muft have oppofed the tranfmiffion of heat 
through the glafs, and have both retarded and diminithed its 
effect. | 

NoTHING, indeed, can be more unlike than the laws which 
ufually regulate the propagation of light and heat. To move 
with extreme velocity through the tranfparent fubftance of 
fome bodies, without heating them in any fenfible degree; to 
be reflected from the furfaces of others, without entering them 
at all; and, laftly, to be abforbed by certain bodies, neither 
pafling through them, nor being reflected from them, thefe are 
the properties of light. . Heat, on the other hand, is lowly pro- 
pagated through .all bodies, combines with them intimately in 
its paflage, and often remains at reft without any motion what- 
ever. is 

THE converfion of thefe experiments, which was very inge- 
nioufly imagined by M. Prictert, led to a fact ftill more fingu- 
lar and unexpected. Inftead of. the heated body, he placed a 
matrafs, with ice in the focus of one of the fpecula ; the confe- 
quence was, that the thermometer in the focus of the other was 
fenfibly depreffed.. When the cold was increafed, by pouring 
nitrous acid on the ice, the depreffion of the thermometer was 
alfo increafed. 

| To 


HISTORY of the SOCIETY. it 


To account for this phenomenon, M. Pictrer tonfiders the 
thermometer as the body irradiating heat, and the matrafs with 
the ice as the body which receives it, fo that the experiment 1s 
the fame with the former, only that the ob{cure heat moves in 
the contrary direction. MOTTE 

Tuts explanation, however, is not only liable to the objec- 
tions that have been made, in general, to the fuppofition of ra- 
diant and obfcure heat, but it involves in it new difficulties. It 
implies, for inftance, that the irradiation from the heated body 
is affected by the ftate of the body which receives that irradia- 
tion, a principle furely contrary to all analogy. In the irradia- 
tion of light from a luminous body, nothing fimilar to this is 
obferved: Whether the light of a candle: fall on a white wall, 
by which it is reflected, or on a black wall, by which it is ab- 
forbed, no difference is produced in the quantity of light emit- 
ed, but it remains in both cafes the fame. In no cafe, it fhould 
feem, can the quantity of the radiating matter depend on the 
condition of the recipient bodies ; yet, according to the prece- 
ding explanation, a body muft be fuppofed to irradiate heat 
more copioufly when the body on which the irradiation falls 
is cold than when it is hot; a fuppofition which, being, as has 
been faid, contrary to analogy, cannot be admitted. 

THE Doctor next proceeds to offer his own explanation, but 
with the diffidence that ought to accompany every attempt to 
account for a phenomenon fo fingular as this, and having fo little 
analogy with any other fact that relates to the communication of 
heat. He fuppofes that all bodies irradiate invifible light, when 
they are of an ordinary temperature, and that this irradiation di- 
minifhes as their heat diminifhes. The temperature of the 
thermometer, therefore, in the above experiment, is to be confi- 
dered, like that of all other bodies, as being maintained by the . 
action of two caufes, viz. the irradiation of invifible light from 
the furrrounding bodies, and the communication of heat from — 

b 2 them 


12 HISTORY of the SOCIETY. 


them by contact. ‘The thermometer, therefore, that is placed 
in the focus of one of the mirrors, in the above experiment, 
will be affe@ted by any body whatfoever that is placed in the 
focus of the other. If that body be cooled below the tempera- 
ture of the furrounding bodies, lefs light wall be irradiated from 
it, and refleéted on the thermometer ; the thermometer, there- 
fore, will be deprefled, till the influx of heat from the air, or 
other bodies with which it is in contaét, fupply the deficiency. 
This, however, is thrown out rather as a queftion to be refol- 
ved by future obfervations, than as a theory already eftablith- 
ed. The experiments by which it muft ftand or fall are not 
indeed difficult to be imagined. They are however of extreme 
delicacy in the performance; and Dr Hurron, who, in differ- 
ing from the philofophers of Geneva, does eae to the accu- 
racy and judgment with which they have conduéted their in- 
quiries, exprelles a with, that the {kill and ingenuity of M. Pic- 
TLT were again directed toward this object. 

By the preceding inquiry, Dr Hutron was led to pes 
the connection between light and fire, as well as between hght 
and heat ; a fubject which he had formerly treated of in feve- 
ral papers read before the Royal Society, and afterwards pu- 
blifhed in his chemical differtations. 

In thefe he objected to the theory of fire as laid down by M. 
LavoisizR, and the French chemifts ; acknowledging, at the 
fame time, that the oxygenating of bodies, by vital air, is to be 
ranked among the greateft difcoveries in phyfics. It is a difco- 
very, however, in his opinion, that will by no means explain all 
the phenomena of burning, by which the exiftence of fome 
other caufe is clearly pointed out, belide the decompofition of 
the vital air, and the extrication of the calorique or latent beat, 
which maintained: the air in a ftate of fluidity. The arguments 
in fupport of this aflertion, which Dr Hutron, employs here, 
are founded, on the appearances exhibited by bodies; burning 

without 


HISTORY of th SOCIETY. ry 


without flame, and burning with flame ; that is, on the pheno- 
mena of combuftion and inflammation. 

In the combuftion of a piece of charcoal, two diftinct effects 
may be traced, viz. 1. The oxygenating of the carbonic fub- 
{ftance, by which fixed air is produced, or carbonic acid in an 
elaftic ftate; 2. The production of a great quantity of light 
and heat, while the charcoal is undergoing this change. It is 
with refpect to this laft part of the procefs only that different 
opinions are entertained, The phlogiftic theory maintains, that 
in the oxygenation of the carbonic {fubftance by the vital air, 
the phlogiftic matter of that fubftance is fet free from combi- 
nation with it, and in making its efcape exhibits the phenomena 
of light and heat. 

Tue antiphlogiftic theory, on the other hand, fuppofes, that, 
by the decompofition or the condenfation which the vital air 
undergoes, while it oxygenates the carbonic fubftance, the la- 
tent heat is transferred to that fubftance, and produces light and 
fire. | | 

Now, if it can be fhewn that a burning coal, though placed 
ya circumftances the moft favourable for its oxygenation, may 
meverthelefs lofe its heat, and ceafe to burn entirely, it is cer- 
tain, that it is net alone by the calorigue of the vital air that the 
fire is fapported. Let then a confolidated piece of charcoal, fuch 
as the mineral kingdom, in many places, affords in great perfec- 
tion, be heated to the higheft degree of incandefcence, and 
expofed, infulated, to the atmofpheric air. Here every condi- 
tion is united favourable to the oxygenation of the coal, a fuf- 
ficient quantity of heat, and free accefs of air. If the heat, fup- 
pled from the decompofition of the vital air, were able to main- 
tain the heat of the coal, it would continue to burn; but the 
fat is, that, in fuch a fituation as is here defcribed, the coal 
dofes, its heat, and at is at laft extinguifhed. It is. plain, there- 


14 HISTORY of the SOCLETY. 


fore, that more heat is loft by communication with the atmof 
phere than is acquired from the decompofition of the vital air. 

Now, let the experiment be fo far varied, that the incandef- 
cent coal, inftead of being fufpended fingly in the atmofphere, 
is furrounded with other burning coals, that are likewife fufpend- 
ed, and at fuch a diftance from it as to leave room for the free 
paflage of a current of air: We know, with certainty, that the 
central coal will now continue to burn as long as thofe that fur- 
round it are incandefcent, or emit a certain degree of light. But 
the circumftances of the coal, in this experiment, are in nothing 
more favourable to the receiving of heat from the decompofi- 
tion of the vital air than they were in the former ; for if it be 
faid, that the air afcends through the greater mafs of burning 
matter, with more rapidity than before, and fo depofits more of 
the calorique, it muft be remembered, that it alfo abftraéts more 
heat from the coals, juft in the fame proportion, or in propor- 
tion to its rapidity. If then the antiphlogiftic theory be true, the 
heat acquired by the coal, in the one of thefe experiments, 
fhould be to the heat abftraéted from it, in the fame ratio that 
the heat, acquired in the other experiment, is to the heat abftract- 

-ed. But this does not hold; for the heat acquired, in the firft 
experiment, is lefs than the heat abftracted, and in the fecond it 
is not lefs, but is either equal, or greater. Therefore the anti- 
phlogiftic theory is not true; that is to fay, the theory which 
derives the fupply of heat, in burning secs Gerke — the 
calorique of the vital air. 

We muft therefore admit another caufe, before we can fully 
explain combuftion ; and this can be no other than the extrica- 
tion of the phlogiftic matter of the body which is oxygenated, 
the converfion of that matter into Here, and then the proaee 
tion of heat. 

In the phenomena of inflammation, Dr Hutton thinks that 


the proofs of his theory of fire are no lefs conclufive than in 
thofe 


HISTORY of, the SOCIETY. LS 


thofe of combuftion. . The inconceivable rapidity with which 
fire is propagated through an inflammable and tranfparent va- 
pour, is among the moft remarkable.of thofe phenomena, and 
is certainly inconfiftent with the new theory of burning, and 
indeed with every other that makes fire to be produced by heat 
alone. Let.an inflammable fluid. be heated till it boil, and to 
the top of the column of vapour emitted from it let the {malleft 
fpark of flame be applied. .The vapour is kindled, and, how- 
ever high the column, the flame defcends in an inftant to the 
furface of the inflammable fubftance, and {ets fire to it. Now, 
it is impoflible that mere, heat could, defcend in this manner, 
againft the ftream of vapour that is continually rifing from the 
boiling fluid. ,This is quite contrary to the laws by which it 
is ufually propagated; and it fhould feem, that the fat can on- 
ly be accounted for by the celerity with which light moves 
through tranfparent, bodies, and by fuppofing that the extrica- 
tion of light is the immediate caufe of burning. 

THE above inftance is conformable to the experience of every 
day : Another example, which Dr Hutton gives of the, celerity 
with. which fire is propagated. through an inflammable and 
- tranfparent -vapour,;is.more, fingular, and may, perhaps be 
thought. hypothetical, but. it is at leaft a very happy application 
of his theory. This example is the meteor, which was feen in 

17 8 3, over all Great Britain, and as far fouth as Paris. There can 
be no doubt, fays he, that this was a {tream of inflammable va- 
pour which had iffued from the mineral regions: of Iceland, at 
‘that time laid wafte by fubterraneous er uptions. "This train of 
inflammable vapour,,about 60: miles high in the atmofphere, 
had been kindled at. the north end, probably by an eleétrical 
{park, and the. ‘inflammation ran: the {pace of feveral hundred. 
miles, (at leaft_1900), in a minute of time, or little more. | 

Tuus the inflammation. of a body of pure vapour, in contact 

with the atmofpheric air, is made with-a rapidity quite incon, 
fiftent: 


16  BESFORYK of me SO0TRTY. 


fiftent with the propagation of heat. Inftances, ftill more re- 
markable, of the rapid progrefs of fire, are found in the inflam- 
mation of fuch vapours, when mixed with that proportion of 
vital air which is neceflary for decompofing the phlogiftie fub- 
ftance. ) 

Own the whole, Dr Hutron concludes, that in no cafe is the 
light which appears in burning, an effect of the heat obtained 
from the decompofition of vital air, but that it is the extrication 
of phlogifton, of fixed light, or a certain modification of the fo- 
Jar fubftance, which had exifted in the inflammable bodies, and 
had been chemically combined with their elements. It appears 
alfo, that it is light which is immediately produced in burning, 
and that it is only mediately that heat is excited: This is true 
both of combuftible bodies which burn in an affociated ftate, 
and of thofe inflammable fubftances where the emerging light 
heats both the infammable body, and the contiguous atmofphe- 
ric fluid. 

THE Doétor proceeds to explain, more at large, his notions 
of the folar fubftance, of which he conceives light, heat, phlo- 
gifton, and electricity, to be fo many different modifications. 
His notions on this fubject are very peculiar, as he conceives 
the folar matter to be without gravitation, without inertia, and, 
it may be added, without extenfion. ‘The nature of this ab- 
{tract does not admit of entering further on the argument: It 
is fuffcient to remark, that the theory of seat feems to be 
arrived at a point where it muft almoft unavoidably ftand ftill, 
till fome experiments fhall determine how far the gravitation of 
bodies is affe€ted by the heat, whether fenfible or latent, that is 
contained in-them. The experiments already made, though 
ingenioufly contrived, and ably executed, are not fufficient to 
decide a queftion of fuch extreme delicacy; nor does it feem 
probable, that, without having recourfe to the pendulum, a fa- 
tisfatory folution of the difficulty will ever be obtained. 


Phyf: 


HISTORY of the SOCIETY. 17 


Phyf. Cl. Dr Monro read a paper, concerning the Commu- 
‘nication of the Ventricles of the Brain with one another, in 
Man and Quadrupeds. This paper is publifhed in Dr Monro’s 
book, entitled, Three Treatifes, &c. 


Me Keirtu alfo communicated an Improvement of the Mer- 
curial Level, defcribed in the Second Volume of the Tranfactions 
of the Society. 

THIs improvement confifts in a contrivance for avoiding the 
trouble of pouring the mercury out and into the level, every 
time it is ufed. Befide the canal of communication at the bot- 
tom, between the two upright columns of mercuty, on which 
the flots fwim, (fee Vol. II. Part II. No. III.), there is, in the 
new conftru€tion of the inftrument, another canal, parallel to 
the former, cut in the upper part of the wood, which allows 
the air to circulate freely, according as the mercury below rifés 
or falls. The whole is made perfectly clofe, fo that no air can 
get admittance. 

THE inftrument‘may be carried about in this manner, with 
the mercury remaining in it; and though by agitation that 
fluid calcines, and is converted into’a grey powder, this only 
happens when it has free accefs to vital air ; and as all fuch ac- 


cefs is here prevented, the mercury will not lofe its metallic 


luftre. Ff 

THE level, in this form of it, as it requires no previous ad- 
yaftment, is very commodious, and, when much accuracy is not 
required, may be ufed with advantage. 


Phyf. Cl. Dr ANDERSON read a paper, entitled, Obfervations 
on Wool-bearing Animals, 


Phyf. Cl. Mr PLAyFAiR communicated an Abftra@ of a 


Journal of the Weather, kept at his Houfe in Windmill Street, 


‘Vox, IV. c for 


1794. 
Aug. 18, 
Dr Monro on 
the communica- 
tion of the ven- 
tricles of the 
brain. 


Mr Keith on an 
improvement of 
the mercurial 


~ level. 


1795 

Jan. 5. 
Dr Anderfon 
on wool-bear- 
ing animals. 

Feb. 2. 
Mr Playfair on: 
the weather of. 
1794» 


179 5« 
Feb. 2. 
Dr Anderfon on 
the making of 
indigo. 


Extract of a 
letter from 
W. Hall, Efq; 


March 2. 
Dr Wilson on 
the effects of 
opium on the 
living animal. 


18 HISTORY of the-SOCIETY. 


for the year 1794. This abftract, with thofe for 1795 and 
1796, make the laft of the Phyfical papers in this volume. 


Ar this meeting Dr ANDERSON alfo read a paper on the Ma- 
king of Indigo at Tranquebar, by Dr ANDERsoN of Madras. 


An extract of a letter from W. Haut, Efq; of Whitehall, 
Berwickfhire, was read, giving an Account of a Great Degree 
of Cold which he had obferved on the Evening of the 22d of 
January, when the Thermometer ftood between 5 and 6 degrees 
below o of FAHRENHEIT’S {cale. 


Phy. Gl. Dr ALEXANDER WILSON read the firft part of a pa- 
per, concerning the Effects of Opium on the Living Animal. This 
paper has been publifhed feparately: An abftract of it follows. 

Tue difference in the refults of the experiments that have 
been made to afcertain the effeéts of opium, and the inconfiftency — 
of the conclufions deduced from them, led Dr Wixsown to enter 
on the experimental inveftigation contained in this paper. The 
firft point which he endeavours to afcertain is, whether opi- 
um, applied to the internal furface of the heart, is capable of 
fo affecting its nerves, as to act on thofe of every part of the 
body, producing the general convulfions obferved on injecting 
a folution of this drug into the heart or blood-veffels. It “ap- 


_ pears from his experiments, that the only effects of the applica- 


tion of opium to the internal furface of the heart, are thofe of 
interrupting its motion, and deftroying its irritability ; and that 
when convulfions fucceed, they are owing to the opium being 
conveyed along the aorta, and immediately applied to the brain. 
It has alfo been afferted, that opium, applied to diftant parts of 
the body, is capable of affecting the motion of the heart, through 
the medium of the nervous fyftem. Injected into the cavity of 

. . the 


HISTORY iof the SOCTETY. 19 


the abdomen, for inftance, it almoft immediately impairs the 
_ action of the heart. It is only, however, when applied to an 
extenfive furface that it has this effect; and if Dr Witson’s 
obfervations be juft, this effect is not produced through the me- 
dium of the nervous fyftem; but is the confequence of the 
opium deftroying the mufcular power, and, confequently, the 
circulation in thofe veflels to which it is applied; thus fud- 
denly diminifhing the fupply of blood to the heart, and at the 
fame time oppofing an additional obftacle to its perfect evacua- 
tion. The experiments, next related; demon{trate that opium, 
immediately applied to the brain itfelf, although it excites vio- 
lent and univerfal convulfions in all the mufcles of voluntary 
motion, is incapable of affecting at all the contractions of the 
heart. It even appears, from thefe experiments, that although. 
opium be applied at the fame time to the brain and fpinal mar- 
_ row of a frog, in confequence of which, (if the folution employ- 
ed be ftrong), the animal inftantly expires, as if thunderftruck, 
the motion of the heart is not in the leaft affected by it. It 
continues to beat with the fame frequency and force after, as it 
did before, the application of the opium. We arrive, then, at 
this conclufion, that opium, applied to a diftant part of the body, 
does not affect the motion of the heart, through the medium of 
the nervous fyftem; nor, on the other hand, does opium, ap- 
plied to the heart, affect any other part of the body, through 
the fame medium, But the heart is not the only mufcle, which 
opium, applied to a diftant part, feems incapable of affecting 
through this medium. Many confiderations render it highly 
probable, that the fame is true of all the mufcles of involuntary 
motion, without exception. That it is fo of the mufcular coat 
_-of the alimentary canal, which, next to the heart, may be con- 
fidered the chief -of this clafs of mufcles, appears from the ex- 
periments next related. On comparing the experiments above 
alluded to, with thofe in which opium thrown into the ftomach 

C2 and. 


e 


20 HISTORY of the SOCIETY. 


and inteftines, the cavity of the abdomen, &c. is found to-produce 
convulfions, it appears probable, that in the latter cafes, as in 
the former, the convuifions do not proceed from any action of 
the opium on the nerves of the part to which we apply it, but 
from its being received into the fanguiferous fyftem, and im- 
mediately applied to the brain. The experiments which follow, 
in the treatife, confirm this conjecture. On comparing toge- 
ther all the experiments there related, and thofe alluded to in 
the introduction, it appears, that the various effects of opium 
on living animals may be divided into three claffes. The firft 
comprehending its action on the nerves of the part to which it 
is applied, not differing effentially from that of any other local 
irritation. The fecond comprehending its effe¢éts on the heart 
and blood-veffels ; that of increafing their a€tion, when applied 
in a fmall quantity; and that of impairing, or altogether deftroy- 
‘ing their power of action, when applied to them more freely. 
The third comprehending its effects, when immediately applied 
to the brain; which, when the dofe is moderate, are impaired 
fenfibility, languor, fleep; when applied more fully, convul- 
fions and death. In all its effects on the living animal body, 
opium has much, in common with other fubftances, but at 
the fame time fomething in each peculiar to itfelf. It may 
appear an omiflion, Dr Wison obferves, that he has not ranked 
among the effects of opium, received into the fyftem, thofe 
which it feems to produce on the mufcles of voluntary motion. 
In fome of the foregoing experiments, the irritability of thefe 
mufcles was found much impaired after death, although the 
opium was not applied dire@ly to the mufcles themfelves. But 
it appears, both from an experiment related in the Treatife, and 
others alluded to, that the impaired irritability of thefe muf- 
cles is owing, not to any direct action of the opium on them, 
but to the violent convulfions excited in them, in confequence 
of the opium being applied to the brain. 

THE 


HISTORY of the SOCIETY. on eg 


Tue dodtrine of the fympathy of the nerves has been fo 
much employed in accounting for the effects of opium, that Dr 
Witson judged it proper to make fome obfervations upon it ; 
in which he endeavours to prove, that no fuch law of the ani- 
mal ceconomy exifts; and that all the phenomena, which have | 
been referred to. this fuppofed law, depend on certain changes 
taking place in the /enforium commune, 

In an appendix, he relates fome experiments, made with a view 
to determine the manner in which tobacco a¢ts on living animals. 
From thefe experiments it appears, that the fymptoms which 
tobacco produces, when thrown into the heart, are the fame 
with thofe excited by its immediate application to the brain. 
That thefe fymptoms, when the tobacco is exhibited in the for- 
mer way, proceed from no action of the tobacco on-the nerves 
of the heart, but from its being conveyed along the aorta, and 
- immediately applied to the brain; fince they do not follow its 
injection into the heart, when the aorta is previoufly fecured by 
ligature ; although it was found, that interrupting the circula- 
tion does not unfit the nervous fyftem from undergoing the 
change neceffary for the production of fuch fymptoms. It, alfo 
appears from thefe experiments, that tobacco produces the fame 
effects, though more flowly, when thrown into the ftomach and 
inteftines as when thrown into the heart: That in the former 
cafe, as in the latter, they are ftill to be afcribed to the tobacco 
being received into the fanguiferous fyftem, and immediately 
applied to the brain ; and that the effects of this drug, when it 
acts merely on the nerves of the part to which it is applied, do 
not effentially differ from thofe of any {trong topical irritation, 
It may alfo be collected from thefe experiments, that the pree 
fence of tobacco in the fyftem, like that of opium, only affects 
the irritability of the mufcles of voluntary motion, when it pro- 
duces convulfions in them ; 2. ¢. when it is applied in confider- 

able 


1795+ 
April 6, 
Mr Playfair on 
the trigonome- 
try of the Brah- 
mins. 


May 5- 
Mr Wilfon on 
motions of 
wicks in a ba- 
fon of oil, 


June rt. 
Dr Wilfon on 
the effects of 
opium on the 
living animal. 


Dr Anderfon on 
making chinam. 


June 15. 
Mr Marfhall on 
the Argonautic 
expedition, 


Aug. 3. 
Mr Keith on 
different ther- 
mometeis. 


Nov. 2. 
Dr Monro on 
the internal hy- 
drocephalus. 


“ 


22 HISTORY of the SOCIETY. 


able quantity to the brain. It appears, therefore, that the modus 
operandi of tobacco, on the living animal body, 1s in every in- 


f{tance analogous to that of opium. 


Phyf. Cl. Mr PLAyrair read a paper on the Trigonometry 
of the Brahmins. ‘The paper is inferted in this volume, Part IL. 
No. IV. p. 83. 


Phyf. Cl. Mr Pray¥Farik communicated a letter from Mr 
Profeflor Witson of Glafgow, giving an Account of certain 
Motions obferved in {mall lighted Wicks, when made to fwim 
on a Bafon of Oil, or any other Fluid which can maintain 
Flame. [See this volume, Part II. No. VI. p. 163.] 


Phyf. Cl. Dr ALEXANDER WILSON read the remaining part 
of his paper on the Effects of Opium on the Living Animal. 


Dr James ANDERSON alfo read an Account of the Method 
of making Chinam at Madras, communicated by Dr ANDERSON 
of Madras. 


Lit. Cl. Mr Dauzet read an Effay on the Argonautic Ex- 
pedition, by the Reverend Mr Esenezer MarsnHatt, Minifter 
at Cockpen. 


Phyf. Cl. Mr Ketru read a Defcription of different Ther- 


‘mometers, accompanied with figures, by which the Degree of 


Heat may be recorded for every hour and minute throughout 
the year. 


Phy/f. C7, Dr Monro read a paper on thé Internal Hydrocepha- 
lus. This, with fome other papers, already mentioned, by the 
fame Author, have been publithed feparately ; and as an account of 

the 


HISTORY of the SOCIETY. 23 


the difcoveries, which Dr Monro has made in the Structure of 
the Brain, the Ear, &c. could not be fufficiently underftood 
without the numerous plates by which they are illuftrated, it 
is unneceflary to attempt any detail of their contents. 


Pby/. Cl. A paper, by Dr BALrour of Calcutta, was com- 
municated, on the Diurnal Variations of the Barometer. 

Dr Batrour’s Obfervations, on the Diurnal Variations of 
the Barometer, were made at Calcutta, and communicated to 
the Afiatic Society in 1794. A copy of them, which he fent to 
a friend in Edinburgh, was the paper now read in the Royal 
Society. 

Tue fituation in which thefe obfervations were made, entitles 
them to peculiar attention; for it is well known, that, between 
and near the tropics, the barometer is very fteady, and free from 
thofe great and fudden changes that take place in higher lati- 
‘tudes. It is in fuch fituations, therefore, that the fmaller periodi- 
cal variations of the barometer, if they exift at all, are likely to 
be difcovered, as being feparate from thofe accidental irregulari- 
ties with which they muft be complicated in our northern cli- 
mates. j 

Dr Batrovur’s diligence, in obferving the barometer, has al- 
fo been fingularly great. He impofed on himfelf the tafk of 


obferving the ftate of that inftrument every half hour, for an 


entire lunation, from the new moon on the 31{t of March, to 
that of the 29th of April 1794. 

THE refult was, the difcovery of a periodical variation in the 
_barometer, confifting of two ofcillations, which it performs re- 
gularly every twenty-four hours. 


1. ON every day, that Dr Batrour obferved, with fcarce 
any exception, the barometer conftantly fell between ten at 
night. 


1796. 
Jan. 4, 
Dr Balfour on 
the diurnal va- 
riations of the 

barometer. 


a4 HISTORY of the SOCIETY. 


night and fix in the morning; and this it did progreflively, 
without any intermediate rifing but in one inftance, 

2, BETWEEN fix and ten in the morning the barometer con- 
ftantly rofe; it alfo did fo. progreflyvely, and rarely with any 
intermediate falling. 

3. BETWEEN ten in the morning and fix at night the bere 
meter fell progreflively, without a fingle exception. 

4. Lastxy, between fix and ten at night the barometer rofe 
progreflively, without any intermediate falling, except in one in- 
Hance. 


THESE are Dr BALFour’s general conclufions ; and, accord- 
ingly, on caf{ting an eye over the table into which he has redu- 
ced his obfervations, one is immediately {truck with the ap- 
pearance of two maxima, viz. at ten at night and ten in the 
morning ; and, again, two minima, alfo diametrically oppofite 
to one another, at fix in the morning and fix at night. 

THE quantity of thefe diurnal variations is not very confider- 
able, but fufficient, at the fame time, to leave no doubt of their 
reality. The difference between the contiguous maximum and 
' minimum is fometimes ;'5 of an inch, eotae 4 in general it is lefs 
than half that quantity. 

Ir does not appear that the above variations have any rela~ 
tion to the heat and cold of the atmofphere, or to the changes 
of the temperature of the mercury in the barometer, though, 
with refpect to this laft, we are not furnifhed with fufficient 
information. 

Tit thefe obfervations are further multiplied and extended, 
it will be in vain to attempt any explanation of the fads to 
which they relate. It feems not improbable, however, that they 
are connected with the reciprocations of the fea arid land winds, 
during the day and night, or with the heating and cooling of 
the fuperincumbent atmofphere. It would be of great ufe to 

have 


HISTORY of th SOCIETY. 25 


have the obfervations repeated at different feafons of the year. 
An. obferyer equally affiduous with Dr Baxrour will not be 
eafily found; but it will perhaps be fufficient to obferve the 
barometer er three hours, and particularly at the ftationary 


points.. 
Ir is proper to remark here, that fome obfervations of a fimi- 


lar fort have been made in Europe; where, though the fituation 
is far lefs favourable, than in India, for difcovering the true — 
law of fuch minute variations, refults have been obtained tole- 
rably confiftent with one another, yet differing confiderably. 
from thofe that are ftated above. 

A-sERIEs of fuch obfervations was inftituted by M. PLANER 
ef Erfort in Germany, and is defcribed in the Ephemerides of 
the Meteorological Society at Manheim for 1783. Before thefe 
obfervations, it had been remarked, that when the barometer is. 
rifing, it ftands lower at, noon than at any other time of the 
day, and higher.at the fame hour when it is defcending. M. 
PLANER’s obfervations feem to extend and modify this conclu- 
fion ; for they make it appear, that between ten and two, both of 
the day and night, that is, for two hours before, and two hours 
after the fun is on the meridian, the elevations and depreflions 
of the mercury are lefs than at. any other time of the day ; and 
that between fix and ten in the morning, and, again, between 
fix and ten, at night, thefe elevations and depreffions. are the 
greateft.. The fame rule feems to be confirmed by the obferva- 
tions of M. CoTTE.in.France, of which he has given an account 
in the Journal de Phyfique for 1792 and 1794. 

THESE laft conclufions feem to indicate fome. periodical re-. 
tardation of the movement of the mercury in the barometer, 
whether afcending or defcending; but it is difficult to form, any 
notion of the force by which fueh an effect can be produced.. 
Perhaps the only general inference that is yet deducible, frong 
comparing all the circumftances, is, that certain diurnal va- 

Vou. IV. ad riations: 


1796. 
Feb. 1. 
Mr Playfair on 
the weather of 

1795- 

Feb. 15. 
Biographical 
account of Lord 
Abercromby. 


March 7. 
Mr Wallace on 
geometrical po- 
rifms. 


March 21.— 


Biographical 
account of Dr 
Robertfon. 


April 4. 
Biographical 
account of Dr 
Roebuck. 


May 2. 
Extract of 9 
letter from 
W, Hall, Efq; 


26 HISTORY of the SOCIETY. 


riations of the barometer do actually exift; that more infor- 
mation on the fubject is neceflary before any explanation of 
them can be attempted ; and that it is in the countries lying 
near to the equator that we are to look for thefe periodical 
variations leaft interrupted and obfcured by accidental irregula- 
rities. 


* Phyf. Cl. Mr Prayratr read an Account of the Weather 
for 1795, extracted from his Journal kept for the Society. 


Lit, Cl. Mr Mackenzie read his Biographical Account of 


Lord AzercromsBy. [See Hiftory of the Society, Appendix, 
p- (1)}- | 
Phyf. Ci. A paper was communicated, containing Certain 


Geometrical Porifms, with their Application ‘to the Solution of 
Problems, by Mr Witit1am Wat tace, Affiftant-teacher of the 
Mathematics in the Academy of Perth. [See this volume, Part II. 
No. V. p. 107.] ) 


Lit. Cl. Mr Stewart read the firft part of his peal aaa 
Account of the late Dr ROBERTSON. 


Phyf. Cl. A Biographical Account of the late Dr RoEBucK 
was read, communicated by Mr Profeflor JARDINE of the Uni- 
verfity of Glafgow. [See Hift. Appen. No. IV. p. (65)]- 


 Phyf. Cl. An Extra& of a Letter from Mr Hatt to Sir JAMEs 
Hatt, Bart. was read, giving an Account of an Extraordinary 
Halo of the Moon, obferved on the 18th of February laft. [See 
this Volume, Part II. No. VIL p. 173.] 


} 


Phyf. 


HISTORY of the SOCIETY. 27 


Phyf. Cl. Mr Stewart read a paper by Dr Hutton, viz. An 
Examination of a New Phenomenon which occurs in the fulphu- 
rating of Metals, with an Attempt to explain that Phenomenon. 

AN account that was given, fome time ago, in the Literary 
Journals, of certain experiments made in Holland on the ful- 
phurating of metals, gave rife to this communication. Accord- 
ing to that account, when metallic filings are mixed with ful- 
phur, and expofed in a clofe veffel to a certain degree of heat, 
the mafs kindles, and burns not only without vital air, but in 
any air whatfoever, or even in a vacuum. In the experiment, 
as thus reprefented, Dr Hutton readily faw a ftrong argument 
againft the theory which explains the phenomena of fire by the 
extrication of the calorigue of vital air; and in this light he con- 
fidered it in the end of the Differtation on the Philofophy of Light, 
&c. of which an abftract has been already given. Dr Hope ha- 
ving however fuggefted to him, that, in making the experiment, he 
had feen reafon to doubt the reality of the inflammation, they 
agreed to repeat the experiments together. Dr Hutton was then 
convinced that this fact had been mifreprefented, or rather mif- 
underftood ; and therefore thought it neceffary, in this paper, 
to correct the error into which he had been led by that mifre- 
prefentation, defcribing the real appearances, and endeavouring 
to explain them on known principles. ‘“ In doing this,” fays he, 
“T fhall deftroy the argument which the experiment feemed to 
afford againft the doctrine of calerique, but | fhal!l have no rea- 
fon to change the conclufion that I formed againft that. doc- 
trine, founded on facts that are univerfally acknowledged.” 

Tue fact, as thefe gentleman obferved it, is this: The metal 
and fulphur being mixed in due proportions,.and expofed to heat 
in a clofe glafs veffel, the fulphur firft melts, then undergoes a 
kind of ebullition, emitting vapours which condenfe in the up- 
per part of the veffel, and are a fublimation of the fulphur. © In 

d 2 this. 


1796. 
May 9. 
Dr Hutton on 
the fulphura- 
ting of metals. 


28 HIS TORT sof the SOOTY 


this {ftate, and while the heat communicated was {till under that 
of incandefcence, there appeared in the bottom, or hotteft part of 
the mafs, an incandefcent f{pot, which increafed in fize. The 
glafs veflel was now removed from the fire, and carried into a 
dark room, that the light emitted from it might be the more 
accurately obferved. There the incandefcence was plainly per- 
ceived, fpreading from the place where it firft began, and gain- 
ing ground continually, till the whole became very luminous, 
The heat, when thus diffufed through the mafs, begins inftantly 
to diminifh, and the body quickly cools, as a fimilar mafs of any 
other fubftance would do. Thefe are the appearances obferved 
in the experiment; and are what Dr Huttow proceeds to ex- 
plain. . | 

IT is evident that the incandefcence, which has juft been de- 
{cribed, is an operation proceeding from the mafs itfelf, and not 
from the intenfity of the heat communicated to it, for that heat 
is not. fenfibly incandefcept ; whereas the heat which the mafs 
acquires, after the veffel is removed from the fire, 1s confider- 
ably luminous. We have here, therefore, a fpecies of kindling 
like that of burning bodies; but, at the fame time, diftinctly 
different from it. In burning, a phlogiftic fubftance is decom- 
pofed, by means of the oxygenating principle; and the matter of 
light, which was contained in that fubftance, being fet at liberty, 
_ is emitted in the form of light, and heats thofe bodies by which 
it happens to be extinguifhed or abforbed. But, in this experi- 
ment, though the mafs is a phlogiftic fubftance, there is no de- 
compofition of the phlogifton, no appearance of inflammation ; 
fo that its incandefcence proceeds from another caufe than that 
which operates in burning. On attending to the circumftances, 
however, we fhall perhaps difcover that the phenomena of this 
experiment are not anomalous, but follow a rule, exemplified in 
many initances, though not precifely with the fame appear- 
ances. 


THIS 


HISTORY of the SOCIETY. 29 


Turs rule feems to be no other than that which regulates the 
extrication ef latent heat, when bodies pafs from a fluid to a 
folid ftate, though this cafe is fomewhat more complicated than 
ufual, and attended with circumiftances that are yet but imper- 
feétly underftood. It muft therefore be confidered, whether 
the fources of latent heat in the bodies, here combined, be fuch 
as we can reafenably fuppofe adequate to the effect produced. 

Frrst, then, we have the latent heat of the fulphur, when it 
is fimply in its melted ftate ; it has then an aqueous or perfect 
fluidity, to which the quantity of its latent heat neceflarily cor- 
refponds. But this is not precifely the flate in which the ful- 
phur combines with the metal; for before that happens, and 
while the fenfible heat increafes, the fulphur becomes vifcid, 
and lofes its perfect fluidity. We have nothing with which we 
can compare this phenomenon, or by which we can eftimate 
the latent heat now contained in the fulphur. There is how- 
_ever reafon to think, that this heat is of the fpecies which Dr 
Hutton, in his Differtations on fubjeéts in Natural Philofophy, 
diftinguifhes by the name of the latent heat of ductility. The reafon 
for this fuppofition is, that when the fulphur, in its vifcid ftate, 
is plunged into cold water, it does not concrete into its ufual, 
hard, friable, and cryftallized ftru€ture, but is changed into a 
tranfparent du@tile mafs. This ftate it feems to owe to the la- 
tent heat contained in it; for after fome hours expofure to cold, | 
it gradually lofes its ductility, and undergoes another change 
of ftruéture, fo as to refume its ordinary appearance, as if it 
had been concreted and cryftallized from the ftate of fimple 
fluidity. 

But the fulphur alfo emits another fpecies of heat, on its com- 
bination with the metallic fubftance. This is what may be 
called the conftitutional heat of a body, or that by which its 
volume is preferved in oppofition to any force endeavouring to 

diminifh 


» 


40 HISTORY of the SOCIETH 


diminifh it. The volume of the fulphur is obvioufly much 
diminifhed on its combination with the metal ; and therefore a 
quantity of its con/litutional heat muft be expelled, correfpond- 
ing to the condenfation or diminution of bulk which it has un- 
dergone. This quantity may be very great; but it is what at 
prefent our fcience has not the proper means of eftimating. 

~ Sucw are the fources of heat contained in the fulphur. The 
metal alfo, by lofing its ductility, may emit a certain quantity 
of latent heat, and may thus contribute to increafe the fenfible 
heat of the compound mafs. The quantity of this effect, like 
the former, it is difficult to eftimate. | 

THESE, then, are the different f{pecies of latent heat, which 
may be fuppofed to emerge, and become fenfible, on the com- 
bination of the fulphur and the metal in the preceding experi- 
ment, and on the inftantaneous concretion of the compound 
mafs. The confequence of this muft be, that the mafs already 
heated, from without, nearly to a red heat, having this addi- 
tional heat communicated, muft become incandefcent, and emit 
light. This muft happen, even if the latent heat emerging 
fhould be but in a very fmall quantity; and thus the leading 
fact of the incandefcence feems to be fufficiently accounted for. 

It may alfo be ufeful to remark, that there are other cafes in 
which incandefcence feems to be produced, on the principle 
here afligned, though not perhaps in a degree equally remark- 
able. 

In the affaying of filver on the teft, when the lead is fufh- 
ciently feparated, fo as to leave the filver ftill fluid, but in a 
degree of heat inferior to what is required to melt it, or to 
preferve its fluidity, the button of filver inftantly concretes, 
and appears at the fame time much more luminous. Here + 
there is evidently no caufe that operates, but the latent heat of 
fluidity, emitted, as on all occafions, when concretion takes 

place ; 


HISTORY of the SOCIETY. 31 


place; and had the filver been here, in the loweft degree of in- 
candefcence, or the higheft degree of obfcure heat, the pheno- 
menon would have been as remarkable as in the fulphurating 
of metals. 

On the fame principle it feems to be, that, ina very common, 
but very inftructive experiment, a bar of cold iron is made in- 
candefcent, by hammering it with a certain degree of rapidity 
and force, fo that the condenfation may be fufficiently quick to 
expel the heat all at the fame time, or nearly fo. In this cafe, 
it is the latent heat of ductility that is made to appear, as in the 
congelation of water it is the latent heat of fluidity. 

Tron alfo furnifhes another example of the fame kind, where 
the incandefcence is very confpicuous, but where the procefs is 
not fo fimple as in the former inftances, becaufe a part of the 
light is probably produced from another caufe. This example 
is found in the converfion of pig iron into malleable iron by 
Mr Corte’s procefs, viz. by keeping the iron melted in a re- 
verbatory furnace, and expofed, by being agitated, to the influ- 
ence of the atmofphere. When the caft iron comes in this man- 
ner to its malleable f{tate,it quickly difplays the brighteft incan- 
defcence poflible, coagulating, at the fame time, from its melted 
ftate. Now, there can be no doubt that this extreme incandef- 
cence arifes from the commutation of latent into fenfible heat, 
and the commutation of that heat again into light, in which 
{tate it is emitted by the incandefcent body. In this cafe, how- 
ever, it is probable, that there is alfo light emitted immediately 
on the principle of burning, and that the iron is in part fcori- 
fied, by being oxygenated and lofing its phlogifton. But this 
alfo is in a great meafure owing to the extreme heat produced 
by the congelation of the iron; for the heat of melted iron is 
not alone fufficient for that effect. 

THE theory above laid down will enable us to explain all 
the different fteps in the complicated procefs of the fulphurating 

of 


gz HISTORY of the SOCIETY. 


of metals. When the mixture of the metal and fulphur is ex- 
pofed to heat, and the fulphur melted, it is not immediately 
combined with the metal; for it requires a greater degree of heat, 
and one which is perhaps nearly that of incipient incandef- 
cence, to produce the compound fubftance of the fulphurated 
metal. The moment, however, that this combination is form+ 

ed, that part of the mafs, in which it began, lofes its fluidity, 
~ and is made to concrete, and at the fame time becomes ftrong= 
ly incandefcent. In this ftate, if the glafs veflel be removed 
from the fire, the procefs of the combination of the fulphur 
with the metal will be carried on, as has been defcribed above.. 
For the firft incandefcent part is that which had been moft im-- 
mediately expofed to the heat of the burning coals, and had, by 
that means, acquired the temperature neceflary for the combr- 
nation of the two fubftances ; but at this time the part imme- 
diately contiguous to the concreted portion of the mafs is in 
the next degree of heat; confequently, upon the emerging of 
the latent heat of the firft portian, this fecond portion, having 
its heat increafed, is made to combine, and, by its inftant con- 
folidation, produces incandefcence. This incandefcence of the 
fecond portion produces a like effect upon the third ; and thus 
the heat, combination, concretion, and incandefcence,. {pread. 
quickly through the whole mafs, without any further affiftance 


from external fire. 
In all this there is fo great a refemblance to. the phenomena: 


of burning, that fome attention is neceflary to enable an obfer- 
ver to diftinguifh the one procefs from the other. 

WHEN a mafs of charcoal, properly prepared for combutftion,, 
is kindled in one part by the heat of incandefcence, the oxyge- 
nation begins, attended with the decompofition of phlogifton, 
and the emiffion of the fixed light. The neighbouring parts 
being then heated, by the light emitted from the firft kindled 
part, are alfo kindled themfelves, and ferve to augment both 

! the 


HISTORY of the SOCIETY. 25 


the intenfity of the heat and the extent of the burning. In this 
manner the parts of the mafs are kindled in fucceflion, until the 
whole is incandefcent ; it is at the fame time gradually confu- 
med, the vital air uniting with the carbonic principle, and this 
laft being deferted by the fixed light of the phlogifton. 

In the fulphurated mafs, though there be the fame appear- 
ance of ignition propagated fucceflively from a central point 
to the adjacent parts, yet it is not real ignition, but fimple in- 
candefcence, produced from the extrication of latent heat, in the 
manner already explained. It is diftinguifhed from ignition by 
this circumftance: that, as foon as the incandefcence has fpread 
over the whole mafs, there is an end of the generation of heat, 
and the fulphurated metal cools from its incandefcent ftate, like 
any other incombuftible body heated to the fame degree. In 
the whole procefs there is no oxygenation; no production of 
fixed or carbonic air ; no apparent wafte ; nor any thing emit- 
ted from the mafs, except the light of incandefcence. 

Tuus, Dr Hutton concludes, that, in the procefs of the ful- 
phurating of metals, we perceive the action of the fame laws as 
in the converfion of water into ice, and muft explain both on 
the great principle, by the difcovery of which ‘his friend Dr 
BLAck rendered fo important a fervice, not to chemittry alone, 
but to many other branches of natural philofophy. 

HE is aware, however, that an explanation of it will alfo be 
attempted by fome chemifts, on the principle of the change of 
the capacity for heat ; an explanation which he confiders as ex- 
tremely fallacious and unphilofophical. When he applies thefe 
epithets to the doctrine of the capacities for heat, he does not 
mean to object to the phrafe, capacity for heat, or to the ap- 
plication of that phrafe to exprefs a mere matter of fact, viz. 
the difference of the fpecific heat of bodies, or the unequal 
quantities of theat contained in different fubftances, when their 

Vou. IV. e | mafles 


26 HISTORY of the SOCIETY 


mafles and temperatures are equal. But what Dr HutTown calls 
fallacious and unphilofophical is, the afligning the change in 
the capacity of a body for heat, as the caufe of the abforp- 
tion or emiffion of heat, at the moment when that change 
takes place. This fuppofition is grounded, as he contends, on 
a falfe view of the facts concerning the tranfition of water from 
a hard to a fluid ftate, or the contrary. The chemitts, for 
example, who maintain this doctrine, hold, that when water is 
cooled down to a certain temperature, it neceflarily freezes and 
becomes ice, a fubftance that has a much lefs capacity for heat 
than water has; on which account a certain quantity of the 
heat contained in the water is expelled, and enters into the fur- 
rounding bodies... Now in all this it is fuppofed, that water, at 
a certain temperature, is neceflarily changed. into ice, which is 
by no means true; becaufe it is well-known, that water may 
be cooled feveral degrees below what is:called the point of con- 
gelation without lofing its fluidity. Dr Hurron tells us, that he 
has found means to cool it no lefs than 30° below that tempe- 
rature, without its being changed into ice. Though it be true, 
therefore, that water muft be cooled to a certain temperature 
before it can freeze, it is not true, converfely, that it does freeze 
whenever it is cooled to that temperature. It follows, as a ne- 
ceflary confequence, that fomething elf befide a change of tem- 
perature is effential to congelation, and is the caufe of that won- 
derful change which water undergoes in pafling from a fluid to 
a folid ftate. The feparation of the latent heat feems a caufe 
more adequate to the effect, and ferves to explain the cooling of. 
the water below the point of congelation, without the lofs of its 
fluidity, becaufe this only happens when the efcape of the la- 
tent heat is prevented. . 
Tuat the heat, abforbed by the water, is the true caufe of 
its fluidity, appears from the facility with which this. hypothetis 
explains 


HISTORY of the SOCIETY. 2 


explains all the other phenomena of congelation. There is, as 
has juft, been faid, a-certain fixed temperature, at which water 
and ice are,convertible into one another. At this temperature, 
however, a mixed body of ice and water may remain for ever 
without any of the water being congealed, or any of the ice 
melted ; but let there be added to this'compound mafs a quan~ 
tity of heat, by communication from a warm body, and there 
is a certain quantity of the ice melted, while the mafs remains in 
its former temperature. Now, if we meafure the quantity of 
the heat, communicated to this compound mafs, without chan- 
ging its temperature, and alfo the quantity of ice melted, that.is, 
the quantity of fluidity produced, it will be found that they are 
in all cafes proportional to one another, and have therefore 
the relation of caufe and effect. This certainly amounts to no 
Jefs than a full demonftration, that the heat abforbed, or ren- 
dered infenfible to the thermometer, is the caufe of fluidity. 
To fay, that the change of the capacity for heat is the caufe of 
the abforption of the heat, is, in fact, to affirm, that the fluidity 
of the water is the caufe of that abforption, and, of confequence, 
leaves the fluidity as a phenomenon without a caufe: for it has 
been fhown that mere change of temperature is not the caufe 
of it. 

Dr Hurton has been remarkably happy in his explanation 
of the manner in which heat produces fluidity. Heat, fays he, 
has two diftinct effects on body: The one of thefe confifts in 
its power of diftending the fubftance of the body, or increafing 
its volume, and this is the effect that is meafured diretly by 
the thermometer: The other effect of heat is to move the par- 
ticles of hard bodies on their axes, and by this rotatory mo- 
tion to feparate their poles of attraGtion, which were united 
in their ftate of hardnefs and folidity. The particles of the 
body, in confequence of this rotatory motion, are in a ftate 

; €52 of 


1796. 
June 20. 
Biographical 

account of 
Tytler, Efq; 


July 4. 
Dr Walker’s 
ftatiftical ac- 
count of Col- 
lngton. 


Nov, 7. 
Mr Ivory on 
the rectification 
of the ellipfis, 


Dr Mackay’s 


determination of” 


the longitude of 
the Obfervatory. 
at Aberdeen, 


28 || § HISTORY of the SOCIETY. 


of equilibrium ; they have no difpofition to cohere together, 
and are ready to obey the impreffion of the fmalleft force. 

Sucu are the ideas which Dr Hutron had formed on the 
fulphuration of metals, and the theory by which it muft be ex- 
plained ; and they are rendered more interefting, by being the 
Jaft communication made by that ingenious and profound phi- 
lofopher. 


Lit. Cl. Mr Mackenzie read a Biographical Account of 
the late Wittiam TyTLeER, Efq; of Woodhoufelee. [Hiftory, 


No. II. p. (17)]. 


Phyf. Cl. Some Paflages from Dr WALKER’S Statiftical Ac- 
count of the parifh of Collington were read. 


Phyf. Cl. Mr Playfair communicated an Extract of a Let- 
ter from James Ivory, A. M. containing a New Series for the- 
Rectification of the Ellipfis. [See Part I. of this volume, 
Noi VIN. pi 77] 


At this Meeting Dr Macxay’s Determination of the Longi- 
tude of the Obfervatory at Aberdeen was alfo communicated: 
[Part II. of this volume, No. V. p. 140.] 

Tae eftablifhment of a New Obfervatory, where there are fo 
few as in Scotland, is an event of too much importance, ia the 
literary hiftory of the country, to be pafled over without notice: 
The eftablifhment of that at Aberdeen ought the more to be re- 
corded, that it does great honour to the public fpirit and fcien- 
tific zeal of the Principal and Profeffors of the Marifhall Col- 
lege, and of the other gentlemen by whofe voluntary fub- 
fcription it was brought about. From the fuads which their 
fubfcription afforded, an Obfervatory was built in 1781, on 
a part of the Caftle Hill, which was given in a prefent to the 

College 


HISTORY of th SOCIETY. ~ 2g 


College by the Magiftrates and Town-Council of Aberdeen. 
The building confifted of three rooms, two of which, forming 
the wings, were circular, about 12 feet in diameter, with co- 
nical roofs. The eaftermoft of thefe was for the quadrant, and 
had its roof moveable, and furnifhed with flits; the weftern. 
was the tranfit room ; its roof had flits, but was not moveable ; 
the room in the middle ferved for the accommodation of the 
aftronomer. 

THE inftruments, with which the Obfervatory was furnifh- 
nifhed, were a tranfit inftrument by RaMsDEN ; a moveable 
aftronomical quadrant, of 2 foot radius, by MacuLtocu ; an 
equatorial inftrument by Sisson and RAMSDEN ; an achroma- 
tic telefcope and a divided object glafs micrometer by, Dot- 
LOND; an aftronomical clock, with a gridiron pendulum, by 
Mariorre. To thefe were added an ailiftant clock by Gabby, 
Aberdeen ; an alarm clock ; a barometer and thermometer, the 

two laft by Mitier, Edinburgh. 

Tue tranfit infument, and the equatorial, were prefents 
from the late Earl of Bure, at that time Chancellor of the 
Univerfity. They are both inftruments of great value; the 
tranfit, in particular, is faid to be of fingular excellence, and: 
_ altogether worthy of the great artift by whom it was conftruét- 
ed. ; . 
Tue Obfervatory, however, fuch as it is here defcribed, has 
been but of fhort continuance. About three years ago bar- 
racks were built‘on the Caftle Hill, immediately to the north 
of the Obfervatory ; and.as it appeared to be of confequence, 
that the ground occupied by the latter fhould belong to the bar- 
racks, it was purchafed by Government, and the Obfervatory 
demolifhed. It is to be rebuilt, however, on an improved plan,. 
and in a fituation where it will be lefs incommoded by the vi- 
cinity of the town than formerly, and where, it is hoped, the 

feries 


30. HISTORY of the SOCIETY. 


feries of obfervations may, be continued, which Dr Mackay 
has begun with fo much diligence and accuracy. | 
AccorpinG to Dr Mackay, the latitude, from a mean of 
64 obfervations of the fun’s meridian altitude, is 57°. 9.1’, or 
becaufe the fun’s femidiameter, taken from the. Nautical Alma- 
nac, is about 13” too. great, it is more exactly 57°. 8’. 5947, and 
this agrees to + of a fecond with the mean of 8 obfervations of 
the meridian altitudes of fixed ftars. 
Tue longitude, determined alfo by a mean of feveral obfer- 
vations, is ob. 8’. 32” of time, or 2°. 8’ weft of Greenwich. 
HENCE it appears, that the beft maps and charts require fome 
correction in the pofition they aflign to Aberdeen, and proba- 
bly to a great part of the eaft coaft of Scotland. AINSLEy’s 
map places Aberdeen in latitude 57°. 5’. 9’, which is 3’. 50” too 
far fouth: It is however very exact in the longitude, which it 
makes 1°. 6’ eaft of Edinburgh; fo that, reckoning the longi- 
tude of Edinburgh 3°. 14’. 45” weft of Greenwich, as it is near~ 
ly, there remains 2° 8’. 45° W. for the longitude of Aberdeen. 
M. pE ta RocHETTE, in a chart of the north fea, conftruct- 
ed with great fkill and accuracy, lays down Aberdeen in lati- 
tude 57°. 5, and in longitude 2°. 21. 31” weft from Green- 
wich ; fo that there is an error of nearly 4’ in the latitude, and 
13/ in the longitude. It is likely that the latter affects the pofi- 
tion of the coaft for a confiderable extent. 


ieee Phy/. Ci. A Report concerning the Weather in 1796 was 
Mr Playfair on Communicated by Mr Piayrarr, [See this volume, the laft 


the weather of 


1796. Article of Part II. 


~APPEN. 


ao eect gecrelbans IN. Sin A Dnretd sri Pie 


OrFricE-BEARERS of.the SocIEeTy. 


Office-bearersof 


OrFice-BEARERS eleéted for\ the enfuing Year, at the General the sociey, 
Meeting held for that Purpofe, 25th November 1793. 


Prefident. 


His Grace the Duke of BuccLEUGH. 


Vice-Prefidents. 


Lord Dunfinnan. | Right Hon. Henry Dundas. 
Secretary. Treafurer. 

Profeffor Yobe Robifon. | Mr Alexander Keith. 
Phyf. Cl. Counfellors. Ee. Ch 

Mr Benjamin Bell. Lord Craig. : 

Mr Greenfield. General Fletcher Campbell. 

Mr George Ferguffon. Mr Mackenzie. 

Dr Gregory. _ Lord. Dreghorn. 

Dr Rutherford: Commiffioner Edgar. 

Profeflor Stewart. Mr David Hume. 


OFFICE- 


32 HISTORY of the SOCIETY. 


Office-bearersof _ OrFicE-BEARERS of the SOCIETY. 


the Society. 


PuysIcay Crass. 


Prefidents. 
Dr Black. { Dr Home. 
Dr Mutton. | Dr Monro. 
Secretaries. 


Profeffor Playfair. | Dr Walker. 


LitTERARY CLAss. 


Prefidents. 


Mr Baron Gordon. | Dr Augh Blair. 
Sir William Miller. | Dr Adam Ferguffon. 


Secretaries. 


Mr Frafer Tytler. | Profeffor Dalzel. 


Ar the General Meetings in 1794, 1795,.and 1796, the fame 
office-bearers were eleéted. 


LIST 


LIST of Mempers or Fettows of the Royat Society of 
EDINBURGH, continued from the third Volume. (Hiftory of 
the Society, Appendix. ] 


THE following Members were elected at the General Meeting, 
Jan. 27. 1794. 


NON-RESIDENT, 


The Reverend Fobn a adie of Brookhill, county of Cavan, 
“Ireland. L. 

The Reverend Dacre Carlyle, A.M. L. 

James Glenie, E{q; F. R. S. Lond. P, 


THE following were elected at the General Meeting, Jan. 26. 
1795» 


RESIDENT. 


The Reverend George Baird, D. D. Principal of the Univerfity 
of Edinburgh. 

Robert Hamilton, E{q3 Advocate. 

The Reverend Thomas Hardy, D. D. Profeflor of Church Hitory 
in the Univerfity of Edinburgh. 

Francis Humberfion Mackenzie, E{q; of Seaforth. 

Alexander Phillip Wilfon, M. D. Phyfician in Edinburgh. 


Vou. 1V, f NON= 


Members cho- 
fen, Jan. 27. 
4794- 


Members cho- 
en, Jan. 26. 
1795+ 


Members cho- 
fen, June 27. 
1796, 


344) TSF ORS of Shee SOC TRI. 


NON-RESIDENT. 


Fobn Cooper, M. D. Phyfician at Fochabers. 

Willam Garfhore, Ef{q; of London. 

fobn Gillies, LL. D. F. R. S. London, and Hiftoriographer to 
his Majefty for Scotland. 


FOREIGN. 


Fobn Godfrey Smeiffer, A. M. & F. R. S. London. 
Ga/fper Voght, Efq; of Hamburgh. 


THE following were elected at the General Meeting, June 27. 
1796. | 
RESIDENT. 


Lieutenant-Colonel Alexander Dirom, Fo &R..S. London. , F, 
The Right Honourable Lord Fincafile. P. 

The Reverend Sir Henry Moncrieff-Wellwood, Bart. D. D. L. 
Patrick Murray, Eq; of Ochtertyre, Advocate. P. 


NON-RESIDENT. 


Andrew Berry, M.D. Madras. P. 

Sir Heary Englefield, Bart. F. R. S. London. P. 

Dr freer, Profeflor of Medicine.in the Univerfity of Glafgow. P.. 
Dr James Gafcoigne, Phyfician at Plymouth. P. 

Richard Kirwan, Efq; F. R. S. London. P. 


FOREIGN. 


Mark Auguftus Pictet, Profeffor of Philofophy in the Academy 
of Geneva. . P: : 
M. P. Prevof, Honorary Profeffor in the Academy of Geneva. P. 


THE 


APPENDIX. 35 


TuE following were elected at the General Meeting, June 26. Members cho. 


fen, June 26, 


wee ies 
RESIDENT. 
Robert Beatfon, E{q; of Kilrie. P. 
Dr Andrew Duncan junior. P. 
NON-RESIDENT. 


The Reverend Walter Fi/ber, Minifter at Cranftoun. - P. 

The Rev. George Gleig, LL. D. Epifcopal Minifter at Stirling. Z. 
Charles Hatchett, Efq; F. R. S. London. _ P. 

Major James Rennel, F. R. S. Lond.  P. 


FOREIGN. 


Fobn Fepcot, M. D. F. R. Coll. of Phyficians at Stockholm, and 
Profeffor of the Practice of Medicine at Upfal. P. 


f 2 LIST 


Members decea-  .15'T of MEMBERS who have died fince the Publication of the laft 
Volume. 


Colonel Edmonjtone of Newton. June 24. 1793. 

Honourable James Veitch of Elliock, (Lord Elliock), one of the 
Senators of the College of Juftice. July 1. 1793. 

Honourable Francis Garden, (Lord Garden/tone), one of the Se- 
nators of the College of Juftice. July 22. 1793. 

Abraham Guyot of Neuchatel. May 22. 1794. 

ohn Roebuck, M.D. July 16. 1794. 

Reverend Dr Be//, Minifter at Coldftream. Auguft 9. 1794. 

Right Honourable Lord Daer. Nov. 5. 1794. 

Charles Scott, M. D. Phyfician in London. 

Sir William Fones, one of the Judges of the Supreme Court at 
Bengal, and Prefident of the Afiatic Society. 

Alexander Gerard, D. D. Profeffor of Divinity, King’s College, 
Aberdeen. Jan. 22. 1795. 

Sir Francis Kinloch of Gilmerton. April 16. 1795: 

Rev. Yobn Main, D. D. Minifter at Newton. May 13. 1795: 

William Smellie, Printer in Edinburgh. June 24. 1795. _ 

Adair Crawford, M. D. Phyfician to St Thomas’s Hofpital, Lon- 
don, and Profeffor of Chemiftry in the Academy at Wool- 
wich. Auguft 5. 1795. 

Honourable Alexander Abercromby, (Lord <Abercromby), one of 
the Senators of the College of Juftice.. Nov. 17. 1795. 

Fames Robertfon, D. D. Profeffor of Oriental Languages in the 
Univerfity of Edinburgh, Nov. 25. 1795. 

. Sohn. 


AP PEN DIX, 37 


Fobn Anderfon, LL. D. Profeffor of Natural Philofophy in the 
Univerfity of Glafgow. Jan. 13. 1796. 

George Campbell, D. D. Principal of the Marifhall College, Aber- 
deen. April 6. 1796. 

Thomas Reid, D. D. Emeritus Profeflor of Moral Philofophy in 
the Univerfity of Glafgow. Nov. 7.1796. 

Honourable ohn Maclaurin, (Lord Dreghorn), one of the ee 
tors of the College of Juftice: Dec. 24. 1796. 

Thomas Gordon, Profeflor of Cooney King’s College, Aber- 
deen. March 11. 1797. 

Fames Hutton, M.D. March 26. 1797. 

Archibald Arthur, A. M. Profeffor of Moral Philofophy in the 
Univerfity of Glafgow. June 1797. 


DONA- 


Littof Don. DONATIONS prefented to the Rovat SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH, 
t10Ns. . a « ; 
continued from the preceding Volume. 


‘ 


From the Author.. 


Charts of the China Navigation, fol. by George Ribertfon, Efq; 
F. R. S. Edin. and now Commander of the Berrington, Eaft 
Indiaman. 


From the Author. 


Hiftorical and Biographical Sketches of the Progrefs of Botany 
in England, 2 vol. 8vo, 1790, by Richard Pulteney, M. D. 
and ER.-S. 

General View of the Writings of Linnzus,8vo, 1781, by the 


fame. 
From the Reverend Andrew Brown. 
A Model of an Indian Canoe, with the Belt and Pouch of an In- 
dian Hunter. 1794. 
From the Author. 
Syftem of Mineralogy, 2 vol. 8vo, 1795, by 7. G. Smeiffer, 
F. R. S. Lond. & Edin. 
From the Author. 
Report of a Survey of the Thames, 8vo. 1794, by Mr ohn 
Rennie, Engineer, F. R. S. Edin. 
From the Literary and Philofophical Society at Manchefter. 


Manchefter Memoirs, vol. iv. Part 2. 1794. 
From 


ANPP MECN eet, ee pe raen 1.Y.) 
From the American Academy of Arts and Sciences. 
Memoirs of the Academy, vol. 1. part 1. Bofton, 1793. 
From the Author. 


Ueber die Bleyglafur unferer Topferwaare, vom Hofrath, G. A. 
Fbell, Wannover, 1794. 


From the Editor, Francis Maferes, Ef{q; Curfitor Baron of Ex- 
chequer. 


Scriptores Logarithmict, or a Colle€tion of Curious Tracts on 
the Nature and Conftruction of Logarithms, 3 vol. 4to. 1791, 


1796. 
From Jobn Thomas Stanley, Efq; 


Three Views of Geyfer, a hot Spring in Iceland, from Drawings 
taken on the Spot. 


From the Royal Society of London. — | 


Tranfactions of the Royal Society of London from 1790 te 
A794: Koren 


From the Author. 


Remarks on the Antiquities of Rome and its Environs, 4to, 
1797, by Andrew Lumifden, Efq; F. R. S. Edin, 


From M. Chevalier, F. R. S. Edin. 


On the pretended Tomb of HomER, 4to. 1797.. 


Sa 


a 


Mbetoir cts See, 


ae he 
’ 
4 * 


APPENDIX. (1) 


I. Account of tae Lire of Lord ABERCROMBY. By HENRY 
MACKENZIE, Efg; F.R.S. Evin. 


[ Read by the Author, Feb. 15. 1796.] 


HE life of which I am about to give fome account to this 
Society cannot be called a literary one; of literary lives 
only it is perhaps the proper bufinefs of the Royal Society to 
record the particulars; but it has been in the practice of al- 
lowing a wider range to this cuftomary notice of its deceafed 
Members. Of the lives of fuch as were eminent in ftation or 
in ufefulnefs, in abilities or in virtue, it has been accuftomed 
to hear a narrative, which, though not important to learning, 
is interefting to humanity. Under this title, it will indulge 
me with a fhort account of the life of Lornp ABERCROMBY. 


He was the youngeft fon of GEorGE ABERCROMBY of 
Tullibody, a gentleman of a refpectable family and confider- 
able fortune in Stirlingfhire, and of ANNE Dunpas, daughter 
of Mr DunpAs of Manor. He was born on the 15th day of 
October 1745. His father {till lives at the very advanced age 
of gi, and has had the fingular good fortune to fee two of his 
elder fons, who were both bred foldiers, appointed Commanders 
in Chief of the Britifh forces, one in the Weft and the other 
in the Eaft Indies, the moft important ftations with which 
their country could entruft them. His age indeed has, within 

Vou. IV. (a) thefe 


Account of Lord 
Abercromby. 


(2) HISTORY of the SOCIETY. 


thefe few months, been clouded by the death of him who is 
the fubject of this paper ; but it is fomething for a father, it 
is fomething for his friends, to mix their forrows with the ge- 
neral regret of his country. _ 

His youngeft fon ALEXANDER was early deftined for the 
profeffion of the law, to which his father had himfelf been 
bred, at a time when the Faculty of Advocates comprehended 
one half of the gentlemen of Scotland. At that period, com- 
merce and manufactures had not attained, in this part of the 
kingdom, that extenfion and improvement which renders them 
objects of purfuit to men of birth or fortune. The fword and 
the gown were here the only profeffions fuited for fuch men; 
for our church did not, like thofe of England and France, 
offer endowments confiderable enough to attraét the interefted 
or to excite the ambitious. In Scotland, however,-the profef- 
fion of the law was adopted by the eldeft fons of the gentry, 
rather as conferring a fort of fafhionable diftinétion, than as 
one from which they looked for bufinefs or emolument. It led 
to a learned, or at leaft a polite education, and gave a fort of 
dignity beyond the mere idlenefs of a man of pleafure. Hence 
perhaps there was in thofe times an elegance of manners, join- 
ed with a degree of knowledge and information, among the 
Faculty of Advocates in Scotland, not to be met with among 
any fimilar body of men in-any other country. I mention this 
hiftorically, becaufe it does not perhaps exactly fubfift at pre- 
fent, from caufes which may be held not to improve the man- 
ners fo much as, in a political and commercial view, they may 
be fuppofed to meliorate the fituation of a country. 

Mr ABERCROMBY, with a view to the law, which his pro- 
{pects made it neceflary for him to follow as a profeflion, re- 
ceived the cuftomary education at the Univerfity of Edinburgh. 
There the writer of this memoir firft knew him. He had abi- 
lities which qualified him for being more a fcholar, than the 

3 vivacity 


APPENDIX. (3) 


vivacity of his difpofition then allowed him to become. With 
uncommon beauty of countenance and pleafantnefs of manner, 
the favourite of every relation and acquaintance, he did not 
then (as is common with young men fo circumftanced) apply 
to his ftudies with the conftant and unremitting affiduity which 
is calculated to attain deep learning. But he had a readinefs 
and acutenefs that could eafily perform his exercifes when he 
withed to perform them. After going through the ordinary 
courfe of claffes at the Univerfity, confifting of the Latin and 
Greek languages, of Logic, Philofophy, the Civil and Scots 
Law, he was admitted Advocate in the year 1766. 

For fome time after his coming to the bar, he retained 
fomewhat of that gaiety of deportment and of condudt, which 
are not exactly fuited to the dry and uninviting paths that con- 
duct men to legal eminence. His manners and difpofition 
were better fitted for the lefs ferious and more engaging fociety 
of men of fafhion and.pleafure. During feveral years he lived 
a good deal in fuch fociety, and gave but little promife of that 
attention and application to bufinefs for which he was after- 
- wards diftinguifhed. Though not unremittingly attentive, how- 
ever, to his profeflion, he was never neglectful of its duties ; 
and when any particular cafe was put into his hands, he gave 
very convincing proofs, both of his general talents, and of his 
power of application to bufinefs in detail. 

Bur it was not long before he felt the propriety of focluding 
himfelf more than he had hitherto done from the fcenes of 
conviviality and amufement, which had interfered with a more 
ferious and determined application to his profeflion, He had 
lent to lighter fociety a certain gaiety and fportfulnefs of mind, 
which, in a character of lefs native vigour and ability, might 
have been fatal to the future profpects of his life. But he pof- 
feffed an intrinfic chara¢ter, which it was not difficult for him 
to refume; and from that pride and dignity of foul which he 


(a 2) always | 


Account of Lord. 
Abercromby. 


Account of Lord 
Abercromby. 


(4) HISTORY of the SOCIETY. 


always maintained in an uncommon degree, he felt it unworthy 
of him not to make every effort for rifing into eminence in the 
profeflion which he had chofen, from which, being a younger 
fon, and not likely to be poffeffed of a large patrimony, he was 
to derive fupport and independence. 

AN opportunity foon occurred of drawing the attention of 
the Court in which he practifed, and indeed of the country at 
large, to the talents which he poffeffed, and to that exertion of 


_ them which he could command. He was counfel in a caufe, 


which, from its peculiar circumftances, had attracted much pu- 
blic curiofity, and divided for fome time the public opinion. 
This was the cafe of Wil/on and Maclean, in which a particular 


_ fact (the period of the death of a fhipmafter, from whom a 
receipt was produced in bar of the plaintiff’s claim, but which 


receipt was alleged to be a forgery) was involved in fo much 
uncertainty, and that uncertainty {trengthened by the oppofite 
depofitions of fuch a number of witnefles, that it became a que- 
ftion cf uncommon notoriety and expectation, not only from 
the extraordinary circumftances of that individual caufe, but 
as involving a general legal confequence of the incertitude of oral 
teftimony in fixing the date of not very diftant events. In this 
caufe Mr ABERCROMBY was employed for the purfuer or plaintiff, 
and made a fpeech, in oppofition to one of equal ability from Mr 
BLAIR, now Solicitor-General, fo confpicuous for the clofenefs 
of its deduction, the force and clearnefs of its argument, the 
eloquence and imprefiive fenfibility of its declamation, as to ex- 
cite a very ftrong fenfation at the bar and in the public, and to 
mark him as an Advocate from whom the moft ftrenuous and 
fuccefsful exertions were 'to be expe@ted. It is feldom that at 
the bar of Svorland, any ‘appearance, however brilliant, has 
much effect in bringing a counfel into profeffional ‘celebrity or 
employment. From ‘the conftitution of the Supreme civil 
Court in this country, where trial by jury does not take place, 

and. 


f 


’ 


AP PE NOD IX. (s) 


and from the nature of its proceedings, which are chiefly car- 
ried on by written arguments, a fpeech, however remarkable, 
is rarely followed by thofe important confequences to a barri- 
fter’s future bufinefs, of which there are daily inftances in We/fmin- 
fter Hall, But in this cafe Mr ABERCROMByY’s appearance made 
fuch an impreflion in his favour as very foon to place him 
among the moft rifing young men of the profefflion. He took 

advantage of this circumftance by a {tep, of which the expe- 
diency was doubted by many of his friends at the time, but 
was afterwards allowed by them all. Soon after his being call- 
ed to the bar, he had been appointed Sheriff-depute of Stirling- 
Jhire, which he now (in 1780) refigned for the lefs lucrative 
and more precarious fituation of Depute-Advocate, on the idea 
of the_latter office being more beneficial in its confequences, as 
not precluding him from bufinefs arifing within the county of 
Stirling, where he had many conne@tions both from relation- 
fhip and acquaintance, but rather tending to advance his em- 
ployment, from the opportunities it afforded him of appearing 
in. public and ‘criminal cafes. ‘This appointment of Depute- 
Advocate he held under Mr Henry Dunopas, then Lord Advo- 
cate for Scotland, in conjunction with Mr Brarr, fince his Ma- 
yetty’s Solicitor, and Mr Crarc, now a Judge in the Courts of 
Seflion and Jufticiary. Thofe two gentlemen and Mr AsER- 
CROMBY were as much connected in private friend{fhip as in pu- 
blic bufinefs ; a friendfhip to which one who has known ‘them 
long and intimately, may be pardoned for afcribing a confi- 
dérable advantage towards the attainment of that profeflional 
‘eminence, as well as of that general eftimation and refpetability 
which they have all enjoyed. 

Mr ABERCROMBY now rofe with great rapidity in es profef- 
fion, and was among the beft employed barrifters of his ftanding 
am Scotland. To this fuccefs he was not more entitled by his ta- 
tents than by his afliduity ; and it was a peculiar merit in him,, 

who: 


Account of Lort 
Abercromby. 


Account of Lord 
Abercromby. 


(6) HISTORY of the SOCIETY. 


who had once indulged fo much in gaiety and amufement, and 
who was fo much fitted by nature to fhine among the gay and 
the amufing, to devote himfelf now to bufinefs with a rigid at- 
tention and punctuality not always met with even among men 
of the moft grave and ferious difpofitions. His fpeeches and 
his papers were held in equal eftimation. His general method 
in both was, to {tate the fac which gave origin to the caufe 
fimply and perfpicuoufly, and then to apply thofe principles 
and arguments in /aw which bore upon the cafe, from which 
he drew the conclufion in favour of his client. When the cafe 
admitted of it, he was fond of illuftrating his argument by 
fome appofite claflical allufion, or fome anecdote of ancient or 
modern times, with which his memory was abundantly ftored, 
His expreflion was always elegant, and when the fubje¢t called 
for it, rofe to a degree of animation and eloquence much be- 
yond what bufinefs-men might think neceflary in a mere legal 
pleading. He excelled particularly in that indignant tone in 
which a good man rebukes injuftice or oppreflion, and that pa- 
thetic in which he pleads the caufe of the unfortunate; a ftyle 
which his own mind, nice as it was in honour, and open to 
compaflion, naturally prompted. 

Tue laborious employments of his profeffion did not fo en- 
tirely engrofs him as to preclude his indulging in the elegant 
amufements of polite literature. He was one of that fociety of 
gentlemen, who, in 1779, fet on foot the periodical paper, 
publifhed at Edinburgh, during that and the fucceeding year, 
under the title of the Mirror, and who afterwards gave to the 
world another work of a fimilar kind, the LouncER, publifh- 
ed at Edinburgh in 1785 and 1786. ‘To thefe publications he 
was a very valuable contributor, being the author of ten pa- 
pers in the Mirror and nine in the Lounger. His papers are 
diftinguifhed by an eafe and gentlemanlike turn of expreflion, 
by a delicate and polifhed irony, by a ftrain of manly, ho- 

nourable 


APPENDIX, fe) 


nourable and virtuous fentiment. In fome of them we find 
that unaffected tendernefs, of which I took notice above as fre- 
quently diftinguifhing his profeflional labours. One of thofe 
papers I have often read fince his death, with feelings which I 
believe to be fo much in -unifon with thofe of my prefent au- 
dience, that I hope I fhall not be thought to trefpafs on their 
time or patience, if I quote the conclufion now. In N° go. of 
the Mirror, he mentions as one of the calamities of extremely 
lengthened life, the lofs of friends, and gives a very natural 
and affecting account of his own feelings on an occafion of that 
fort. The picture contained in that paper is no fancy-drawing ; 
it is a portrait of one of the earlieft and moft excellent friends 


of Mr ABERCROMBY, and of the writer of this memoir, Mr — 


Gorpon of Newhall, whofe accomplifhments and whofe virtues 
will not be foon forgotten by fome members of this Society. 
Alas ! I did not imagine, when I heard Mr ABERCROMBY read 
that paper of the Mirror, that, in a few years, it fhould be 
applicable to the lofs of its Author! If any of thofe who now 
‘participate in this reflection, fhould one day have occafion to 
recal in this place the remembrance of him who reads the pre— 
fent account, may his memory be as dear to his friends, and as 
valuable to fociety, as thofe to whom his feeble words now en- 
deavour to do juftice ! 


“ ‘THERE is one circumftance (fays Mr ABERCRomBY, in 
the paper I allude to) which with me is alone fufficient to 
decide the queftion (whether long life be an objet much to 
be defired). If there be any thing that can compenfate the un- 
avoidable evils with which this life is attended, and the num- 
berlefs calamities to which mankind are fubjeét, it is the plea- 
fure arifing from the fociety of thofe we love and efteem. 
Friendfhip is the cordial of life. Without it, who would with 
to exift an hour? But every one who arrives at extreme old age, 

mult 


Account of Low 
Abercromby. 


Account of Lord 
Abercromby. 


(8) HISTORY of the SOCIETY. 


muft make his account with furviving the greater part, per- 
_haps the whole, of his friends. He muft fee them fall from 
‘him by degrees, while he is left alone, fingle and unfupported, 


like a leaHefs trunk, expofed to every ftorm, and fhrinking © 


from every blaft. 

“ | Have been led to thefe reflections by 4 lofs I lately fu- 
tained in the fudden and unlooked-for death of a friend, to 
whom, from my earlieft youth, I had been attached by every 
tie of the moft tender affection. Such was the confidence that 
fubfifted between us, that, in his bofom, I was wont to repofe 
every thought of my mind, and every weaknefs of my heart. 
In framing him, nature feemed to have thrown together a va- 
riety of oppofite qualities, which, happily tempering each other, 
formed one of the moft engaging characters I have ever known. 
An elevation of mind, a manly firmnefs, a Cafilian fenfe of 
honour, accompanied with a bewitching fweetnefs, proceeding 
from the moft delicate attention to the fituation and the feel- 
ings of others. In his manners fimple and unaffuming ; in 
the company of ftrangers modeft to a degree of bafhfulnefs ; 
yet poflefling a fund of knowledge, and an extent of ability, 
which might have adorned the moft exalted ftation. But it 
was in the focial circle of his friends that he appeared to the 
higheft advantage ; there the native benignity of his foul diffu- 
fed, as it were, a kindly influence on all around him, while 
his converfation never failed at once to amufe and to in- 
ftruct. 

“ Not many months ago I paid him a vifit at his feat in a 
remote part of the kingdom. I found him engaged in embel- 
lifhing a place, of which I had often heard him talk with rap- 
ture, and the beauties of which I found his partiality had not 
exaggerated. He fhewed me all the improvements he had 


made, and pointed out thofe he meant to make. He told me 
3 : all 


=_ 


APPENDIX, (6) 


all his fchemes, ard all his projects. And while Tf live, I muft 
ever retain a warm remembrance of the pleafure I then enjoyed 
in his fociety. 

“ Tye day I meant to fet out on my return, he was feized 
with. a flight mdifpofition, which he feemed to think fomewhat 
ferious ; and, indeed, if he had a weaknefs, it confifted in ra- 
ther too great anxiety with regard to his health. I remained 
with him till he thought himfelf almoft perfectly recovered ; 
and, in order to avoid the unpleafant ceremony of taking 
leave, I refolved to fteal away early in the morning, before any 
of the family fhould be aftir. About daybreak I got up, and 
Tet myfelf out. At the door I found an old and favourite dog 
of my friend’s, who immediately came and fawned upon me. 
He walked with me through the park. At the gate he ftopped, 
and looked up wifhfully in my face; and, though I do not 
well know how to account for it, I felt, at that moment when 
I parted with the faithful animal, a degree of tendernefs, joined 
with a melancholy fo pleafing, that I had no inclination to 
check it. In that frame of mind I walked on (for I had or- 
dered my horfes to wait me at the firft ftage) till I reached the 
fummit of a hill, which I knew commanded the laft view I 
fhould have of the habitation of my friend. I turned to look 
back on the delighful feene. As I looked, the idea of the owner 
came full into my mind ; and, while I contemplated his many 
virtues and numberlefs amiable qualities, a fuggeftion arofe, if 
he fhould be cut off, what an irreparable lofs it would be to his 
family, to his friends, and to fociety. In vain I endeavoured to 
combat this melancholy foreboding, by refle€ting on the un- 
common vigour of his conftitution, and the fair profpect it af- 
forded of his enjoying many days. The impreffion ftill recur- 
red, and it was fome confiderable time before I had peenets 
of mind fufficient to conquer it. | ties | 

Vou, IV. , (b) } me 


Account of Lord 
Abercromby. 


Account of Lord 
Abercromby, 


(10) HISTORY of th SOCIETY. 


“ T HAD not been long at home when I received accounts of 
his being attacked by a violent diftemper, and in a few days 
after I learned that it had put an end to his life. 

“ Tus blow, for a time, unmanned me quite. Even now, 
the chief confolation I find is in the fociety of a few chofen. 
friends. Should they alfo be torn from me, the world would 
to me be as a defert; and, though I fhould ftill endeavour to 
difcharge my duty in that {tation which Providence has afligned 
me in life, I fhould never ceafe to look forward, not without 
impatience, to thofe peaceful manfions where the weary are at 
reft, and where only we can hope to meet again with thofe 
from whom we have been parted by the inexorable hand of 
death.” ; 


In 1792, when in this high and advancing fituation at the 
bar, an offer was made to him of the appointment of Judge 
of the Court of Sefion, in the room of Lord RockviL.e, de- 
ceafed. ‘This appointment he hefitated for a confiderable time. 
to accept, from an idea he had formed of the difficulty of exe- 
cuting the office in that manner in which he conceived it ought 
to be executed, and of the laborious and fatiguing application 
and exertions of mind which its various duties required. He 
was at length prevailed on to accept of it, principally from the 
very handfome manner in which it was offered to his accept- 
ance, and in compliance with the wifhes of his friend Mr Se- 
cretary Dunpas, who knew, from early and continued ac- 
quaintance, the value of that acquifition which he withed the 
Bench to make, in the appointment of Mr ABERCROMBY to a 
Judge’s feat. That appointment accordingly took place on the ~ 
‘goth of May 1792; and on the 14th of December following, 
he was called to a feat in the Court of Ju/fficiary, on the vacan- 
cy occafioned by the death of Lord HaiLes, 


3 THE 


ALP OP BN, Dol X, (11) 


THE manner in which he executed thofe very important offi- 
ces, is frefh in the memory of every one. To the moft affidu- 
ous and unremitting attention to his duty, and the moft accu- 
rate confideration of the legal principles which were to deter- 
mine his decifion, he joined a talent for announcing that deci- 
fion, and the grounds on which it refted, in fuch a manner as 
to give fingular weight and dignity to his opinion, and to make 
the ftrongeft impreflion on his audience. He did not {peak 
often, but when he did, he never failed to throw light on the 
cafe before the Court. He never forgot, (what is liable to be 
forgotten in a Court which, from the number of its Judges, 


partakes fomewhat of the nature of a popular affembly), that — 


he was delivering the opinion of a Judge, not arguing the caufe 
of a barrifter. He never replied to any of his brethren, re- 
membering that a Judge does not {peak for victory ; that it is 
his bufinefs to pronounce his own opinion, not to combat the 
opinions of others. He fpoke fhortly, feldom on the circum- 
ftances of the cafe in detail, but on fome leading and promi- 
nent point on which the opinion he was to deliver was found- 
ed. His expreflion was clear and perfpicuous, correct, at the 
fame time, and elegant. His fpeaking was flow and delibe- 
rate, and in that cool and folemn manner which becomes a ju- 
dicial opinion ; yet, like his appearances at the bar, it did not 
fail in animation when it was directed to the cenfure of unfair- 
nefs, to the detection of difhonefty, or to the rebuke of oppref- 
fion. He was of particular ufe in the civil Court, by an at- 
tention to the proceedings, and to the checking of any impro- 
priety in the conduét of the bufinefs. On this ground, his own 
ftri&t obfervance of propriety gave him great advantage. When 
he did cenfure, even when there was occafion for feverity, it 
was with fo much gravity and dignity of manner, and fo 
much temperance of expreflion, as to enfure the approbation 

ED 2) of 


Account of Lord 
Abercromby- 


Accountof Lord 
Abercromby. 


(12) HISTORY of the SOCIETY. 


of. the impartial, as to imprefs conviction, as well as to impofe 
filence, on the cenfured. Lord ABERcRomByY pofleffed thofe 
virtues and accomplifhments which inveft the ftation of a Judge 
with an authority the moft venerable and the moft perfuafive. 
Purity of mind and of character, a nice fenfe of honour and 
decorum, a delicacy of private and a dignity of public deport- 
ment ; thefe are at all times moft important qualities in a Judge ; 
at no time perhaps fo much as at the prefent, when they are fo 
effential to conciliate the efteem and to command the reverence 
of the people for the magiftracy and conftitution of their 
country. [ 

To the criminal Court thofe qualities are peculiarly appropri- 
ate. In that Court, the Judge is the organ of the offended ma-~- 
jefty of the law; his deportment ought to be fuited to that 
function, grave, deliberate, decided. Above the atmofphere of 
the paffions, he may fpeak with feverity, but never with re- 
fentment ; and his duty is too folemn and too majeftic, to ad- 
mit of the light or the frivolous, either in manner or expreffion. 
Yet, amidft the unbending declaration of the law, and the 
fteady decifion of its. minifter, he may, and in fome cafes 
ought to feel that dignified compaflion for human frailty, that 
tempers the rigour, but does not detract from the awfulnefs of 
juftice. Such was the deportment of Lord ABERCROMBY. 
The firmnefs of his mind, and the dignity of his demeanour, 
were particularly called forth at that momentous juncture, when 
the decifions of the criminal Court of Scotland vindicated the 
laws, and upheld the conftitution, againft the daring attacks of — 
turbulence and fedition. 

THE laft piece of duty which Lord ABERcRomMBy performed. 
as a Judge of the Court of Jufticiary, (immediately after the 
admiffion of his friend ‘Lord Craic as a colleague), was the 
northern circuit in the {pring of the year 1795. On that jour- 

| ney 


APP EN Dix, (13) 


ney he felt himfelf a good deal indifpofed, but returned to 
Edinburgh, reftored, as he faid, to his ufual health, though 
his altered looks and appearance ftrongly excited the apprehen- 
fions of his friends. Thofe apprehenfions were but too foon 
verified. He was attacked in fummer 1795 with a breaft-com- 
plaint, attended with dangerous fymptoms, for which, after 
fome palliative means, to which his diforder never at all yield- 
ed, he was adviféd to try the milder climate of Exmouth in De- 
yonthire, a voyage to the Continent being, in the prefent fitua- 
tion of public affairs, difficult to accomplifh, and particularly 
difagreeable to his inclinations: He was accompanied in this 
journey by his nephew, the eldeft fon of his brother Sir Rate 
ABERCROMBY, who watched the laft days of his uncle with 
that tender affliduity which, though the world can neither fee 
its merit nor feel its fufferings, is one of the moft important 
and moft difinterefted of all the domeftic duties. On the road to 
- Exmouth, he was feized with ftill more violent fymptoms than 
any his diforder had hitherto exhibited; and though he expe- 
rienced, during the {pace of about two months, fome tempo- 
rary relief, he never gained any material advantage, and the 
difeafe made progreflive advances, till at laft it carried him off 
on the 17th day of November 1795. He bore its fufferings 
with the greateft patience and fortitude ; and though for fome 
time he entertained hopes which his phyficians and friends faw 
to be but too ill founded, he met its conclufion with perfec 
compofure and refignation. 

Tue diforder which terminated fo fatally was perhaps only 
the effect of a gradually debilitated conftitution, not of any 
determinate and immediate caufe. Yet fome of his friends, 
with an anxiety natural in fuch a circumftance, have traced it 
to various fources, An accidental fall into the uninclofed foun- 
dation of a houfe in the New Town of Edinburgh, was by 


I fome, 


Account of Lord: 
Abercromby. 


Account of Lord 
Abercromby. 


(14) HISTORY of the SOCIETY. 


fome, I believe not on any medical authority, fuppofed to have 
produced the complaint to his breaft. The anxiety and appli- 
cation he beftowed on the duties of a very laborious profeflion, 
might contribute, to exhauft the ftrength of his conftitution; 
and, if mental affections are to be allowed fuch force, the un- 
eafinefs which for fome years he experienced on the fubjeé& of 
public affairs and the political {tate of his country, might im- 
pair and weaken his health and fpirits. Deeply impreffed him- 
felf with the excellence of the Britifh conftitution, and of the 
happinefs derived from it, he faw with horror and indignation 
(at a period confiderably earlier than that which excited the ap- 
prehenfions of moft other people) the efforts of defperate and 
defigning men to overturn it ; he lamented the delufion of thofe 
who were mifled to join them ; and he trembled for the effects 
of that delufion in eftimable and benevolent but vifionary 
minds, who might indulge the: pride of political theory and 
{peculation, to the danger, as he conceived, of all good order 
and regular government, of all focial happinefs and focial 
virtue. 

Or the public virtues of Lord ABERcromBy, I have given a 


‘pretty full detail, becaufe thofe fpeak loudeft in example, and 


are moft generally ufeful to mankind. Of his private virtues 
and accomplifhments I might {peak in this Society on the tefti- 
mony of many of its Members, who will long remember the 
excellence of his difpofition, the worth and honour of his 
heart, the amiable and engaging manners which he exhibited. 
From birth, from education, from native fentiment, and im- 
proved fociety, he cultivated, and was never a moment unim- 
prefied with the feelings of a gentleman, with that delicacy of 
mind, “ above the fixed and fettled rules,” which polifhes the 
manners, which refines morality, which dignifies virtue; of 


~ which fuch an example is the more valuable in thefe days, when 


'4PPENDIX. (15) 


I am afraid a ftyle of life and manners has become in fome de- 
gree fafhionable, which deftroys this honourable diftinétion ; 
which degrades the higher ranks by vices and follies that ufed 
to be a reproach to the leaft worthy among the lower ; in which 
name and ftation fanctify groffnefs in pleafure and coarfnefs,in 
demeanour, and wealth fhoots out into caprice and abfurdity, 
- inftead of expanding into generofity and ufefulnefs. 

THE Society will pardon this digreflion, which I confefs to 
be unneceflary, and to fome may appear ungracious ; they will 
forgive it to him who, looking from the tomb of his friend on 
the world he has left, with that gentler mifanthropy (if it fhall 
be thought to merit that term) which is made up rather of re- 
grets than of refentments, naturally enough indulges in an ag- 
gravation of what he has loft, and, it may be, in an unfavour- 
able eftimate of what remains for him to enjoy. 

IN DEPENDENTLY, however, of the eftimation of friendfhip, it 
may certainly be affirmed, that in the death of Lord ABER- 
croMBY fociety has fuftained a lofs of no light nor common 
kind ; a lofs which his friends and acquaintance will long and 
deeply lament ; and which, without difparagement to the vir- 
tues or the abilities of his furvivers, will not be eafily repaired 
to the public. 


Ht. 


Account of Lord 
Abercromby. 


» wih 


II. 4 fbort Account of the Lire and Writincs of WILLIAM 
TrTLeER, Efgs; of Woodhoufelee, F.R.S. Evin, By HENRY 
MACKENZIE, Efq; ¥.R.S. Evin. 


[ Read by the Author, Fune 20. 1796.] 


HE cuftom which this Society has eftablifhed, of giving 
fome account of the lives of its deceafed members, is in 
every cafe gratifying to friendfhip, in many interefting to cu- 
riofity, but in thofe which ferve to record the purfuits and oc- 
cupations of men of letters, it is more ftri€tly and properly an 
object coming within the views of a literary inftitution. The 
hiftory of the authors is always in a great degree the hiftory of 
the literature of a country ; and even exclufive of an immedi- 
ate relation to their works, the narrative of their private and 
domeftic habits is often, in a moral point of view, ufeful and 
interefting to the fcholar and the author. In both thefe re- 
{pects, | may claim the attention of the Society to the following 
fhort account of the life and writings of our late marth col« 
league, Mr WiLL1aAm TYTLER. 


Mr TyTLer was the fon of Mr ALEXANDER TYTLER, wri- 
ter in Edinburgh, by Janez, daughter of Mr WiLtiaM LEsLiE, 
merchant in Aberdeen, and grand-daughter of Sir Parrick 
LEsLiE of Iden, Provoft of Aberdeen. He was born at Edin- 
burgh, October 12. 1711. He received his education at the 
High School and Univerfity of his native city, and diftin- 

Vou. TV... (C) Ss guifhed 


Account of 
W. Tytler, Efq; 


(18) HISTORY of the SOCTET YF. 


guifhed himfelf by an early proficiency in thofe claffical ftu-. 
dies, which, to the lateft period of his. life, were the occupation 
of his leifure hours, and a principal fource of his mental en- 
joyments. 

In the year 1731, he attended the academical leGtures: of Mr: 
ALEXANDER Bayne, Profeflor of Municipal Law in the Uni- 
verfity of Edinburgh, a gentleman. diftinguifhed alike for his 
profeffional knowledge, his literary accomplifhments, and the 
elegance of his tafte. The Profefflor found in: his pupil a con- 
genial fpirit, and their connection, notwithftanding the difpa- 
rity of their years, was foon ripened into all the intimacy of. 
the ftricteft friendfhip. So ftrong indeed became at length that 
tie of affection, that the worthy Profeffor, in his latter years, 
not only made him the companion of his ftudies, but when at 
length the victim of a lingering difeafe, chofe him as the com= 
forter of thofe many painful and melancholy hours which pre~- 
ceded his death. . 

At the age of-thirty-one, Mr TyTLER was admitted into the 
Society of Writers to bis Maje/ty’s Signet, and continued the prac- 
tice of that profeflion with very good fuccefs, and with equal 
ref{pect from his clients and the public, till his death, which 
happened on the 12th of September 1792. He married, ir 
September 1745, ANNE Craic, daughter of Mr James Craic 
of Dalnair, writer to the Signet, by whom he has left two fons, 
ALEXANDER Fraser TyTLer, his Majefty’s Judge-Advocate 
for Scotland, and Profefflor of Civil Hiftory in the Univerfity of 
Edinburgh, and Major Patrick TyTLer, Fort-Major of the 
Cattle of Stirling ; and one daughter, Mifs CurisTtina TYTLER. 
His wife died about nine years before him, and previoufly to 
that period, he had ‘loft a-fon: and a daughter, both grown to 
maturity. 

Ir is perhaps only in fmaller communities, like that of Edin- 
burgh, that the union of bufinefs and literary ftudies can eafily- 
take place. In larger focieties, fuch as that of Lozdon, here 

the 


APPENDIX. (19) 


the profeflional objects are greater and more extenfive, and the 
different clafles of men are more decidedly feparated from one 
another, there is a fort of divifion of mind as well as of labour, 
that makes the lawyer or the merchant a perfect lawyer or mer- 
chant, whofe mind and time are wholly engroffed by the ob- 
jects of his profeflion, and whom it might confiderably difcre- 
dit among his brethren of that profeflion, were he to devote any 
portion of either to claflical ftudy or literary compofition. In 
Edinburgh it is otherwife ; the profeffional duties are not in 
general fo extenfive as to engrofs the whole man, and his con- 
nections in fociety extending through many different clafles of 
his fellow-citizens, he has opportunities of converfing, of read- 
ing, and of thinking on other objects than merely thofe imme- 
diately relating to the bufinefs which he follows. This is per- 
haps the moft agreeable ftate of fociety of any, which, if it 
may fometimes prevent the higheft degree of profeflional emi- 
nence and {kill, (though even.on that ground many arguments 
aight be offered in its favour), certainly tends to enlarge the 
mind, and to polifh the manners; to give a charm and a digni- 
ty to ordinary life, that may be thought ill exchanged for the 
inordinate accumulatien of wealth, or the felfifh enjoyment of 
profeffional importance. 

Amonc that Society of which Mr Tyrer, at the period I 
have mentioned, was admitted a member, the Writers to the Sig- 
net, there were always many individuals poffefled of much ge- 
neral learning and knowledge; and the claffical education which 
was generally beftowed on young men deftined for that Society, 
frequently led them to indulge in hiftorical and literary difqui- 
fitions, little conneéted with the ordinary courfe of their pro- 
feflional employments. Mr TytrEer was one of thofe who, 
from his earlieft years, had applied himfelf to letters and clafli- 
cal ftudy ; and amidft an accurate knowledge and unremitting 
attention to his bufinefs, he never ceafed to cultivate and to en- 
joy them. 

(C2) THE 


we 


Account of 
W. Tytler, Efy; 


Account of ’ 
W. Tytler, E'q; 


(20) HISTORY of the SOCIETY. 


Tue moft remarkable feature of Mr TyTier’s character was 
an ardour and activity of mind, prompted always by a ftrong 
fenfe of rectitude and honour. He felt with equal warmth the 
love of virtue and the hatred of vice; he was not apt to dif- 
guife either feeling, nor to compromife, as {ome men more com- 


plying with the world might have done, with the fafhion of the 
time, or the difpofition of thofe around him. He feldom wa- 


ved an argument on any topic of hiftory, of politics or litera- 
ture; he never retreated from one on any fubject that touched 
thofe more important points on which he had formed a decided 
opinion. Decided opinions it was his turn to form ; and he ex- 


preffed them with a warmth equal to that with which he felt 


them. He took ftrong common-fenfe views of objects, not from 


want of acutenefs to perceive lefs palpable relations, but from ~ 


that warm and ardent caft of mind to which fuch views are 
more congenial than the fubtleties of abftraét or metaphyfical 
difquifition. 

Nor was it in opinion or argument only that this warmth | 
and ardour of mind were confpicuous. They prompted him 
equally in action and conduct. His affection to his family, his 
attachment to his friends and companions, his compaflion for 
the unfortunate, were alike warm and active. He was in fen- 
timent alfo what Jounson (who felt it ftrongly in himfelf, and 
mentions it as the encomium of one of his friends) calls a good 


hater s but his hatred or refentment went no further than opi- 


nion or words, his better affections only rofe into ation. In 
his opinions, or in his expreflion of them, there was fometimes 


a vehemence, an appearance of acrimony, which his friends 


might regret, which ftrangers might cenfure; but he had no 
afperity in his mind to influence his actual condud@ in life. He 


indulged oppofition, not enmity ; and the world was juft to him 
in return ; he had opponents, but I fincerely believe not a fin- 


gle enemy. His contefts were on opinions, not'on things ; 


his difputes were hiftorical and literary. In converfation, he 


carried. 


MOORS P BE NyODT Xe (21) 


carried on thefe with uncommon intereft and vivacity ; and 
the fame kind of impulfe which prompted his converfation (as 
is juftly obferved by an author, who publifhed fome notices 
of his life and charafter in the periodical"work entitled The 
Bee) induced him to become an author. He wrote not from 
vanity or vain-glory, which RoussEAu holds to be the only in- 
ducement to writing ; he wrote to open his mind upon paper ; 
to fpeak to the public thofe opinions which he had often fpoken 
in private ; opinions on the truth of which he had firmly made 
up his own conviction, and was fometimes furprifed when he 
could not convince others ; it was fair to try, if, by a fuller ex- 
pofition of his arguments, he could convince the world. 

Wir this view, he publifhed, in 1759, his “ Enquiry, hifto- 
“ rical and critical, into the Evidence againft Mary Queen of 
“ Scots, and an Examination of the Hiftories of Dr RoBERT- 
“son and Mr Hume with refpect to that Evidence ;” in which 
he warmly efpoufed the caufe of that unfortunate Princefs, at- 
tacked with feverity the conduct of her enemies, and expofed 
the fallacy, in many parts the fabrication, of thofe proofs on 
which the charges againft her had been founded. This work 
was the firft on that fide of this celebrated queftion which in- 
terefted the public in general, and appealed in behalf of the 
Queen to the judgment and feelings of the people. The learn- 
ed and induftrious Mr WaLTER GoopaLt had feveral years 
before publifhed his examination of the Letters of Mary, on 
which ltr accufers had fo much refted as evidence of her 
guilt ; but that examination, however elaborate and acute, was: 
not well calculated, either in form or ftyle, for general perufal. 
Mr TyTier’s work gave to the arguments of GooDALt the 
concifenefs and compreflion neceffary to command the attention. 
of the reader, fupported them. by a variety of new proofs and 
illuftrations, and drew from the general hiftory of the period 
in queftion, and from the characters of the leading actors of 


the fcene, arguments more imprefltve and interefting than any 
which. 


Account of 
W. Tytler, Efq; 


Account of 
W. Tytler,-Efq; 


(22) HISTORY of the SOCIETY. 


which mere verbal criticifm of the letters, or an examination of 
cotemporary documents, could fupply. The firft editions of 
the Enquiry were in one volume 8vo; but the author afterwards 
confiderably enlarged it, particularly in the hiftorical part, and 
publifhed, in 1790, an edition (being the fourth) in two volumes 


of the fame fize. 


THE problem of Mary’s guilt or innocence, (to ufe the lan- 


‘guage of a near relation of Mr TyTLeEr’s, expreflive indeed. 


of Mr TyTLER’s own fentiments on the fubject), if confidered 
merely as a detached hiftorical fact, would appear an object 
which, at this diftance of time, feems hardly to merit that Ja- 
borious and earneft inveftigation to which it has given rife; 
though, even in this point of view, the mind is naturally fti- 
mulated to fearch out the truth of a dark myfterious event, 
difgraceful to human nature ; and our feelings of juftice and 
moral rectitude are interefted to fix the guilt upon its true au- 
thors. But when we confider that this queftion involves a dif- 
cuffion of the politics of both England and Scotland during one 
of the moft interefting periods of their hiftory, and touches the 
characters, not only of the two fovereigns, but of their mini- 
fters and ftatefmen, it muft then be regarded in the light of a 
moft important ‘hiftorical enquiry, without which our know- 
ledge-of the hiftory of our own country, and of that political 
connection with England which from that time influenced all 
State-affairs in Scotland, muft be obfcure, confufed, and unfa- 
tisfactory. In addition to thefe motives of enquiry,~this que- 
{tion has exercifed fome of the ableft heads both of the former 
and of latter times ; and it-is no mean pleafure to engage in a 
conteft of genius and of talents, and to try our ftrength in the 
decifion of a controverfy, which has been maintained on both 
fides with confummate ability. 

Ir to perfons, however, of cooler and lefs fanguine tempers, 
it fhould ftill appear fingular, that any ancient hiftorical difqui- 
fition fhould fo keenly engage the minds and the paflions of li- 

terary 


POPE ND FX. (23) 


terary men, it may perhaps be obferved, that it is on objects of 
this fort that thefe are frequently more occupied and excited 
than on others which might at firft fight appear better calcula- 
ted to occupy and excite them. On objects of prefent and im- 
mediate concern, the mind and the affections have certain li- 
mits to which the actual and known intereft neceffarily con- 
fines them. The others have a fort of ideal range which no 
fuch fixed and certain boundary reftrains. ‘The intereft is crea- 
ted, not found, and the fancy fofters and nourifhes the fubjec&t 
of its own creation, till. it engroffes the attention and excites 
the paflions to a degree that muft appear very extraordinary to 
thofe who confider it in its natural and unexaggerated colours. 
Difputes of literary as well as political enthufiafm, have there- 
fore been generally the moft obftinate and warm of any ; and 
this, which is quaintly termed the Marian controverfy, of all 
fuch difputes the keeneft. Even Mr Hume, placid as he was 
from nature, and accuftomed, from -his ecarlieft literary life, to 
contradiction and attack, loft fomewhat of his ufual temper on 
the occafion, and fubjoined an angry note to the latter editions 


of his Hiftory, which I fhall not quote, becaufe, from my re-. 
fpe& for his memory, I am rather inclined to with that it had’ 


_ not been written. - , 

WITHOUT venturing any opinion on the queftion itfelf, it 
may be fufficient in this place to fay, that Mr Tyrer acquired 
high reputation by his difcuffion of it. The Enquiry was une 


verfally read in Britain, and very well tranflated into French,. 


under the title of “ Recherches Hiftoriques et Critiques fur les 
“ principales Preuves de l’Accufation intentée contre MARIE 
““ Reine d’Ecoffe.” The intereft it excited among literary men, 
may be-judged of from the character of thofe by whom it was 
reviewed on its publication, in the periodical works of the time. 


Dr DoucLas, now Bifhop of Salifbury, Dr SamuEL JoHNson, 


Dr JonN CampBetL, and Dr Smottet, all wrote reviews of 
‘Mr TyTLer’s book, containing very particular accounts of its 


merits, , 


Account of 
W. Tytler, Efg; 


Account of 
W. Tytler, Efq; 


(of) + HISTORY of MecSOCIETT. 


merits, and elaborate analyfes of the chain of its arguments, 
As an argument on evidence, no fuffrage could perhaps be more 
decifive of its merit than that of one of the greateft lawyers, 
and indeed one of the ableft men that ever fat on the woolfack 
of England, the late Lord Chancellor HarpwickeE, who decla- 
red Mr Tyrier’s Enquiry to be the beft concatenation of cir- 
cumftantiate proofs brought to bear upon one point, that he had 
ever perufed. What effect that body of evidence, or the argu- 
ments deduced from it, ought to have upon the minds of thofe 
to whom the fubject becomes matter of inveftigation, I do not 
prefume to determine. The opinion of the late Dr HENRY, 
author of The Hiftory of Great Britain on a new Plan, may per- 
haps be thought neither partial nor confident ; who fays, in a 
letter to Mr TyTier, publifhed in the volume of Zran/actions of 
the Antiquarian Society of Scotland, That he would be a bold man 
who fhould now publifh an hiftory of Queen Mary, in the 
fame ftrain with the two hiftorians, (Mr Hume and Dr Ro- 
BERTSON), whofe opinions on the fubjeét the Enquiry had exa- 
mined and controverted. 

I cannot help obferving, in juftice to Mr Hume’s impar- 
tiality, that no poflible motive could be afligned for the preju- 
dice which the favourers of Queen Mary have fuppofed him 
to entertain againft her. As a party queftion, in which view 
Mr TyT er has placed it in his Introduction to the latter edi- 
tions of his work *, Mr Hume had furely no bias to miflead 

him 


* “ Tue character, accomplifhments and misfortunes of this Princefs, (fays the 
Introduction), have been the fubjéGt of much-writing and controverfy among the 
Britith hiftorians. Republican writers, equally averfe to monarchy and to the 
Houfe of Stuart, have drawn her picture in the blackeft colours, by traducing her as 
an accomplice with the Earl of BotHwEtt in the murder of the Lord Darn ey her 
hufband. On the other hand, the writers attached to the ancient conftitution of their 
country, and to the Family of Stuart, have regarded that unfortunate Princefs as 
one of the moft virtuous and accomplifhed charaéters of that age, and as a victim to 
the fecret confpiracies carried on by fome of the heads of the reformed party in her 
kingdom for her deftru@tion.” 


APPENDIX. (25) 


him in the confideration of it; and it is a circumftance rather 
fingular, that while he has generally been charged with Toryz/m 
by one party, he fhould, on the other hand, be accufed by, un- 
plication of Republicanifm in this queftion on the hiftory of the 
unfortunate Queen of Scots. 

Tue other illuftrious hiftorian, whofe opinions Mr TyrLEr 
controverted in his Enquiry, though of oppofite fentiments 
from Mr TyT er as an author, lived with him in habits of 
private friendfhip and familiar intercourfe. The laft time Mr 
TyTLer dined at Dr RoBERTsoN’s, he faw with peculiar fa- 
tisfaction Hamitton’s hiftorical piture of Queen Mary, with 
the portrait of the Doctor on one fide, and his own upon the 
other. Dr Rosertson, talking accidentally with the writer of 
this account on the fubject of the Marian controverfy, faid, “ 1 
have told Mr Tytrer, that nothing but a regard for what I 
conceive to be hiftorical truth, could have given my hiftory 
that complexion which is fo different from what he thinks it 
fhould have worn. Mary was the natural heroine of my hi- 
ftory, if truth had allowed me to make her fo.” 

Sucu would have been the natural vanity of an author; nor 
was the national vanity of a Scotfman lefs interefted in the fate 
of this beautiful and unfortunate Queen, whom her evil de- 
ftiny tranfplanted from the funfhine of a gay and gallant court 
to a barbarous and unfriendly clime ; to a clime, fhaken by the 
ftorms of faction, and defolated by the furious contentions of a 
tyrannical and favage ariftocracy. It has been matter of regret 
with fome who feel for the Princefs in this view of her hiftory, 
that her advocates have not left her caufe to thofe feelings, but 
have puthed very far her pretenfions to unimpeachable conduc& 
and princely virtues, inftead of pleading an apology for error or 
weaknefs, from the circumftances of the times and the intrica- 
cies of her fituation, Even in the pages of ROBERTSON, after 
all that he has allowed of prefumptive evidence for her impru- 

VOLALV.. 5) (D) dence 


Account of 
W. Tytler, Elq: 


Account of 


W. Tytler, Efq; 


(26) HISTORY of the SOCIETY: 


dence or her crimes, the fentiment of the reader,. let his hifto» 
rical opinion be ever fo adverfe to the Queen, prevails over his 
juitice, and the dramatic effect of the ftory is uniformly, com- 
patiion for the Princefs, and refentment againft her enemies. 

To him who looks on that portion of hiftory rather with the 
eye of a moralift than of an antiquarian, her marriage with 
BoTHWELL is the moft unfavourable paflage of her life, both 
as affecting the propriety of her conduct in that particular, and 
as tending to corroborate the evidence produced by her ene- 
mies on the great charge of privacy in the murder of her huf- 
band. Of that marriage, Dr Henry thus exprefles himfelf, in 
the letter I mentioned above, written to Mr TyTLer on the 
2oth of July“1790, a few months before his (Dr Henry’s) 
death. ‘“ Her laft marriage (fays the Doétor): was the moft 
unhappy, and there feems ftill to be fome difficulty i in vindica-- 
ting her conduc in contracting that marriage. Was-fhe feized 
by BorHweE Lt in her paflage from Linlithgow, in confequence 
of a pre-concert, and with her own confent ; or was it by mere 
violence, and without her having any intimation, that fuch an 
attempt was made? If I could anfwer that queftion, I fhould: 
know what to think of feveral other things.” 

In confequence of this letter from Dr. Henry, Mr TyTLer: 
wrote a Difertation on the Marriage of- Queen Mary with the 
Earl of BotuwEt. ; which, with the letter that occafioned it,. 
was publifhed, in 1792, in the Tranfactions of the Antiquarian 
Society of Scotland, of which Mr TyTLErR was one of the Vice- 
prefidents.. In this differtation, he maintains, in conjunction 
with WHITAKER and SrEvartT, that the Queen’s marriage 
with BorHWELL was an object which the treacherous Murray 
and his alfociates had all along wifhed to accomplith, and: that 
it was at laft brought about by the daring ambition (encou- 
raged by them) of BoTuweExu himfelf, who, having feized the- 
Queen.on her return from vifiting her fon at Linlithgow, car- 
ried her prifoner to Dunbar, where, by the moft flagitious and 

violent 


APPENDIX. (27) 


violent means, he firft obtained the privilege, and then the legal 
character of a hufband. 


I HAVE placed this Difértation next in order to the Enquirys- 


becaufe both relate to the fame hiftorical fact, though in point 
of time it was the laft of Mr TyTLer’s compofitions. Before 
that Differtation, he had produced feveral other works on hifte- 
rical and literary fubjeéts, namely, — 


I. The Poetical Remains of James the Firft, King of Scotland, 


In one volume 8vo, publifhed at Edinburgh in 1783. The vo- 
lume, of which the above is the general title, contains a Differ- 
tation on the Life and Writings of King James the Firft, one 
of thofe Princes, in whofe lives, difaftrous rather than unfortu- 
nate, adverfity was the parent of wifdom and of virtue, and 
was cheared by religion, philofophy, and the mufes. This Dif- 
fertation introduces two well known ancient poems, which Mr 
TYTLER, on very ftrong grounds, afcribes to the King, viz. The 
King’s Quair, and Chrifi’s Kirk on the Green. The poem of 
The King’s Quair, or in modern Englifh the King’s book, is a 
very ftriking proof, not only of the poetical genius and imagi- 
nation of its author, but of a tafte cultivated and refined by an 
acquaintance with the claflical poetry of the ancients, and the 
works of thofe eminent bards who were his cotemporaries, 
CuHaucer, Gower and Lypcate. The fubject of the poem 
is the paflion of James for his lovely miftrefs JANE, daughter 
of the Earl of Somerfet, who afterwards became his Queen ; 
and the chief ciscumftances of the poet’s life, the misfortunes 
of his youth, his long captivity, the incident which gave rife 
to his love, its purity, conftancy, and fuccefs, are well defcribed 
under the quaint, but at that time fafhionable figure of poetry, 
allegorical vifion. This work, which is mentioned by Joun 
Mayor as the compofition of JAmeEs, and which in later times 
had been feen by Bifhop TANNER in an ancient MS. among 

(D 2) the 


Account of . 
W, Tytler, Ety; 


Account of 
W. Tytler, Efq; 


eo 


(28) HISTORY of GASOCGCIET TY. 


the Seldenian archieves in the Bodleian library at Oxford, was, 
in confequence of a diligent fearch made at Mr TyTLeEr’s infti- 
gation, happily recovered, and by him now for the firft time 
given to the public, with explanatory, critical and hiftorical notes. 
The poem of Chrifi’s Kirk on the Green was well known to the 
public, and had long been admired’ for its wit and humour ; 
but it had been afcribed, even by antiquarian writers, to JAMEs 
the Fifth of Scotland, the author of The Gaberlunzie Man, and 
other ludicrous compofitions. It occured to Mr TyT Ler, that 
the public was in a twofold error refpecting this favourite poem ; 
firft, in confidering it merely as a jeu d’e/prit, or fanciful daf- 
play of the author’s imagination and powers in the ludicrous ; 
and fecondly, in attributing the compofition to James the Fifth. 
In the Differtation on the Life of James the Firft, he has ar- 
gued, with much ingenuity, that the {cope and view of the 
work was political and patriotic ; its end, the beft pur'pofe of a 
Sovereign’s writings, the improvement of his people. The En- 
glifh at that time excelled all other nations in the ufe of the 
bow. James, on his return to his kingdom, was mortified by 
the ftriking inferiority of his own fubjects in that particular to 
their warhke neighbours. The practice of archery, and of 
weapon-{chawing, a military exercife, had gone into fhameful 
negle& during the weak adminiftration of the Regents of the 
kingdom. ‘Fo remedy this defe€@t, a more regular difcipline 
was enforced by the young Monarch, by ftatutory regulations ; 
who tried at the fame time the efhicacy of ridicule in compo- 
fing this ironical fatire (for fuch, according to the ingenious 
fuppofition of Mr TyTLer, is Chrifl’s Kirk on the Green) on the 
awkward management of the bow, and the neglect of archery 
among the Scots. In the age of James the Fifth, the vulgarly 


- reputed autlfor of the poem, the ufe of fire-arms had completely 


fuperfeded the bow as an engine of war. The laws of JamMeEs 
the Fifth required, that every man fhould arm himfelf with a 
hackbut or mufquet. In that era, therefore, the fatire on the 

want 


4h, BP By Nc DY TAA: (29) 


want of {kill in archery would have been loft or mifapplied, its 
irony no longer felt, its falutary end no more perceived. Be- 
fides this argument from the general tenor of the poem, Mr 
TyTLer has adduced the intrinfic evidence arifing from the /an- 
guage of the piece, as clearly afcertaining its date to belong to 
that period to which he has affigned it. 

At the end of the poem of Chrifi’s Kirk on the Green, is a 
note by Mr Tytter, in which he pays a juft tribute to the 
worth as well as genius of our celebrated paftoral poet ALLAN 
RAmsAy, and contradicts, from his own perfonal knowledge, 
the abfurd ftory of Ramsay’s not being the author of the well 
known paftoral drama, The Gentle Shepherd. 

SuBJOINED to the Differtation and Poems, is an Effay by Mr 
TyTLer (firft annexed to Arnot’s Hiftory of Edinburgh, pu- 
blifhed in 1788) on the Scotti/b mufic. This laft was very pro- 
perly included in the volume above mentioned, from its con- 
nection with the hiftory of the Prince, whofe poems it was the 
chief purpofe of that volume to record: and. illuftrate ; the fy- 
ftem maintained by Mr Tyruer in this eflay on the Scottifh 
mufic, being, that the ftyle of the ancient melodies of this coun- 
try was firft introduced by King James the Firt. This was 
chiefly founded on a paflage in the penfieri diverfi of Tassont, 
better known as the author of the celebrated mock-heroic Ja 
 fecchia rapita, who, mentioning the mufical talents of this Mo- 
narch, afcribes to him the “invention of a new kind of mufic, 


plaintive and melancholy,” which Mr Tyt.er,, in this effay,. 


fuppofes was the original of thofe beautiful and pathetic airs 


which are known and diftinguifhed as the national. mufic of. 


- Scotland. 


\ 


IL. Objer= 


Account of 
W. Tytler, Efq; 


Account of 
W. Tytler, Efq; 


(30) HISTORY of th SOCIETY. 


Il. Objervations on the VISION, a Poem firft publifbed in 
RAMSay’s Evergreen. 


‘Thefe obfervations, which vindicate ALLAN RAMSAY’s title to 
the poems in queftion, were publifhed in the before-mentioned 
volume of the Antiquarian Tranfactions in 1792. 


Ill. a Account of the fafbionable Amufements and Entertain- 
ments of Edinburgh in the laft Century, with the Plan of 
a grand Concert of Mufic | performed there] on St Cecilia’s 
Day 1695. 


Mr TyTLerR was likewife the author of a paper in the Loun- 
ger, No. 16. ‘* Defects of modern Female Education in teaching the 
Duties of a Wife.” 


Ow all Mr TyTLER’s compofitions the character of the Man 
is ftrongly imprefled, which never, as in fome other inftances, 
is in the fmalleft degree contradicted by or at variance with the 
character of the duthor. He wrote what he felt, on fubjects 
which he felt, on fubjeéts relating to his native country, to the 
arts which he loved, to the times which he revered. A zealous 
Scotfman, a keen mufician, an old man with his youthful re- 
membrances warm in his mind, he wrote on the hiftory of 
Scotland, on mufic, and on the amufements of former times in 
Edinburgh; and I confefs, that from a knowledge of this cir- 
cumftance, I read his works with an intereft which I fhould not 
feel, if I confidered them as flowing from a pen which was the 
inftrument of the author’s ingenuity rather than of his heart. 

His heart indeed was in every thing he wrote, or faid, or 
did. He had, as his family and friends could warmly atteft, 
all the kindnefs of benevolence: he had its anger too; for be- 
nevolence is often the parent of anger. There was nothing 

neutral 


A PIP BN Dub X. (31) 


neutral or indifferent about Mr Tytier. In philofophy and 
in hiftory, he could not bear the coldnefs, or what fome might 
call the temperance of fcepticifm ; and what he firmly believed, 
it was his difpofition keenly to urge. 

His mind. was ftrongly imprefled by fentiments of religion. 
His piety was fervent and habitual. He believed in the doc- 
trine of a particular providence, fuperintending all the actions 
of individuals, as well as the great operations of nature ; and 


he had a conftant impreffion of the power, the wifdom, and the: 


benevolence of the Supreme Being. 

His reading was various and extenfive. There was fcarcely 
a fubject of literature or tafte, and few even of fcience, that 
had not at times engaged his attention. In hiftory he was 


deeply verfed ; and what he had read his {trong retentive me-- 


mory enabled him eafily to recal. Ancient as well as modern 


ftory was familiar to him, and in particular the Britifh hiftory, 


which he had read with the moft minute and critical attention. 


Of this, befides what he has given to the public, a great num-. 
ber of notes which he left in MS. touching many controverted 


points in Englith and Scottifh hiftory, afford the moft ample 
proof. 

In mufic as a fcience he was uncommonly fkilled. It was 
bis favourite amufement; and with that natural partiality 
which all entertain for their favourite objets, he was apt to af- 


_fign to it a degree of moral importance which fome might deem. 
a little whimfical. He has often been heard to fay, that he ne-- 
ver knew a good tafte in mufic affociated with a malevolent: 
heart ; and being afked, what prefcription he would recommend: 
for attaming an old age as healthful and happy as his own ?. 
“My prefcription, faid he, is fimple : fhort but cheerful meals, 
mufic, and a good confcience.” In his younger days, he had 


been a good performer on the harpfichord ; but his chief inftru- 


ment was the German-flute, which he thought peculiarly adapt-- 
ed to the. expreflion of thofe natural and fimple melodies in: 
. | which: 


Account of 
W. Tytler, Efq; 


Account of 
av. Tytler, Efq; 


(32) HISTORY of the SOCIETY. 


which he moft delighted, the Scottifh airs, He was one of the 
original members of the Mufical Soctety of Edinburgh, in which 
he continued, during a period of near fixty years, till his death ; 
during the greateft part of which time, he was a Direétor of 
that Society, and felt for its permanence and_profperity that 
warm and lively intereft, which animated him alike in bufinefs, 
in ftudy, and in amufement. 

In perfon, Mr TyTLer was rather thin, and fomewhat below 
the middle fize. His walk, even at the lateft period of his life, 
was of that quick and {pringy fort which accorded with the 
activity of his mind. In his youth, he was fond of manly ex- 
ercifes, and often talked with regret of thofe which the gentle- 


men of Scotland had loft in the refinement or effeminacy of 


modern times. 

ENDOWED with fo many qualities adapted for friendfhip, Mr 
TYTLER had many friends, and among thefe were fome of the 
mioft diftinguifhed literary characters of the age. In that num- 
ber were the late Dr Joun Grecory, Principal CAMPBELL and 
Dr GERARD of Aberdeen, Dr REID, Dr Beatriz, Lord KamMEs, 


-and Lord Monzoppo. A man who lives fo long mutt necefla- 


rily lofe much of his cotemporary fociety ; but the lofs was 
compenfated to him more than it generally is to perfons of his 
age, by that intereft which he took in the converfation and in 
the amufements of the younger people who were the acquain- 
tance or companions of his children. 

He was indeed of a temper remarkably focial, and found, 
from the congenial ardour of his own mind, particular delight in 
the company of young people; to whom, from the ftore of 
anecdotes he pofleffed regarding the incidents, the manners, and 
the habits of former times, his converfation was equally in- 
ftructive and entertaining. He was, however, one of thofe 
fortunate praifers of times paft who are perfetly alive to the 
enjoyment of the prefent; whofe partial recolleCtion of former 
times and former joys refults from the fame warm and. active 

temperament, 


AP PEN DIY. (33) 


temperament that ftill preferves cordiality for prefent friends 
and fpirit for.prefent amufements. He retained this ardour 
and aétivity to the clofe of life ; and at fourfcore, was as ready 
as ever to join in the converfation, to participate the mirth, 
even to enter into the innocent convivial frolic of his young 
friends and relations. At his country-feat of Woodboufelee, di- 
{tant about fix miles from Edinburgh, where he faw them with 
peculiar fatisfaction, he had erected in a private and fombre 
walk, an urn, with this infcription : 


Hunc lucum 
Caris mortuis amici8 
Sacrum dicat 


W. T. 


Yet from this walk, from the indulgence of the remembrance 
and regrets which it infpired, he would return to the focial 
circle within, with unbroken fpirits and unabated cheerfulnefs. 

In domeftic life, Mr TyTLer’s character was particularly 
amiable and praife-worthy. He was one of the kindeft hufbands 
and moft affectionate fathers. At the beginning of this account, 
I mentioned his having loft, at an advanced period of life, an 
excellent wife, and a fon and daughter both grown to maturity, 
who merited and pofleffed his warmeft affections. The temper 
of mind with which he bore thofe lofles, he has himfelf ex- 
preffed in a MS. note, written not long before his death ; with 
which, as it conveys a fentiment equally important in the con- 
fideration of this life, and in the contemplation of that which 
is to come, I fhall conclude the prefent Memoir: “ The lenient 
hand of time, (fays Mr TyTueEr, after mentioning the death of 
his wife and children), the lenient hand of time, the affec- 
tlonate care of my remaining children, and the duty which 
calls on my exertions for them, have by degrees reftored me to 

Vou. IV. (E) myftelf. 


Account. of 
W. Tytler, Big: 


Aecount of 
W. Tytler, Efq; 


(34) ‘HISTOR E- GBMASOCIETY. 

myfelf. ‘The memory of thofe dear objets gone before me, 
and the foothing hope that we fhall foon meet again, is now the 
fource of extreme pleafure to me. In my retired walks in the 
country I am never alone ; thofe dear fhades are my conftant 
companions ! Thus, what I looked upon as a bitter calamity, is 


now become to me the chief pleafure in life.” 


ITT. 


Ill. 4 Biocrapuicat Account of Mr Witit4am Hamilton, 
late Profeffor of Anatomy and Botany in the Univerfity of 
Glafeow. By RoBERT CLEGHORN, M.D. F.R.S., Eprn. 
Lecturer in Chemiftry in the Univerfity of Glafgow. 


[Read 6th Nov. 1792.] 


N writing the life of a perfon who himfelf publifhed nothing, 
it is extremely difficult to fatisfy the expectation of his par- 
ticular friends, without incurring the charge of adulation‘ from 
the reft of the public. How far I have fucceeded in doing ju- 
ftice to Mr Hamitton’s merit, without infenfibility or exagge- 
ration, muft be determined by thofe who knew him, and by 
thofe who can appreciate the worth of fuch profeffional remarks 
as I fhall lay before them in the fequel. Mr Wrii1am Ha- 
MILTON was born in Glafgow July 31. 1758*. Having fi- 
nifhed the ufual courfe at the Grammar School, he went to 
Glafgow College in 1770, and continued there ftudying with 
great diligence till 1775, when he became Matter. of ares at the 
age of feventeen. 
(E 2) fai Sikes 


* His father was Mr Tuomas Hamitton, an eminent furgeon, and profeffor of 
anatomy and botany in Glafgow ; his mother Mrs IsapEL ANDERSON, daughter of 
Mr Anperson, formerly profeflor of church-hiftory in the Univertity of Glafgow. 


Account of 
W. Hamilton. 


(36) HISTORY of the SOCTETY. 


Havine fhewn an early and ftrong predile¢tion for the ftudy 
of phyfic, he went to Edinburgh, which was then, as it is ftill, 
the moft celebrated fchool of medicine in Europe. During the 
fummer of 1775, he ftudied botany under the late worthy Dr 
Hore; and during the two enfuing winters. he ftudied with 


great ardour under all the medical profeflors, and enjoyed the 


friendfhip of Dr CuLien and Dr Biack, who having been for- 
merly members of the College of Glafgow, were the companions 
and friends of his father. 

Mr Hamitron intended to have remained a third feafon in 
Edinburgh, but the ftate of his father’s health rendered it necef- 
fary for him to give up this plan. Accordingly, in fummer 
1777, he accompanied his father to Baru, and from thence to 
London, where he was recommended to the particular notice 
of the late Dr Witt1am Hunter, and of his brother Mr 
Joun Hunter. Each of thefe gentleman was conne¢ted with 
Mr T. Hamixton by early friendthip, and a conftant intercourfe 
of good offices. Under their direction Mr Hamitron quickly 
diftinguifhed himfelf by that ardent purfuit of anatomical and 
profeffional knowledge,which marked every part of his fubfequent 
life. Though left at an early age to his own condud, in a city 
abounding above all others with objects of pleafure and amufe- 
ment, he refifted the blandifhments of both, devotmg his time 
to the acquifition of knowledge, applying not only to thofe parts 
of ftudy which were entertaining, but to thofe alfo which the 
young are apt to neglect as uninterefting, or to defpife as ufe- 
lefs, and manifefting, on every occafion, a diligence difcouraged 
by no difficulty, and interrupted by few avocations. 

Suc conduét did not efcape the eye of Dr Hunter. Indefa- 
tigable himfelf, he was delighted with appearances of profeflional 
zeal among his ftudents ; and he was fo particularly pleafed with 
them in the fon of his old ftiend, that, after the firft feafon, he in- 
vited Mr HAMILTON to live in his houfe, and committed the dif- 

| ae feCting- 


APPENDIX. (37) 


fecting-room to his care. In this fituation, the beft that a ftudent 
of anatomy could wifh for, Mr Hamitron continued two years 
hearing the leCtures, and enjoying the converfation, of the firft 
anatomift in London. How far, in Dr Hunrer’s opinion, he 
improved this opportunity, appears from the following letter 
addreffed to Mr T. Hamittron, December 31. 1778: “ Your 
fon makes me very happy on your account, and for his own 
fake. I fee and hear much of him; and every body regards 
him as fenfible, diligent, fober, and of amiable difpofitions. He 
is now in the direct road for acquiring knowledge, as director 
in the difleG@ting-room. It obliges him to apply, becaufe he is 
to anfwer any queftion, and folve any difficulty that may occur; 
and which is beft of all, he is to demonftrate all parts of the bo- 
dy again and again to ftudents. This is a moft inftructive pro- 
vince, and a fine introduction to giving lectures, as it gives fa- 
cility in public fpeaking, and a habit of demonftrating diftina- 
ly and clearly, both of which are eafily acquired while we are 
young; and yet, for want of that very opportunity, are poffeffed 
by few. In this way he will acquire not only knowledge, but 
a character for knowledge with the public, which a young man 
cannot procure but by being in fome public ftation.” 

' In another letter to the fame gentleman, dated May 18. 
1780, Dr Hunrer fays: “ Your fon has been doing every thing 
you could with, and from his own behaviour, has profited more 
for the time than any young man l ever knew. From being a 


favourite with every body, he has commanded every opportu-. 


nity for improvement which this great town afforded during 
his ftay here ; for every body has been eager to oblige and en- 
courage him. J can depend fo much on him, in every way, 
that if any opportunity fhould offer for ferving him, whatever 
may be in my power | fhall confider as doing a real pleafure to. 
myfelf.” 

THE 


Account of 
W. Hamilto. 


Account of 
W, Hamilton. 


(38) HISTORY of the SOCIETY. 


THE opportunity hinted at foon occurred. Mr HamMILTon 
came to Glafgow in 1780, and taught for his father during the 
enfuing winter. Having given moft fatisfying proofs of know- 
ledge in anatomy, and of talents as a lecturer, he was appointed 
in 1781 fucceflor to his father, who had refigned fome time be- 


‘fore. When confulted about this appointment, Dr HUNTER 


faid to the Marquis of Graunam, now Duke of Montross, 
“© That from an intimate knowledge of Mr HamiLrton, asa 
man, and as an anatomift, he thought him every thing that 
could be wifhed for in a fucceffor to his father, and that it was 


‘the intereft of Glafgow to give him, rather than his to folicit the 


appointment.” , 

Hits father lived till January 1782; but the whole burden of 
lecturing, and the greateft part of the bufinefs, devolved on the. 
fon. The bufinefs was very extenfive, as old Mr HamMILTon 
was connected with many of the moft refpeftable families in 
Glafgow and its neighbourhood. His profeflional character, 
too, was high as a fuccefsful practitioner, and a {kilful opera- 
tor ; and being withal a man of great hilarity, and genuine hu- 
mour, his company was courted by all who relifhed wit and 
good fellowfhip. From the co-operation of fo many favourable 


_circumftances, Mr Hamitton’s progrefs was extremely rapid, 


his outfet being encumbered with few of thofe difficulties, which 
have often ob{tructed the courfe of other young practitioners. 
His father lived long enough to introduce him fully. His 
youth did not diminifh the confidence of his patients ; becaufe, 
befides knowing that he had ftudied with uncommon care, in 
fituations the moft favourable for acquiring knowledge, they 
believed that he had ready accefs at all times to the experience 
of his father. By gentlenefs of manners, by unaffected benevo- 
lence, by the moft prudent circum{pection in all his conduct, 
and by unremitting attention to his patients, he not only re- 


tained moft of thofe who had employed his father, but added 
many 


APUPE N. Dy BX (39) 


many to the number. While he practifed extenfively as a fur- 
geon, his fkill in anatomy made him be confulted by many fur- 
- geons, older’ than himfelf, before they performed operations ; 
and, in a few years, thofe who had been his pupils, practifing 
in diftant parts of the country, confulted him on fimilar occa- 
fions. Befides anatomy, he taught botany and midwifery; 
which laft he practifed with fuch fuccefs, that he was called to 


almoft every difficult cafe near Glafgow. In October 1783, he ~ 


married, Mifs ELizaBeTH STIRLING, an accomplifhed lady, 
connected with feveral opulent families in Glafgow and _ its 
neighbourhood. . From. thefe connedtions, his practice, already 
extenfive, was very confiderably increafed. 

Anxyous to excel, not only as a {kilful phyfician, and an ex- 
pert furgeon, but as a public teacher, he was led to confider 
every cafe that he treated more accurately than is ufually done 
by thofe who confine their attention to pradlice merely. Though 
naturally convivial, and endowed with a confiderable degree of 
his father’s humour, he avoided company as much as he could 
with prudence, and devoted every vacant hour to: ftudy, and 
efpecially to writing. He kept aregular account of all uncom- 
mon cafes, accompanying the conclufion of each with remarks 
fuggefted at the moment, and forming, at the end of each year, 
a general table of the difeafes which had prevailed during the 
different feafons. This plan facilitated his pra¢tice, and was 
highly gratifying to his patients, by convincing them, that their 
former complaints were diftinctly remembered: But he had a 
higher object in view than. the affifting of his own memory, or 
the gratifying of particular patients. His object was to have 
publifhed'a Syftem of Surgery, illuftrated with cafes, of which 
feveral are fully and accurately drawn up... As a {pecimen of 
what might have been expected from this work, had he lived to 
finifh it, I fhall mention a few particulars, which, on account of 


their 


Account of 
W. Hamilton. 


(40) | HISTORY of the SOCIETY. 


eect. their novelty or importance, feem moft worthy of being record- 
ed. 

Upon performing lithotomy for the firft time, he was ftruck 
with the difficulty of introducing the gorget, and, on examina- 
tion, he found it blunt at the point, where fharpnefs was moft 
needed, fo that inftead of cutting, it tore the urethra. The cut 
tler finding it difficult to fharpen the gorget, as commonly made, 
up to the button which goes into the ftaff, Mr Hamriron di- 
rected him to make it in two feparate pieces, which, locking to- 
gether, had all the firmnefs of the old inftrument, with the ad~ 
vantage of being eafily fharpened when taken afunder. This 
inftrument he always employed afterwards in operating, which 
he did often, and. with great fuccefs. 

In midwifery he met with feveral uncommon cafes, - which 
the moft remarkable are inftances of two women who furvived 
a complete inverfion of the womb*. He detailed thofe cafes to 
his pupils, along with ‘others that ended fatally ; and took occa- 
fion from them all to enforce the neceflity of avoiding force, or 
even hafte, in delivering women. The following extract, nearly 
in his own words, proves with what caution he treated his pa- 
tients, and with what care he confidered their cafes afterwards: 
“ I have feen four cafes of inverted uterus, of which two pa- 
tients died, and two recovered. This recovery is fo fingular, 
that I know only one cafe by THomas BarTHOLINUS fimilar 
to it: 

“ THE great object in all cafes of fuch danger, is to under- 
ftand fully how the accident happens, that fo we may be able 
to prevent is occurrence. It is evident, that the uterus can ne- 
ver be inverted when it is contracted, or even beginning to con- 
tract itfelf; it therefore muft happen when the fibres of it are 

relaxed, 


* Boru thefe patients are flill alive; and the hiftory of one is given in the Medi- 
cal Communications of London, vol. 2. 


AP PEN DEX. | (41) 


/ gelaxed, allowing themfelves to be bent in any direction, and es 
when the uterus is ftill large. This is the condition of the ute- ,* 
rus; when the child has been forced away, either by the action 
merely of the abdominal mufcles and diaphragm, or by the af- 
fiftance, as it is called, of the midwife, fhould the placenta ad- 
here to the very fundus or near it, a fimal] degree of force, ap- 
plied to the cord, may invert the uterus while large, flaccid, and 
empty. 

“ Tue fureft method of preventing fuch an accident, then, 
is to produce a complete and regular contraction of the uterus, 

_ which may be accomplifhed more eafily than fome have imagin- 
ed. For we know, that as long as any ftimulus is applied to 
the cavity, and efpecially to the mouth, which is the moft irri- 
table part of the womb, a contraction will take place, in order to 
expel the ftimulating caufe. Therefore, by allowing the child 
to be born folely by the pains of labour, by giving no afliftance ~ 
in the extraétion, (except where the fize of the child, or the mal- 
conformation of the pelvis, render afliftance abfolutely necef- 
fary), and by preventing the delivery of the body from being 
accomplifhed by the abdominal mufcles folely, we force the ute- 
rus to contract itfelf, and to expel its contents. After the deli- 
very of the body, by allowing the legs to lie for a fhort time in 
the vagina, and to prefs on the mouth of the womb, we enfure 
its contraCtion. 

“ By fuch management, the uterus having been made to con- 
tract itfelf properly, we have the placenta feparated, and ready 
for extraction... Thus, together with the danger of inverfion, we 
are freed from two more common accidents, viz. a retained pla- 

~cemta anda flooding. . Befides, the child is lefs hurt, when the 
flow delivery allows time for the dilatation,of the paflage ; and it 
runs no rifk of thofe {prains and bruifes which often happen in 
attempting to pull away the child without the afliftance of a la- 
sbour-pain. | 

| (F) 3 iy kin L 


Account of 
W., Hamilton. 


(42) HISTORY of the SOGIETY. 


‘““ T Have paid particular attention to this fubje@, and I have 
always found, that where the womb was inverted, where the — 
placenta was retained, or where much flooding followed the 
birth, the child had been born, head and body at once, by a 
fingle pain. An attention to this point, procured Dr HunTER 
part of the fame which he fo juftly pofleffed, on account of his 
fkill and caution in midwifery. He has often told me, that 
many women had been under his care, who, with other: practi- 
tioners, had loft much blood, and been expofed to much danger, 


_ from the fpeedy extraction of the after birth. By allowing it to 


feparate flowly from the uterus, and after feparation to lie for 
half an hour in'the vagina, he completely avoided the flooding, 
and the danger that attends it.” 


Mr Hami ron was called to many cafes of luxation, both. 
of the fhoulder and thigh joint ; in reducing which, he fucceed- 
ed by very fimple means, after other furgeons, who-employed 
the force of machinery, had failed. On this fubjec@t ke wrote 
an accurate’ paper ; in which, after defcribing the. joints, with 
the ligaments and mufcles that furround them in a natural ftate, 
he confiders fully the change brought on every part by luxation, 
deducing partly from the ftructure of the parts, chiefly from 
his own extenfive experience, the following dire¢tions concern- 
ing the beft mode of reducing the joint to its natural pofition. 

“Tue fituation of the mufcles round the joint differs much 
according to the kind of diflocation. 

“* Iw all cafes the deltoid is ftretched, but particularly when 
the bone is thrown directly downwards. ‘The long head of the 
biceps muft be fometimes torn, but, where it is not, it will be 
extended, and the ligament through which it pafles, and which 
binds it to the humerus, will be always lacerated in a greater 
or lefs degree. The mufcles that are moft deranged, are the fu- 
prafpinatus, fubfcapularis, and infrafpinatus. Thefe two laft 
we {hall call the lateral mufcles of the joint. 

ce In 


‘APPENDIX. (43) 


* In the diflocation downwards the fuprafpinatus will be on | 


the ftretch, the fubfcapularis and infrafpinatus will have, their 
fibres lengthened, and their direction altered, in confequence of 
the head of the humerus being thrown below the glenoid cavity. 

_“ Wuen the bone is diflocated outwards, and refts on the 
dorfum fcapulz, the fituation of the mufcles will be nearly the 
following: The fubfcapularis and fuprafpinatus will be both 
very much ftretched, while the infrafpinatus, having the hume- 
rus thrown under it, will be relaxed, and a number of its fibres 
will be torn from the fcapula, to make room for the head of the 
bone. 

_“ Tn the third fituation, when the bone is luxated inwards, 
the fuprafpinatus and infrafpinatus will be on the ftretch, while 
the fubfcapularis will be relaxed, and in the fame fituation as its 
oppofite mufcle has been defcribed in the preceding fpecies of 
- diflocation. 

““ Tus account is drawn from the natural fituation of the 
parts, and the few cafes of diflocation where there has been an 
opportunity of diffe€ting the arm. It may be obferved, that in 
all the three {pecies of luxation, the fuprafpinatus and dekoid 
are put much upon the ftretch, the laft in a lefs degree. From 
this we may. infer the propriety of relaxing thefe mufcles com- 
pletely during the time of reduction; and this is another reafon 
for raifing the arm when we attempt to replace the bone. 

“ Mr Tuomson * fpeaks of the head of the humerus being 
caught between the tendons of the infrafpinatus and teres mi- 
nor,-as in a noofe; this can happen only in the luxation out- 
wards, and is one reafon for relaxing them completely in at- 
tempting reduction, by throwing the arm towards the fide of 
the fcapula, oppofite to that where the head of the bone is lying. 
Having mentioned the fituation of the mufcles, I fhall now 


(F 2) point 


* London Medical Obfervations, vol. 2. p. 354. 


Account of 
W. Hamultow, 


Account of | 
W. Hamilten. 


(44)  . HISTORY of the SOCIETY. 


point out the changes that take place on the joint, when teft un- 
reduced, as being our proper guide in judging what line of prac- 
tice is to be followed in fuch cafes. An unreduced luxation 
may be defcribed in three fituations : The firft, when the parts. 
are little changed from the {tate they are in, immediately after 
diflocation happens. The fecond, where motion is beginning to- 
take place, and when the foft parts become adapted to the diflo- 
cated ftate of the bones. And the laft, when a new joint is 
formed. After the head of the bone is lodged on fome part of 
the fcapula, it is found to confolidate the cellular membrane 
and mufcular fibres under it, fo as to form a kind of foft focket 
for itfelf, which, by the preffure of the cartilage on the end of 
the humerus, and by the motion the arm admits of, gets a 
fmooth furface. ‘The burfal ligament torn on that fide next the 
humerus, is pulled acrofs the glenoid cavity, and the mufcles 
will be found in the ftate I have already defcribed. 

“ AFTER the inflammation and fwelling, confequent upon the 
injury, have gone off, the patient will, be plagued with pains in. 
the {tretched mufcles, and will be incapable of moving the joint 
with eafe. The inflammation will however make the lacerated 
parts grow together, fo as to obliterate the paflage through 
which the head of the bone efcaped from the joint. This may 
be reckoned a luxation in a recent ftate. After fome time the 
mufcles begin to adapt themfelves to the {tate of the bones, thofe 
that were overftretched are lengthened, and the relaxed ones 
contract, fo that the perfon is capable of moving his arm, and 
by degrees the motion becomes more confiderable. The burfal 
ligament now gets adhefions to the edges of the glenoid cavity, 
over which it lies, and the opening in it, through which the 
bone pafled, is filled up, fo that it embraces the humerus clofe- 
ly. The torn paflage in the foft parts has become as firm as if 
no’ laceration had ever take place. The focket, formed in the 
cellular fubftance, between the head of the humerus and the 

{capula, 


APPENDIX. (45) 


fcapula, begins now to be removed, from the conftant preffure HE, 


made upon it; and before this, which we would call the fecond . 
ftate of the diflocation, is completed, that bone is refting on the 
furface of the fcapula itfelf. It is much to be withed, that it 
were afcertained, by accurate obfervations, when thefe changes 
take place, and particularly when the third ftate, which we are 
next to defcribe, begins. This laft {tate of a diflocation is, when 
nature is beginning to form a new joint to fupply the place of 
the old one. 

““ THe foft focket having been completely removed, the hu- 
merus is re{ting on the furface of the fcapula. By preffure, and 
frequent motion, a cavity is formed for the head of the bone; 
the furface of this new cavity becomes fmooth, and is covered 
with a cartilaginous cruft; the attachment of the humerus. to 
the parts around anf{wers the purpofe, and at laft aflumes the ap- 
pearance of a ligament, fo that a new joint may be {aid to be 
formed completely in all its parts. That this can happen, has 
been proved by diflection; and particularly in a- man, after 
whofe death my father had an opportunity of examining his 
arm, which had been diflocated for upwards of thirty years. 
This perfon was a fencing-mafter, and, as it was his right arm, 
he was obliged to perform with it a great variety of motions. 
He had acquired fo completely the ufe of it, that he could per- 
form all the different motions neceflary in the {mall fword, ex- 
cept pufhing a high carte *. 

* Monfieur Moreau f gives two cafes fimilar to this, of old 
luxations of the thigh, where the head of the femur had formed 
a new acetabulum for itfelf in the os innominatum. Another 
cafe, though:not of a diflocated fhoulder, I fhall likewife de- 

{cribe, 


* Mr Tuomson difflef@ed a man with a new focket, formed in the infide of the 
fcapula, Med. Obf. vol. 2. 


+ MemorrEs de l’Academie de Chirurgerie, tome v. p. 45. {mall edition, 


Account of 
W. Hamilton. 


(46) HISTORY of the SOCIETY. 


{cribe, as illuftrating the efforts of nature, to fupply the motion 
between bones after diflocation, and where.a procefs for forming 
a new joint, that, fo far as I know, has never been defcribed, is 
taking place. The bones are from a woman, who was difleéted 
in the theatre here, about four years ago; the thigh had been 
long diflocated, and the woman had been able to walk about. 
The neck of the os femoris lay on the edge of the acetabulum, 
while the head, which is changed in its fhape from the preflure 
of the furrounding parts, was on the dorfum ilii beyond this 
cavity. The edge of the acetabulum filled up the hollow at 
the neck-of the femur, which is made deeper by its preffure. 
There are two procefles of bone growing into the acetabulum 
from the-os femoris, and which at laft would have formed a 
kind of head to play in this the cavity of the old joint, and 
thus: have'made a new one confiderably different from that in 


‘the ‘cafes already mentioned. By one or other of thefe different 


ways, nature attempts to remedy the injury done to a limb after 
luxation. At the time the head of the humerus is forming a 
new focket for itfelf, the glenoid cavity is deftroyed, its fides 
approach each other, and the hollowed part is filled up by gra- 


mulations-of bone. The burfal ligament adheres to the furface 
-of this cavity, and is thus to all appearance loft. 


“ THE patient continues in this {tate, with a joint either more 
or lefs perfect, and, when proper attention has been paid, the 
new joint may be made a very ufeful one; and to this point 
alone our treatment of old diflocations ought to be directed. 
The treatment of luxations mutt differ according to the ftate of 
the difeafe. When they are recent, reduction in the eafieft and 
fafeft manner is the furgeon’s object: And here we hall make a 
few obfervations, drawn partly from what we have already fhown 


- to bethe {tate of the joint and mufcles, and partly from experience. 


“ Tue head of the humerus being in all cafes pulled beyond 
the glenoid cavity, and lodged on the fcapula, the firft ftep to- 
wards 


ANP’ POR BE DPX. (47) 


wards replacing it, muft be to draw it out, fo as to bring it over 
that cavity out of which it was thrown. 

** 'THIs is to be done by making the extenfion of the arm, 
with fuch a-degree of force as to feparate the bones from each 
other, and fo applied that it may act only upon the parts round 
the diflocated joint. When extenfion is omitted, as was the 
cafe among the old furgeons, the attempts made by the lever to 
force the humerus into its place, fo far from having falutary, 
were attended with very bad, confequences, Extenfion, how- 
ever, in the modern practice, is our firft view. The refiftance 
to the extenlion is owing to the contraction of the furrounding 
mufcles, which is partly voluntary, and partly the effe@t of their 
being much {tretched, from the new fituation of the bone. The 


firft it is feldom in our power to prevent, as the terror of reduc- 


tion, and the uneafinefs confequent upon: moving: the: arm, 


makes the patient exert his: mufcles'to refift what gives him: 


pain ; and fo far as no. refolution in him can prevent this ac- 
tion, it may be faid to be involuntary. Were it poflible to de- 
ceive him, and make him fuppofe we were only examining the 
{tate of his arm, when we were really making the proper exten- 
-fion, this caufe of difficulty might be overcome in fome degree. 
The refiftance from the overftretched mufcles is of more impor- 
tance, as it is in our power to prevent it, and, when not attend- 
ed to, muft increafe the furgeon’s difficulty,. and. by extending 
the mufcles, already too much on the: ftretch,. may produce 
greater laceration than from the difeafe intended to be remedied. 
© THE obfervations we have already made on the ftate of the 
mufcle after diflocation, muft now appear neceflary, being on a 
fabje& little attended to, though of great importance, and par- 
‘ticularly as they lead us to place our patient in fuch a manner 

as to remove this caufe of difficulty and danger. 
“ ANOTHER caufe preventing reduction, is the bone being 
pulled in fuch a direétion by the furgeon, as not to pafs through 
the 


Account of 
W. Hamilton, 


Account of 
W. Hamilton. 


(48) HISTORY of the SOCIETY. 


the cavity it formed for itfelf in diflocation, but is made to prefs 
on the furrounding parts, fo that if the force is continued to be 
exerted in the fame dire¢tion, a new paflage muft be torn for it. 
This, like the laft, may be avoided, by attending to the moft 
probable pofition of the limb when the accident happened. We 
have attempted to prove, that, in general, diflocation is moft apt 
to happen when the arm is raifed ; and therefore that this pofi- 
tion is the preferable one for reduction. I fufpe@ in many 
cafes, where improper attempts to reduce the bone have been 
made, that the difficulty is increafed -by the bone tearing a paf- 
fage for itfelf in a new direction, and thus, by twifting the muf- 
cles, preventing reduction from being accomplifhed. 

“ Tse laft obftacle is from the burfal ligament. As in no 
cafe of diflocation the head of the bone-can pafs out without la- 
-cerating it, fo, in reduction, at cannot be replaced, unlefs it is 
brought through the fame opening by which it went out; for 
if we attempt to bring the humerus over the glenoid cavity in a 
‘wrong direction, the ligament will get between it and the fca- 
pula, and thus, when apparently reduced, the bone will return 
to its old fituation, as foon as the arm is let loofe. This.can 
-be avoided only by the pofture of the limb; and here alfo, in 
the rarfed ftate of the arm, the bone will return moft readily 
through the opening in the ligament, as being put into the fame 
pofition in which it was huxated. 

“ TueEse three great difficulties in reduction, then, are to be 
remedied by a proper ‘pofitioa of the patient and of his arm; and 
this, I think, ‘there can be no doubt, is by placing him fo, :that 
the extenfion may be made when his arm is raifed. In order to ~ 
this, I ‘make him fit on the ground, the fcapula, with the glenoid 
cavity upwards, being kept fixed by two affiftants who are pla- 
ced behind him. J put a towel round the humerus, immediate- 
ly above the elbow, both to give me.a firmer hold of the part, 
and likewife, that, if neceffary, Iimay have.a place forjan afliftant 

or 


A-POP EVN WD AX: (49) 


or two in the extenfion to lay hold by. The fore arm is bent 
up, fo as to relax the biceps completely ; and this I prefer to the 
ftate of half flexion, as the extenfor triceps is not one of the 
muf{cles that gives any difficulty in reduction. When the bone 


“1s-luxated dire@tly downwards, I. make the extenfion. fianding 


/ 


oppofite to the patient’s fide; but, when it is either outwards or 
inwards, | place myfeif towards that fide, oppofite to where the 
head of the bone is lying, and I carry the arm in the fame di- 
rection. If, for example, the head of the humerus is under the 
pectoral mufcle, I carry the arm outwards towards the patient’s 
back, and vice verfa. 

“ I rHEn begin to make the extenfion with a flow and fteady 
force, but of fuch a kind as I find is capable of overcoming the 
refiftance of the mufcles, and of bringing the bone out of its 
place. After it is completely difengaged, it is pulled into the 
glenoid cavity by the aGtion of the furrounding mufcles, fo a3 
not to require any préflure in the axilla to raife it up. In this 
manner I have reduced feveral diflocations of the fhoulder ; and 
in none have I failed, or been obliged to ufe the force I have 
feen. applied in other modes of reduction, and without effect. 
Among the cafes | have fucceeded in, there were feven where 
all the other methods had been tried in vain; and in three of 
thefe the arm had been out for three weeks. Mr Wuite of 
Manchefter * has employed a mode of reduction fimilar to this, 
as to the pofition of the arm; but I think the other parts of -his 
plan are not equal to that here defcribed. The raifed ftate of 
the arm is likewife advifed by Mr T'uomson, from the fituation 
he found the mufcles in the difleGion of two men with difloca- 
ted humeri, who had died before reduction had been effeéted. 

“ In this manner of reduction, all the extended mufcles are 
relaxed by the arm being. raifed; the fuprafpinatus and deltoid 

() | in 


* Medical Obfervations, vol. 2. p.a72- 


Account of 


WV. Hainilton. . 


Account of 
WW. Hamilton, 


(50) HISTOR KE Sop SOC LE TY. 


in the diflocation downwards; and in that to the fide, by turning 
the humerus towards the fide of the fcapula oppofite to that on 
which its head is lodged, the lateral mufcle is taken off the 
ftretch it was put into by the diflocation. When thefe over- 
ftretched mufcles are thus attended to, the redu€tion becomes 
more eafy to the furgeon, and much lefs hazardous to the pa- 


tient, as laceration is guarded againft. 


““ Arrer long and violent attempts to reduce the fhoulder, 
particularly with the mufcles on the ftretch, I have heard of the 
bone becoming fo loofe, that when it had been at laft got into 
its focket, it fell out again very readily. This I imagine muft 
have been owing to the mufcles round the joint, and the ligament, 
having been very completely torn, fo that the humerus had loft 
its natural fupport. In the two modes of reduction moft com- 
monly made ufe of, the ftate of the mufcles is not enough at- 
tended to. When the arm is at an acute angle with the fide, as 
when we attempt to force in the bone with the heel in the ax- 
illa, the fuperior mufcles are very much on the {ftretch; and 
when the patient is placed on a chair, and the arm forms a right 
angle with the body, they are ftill not fufficiently relaxed to pre- 
vent additional difficulty and danger; and I muft agree with 
Mr Tuomson in thinking attempts in thefe directions often the 
caufe of fucceeding bad confequences. Another advantage of re- 
duction with the raifed arm is, that as foon as the humerus is 
difengaged from the fcapula, the mufcles, that from the nature 
of the diflocation were moft extended, contracting, pull it into 
its focket. In other modes of reduétion, a confiderable force is 
required to prefs the bone into its place, after the arm is fully 
extended. When this force is great, the parts that lie over the 
bone mutt be bruifed, particularly if a hard body is ufed to ef- 
fect this purpofe. On this account the Ambe, both of Freack 
and PETIT, appears to me a bad inftrument. It pulls out the 
arm at right angles, and therefore it requires confiderable ac- 


tion 


APPENDIX. (1) 


tion of the end of the inftrument as a lever to force the humerus 
into its place, while the preffure on the patient’s fide is equal to 
the force of the extenfion. It can likewife be Bropenly ufed on- 
ly in the diflocation downwards. 

“In all diflocations of the humerus, the extenfion, I think, 
fhould be made with the hands, in place of pulleys, as by the 
firft, the direlion of the bone can be better adapted to the re- 
fiftance and fituation of the furrounding parts. 

* In what we called the fecond ftate of an unreduced diflo- 
cation, the obftacles are more numerous than in the recent. The 
mufcles have now adapted themfelves to the fituation of the 
bones, the hole in the ligament is in part grown up, and the la- 
cerated paflage in the foft parts is obliterated, the fides of it ha- 
ving, by inflammation, adhered to each other. Thefe being 
added to the difficulties in recent luxations, render the reduction 
here both more difficult, and more apt to be attended with lace- 
ration, than in the other. Thefe obftacles are to be got over, 
however, by the fame means. The patient ought to be put in- 
to the fame pofition, and the extenfion made in the fame man- 
ner, only it will require the force to be greater, and to be longer 
continued, before it accomplifhes the end in view. I do not 
think, however, it will be neceflary to employ any other me- 
thod, (as that of Mr Wuire), as every thing may be done by 
the hand, that can be expected from pulleys. 

** In the laft ftate, and even in the latter part of the fecond, 
inftead of reduction, we fhould attempt to render the new ‘joint 

that is forming as perfect as poffible. This is to be done prin- 
-cipally by making the patient ufe his arm as often, and for as 
long a time as he can, without pain or fatigue, and to perform 
with it a variety of motions. 

“In this way we will haften the formation of the new joint, 
and render him fooner capable of ufing his arm. That this~is 
i al is evident from the cafe of the fencing-matter already 

(G 2) mentioned, 


Account of 
W. Hamilton 


Account of 
\W. Hamilton. 


(52) HISTOR Ky of Yow SOCTE TY. 


mentioned, who followed his profeflion for upwards of five and 
twenty years before his death, and who, by being obliged to 
ufe his arm, acquired the motion of the new joint fooner than 
if he had been under no fuch neceflity. 

_“ Jr is a matter of importance to afcertain when the changes, 
we have defcribed, take place. I imagine the recent ftate may 
continue for a fortnight or three weeks: But ftill we want ob- 
fervations to point out when the mufcles become completely 
adapted to the new fituation of the bones; when the glenoid ca- 
vity begins to lofe its fhape, and the ligament to adhere to it ; 
and, particularly, when the furface of the fcapula begins to be- 
come hollowed and {mooth, fo as to receive the head of the hu- 
merus. Thefe, however, may be guefled at, by the quality and 
degree of motion enjoyed in the diflocated joint. Were thefe 
points fully afcertained, they would guide us in our practice, 
and prevent attempts being made to reduce old diflocations, 
where the furgeon, from want of knowledge of the procefs car- 
rying on by nature to form a new joint, and the obliteration of 
the old cavity, racks the patient’s limbs to no purpofe; and even 
fhould he be fuccefsful, he might be faid not to reduce, but 
really to diflocate, as he deftroys a new joint beginning to en- 
joy motion, and throws the end of the bone on a furface which 
has now loft every thing neceflary to make it a part of a joint.” 

Mr Hamirton had occafion once to open the cheft of a 
Lady, who had water in her breaft. The quantity at firft 
drawn off amounted to fixteen ounces; a great deal oozed out 
aiterwards, and fome of the fymptions were for a little relieved, 
but the patient died ina few weeks. On the beft manner of 
performing this operation, he makes the following remarks: 

“ In Mr BEL.’s mode of operating, which I here followed, 
fimply drawing off the water, and avoiding every thing that may 
bring on inflammation on the cavity, is not fufliciently kept in 
view. An extraneous body, a canula, is introduced and kept in 

for 


AYP) POE YNg Ds TX: (53) 


for two or three days. . The effet of this practice is evident ; 
inflammation may be brought on over the cavity; fuppuration 
will fucceed, and the cafe-will be converted into one of em- 
pyema, with an opening in the cheft. The effects of keeping 
in. a canula in the abdomen were found, by the old furgeons, to 
be fo bad, that the praCtice was given up, even before the faint- 
nefs, from drawing off the water at once, was fo well under- 
ftood as to be capable of being prevented. In our patient, 
fymptoms of infdammation. from the canula were beginning 
when it was withdrawn, and had it been kept in another day, 
the inflammation would probably have become fo confiderable, 
that it might have been expected to produce the worit contfe- 
quences. ‘ 

“ THe view with which a canula is introduced and kept in, 
is, to allow the water to run off only when we choofe it, and to 
prevent air from getting into the cavity. The firft intention it 
does not anfwer; as in our patient, though it was introduced 
through the pleura when only a fmall perforation had been 
made in it, fo that it might be clofely embraced, the water 00z- 
ed out by its fides, and more was difcharged in this way than 

‘by the canula itfelf. 

* Arr is likewife more apt to get into the cavity by the ca- 
nula, than if the water was difcharged without it. It is impofs 
fible to ftop it fo accurately and quickly with the finger or 
cork, as to prevent the accefs of air, when there is little water 
left, or when the lungs are not in a fituation to fill the cavity, 
and efpecially when the patient is infpiring. This I found to 
be the cafe, when I drew off the laft water by it. But before 
I left the patient, | evacuated the air as completely as poilible, 
by deprefling that fide of the cheft during expiration. 

“ From the ftructure of the thorax, air is apt to be drawn in 
by the external wound, and is again not eafily expelled. The 
moft ready method of evacuating it, 1s by compreifing that fide 

of 


W. Hamilton. 


Account of 


W. Hamilton. 


APPENDIX. (55) 


of the cheft during expiration, at the fame time prefling up the 
vifcera of the abdomen, fo as to make the diaphragm afcend; 
and thus, by leflening the cavity, while the patient, by fhutting 
the glottis, prevents the air from efcaping, but forces it into the 
collapfed lung, we force out as much of it as poffible. Other 
ways of evacuating it hath been fuggefted by different writers. 
Sucking it out by a fyringe, or an elaftic bottle, are common 
propofals, but I am afraid can never be put in practice. The 
bottom of the wound between the ribs is fo irregular, that they 
can never be applied when the canula is out; and when it is in, 
more air would be admitted during the time the fyringe, or 
bottle, was fitting on, than could be extracted by them. But 
after all the water is evacuated, the wound muft be healed up, 
for if not, fuppuration will come on the wound, and when the 
canula is then withdrawn, the fkin, that was intended to act as 

valve, will have become fixed by the inflammation, and will 
not come down over the hole in the pleura, fo that air mutt be 
admitted, though it was excluded before. 

““ WHETHER common air does hurt to any cavity, I doubt 
much, Water, with a penetrating wound, would be as bad. 
The inflammation of the wound is what is moft to be dreaded, 
as it {fpreads from that over the whole cavity. The canula, there- 
fore, as inducing inflammation, muft, in my opinion, be very 
hurtful. 

“In place of the operation defcribed by Mr Bett, I would 
propofe doing it in the following manner: I would place my 
patient in the common pofture, and, after the fkin was well 
pulled up, make my incifion in the ufual place and manner, till 
I came down to the pleura. I would then make an opening 
through it, about half an inch in length, merely dividing the 
membrane. In cutting into the cavity, great care fhould be ta- 
ken not to do it rafhly, left an adhefion of the lungs to the pleura 


be over the incifion. At the fame time we mutt expect to find 
the 


(54) ADS PORT CF GETS OCTET Y. 


the pleura much thicker than it naturally is, owing to the ct- 
fees of inflammation, and the preflure of the water, fo that a 
timid operator, not aware of this circumftance, (which is not 
taken notice of), might defift, from an idea of having met with 
an adhefion, when he was really only half way through the mem- 
brane. Ina cafe of hydrothorax I opened, I found the pleura 
coftalis a fifth of an inch thick. JI would then allow as mucn 
water to run off as I thought proper, two afiiftants making fuch 
a degree of preffure on the ribs of that fide as to prevent their 
being raifed in breathing, during the time the fluid was dif- 
charged. After I had drawn off fuch a quantity as flowed rea- 
dily, and the patient could bear without faintnefs, I would bring 
the loofe {kin over the hole in the pleura, and fix it there with 
{lips of emplaft. adhefiv.; I would then lay the patient on the dif- 
eafed fide, fo as to allow the water to ooze off by the wound, 
while air would be prevented from getting in, by the fkin act- 
ing asavalve. If the patient grew faint, from the evacuation 
being too quick, it could eafily be leffened, or {topped, by ma- 
king him turn more and more towards his back, or oppofite 
fide, fo as to make the hole in the pleura lefs a depending open- 


ing; or, by making preffure upon the fkin over the opening, . 


the difcharge might be completely ftopped. If the lung was 
not difeafed, as the water flowed off, it wotld be more and 
more filled with air, and expanded. If it was fo much difeafed 
as to be incapable of expanfion, by no mode of operation can 
more water be drawn off than what diftended the cavity; a 
quantity muft be left equal to the want of enlargement of the 
lung ; 1f we draw off more than this, air muft fupply its place ; 
for we are not to imagine we can take away all the water, and 
leave a vacuum. The wound will admit of the water oozing 
long enough to evacuate all that fhould be taken away; and it 
will not be prevented from healing, fo as to endanger the pa- 
tient, from the rifk of internal inflammation. If we find a 

large 


Account of 


W. Hamiltor, 


Account of 
W. Hamilton. 


(56) HISTORY of th SOCIETY. 


large quantity thus evacuated, it will prove the lung of that 
fide to be found; as, air being entirely excluded, the cavity 
muft be filled up by that alone, after the water is difcharged. If 
little runs off, it is probably one of thefe cafes where the lung 
is fo much indurated as to be for ever incapable of performing 
its function. In the firft cafe, the patient may derive benefit 
from the operation; the difeafe may be prevented from recur- 
ring. In the other we have done him no hurt; he will breathe 
more eafily as long as the oozing continues, ia taking away the 
redundant wate ‘bile as this cannot be kept up long, he mutft 
at laft be left to Bite ay 

“ LayinG the patient on the difeafed fide after the operation 
muit be of fervice, as it both allows the water to run of, and it 
prevents him from enlarging that fide of the cheft, and thus 
running a rifk of drawing in air by the wound. When a canula 
is kept in, this is impracticable; the patient cannot be laid 
much towards that fide without the canula prefling on the bed- 
clothes. In the manner I have propofed, the operation will, I 
think, be more fafely performed, and might therefore be oftener 
tried, ; 

“ Wat I have faid applies only to hydrothorax. In em- 
pyema an opening muit be kept in the cheft, to difcharge the 
matter as it forms. ‘The two difeafes certainly require different 
furgical treatment. In the firft, inflammation has not come on, 
and is to. be guarded againft. In the other, the colle€tion of 
matter is the effect of it, and its being regularly difcharged will, 
if any thing can, abate it. I fhould therefore follow Mr BELu’s 
plan* in this, though I would differ from it in the other; and 
as the fteps of the operation in thefe two cafes would be the 
fame, except leaving in the canula in empyema, we may attempt 

it 
* Tue canula recommended by Mr Bert,has no lip or margin round the opening. 


By fuch an addition it has a hold of the parts round the opening, and can be kept 
much fleadier. l 


APPENDIX. (53) 


- it when proper, though we may not be certain of -the nature of 
the fluid contained. In moft cafes we may afcertain this before 
from the fymptoms; but, at all events, the puncture in the pleura 
will put it beyond a doubt.” 


_ Mer Hamixzton had an opportunity of feeing feveral herniz 

‘in women, upon fome of whom he operated fuccefsfully ; and, 
from confidering all the cafes he had feen, he was led to make 
the following remarks, fome of which he thought new. 

“© WueEn I began the practice of furgery, as J had never met 
with a cafe of hernia in women, I believed implicitly in the doc- 
trines we find in every writer on the fubje@, viz. that women 
have feldom bubonocele, but are more fubject to femoral hernia. 
Soon after I had begun to practife, I was called to a confultation 
about a woman with a hernia, which had been ftrangulated for 
two days. As it was placed in the groin, I at firft fight thought 
it a femoral hernia ; but, upon examining it attentively, I found 
it was a bubonocele that had gone towards the thigh, in place 
of towards the labium. The operation which was performed put 
the matter beyond a doubt, and fhowed that it came through 
the ring of the mufcle. In a few months I was called to another 
patient in the fame fituation, and I found, to my furprife, the 
fame appearances which in the firft [took to be a lufus nature ; 
the hernia in the groin, at the top of the thigh, and yet evident- 
ly coming through the ring; having all the appearances at 
firft fight of femoral hernia, but in reality a bubonocele. The 
operation here, likewife, which I performed, made me certain 
of the faé. In a third, under ftrangulation, I found the fame 
appearances, and operated. 

“ FtnpDING the hernia bubonocele in thefe three cafes, yet 
with all the appearance of .that fpecies where the gut is pufhed 
gut under Paupart’s ligament, I began to fufpect that the 
common account given by authors was erroneous, and that bu- 

Vou. IV. (H) bonocele 


Account of 
W., Hantilten, 


Account of 
W. Hamilton. 


(58) HISTORY of the SOCIETY. 


bonocele had, from inaccurate obfervation, been often defcribed 
for femoral hernia. From the time I began to have thefe fuf- 
picions, I have miffed no opportunity of determining my point; 
and I have been lucky enough to have the diffection of two wo- 
men, with the apparent femoral hernia, which turned out bubo- 
nocele. I have likewife had five or fix living patients with her- 
nia, where I had an opportunity of a careful examination, and 
have again operated in a fimilar cafe. As the refult of thefe 
ten or twelve cafes is againft the common opinion, I fhall ftate 
my obfervations at full length. 

“THE idea that a bubonocele in women was to take the fame 
road with a fimilar hernia in men, has, I fancy, mifled; for we 
find, that this is the account commonly given of the difeafe, that 
the gut pafles down into the labium. Now, if we compare the 
two cafes, we will find there is no fimilarity. In men, the gut 
and fack are furrounded by the cremafter, and are therefore 
conducted towards the tefticle. The cellular membrane of the 
{crotum is free of fat, and therefore yields more eafily to the 
preflure of the gut than that of the parts around ; and thus the 
hernia paffes more eafily in this direction than in any other. 
In women, when the hernia has paft the ring, it has no crema- 
fter to conduct it to the labium, it may therefore pufh in any 
other direction ; but as the cellular membrane of the labium, 
and from it to the ring, is very much loaded with fat in moft 
women, it will find more obftruction in this direction, and will 
therefore be pufhed where the parts yield more readily. The 
parts on the groin are lefs loaded with fat, the gut therefore will 
be prefled here. This I found corroborated by all the three 
cafes, where I either operated or was afliftant; and in the two 
diffections the hernia was pufhed outwards from the ring, and 
in one it had gone up along the belly above the ring. ‘This on- 
ly takes place when the hernia is fmall. If the ring is much 
opened, and a great quantity of gut forced out, the motion of 


the 


A PP Es No DIX: (59) 


the thigh preffes it inwards and downwards, and it then goes 
towards the labium. This I have inftances of in fome women 
I have lately examined with hernie. 

“ THE appearances of the bubonocele, when, {mall, will de- 
ceive a practitioner if he is not on his guard, and make him ima- 
gine it a femoral rupture. ‘The marks by which the one may 
be diftinguifhed from the other, though fituated in the fame 
place, are few and fimple. 

“ As the fafcia of the thigh joins Paupart’s ligament, the 
femoral hernia is always under.this fafcia ; it is therefore more 
compreffed ; it is not loofe, and we cannot fo well grafp it with 
the hand; and, inftead of being rounded on the top, it is more 
or lefs flattened. The bubonocele again is only under the {kin 
and cellular membrane, is therefore loofer, can be epaiged, and 
is rounded on the top. 

“ In femoral hernia the fwelling begins at the edge of Pav- 
PART’s ligament, and goes down, and we feel the ring and the 
parts above the ligament uncovered by the hernia, In the bu- 
bonocele of women it goes over PauPART’S ligament, and fome- 
times up upon the mufcles over the ring, and extends more to 
each fide along the bending of the thigh than the other. 

“ From thefe marks not having been attended to, I fufpe 
much that the place where the hernia lay was alone taken into 
view, and cafes fimilar to mine had been called femoral rup- 
tures. Indeed { have every reafon to fuppofe fo, as fome of the 
cafes where I was moft certain of their being bubonocele, had 
_been looked on as of the other kind. 


* T woutp therefore recommend to pra¢titioner’s attention to. 


thefe marks, fo as to determine how*far the obfervations I have 
been led to make are juft. 

* THE bubonocele in this fituation in women, from its often 
lying in parts over the ring, makes the reduétion much more 
uncertain, as we cannot grafp the part of the hernia juft coming 

(H.:2) through 


Account of 
W. Hamilton 


Account of 


W., Hamilton. 


(60) HISTORY of the SOCIETY. 


through the ring, fo as to force it back, which is effentially ne- 
ceflary to ready reduction, and which we can always do in 
men, from the loofenefs of the {kin at the top of the fcrotum. 

““ Upon examining the ftate of the parietes of the belly in 
women, and comparing them with thofe of men, I fee no reafon 
for their being more fubject to femoral hernia than bubonocele, 
though im general I think them lefs liable to the difeafe altoge- 
ther than men. The figure of the pelvis makes Pauprart’s 
hgament a little longer in them, but the {pace under it is in pro- 
portion as well filled up by mufcles, veffels, and fat, t@c. fo that 
no more room is allowed for the vifcera to be forced out in the 
one than in the other. The rings of the mufcle in women, 
though lefs apt to yield, as being more contraéted than in men, 
are in proportion the weaker part, and therefore the paflage 
through which a vifcus will be more readily pufhed. In opera- 
ting upon this {pecies of bubonocele, I varied a little from the 
common method. As the tumor extend:d along the bending 
of the thigh, my incifion being made in this direction, was pa- 
rallel in fome meafure to the ring. This made the introduétion 
of the biftory, to cut the tendon, a little more difficult, but it 
gave me advantages to counterbalance this inconvenience. I 
had after the reduction a piece of integuments above the inci- 
fion, which when preffed down covered the ring. ‘This foon 
formed adhefion with the parts below, and effectually excluded 
the expofure of the cavity of the abdomen, which adds much 
to the danger of the operation. In the common operation, 
where the ring is laid in view, and is at the bottom of the 
wound, the integuments over it having been divided, I fufpect 
the inflammation on the edges and bottom of the wound, which 
is kept open, extends through the ring to the peritoneum, alto- 
gether independent of the expofure, and produces very fatal ef- 
fects. Now, in my method, this was prevented ; the integu- 
ments being found immediately over the ring. In drefling the 

wound 


APPENDIX. (61) 


wound I ufed ftitches to keep the lips together, which was like- 
wife aflifted by bending up the thigh. This I look on as of 
confequence in every operation for hernia, as the healing the 
parts by the firft intention over the ring mutt be of effential fer- 
vice in preventing inflammation in the abdomen; and the only 
objection that has been made to it, the rifk of the gut flipping 
out, may be eafily prevented by a comprefs over the opening in 
the tendon for a few days: And after this, as adhefions will 
have taken place, unlefs great force is ufed, no protrufion can 


happen.” 


To thefe fpecimens others might be added, were not this me- 
moir already too long, and were not thefe fuflicient to juftify 
what has been faid of the unremitting attention and found judg- 
ment of a gentleman, whofe premature death was regarded by all 
his friends as a lofs to {cience and to fociety.. His conftitution, 
fomewhat enfeebled by early and intenfe application to ftudy, 
was worn out with the toil of bufinefs and thought, in which 
he was continually engaged ; and, after a tedious illnefs, he ex- 
pired, March 13. 1790, in the thirty-fecond year of his age, 
leaving a widow and two fons. 

Havine lived according to the laws of religion and virtue, 
and being naturally of a placid, cheerful temper, he bore much 

-faffering without complaint, looking forward to death, which 
for fome time he knew to be unavoidable, with thofe fenfibili- 
ties indeed which every good man feels on the profpect of lea- 
ving his deareft friends, and entering into an untried exiftence, 
but without unmanly dejection or timidity. Befides the appro- 
bation of his own mind, he was foothed with the affectionate 
attentions of all his family, and with the regrets of his brethren 
and the public, who from day to day teftified the utmoft folici- 
tude concerning his health ; uttering not the unmeaning lan- 
1guage of ceremony, or the interefted one of flattery, but that of 

fincere 


/ccount of 
W. Hamilton: 


Account of 
W, Hamiltche 


(62) HISTORY of th SOCIETY. 


fincere efteem and gratitude. Even when his funeral paffed 
along, many among the crowd were obferved to fhed tears for 
one whofe kindnefs had foothed their minds, and whofe fkill 
had relieved them in the hour of diftrefs; nature prompting 
them to pay this grateful tribute to him who could no longer 
obferve or reward them. 

THE foftnefs and tendernefs with which he fpoke to his pa- 
tients ; the attention with which he liftened to all their com- 
plaints, however frivolous ; the readinefs with which he fym- 
pathized with their feelings ; to a byeftander in health might 
fometimes appear exceflive, but, to the fame perfon in difeafe, 
the whole appeared but a reafonable exertion of humanity. De- 
lighted with the kindnefs of his manner, his patients vied with 
each other in their commendations, of which he proved him- 
felf worthy, by the utmoft delicacy of converfation, and the 
ftricteft purity of condudt, no lefs than by exertions of fuperior 
fill, and by a punétual laborious attendance. His prudence, 
which was uncommon for his years, led him to avoid all often- 
tatious_difplay of the extent to which he was employed; by 
which means, together with the moft modeft demeanour, he, in 
part, ftifled that envy which is apt to rife in the old, when they 
{ee themfelves overtaken or out{tripped by the young. 

As a lecturer, his manner was remarkably free from pomp 
and affectation. His language was fimple and perfpicuous, but 
fo artlefs, that it appeared flat to thofe who place the beauty of 
language in the intricacy of arrangement, or the abundance of 
figures. His manner of {peaking correfponded with his ftyle, 
and was fuch as might appear uninterefting to thofe who think 
it impoflible to be eloquent without violent geftures, and fre- 
quent variations of tone. He ufed nearly the tone of ordinary 
converfation, as his preceptor Dr HunTER did before him, aim- 
ing at perfpicuity only, and trufting for attention to the impor- 
tance of the fubjects he treated. Thefe he feleCted with great 

judgment. 


oP Pl Eee TX, 63 


judgment. Holding in contempt all hypothefes unfupported by 
faé&, and inapplicable to the improvement of practice; omitting 
or pafling flightly over parts remarkable for curiofity more than 
utility ; he demonftrated with great diftinctnefs and precifion 
thofe parts which it is neceflary to know accurately ; accompa- 
nying his demonftrations with fpecimens of morbid parts, and 
with every remark, phyfiological or practical, which he was able 
to collect from extenfive reading, and careful reflection on his 
own practice. To excite emulation among his ftudents, and to 
honour the memory of his friend, he gave a gold medal, bear- 
ing the figure of Dr Wittram Hunter, as a prize to the beft 
differtation on a furgical fubject. By thefe means, he had the 
fatisfaction of contributing to increafe the number of medical 
ftudents in Glafgow ; and while his ftudents became from year 
to year more numerous, they began to difcover alfo that ardour, 
which it is impoflible either to excite or maintain where the ftu- 
dents are few. 


IV. 


Account of 
W. Hamilton. 


si, aE 
vid ao bi fSabs 

Be Bi ‘dali ain 2 
nd sBbaick pep o78 


diggs hates 3 iid i mg 
| ial Prose bee d ak 


+: 


IV. Account of foun Roesuck, M.D. F.R.S. Epin. Com- 
municated by Mr FARDINE, F. R. S. Evin. and Profeffor 
of Logick in the Univerfity of Glafgow. 


[Read April 4, 1796. ] 


q ie Ocror Joun Rogsuck was born at Sheffield in York- 
‘fhire, in the year 1718. His father was a confiderable 
manufacturer and exporter of Sheffield goods, who, by his abi- 
lities and induftry, had acquired a competent fortune. JouHN, 
his eldeft fon, the fubject of. this memoir, was intended, by his 
father, for carrying on his own lucrative bufinefs at Sheffield; but 
was, from, his early youth, irrefiftably attached to other’ edifuite, 
_more calculated to gratify his ambition, and give fuller play to 
his powers. Notwithftanding this difappointment in his fa- 
vourite object, his father had liberality enough to encourage his 
rifing genius, and to give him all the advantages of" a hep 
‘education. 
Arrer he had gone through the ufual courfe of the Gram- 
mar-{chool at Sheffield, both ih father and mother being ftri@ 
_daiffenters, they placed. their fon, for fome years, under the tui- 
tion of the late, Dr DopprincE, who was, at that time, mafter 
of an Academy at Northampton, and had juftly acquired high 
_ Feputation | among. the diffenters, both’ asa divine and as an in- 
ftructor of youth. Under | the Dotter’ s care Mr RoEesuck made 
great, proficiency, and laid the foundation of that ‘claffical tafte 
_ and ‘knowledge for which he was afterwards eminently diftin- 
Vou, IV. (I) euifhed. 


- 


Account of 
Dr Roebuck. 


(66) HISTORY of the SOCIETY. 


guifhed. It would appear that Dr Dopprince had been much 
pleafed with the ardour and enthufiafm, in the purfuit of know- 
ledge, difcovered by his “pupil ;\ for, “Mr-Rorsuexsinean-after 
period of his life, ufed frequently to mention the fubje@s of 
converfations and inquiries of various kinds, in which the Doc- 
tor had engaged him. It was during his refidence at this Aca- 
demy, that he contraéted an intimate ‘acquaintance with his 
fellow - ftudents, Mr Jeremran Dyson, afterwards much 
known in the political world, and Mr Mark AKENsIDE, after- 
wards Dr AkenstpE, which terminated only with their lives. 
From the Academy at Northampton, he was fent to the Uni- 
verfity of Edinburgh, where he applied to the ftudy of medi- 
cine, and particularly to that of chemiftry, which, about that 
time, began to attraét fome attention in Scotland. While he 
refided there he diftinguifhed himfelf much, among his fellow- 
ftudents, in their literary focieties and converfations, by great 
logical and metaphyfical acutenefs, and by great ingenuity and 
refource in argumentation. The late fagacious Dr PoRTERFIBLD, 
to whom he had been introduced, obferved and encouraged his 
rifing genius, and was greatly initrumental in promoting his 
improvement. There, too, he formed an intimate acquaintance 
with Mr Hume, Mr RoBeErtTson, afterwards Dr RoBERTSON, 
Mr PrinGLe, afterwards Lord ALEmoor, and feveral other 


perfons of literary eminence ; a circumftance which produced, | 


in his mind, a partiality ever afterwards in favour of Scotland, 
and contributed not a little to his making choice of it for the 
chief field of his future exertions and induftry. 

Arrer Mr Roezsuck had gone through a regular courfe of 
medical education at Edinburgh, being now determined to fol- 
low the practice of phyfic, he next {pent fome time at the Uni- 
verfity of Leyden, then in high reputation as the firft {chool of 
medicine in Europe: There, after the ufual refidence and courfe 


of trials, he obtained a degree in medicine ; and his diploma, 
dated 


a 


APPENDIX. (67) 


S‘"] 


dated 21ft February 1743, has affixed to.it the refpectable names 
of MuscHENBROEK, OsTERDYK, VAN RoyeENn, ALBINUS, GaU- 
Bius, &c. He left Leyden, after having vifited fome part of 
the north of Germany, about the end of the year 1744. 

Soon after his return from the Continent, fome circumftances 
induced Dr Rorsuck to fettle, as a phyfician, at Birmingham. 
Before that time, Birmingham had begun to make a rapid pro- 
grefs in arts, manufactures, and population, and, by the death 
of an aged phyfician, an opening was prefented to him, which 
afforded an immediate profpeét of encouragement in that line. 
His education, talents, and interefting manners, were well cal- 
culated to promote his fuccefs as a phyfician. He accordingly 


met there, at a period more early than he expected, with great. 


encouragement, and was foon diftinguifhed, in that town, and 


the country adjacent, for his fkill, integrity, and charitable com-. 


paffion, in the difcharge of the duties of his profeffion.. 
Ir appeared, however, foon after his refidence was fixed at 
Birmingham, that his. ftudies and induftry were turned to other 


objects befides thofe of his profeffion. Strongly attached to. 


the rifing {cience of chemiftry, he conceived high views of ex- 
tending its ufefulnefs, and of rendering it fubfervient to the 
improvement of arts and manufactures.. With this view, he fit- 
ted up a {mall laboratory in his own houfe, in which he fpent 
every moment of his time, which. he could fpare from the du- 
ties of his profeffion, There, in the true fpirit of his great ma- 
fter, Lord Bacon, of whofe philofophy he was.a great admirer, 


‘he carried on. various chemical proceffes of great importance, 


and Jaid the foundation of his future projects, on well tried and 


well digefted experiments *. 
(Cay THE 


*. Verus experientiz. ordo, primo lumen accendit, deinde per Jumen iter de- 
monttrat, incipiendo ab experientia ordinata et digefta, atque ex ea, et educendo axis 
omata, et axiomatibus conftitutis, rurfus experimenta nova.. 


Account of 
Dr Reebuch: 


Account of 


Dr Roebuck. 


(68) HISTORY of the SOCIETY. 


Tue firft efforts of his genius and induftry, thus direéted, 
led him to the difcovery of certain improved methods of refi- 
ning gold and filver, and particularly to an ingenious method 
of collecting the {maller particles of thefe precious metals, which 
had been formerly loft in the praétical operations of many of — 
the manufa@turers. By other chemical proceffes, carried on 
about the fame time in his little laboratory, he difcovered alfo 
improved methods of making fublimate, hartfhorn, and fundry 


other articles of equal importance. After having received full 


fatisfaétion from the experiments upon which fuch difcoveries 
and improvements were founded, he next digefted a plan for 
rendering them beneficial to himfelf, and ufeful to the public. 
A great part of his time being ftill employed in the duties of 
his profeflion, he found it neceflary to connect himfelf with 
fome perfon in whom he could repofe confidence, and who 
might be, in other re{peéts, qualified to give him fupport and ~ 
affiftance in carrying on his intended eftablifhments. With 
this view, he chofe as his affociate Mr SamuEL GARBET of 
Birmingham, a gentlemen well qualified by his abilities, acti- 
vity, and enterprifing fpirit, for bearing his part in their future 
undertakings. Their firft project was the eftablifhment of an 
extenfive laboratory at Birmingham, for the purpofes ‘above 
mentioned, which, conducted by Dr RoEBuck’s chemical’ know- 
ledge, and Mr GarseEt’s able and judicious management, was 
productive of many advantages to the manufacturers of that 
place, and of fuch emolument to themfelves, as contributed 
greatly to the boldnefs of their future projects. That laboratory 
has, ever fince that time, continued at Birmingham, and is ftill 
conducted by Mr Garset. Dr Roesuck, long before’ his 
death, had given up his intereft in it. 

AxsouT this time, in 1747, the Doctor married Mifs Ann 
Roe of Sheffield, a lady of a great and génierous’ fpirit, whofe 
temper and difpofition equally fitted her for enjoying the pro- 

| Pyne | {perous 


APPENDIX. | (69) 


fperous circumftances of their early life, and for bearing her 
equal fhare of thofe anxieties and difappointments in bufinefs 
which fhaded, but did not obfcure, the later period of their 
lives. 

Dr Roesuck’s unremitted perfeverance in his chemical ftu- 
dies, together with the fuccefs that attended them, led him, ftep 
by ftep, to other refearches of great public and private benefit. 

Tue extenfive ufe of the vitriolic acid in chemiftry, and the 
profpect of its application to fome of the mechanic arts, had 
produced a great demand for that article, and turned the at- 
tention of chemifts to various methods of obtaining it. The 
late Dr Warp had obtained a patent for making it; and, 
though the fubftances from which it might be obtained, as well 
as certain methods of obtaining it, had been known to others, 
and particularly pointed out by Lemery the elder, and by 
GLAUBER, yet Dr Warp was the firft, it is believed, who efta- 
‘blifhed'a profitable manufacture upon the difcovyery. Much, 
however, was wanting to render the acid of univerfal ufe in 
chemiftry, and of extenfive utility in the arts, where great. quan- 
tities of it were required. The price of it was high, avifing 
from the great expence of the glafs veffels, which were made 
ufe of by Dr Warp in procuring it, and the frequent acci- 
cidents to which they were liable in the procefs. 

Dr Roesuck had been, for fome time, engaged in making 
experiments with a view to reduce the price, and at length dif- 
covered’ a method of preparing it, by fubftituting, in place of 
the glafs veffels formerly ufed, lead ones of a great fize ;.which 
fubftitution, together with fundry other improvements in diffe- 
rent parts of the procefs, completely effected his end. 

AFTER the neceflary preparations had been made, Meflrs 
RoEsuck and Garset eftablifhed a.manufaCture of. the oil of 
vitriol at Preftonpans, in Scotland, in the year 1749. This efta- 
blifhment not a little alarmed Dr Warn, who attempted to de- 

feat 


Account of 
Dr Roebuck, 


Account of 
Dr Roebuck. 


(70) HISTORY of the SOCIETY. 


feat their plan, by taking out a patent for Scotland, in addition 
to the one he had formerly obtained. In this attempt he failed. 
Dr Roesucx’s difcovery was found not to come within the 
{pecification of Dr WARD’s patent. 

- Tue Preftonpans Company, convinced that patents are of 
little avail in preferving the property of new inventions or dif- 
coveries, in conducting their vitriol works refolved to have re- 
courfe to the more effe@tual methods of concealment and fecrecy. 
By that method they were enabled to preferve the advantages of 
their ingenuity and induftry for a long period of years, and not 
only ferved the public at a much cheaper rate than had ever 
been done formerly, but, it is believed, they realized, in that 
manufacture, a greater annual profit from a fmaller capital than 
had been done in any fimilar undertakng. The vitriol work is 
ftill carried on at Preftonpans ; but, long before Dr RoEBuCK’s 
death, he was obliged to withdraw his capital from it. 

AxouT this time Dr RozBuck was urged, by fome of his 
friends, to leave Birmingham, and to fettle as a phyfician in 
London, where his abilities might have had a more extenfive 
field of exertion. He had been early honoured with the ac- 
quaintance of the late Marquis of RockiINGHAMm, who, as a 
lover of arts, had frequently engaged him in chemical experi- 
ments at Rockingham-houfe. It was there, alfo, he became ac- 
quainted with the late Sir GEorGE SaviILLe, and with feveral 
other perfons of rank and influence. His old friend and fchool 
fellow, Mr Dyson, too, by this time, had acquired confider- 
able name and influence, and preffed him much to take that 
ftep. Under fuch patronage, and with the energy of fuch ta- 
Jents as Dr RoeBucx pofieffed, there could be little doubt of his 
foon arriving at an eminent rank, as a phyfician in London. 
But the chemical concerns, with which he was at that time 
deeply occupied, held out to him a profpe& of a richer harvett, 
determined him to give up the practice of medicine altogether, 

and 


APPENDIX. (71) 


and to fix his refidence, for the greateft part of the year, in Scot- 


and. 


¢ 
a 


Tue fuccefs of the eftablifhment at Preftonpans, which had 
far exceeded their expeCtation, enabled the Do@or and his 


-partner Mr GarBeET, to plan and execute other works of ftilt 


greater benefit and public utility. In the profecution of his 


chemical ftudies and experiments, Dr RoEBucK had been led 


to beftow great attention on the proceffes of {melting ironftone, 


and had made fome difcoveries, by which that operation might , 


be greatly facilitated, particularly by ufing pitcoal in place of 


-charcoal. Mr Wittiam Cappe.u of Cockenzie, in the neigh- 


bourhood of Preftonpans, a gentleman earne({tly intent upon 


promoting manufactures in Scotland, had, for feveral years, la- . 


boured, without much fuccefs, in eftablifhing a manufacture 
of iron; a circum{tance which may have probably contributed 
to turn Dr RoEBuCcK’s attention more particularly to that fub- 
ject. As the capital which he and his partner Mr GarBeEtT 
could appropriate for carrying on the iron manufa€ture was 
not equal to fuch an undertaking, and chiefly depended upon 
the profits of their other works, their firft intention was to at- 
tempt a {mall eftablifhment of that kind, in the vicinity of 
their vitriol works at Preftonpans. But the flattering profpects 
of fuccefs, arifing from a courfe of experiments which Dr ROE- 
BuCK had lately made, encouraged them to extend their plan, 
and to project a very extenfive manufactory of iron. A fuffi- 
cient capital was foon procured, through the confidence which 
many of their friends repofed in their abilities and integrity. 
In fact, the eftablifhment which they made, or rather the capi- 


_ tal which gave it exiftence, was the united capital of a band 


of relations and friends, who trufted to Dr RozBuck and Mr 


-GARBET the management. of a great part of their fortune. 
_ When all previous matters had: been concerted, refpeGting their 


intended eftablifhment, the chief exertions of chemical and me- 
chanical 


Account of 
Dr Roebuck. 


Account of 
Dr Roebuck. 


\(42) HISTORY of the SOCIETY. 


chanical fkill, neceflary in the execution, were expected from 
Dr RoEsucxk. It fell to his fhare alfo to fix upon the beft and 
moft favourite fituation for erecting their intended works. ‘With 
that view, Dr RokEBucK examined many different places in 


‘Scotland, particularly thofe on both fides of the Frith of Forth; 


and, after a careful and minute comparifon of their advantages 
and difadvantages, he at length made choice of a fpot, on the 
banks of the river Carron, as the moft advantageous fituation 


_ for the eftablifhment of the iron manufa€ture. There, he found, 


they could eafily command abundance of water for the-neceflary 
machinery ; and in the neighbourhood of it, as well as every 
where both along the north and fouth coafts of the Frith, were 
to be found inexhauftible quarries of ironftone, limeftone, and 
coal. From Carron, alfo, they could eafily tranfport ‘their ma- 
nufa@ures to different countries by fea. The communication 
with Glafgow, at that time, by land-carriage, which opened up 
to them a ready way to the American market, was fhort and 
eafy. 

‘Many other things, which need not be‘here enumerated, fell 
to Dr Rogsucx’s fhare in preparing ‘and providing for the in- 
troduction of this new manufacture into Scotland, particularly 
with refpect’ to the planning and ‘ereétion of the furnaces and 


“machinery. To infure fuccefs, in that department, nothing 


was omitted which ability, induftry, and experience could fug- 
‘geft. With’ this view,’he called to his afliftance- Mr Smeaton, 
then by far the firft engineer in England. It was-from him he 
réceived plans’ and drawings of the water-wheels and blowing 
apparatus, which, notwithftanding all the mechanical improve- 


“ments which have’ been-made ‘fince,-remain unrivalled. in 


any of ‘the other ironworks erected in Britain. “This was 


“the “firft introdu@ion “of! Mr* Smeaton into Scotland, and 
“was theoceafion of various other difplays of the ‘fkill and ex- 
“perience of ‘that ‘celebrated engineerin that part of the ifland. 


With 


of Py PSE NDE. (73) 


With the fame view, and to the fame effect, in a future period 
of his operations, he employed Mr James Warr, then of Glaf- 
gow, and had the merit of rendering that inventive genius, in 
the mechanical arts, better known both in this country and in 
England. 

Tue neceflary preparations, for the eftablifhment of the iron- 
works at Carron, were finifhed in the end of the year 1759; 
and on the 1ft January 1760 the firft furnace was blown: and 
in a fhort time afterwards a fecond was erected. 

No period of Dr RoEBuck’s life required from him more vi- 
gorous and laborious exertions than that of the eftablifhment of 
the Carron works, and the firft trials of the furnaces and ma- 
chinery. His family and friends remember well the ardour 
and intereft which he difcovered; the inceffant labour and 
watchfulnefs which he exerted on that occafion. Every thing 
was untried, the furnaces, the machinery, the materials, the 
workmen; the novelty of the undertaking in that country, its 
extent and dithculty, and the great ftake at iffue, were circum- 
{tances that muft have occafioned much ferious thought and an- 
xiety to the partner, upon the credit of whofe knowledge and 
experience the work had been undertaken. But the Doctor had 
great powers and great refources: and the firft trial gave fufli- 
cient indications of future fuccefs. 

For fome time after the eftablifhment of the Carron works, 
Dr RoEBUCK continued to give his attention and afliftance in 
the general management and fuperintendance of them, and 
with him all meafures of future operations were concerted. 
During this period, fome alterations of great importance were 
fuggefted by him, and carried into effect. By carefully obfer- 
ving the progrefs of {melting in the furnaces, at firft worked by 
bellows, befides their being fubject to various accidents, the 
Doctor difcovered the neceffity of rendering the blaft both 
ftronger and more equable; and propofing, as a problem to Mr 

Vou. IV. (K) SMEATON, 


Account of 
Dr Roebuck. 


Account of 
Dr Roebuck, 


(74) HISTORY of the SOCIETY. 


SMEATON, the beft method of effeGting that end, that celebra- 
ted engineer foon gave the plan of a blaft by three or four cy- 
linders, which was afterwards tried, and fucceeded even beyond 
expectation. 

Wuen the bufinefs at Carron funk by degrees into a matter 
of ordinary detail, and afforded lefs {cope for the Do¢tor’s pe- 
culiar talents, he was unfortunately tempted to engage in a new 
and different undertaking ; from the failure of which he fuffer- 
ed a reverfe of fortune, was deprived of the advantages refult- 
ing from his other works, and, during the remainder of his life, 
became fubjected to much anxiety and difappointment. 

Tue eftablifhment of the Carron works, and the intereft Dr 
Roesuck had in their fuccefs, had naturally turned his atten- 
tion to the ftate of coal in the neighbourhood of that place, and 
to the means of procuring the extraordinary fupplies of it which 
the ironworks might in future require. With the view, there- 
fore, of increafing the quantity of coal worked in that neighbour- 
hood, by an adventure which he thought would alfo turn out to 
his own emolument, he was induced to become leffee of the Duke 
of HAMILTON’s extenfive coal and falt works at Borrowftounnefs. 
The coal there was reprefented to exift in great abundance, and 
underftood to be of fuperior quality ; and as Dr Rorsuck had 
made himfelf acquainted with the moft improved methods of 
working coal in England, and then not practifed in Scotland, 
he had little doubt of this adventure turning out beneficial and 
highly lucrative. In this, however, he was cruelly difap- 
pointed. The opening of the principal //ratum of coal required 
much longer time, and much greater expence, than had been 
calculated ; and, after it was opened, the perpetual fucceffion of 
difficulties and obftacles which occurred in the working and rai- 
fing of the coal, was fuch as has been feldom experienced in 


any work of that kind. The refult was, that after many years 
of 


APPENDIX. (75) 


of labour and induftry, there were funk in the coal and falt 
works at Borrowftounnefs, not only his own, and the confiderable 
fortune brought him by his wife, but the regular profits of his 
more fuccefsful works; and, along therewith, what diftrefled 
him above every thing, great fums of money borrowed from 
his relations and friends, which he was never able to repay: not 
to mention, that, from the fame caufe, he was, during the laft 
twenty years of his life, fubjeéted to a conftant fucceflion of hopes 
and difappointments, to a courfe of labour and drudgery ill fuited 
to his tafte and turn of mind, to the irkfome and teafing bufinefs 
of managing and ftudying the humours of working colliers. But 
all thefe difficulties his unconquerable and perfevering {pirit 
would have overcome, if the never ceafing demands of his coal- 
works, after having exhaufted the profits, had not alfo compell- 
ed him to withdraw his capital from all his different works in 


fucceffion ; from the refining work at Birmingham, the vitriol - 


work at Preftonpans, the ironworks at Carron, as well as to part 
with his intereft in the project of improving the fteam-engine, 
in which he had become a partner with Mr War, the original 
inventor, and from which he had reafon to hope for future 
emolument. It would be painful to mention the unhappy con- 
fequences of this ruinous adventure to his family and to him- 
felf. It cut off for ever the flattering profpect which they had 
of an independent fortune, fuited to their education and rank 
in life. It made many cruel encroachments upon the time 
and occupations of a man, whofe mind was equally fitted to en- 
joy the high attainments of {cience, and the elegant amufements 
of tafte. As the price of fo many facrifices, he was only ena- 
bled to draw from his colliery, and that by the indulgence of 
his creditors, a moderate annual maintenance for himfelf and 
family during his life. At his death, his widow was left with- 
out any provifion whatever for her immediate or future fupport, 

(K 2) and 


Account of 
Dr Roebuck 


Account of 
Dr Roebuck. 


(76) HISTORY of the SOCIETY. 


and without the fmalleft advantage from the extraordinary ex- 
ertions and meritorious induttry of her hufband. 3 

Dr Roesuck had, fome years before his death, been attack- 
ed by a complaint that required a dangerous chirurgical opera- 
tion. That operation he fupported with his ufual fpirit and re- 
folution. In a fhort time he was reftored to a confiderable 
fhare of his former health and adtivity. But the effects of it 
never entirely left him, and feveral flighter returns of the com- 
plaint gradually impaired his conftitution. He ftill, however, 
continued, till within a few weeks of his death, to vifit his 
works, and to give direction to his clerks and overfeers. He 
was confined to his bed only a few days, and died on the 
r7th July 1794, retaining to the laft all his faculties, his fpirit 
and good humour, as well as the great intereft which he took, 
as a man of fcience and reflexion, in the uncommon events 
which the prefent age has exhibited. 

From a man fo deeply and fo conftantly engaged in the de 
tail of active bufinefs, many literary compofitions were not to 
be expected. Dr Rogesucx left behind him many works, but 
few writings. ‘The great obje&t which he kept invariably in 
view was to promote arts and manufactures, rather than to efta- 
blifh theories or hypothefes. The few eflays which he left, 
enable us to judge of what might have been expected from his 
tale ts, knowledge, and boldnefs of invention, had not the ac- 
tive undertakings in which, from an early period of life, he was 
engaged, and the fatiguing details of bufinefs, occupied the time 
for ftudy and inveftigation. A comparifon of the heat of London 
and Edinburgh, read in the Royal Society of London June 29. 
1775, Experiments on ignited bodies, read there 16th: February 
1776, Obfervations on the ripening and filling of corn, read in 
the Royal Society of Edinburgh 5th June 1784, are all the wri- 
tings of his, two political pamphlets excepted, which have been 
publithed. The publication of the effay on ignited bodies was 

occafioned 


APPENDI¥X. (77) 


occafioned by a report of fome experiments made by the Comte 
DE Burron, from which the Comte had inferred, that matter is 
heavier when hot than when cold. Dr RogeBuck’s experiments, 
made with great accuracy before a committee of the Royal So- 
ciety at London, feem to refute that notion. 

Ir is the works and eftablifhments projected and executed by 
Dr RoeEsuck, with the immediate and more remote effects of 
them upon the induftry, arts, and manufactures of Scotland, 
which urge a juft claim to the refpect and gratitude of his coun- 
try. This tribute is more due from the difcerning part of man- 
kind, as this {pecies of merit is apt to be overlooked by the bufy 
or the fuperficial, and to fail in obtaining its due reward. The 
circumftances of Dr RoEBuck have, in this refpeét, been pecu- 
liarly hard: For though, moft certainly, the projeCtor and au- 
thor of new eftablifhments highly ufeful to his country, and 
every day becoming more fo, he was, by a train of unfortunate 


events, obliged to break off his connexion with them, at an un- | 


feafonable time, when much was yet wanting to their complete 
fuccefs: and thus he left others in the poffeflion, not only of 
the lucrative advantages now derived from them, but even, in 
fome meafure, of the general merit of the undertaking, to a con- 
fiderable part of which he had the moft undoubted claim. 

Tue eftabliihment of the laboratory at Birmingham, in the 
year 1747, the firft public exhibition of his chemical talents, was, 
at that particular period, and in the ftate of the arts and manufac- 
tures at that time, highly beneficial, and fubfervient to their fu- 
ture progrefs: and the continuance and fuccefs of it, in that place, 
is a proof of the advantages which many of the manufacturers 
receive from it. Much had already been done, and many 
improvements made in arts and manufaCtures, chiefly by 
the fuggeftions of that ingenioufnefs and experience, which, in. 
the detail of bufinefs, might be expected from the pra¢lical ar- 
tift. Dr RoEBuck was qualified to proceed a ftep farther ; to: 

direct: 


Account of 
Dr Roebuck. 


‘Account of 


Dr Roebuck, 


(78) HISTORY of the SOCIETY. 


direct experience by principles, and to regulate the mechanical 
operation of the artift by the lights of {cience. The effects of 
that eftablifhment extended, in a particular manner, to all that 
variety of manufactures in which gold and filver were required, 
to the preparing of materials, the fimplifying of the firft fteps, 
to the faving of expence and labour, and to the turning to fome 
account what had been formerly loft to the manufacturer. It 
is well known, that, while Dr Roesuck refided at Birmingham, 
fuch was the opinion formed of his chemical knowledge and 
experience by the principal manufacturers, that they ufually 
confulted him on any new trial or effort to improve their feve- 
ral manufactures ; and, when he left that place, they fincerely 
regreted the lofs of that eafy and unreferved communication 
they had with him, on the fubjedts of their feveral departments. 

Ow account of fimilar circumftances, the benefit to the public, 
from the eftablifhment of the vitriol works at Preftonpans, in 
the extenfion and improvement of many of the arts, cannot now 
be exactly afcertained. ‘The vitriolic acid is one of the moft ac- 
tive agents in chemiftry, and every difcovery which renders it — 
cheap, and acceflible to the chemift, muft be greatly fubfervient 
to the progrefs of that fcience. By the eftablifhment at Prefton- 
pans, the price of that valuable acid was reduced from fixteen 
to four pence per pound. It is to Dr RoExsuck, therefore, that 
chemifts are indebted for being in poffeflion of a cheap acid, to 
which they can have recourfe in fo many procefles. 

Bur Dr RoesBuck’s object, in the profecution of that {cheme, 
was not fo much to facilitate the chemift’s labour, as to render 
that acid, in a much higher degree than it had formerly been, 
fubfervient to many of the practical arts. By rendering the 
vitriolic acid cheap, great ufe came to be made of it in prepa- 
ring the muriatic acid, and GLAuBER’s falts from common 
falts. Its ufe has been farther extended to many metallic pro- 


ceffes; and it has lately been employed in feparating filver from 
the 


APPENDIX. (79) 


the clippings of plated copper, the ufe of which is very exten- 
five. 

Tue application of the vitriolic acid in bleaching linen, or a 
fubftitution of it for four milk, was firft publifhed by Dr 
Francis Home. But it is well known to feveral of Dr Rok- 
BUCK’s chemical friends, that he had tried it, found it effectual, 


and had frequently recommended it to bleachers before the - 


date of that publication. The quantity of it now confumed 
in that art is very great. Of late it has been ufed in decompo- 
fing common falt, with the addition of manganefe, in order to 
obtain the oxygenated muriatic acid, by which the procefs of 
bleaching fine linen is amazingly fhortened. Much of it too ts 
ufed in preparing the beft kind of aquafortis, or nitrous acid, 
from faltpetre, which was decompofed formerly, and {till is, 1n 
many cafes, by vitriol, inftead of the vitriolic acid ; but the vi- 
triol gives an aquafortis of inferior {trength and purity. The 
dyers alfo employ great quantities of it in different procefles, 
particularly in diffolving indigo, in one of their methods of dy- 
ing with that drug. 

AT firft, the manufactories of the vitriolic acid in Britain 
fupplied foreign nations as well as our own, though foreigners, 
having fince difcovered or learned the art, now make it them- 
felves. But it would be tedious to mention all the applications 
of it which have been already made, and it is impoflible to fay 
how far the ufe of this powerful agent in chemiftry, and the 
arts, may be carried. Enough has been faid to fhow, that Dr 
Roesuck’s difcoveries, in that department, have been of the 
greateft advantage to fcience and the praétical arts, in facilita- 
ting the procefs for procuring this acid, and in rendering it of 
general ufe ; and it is but fair that the name of that perfon 
fhould ftand on record, to whom chemifts and artifts are fo 
much indebted for their fubfequent fuccefsful labours. 


fhe. 


Account of 
Dr Roebuck, 


Account of 
“Dr Roebuck. 


(80) HISTORY of the SOCIETY. 


THE project and eftablifhment, however, of the ironworks 
at Carron, the moft extenfive eftablifhment of that kind hither- 
to in Britain, muft be confidered as Dr RoEBuck’s principal 
work. The great and increafing demand for iron in the pro- 
greflive {tate of arts, manufactures and commerce in Britain, 
and the great fums of money fent every year to the north of 
Europe for that article, turned the attention of chemifts and 
artifts to the means of promoting the manufadiure of iron, with 
the view of reducing the importation of it. No perfon has a 
better founded claim to merit, in this particular, than Dr Rog-_ 
Buck. The {melting of iron by pitcoal, it is indeed believed, 
had been attempted in Britain in the beginning of the laft cen- 
tury. In the reign of James I. feveral patents feem to have 
been granted for making hammered iron by pitcoal, particular- 
ly to the Honourable Dup DupLey and Simon STARLEVANT. 
It does not appear, however, that any progrefs had been made 
in the manufacture in confequence of thefe patents. In later 
times trials have been made by fo many different perfons, and 
in fo many different places in England, nearly about the fame 
time, that it may be difficult to fay where and by whom the 
firft attempt was made, particularly as the difcoverers of fuch 
procefles wifhed to conceal the knowledge they had gained as 
long as they could. But Dr RozBuck was certainly among the 
firft, who, by means of pitcoal, attempted to refine crude or 
pig iron, and to make bar iron of it, inftead of doing it by 
charcoal, according to the former practice: And he was, with- 
out all queftion, the perfon who introduced that method into 
Scotland, and firft eftablifhed an extenfive manufacture of it. 
It is not meant to aferibe to him the fole merit of the eftablifh- 
ment at Carron. No man was ever more ready than he was, to 
do juftice to the abilities and fpirit of his friends and partners, 
Meffrs GARBET, CADDELL, &c. who firft embarked with him in 
that great undertaking. But ftill it may be faid with truth, that 

- the 


APPENDIX. (81) 


the original project of the ironworks at Carron, the chemical 
knowledge and experience on which they were founded, the com- 
plicated calculations which were previoufly required, the choice 
of the fituation, the general conduct and direction of the build- 
ings and machinery, the fuggeftion of many occafional im- 
provements, together with the removal of many unforefeen ob- 
f{tacles and difficulties, which occurred in the infant ftate of that 
eftablifhment, were, in a great meafure, the work and labour 
of Dr Rorezuck. Nor can it, with the leaft fhadow of jutftice, 
detract from his merit, that a larger capital, and greater expence 
than was at firft calculated, have been found neceflary to bring 
the works at Carron to their prefent {tate of perfection ; or, 
that great alterations and improvements have taken place, du- 
ring the courfe of forty years, ina great and progreflive efta- 
blifhment. In all works of that kind, the expence exceeds the 
calculation. The undertakers even of the lateft ironworks 
which have been erected, notwithftanding all the advantages 
obtained from recent experience, will be ready to acknowledge, 
that, in thefe refpects, there is little room to blame the original 
projector of the firft eftablifhment of that kind in Scotland. 
But the beft, and moft infallible proof of Dr RozBucK’s merit, 
and of the found principles on which thefe works were efta- 


blifhed, is the prefent profperous ftate of that eftablifhment, the 


great perfection of many branches of their manufactures, and, 
particularly, the many extenfive and flourifhing ironworks, 
-which have been fince erected upon the model of Carron, in 
different parts of Scotland, at Cleugh, Clyde, Muirkirk, and 
Devon. It cannot be denied that all thefe works have fprung 
from the eftablifhment at Carron, and are ultimately founded 
upon the knowledge and experience which have been obtained 
from them ; for fome of the partners, or overfeers of thefe new 
_works, and many of the workmen, have been, at one time or 
another, connected with that of Carron. Hence, then, it ig ow- 

Vou. IV. | (L) ing 


Account of 
Dr Roebuck. 


Account of 


Dr Roebuck. 


(82) AISFORY tof We SOCLETY. - 


» 


ing to the projector and promoter of the eftablifhment at Car- 


ron, that Scotland is, at this moment, benefited to the amount 


of many hundred thoufand pounds, in working up the raw ma- 
terials of that manufacture found in the country itfelf, and 
which, previous to that eftablifhment, was of no value what- 
ever. Such are the prefent, but fcarcely any idea can be formed 


_ of the future advantages to this country, which may be derived 


from the extenfion of the iron manufacture. About 60,000 


tons of iron have been annually imported into Great Britain ~ 


for more than twenty years paft, and though there has been, 
for fome time, about 20,000 tons of bar iron made in Britain 


by pitcoal, yet the foreign imported iron has fuffered little or 


no diminution in quantity. This great confumption of iron, 
no doubt, is owing to the various improvements of late years, 
and the general extenfion throughout all Europe of commerce 
and the arts. The manufacture of iron muft therefore conti- 
nue to increafe, and Scotland, abounding every where in iron- 
ftone, pitcoal, and in command of water for machinery, has 
the profpect of obtaining the largeft fhare of it. 

To the eftablifhment of the Carron works, and to the confe- 
quences of that eftablifhment, may be afcribed alfo the exift- 
ence of other public works in Scotland of great importance 
and utility. The opening of a communication by water be- 
twixt the Forth and the Clyde had long been projected, and 
frequently the fubjeé&t of converfation in Scotland, but nothing 


in fact had been attempted. The eftablifhment of the iron-_ 


works at Carron foon called forth fufficient intereft and enter- 
prife to bring about the execution of this grand defign. Some 
of the partners of the Carron Company, forefeeing the advan- 
tages they would derive from fuch a communication, propofed, 
at their own expence, to execute a fmall canal; and, after taking 
the preparatory fteps, actually applied to Parliament to obtain 
authority for that purpefe. But the project of the fmall canal 

- not 


APPENDIX. (33) 


not meeting with the approbation of fome noblemen and gen- 
- tlemen in that part of Scotland, they oppofed the bill, and obli- 
ged themfelves to execute a greater canal, which has now been 
_ many years finifhed, and is found to be of the greateft advan- 
tage to the trade and commerce of Scotland. The merit of this 
undertaking is not meant to be afcribed to Dr Rorsuck, ex- 


cepting in fo far as it neceflarily arofe from the eftablifhment 


of the Carron Company, of which he was the original projector; 
and it may reafonably be doubted, whether, without that efta- 
blifhment, it would have yet taken place. Several other canals 
have, fince that time, been executed in different parts of Scot-. 
land, and other very important ones are at prefent projected. 
The different eftablifhments which Dr RozBuck made at. 
Borrowftounnefs in carrying on the coal and falt works there, 
though ultimately of no advantage to himfelf, were attended, 
during the courfe of thirty years, with the moft beneficial ef- 
fe&ts upon the trade, population, and induftry of that part of 
Scotland. They were the means alfo of adding very confide- 
rably to the public revenue. Previous to the time thefe works 
fell under Dr RoEBuCK’s management, they produced no ad- 
vantage either to the proprietor, or the adventurers, or to the 
public. But by his mode of conducting them upon a more ex- 


tenfive plan, by opening up new feams of coal, and of better. 


quality, he was enabled to export a very confiderable quantity, 
to increafe the quantity of falt, and, of courfe, the revenue ari- 
fing from thefe articles. In thefe works, and in the manage-. 
ment of a large farm, Dr RoeBuckK gave employment to near 
a thoufand perfons at Borrowftounnels, and in the neighbour- 
hood. 


Nor was it folely by the different eftablifhments which he. 
projected and executed, but by many other things neceflarily. 


connected with them, that Dr Rorsuck’s labours were beneficial 
to Scotland. Along with them he may be faid to have introdu- 


(L 2) ok. Gea 


Account of 
Dr Roebuck. 


(84) HISTORY of the SOCIETY. 


Account of ced a fpirit of enterprife and induftry, before that time little — 
known in Scotland,-which foon pervaded many other depart- 
ments of labour, and gave birth to many other ufeful projects. 
He brought from England, then much farther advanced in arts 
and induftry, many ingenious and induftrious workmen, at 
great expence, who, by their inftructions and example, commu- 
nicated and diffufed fkill and knowledge to others, At all times 
Dr RoEsuck held out liberal encouragement to rifing genius, 
and induftrious merit ; and {pared no expence in making trials 
of improvements and difcoveries, which were connected with 
the different projects and works which he was carrying on. 

SucH was the active and ufeful life of Dr RozEBucKk, a man 
of no common caft, who united, in a very high degree, a great 
number of folid and brilliant talents, which, even feparately, 
fall to the lot of but few individuals. Diftinguifhed by an ar- 
dent and inventive mind, delighting in purfuit and inveftigation, 
always afpiring at fomething beyond the prefent ftate of fcience 
and art, and eagerly prefling forward to fomething better or 
more perfect, he thus united energies the moft powerful, with 
the moft unwearied and perfevering induftry. To that pecu- 
liarity of imagination, fo fitted for fcientific purfuit, which rea- 
dily combines and unites, which fteadily preferves its combina-~ 
tions before the eye of the mind, and quickly difcovers relations, 
refults and confequences, was added, in his character, great 
promptitude and firmnefs in decifion. Strongly and early im- 
prefled with the great importance of applying chemical and 
phyfical knowledge to the ufeful arts, to the melioration of 
civil life, he never loft fight of that favourite view, and dif- 
covered great boldnefs and refource in the means and expe- 
dients which he adopted to promote it. He was certainly ma- 
fter of the beft philofophy of chemiftry known in the earlier 
parts of his life, and though, in every ftage of that fcience, he 
marked and underftood the progrefs of the difcoveries, yet his 

, numerous 


APPENDIX. | (85) 


numerous avocations did not permit him to follow them out 
by experimental procefles of his own. Upon that, and indeed 
almoft upon every fubjeét, his mind readily grafped the moft 
ufeful and fubftantial points, and enabled him to throw out 
fuch hints, and hypothefes, as marked him the man of genius. 

Durinc the courfe of a regular education, both at Edin- 
burgh and at Leyden, Dr Rorsucx ftudied the clafflic authors 
with great attention, particularly the hiftorical and political 
parts of their works. Upon thefe fubjects he had read much, 
feleéted with judgment, and was well acquainted with the facts 
and. philofophy of ancient governments. This tafte he carried 
with him, and improved in every period of his life, and in every 
fituation. It abundantly rewarded him for the earneftnefs and 
diligence with which it had been acquired. It became his fa- 
vourite refource, and indeed one of the chief enjoyments of his 
life. Poffefling the happy talent of turning his mind from fe- 
rious and fatiguing, to elegant and recreating purfuits, it was 
no uncommon thing with him to return from the laboratory 
or the coalpit, and draw relaxation or relief from fome one or 
other of the various ftores of claflical learning. 

No man was better acquainted with the hiftory of his coun- 
try than Dr RorsBuck, or more admired and revered the con- 
ftitution of its Government. By temper and education he was 
a Whig, and at all times entered, with great warmth, into the 
political difputes and controverfies which agitated parties, in the 
different periods of his life. If the natural warmth of his tem- 
per, and his enthufiafm on thefe fubjects, led him, on fome 
occafions, beyond the bounds of candid argumentation, his 
quick fenfe of decorum, and his perfect habits of good man- 
ners, produced an immediate atonement, and reftored the rights 
of elegant and polifhed converfation. 

THE general acquaintance which Dr RoEzuck had acquired 
with natural and experimental philofophy, together with his 

claflical 


Account of 


Dr Roebuck. 


Account of 


Dr Roebuck. 


(86) HISTORY of the SOCIETY. 


claffical and political knowledge, rendered him an agreeable 
companion to the learned, almoft of every department, and pro- 
cured him the attachment and friendihip of many of the firft 
literary charaCters in Britain. With his friend Dr Back he 
lived, till his death, in clofe habits of intimacy ; and he often 
acknowledged, with much franknefs, the advantages which he 
derived, in his various purfuits, from a free and unreferved 
communication with that eminent chemift. 

Tue amiable difpofitions of fenfibility, humanity, and gene-- 
rofity, which ftrongly marked his character, in the general in- 
tercourfe of fociety, were peculiarly preferved and exercifed in 
the bofom of his family, and in the circle of his friends. In the 
various relations of hufband, father, friend, or mafter, and in 
the difcharge of the refpective duties arifing from them, it 
would not be eafy to do juftice to his character, or to determine 
in which of them he moft excelled ; nor muft it be forgot, for it 
refle¢ted much honour on his benovelent heart, that his work- 
men not only found him at all times a kind and indulgent ma- 
fter, but many of them, when their circumftances required it, 
a f{kilful and compaffionate phyfician, who cheerfully vifited the 
humbleft recefles of poverty, and who attached them to his fer- 
vice by multiplied acts of generofity and kindnefs. 

WE cannot conclude this narrative, without exprefling our 
regret, that talents fo great, and fervices fo ufeful to his coun- 
try, as were thofe of Dr Rorexsuck, fhould have turned out of fo 
little account to himfelf and his family. But this is, in fact, no 
uncommon cafe. The great benefactors of fociety have never 
been men actuated by gain or intereft, but thofe whofe ambition 
was fixed on promoting the convenience and happinefs of men. 
The Doctor had in fac too little regard for money, and was ge- 
nerous in the extreme. It muft be confefled, too, that his con- 
fidence and ardour prevented him from forefeeing fome of the 
difficulties and obftacles he met with, and frequently tempted 

him 


APPENDI&. (87) 


him to lay out large fums, in the profecution of fome of his 
projects, without fufficient ceconomy, and, of courfe, without 
proper returns. His open, unfufpicious temper, alfo, led him 
frequently to put too much truf{t and confidence in fome of 
thofe who had the charge of his works, which proved to him 
the caufe of many cruel difappointments. But even from his 
errors and failure the public have derived advantage ; and it is 
furely indifputable, that a man, who paffed fixty years in ac- 
quiring knowledge, and enlightening his countrymen, is well 
entitled to the gratitude of his country. During his life, his 
public fervices were not altogether overlooked. He often met 
with flattering marks of approbation from many liberal and 
public fpirited_ noblemen and gentlemen in this country; and 
the City of Edinburgh, then under the aufpices of Provoft 
DrummMonp, when they honoured him with the freedom of 
_ their City, was pleafed to add in his diploma, “ That it was 

given for eminent fervices done to his country.” But enough 
has not yet been done. Some farther tribute is due to his me- 
mory: For there is a juft debt of gratitude conftituted againtt 
the public, which cannot be confidered as difcharged, as long 
as the Widow of Dr Rorzsuck, whofe fortune was funk in thefe 
great undertakings, is left without any provifion for her imme- 
diate or future fupport. 


END OF THE HISTORY. 


Account of 
Dr Roebuck, 


The Biographical Account of Dr Rozertson, read before 
the Society March 21. and May 9. 1796, will appear in 
the next Volume of the Tranfaétions. 


. 


I. 


. 
PAPERS OF THE PHYSICAL CLASS. 


I. Accounr of a Minera from StrontiAn, and of a pe- 
culiar Species of Kartu which it contains. By Tuomas 
CHarcLis Hore, M.D. F.R.S. Epin. Profeffor of Medicine 
in the Univer/ity of Glafgow, and Phyfician to the Glafgow Royal 
Infirmary. 


[Read Nov. 4. 1793.] 


HE mineral, of which I have the honour to lay an ac- 
count before the Society, was brought to Edinburgh in 
confiderable quantity about fix years ago by a dealer in foffils, 

though indeed it had found its way, long before this period, 
into one or two collections. . 
By fome it was miftaken for fluor. Its great fpecific gravity, 
its fibrous appearance, and its quality of forming an infoluble 
fubftance with fulphuric acid, made it generally be received as 
. the native carbonate of barytes. -From a few experiments, I 
was led at that time to entertain fome doubt of its being any 
form of barytes ; and for feveral years, when I filled the che- 
mical chair in the Univerlity of Glafgow, I ufed, when I exhi- 
bited the’ mineral itfelf, to mention in my leCtures fuch of its 
_ properties as'I had difcovered, and which indicated that it did 
not belong to the barytic genus. Towards the end of the year 
vs Waa 1791, 


4 ACCOUNT of a MINERAL 


1791, I commenced and executed a feries of experiments, the 
~ detail of which I laid before the College Literary Society of this 
place in March 1792. ‘Thefe not only fatisfied me that I had 
been right in my conjecture, which was, that this mineral dif- 
fers from aérated barytes, but alfo gave reafon to imagine, that 
it contains a peculiar and hitherto unknown kind of earth. 
Other experiments, more lately performed, {trongly confirm, 
and perhaps | may add, eftablifh this notion. . 
- Dr Crawrorp, having remarked the confpicuous difference 
-in-the form of the cryftals of the muriate of this foflil and of 
the muriate of barytes, and in their folubilities in water, has 
thrown out a conjecture to the fame purpofe, at the end of his 
paper on the Muriated’ Barytes, in the fecond volume of the 
London Medical Communications. 

2. THE mineral of which | have been fpeaking, I am in- 
formed, is found in the lead-mine of Strontian in Argylethire. 
It lies imbedded in the metalliferous vein, fcattered among the 
ore and the different fpecies of fpar that are moft commonly 
met with in fuch fituations, I have fpecimens in which por- 
tions of lead-ore are attached to.this mineral, and others in 
which it, calcareous and ponderous fpars, are intermingled in 
Jarge and confiderable mafles. 


More obvious Qualities. 


_ 3. Tue appearance of this foffil varies in different famples. 
It univerfally poffefles the fparry ftructure, and fometimes 
bears a ftrong refemblance to fome forts of calcareous or fluor. 
fpars. Its texture is commonly fibrous. The fibres fometimes 
are flender, and in clofe contact with each other, fo as to give 
the mafs a confiderable degree of compactnefs. At other times 
the fibres are much more grofs, and aflume a kind of columnar 
appearance.. The fibres or columns have, in the greater num- 
ber of f{pecimens, a degree of divergency, iffuing as radii from 

a 


From STRONTIAN. 5 


acentre. The uniformity of this radiation is frequently in- 
terrupted by the fibres proceeding from different points of con- 
vergence, crofling and interfecting each other. Occafionally on 
the furface, but more frequently in vacuities within the mafs, 
the mineral is difcovered fhooting into flender prifmatic or co- 
lumnar cryftals of various lengths. Some of thefe end obtufe- 
ly, others of them in a fharp point; they are generally ftriated, 
and have fix fides. I have feen thefe cryftals traverfing the cavi- 
ties in the form of the fineft and moft delicate fpicule, and 
when difpofed in a radiated form, equalling in ‘delicacy, and 
refembling in appearance, the moft exquifite zeolites. In other 
portions, the ftriated fibrous contexture is fcarcely difcernible. 
Sometimes the Strontian fpar is tranfparent and colourle{s, more 
commonly it has a tinge of yellow or green, and fome diver- 
fity is obfervable in the depth of the tint. 

4. Ir is not fo hard as to fcintillate ; it may be fcratched by 
a knife ; it readily yields to the ftroke of the hammer; it has _ 
no particular fracture, though it commonly breaks alorig the di- 
rection of the fibres. 

5. Iv is a heavy fpecies of fpar, having a fpecific gravity, go- 
ing between 3.650 and 3.726. 


Chemical Qualities. 


6. Turs mineral to the tafte is infipid, and is only in a fmall 
degree foluble in water. 1 boiled ten grains of it, reduced to 
a very fine powder, in four ounces of diftilled water for fome 
time ; about two grains and a half were diffolved. — 

7- Ir is powerfully attacked by feveral of the acids, and a fo- 
lution takes place in fome of them. This is accompanied by a 
lively and brifk effervefcence, which in this as in every other 
inftance, proceeds from the difengagement of an aerial fluid. 

8. Tue gas that arifes during a folution of this mineral in 
‘muriatic acid, extinguifhes the flame of a candle, and is ab- 

3 forbed 


6 ACCOUNT ofa MINERAL 


forbed by water. The water thereby acquires the tafte of wa- 


ter impregnated with fixed air or carbonic acid, and the pro-._ 


perty of precipitating lime-water and of rediflolving the preci- 
pitate when added to excefs ; from which circumftances I infer, 
that the elaftic fluid that is difengaged is carbonic acid gas. 

9. To difcover how much of this acid it contains, I diffolved 
in diluted muriatic acid g60 grains, ufing every precaution to 
prevent any thing but elaftic fluid from efcaping during the ef- 
fervefcence. The diminution of weight that took place a- 
mounted to 290 grains. This corref{ponds with the refult of fe- 
veral other experiments made with the fame intention. This 
{par confequently contains 30.2 per cent. of carbonic acid. 

10. Havine premifed thus much with regard to the a¢tion 
of acids in general on the foffil, and concerning its compofition, 
I fhall delay mentioning its habitudes with each till I have de- 
tailed the effects of heat upon it. | 

11, WHEN heat is applied to the Strontian fpar, it crackles a 


wr 


little, and as the temperature increafes it lofes its tranfparency, _ 


becomes white, opaque, and in fome meafure friable. It re- 
quires, however, a very {trong fire to produce any further 
change. 

12. I puT two Sih weighing together 320 grains, into a 
{mall crucible, and inverting another over it, I placed it in an 


open fire. In this fituation it remained for three hours, the fire . 


being good, and at different times animated by means of bel- 
lows. Thefe pieces retained their form; they were white, 


opaque and brittle, and had loft only two grains of their, weight. 


Their chemical properties were unaltered. 

13. A VERY vehement heat occafions remarkable changes. 
‘A fall mafs was inclofed in a crucible, made of pure Stour- 
bridge clay, already prepared for forming glafs-houfe pots, ha- 
ving a lid fitted to it of the fame materials. The crucible, gra- 
dually heated, was kept for forty-five minutes in the intenfe 
heat excited by the well managed fire of a fmith’s forge. At 

the 


From STRONTIAN. 4 


‘ the expiration of this time, the crucible itfelf became foft. and 
from being turned in the fire was diftorted in its fhape. On 
examination after cooling, part of the fpar was found to have 
undergone fufion, and was converted into a glafs of a bottle- 
green colour. The vitrified portion occupied the furface; the 
internal part was to appearance fimilar to the refult of the laft 
experiment, but it felt much lighter. It now had an acrimo- 
hious tafte; it attracted water with great avidity, and imbibed 
it with a hiffing noife; it was reridered foluble in this fluid. 
_ The lofs of weight which the fpar fuftains when the action of 
the fire has produced its fulleft effect, amounts to 38.79 per cent. 
When a little water is poured on the calcined mineral, it {wells, 
burfts with a hifling noife, and becomes hot with more rapidity 
and in a greater degree than lime; like it, it falls into a dry 
powder, but the particles are not fo fine. 

THE powder unites with acids into the fame fort of com- 
pounds as before, but no effervefcence attends the combination. 
When the glafs is dropped into muriati¢ acid, it is flowly acted 
upon; at length a jelly is formed, which becomes perfectly 
fluid on the addition of water, a minute portion of powdery 
matter, which probably comes from the crucible, remaining 
undiffolved. If the calcined {par be left expofed to the atmo- 
{pheric air, in the courfe of twenty-four hours, it fwells, 
cracks and crumbles into powder, at the fame time attracting 
carbonic acid, and becoming effervefcent. 

14. UnpER the blowpipe the {par becomes white and opaque, 
and lofes a part of its carbonic acid. I have not been able to 
vitrify it per fe. With borax, mineral alkali and microfmic 
falt, it melts readily into a white vitreous matter. An _effervef- 
cence attends the fufion, particularly when borax is employed. 

15. Iv appears from the experiments already recited, that the 
Strontian mineral lofes a greater weight when fubjected to heat _ 
than during folution in acids. This muft be afcribed to the ex- 


pulfion of moifture in the one sn and the retention of it in 
the 


8 ACCOUNT of a MINERAL 


the other. The difference marks the quantity of water which 
enters into the compofition of the {par. By heat 38.79 per cent. 
is expelled, while there is a lofs by folution of 30.20. 


HENCE 100 parts contain of earthy bafis, 61.21 
carbonic acid, inhgome 
water, - 8.59 

100 


16. As I hope to be able to render it probable, that this 
earthy bafis differs from any of the hitherto known fpecies of 
earth, I fhall, to fave circumlocution hereafter, take the liberty 
of calling it by the name of Strontites ; by which | with to be 
underftood to mean the earthy matter in a ftate of purity, in 
the fame way as lime and barytes denote the pure earthy bafes 
of calcareous fpar and of aérated barytes. 

17. OF the qualities of the Strontites it will be proper to add 
fome more particulars. 

STRONTITES has a pungent acrid tafte. When brayed in a 
mortar, the fubtle powder that arifes is penetrating and offen- 
five to the noftrils and lungs. It is foluble in water in the pro- 
portion nearly of 2.7 grains to the ounce, at temperature 60. 
The folution is clear and tranfparent, poffefling a ftrong tafte, 
not unlike that of lime water; it changes to a green, papers 
{tained with the juice of violets or radifhes. On expofure to 
the air, ftrontitic water quickly acquires a cruft on the furface, 
in confequence of the earth attra€ting carbonic acid and beco- 
ming infoluble. 

18. Hor water diffolves a much larger quantity than cold, 
and depofits the Strontites as it cools in the form of colourlefs 
and tranfparent cryftals. The moft ready way of obtaining 
thefe is to pour a quantity of boiling water into a Florence flafk, 
* and then to throw in the recently calcined fpar in {mall pieces. 
After the ebullition that enfues has.ceafed, fhake the flafk well, 

I and, 


Fron STRONTIAN. 9 


and place it fo that it fhall cool flowly and without difturbance. 
The cryftals will be found attached to the infide of the veffel, 
fhooting beautifully through the water to the length of an inch 
or more. ‘The form of the cryftal is abundantly diftinct ; it is 
a thin quadrangular plate, which is fometimes fquare, though 
more frequently a parallelogram ; the largeft of them feldom 
exceed a quarter of an inch in length, and that is ufually fome- 
what more than their breadth. Sometimes the edges of the 


plates are plain, oftener they prefent two facets meeting like the © 


roof of ahoufe. They, for the moft part, adhere to each other 
in fuch a manner as to form a thin plate an inch or more in 
length, and half an inch in breadth, the margin {being irregu- 
lar from proje@ting rectangles, the whole terminated by a regu- 
lar cryftal. Sometimes the: plates are thicker, and form folid 
parallelopepids, and occafionally are feen perfe@t cubes. 

19. In the courfe of expofure to the air for a few hours, 
thefe cryftals ceafe to be tranfparent; they become white, 
powdery and effervefcent. The gain of carbonic acid does 
not compenfate the lofs of humidity ; for they fuffer a diminu- 
tion of weight which amounts to nearly to per cent. To pre- 
ferve them, we mutt have recourfe to phials very clofely corked. 
When fubjected to heat, they lofe the fuperficial moifture with 
a hiffing noife ; as the heat approaches to near a dull red, they 


undergo fufion, which feems to be of the watery kind ; for as | 


foon as all the humidity is diflipated, there remains a white 
powder that refifts an extreme degree of heat. Water enters 
_ largely into their compofition ; 100 grains of them loft by the 
expulfion of the moifture, 68 grains. Water diffolves them but 
flowly, particularly when they have not been bruifed, in the pro- 
portion of 8.5 grains to the ounce at temperature 60. An 
ounce of water, in a heat fufficient to keep the folution boiling, 
diffolved no lefs than 218 grains. This is an aftonifhing degree 
of folubility in an earthy matter, and affords a diftinguifhing 
feature of Strontites. Thefe folutions are pofleffed of all the 

Vou. IV. een properties 


10 ACCOUNT of a MINERAL 


properties of Strontitic water above recounted. In acids the cry- 
ftals are diffolved without effervefcence, and there refult the fame 
products as when the native mineral is employed. 

20. WHEN I firft obferved the Strontites in a ftate of cryftal- 
lization, I imagined it was the only earth that could, in confe- 
quence of its greater folubility in warm than in cold water, be 
obtained in this form, and I noted this property as character- 
iftic of it. I have however been fo fortunate as likewife to pro- 
cure cryftals of barytes. 


’ HABITUDES OF STRONTIAN MINERAL WITH ACIDS: 


With Sulphuric Acid. 


21. WHEN a folid piece of fpar is dropped into fulphuric 
acid, a few air bubbles arife, but thefe foon ceafe, and the mafs 
remains undiffolved. If, however, the fpar be firft reduced in- 
to fine powder, and then added to the acid in fmall portions, 
an effervefcence takes place, a combination is formed, and the 
compound falls to the bottom. The acid, in very minute quan- 
tity, renders Strontitic water turbid, which arifes from the forma- 
tion of the fulphate. 

22. Tue fulphate of Strontites is in the form of a white 
powder. It has no tafte, and very little folubility in water. I 
boiled one grain for fome minutes in four ounces of diftilled 
water, half a grain was diffolved. The folution became tur- 
bid on the addition of the carbonate of potafs, of barytic wa- 
ter, and of muriate of barytes. Sulphuric acid, when aided 
by heat, readily diffolves it. An effufion of water caufes the 
acid to part with the earthy falt. 


With 


From STRONTIAN. T1 


With Nitrous Acid, 


23. WHEN the nitrous acid in its ftrongeft ftate is poured on 
a mafs of native carbonate of Strontites, nd action enfues ; but 
if fome water be added, the acid commences to aét with ener- 
gy, and a folution, attended with a brilk effervefcence, is the 
confequence. Very little will be diffolved, though the fpar be 
finely powdered, if the acid be highly concentrated. A {mall 
increafe of temperature, it may be remarked, enables the ftrong 
acid to attack the folid fpar, and to accomplifh the folution. If 
you employ an acid previoufly diluted, the ebullition inftantly 
begins; for this purpofe, an equal quantity of water at leaft 
muft be mixed with the acid. If much lefs be added, the ef- 
fervefcence and folution will commence, but they will both foon 
ceafe. When the quantity of water is fufficient, the acid free 
from adulteration, and the fpar pure, no refiduum is left, and 
a clear and tranfparent folution is obtained ; but if fomewhat 
lefs of the water be employed, the falt that is formed by the 
union of the acid and earth immediately affumes a folid cryftal- 
line form. It was by a folution carried on in this manner that 
I procured the moft regular, though by no means the largeft 
cryftals of this nitrate. . 

24. THE folution has a ftrong pungent tafte. It is perfectly 
neutral, and readily by evaporation yields cryftals. Thefe are 
rarely produced in fo regular a manner that their form can be 
eafily afcertained. By a flow and {pontaneous evaporation, cry- 
{tals were formed that were hexagonal truncated pyramids. The 
moft perfect cryftals, obtained in the way a little ago defcribed, 
were octohedral, confifting of two four fided pyramids united 
by their bafes. Sometimes the apex is truncated, and the cry- 
ftals terminate like a wedge; often likewife the angles are trun- 
cated in different degrees, which gives a confiderable variety to 
the fhape of the cryftals. | 

B 2 25. THIS 


12 ACCOUNT of h WI MERA 


25. Turis falt is very foluble in water. One ounce of diftil- 
led water at temperature 60 diflolved an equal weight. With 
the aid of a boiling heat, the fame quantity diflolved one ounce, 
feven drachms and fourteen grains. The folution, faturated in 
a boiling heat, parts not with the falt immediately on cooling, 
but depofits it flowly in the form of a confufed mafs of cryftals. 
The nitrate of Strontites in a dry air lofes its water of cryftalli- 
zation and efflorefces ; in a moift, it attracts humidity, and runs 
per deliquium. 

26. Tuts, as all other nitrates, deflagrates on hot coals. Sub- 
jected to heat in a crucible, it decrepitates gently, and then 
melts. When the heat rifes to rednefs, it begins to boil, and 
the acid is diffipated. If a combuftible fubftance be at this 
time brought into contact with it, a deflagration, with a very 
beautiful vivid red flame, is produced. By the operation of the 
heat, the falt fuffers a complete decompofition, the acid is ex- 
pelled, and the earth remains in a ftate of purity, unlefs in- 
flammable matter has gotten accefs to it, in which cafe it will 
prove a carbonate. 


With Muriatic Acid. 


27. Very fimilar phenomena to thofe already defcribed, as 
attending the action of nitrous acid on the Strontian fpar, are 
exhibited on pouring muriatic acid on this fubftance. When 
the acid is concentrated, and the fpar is in folid pieces, no ac- 
tion whatever, or very little, takes place. The effervefcence is 
brifk, and the folution rapid, when the acid is diluted with 
about an equal weight of water. A gentle heat, applied to the 
ftrong acid. has the fame effect as dilution. 

28. THe folution in the weak acid is tranfparent and. free 
from colour, and affords cryftals moft readily. On diflipating 
part of the fluid by heat, and permitting the reft to cool, the 
muriatic falt cryftallizes in a beautiful manner.. The cryitals 

are 


> 


From STRONTIAN. 28 


are delicate flender prifms, fometimes two inches long, having 
a foft filky appearance. If the refrigeration has been very gra- 
dual, the prifms will be formed lefs delicate, and of a more di- 
ftinguifhable fhape. All of them are hexagonal, fome having 
all their fides equal, others having two broad fides, with two in- 
tervening narrow ones, while another fort is feen with three 
broad alternating with three narrow fides. At one time they 
end abruptly, at another an obtufe trihedral pyramid terminates 
them, and now and then they are feen pointed like a needle. 

29. By the facility of cryftallization, and by the peculiar 
form of the cryftals, this earthy falt may be eafily detected 
wherever it exifts in folution. For this purpofe, put a few 
drops on a plate of glafs, and the muriate will foon difcover 
itfelf by fhooting into its long flender needles, which are often 
difpofed in a radiated form. 

30. Turse cryftals, after they are thoroughly dried, fuffer 
little change from expofure to air, yet when the atmofphere is 
greatly loaded with moifture, they are apt to deliquefce. ‘Their 
folubility in water is great. At temperature 60, one ounce of 
diftilled water is capable of diffolving one ounce, four drachms 
and one fcruple. To the fame quantity of diftilled water, kept 
boiling on a fand bath, I added in fucceffive portions four 
ounces of the falt, which became fluid, and I imagine I might 
have added any quantity more with the fame event, as the tem- 
perature of the folution, when boiling, feems fufficient to ena- 
ble the water of cryftallization itfelf to diffolve the faline mat- 
ter. 

31. IF into a faturated folution, fome {trong muriatic acid be: 
thrown, a precipitation inftantly happens. The matter that 
falls down is the falt in fmall needle form cryftals, and the fe-. 
paration of them from the water arifes from the force with 
which the acid attracts the fluid, being greater than that exert-. 
ed by the falt to retain its folvent. 


32; THE 


i4 ACCOUNT of a MINERAL 


32. Tue tafte of the falt 1s peculiar, fharp and penetrating. 
When urged quickly by heat, the muriate of Strontites under- 
goes the aqueous fufion, and by lofing the water of cryftalliza- 
tion, and with it 42 per cent. of its weight, becomes a white 
powder, which, as foon as the crucible is heated to rednefs, 
melts. A quantity of this falt was kept in the red heat of a 
ftrong open fire, occafionally enlivened by bellows, for above 
an hour. It had been in perfect fufion, yet its acid was not 
expelled. It could not, however, when contained in a fmall 
{poon of platina placed upon charcoal, endure, without decom- 
pofition, the ftronger heat excited by the blowpipe. 


With Acetous Acid. 


33- Orpinary diftilled vinegar diffolves the Strontian fof- 
fil, after being reduced to a very fine powder, but with no great 
energy- An effervefcence, as ufual, accompanies the diflolu- 
tion. The liquid acetite is tranfparent, and without colour. 
It changes, though flowly, the colour of violet teft papers to a 
green. By fpontaneous evaporation, it dries up into a friable 
falt, compofed of minute cryftals. 

THEsE are perfiftent, though expofed to the atmofphere. 
They render green the vegetable colours. They feem to be 
nearly equally foluble in hot and cold water; for a quantity of 
water, kept in a ftate of ebullition, which diffolved them at the 
rate of 196 grains fer ounce, depofited no cryftals on cooling. 


With Oxalic Acid. 


34. THE Strontian mineral muft be in fine powder, elfe it 
will remain untouched by this acid. When finely pulverized 
fpar is thrown into oxalic acid, an oxalate of little folubility is 
generated, which falls to the bottom of the vefiel, under the 

form 


Fron STRONTIAN. 15 


form of a white powder. This acid, poured into Strontitic wa- 
ter, unites with the earth, and precipitates with it. 

35. Tuis is one of the moft infipid, and one of the moft in- 
foluble of the combinations into which Strontites enters. Ten 
grains were boiled in four ounces of diftilled water for fome 
minutes, there remained undiflolved fully nine grains. The 
clear liquor had the flighteft poffible degree of milkinefs produ- 
ced in. it, on the addition of fulphuric acid, or of carbonate of. 
potafs, By heat the oxalic acid is deftroyed, and the earth re-- 
mains partly pure and partly united to carbonic acid.. 


Web artaneinvideids 


36. Wits this acid the mineral exhibits appearances nearly: 
fimilar to thofe now defcribed. There is however, for a fhort: 
period, an extremely feeble effervefcence. Here I may remark, 
that for the fake of promoting the union of Strontites with: 
the weaker acids, I frequently employ what I call the artificial’ 
carbonate of Strontites, by which I mean this earth precipitated 
from an acid by an effervefcent alkali. On this powder the acid: 
of tartar acts with vigour. When.dropped into Strontitic wa-. 
ter, it carries down the Strontites in union with it. 

37. THE tartrite is nearly infipid. I boiled ten grains of it: 
in four ounces of diftilled water; fix grains were diflolved. 
This folution, after it had ftood fome weeks in a clofe phial, 
depofited during frofty weather feveral fmall but very regular: 
cryftals, the form of which isa triangular table, having the: 
edges and angles fharp and well defined. Thefe cryftals under- 
go no alteration from expofure to the air. When acted upon by 
heat, they at firft {well and are puffed up after the manner of. 
borax, and at length with ignition lofe their acid, which is the: 
firft change that the powdery tartrite fuffers under. fimilar treat-- 
ment. 


With) 


16 ACCOUNT of a MINERAL 


With Fluoric Acid. 


38. SCARCELY any perceivable effervefcence happens when 
Strontian fpar is thrown into acid of fluor. It is brifk if the 
artificial carbonate be ufed, but little is diffolved, as the fluate 
falls to the bottom. Fluor acid occafions a milkinefs in Stronti- 
tic water by the formation of a fluate, which is poflefled of 
nearly the fame folubility as the preceding. 


With Phofphoric Acid. 


39. Turs acid attacks the fpar, though in a folid form, but 
the progrefs of the effervefcence and folution is exceffively flow. 
A bit, weighing two or three grains, was not completely diffol- 
ved in twenty-four hours, though the difengagement of carbo- 
nic acid went on without interruption. The folution continues 
clear as long as the acid is confiderably in excefs; but as foon 
as the point of faturation approaches, it becomes thick, from 
the depofition of a white powdery phofphate. When the acid 
of phofphorus is dropped into Strontitic water, a precipitate ap- 
pears, which is rediffolved when the acid comes to be redun- 
dant. The phofphate, if perfeCtly neutral, has little folubility 
in water. Ten grains of it, treated with four ounces of boil- 
ing diftilled water, left a refiduum of nine grains. 3 


With Succinic Acid. 


40. THE acid of amber, diffolved in water, aflaults, but with 
no remarkable activity, the artificial carbonate of Strontites.. A 
clear folution refults, which, by {pontaneous evaporation, yields 
a cryftalline fuccinate, which is perfiftent in the air. 


3 With 


From STRONTIAN. 17 


> | 


With Acid of Arfenic. 


ai. Tue arfenic acid diffolves with tardinefs fmall but felid 
pieces of the foffil. With the artificial carbonate the effervef- 
cence is lively. In either cafe, the compound continues dif- 
folved till the acid is almoft faturated, when the liquor grows 
thick, from the depofition of a white powder, which is the ar- 
fenicate. A precipitate is formed by pouring Strontitic water 
on acid of arfenic; but agitation makes it difappear. This 
happens till the acid is nearly faturated ; after which the preci- 
pitate will not be taken up, unlefs upon the addition of fuch a 
quantity of acid as fhall make it predominate. The arfenic 
acid being dropped into Strontitic water, a copious precipitate 
defcends to the bottom, which vanifhes when the acid comes to 
prevail. 

42. Havine diluted a quantity of this acid with about 
twice its volume of water, I threw into it the artificial carbonate 
to nearly perfect faturation. A clear folution refulted, which 
evaporated on a plate of glafs, gave a gelatinous fubftance, that 
by longer expofure to the air dried into a white powder. Cry- 
{talline forms fhowed themfelves on the infide of a glafs, which 
contained fome of the folution after it had ftood for fome time. 
It is fomewhat curious, and deferving of notice, that this folu- 
tion lets fall the greater part of the arfenicate it contains as 
foon as it is made to boil by the application of heat. 

Tue arfenicate fully neutralized is only in a fmall degree fo- 
luble in water ; an ounce of which, when boiling, takes up ra- 
ther more than.a grain. 


With Boracic Acid. 


43. To the acid of borax diffolved in hot water, I added a 
_Minute portion of artificial carbonate of Strontites; a flight 
Vor,lV. ear effervefcence 


18 BIC COUNT of a MINERAL 


effervefcence and folution took place ; and this happened when 
fimilar fparing quantities were thrown in for two or three 
times, after which the powder united with gentle effervefcence, 
and fell to the bottom. I poured Strontitic water into a fimilar 
folution of the acid; at firft no difturbance of tranfparency 
was obfervable, but when the point of faturation was not far 
diftant, a copious precipitate appeared. This I wafhed with 
cold water, that feems to act little upon it, and diffolved it in 
boiling, of which it requires about an hundred and thirty 
times its own weight. The folution changes to a green, the co- 
lour of paper {tained with the juice of violets. 


With Carbonic Acid. 


44. THE combination of Strontites with carbonic acid we 
have in the Strontian mineral, the properties of which I have 
been detailing. The earth, foluble in water, becomes fcarcely 
fo by uniting with this acid. With an excefs of acid its folu- 
bility increafes confiderably, as is the cafe with barytes and 
lime. The folution of Strontites is precipitated by water im- 
pregnated with carbonic acid, and the precipitate is rediffolved 
by the addition of more of the fame fluid. 

45. STRONTITES, and all its combinations, poflefs a remark- 
able property, and one which I long confidered as peculiar to 
them: I allude to the quality of tinging the flame of combu- 
{tible bodies of a red colour. The muriate has this power in 
the moft eminent degree. Its effects are well exhibited by put- 
ting a portion of the falt on the wick of a candle; it caufes 
the flame to affume a beautiful deep blood-red colour. All the 
other compounds, and Strontites itfelf, occafion more or lefs of 
the fame appearance. The nitrate approaches the neareft to the 
muriate ; and it is in confequence of this property that the de- 
flagration of this falt with an inflammable fubftance exhibits fo 
brilliant and vivid a red flame. It isa pretty experiment to ex- 

tinguifh 


Fron STRONTIAN. ig 


tineuifh a candle by means of carbonic acid gas, as it iflues 
from a brifkly effervefcing folution of the {par in muriatic acid. 
After the nitrate, comes Strontites in cryftals; the acetite holds 
the next place. Thofe that follow give but a faint tinge of red. 
I fhall enumerate them in the order of their power: Tartrite, 
fulphate, oxalate, fluate, arfenicate, carbonate, phofphate and 
borate; the effect of the two laft is extremely feeble *. 

46. Ir is worthy of remark, that a certain portion of humi- 
dity is abfolutely requifite to enable thefe fubftances to alter the 
hue of the flame. By way of illuftration, dry by a gentle heat 
the moft powerful of them all, the muriate, and by that bring 
it to the ftate of a dry white powder. In this condition it will 
not affect the flame; moiften it, and inftantly you reftore its 
former power. This holds true with regard to all the reft; fo 
much fo indeed, that thofe which have not much moifture in 
their compofition will not affect the flame without an addition 
of humidity. This is the cafe with the fulphate, tartrite, oxa- 
late, phofphate, arfenicate, borate, fluate, carbonate and cal- 
cined {par. Nay, itis even true with refpect to the acetite, 
though in a cryftalline form. | 

47. Aut the combinations of Strontites wich different acids, 
excepting the carbonate, are decompofed by the three alkalis in 
their ordinary effervefcent ftate, by virtue, in part, of a dou- 
ble elective attraQion. When a folution of carbonate of po- 
tafs, for example, is dropped into the muriate, at firft a tranf- 
parent gelatinous precipitate is formed, which, upon agitation, 
after further additions of alkali, acquires a white curdy appear- 
ance. Similar phenomena accompany the precipitations by the 
carbonates of foda and ammoniat ; no effervefcence attends any 
of them. ‘The precipitate, when dried, proves to be a white 

C2 fubtle 


* The beautiful experiment with the muriate was firft mentioned to me in the 
1787, by an ingenious gentleman, Mr Asn, who was then ftudying phytic at Edin- 
burgh. 


~~ 
we 


20 ACCOUNT of a MINERAL. 


fubtle powder, and is what I have hitherto denominated the ar- 
tificial carbonate. In diluted muriatic acid, I diffolved 200 
grains of Strontian mineral, and then added falt of tartar, 
which had run per deliquium as long as it occafioned any preci- 
pitate. By the teft of fulphuric acid, I difcovered that the al- 
kali had feparated the whole of the earth, which was well 
walhed, and afterwards dried before a fire, being towards the 
conclufion of the exficcation brought very near the bars; it 
weighed 198 grains. This deficit of two grains I afcribe to ac- 
cidental lofs, as during wafhing, by adhering to the filter, We. 
‘The artificial carbonate pofleffes all the chemical qualities of 
the native, with this difference, that it parts with its acid more 
readily when urged by heat. 

48. Tue pruffiate of potafs and of lime did not difturb the 
tranfparency of a folution of a pure colourlefs mafs of Stron- 
tian mineral in nitric acid. Sometimes, however, thefe fub- 
{tances threw down from folutions in the muriatic acid a fpa~ 
ring precipitate of a blue colour, which denotes the exiftence of 
a minute portion of iron in fome fpecimens. The precipitate 
is moft abundant when a coloured fpar has been employed; 
whence I| conclude, that the colour which the fpar occafionally 
exhibits is adventitious, and is owing to the iron it contains. ~ 

49. Wir fulphur, Strontites combines into an hepar. Equal 
weights of calcined Strontian mineral and flowers of fulphur 
were triturated together, and expofed to heat in a covered cru- 
cible. The heat was continued till a few minutes after the 
blue flame had ceafed to appear at the chinks of the cover. 
The mafs had been in fufion. Being pulverifed, part was 
thrown into muriatic acid; an effervefcence enfued, and the 
hepatic odour became offenfive. Boiling water was poured on 
the remaining portion; a yellow-coloured fluid refulted, which 
was decompofed by acids, and gave with acetite of lead a very 
abundant black precipitate. In the humid way likewife a he- 
par may be formed. On -a mixture of equal parts of flowers 


of 


From STRONTIAN. 21 


of fulphur and cryftals of Strontites, I poured fome hot wa- 
ter, which I caufed to boil for fome time. A liquid hepar, of 
a dark yellowifh brown colour, was the produdt, and fhowed 
the fame qualities as the preceding. | 

50. CrysTats of Strontites were diffolved, but fparingly by’ 
alcohol.. The tinéture was of a yellow colour, and burned. 
with a reddifh flame.. 

51. Havince detailed all the properties of the Strontian mi- 
neral, and of its earthy bafe, with which I have made myfelf 
acquainted, my next object fhall be to confider, and, if poili- 
ble, to determine, whether this earth be really different and 
diftinét from all thofe that are already known. There are two 
kinds to which the Strontitic. bafis bears in its properties no in- 
confiderable refemblance, I mean barytes and lime; yet it feems- 
to me to differ as much from both of them as they differ the 
one from the other. In. external. appearance, it. muft be ac- 
knowledged, fome fimilarity is obfervable among the native: 
carbonates of thefe earths. The Strontian foffil refembles moft 
the barytic fpar. Indeed this is fo much the cafe, that many 
perfons admitted it into their collections as the. aérated barytes. 
Nay, a French chemift. of fome note, M. PeLLerizR, informs 
us, that having analyzed a mafs, which he received from the 
Honourable Mr.Grevit_e, he did. not publith the refult. for 
the reafon, ‘‘ qu’elle ne m’avoit fourni rien de particulier *.”’ 

52. THESE two productions of nature agree in exceeding 
other earthy fpars in f{pecific gravity ; in retaining their carbo- 
nic acid, unlefs when urged by a very intenfe heat; in dif- 
folving when. cauftic in water; in affording the pure earth. 
in. cryftals ; in diffolving in acids with nearly fimilar phe- 
nomena; in forming falts of difficult folubility with feve- 
ral.of the acids, and cryftallizable ones with the nitric 
and muriatic. In thefe refpects a ftrong analogy prevails: 
between them, yet it is but an analogy ; for in the points now’ 

enumerated,', 

* Ann, de Chem. t. 10. p. 188. 


20 ACCOUNT of a MINERAL 


enumerated, as well as in others, a confiderable difference 
aQually prevails. 

53- luetr fpecific gravities differ, that of native carbonate 
of barytes being 4.338, while that of Strontitic fpar goes from 
3.650 to 3.726. The laft mentioned parts with its acid fome- 
what more readily, and without being fufed itfelf, or acting fo 
powerfully on the clay of the crucible ; and when calcined, it 
imbibes moifture with much greater avidity, fplitting with 
more heat and noife. There fubfifts a greater difference be- 
tween the folubility of pure Strontites in hot and cold water 
than of barytes * ; moreover, the forms of their cryftals dif- 
agree widely. Strontites generates with fulphuric acid a lefs 
ponderous and more foluble earthy falt than barytes. It is true 
that both barytes and Strontites form cryftallizable falts when 
combined with nitric or muriatic acids, but the cryftals have 
no fimilarity either in property or afpect. Thofe, into the com- 
pofition of which Strontites enters, fuffer changes from expo- 
fure to the air, which do not happen to the nitrate or muriate 
of barytes, and they are vaftly more foluble in water. In the 
figure of the cryftals alfo the difference is very remarkable. A 
{trong and weighty argument in favour of the diftiné nature 
of thefe earths is furnifhed by the circumftance, that folutions 
of Strontites in acids fuffer no decompofition from pruffiate of 
lime or potafs ; for here I put out of confideration the change 
that is occafionally produced when the minute portion of iron 
is prefent; while, as every body knows, a prominent and dif- 
criminating feature of barytes is its precipitation by either of 
thefe fubftances. A mark of diftinétion not lefs decided is the 
quality that Strontites and its compounds poflefs of tinging the 
flame of combuftible bodies of a red colour; a property that 

does 


* T have, fince this paper was read, difcovered that the difference of folubility of 
barytes in hot and in cold water is fully as remarkable as that of Strontites. This 
mark of diftinétion confequently mutt be rejected. 


From STRONTIAN. 23 


does not belong to barytes, the muriate of which gives a very 
faint greenifh hue. To thefe add, what affuredly carries great 
weight with it, that thefe fubftances do by no means agree in 
the order of their attractions. On the whole, I think it abun- 
dantly manifeft, that the foffil from Strontian is not aérated 
barytes, and that it has not this earth for its bafis. 

54. Ir has been above remarked, that this mineral occafionally 
affumes the appearance of fome forts of calcareous fpar ; andit 
has likewife been noticed, that fome analogy prevails between 
the properties of their component earths. In no circumftance 
does this appear fo ftrongly as in the quality of tinging flame, 
which I have difcovered to_belong alfo to the compounds of 
lime, though in a much fmaller degree. The muriate of lime 
gives the flame of a candle, when applied in the manner for- 
merly defcribed, a red colour, which is confiderably lefs vivid 
and brilliant than that produced by muriate of Strontites, and 
fhort of that occafioned by the nitrate of this fubftance. It is 
eafy, however, to fhow, that Strontites and lime materially dif- 
fer. The fpecific gravity of the Strontian far exceeds that of 
calcareous {par, which is commonly about 2.700. The former 
retains its carbonic acid much more obftinately in the fire. 
But the incomparably greater folubility of the pure earth in hot 
water, and its cryftallizing, are characters of themfelves fuffi- 
cient to difcriminate Strontites from lime, and I fhall only fur- 
ther obferve, that Strontites forms a lefs foluble compound 
with fulphuric acid, yields a cryftallizable nitrate and muriate, 
and difplays a power of attraction different from lime ; whence 
I reckon it certain, that the earth of Strontian mineral is not 
lime. | 

55. L Neep not draw a parallel between the appearance and 
properties of this foflil and any of the other earthy bodies, as . 
it is not in the moft diftant degree like any of them. 

56. Ir perhaps deferves notice, that the mineral I have been 
treating of, though different from the native carbonates of ba- 

rytes 


24 ACCOUNT of a MINERAL 


rytes and lime, holds a fort of intermediate fpace, and forms a 
kind of link between them. To illuftrate what I mean, I may 
obferve, that in fpecific gravity, fufibility, capability of decom- 
pofition by heat, and in the folubility of the compounds it 
forms, it {tands in the middle. Thus, heavier than calcareous 
and lighter than barytic {par, it is more eafily melted than the 
one, lefs fo than the other. When fubjecied to heat, it parts 
with its carbonic acid more readily than barytes, lefs fo than 
lime. The fulphate, nitrate and muriate of it are all more fo- 
luble than the fame falts of barytes, and lefs foluble than thofe 
of lime. In one refpect ‘indeed it exceeds both, and that is, 
folubility in hot water, which perhaps is fo great as may make 
fome perfons, over fond of nice diftin¢tions, deny it a piace 
among the earths altogether *. : 

57. Turis kind of intermediate fituation fhall perchance in- 
duce fome to imagine, that this earth is a peculiar combination 
of the other two. At firft, I confefs, when this idea fuggefted 
itfelf to me, I did not deem it improbable ; but now, after full 
inveftigation, I muft reject the notion. This, I hope, I do 
with good reafon, fince I have found that, like the acknowledg- 
ed fimple earths, this fubftance bears repeated folutions, cry- 
ftallizations and precipitations, without fhowing the {malleft 
difpofition to a feparation of principles; and fince the means 
that difunite an artificial mixture of the two earths, fuch as 
diffolving in muriatic acid and cryftallizing, or precipitating 
by pruffiate of potafs or lime, have no effect in occafioning a 
disjunction of its parts. 

58. As the earthy bafis of the Strontian fpar poffeffes re- 
markable qualities that are peculiar to it, and forms with acids 
combinations unlike thofe generated by the known earths, and 
differs from all of them in the order of its attraGiions, I can- 
not hefitate to conclude, that it is an earth /wi generis, a new 

Bigs: and 


* Vide note to 53. 


From STRONTIAN. 25 


-and diftin genus. It belongs decidedly to the ancient order 
of them called alkaline or abforbent, of which the moft abun- 
dant fpecies, the calcareous earth, has been long known. To 
my illuftrious mafter in chemiftry, Dr BLack, we are indebted 
for eftablifhing the diftin@ nature of magnefia. Dr Gaun 
-and Mr Scuzece have the merit of difcovering barytes. 

59. CONSIDERING it as a peculiar earth, I thought it necef- 
fary to give it aname: I have called it Strontites, from the 
place where it was found; a mode of derivation, in my opi- 
nion, fully as proper as from any quality it may poffefs, which 
isthe prefent fafhion. My reafon is, that I think there is lefs 
chance of difcovering two new earths in the fame fpot, than of 
finding two poffeffed of the fame property any where. The 
denomination, however, is of little moment, provided it be 
well underftood what it is intended to denote, and there be no 
room for miftake. 

60. To complete the hiftory of Strontites, it remains for me 
to {tate what I have difcovered refpecting the order of its at- 
tractions. I fhall begin with pointing out the order in which 
the principal acids attract it, and then I fhall fhow the place 
due to its attraction among thofe of other fubftances for acids. 

61. SunpuHuric acid attracts Strontites with the greate{t 
force ; for when added to a folution of the nitrate, muriate, . 
tartrite, arfenicate, fuccinate, fluate, acetite and borate, it in- 
{tantly caufes a difturbance of tranfparency, and a white pre- 
cipitate falls to the bottom. When poured upon the oxalate, 
which is fcarcely foluble in water, and permitted to remain for 
fome hours upon it, this acid expels the oxalic, and takes its 
place. JI may here remark, that the precipitates formed by the 
falphuric acid do not defcend fo rapidly as the ponderous ful- 
phate of barytes ; they have oftentimes in their fall more the 
appearance of fulphate of lime, On this account, Strontites, 
though a good one, is by no means fo delicate a teft of the pre- 
fence of this acid as barytes, nor can it be employed altogether 
Vout. IV. D with 


26 ACCOUNT of a MINERAL 


with the fame advantage in the purification of nitric and mu- 
riatic acids from the fulphuric. 

62. THe acid of fugar, or oxalic acid, follows the fsliphuwvib. 
This acid takes the new earth from all the folutions above men- 
tioned, and with it f2!!s in a powdery form, excepting from the 
fluate. Icis acurions faét, that the oxalate is foluble in mu- 
riatic acid with partial decompofition. I obtained an oxalate 
by dropping the acid of fugar into muriate of Strontites, which 
_ I wathed well with cold water, and dried. I then introduced 
it into muriatic acid, that did not diffolve it till a very little di- 
ftilled water was added. The folution, in a few hours, had 
depofited a fmall quantity of cryftals, which I dried on blotting 
paper. They were perfiftent in the air, they diflolved in wa- 
ter, and imparted to it the tafte of oxalic acid. This fluid was 
not difturbed in its tranfparency by fulphuric acid, and it oe- 
cafioned in lime water a copious precipitate of very little fo- 
lubility ; whence I inferred thefe cryftals were oxalic acid, and 
their form did not contradict the conclufion. On evaporating 
the liquor from which they had been depofited, I procured a 
powdery oxalate and cryftallized muriate. The reafon of this 
partial decompofition I cannot at prefent affign; it cannot be 
explained in the fame way that the partial decompofition.of ful- 
phate of potafs or foda by nitric or muriatic acid is fags ee 
for. 

63. Tue third place belongs to ee tartarous acid, which de- 
compofes and caufes a milkinefs in the folutions of the earth 
in nitric, muriatic, fuccinic, arfenic, boracic and acetous acids. 

64. THEN comes the acid of fluor, which precipitates ‘the 
earth from its folution in all the acids I have tried, excepting 
the three already mentioned as exceeding it in force. It is re- 
markable, that a folution of fluate is not rendered turbid by 
oxalic acid, though it be certain, that the oxalic has the ftronger 
attra@tion; perhaps a triple compound is formed. 

65. Nitric 


From STRONTIAN. 27 


65. Nrrrice acid holds the next place). When this acid, in a 
{tate of concentration, is poured into a faturated folution of the 
muriate, a precipitate immediately defcends. This confifts of 
minute cryftals of the nitrate. An aflufion of water reftores 
fluidity. The liquor on evaporation affords the nitrate in cry- 
ftals. - 

66. Murtatic acid, as ufual, fucceeds the nitric. As it 
forms a very foluble compound with Strontites, the decompofi- 
tions accomplifhed by it are made apparent by evaporation. 
The phofphate,of Strontites is diffolved readily by this acid. 
The liquor, when the moifture is diflfipated by a very gentle 
heat, yields cryftals of the muriate and phofphoric acid in a 
concrete ftate. The arfenicate is taken up ftill more readily ; 
and from the folution, by an evaporation not pufhed fo far as 
to deprive the arfenic acid of its humidity, are obtained cry- 
{tals of the muriate. The borate diffolved in this acid exhibits 
phenomena fimilar to the phofphate. By adding this acid to 
the acetite, and evaporating, we get the muriate. 

Succinic acid, if it do not rank before the two laft men- 
tioned acids, without doubt, holds the place immediately fol- 
lowing. 

67. PHospHoRIc acid comes next in order. It makes no 
change in the combinations containing any of the acids already 
noticed, but inftantly throws down a precipitate from the ace- 
tite, arfenicate and borates With regard to the two laft of 
thefe, care muft be taken not to add more phofphoric acid than 
is fufficient, elfe the precipitate will be inftantly rediffolved, and 
will elude obfervation. 

68. Arter phofphoric ftands acetous acid, which unque- 
ftionably has a feebler attraction than any of the preceding, 
and I think a greater than the acid of arfenic, becaufe this 
acid, dropped into the acetite, ‘difturbs not the tranfparency. 
Boracic acid follows the arfenic, and laft of all comes carbo- 

D2 nic 


28 ACCOUNT of a MINERAL 


nic acid, which is expelled by all the others, as appears from 
the narration already given. 


Order of Attractions among the Principal Acids for Strontites. 


STRONTITES. 


Sulphuric acid. 
Oxalic. 
Tartarous. 
Fluoric. 
Nitric. _ 
Muriatic. 
Succinic. 
Phofphoric. 
Acetous. 
Arfenic. 
Boracic. 
Carbonic. 


69. THE attraction of the new earth for acids ranks high. 
For fulphuric acid, barytes has unqueftionably a ftronger at- 
traction than Strontites. I added barytic water to a folution of 
fulphate of Strontites; and though only an extremely minute 
portion of this earthy falt be contained in the fluid, yet an im- 
mediate milkinefs end precipitation was the confequence. This 
earth however comes next; for I find that, when I pour Stron- 
titic water into folutions of fulphate of potafs, of foda, or of 
lime, the liquor becomes turbid, and the Strontitic fulphate falls 
to the bottom. : 

40. I HAVE not afcertained how the attraction of Strontites 
ftands with oxalic acid further than that the force of its attrac- 
tion for this acid is fuperior to that of potafs, and confequently 
of all thofe fubftances that are inferior to it. 

3 71. THE 


' From STRONTIAN. 29 


71. Tue earth attracts tartarous acid more forcibly than al- 
kalis do. Add Strontitic water to tartrite of potafs, and tartrite 
of Strontites will defcend; but its attraction is weaker than 
that of barytes or lime, for the folutions of either of thefe 
earths renders tartrite of Strontites turbid. The fame place is 
due to this earth in its attraétion for fluoric acid as with acid 
of tartar; barytes and lime exceed it, potafs is feebler. 

42. WiTH refpect to nitric and muriatic acids, the order 
feems foméwhat different. Here fixed alkalis appear to predo- 
minate. Yet of this, after feveral trials, I was fomewhat un- 
certain, in confequerice of peculiar phenomena that occur. 
When abfolutely cauftic potafs is dropped into a diluted folu- 
tion of muriate of Strontites, tranfparent cryftalline flakes ap- 
pear ; but long before all the earth is.difengaged, the alkali 
ceafes to occafion more precipitation, and it may be afterwards 
added in quantity, without producing any vifible effect. If, 
however, an effervefcent alkali be now poured in, a copious. 
curdy precipitate will be formed. Two hundred grains of 
Strontian fpar were diffolved in muriatic acid. To the folution, 
diluted with more than an equal quantity of diftilled water, L 
added potafs, till it no longer occafioned depofition. I permit- 
ted the precipitate to fubfide, and then poured in fome potafs, 
which caufed no vifible change. ‘The clear liquor was decant- 
ed off, and the remaining portion filtered. The precipitate, 
when colle@ted and weighed, amounted only to 24 grains, 
With the clear liquor, I mixed carbonate of potafs, and I ob- 
tained an abundant white precipitate This I wathed, and dried 
by a gentle heat ; it weighed 170 grains. On another occafion, 
I diffolved a fimilar quantity of the mineral in the fame acid, 
and after dilution I added the alkali very flowly. The matter 
feparated aflumed the form of quadrilateral Jamellar cryftals, 
fome of which, unattached to any others, fhowed. the wedge 
fhaped margin like an ordinary cryftal of Strontites ; frequently 
they adhered to each other, fometimes appearing in arborefcent 

; ; figures. 


32 ACCOUNT of a MINERAL 


figures. I continued to pour in potafs as long as any precipi- 
tation followed, and I certainly confumed more alkali than 
would have been fufficient to faturate the whole of the acid. 
The cryftalline depofite, when dried quickly, effervefced very 
feebly with muriatic acid ; it was much more abundant than 
the former; it weighed 74 grains. From the fupernatant h- 
quor, carbonate of potafs feparated effervefcent Strontites to 
the amount, when dry, of 132 grains. The matter ‘thrown 
down by potafs, when diffolved in muriatic acid, cryftallizes in 
every refpect like ordinary muriated Strontites. It is alfo fo- 
luble in water, and generates Strontitic water. From thefe ex- 
periments it appears, that potafs precipitates only a portion of 
the Strontites, which is in the ftate of cryftals, and that this 
portion is variable in quantity, which imagine in fome mea- 
fure depends upon the ftate of dilution. How this comes to 
pafs it is not eafy to fay. I am difpofed to afcribe it either to 
the production of a triple compound, or to the folubility of 
Strontites in pure alkali. The weight of the two precipitates, 
in neither experiment, exactly amounted to that of the {par 
employed; nor was this to be expected. In the former it was 
deficient by fix grains, in the latter it exceeded by as much. 
The deficit of the one may arife in part from the lofs of matter 
adhering to the filter, but principally from the heat employed 


in drying, expelling too much moifture from the firft precipi- 


tate. 4 priort, it might be imagined, that there should always 
be a deficiency, fince part of the earth is difengaged in its pure 
ftate, as invariably happens with lime. Inftead_ of this, how- 
ever, in the latter experiment there was rather an increafe of 
weight. This I impute to the cryftalline form in which the 
Strontites is feparated ; for in this ftate it is united to a greater 
weight of water than it contains of both carbonic acid and wa- 
ter when it is effervefcent.. 

73. THE impracticability of precipitating all the Strontites 


from muriatic acid, fuggefted fome doubts whether the alkali . 


2 . . really 


Fron STRONTIAN. alae 


really poffeffed a ftronger attraction or not. Thefe were remo- 
ved by the refult of the following experiments: I difiolved a 
quantity of nitrate of potafs in boiling water, and threw in 
fome mafles of recently calcined Strontites. The heat genera- 
ted commenced an ebullition, which I prolonged by the heat of 
a fand bath, the mouth of ‘the flafk being ftopped by a perfo- 
rated cork. During the cooling, cryftals of Strontites were de- 
pofited. I next diffipated by boiling much of the water of the 
clear fluid, managing the operation fo that the atmofpherical 
air fhould have as little accefs as pofliblé. By this procets I-ob- 
tained cryftals of nitre, intermixed with a fmall quantity of 
cryftallized strontites. I performed a fimilar experiment with 
a folution of muriate of foda, and the refult only differed in 
this, that the cryftals of common falt were depofited during the 
evaporation of the liquor, and thofe of Strontites, for the fe- 
cond time, during the fubfequent refrigeration ; whence the in- 
ference is deducible, that Strontites cannot detach the nitric or 
muriatic acid from the alkalis with which they are united in 
faltpetre and fea falt. 

74. THE attraction of barytes for muriatic acid exceeds 
that of the new earth. Toa folution of Strontitic muriate I 
added fome native carbonate of barytes lately calcined and re- 
duced to fine powder.’ Soon marks of decompofition were ap-_ 
parent, and the liquor confifted of muriate of barytes. Mu- 
riated barytes, on the other hand, fuffers no change from the 
earth [ have been defcribing. The attraction of lime for this 
acid is feebler than that of Strontites. Muriate of lime became 
muriate of Strontites. fome time after I had introduced the 
powder of calcined Strontian {par into it. Ammoniac was in- 
ftantly difengaged from the muriatic acid by Strontites. 

_ 75. Porass attracts acetous acid more forcibly than Stron- 
tites, and diilodges it. 

76. Puospaoric acid is*one of thofé’ that prefer Strontites 
to alkalis. Strontitic water immediately caufes a precipitation 


1M: 


32 ACCOUNT of a MINERAL 


in phofphate of potafs or foda. Strontites in its turn gives 
place to lime and barytes. 

77. THE fame order as in the preceding is olbteraea with re- 
gard to the acid of arfenic. 

78. BoraTeE of Strontites fuffers no vifible seadae from 
lime-water or potafs, but is turned muddy inftantly by bary- 
tic water. A folution of borax is decompofed by diffolved 
Strontites. mr 2 

79. THE attraction of Strontites for carbonic acid is power- 
ful. It renders mild alkalis cauftic, and becomes thereby itfelf 
a carbonate. I was defirous of determining the relative attrac- 
tions of barytes, lime and Strontites for this acid, but found it 
not an eafy matter. The difficulty proceeds from all the three 
being entirely or nearly equal in power. BERGMAN was not 
able to decide between the two firft of them. In hopes of af- 
certaining this point, with artificial carbonate of Strontites in 
fubtle powder, I mixed a quantity of barytic and of lime wa- 
ter, and kept them in phials accurately clofed. I had the: bot- 
tles fkaken very often during a week. At the expiration of 
this time, I decanted carefully from both the fupernatant fluid, 
and faturated it with marine acid. ‘The liquor of the one, 
treated in this manner, gave, on evaporation, muriate of ba- 
rytes ; from the other I obtained muriate of lime. Thefe ex- 
periments feem to fhow, that Strontites will not yield carbonic 
acid to either of thefe earths. Again, when Strontitic water, 
poured upon the carbonates of barytes and of lime, is managed 
in the fame manner as the former, the clear liquors, faturated 
with the fame acid, afford, both of them, muriate of Strontites. 
This earth confequently had not taken the fixed air from either. 
Since then neither lime nor barytes can attract carbonic acid 
from Strontites, and fince this acid will not defert either of 
thefe to combine with Strontites, I am led .to the conclufion, 
that the forces of their attraction are equal, or very nearly fo. 
This alfo appears from the following experiments: Into a mix- 

ture 


From STRONTIAN. 33 


ture of nearly equal parts of Strontitic and barytic waters, I 
threw diftilled water impregnated with a quantity of fixed air 
lefs than was fufficient to faturate either of the earths. I fhook 
the whole well for fome time, in the expectation that the earth, 
whofe attraction preponderated, would attach to itfelf all the 
acid, and become infoluble. On examination, however, I found, 
that the precipitate confifted of the carbonates of both. When 
a folution of lime, inftead of barytes was ufed, the event was 
fimilar. 

80, STRONTITES precipitates metallic calces from their folu- 
tions in acids, but with no particular phenomena. When 
Strontitic water is poured into a folution of muriate of mercu- 
ry, a brownifh yellow precipitate, like to that produced by ba- 
rytic or lime water. prefents itfelf. The fame fluid caufes a 

dark green precipitate in fulphate of iron, a greyifh white in 
fulphate of zinc, a light blue in fulphate of copper, and a 
white one in acetite of lead. 


T ABLE to fhow the Place due to Strontites in the Order of Attractions. 


4 
Tartarous. 


Sulphuric Acid. Oxalic. Fluoric. Nitric. 
Barytes Barytes Lime Lime Barytes 
‘Strontites Lime ? ~ Barytes Barytes Potafs 
Potafs Strontites Strontites Strontites re, 2 
Soda Potafs Potafs Potafs Strontites 
Lime Soda Soda Soda Lime 
Muriatic.  Phofphoric. Arfenic. Boracie. Carbonte. 
Barytes Lime Lime Barytes Lime Barytes Strontites 
Potafs _ Barytes Barytes Lime g > Potafs 
Soda — Strontites - Strontites Strontites Soda 
Strontites Potafs Potafs Potafs 
Lime Soda Soda Soda 
Vou. IV. E To 


34 ACCOUNT of a MINERAL 
TREE Pe RR ER ree 


To make a {mall addition to the hiftory of barytes, and to 
correct a miftake that has prevailed refpecting the native com- 
bination with carbonic acid, I beg leave to add a few words. 


1. Aut the chemifts who have made native carbonate of ba- 
rytes the fubject of their experiments, concur in aflerting, that 
the carbonic acid cannot be difengaged from it by heat alone ; 
and upon this fuppofed fact, a theory of pretty extenfive applica- 
tion has been founded. Dr WITHERING, in his admirable paper, 
Phil. Tranf. vol. Ixxiv. p. 298. fays, ‘‘ It is very remarkable, that 
*“ the terra ponderofa {par in its native ftate will not burn to lime. 
“ When urged with a ftronger fire, it melts and unites to the cru- 
““ cible, but does not become cauftic.” ‘“ May we not conjec- 
ture then, that as cauftic lime cannot unite to fixed air with- 
out the intervention of moifture, and as this fpar feems to 
contain no water in its compofition, that it is the want of 
‘“* water which prevents the fixed air affuming its elaftic aérial 
“ ftate.”” This fuppofition becomes, in his opinion, {till more 
probable from the circumftance, that the artificial aérated terra 
ponderofa, which contains water, lofes its fixed air by the ac- 
tion of heat. ; 

2. Dr PriEsTLEY adopted this notion, and adds his teftimony 
to the fat upon which it refts. In the Phil. Tranf. vol. Ixxviii. 
p- 152. we have the following words: “ Terra ponderofa aérata 
** gives no fixed air by mere heat. But I find, that when 
“ fteam is fent over it in a red heat in an earthen tube, fixed 
“* air is produced with the greateft rapidity, and in the fame 
“‘ quantity, as_when it is diflolved in fpirit of falt, and making 
“ the experiment with the greateft care, I find that fixed air 

* confifts 


sé 


From STRONTIAN, 35 


* Gonfifts of about half its weight of water.” From thefe ob- 
fervations Dr PriestLey infers, that water enters into the com- 
pofition of fixed air, nay, that it is this ingredient which is 
effential to the aériform condition of the acid. He extends the - 
idea to all aérial fluids, and hence draws a futile argument 
againft Mr Cavenpisn’s glorious difcovery of the compofition 
of water. 

3. Iv is unneceflary to tranfcribe the words of Mr Warr 

junior, who {peaks on the authority of Mr Jos1:au WeDGEwooD 
junior, to nearly the fame purpofe. or thofe of M. Sacer, Four- 
croy and PELLETIER, who ftrangely aflert, that this fubfiance 
is abfolutely unchangeable by heat. 
_ 4. From this general opinion, however, I am obliged to dif- 
fent, having found, that the fixed air can be expelled from the 
Native aérated barytes by heat alone, if fufficiently intenfe; a 
circumftance that muft prove fatal to the theory founded on its 
fuppofed impradticability. The heat which anfwers this pur- 
pofe is that of a fmith’s forge, when the fire is fkilfully ma- 
naged. By its afliftance, I have oftentimes deprived the bary- 
tic fpar of its acid either entirely or nearly fo. 

5. I NEED not detail the particulars of more than of one expe- 
riment. In feveral trials, however, it may not be improper to 
remark, I was difappointed, in confequence of the barytes, vehe- 
mently heated, acting as a flux on the clay of the crucible, cor- 
roding holes in it and making its efcape, leaving as its only ve- 
ftige a green-coloured vitreous glazing on the infide of the cru- 
cible. At firft I employed crucibles made of pure Stourbridge 
clay, but was, from the circumftance this moment mentioned, 
obliged to have recourfe to thofe compofed of black lead, which 
are able to refift and confine the heated {par ; yet fometimes I 
fucceeded even with thofe of clay. 

6. A soLip and pure mafs of the fpar, weighing 338.4 
gtains, was put into a black lead crucible, having a lid of the 

E2 fame 


36 ACCOUNT of a MINERAL 


fame fubftance fitted to it. The crucible, gradually heated, 
was kept in the {trong fire of a fmith’s forge for the fpace of 
half an hour, when it became very foft. On breaking it after 
it had cooled, indubitable proofs appeared of the mafs having 
undergone complete fufion. From being previoufly angulated, 
it now accommodated itfelf to the thape of the crucible, and 
encrufted the bottom and fides of it a little way up. ‘The 
cruft externally, where it flightly adhered to the crucible, was 
of a dark greyifh colour, internally it had a greenifh fhade. 
The matter was light, fpungy and porous like pumice {ftone, 
and being carefully colle@ted weighed only 261 grains. The 
{par had therefore loft 77.4 grains, which is at the rate of “ 
per cent. nearly. 

47. THE calcined mafs imbibed water with a hiffing noife and 
confiderable increafe of temperature, but without fwelling or 
fplitting like lime, and was foluble in this fluid. On dropping 
it into diluted muriatic acid, a very flight effervefcence took 
place; but this foon ceafed, and the diffolution proceeded in 
perfect quiet. The folution had a greenifh catft. 

8. From another mafs, weighing 530.5 grains, I expelled 
136.5 grains or 25.60 per cent. and ftill it was not altogether 
non-effervefcent. I however obtained it once abfolutely cau- 
ftic or free from carbonic acid, having employed a crucible of 
Stourbridge clay, which endures a ftronger heat than the black 
Jead. But I could not in this cafe afcertain the lofs of weight, 
as part of the mafs had efcaped through a hole it had made for 
itfelf. 

9. Even by the common blowpipe and candle, a part of the 
acid may be difengaged. Suppofing that the heat excited by 
this inftrument, employed in the ufual way, would be very in- 
adequate to produce the defired effect, I tried pure air, in the 
manner I had feen M. LavorsiEr ufe it. This mode confifts 
in directing a flream of oxygenous gas againft ignited charcoal, 


From STRONTIAN. 37 


and produces an extreme intenfity of heat. By this heat the 
fpar was rapidly melted, but finking into the pores of the 
charcoal, it eluded further impreffion. I then had recourfe to 
the ordinary blowpipe. The fmall mafs readily melted, and 
on being kept in fufion for fome time, boiled with fo much 
violence as to fcatter around it minute particles of the liquid 
matter. After two or three minutes, it was kept fluid with 
more difficulty; and, finally, it covered the furface of the 
charcoal with a thin powdery cruft. Though it ftill effervefced 
brifkly with muriatic acid, a portion of the fixed air had been 
feparated ; for a part of it, thrown into diftilled water, impart- 
ed to it the power of changing to a green violet teft-papers, 
and the water acquired a cruft on its furface from expofure to 
the air. 

ro. THESE experiments, I hope, fatisfactorily fhow, that the 
Native carbonate of barytes can be decompofed by heat alone, 
and further afford proof of the infufficiency of the theory that 
has been deduced from the fuppofed impoflibility of accomplifh- 
ing it. 

11. I Have found that barytes is vaftly more foluble in hot. 
than in cold water, and that it is depofited from the former im 
the {tate of cryftals. To obtain thefe I commonly employ the 
calcined barytic fpar, and the mode I follow confifts in throw- 
ing into water, that has juft ceafed to boil, fome pieces of a re- 
cently burned mafs. The heat that is generated caufes the wa- 
ter to boil, and I prolong the ebullition for a little time. The 
clear part of the liquor being decanted off and permitted to 
cool, depofits fooner or later a quantity of cryftals. The fhape 
and appearance of thefe vary confiderably, according to the ra- 
pidity with which they have been formed, and this depends: 
upon the greater or fmaller quantity taken up by the hot wa- 
_ ter over what can be retained by it when cold; the moft fatu-. 
rated yielding cryftals the moft {peedily, the lefs fo not for feve-. 


ral days.. ; 
£2; THE. 


38 ACCOUNT of 4 MINERAL 


12. Tue cryftal in its perfect condition feems to be a flatted 
hexagonal prifm, having two broad fides, with two intervening 
narrow ones, and terminated at either end by a quadrangular 
pyramid, which, in fome cafes, conftitutes the larger part of the 
cryftal. When the cryftallization goes on at great leifure, the 
eryftals are often diftinG and folid, of no inconfiderable magni- 
tude ; but more commonly with a quicker depofition, they are 
more flender and delicate. and are attached to each other in fuch 
a manner as to aflume a foliaceous form of beautiful appear- 
ance, refembling fome of the fern tribe in their pinnated frons, 
to fpeak botanically ; but in this arrangement, a confiderable 
diverfity occafionally happens. 

13. THE cryftals obtained from calcined barytic fpar, in the 
manner now defcribed, diffolve in water, and impart the qua- 
lities of barytic water; they change vegetable colours to a 
green, they unite with acids without effervefcence, and gene- 
rate with the muriatic and fulphuric, compounds fimilar to the 
fulphate and muriate of barytes; hence I infer they confift of 
pure barytes. 

14. THESE cryftals are perfectly tranfparent and colourlefs, 
but when expofed to the air, become white, opaque and effer- 
vefcent, lofing during this change nearly 30 per cent. of their 
weight. Subjected to the heat of boiling water, they undergo 
the aqueous fufion and become fluid ; from which ftate, if al- 
lowed to cool flowly, they concrete into a folid cryftalline mafs. 
When a ftronger heat is applied, and continued tll all the moi- 
fture is diffipated, there remains a white powder, lighter by 
one half than the cryftals employed, which, urged by the 
heat produced by the blowpipe, is melted with more difficulty 
than the native carbonate. 

15. THe folubility of thefe cryftals in water furprifed me a 
good deal. One ounce of diftilled water, at temperature 60, 


diffolves almoft twenty-five grains, while boiling water appears to | 
I be 


From STRONTIAN. 39 
* 
a Be apable of diffolving any quantity of qian, however great. 
_ This arifes from the circumftance, that the earth becomes fo 
xtremely foluble at an elevated temperature, that the water of 
yftallization itfelf, which fcarcely furpafles the weight of the 
arytes, when heated to the two hundred and twelfth degree, 
able to get the folution of the earth without the affift-_ 


Hi 6. In this amazing folubuity barytes and Strontites nearly 


ee, but materially differ from lime, which, fo far as I can 
cover, is diffolved as {paringly by hot water as it is by 


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II. OpservaTions on the NaTuRAL History of Guiana: In 
a Letter from WitLi4m LocHEAD, E/q; F.R.S. EDIN. to the 
Rev. Dr WALKER, F.R.S. Evin. Regius Profeffor of Natural 
Hiftory in the Univerfity of EDINBURGH. 


[Read March 3. 1794] 


DEAR SIR, 


LLOW me at prefent to trouble you with a few gene- 
ral obfervations on natural hiftory, which I had an op- 
portunity of making while on a botanical excurfion, with my 
friend Mr ANDERSON, to the Dutch colony of Demerary. Gui- 
ana is a country but little known in Europe, though its animals 
and vegetables have added confiderably to the catalogue of na- 
tural productions. It is not however the organic kingdom which 
I mean at prefent to touch upon; all I aim at is to give you 
fome idea of the face of the country, as leading to the know- 
ledge of its formation and prefent ftate. It is not a field for the 
mineralogift, as its interior is unexplored. But to the geolo- 
gift, who wifhes to trace revolutions of the latef{t date, it is not 
uninterefting to contemplate fuch a recent and fingular coun- 
try as Guiana. 
I NEED not inform you, that under Guiana is comprehended 
all the coaft of South America from the Amazons to the Oroo- 
_ noko ; that it trends nearly N. W. and S. E.; that it is in gene- 
ral a very low and flat country, efpecially the Dutch or wefter- 
moft part of it; and that it is watered jby feveral rivers and 
creeks, which rife in a chain of mountains running nearly E. 
Vor. IV. F and. 


= 


42 NATURAL HISTORY 


and W. and dividing Guiana from the inland parts of South . 
America, which form the banks of the Amazons and its nu- 


merous branches. 


Coa/t.—No coaft can be more eafy to make than that of Gui- 
ana. ‘The changed colour of the water indicates foundings 


long before you make the land, and you may run on in feven , 


fathoms before you can difcover it from the deck. The bottom 
is at that diftance a foft mud. All along the coaft near Deme- 
rary, you have only about two fathom at.a good league from 
the fhore ; to leeward of Effequebo, it deepens ftill more gra- 
dually. In {tanding off or on five or fix miles, you will hardly 
deepen or fhallow the water as many feet. When a high fea 
fets in upon fuch a coaift, it 1s eafy to conceive, that at a very 
confiderable diftance from the land it muft be affected by 'the 
bottom. The interval betwixt wave and wave becomes more 
diftina. As they roll .on i fucceflion, the lower part is re- 
tarded, the upper furface accelerated, each billow of courfe be~- 
comes {teeper and more abrupt, till at laft at gradually ends m 
a breaker, when it has come to the depth’of only a few feet. 
Thefe rollers, as they are called, are the dread of feamen, efpe- 
cially betwixt Effequebo and Pomeroon, where the water is 
fhallow, and ‘the bearing ‘of the coaft very much north and 
fouth, expofes it fully to the aétion of the trade-winds. In fmall 
craft, thofe acquainted with the navigation do not hefitate to 
run along the coaft, even among the rollers themfelves ; but 
veflels drawing ‘from ‘eight ‘to twelve ‘feet water, efpecially if 
the fwell be heavy and it falls calm, can hardly getoff. If an- 
chor and cables fail, they drift ‘on till they are faft in the mud, 
and there they will continue, fometimes-for weeks together, be- 
fore they ‘go to pieces. The fea-water ‘becomes ‘exceedingly 
thick and muddy within a few leagues ‘from the coaft.of De- 
merary, as much or more fo than the Thames is at London. 
A firanger would naturally take this for the difcharge of large 

flooded 


Of GUIANA. 43 


flooded rivers after a rainy feafon. By and by I fhall explain 
the true caufe of it. | 

On approaching the continent of South America, a change 
on the face of the /fty will ftrike the attentive obferver. The 
clouds become lefs diftint from each other, and the intervals 
between them lefs:clear., They are blended into one another as. 
it were, and fuffufed more generally over the atmofphere. 
They appear to be furcharged with vapour, or to have a fetonger 
difpofition to depofit it. 

_ THERE is a particular, prevailing appearance of the heavens 
within the tropics when you are at a diftance from continents | 
or very high iflands, which has fo often ftruck me that I won- 
der it has not been taken notice of. I call it a tropical /ky, and 
thus defcribe it. The clouds:in fine weather are in a fingle feries 
or ftratum, failing away regularly withthe trade-wind. They 
are {mall and diftintly feparated from each other. The inter- 
vals or fky above them of a clear azure. The lower furface 
of the clouds is. perfectly horizontal. As the temperature is 
commonly. very equal over the fea, the condenfation takes place 
every where at an.equal height'from the furface of the water. 
In the clouds that are over-head, you. cannot indeed perceive 
this ; but it becomes more and more vifible as the eye recedes 
from the zenith. The lower limb of each diftant cloud. appears 
perfectly level. and-well: defined, brighter than the fuperincum- 
bent part. - Ata diftance, nothing is to be feen but thefe. limbs 
clofer and clofer,in.gradation one behind, the other; and the 
whole horizon round refembles the roof of a ftage;,with an in- 
finity of half dropt curtains as far as the eye can reach. In 
two voyages from Europe, I have met with this tropical {ky as 
far,north as Cape Finifterre. It came with a fair wind, which 
continued with us like a regular trade-wind,accompanied with the 
fame appearance of the clouds, till we made the Weft Indies. In 
running down. the trade-winds, every one has an opportunity of 
verifying this defcription, and muft be, ftruck with the beauties 

PZ which 


Ad NATURAL HISTORY 


which this fky prefents at the fetting of the fun. The inhabi- 
tants of the lower iflands may alfo be well acquainted with it. 
In the higher ones, the attraction of the mountains ever forms 
fets of clouds of other appearances, as being produced by other 
caufes. With our prefent knowledge of meteorology, hardly 
any other caufe can be affigned for the phenomena above men- 
tioned, than the conftant equal temperature that every where 
prevails on the intertropical feas. One analogous fact however 
may be mentioned ; the exceedingly fmall range of the baro- 
meter in the torrid zone. Does the fame caufe regulate fo ex- 
actly the height of the clouds, and maintain the uniform fu- 
fpenfion of the mercury ? We might almoft fufpect it did, were 
it not well known, that the barometer varies as little upon con- 
tinents, and in the vicinity of mountains, in thefe regions as 
elfewhere, though the condenfation of vapours is in fuch cafes 
much more irregular. Upon the continent you will frequently 
obferve this tropical fky alfo, efpecially in fine fettled weather ; 
but much more commonly you will find the fky there, and even 


before you make the coaft, covered with heavy large dark clouds 


in fome places, and in others, at a greater height, the ferene 
dappled fky, fo often feen in Europe. 


Winds.—Tue trade-wind generally prevails all the day long,. 


and on the fea-coaft feldom fails even at night ; but in lefs than 
fifty miles up the river it is a dead calm at night, and the 
breeze is not able to penetrate fo far till towards noon. Still 
farther up we had whole days of a ftark calm, and the heat 
very intenfe. 


Dews, fogs and temperature.—Tur dews, following the law 
which they generally obferve, are very heavy when and wherever 
there is but little wind, and the hotter the day and evening, they 
fall the more copioufly ; they were of courfe more abundant up 
the river than near the fea-coaft. The exhalations in the day-time 

from 


— 


Of GUIANA. 45 


from a hot and mifty country covered with vegetables being 
very great, the condenfation occafioned by the abfence of the 
fun, and the cold accompanying that condenfation, are in pro- 
portion. Near the coaft the diurnal difference of temperature is 
but trifling, the conftant trade-wind preferving in the air nearly 
the fame medium of heat as in the body of the ocean; but far 
up the river the range of the thermometer was very great. 
The heat of the day was intolerable. In the fhade it was fre- 
quently above go°. This, when there is no breeze, forces you 
into the woods for fhelter. ‘Towards evening it cools; during 
the night the cold increafes, and is greateft about five in the morn- 
ing. The thermometer would then be from 72° to 74°. The 
body of the river being large enough to retain its heat, the eva- 
poration goes on from its furface through the night, and is 
condenfed into thick fog, which hangs over it, and is feldom 
difperfed before eight or ten next day. While the air was as 
above in the morning at 72°, the water along-fide gave 80° to 
83°, and feldom rofe two degrees higher at noon-day. We had 
_an opportunity of verifying an obfervation made by the few 
inhabitants who live far up the river Demerary; that when it 
feels very cool.in the morning before day-break, they are fure 
of fine weather; when, on the contrary, it feels warm, they 
expect rain. They fleep in hammocks, and the houfes they 
have are pervious enough to the air, fo they are fenfibly affected 
by any change in its temperature. 


Seafons.—As to the feafons, it is not an eafy matter, from the 
accounts given by the colonifts, to afcertain them exactly. All 
feem to agree, that fince cultivation has been fomewhat extended, 
they are not fo regular as before ; that the dry feafon encroaches 
on the rainy, and that during the latter, they have often feve- 
ral dry days in fucceflion, The account given by Dr Ban- 
_ CROFT was the one generally allowed; that it is dry about the 
equinox, and rainy about the folftices; that of confequence 


they 


46 NATURAL HISTORY 


they have two wet and two dry feafons every year. We thought 
it difficult to reconcile this with the account given of the fea- 
fons of other countries in fimilar climates, and with what ac- 
tually takes place in the Carib iflands. I will give you my 
ideas on the fubjeét. It is within the tropics a very general 
rule, that the vicinity of the fun brings the rainy feafon. To 
the northward of the line therefore this muft be in our fummer 
months. Itis another mvartable law, that.as in lunar influences, 
fo in the change of feafons produced by the fun, fome time is 
neceflary after the maximum of the ‘caufe to produce the full 
effect. The higheft tides are not till two or three days after 
the full and change. The greateft heat of the day is' two hours 
after noon, and the hotteft months in Europe are July'and Au- 
guft, not June, when the fun is,higheft. Among the Weft 
India iflands, the full effet of the fun’s vicinity is ftill later. 
I have found Auguft, and more efpecially September, to be the 
. hotteft months in the year, and they are accordingly the height 
of the rainy feafon. It begins thus: No fooner has: the’ fun 
come to the northward, and begun to be vertical among the 
iflands in April and May, than ‘his force is felt, the fly is more 
difturbed, the wind is ‘more frequently from the fouthward and 
in {qualls, and now and then there are heavy fhowers. In 
June the fame effects continue, and increafe in July, when the 
proper rainy feafon may be. faid to begin, and’ continues. in 
force more or lefs till the middle of O&ober. Auguft and Sep- 
tember, with part of July and O@ober, when thefe effects are 
at their greateft height, are ftyled the hurricane months, and 
by the French P?’hivernage. During them, the full force*of the 
great haminary which diftributes light and life, however necedf- 
{ary, feems fometimes too’ much for nature.’ She is opprefied 
and fickens; her ref{piration is difordered by intenfe heat ; fome- 
times calms, fometimes heavy fqualls ; the agitated elements vent 
themfelves in lightning, with thunder and torrents of rain, or 
are fometimes thrown out into thofe horrid: convulfions,. hurri- 

rox canes, 


Uf GUIANA » ‘47 


canes which feem to threaten inftant diffolution. Guiana is . 
happily free from thefe fcourges of the Antilles. Their force 
has lately been partially felt at Tobago, which was thought be- 
yond-their reach. In Trinidad, the greateft ftorms they have 
hitherto experienced, do not deferve the name of hurricanes ; 
and to the fouthward, on the main of America, they are utterly 
unknown. The difference then. between Guiana and the iflands 
is this: In the former, the rainy feafon fets in earlier, as indeed 
the fun is fooner vertical, Their principal rains are in the end 
of April, in May, June and July. They are alfo fooner over ; 
for Auguft, September and O@tober, and I believe part of July, 
are commonly fair weather. But again, November in part, De- 
cember, January and February, reckoned dry months among 
the iflands, are in Guiana a fecond rainy feafon. The caufe of 
this I take to be as follows: North-eafterly winds, pretty tiff, 
cold, and bleak comparatively in thefe climates, are frequent 
among the iflands during the winter months, They are well 
known by the name of Norths. They are often accompanied 
with rain, but it is not very heavy, nor thought of confe- 
quence enough to give the denomination of a rainy feafon. 
Thefe winds we know to reach as far as the coaft of Guiana ; 
and there I have reafon to believe they are productive of more 
rain than in the iflands. The face of a large continent, and 
its effects upon the atmofphere, may very probably make them 
give up more of their humidity than they do among the An- 
tilles, though, at the fame time, their force and bleaknefs may 
not be fo much felt. If this conjecture hits the truth, the fol- 
lowing ought to be corollaries, and are left to future obferva- 
tion. In this rainy feafon, when the fun is near the fouthern 
folftice, their rams will be with pretty fteady northerly*breezes 
on the coaft. They may be of longer continuance at a time, 
but they will not be fo heavy as thofe of fummer, and they 
will be chiefly on the fea-coaft, and probably will not extend a 
great way up the country. It remains even a query with me, 

3 | whether 


‘ 


48 NATURAL HISTORY 


whether the rain that accompanies the norths among the iflands, 
efpecially thofe moft remote from the line, be not generally in 
a greater proportion than is commonly fuppofed. 


Country.—I WILL now endeavour to give you fome idea of _ 
the face of the country. Though, as is well known, Guiana 
is flat and {wampy, yet it affords to the attentive eye an in- 
terefting variety. The fea-coaft is little, if at all, raifed above 
the level of high water, and it continues at this level for many 
miles inland. It is properly an immenfe woody fwamp, never 
dry in the drieft feafon, covered with feveral feet of water in 
the wet. Next the fhore, as far as the brackifh water extends, it 
is covered with mangroves, which grow toa confiderable height, 
and form a thick fhade. They are elevated on their branchy 
intermingled roots from the bare wet clay or mud, on which 
there is fcarcely one herb or plant, but which feems to be all in 
motion, from the prodigious number of crabs which make: 
their holes in it. Further on, when the under-water is frefh, 
you meet with a new fet of vegetables, principally {mall 
trees, which, from their fituation, are obliged to adopt the 
habits of mangroves, having the bottom of their trunks fup- 
ported three or four feet above ground by their ramified 
roots. Several climbing plants are. mixed with them. Arunis, 
in great variety and profufion, emerge from the water, or 
embrace the ftems of the trees ; and feveral broad-leafed plants 
of the hexandria and triandria claffes, affift the Arunis in 
forming an herbage. In all this low part of Demerary, there 
is not one tree of a large fize, nor ‘among them all above 
two or three fpecies which can be applied to ufe as timber. 
Proceeding ftill up the river, its banks are found generally to 
raife themfelves above the level of the water; and when you 
have gone up one tide, (betwixt twenty and thirty miles), they 
are fo high, that there is no farther occafion for dams to keep 
the plantations from being overflowed at high water, as below ; 

canals. 


Of GUIANA. 49 


canals or ditches are fufficient to drain the land, which is ftill 
perfectly flat. The trees are here different in fpecies and larger 
in fize than below, and the woods are much more practicable. 
As they are drier, the ground has acquired a regular fort of fur- 
face, and there is neither that plexus of roots, nor the fame 
number of vines, (the common name in the Weft Indies for 
_all climbing plants), to entangle thofe who choofe to traverfe 
them. The foil here is generally a ftiff, cold, reddifh clay, 
mixed a-top with a portion of vegetable mould. 

THE fand-hills prefent to the admiring eye a fcene very dif- 
ferent from what it had been accuftomed to below. The firft 
you meet with upon the Demerary, is upwards of thirty miles 
from the mouth of the river, and on the right hand afcending, 
or on its weftern fhore. There are of them further down in 
the country, but not clofe by the river-fide. This one is the 
extremity of a ridge which extends to the weftward {feveral 
miles. As you afcend the river, you meet with many more of 
the fame kind on both fides, whofe direCtion feems likewife to 
be eaft and weft, or nearly at right-angles with the average 
courfe of the ftream. They vary from 50 to 100, 150, or 200 
feet of perpendicular height above the level of the river and the 
intervening flat country. Their breadth and extent varies 
fometimes only a few hundred paces, fometimes many miles. 
Their length is great; with fome interruptions, I have reafon 
to believe they are generally continued from one fide of the 
colony to the other, only interfected in different places by the 
rivers and their branches. They confift of a pure filiceous 
fand, fo white that it dazzles the eyes, commonly fine grained 
and loofe, but not unfrequently mixed with little ftrata of 
coarfer pebbles, moftly quartz, and fometimes concreted into 
a proper fand-ftone. In the laft cafe, a black or reddifh tinge 
is IN Many cafes communicated to it, from clay, decayed vege- 
tables, or other extraneous matter. There is no regular ftratifi- 
cation to be found in it, more than what is common to all 

Vot. IV. i fands, 


50 . NATURAL HISTORY 


fands, the produce of depofitions of different dates, and as they are 
of different materials, thicker in one place, thinner in another, 
fometimes horizontal, but oftener inclined, and convex or con- 
cave according to circumftances. We could meet with no ap- 
pearance of fhells or other marine produ¢tions, but in a few 
places, pieces of broken vegetables buried in the fand where it 
was concreted. They were black as all the foffil vegetables 
that I have ever féen in fand-ftone. Upon, and by the fides of 
the fand-hills, grows the moft valuable timber of thefe colonies. 
The trees there are of a good fize, and very clear of obftructing 
underwood or vines. ‘The Wallabba, (Parivoa grandiflora of 
Aublet); the Sipiri or green-heart, (a new fpecies of laurel) ; 
the Coumarou or Tonquzbean-tree, Coumarouna odorata of 
Aublet ; the Mora, valuable for boat-timbers, and many others, 
whofe wood is equally hard and beautiful. 

ConTINUING to afcénd the river, the fand-hills become ra- 
ther more frequent, but the intervals ftill remain a perfec flat, 
though now feveral feet above the level of the ftream, and the, 
foil is ftill a {tiff clay. Hitherto the river is deep all over, ge- 
nerally from two to five fathoms; the bottom is mud or clay, 
and the fhores on either fide at low water covered with ooze. 
About 130 miles up, however, or juft before it begins to fhal- 
low, the bottom is covered with banks of a hard white or 
brown fand. It was a problem for fome time whence all this 
fand originated in fuch a country. It was foon folved. Lea- 
ving here the veffel that had hitherto carried us, we proceeded in 
a canoe ; and at about 160 or 170 miles diftance from the mouth 
of the river, we met with the firft proper hills of folid materials. 
The neareft to us was a rock of granite projecting into the 
ftream, whofe direction it gave a change to at this place, and 
it ferved for a landmg-place to the higheft piece of cleared land 
upon the river next to the poft-holders. It was part of a low 
ridge of the fame ftone which crofled the country, probably te 
Berbia or beyond it, and was fucceeded by many other feries of 
‘ | hills 


Of GUIANA. 5) 


hills more inland, and as far as we could examine them, of the 
fame matcrials. The granite was both of the red and the gray 
kinds, but chiefly of the latter. A number of feams or dikes 
croffed it here and there in all diredtions, not diftin@lly fepa- 
rate, but firmly united to the reft, making as it were but 
one body with it, and confifting of the fame materials diffe- 
rently modified. ‘Their component parts were generally {mail- 
er; they were more compact and clofer in the texture than 
what furrounded them; and where they had been equally ex- 
pofed to the action of the weather, they appeared to have born 
it much better than the furrounding granite. The origin of» 
the fand was now accounted for. This ftone, in fome cafes ex- 
ceedingly firm and durable, is in others very liable to decay ;. 
and the wafh of thefe enormous chains of hills was able to fur- 
nifh abundance of fuch fand as we had met with below. The 
granite afforded many varieties, indeed every fhade, from large 
and diftin@t grained, to that whofe component parts of felt- 
f{par, {chorl or quartz, were fo {mall as to refemble pretty com- 
pact, compound lavas, or fome of our mixed whin-{tones in 
Scotland. All thefe varieties would be found at no great di- 
ftance from each other. I brought fome fpecimens, from Ti- 
ger’s berg, a hill about 500 feet perpendicular height, which 
have every appearance of having undergone the action of fire. 
They .refemble half-vitrified {coriz, and would be taken for- 
them, but that they were actually broken off from the granite, 
and difcover all its parts in the fracture. The fummit of this 
hill is irregular, with feveral pits and holes among the rocks. 
A little higher than it, and I fuppofe nearly about 200 miles 
from the fea, you meet what are called the Falls. They are 
only five or fix rapids, within the fpace of a mile or two, form- 
ed by ledges of very clofe-grained gray granite that run acrofs 
the river. There are breaks in each of them, through which 
the dextrous Indians are able, in their light canoes, to pafs up 
at any feafon, even the drieft ; and when the river is {welled by 
Grea the 


52 NAFURAL HISTORY 


the rains, they become totally obliterated. Two days journey, 
or two and a half above this, is the great fall, where the ftream 
comes over the face of a rock, as we were informed, twenty 
feet high. 


Savannahs. —SavANNAHS, ever fince the difcovery of Ame-. 
rica, have been known to occupy large {paces in the fouthern. 
parts of that continent. They are to be met with abundantly 
m Guiana, and are of two kinds very diftinét from each other, , 
the wet and the dry. Of the former, many are extenfive as. the. 
eye can reach, immenfe verdant plains occupying- the. whole. 
face of a country, with or without a few ftraggling infulated . 
patches of wood. In the dry feafon, they appear. meadows. of 
long grafs or reeds, and are feldom practicable for any diftance, 
for the bottom is very rarely dry. In the wet feafon, they are 
all one entire plain of water, over the furface of. which the grafs 
ftill rifes, but which may be every where navigated in the cou- 
rialls or canoes. ‘Towards the end of the drought, the Indians 
fet fire tothem. The young growth which fucceeds attraéts 
the. deer, and the native, on the return of the half-deucalion 
days, purfues them in his little bark-acrofs their former plains. 
The foil upon thefe favannahs can neither be very deep nor 
very good ; yet water may be always commanded, and labour 
and induftry might convert thefe deferts into rice-fields. It is. 
a queftion whether the days of flavery willever fee that event. 
The culture of this ufeful vegetable, which in the eaft has: for 
ages been the ftanding food of millions, brings too moderate.a. 
return, at leaft in an infant colony, for the-rapacious agricultu- 
ral fyf{tem of the Weft Indies. — 

Tue dry favannahsare neither fo frequent nor: fo extenfive, yet 
we have paffed through fome of them feveral leagues in circumfe- 
rence. They are formed along the flats on the top'of the fand 
ridges, and covered by a very thin coat of verdure. They re- 
femble, exactly enough, fome of the bare moors in Scotland. 

Many 


Of GUIANA. 53 


Many beautiful plants of the clafs gynandria are their chief orna- 
ments, as is alfo the orchis, which grows in fimilar fituations with’ 
you. Some Melaftomas, and more Rhexias, fupply the place, and. 
bear fomewhat of the habit of the Erice ; for your Sedums and. 
Saxifrages is the little Sauvagefia ; and in hollows of the fame fa- 
vannahs, where moifture prevails, what I never could have ex- » 
pected to fee within five degrees of the line, and not more than 
go or 100 feet above the level of the fea, the Drofera lifts its: 
humble head from.a bed of the Sphagnum palutftre. 
BEsIDEs thefe two. kinds, there are alfo what we may deno- 
minate 4alf-favannahs, formed upon the tops of fand-hills, 
higher and more irregular than in the cafe of thofe juft de- 
feribed. Some of thefe are alfo very extenfive. Few herbaceous- 
vegetables are to be met with upon them. Broad {paces of arid’. 
fand are interfected by clumps of fhrubery. Nothing grows . 
to the height of a tree; but a particular fet of. plants, different _ 
from thofe in other parts of the country, find fubfiftence-enough . 
to rife to fifteen or thirty feet. How nature, after all her ef- 
forts, fhould have. failed to induce a foil: upon thefe, is furpri- 
fing. It appears chiefly owing to-the great porofity of the 
fand, which every where admits- the decayed vegetable matter 
deftined for that purpofe, to be carried: down through it, and 
filtered off by rain. Even thofe fand-hills which are covered | 
by tall-trees, {till thew proofs. of this. The trifling layer of 
mould formed upon them is-exceedingly:thin. When cleared - 
they are very barren; and when you dig in them to a-great 
depth, you ftill find fmall portions of black. vegetable earth dif- 
perfed among the fand.. What corroborates the above fuppofi- 
tion, is the appearance of. the fprings.. Abundance of thefe are 
found-gufhing out copioufly round the verges of the hills ; and 
notwithftanding the extreme whitenefs: and purity of the fand 
from whence they flow, there is not one in an hundred whofe © 
waters are limpid. They come out not muddy, but of a. 
 brownifh colour, very much like the. water which runs from ; 
peat=.~ 


54 NATURAL HISTORY 


peat-mofles, and they are certainly tinged by the fame caufe. 
The rotten leaves of trees, and other decayed parts of vegeta~ 
bles on the hills, inftead of being colleted on the furface to 
form foil, are wafhed down into the fandy ftrata by every rain ; 
fo that the refervoirs of the fprings, and the water which pro- 
ceeds from them, is always coloured with thefe fubftances. There _ 
follows a corollary alfo from this general principle, and when 
compared with facts I believe it will hold good :, The more the 
fand is concreted into {tone in any of the hills, the more and 
better will be the foil upon them. Where clay in fmall beds, 
or in a certain proportion, is mixed with the fand, the vegeta~- 
ble mould will likewife be better retained. 


Rivers.—\ Wiki next give you what general obfervations I 
have ‘been able to make upon the rivers and creeks of this part 
of America. The courfe of nearly all thofe of Guiana is from 
fouth to north. They originate in a chain of hills running eaft 
and weit, which feparates Guiana from the country on the Ama- 
zons, and likewife gives rife, on its fouth fide,. to the numerous 
branches which fall into that river. The Demerary is a confi- 
derable ftream, equal, if not fuperior to the Thames ; yet it is 
by no means among the largeft of them. The Effequebo is 
five times larger at its mouth, forming a whole Archipelago of 
iflands ; but its {tream foon divides, and, on account of rocks, 
{hallows and rapids, none of its branches are navigable fo high 
up as the former. Moft of the particulars I am now to give 
you muft be underftood as applying to the Demerary. The 
bar, if it may be fo called, is common to this with many other 
rivers, which difcharge themfelves into a fhallow fea; but full 
with circumftances in the prefent cafe which diftinguifh it from 
others, where the bottom is not mud but fand. It does not run 
like a fingle narrow ridge, acrofs, or nearly acrofs the mouth 
of the river, but it is of great extent, and is properly a con- 
tinuation of the mud-bank which runs all along the coaft. .To 
the eaft and weft, and for two miles or more in the offing, you 

have 


Of GUIANA. 55 


have ten or twelve feet water with the utmoft uniformity, and 
ftanding in with the mouth of the river open, you neither 
deepen nor fhallow till you enter it, when you find two, three, 
four or five fathom, and it continues to average that depth for 
a long way, fo that any veffel which can enter, may, for draught 
of water, proceed up the river for roo miles or more.. 

Tue mouth of the Effequebo, from the fand-hills and rocks 
being very near it, is exceedingly different. Three large iflands. 
prefent themfelves in a breaft, and divide its entrance into four 
channels. The length of thefe iflands is with the current, fouth 
and north ; and from the tail or north end of each of them, as alfo. 
from the banks of the main on either fide, run out fand-banks to a: 
good diftance. They are perfectly firm, quick in very few {pots,, 
and the body of them is above the level of low water. On the 
outfide of them you have the continuation of the mud-banks and 
fhallow water as above, only that the entranee of thefe channels is: 
{till fhallower than that of the Demerary.. The {treat of this river 
runs very brown and muddy, and the fea is {tained with it for’ 
fome leagues off A ftranger naturally imputes this-to the 
wafhings of a large flat country, or the ftirring up of the 
muddy bottom by the tides. The latter may in part be a: 
caufe, though I believe it contributes. to it but very little, and 
the former, in a ftate of uncultivation, none at all. On afcend- 
ing forty miles or fo, you find the water clear again, or rather 
of a darkifh hue, and fo it continues above that. I was at firft 
at a lofs how to account for this, but,, from a number of cir- 
cumftances,. was foon led to conclude, that the thicknefs, and. 
light brown colour of the water near the mouth of the river: 
and on the coaft, were almoft entirely the effect of cultivation. . 

-Numberlefs ditches and canals have been opened by the inhabi-. 
tants, which are receiving or difcharging water every tide, and 
each particular piece on a plantation is every way interfeted 
with open little drains, which communicate with thefe ditches.. 
In digging and hoeing this clayey foil, much of it is fufpended: 

in: 


56 NATURAL HISTORY 


‘in the water, and carried off by the current of the tides. 
Nothing can be more certain, than that all up the river, and in 
all the creeks which difcharge themfelves into it, the colour of 
the water is conftantly clear or blackifh, even in the rainy fea- 
fon, when it is fwollen. On confidering thefe circumftances, 
I have been led to this general conclufion, which is fubmitted 
to the proof of obfervation in different parts of the world. 
The reddifh brown colour, fo common in frefhes of rivers, in 
Europe, and we may add every where, is almoft entirely the 
effect of cultivation ; and the natural colour of rivers, even in 
the higheft and longeft continued floods, where all the country 
is {till in woods or paftures, is ever that of a very dark brown, 
or blackifh, pretty much like that of the ftreams which rife 
among peat-mofles, but rather more diluted. It is compara- 
tively very clear, and depofits but a trifling fediment. The 
other is thick and opaque, and its fediment copious. Thus is 
man, in his little workings, made, in a fmall degree, one of the 
engineers of nature. We cannot doubt, that entire ftrata will 
owe to him their exiftence, accumulated in a feries of ages at 
the bottom of the fea, and deftined, in future revolutions, to 
act a more diftinguifhed part. It may be curious too to con- 
fider the differences that may be expected betwixt the {trata 
formed by thefe different depofitions, which may be fuppofed 
between them to have been the origin of moft of the clays 
upon our globe. Clay, earth or loam, ftirred up by the la- 
bourer, gives rife to the one; minutely decayed parts of ve- 
getables form the body of the other. 

Ir muft alfo be obferved, that clearing the ground along 
the coaft, by cutting down the trees, and opening ditches for 
the difcharge of water, has expofed the land very much to the 
wafhing of the fea. The roots of the mangroves formed a 
plexus able to refift its force; and the former equal, and very 
flow deepening of the water, prevented its making a ftrong 
; impreflion 


Of GUIANA. 87 


impreffion on any place. The difcharge from the-ditches at 
low water cut out channels in. the mud, and left the fides of 
thefe channels more expofed to the returning waves, which here 
beat continually upon a lee-fhore. We find therefore on the 
coaft, that the fea has made here and there confiderable en- 
croachments, which generally begin on the weft fide of the 
canals or ditches, as being the moft acted upon by the waves. 
The mouth of the Demerary itfelf furnifhes us with a ftrong 
inftance. That river is now nearly twice as wide as it was 
when the country firft began to be cleared; the fea and the 
ftream together having fince that {wept away a large portion of 
land from the weftern fhore. 


Crecks.—A NuMBER of creeks fall into the Demerary on 
both fides, but fo fmall that they bear no proportion to the 
fize of the river. You can hardly diftinguifh their mouths in 
the woods which overhang the banks. They are fo narrow 
that it is difficult to run a fmall boat in them; yet you will 
find in them throughout from two and a half to four fathom 
_-water, and they run winding fo far back that it will take five, fix, 
eight hours, or more, to carry you up to their heads, where 
they terminate in {mall ftreams from among the fand-hills. 
The banks of the creeks at their mouths are of the fame height 
as thofe of the river clofe by, from five perhaps to twelve feet 
above the water in the dry feafon. As you afcend the creek, 
you might naturally expect to find them rife. It is however 
the very reverfe ; they become gradually lower and lower, till 
at laft all round them is a fwamp; and the trees on each fide 
in like manner become fmaller and {maller, and of different 
fpecies from what they were. It is now in fhort exactly a 
mangrove fwamp, with this difference, that the water is quite 
frefh, the vegetables are not the fame, and there are abundance 
of arunis and other low herbaceous plants. A little higher up, 

Vou. IV. H you 


58 NATURAL HISTORY 


you lofe the wood altogether, and find yourfelf in a beautifuk — 
deep canal, winding through a {pacious wet favannah, which 
is fometimes many leagues in circumference. The firft time - 
we went up one of thefe creeks, (called Camouni), I was fur- 
prifed at this appearance, and thought it muft be a mere local 
circumftance peculiar to it. We found afterwards the fame in 
one or two more inftances, and were fatisfied upon enquiry, 
that it is common to them all. It was natural to look for an 
explanation of this phenomenon, and I foon found it in one 
of thofe laws, which probably extend to all rivers fubject to 
frequent inundations. It has been obferved, in particular, of | 
the Ganges *, that the banks of that river are higher than 
the adjacent lands at a diftance from the ftream, owing, no 
doubt, to the annual depofitions of mud, t¥c. during the {well 
of the river. Apply the fame rule to the Demerary, and 
the difficulty will be folved. The wet favannah behind, and 
the fwampy woods around them, are the body of the low 
country at its natural level, fcarcely a foot or two above 
the fea. Whatever additional height the land has in the vi- 
cinity of the river, from the time you have afcended about 
twenty miles or fo, is all acquired. It has arifen from the fedi- 
ment of the river during the rainy feafon, when the country is 
overflowed fo as that all the lower part of it is under water. 
This depofition muft be always more copious, in proportion as 
it is nearer the ftream, where additional quantities are always 
brought, and where it is kept in motion both by the current 
and the tide. Every thing which we afterwards faw confirmed 
this theory, and nothing more dire¢tly than the canals which 
run out at right angles from the river. Some of thefe extend 
four miles. inward, and they prove to a demonftration, that 
the land becomes lower and lower the farther you. recede from 


the 


_* Account of the Ganges, &c.. Phil, Tranf. 1781, by M. RenvE Lt. 


Of GUIANA, 56 


the river. The maps of the colonies confirm it; for in all 
of them the main body of the low land of Guiana is laid down 
as favannah, and the woody country, which a ftranger or fuperfi- 
cial obferver would fuppofe to be the whole or much the greater 
part of it, is in fact only a border on the fides of the rivers and of 
the fea, but of confiderable breadth, more or lefs, in proportion 
to the fize of the adjoining river, or, which is generally the 
fame thing, to the acquired height and extent of the foil on 
either bank. It followed as a confequence, and, as far as we 
had opportunities of obferving, we found it to be the cafe, that 
the low land was fomewhat higher, and continued fo farther 
down, about the Effequebo than the Demerary ; the woods con- 
fequently were of greater extent. We found, befides, in the 
foil adjoining the Effequebo, at leaft upon the eaft fide, a mix- 
ture of fand. ‘The river is full of fand-banks; and it appears, 
that the finer parts of even this lefs fufpenfible fubftance are 
raifed by the floods and carried among the adjacent woods to be 
depofited with the mud. The Mahayka, a fmall river or creek 
which falls into the fea about twenty or thirty miles to the eaft- 
ward of the Demerary, though it runs a long way up the 
country, and fpreads into many branches, has but a very nar~ 
row, and often interrupted border of wood upon its banks; it 
runs through an immenfe favannah, and fo do its branches, 
with little or no wood, till they approach the fand-hills. The 
Deltas of the river of Oroonoko, and its numerous mouths, 
make a figure even in the map of the world. It is to be 
regretted, that its noble ftream has been fo long hid from 
fcience. What I learned in Trinidad from a gentleman, who 
had failed from its mouth to the Angufturas, about 300 miles 
up, confirms and illuftrates, in the fulleft manner, the above 
general rule) The weftern mouths of it oppofite Trinidad, 
are navigable only for launches drawing fix or feven feet wa-: 

Hiv ter. 


ee) NATURAL HISTORY 


ter. At and oppofite them, the bottom is fhallow and mud- 
dy, and the coaft a low mangrove fwamp, refembling, in 
all refpedts, that of Guiana. You muft afcend thofe branches 
feveral days before you reach the main ftream; and in doing 
fo, you find the fame phenomena as in afcending the Deme- 
rary, but in a ftill greater degree. At firft you have the man- 
grove, or fome fimilar {wamp, and behind it on both fides for 
about twenty leagues, the land, if you can call it fo, hardly 
emerging from the water. Afterwards the ground appears ; 
and, as you go up, rifes {till higher and higher on the banks 
above the common level of the ftream. The trees become, in 
the fame manner, of different {pecies, and much taller than 
they were below, The channel in which you are, from being 
wide, grows narrower by degrees. It is from about one and 
a half to three-fourths of a mile broad near the entrance ; and, 
when it joins the main ftream, is not more than about 200 yards. 
It has then acquired a confiderable depth, and the banks may 
be about twenty feet high. Along the main ftream of the ri- 
ver, or Boca de Nafios, the gradual rife, and other circume 
ftances attending it, are quite fimilar. All this height of the 
bank, I can make no doubt, is entirely acquired ground, form- 
ed by the fediment of the floods, greater near the ftreams than 
at a diftance from them; and though I have no knowledge of 
the nature of the land in the deltas and their vicinity, I would 
not hefitate to fay, that great part of the interior body of each 
ifland, and moft probably of the main on either fide, where it 
is low country, confifts of nothing elfe than wet favannahs. 


Ficods, BEFORE we leave the rivers, it may be proper to 
take notice of their floods. In no inftance of a large river does 
the univerfal law within the tropics fail, that they annually 
overflow their banks for a certain feafon, What was a prodigy 

* . im 


ae 


of GUIANA. 61 


in the Nile during the infancy of {cience, is now a well known 
phenomenon to every inhabitant of a continent in the torrid 
zone. From the fituation of the river Amazons, it amounts 
to a certainty, that the Demerary, Effequebo, and other rivers 
of Guiana, cannot originate very far up in the continent of 
South America. This is confirmed by what I could learn of 
the rife and duration of the floods of thefe two rivers. En- 
"quiring about them at the plantations below, is to little pur- 
pofe, for there the floods are hardly difcernible ; but by the 
poftholder and the fettlers fartheft up, I was informed, that 
they are there fenfible enough, and that, independent of all 
partial fwells from accidental rains, the Demerary generally 
rofe every year in the month of June, and continued high 
through July and part of Auguft.° The rife there, upon the 
whole, might be about twelve feet; it is fufficient to lay the 
level parts of the country under water, and to render the woods, 
that cover them in feveral places, paflable in canoes. We 
could have wifhed for more exact information. This, how-. 
ever, was fufficient to prove, that the rivers. did not rife very 
far inland, elfe the floods would have been later in the year ; 
but at the fame time that they were of extent enough to fol- 
low the rule of all confiderable intertropical rivers, fo.as to have 
a flood in the raimy feafon, that is, in the months when the 
fun is upon the fame fide of the line on. which they have their 
origin and courfe. 

THE great Oroonoko, | have been informed, begins to rife a: 
littl. in May, it continues increafing through the fummer 
months, and the inundation.is at its height in September. At. 
that time, as far up as the Angufturas, the rife is about forty 

feet perpendicular above the low water-mark. It diminifhes as 
you defcend till about the mouth, where it is only a very few 
feet. 


Tides: 


62 NATURAL HISTORY 


Tides are of the utmoft confequence to the inhabitants of 
the coaft of Guiana. They enable them to drain a country 
which otherwife could never have been cleared, and they af- 
certain their journeys which are made by water up and down 
the rivers, and even along the coaft. At the mouth of the 
Demerary, it is high water at about half paft five, at new 
and full moon. The rife in fpring tides, a little way up, is 
twelve feet, or more, above low water-mark. ‘The tide runs 
very rapidly near the mouth of the river, feldom lefs than four 
or five miles in the hour. It continues to run with force for 
a long way up, and was fufficient, without wind, to carry us 
up or down at 150 miles from the mouth. Above that it be- 
comes feebler ; and-for a confiderable diftance below the rapids, 
though there is a fenfible rife and fall of two or three feet, yet, 
even in the dry feafon, the current is conftantly down, only 
more gentle during the rife or flood, and there alfo the conti- 
nuance of the rife is very fhort, not more than two or three 
hours. 


Some obfervations upon the Soi/ of the different parts of 
the country, may be the fubject of a future communication. 
I will only add at prefent, what I think has more than con- 
_ jectural foundation, wz. That this moft recent of countries, 
together with the large additional parts {till forming on its coaft, 
appear to be the productions of two of the greateft rivers on 
the globe, the Amazons and the Oroonoko. If you caft your 
eye upon the map, you will obferve from Cayenne to the 
bottom of the gulph of Paria, this immenfe tract of fwamp, 
formed by the fediment of thefe rivers, and a fimilar tra@t of 
fhallow muddy coaft, which their continued operation will 
one day elevate. ‘The fediment of the Amazons is- carried 
down thus to leeward (the weftward) by the conftant currents, 

- which 


Of GUIANA. 63 


which fet along from the fouthward and the coaft of Brafil. 
That of the Oroonoko is detained, and allowed to fettle near its 
mouths, by the oppofite iflands of Trinidad, and ftill more by 
the mountains on the main, which are only feparated from 
that ifland by the Bocos del Drago. The coaft of Guiana has 
remained as it were the great eddy or refting-place for the 
wafhings of great part of South America for ages; and its own 
comparatively {mall ftreams have but modified here and there 
the grand depofit. 


W. LocuuHEAD. 


IIE. 


- 
: 


7 Ate: Base i ; - wrest, ui “in 
Mink bint ie ie shay Cue Behe MMi mea i 
“pe fs Aus ary Foner MEA RRR, ‘s 
i Wel 1yU RE a Yes ee] Seal BAY sat qe Hine fh 

Se es hey, be rstast wit) i enyrete ae Ta, 

ora pier teed 2 tebe Beye. erwrcity valet. ei 

Ree ee aE Ae gel: hit nats pias er sale hide: Parle the 


¥ 


i Resbaee! te i : Tigh rey’ 
7 eae *. “ y ; ¥e iis 


OnE Rnaee! Sah teat ie aes 
| gw nat ty heat ‘Agta: be (dardet et ee Biles kt ee Peg 3 
van iy! ir) Fee fon Ah allo: i Sie -Geheeriabaie 
ogee er mbt! teaehent whi ty; nn 
roth. iar Svawre ra Bre Wht, Chis atte: taane Das: aa 
ie baptt baat: : PAAR jane si +paladut mad poet). hocrhisig but | 
ae BLE tis, Hg ew ha pepe el igre whe pinichit wih 
i ae “6h By, Oe Tapes oh weeks hee KA Wey don 7.08 pena lbh Bi 
a BT aan ry er Made oY ffias 1s aie A aetinty SSP pete alee 
tate hgh aie Rais va “" Sgt debs ee ten ave ot’ besa 
“Shute i or He ey wt ‘make cae, aaah, & fie | 8 hay 


4 a ee i Ps YY >) Lat minal hail oe Shee tse G tenella c ats} 
Pe ae Ae hi inten at I Fah: Te. We upri ms 
. 4 i \ 4 : = | ‘ape cs | co ‘. +i oF (2% 5 Walnae, cba 
‘ ; sh 
, \" c= . 
% \ ri 
a | 
. 5 \ 4 


Ill. 4 fhort Paper on the Principies of the ANTECEDENTAL 


CatcuLus. By {AMES GLENIE, E/g; M.A. F.R.S. Lonp. 
& EDIN. 


[Read Dec. 1. 1794.] 


EVERAL of my friends have fuggefted to me the propriety 
of publifhing fomething of the kind now offered to 
the Society, obferving, that the great brevity with which the 
‘ Antecedental Calculus is written, and the very concife form in 
which it is delivered to the public, may lead fome to form 
erroneous opinions refpecting the principles on which it is 
founded. In compliance partly with their requeft, I have 
drawn up this fhort paper, which I hope will remove even the 
- poffibility of mifconception on that head, and convince every 
intelligent reader, that the antecedental calculus has the fame 
geometrical principles for its ground-work, that the formulz in 
the Univerfal Comparifon themfelves have, from which I origi-' 
nally derived it more than twenty years ago. 

In the third page of that treatife, I have fhewn from the © 
firft formula in the third theorem of my Univerfal Comparifon, 
that, when R and Q are any two given magnitudes of the fame 
kind, and A, N, B are any homogeneous magnitudes, the ex- 
cefs of the magnitude, which has to B a ratio having to the 
ratio of A+-N to B the ratio of R to Q, above the magnitude, 


Vou. IV. I which 


66 - On the PRINCIPLES of the 


which has to B a ratio, having to the ratio of A to B the fame 
ratio of R to Q, is geometrically exprefled by 
R acca ie R—Q_ ee R R--Q_ R-2 R-3Q, 


A - re — .« ——. —— ANB + 
ie Sew res et aati bis ae 
fa 
ae 
or, which comes to the fame thing, that the expreffion, 
RR dgle a a Reekigse | 
A— + —., A=. N+ —. ZA. TN’*+ &c. . 
2 Qi MQ Qe a RD GE Oe so. > eaeendnamne 
oO : 
Danie 
Wee 
geometrical expreflion, Or 
gee 
Qa i 
R— A—B R—Q R- Aa Bie 
ASA SS aca rae +&c. by the afore- 


faid geometrical expreflion. 


In the fame page, I have fhewn, that the excefs of the mag- 
nitude, which has to B a ratio, having to the ratio of A to B 
the ratio of R to Q, above the magnitude, which has to B a ra- 
tio having to the ratio of A—N to B the ratio of R to Q, is 
geometrically exprefled by 


RRO, RK RO R201 ge. 
of g Song Agen tee 


K—O_ , or, which comes to 
Q 
the fame thing, that the expreflion, 
x R 
q RQ , AcB R-QR2Q , ADBy 
mere Q CA, B + Q . 2Q A B 4+- &e; LX= 
©. ; 


ceeds 


ANTECEDENTAL CALCULUS. 67 


ceeds the geometrical expreflion, 


ne Reo VRS , 
rs ene erg Sa are 


TE Oa CBE SS RIES A ree 
ee: 


-aforefaid geometrical expreflion. 

Ir is almoft unneceflary to obferve, that the two expreffions, 
which have refpectively to B ratios, having to the ratios of 
A-+4N to B, and A—N to B the ratio of R to Q, give us: 
Ro SO yt BROS, RO eh be 


Ean A Soe ee for the geo- 
oO 


metrical magnitude, which has to B a ratio, having to the ratio 
of A=N to B the ratio of R to Q. But as this expreflion muft 

vary indefinitely with the endlefs variations in the quantity of 
the magnitude B, its geometrical ftandard of comparifon, fo, 
when we fuppofe it to become numerical, we get an indefinite 
number of arithmetical formulz, referring to different ftandards 
of comparifon. For B may be then reprefented by 


1, 25 35 45 5s &c. 
I, ¥ 2, Y 3; v Ay: V5, &c. 


or &c. &c. fine limite. 


And in that particular cafe, when it is reprefented by 1 or 
unit, this geometrical formula gives the arithmetical one, (put- 
ting r and q for R and Q,) 


eee A NG OD A Tt Ant N 34 + &e. 
; + 


q7 4 q q 29 q Fina Ogi ag 


dasa 


which 


68 On the PRINCIPLES of the 


which has to 1, or unit, a ratio having to the ratio of A+N to 1 
the ratio of ry tog. Init A, N, 7,9, may be any numerical or 
arithmetical magnitudes whatever, whole, fractional, furd or 
mixed. ‘This formula, or antecedent, is exactly what is com- 
monly called the Binomial Theorem. 

Ir we fuppofe B to be reprefented by 2, we derive immedi- 
ately from this geometrical antecedent or formula, the following 
arithmetical one : 


Ra A ee ee eee 
q 2 Z 2q 2 med, ras? of g 
which has to 2 a ratio having to the ratio of A+N to 2, the ra- 


tio of 7 to 4. 

To fuch arithmetical formule there is no end or limit. And 
this I take to be the true and fyftematic method of deriving 
them, viz. from geometrical antecedents or formule, when 
they are fuppofed to become numerical. 

WHEN I or unit is the ftandard of comparifon, its various 
combinations with itfelf and the other numerical magnitudes, 
do not appear in the formula or antecedent. This circumftance 
renders it of all others the moft commodious for common ufe 
in algebra and arithmetic, though the leaft calculated of any 
for fhewing the rationalia or ground-work of the various opera- 
tions in thefe two fciences. For when the formula or antece- 
dent fhows the different combinations of the confequent or 
ftandard of comparifon with itfelf and the other numerical. 
magnitudes, it is a fort of language announcing or exhibiting 
the reafons of its formation. 

Ir is evident, that half the excefs of the two geometrical 
expreflions taken together, which have refpectively to B ratios, 


having to the ratios of A+-N to B and A—N to B, the ratio of 


in oe 


R to Q, above twice 0: or twice the magnitude, which 


Q 
has 


ANTECEDENTAE CALCULUS. 69 


has to Ba ratio having to the ratio of A to B the fame ratio of 
_R to Q, is truly exprefled by 
R RHQ ,RaQvs, R RQ ze R-3Q_,R- Raley a 


10 aa. 2G, a 


(OTM un ONO 4Q 
ears 


and that half the difference of thefe exprefflions is 


R RQ, R RQ R2Q, RQ 
ee ee 


~N3 + &e. 


BerorE I proceed farther, however, in the confideration of 
thefe expreffions, it may not perhaps be improper to premife the 
few following lemmata, which are almoft too evident to re- 
quire demonftration. 


LEMMA L 


_Ir any ratio be compounded with its inverfe, or the inverfe 
of any ratio the fame with it, the compofition produces a ratio 
of equality. ‘ 


For of the three magnitudes A, B, A, by the definition of 
compound ratio, (5. Evc. Srmson’s edit.), the ratio of A to B, 
compounded with the ratio of B to A, is the ratio of A to A, 
or a ratio of equality ; and if the ratio of C to D be equal to, 
or the fame with the ratio of A to B, its inverfe, D to C, is 
equal to, or the fame with the ratio of B to A, (Prop. B. ibid.) : 
Therefore, (Prop. F. Euc. 5. Simson’s edit.), the ratio of A to 
B, compounded with the ratio of D to C, is the fame with the 

3 ratio 


70 On the PRINCIPLES of the 


ratio of A to B compounded with the ratio of B to A, or a ra- 
tio of equality. Q. E. D: 


LEMMA IL. 


Ir with the inverfe of any ratio there be compounded a ratio 
greater than it, the compofition produces a ratio of greater ine- 
quality, or a ratio of which the antecedent is greater than the 
confequent ; and if with the inverfe of any ratio, there be com- 
pounded a ratio lefs than it, the compofition produces a ratio of 
lefs inequality, or a ratio of which the antecedent is lefs than 
the confequent. | 


Frrst, Let the ratio of C to D be greater than that of A to 
B. Then (10. Euc. 5.) the magnitude, which BA DCE 
has to D the ratio of A to B, is lefs than C. 
If E therefore be that magnitude, the ratio of | 
C to D, compounded with the ratio of B to 
A, is the fame with the ratio of C to D, com- 
pounded with the ratio of D to E, (Propofi- | 
tions B. and F. 5. Euc. Sim.). Wherefore, the 
ratio produced by compounding the ratio of 
C to D with that of B to A, is the fame with 
the ratio of Cto E. But fince C is greater 
than FE, the ratio of C to E is greater than 
that of .E to E,: (10. Etc. 5.), or.a ratio of 
equality. Q.E. D, 


SECONDLY, 


ee ———————— 


ANTECEDENTAL CALCULUS. FE 


Seconpty, Let the ratio of F to D be lefs than that of A to 
B. Then (10. Eve. 5.) the magnitude, which B AD F E 
has to D the fame ratio with that of A to B, | 
is greater than F. If E therefore be that | 
magnitude, the ratio of F to D, compounded 
with the ratio of B to A, is the fame with the | 
ratio of F to D, compounded with the ratio | 
of D to EF, (Propofitions B. and F. 5. Euc. | 
Sim.). Wherefore the ratio produced by 
- compounding the ratio of F to D with that 
of B to A, is the fame with the ratio of F to 
E. But fince F is lefs than FE, the ratio of 
F to E is lefs than that of E to E, (10. Euc. 5.), or a ratio of 
equality. Q.E.D. 


LEM M Ze IIT. 


Ir any ratio be compounded with a ratio of equality, it is 
not altered thereby. 


For the ratio of C to D, compounded with the ratio of A to 
A, is the fame with the ratio of C to D, compounded with the 
ratio of D to D, (Prop. F. 5. Sim. Euc.), which, by the defini- 

tion of compound ratio, is that of CtoD. Q.E.D. . 


TuEsE three Lemmata are alfo evident from Formula 1.. 
Theorem 1. Univerfal Comparifon. 


Cor. From this and Lemma 1. with the definition of com- 
pound ratio, itis evident, that if with any ratio there be com- 
pounded a greater one, there arifes a ratio greater than it; and 
that, if with any ratio there be compounded a lefs one, there 
arifes a ratio lefs than it. 

1 } Oe ee L EM 


92 On the PRINCIPLES of the 


LEMMA IV. 


Ir from any magnitude there be taken the half, and from the 
remainder its half, and fo on, the halves fo taken, be their 
number ever fo great, are together lefs than the magnitude. 


| Cc D Ey EF 
A———— SB 


For let AB be any magnitude, AC the half of AB, CD the 
half of CB, DE the half of DB, EF the half of EB, and fo 
on. 

THEN it is manifeft, that AC, together with CD and DE and 
EF, &c. are lefs than AB, from which they are taken. Q. E.D. 


Cor. 1. The ratio of AB to the fucceflive halves AC, CD, 
DE, EF, &c. taken together, be their number ever fo great, is 
greater than a ratio of equality; and the ratio of any one of 
the terms to all the fucceeding ones taken together, be their 
- number ever fo great, is greater than a ratio of equality. 

Cor. 2. Hence it follows, that of any feries or fucceffion of 
terms, in which the half of each term has to the immediately 
fucceeding one a ratio of equality, each term has to all the fuc- 
ceeding ones, be their number ever fo great, a ratio greater than 
that of equality. 

Cor. 3. Hence it alfo follows, that if CD, inftead of one half, 
be one third of AC or CB, DE one fourth of CD, EF one fifth 
of DE, and fo on, the ratio of any term to all the fucceeding 
ones taken together, exceeds a ratio of equality more than the 
ratio it has to the fame number of fucceeding terms, be that 
number ever fo great, exceeds it, when each term has to the. 
immediately fucceeding one the ratio of two to one, 

SCHOLIUM. 


ANTECEDENTAL CALCULUS. 73 


Scuotium. In like manner is it fhewn, that, if AC bea 
third part of AB, CD of AC, DE of CD, EF of DE, and: fo on, 
the ratio of each term to all the fucceeding ones taken together, 
be their number ever fo great, exceeds the ratio of two to one; 
‘and, in general, if the ratios AB to AC, AC to CD, CD to DE, 
DE to EF, &c. be refpectively the fame with that of A to N, 
that the ratio of each term to all the fucceeding ones, be their 
number ever fo great, exceeds the ratio of A—N to. N. This is 
alfo evident from the well known method of finding the aggre- 
gates of geometrical progreflions; and if the ratio of AC. to: 
CD be greater than that of AB to AC, the ratio of CD to DE 
greater than that of AC to CD, and fo on, the ratio of any 
term to all the fucceeding ones, be their number ever fo great, 
exceeds the ratio. of A—N to N, more, than the ratio it has to the 
fame number of fucceeding terms, exceeds it, when each term 
has to. the immediately fucceeding one the ratio of A to N. 

I now proceed to prove, that each of the general geometrical. 
expreflions in p. 3. Autecedental Calculus, viz. 


RRQ. R RHQ R22 R RQ RaQ 


>» 


R-3Q. 
~A—_—N , é TA: -N3 + &ce. 
or a, ae oie Gan eee 
pet 
oes 
_ and. 
R RQ. RRQ RQ, R RQR1Q RGQ., 

—. A——_"N -—. a A. N+ — ; - &e: 
ea Sg geen 8 1) eT gag hed) wit 
ps 
Q 

R R-@ 
has to N’a ratio nearer to the ratio of & a to B than any: 
i 


given or afligned ratio, or than by any given or afligned. mag- | 
nitude, when A+N' and A-—-N have either to A or B ratios: 


nearer to that of equality than any sinha or afligned ratio, or. 
Won. LV. K 


than: 


a4 On the PRINCIPLES of the 


than by any given, or afligned magnitude, and. R and Q are twe 
given magnitudes of the fame kind. 


PROPOSITION L 


‘In this cafe, the firft term in each of thefe general expref- 
fions has to twice the fecond, the fecond to thrice the thifd, the 
third to four times the fourth, the fourth to five times the fifth, 
and fo on, a ratio greater than-.any given ratio. 


For, if this be denied, let C and D be two given homogene- 
ous magnitudes, and let:the ratio of C to D be greater. 

In each; the ratio of the firft term to. twice the fecond, is that 
‘of A to SSN, and its inverfe SON, or (N+ SF) ; 
to A, is the ratio compounded of the ratios of R—Q to Q, and 
N to A, (For. 1. Theor. 1. Univerfal Comparifon). Now, the 
ratio compounded of this ratio, and that of C to D, is a ratio 
compounded of the three ratios C to D, R—Q to Q,; and N to 
A. But, fince R and Q are given magnitudes, R—Q is a gi- 
‘ven magnitude, (4. Euc. Data), and the ratio of R—-Q to Qa 
given ratio, (1. Data). Wherefore the ratio compounded of the 
ratios of C to D and R—Q to Q,; is alfo given, (67. Data). This 
ratio, however, compounded with that of N to A, is the fame 


: R— 
with the ratio compounded of C to D, and eon to, A,. \ Emet 


fince that of A to N is by the hypothefis greater than any given 
ratio, the ratio compounded of C to D and R—Q to Q, com- 


pounded with that of N to A, produces a ratio of lefs inequa- 
Dc Sik pinin 
~N 18 


lity, (Lemma 2.). Confequently, the ratio of A to 


greater than any given ratio C to D. Wherefore, the fuppofi- 


tion, 


ANTECEDENTAL CALCULUS. 75 


fition, that any given ratio C to D is greater than it, is ab- 
furd. 
AnD, fince the ratio of the fecond term to thrice the third, is 


that of A to = N, it is proved exaétly in the fame manner, 


that this ratio is greater than any given ratio. And precifely 
in the fame way is it demonftrated, that the ratio of the third 
term to four times the fourth, is greater than any given ratio ; 
and fo on. 


Cor. 1. If R—Q be equal to Q, the ratio compounded of” 
€ to D, and R—Q to Q, is the fame with that of C to D, (Lem- 
ma 3.); and if R—Q be greater or lefs than Q, the ratio com- 
pounded of C to D and R—Q to Q, is accordingly greater or 
lefs than that of C to D, (Cor. to Lemma 3.). 

nar Aeve 
Ba tary culight Oe | ne oa, 
“QO. pe B16 UG pee2@ ‘ 


~N, &c. are lefs than any given or: 


Cor. 2. The magnitudes 


afligned magnitude. 


Cor. 3. The ratio of each term to all the fucceeding ones, be 


their number ever fo great, is greater than any given ratio, . 
(Scholium to Lemma 4.). 


Cor. 4. The magnitudes a tS Sny, At SON, &c. have 
refpectively to A-ratios nearer to that of equality than any given 
Tatio, or than by any given magnitude. 

Cor. 5. The magnitude which has to B a ratio, having to the 
ratio of A to B the ratio of R to Q, has to twice the firft term, 
in each of thefe general geometrical expreflions, a ratio greater 
than any given ratio. 


K 2 PRO- 


76 On thee PRINCIPLES of the 


PROPOSITION IL 


THE ratio of each of thefe two general geometrical expref- 
R—Q 


a i a R ee 
fions to N, is nearer to the ratio of QU ped to B than any 


given or affigned ratio. 

For, fince the firft term in each has to twice the fecond a ra- 
tio greater than any given or afligned ratio, (Prop. 1.), and the 
fecond has to all the fucceeding terms, be their number ever fo 
great, a ratio greater than any given ratio, (Cor. 3. Prop. 1.) the 
ratio of the firft term to all the fucceeding ones is a fortiort 
greater than any given ratio, being greater than that of A to 


= -N. Wherefore each of thefe expreflions has to the firft 


term a ratio nearer to that of equality than any given or aflign- 
ed ratio, or than by any given or afligned magnitude, (Cor. 4. 
Prop. 1.). Confequently the ratios which thefe expreflions have 
to N, are nearer to the ratio of the firft term in each to N, than 
any given or afligned ratio. But the ratio of the firft term in 


R-Q 
: R Q 
each to N, is that of oO" See” B. Therefore, &c. Q.E.D. 
- 


OTHERWISE: 


In the firft expreflion, the firft term, with twice the fecond, 
is much greater than the whole of it, (Cor. 3. Prop. 1.), and 
confequently has to N a greater ratio than the expreffion itfelf 
has to N, (8.E. 5.). But this ratio exceeds the ratio of the firft 
term to N lefs than any given or afligned ratio. For, if the ra- 

t1o 


ANTECEDENTAL CALCULUS. 79 


tio of the firft term to N be decompounded with it, or its in- 
verfe, the ratio of N to the firft term, be compounded with it, 


there arifes the ratio of A +A to A, which (Cor. 4. 


Prop. 1.) is nearer to a ratio of equality than any given ratio. 
Iw the fecond, the excefs of the firft term above twice the fe- 
cond is lefs than the whole expreffion, and confequently has to 
N a lefs ratio than the expreflion itfelf has to N, (8. E. 5.). But 
if with it the ratio of N to the firft term be compounded, there 


arifes the ratio of A ASSN to A, which (Cor. 4. Prop. 1.) 


is nearer to a ratio of equality than any given ratio. Q.E.D, 


OTHERWISE: 


Ir it be denied, that each expreffion has to N a ratio nearer to 
the ratio of its firft term to N than any given ratio, let the ra- 
tio of two given magnitudes C and D be nearer to it, and let 
the ratio of Bto E, compounded with that of the firft term to 
Ate 

Q 
pea 


| : ° a Le ot 
N, or with the given ratio or to B, be equal to the gi- 
ven ratioC to D. But the magnitude, which has to B the ra- 
tio compounded of thefe two ratios, is (For. 1. Theorem t. 


Univerfal Comparifon), UTR ota pee = to B, 


which is greater than the ratio of the firft term to N, and lefs 
than the ratio of the firft expreflion to N, by the fuppofition, 
and confequently lefs than the ratio of the firft term with twice 

the 


98 On the PRINCIPLES of the 


R—Q 


oma: 
the fecond to N. Therefore ee eee is lefs than 
Q GR = - 
R2Q Acre 
R RQ ues * -R Q . 
Oo heen N. But fince the ratio of a = a E,, 
Q 


being compounded of the firft term to N, and oe to E, is the 
fame with the ratio of C to D, E is a given magnitude, (2. Data), 
and B—E a given magnitude, (4. Data). Wherefore the given 
RO: R-2Q 
See els RRO “0 
magnitude, a ae E> is lefs than cn Feet 
re Q 

which (Cor. 2. Prop. 1.) is lefs than any given magnitude, 
which is abfurd, 

In like manner is it demonftrated, that the ratio of the fe- 
cond expreffion to N, is nearer to the ratio of its firft term to, 
N than any given ratio. Q.E. D. 


SCHOLIUM.. 


IF the fame reafoning be applied to the expreflion, 
De ose: SO Sh ee ae 


~N +— 
calli ak Nal which is half 
Q 


the difference of the two geometrical expreffions that have 
re{pectively to B ratios having to the ratios of A+N to B, jand 
A—N to B, the ratio of R to Q, we get the ratio of the firft 
term to twice the fecond, the fame with that of A _ to 
ReQs RR N’ 

Ce Lorre 


—, and the ratio of the fecond to four times the 


third, 


-  ANTECEDENTAL CALCULUS. 79 


third the fame with that of A to SE and. A 
on. 

THE general expreflion, (p. 5. Antecedental Calculus), gives 
A.N+C.M+M.N 
oo 
B the ratio, that is produced by compounding the ratio of C+N _ . 
to D with that of A+M to B, above the magnitude, which has 
to B the ratio compounded of the ratios of A to B and C to D. 
But it is demonftrated in the fame manner as above, that if 
A+M and C+N have refpedctively to A and C ratios nearer to 
that of equality than any given or afligned ratio, or than by 
any given or afligned magnitude, this expreffion alfo has to 
A.N + C.M 


for the excefs of the magnitude, which has to 


a ratio nearer to that of equality than any given ra- 


tio, or than by any given magnitude. And the demonftration 
is exactly the fame, when any number of ratios are compounded. 
In like manner, if the ratio of C+N to D be decompounded | 
with that of A-++M to B, we get the difference between the ex- 
preffion thence arifing, and the magnitude which has to B the 
ratio produced by decompounding the ratio of C to D with that 
CD.M—AD.N ot ; 
of A to B, equal to Kee Geen) a: But it 1s readily demon- 
{trated, as above, that if A+M and C++N have refpectively to A 
and C ratios nearer to that of equality than any given or aflign- 
ed ratio, or than by any given or afligned magnitude, this ex- 


cae CD.M — AD,N : 
preffion. alfo has te ——~gr———~ a ratio nearer to that of equa- 


lity than any given ratio, or than by any given or afligned mag- 
nitude. | 

Ir is manifeft then, that in this calculus no indefinitely {mall 
or infinitely little magnitudes are fuppofed, but only magni- 
tudes lefs than any that may be given or affigned, and ratios 
_mearer to that of equality than any that may be given or aflign- 
ed, 


80 On the PRINCIPLES of the 


ed, and that it is equally geometrical with the method of ex- 
hauftions of the ancients, who never fuppofed lines, furfaces, 
or folids, to be refolved into indefinitely fmall or infinitely little 
elements. The expreflion infinitely little magnitude indeed im- 
plies a contradiction. For what has magnitude cannot be infi- 
nitely little. 

THIS geometrical danseini: though 1 it has no connection with 
the various modifications of motion, is equally convenient in its 
application with the method of fluxions, (which is unqueftiona- 
bly a branch of general arithmetical proportion, in which 1 or 
unit is the common ftandard of comparifon, as well as the con- 
fequent of every ratio compounded, or decompounded). 


EXAMPLE I. 


In the circle ATB, (Fig. I. Pl. I.) let the diameter AB be re- 
prefented by D, TE perpendicular to it by Y, and AE by X. 
Then {1 3. E. 6.) Y* is equal to the re@tangle DK—X’. But the 


antecedental of Y° is 2YY, and that of DX —X’ is DX—2XX, 
(p. 6. Antecedental Calculus). Wherefore D—2X is to 2Y as 


¥ to X, that is, as TE to CE, (p.g. zt. Cal.). Confequently 
CE is a third proportional to EO and TE. 


EXAMPLE fF. 


To find the furface of the fphere of which ATBA is a great 
circle, (Fig. I. Pl. I.). 

Tue furface of the fpherical fegment, cut off by the circle, 
of which TE is the radius, has to the fquare on any given line 
B, a ratio compounded of the circumference of faid.circle to B, 
and of the antecedental of the curve AT to B, (Ant. Cal. p. 9.) 
But the antecedental of the curve is a fourth proportional to 2YD 

and | 


ANTECEDENTAL CALCULUS. 81 


and. x, (ibidem). Wherefore, if 2YXp reprefent faid circum- 


ference, the antecedental of the fpherical fegment is pDX, of 
which the antecedent is PDX. 


EXAM PL Be Ti, 


Ir it be required to draw a tangent to the parabola (Fig. a. 
Pl. 1.) ATG at the point T ; let the latus rectum be seopeented 


by L. Then L.X is equal, to Y" ? and L. x to 2¥Y. Where- 


fore L is to 2Y (2TE) as ¥ to X, that is, (Ant. Cal. p. Q.) a6 
TE to CE, which is confequently equal to twice AE. 


EXAMPLE IV. 


_ In finding the area of the parabola, fince K is equal to 


or YX, equal to 


2YY 
Bis 
2Y Y 2X3 

3, the antecedent of which is oie or its equal ZXXY. 

| \ 


OTHERWISE: 


THE ratios of the antecedentals of the area AET, and the 
re€tangle under AE, and any given line B to the fquare on B, 


are YX and BX to B’, But YX is equal to = , the antece- 


2Y3 & 
dent of which is =” “or its equal — x XY; and the antece- 


dent of BX is BX. Wherefore eh area of the parabola is 
two thirds of the rectangle AE, ET. 


VoL. IV. : L ' E X~ 


82 On the PRINCIPLES, &c. 


EXAMPLE V. 


So to divide a ftraight line AB, that the reangle under the 
two parts AC, CB {hall be the greateft poflible. 


: | ae EL ree 


Let AB bereprefented by A, AC by X, and confequently CB 
by A—X. Then the rectangle. AC, CB is equal to AX—X’, 


the antecedental of which is AX—2XX, which, when fup- 
pofed equivalent to nothing, (according to Ant. Cal. p. 7.) gives 
A equal to 2X, or AC equal to CB. 


To multiply examples would be ufelefs. I will take an op- 
portunity, as foon as I conveniently can, of applying this cal- 
culus to feveral phyfical problems of importance, and particularly 
fome refpecting the refiftance of fluids ; and will fhew, that as it 
furnifhes a much greater variety of ways for exprefling antece- 
dentals than the fluxionary calculus does for fluxions, fo it wilt 
open new and extenfive rules for finding antecedents, as yet 
altogether unknown in the inverfe method of fluxions. 

ALTHOUGH the notation be in reality of no importance, I 


a e ~ 
prefer x. Y, &c. to X, Y, &c. as more indicative of the ori- 
gin of this mode of reafoning, which was derived from an exa- 
mination of the antecedents of ratios in general geometrical 
comparifon. 


1 4 iM 2 - if . ; a _™ : BY; Os-~ 


IV. OpsERVATIONS on the TRIGONOMETRICAL TABLEs of the 
BrAuMINS. By FoHN PLATFAIR, F. R.S. Evin. and 
Profeffor of Mathematics in the Univerfity of Edinburgh. 


[Read April 6. 1795.] 


1. JN the fecond volume of the Afatic Refearches, an extract 

is given from the Surya Siddbanta, the ancient book which 
has been long, though obfcurely, pointed out as the fource of 
the aftronomical knowledge of the Brahmins. The Surya 
Siddhanta is in the Sanfcrit language: It is one ofthe Saftras, 
or infpired writings of the Hindoos, and is called the Jyotith, 
or Aftronomical, Saftra. It profeffes, as we learn from Mr 
Davis, the ingenious tranflator, to be a revelation from heaven, 
communicated to MeEyaA, a man of great fanctity, about four 
millions of years ago, toward the clofe of the Satya Jug, or of the 
Golden Age of the Indian mythologifts; a period at which 
man is faid to have been incomparably better than he is at pre- 
fent ; when his ftature exceeded twenty-one cubits, and his life 
extended to ten thoufand years. 

INTERWOVEN, however, with all thefe extravagant fiGtiions, this 
fingular book contains a very fober and rational fyf{tem of aftro- 
nomical calculation ; and even the principles and rules of trigo- 
nometry, a {cience of all others the moft remote from fable, and 
the leaft fufceptible of poetical decoration. It is on the con- 

ae a ftruction 


84 OBSERVATIONS on the 


ftruGtion of the tables contained in this trigonometry, that [I ° 
now beg leave to offer a few remarks. 

2. Ir is neceflary to begin with obferving, that the cir- 
cumference of the circle is here divided into 360 equal parts, 
each of which is again fubdivided into 60, and fo on. The 
fame divifion was followed by the Greek mathematicians ; 
and this coincidence is the more to be remarked, that it re- 
lates to a matter of arbitrary arrangement, and one by no 
means neceflarily connected with the properties of the circle. 
There are indeed fome very obvious properties of that curve, 
that make it, though not neceflary, at leaft convenient, that the 
number of parts, into which the circumference is divided, fhould 
be a number divifible both by 3 and by 4, that is, that it fhould 
be a multiple of 12 ; but nothing more precife can be determin- 
ed from the nature of the curve itfelf. The agreement of 
two nations, therefore, in dividing the circumference of the 
circle precifely in the fame manner, as it cannot well be attri- 
buted to chance, muft be fuppofed to refult from fome communi- 
cation having taken place between them, if it were not that ano- 
ther very probable caufe may be afligned for it. In Greece, and — 
no doubt in every other country, the divifion of the circle, i ito 
equal parts, is of a much older date than the origin of trigono- 
metry, and muft be as ancient as the firft circular inftruments 
ufed for meafuring angles in the heavens. ‘The inventors of 
thofe inftruments naturally fought to make the divifions on them 
correfpond to the fpace which the fun defcribed daily in the. 
ecliptic ; and they could eafily difcover, without any very pre-. 
cife knowledge of the length of the folar year, that this. might 
be nearly effected by making each of them the 36oth part of 
the whole circumference. Accordingly the famous circle of 
OsyMAND1IAsS, in Egypt, defcribed by HERopotus, was divided 
into 360 equal parts. 

THis: 


TRIGONOMETRY of th BRAHMINS., 85 


. Tuts principle may therefore have guided the aftronomers, 
both of the Eaft and of the Weft, to the fame divifion of the 
circle, without any intercourfe having taken place between them. 
It has certainly directed the Chinefe in their divifion, though it 
has led them to adopt one different from the Hindoo and Egyp- 
tian aftronomers. They divide the circle into 365 parts and 4, 
which can have no other origin than the fun’s annual motion : 
and fome fuch divifion as this; may perhaps have been the firft 
that was employed by other nations, who changed it however 
to the number 360, which nearly anfwered the fame purpofe, 
and had befides the great advantage of being divifible into ma- 
ny aliquot parts. The Chinefe, again, with whom the {ciences 
became ftationary almoft from their birth, have never attempt-. 
ed to improve on the method that firft occurred to them. 

3. THE next thing to be mentioned, is alfo a matter. of arbi- 
trary arrangement, but one in which the Brahmins follow a 
method peculiar to themfelves. They exprefs the radius of the 
circle in parts of the circumference, and fuppofe it equal to. 
3438 minutes, or Goths of a degree. In this they are quite fin- 
gular. Proxtemy, and the Greek mathematicians, after dividing 
the circumference, as we have already defcribed, fuppofed the 
radius to be divided into 60. equal parts, without feeking to af- 
certain, in this divifion, any thing of the relation of the dia- 
meter to the circumference :. and thus, throughout the whole of 
their tables, the chords are expreffed in fexagefimals of the ra- 
dius, and the arches in fexagefimals of the circumference. They 
had therefore two: meafures, and two units; one for the circum~- 
ference, and another for the diameter. The Hindoo mathema~ 
ticians, again, have but one meafure and one unit for both, v7z. 
a minute of a degree, or one of thofe parts whereof the circum- 
ference contains 21600. From this identity of meafures, they 
derive no inconfiderable advantage in many calculations, though. 
it muft be confefled, that the meafuring of a ftraight line, the 

radius,, 


86. OBSERVATIONS on the 


radius, or diameter of a circle, by parts of a curve line, namely, 
the circumference, is a refinement not at all obvious, and has 
probably been fuggefted to them by fome very particular view, 
which they have taken, of the nature and properties of the cir- 
cle. As to the accuracy of the meafure here affigned to the 
radius, v7z. 3438 of the parts of which the circumference con- 
tains 21600, it is as great as can be attained, without taking in 
{maller divifions than minutes, or 6oths of a degree. It is true 
to the neareft minute, and this is all the exactnefs aimed at in 
thefe trigonometrical tables. It muft not however be fuppofed, 
that the author of them meant to affert, that the circumference 
is to the radius, either accurately or even very nearly, as 21600 
to 3438. I have fhewn, in another place *, from the Inftitutes of 
AKBAR, that the Brahmins knew the ratio of the diameter to 
the circumference to great exaétnefs, and fuppofed it to be that 
of 1 to 3.1416, which is much nearer than the preceding. Cal- 
culating, as we may fuppofe, by this or fome other proportion, 
not lefs exact, the authors of the tables found, that the radi- 
us contained in truth 3437’. 44%. 48’, &c.; and as the frac- 
- tion of a minute is here more, than a half, they took, as their 
conftant cuftom is, the integer next above, and called the radius 
3438 minutes. The method by which they came to fuch an 
accurate knowledge of the ratio of the diameter to the circum- 
ference, may have been founded on the fame theorems which 
were fubfervient to the conftruction of their trigonometrical 
tables +. . 

4. THESE tables are two, the one of fines, and the other of 
verfed fines. The fine of an arch they call cramajya or jyapinda, 
and the verfed fine utcramajya. They alfo make ufe of the co- 
fine or bhujajya. Thefe terms feem all to be derived from the 
word jya, which fignifies the chord of an arch, from which the 

name 
* Tranf. R. S. Edin. vol. II. p. 185. Phyf. Cl. 
+ See Note, § 6. 


TRIGONOMETRY of the BRAHMINS. 87 


name of the radius, or fine of go°, viz. #rijya, is alfo taken. 
This regularity in their trigonometrical language, is a circum- 
ftance not unworthy of remark. But what is of more confe- 
quence to be obferved,'is, that the ufe of fines, as it was un- 
known to the Greeks, who calculated by help of the chords, 
forms a ftriking difference between the Indian trigonometry and 
theirs. The ufe of the fine, inftead of the chord, is an improve- 
ment which our modern trigonometry owes, as we have hither- 
to been taught to believe, to the Arabs ; and it is certainly one 
of the acquifitions which the mathematical f{ciences made, when, 
on their expulfion from Europe, they took refuge in the Eaft. 
But whether the Arabs are the authors of this invention, or 
whether they themfelves received it, as they did the numerical 
characters, from India, is a queftion, which a more perfect 
knowledge of Hindoo literature will probably enable us to re-. 
folve. . 

No mention is made in this trigonometry, of tangents or fe-. 
cants; a circumftance not wonderful, when we confider that the 
ufe of thefe was introduced in Europe no longer ago than the 
middle of the fixteenth century. It is, on the other hand, not 
a little fingular, that we fhould find a table of verfed fines in the 
‘Surya Siddhanta; for neither the Greek nor the Arabian ma- 
thematicians, had any fuch, nor had we, in modern Europe, till. 
after the time of PeTiscus, who wrote about the end of the cen- 
tury juft mentioned. 

5- NEXT, as to the extent and accuracy of thefe tables. The 
firft of them exhibits the fines to every twenty-fourth part of 
the quadrant, that is, the fine of 3°. 45’, and of all the multiples 
pena arch) wiz. 7°. 30',° 11°, 15°, Cc. up to Oo". Phe“table of” 
verfed fines does the fame. In each, the fine, or verfed fine, is 
expreffed in minutes of the circumference, but without any frac- 
tions of a minute, either decimal or fexagefimal; and, agreeably 
to the obfervation already made, when the fraction that ought 

tO 


88 OBSERVATIONS on the 


to have been fet down is greater than 4, the integer next greater 
is placed in the table. ‘Thus the fine 3°: 45’ being, when accu- 
rately expreffed in their way, 224’. 49”, is put down 225’; and 
fo of the reft. The numbers, therefore, in thefe tables, are only 
fo far exact as never to differ more than half a minute from the 
truth, and this very limited degree of accuracy gives no doubt 
to their trigonometry the appearafice of an infant fcience: But 
when, on the other hand, we confider the principles and rules of 
their calculations, rather than the numbers actually calculated, 
we find the marks of a fcience in full vigour and maturity: and 
we will acknowledge, that the Hindoo mathematicians did not 
fatisfy themfelves with the degree of accuracy above mentioned, 
from any incapacity of attaining to greater exactnefs. » 

THEIR rules for con{tructing their tables of fines, may be re- 
duced to two, vz. the one for finding the fine of the leaft arch 
in the table, that of 3°. 45’, and the other for finding the fines 
of the multiples of that arch, its triple, quadruple, tc. Both of 
thefe Mr Davis has tranflated, judging very rightly, that it was 
impoflible to give two more curious {pecimens of the geometri- 
cal knowledge of the Hindoo philofophers: the firft is extracted 
from a commentary on the Surya Siddhanta; the other from 
the Surya Siddhanta itfelf. 

6. WiTH refpect to the firft, the method proceeds by the con- 
tinual bifection of the arch of 30°, and correfpondent extrac- 
tions of the {quare root, to find the fine and co-fine of the half, 
the fourth part, the eighth part, and fo on, of that arch. The 
rule, when the fine of an arch is given, to find that of half the 
arch, is precifely the fame with our own : “ The fine of an arch — 
being given, find the co-fine, and thence the verfed fine, of the 
fame arch : then multiply half the radius into the verfed fine, and 
the fquare root of the produét is the fine of half the given arch.” 
Now, as the fine of 30°, was well known to thofe mathemati- 


cians to be half the radius, it was of confequence given: thence, 
by 


TRIGONOMETRY of the BRAHMINS. 97 


by the rule juft laid down, was found the fine of 15°, then of 
7°. 30, and laftly of 3°. 45’, which is the fine required. Thus 
the fine of 3°. 45’ would be found equal to 224’, 44”, as above 
obferved, and, the fine of 7°. 30’, equal to 448’. 39”, and, taking 
the neareft integers, the firft was made equal to 225, and the fe- 
cond to 449*. 

7. WueEN, by the bifections that have juft been defcribed, 
the fine of 3°: 45, or of 225’, was found equal to 224’, the reft 
of the table was conftructed by a rule, that, for its fimplicity 
and elegance, as well as for fome other reafons, is entitled to 
particular attention. It is as follows: “ Divide the firft jya- 
pinda, 225’ by 225; the quotient 1, deducted from the divi- 
dend, leaves 224°, which added to the firft jyapinda, or fine, 
gives the fecond, or the fine of 7°. 30’, equal to 449. Divide 
the fecond jyapinda, which is thus found, by 225, and dedu& 2, 
the neareft integer to the quotient, from the former remain- 
der 224’, and this new remainder 222‘, added to the fecond jya- 
pinda, will give the third jyapinda equal to 671’. Divide this 
laft by 225, and fubtract 3, the neareft integer to the quotient, 
from the former remainder 222’, and there will be left 219, 

. | M which, 


* By fuch continual bifections, the Hindoo mathematicians, like thofe of Europe 
before the invention of infinite feries, may have approximated to the ratio of the 


* - diameter-to the circumference, and found it to be nearly that of 1 to 3.1416 as 


above obferved. A much lefs degree of geometrical knowledge than they pofleffed, 
would inform them, that fmall arches are nearly equal to their fines, and that the 
fmaller they are, the nearer is this equality to the truth. If, therefore, they affumed 
the radius equal to 1, or any number at pleafure, after carrying the bifeGtion of the 
arch of 30, two fteps farther than in the above conftruction, they would find the 
fine of the 384th part of the circle, which, therefore, multiplied by 384, would 
nearly be equal to the circumference itfelf, and would aétually give the proportion 
of 1 to 3.14159, as fomewhat greater than that of the diameter to the circumfe- 
tence. By carrying the bifections farther, they might verify this calculation, or 
eftimate the degree of its exaétnefs, and might affume the ratio of 1 to 3.1416 as 
more fimple than that juft mentioned, and fufficiently near to the truth, 


98 OBSERVATIONS on the 


which, added to the third jyapinda, gives the fourth; and fo on 
unto the twenty-fourth or laft.” 

Ir is not immediately obvious on what geometrical principle 
this rule is founded, but a flight change in the enunciation 
will remove the difficulty. The remainder, it muft be ob- 
ferved, from which the quotient is always directed to be taken 
away, is the difference between the two fines laft computed; and 
hence the rule may be exprefled more generally: Divide any 
fine by 225, and fubtract the quotient, or the integer neareft 
the quotient, from the difference between that fine and the fine 
next lefs ; the remainder is the difference between the fame fine 
and the fine next greater ; and therefore if it be added to the 
former, will give the latter. If then, (fig. 3. Pl. I), GA, GC, GE, 
be three contiguous arches in the table, of which the dif- 
ferences AC, CE, of confequence are equal, and of which 
the fines are AB, CD, and EF, the rule, as laft ftated, gives us 


CD—AB— i for the difference between CD and EF, and 
therefore EF= CRED a Meas =? 2cD—— AB, and al! 
‘fo EF-+-AB=CD (2-)= cp(:). But 225 is the fine of 


225 


the arch 3°. 45’, and 449 of twice that arch, as already fhewn; 


and, therefore, according to this rule, if there be three arches, — 


of which the common difference is 3°. 45’, the fine of the 
mean arch will always have to the fum of the fines of the ex- 
treme arches, a given ratio, that namely, which the fine of 
3°. 45° has to the fine of twice 3°. 45’, or of 7°. 30°; now, 
this is a true propofition ; and therefore we are in pofleffion of 
the principle on which the Hindoo canon is conftructed. 

8. THE geometrical theorem, which is thus fhewn to be the 
foundation of the trigonometry of Hindoftan, may alfo be more 
generally enunciated. ‘“ If there be three arches in arithmetical 
progreflion, the fine of the middle arch is to the fum of the fines 


of ¥ 


TRIGONOMETRY of the BRAHMINS. 99 


of. the two extreme arches, as the fine of the difference of the 
arches to the fine of twice that difference.” This theorem is well 
known. in Europe; it is juftly reckoned a very remarkable pro- 
perty of the circle ; and it,ferves to fhew, that the numbers in a 
table of fines conftitute a feries, in which every term is formed 
exactly in the fame way, from the two preceding terms, v7z. by 
multiplying the laft by a certain, conftant number, and fub- 
tracting the laft but one from the produdt. 

g. Now, it is worth remarking, that this property of the table 
of fines, which has been fo long known in the Eaft, was not ob- 
ferved by the mathematicians of Europe till about two hundred 
years ago. The theorem, indeed, concerning the circle, from 
which it is deduced, under one fhape or another, has been 
known to them from an early period, and may be traced up to 
the writings of Euci1p, where a propofition nearly related to it 
forms the 97th of the Data: “ If a ftraight line be drawn with- 
in a circle given in magnitude, cutting off a fegment containing 

- a given angle, and if the angle in the fegment be bifected by a 
ftraight line produced till it meet the circumference ; the 
ftraight lines, which contain the given angle, fhall both of them 
together have a given ratio to the ftraight line which bifects the 
angle.” This is not precifely the fame with the theorem which 
has been fhewn to be the foundation of the Hindoo rule, but 
differs from it only by affirming a certain relation to hold 
among the chords of arches, which the other affirms to hold 

of their fines. It is given by Evcuip as ufeful for the con- 

-ftrudtion of geometrical problems; and trigonometry being 
then unknown, he probably did not think of any other applica- 
tion of it. But what may feem extraordinary is, that when, 
about 400 years afterwards, Protemy, the aftronomer, con- 
ftructed a fet of trigonometrical tables, he never confidered Eu- 
CLIp’s theorem, though he was probably not ignorant of it, as 

* having any conneétion with the matter he had in hand. Ee 
M2. therefore, 


100 OBSERVATIONS on the 


therefore, founded his calculations on another propofition, con- 
taining a property of quadrilateral figures infcribed in a circle, 
which he feems to have inveftigated on purpofe, and which is 
ftill diftinguifhed by his name. This propofition comprehends 
in faét Evcuip’s, and of courfe the Hindoo theorem, as a par- 
ticular cafe; and though this cafe would have been the moft 
ufeful to ProLemy, of all others, it appears to have efcaped his 
obfervation ; on which account he did not perceive that every 
number in his tables might be calculated from the two preceding 
numbers, by an operation extremely fimple, and every where the 
fame; and therefore his method of con{tru€ting them is infinitely 

more operofe and complicated than it needed to have been. 
Nor only did this efcape ProLemy, but it remained un- 
noticed by the mathematicians, both Europeans and Arabians, 
who came after him, though they applied the force of their 
minds to nothing more than to trigonometry, and actually 
enriched that fcience by a great number of valuable difcoveries, 
They continued to conftruct their tables by the fame methods 
which Protemy had employed, till about the end of the fix- 
teenth century, when the theorem in queftion, or that on which 
the Hindoo ruleis founded, was difcovered by VireTa. \We are 
however ignorant by what train of reafoning that excellent geo- 
meter difcovered it; for though it is publifhed im his Treati/fe 
on Angular Sections, it appears there not with his own demon- 
ftration, but with one given by an ingenious mathematician. 
of our own country, ALEXANDER ANDERSON of’: Aberdeen.. 
It was then regarded as a theorem entirely new, and f know not. 
that any of the geometers of that age remarked its affinity to 
the propofitions of Evctip and Protemy. ‘It was oon after 
applied in Europe, as it had been fo many ages: before in Hin- 
doftan, and quickly gave to the conftruction of ‘the trigonome- 
trical canon all the fimplicity which at feems capable of attaining. 
From all this, Ihink it might fairly be-concluded, evenif we 
od had 


‘\ 


TRIGONOMETRY of th BRAHMINS. 10t 


had no knowledge of the antiquity of the Surya Siddhanta, 
that the trigonometry contained in it is not borrowed from 
Greece or Arabia, as its fundamental rule was unknown to the 
geometers of both thofe countries, and is greatly preferable to 
that which they employed. ) 

10. CONSIDERABLE light may perhaps hereafter be thrown 
-on this argument, if it be found that the Surya Siddhanta con- 
tains a demonftration of this rule. It does not appear, however,, 
from the fragment we are.in’ pofleffion of, that any explanation 
‘of the rule is given, either in that work, or in the commentary. 
Indeed I am not certain that the Surya Siddhanta contains any 
thing but rules and maxims, or that the author of it condefcends. 
to give any demonftrations of the propofitions which he enun- 
ciates. He may have felt himfelf relieved from the neceflity of 
doing fo, by his claim to infpiration ; and as he probably valued 
himfelf more on the character of a prophet, than-of a geometer, 
he may rather have inclined to exercife the faith, than the rea- 
‘fon, of his difciples. 

However that be, by the rule above explained, the Brah- 
mins have computed a fet of tables, limited indeed in their accu- 
racy, but extremely fimple and compendious. ‘The rule is eafily 
remembered by one who has been accuftomed to. numeri- 
cal calculation, and is fuch, that, by help of it, he may at 
any time compofe for himfelf a complete fet of trigonometrical 
_tables, in a few hours, without the affiftance of any book what- 
ever. For the purpofe of rendering it thus fimple, the con- 
‘wivance of méafuring the radius, and all the fines, in parts of 
‘the circumference, feems to have been adopted: if we follow any 
other method, the rule, though it remain the fame in reality,. 
will aflume a form much lefs eafy to be retained in the me-- 
mory*. It has the appearance, lake nia Onbes things in the 
mt 4 : {cience 
_* Turis feems to me the moft probable reafon that can be affigned for the mea- 


faring of the radius, and the other ftraight lines in the circle, in parts of the circum- 
x 
xerence, 


JO2 OBSERVATIONS on the 


fcience of thofe eaftern nations, of being drawn up by one who 
was more deeply verfed in the fubje& than may be at firft ima- 
gined, and who knew much more than he thought it neceflary to 
communicate. It is probably a compendium, formed by fome 
ancient adept in geometry, for the ufe of others who were mere- 
ly practical calculators. 

11. Ir we were not already acquainted with the high anti- 
quity of the aftronomy of Indoftan, nothing could appear more 
fingular, than to find a fyftem of trigonometry, fo perfect in its 
principles, in a book fo ancient as the Surya Siddhanta. The 
antiquity of that book, the oldeft of the Saftras, can fcarce be 
accounted lefs than 2000 years before our exra, even if we fol- 
low the very moderate fyftem of Indian chronology laid down 
by Sir Wittiam Jones *. Now, if we fuppofe its antiquity to 
be no higher than this, though it bears in itfelf internal marks of 
an age {till more remote J, yet it will fufficiently excite our won- 
der, to find it contain the principles of a fcience, of which the firft 

rudiments 
ference. It is remarkable that the Hindoos fhould have been thus led, at fo early 
a period, to put in practice a method, the fame in the moft material point, with one 
which has been but lately fuggefted in Europe as an important improvement in tri- 
gonometrical calculation. In the Phil. Tranf. for 1783, Dr Hutton of Woolwich 
propofed to divide the circumference, not into degrees, as is ufually done, but into 
decimals of the radius; and he has pointed out how the prefent trigonometrical ta- 
bles might be accommodated to this new divifion, with the leaft poffible labour, in a 
paper which difplays that intimate acquaintance with the refources, both of the na- 
merical and algebraic calculus, for which he is fo much diftinguifhed. His plan is, 
in one refpedt, the fame with the Hindoo method, for it ufes the fame unit to exprefs 
both the circumference and the diameter; in another refpe& it differs from it, v7z. 
in making the radius the unit, while the other afflumes for an unit the 36oth part 
of the circumference. Dr Hutton’s plan has never been executed, though it cer- 
tainly would be of advantage to have, befides the ordinary trigonometrical tables, 
others conftruéted according to that plan. 

* Afiatic Refearches, vol. II. p. riz, &c. 

+ The obliquity:of the ecliptic is ftated at 24° in the Surya Siddhanta, as in all 


the.other aftronomical tables of the Hindoos which we are yet acquainted with. 
(Tranf. 


TRIGONOMETRY of the BRAHMINS. 103 


rudiments are not older in Greece than 130 years before our era.. 
The bare exiftence of trigonometrical tables, though they belong 
undoubtedly to a very elementary branch of fcience, yet argues a 
ftate of greater advancement in the mathematics than may at firft. 
be imagined, and neceflarily fuppofes the application of geome- 
trical reafoning to fome of the more difficult problems of aftro- 
nomy and geography. 

As long as the furveying of land, and the ordinary menfura- 
tion of furfaces and folids, are the only pra¢tical arts to which 
the geometer applies his fpeculations, he will naturally content 
himfelf with conftructing his figures and plans by means of a 
feale, and an inftrument for meafuring angles, as by doing fo 
he may attain to all the accuracy he can defire. But when, in 
the figures that are to be thus delineated, the fides happen to be 
extremely unequal, and fome of the angles very acute, or very 
obtufe, graphical operations become inaccurate, and a very {mall 
error in the meafuring of one thing produces an enormous error 
in the eftimation of fome other. Lines, therefore, that extend over 
_a great tract of the earth’s furface, and much more thofe that 
extend to the heavens, cannot be compared with the fmaller lines, 
which we have an opportunity of meafuring, by the bare con- 

{truction: 


(Tranf. R. S. Edin. vol. II. p. 164.) Mr Davis concludes from this, (Afiatic Re- 
fearches, vol. If. p. 238), that if the obliquity diminith, at the rate of 50” in a hun- 
dred years, the Surya Siddhanta is at prefent about 3840 years old, which goes back. 
nearly 2000 years before the Chriftian era. But the diminution of the obliquity of 
the ecliptic, ts fuppofed confiderably too rapid in this calculation. According to 
Mayer it is 46" in a century; and according to De la Granee, (Mem. Berlin 
1782), at a medium no more than 30”. This laft is moft to be depended on, as it 
proceeds on an accurate inquiry into the law of the fecular variation of the obliquity, 
that variation being by no means uniform. Let us however take the mean, viz. 38”, 
and the obliquity at the beginning of the prefent century having been 23°. 28’. 41”, 
we fhall have 5020 years for the age of the Surya Siddhanta, reckoned from that: 
date, or about 3300 years before Curist, which is near the era of the Caly Yung... 


104 OBSERVATIONS on the 


ftruction of triangles and parallelograms ; and when ever fuch 
comparifons are to be made, fome other method mutt be fought 
for. It was precifely in fuch circumftances, that the inventive 
genius of Hipparcuus fuggefted the application of arithmetic 
to afcertain thofe ratios among the fides and angles of figures, 
which pure geometry afforded no method of exprefling. This 
union of geometry and arithmetic did not happen, however, 
till each of thefe fciences feparately had made great progrefs ; 
for before the days of Hiprarcuus, EucLip, ARCHIMEDES, 
and ApPpoLonius, had all flourifhed in fucceflion, and had pro- 
duced thofe immortal works, of which the luftre has not been ob- 
{cured by the higheft improvements of later ages. In the progrefs 
of fcience, therefore, the invention of trigonometry is to be confi- 
dered as a ftep of great importance, and of confiderable diffi- 
culty. It is an application of arithmetic to geometry, with 
which we are now too familiar, to perceive all the merit of the 
inventor; but a little reflection will convince us, that he, who 
firft formed the idea of exhibiting, in arithmetical tables, the ra- 
tios of the fides and angles of all poffible triangles, and contrived 
the means of conftructing fuch tables, muft have been a man 
of profound thought, and of extenfive knowledge. However 
ancient, therefore, any book may be, in which we meet with a 
fyftem of trigonometry, we may be affured, that it was not 
written in the infancy of fcience. 

12. As we cannot therefore fuppofe the art of trigonometri- 
cal calculation to have been introduced till after a long pre- 
paration of other acquifitions, both geometrical and _atftro- 
nomical, we muft reckon far back from the date of the Surya 
Siddhanta, before we come to the origin of the mathemati- 
cal fciences in India. In Greece, the conftellations were 
firft reprefented on the fphere, if we take a medium between 
the chronology of Newron, and that which is now ge- 

nerally 


TRIGONOMETRY Gf the ‘BRAHMINS. TOs 
nerally received, about 1140 years before the Chriftian xra® ; 
and Hirrarcuus invented trigonometry 130 years before ea 
fame xra. Even among the Greeks, therefore, an) interval,, of 
‘at leaft:1000 years, elapfed fromthe firft obfervations in aftro- 
momy, to the invention of trigonometry; and we have furely 
no reafon to fuppofe, that the pr es of knowledge ‘has bese 
more rapid in other countries. 

A THOUSAND years therefore muft be added to va age of the 
Surya Siddhanta, which we fuppofe here to be» 2000 before 
CuRIsT, in order that we may reach the origin of the fciences 
an ‘Hindoftan, and this brings us very nearly to the celebrated 
era of the Caly Yug, to which M. Baitty has already referred 
the conftru@tion of the aftronomical tables of that country. 
And here, I cannot help obferving, in juftice to an author, of 
whofe talents and genius the world has been fo unfeafonably 
and fo cruelly deprived, that his opinions, with refpect to this 
gra, appear to have been often mifunderftood. It certainly 
was not his intention to affert, that the Caly Yug was a real 
era, confidered with refpect to the mythology of India, or even 
that at fo remote a period the religion of Brahma had an exift- 
ence. ‘The religious and civil inftitutions of Hindoftan, as they 
now exift, may be all pofterior to this date, and their antiquity 1s 
probably to be determined from principles that are not the ob- 
jects of aftronomical difcuffion. All, -I think, therefore, that 
M. Baittiy meant to affirm, and certainly all that is neceflary 
to his fyftem, is, that the Caly Yug, or the year 3102 before our 
era, marks a point in the duration of the world, before which 


N the 


* The {phere of Curron and Muszus was conftrusted, according to Newton, 
‘about the year 936 before Curist, (NEwTon’s Chron. chap. i. § 30). According 
to the fyftem generally received, the ancient fphere, defcribed by Evroxus, was 
conftruéted about 1350 years before Curist, (Dr Prayrarr’s Chronology, p. 37): 
The medium is 1143. 


106 OBSERVATIONS, &c. 


the foundations of aftronomy were laid in the Eaft, and thofe 
obfervations made, from which the tables of the Brahmins have 
been compofed. . 

On this, however, and on many more of the particulars of 


the hiftory of thofe remote ages, great additional light will un-. 
doubtedly be thrown, by the complete tranflation of the Surya. 


Siddhanta. From the fpecimen which Mr Davis has given, we 
can neither doubt of the importance of fuch a work, nor of his 


abilities to execute it; and we truift, that, to the zeal and libe-- 


rality of our brethren of the Afiatic Society, the learned world 


will foon be indebted for the poffeflion of this ineftimable trea-- 


fure., 


V. Some GEOMETRICAL Porisms, with ExamPLes of their 
APPLICATION to the SoLuTION of ProsptEMs. By Mr 
WILLIAM WALLACE, Affiftant-Teacher of the Mathematics in 
the Academy of Perth. Communicated by Mr PLAYFAIR. 


[Read March 7. 1796.} 


E nature of thofe mathematical propofitions, which were 
called Porifms by the ancient geometers, is now no longer a 
‘matter of uncertainty. The relation which they bear to other 
mathematical truths, the way in which they may at firft have 
been obferved, the kind of analyfis to be employed in their in- 
veftigation, their application to the folution of problems, have 
all been confidered by fome eminent mathematicians of the pre- 
fent age. 

THESE propofitions appear to have been held in high eftima- 
tion by the mathematicians of antiquity, becaufe of their great 
ufe in the analyfis of difficult problems, as we learn from the 
writings of Parpus of Alexandria: And fome fpecimens, which 
Jate inquirers into this fubjeét have given us, of their applica+ 
tion to the folution of problems, feem to juftify his very high 
character of them. _ 

Tue following paper contains fome porifms intimately con- 
nected with each other, and which feem capable of being ap- 
plied to the folution of a number of gcometrical problems. Ex- 

N a. amples 


108 GEOMETRICAL PORISMS.. 


amples of their application are added, fome of which are pro- 
blems that have been long known, and others are new ; but the 
conftructions of the former, it is believed, differ from any hi- 
therto. publifhed. Althoughthere are feveral of thefeexamples, 


in appearance, little related to each other, yet their folutions are. 


effected by the fame general principle, which is alfo the founda-. 
tion all the porifins. 


PROP. Il. PORISM, Fig. 4, 5. Sura 


LET AB, AC, be two ftraight lines given by onnon lec B, 


be given points in thefe lines, a point H may be found, 
fuch, that any circle whatfoever pafling through A, the in- 
terfeCtion of the given lines, and H the point which may 
be found, fhall cut off from the given lines fegments BD, 
CE, adjacent to.the given points, and having: to. >-each. other 
the given ratio of « to PB, 


Sirpeaae the porifm to be true, and that,the point H is found. 


If a circle be defcribed through H,.A, and B one of the given © 


points, it muft alfo, pafs. through C the other given point, that 
the propofition may. be univerfally true. Therefore H is in the 
circumference of a given circle. Join BH, CH, DH, EH. The 
angle DHE is equal to DAE, that is, to. BHC, (fig. 4.) or DHE 
is the fupplement of DAE, (fig. 5.) and therefore equal to BHC; 
hence BHD is equal to CHE, but BDH is equal to CEH, there- 
fore the triangles BDH, CEH, are equiangular, and BH is to 
HC as BD to CE, that is by hypothefis in the given ratio of « to 
@; therefore if BC be joined, the triangle BHC is given in {pe- 
cies, and BC being given, BH and HC are given; therefore the 
‘point H is given, which was to be found. _ 
Ir the fegments BD, CE, cut off from the given lines, lie in 


the fame dir ection with refpect to AB, AC, (fig..4.) the point H > 


will . 


%, 
. P ¢ \ - : sf ~— 
_— ee ee ree 


GEOMETRICAL PORISMS. Tog 


will be in the fame fegment of the circle with the angle BAC; 
but if BD, CE, lie in contrary directions to AB, AC, (fig. 5.) 
then H will be in that fegment of the circle upon which BAC 
ftands. 


THE point H will be found by the following conftruction : 
Defcribe a circle through the points A, B,C. Join BC, which 
divide at G, fo that BG may be to GC in the given ratio of BD 
to CE, that is of « to 8, and if the fegments to be cut off are to 
lie in the fame direction with AB, AC, find F the vertex of the 
fegment upon which the angle BAC ftands, (fig. 4.) ; but if BD, 
CE are to lie in oppofite direCtions, (fig. 5.) find F the vertex of 
the fegment BAC, and in either cafe join FG, which produce to 
' meet the circle in H the point to be found ; that is, if any circle 
be defcribed through H and A to meet the given lines in D and 
E,'BD.is to CE ase to6.) Join HB, HC, HD, HE. The tri- 
angles BDH, CEH are. fimilar, for the angle BDH is equal, to 
CEH, and becaufe the angle BHC is equal to DHE, therefore 

‘BHD is equal to CHE; hence BD is to CE as BH to HC, that 

‘is, (becaufe HG bifects the angle BHC), as BG to GC, or as «. 
$20) p. % 
Ir is-evident that the point H may be alfo. found, by taking 
~ any fegments BD, CE, in the given ratio of a to 3, and defcrib- 

‘ing a circle through the points D, A, E, to meet the circle BAFC 

in H the point required. If the given lines be parallel, and the 
‘points B, C, alfo the ratio of BD to CE, (fig. 6.) given as-before, 

the indeterminate circle will be ‘changed into a ftraight line paf- 

fing through a given point H, which will be without the given 

lines, or between them, according as BD, CE, are to lie in the 
fame, or in-contrary, direétions with AB, AC. » 


PROP. IE . 


110 GEOMETRICAL PORISMS. 


PROP. IL PORISM, Fig. 7. PLI. 


Let AF, AG be two ftraight lines given by pofition, a point 
H{ may be found, fuch, that any circle whatfoever defcri- 
-bed through it, and A the interfeétion of the given ines, 
to meet them in D and E, fhall cut off from them feg- 
ments AD, AE, whofe fum fhall-be a given line M. 


Suppose the porifm to be true, and that the point is found, 
‘and circle deferibed as above, let given points B, C be fo taken, 
that BA and AC-may be together equal to DA and AE, that is, 
by hypothefis to the given line M, then BD will be equal to CE. 
If a circle be defcribed through the given points A, B, C, by hy- 
pothefis it will meet the circle pafling through A, D, E, in H the 
point which ‘may be found. Join BH, CH, DH, EH. The 
‘angle BHC is equal to DHE, each being the fupplement of BAC, 
therefore BHD is equal to CHE; now, HDB is equal to HEC, 
and BD is equal to CE, therefore the triangle HBD is equal to 
HCE, and BH 1s equal to CH, alfo DH to EH ; hence the angle 
BAH is equal to CAH, and H is in a ftraight line bifecting the 


angle FAG, but it is alfo in the given circle BAC; therefore the 


point H is given, as was required. 


Hence this conftruction: Take B and C two given points, fo 
that BA and AC may be together equal to M, and through 
A, B, C defcribe a circle. Draw AK bifedting the given angle 
FAG, and meeting the circle ABC in H the point required, that 
is, if any circle be defcribed through H and A, to meet the gi- 
ven lines in D and E, the fum of DA and AE fhall be equal to 
the fum of BA and AC, that is, by conftrudtion to the given 
line M. The fynthetical demonftration follows readily from 


the preceding analyfis. ‘ 
PROP. III 


ee ee 


GEOMETRICAL PORISMS. 11s 


PROP. UI. PORISM, Fig. 8. Pl. IL. 


Let AF, AG be two ftraight lines given by pofition, a point 
H may be found, fuch, that if any circle be defcribed 
through it, and A the interfeétion of the given lines, to. 
meet them in D and_E, the difference between AD and AE 
fhall be equal to a given line N. 


THE analyfis of this propofition will differ in nothing material 
from the laft, and the point required may be found thus: Take- 
B and C, two given points, fo that the difference between BA 
and. AC may be equal to N.. Through the points A, B, C, de- 
{cribe a circle. Draw AK bifecting the angle contained by FA 
one of the given lines, and AL the other line produced at their - 
interfection, and AK will meet the circle ABC in H the point 
which may be found; that is, if any circle be deferibed through . 
H and A, to meet the given lines in D, E, the difference between. 
AD and AE is equal to N the given line. 

Join AH, BH, CH, DH. The triangles HCE, HBD are equal 
to one another in every refpect, for if BC be joined, the angle 
HBC is.equal to HAL, that is, by conftruction to. HAB, there- 
fore HB is equal to HC; in the fame way it appears that HD : 
is equal to HE; now, the angle DHE is, equal to DAE, that is to 
BHC, therefore BHD is equal to CHE, hence BD is equal to 
CE, and the difference between DA and AE is the fame with. 
the difference between BA, AC, which by conftruction is equal, 
to the given line M.. 

THEsE two laft_propofitions tse confidered ‘as particular 
cafes of the following propofition. | 


PROE TV... 


112 GEOMETRICAL PORTSMS. 


PROP. IV. PORISM, Fig. 4,5. PLL 


‘Two ftraight lines AB, AC being given by pofition, and two 
lines P, Q_ being given in magnitude, a point-H may be 
found, (fig. 5.) fuch, that any circle deferibed through it 
and A the interfeCtion of the given lines, to meet them in 
D, E, fhall cut off from them fegments AD, AE, fo that 
PXAD+QXAE, fhall be equal to a given fpace. Alfo, the 
fame things being fuppofed, a point H may be found, (fig. 4.) 
fo that Px AD —QXAE, thall be See to a given fpace. 


LET given points B, C, be taken in either cafe agreeing with 
the hypothefis of the propofition, or fo that PX AB+Q x AC, 
( fig. 5.) may be equal to PKAD+Q XAE, -and’ fo hat 
PXAB—QXAC may be equal to PX AD—Q XAE, (fig. 4:) 


then, m both cafes, PX BD will be equal to Q XCE ;° there- 


fore BD is to CE as Q to P, that is, in a given ratio, and the 
points B, C being given, the point H may be found, (Prop. 13 


Construction. Let given points B, C be taken as above 
direfted, and if PX AD+Q x AE is to be a given fpace, (fig. 5.) 


find a point H, (Prop. 1.) fo that any circle defcribed through © 


- A and H may meet the given lines in D, E, fo that BD, CE 
may lie in contrary directions to AB, AC, and have to each 
other the given ratio of Q to P, then PX BD will be equal to 
QXCE, and adding the common fpace PX AB-+QXAE to 
each, we get PX AD+QX AE, equal to PX AB-+Q*X AC, that 
is, to the given fpace, as was required. 

But if Px AD—Q XAE is to be a given fpace, (fig. 4.) find 
H, (Prop. 1.) fo that any circle paffling through H, A may cut 
off fegments BD, CE, in the given ratio of Q to P, and lying 
towards the fame parts with AB, AC, then PXBD is equal to 

Q x CE, 


————— 


GEOMETRICAL PORISMS. 113 


Qx CE, and Px AD —Q xX AE, will be equal to Px AB—Qx AC, 
that is, by conftruction to the given {pace. 


LEMMA, Fig.-9. Pl. I. 


Ir circles be defcribed through A and C any two angles of a 
triangle ABC, to meet each other at D a point in AC, and 
the remaining lines AB, BC, in E and F; their other in- 
terfeCtion H, the remaining angle B, and the points E, F, 
are in the circumference of a circle. 


Join DH, EH, FH. The angle AEH is equal to ADH or 
CFH, that is, BEH is equal to BFH, hence the points H, B, D, F 
areinacircle. Q. E. D. 


PROP Vaart OkRis M,. Pip. to. Pim 


Ler AB, AC, BC be three ftraight lines given by pofition, a 
point H may be found, fuch, that if any circle be defcri- 
bed through H, and B the interfeétion of any two of the 
given lines, to meet them in D and F, and if DF be joined 

‘meeting the remaining line at E.. The line DF fhall be divi- 
ded at E, into fegments having to each other a given ratio. 


Suppose that the point H is found. Join HA, HB, HC; join 
alfo HD, HE, HF. Since, by hypothefis, a circle may pafs 
through the point which is to be found, the interfeGtion of any 
two of the given lines, and the points where DF meets thefe 
_ lines, therefore the points H, A, D, E are in a circle, and the an- 
gle HEF is equal to HAD or HAB; now the points H, B, D, F 
are fuppofed to be in a circle; fince therefore in the triangle 
ABC, circles pafs through two of its angles A, B, and meet each 
other at D, a point in AB, (Lemma.) the points H, C, E, F are 

alfo 


114 GEOMETRICAL PORISMS. 


alfo in a circle; therefore the angle HCF is equal to HEF, that 
is, (as has been fhewn), to HAB; hence the point H, which may 
be found, is in acircle paffing through the points A, B, C, what- 
ever be the given ratio of DE to. EF. Let this circle be defcribed. 
. Because the points H, A, D, E are in a circle, the angle 
HAC is equal to HDE, and becaufe H, C, E, F are in a circle, 
the angle HFE is equal to HCA; therefore the triangles AHC, 
DHF are fimilar. In the fame manner it appears, that AHB is 
fimilar to EHF, and CHB to EHD. " 

Let AC be divided at K, fo that AK. may be to KC, in the 
given ratio of DE to EF, the point K will thus be given. Join 
HK meeting the circle in G. The triangles AHC, DHF being 
fimilar, and -having AC, DF, fimilarly divided at K, E, the tri- 
angles AHK, KHC will therefore be fimilar to DHE, EHF, 
which have been proved fimilar to BHC, AHB; therefore the 
angle AHB is equal to CHK or CHG, and the arch AB is equal 
to CG, hence G is a given point, and K being given, the line 
GH will be given by pofition; therefore the point H is given 
which was to be found. 


Construction. Defcribe a circle through the points A, B, C, 
let AB, BC, be the lines upon which D and F, the extremities of 


the indeterminate line, are.to be placed, and let AC be the line 
which is to meet it in E, fo that DE may be to EF, in the given 
ratio of detoef. Find K, fo that AK may be to KC as de to 
ef, draw BG parallel to AC, meeting the circle in G, join GK 


meeting the circle in H, the point which may be found; that is,, 


if any circle be defcribed through H, and B the interfe¢tion of 
any two of the given lines, to meet them in D and F, and if 


DF be joined, meeting the remaining line at E, the line DF 


fhall be divided at E, fimilarly to the given line def. - 

Let AH, BH, CH be joined, alfo DH, EH, FH.” The angle 
HDF or HDE is equal to HBF, that is, to HAE, the points. 
H, 4, D, E are therefore in a circle, now the points H, 8B, D, F 

are. 


ae 


1 


GEOMETRICAL PORISMS. rs 


are in a circle, therefore (Lemma.) the points H,T, EF, F are alfo 
ina circle. The angle HDE is equal to HBC, that is, to HAK, 
and fince HEF is equal to HCF, therefore HED is equal to 
HCB, that is, to HGB or HKA; hence the triangles HDE, HAK 
are fimilar, and fince HFE is equal to HCK, the triangles HEF, 
HKG are alfo fimilar ; therefore DE is to EF as AK to KG, that 
is,as detoe/f. 

Cor. 1. The lines DH, EH, FH contain given angles, and 
have to each other the given ratios of AH, KH, CH. 

Cor. 2. The line DF cuts off fegments DA, EK, FC from 
_ the given lines, adjacent to given points in them, and having to 
each other the given ratios of HA, HK,HC. For the angles 
HDB, HEK, HFC are equal among themfelves, and fince BCH 
or BGH, that is, AKH, is the fupplement of each of the angles 
HCF, HAD, HKE, the angles HAD, HKE, HCF are equal a- 
mong themfelves, therefore the triangles HAD, HKE, HCF 
are fimilar, and AD, KE, CF are proportional to the given lines 
AH, KH, CH. 


PRORSOVEO PORES NMP Fig? t1.* Pi ‘i, 


Let AB, AC, BE, DE be four ftraight lines given by pofi- 
tion ; a point P may be found, fuch, that if any circle be 
defcribed through it and B, any of the fix interfections of 
the given lines, to meet the lines through whofe interfection 
it pafles in G and L, and if GL be joined, meeting the re- 
maining lines in H_ and K, the fegments GH, HK, KL have 
given ratios to one another, which ratios are to be found. 


Because, by hypothefis, the points P, A, G, H are in a circle, 
and alfo the points P, F, H, K, it will appear, as in the analyfis 
of laft propofition, that P is in a circle defcribed about the tri- 
_ angle ADF; in the fame way it will be found, that P muft be 
in circles defcribed about each of the triangles ABC, DBE, 

O 2 | FCE. 


ie GEOMETRICAL PORISMS. 


FCE, Therefore, that the propofition may be univerfally true, 
thefe four circles muft interfeét one another at the fame point. 

Axsour any two of thefe triangles, as ABC, DBE, let circles 
be defcribed, the point P muft be at their interfection. 

Because ADF is a triangle, and through two of its angles 
A, D, circles are defcribed, meeting each other at B, a point in 
AD, therefore (Lemma.) P, their other interfeCtion, and the 
points F, C, E, are in a circle; and becaufe FCE is a triangle, 
and circles pafs through C, E, two of its angles, and meet each 
other at B, a point in CE, therefore (Lemma.) the points P, A, 
D, F are in a circle. Thus, it appears, that circles defcribed 
about each of the four triangles ADF, ABC, DBE, CFE, pafs 
through the fame point P as was to be inveftigated. It remains 
to inquire, whether the ratios of GH, HK, KL to one another 


be given. Join PB, PC, PE, alfo PG, PH, PK, PL. The angle © 


GPH is equal to GAH, that is, to BPC, and PGH is equal to 
PBC, therefore the triangles BPC, GPH are fimilar, and the an- 
gle PHK is equal to PCE; but HPK is equal to HFK, that 1s, to 
CFE or CPE, hence the triangles HPK, CPE are fimilar, and 
PKL is equal to PEL. Now, if PN be drawn, fo that the angle 
BPN may be equal to GPL, that is, to the given angle GBL, it 
is evident that the point N is given, and will be in a circle paf- 
fing through P, and touching AG at B; the angles NPE, LPK 
will thus be equal, and the triangles NPE, LPK fimilar. Since, 
therefore, the triangles BPC, CPE, EPN are fimilar to GPH, 
HPK, KPL, it follows, that BN, GL are fimilarly divided by the 
given lines CH, EK, therefore the ratios of GH, HK, KL are 
the fame with the given ratios of BC, CE, EN. 


Construction. About ABC, DBE any two of the four _ 


triangles formed by the given lines, let circles be defcribed, they 
will meet each other at P, the point which is to be found. 


THRO GH. 


ees Se ee ee ee Oe 


GEOMETRICAL PORISMS. Ti7 


Turovucu P and B, the interfection of any two of the given 
lines, let a circle be defcribed to touch one of them at Bb, and 
cut the other at N, the line BN will be given, and the ratios of 
GH, HK, KL, the fame with the given ratios of BC, CE, EN 
to one another. 

Tue fynthetical demonftration follows readily from the ana--. 
lyfis, and for the fake of brevity is here omitted. 


Cor. 1. The lines PG, PH, PK, PL, contain given angles, 
and have to each the given ratios of PB, PC, PE, PN. 

Cor, 2. The line GL cuts off from the given lines, fegments 
BG, CH, EK, NL, adjacent to given points, and having to each 
other the given ratios of PB, PC, PE, PN. For the points P, A, 
G, H, being in a circle, the angle PGB is equal to PHC; and 
fince P, F, H, K, are in a circle, the angle PHC is equal to PKE, 
which in like manner will be found equal to PLN. Now, the 
angles PBA, PCF, PEF, PNB are equal among themfelves, there- 
_ fore their fupplements PEG, PCH, PEK, PNL are equal, and 
_ the triangles PBG, PCH, PEK, PNL are familar, therefore BG, 
CH).EK, NE are proportional to the given lines BP, CP, EP, 
NP. 


PROP. VI. THEOREM, Kg. 12. Pl. HI. 


Let PGAB,. PFAC, PEAD, toc, be any. number of given 
circles, each of which pafles through the fame two points 
A, P; from.A, either of thefe points let a ftraight line, given 
by pofition, be drawn, meeting the circles at B, C, D, &c.. 
and another meeting them at E, F,G, &c. Let ftraight 
lines GB, FC, ED, téc.. be drawn,. joining thefe points, fo 
as to form, with the lines paffing through A, triangles GAB, 
FAC, EAD, &c, in each of the. circles. If, through P, the 
common interfeétion of the circles, and Q, the interfection 


of: : 


118 GEOMETRICAL PORISMS. 


of any two of the lines, a circle be defcribed to meet them 
in K and L, a lime joining KL, and meeting the remaining 
lines, will be divided by them into fegments HK, KL, LM, 
MN, We. having to each other given ratios. 


Ler Q, R, 5, ec. be the remaining interfeétions of GB, FC, 
ED, c. Becaufe GRE is a triangle, and circles PGAB, PEAD 
pafs through G, E, two of its angles, and meet at A, a point in 
GE, the points P, R, B, D, are ina circle, (Lemma.) in’ the 
fame way it appears, that circles may pafs through P, 8, C, D, 
and P,Q, B, C, tc. Becaufe it is now proved, that in che tri- 
angle CDS, a circle may pafs through P, C, B, Q, and. another 
through P, D,B, R; therefore the points P, S, R, Q, are ina 
circle. (Lemma.) Thus it may be fhewn, that circles defcribed 
about each of the triangles, formed by the intercepted fegments 


of the ftraight lines, will all pafs through the fame point Py 


From P draw ftraight lines to the points of interfection of one 
of the given lines, with all the others, as PA, PB, PC, PD, te. 
Join PH, PK, PL, PM, PN, tc. 

SincE P, Q, K, L, are in a circle, the angle BKP is equal to 
CLP ; now, the angles PBG, PCF, are each equal to. PAG; 
therefore the angles PBK, PCL, are equal, and the triangles 
PBK, PCL, fimilar ; hence KP is to PL as BP to PC; now the 
angle KPL is equal to KQL, that is, to BPC; therefore the tri- 
angles KPL, BPC, are fimilar, and the angle PLM will be equal 
to PCD. But the points P, S, C, D, having been proved to lie 
in a circle, if PS be joined, the angle PCD will be equal to PSD, 
therefore PLM is equal to PSD or PSM, hence the points P, 5, 
L, M are inacircle. In the fame way it may be fhewn, that 
P, G, H, K are in a circle, as alfo P, D, M,N, @c. and that the 
triangles PAH, PDM, tc. are each fimilar to PBK and PCL, 
and hence that PHK is fimilar to PAB, and PLM to PCD, We. 
- Through P defcribe a circle to touch AG at A, and meet AD 
in 


So aes en a 


x. or» eee 


a 
4 
‘ 
7 


GEOMETRICAL PORISMS. Tig 


in V, which will be a given point, fince GA, AD, are given 2 
pofition. 

Join PV, the angle PVA is equal to PAE or PDS, that is, 
EP, «D,:M, N being in a circle) to PNM, and PDV is equal to 
PMN, the triangle PMN is therefore fimilar to PDV ; and fince 
the angle PVA is equal to PDS, alfo FNV to PMD, the triangles 
PDM, PVN are fimilar. Thus it appears, that HN and AV 
are fimilarly divided by the lines BK, CL, DM, &c. ; now, the 
points A, B, C, D, V, tc. are given; therefore the ratios of 
HK, KL, LM, MN, tc. to one another are given. Q. E. D. 


Cor. 1. The lines PH, PK, PL, PM, PN, &c. contain given 
angles, and have to each other the given ratios of PA, PB, PC, 
Pee; Se, 

Cor. 2. The line HN cuts off from the given lines, fegments 
fae. LG, DM, VN, tc. adjacent to given points, and hav- 
ing alfo to one another the given ratios of PA, PB, PC, PD, 
PV, &%c.; for the triangles PAH, PBK, PCL, PDM, PVN, ‘te. 
have been proved equiangular ; and therefore AH, BK, CL, 
DM, VN, dc. are proportional to PA, PB, PC, PD, PV, &e. *. 


PROP. VIII. 


* Tt may be proper to remark here, that,.in the preceding propofitions, the 
ftraight lines given by pofition, as well as the indeterminate ftraight line, which is 
cut by them into fegments, having to each other given ratios, and which alfo cuts 
off from them fegments adjacent to given points, and having to each other given ra- 
tios, are tangents to a parabola, of which the point that is required to be found is the: 
focus, This confideration fuggefls fome curious propofitions, relating to tangents to. 
the parabola. Some of them have been obferved by Dr Hatxey, in his tranflation 
of the Seé?zo Ratzonis of APPOLLONIUS. 

Owner very obvious application of the propofitions above hinted at, is to defcribe-. 

- parabolas that fhall pafs through given points, and touch ftraight lines given by pofi. 
tion. 


120 GEOMETRICAL PORISMS. 


PROP. VIL SPO RIS M, Fie rs. Plt 


Let CA, CB, AB be three ftraight lines given by pofition, a 


point H may be found, fuch, that if through H, and B, C, 
any two of the interfections of thefe lines, there be defcribed 
circles HBEF, HCDE, to meet each other at E, a point in 
BC, and the remaining lines at Dand F.. If DE, EF, DF 
be joined, the triangle DEF fhall be fimilar to a given triangle 
def, and fhall have its angles upon the given lines in a given 
order. 


BeEcAusE circles are defcribed through C, B, and meeting 
each other at E, a point in CB, therefore their other interfection 
H, the remaining angle A, and the points D, F, are in a circle. 
(Lemma.) Let a circle be defcribed through H, C, A,’to meet 


CB in G, and another through H, B, G, to meet AB in K, 


Join HA, HG, HK, alfoHD, HE, HF. The angles ADH, 
GEH, KFH, are equal to one another, and the angles CAH, 
CGH, BKH are equal, therefore HAD, HGE, HKF are equal, 
and the triangles HAD, HGE, HKF are fimilar ; therefore DH 
is to HE as AH to HG, and EH is to HF as GH to HK; now, 
the angles DHE, EHF are equal to DCE, EBF, that is, to 
AHG, GHK; hence the quadrilateral HDEF is fimilar to 
HAGK, and the triangle DEF is fimilar to AGK ; now, the an- 
gles EDF and DEF are given by hypothefis, therefore GAK 


and AGK are given; but A is a given point, and AK is given. 


by pofition, therefore AG and the point G are given; therefore 


GK and the point K are alfo given, and H, the interfection of . 


the given circles GAC, GBK, will be given, which was to be 
found. 


Construction. ‘Take a given point, which, to render the 
conftruétion more fimple, may be at A, one of the interfections 


of 


GEOMETRICAL PORISMS. 121 


of the given lines. Let AG, GK be fo drawn as to form a 
triangle AGK, fimilar to the given triangle def, and having its 
angles placed upon the given lines, in the given order. Through 
A, G, any two of its angles, and C, the interfection of the lines 
upon which they are placed, defcribe a circle; through G, K, and 
B, the interfeétion of CG, AK, let another circle be defcribed, 
meeting the former in H, the point to be found, which will alfo 
be ina circle paffing through K, and touching CA at A. 

Tue demontftration follows eafily from the preceding analyfis. 


Cor. tr. The lines HD, HE, HF contain given angles, and 
have to each other the fame ratios, with the given lines HA, 
HG, HK. 

Cor. 2. The lines AD, GE, KF have alfo to each other the 
given ratios of HA, HG, HK. 


mek OP. IX,. THEOREM,.Fig,.14..P), Ill 


Ler Ea, Ed, Fe, Gd, &%c. be any number of ftraight lines 
given by pofition. Let P bea given point. Through P,. 
and E, the interfection of any two of the given lines, let a 

_ circle be defcribed to meet them in A and B ; through P, B, 
and H, the interfeGtion of BJ, with one of the remaining 
lines, let a circle be defcribed to meet that line in C. Through 
P, CG, and K, the interfection of Cc, with one of the remain- 
ing lines, let a circle be defcribed to meet that line in D, 
and fo on if there be more lines. Join AB, BC, CD, We. 
DA. The rectilineal figure ABCD, tc. is given in fpecies. 


TAKE 4, a given point in EA, through P, E, a, defcribe a 
circle to meet EB in 4, through P, H, 4, defcribe a circle to meet 
HAC in ¢, through P, K, c, defcribe a circle to meet KD in d, and 
fo on if there be more lines. Join Pa, PA, alfo PB, Pd, PC, 
) P Pe, 


122 GEOMETRICAL PORISMS. 


Pc, PD, Pd, 8c. Becaufe the points P, E, A; B, are ima circle, 


the angle PAa is equal to PBJ; now PaA is equal to PJB; for 
PaE is equal to PdE, the triangles PaA, PJB are therefore fimi- 
lar. In the fame manner it may be fhewn, that PB is fimilar 
to PcC, and that again to PdD, tc. Therefore PA is to PB as 
Pa to Pé,-and PB to PC as Pé to Pc, and PC to PD as Pe to 
Pd, <%c.; now the angles APB, BPC, CPD, tc. are equal to 
AEB, BHC; CKD, t&c. that 1s, to aPb, 6Pc, cPd; e.therefore 
if ali, bc, cd, ‘8c. Ad be joined, the reétilineal figure PABCD, 9c. 
is fimilar to Padcd, &c; and leaving out the fimilar triangles 
PAD, Pad, the redtilineal figure ABCD, tc. is fimilar to abcd, 
tfc. Now the points P, E, a, being given, the circle pafling 
through them is given; therefore 4 is a given point; in like 


manner ¢, d, Wc. are given points; therefore the figure aled, We. ~ 


is given; therefore ABCD, tc. to which it ig fimilar, is given 
in fpecies. Q. E. D. 


Cor. 1. The lines PA, PB, PC, PD, €c. contain given an- 


gles, and have to each other the given ratios of Pa, Pé, Pc, Pd, 
we 

Cor. 2. The fegments Aa, Bd, Cc, Dd, tc. of the given 
lines, adjacent to the given points a, 3, c, d, &&c. have alfo to 
each other the given ratios of Pa, Pd, Pe, Pd, tc. 

Cor. 3. If there be any number of ftraight lines given by 
pofition, there may be innumerable reétilineal figures fimilar 
to one another, and having their angles upon the ftraight lines 
given by pofition. 


PROP.) Kio PO RAS My Pigs ngwiPle 1: 


Ler A and B be two given points in the circumference of a — 


given circle. Let Cbea given point in KC, a ftraight line 
given 


a eee SS ee 


GEOMETRICAL PORISMS. 123 


piven by pofition. There may be found a ftraight line KD 
given by pofition, and alfo a given point D in that line, 
fuch, that if AE, BE be infle@ted to any point in the cir- 
cumference of the given circle, they fhall cut off from KC, 
KD, fegments FC, GD, adjacent to the given points, and 
having to each the given ratio of « to 6. 


Suppose the line KD, and the point D to be found. If AH, 
BH be inflected to the circle, fo that AH may pafs through C, 
then BH muft pafs through D, the point which may be found, 
otherwife the propofition would not be univerfally true. Now, 
C being given, the point H, and the line BH, will be given by 
pofition. Let AL be drawn parallel to KC, then BL muft be 
parallel to KD, the line to be found ; hence it appears, that the 
angle GKF is equal to ALB, that is, to GEF; therefore the 
points E, K, G, F are in a circle, and the angle DGB is equal to 
CFA; now DBG is equal to CAF; therefore the triangles 
DBG, CAF are equiangular, and AC is to BD as CF to DG, 
that is, by hypothefis, as # to 8; now AC is given, and BH is 
given by pofition, therefore the point D is given, but BDG is 
equal to the given angle ACF, therefore DG is given by pofi- 
tion. 


Construction. Join-AC, meeting the circle in H. Join 
BH, and, as @ is to 6, fo let AC be to BD. Through H, D, C 
defcribe a circle to meet FC in K, Join DK; then D is the 
given point, and DK is the line given by pofition, which are 
to be found ; that is, if AE, BE be inflected to any point in the 
circumference, to meet the-given lines in F, G; CF thall be to 
DG as AC to BD, oras ato 6. The arable wise: 3 is eauily de- 
rived from the aie. 

THE foregoing propofitions, in one point of view, may be 
confidered as exhibiting innumerable folutions of certain geo- 
metrical problems of the indeterminate kind, to each of which, 

P.2 if 


ee 


124 GEOMETRICAL PORISMS. 


if fome condition, unconnected with the hypothefis of the pro- 
pofition, be added, there will be formed a problem perfeétly li- 
mited in its nature. 

Tue method of applying the porifms to the folution of many 
problems is obvious enough ; and, as fome of thefe may be of 


a very extenfive nature, and fuch as many others can be reduced 


to, therefore the utility of the porifms will by this means be 
greatly extended. The condition that may be joined to the hy- 
pothefis of each porifmatic propofition, it is evident, may be 
greatly varied : And, hence, it were eafy to form abundance of 
problems, differing from any hitherto propofed: but this would 
extend the paper to too great a length. We fhall therefore on- 
ly give a few examples, of which, let the firft be the Sectio Ra- 
tionis of the ancient geometers. ; 


PR ODP.. XT EO BL BV Fie. 76. Pl atl 


Two ftraight lines AB, AC are given by pofition, and two 
points B, C are given in thefe lines. It is required to 
draw a line through P, a given point, without them, to 
meet them in D and E, fo that BD may have to CE the gi- 
ven ratio of M to N. 


Because the ratio of BD to CE is given; if a circle be de- 


fcribed through the points A, B, C, there is given a point H in — 


the circumference, fuch, that the points A, H, D, E are ina 
circle, (Prop. 1.) therefore if HD, HA be joined, the angle 
HDP is equal to HAE, that is, toa given angle; now H and 
P are given points, therefore D is in the circumference of a gi- 
ven circle, but it is alfo in AB, a line given by pofition ; there- 
fore D is a given point, and PE is given by pofition, which was 
to be found. 

Con- 


GEOMETRICAL PORISMS. 125 


Construction. Through A, B, C defcribe a circle; inflect 
BH, CH to the circumference, fo that BH may be to CH in the 
given ratio of BD to CE, or of M to N*, thus H will be a given 
point. If the fegments BD, CE to be cut off, are to lie in the 
fame direction with AB, AC, the point H muft be found in the 
fame fegment with BAC; but if they are to lie in contrary di- 
rections, then H muft be taken in that feement upon which 
BAC ftands. Join AH and PH, upon which defcribe a feg- 
ment of a circle, that may contain an angle equal to HAC, 
which is given. This circle may cut AB in two points D, 2. Join 
PD and Fd, meeting the remaining line in E and «; thefe lines 
cut off fegments BD, CE, or Bd, Cz, having to each other the 
given ratio of BH to HC, or of M toN. 

Join HD, HE. Becaufe the angle PDH is by conftruction. 
equal to HAE, the points A, H, D, E are in a circle; therefore 
the angle HEA is equal to HDA, that is HDB is equal to HEC; 
now, HBD is equal to HCE, for HBA is equal to HCA, there- 
fore the triangles HCE, HBD are fimilar, and BD is to CE as 
BH to HC, that is, by conftru@tion, as M to N. 

‘Ir is evident that this problem may admit of four folutions in 
general, if there be given no limitation with refpect to the di- 
rection in which the fegments are to be cut off from the given 
lines ; but the data may be fuch as to render it capable of three 
and alfo of two folutions only. 

THE next example fhall be the Seé#io /patii of the ancients. 


PRO Po XS "PROBE EM, Fig! rn Ph me 


Two ftraight lines AB, AC are given by pofition, and two: 
points B, @ are given in thefe lines. It is required to draw 
a. 


* THE manner of doing this has been fhewn in Prop. x. 


126 GEOMETRICAL PORISMS. 


a ftraight line through P, a given point, without them, te 
meet them in D and E, fo that the rectangle BD, CE 
may be equal to a given fpace. 


Suppose that DE is drawn as required. Join PC which will 
be given in pofition and magnitude. Draw PF parallel to AC, 
and take F, fo that the rectangle CP, PF may be equal to the 
given fpace, the point F will therefore be given; draw FL pa- 
rallel to CP, meeting AB in K, and PD in L, then FL and the 
point K will both be given by pofition. The triangles LFP, 
PCE are fimilar; therefore LF is to FP as PC to CE, and the 
rectangle LF, CE is equal to the rectangle FP, PC, which, by 
hypothefis, is equal to the rectangle BD, CE, therefore FL is 
equal to BD ; now, B and F are given points, and BK, FK are 
lines given by pofition ; therefore (Prop. 1.) if a circle be de- 
{cribed through K, B, F, there is a given point H in the circum- 
ference, fuch, that K, H, L, D are in a circle; therefore, if this 
point be found, and HD, HL, HK joined, the angle HDL is 
equal to HKL; therefore HDP is equal to HKF, that is, to a 
given angle; but H and P are given points, therefore D is in 
the circumference of a given circle; but itis alfo in a ftraight 


line given by pofition ; therefore D is a given point, and PD is 


given by pofition, 


Construction, Join P and GC, either of the given points in 


the given lines; draw PF parallel to CA, and take F, fo that the 


given {pace may be the rectangle CP, PF. Draw FL parallel to 
CP, meeting AB in K, and through the points F, B, K defcribe 
a circle. Find H in the circumference, fo that BH may be 
equal to FH. Join HK and HP, upon which defcribe a feg- 
ment of a circle, that may contain an angle equal to HKF; this 
circle may meet AB in two points D, d. Join PD and Pd, meet- 

: ing 


GEOMETRICAL PORISMS. 127 


ing AC in Eande The rectangles BD, CE, and Bod, Ce, are 
each equal to the given rectangle FP, PC. 

Let ED meet FK in L, join HL, HD. Becaufe by conftruc- 
tion the angle HDP is equal to HKF; therefore HDL is equal 
to HKL;; therefore the points H, K, D, L, are in a circle, and 
the angle HLK is equal to HDK, that is HLF is equal to HDB, 
now HFL is equal to HBD, alfo HF is equal to HB; therefore the 
triangles HFL, HBD are in all refpects equal, and FL 1s equal 
to BD. Again, the triangles LFP, PCE are fimilar, therefore 
FL is to FP. as CP to CE, and the re€tangle FL, CE is equal to 
the rectangle FP, PC, but FL is equal to BD, therefore the rec- 
tangle BD, CE is equal to the re€tangle FP, PC, that is to the 
given fpace. In the fame way it may be fhewn that the rec-- 
canes Bt Ce is equal ta FP, PC. 


PROP. Mh. PROPS LEM) *Fig. 18: PLiy.: 


foun ftraight lines DB, DF, CG, BG are given by pofition, it 
is required todrawa line to meet them in the points N,O,P,Q; 
fo that the line NQ may be divided at thefe points, fimilar-. 
ly to a given divided line 2 op q.. 


. Suppose the line NQ drawn as required. Becaufe DB, DF,. 
BF are three ftraight lines given by pofition, and that NQ is di-- 
vided by one of them at O into fegments, having to each other - 
4 given ratio, if a circle be defcribed through the points B, D, F, 
there is & given point E in the circumference, fuch, that the 
points E, B,.N;Q are in a circle, (Prop. 5.). Again, becaufe 
CB, CG, BG are three lines given by pofition, and NQ _is-divi-. 
ded by one of them at P into fegmenits, having to each other a. 
Given ratio, if a circle be deferibed through B, C, G, there is.a 
given point Ain the circumference, fuch, that A, N, B, Q are 
in a circle, (Prop. 's.) |, Thus it appears, that there are given. 
‘three 


128 GEOMETRICAL PORISMS. 


three points A, E, B ina circle, pafling through N and Q, there- 
fore NQ is given by pofition. « | 


Construction. Let DB, BG be the lines upon which the 
extremities of NQ are to be placed. About the triangles BDF, 
BCG, defcribe circles, draw BH parallel to FD, meeting the 
circle DBF in H, and draw BK parallel to CG, meeting the 
circle CBG in K. In DF find L, fo that DL may be to LF as 
no to og, and in CG find M, fo that CM may be to MG as 
np to pq, jom HL meeting the circle DBF in EF, join alfo 
KM meeting the circle CBG in A. Through the points A, E, B 
defcribe a circle meeting DB, BG in N and Q, join NQ_meet- 
ing the other lines in O and P, and NQ_fhall be divided fimi- 
larly to 74g. 

Ir has been proved in Prop. 5. that the point E being found 
as above, if any circle pafs through E and B, and mect DB, GB 
in N and Q, the line joining NQ_ fhall be divided at O, fo 
that NO will be te OQ as DL to LF, that is by conftruction 
as no to og. Likewife, that the point A being found as 
above, if any circle be defcribed through A and B, to meet 
DB, BG in N and Q, the line NQ_ being drawn, fhall be di- 
vided at P, fo that NP will be to PQ as CM to MG, that is by 
conf{truction as ap to pg. Hence, it is obvious, that NQ is 
divided fimilarly to 2 ¢. 

Ir may be remarked, that the preceding conftruction points 
out very clearly, a circum{tance which appears to have efcaped 
the notice of fome Mathematicians that have given folutions of 
the problem,with a view to its application to Aftronomy. It 
is that the given ratios of NO, OP, PQ, to one another may be 
fuch as to render the problem indeterminate. Now, this it is 
evident will be the cafe, if the points A, E fhall both fall at & 
the interfe@tion of the circles. This cafe forms Prop. VI. of this 


paper, fo that it may be fufficient to add here, that the ratios 


which 


GEOMETRICAL PORISMS. 129 


which render the problem indeterminate, are thofe which are 
required to be found, in the propofition juft now quoted. 


PROP, XIV. PROBLEM, Fig. 19. Pl. IV. 


THREE ftraight lines AB, AC, BD are given by pofition, and 
P is a given point. It is required to. draw PE to meet BD 
in E, and PG meeting AB in F, and AC in G, fo that the 
angle EPG may be given, and fo that EP may have to 
FG the given ratio of « tof. 


Suppose the lines drawn as required. In GP take PH equal- 
to FG, therefore the ratio of EP to PH will be given, now the 
angle EPH is. given, therefore Hs in a ftraight line given by 
pofition, (Apoll. Loci Plani, Lib. 1. Prop. 6.) let this line be 
LC. Bifeét PF in K, then becaufe P is a given point, and 
AB is given by pofition, the point K will be in a ftraight line 
given by pofition, (Loci Plani, Lib.1. Prop. 4.) let this line be 
LM. Becaufe GF is equal to PH, and FK to PK, therefore. 
GK is equal to KH, but the lines ML, MG, CL are given by 
_ pofition, therefore, (Prop. 5.) a given point N may be found in 
the circumference of a circle pafling through M, C, L, fuch, that 
the points N, M, G, K are in a circle, therefore if this point be 
found, and NG, NM joined, the angle NGK or NGP is equal 
to the given angle NML, now N and P are given points, there- 
fore G isin the circumference of a given circle, but it is alfo 
in a ftraight line given by pofition, therefore the point G is 
given. 


Construction. Find LC a ftraight line given by pofition, 
fuch, that if PE, PH be drawn meeting BD, CL, and contain- 
ing an angle EPH equal to the fupplement of the given angle 

ERG, 


130 GEOMETRICAL PORISMS. 


EPG, the ratio of EP to PH may be the fame with the given 


ratio of @ to #. (Loci Plani, Prop. 6. Lib. 1.) Find alfo a 


ftraight line LM given by pofition, fuch, that PF drawn to any 
point in AB, may be bifected by itin K. Through L, M, C, 
the interfections of the given lines LM, AC, LC, defcribe a cir- 
cle. Draw CO parallel to LM, meeting the circle in O; bife@ 
ML in Q; join OQ meeting the circle in N ; join NM, and 
inflect NG, PG to AC, fo that the angle NGP may be equal to 
NML; draw PE, fo that the angle EPG may be fuch as is re- 
quired. 

Let GP meet CL in H, and AB in F, alfo LM inK ; join NH, 
NK, NL. Since NGP is equal to NML, the points N, K, G, M 
are in a circle, and the angle NKH is equal to NMG or N MC, that 
is to NLH; therefore the points N, K, L, H are in a circle, and 
the angle NHK 3 is equal to NLQ; now NKH is equal to NMG 
or NOC, that is (OC being parallel to ML) to NQL; therefore 
the triangles NKH, NQL are fimilar. In like manner it ap- 
pears, that NKG, NQM are fimilar; therefore ML and GH 
are fimilarly divided at Q and K, but ML is bifeéted at Q; 
therefore GH is bifected at K; now PF is alfo bifef@tea at K; 
therefore GF is equal to PH, and EP is to FG as EP to PH, 
that is, by conftruction, as @ to B. 


PRO RY AV. PO BY, EW Pie, 20; PRY. 


Turee ftraight lines AB, AC, BC are given by pofition, and 
three points D, E, F are given in thefe lines. Itis required 
to draw a ftraight line GHK to meet them, fo that DG, 
EH, FK may have to each other the given ratios that P, Qs 
R have among themfelves. 


Suppofe 


GEOMETRICAL PORISMS. 131 


Suppose that the line is drawn as required. Becaufe the ra- 
tio of DG to EH is given, there is given (prop. 1.) a point M in 
the circumference of a circle pafling through A, D, E, fuch, that | 
the points A, M, G, H are inacircle. If this point be found, 
and MG, MH, MD, ME joined, the angle GMH is equal to 
GAH orto DME. Alfo if MA, DE be joined, the angle MHG 
is equal to MAG or to MED. Therefore the triangle MHG is fi- 
m ilar to thegiven triangle MED, and the angle MHG is given. 

In like manner, becaufe the ratio of EH to FK is given, there 
is given a point N in the circumference of a circle pafling through 
E, C, F, fuch, that N, C, H, K are in a circle: If NH, NK, NE, 
NF, NG, EF be joined, it may be proved, in the fame way, that 
the triangle NHK is fimilar to NEF, hence the angle NHK is 
given. Now, the angles MHG, NHK being each proved to be 
given, the angle MHN is given, and the points M, N_ being 
alfo given, the point H is in the circumference of a given circle ; 
but it is alfo in a ftraight line given by pofition ; therefore the 
point H is given, and the angles MHG, NHK being given, the 
line GK is given by pofition, which was to be found. 


Construction. Through the points A, D, E defcribe a cir- 
cle, and infleé¢t DM, EM to the circumference, fo that DM may 
be to EM as P to Q. Defcribe alfo a circle through C, E, F, 
and infleét EN, FN to the circumference, fo that EN may be to 
FN as Q to R. Join DE, EF, and infle¢tt MH, NH to the 
ftraight line AE, fo that the angle MHN may be the fupplement 
of the fum of MED and NEF; draw HG, fo that the angle 
MHG may be equal to MED; then NHK is equal to NEF. 

Join MG, MA.  Becaufe the angle MHG is equal to MED 
or to MAG, the points M, A, H, G are in a circle; hence the 
angle MHE is equal to MGD; now MEH is equal to MDG; 
for MEA is equal to MDA; therefore the triangles MEH, MDG 
are fimilar, and DG is to EH as DM to ME, that is as P to Qo: 


O25. : In 


132, |GEOMETRICAL PORISMS, 


In like manner it may be proved, that becaufe the angle NEF 
~is equal to NHK, the points N, C, H, K are’in a circle, and 
hence that the triangle NEH is fimilar to NFK.;. hence EH is 
to FK as' EN to FN, that. is as Q toR. Therefore GHK is 
drawn as required. | 


PROP. XVI. PROBLEM, Fig: 20. PI. IV. 


’ Ir is required-to defcribe a triangle DEF fimilar to a given 
triangle def, having one of its fides EF pafling through 
P a given point, and having its angles in a given order up- 
on three ftraight lines’ AB, AC, BC. given by pofition. 


Tue conftruétion of this problem follows readily from the 
8th propofition, as follows’: 


Draw AG, GK, fo as to'form a triangle AGK, familar to the 
given triangle de f, and having its angles: upon the given’ lines 
in the given order. 

Turovuca A, G, any two of its angles, and C, the interfection 
of the lines upon’ which they are placed, defcribe a circle. 
Through G, K,.and B, the interfeCtion' of GC, KA, defcribe a> 
circle meeting the former in H. From the points’ Hy, P inflect 
HE, PE to CB, fo that the angle HEP may be equal to HGR; 
let PE meet AB in F. Through H, C, E defcribe a circle to 
meet CA in D:; join DE, DF, and: the triarigle DEF fhall be fi- 
milar to AGK or to deft 

Join HD, HF, HA, HK, HB, HC. Becaufe, by conftruction, 
the angle HEF is equal to HGK or to HBX, the’ points H, B)E, 
F are in a circle, and the angle FHE is equal to FBE or KHG,. 
therefore the triangles EHF, GHK are fimilar.. In like’ manzer, 
becaufe a circle pafles through H, G,; D, E, the angle DHEas‘equal ~ 
to DCE or AHG, and! HDE is’ equal! to! HCE or HAG, therefore: 

the. 


GEOMETRICAL PORISMS. ee 


the triangles EHD; GHA are fimilar. Now the triangle HEF 
was proved fimilar to HGK. Therefore the quadrilateral. ELDER 
is fimilar to HAGK, and the angle DEF is equal to AGK 3, alfo 
DE is to EF as AG to GK; therefore the triangle DEF is fimi- 
_lar to AGK or to def, as was required. 


/ 


PROP. XVII. PROBLEM, Fig. 21. PI. IV. 


A and B are two given points in the circumference of a gi- 
ven circle. C and D are two given points in ftraight lines 
CE, DE given by pofitiom. It is required to inflect AF; BF 
to the given circumference, meeting the given lines in G 

_ and H, fo that the reCtangle CG, DH may be equal to:a 
given fpace. | 


Because A and B are given points in the circumference of a 
- given circle, and D is a given point in a line DE given by pofi- 
tion, a line LM, and a point M in it, both given by pofition, 
may be found, (prop. 1o.), fo that BF, AF being inflected to 
amy point in the circumference, meeting the given line DE in 
H ; and the line LM, which may be found in N, the ratio of 
DH to MN, may be given. | 

Suppose the line ML found, fo that MN may be equal to DH, 
then the rectangle MN, CG is equal to DH, CG, which by hy- 
pothefis is given. Now A is a given:point, and C, M are given 
points in ftraight lines given by pofition. Therefore the pro- 
blem is now reduced to the 12th propofition of this paper. 


ConsTRucTion. Join B and D, the given point, in the line 
whofe fegment is to be intercepted by BF. Let BD meet the 
circle in K; join AK, and take AM equal to BD. Through the 
points D, M, K defcribe a circle cutting DE in L, and AK in 
M. Join LM, and from the point A (by prop. 12.) draw a 
ftraight line to meet CE in G, and LM in N, fo that the rec- 


tangle 


134 GEOMETRICAL PORISMS. 


_ tangle MN, CG may be equal to that which is to be contained 
by CG,DH. Let AN meet the circle in F; join BF meeting 
DE in /H. . : | 

Tue angle HDB is equal to LMK or AMN, and the angle 
DBH is equal to MAN; now BD tis equal to AM ; therefore | 
the triangles BDH, AMN are in all refpeéts equal, and DH is 
equal to MN. Therefore the rectangle DH, CG is equal to 
MN, CG, that is, (by conftruction), to the given fpace as requi- 
red. 


IT is eafy to fee, how, in like manner, by drawing AGN, fo 
that CG may be’to MN in a given ratio, (prop. 11.), the 
lines BF, AF fhall cut off fegments DH, CG, having to each 
other a given ratio. 


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V. DETERMINATION of the LATITUDE and LoncitTuDE of the 
OBSERVATORY at ABERDEEN: In Two Letters from 
ANDREW Mackar, LL.D. & F. R. S. Epin. to FoHN 
Piarrair, ¥. R.S. Evin. and Profeffor of Mathematics 
in the Univerfity of Edinburgh. 


EBD PE Ro fk. 


[Read 2d Dec. 1793.] 


DEAR Sir, Aberdeen, 18th September 1793. 


OME time ago I promifed to fend you the refult of a feries 
of obfervations, made to determine the fituation of this 
place. Having, however, been much hurried of late, I am only 
able at prefent to tranfmit you the determination of the latitude, 
deduced from a feries of obfervations of the fun’s meridian ze- 
nith diftances. With refpect to the longitude, as foon as it 1s 
in my power, I will reduce fome obfervations of occultations, 
and of the late folar eclipfe, and fend you the refults. 

Tue following obfervations of the fun’s meridian zenith di- 
{tances were made with a moveable quadrant of two feet radius, 
conftructed by Mr Maccurtitocu of London. ‘This qua- 
drant has two feparate fets of divifions: the quadrantal arc of 
the ‘inner fet is divided into ninety degrees as ufual; and the 
exterior arc is divided into ninety-fix primary divifions ; each of 


which 
a 


136 | DETERMINATION of the LATITUDE 


which is fubdivided into eight equal parts; and the vernier 
gives one thirty-fecond part of a fubdivifion, or 13,18. A 
micrometer {crew is attached to the vernier, which ferves to re- 
gulate the motion of the index, and by which, the excefs in fe- 
conds above the next lefs divifion of the vernier is fhown. 

Eacu zenith diftance was read off, at leaft, three times, both 
from the ninety and ninety-fix arcs, and the means of each were 
taken. hefe ferved as a check on each other ; however, the 
zenith diftance, as given by the ninety-fix arc only, is ufed 
for obvious reafons. The ninety-fix arc was found to be about 
12” lefs than go° ; and the error of the line of collimation at 
the vertical radius was about a fecond and a half, fubtra¢tive. 

As the tranfit inftrument and quadrant were placed in adja- 
cent rooms, it was therefore in my power to obferve both the 
fun’s tranfit and zenith diftance the fame day; however, the paf- 
fage of the fun’s weft limb over the fifth wire, and that of the 
eaft limb over the firft wire, were by this means loft. Hence, 
alfo, the zenith diftance of one limb only of the fun could be 
obferved ; and the true zenith diftance will be affected by the 
error of the fun’s femidiameter, as given in the Nautical Alma- 
nac, and by the irradiation, which according to M. pu SEjour, 
exceeds three feconds. 

THE middle wire in the telefcope of the quadrant fubtended 
an angle of no lefs than 20”,6; therefore, as it was fcarce pof- 
fible to bring the fun’s limb exactly to the middle of the wire, 
I conf{tantly made the lower edge of the wire a tangent to the 
fun’s apparent lower limb. ‘The zenith diftances in the follow- 
ing table are the differences between thofe obferved and the fe- 
midiameter of the wire, the tenths of a fecond being neglected. 

THE fifth column of the table contains the error of the line 
of collimation, combined with that of the ninety-fix arc, taking | 
it for granted that this arc is accurately divided. In column 
fixth is the fun’s femidiameter, from the Nautical Almanac, to the 

I nearelt 


a ds ee ree ae ne 


And LONGITUDE of ABERDEEN. 137 


neareft fecona? The next column contains the aggregate of the 
three preceding columns, and is the fun’s apparent central ze- 
nith diftance. The eighth column contains the mean refraction, 
anfwering to the apparent zenith diftance of the fun’s limb ; 
hence the allowance for the contraction of the femidiameter at 
low altitudes is avoided. The next column contains the mean 
refraction reduced to the true, by the application of the correc- 
tions depending on the heights of the barometer and thermo-- 
meter, as they are found in Table VIII. of my book on the 
Longitude: In column tenth is the fun’s parallax; and the quan- 
tities in the two laft columns, applied to thofe in column feventh, 


give thefe in column eleventh, being the true zenith diftances 


of the fun’s centre. The following column contains the fun’s 
declination, reduced to the meridian ofthis place; and in the 
laft column is the latitude. 


Vou. IV. R Obferved. 


138 DETERMINATION of the LATITUDE 
Obferved Diftances of the Sun’s Upper Limb-from the Zenith of the Obfervatory,. 


Err.| Sun’s Ped {> 

1786. |H. of | Th.| Zen. dit. |Qua.| Semid. | Appar. Zen.{M.Ref.|Ref. (Par. | True Zenith} Declination | Latitude, 

; Rar. +] add. diftance. — | diftance. . 
B May 17.|29-78 148° |37° 26’ 46] 3" | 15° 5t" 137° 42' 40"lo' 44" [o' 4g” | 5" 137% 43° 19"| 19° 25'49"|57° 9 8” 
h June 3.130-15 1624 134 2955 |] 3 | 315 49 134 45 471039 |0 359 |5 |34, 46 21 J22 22 49157 9 10 
© — 4.|30-26 |60 134 22 5613 | 15 48 [34 38 47}0 39 jo 39 |5 134 39 2X }22 29 52/57 913 © 
Y — 5-130-36 {6r 134 161413 175 48 134 32 S]o 38 Jo 38 |5 [34 32 38|22 36 31)57 9 9 
B — 7-/30-23 [59 [34 4 0)3 | 15 48 134 I9 st]o 38 Jo 38 FS 134 2024 }22 48 39157 9 3 
my — 8.}29.09 [553 |33 5845 |3 115 48 [34 14 36]0 38 jo 38 | 5 [34 15 9 |22 54 7157 9 16 
}. — 10./ 29-83 1545133 49 8 73, | 15 4834 4 53 to 38) lo 37 15 134 § 23 148) “Anse lcy Gam 
@ — 1. }3000 153 [33 44 4013 | 35 48 134 © 3rfjo 38 Jo 38 15 (34 £ 4123 8 4|57 9 8 
D — 12.[29.98 ]54% 133 40 47|]3 115 48 433 56 38/0 38 Jo 38 | 5 $33 57 12 (23 11 55 9 6 
YU — 15.]30.05 [58 133 31 3613 115 47 133 47 26\0 38 10 38 | 5 (33 47 591/23 2% F 9 9 
© — 18.137.06 |55 33 262013 115 47 133 42 191/037 (937 | 5 133 42 42 123 26 24 6 6 
D — 19-13005 156 135 25 30] 3 115 47 133 41 201057 ]0 37 | 5 133 4% 52123 27 22 9 14 
3d — 20.)30-08 |60 [35 24 4513 115 47 |33 4935 ]° 37 1037 |5 133 41 7123 27 56 oom 
B — 21-130-05 (63 33 24 37]3 115.47 133 4° 2710 37 1037 | 5 |33 40 59123 28 5 9 4 
UY — 22.)29-89 |65 |33 245313 | 15 47 133 43 |° 0 36 | 5 {33 4% 14 123 27 49 9 3a 
%h — 24.\29- ‘ 3 32 |o 936 |5 |33 43 3 |23 26 9 5 
© — 25.|29.86 |66 133 28 0 | 3 |15 47 |33 44 © 19 37 |9 36 | 5 9 3 
3S — 27.429.65 {58 133 32 2813 | 15 47 133 48 18 ]o 38 Jo 37 | 5 9 6 
© July 2.]30-00 |57 133 501313 125-47 [34 6 31]° 38 J|o 38 | 5 9 4 
D —- 3-]29-71 163 133 54 5613 | 19 47-134 10 46 Jo 38 10 37 .1 5 5 ¢ 
So — §.430-29 [617 134 § 52 |3 115 47 134 21 42 ]0 38 Jo 38 | 5 9 13 
h — 15.]30-31 [66 }34 22 36 |3 | 5 47 134 38 26 |0 39 |0 39 | 5 8 so 
a — 18.130.3r 163 135 525613 | 15 47 ]36. 8 46|0 41 jo 41 5 8 57 
Q@ — 27.(30.02 |57 |36 26 30 | 3 rg 48 |26* 42 21 /o 42 Yo 42 5 8 58 
© 33: ° 5 9 4 
2f Aug. 3: 39 26 25 Oo 4 5 9 12 
# 4: ° 5 9 g 
h 5: ° 5 9 6 
h 6. I 6 9 2 
) I 6 9 40 
pid I 6 8 54 
h I 6 9 8 
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QE I 9 128 
8 I 9 
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git 2 8 
kh + 8 
10) 5 8 
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© 5 8 
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' 


: fo) 
Q May 4.29.81 ° 
D) — 14.| 30.06 ° 
ad — 22. 2.987 fo} 
& June 12. | 30.12 ° 
Q — 15.|29-61 ° 
h — 16.}29.66 fe} 
hh Sept. 1. | 30.52 t 
3 — 19.}29.25 I 
h — 2%. 129-49 I 
© = 23- 129-49 I 


HHOapRiov 


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wn Aw 
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SI CO% wmmyIWIN DHUUNUN|UADA VvKowowvw/OO OM HN AI 


And LONGITUDE of ABERDEEN. 139 


Havine the following obfervations of fixed ftars reduced, I 
have alfo fent them. 


Obferved Diftances of Fixed Stars from the Zenith of the Obfervatory. 


—S ————-s 


a 


Error |Mean ; True , 
Bar.|Th.| Name of Stars. | Zen. dift. |Quad.|Ref. | Ref. [T. Zen. dift. |M. Declina.| Ab. | Nut.| App! Decl.| Latitude. 


ee 
--|_—_— -- 


.}29.82] 55 |Arcturus 30° 50/ 14/|+- 3/0! 43/l0"4 3/136° gil OM \z0° 18% aft 6M — 4/Na0% 18! 1/57 of xP 
+ |29-49] 55 |e Lyra. 32 37 © 19 [9 19 [18 32 57 38 35 45 16 ++ 8/8 36 9 157 9 6 
- 130-37 | 44 |Altair. a 48 31 ; I 5 |t 8 48 49 44 19 20 9 On| Se arop nancy 8! 55 
26. 130.42 | 44 48 4829] 5 |E 5 |x 8 48 4 42 Saye 9 | oO f8 1911 [57 8 53 
e + 2|29.50| 37 |Pole Star. gr "x "0 2 lo 34 Jo 35 gr 1 37 |88 Yo 8 |4+ 17 7 |88 10 32 [57 8 55 
‘© — 74.29.93 | 24 ty Cals. arc Excefs.|87 35 12 j= fo 2]9 2 [87 35 13 59 33 53 17 3 159 3413 |57 9 9 
= — | —|é Caffiopeia: 88 1 23 i jo @/O-2 \88 £.a4 [59 “7 12 16 5 soe ga sr 8 $2 
B — 27. !28.95| 36 fa Cafliopeia. I 46 47 tlo 2fo 2] 46 48 [55 52 59 16 Sse saexo SF Or 7 


Latitude, 57 8 sok 


Tue declinations of the above ftars were taken from M. DE 
LA Lanpe’s catalogue of the declinations of 350 ftars, adapted 
to the beginning of the year 1790. 

I sHaALL conclude by obferving, that the differences in the 

above latitudes are to be attributed to the error of obfervation, 
to the inaccuracy of the divifion of the quadrant, and to the un- 
certainty of the refraction, efpecially at low altitudes. If the re- 
fraction at 45° be affumed a little greater than that by Dr 
BRADLEY, the refults will agree much better. It muft alfo. 
be obferved, that the fmoke of the town will piercer the refrac-. 
tion. 


f 
if 
i 7 
: 
és 


[ am, 
Dear Sir, 
Your obedient fervant, 


ANDREW MAcKaX. 


kh 2 | Sas ead (ess 


140 DETERMINATION of the LATITUDE 


™> 


2, Cee oa ee Rf ee OE, 


DEAR SiR, Aberdeen, 20th September 1796. 


AVING finifhed the comparifon of a confiderable number 
of obfervations, made in this place, in order to determine 
its longitude, with correfponding obfervations made at Green- 
wich, I now fend you the feveral refults. The obfervations ufed 
for this purpofe are, eclipfes of the fatellites of Jupiter, particu- 
larly thofe of the firft and fecond fatellites, folar and lunar eclip- 
fes, occultations, &c. Thefe obfervations were made with one 
of Dottonnp’s three and a half foot achromatic telefcopes, and 
powers of about feventy, and one hundred and fifteen, were ap- 
plied to the telefcope, according to circumftances. The obfer- 
vations at Greenwich were made with one of DoLLonp’s for- 
ty-fix inch achromatic telefcopes. 


As the refults, deduced from a comparifon of the correfpond- 


ing obfervations of the firft and fecond {fatellites of Jupiter, are 
much 


_ * CommunicaTeD 7th November 1796. 


And LONGITUDE of ABERDEEN. iat 


much more to be depended on than thofe inferred from. the ob- 
fervations of the third and fourth fatellites, I have therefore re- , 
jected the obferyations of the two laft. This I was mclined to, 
do, partly from» the difagreement of the refults of the corre-. 
{ponding obfervations of thefe two {fatellites, and partly upon 
account of the fmallnefs of the number of correfponding obfer- 
vations. Indeed, as thefe two fateilites take a confiderable time 
to immerge into, and emerge out of the fhadow of Jupiter, and 
as the ftate of the atmofphere, at the times of obfervation at 
Greenwich and Aberdeen, may be very different, and as powers 
will be applied to the telefcopes according to the ftate of the, 
atmofphere, it is not wonderful, that there fhould be a con- 
fiderable difference between the refults of the actual obfer- 
vations ; and hence the propriety of rejecting the obfervations. * 
of the third and fourth fatellite will be obvious ; efpecially in the 
cafe when the corref{ponding obfervations are very few, and the 
number of immerfions unequal to that of the emerfions. The 
longitude of this place, as.-deduced from the comparifon of the 
actual obfervations of the firft and fecond {fatellites of Jupiter, 
made here and at Greenwich, feems to be lefs than the truth, or, 
at leaft, lefs than what | had been accuftomed to ftate it; but 
the near agreement of the final refults of each of thefe fatellites 
_is really furprifing. 

OF all the other obfervations which [ have compared, I have 
fent you only two, as being the moft to be relied on, namely, a 
folar eclipfe, and an occultation, befides a lunar eclipfe, which I . 
had publifhed formerly in my Treatife on the Longitude, and 
which is not far from being a mean between.the refults of the 
other obfervations. I had, indeed,-only one other occultation, 
of which the obfervations at Greenwich and Aberdeen were 
complete, namely, that of (vw of 15th October 1790; my 
other obfervations of that kind, being either incomplete, or ha- 
ving no correfponding obfervations at Greenwich. 

J 


142. DETERMINATION of the LATITUDE 


I HAVE made the calculations for the longitude from the folar 
eclipfe and occultation, firft, on the fuppofition that the figure 
of the earth rs a perfect {phere ; and, fecondly, upon Sir Isaac 
NewrTon’s fpheroidal hypothefis, in which the equatorial dia- 
meter is to the axis of the earth as 230: 229; between which 
limits, it is probable, is the real figure of the earth. In the rules 
which I gave, in my Treatife on the Longitude, for making the 
calculations by means of the nonagefimal, I followed the method 
of calculating the parallaxes in latitude and longitude, which 
had been given by M. pe EA Lanog, in the firft and fecond 
editions of his 4/fronomie: But, in the prefent calculations, I 
have ufed the method which was given for the firft time by 
M. Mayer, in the fecond volume of the Memoirs of Gottingen, 
publifhed in the year 1753; and, again, in his Solar and Lunar 
ables, printed at London, by order of the Board of Longitude, 
in the year 1770. This fame method has alfo been employed. 
by Meffrs LexeLtt, DE ta Grance, and De Lamsre: And 
it has been adopted by M. DE ta Lanne, in the fecond volume 
of the third edition of his A/ronomie, printed at Paris in the 
year 1792*. It may alfo be proper to mention, that I have. 
followed M. pu Seyour, and M. pe La Lawpe, in wing an ir- 
~ radiation of 33 for the fun’s femidiameter, and an inflexion of 
the fame quantity for the moon’s. See Seyour’s Traité Ana- 
iytique, &c. vol. I. p. 253 and 264; and De ta Lanpe’s Affro- 
nomic, third edition, vol. Il. p. 445. 

As fome perhaps will be inclined ‘to repeat the calcu- 
lations for the longitude, from the obfervations of the fo- 
lar eclipfe and occultation, it will therefore be neceflary to 

inform 


* In making thefe calculations, I was led to difcover an error in the method I 
had given in my Treatife on the Longitude, for finding the longitude of a place by 
an occultation. That error, and feveral others, will be corrected in a new edition 
of that work. 


And’ LONGITUDE of ABERDEEN. 143 


- 


inform them what tables I ufed for that purpofé. The loga- 
rithmic tables were TAYLor’s, CALLET’s, and SHERWIN’s. 
From Taytor’s Zadles were taken the logarithm fines and tan- 
gents of arches, and converfely. The logarithm fines, and 
converfely of the parallaxes, were taken from CaLet’s Tables : 
and the logarithms of numbers from SHERWIN’s. By this 
means much time was faved in thefe extenfive calculations. 
The natural verfed fines were taken from my TZreatife on the 
Longitude ; and the augmentation of the moon’s femidiameter 
was taken from M. pe Lamsre’s Taéles, for finding it by 
means of the altitude and longitude of the nonagefimal, which, 
therefore, faved the trouble of calculating the altitude of the 
moon. The fun’s parallax was taken from the Connoiffance des 
Temps; and, as I had not the Nautical Almanac for the year 
1788, the elements for the folar eclipfe were taken from the 
Connoiffance des Temps for that year ; but the elements for the 
occultation were taken from the Nautical Almanac for 1787. 


DETER- 


144 DETERMINATION of the LATITUDE 


DETERMINATION of the Longitude of the Obfervatory at 
Aberdeen, by the Eclipfes of the Firft and Second Sa- 
tellites of Jupiter. 


ed 


FIRST SA TELLITLE. 


SS —————— 


SS 


Apparent Time of Obfervation at 


Longitude in 


Year, Month, 


Este Alii ra at ise ei tal aa see 
Immer. Emer. Immer. Emer. {| Immer. | Emer. 
Toe i U ‘s h. / 4 h. / " h. ‘ " ‘ pee ae 
& Jan. 03.3986. | 8 15 54 8 7 39 ee 
)Sept.18.——_ |16 7 37 15 58 57 8 40 
3 30. 10 36 48 10 27 40 8 58 
» Dec. 30. 9 45 20 9 37 43 Mex 
¥ Jan. 31. 1787. 6 55 32 657 8 8 24 
3 Feb. 23. —— 6 31 57 6 23 46 8 11 
© Dec.14. 1788.| 8 34 55 S 24 12 7.43 
g Mar.:1.1791-} 9 14 8 9 5 23 8 45 
» Apr. 9.—— io 4 48 9 56 49 7 59 
126| 26 
Longitude, 8 315/38 5.2% 
: ak 
Mean, . 8 18.3 
SECOND SATELLITE. | 
h. ee Brat .f a LA / " Fo yl / 4 7 
$ Nov. 7.1786.| 9 10 27 § , 1.23 9 4 
4 Mar. 8. 1787. ly 48 3 7 49 14 7 49 
9 Dec. 21. |5 14 30 5 6 24 3.3 
py Nov. 9. 1789.'14 23 42; EA ES 24) 8 18 


17 22115 52 
Longitude, 8 411 7 56 


8 41 

16 37 
Mean, 8 18.5 
Mean by 1ft Sat. 8 18.3 
Mean Longitude, 8 18.4 


DETER- 


And LONGITUDE of ABERDEEN. 


145 


DETERMINATION of the Longitude of the Obfervatory at Aber-. 
~ deen, from the Apparent Times of Obfervation of the Begin- 
ning and End of the Solar Eclipfe of 3d June 1788 : Obferved 
at Greenwich and Aberdeen. 


h. e " 
Apparent time of begin. at Greenwich, 19 24 463 at Aberdeen, 
of end. - 21 F 24 
: z 1 36 372 


Interval, 


h. y ia | 
19 33 19 
20 57 37 


124 18 


CompuTaTION of the Apparent Time of Conjunction at Green- 


wich, on the Spherical Hypothefis. 


Sate it ened 
Moon’s true longitude at beginning, 2 13 19 37 at ending, 
Computed parallax in longitude, - M30 TE 
Moon’s apparent longitude nearly, - 2 13 49 48 
Moon’s equat. hor. parallax, - 60 33.0 
Sun’s horizontal parallax, - - 8.7 
~ Difference of parallax of fun and moon, 60 24.3. 
5 a ee a 
App. time beg. 19 24 46% 
Sun’s R. A. 4 §t 302 
R. A. meridian, o 16 17 
6 
Arch, 6 16 17 v. fine, 0.0297853 co-fecant, 
Latitude, 51 28 4o co-fine, 9-7943612 fecant, 
Ob. ecliptic, Pie ime fine, 9-6001327 
Sum, 714 56 43 co. V.s. 034322 
265631 9.4242792 
Alt, nonag. 45 34 9 Vv. fine, 299953 fine, 
Vou. IV.. 5. 


oe 


2 14 41 31 


° / re 


2 14 18 59 


22 32 


Q.001097T 
02056388 


98537566 


eR ee eee 


Long. 


146 DETERMINATION of the LATITUDE 


. Q , “ 

Long. nonag. 29 32 39 fecant, 0.0604925 

Moon’s app. long. 73 49 48 

Diff. = 44 17 9 fine, 9:8440037 ) 

Alt. nonag. 45 34g fine, 9-85 37566 co-fine, 9-8451277 

Diff. hor. par. 60 24.3 fine, 8.2447766 fine, 8.2447756 

Par..in long. go. 7.0 fine, 79425369 P.inlat. 42’17."1, 8.0899043 

h. , uw 

App. time end, 24° “E 24 

Sun’s R. A. 4 5147 

R. A. mer. E59).15 

6 
Arch, - 5 ee ew v. fine, 0.1685046 co-fecant, 0.0552648 
Latitude and obl. 74 56 43 co. v.s. 034322 9-3944939 ' 0.2056388 
365593 9.5629985 

Alt. nonag. 53 7 26v.fine, 399915 fine, 99030547 

Long. nonag. 46 43 15 fecant, 0.1639583 

Moon’sapp.long. 74 41 35 / 

Dift.) 4 Non. 27 58 16 fine, 9.6711972 — 

Alt. nonag. 46 43 15 fine, 9-9030547 co-fine, 9.7782140 

Diff. hor. par. 60 26.2 fine, 8.2450042 fine, 8.24 50042 | 
_ Par. in long. 22 34.2 fine, 48172561 P. in lat. 36’16."0, $.0232182 

t “ if wu 

Moon’s true mot. in long. in ob. int. - 59 22.0 ‘True mot. in lat. §.,.3%3° 2 

Sun’s true mot. in long. - tie 3.51.0 Par. in lat.atend. 36 16.0 | 

Moon’s true rel. mot. in long. - 55 31.0 Sum, 41 46.3 

Par. in long. at beginning, - - 30 7.0 Par. in lat.at begin. 42 17.5 “am 

at ending, - - + 22 34.2 App. mot..in lat. 30.8 


App. rel. mot. in longitude, - 47 58.2 
4 Apparent 


And LONGITUDE of ABERDEEN. 147 
4 
Apparent mot. in lat. 30.8 1.4885 507 
Apparent mot. in long. 47 58.2 3-4591210 3-4591210 
Apparent inclination 36'47”, tang. 8.0294297 co-fine, 9-9999751 
Moon’s apparent mot, in relative orbit, 2878./3 - 3-4591459 
2 , / , W y ty 
Moon’s femidiameter at begin. 16 30 at.end. 16530 Sun’s femid. 15 48-5 
Augmentation, - + 9.0 + 12.5 Irradiation, 3°5 
Inflexion, 2 — 3.5 — 3.5 Cor. femid. 15 45.0 
Corrected femidiameter, 16, 35+5 16. 39.0 
Sun’s femidiameter; - 15 45.0 15 45.0 
Sum, - : 32 20.5 32% 24.0 
vv 
Sum of femid. at end. 1944.0 - - ar. co. log. 6.7113037 
at begin. 1940.5 ar.co.log. 6.7120864 3.2879136 
App. mot. in rel. orbit, 2878.3 ar.co.log. 6.5408639 
Sum, Wine 6762.8 
Half, - 3381.4 log. 3-5290965 
Remainder, - ~ 1437-4 log. 3.1575776 
19.9396244 
21 6 59 _~ co-fine, 9.9698122 
Central angle at begin. 42 13 58 - - fine, 9-8274625 
’ a 
° a a“ 
Central angle at end. 42 8 21 fine, 9:3266798 
° ean fe ° fh 
Central angle at begin. 42 13 58 atend. 42 8 a1 
App. inclination, 36 47 App.in. 36 47 
Arch, - 42 50.45 co-s. 9.8652142 Arch, 41 31 34 cO-S.. 9.8742810 
Sum of femidiameters, Pino reas 32879136 fumfem. 32 24 3.2886963 
23, 42.8 3+1531278 24 15.4 3:1629773 


Par 


148 


° ‘ 4 


Par. in long. at begin. 30 0 


. —— 


Sum, - 53 49.8 

Rel. mot. in long. = 2h (yd or 

Obferved interval, 1) 36) 37% 
egy er? 


Int, bet. beg. andconj. 7 33 414 
App. time of beg. 19 24 46.5 


App. time of conj. 20 58 27.9 


DETERMINATION of the LATITUDE 


atend. 22 34.2 : 
—_ *» 
3-5091756 Diff. I 41.2 _2.0051805 
ar. CO. 6.477425 4 6.474254 
3-7632408 3-7632408 


3-7498418 bet.end & con. 
Apparent time of ending, 21 


2 56.1 2.2458467 
ae 


20 58 27.9 


CompPuTATion of the Apparent Time of Conjunction at Aberdeen. 


h. , ” h. Par 
App. time of begin. - 19 33 19 App. time of end. 20 49 29 
Eftimated longitude, + 8 36 + 8 36 
Reduced time, - 19 41 55 20 §8 5 
Moon’s true long. - 2.13 30 8 at end. 214 16 57 
Par. in long. nearly, - + 24 49 + 19 4§ 
Moon's app. long. nearly, 2-13°54 57 2 14 36 42 
Moon’s hor, parallax, ES" 23.35 60 34.8 
Sun’s 8.7 8.7 
Diff, hor. par. . 60 24.6 60 2641 
App. time of begin. - 19 35). 19 App. time of end. 20 44 29 
_Sun’s right afcenfion, 4, Fees 4 51 47 
Right afcen. meridian, © 247-53 I 4% 16 


Now, with the right afcenfion of the meridian at the begin- 
ning, increafed by fix hours, or 64 24’ 53’, the latitude of the 
place of obfervation 57° 9° 0”, and the obliquity of the ecliptic 
23° 28° 3”, the altitude of the nonagefimal is 41° 39° 6”, and 
its longitude 35° 46° 6”; hence the moon’s apparent diftance 
from the nonagefimal is 38° 8’ 51”, with which the altitude of 


the 


And LONGITUDE of ABERDEEN. 149 


the nonagefimal, and difference of the horizontal oa axes of 
the fun and moon, the parallax in longitude 1 is 24'-47".9, and in 
latitude 45'8”.2. 

AGAIN, with 75 41’ 16", the fum of the right afcenfion of 
the iit uate and fe hours, the latitude and obliquity of the 
_ ecliptic, the altitude of the nonagefimal, is 47° 17’ 40”, and lon~ 
gitude 48° 8’ 35”; the apparent diftance of the moon from the 
nonagefimal is, therefore, 26° 28’ 7; from whence, the altitude 
of the nonagefimal, and the difference of the horizontal paper: 
laxes of the fun and moon, the x gore in i aie is 19° 47°.0, 
and parallax in latitude 40’ 59”.3. 

THE true motion of the moon in longitude is 46’ 48”.2, and 
that of the fun 3’ 2”.1; hence the moon’s relative motion in 
longitude is 43° 46’.1; from which, fubtracting the difference 
of the parallaxes in longitude 5’ 0.3, the remainder 38’ 45.8 
is the apparent relative motion of the moon in longitude. 

THE true motion of the moon in latitude, in the obferved in- 
terval, is 4’20".4; from which, fubtracting 4’ 8.9, the diffe- 
rence of the parallaxes in latitude, the remainder is the moon’s 
apparent motion in latitude. 

Now, with the apparent motions of the moon in longitude 
and latitude, the apparent inclination is found to be 17’ 0”, and 
the apparent motion of the moon in its relative orbit is 2325”.8. 

Wirs the altitude and longitude of the moon at the begin- 
ning and end of the eclipfe, the augmentation of the moon’s fe- 
midiameter at the beginning is g’.o, and at the end 11.4; 
hence the moon’s femidiameter, corrected by the augmentation 
and inflexion, is 16’ 35”.5 at the beginning of the eclipfe, and 
16 37.9 at the end; and the fum of the femidiameters of the 
fun and moon, at thofe times, are’ 32’ 20".5, and 32 22”.9 re- 
{pectively ; with which, and the moon’s apparent motion in re-~ 
lative orbit, the central angle at the beginning of the eclipfe is 

a3 


iso DETERMINATION of the LATITUDE 


53° 15’ 20", and at the end 53° 9-39’; hence arch firft is 
53°32 20°; and: arch! fecomd' 52? +52'13.9. 

With thefe arches, and the fum of the femidiameters of the 
fun and moon at the beginning and end of the eclipfe, arches 
third and fourth will be found equal to 19' 13’.2 and 19/ 327.6 
refpectively. Now, the fum of arch third, and the parallax in 
longitude at the beginning is 44'1’.1, and the difference be- 
tween arch fourth, and the parallax in longitude at the end, is. 
15’.0. Now, with this fum and difference, the moon’s true re- 
lative motion in longitude, and the obferved interval, the diffe- 
rence between the beginning of the eclipfe and the conjunétion 
is 1h 16’ 36%.1, and between the end and the conjunétion 26’.1. 
Hence the apparent time of conjundtion, inferred from the be- 


ginning, is 20) 49’ 55’.1, and from the end it is alfo 20) 49' 


55-1, But the apparent time of conjunction at Greenwich is 
20" 58'27’.9; hence the longitude of Aberdeen in time is 
8’ 327.8 weit. 


CompuTATION of the Apparent Time of Conjun¢tion, on 
the Spheroidal Hypothefis, at Greenwich. 


h. , bf / k. , a” 

Appt. time of beginning, 19 24 464 Appt.time of ending, 21 I 24 

Sun’s right afcenfion, A, 5 1.GOx 4 51 47 

Right afcen. meridian, © 16 17 r 59 00 

_ Moon's true long. 2) 13" 8934 2 14 18 59 

_ Eft. par. in long. + 3010 22 52 

ere app. long. 2 13 49 47 2 14 41 50 
Toon’s hor. par. 69 33.0 60 34.9 
Reduction, — 96 9.6 
Reduced hor. par. 60 23.4 60 25.3 
Sun’s 


— ——_s 


And LONGITUDE of ABERDEEN. ret 
. ° ’ “ re) f ” 
Sun’s hor. par. 8.7 8.9 
Difference, - 60 14.7 60 16.6 
Altitude nonag. - 45 46 19 53 29 35 
Long. nonag. - 29 21 19 46 35 16 
Par. in long. - 30 14.6 22 46.9 
Par. in lat. - 42 12 35 19.8 
Moon’s true rel. mot.inlon. | 5§ 31.0 Moon's trie mot. in lat. 5142-3 
Diff. par. in longitude, 4 24.4 Diff. par. in latitude, 6 2.1 
)’s app. rel. mot. in long. 48 3.3 App. mot. in lat. 31-8 
App. inclination, - 27 55 App, mot. in rel. orbit, 48 3.5 
Moon’s femidiameter, 16 30.0 16 30.0 
Augmentation, = + 9.0 + 12.5 
Inflexion, a — 3.5 aes 
Corrected femidiameter, 16 35.5 16 39.0 
Sun’s femid. — Irrad. 15 45.0 £5 45-0 
Sum, wget: 32 20.5 32 24.0 
Central angle, - 42 "6 42 I 30 
App. inclination, a2 5 37 55 
Arch firft, - 42 45 1 Arch fecond, 4l 23 35 
Arch third, 23 44.9 Arch fourth, 24. 18.4 
Par. in long. at beginning, 30 14.6 Atend. 22 46.9 
Sum, = §3. 50-5. _Ditlerence, *  -s L 31.5 
Hence interval between h. ’ “” Interval between the end and p, ” ” 
the beg. and conj. I 33 58.3 conjun¢tion, Oo 2 39.2 
App. time of begin. 19 24 46.5 App. time of ending, @r Er 24,0 
App. time of conj, 20 58 44.8 20 58 44.8 
At Aberdeen. 
‘ 5 ‘ h. ‘ ” h: , “a 
App. time of beginning, 19 33 19 App. time of end, 20 49 29 
Sun’s right afcenfion, . 4 51-34 4 51 47 
Right afcen. of meridian, © 24 53 I 4r 16 


Moon’s 


‘1y2 DETERMINATION of the LATITUDE 


Sue ae ee a 
Moon’s true longitude, 2 43 30 -8 2.14 26: 54 
Eftimate par. in longitude, + 24 55 + * 19 54 
Eftimated apparent long. 2 ES RG 08 2 14 36 51 
Moon’s hor. parallax, 60 33-3 ~ 60 348 
Reduction, - — It — Il 
Reduced parallax, - 60 22.2 60 23.7 
Sun’s hor, par. - — 84 8.7 
Difference, - 60 13.5 60 15.0 
Altitude nonag. - 41 50 6 47 29°32 
Longitude nonag, - 35) ga..53 47 59 26 
Par. in longitude, ~ 24 55.4 j; 19 54.2 
Par. in latitude, - 44 5202 4O 42.6 
Moon’s true rel. mot. in long. 43 46.1 Moon’s true mot. in lat. 4 20.4 
Diff. par. in longitude, - 5 1.2 Djiff. par. in latitude, 4. 9.6 
App. mot. in longitude, = - 38 44.9 App. mot, in latitude, 10.8 
App. inclination, - 15 58 App. mot. in rel. orbit, 38 44.9 
Moon’s femidiameter, 16 30.0 16 3¢.0 
Augmentation, - + 9.2 + 11.6 
Inflexion, — = - — 3.5 — 3:5 
Correéted femidiameter, Be 16 38.4 
Sun’s femid, — Irrad. 15 45.0 E5 45-0 
Sum, - - 32 20.7 y wy re Oana 
Central angle, - 53 16 36 53 10 55 
App. inclination, : 15 58 15 58 
Arch firft, - 53 32 34 Arch fecond, 52 54 57 
Arch third, > Ig 13.2. Arch fourth, 19 31.7 
Par. in longitude, - 24 $5.4 IQ 54.2 
Sum, - - 44 8.6 Difference, 22.5, 


Hense 


3 


And LONGITUDE of ABERDEEN. 153 


\ h. 7 ” h, ’ W 
Hence the interval between Interval between the end 

the beg. and conj. is - 1 16 49.2 and conjunction is on 3908 
App. time of beginning, 19 33 19.  <App.time of ending, 20 49 29- 
App. time of conj. - Z0 56 ° 8.2 20 50 8.2 


App. time of conj. at-Green. 20 58 44.8 


— 


Longitude in time, - 8 36.6 


DETERMINATION of the Longitude of the late Obfervatory at 

_- Aberdeen, from the Apparent Times of Obfervation of the 
Immerfion and Emerfion of 1 11: Obferved at Greenwich 
and Aberdeen, » November 26. 1787. 


* 


' he ay, 3 Rete ce 
App. time of immer. at Gr. 11 22 51.7 At Aberdeen, 1118 8 

Emer. 12 35.48. , : 12°93 12 
Obferved interval, - 1.8 53.3. *aten Spm 


= 


Computation. of the Apparent Time of Conjundétion in the 
Spherical Hypothefis, at. Greenwich. 


eR : La ae 


App. time of immer. Ir 2a 51.7 App, time of emer.- 12 31 45. 
Sun’s right afcenfion, 16 10 56.47 11 8 
Right afcen. of meridian, 3 33 48.4., a °42-S3 
ee , vw ad ‘ yy, 
Moon’s true longitude, 2 29 50 23 3° 0.93933 
Eftimate par. in long... : #23 -9- + 13 3 
Eft. _apparent longitude, 3 © 13 32 Pe by 3 0 13332 
Moon’s,true latitude, 020 3.5. ed hs bixsar to Sack 1.8. 
Eftimate par. in latitude, + 32 9.5 + 30 5.2 
Eft, apparent latitude, O52. 14.) oe 3 uel GA Fe as 


Vor. IV... LZ Horizontal: 


1540 


Horizontal parallax, - 
Alt. nonag. . 

Long nonag. - 

Par. in longitude, - 
Par. in latitude, = 


Moon’s true rel. mot. in long. 43 8.4 Moon's true mot. in latitude, 
9 35-7 


Diff. par. in longitude, 


Moon’s app;. mot. in long. 
Appt, inclination, - 
Moon’s femidiameter, 
Augmentation, - 
Inflexion, - - 


Correéted femidiameter, 
Central angle at immer. 
Apparent inclination, 


Arch firft, ~ 
Arch third, “ 
Parallax in longitude, 


Sum, © = 

Hence interval between 
immer, and conj. 

Appt. time of immer. 


App time of conjun@. 


Appt. time of immer. 
Sun’s right afcenfion, 


Right afcen. of meridian, 


o- / a 
61 11.3 


58 49 53 

64 18 46 
22 52.7 
32 22.9 


33 32-7 
3.23 22 
16 40.1 


+. 43-7 - 


ie 35, 
16 50.3 

4 18 24 

3 23, 22 


7 41 46 
16 41.2 
22 52.9 


et 


39 33-9 


rz ES - 


II 22 51.7 


1226 2.5 


Diff. par. in latitude, 


Appt. mot in latitude, 
Appt. mot. in orbit, 


At emerfion, 


Arch fecond, 
Arch fourth, 


Difference, 


Interval between the emerfion 


and conjunétion, 
Appt. time of emer. 


. 


At Aberdeen. 


h. “/ 
1118 8 
16 10 54.4 


= 


3 29 5-4 


Ss. °o / “tr 


Moon’s true longitude, 2 


29 52 48,8 


Appt. time of emerfion, 


DETERMINATION of | the LATITUDE 


Aa u" 

6r 10-6 
6t 4 s¥ 
76 24 45 

13 17.0 

30 23.6 

3 58-3 

I 591 


I 59.2 
33 36.2 
16 39-9 
+ 15.2 
mena | 


16 51.6 
418 4 
3 23 32 
© 54 42 

16 51-5 

£3°17-6 


3 34:5 


5 42-5 
12 31 45. 


12 26 2.5" 


hi or we 
1223 13 
16 11 9g 


434 15 


’ 
% a “st 


3 © 33 336 
Ef. 


And LONGITUDE of ABERDEEN. 


° / Mt 


Eft, par. in longitude, 


4+ 20 45.2 

Eft, appt. longitude, 3 © 13 34 

. 7% gpOl ty) 
Moon’s true latitude, 20 16.9 
Eft. par. in latitude, = PP Gan 
Approx, appt. latitude, 57 23.0 5d. 
Horizontal parallax, 61 11.3 
Alt. nonag. > 53 8 50. 
Longitude nonag. 65 29 36 
Par. in longitude, 20 29.3 
Par. in latitude, 37 24.9 
Moon’s true mot. in long. 40 44.8 Moon’s-true met. in latitude, 
Diff. of par. in longitude, 7 42.9 Diff. of par. in latitude,. 
Moon’s appt. mot.inlong. 33 1.9 Appt. mot, in latitude, 
Appt. inclination, 3 28 56 Appt. mot..in orbit, 
Moon’s femidiameter, 16 40.1 
Augmentation, - + 12.9 
Inflexion, - — 3-5 
Moon’s corrected femid. 16 49-5 
Central angle, . = 1035 40 
Appt. inclination, - 3/28 56 
Arch firft, - 9.6 44 Arch fecond, 
Arch thitd, © - 1641.7) Arch fourth, 
Par. in longitude, - 20 apa 
Sum, - - 37 10:8, Difference, 
Hence the interval be- h. ’ ” Interval between the emer. and 

tween im, andconj. 0 $9 223 conjunétion, 

Appt: time of immer.. 1118 8 App* timeof emerfion, 
App*. time of conj. 12: 14 39-3. 
At Greenwich, 1a 26° 2.5. 
Longitude in.time, 8 32.2. 


Ea 


155 


4 1? 


° 


+ 12 38.4 


3 0 46 12, 


7 ” 
24 2.0 
35 18.0 
59 20-0 §. 
61 10.6 
a5. 5% 2 
76 3 32 
12 46.2 
35 40.4 
3 45-4 
I 44.5 
2 0.6 
oa 5-5 
16. 39.9 
14.1 
3-5 


16 50.5, 
16 35° 2 
3 28 56 


14 358 
16 20.7. 
I2 46.0 


3 34.0 
os “ 
5.41.7 
12 23 12 


12.1 7 3°03 : 


h. 


oO 


Com= 


156 


DETERMINATION of the LATITUDE 


ComPuTaTIon of the Apparent Times of Conjunétion in the 
Spheroidal Hypothefis, at Greenwich. 


Ss. ° , Mt 
Moon’s true long. atim. 2 29 50 23 
Eft. parallax in longitude, + 22 57 


Appt. longitude nearly, 3 0 13 20 
Moon’s true latitude, 20 35 
Eft. parallax in latitude, gales sy 
Appt. latitude nearly, 52 9. 
Horizontal parallax, 61 11.3 
Reduétion, : 9.8 
Reduced parallax, 61. 1.5 
Latitude of Greenwich, 51 28 4o 
Reduction, - 14 37 
Reduced latitude, -* ae 3 
Alt. nonagefimal, - 59 3 56 
Longitude nonagefimal, 6414 2 
Par. in longitude, - 22 56.2 
Par. in latitude, - 32 4.8 
Moon’s true mot. in long. 43 8.4 
Diff. of par. in long. 9 36.9 
Appt. mot, in longitude, 33. 31-5 
Appt. inclination, = 3.23.8 
Central angle at immer. 4 44 16 
Arch firft, - 8 47 24 
Arch third, . 16 40.2 
Parallax in longitude, 22 56.2 
Sum, - 39 36.4 
Hence the interval between h, ’ ” 
the immer. and con}, I 3 14.8 
Appt. time of immer, IL 22 51.7 
Appt. time of conj, 12 26 6.5 


4.9 8 Ww: 
3 9° 33 32 
: 13°19) |. 


At emerfion, 


3. 0 40 e 
24.1.3 
30 §o%o) 
54° «7: 
61 10.6 
9.8 


6r 08 


61 19 24 
76 22 55 
13 19.3 
SO> e5aS 
3 583 
ES Dag . 
—— 
I 59.0 
3313529 
44 AB 'SH . 
I 20 46 
16 51.3 
13 19.3 - 


Moon’s true mot. in latitude, 
Diff. par. in latitude, 


Appt. mot. in latitude, 
Appt. mot. in orbit, 

At emerfion, 

Arch fecond, 

Arch fourth, 


Difference, 

Interval between the emer. 
and conjunction, 

Appt. time of emer. 


3 32.0. 


5 38.5 
12 31 45. 


12°26 6.5 
AT 


“And LONGITUDE 


of ABERDEEN. 157 


‘At Aberdeen. 


‘ 5. ° ‘ at 
Moon’s true long. at immer. 2 29 52 49 
Eft. par, in long. = + 20 45 


Appt. longitude nearly, 3 0 13 34 


Moon’s true latitude, 20 17 
Eftimated par. in latitude, 37 6 
Appt. latitude nearly, - 57 23° 
Moon’s horizontal parallax, -61-92.3 
Reduction, - — 113 
Reduced parallax, ee 61 0.8 
Latitude Aberdeen, - 57 9 0 
Reduttion, - 13 4% 
Reduced latitude, * 56 55 19 
Altitude nonag. - $3 21 52 
Lo» gitude nonag. - 65 24 42 
Par. in longitude, - 20 32.8 
Par. in latitude, - BY If 
)’s true mot. in long. - 4° 44.8 
Diff. of par. in longitude, 7 44.5 
Appt. mot, in longitude, 33 0.3 
Appt, inclination, - 3.28 4 
Central angle at immer. 10 51 14 
Arch firft - 7 23 10 
Avch third, - 16 41.1 
Par. in longitude, - 20 32.8 
Sum, - - 37 139 
Interval between theimmer. h. ° / 
and conj, - © 59 24.2 
Appt. time of immer, rr 18 8 
Appt, time of conj. 12 17 352 
App‘. time of conj.at Gr, 12 26 6.5 


gy 8 ee 


3 0 33 34 
12 34 


At emer. 


3-046 8 
24 2 
35 18 
” §9 20 
61 10.6 
— 113 
Se 


60 59+3 


a g ff 
5p er ae 
76 o 36 

12 48.3 

35> 22.1 

3 45-5 

I 45.8 

2 0,0 

33 439 
10 50 35 
14 18 39 

16 19.2 

12 48.3 


True mot. in latitude, 
Diff. parallax in latitude, 


App*. mot. in latitude, 
Mot, in appt. orbit, 
At emer. 

Arch fecond, 

Arch fourth, 


3 39:9 


/ Mt 


Difference, 

Interval between the emer. h. 
and conj. o 5 36.8 

Appt. time of emer, 12 23 12 


12 17 35.2 


Longitude 


158 DETERMINATION of the LATITUDE 


tae as 


Longitude in time, - 8 31.3 Long. on fpherical hyp. by occult. 8 32.2 
Long. by folareclipfe, - 8 36.6 byeclipfe, 8 32.8 
Mean, - - 8 33.9 Mean, 8 32.5 


Ir we fuppofe, with Mefirs pu Szyour and La LAnpbs, that 
the difference between the equatorial and polar diameters is 
zoz Of the equatorial diameter, in that cafe the longitude will 
be 8’ 337.6. . ka 


‘DETER- 


es ee 


And LONGITUDE of ABERDEEN. 15g 


DETERMINATION of the Longitude of the Obfervatory at 
Aberdeen, by Obfervations of the Lunar Eclipfe of roth 
September 1783, made at Aberdeen and at Chiflehurft in 
Kent, 19’ in Time Eaft of the Royal Obfervatory at 
Greenwich. 


| Apparent Time of Obfervation at 


Names of Spots. | CIF of Mer. 
: Aberdeen. | Chiflehurft. 
h. mY aa haw 2 i , “ 
Ariftarchus, _ 9 42°42-5|-9 50.55 $: B 12-5 
Kepler, 9 44 Bs 9 52°20 8 10.4 
Copernicus, 9 54 8.7} t0 2 24 8 15.3 
Manilius covered, 10 7 35-8] 10 15 30 7 54.2 
a Tycho covered, 10. 8 37.8} 1d017 5 8 19.2 
Ss Menelaus covered, 10 10 §1.9| 16 Ig 10 8 18.0 
$ Dionyfius covered, 10 13 46.9| 10 21 38 % ist 
Rat Plinius covered, 10 14 55-9| 10 22 4o 7 44. 
Mare Crifium E, end, | 10 25 51-0] 10 34 34 | 8. 43,0 
W.end,} 10 30 53-0] 19 39 45 8. 52.0 
| Total darknefs, 10 36 39.0] 10 46 34 9 55-0 
Sum, - 254.9 
Mean, - §& 23.17 
= he es 4/ h. , Mh ? a : 
Ariftarchus, 12 24 4.3} 42 33 52 9 47-7 
- Kepler, 12 27 5-3}.12 37 2 10 20.7 
Copernicus, 12 38 34-4 | 12 45 52 10 18.6 
Plato E. end, 12. 38 32.4 | 13 47 22 & 49.6 
Tycho E. end, 12 40 4.4) 12 48 30 | 8 25.6 
‘ ————W, end, 12 4% 5-4] 12 49 58 8 53.6 
4 Menelaus, 12 §3 0.6) 13 5 40 8 39.4 
a | Dionyfius, 12 $4 45-6] 13 3 38 8 32.4 
i | Plinius, 12 56 48.6] 13 5 40 8 51.4 
Mare Crifium E. end, | 13 7 10.7] 13 16 35 Q 24.3 
W.end, | 13 12, 20.8 {| 13 20 53 8 32.2- 
Sum, i 2 95-5 
Mean per egrefs, - 9 5.68 
Mean per ingrefs, _ = fe 8 23.17 
17 31.85 
Diff, mer. Aber. and Chiflehurft in time nearly, 8 45.92 
Longitude of Chiflehurft in time E. 19, 
Longitude of Aberdeen nearly, = 8 26.92 
Change of equation of time in 8’ 26”.9 12 
Longitude of Aberdeen, - 8 26.8 W. 


DETER- 


160 DETERMINATION of the LATITUDE 


DETERMINATION of the Longitude of the Obfervatory at Aber- 
deen by a Chronometer, conftructed by Mr Arnozp of Lon- 
don*. 


THE chronometer was fet to mean folar time at Greenwich, 
16th June 1788, antl loft 7’.5 in eleven days. It was fent to 
Aberdeen by fea; and being compared with the Obfervatory 
clock, 15th July, it was found to be 7’ 267.6 faft, and was lofing 
644. daily: It is hence probable that the motion of the {hip had 
altered its rate. Now, fuppofing this alteration to have com- 
menced when the fhip left London, which was on the 8th of 
July, its error at that time, for the meridian of Greenwich, 
would therefore be 15”.0; from this time, till 15th July, it loft 
44’.8, (=6’. 4 X 7,) its rate being fuppofed uniform. | Hence its 
error, for the meridian of Greenwich, 15th July at noon, was 

— 59’.8.-- But its error, for the meridian of the Obfervatory at 
Aberdeen, at the fame time, was + 7’ 267.6. Hence the longi- 
tude of Aberdeen, in time, is 8’ 26.4 weft. 

Turs laft method of afcertaining the longitude of Aberdeen, 
although it agrees very well with the former, yet it is not to 
be fo much depended on, as there are fome fuppofitions intro- 
duced which may be objected to. 

From a comparifon of the preceding relclen it may be prefu- 
med, that the longitude of this place, in time, is probably not lefs 
than 8’ 18’, as deduced from the obfervations of the eclipfes: of 
the firft and fecond fatellites of Jupiter, nor greater than 8' 367, 
as inferred from the folar eclipfe of 3d June 1788. The diffe- 
rence between thefe limits is only 18” in time; which in this 
latitude does not amount to two miles and an half. Upon ac- 
count of the near agreement of the refults of the folar eclipfe 
and occultation, as well. as from other obfervations, I am led to 

' believe 


* SEE Theory-and Prattice, of finding the Longitude, &c. vol, I- p. 208. 


_ And LONGITUDE of ABERDEEN. 161 


believe that 8’ 32" or 2° 8’ is not far from the exact longitude 
of this place. Hence the latitude of the Girdlenefs is 57° 8’, 
and longitude 2° 6’ W. and the latitude of Greigfnefs 57° 7' 20’, 
and longitude 2° 6' W. alfo. 

Tue latitude and longitude of Aberdeen, as determined above, 
differ confiderably from the fame as given in moft books of. 
geography and navigation, where indeed they are ufually ftated 
with great inaccuracy. Mr Downie, to whom, at his requett, 
I communicated the refult of my obfervations, has, in his Nezw 
Pilot, placed Aberdeen nearly as above, and of courfe has laid 
down the adjacent coaft, with much more precifion than had 
been formerly done. This was in 1793; I then fuppofed the 
longitude 2° g’ W. which is 1’ greater than the above determi-. 
nation. 


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VI. dn Account of certain Motions which Small Lighted 
Wicks acquire, when fwimming in a Bason of O1L; 
together with OBSERVATIONS upon the PHENOMENA 
tending to explain the PRINCIPLES upon which fuch Mo- 
TIONS depend: Communicated in a Letter from PATRICK 
WILsON, F. R. S. Evin. and Profeffor of Practical Aftro- 
nomy in the Univerfity of Glafgow, to foHN PLAYFAIR, 
F. R. S. Epin. and Profeffor of Mathematics in the Uni- 
wee ity of Edinburgh. 


[Read May 5. 1795: ] 


Dear Sir, Glafgow College, April 28. 1795. 


Now fit down to give you fome account of the little hydro- 
{tatical lamp, which | fo briefly mentioned to you in a for-. 
mer letter. As I am far from being fure whether what I have 
-to offer upon this fubjeé&t may be entitled to the notice of the 
Edinburgh Royal Society, fo I will refer this point to your 
determination, after you have had leifure to. confider the con- 
tents. / 

THE phenomena, treated of in the fequel, were quite new to: 
me a few months ago, and, fo far as I know, have not hitherto: 
been attended to, or defcribed by any body elfe. What I have 
called the Hydroflatical Lamp, confifts of a. fmall circular patch 
of common writing paper, about three eighths of an inch in dia-. 
meter, having about a quarter of an inch.of foft cotton thread: 

U2 ftanding 


164. MOTION of Small Lighted WICKS 


{tanding up through a puncture in the middle to ferve as a 
wick ; and the phenomena, in queftion, are certain motions 
which fuch minikin lamps acquire, when lighted and made to 
{wim in very pure falad oil. 

A sHALLow glafs bafon, with fides rifing nearly perpendicu- 
lar, of a common glafs falver, will conveniently contain the oil 
for thefe experiments. As foon as the lamp is lighted, it will 
immediately fail brifkly forward, in fome direction, till it meets 
the fide of the veffel, and afterwards will take a circular courfe, 
always bearing up to the fides, and fo will perform many revo- 
lutions. 

SoMETIMES the circulation is from right to left, and fome- 
times in the contrary direction, according as that point of the 
paper bafe, which in the direc failing kept always foremoft, 
turns away from the fide of the glafs a little to the right or to 
the left hand of that which comes to be the point of contact. 
This turning away, of what may be called the LEADING PoINT 
of the bafe, is diftinétly obfervable by a partial rotation of the 
lamp round the wick as an axis, as foon as it arrives at the fide 
of the veffel. Sometimes, though rarely, the leading point itfelf 
attaches to the fide, and forms the vinculum, in confequence of 
the well known corpufcular attraction between the elevation of 
oil around the bafe, and that belonging to the fides of the glafs; 
and when the vinculum fo correfponds to the leading point, the 
lamp will be found to ftand ftill, without any tendency to cir- 
culate. | 

WHEN the little wick has any fenfible excentricity upon the 
circular paper bafe, the lamp will fail fo as to make that part 
of the bafe which lies neareft to the wick the fern ; and if 
the bafe of the lamp be clipped of an oval form, and the wick 
placed in the longer axis excentrical, that end of the  bafe, 
neareft the wick, will alfo keep hindmoft, when the lamp 
fails acrofs the falver. In the fame manner, if the bafe be ~ 

an 


wl 


When fwimming in a BASON of OIL, &c. 165 


an equilateral triangle, having its wick in the perpendicular 
which bifects any of the fides, either the vertex or fide will be- 
come the /ern, and keep hindmoft, according as the wick is placed 
neareft the one or the other. Lamps, fo conftructed, are found 
alfo to circulate upon their arrival at the fide of the veflel, when 
the leading point turns away from the glafs, as it commonly 
happens. 

WHATEVER be the caufe of the failing of the lamp directly 
foreward, the perpetual circulation, after it arrives at the fide, 
feems to proceed from the force, which formerly impelled it, 
{till acting in the fame manner, but in a dire¢tion inclined to 
that of the corpufcular attraction, which forms the vinculum ; 
and it is evident, that this inclination will be greater or lefs, ac- 
cording as the leading point is more or lefs averted from the 
glafs. “When it fo happens that the leading point and vinculum 
coincide, it fhould feem that both forces, juft now mentioned, 
mutt urge the lamp in a direction perpendicular to the fide of 
the glafs; in which cafe it muft ftand ftill, agreeable to obfer- 
vation. : 3 

Tue next thing which I had occafion to take notice of, when 


the lamp failed in a direct courfe, was, a feemingly very active 
-repulfion between its ftern and the oil at the furface contiguous 
toit. This became manifeft, when very fine charcoal duft was 
lightly fcattered around the lamp. As it then proceeded in its 


courfe, it marked out a fpreading or diverging wake behind it, 
entirely clear of all duft, in confequence of the particles being 


-chaced backwards, and laterally with a motion much more than 


merely relative. 

Desrrous of learning how this difperfion of the duft would 
take place when the lamp was ftationary, I conftructed one of a 
fine wafer, and with an excentric wick, confifting of a foft cot- 
ton thread doubled; and to prevent the wafer or bafe from 
catching fire, 1 coated its upper furface with gold leaf. When 

thig 


166 MOTION of Small Lighted WICKS 


this was made to reft immoveably upon the oil, the duft retired 
in all diretions, fo as to leave the fpace, adjacent to the wafer 
quite free from every particle. But here it was obfervable, 
that this difperfion of the duft, by the feeming repulfion of the 
bafe of the lamp, was much more rapid at that fide which lay 
neareft to the wick than at any other part, and leaft of all fen- 
fible at the fide diametrically oppofite. 

THE circumftances laft mentioned, feem fufficiently to account 
both for the progreffive motion of the lamp, and for the general 
law of this motion, formerly defcribed. For, regarding this dif- 
perfion of the duft, as yet, only in a general way, and as the ef- 
feét of fome repulfion between the bafe and the oil contiguous 
to it, the facts above mentioned plainly indicate, that, in all 
cafes, this repulfion is ftrongeft at that part of the areft 
the wick or flame : and as ation and reaétion are equal and con- 


trary, the lamp muft therefore be impelled, in the direction of a - 


line drawn through the wick, towards that part of the bafe moft 
remote from it, and where the reaction is the leaft. 

Bor in order to obtain a {till more competent knowledge of 
the phyfical caufe of thefe motions, it feemed now neceflary to 
inquire more particularly into this apparent repulfion between 


the bafe of the lamp and the furrounding oil, as indicated bY de 


the difperfion of the duft, in the manner above defcribed: and 


here the following confiderations prefented themfelves.. “t 


THB oi in the bafon, when of an uniform temperature, has 
all its parts in a ftate of equilibrium and of reft. When the 
lamp is hghted, ‘It is evident we have a very active caufe intro- 
duced, tending to deftroy that equilibrium. This caufe is the 
flame, which broods over a fmall portion of the oil, and is fepa- 

rated from it only by the intervention of a piece of paper or a 
waffer. The oil, in fuch circumftances, in confequence of be- 
ing violently heated, muft fuddenly increafe im: volume, and. 
_ mutt now, on account of the decreafe of its fpecific gravity, be 
prefled. 


ay 


- 
a 


* 


ee 


When Swimming in a BASON of OIL, &. 16% 


_preiied upwards by a force fufficient to raife part of it above the 
general level. But this heated portion of oil, in its endeavour 
thus to rife up, will meet with a refiftance equal to the weight 
of the incumbent lamp, which will determine it, in feeking a 
vent, to flide out from under the bafe in a thin fuperficial fiream ; 
and it feems to follow, with equal certainty, that this conftant 
ftream will flow moft readily and moft copioufly towards that 
fide of the bafe of the lamp where the refiftance is leaft, or where 
it has the fhorteft way to prefs forward; that is, from under 
the wick or flame, to the edge of the bafe which is the neareft, 
according to what we have feen to be agreeable to the pheno- - 
mena. But, from the laws of motion, it is certain, that the re» 
action of this ftream of rarified oil, thus iffuing moft rapidly 
and moft copioufly from a particular fide of the bafe, muft im- 
pel the lamp in the cofitrary direction, and make it fail in the 
manner we have feen. It may further be remarked, that the 
heated oil, fo retreating from the flame, and endeavouring to rife 
fomewhat above the general level, in confequence of its dimi- 
nifhed fpecific gravity, may more or lefs lift up that fide of the 
bafe neareft the wick, and aid the reaction of the recoiling 

ftream, by making the lamp {fail in the oppofite direGtion, as it 
were down-bill. 

'  Tuat the rarified oil under the bafe has really a conftant 
tendency to rife above the general level, feems undeniable, from 
the following facts, namely, that after any of the lamps has 
burned a little while, and has got its, bafe foaked with the oil, 
as foon as the flame is blown out the lamp finks to the bottom ; 
and even a lamp, with its bafe made of a thin lamina of talck, 
fails very well till the flame is extinguifhed, and then it imme- 
diately finks. | | 

AGREEABLE to thé explanation which.has now been attempt- 
ed, I found, that when a topical beat was applied to the furface 
of the oil, by bringing the point of a poker, dully red hot, near- 

3 ly 


168 MOTION of Small Lighted WICKS 


ly into contad, there was foon produced a fuperficial ftream or 
efflux from the iron in all directions, which cleared the face of 


the oil from the charcoal duft, in a wider and a wider circle, till - 


at laft the whole particles were crowded os at the confines 
of the bafon. 

WueEn the oil in this experiment was fhallow, having gold 
leaf beat into very minute parts mixed with it, an oppofite 
ftream was obferved below, fetting in towards the poker in all 
directions, and then rifing upwards. But this general tendency 
of all the parts of the fluid of moving in queft of an equili- 
brium, is iluftrated in a very entertaining manner as follows : 
Into a tea-cup or punch-glafs, nearly filled with pure water, pour 
a defert fpoonful of very clean falad oil, with minute particles 
of gold leaf in it. If the water be cold, the oil, when poured 
on at the centre, leifurely and continuedly, will reft upon the 
furface in the form of a lens, and remain infulated or equidi- 

‘ftant from the fides of the veffel. A little lamp, when put up- 

on this lens of oil, and lighted, will fail and circulate as larger 
ones do in the bafon. If it be now made to ftand ftill, it is 
very amufing to obferve the minute particles of the gold per- 
petually thrown out brifkly at the ftern in the fuperficial cur- 
rent, whilft the particles in the fund of the lens creep in all di- 
rections towards the lamp, and at laft rife up under the bafe 
towards the flame, as the great centre of attraction, till they are 
caught by the retreating fuperficial ftream, in which they ra- 
pidly trend off to fome diftance, when again they fink to renew. 
the circulation. 

WHEN a patch of paper, or a wafer, or fuch light body, 
fwims upon the oilin the bafon, the point of a hot iron held 
near to it makes it flit its place, and move away by a feeming 
repulfion ; but, in reality, by the heat generating a fuperficial 
ftream, flowing from the iron in, all direétions. 

AGAIN, 


eee ee ee ne 


When fwimming ina BASON of OIL, &c. 169 


-Acatn, if upon oil of turpentine, ether, alcohol, or any of 
the inflammable fluids poffeffing much tenuity, you throw a 
wafer much heated, it will immediately glide away, and con- 
tinue in motion till it cools; when the ftream, which iffued 

~ from fome part of it moft copioufly, ceafes. Double rum, melt- 
ed tallow, bees wax, and rofin, alfo afford the fame continued 
efflux at the furface, upon a topical application of heat, and 
the fame phenomena as the oil does, when little lamps are made 
to fwim in them. It is fomewhat remarkable, however, that 
though the inflammable fluids all agree in this, yet the topical 
application of heat, at the furface of water, does not produce fi- 
milar effects. . . 

For if the point of a poker nearly red hot be held very 
clofe to the furface of water in a bafon, the particles of the 
charcoal duft do not at all glide away as they do in the cafe of 
oil, but feem to acquire only a flow irregular circular motion, 

_ which in time fpreads wider, whilft the floating motes or particles 
of duft keep nearly their relative places ; and the fame thing hap-« 
pens, though the point of the iron touches the water, fo as to 
make it fimmer. _ 

I Do not well know how to account for this, unlefs it may be 
a confequence of the known much lefs expanfibility of water 

_ by heat, compared to that of the inflammable fluids, and which 
may be fo inconfiderable as not to deftroy the equilibrium, fo 
far as to produce an efflux from the lighter and expanded fluid 
immediately under the heated body. Poflibly, too, the parts 
of the water, as foon as heated, may tranfmit the furplus tempe- 
rature to the contiguous colder water much more rapidly than 
the inflammable fluids do in like circumftances, and thereby re- 
fift the high temperature, neceffary to that degree of expan- 
fion, which would difturb the equilibrium, and produce an ef- 
flux ; not to mention that the maximum of this temperature 
can never, at any rate, exceed 212°, the boiling point of water. 

VoL. IV. g x THAT 


% 


170 MOTION of Small Lighted WICKS 


Tuar the equilibrium, however, amongft the parts of water, 
is difturbed by the local application of heat, though in a much 
fmaller degree that what obtains among the inflammable fluids, 
appears from an experiment I was led to make with a {mall 
thin cup fwimming on water, and fo contrived as to carry and 
feed with oil a wick, placed a little way down from the lip in 
the infide, fo as to be on a level with the water. ‘The confe- 
quence of this conftruction was, that the cup moved upon the 
water very flowly, but always with the flame evidently ftern- 
moft. The fame cup, when taken from the water, and put in- 
to a bafon of {trong rum, failed a great deal fafter, and accord- 
ing to the fame ufual law. 

I am much afraid, that by this time I have wearied you by 
fuch a detail of minute facts and circumftances, and by thofe 
frequent repetitions which every new fubje€&t more or lefs re- 
quires. And | ever remain, 


Dear Sir, 


Your moft obedient faithful fervant, 


PaT. WILson.., 


P. S. SHouLD you be inclined to repeat any of the experi- 
ments, the following directions and mifcellaneous obfervations 
may be attended to: The thread I made ufe of for the wicks 
was of that foft kind commonly employed in the flowering of 
muflin. After making the pundiure in the bafe, you put through 
a bit of the thread, which clip fhort off below, and with a pin 
force in the burr gently round the thread, to give the bafe a 
proper hold of it. Then clip away the fuperfluous thread above, 
leaving the wick about a quarter of an inch long; and fo the 


lamp is completed. Set it then upon the oil, by taking hold of 


the wick, that the paper bafe may not be bent or diftorted by 
handling 


—— eee eee a | - 


Whea fwimming in a BASON of OIL, &c. 171 


handling it; and, after the wick is touched with a drop of oil, 
it is ready for being lighted. For this purpofe, a bit of pack 
thread, which has been fteeped in oil, is a cleanly and conve- 
nient match, and fheds no impurities on the oil, as a candle or 
wax taper would do. 

WHEN you want the lamps to circulate, the oil muft be very 
pure, and brought into full contact with the fides of the glafs. 
The oil, and the bafon or falver, fhould all be allowed to come 
to the fame temperature, between 55° and 60° of Fahrenheit. 
For if any part of the brim be much hotter than the reft, the 
lamp, on arriving there, will leave the fide, by the current iffu- 
ing from the heated part forcing it away. 

SOMETIMES the lamp, when failing, veers a little into a diffe- 
rent direction, by the bafe altering or warping by the fcorching 
"heat of the flame, which determines the {tream to flow out moft 
copioufly at a different part of the bafe.. 

In the melted greafe which lies round the wick of a common 
candle when lighted, there are fometimes obferved atoms, which 
have been left by the fnuffers, moving to and from the flame 
continually. Thefe motions have been conceived by fome as 
occafioned by attractions and’ repulfions, in confequence of an 
electrical quality imputed to the flame. It fhould feem, howe . 
ever, that they depend merely upon oppofite currents at the fur- 
face, and immediately below the furface of the melted greafe, 
according to the principle above explained. 


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VII. dn Account of a SincuLar HALo of the Moon. Com- 
municated in a Letter from WILLLAM HALL, E/q; of White- 
Hall, F.R.S, Evin. to Sir FAMES HALL, Bart. F. R. Se 
Ep1n. 


[Read May 2. 1796.] 


 DEARSIR JAMEs, Whitehall, near Berwick, April 2. 1796. 


SEND under cover the reprefentation of a very fingular Halo. 

of the Moon, (See Pl. V.), feen here on the night of the 18th 
of February laft, about 10 o’clock, and this I have hitherto delay- 
ed, in order, if pofhble, to gain farther information in the neigh- 
bourhood concerning it. 

Durine the fhort continuance of the fall halo, which did 
not exceed 10 minutes after I got notice of it, I could not lay 
my hands on any other inftrument to take the angles, but a S1s- 
son’s theodolite, which, unluckily, having been conftructed fo 
as not to admit of a vertical angle fo great as the moon’s alti- 
tude then was, I laid it afide, not recollecting that it might have 
meafured feveral of the fmaller angles. But I obferved fundry 
marks, from which I took the angles as exactly as I could next. 
day. ; 

THE moon was about S. W. and her altitude nearly 54°, 
which of confequence was alfo the altitude of the limb of the 
greater halo, where it was a i and where it pafled through. 

the 


174 ACCOUNT of a SINGULAR 


the moon ; the altitude of its oppofite limb was 14°; fo that 
its diameter fubtended an angle of no lefs than a hundred and 
twelve degrees. | 

Tue diameter of the fmall halo, which appeared to be a per- 
fect circle, with the moon in its centre, I found, after repeated 
trials, was under 12°, and more than 8°; but as the different 
diameters of the large halo were not meafured, it cannot pofi- 
tively be affirmed that it was an exact circle; on the contrary, 
its limb did not feem to interfect the {mall circle quite fo much 
at right angles, as the circular arch delineated in the plan. It 
may therefore have been fomewhat eliptical. 

Tue fmall circle was remarkably bright, particularly at We 
Refion, about five miles to the northward, the only other place 
where the halo was obferved, and where it was thought to fend 
forth flame. The fmall halo alfo continued there much long- 
er than here, where fome thin fleecy clouds foon put an end to 
it, but the large halo continued with us near an hour. 

THE weather about this time was, for the feafon, remark- 
ably mild, particularly on the day of the halo. The fky was 
pretty clear all that day, and alfo in the evening; but at the 
time of the halo there was a {mall degree of hazinefs, particu- 
larly towards the north, which did not however prevent the 
moon from fhining with brightnefs ; and the ftars were even 
vifible within the circle of the fmall halo: there was little or 
no wind. 

Tue circles or belts of both halos are reprefented in the plan, 
nearly of their apparent breadth, or perhaps a little broader ; the 
light of both was whitifh, and confiderably bright, without co- 
Jour; that of the large circle was the paler of the two, particu- 
larly where it pafled through the {mall circle: to the northward 
it was fomewhat obfcure. 

By means of the angles taken as above, after having afcer- 
tained, on a vertical circle of the heavens, the fituations of the 

moon, 


HALO of the MOON. 175 


moon, of the fmall halo, and of the north-eaftern limb of the 
large halo, whofe fouth-weftern limb pafled through the moon, 
the whole was projected on the horizontal plane, as in the figure 
already referred to. ‘The moon, a little more than half, is pla- 
ced in the centre of the fmaller halo; and both halos are repre- 
fented in their true fituations, relatively to the horizon, and in 
the circular fhape which they appeared to have, though they 
ought perhaps to have been fomewhat-forefhortened, and thrown 
into an elliptic form. 

Tuts halo, as you will fee by the above defcription, appears 
to be of the kind called by the learned a Corona sand as it 
fomewhat refembles the famous one of the fun, obferved at 
Rome in the year 1629, and defcribed by ScHEINER™, it deferves 
the more attention, efpecially as the great halo, on the prefent 
occafion, having its fouth-weftern limb elevated to the height 
of 54°, and its north-eaftern deprefled to within 14° of the ho- 
rizon, was in an oblique pofition, not eafily reconciled with the 
theory of Huycens, which feems to require that fuch circles 
fhould be equally elevated above the horizon all round. It alfo 
fhews, that SCHEINER’s original plan of the halo at Rome, 
which reprefented it as oblique, may have been right, and that 
HuyGEns’s correction, which makes it parallel to the horizon,, 
_ was probably an erroneous conjecture. 


eam, 
Dear Sir JAMEs, 
Your humble fervant,. 


Wiut.. HALE. 


* Smirn’s Optics, vol. I. § 534,. 


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VIII. 4 New SeriEs for the RECTIFICATION of the ELLipsis ; 
together with fome OBsERVATIONS on the EVOLUTION 
of the Formuta (a* + b* — 2a) cofo)”. By AMES 
Ivory, A.M. Communicated by FOHN PLAYFAIR, Pro- 
Selfor of Mathematics in the Univerfity of Edinburgh. 


[Read Nov. 7. 1796. ] 


Dear Sir, 


AVING, as you know, beftowed a good deal of time and 
| attention on the ftudy of that part of phyfical aftronomy 
which relates to the mutual difturbances of the planets, I have, 
naturally, been led to confider the various methods of refolving 
the formula (a*-+4* — 2ab cofg)* into infinite feries of the 
form A+ Bcofe+Ccof29+ &c. In the courfe of thefe in- 
veftigations, a feries for the rectification of the ellipfis occurred 


to me, remarkable for its fimplicity, as well as its rapid conver- 
gency. As I believe it to be new, I fend it you, inclofed, to- 
gether with fome remarks on the evolution of the formula juft 


mentioned, which, if you think proper, you may fubmit to the 
confideration of the Royal Society. 
I am, Dear Sir, 
Your’s, &c. 


DovcLastowN, near origci) JAMEs Ivory 


~ 2oth O&ober 1796. 


Io Mr Fohn Playfair, Pro- 
feffor of Mathematics, Sc. 


Vou Iv: ey ee 


178 RECTIFICATION of th ELLIPSIS, &c. 


Let ¢ denote the excentricity of an ellipfe, of which the femi- 
tranfverfe axis is unity, and a the length of the femicircle, ra- 
dius being unity: Then, 

I—Yr— 
Ef pase 
half the Pek of the ellipfis will be 


if we put ¢ = 


“ wh ae ra: sey. 
—t Se AS ee ST AE |. OS PR hE 
=45 (+5 e+ = e + Mi OE 2”. 42. 6? ‘ +z 42. 67. ue + &c.), 


the coefficients ys ee fquares of the coefficients of the radi- 
cal 7 a 
THE common feries 1s, 
° . . I. i. I. 
aw X (x anes: ¢ aE | -" babe hah 0 “° — &c.). 
2.0 a 2.4 24 2.4.0 2.4.6 
TuE firft of thefe feries converges fafter than the other on two 
accounts : firft, becaufe the coefficients decreafe more rapidly ; 
and, next, becaufe ¢ is very {mall in comparifon of ¢, even 
when ¢ is great: Thus, if ¢ be e will be 3 and ¢ = = | 
In order to point out the way in which the preceding 
feries was difcovered, let us fuppofe (a + 7 — 2ab cof 9)* 
=A +. Bcofg+Ccof2a + &c.; and to determine the’ 
coefficients, A, B, C, &c. let us, with M. DE LA GRANGE, 
confider the quantity (a*-+ 4? — 2ab cof¢) as the produ@ of 


the two imaginary expreffions (a SA ‘)s and - 

(a ieee *\, where ¢ denotes the number ‘whofe hy- 
perbolic logarithm is unity. Then, by expanding the powers. 
(a be °¥ Se e and (2 —be ~? Sales into the fe- 

ries a” ( I — wePV —F4 Be oY es ye HY} aaa &c.) 


and | 


RECTIFICATION of the ELLIPSIS, &c. -179 


and a” ( I— ad. OV TE eras ee ST ik dat a 


—_ ee he 
a, a——tL me MO Te A 2 é 
> Y — a ee &c. 


1.2 1.258 


we havea =n, 6 = 


THEN multiplying thefe two feries together, and putting 


+ mof—t eee yt 
° +¢ - 3 


2cofm@ for its imaginary value ¢ we 


fhall find, on equating the terms, 

A=a"x(rt+a.5+B.5+y. at &e.), 

; b 53 bs 

B= — 24” .X C S hie Pads AY sas &e. }, 

and fo on. ay 
Or the feveral feries for A, B, C, &c. the firft deferves parti- 

cular attention, on account of the fimplicity of the law of its 
terms. It deferves the more attention, too, that the whole fluent 
fc 9 (a+ — 2ab cof¢)”, generated while @ from o becomes 


= a, half the circumference of the circle, is = A+ qa: all the 
other terms of the fluent then vanifhing. 

SuPPosE now, in an ellipfis, the femi-tranfverfe = 1, the ex- 
centricity = «, and ¢ an arch of the circumfcribing circle, rec- 
koned from the extremity of the tranfverfe: then the fluxion 
of the correfpondent arch of the ellipfis, cut off by the fame 


ordinate, will be = ov 1—=* cole. , 

In this expreffion, I write < 45 cof 2, for cof.7@: and put 
the refult, 9 ¥ 1 — 7 — 7 colf29 = 9 Va? + F* — 246 cof 29, 
a and b being indeterminate quantities. 

To determine @ and 4, we have a? + 4*= 1 — a and-24) = ay 

2 2 


whence a+ 4= 1,anda—b=Y 1 —¢*fothata =ttvise 


I— I —e? 
znd Osea 


v2 j I 


180 RECTIFICATION of the ELLIPSIS, ae 


‘| ruus obtain 9 ¥1— @ cof7@ = oV a? + 4 — 2ab cof29: 
and, taking the whole fluent, while 9 from o becomes = a, it is 
manifeft, from what has been pees that the femiperiphery 
of the ellipfis is = 


Pe EF. 125. B* 4) ae? 
wXaX(r-+bS-a + oh: a thas oT oe Ads os = oe + Be.) 
b 1—fi—e Sig ee I I 
utting —=e= 2anda=—{ = ee 
or putting — l+Yi—e até at i oe 
the ee of the ellipfis = Some x 


(1+ Fe “a tS e e* + &c.) 

In this Coke as was before obferved, ¢ is a fmall fraction 
even when « is very confiderable, and. the. coefficients are 
more fimple in the law of progreffion, and converge fafter, (ef- 
pecially in the firft terms), than in the common feries. 

Ir we fuppofe the ellipfis to be infinitely flattened, in which 
cafe ¢ = 1, and.¢ = 1) mind) the’ ee = 2, this feries 


gives. 2 = = x(it+ oto oe 7+ &c:), and fo 


p> wi. - 


2 athe ee 
and Wich xanga oa ee 

But, we may remark, that as we have here obtained the fum: 

of the fquares of the coefficients of the binomial when the ex- 

ponent is =; fo, from the fame fource, we may determine the 

fum of the fquares of the coefficients correfponding to any other 

exponent, at leaft by a fluent. 


For taking the whole fluent when @ = w, we have: 
fw + 3 — 2ab cof) @ =a" a (x fat. +. ae y*. zt &c.) 
and fo when a4 = 1, andd= 1). 


f (GB 2ab cole)’ g =1+.2a7-+ TH saat 


Koy 


Now,, 


Sea) ae 


A 


OE le 


RECTIFICATION of the ELLIPSIS, &c. 38: 


Now, when a4 = 1, and d= 1,f@ (a*-- ie —2abcofe) ae 4 


| f 9 (fin®),” becaufe 2 (nt) = 1 — cof: we thus obtain 


at mfng(int) si epg 4 ara yh ae! 


? 


the whole fluent to be taken when ¢ = a, or > =>- 


Ir we put x = fin f. we fhall have 


urn x 
eee ee 
fiseaite]t+h+y+&, 
7a 
the whole fluent to be taken when « = 1; and. in this formula 
m is any number fractional or integral, pofitive or negative; and 
a, 2, y,; &c. the coefficients of the binomial raifed to a power 
of which the exponent is 7. 


_ WHEN 2 is a whole pofitive number, 


x27 x T.3.5....(27—1)@.. : 
{-— = iF Se ae a in the cafe when x = 1: 
Ly — x? DAO aie ace 27 2 


And fo, yg GS OEE ee rt at + 62+ + &e. 


2n 
the middle term of a BaabiMial, raifed to the power expreffed by 
an. Hence we have a very curious property of thofe numbers: 
viz. that the fum of the fquares of the coeffictents of a binomial, the 
exponent being n, 1s equal to the coefficient of the middle term of a 
binomial, of which the exponent is 2n. 

ANOTHER remark, which I have to offer on this fubject, may 
be confidered not only as curious, in an analytical point of view, 
but as, in fome meafure, accomplifhing an.object that has much 
engaged the attention of mathematicians. _ 

In the computation of the planetary difturbances, it becomes 


9 0 
4.6 
Now, 227 re tase Te) dae Oe is no other than the coefficient of 


——s 
neceflary to evolve the fraction (a* + 4 — 2abcofp) into.a 
, feries 


182 RECTIFICATION of the ELLIPSIS, &e. 


feries of this form, A+ B cof? + C cof2e + &c. The quan- 
tities a and b reprefent the diftances of the difturbing planets 
from the fun; and when thefe bear fo great a proportion to one 
another, (as in the cafe of Jupiter and Saturn, or Venus and the 


Earth), that the fraction : is large, it becomes extremely difficult 


‘to compute the coefficients A, B, &c. by feries, on account of 


the great number of terms that muft be taken in. This matter 
not a little perplexed the firft geometers who confidered this 
fubject, and they were obliged to approximate to the quantities 
fought by the method of quadratures, and by other artifices. 

Two things are to be attended to with regard to the quanti- 
ties A, B,C, &c. The firft_is, That it is not neceflary to com- 
pute all of them feparately by feries, or by other methods: They 
form a recurring feries; and the two firft being fo computed, all 
the reft may be derived from them. The fecond thing is, That 
the quantities A and B having been computed for any exponent 
n, the corref{pondent quantities are thence derived, by eafy for- 
mulz, for the exponents n+1, n+2; n—1, n—2; andin 
general for the exponent 2+ m, m being any integer number, 
pofitive or negative. 

From thefe remarks, it follows, that the whole difficulty lies 
in the computation of the two firft quantities, A and B; and 
that we are not confined to a given exponent 7, but may 
choofe any one in the feries, +1, n +2, &c.; n—1,u—2, &e.; 
that will render the computation moft eafy and expeditious. 

THus, in order to compute the quantities A and B, for the 


exponent — 3, M. DE LA GRANGE makes choice of the expo- 


I ° 5} . 
nent M5 ae which, in the whole feries of exponents -+ 3, ae » 


—-, ae 3, &c. is the moft favourable for computation, on ac- 


count of the convergency of the coefficients of the feries for A 


and B. 
In 


Ee 


RECTIFICATION of the ELLIPSIS, &c. 183 


_ In confidering thefe fubjects, however, I have fallen upon a 
method of computing the quantities A and B for the exponent 


—< by feries that converge fo faft, that, even taking the moft 


Se at ie cafe that occurs in the theory of the planets, two 
or three terms give the values required with a fufficient degree 
of .exaCtnefs. “This is what I am now to communicate. 


‘WE are then to confider the expreffion ,(a*7+-6?—240 cof¢) rir 


: : for the fake of fimplicity in calculation, 


OS 

~~ fa* + 6* —2ab cof? 5 

Iwrite2 = c, throwing out a altogether; and I f 
write- = c, throwing out @ altogether ; an uppofe 


Pr cate —A+Bcofe+Ccof29+ &c. 


Ler ¥ be an angle, fo related to ¢, that fin (~— 9) = fin p: | 
It is obvious, from this formula, that ) = 9% when fin ny = Ou 
that is, when ȴ is equal to 0, or to w, 2a, &e. 

We have then, cof ( — 9?) =W1—c? fin’: and taking 


j A ccof xy ae cool Xp. 
the fluxions, ) —9:= wy) — 7¥a=e fin*)* 


of §—c* fin 24, — ccof yp 
whence 9 =~ X PF = eee 


~Bur(¥i— ¢? fin *p —c cofp) =1—-0 fin? + ct cof?) 
— 2¢ cofy ¥i— 6 fin *y = I +c? — 2c* fin *p,— 2¢ cof} 
Vie fin ay (becauk ce? cof 2p =c?—c --fin 7x) = easy | a c? 
—2¢X (c fin) X fine + cof 71 —c? fn’). Now, if we 
write for -cfin d its equal, fin () — ¢), and for Yt — ¢? fin*p 
its equal, cof ( —'¢), we fhall have ofiny X fin} + cof x 
¥7—<¢ find = fin() —¢),x find + cof x cof(p — 9) 
= cofg: which being fubftituted, there comes out ; 
Chara, —c¢ cof)? mite? — 2 cofe 
Our 


184 RECTIFICATION of the ELLIPSIS, &. 


Our fetus formula thus becomes ¢= 


T+c*—2ccolp ' 
yt Pet = Be col Dyes beet oe te 


v 
Ui eS ee eS = ——— ee 
ny Yi—e* fin *y Y¥ t+c* —2ccoig Y (2c? fin DP 


I NEXT transform the quantity V1 — c* fin 74 as in the in- 


° . . . . ° I —j/i — cx 
veftigation for the elliptic feries, and putting re yr nes 
airy 4 2 — Vie eae ee! and fo 03 podp sts ay — 
find v1 Cc fin v= Ite Y7i+c? —2cco19g qE. 


G+te)y 
Wi +¢* + 2c cof aw 


Now, taking the fluents when ¢ = a, and y = a, we fhall 


have Jot = apediel 277 AXa: And according to the me- 
4 er r 
eee 
thod of M. pE ta GRANGE, / : ear id x 


(1 + Lo + = 30+ + Bec.)-: Hence A = (1 + c’) X 


(x af = pith re cl4 &c.). And in this value of A, ¢c’ will 


be a {mall fraGion, even though c be large; and the feries will 
therefore converge very faft. 
But, taking the value of A direétly m a feries, we have 


Azithe? +325 ct+ &c. Andfor+ 5 ct psi 


2.43 


Mewes (re) x (1+ +c? +2 3 c!* + &e.). Now, 


SF 
the two feries being exactly alike, it is evident that we may 
transform the one, as we have transformed the other, and that, if 


bos, FSV Se . = ihe eee. 
‘ CS } ==. 42 cated SEES. * aa 
we put ¢! = 7 = we fhall have 1 ++ = c!? + oe 


(1 +c”) x (1 +- =o" +- <3 ee cle kc.) whenceA =(1-+¢’) 
Ree) Ct ah 


x c@4 + &c.). ‘ 
Ly 


ee a a 


oe belie le ee tli 


RECTIFICATION of the ELLIPSIS, &c. 185 


Ir is manifeft.we may proceed in this manner as far as we 
fe PO LS, — e* 
1+ fi—el? ” ~~ p+ fr—e"? 
and fo on, we fhall have the value of A in an infinite product, 

=\(1 +c) X.(r + 0’) & yt) fr $e) x &c, the 
quantities c’, ¢”,-c", ce”, &c. converging very rapidly. 

NotuHinG more feems to be wifhed for, with regard to the 
‘computation of the quantity A: fince we can, by methods fuf- 
ficiently fimple, exhibit the value of it in feries that {hall con- 
verge as faft as we pleafe. By a fimilar mode of reafoning, I 


pleafe, and that, if we pute” = 


i Vd to3 EE a" Minbar E tn Sor 6 
find the feries 1 x¥ rae y ae ee, 4 &e, 
(which occurs in determining the time of a body’s defcent in 
tie atch of a tirclé), = 5 & TL _ ea eAgLt Wyble ce 


Dag 


17.3%. 5 ere pe VETYESD, ene 
a4? eo + &e. / where ¢ = Sees fo that the fumma- 
tion of this feries alfo is accomplifhed by the method above. 

I HAVE now only to explain the method of computing B. For: 


this purpofe I refume, 
: =At Boole +C eofae ke. 


/t+c*—2ccoig 
Multiply by 2 cof ¢, and there refults 


2 cof @ 


Vite recog — B+ (2A + C) cofo + &c.. 


eheuce:i it is manifeft that the Soke fluent 


{eee 2colexo ees whe ¢ — 2, 19 He ee 0g 


I+c* —2ccolo 


From the preceding eee we have ee = 
J + c— 2¢ col @ 


a = a cof @ Sgr Sy yr fin 74, 


Vou. IV. Fis whence 


186 RECTIFICATION of the ELLIPSIS, &e. 


: | @ cof 2c) fin *L: os j . 
Vi+c* —2ecolo YWi—c* tin?) 24 cof ¥. ; Again, 

afin?) = 1;— eee ee: ne B Bee ‘ 

cof 24, and Jie fn td ~~ /1 +e? +2¢ cole ? 4 
22 tLQY : - ; A 
being = pore sero thefe fubftitutions being made, we get 
apletb At ELT ye'08 PORE IY 23 BNI 310 ee ep om 
714 ¢7 —2cc019 VY i+c* + 20 cole Vite +26 cal ag 
+ 2 cofy. 


I 
SUPPOSE now, Vite? + 2¢ cong =A'—B'cof2b-fe' cof 4y— &e. 


it is evident, from what goes before, that, taking the fluents of 
the above fluxions, when ¢ and} = a, we fhall have B X a 


=cx(r+c)x (A+) Xz, and fo B =¢ X (I+¢) X 


aN PR’ 
(A +). 

Tue values of A’ and B’, in feries according to the method 
of M. DE LA GRANGE, are 


Aarti? + Diet +k oo + &e 


Eloy V2 Asp gE ge ped I. 3, 1-3-5 ws 
7 B= Ce +e 20h ESE, + &e.) 


1* 7 
° 


which feries converge very faft, on account of the {mallnefs of 
ec’ in ref{pect of c. 
Ir, however, it be required to find the value of B by feries 
{t)] more converging, we may eafily do fo: For it is manifeft 
‘that B and B’ are fimilar functions of c and c’: and that if we 


aay Pee 1 fi — 
ETN Bs 7 Et ———,, and fo on, and put 


make c’? = ————>== = 
. b+Yi—e? I+ fi— 


ee 


RECTIFICATION of the ELLIPSIS, &c. 187 


ADA, Sc. }-B, BY) &e. to denote the correfponding values of 
A’ and B’, we fhall have 


Boc.(1t+c)(AX += 

Bae. (1+e)(Av + =) 

BY = c.. (ee! (A” + =} &e..: 
Now, remarking that A’ = (1 +e") A"; AVS (te) A", 
&c. we have the following values of B: 
Baex (+4). (rte) (rte art LEC EG +e") B’, 
Baex(r +o +2 +)G+e V+ BW ike o ce cl lt —(1-6'} 
(1 +c”) (1 + cl’) B“. 


And we may proceed in this manner to find the value Ny B in 
feries that fhall converge as faft-as we pleafe. 
As the quantities ¢’, c”, c’’’, &c. diminifh very faft, the feries 
A’, A”, A” will approach rapidly to unity, and B’, BY, B” will 
_decreafe rapidly to oe enc : Hence we have ultimately, 


Boex (1 eis 6.5 st oy tke. ) x (ae')(t-he’) (be) 


&e. 
oats te) +c’) atc") &e.: : 
nt al (at a Se SA ep &e.) xX A. 


We fhall beft fee the degree of convergency of the quantities 
e, c', c”, &c. if we take the infinite feries by which red are de- 


rived one from another. Now,.if y = — ieee 2 then alfoy = 


Sawa 
ep 4 4 7 4 &e.: whence it is obvious, that in th 
de cys 64 = whenee it 1s obvious, that in the 


feries of quantities c, ¢’, c’, &c. the fourth part of the fquare of 
Z.2. any~ 


188 RECTIFICATION of the ELLIPSIS, &c. 


any term is nearly equal to the following term, and the rapidity ; 


with which the feries decreafes is therefore very great. 
THE method, then, that refults from the preceding inveftiga- 
tions for computing A and B, is fhortly this: 


IT— /i — ¢* 


1+ Yrt—c* 


qt pga? oh I*. 27, 2 
bet bere ge) ee = 


Put ¢ = : and compute 


nit PEs (3 1303-5 vs hs 
and >c' += | cise + &c. = N. 


ike 8 = (1 +c’) X M, and 
Bo=exXx (+c) x (M+N). 

Tue feries M and N will converge fo faft, even in the moft 
unfavourable cafe that occurs in the theory of. the planets, that 
the firft three terms will give the fums fufficiently exact ; and 
it will therefore not be neceflary to have recourfe to hs more 
converging feries A” and B”. . 

Sucu is the method that I had firft imagined, for facilitating 
thefe fort of computations. I have fince found, however, that 
by means of the common tables of fines and tangents, the quan- 
tities A and B may be computed in a ftill eafier way from the 
expreflions, 


Aztec) (+e) (a +e") &e. 
Bo=cx(1+¢ ESTE SS + bee) XA 


I — cof m 


2 a oer FR ME ROM ee Ys ee 
For if ¢ == fin m, then 1, —-.¢?.= cof.m,and ¢o=1 > ical 


= tan? =: confequently 1 +c’ = fec? 7. In like manner, if 
2 4 Y 2 = 


; _m 
e = fina’, c’ = fin m’, &c. we fhall have fin m' = tan? >; 


. ‘ 
Se — ee oe — 


RECTIFICATION of the ELLIPSIS! &c. 189 


| ‘ 2 a 
fin m’ = tan? =, and folon: And x -bic! = fec? fy asec 


- fec* —, and fo on. Thus: 


Av fee? = x fec 


» 


a x feo? me! x &c. 


To find the as of A, we have ve Be to add toge- 


ther the jogarithin fecants of the angles ~ = ai se od to dimi- 


; 
; 
: 2 


nith the fum by as many times the radius as there are fecants, 
and to take twice the remainder. As the angles. m,-m', m’, &c. 
decreafe very faft, it will feldom be neceflary to compute more 
than two or three of them. 


Tue feries (1 + g + Re Ge —+% eo et 4c +- &c.) is alfo readily com- 
2 2 y 


puted from the tables; oe a logarithms of ¢';c’, c", &c. be- 
ing the fines of the angles m',m”, &c. are all ma in the ta- 
bles. 

As an example, let ¢ = 0.72333: which is the fraction that 
arifes from dividing the mean diftance of Venus from the fun, 
by the mean diftance of the Earth; and this is the moft unfa- 
‘vourable cafe that occurs in the theory of the planets: Then to 
gompute A, I find, in the table of natural fines, that 0.72333 cor- 

3 Res to 46° 19 484”: we have therefore 


= 46° I9' 483” | 
LL. tan = = 1. tan 23° 9! 54%” = 9.6313206 |L. fec = = 10.0365070 
| 2 


L. finm’= —_g.2626412 
T=” 32" 57 _ 
L. tan = = 1, tan 5° 16' 283” = 8.9652949 |L. fec = = 10.0018429 
2 


L.finm’ =  - 7.9305898 


En mi! =. 0° 29° 18” 
L, tan 


1909 RECTIFICATION of the ELLIPSIS, &c. : 


L. tan m= 1, tan 0° 14’ 39” = 7.6295664 IL. fec = = 10,0000039 
2 


—_- 0.0383538 
L.finm” = 5.2591328 2 


As m" will only be a few feconds,it may| L. A = 0.0767076 
be neglected. . 
Hence A = 1.19318 


‘To compute B,letS = 1 + o4 ~ g + &ce. 
I = 1.000000 
Lee slfina’ = 9-2626412 ; c .= 0.091540 
L.¢ = 1, finm’ = 7.9305898 ce = 0.000390 - 
Lc¢’. ¢*.ce Felgg23210 S = 1.091830 
B=cxSXA. 
Lore! = 1.8593365 
L. S = 0.0381948 
L. A = 0.0767076 . 


L. B = 1.9742389, and B = 0.942408 


IX, 


ot 
ij stati ees, 


IX. 4 Snort MINERALOGICAL DEscriPTIon of the Moun- 
TAIN Of GIBRALTAR. By Major IMRIE. Communicated 
by the Reverend JOHN WALKER, D. D. Profeffor of Na- 
tural Hiftory in the Univerfity of Edinburgh. 


[Read Fuly 3. 1797-] 


HE mountain of Gibraltar is fituated in 36°. 9’ north lati- 
tude, and in 5°. 17’ eaft longitude from Greenwich. It is 
the promontory which, with that of Ceuta upon the oppofite 
coaft of Barbary, forms the entrance of the Straits of Gibraltar 
from the Mediterranean ; and Europa Point, which is the part 
of the mountain that advances moft towards Africa, is generally 
‘regarded as the moft fouthern promontory in Europe. The 
form of this mountain is oblong; its fummit a {harp craggy 
ridge; its direction is nearly from north to fouth; and its 
greateft length, in that direCtion, falls very little fhort of three 
miles. Its breadth varies with the indentations of the fhore, 
but it no where exceeds three quarters of a mile, Thre line of 
its-ridge is undulated, and the two extremes are fomewhat high- 
er than its centre. 

‘Tue fummit of the Sugar Loaf, which is the point of its 
greate{t elevation towards the fouth, is 1439 feet; the Rock 
Mortar, which is the higheft point to the north, is 1350; and 
the Signal Houfe, which is nearly the central point between 
thefe two, is 1276 feet above the level of the fea, The weftern 

7 fide 


492 MINERALOGICAL DESCRIPTION 


fide of the mountain is a feries of. rugged flopes, interfperfed 


with abrupt precipices. Its northern extremity is perfectly — 


perpendicular, except towards the north-weft, where what are 
called the Lines intervene, and a narrow paflage of flat ground 
that leads to the ifthmus, and is entirely covered with fortifi- 
cation. The eaftern fide of the mountain moftly confifts of a 
range of precipices; but a bank of fand, rifing from the Medi- 
terranean in a rapid acclivity, covers a third of its. perpendicu- 


lar height. Its fouthern extremity falls, in a rapid flope, from. 


the fummit of the Sugar Loaf, into a rocky flat, of contiderable 


extent, called Windmill Hill. This flat forms half an ov al, and. 


is bounded by a range of precipices, at the fouthern bafe of 


which a fecond rocky flat takes place, -fimilar in form and ex. 
tent to Windmill Hill; and alfo, like it, furrounded by a pre- 
cipice, the fouthern extremity of which is wafhed by the fea, 
and forms Europa Point. Upon the weftern fide, this penin- 
fular mountain is bounded by the bay of Gibraltar, which is 
in length nearly eight miles and-a half, and in breadth upwards 
-of five miles. In this bay the tide frequently rifes four feet. 
Upon the north the mountain is attached to Spain by a low 
fandy ifthmus, the greateft elevation of which, above the level 
of the fea, does not exceed 10 feet, and its breadth, at.the bafe 
of the rock, is not more than three quarters of a mile. This 
ifthmus feparates the Mediterranean, on the eatt, from the bay 
of Gibraltar on the weit. 

THIS mountain is much more curious in its botanical, than 
in its mineralogical productions. In refpect to the firft, it con- 
neéts, in fome degree, the Flora of Africa with that of Europe. 
In refpect to the latter, it produces little variety ; perhaps a few 
fubftances and phenomena that are ris but none that are pecu- 
liar. 

THE principal mafs of the mountain rock confifts of a grey, 


denfe (what is generally called primary) marble; the different 
beds 


Of -GIBRALTAR. 193 


o 


beds of which are to be examined in a face of 1350 feet of per- 

-pendicular height, which it prefents to Spain in a conical form. 
Thefe beds, or ftrata, are of various thicknefs, from 20 to up- 
wards of 4o feet, dipping in a direction from eaft to weft, near- 
ly at an angle of 35 degrees. In fome parts of the folid mafs of 
this rock, I have found teftaceous bodies entirely tranf{muted 
into the conftituent matter of the rock, and their interior hollows 
filled up with calcareous fpar ; but thefe do not occur often in 
its compofition, and its beds are not feparated by any interme- 
diate ftrata. 

In all parts of the globe, where this fpecies of rock conftitutes 
large diftri€ts, it is found to be cavernous. The caves of Gi- 
braltar are many, and fome of them of great extent. That 
which moft deferves attention and examination is called St Mi- 
chael’s Cave, which is fituated upon the fouthern part of the 
mountain, almoft equally diftant from the Signal Tower and 
the Sugar Loaf. Its entrance is 1000 feet above the level of the 
fea: This entrance is formed by a rapid flope of earth, which 
has fallen into it at various periods, and which leads to a fpa- 
cious hall, incrufted with {par, and apparently fupported in the 
centre by a large maffy ftala@titical pillar. ‘To this fucceeds a 
long feries of caves of difficult accefs. The paflages from the 
one to the other of thefe are over precipices, which can only be 
paffed by the affiftance of ropes and fcaling ladders. I have, 
myfelf, paffed over many of thefe to the depth of 300 feet from 
the upper cave ; but at that depth the fmoke of our torches be- 
came fo difagreeable, that we were obliged to give up our pur- 
fuit, and leave caves ftill under us unexamined. In thefe ca- 
vernous receffes, the formation and procefs of ftaladtites is to be 
traced, from the flimfy quilt-like cone, fufpended from the roof, 
to the robuft trunk of a pillar, three feet in diameter, which 
rifes from the floor, and feems intended by nature to fupport 
the roof from which it originated. 

Vou, IV. | Aa THE 


194 MINERALOGICAL DESCRIPTION 


-. THE variety of form, which this matter takes. in its different 
fituations and dire¢tions, renders this fubterraneous fcenery 
ftrikingly grotefque, and in fome places beautifully picturefque. 
The ftalactites of thefe caves, when near the furface of the 
mountain, are of a brownifh,yellow colour ; but, as we defcend- 


ed towards, the lower caves, we found them begin to lofe their — 


darknefs of colour, which by degrees fhaded off to a whitfh 
yellow. . ix tod: oon oles diiw. qu bak 
TuE only inhabitants of thefe caves are bats, fome of which 
are of a large’ fize. The foil, in general, upon the moun- 
tain of Gibraltar, is but thinly fown ;.and 11 many parts that 
thin covering has been wafhed joff by the heavy autumnal 
rains, which have left the fuperficies of the rock, for a confider- 
able’ extent). bare sand open:to! infpection,: ; In thofe: fituations, 
an obferving eye!may trace the effects:of the flow,-but conftant, 
decompofition of. the rock, caufed. by its expofure to’ the air, and: 
the corrofion of fea-falts, which, -in the heavy gales of eafterly 
windsy are depofited with the fprayoon:every part of the moun- 
tain! “Thofé uncovered. parts of the mountain-rockalfo expofe to 
the eye a phenomenon.worthy of fomé\attention;'as 1titends \clear=» 
ly tédemontftrate, that; howéver high thei furfaceof this orock 
may now be elevated’ above .the -levéliof ‘thes fea, it -has:'once: 
beénthe bed of! agitated »waterseycThis - phenomenon is to be: 


obfenved inemahy! partssof the: reckyiaiid is.conflantly fobndiny 


the bedssofdorrents.> [It €onfifts. of ipotelike choles;> of: ivarious: 
fizes, hollowed: otto of the folidirock,:and formed apparently by 
the attrition of grawel/or pebbles, fetansmotion: bythe rapidity 
of:vivers; or! currentsan: the fea. «One of ‘fhofe; which had:been- 
recently laid open;id sexamnnedswith attention Ll found. atritor 
be fivefeet-deep) and thteenfeet in diameters! the edgé dfats: 
mouth rounded ‘off as:if iby-art, and ats fides and-bottonmretdam=: 


ing a confiderable: degree! of spolifhs.! From tsofnouth, «for ithree: | 


and a half feet down, it was filledswitha sed! argillaceotscearth)) 
bg s A V1 .thiily- 


. ’ 
—--... — -eee y ‘ = - 
OT a 


Of - GaloB RA VoBARAVAM — 295 


thinly mixed with minute parts.of tranfparent quartz cryfals; 
the remaining foot and a half, to the bottom, contained an ag+ 
gregate of water-worn ftones, which were from, the lize of a 
goofe’s egg to that of a fmall walnut, and confifted of red’ jaf 
pers, yellowifh white, flints,, white quartz, and, bluifh, white 
agates, firmly combined by a yellowifh brown. ftalactitical:cal- 
careous {par. In this. breccia.I could not.difcover any fragment 
of thesmountain rock, or any other calcareous matter, except 
the cement with which it was combined... This pot is g4o feet 
above the level of the fea. ) 

Upon the weft fide of the mountain, sehen its bafe, tina’ 
{trata. occur, which are heterogenial to the mountain rock : the 
firft, or highett, forms the fegment ofa circle; its convex fide is 
towards the mountain, and it flopes ‘alfo in that direction.” This 


‘ftratum confifts, of, a. number: of thin, beds; the outward one, 


being, the thineft, is in.a ftate of decompofition; and is moulder- 
ing down into a blackifh brown or ferruginous coloured earth. 
The beds, inferior to this, progreflively increafe in breadth to 
17 inches, where the {tratification refts upon:a rock of an argil- 
laceous nature. 

Tuis laft bed, which is 17 inches shiek oni Gin Se oe 
a blackifh blue colour, in the fepta or cracks: of which are 
found fine quartz cryftals, colourlefs, and perfectly tranfparent. 
Thefe cryftals are compofed. of eighteen planes, difpofed in hex- 
angular columns, terminated .at both extremities by hexangular 
pyramids... The largeft of thofé that I have feen does not ex- 


ceed two-eights of an inch in length: They, in general, adhere 


to the rock by the fides of the,column, but are detached with- 
out difficulty... Their, great degree of tranfparency has obtain- 
ed them the name of Gibraltar, diamonds. » 

At no. great diftance from-where théfe cryftals are found, 
upon | the fame flope of the mountain, but-rather nearer to the 
level of the fea, a ftratum of argillaceous matter has been laid 


~- 2 open. 


196 MINERALOGICAL DESCRIPTION 


open, divided into many thin beds, the broadeft of which 
does not exceed a foot in thicknefs. Its general colour is of a 
whitifh grey, with a {mall mixture of yellow, and it is divided 
tranfverfely by ftraight fepta or cracks, both fides of which are 


covered with dendritical figures, of a yellowifh brown colour, — 


beautifully reprefenting the objeéts of landf{cape. At the weft- 
ern bafe of the mountain, on a level with the fea by which it is 
wafhed, a very extenfive {tratum occurs, of the fame nature as 


the laft defcribed, bearing from north to fouth, parallel with, . 


and dipping towards, the mountain, nearly at an angle of 40 
degrees. 

In fome parts of the weftern flope of the mountain, towards 
the fouth, are found nefts of a dark red fhivery clay, in which 
are embedded flints of a dirty fap green colour: Of thofe no 
regular ftratum is to be perceived ; many of them are un- 
fhapely maffes ; but they, in general, tend to the rhomboidal 
form, and are from three to four inches long, by two or three 
broad, and an inch and a half thick. They are not incrufted as 
the flints found in chalk, nor have they the appearance of ha- 
ving been worn by attrition. | . . 

Upon different parts of the mountain, towards its bafe, are 
found large quantities of fand, compofed of different materials, 
and affuming various appearances as to colour. The largeft 
bank of this arenaceous matter is upon the weftern fide of the 
mountain, and confifts of fmall particles of cryftallized quartz, 
colourlefs, and perfe¢tly tranfparent per/e, but of an ochreous 
colour in the mafs, on account of a red argillaceous earth which 
adheres to them. ‘The fand of this bank is perfectly loofe and 
uncombined: one half of it has been levelled into an extenfive 
parade, its furface having been combined by the lime and rub- 
bifh from the ruins of the town. The fouthern extremity of 
the bank is ftill to be feen in its natural ftate, and forms the bu- 
rying-ground of the garrifon. 

Uron 


= se ea 


Of 2G 2 BRA BTA R.A 3 197 


Uron the eaft fide of the mountain is found another of thefe 
banks, of confiderable extent, and, as I mentioned before, rifing 
from the Mediterranean in a rapid acclivity, and reaching to 
one-third of its entire elevation. This bank is compofed of {mall 
particles of cryftallized quartz, of teftaceous bodies rounded by 
attrition, and of a few minute particles of the calcareous rock; 
the whole has a whitifh grey colour. The rain-water, which 
falls from the bare mountain rock above the fand, brings along 
with it calcareous matter, which is depofited upon the bank, 
and combines its furface into a cruft, which in fome places is 
fo much indurated as to bear the prefflure of the foot. 

In other parts of the mountain, where this fand is furround- 
- ed by the calcareous rock, and covered in and. protected from 
the action of the air, and corrofion of the fea-falts, it is found 
in a perfect indurated ftate, combined by ftalaétitical par, and 
forming’ a minute breccia. A quarry of this arenaceous ftone 
has been: opened upon the fouth-eaft quarter of the mountain, 
and is made ufe of, with great propriety, to line the embrafures 
of fome of the new works belonging to the garrifon. Its. inap-. 
titude to fly off in fplinters, when ftruck by a ball, gives, in 
fuch fituations, additional fafety to the defenders of the place. 

THE weftern fide of the mountain’s bafe, around Rofia Bay, 
and the new Mole, is a rock compofed of an aggregate of {mall. 
fragments of every foffil that has been here defcribed, with the 
_ addition of two different {pecies of marble that are probably ad- 
ventitious, as their native beds have not been found in the 
mountain. The one of thofe is black, and the other of an olive 
green colour. The whole of this mixture produces a. moft beau- 
tiful breccia, and is firmly combined by a calcareous.cement of 
a yellow, verging towards an orange colour. It is fufceptible of 
a high polifh, except where fragments of the argillaceous ftrata 
occur: Thefe can be eafily {moothed down, but cannot be 
brought to a perfect polifh.. The fragments in this breccia are 

| angular,. 


198 MINERALOGICAL. DESCRIPTION 


aneular, and none of them have the appearance of — water- 

worn. | 

Ir only now remains for me to mention what are pen 

called the foflil bones, found in the rock of Gibraltar. Thefe 

have been much talked of, and by fome looked upon as.a phe- 

nomenon beyond the power of explanation. The general idea, 

which exifts concerning them, is, that they are found in a pe-> 
trified ftate, and inclofed in the folid calcareous rock; but thefe 

are miftakes, which could only arife from inaccurate obfervation 

and falfe defcription. 

In the perpendicular fiffures of the rock, and in fimnie of ih 
caverns of the mountain, (all of which afford evident proofs 
‘of their former communication with the furface), a calcareous 
concretion is found, of a reddifh brown ferruginous colour, with 
an earthy fracture, and confiderable induration,  inclofing the 
bones of various animals, fome of which have the appearance 
of being human. Thefe bones are of various fizes, and lie in 
all direétions, intermixed with fhells of {nails, fragments of the » 
calcareous rock, and particles of {par ; all of which materials are 
ftill to be feen in their natural uncombined ftates, partially feat 
tered over the furface of the mountain.  Thefe having been 
f{wept, by heavy rains at different periods, from the furface into 
the fituations above defcribed, and having remained for.a long 
feries of years in thofe places of reft, expofed to the permeating 
action of water, have become enveloped in, and cemented by, 
the calcareous matter which it depofits. 

THE bones, in this compofition, have not the fnalleft appear- 
ance of being petrified; and if they have undergone any change, 
it’ is more like that of calcination than that of petrifaction, as 
the moft folid parts of them generally admit of teins cut and 
fcraped down with the fame eafe as chalk. 

‘Bones combined in fuch concretions are not peculiar to Gi- 
braltar: They are found in fuch large quantities in the country 

of 


Of). DG MOB Ry) Le Ay 199 


of Dalmatia, and upon its coafts in the iflands of Cherfo and 
Ofero, that fome naturalifts have been induced to go fo far as 
to affert, that there has been a regular ftratum of fuch matter 
in that country, and that its prefent broken and interrupted 
appearance has. been caufed by earthquakes, or other convul- 
fions, experienced in that part of the globe. But, of late years, 
a traveller, (Abbé Atzerto Forris), has given a. minute de- 
fcription of the concretion in which the bones are found in that 
country: And by his account it appears, that with regard to. 
fituation, compofition and colour, it 1s. perfe@tly fimilar to that 
found at Gibraltar.» By his defcription, it alfo appears, ;that the 
two mountain rocks of Gibraltar and Dalmatia confit of the 
fame {pecies' of calcareous {tone ; from which it: is. to be prefu- 
med, that the concretions in both have! been formed:in the fame 
manner ‘andyabout: the, fame periods. . 

“PerHars if the fiflures. and caves of the rock of \Dalmatia. 
~ were ftill) more minutely examined, their former communica- 
tions with the furface might yet be traced, as in thofe defcribed 
aboves and; in that cafe, there would be at leaft a.ftrong proba-. 
bility)that the materials: of the: concretions of that country have: 
been ‘brought together by the fame accidental caufe, which, in. 
my opinion, has collected thofe: found in the caverns of Gibraltar. 
I have traced, in:Gibraltar, this concretion, from the loweft part 
of acdeep perpendicular fiflure, upto: the furface of the moun- 
tains)» Asritiapproached) to. the furface;» the concretion became 
lefs firmly combined, and,'whem it had:no covering of the calca- 
reous'rock, ai{mall degree !of adhefion only remained, which was. 
evidently produced by thecargillacedus earth, in-its compofition,, 
having. been:moiftenedsby rain and: baked: by the fun. 
~) PuEtdepthysat: which thefe: materials had: been: penetrated. by 
that! proportion: of» ftalactitical matter;.capableyof ‘giving. to the 
concretion |its:preateft: adhefion:and:folidity, I fowndsto. vary ac-. 
aang tovits fituation, and to:the quantity! ofimattér to. be com-- 

hinedé: 


200 MINERALOGICAL DESCRIPTION’ - 


bined. In fiffures, narrow and contracted, I found the concretion 
poflefling a great degree of hardnefs at fix feet from the furface; 
but in other fituations more extended, and where a larger quan- 
tity of the materials had been accumulated, I found it had not 
gained its greateft degree of adhefion at double that depth. In one 
of the caves, where the mafs of concretion is of confiderable fize, 
I perceived it to be divided into different beds, each bed being co- 
vered with a cruft of the ftaladtitical fpar, from one inch to an 
inch and a half in thicknefs, which feems to indicate, that the 
materials have been carried in at various periods, and that thofe- 
periods have been very remote from each other. 

At Rofia Bay, upon the weft fide of Gibraltar, this concre- 
tion is found in what has evidently been a cavern, originally 
formed by huge unfhapely maffes of the rock, which have tum- 
bled in together. The fiflure, or cavern, formed by the difrup- 
tion and fubfidence of thofe maffes, has been entirely filled up 
with the concretion, and is now expofed to full view by the 
outward mafs having dropped down, in confequence of the en- 
croachments of the fea. It is to this {pot that ftrangers are ge- 
nerally led to examine the phenomenon ; and the compofition, 
having here attained to its greateft degree of hardnefs and foli- 
dity, the hafty obferver, feeing the bones inclofed in what has 
fo little the appearance of having been a vacuity, examines no 
further, but immediately adopts the idea of their being incafed 
in the folid rock. The communication from this former chafm, 
to the furface from which it has received the materials of the 
concretion, is {till to be traced in the face of the rock, but its 
opening is at prefent covered by the bafe of the line wall of the 
garrifon. Here bones are found that are apparently human ; 
and thofe of them that appear to be of the legs, arms, and ver- 
tebre of the back, are fcattered among others of various kinds 
and fizes, even down to the fimalleft bones of {mall birds. I 


found here the complete jaw-bone of a fheep; it contained its 
full 


of GIBRALTAR. 201 


full complement of teeth, the enamel of which was perfect, and 
~ its whitenefs and luftre in no degree impaired. In the hollow 
parts of fome of the large bones was contained a minute cryt{tal- 
- lization of pure and colourlefs calcareous fpar; but, in moft, 
the interior part confifted of a fparry cruft of a reddith colour, 
fcarcely in any degree tranfparent. 

Ar the northern extremity of the mountain, the concretion 
is generally found in perpendicular fiffures. ‘The miners there, 
employed upon the fortifications, in excavating one of thofe fif- 
fures, found, at a great depth from the furface, two fkulls, which 
were fuppofed to be human; but, to me, one of them, if not 
both, appeared to be too {mall for the human fpecies. The 
bone of each was perfectly firm and folid ; from which it is to 
be prefumed, that they were in a ftate of maturity before they 
‘were inclofed in the concretion. Had they appertained to very 
young children, perhaps the bone would have been more porous, 
and of a lefs firm texture. The probability is, that they belong- 
ed to a f{pecies of monkey, which ftill continues to inhabit, in 
confiderable numbers, thofe parts of the rock which are to us 
inaccefiible. 

THIS concretion varies, in its compofition, according to the 
fituation im which it is found. At the extremity of Princes 
Lines, high in the rock which looks towards Spain, it is found 
to confift only of a reddifh calcareous earth, and the bones of 
fmall birds cemented thereby. The rock around this {pot is in- 
habited by a number of hawks, that, in the breeding feafon, 
neftle here, and rear their young; the bones in this concretion 
are probably the remains of the food of thofe birds. At the 
bafe of the rock, below King’s Lines, the concretion confifts of 
pebbles of the prevailing calcareous rock. In this concretion, at 
a very confiderable depth under the furface, was found the un- 
der parts of a glafs bottle, uncommonly fhaped, and of great 
- thicknefs ; the colour of the glafs. was of a dark green. 

Vor, IV. | B.b. Ess 


202 MINERALOGICAL DESCRIPTION 


in many parts of the rock I have found concretions, in which 
there are no bones of any kind; and on the elevated parts of 
the mountain, where the flopes are rapid, I have found a breccia, 
(if 1 may fo call it), entirely confifting of fnail-fhells, combined 
in a mafs of opaque ftalactitical {par of a yellowith brown co- 
lour. The various progreflive augmentations of this matter 
were to be traced in various fhades of the fame colour, which, 
like the zones of the antique alabafter, curve round, and fol- 
low the form of the fhell. The purer matter of this {par has 
penetrated the fhells, and in their interior hollows has formed a 
lining of {mall cryftals, generally colourlefs and perfectly tranf- 
parent. | 

1 nave beftowed more time in endeavouring to defcribe the 
compofition, and the real fituation, of this concretion of bones, 
than the fubject, in the eftimation of many, will feem to de- 
ferve, and indeed more than it deferves in my own opinion; but 
where an erroneous opinion has obtained a footing, in confe- 
quence of inaccurate obfervations and partial defcription, it is 
the duty of every new obferver to endeavour to correct it.) 


X. Description of a THERMOMETER, which marks the great- 
ef Decree of Heat and Coup, from one Time of Os- 
SERVATION. to another, and may alfo regifier its own 
“Hetent at every Instant. © By ALEXANDER KEITH, 
Efg; F. R. S. & F. A. S. Evin. | 


[Read Auguft 3. 1795.) 


HERMOMETERS have hitherto been defective for meteo- 
rological purpofes, in fo far as they only point out the de- 
gree of heat at the moment of infpecting them, but do. not fhow 
what the difference of temperature has been, from the time of 
‘one obfervation to that of another: Nor has any inftrument 
Been yet con{tructed, fo far as I have been able to learn, which 
will record the intermediate degrees of heat. : 

THE ingenious Ropert Hook, in the end of the laft century, 
mentions his intention of making a thermometer for the. above 
purpofe ; but it does not appear that it was ever executed: Nei- 
ther does he explain how it was to have been done. 

Tue thermometer, invented by M. James Srx, as defcribed 
in the 72d volume of the Philofophical Tranfactions of the Royal 
Society of London, is made to fhow its. greateft rife or fall from 
‘one period of obfervation to another. This is done by means 
of two fmall pieces of black glafs, which float on two different 

B bez furfaces 


204 DES C RAP TRON, of a 


furfaces of mercury, within two glafs tubes hermetically fealed. 
Thefe floats, when raifed to their greateft height, adhere to the 
fide of the tube, by means of a fpring of glafs, and become fta- 
tionary, although the mercury falls. After the obferver has 
taken a note of the temperature, he, by a magnet held in jis 
hand, draws down the float to the furface of the mercury, in con- 
fequence of a {mall bit of fteel wire inclofed in the float, and the 
inftrument is prepared for another obfervation. This is an in- 
genious invention, but requires too delicate workmanfhip to be 
fit for common ufe ; befides, it cannot be made~to record the 
degrees of heat at intermediate periods. The thermometer, 
lately invented by Dr RuTHERFORD of Balilifh, and defcribed 


in the 3d volume of the Tran/actions of this Society, is alfo an | 


ingenious contrivance, but has the fame defect of marking on- 


ly the extreme points, to which the liquor has rifen or fallen, in 


two feparate glafs tubes. 

SEVERAL years ago it occurred to me, that an air thermo- 
meter might be ufed for the purpofes required, providing the 
weight of the atmofphere could be excluded, or a counter-ba- 
lance formed to it; and as the whole inftrument could be made to 
rife and fall by the temperature of the atmofphere alone, it might 
‘be adapted to a piece of clock-work, which would record the 
degrees of heat at every inftant through the year: And accord- 
ingly I read to this Society a defcription of the inftrument. 
But having formed another inftrument, of a more fimple con- 
ftru€tion, to anfwer the fame purpofe, I beg leave to give a de- 
‘{cription of it. 


AB is a tube about 14 inches long, (Pl. VI.) and three-fourths 
of an inch caliber, of thin glafs, fealed or clofe at top. To the bot- 


tom, which is bent upwards, there is joined a glafs tube 7 inches — 


‘ong, and four-tenths of an inch caliber, open at top. The tube 
. AB 


FTHERMQMET ER. 205 


AB is filled with the ftrongeft fpirit of wine or alcohol, and 
from B to E is filled with mercury. 
Ir will be evident, from infpection, that if the fpirit of wine 
is expanded by heat, the mercury in the fmaller tube will rife, 
and, if the fpirit of wine is contracted by cold, the mercury will 
fall: And although they are both fubjected to the preflure of 
the atmofphere, yet, as liquids are incompreflible by weight in 


_ any perceptible degree, neither the fpirit of wine nor mercury 


will be altered in bulk by the different weight of the atmo- 
{phere. 

ED is a feale of brafs or ivory, about 6+ inches long, divided 
in the ufual way. 

E is a {mall conical piece of ivory or glafs, of a proper weight, 
made to float on the furface of the mercury in the {maller tube: 
to which float is joined a wire, reaching to H, having a knee 
bent at a right angle, which raifes one index, and. depreffes ano- 
ther index, according as the mercury rifes or falls, which wire 
fhall be termed the float-wire. 

II is,a glafs tube, 7 inches and a half long, clofed at top and 
open at bottom, fo wide as to flide eafily over the fcale, and, by 
means of a brafs rim cemented to it, is made to fit exactly to 
the circular bafe of the fcale, fo that, when this tube is put on, 
it covers the whole fcale and indexes, and defends them from 
wind or rain. This cover need not be taken off, except when 


_the inftrument is to be prepared for an obfervation. 


_ Tue operation of the float and indexes will be better under- 


- ftood from fig. 2. which reprefents them of the full fize. 


FG is the fcale fixed to a circular piece of wood or brafs, 
through which the top of the {mall tube is made to pafs. 

From G to K is a piece of the fmalleft harpfichord wire, or _ 
rather of the fmalleft gold wire, ftretched along the fcale, fixed 
at the ends by two brafs pins. 

LL 


206 | DESCRIPTION of a 


LI. are two indexes, formed of thin black oiled filk, pierced 
by the {mall wire in fuch a manner as to flide upwards and 
downwards with a very {mall force, not more than two grains. 

H, the knee of the float-wire before defcribed, is made to en- 
compafs the fmall wire between the two indexes, fo that, when 
the float rifes, the upper index is moved upwards, and, when it 
defcends, it leaves the upper index ftationary, and pufhes down 

the lower index, which is alfo left ftationary, when the float rifes. 

WueEn the inftrument is to be prepared for an obfervation, 
the one index is to be pulled down, and the other raifed, by 
means of a bit of wire bent for the purpofe, until both indexes 

touch the knee of the float-wire: And, when it is again obferved, 
the upper index will point out the greateft degree of heat, and 
the lower the greateft degree of cold, fince the time they were 
fet. Secvhiie 1a te iE 
Ir this thermometer is to be adapted to a piece of clock-work, 
in order to record the degrees of heat at each hour and minute 
of time, it ought to be made of larger dimenfions. The large 
‘tube may be 4o inches long, and not increafed in diameter, but 
the fmall tube ought to be enlarged in diameter, and notin 
‘length. By enlarging the tube, which contains the fpirit of 
wine, in length only, it will be affeéted by heat and cold in as 
fhort a time as that before defcribed. 

Ir is unneceflary at prefent to explain the clock-work. It is 
fufficient to fay, that a hollow cylinder of ‘any light ‘fubftance, 
7 inches long, and 5 inches diameter, is made to revolve upon a 
vertical axis once in thirty-one days or a month; a piece of 
fmooth or vellum paper is put round this cylinder, pafted only 

at the joining, but fo as to make it adhere clofe to the cylinder; 
on this paper are drawn thirty-one equal perpendicular divi- ~ 
fions, numbered at the top 1, 2, 3, &c. to correfpond to the 
thirty-one days of the month, each of which 1s fubdivided into 
‘fix parts, to anfwer to four hours. The length of this-cylinder _ 
is. 


: THERMOMETER. — %09 


is divided by lines furrounding it, or zones, in fuch number as 

correfpond to the feale of FAHRENHEIT’s thermometer, viz. from 

to 100 degrees. "Thefe divifions ought to be engraved on cop- 
_ perplate, and a great number of impreflions thrown off on 
fmooth or vellum paper, in one that one may be ready to 
put on each month. 

Fre. 3, ‘MN reprefents the cylinder covered with one of © 
thefe impreflions. PP is the fcale fixed to the frame on which 
the cylinder turns. ‘This fcale is divided into 100 of FAnREN- 
HEIT’sS degrees, exaCtly correfponding to the divifions of the cy- 
linder. 

is. a hats RG black-lead pencil, joined to the end of the 
flot-wire in the place of the knee before mentioned. This pen- 
cil is made to prefs lightly on the cylinder, by means of the 
fmall weight R. And as the pencil rifes or falls by heat and 
cold, it will mark the degrees on the fcale of the cylinder ; and 
the cylinder being conftantly revolving, the divifion for each 
day and parts of a day will fucceflively be marked by the pen- 
cil, which will leave a trace, defcribing an undulated line, di- 
- ftin@tly delineating the temperature of each day through the 
month. Thefe papers, when taken off and bound together, will 
make a complete regifter of the temperature for the year ; or, if 
they are pafted to one another, they will form a thermometrical 
chart, by which the variations of heat and cold, during the 
year, may all be feen and compared by one glance of the eye. 

By infpecting fig. 3. the effect of the inftrument may be feen. 
It appears that the paper had been put on the cylinder the firft 
day of the month, at midday, when the thermometer {ftood at 
45°; that it fell gradually till midnight to 25°; thereafter it 
rofe till the 2d at 1 P. M. when it ftood at 42°; then it de- 
fcended at midnight to 35, &c.; that on the 4th, at midday, it 
rofe to 50; and at noon, the 1oth of the month, it ftands at 
noe, 

IF 


208 - DESCRIPTION, €&e. - 


Ir three inches be added to the length of the cylinder, it may be 
made to delineate the variations of the barometer as well as the 
thermometer, and thereby to form a complete chart or view of 
the progrefs of both of them. And if inftruments of this kind 
were kept in different parts of the country, and their charts 
compared together, it would afford much information with re- 
gard to meteorology. 


XI. 


Phil Thin Vil 2% Put HP 208 


XI. Description of a BAROMETER, which marks the RisE 


and Fauu of the MERcuRY from two different Times of 
OBsERVATION. By ALEXANDER KEITH, E/g; F.R.S. & 
F. A. S. Epin. 


| Read Fan. 5. 1796. ] 


N Augutft laft, I read to this Society the Defcription of an Air 
Thermometer, intended to record the various degrees of 
heat at every inftant; and mentioned my intention of conftruct- 
ing a barometer, which would, in the fame manner, record the 
variations of the weight of the atmofphere: Both which I pro- 
pofed to adapt to one piece of clock-work. 

THIs piece of machinery appearing too complicated and ex- 
penfive for general ufe, I contrived a thermometer, which marks 
the extreme points of heat and cold from any two times of ob- 
fervation. Of which inftrument I alfo lately read an account, 
and produced the machine itfelf. 

_ I now intend further to lay before this Society the defcrip- 
tion of a barometer upon fimilar principles, of a very fimple con- 
ftru€tion, which alfo marks the variation of the atmofphere 
. from one time of obfervation to another. 


Von, IV. C Gus Pies. 


BIO. ve DESCRIPTION ¢f .a 


Fic. 4. ABCD is a glafs tube, bent in the manner repre- 
fented, open at D, and hermetically fealed at A. From A to 
B is 8 inches long, and about ? of an inch caliber. From 
B to GC 31% inches long, and about § of an inch caliber. And 
from C to D 4+ inches long, and + inch caliber. 

THE tube is filled with mercury, the length from B to E be- 


ing 293 inches. When the tube is hung perpendicular, the - 


mercury will fall from B to E, leaving a vacuum in the upper 
half of the tube from B to A. When the atmofphere becomes. 


heavier, the mercury falls in the tube DC, and when lighter it _ 


rifes. The range of the fcale is about 3 inches, being equal to 
that of a common barometer of the beft conftrudtion, which has 
a bafon with a very broad furface. This inftrument moves in 
a direétion contrary. to the common barometer, the one rifing 
while the other falls. 


Fic. 5. reprefents the tube DC, with the fcale placed above it, 
of half the real dimenfions. F is a piece of ivory or glafs, of a co- 


nical fhape, of a proper weight, made to float on the furface of 
the mercury, having a wire fixed to it reaching toG. From H to 
H is a piece of fmall harpfichord-wire, or rather gold-wire, 
ftretched along the ivory or brafs plate on which the fcale is en- 
graved. IJ are two indexes formed of the thinneft black oiled 
filk, pierced in fuch a manner by the fmall wire as to move up- 
wards and downwards upon it with a very fmall force, not 
more than two grain weight ; and thefe indexes, being not the 
weight of half a grain, they do not defcend the wire by their 
own weight, but remain where they are placed. 

THE wire fixed to the float, (which we fhall call the float-wire), 
has a knee bent at a right angle, and made to encompafs the 
{mall wire between the two indexes, fo that, when the float/rifes, 
the upper index is carried up, and, when it falls, it leaves the 
upper index, and pufhes down the under index. 


In 


— ee | 


4 
, 
‘ 
: 
; 
' 


BARO ME FER: ari 


in order to ‘prepare this barometer for an obfervation, the 
-one index is to be brought down, and the other raifed, until 
both touch ‘the knee of the float-wire. 

THE next time the inftrument is obferved, the upper index 
will point out the greateft depreflion of the mercury, or light- 
nefs of the atmofphere, and the lower index the greate(t rife of 
the mercury or weight of the atmofphere, from the time the 
{cale was prepared. qan | 


By this means the variations of the atmofphere are much 


more truly pointed out than by the common barometer. 
For it often happens, that, during tempeftuous weather, or be- 
fore it, the mercury both rifes and falls within the fpace of a 
few hours, or during the night time, which variations cannot 
be difcovered by any of the barometers prefently in ufe. 

Durinc the late very high winds, in November and Decem- 
ber laft 1795, I have frequently obferved the mercury to rife 
and fall within the {pace of two or three hours before the wind 
begins ; and, during tempeftuous weather, it will fall very confi- 
derably, and foon after rife higher than before, and ofcillate, or 
rather undulate, upwards and downwards, the undulations be- 
coming gradually lefs, until the atmofphere is more {fettled ; 
which fhows, that, like other fluids, when put in agitation, it 
undulates till it come near an equilibrium ; for it appears {fel- 
dom to be in a ftate of perfect tranquillity. 

THE fudden fall and rife, or even the rife and fall of the mer- 
cury, always denote an extraordinary agitation in the atmo- 
{phere. And therefore, to foretell tempeftuous weather, it be- 
comes of importance to obferve how many degrees the one in- 
dex is removed from the other; for example, at night, I take 
note of the common barometer as ftanding at 29% inches, and 
when I examine it in the morning find it at the fame height ; 
from which I naturally conclude, that, as there has been no 
agitation of the mercury, there will be calm or fettled wea- 

GCe2 ther. 


212 D BS'C REPT LO Ny of st. 


ther. But, if I ufe the barometer before defcribed, and examine 
it in the morning, I find the common barometer has deceived 
me ; for although the furface of the mercury ftands at 29; in- 
ches, yet I obferve, that one of the indexes has been raifed +, 
and the other lowered 345 during the night. Hence, inftead of 
denoting calm weather, it fhows that, the mercury having been 
agitated, tempeftuous weather is to be expected. 

THE regifter of the weather, kept from an inftrument of this 
kind, will be much more fatisfactory. than thofe hitherto ufed, 
and regifters kept at different places can be more accurately com- 
pared with one another. 

THE levity of the atmofphere, at great heights, might alfo be 
difcovered, by fufpending this inftrument to an air-balloon. 


XIL. 


aa meaner ET =~ 


XII. Mereorotocicar Asstract for the YEARS 1794, 1795; 
and 1796. Communicated by FoHN PLArrAIR, F. R. S. 


Eprn. and Profeffor of Mathematics in the Univerfity of 
Edinburgh. . 


[ Read at the Meetings in Feb. 1795, 1796, & 1797. | 


HE Journal of the Weather, of which an abftradt is: here 

communicated, has been kept in a houfe in Windmill 
Street, on the fouth fide of Edinburgh. The latitude of 
Edinburgh College, as deduced from a feries of aftronomical 
obfervations made at Hawkhill, is 55°. 57’. 5” nearly. Wind- 
mill Street 1s about 500 yards farther to the fouth. 

Tue barometer ufed in thefe obfervations is a portable one, 
of the conf{trution invented by Dr Linn, phyfician at Windfor ; 
the mercury was boiled in the tube, and the fcale is divided in-- 
to the five-hundredth parts of an inch. The place where it 
ftands is 265 feet above the level of the fea, or of the mean 
high-water mark at Leith. The height of it is marked every 
morning at ro o'clock, as well as that of a thermometer, in the. 
fame room, which gives the temperature of the mercury. 

THE thermometer, which gives the temperature of the air, is. 


placed on the outfide of a window that looks towards the N. W.. 
| about 


214 METEOROLOG ICAL ABSTRACT. 


about 18 feet above the furface of the ground; and though, in 
a town, it is impoflible to prevent local caufes from affecting the 
thermometer, yet the current of air is generally fo confiderable 
as to prevent thefe irregularities from rifing to. any great a- 
mount. ; 

THE regifter contains the ftate of the thermometer for three 
different hours of the day, viz. 8 A. M. to P. M and alfo about 
2 o'clock, when the thermometer is higheft. The hour of this 
laft obfervation is not however fixed ; it is fuch as to give near- 
ly the greateft heat of the day, and varies from 1 to half paft 
2, or even 3 o'clock. The abftract contains the greateft and 
leaft heights of the thermometer, that have been obferved at any 
of thefe hours in the courfe of each month: It contains alfo the 
mean of the morning, mid-day, and evening obfervations ; and 
likewife the mean of all thefe means, as being nearly the me- 
dium temperature of the whole month. 

THE rain is put down for 1794 and 1795 from a rain-gage 
kept in Edinburgh, and for 1796 from one kept in the Botanic 
Garden with great accuracy, under Dr RUTHERFORD’Ss particu- 
lar infpection. The Botanic Garden is half-a-mile north of 
Edinburgh, and about roo feet above the level of the fea. 


In the remarks, reference is fometimes made to the Meteoro- 
logical Journal kept fome years ago at Hawkhill, near Edin- 
burgh, of which an account is given in the Phi/ofophical Tranj- 

actions of London 1775, p. 462. 


METEO- 


\ 
— Ss 


METEOROLOGICAL ABSTRACT. 215 


METEOROLOGICAL TABLE ror 1794. 


: ee 

= é x L = oe 4 as 

4 ob See le ily sa ee Se eS be ee 

E S= [68 | ge] 8 S28.) S28 |e. | 52] 3 

= mo [5S fees | £ | ao |e] ze | so | 2 

oe | eS ecto Se wae pre | Heese rain) cg 

Sat Se rom a8 5 iS Bidve Beh sel Shae Lo) 

January, 29.661 | 49.30 | 51-5 | 21-0 | 39.32| 41.43 | 41 20} 40.65 | 1-40 
|February, | 29.397] 59-0 | 54-25135-5 | 43-5 | 46.00 | 44.30}-44.10 | 2-145 
March, 29.631 | 51.00 153-0 | 38-5 | 44-43 | 48.09] 45.93] 46.15 | 0-995 
April, 29-595 | 55-25 | 64-5 | 39-25] 49-50] 52.98 | 48.30] 50.26 | 2.150] 
May, - 29-752 | 56.32 |62.0 | 42.0 | 50.22] 56.16] 47.22 | 51.20] 1.910 

June, 29.884 | 64.50 | 73-0 | 48.5 | 60.4 | 62.30! 57.40 | 60.70 | 1.07 


July, 29.768 | 66.70} 75.0 | 52.0 |61.7 | 66.42} 58.61 | 62.24 | 2.12 
Augutt, 29.720 | 64.32 | 72.0 | 49.0 | 59.98 | 63.03 | 55.40] 59.47 | 1-84 
September, | 29.662 | 58-71 | 64.0 | 41.0 |-54.99] 57.45 | 52.06 | 54.08 | 3.14 
O&tober, | 29.516] 54.85 | 62.0 | 36.5 | 50.26] 52.43 | 47.29 | 49.66 | 3.53 
November, | 29.416 | 48.90 / 53-5 132-5 | 43-581 45-54 | 43.47] 44-19] 4.51 
December, | 29.691 | 48.58:| 50.5 | 26.25 | 41-33] 42.50] 40.10 | 41.31 | 3-92 


“Means, 29.641 | 55.72 ; 49-79 | 52.84 | 48.34 | 50.32 
Total Rain, 28.73 


1d OS CRIS) a ie < Aerag  R 

Tue weather in January and February 1794-was very mild and open. The 
prevailing winds were from S. W. and S. 5. W.; ufually 2 brifk fteady gale, but 
fometimes more violent, particularly in. February. The thermometer was as high 
as 50% ih January, and 54 in February ; and once in January: fo low as 21, only for 
a fhort time, however, during a N. W. wind; the froft lafted fome days. Very 
little fnow fell. The temperature of thefé months was 6° or 7° above the mean. 
of the Hawkhill obfervations. There was a great deal of clear weather, and, though 

‘the atmofphere was moift, there fell but little rain. : 
Marcu and April continued to maintain a fuperiority of 3 or-4 degrees in tem- 
perature above the fame months in ordinary feafons. March was very dry, and 
the wind frequently in the eaft. In the end of April, the weather was fqually, with 


the wind varying from 8. W. to S.E. 
Is 


ai6 METEOROLOGICAL ABSTRACT. 


In May the heat fell down nearly to the common average of that month, viz. — 
505, fo that it feemed cold, compared with the reft of the feafon, The wind was 
often in the eaft, and the nights cold. ‘ 

June and July were very favourable: warmer than the mean by 1 or 2 de- 
grees. In June, the temperature was remarkably uniform; and the wind was 
moftly in the weft. The weather in July was alfo fine; the wind moderate, and 
generally weft. 

Tue Harveft began with Auguft; the iiiince tolerable, though more rainy 
than ufual, and colder. The tem perature of this month is almoft 2° below the mean. 

THE wind was generally weft; but a furface wind was to be obferved at the fame 
time blowing from the eaft. This is often obferved with us in the fineft weather : 
it feldom fails to happen at the time of the great changes of the wind from the 
eaft to the weft. 

SEPTEMBER was rainy; its temperature rather below the mean, with braid 
winds about the middle and end of the month. 

OcToBER rainy ; the wind variable, though moftly 5. W.; the barometer low ; 
and the mean temperature 49°. 66, a very little under the mean. 

NoveEmMBER was warm for the feafon, though rainy, with the wind variable, and 
often very high from 5. W. ; 

DEcEMBER was alfo warmer than ufual, by nearly two degrees: The wind was 
eafterly till near the end of the month, when it changed to the N. E: A good deal 
of {now fell on the 25th ; and, on the laft day of the year, the thermometer, in the 
evening, was at 26: The weather clear, with little wind. 


On the whole, the mean temperature of this year exceeded that of ordinary fea- 
fons by almoft 2°. This excefs of heat is very confiderable ; but, as it fell chiefly 
in the winter months, it was not attended with any particular advantage. The rain 
that fell was 28.73 inches. 


METEO- 


METEOROLOGICAL ABSTRACT. 217 


METEOROLOGICAL TABLE ror 1795. 


saa a a al e [2 12 18 ee 
os <= os oO Ct hes S ol a » bee a] = 
Nears fe es ate Hee Pe Mie ai gnc thee es ghd nb 
= aL a ge ae a se be 2 8 2 phe a | @ 
& |Ho| Bo | By Eee sm |e |e |Se] & (21s 
Go fee | Re le siesie<| ga lrsiaseise] 2 is |s 
Oa | Ae | Sos efoelis|se jse|se|se) 0 la ja 
Inches, | Inches. t 5 5 Aline +; 3 > |\Lnches. 
Jan.. -|30.306 28.88 5]29.89 114 2.01146.0]16, 513 1.11|32-80|32-20131.7C] 2.732) 14) 17 
Feb. |30.450|28.636|29.484141.8}]40.6|27,0]30.14]30.89|28.46|29.83] 3.875) 16] 12 
March, 30-125|28.992|29-5 73146-5115 1-5126.0139.92)42.96]37-80|40.23]] 1-372] 23) 8 
April, {30.1 46|28.948]29.503]5 2.0115 6.513.014 7.09/49. 5 2|44-73147-11]] 2-11¢] 16) 14 
May, |30.320/29.275|29.91 315 5-116 5-5|39.5|50.98]5 3-83/47-03| 50-34]| 1-200] 18] 13 
June, |30.272|29.128]29-74 3157-5116 7-0142.5154.40]57-17|50-54|54-COl| 3-920] xcl 20 
July, |30.238/29.286]29.806|60.2)172.0]5.0.0|60.42162.85/54-97/59+41]| 2-520| 15] 16 
Aug. |30 48 29.210|29.674|64.21173.5}52.0161.11]64.21/59-59|51.3C]] 3-620] 24] 7 
Sept. |30.282]29.31.4]29.8 5 3162.01173.c/5 3.2159.89153-4815 7-63]60.00] 1.120] 21] 9 
O&. |29.94.4]28.340]29.28015 7.516 3.5144.5/5 3-615 5.5 5152-48]5 3-56] 4.87] 231 8 
Nov. |30.49028.4 7 5|29.570147-51l5 1-5|25+2140.60]41-61/39.27/40.49| 4.58cl 26] 4 
Dec. {30.220129.080)29.56015.0.5115.5-7136-014 5-43146-23142-961 44.87] 3.81c] 25] 6 
Means, ; 47-9C150.04]45.44/47-7 ea 
Totals, | | : 


§-72.9|23 034 | 


THE mean temperature of the whole year is 47.75. 


BR i Ae Re. 


Tue winter of 1795 was remarkable for the feverity and: continuance of the 
cold. The year began with a fharp froft, which had fet in on the 26th of the pre- 
ceding month, but which lafted only till the 3d of January, when the wind came 
round to the S. W. and was followed by a thaw. On the roth the froft returned, 
the wind varying’ from N.. W. to N. E. with heavy falls of fhow between 
the rsth and 20th. On the 2oth the cold became very fevere; and on the 22d the 
thermometer, about 8 in the evening, ftood at 144°, the loweft that I obferved it du- 
ring the whole feafon. - This intenfity of the cold lafted, however, but a fhort time, 

for by 10-0’clock the thermometer had rifen to 162°. On the fame night, in the Bo- 

Vou. IV. ; Dd tanical i 


f 


218 METEOROLOGICAL ABSTRACT. 


tanical Garden, which lies clio Edinburgh and the F rith, and is about 1 150 feet 
lower than the place where I obferved, a thermometer, siliich marks its loweft point, 
according to the conftruétion deferibed in the 3d volume of thefe Tran/aéions, fell 
as low as 5°. The cold at Glafgow, on this night, was ftill more intenfe. Mr 


-Profeffor Wilfon, who watched the motions of the thermometer, with his ufual dili- — 


gence and accuracy, found it ftand at wero, from 11 at night till 3 in the morning, 
when it began to rife, and about break of day was at 10°. 


Tue night preceding this was alfo obferved, in fome places, to be remarkably — 
cold. At White Hall, in Berwickthire, 7 miles W. N. W. of Berwick upon 


Tweed, and about 38 E. S. E of Edinburgh, Mr Hatt obferved the thermometer, 
in the open air, about ro that evening, at 6° below zero. This was the greateft cold 
that I have heard of being obferved in Scotland ; and is, at the fame time, an exam- 
ple of the locality of thefe great colds. The weather at this time was clear ; the 
wind very gentle, between N, N. W. and N.N. E.; a great deal of fnow had fallen 
from the xrs5th to the goth, and lay at this time more than a yard thick on the 
ground, 

From about the 22d the intenfity of the cold relaxed gradually for Gena days; 
the thermometer was a degree above freezing on the 24th. From that time the cold 


increafed ; on the 29th the thermometer was at 16° in the evening ; in the Botanic - 


Garden at 4°; and at Glafgow, on the afternoon of the 30th, it was between 4° and 
4 g 3 4 


zero for feveral hours together. This was again followed by a relaxation of the 


cold, though not fo confiderable as before. On the §th and 6th of February it was 
again very cold, the thermometer here was at 19°, at Glafgow it defcended to zero. 

AYTER another remiffion the cold became very fevere on the 13th, both here 
and at Glafgow. This was fucceeded by a fimilar change, only the remiffion was 
longer and more confiderable, fo that a good deal of fnow was melted on the 24th 
and 26th; but on the 27th and 28th the cold once more became fevere, the ther- 
mometer ftanding at 19 and 20 degrees. It continued much in this fate till the 3d 
of March, when the wind came about to the S. W.; the thermometer rofe in the 
evening to 403°; and a very moderate thaw fucceeded, which carried off the 
fnow, without any of thofe great inundations which did fo much mifchief in the 
fouthern part of the Ifland. 

Tue whole duration of the froft was 52 or 53 days; and the medium tempera- 
ture, during that time, 29°.6. The alternate intenfions and remiffions of the cold, 
all the while were very remarkable; our climate feemed to lofe nothing of its ufual in- 
conftuncy, and its viciflitudes were only lower down in the fcale cf heat. By this means, 
however, many of the bad confequences ef a long and fevere winter were prevented. 
The infides of houfes were never fo much cooled, that {pirits or beer, or even water, 
was frozen in them. The room where my barometer is kept, though without fire, 
was never colder than 37°, and this only for a few days in the end of January. 
From the fame caufe, the mills in the country were rarely {topped ; and, except from 
the blocking up of the roads by the fnow, almoft no inconvenience was experienced. 


The 


METEOROLOGICAL ABSTRACT. °° 219 


The roads were rendered impaffable, both from the depth of the fnow, and the 
degree of thaw which now and then took. place, by which they became flippery, 
and uneven inthe extreme. The whole {now that fell, reduced to water, mea- 
fured 6.607 inches, which, had it fallen at once, would have covered the ground 
to the depth of about 7 feet. 

Tue feverity of this winter extended over all Europe; and, on the Continent, 
the freezing over of the Rhine and the Meufe was accompanied with circumflances 
that will be long remembered. _~ - 

THE barometer was above 30.3 at the beginning of the froft, and continued 
high till the end of January, notwithftanding the heavy falls of fnow, which came 
almoft all from eaft and N. E. On the 31ft of January it fell greatly, with fnow; 
and, during the firft 12 days of February, it was generally below 29 inches. It 
ftood at 30.4 on the 17th, from which it fell gradually till the thaw, when it was un- 
der 29.5. No-conneétion could be traced between the ofcillations of the barome- 
ter, and the intenfions and remiffions of the cold. 

From the breaking up of the froft on the 3d, till about the 20th of March, the 
{now did not difappear entirely, even in the plains; it ufually froze a little in the 
night, and the medium temperature was under 38°. On the difappearance of the 
{now, the thermometer rofe fuddenly about 10°, which muft be afctibed to the cea- 
fing, at that time, of the abforption of the latent heat, that had taken place during the 


- melting of the fnow. 


Tue {pring which fucceeded was tolerable; and the temperature of the latter 
part of March, the whole of April, and the beginning of May, rather above the 
mean. About the roth of May the wind, which had for fome time been in the 
5. W. came to the eaft and N. E.; the weather, of courfe, was cold, and continued fo, 
with the wind generally N. E. all the month of June, and till the 24th of July. 
June and July were alfo very rainy months, The wefterly winds prevailed in Au- 
guit, and the weather was good, though a confiderable quantity of rain fell. Sep- 
tember was uncommonly favourable; and the crop, which was extremely late, 
owed much of its maturity to this month. It proved, however, very fcanty, and 
was got in but indifferently, O&ober being a very rainy month. 

NoveEMBER was cold, and very wet: On the 18th the rain was remarkably 
heavy, and was followed by the greateft floods that had been known for feveral 
years. In December the weather became much milder, and fomewhat lefs rainy ; 
but, on the whole, the rain of this year very much exceeded the average, and amount- 
ed to 35.729 inches. 


N.B. In the two laft columns of the table for this year, it is marked whether the 
wind blew from the weftern or eaftern femicircle. The fouth wind is 
fuppofed to belong to the firft of thefe; the north wind to the fecond. 


METEO- 


220 METEOROLOGICAL ABSTRACT. 


-METEOROLOGICAL TABLE ror 1706. 


. | Inches. ° 
Jan. |29.792128.175]29.19 4150.0 
Feb, |30.380}28.682|29.5 56/49.0 
March,|30.408]2g.375|28.886148. 5 
April, |30.208}29.040|29-373|56.0 | 
May, |29-995|28.53¢}29-585156.75} 
June, |30.100}29.315]29-662159.0 {173.0 147.0 
July, }30.021129.054]29-445]61.2 5166.5 147-0 |55- a? 
Aug. 130.240]29.316|29-828164.7 51:74.2'5]50.0 |58.86/68. 
Sept. |30.166]29.362|29.739|61.62|'70.5 [45-5 
O&. — }30.492129.114]29.339154.0 |62.0 134.0 
Nov. [30.322}29.026/29.638|47.75 48.5 26.0 
Dec. | 30.262]28.978)29.66c140.35] 51.5 |29.0 


Loal 
3 
fe} 
oF 
ao 
n 


eo” yu 
s Ss eo v e vo 
2 2 Bee AB Heke Scie Atal eal ake afeh aa hes 
° Ss aed - o = . te i= 

Ge oD o res he Gis SS <s s > 
= © 93 Saflee[e. | S2] og ue ee 
J) x - a a i o 
@. 12. |S. | sees ebladlaeleois Pa ft 
ices 88 os | Bowe] es jco ]s Ca Pere Ps 

~ 
G2 pre) BE lei geiae |e pes tme ioe | aa fs 
2& £ «af ao 2s g loud a: ee «U sy = 
Eas) eo a o an Sy el So oe tao £ is 
fs | oe | 3 (So) 2) 82 |24188 22 [82 ] sz le: 
om fa] aa |S oe Se Se ZR IESE =e | % A 
———=ee | 1 


o i) roy i) 
43-94/47-1214 5.9414 5-66 
34-0 |39-85143-77|40.79/41-47 
38.3 5143-88]38.67140.30 


Means, 48.1 | 


Totals, 


47-38|51-71147.10 


THE mean temperature of the whole year is 48°. 1. 


| 


RAE! “MM eCA Ree KierS! 


TuHE winter of this year was remarkable for its mildnefs, and, compared with 
that of the former year, may give an idea of the two extremes between which the win- 
ters of this part of the Ifland will generally be confined. About the middle of January, 
the thermometer ftood for 10 days conftantly above 50°, day and night; and the 
mean temperature of the month, viz. 45°. 6, is at leaft 11° above the medium, and 
nearly the fame with that of the ordinary January of Marfeilles. This extraordi-. 

nary 


. 
, 


METEOROLOGICAL ABSTRACT. 4x 


mary depree of warmth was maintained by a high wind, that blew conftantly from 
S. W. and S. S. W. bringing with it the air and temperature of the foutbern parts 
of the Atlantic. This wind prevailed over fuch en extent of the ocean, and blew 
with fuch violence, that it forced back a fleet of Britifh men of war, afier it had 
endeavoured, in vain, for fix weeks, to make its paflage to the Welt Indies. 

Ir muit be remembered, that the great cold of the preceding winter was with. 
a wind N.N. E. and fometimes N. N. W which blew very moderately. | 

Own the 23d of January there was a hurricane from S. 5. W. that blew down. 
trees and unroofed houfes: The barometer fell very low, and did not rife to its 
ordinary height for more than ten days. 

In March the weather was cold, 5° below the middle temperature of February ; 
eaft winds prevailed, and the premature appearances of vegetation, produced by 
the mildnefs of the preceding feafon, fuffered. a fevere check. April was more fa- 
vourable ; but in May the weather again became cold, with eaft winds, remarkably 
dry and parching. The grafs every where fuffered extremely from this month. 

~ On the 30th there was a hurricane at London, and at Portfmouth on the 3rft. 
On both thefe days the barometer here was very low, 28.53, though the wind was 
no more than-a brifk gale at S. W. 

In June the mean temperature was not fo high by 2° as in ordinary fea- 
fons. The wind, though welt, was ufually from the northern points of the femi- 
circle. 

Jury was worfe than June, and its mean temperature 3° under that of a tole-. 
rable feafon. Great apprehenfions were entertained for the crops, which, without 
the fine weather that fucceeded in Auguft, muft have been ruined. The heat of this 
_ month, which was at a medium about 614°, was not fo remarkable for being great.as 
for being uniform ; the thermometer, for a great part of the month, was not below 
63°, even in the night. There was.a great deal of funfhine, and the wind almoft con--. 
ftlantly W.S. W. He 

Tue firft half of September was little inferior to Auguft. On the 21ft, the 
wind, from the 5. W. came round to the N. E.; aconfiderable fall of rain follow- 
ed, and the weather became colder, and continued to be fo in O&ober: the medium 
temperature of which was 3 degrees lower than the average. 

A smaxT froft fet in on the 29th of November, and next morning the thermo- 
meter ftood at 26°. This froft continued till the 1eth of December, with an 
intenfity very unufual fo early in the winter. On the evening of the 5th the ther- 
mometer was at 21°. Between the roth and 13th the froft had almoft difappeared; 
but it returned on the 14th with confiderable feverity, and continued till the 28th, 
when it broke up entirely. The thermometer was at 19° on the 26th, and in many 
places lower. The fame froft was felt in England, where there were local colds of much 
greater intenfity, the thermometer, in fome places, having been as low, it was faid, as 
—10. A tract of very mild and open weather began on the 31{ft of December. 

Vou. IV. Ee. THE 


» 


222 METEOROLOGICAL ABSTRACT. ~ ; 
THE mean temperature of the whole year is 48°,1, about + of a degree greater 
than the common average. E 
Tue greateft fingularity in this year is its drynefs. The whole rain amounted to 


no more than 19.395 inches, not much above the half of what fell in 1795. This 


quantity of rain was, however, perfeétly fufficient for the purpofes of Vegetation, as 
the crop of corn was very plentiful. 


END OF PAPERS OF THE PHYSICAL CLASS 


II. 


PAPERS OF THE LITERARY CLASS. 


4. On the On1tcin and PRinciPLeEs of GoTHIc ARCHITECTURE. 
By Sir FAMES HALL, Bart. ¥. R. & A. SS. Evin. 


[Read April 6. 1797.} 
IN TROD UC T T.G.N. 


ONG after the arts of ancient Greece and Rome had been 

4 loft, and before any effeCtual attempt was made to revive 
them, a ftyle of building, known among us by the name of 
Gothic Architefture, began to appear in. Europe. 

Av firft, a few only of its peculiar forms were employed, 
which, in fome old buildings, are to be met with, intermixed 
with the remains of a ftill more ancient ftyle. Afterwards, ri- 
fing by degrees into favour, it fupplanted, in all the depart- 
ments of architecture, every other fpecies of defign, and main- 
tained an unrivalled dominion during three hundred years. 

a 2 in 


4 On GOTHIG ARCHITECTURE. 


In the early part of the fixteenth century it underwent a fud- 
den reverfe of fortune; not, however, (I am inclined to think), 
from any difcovery of its defects, or any inquiry into its me-. 
rits, but entirely from the general temper of the times. A paf- 
fionate admiration of the works of antiquity, which had then 
recently attracted the attention of the moderns, produced a con- 
tempt for whatever was not profefledly formed upon the models 
of Greece and Rome. At the fame time, an indifcriminate ha- 
tred again{t every production of the middle ages, f{trongly felt 
by men juft emerging from the gloom of that period, led them 
to overlook the merit of this very brilliant exception to its gene- 
ral barbarifm. _ 

But the excefs of thefe impreflions has of late very much 
abated ; authors of the greateft eminence have teftified a refpe& 
for Gothic architecture, by advancing various fyftems to ac- 
count for its forms ; and, whilft they acknowledge the fuperior 
excellence of the works of the ancient Greeks, they allow that, in 
airy lightnefs, and in bold grandeur of effect, thofe of the Gothic 
{tyle have not been furpafled, if ever equalled, by the moft ce- 
lebrated of our modern produétions. The period, too, in which | 
it prevailed, being at a diftance from our times, and that di- 
ftance being magnified in our imagination by the obfcurity of 
its hiftory, we are inclined to rank its monuments with the 
works of remote antiquity, which feldom fail to excite even a 
greater intereft than thofe poffefling the charm of novelty. 

In concurrence with thefe favourable fentiments, my object, 
in the following Effay, is to reftore to Gothic architecture its 
due fhare of public efteem, chiefly by fhewing, that all its forms 
may be traced to the imitation of one very fimple original ; and, 
confequently, that they are connected together by a regular fyf 
tem: thus proving, that its authors have been guided by prin- 
ciple, and not, as many have alleged, by mere fancy and ca- 
price. 

HAVING 


On GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE. —— ¢ 


.,Havine endeavoured to inveftigate the theory of Gothic ar- 
-chite@ture, I fhall prefent a view of what I have been able to 
colle& concerning its hiftory; and, without pretending to dif- 
pel the very deep obfcurity which {till furrounds this curious 
fubject, I fhall venture to fuggeft fome hints, which may be of 
fervice in guiding the refearches of antiquaries. By this hifto- 
rical view, I hope, likewife, to refute an opinion, which has 
contributed greatly to difcredit the Gothic ftyle, namely, that it 
prevailed only in barbarous times ; fince I fhall fhow, that, al- 
though it made its firft appearance in a period of that defcrip- 
tion, it continued to flourifh, while the arts of defign were ad- 
vancing in excellence, and ftill maintained its pre-eminence, 
when they had attained to the higheft degree of modern {plen- 
dour. 

Last ty, by inftituting, between the Gothic and other ftyles, 
a comparifon, founded upon the general and fundamental prin-= 
ciples of architecture, I {hall endeavour fairly to appreciate its 
merits, and to fhow the high eftimation to which it is entitled, 
in point both of beauty and of utility *. 


BEFORE 


* Turs plan is now nearly completed, the whole Effay being written out, and ac- 
‘companied with a fet of drawings fufficient to render it intelligible, but by no means 
in a ftate for publication. To bring them to fuch a ftate muft be a work of much 
fabour and time, efpecially fince the nature of the fubjeét has hitherto compelled me , 
to execute all of them with my own hands. 

I HAVE judged it advifeable, therefore, to lay before the Society a part of the Ef- 
fay, which requires but few drawings, while it announces the fundamental and ef- 
fential views of the theory ; referving the full illuftration of it to another occafion, 
when I hope to produce the whole in a feparate work. 

In the mean time, it may not be improper to obferve, further, with refpect tomy 
general plan, that the firft part, comprehending the theory of Gothic architecture, 
has been arranged under three fubdivifions; the firft of thefe contains a view of its 
elements, all its forms being reduced to their fimpleft ftate ; the fecond treats of the 
deviations from thofe elements, which, in the courfe of pradlice, have been occafioned 
by various circumftances ; and, the laft, combining the other two, contains an exa- 


mination 


- 


6. On GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE. 

BEFORE we enter upon this inquiry, which is chiefly direéted 
towards the inveftigation of a principle of Imitation, it will be 
proper to premife a few obfervations, on the mode in which 
the forms of nature have been introduced into: works of art; 
a fubjeét which hitherto feems not to have met with the atten- 


tion it deferves. 


ALTHOUGH the connexion between beauty and. utility be ftll 
involved in fuch obfcurity, that we are unable to decide con- 
cerning the univerfality of that connexion, of one thing we are 
certain, that, in a work mtended to anfwer fome ufeful purpofe, 
whatever vifibly counteracts that purpofe always occafions de- 
formity. Hence it is, that, even where ornament is principally 
intended, the oftenfibly ufeful object of the work, if it have — 
any fuch, muft be provided for, im the firft posed in preference 
to every other confideration. 

But, in moft ufeful works, fome parts. occur, the fhape of 
which is quite indifferent with refpect to the propofed utility, 
and which, therefore, the artift is at liberty to execute as he plea-. 
fess .a liberty, which has opened a wide field to the tafte and 
invention of ingenious men of every age and country, who: 
have turned their attention to the compofition of ornaments ; and 
whofe exertions have been more or lefs influenced by the ftate of 
civilization in which they lived. It would feem, however, if 
we may judge by thofe various efforts, that little has been effect- 
ed by mere human ingenuity ; fince we fee, that recourfe has. 
been had, almoft univerfally, to Nature, the great and legitimate: 
fource of beauty; and that ornament has been attained, by the 

iniitation. 


mination of the monuments of the art now in exiftence, and an application of our 
principles to every part of them. 

Tue prefent publication confitts of the introduétion to the whole Effay, together: 
with the elementary part, illuftrated by fix plates. 


On GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE. ; 


imitation of objects, to which fhe has ret a determinate and 
characteriftic’ form. 

Tuus, among the Pt oe in the period of their higheft re- 
finement, we find the handles of vafes in the fhape of vine 
branches, or of ferpents twifted round each other. Some urns 
of ancient Egyptian workmanfhip: terminate in the head of 
an owl. The heads of our fhips are decorated with figures 
of men and of animals; and the hatchets and canoes of 
Nootka Sound are covered with rude 1 images of various natural 
objects. . 

THE bbhitiatty however, in fuch cafes, differs from that in a 

ftatue or in a picture. In the one, the fole object is to reprefent 
~ fome natural object ;: whereas, in the other, the forms of -nature 
have been partially adopted, and modified in various ways, in 
order to fuit the ufeful deftination of the work. In this man- 
ner, artifts of every age have been led to felect, among the 
forms of a natural object, fuch as anfwered their purpofe, to the 
exclufion of the reft; and have exhibited modified imitations 
of nature, which, being juftified by the circumftances of the 
cafe, do not fuggeft the idea of mutilation. Thus we meet 
with the foot of a table executed like that of a lion, or the 
hilt of a fword like the head of an eagle, without afking what 
has become of the body of the animal, and without being ftruck 
with any impropriety in the omiffion. 

FREQUENTLY, where the materials employed are themfelves 
pofleffed of variety and elegance, the object of ornament has 
been fufficiently attained, by allowing the natural: forms, in 
whole or in part, to remain in the finifhed work. For inftance, 
cups are made of fhells, of cocoa nuts, or of oftrich eggs, the 
character and beauty of which depend upon the natural form of 
the materials. And in the cafe of the bottles, ufed by the Roman 
Catholic pilgrims, an example occurs of an utenfil, in which 

the 


8 On. GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE: 

the natural form has undergone little or no variation, fince 
it confifts of the hard outward {kin of a gourd, of the fame fhape 
in which it grew upon the plant*. 

Turs laft clafs of forms has been introduced, by Imitation, 
into works compofed of fhapelefs materials. Thus we have fil- 
ver cups in the form of thofe made of fhells, and fruit-difhes. 
of {toneware in the form of bafkets. The ancient Peruvian va- 
fes of pottery are executed in exact imitation of gourds; a prac- 
tice which had probably fucceeded the ufe of gourds as bottles. 
In fuch cafes, the defect of real character in the object is fup- 
plied by a fi€titious one, which, in the hands of a man of genius, 
is often productive of the moft happy effects ; fince it enables 
him to confer upon his. work the merit of confiftency, and truth 
of charaéter; qualities, which influence the mind of the fpec- 
tator as powerfully, when founded on fiction as on: reality. 
For we judge of fuch a work, as we do of a romance, in 
which, we are {carcely lefs interefted than if we believed it to be: 
true. | lize 
WE may now confider the application of thefe principles to 
every kind of ornamental archite@ture.. As ftone is not natu- 
rally poffeffed. of any peculiar fhape, and as the ufeful obje& : 
propofed, by ftructures formed: of it, may be accomplifhed in — 
various ways, very great latitude is left to the invention ‘of 
the artift. We fee, accordingly; that, in every country where 
much, refinement has. been. introduced, great pains have been 
beftowed, in ornamenting ftone buildings, with. figures repre- 
fenting various natural objects. It, would feem, that the la- 
uitude has even been too great; for experience fhews, that’ the 

) ) artift 

* Even. in this cafe, however, the. natural form undergoes a-certain degree of 

modification, by the device employed to produce the neck of the bottle. The. 


fruit, while {mall- and tender, is furrounded with a ftring, which-remaining during. — 
its growth, prevents the part, thus bound, from {welling with the reft. , 


On GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE. 9 


artift has fucceeded beft, where his imagination has been cir- 
cum{cribed, and forced into a regular channel. 

For this purpofe, recourfe has frequently been had to the de- 
vice laft mentioned ; the building being executed in imitation 
of a f{tructure, compofed of materials, which naturally poflefs a 
determinate and characteriftic form. Such was the method fol- 
lowed by the architects of ancient Greece, who conftructed tem- 
ples, and other public edifices, in imitation of a ruftic fabric, 
compofed of {quare beams, fupported upon round pofts or ftems 
of trees; and who derived the numerous ornaments of that 
beautiful ftyle, from circumftances which would naturally take 


place in fuch a ftructure *. 
Vou. IV. b A 


* Tuart they really did imitate a building of wood, is ftated, in the cleareft man- 

ner, in the work of Vitruvius, particularly in-his chapter, ‘‘ De Ornamentis Co- 
lumnarum.” He there fpeaks of archite@tural work in ftone or marble, as a re- 
prefentation, (zmago ), and of the timber fabric asa reality, (7 verztate ), as will 
appear by the following quotation. 
_  Traque, in Grecis operibus, nemo fub mutulo denticulos conftituit, non enim 
poflunt fubtus cantherios afferes efle. Quod ergo fupra cantherios et templa in ve- 
ritate debét efle collocatum, id in zmaginibus, fi infra con{titutum fuerit, mendofam 
habebit operis rationem. Etiamque antiqui non probaverunt neque inftituerunt in 
faftigiis mutulos, ‘aut denticulos fieri, fed puras coronas; ideo quod nec cantherti nee 
afferes contra faftigiorum frontes diftribuuntur, nec poffunt prominere, fed ad ftillicidia 
proclinati collocantur.. 

‘¢ Ira quod non poteft in veritate fieri, id non putaverunt in imaginibus factum, 
poffe certam rationem habere. Omnia, enim, certa proprietate, et a veris nature 
deduis moribus, traduxerunt in operum perfectiones. Et ea probaverunt, quorum 
explicationes, in difputationibus, rationem poffunt habere veritatis.” 

In one refpeét, this paflage is extremely obfcure, but, in another view, it is fuffi- 
ciently clear to anfwer the prefent purpofe. The obfcurity arifes from the difficul- 
ty, or rather impoffibility, of difcovering the meaning of feveral of the technical 
terms employed, thefe being very rarely ufed by authors, and relating to a mode of 
building different from any now prattifed. But, whilft commentators differ as to the 
precife meaning of the words cantherius, affer, and templum, as ufed in this paflage,, 
they all agree in confidering them as denoting parts of the timber frame of a roof. 


At the fame time, mutu/us and denticulus are well known terms of architeture, and 
appropriated 


’ \ 
« ~ 


10 On GOTHIG ARCHITECTURE. 


A FAINT and diftant refemblance, however, of the original, 
has generally been found to anfwer all the end propofed by the 
imitation ; a refemblance, which may fometimes be traced in 
the general diftribution of the edifice, fometimes in its minute 
parts, and not unfrequently in both. 

But the forms of nature, thus introduced, have been greatly 
modified by thofe of mafonry. For though ftone is by nature 
fhapelefs, yet, in the courfe of pratice, many peculiar forms 
have been long eftablifhed, and currently employed, in working 
it; fuch as ftraight lines, plain furfaces, {quare angles, and va- 
rious mouldings ufed to foften the effeé& of abrupt termina- 
tions; all of which, originating in motives of mechanical con- 
venience, and of fimple ornament, had, in very early times, 
been appropriated to mafonry, and confidered as effential in 
every finifhed work of {tone ; fo that, when the imitation of na- 
ture was introduced, thefe mafonic forms ftill maintained their 
ground, and, being blended with the forms of nature, the two 
clafles reciprocally modified each other. 

Tu1s combination of art with nature, of which we fee the 
moft perfe€t example in the Corinthian capital, produces what 

are 


appropriated to buildings of ftone. The latter part, which relates to the principle of 
imitation in general, is fufficiently clear. The paflage, in Englith, is nearly as fol- 
lows : 

“ Tuus, inthe works of the Greeks, denticles were never placed under a modil- 
lion, becaufe it is impoffible that the afleres can be under the cantherii. If, then, 
what is fituated over the cantherii and templa 7” reality, be exhibited as under them 
in the cmztation, the principle on which the work proceeds is belied. 

* In the fame manner, the ancients never approved of, or direéted, the introduc- 
tion of modillions or denticles in the frontifpiece, but preferred a plain cornice; for 
this reafon, that neither the cantherii nor afferes lie towards the gable, nor can they 
proje&t beyond it, but are placed with an inclination to the guttur. 

“ Tuus, they efteemed it a departure from principle to exhibit, in dn imitation, 
what could not occur in reality. For in finifhing their works, they introduced every 
ornament in an appropriated manner, and according to a real analogy borrowed 
from nature ; and they approved of nothing, which could not be theoretically ac- 
counted for, on the principle of its refemblance to truth.” 


—— 


OnGSGOLHICVARCHITFECTURE. it 


are called architectonic forms, in which the variety of nature, 


being fubjected to the regularity of art, the work acquires that 
peculiar character, which, in a natural object, we confider as of- 
fenfive, under the name of FORMALITY ; but which, in archi- 


tecture, we admire as a beauty, under the name of syMMETRY: 


thus, we reprobate the formality of an avenue, and praife the 
fymmetry of a colonnade. 

’ Sucu is the nature of architectonic imitation; a device, which 
probably originated in accident, but to which architeture is in- 
debted for its higheft attainments. 

I was firft led by Mr Byres, a very refpectable member of 
this Society, to obferve, among the remains of antiquity at Rome, 
many beautiful examples of the application of thefe principles 
by the ancients; and though my view of the fubjet was 


then very obfcure, the theoretical folution of the queftion not 


having occurred till long after, I was fully aware of the very 
great practical advantages which they had derived from the em- 
ployment of the principle of imitation. 

OccuPpi£ED with this view of ancient art, as I was travelling 
through the weftern provinces of France, in my return from 
Italy, in the end of 1785, I was ftruck with the beauty of many 


Gothic edifices, which, far from appearing contemptible, after 


the mafterpieces of art I had feen in Italy and Sicily, now pleafed. 
me more than ever. I was thus induced to believe, that thofe 
extenfive works, poffeffed throughout of fo peculiar a character, 
and fo eminent for unity of f{tyle, could not have been carried on, 


—unlefs the architeéts who built them, like thofe of ancient 


Greece, had been guided, in their execution, by fome peculiar 
principle; and being diffatisfied with all the theories of the art 
which I had heard of, I undertook the inveftigation, which has 
given rife to the Pen Effay *. 

b2 CoNcEIVING | 


* AFTER ftating my own views at full length, 1 fhall enumerate and examine 


the various opinions of others on the fubject of Gothic architecture, no lefs than five 
in 


42 On GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE. 


| Conceivine that fome ruftic building, differing widely from 
the Grecian original, might have fuggefted the Gothic forms, 
I had made it my bufinefs to fearch for fuch a one, when the 
following accidental circumftance greatly aflifted my fpecula- 
tions. vit ort . 
Ir happened that the peafants of the country through which 
I was travelling were then employed in collecting and carrying 
home the long rods or poles which they make ufe of to fupport 
their vines, or to fplit into ‘hoops; and thefe were to be feen, 
in every village, ftanding in bundles, or waving, partly loofe, 
upon carts. It occurred to me, that a ruftic dwelling might be | 
conftructed of fuch rods, bearing a refemblance to works of 
Gothic architeCture, and from which the peculiar forms of that 
{tyle might have been derived +. This conjecture was at firft 
employed to account for the main parts of the ftructure, and for 
its general appearance only; but after an inveftigation carried 
on, at different intervals, during the courfe of thefe eleven years, 
with the affiftance of fome friends, both in the colletion of ma- 
terials, and in the folution of difficulties, I have been enabled 
to 


in number. At the time here alluded te, I was acquainted with an opinion, which 
I have fince found to have originated with Dr Warzurton, that the Gothic ftyle 
was copied from an alley of trees, I was aware of the advantages of this theory in 
fome effential points, yet it always appeared to me unfatisfactory in many others ; 
and I conceive it to be at beft far too vague to ferve as a guide ‘to the artift. 


+ Tuts refemblance, though very obvious in many cafes, has not, tomy know- 
ledge, been obiefved by any one but the late Mr Grose; to whom it feems to have 
occurred in a tranfient way. He makes ufe of the fhape of a bower to afflift his de- 
{cription of a Gothic roof, (Antiquities of England and Wales, p. 75.) ; but he does 
not go fo far as to afcribe the architeétonic forms to this origin ; a view, which pro- 
bably, would not have efcaped him, had he not been preoccupied with a different 
one; for he confiders the rudiments of a Gothic arch as formed ‘“ of two flat ftones 
with their tops inclined to each other, and touching.” I did not meet with this paf- 
fage till feveral years after I had undertaken the prefent inquiry, and had carried it 
a confiderable length. 


On GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE. 13 


to reduce even the moft intricate forms of this elaborate ftyle to 
the fame fimple origin. 

In the prefent ftate of the queftion, the following inquiry 
_muft be confidered as falling under the denomination of, what 
is called by Mr Stewart *, “ Theoretical Hifory,” and by fome 
French authors, “ Hi/foire raifonnée ; being an attempt to trace, 
_ by conjecture, the fteps through which an art has pafled, in 
attaining the ftate in which we obferve it. Indeed it is probable, 
that few inveftigations have been undertaken, which more com- 
pletely correfpond to that definition, fince, in ‘moft fubjects of 
this kind, many fteps of the progrefs are known, and nothing 
is required but to fill up, by theory, the interval between 
them ; whereas, in the prefent cafe, as all direct teftimony is 
wanting, and as_no fteps of the actual progrefs of the art have 
come to our knowledge, our opinions on the fubject, hitherto, 
can only amount to prefumptions, founded upon the correfpon- 
dence of the theory with the monuments of the art now in ex- 
iftence; and, the more numerous and complicated the cafes are, 
in which this coincidence takes place, the greater probability 
there is in favour of the fyf{tem. 

But, though fuch be the adiual fituation of the inquiry, we 
may hope to fee it, hereafter, affume a different form; for, 
fhould the conjecture, brought forward in the following Effay, 
carry with it fufficient plaufibility to excite a fpirit of refearch 
among perfons beft qualified to purfue the fubject, there is rea- 
fon to expect, that difcoveries may be made, of a literary or ar- 
chitectural nature, by which its truth or falfehood will be efta- 
blifhed beyond difpute. 

Wuar has juft been faid will, it is hoped, ferve as my apo- 
_ logy for having advanced a fyftem, which, ftrictly fpeaking, 
is founded on conjecture alone; and, on the other hand, for 
having enumerated a multitude of particulars, many of which 

might 


* BloGRAPHICAL Account of Mr SmitH. 


14 On GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE. 


might juftly be confidered as fuperfluous, were the theory fup- 
ported by direct teftimony. 


OF THE ELEMENTS OF GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE. 


Wuen we enter a Gothic church, our attention is firft at- 
tracted by a double row of cluftered pillars, compofed of an af- 
femblage of, long and flender fhafts, which, reaching from the 
ground nearly to the fummit, there feparate and fpread in all di- 
rections, forming the ribs or groins (as they are called) of a 
vaulted roof. In the meeting of thefe groins, and in the win- 
dows of the fides and ends, we fee the form of the pointed arch, 
the principal characteriftic of Gothic architecture. 

Sucu buildings have, I conceive, been executed in imitation 
of a ruftic dwelling, conftructed in the following manner: 

Suppose a fet of round pofts, (PI.I. fig. 1. & 5.), driven firmly 
into the ground in two oppofite rows, the interval between the 
neighbouring pofts in the fame row being equal to that between 
‘the rows, and each poft being raifed above the ground to a 
height equal to three of thofe intervals. 

THEN a fet of long and flexible rods of willow, being ap- 
plied to each poft, (fig. 2. & 6.), let them be thruft into the 
ground at its bafe, and bound to it by two tyings, one near the 
ground, and another at two-thirds of its height; the rods being 
left loofe, from this laft point upwards, and free to be moved in 
any direction. Let three rods be connected with each outfide 


corner poit,(as A or H of the ground-plan fig. 6.), and five with 
each 


On. GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE. ey 


each of the others, (as B or G), and let their pofition be fuch as 

to cover the infide of the poft, (as marked by little circles in 

: fig. 6.), fo that, when feen from between the rows, the lower 

part of each poft fhall be concealed from the view, and prefent 
the appearance of a bundle of rods, (fig. 2.). 

Tunes being thus difpofed, the fkeleton of a thatched roof 
may be formed, by means of the loofe ends of the rods. This 
is reprefented complete in Plate II. figure 15. & 6.; but the 
ftru€ture being rendered intricate, by the mixture of different 
fets of forms, I have, for the fake of diftin¢ctnefs, defcribed each of 
them feparately, and have reprefented them by feparate draw- 
ings, with each of which a ground-plan is connected. 

A rod from one of the pofts, being fo bent as to meet a fimi- 
lar one from the poft immediately oppofite to it, in the middle 
of the {pace between them, let the two rods be made to crofs 
each other, and iet them be bound together at their crofling, 
(Pl. I. fig. 3.). Thus-will be produced the exact form of the. 
Gothic arch. The fame being done with each pair of op- 
pofite pofts, and a fet of pointed arches being formed, let them 
be connected together by means of a ftraight pole, laid upon 
the forks of the crofling-rods, and bound to each of them, 

Gig. 7. 8 15}. 

THEN let a loofe rod be brought from each of any two con- 
tiguous pofts in the fame row, fo as to form a pointed arch, fi- 
milar to that juft defcribed, and nearly of the fame height. This 
being done with every two contiguous pofts, (fig. 8. & 12.), and 
a new fet of pointed arches being thus produced, ftanding op- 
pofite to each other in pairs, let each pair be bound by a hori- 
zontal pole lying on the oppofite forks, and crofling the lon- 
gitudinal pole, defcribed above. : 

Two of the reds of each corner poft, and three of thofe 
of each of the others, being thus difpofed of, we have one 
of each corner poft, and two of each middle. poft ftill to em- 


ploy ; 


16 On GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE, 


ploy; which is done as follows: 1A pair of thefe unoccupied rods 
being brought from any two pofts which: ftand diagonally to 
each-other, (A and F, fig. 6.), and made to meet in the middle, 
not as in the firft cafe, crofling in an angle, but fide by fide, 
forming a femicircle, and joined together after the manner of a 
hoop, (fig. 4.) ; and the fame being done’ with every pair of dia- 
gonal potts, (fig. 9. & 13.), the whole rods will have been employ- 
ed. nthe . 

Eacu of the three fets of arches having thus been {eparately 
defcribed, (fig. 7, 8, & g,), the complete ftructure, in which 
they are all combined, may eafily be underftood, (Pl. I. fig. 10. 
and 14., and. Pl. IL. fig. 1558.16.) 

In this manner a frame would be conftr po fit to fupport 
thatch or other covering, and fuch a one has probably been 
often ufed. It would feem, however, that, for the fake of {trength, 
the number of rods- has been increafed in each clufter, by the 
introduction, between every two of them, of an additional rod, 
which, rifing with them to the roof, {till continues its middle pofi- 


tion, as they {pread afunder, and meets the horizontal pole at . 


an intermediate point. This is fhown in Plate III. figure 19g, 


which is drawn with its covering of thatch; and the fame is ex-. 


prefled in the correfponding ground-plan, figure 20. 
From the imitation of a dwelling, fo conftructed, we may 


- now trace the three leading chara¢teriftics of Gothic Architec-— 


ture, the pointed arch, the cluftered column, and the branching 
roof, (Pl. Il. fig. 17, & 18., and Pl. III. fig. 21, & 22.) *. 


THE 


* Iw buildings of ftone, the arch or groin, which joins the diagonal piers, is very 
generally a real femicircle, fike that in the willow ftru@ture juft defcribed; as I 
have found to be accurately the cafe at Beverley and Melrofe. This rule of execu-_ 
tion, with the deviations from it, which we meet with occafionally, will be fully. 
confidered 1 in a fubfequent part of the Effay; in which it will be fhown, that in 
thé ufaal roof, where the diagonal groin is a femicircle, it becomes the regulator of 
all the reft, determining their height and form in every refpect, 


7 i 


On GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE. oe 


TueE ruftic fabric might thus be covered completely, but 
would not be habitable, unlefs the openings of the fides and 
ends were clofed, fo as to refift the weather. This might eafily 
be accomplifhed, by means of bafket-work, covered, as is {till 
practifed in many countries, with a mixture of clay and 
ftraw. In order to furnifh ribs for the bafket-work, a fet 
of upright rods would be thruft into the ground below, and 
bound to the arch above, dividing the opening into fpaces reach- 
ing from top to bottom, (Pl. IV. fig. 23.), which, being filled up 
with twigs wattled through them, would be entirely clofed, 
(fig. 24.), and the work would be tolerably ftrong. It might 
however be thought advifeable, for the fake of greater ftrength, 
to fplit all the upright rods, down to the level of the points at. 
which the main rods of the opening feparate from their refpec-. 
tive pofts ; or, to borrow a term from architecture, down to the 
level of the impofts of the arch; and then to carry the half 
rods, fo fplit, acrofs the reft, in fuch a manner as to afford the 
opportunity of repeatedly binding them to each other, (fig. 25). 

Bur were the fpaces all fhut in this manner, the houfe would 
be rendered abfolutely dark. It would therefore be neceflary 
to provide for the admiffion of light, which might be done, 
without materially weakening the ftructure, by omitting fome 
of the wattled work in the middle, fo as to leave part of the 
ribs open and bare, (fig. 25.). 

THESE naked ribs feem to have fuggefted the forms of the 
flender bars of ftone, called Mullions, which conftitute the frame- 
work of the glafs, in all Gothic windows; the moft common 
example of which may be feen in (fig. 27.). 

THE window, in the fabric of ftone, as well as in that of wil- 
low, being very confpicuous, would naturally become an objec 
of attention in point of beauty. Accordingly we find, that, in 
the compofition of Gothic edifices, much pains have been 
beftowed in ornamenting the windows, by the introduction 

Vou. IV. C of 


18 (On GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE. | 


of a number of figures, which are often extremely elegant, and 
fometimes furprifingly complicated, though without confufion; 
for they can all be traced to fome variety or modification 
of the fimple elements juft laid down; as will be fhown, 
when we treat of the more complicated works of Gothic ar- 
chiteCture ; at prefent, it is neceflary to mention only one other 
defign. hehe 

In this window, (fig. 26.), the halves of the neighbouring rods 
are brought to meet, but not to crofs, and are bound together fo as 
to touch each other, back to back ; next, the halves of each rod 
being brought together again, they are bound face to face; then 
again feparated, and bound a fecond time back to back, with 
the halves of the neighbouring rods ; and fo on, till the whole 
fpace is filled with a fet of regular and equal compartments, 
bounded by waving lines, (fig. 26. & 29.). 


Tue form of the Gothic door may be traced to an origin fi- 
milar to that of the laft mentioned window. One pair of 
rods, (fig. 31.), being brought from the pofts which form the 
upright fides of the door, are made to meet in a pointed arch, 
in the manner defcribed above; then, another pair of rods, 
longer than the firft, and connected with the fame pofts, are 
brought to meet above them, and are bound together face to 
face, like the half rods in the laft mentioned window; the 
{pace between the two pairs of rods being occupied by a circu- 
lar hoop. 

Tue reprefentation of the upper pair of rods, when drefled 
with fome fimall ornaments, as in many Gothic buildings, pro- 
duces a moft elegant effect. Figure 33. is a door of St Mary’s, 
Beverley, reduced from a drawing taken on the fpot, at my 
defire, by Mr J. HALFPENNY. 


THE form of the fteeple, however various and apparently dif- 


ferent from what has hitherto been mentioned, can eafily be ree 
; duced 


On GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE 1g 


duced to the fame principles. The common fteeple, or fharp 
pointed fpire, feems to have for its origin fimply eight long and 
ftraight poles thruft into the ground, one in each of the angles 
of an oétagon ; and fo inclined, that they all meet in a point, 
directly over the centre of the bafe, and raifed above it four or 
five of its diameters, the rods, thus placed, forming together a 
very acute octagonal pyramid, (fig. 34.). The original object 
of a ftructure of this kind would probably be mere ornament, 
as it is not calculated to anfwer any purpofe we know of, un- 
lefs it were to fupport a bell. Perhaps the firft works of this 
kind, even thofe executed in {tone, were placed upon the ground; 
but as a fpire is feen to beft advantage from a diftance, an ar- 
chiteét would naturally think of raifing it in the air, by placing 
it on the fummit of a tower; which is the cafe with all the 
{pires of this kind Ihave feen. Figure 35. is a view of the {pire 
of Tuxford in Nottinghamfhire. 

_ Besipes the rectilineal {pire, we fometimes meet with others 
of a curved form, which may be accounted for in a manner no 
lefs fatisfactory, as fhall be fhewn in a fubfequent part of this 
pueyt 


Havine now taken a view of all thofe parts of Gothic ar- 
chite@ure, which conftitute its folid mafs, it remains, in order 
to complete the elements of the art, that we confider two fets of 
fmall, ornaments, which very often occur, and which, though not 
neceflary in theory, nor univerfally obferved in practice, arife 
naturally from) the principles already Jaid down, and contri- 
bute very much. to,give to Gothic archite¢ture that peculiar 
appearance by, which. it is diftinguifhed. Both thefe orna- 
“ments; maybe traced to the effe&ts of time upon the mate- 
rials employed i in the conftruction of our. ruftic fabric ; one fet 
being connected with the vegetation of the rods, and the other 
with their death and confequent decay. 


C 2, As 


os: On GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE. 


As it would frequently happen, that the willow rods, thruft 
into the ground, would ftrike root and grow, the architect feems 
to have taken advantage of this circumftance, by reprefenting 
them as decorated with buds and tufts of leaves, whenever he 
_ thought that fuch ornaments could be introduced with good ef- 

fect. 

Tuis practice has been very generally followed in the execu- 
tion of the door, as in that exhibited in figure 33. the upper part 
of which is a reprefentation of living rods, covered with tufts of 
leaves, like thofe in actual vegetation, (fig. 32.). Upon the fpire, . - 
too, a fet of {mall projections, placed at regular intervals, often 
occur, as in that of Bunny, in Nottinghamfhire, (fig. 37.), 
which feem to be the reprefentation of buds fpringing from the 
poles of the original, (fig. 36.). : 

THESE ornaments, known by the name of Crockets, when 


placed on the floping part of doors, fteeples, pinnacles, &c. and 


of Finials, where they form a tuft on their fummit, univerfally 
and unequivocally reprefent foliage. The leaves, it muft be 
owned, however, feldom refemble thofe of trees, but more com- 
monly fome plant of the cabbage kind. On this occafion, the 
artift has ufed the freedom to deviate from the ftrictnefs of the 
imitation, and has contented himfelf with adhering to the gene- 
ral idea of foliage. But, in fo doing, he has been in a great. 
meafure juftified by the circumftances of the cafe; for the fo- 
liage of a tree, efpecially that of the willow, being compofed of 
a multitude of fmall and detached parts, could not, without 
much difficulty, be executed in ftone, and would produce a very 
frail and perifhable work, which could only be placed with ad- 
vantage in very protected fituations. He has thus been indu- 
ced, in moft cafes, to choofe fome plant having a mafly and 
compact form, better adapted to fculpture. This however is 
_mot without exception, as we do meet fometimes with croc- 
kets 


On GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE. ae 


_kets formed of the leaves of various trees, efpecially of thofe of 


the vine ; as may be feen in York-Minfter in feveral places; par- 
ticularly in that very interefting collection of pediments and 
pinnacles, furrounding the infide of the nave and its aifles. 
Thefe are executed with amazing delicacy and elegance, and 
with fuch fertility of invention, that, though eighty-eight in 
number, not only every two of the pediments, but every two 
crockets on the fame pediment, differ from each other *. 

. ‘Upon 


* One of thefe pediments, with its pinnacles, crockets, and finials, executed on a 
large fcale, may be feen in that beautiful collection of the ornaments of York-Minfter, 
now publifhing in numbers by Mr Hatrrenny: in which work, likewife, are many 
other things applicable to the prefent fubjeét. I am happy to have it in my power to 
bear teftimony to the faithful accuracy with which the objects are there reprefented, 
from having examined feveral of the originals in that view, in the courfe of laft fum- 
mer, (1796), particularly that of Plate XLI, of which I made a drawing myfelf, 
in company with Mr Hatrrenny; fo that I can vouch for its exactnefs in every 
tefpe&t. Ihave been induced thus particularly to mention the fubjeét, by a fufpi- 


_cion mentioned in Mr Hatrrenny’s feventh number, concerning the accuracy of his 


drawings ; fome gentlemen having imagined, that he had placed the {culpture in too 


advantageous a light. To this he anfwered, that “in truth he has not been able, 


“ jin many inftances, to come up to the fpirit and elegance of the originals.” A de- 
claration no lefs true than it is modeft. Iam well convinced that the gentlemen, 
with whom this fufpicion has originated, have not been much accuftomed to exa- 
mine our Gothic buildings of eminence, fince, in any of thefe, they would have met 
with numberlefs works, executed in too high a ftyle of defign to admit of embellifh- 
ment in the prefent ftate of the arts. Nor is it wonderful that fuch fhould be the 


‘eafe, when we reflect, that they belong to the 14th and r5th centuries; during 


which, a feries of artifts flourifhed in Italy, who, in point of chafte defign, and care- 
ful imitation of nature, have never fince been equalled, though they had not attain- 
ed to many of the refinements which were introduced in the fubfequent age. Thefe 
artifts travelling over Europe, contributed greatly to the ornament of the Gothic edi- 
fices which were then building, as we learn from many curious fatts colleGted by 
Lord OrrorD, in his Anecdotes of Painters. 

I sHALL enter more fully into this fubje€t, when I {peak of the Hiftory of Gothic 
Architecture ; and I am led to touch upon it now, though out of place, in order 


“to call the attention of men of tafte to the fate of numberlefs beautiful ornaments of 


the 


42 On GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE. 


Upon the monument of King Joun I. and Queen Parrrepa, 
in the church of Batalha, are two canopies of frittered-work, 
conftructed in a manner which I fhall endeavour to explain in 
a fubfequent part of this Effay. The lower part of each of 
them confifts of an arch of contrary flexure, like that of the door _ 
of St Mary’s, Beverley, (fig. 33.), but ornamented in a manner 
fomewhat different, having, in place of the crockets, a fet of 
leaves, in form and arrangement, greatly refembling thofe of. 
the willow *. , 

WHOEVER 


the Gothic ftyle, which are daily perifhing by the exertions of a miftaken zeal in 
their favour. 

Every year, great fums are beftowed in dreffing up the old charthes: 3 in many ~ 
parts of England, much to the detriment of thefe noble edifices. In fome cafes, this 
is done by befmearing the building with white or yellow paint, which chokes and 
confounds all the delicacy and elegance of the fculpture. This evil, however, is not 
of the deepeft kind; fince, here, the original forms of the work remain entire, 
and may be again reftored to their purity, when a better tafte prevails. But an in- 
jury of a much more ferious nature is occafioned by the operation of chipping, in 
which the mafon, with a barbarous hand, aétually goes over the whole work, and 
chifels off the furface to a certain depth, leaving but a poor fhadow of the original 
form. By both operations, the building acquires the harfh and glaring appearance 
of new work; which, however, is removed in a few years, by ‘the influence of the 
weather, and the edifice recovers its former grandeur, as far as colour i is concerned, © 
But the havock committed by chipping is quite irreparable; for the fculpture, when. 
once removed, canreturn no more. ES 

I save been told, in vindication of this prattice, that the forms of the old es 
were reftored exa¢tly as they originally ftood. An idea, worthy | of the fimplicity, of 
Mummtvs the Roman general, who demolifhed Corinth. As if it were in the power 
of every ftone-cutter to replace a mafter-piece of the 15th century ! - 

I was happy to find, at York, that a different fpirit prevailed in the operations. 
carrying on in the Minfter. In all thefe repairs, the ancient feulpture has been moft_ 
fcrupuloufly refpe&ted ; and, in many places, the ftone has been carefully freed from, 
its load of paint, fo as to reftore it to its original purity. For thefe attentions, the, 
public is greatly indebted to the good tafte. and judgment of . the Rey. Mr Bre, 
one of the refidentiaries. ) : 


* Sex Mr Murpny’s admirable *publication ; 2 work to which I thall have 
very often occafion to refer, when I fpeak of the more complicated forms of Gothic 
architecture. 


On GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE. — 23 


WHOEVER pays any attention to Gothic architecture, muft 
obferve, in the upper part of moft windows, an ornament pro- 
jeCting from the bars, formed by two curved lines meeting 
in a point. It would be difficult to defcribe this form in words, 
but it may be underftood eafily by figures 27, & 28. of Plate IV. 
which reprefent two contiguous windows of St Mary’s, Bever- 
ley ; in one of which the bars have been executed plain, and in_ 
the other they have been ornamented in this manner. Figure 30. 
is the window that lately ftood in the chapel of Holyroodhoufe 
at Edinburgh, and figure 29. the fame general form executed 
quite plain, as it fometimes occurs. As this ornament has not, 
that I know of, been characterifed by any peculiar name, I fhall 
apply to it that of cu/p, by which mathematicians denote a fi- 
gure of the fame kind *. , 

Ir was long before any fatisfactory explanation of this form 
occurred, though the frequency of its appearance, and the uni- 
form manner in which it is introduced in all Gothic works, 
Jeft little room to doubt that it had an origin, in common with 
the more fubftantial forms of the ftyle. At laft a friend fug- 
gefted to me, that it may have been borrowed from the appear- 
ance affumed by the bark of the rods, when about to fall off, | 
in confequence of decay. ‘With this view, having attended 
particularly to branches in a fimilar fituation, I have met with 
feveral facts, which tend to confirm this conjecture. The 
dead branches of every kind of ‘tree, after being expofed to 
the weather during three or four years, throw off their bark, 
which, immediately before it drops, curls into various fhapes, 

‘ owing 

_ * AssemBiaces of thefe cufps are fpoken of in the defcriptions of Gothic works, 
by the names of trefoil, quadrefoil, femi-trefoil, &c. but no proper word has been 
ufed to defcribe the form, wherever it occurs, or however combined. This, I trutft, 


will fufficiently apologife for the liberty I have taken, of introducing a new term 
into architecture. 


An application of the word cufp, as ufed by mathematicians, may be feen in Dr 


Smitu’s Optics, Voi. I. p. 172. where he ufes it in defcribing the cauttics formed 
by reflection. © 


24 On GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE, 


owing to the unequal contraction of its different layers. This 
takes place varioufly in different woods; in fome, the bark bends 
inwards, in fome outwards, in fome acrofs the branch, and in 
fome lengthways. I have had occafion to obferve, that, univer- 
fally, the bark of the willow bends concave outwards, and length- 
ways with refpect to the branch. One of the firft diftin@ ex- 
amples I met with, of this kind, was on a rail at St Mary’s Ifle in 
Galloway, in the fummer of 1792, (Pl. V. fig. 38.). The rail had 
been made entirely of frefh willow, and the pofts had all ftruck 
root, having then the third year’s growth upon them; the hori- 
zontal bars had died of courfe, and were in the aé of lofing their 
bark. This, in fome places, was feen feparated from the wood 
at one end, and adhering to it at the other, forming a gentle and 
continued curve with the mafs of bark, which ftill remained at- 
tached to the wood; fome pieces of bark, a few inches im length, 
had feparated at both ends, and remained adhering only by the 
middle ; in fome places two contiguous pieces of rifing bark 
met, and exhibited a fhape very much refembling that of the . 
_ cufped ornament which I have juft defcribed. In the fummer 
of 1795, I faw, at the fame place, a ftill more ftriking example 
of this, upon an upright poft of willow, (fig. 40.), in which - 
the two pieces of curling bark formed, together, a cufp from 
nine inches to a foot in length. In a few days,’the under » 
piece of bark fell off; but the upper one remained for) more 
than a month, lying clofe to the wood during rain, and rifing 
from it when the weather was dry. © Figure 39. reprefents a 
large branch, which I cut from an old willow, having the 
curled bark -upon it, and which, being kept dry, ftill retains its 
Shape, 

THERE is great reafon to fuppofe, that this accident has fug- 
gefted the cufped ornament : For if we fuppofe a window of the 
willow houfe, (fig. 41.), in the fame ftate of decay with the rails 
juft mentioned, to have come under the obfervation of an archi- 


tect 


-On GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE. 25 


> © tect, of. genius, in the habit of borrowing all his ideas 'from a 
houfe. of this kind, and eager to feize upon whatever con- 
tributed to add beauty or novelty to his work, it is natural to 
believe, that he would take advantage of the circumftance, by 
imitating, in ftone, the curling bark; and this being executed 
with that regular fymmetry, which architeture beftows up- 
on the natural objects.it reprefents, (fig. 42.), would produce a 
light and elegant effe@, and the ornament. would foon become 
general. 

We, know that to fuch accidents, ry architecture of the 
Greeks was indebted for many of its principal embellishments ; 
of which the origin of the Corinthian apical is a ftriking andl 

authentic example. 


Rear: that all the effential parts of Gothic architeCure 
could thus be explained, by tracing its origin to the imitation of 
a very, fimple ruftic edifice, I was defirous of fubmitting the 
theory to a kind of experimental teft, by endeavouring actually 
oto conftrugét a’ building fuch.as has been defcribed. With the 
help of a very ingemious country workman*, I began this in 
fpring 1792, and completed it, in the courfe of the winter fol- 
lowing, in a manner which far furpafled my expedtation, and 
which has already met with the approbation of feveral Mem- 
bers of this Society. -The method of conftruCtion anfwered fo. 
_ well in practice, that I doubt if a better could be followed, with 
-fuch fimple materials ; and fo primitive is the mode of execu- 
tion, that I believe, with a little ingenuity, the whole might be 
executed without the help of a fharp inf{trument, or of any ma- 
terials but fuch as the woods afford. 

A seET of pofts of afh, about three inches in diameter, were pla- 
ced in two rows, four feet afunder, and at the interval of four 
Vou. IV. a hiss feet. 


* Joun WHITE, cooper, in the village of Cockburnfpath, in Berwickhhire.. 


26 On GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE. 


feet in the rows. Then a number of flender and tapering wil- 
low rods, ten feet in length, were applied to the pofts, and form- 
ed in the manner already defcribed, into a frame, which being 
covered with thatch, produced a very fubftantial roof, under 
which a perfon can walk with eafe * 

Tuts little ftructure exhibits, in aiatneane, all the characte- 
riftic features of the Gothic ftyle. It is in the form of a Crofs, 
with a Nave, a Choir, and a north and fouth Tranfept. The 
thatch, being fo difpofed on the frame, as not to hide the rods of 
which it is compofed, they reprefent accurately the pointed and — 
femicircular arclies, and all the other peculiarities of a groined 
roof. The door is copied from that of Beverley. The windows are 
occupied by a number of defigns, executed, (by means of {fplit 
rods), in exact refemblance of thofe which actually occur in vari- 
ous Gothic edifices. Round each window is a border of compact 
wicker-work, which, by deepening the fhade, adds greatly to 
the general effect. At a little diftance ftands the {pire, formed 
of eight ftraight poles of willow planted in the earth, and ri- 
fing in an o¢tagonal ‘pyramid to the height nearly of twenty 
feet. Various other Gothic forms are likewife introduced, which 
being of the more complicated kind, will be explained in a fub- 
fequent part of this Effay. 

TuE appearance of the whole, whether feen from within or 
from without, bears, I flatter myfelf, no {mall refemblance to a 
cathedral. 

In the courfe of {pring and fummer 1793, a great number of 
the rods ftruck root, and throve well. Thofe of the door, in 

; particular, 


* Tue roof, being proteéted from the weather, is ftill in perfeé& prefervation, 
though it has now ftood about five years; but the windows and other parts, which 
are more expofed, are going faft to decay, though they have been often repaired. 
Soon after the work was finifhed, a very accurate drawing of it was made by an 
ingenious young artift, Mr A. Carsx, which it is propofed to engrave for the il- 
luftration of this Effay, when publifhed at full length. 


Oh GOTHIC. ARCHITECTURE ©. 27 


particular, produced tufts of leaves along the bent part, exactly 
-where they occur in ftone-work; the vegetation did not however 
reach, as had been wifhed, to the very fummit, but was. more 
than fufficient to juftify an artift in the execution of doors like 
that of Beverley, (fig. 33.). Three of the rods of the fteeple, 
alfo, fent out buds, at {mall intervals, to the height of eight . 
or ten feet from the ground, fo as, at one ftage of their growth, 
to refemble the budded {pire already defcribed. 

I HAVE likewife had the fatisfaction, in the courfe of laft au- 
tumn, (1796), of finding one entire cufp formed by the bark in 
a ftate of decay, in a place correfponding exactly to thofe we fee 
executed in Gothic works. 

In this manner, all the original forms of Gothic architecture 
may be accounted for. But they feldom occur in the ftate of 
fimplicity, which, in order to facilitate their defcription, I 
have hitherto fuppofed ; for, in a Gothic edifice, they are for 
the moft part complicated by varieties in execution, and by inter- 
mixture with each other. They have been modified, likewife, 
and fometimes difguifed, by the circumftances attending the 
tranfition from wicker-work to mafonry, which have occafioned 
changes, both in the general defign of thefe works and in the 
execution of their minute details. I fhall endeavour to fhow, 
however, (in the work I have already announced), by an exa- 
mination of the actual monuments of the art, that the moft - 
‘intricate of thefe forms may be traced to the fame fimple ori- 
ginal. But to accomplifh this, it will be neceflary previoufly 
to inveftigate the tranfition to Mafonry; an inquiry too exten- 
five to be comprifed within the limits of an academical memoir. 


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Il, M. CHEVALIER’S TABLEAU de la PLaine de Trove il- 

— Iuftrated and confirmed, from the Osservations of /ub/e- 

quent TRAVELLERS, and others. By ANDREW DALZEL, 

M. A. F.R.S. Evin. Profeffor of Greek, and Secretary and 
Librarian in the Univerfity of Edinburgh. 


[Read Sept. 4. 1797.] 


“A, S the Members of this Society afforded to M. CHEVALIER 
£"% an early and warm encouragement and patronage, and 
readily gave his Tableau de la Plaine de. Troye a place in their 
Tranfactions*, as well as admitted the author to a feat among 
their number ; and as that paper, fince the time of its publica- 
tion, has excited a good deal of intereft and fpeculation, they 
will, no doubt, hear with pleafure, that it has now received, at 
leaft in all its material circumftances, a moft ample and fatisfac- 
tory confirmation. — 

Tue author, previous to his departure from England, in May 
1796, had expreffed an anxious defire that a fecond edition of 
the Englifh verfion of his Effay fhould be publifhed, improved 
from fome materials I had colleéted, and by fuch amendments 
as he fhould communicate. But as this could not be done, 

without 


See Vol. IL. Lit.-Cl. p. 1, &c. 


3o TABLEAU de la PLAINE de TROYE 


without a new arrangement with the bookfellers, and as an ob- 
{tacle occurred which rendered a delay neceflary, I have thought 
that it would, in the mean time, be agreeable to’ the Society to 
have a fhort Abftract of the moft material contents of the Eflay, 
as now confirmed by fubfequent travellers, laid before them, 
preceded by an account of the manner of its firft reception, of 
the communications of thofe travellers, and of certain objec- 
tions that have been made to it; and followed by an Appendix, 
containing the papers and letters referred to in the foregoing 
detail. 


Account of the Reception which the Defcription of the Plain of Troy 
at firft met with. . 


M. Curvacikr, after his return from the Eaft, and before he 
came to Edinburgh, vifited Paris, where he found the late M. 
PAbbé BartuELEmy, author of the Travels of the Xoung Anachar- 
fis, to whom he gave fome account of his excurfions into the 
Troad. That celebrated and refpectable {cholar was fo much plea-. 
fed with the light he received, on this occafion, concerning that 
famous claflical region, that he introduced M. CHEVALIER to a 
party of his friends by the title of Je Refaurateur de la Troade : 
and it is probable that, if he had been favoured with M. CuEva- 
LIER’s information previous to the publication of his great work, 
he would have embellifhed his book with a more fatisfactory de-. 
feription of the Troad, than he found himfelf able todo from the 
imperfect and inaccurate accounts formerly given of it. 

In the year 1792, when the Differtation, in queftion, which. 
the author had read in French before this Society, was publifh- 
ed: in the Englith tranflation of it, which, at his own defire, and. 
with the approbation of the Council of the Society, I had made, | 


it feemed to give great fatisfaction to claflical readers in gene- 
| ral. 


ILLUSTRATED. and CONFIRMED. — 31 


tal. In Germany, even before it was publithed, it had found a 
warm fupporter in the celebrated Profeflor Hryne of Gottin- 
gen, with whom the author became acquainted, in a tour he 
made in that country, foon after he had read the original of his 
paper in the meetings of this Society. Having no copy along 
with him, when he went into Germany, he endeavoured to give 
Mr Hevyne an idea of his refearches in the Troad, as diftin€ly 
as he could from recolleétion, aided by fome travelling journals 
which he had. retained in his cuftody. He found the fubject 
extremely interefting to Mr Heyne, whofe attention had been 
for fome time particularly turned to the poems of Homer, of 
which he had projected a new edition upon the plan of his Vir- 
gil, fo favourably received by the Public. At the united defire 
of the author and Mr Heyne, with the approbation of the 
Council of this Society, I firft tranfmitted a printed copy of the 
tranflation, with notes, to Gottingen, before the work could be 
publifhed here, and afterwards a copy of the maps, immediately 
upon their being finifhed by the engraver. 

Mr Hevyne was highly gratified with M. CHevacier’s dif- 
coveries, and pleafed with what he confidered as the very liberal 
manner in which they had been conveyed to him. That his 
countrymen might partake of the fatisfaction he had received, 
he employed Mr DorNEDDAN, a young promifing fcholar, to 
tranflate into German the De/cription of the Plain. of Troy from 
the Englifh verfion. The greateft part of the notes, which I 

had fubjoined, were alfo tranflated by the fame ingenious {cho- 
lar ; a preface and further illuftrations by Mr Herne himfelf, 

with an Effay on the Topography of the Iliad, and a Differtation 

by Mr Kastner on the Height and Shadow of Mount Athos, 

were added ; and the whole publifhed in Germany in an oc- 

tavo volume, almoft as foon as the Englifh verfion, with notes, 

appeared in England*. 

It 

wpe Appendix, No. I. 


Nee 


32 TABLEAU de la PLAIN de TROY 


It had been perufed alfo, before publication, by feveral gen- 


tlemen of learning and tafte in this place, who had defired to fee 


it; fome of whom expreffed their fatisfaGtion in converfation, 
and others in writing: and, after publication, I received letters 
from feveral eminent claflical fcholars in England, by whom 
M. Cuevatrer’s labours were highly approved of. Some of 
thefe teftimonies I have hegeporiael to preferve*, 

Bur though M. Cueva isr’s refearches, thus. given to the 
public in Englifh and in German, and afterwards in the French 
original in the third. volume of the Tranfactions of this So- 
ciety, were received in the moft favourable manner: by claflical 
{cholars in general; yet fome, who had long before acquiefted 
in the account of the prefent appearance of this claffical region 
given by the late Mr Woop, could not conceive how that: inge- 


nious obferver fhould have gone ‘fo completely aftray on the’ 


ground as had been alleged ; and were difpofed to think, that 
an enthufiaftic admiration of Homer, common to: M. CHEV A= 
LIER with many perfons of fenfibility and tafte, might have 


prefented to his fancy circumftances, and fcenes and’ appear- ~ 


ances, of which a cool and unbiafled examiner might not have 
perceived the reality. . 


Of the Communications of fubfequent Travellers, and of certain Ob- 
 jections that have been made. 


I HAD reafon, therefore, to confider it as a fortunate circum- 
{ftance, that, towards the end of the year 1793, Mr RoBert 
Liston, my own moft,intimate friend ever fince a very. early 

| period 


* In acard from Mr Home, author of Douglas, &c. (who ftill takes great delight 
in ftudying his favourite poet Homer, particularly the Odyfley), I find the follow- 
ing expreflion: ‘“ I] have read over your tranflation of M. Cuevauier’s Difcourfe, 
“‘ which is the moft fatisfaftory inveftigation and criticifm I ever, read.” See Ap- 
pendix, No. 1V. 


~TLLUSTRATED and CONFIRMED. 33 


period of life, was, after being employed in various honourable 
public miffions, appointed by his Majefty Ambaflador to the Su- 
blime Porte. Having the pleafure of meeting with him previous 
to his departure for Conftantinople, I requefted that he would en- 
deavour to find an opportunity of paying a vifit to the Troad, 
with M. CHEVALIER’S book in his hand. This I found to be al- 
ready his own inclination, as he ftill retained a fondnefs for claf- 
fical learning, in which he had greatly diftinguifhed himfelf, when 
a ftudent formerly at this Univerfity. I only regretted that my own 
fituation rendered it impracticable for me to accept of a moft 
kind and tempting invitation to be the companion of his voy- 
age. In the courfe of our-correfpondence, after he had been 
fome time at Conftantinople, I had the fatisfaction to receive 
from him a fhort letter, inclofing two others from Dr SistHoRPE 
and Mr Hawkins, written immediately after an excurfion they 
had made to the plain of Troy, and confirming the principal 
_ circumftances of M. CHevater’s difcoveries. He afterwards 
tranfmitted extraéts from another letter of Mr Hawkins rela- 
tive to the fame fubject, to all of which I fhall have occafion to 
nefer*. : 

In the beginning of laft year Mr Bryant publifhed his Od- 
JServations upon a Treatife entitled, A Defcription of the Plain of 
Troy, by M. CHEVALIER, of which he did me the honour to fend 
me a copy, accompanied with a letter.. It appeared that this 
~ Jearned gentleman had, antecedently to the publication of M. 
CHEV ALIER’s Effay, been engaged in the compofition of a Di/- 
Jeriation concerning the War of Troy, and the Expedition of the Gre- 
cians, as defcribed by Homer, /hewing that no fuch Expedition was 
ever undertaken, and that no fuch City of Phrygia exified: but 
finding that the new Defcription of the Plain of Troy, by gaining 
credit in the world, might be likely to prevent the fuccefs of 
his learned labours, he deemed it advifable to employ his ta- 
Wor. FV. e lents 


* ‘See Appendix, No. V. 


34. TABLEAU de la PLAINE ‘de TROYE 


lents in-an attempt to invalidate and remove this ob{truction, in 
order to pave the way for his Difertation ; which now at length 
has likewife made its appearance, and of which I have alfo re- 
ceived a copy from the learned author. 

I am now ready to admit {as, in a fhort correfpondence with 
Mr Bryant, on the firft glance of the former of thefe produc- 
tions, | promifed to do, if afterwards, upon a careful perufal of 
that pamphlet, I fhould fee good caufe), that he has difcovered 
what now appear to me to be inaccuracies and imadvertencies m 
feveral parts of M. CHEVALIER’s performance, and fome errors 
in the notes which I had written. For, upon topics and invefti- 
gations, where hypothefis muft fometimes take place, and where 
arguments may not always be conclufive, it is not 'to be wonder- 
ed at if a perfon of Mr Bryant’s learning and fagacity fhould 
have detected a few improprieties and inaccuracies. But after a 
careful perufal, which I have now given both tochis Os/ervations, 
and his Difertation, | cannot bring myfelf to go along with him. 
iv his views of this fubject; nor can I be perfuaded, by any 
thing Mr Bryant has written, to give up the pleafure received 
from remarking the ftriking fimilarity between thofe fcenes, 
which ftill exift, and the defcriptions which occur in the poems of 


Homer. This fimilarity has been traced by Mr HEYNE, in a. 


moft convincing manner, in his Effay on the Topography of the 
iad ; a valuable piece of inveftigation, which of itfelf appears 
to me completely to refute all Mr Bryvuwt’s radical obyetions to 
M. Cuevaier’s Eflay*, I hall therefore decline following the 
learned gentleman through the minute parts of his elaborate 
performances, which indeed I want time as well as inclination 
to do: but fhall content myfelf with introducing a few remarks. 
upon his Od/ervations. I moft readily refign every attempt at 
framing an anfwer to his Diff/rtation ; as I find hehas met with 
two antagonifts much better qualified to enter the lifts with 

' i him 

* See Appendix, No. III. 


7 > N 
Tike ok 4 tie See ee a ee ~ pms Cail 


ILLUSTRATED aud CONFIRMED. 35 


him than I.am, the acute and ingenious Mr WaKkEFIELp *, and 
a learned anonymous reviewer in the Briti/h Critic +. 

Mr Liston being to return from his embafly at the Porte, 
towards the conclufion of the year 1795, | was glad to find, by 
a fhort letter, that he himfelf had made an excurfion to the 
Troad ; and underftanding that a new edition of M. CHEva- 
LIER’s Effay was projected, he defired it might be deferred till 
he fhould come. home, as he had fome obfervations to commu- 
nicate which would render the work more perfect. When I 
met with him at Edinburgh he was yery much hurried, owing 
to his being under the neceflity of fetting off foon for America, 
as his Majefty’s Plenipotentiary to the United States. He never- 
thelefs devoted a few hours to the revifal of M. CHEVALIER’s 
Effay, whilft I fat by him and took notes of his remarks. As 
a great many of thefe confifted of fmall alterations of various 
parts of M, CHEvatiger’s defcriptions, with a view to condenfe 
them where they feemed too diffufe, and to correct them where 
they feemed inaccurate, it would be tedious at prefent to enter 
into a particular detail. But, in the cafe of a new edition of the 
Effay, I am perfuaded that they would be extremely ufeful. 
It may be fufficient, here in this Introduction, to fay in gene- 
ral, that Mr Liston confirmed, from his own infpedction, all the 
great points of M. CHEvALIER’s refearches and difcoveries, af- 
ter {pending many hours in walking oyer the ground. He faw 
the fuppofed fite of Ancient Troy, the fources of the Scamander, 
and the place where that river is now diverted into its new 
channel. In fhort, I found that Mr Liston, along with a great 
defire to render every thing as exaét and accurate as poflible, 
had alfo caught that fort of intereft in the fubject, which is fo 


€2 | natural 


_ ™ See “ A Letter to Jacoz Bryant, Efgq; concerning his Differtation on the 
“War of Troy: by GinpertT WaKEFIELD, B. A. Lond. 1797. 26 pp. 4to. 


+ For May and June 179%, vol. ix. 


36 TABLEAU de la PLAINE de TROYE 


natural to a claffical mind, when engaged in furveying or de- 
_fcribing fuch pleafing fcenes. 

In fome parts of M. CHEvALIER’s map, alfo, he found fome 
inaccuracies, which he was enabled to rectify, both from his 
own obfervation, and from another map with which he had 
been furnifhed. This laft he expected to be fent after him 
from Conftantinople, and intended it fhould contribute to the 
improvement of M. CHEVALIER’s in the new edition of the 
Eflay*. Of all this I apprized M. Cueva ier, in a letter direct- 
ed to him in London, which found him about to fet off for the 
Continent. Previous to his departure, I received from him two 
letters in anfwer ; extracts from which will be found in the Ap- 
pendix f. 

But one of the chief inducements for bringing the fubject 
before the Society at this time, is the recent publication of a 
very ingenious work, entitled, Con/fantinople, Ancient and Mo- 
dern, with Excurfions to the Shores and Iflands of the Archipelago, 
and to the Troad. By James Dautaway, M.B. F.S. A. late 


Chaplain and Phyfician of the Britifo Embaffy to the Porte... This: 


learned author has been at great pains in afcertaining the: topo- 
graphy of the Troad; and the refult of his inveftigations there 
has produced the fulleft confirmation of all the material parts of 
" M. Cuevatier’s Effay, and a total but refpectful diffent on the 
part of the author from Mr Bryanvt’s fcepticifm on this fub- 
ject. To this book, therefore, I fhall, in the rg 2 paper, have 
frequent occafion to appeal. 


ABSTRACT 


* Tus map I have never received, owing to fome omiffion which I cannot ex- 
plain. In the mean time, this paper is accompanied with a fmall one, fomewhat 
amended, chiefly from that given by Dr Datiaway, the author of the book pre- 
fently to be mentioned. 


+ No. VI. 


+ . : 


re ) 5 1 = y 
a, . 
‘ 
oa “4 
- ‘ ; 
ct wy —! ;. 
. . 
2 - ~ ‘ = - ~ , 

; f 9 
. . ‘ = j 

‘ 2 

\s 


mu 


4 


Trans. R-S. Edin. to face page G7 470. Cl. 


Meuntains of Ida 


T 


Obympir stadia 


10 —ae 
Geog. miles, Gotoa deg- 


; 7 2 a a 
TOPOGRAPHICAL SKETCH ofthe PLAIN of TROY. 


ILLUSTRATED and CONFIRMED. 37 


ABSTRACF of the moft material Parts of M. CHEVALIER’S 
Effay, with the Confirmation of Jubfequent Travellers. 


“In giving a fhort Abftradt of M. Cueva ier’s inveftigations, 
I fhall not follow the order in which he himfelf proceeded, but 
that which feems to convey the cleareft idea of his difcoveries 
and obfervations, now that they have been made. For the cafe 
is quite different with a perfon, who gives a detail of the man- 
ner in which he himfelf advanced in the courfe of inveftigating 
objects, of which he had at firft but an imperfect notion, where 
the direct path leading to them was yet obfcure and unknown, 
and where he had to form conjectures that were fometimes er- 
roneous ; and with one who points out or elucidates fuch ob- 
jects after they have been difcovered, and their relative fituations 
afcertained. 

AFTER M, CHEVALIER had formed the refolution as explo- 
ring the Afiatic coaft, where the Hellefpont unites with the 
figean Sea, with a view to afcertain the true topography of the 
ad, he happened to land firft at Cape Baba, the ancient pro- 
montory of Lectos. ‘Thence he proceeded to Alexandria 'Troas, 
the ruins of which he examined, and has given an account of; 
and this account Mr Liston in converfation, and Dr DaLLaway 
in his book, (p. 326.), have agreed in confirming ; but of which 
a particular detail would be here unneceflary*. 


The 


* Tur Turkith name Efe: Stamboul; the warm baths called Lidga Hamam ; the 
hill on whofe declivi ity thefe are fituated, and which is covered with tombs, whofe 
farcophagi of white marble the Turks break down and make bullets of, for fupply- 


ing: 


38 TABLEAU de la PLAINE de TROYE 


The Plain. 


In advancing from Alexandria Troas, along the coaft, M. 
CHEVALIER’S attention was particularly attracted by a tumulus, 
or barrow of immenfe fize, at a confiderable diftance*. This is 
now called Udjek Tepe, from Udjek, the name of the adjacent 
village. From the top of this at noon, (Ch, III.), he took a re- 
trofpect of the ruins of Alexandria, now at the diftance of more 
than four leagues ; towards the north he faw a large plain, en- 
compaffled with delightful hills; to the eaft the foot of the moun- 
tains of Ida; and to the weft the Agean Sea, the iflands of Te- 
nedos, Imbros, Samothrace, Lemnos, and all the way to the 
fummit of Mount Athos. 

Dr Dautaway remarks, that “ from the high ground near 
“* Alexandria Troas, the view of Tenedos, and of the fea, with 
“ Udjek Tepee, a vat tumulus above the plain of Troy, on the 
“right under the horizontal line, is particularly pleafing.” 
(p. 326.). And that “in the progrefs the country foon be- 
“* comes lefs woody, and fpreads into a wide heath, from whence 
“ the whole plain of Troy is feen,” 

WHEN M. CueEvatier, in the courfe of his mveftigation, ar- 
rived at the eaftern extremity of this extenfive plain, on the emi- 
nence above the modern Turkifh village called Bounar-ba/in, and 
where he at laft concluded the citadel of ancient Troy to have 
been placed, he obtained a view of the whole extent of it; and 
it feemed to him of a femicircular fhape}. “ Of the two chains 

- ce of 


ing the Caftles of the Dardanelles ; the aquedué& of Heropes Arricus; the circuit 
of the wall ftill almoft entire ; the thickets of Valonea trees; are all likewife re- 
marked by Dr DaLLaway, or were mentioned to me by Mr Liston. The for- 
mer obferves, that “ the whole fite is now a thick foreft of Valonea, or dwarf oak, 
“* peculiar to the Levant.” Of this fhrub the latter brought away fome feeds. 


* See the Map. + Mr LisTown adds, ‘ on each fide.” 


ILLUSTRATED and CONFIRMED. 39 


“of hills which embrace it, one appeared to run in a direction 
“towards the promontory of Yeni-cheybr,” (or Sigeum), “ and 
“the other towards the point of J-Tepé-Gheulu,” (or Rhoe- 
teum). The part of the hills to the right, reaching between 
the villages of Atché and Ichiblac, appeared more cheerful than 
the reft, and which he had no doubt compofed the Callicoloné 
of Homer. From this ftation he defcried “ the iflands of Te- 
“ nedos and Imbros, Samothrace and Lemnos, the high top of 
“ Mount Athos, and the Thracian Cherfonefus beyond the Hel- 
“ lefpont.” (Ch. 1V.). As to the foil of the plain, he obferved 
itto be “ of a rich and blackifh colour, and of great fertility.” 
The village of Bounar-ba/bi he reckoned to be “ at the diftance 
“ of four leagues from the fea.” (Ch. XVITL). 

Mr Hawkins and Dr SisruorPe took horfes at Koum-kaleh 
on the coaft, and croffed the plain to the village of Bounar-ba/bi, 
in three hours, “ an extent,” fays Dr SistHorre, “‘ of nine 
“ miles*.” Mr Hawkins, in his fecond letter to Mr Liston, 
affures him that Tenedos is to be feen from the hill of Troy, 
aad that even “ the whole coaft af the ifland 3 is vifible, from the 

* northern to the fouthern point.” 

Dr DaLtLaway remarks, that “ the whole plain of Troy, 
_ “ from the height faid to have been the citadel, is of uninter- 
“ rupted extent.” (p. 346.).. From the promontory alfo of Ye- 
ni-cheyhr, or Sigeum, at its lower extremity, the fame intelligent 
traveller looked over the plain, the whole {cope of which he 
commanded. “ Its broadeft diameter,” fays he “ may be five 
“or fix, and its longeft twelve miles to Aiché-keuy. Itis natu- 

“rally verdant and fertile, and now very generally CoE ae 

“ excepting near the marfh, which occupies a fifth part.” 
(p. 347.). This 1 take to be the marth at the mouth of the ‘i- 
mois, of which afterwards. 


ce 


The 


* See their Letters, Appendix, No.V.. 


40 TABLEAU de la PLAINE de TROYE 


The Site of Ancient Troy. 


NEAR the eaftern extremity of the plain, upon a gentle accli- 
vity, is fituated, as has been faid, the Turkith village of Bounar- 
bafbi. While M. Curvatrer advanced upwards to this vil- 
lage, by a pleafant and eafy afcent, rifing gradually from the 
plain, he paffed through a fpacious cemetery, where each of the 


tombs is adorned with a fragment of marble or of granite. Pafs- » 


ing the village he continued to afcend for near a mile, till he 
arrived at the borders of a precipice of great height. (Ch. I'V.). 
Beneath this precipice a torrent, coming down from the moun- 
tains above the plain, (but whofe bed in the fummer is com- 
monly dry), runs in a curve direction toward the north; and, 
bending its courfe along the northern fide of the plain, flows 
down through the whole length of it, and difcharges itfelf into 
the Hellefpont, betwixt the modern Turkifh fort called Koum- 
kaleh on the fouth, and a fort of haven called Karanlik-limani on 
the north, near Rhceteum. This river is undoubtedly the Si- 
mois. And upon the rifing ground extending upwards from 
the village of Bounar-ba/fbi to the abrupt precipice encompafied 
by rocks above and the river below, on every fide, except that 


which opens upon the village, and where the Scean Gate may © 


be fuppofed to have been, M. Cueva iEr concludes, that the 
ancient city of Troy was placed. From the fummit of this high 
ground, where he fuppofes the citadel to have been, and which 
the Turks now call Ballidahi, mountain of honey, he had a view, 
as has been faid, of the whole extent of the plain. This being 


an airy fituation, juftifies, in his opinion, HomeEr’s epithet of | 


jvemoecoe, {0 often applied to Troy. (Ch. XVII.). The precipices 
which fkirt this eminence, and the Simois which runs at the 
foot of them, render the place impracticable to be affailed from 
any other quarter than from the fide towards the village. (did. ). 

Mr 


| 


ILLUSTRATED and CONFIRMED. 43 


M. CuEvacieEr further remarked, on this high fituation, four 
barrows or tumuli, three of which are fimilar to thofe on the 
fhore of the Hellefpont, (which fhall be afterwards mentioned), 
and the fourth confifts of an enormous mafs of ftones. This he 
conjectured to be the monument of Hecror ; and thought it 
the remains of a demolifhed ftructure. (Ch. XVIL.). 

Mr Hawkins and Dr Sistuorre “ fpent a day in vifiting the 
“hill fuppofed by M. Curvatrer to have been the fite of 
“Troy; and the fprings of water, which he confiders as the 
“ fountains of the Scamander*.” Mr Hawkins thought, that 
“ the place pitched upon for the fite of the city has much natu- 
“ ral ftrength to recommend it, particularly the eaftermoft angle 
“of the hill, which, from its height above the Simois, and its. 
“ perpendicular form, muft have been confidered as a very 
“ {trong natural faftnefs in thofe times of warfare, and could 
“ have been eafily rendered an impregnable citadel; for it is not 
“ large enough for the fite of the whole city.”-—“ Some tumuli,” 
adds he, “ near the fpot, are certainly ftrong indices.” Dr S1z- 
THORPE obferved, that “ the fituation, where the citadel is fup- 
“ pofed to have been, is particularly fteep and rocky:” and that 
“it 1s covered with prickly barnet, and a few thorny fhrubs. 
* The almond tree,” adds he, “ which grows wild, is not with- 
“out its thorns. It has even more pleafing plants, the yellow. 
** jafmine and the wild olive.” 

Mr Liston took particular notice of a contiguous place, 
where the ftones of what is called the tomb of Hector feemed 
to have been dug; and he remarked a fort of hollow all around 
the city, except fome part, which is rocky. 

Dr Datuaway, who advanced towards the village from the | 
northern fide, thus defcribes his approach: “ As the fetting fun 
“was more brilliant than for many days paft, the village of 

Vou. IV. eo _ Bounar- 


* See their Letters, Appendix, No. V. 


42 TABLEAU de la PLAINE de TROYE 


“ Bounar-bafbt opened upon us very pleafantly from the ford of 
“ the Simois, which we pafled within a furlong of the chiftlik 
“ of Havci Meumer Agha, the prefent proprietor of a do- 
“ main producing near L. 5000 Sterling per annum, and inclu- 
“ ding little lefs {pace, and the identical ground of the kingdom 
“ of old Priam*. His houfe is mean, but many columns were 
difperfed about it, which had been colleéted from the fites of 
“ adjacent cities. From the village,’ adds he, “ the hill rifes 
“ rapidly, and foon becomes an infulated mountain. The lofty 
“ wall of Troy, and the Sczan Gate, interfected the modern 
“ village of Bounar-bafmi. Afcending the hill, thickly ftrewn 
“ with loofe ftones for the {pace of a mile, the firft object on the 
“ brow is a ftony hillock, which CHEVALIER, with no apparent 
“ reafon, calls the tomb of Hector. It has been opened and 
“ examined, but we could not learn the refult. There are others 
“ covered with grafs, appropriated likewife to Trojan heroes.” 
Dr Datiaway has given a beautiful defign and engraving of — 
the tumulus faid to be Hectror’s. ‘This learned traveller is of 
opinion, that “ upon the area and the intermediate ground 
“ from the village of Bounar-ba/bi, there is undoubtedly fpace 
“enough for fuch a city as Troy is defcribed to have been.” 
(p. 345.) And he obferves, that “ the level falls abruptly on 
“ the fouth, with a precipitate cliff, into a-deep ravine, forming 
“a mural rock, now almoft covered at its bafe by the ftream 
*“ and fands of the Simois, for the length of forty or fifty yards, 
“ and completing a fortification rendered impregnable by na- 
ture ; 


vn 


¢ 


ra 


2 


*M. Cuevauier had faid, (Ch. XVII.) that “ near the hill were fituate the 
“ gardens of Priam, where Lycaon, when cutting wood, was, furprifed by AcHIL- 
“tes; and on that fpot are ftill fituate the gardens of the Agha of Bounar-bafhi, 
“ who, after forty centuries, fucceeds to the king of the Trojans, &c. (Forty, 
among the Errata, is corrected thirty: which Dr Datiaway, not obferving, has 
fuppofed the author guilty of a miftake), Mr Liston told me that he ate grapes in 
this very place. : 


ILLUSTRATED and CONFIRMED. 43 


“ ture ; and that the face of the ground exhibits nothing worthy 
* of remark ; bufhes and huge unhewn {tones only being to be 
fiteen.?’ 


The Sources of the Scamander. 


But the chief circumftance which afcertains the pofition of 
the city is the fources of the Scamander. Thefe M. CuEva- 
LIER was fo fortunate as to difcover, and defcribes as ftill to be 
feen, a little below the village to the fouth, and as confifting : 
1. Of a folitary copious {pring, rifing from the bottom of a ba- 
fon, bordered with pillars of marble and granite; of which 
fpring, in the month of September, he felt the water to be tepid; 
but was affured that it is much warmer about the middle of 
winter ; 2dly, Several {mall fprings of cold and limpid water 
gufhing forth from crevices in the rock, at the bottom of the 
low hills at the head of the plain, and which uniting into one 
ftream, a little below, receive alfo the firft mentioned fountain, 
and thus form the Scamander*. (Ch. IV. xix.). 

“ We flept,” fays Dr SintHorPE, “ at Bounar-ba/bi, a little be- 
* low which rifes the Scamander, fed by numerous {prings of a 
“* pure cryftalline water. One of thefe is faid to be warm in 
“ winter ; it communicated to us no fenfation of heat.” This was 
about the middle of September. Dr Dati away, who was there in 
November 1795, {peaking of the hot {pring, exprefsly fays: “ It 
“is at leaft tepid ; and the Agha (in the front of whofe houfe 
* it is to be feen, at a little diftance) told us, that, in the winter 
“ months, efpecially during froft, it is hot and {mokes.”—“ Ho- 
“ meER, adds he, “‘ muft be allowed the privilege of a hot 
“« fpring, and a river full to the brink, if they happen once with- 

f2 at 


* Compare Iliad, xxii. 147. 


44 TABLEAU de la PLAINE de TROYE 


“in the year.” (p. 344.). M. Curvanrer found the Turkifh 
women of the village of Bounar-ba/bi wathing their garments 
at the fources of the Scamander, as the wives and daughters of 
the Trojans were wont to do when they enjoyed the {weets of 
peace, before the arrival of the Greeks *. I repeat this circum- 
ftance, becaufe Mr Liston affured me that, when he was there, 
he made the very fame remark. 


The Courfe of the Scamander. 


M. CHEVALIER examined the two rivers, the Simois and the 
Scamander, by tracing them upwards; the latter, from the place 
where it now difcharges itfelf into the Archipelago, by a new 
canal; and the former from its mouth upon the Hellefpont, a 
little to the north of Koum-kalebh, The new canal of the Sca- 
mander had been firft obferved by him, on his.way from Alex- 
andria Troas, as he came down from 'Udjék-Tepé, or monument 
of AsyeTEs. About a mile to the northward of this monument, 


as you pafs the village of Erke/fighi, and near an elegant Kiofk, | 


or repofing place, conftru@ted by Hassan, the Turkifh Captain 
Pafcha, a confiderable {tream flowing down upon the fouth fide 
of the plain, and then bending towards the Simois, takes a fud- 
den dire¢tion to the fouth, being plainly diverted into an artifi- 
cial canal, which carries it a confiderable way, m a floping 
courfe through a valley, and conveys its waters into'the Ai- 
gean Sea. (Ch. IIL). This mew ‘canal made a ftrong impreffion 
on M. CHEVALIER’s mind; .and induced him afterwards to 
 fearch for the ancient bed of this beautiful ftream, which he at 
length found, and traced, as marked on his map. (Ch. IV.). 
This was a moft important difcovery; and when, in the invefti- 

gation, 


* See Iliad, xxii. 154. 


si = eT 
~~ 


ILLUSTRATED and CONFIRMED. 45 


gation, he came again to the f{tream, where it turns into the 
new canal, and traced it up to its fources already mentioned, 
near Bounar-ba/bi, no doubt any longer remained on his mind, 
that this was the true Scamander, which had formerly united 
its water with the Simois. 

SUCCEEDING travellers have, in the moft liberal and decided 
manner, confirmed the genuinenefs of thefe inveftigations, and 
acceded to M. CHEvarier’s conclufions. 

“We faw the place,” fays Mr Hawkins, in his firft letter to 
Mr Liston, ‘‘ where the courfe of this river was diverted by 
“ an artificial canal to the Archipelago.” And he adds, more 
explicitly in his fecond letter: “‘ The moft effential point in 
fubftantiating the evidence of CHEVALIER is that of the canal, 
made to divert the waters of the Scamander from their origi- 
nal courfe towards the Simois. This canal we can bear tefti- 
mony to. The errors of Woop feem to arife from the over- 
looking this circumftance. As for Straxso, he had never 
vifited the fpot in all probability, and relied on the authority 
* of Demetrius of Scepfis*.” Mr Liston himfelf afterwards. 
examined the river with the greateft care, and particularly the: 
new canal, and the old bed. This laft he croffed on bridges in 
different places, and was convinced, that when, occafionally, the 
ftream of the Scamander is more copious, part of it {till flows 
into ‘the Simois by this ancient channel. For he differed in 
opinion from M. CHEVALIER in ‘the idea, that the Scamander 
is never fubjeét to any increafe or diminution; (Ch. IV. xi.) ; 
and faw no reafon why it fhould not occafionally fwell in the 
cafe of long continued and heavy rains; though by no means 
to fuch a degree as the Simois, which is fometimes dried up, 
and fometimes comes down with the utmoft magnitude and 

impetuofity.. 


* See Appendix, No. V. 


~ 


va 


46 TABLEAU de la PLAINE de TROYE 


impetuofity *. Moreover, Mr Liston affured me, that from 
M. CHEVALIER’S defcription, the Scamander feems to be a 
more diminutive water than it really is Tf. 

“ For feveral hours,” fays Dr DaLuaway, “ we traced, with 
“ the utmoft attention the courfe of the Scamander from the 
* cold or fecond fource, which is a colle€tion of {mall fprings, 
“‘ through the morafs, where for fome miles it is pofitively hid, 
*“ till we reached the new canal, and faw plainly the ancient bed. 
“‘ The banks of this river, where expofed, are verdant and beau- 
“ tiful, and watered to the brink. M. CHEVALIER’s topography 
“and general idea, after a fair inveftigation, we acknowledged 
“to be ingenious and plaufible.” (p. 347.). 

In chara¢terifing the Scamander, M. CHEVALIER mentions 
particularly “‘ the tranfparency of the water, which runs upon 
‘a bottom of fand and round pebbles, betwixt two verdant 
‘( Panksil? | | 

Dr Datraway fays of the two rivers: “ Simois has broad 
“ fands, with a fudden and rapid current ; Scamander is tran- 
“‘ {parent and regularly full, within a narrow channel, and fo 


“‘ they continue to be till their junction, before they reach the 


“fofeas’?ts Gai gq.82). 

M. Cuevacier further defcribes his having pafled the Sca- 
mander upon an old willow ftretched acrofs, near a mill. Mr 
Liston alfo mentioned to me this mill, and his having crofled. 
the current in a fimilar manner. 


The 


* Ir this hypothefis of Mr Liston be well founded, perhaps it may be inferred © 


that the Scamander remains in the fame ftate in which it was in the days of Ho- 
MER, occafionally flowing into the Simois, but commonly, by what is thought a new 
canal, into the /Egean Sea. And if this is admitted, it may affift Mr Heyne in ob- 
viating a difficulty which occurs to him in his Effay on the Topography of the Iliad. 
See Appendix, No, III. 


+ Peruars I may be partly to blame for this, by calling it, in the tranflation, @ 
rivulet, (p. 13. 15.), and once a rill, (p.25.). The original is ruzfeau, which might 
have been rendered a /fream. 


ILLUSTRATED‘ and CONFIRMED. 47 


The Courfe of the Simois. 


From Yeni-cheyr, which is the Sigean promontory, and 
which commands:an extenfive view of the plain, M. CHEVALIER 
particularly obferved the Simois, which interfects the plain along 
the north fide. “ Its waters were then dried up; but the width 
“and irregularity of its channel, fuficiently demonftrated the 
“ nature of its devaftations, and its rapidity.” (Ch. II.). The 
Turks call it Menderé. An.extenfive marfh occupies the ground 
at the place of its difcharge on both fides, and reaches almoft to 
the fortrefs called Koum-kaleh. This marfh is taken notice of 
by Strazso by the name of Yrowwriuyy, the mouth lake. On his 
way from this place, M. CHEVALIER pafled the Simois near its 
mouth, and found it to be more than 300 feet broad. In the 
marfh, on its banks, he obferved certain {mall lakes of frefh and 
of falt water, and was ftruck with the prodigious quantity of 
reeds and tamarifks he met with, as he proceeded along the 
coaft. (Ch. IV.).. He travelled onwards for half an hour, and 
faw a large barrow, the monument of Ajax, which he examin- 
ed, as we fhall by and by mention. Having then proceeded 
as far as It-Guelmes or Erin-keu, he returned, and refolved to af- 
cend towards the fource of the Simois; and had not proceeded 
far, when he was fo fortunate as to difcover, to the right, the 
bed of a fmaller river, at that time dry, and covered with plants 
and turf. ‘This proved, on a nearer inveftigation, to be the old 
bed of the Scamander. If Mr Woop had adverted to this, in- 
ftead of ftill fearching higher up for the confluence of the two 
rivers, he probably would have given a more rational account 
than he has done of the prefent ftate of the fcene of the Iliad. 

AFTERWARDS, when M. CHEVALIER had examined the Sca- 
mander, its fources, and the fituation of ancient Troy, as already 
mentioned, he refumed the defign of tracing the Simois ftill 

higher ; 


48 TABLEAU de la PLAINE de TROYE 


higher ; and went down to its banks, from the village of Arabler, 
about half a mile to the fouth-eaft of Bounar-ba/bi. The tor- 
rent being then dried up, he refolved to afcend within its chan- 
nel, {crambling over trunks of trees and rocks borne down by 
the impetuofity of the current. (Ch. IV.). He walked for five 
hours between two chains of abrupt rocks, which border the 
valley, and came into a plain, with a village at its entry, called 
Iné or Ené. Here he found that a river difcharges itfelf into 
the Simois, and that it takes its rife near a village called Bahar- 


lar, to which he proceeded in five hours journey to the fouth-_ 


ward, through a rugged and mountainous country. This 
{tream he found to be the fuppofed Scamander of Mr Woop. 
Returning to Evé he continued to trace the Simois, now the Men- 
deré, up to the high mountain, whence he was affured it iffued. 
This proved to be Mount Cotylus, now called Cas-dabi, the moun- 
tain of the goofe, from which, mifled by DemeETRius of Scepfis, 
STRABO makes the Scamander to flow down, confounding it 
with the Simois. M. CHEVALIER refolved to afcend to the fum- 
mit of the mountain, which, after being hindered from doing 
for fome days, in confequence of a great fall of rain, he at laft 
effe¢ted ; of which expedition he gives an interefting defcrip- 
tion, particularly of the fublime profpedts he obtained. 

Ir does not appear that any of the fubfequent travellers I 
have mentioned, went to the fource of the Simois, or the fum- 
mit of Mount Cotylus, as M. Cuevaxier did: but Dr SiB- 
THORPE remarks, that the fituation, where they fuppofed the 
citadel of Troy to have been, is particularly fteep and rocky, 
and is girt by the Simois, “ which is now,” fays he, “ entirely 
“dry: but perhaps the winter torrents may raife it into a con- 
“ fiderable river. Its banks are fringed with plants, agnus ca- 


“ ftus, and tamarifk *.”’ 
Dr 


* See-his Letter, Appendix, No, V. 


; 
: 
d 
‘ 
| 


TLLUSTRATED and. CONFIRMED. AQ 


Dr Dattaway crofled the Simois three times: 1. On his way 
from Udyjek-tepé, or the monument of /EsyeTEs; and’ after he 
had refted during a tempeftuous night at the Chifiliz, built by 
the famous HassAwn Pafha, formerly mentioned, on the 5th of 
November he croffed both the Scamander and the Simois, the 
latter of which the rains had increafed to a confiderable river ; 
the bed being from forty to fifty yards wide ; though it is fre~ 
_ quently almott dry, efpecially in the midft of fummer. This was 
on his way to the village of Thimbrek-keuy, and the temple of A- 
POLLO Thymbrzus ; which he paffed and defcended to the fhore, 
and proceeded as far as Cape Berdier ; and after exploring the 
fhores of the Hellefpont, he returned by fea to Koum-kaleh. Here 
haying landed, he again crofled the Simois over a wooden bridge, 
near its embouchure ; (p. 338.); and advancing upwards on the 
northern fide of that river, he repafled it within a furlong of the 
Chiftlik of Hapc1 Meumer Agha, at Bounar-ba/bi. (p. 343.). 
In viewing the fituation of the citadel, where the Simois runs 
under the rock, he fays, ‘‘ That the divifion of the rifted rock 
“from the groupe of foreft mountains, does not exceed 150 
“yards, and is fcarcely farther afunder at the top, finking as 
* perpendicularly as an artificial channel.”’ 


The Monument of AisvEveEs. 


M. Cuev Avier, as has been faid, began his refearches in Afia 
at Cape Bada, the ancient promontory of Le€tos. From thence 
he proceeded to the ruins of Alexandria Troas; his account of 
which has been minutely confirmed by Dr Dattaway. But 
though the narrative of both travellers be very agreeable and 
interefting, we did not before, nor do we now, think it necef- 
fary to detail the particulars. On advancing, his notice was 
particularly attracted by Udjek-tepé, a barrow of an extraordi- 

Vordv. g nary” 


50 TABLEAU dela PLAINE de TROYE 


nary fize, which already has been mentioned *. He had no no- 
tion at firft that this was the fame with the monument of Asy- 
ETES. He contented himfelf with meafuring its dimenfions, 
and enjoying the magnificent profpect from the top of it. Its 
height he found to be not lefs than roo feet, and its outline to 
be 400 paces. He remarked it to be of a conic fhape, and quite 
regular. After his third journey to the Troad, he had no hefi- 
tation in concluding it to be the monument of As¥ETEs, 
(Chi TH XIL) 

Dr Dacraway fays, that “ the tomb of AsvETEs, according 
“ to PococKE, or, as it is now called, from the adjacent village, 
“ Udjek-Tepee, is a barrow of extraordinary height and {fmooth 
* furface, and was the fituation from whence PotirEs, the fon of 
“ PrrAM, reconnoitred the Grecian camp, and the oppofite ifland 
“of Tenedos, with its harbour and promontory +.” 


Five other Tumuli. 


Arter M. CHEVALIER had examined the new canal of the 
Scamander, he proceeded, from the place of its difcharge inta - 
the A’gean Sea, along the coaft, towards the village of Yeni-cheyr, 
in order to have a nearer view of feveral high mounds of earth, 
which had attraéted his attention from the top of Udjek-tepé, or 
monument of AisyeTEs. The firft he arrived at, called Be- 
fotk-tepe, is not by any means fo high as that laft mentioned. 
He next came to that, which, upon the map, he has called 4a- 
tilocht tumulus, not finding any Turkifh name for it, and which 
feemed to be of the fame dimenfion with Be/bik-tepé. He then 
proceeded to the village called /eni-cheyr, fill inhabited by: 
Greeks, and fituate upon the extremity of the famous Sigean 

promontory, 


* See above. p. 38, + Mliad, II. 792, feq. 


TLLUSTRATED and CONFIRMED. 51 


promontory, where, juft as he was entering the Church, he faw 
the Sigean infcription, fo well known to the learned ; and op- 
pofite to it the bas relief of marble, of the fineft workmanthip, 
of which Dr CHANDLER has given an exa¢t account ; and there 
is an elegant engraving of it in lonian Antiquities. 

Dr Datxiaway, too, faw this bas relief, as well as the Sigean 
infcription ; which laft, he obferves, is now placed at the door 
ef a low hut, confecrated as a chapel: and the letters are nearly 
worn out, the marble having been fo long ufed as a bench to 
fiton. Mr Liston told me, that the effacing feems to be pre- 
moted by a drop which falls from the eaves of the chapel. 

From the top of the promontory M. CHeva.ier had ano- 
ther extenfive view of the plain of Troy, and faw particularly 
the mouth of the Simois, as already mentioned ; alfo the Turk- 
ifh caftle of Koum-kaleh, mentioned by all the fubfequent travel- 
lers. At the foot of the promontory he remarked two other tu- 
mult, of which the neareft is underftood to be the monument of 
ACHILLEs; and the more diftant one M. CHEVALIER fuppofed 
to be that of Parroctus. Others take it for thatof PENELEUS; 
the afhes of Parroc ius having been depofited in the fame mo- 
nument with thofe of ACHILLEs. 

“ ADVANCING fome furlongs ever the promontory,” fays 
Dr Datuaway, “we faw the barrow (be/hik-tepe) called the 
“tomb of AnTILocuus by Straso. On the other fide of the 
“ village, under the brow of the hill, crowned by half a dozen 
“* windmills, near the fea, are two {maller tumuli, generally fup- 
“ pofed to be thofe, one of which is attributed, by the ancient 
‘‘ seographers, to the illuftrious friends ACHILLESs and PaTRo- 
“* cius, and the other to PENELEus the Boeotian.”’ (p. 350.). 

AFTER remaining fome days near Keum-kaleb, M. CHEVALIER 
pafled the Simois; and, travelling for half an hour, came to a 
fifth zumulus of the fame kind with the reft, having a large aper- 


ture in its fide, which he entered. ‘The monument being de- 
£2 molifhed 


yo TABLEAU de la PLAINE de TROYE 


molifhed from top to bottom, its whole interior ftructure was 
to be difcerned. This is fuppofed to be the monument of Ajax, 
and is called by the Turks In-tepée-Gheuleu, the monument of the 
marfo. tis fituated at Rheeteum, a promontory or tongue’ of 
land advancing into the plain oppofite to the Sigean promon- 
tory. (Ch. TV. XTV~). AN 

Dr Datiaway, after crofling the Simois the fecond time, 
pafled over an extenfive level of ploughed fields, and Goulu-/ui, a 
brook, which empties itfelf into the fea near Fn-tepe, or the tomb 
of Ayax Telamonius. “ This tumulus,” fays he, “ is now irre- 
“‘ gularly fhaped. Near the top is a fmall arched way almoft 
* choked up with earth, which was the entrance into the vault, 
“and over it a broken wall, where was once a {mall fepulchral 
“ fane called Atantéum.’’ He thinks the whole to be of a much 
more modern date than the death of Ajax. 

Dr SisTHORPE, in his letter to Mr Liston, writes thus: “ I 
“write to your Excellency in hafte, our veflel tofling about op- 
“ pofite the tomb of Ajax, where it has been juft drove by a 
“hard gale of wind *.’’ 

THESE monuments, with the others formerly mentioned up- 
on the hill of Troy, appear to have made a ftrong impreffion on 
M. CHEVALIER’s mind ; and many of the Members of this So- 
- ciety will recolleét, that, in converfation, he ufed to lay great 
{trefs on them. They are objects very confpicuous and ftriking 
to thofe who fail along the coaft, near the entrance to the Helle- 
fpont, as Mr Liston particularly informed me. They feem to 
have made a ftrong impreffion hkewife on Dr DaLLaway, who, 
on viewing them from Ha/lile/i, near the village of Thimbrek-keuy, 
({p. 340.), remarks, that the fucceflion of the five tumuli, under 
the diftant horizon, tend more than any other proof to afcer- 
tain the Trojan war. He fays afterwards, (p. 349.) : “ Of all the 
‘* proofs advanced by M. Cuevatier, the tumuli, fo connected 
“ with 
* See Appendix, No. V. 


ILLUSTRATED and CONFIRMED. Fie! 


** with the Sigean and Rheetean promontories, and the outpofts 
“ of the Grecian camp, are the moft fatisfactory. The fite is 
“ likewife confirmed by four others, which, to whatever heroes 
“ they may be conjecturally attributed, with no additional 
“ weight to the argument, give a certain degree of internal evi- 
*“ dence, and afcertain the fcene of great military tranfactions, 
“ or vicinity to a large city.” 


The Valley of Thymbra. 


Own quitting the monument of Ajax at the Rhcetean promon- 
tory, and after taking a view of a {mall adjacent harbour called 
Karantik-limani, the fbut haven, M. CHEV ALieR continued his 
journey to the village of Jt-Guelmes or Erin-keuy. It appeared 
to be of no confequence to the end in view to proceed in that 
direGtion any farther, and he returned, in order to trace the cir- 
cumference of the great plain. On his way back, he foon de- 
fcended into a delightful valley, called Thimbrek-deré, the valley 
of Thimbrek, or Thymbra. On beginning to afcend towards the 
fource of a rivulet, which runs through it, he was {topped on 
its left bank, oppofite to the village of Halileli, by a heap of 
ruins, among which were fome bas reliefs, columns, capitals, 
entablatures, and infcriptions. He took them for the ruins of 
the temple of APpotLo Thymbrzus, and:copied fome of the in- 
fcriptions, which are now publifhed in the third volume of our 
TranfaGions. : 

Mr Luston faw thefe ruins, and told me that they are very 
confiderable; fome fragments of marble ones’ ftill remaining. - 
Every year the inhabitants carry pieces of thefe to place over 
the dead in the adjoming cemetery, near the ruins of an old 
mofque ; fo that foon nothing will remain but the large pieces. 
M. CHEV ALTER, in his map, has, in Mr Liston’s opinion, pla- 

ced 


54 TABLEAU de la PLAINE de TROVE 


ced them too far up, They are at leaft half a mile from the 
village of Hali/eli, on the oppofite fide of the rivulet. Dr Dat- 
LAWAY has piven an elegant engraving of them, and fays, that 
he “ paffed the village of Lhimbrek-keuy, and a dilapidated mofque, 
“with a cemetery full of parts of fluted columns and cornices, 
“ fet up as memorials, the probable fite of the temple and city 
“facred to APoLLO Thymbrezus.” (p. 331.) 


The Promontories. 


M, CuEvatier agrees with all preceding travellers, in holdifig 
the promontory of Sigeum to be at the modern village of Yenr- 
cheyr, That of Rhoeteum he has no doubt in fixing at Jn-tepée- 
Gheuleu, near the harbour called Karanlik-limani, where the 
barrow, fuppofed to be the monument of Ajax, is {till to be feen. 
He concludes, with the greateft reafon, that M. d’ANVILLE 
and Mr Woop are miftaken in placing the Rhcetean promontory 
at Cape Berbier, which, according to the latter, lies about 12 
miles from the Cape of JYemni-cheyr or Sigean~ promontory. 
(Ch. XUI.). He was at the pains to meafure the diftance be- 
twixt what he thinks the two promontories, and found it to be 
3000 fathoms, which agrees with PLiny’s account, who fays it 
is 30 ftadia. M. Cuevarier thinks Strrazso miftaken when 
he reckons it at 60 ftadia. 

Dr Datiaway obferves, that “ the entrance into the great 
“plain is formed by the Sigean promontory, and that called 
“ Rhoeteum, about four Englifh miles afunder, through which 
“ the two rivers Simois and Scamander at length took an united 
“‘courfe. Between thefe promontories the Grecian fleet was 
“drawn up on dry ground, and probably remained fo during 
“ the whole war.” (p. 336, note.). ‘ Woop,” adds he, “ mi- 
“takes Cape Berbier. for the Rhoetean promontory, which 

“ STRABO 


ILLUSTRATED: and .CONFIRME D. 55 


* STRABO makes to be Go ftadia, SoLINus, 26, and PLINY, 30, 
“ from the Sigean; the latter is the true diftance. (p. 337. note.). 
“ The city of Sigeum covered the fhore between the tumulus and 
“a bay, in which I anchored for a week, (Nov. 1795), and. re- 
“ furveyed the whole with attention.” 


Some Miftakes admitted, and corrected. 


AFTER what has been ftated, and thus confirmed by fuch re- 
{pectable authorities as have been adduced, no reafonable perfon 
can now doubt that M. Cuevarier has given a true and di- 
ftinct account of the prefent ftate of the Troad. But as he has 
had occafion to offer various hypothefes, and to make various 
obfervations and inferences, during the courfe of his Effay, it 
is not to be wondered at that a few miftakes fhould have been 
committed, and fome unneceflary animadverfions introduced. 

The author was himfelf fenfible of this, as appears from the late 
letters I received from him*. In the notes, too, which accom- 
pany the Englifh verfion, I now perceive there are fome errors,, 
which I wifh to take the firft opportunity of corre¢ting. 


The Map. 


M. CHEVALIER, upon information being communicated to: 
him that Mr Liston, as: well as Mr Hawkins *, had found 
fome inaccuracies in his map, anfwered as follows: “ There is 
“ nothing I defire fo much as to have any miftakes, that have 
“been committed in my map, rectified ; and I moft cordially 
“ give my aid to every improvement of which that performance 


cee 
1S; 


* See his firft Letter, Appendix, No. VI. 


9 \ 


s6 TABLEAU de laPLAINE de TROYE 

“is fufceptible. But I will venture to affure you before hand, 
“ that the alterations which may be made will not extend to the 
‘“* monuments effential to the underftanding of the Iliad; fuch 
“as the fite of ancient Troy, the fources of the Scamander, 
“the tombs of the warriors, the promontories, &c. All thefe 
‘“‘ points are fixed relatively to one another, with a degree of 
“ precifion fufficient to prevent any change that may be made 
“upon them from materially affecting my work. As to mo- 
“‘ dern monuments, fuch as Alexandria Troas, &c. I own that I 
“did not think it neceffary to pay fuch a fcrupulous attention 
“to them. ‘The line of the coaft was done with the greateft 
“ exacimefs, as well as the mouth of the Hellefpont and the 
“ifland of Tenedos ; and therefore I fufpect that upon this the 
“new map will make no alteration*.”’ 

Dr DaLtaway obferves, that M. CHEVALIER has defcribed 
the artifical canal in his map of the Troad as having much too 
{traight a direction. — It is conducted round the hill upon which 
the Chiftlik of Hassan Pafha is built. (p. 347.). 


The Monument of ius. 


AsouTt an hundred paces up the Simois, from the place where 
it is joined by the old bed of the Scamander, and near the place 
where the city called New Ilium is fuppofed to have been fitua- 
ted, M. Cuevatter had obferved the ruins of a bridge, which - 
had been built of hewn ftone, and of exquifite workmantfhip. 
Fronting thefe remains, on the right of the river, he faw a fort 
of rifing ground, which he took to be a demolifhed barrow. 
This he afterwards fancied to be the monument of ILus, and 


probably the fame with HomER’s Sewopos wediow. In thefe con- 
jectures, 


* See Appendix, No. VI. 


ILLUSTRATED and CONFIRMED. 57 


jectures, however, he was, after a converfation with Profeffor 
HEyYNE, convinced he was miftaken; and readily admitted, that 
his whole XVIth chapter, which is upon this fubjeA, is good 
for nothing™. After that converfation, alfo, he was difpofed to 
think that this barrow might probably be that mentioned by 
Homer, (Iliad, VII. 337.), which was to be deftined as a com- 
mon one for the warriors who had fallen in battle ; c#eirov éy 
Té0in. 


Situation of the Grecian Camp. 


Cuarrer XIII, where the author treats of the fituation of the 
Grecian camp, now appears to me to require much amend- 
ment. That the camp was fituated fomewhere betwixt the Si- 
gean and Rhcetean promontories is generally agreed ; but that 
it occupied the whole fpace or line of coaft in that interval, as 
M. CuHevatier has fuppofed, cannot be admitted. This would 
have made it neceffary for the camp, which confifted of the 
tents, with the fhips drawn out upon the dry land, as was the 
ancient cuftom, to occupy the place on both fides of the mouth 
of the Simois, which M. CHEVALIER, and the other travellers, 
as well as StrRABO, defcribe as being an extenfive marfh. M. 
CHEVALIER was evidently aware of this inconvenience ; and 
therefore fuppofes that the Greeks, in the courfe of the war, 
frequently fhifted their ftation ; and that, at laft, in the tenth 
year, during the fummer feafon, they encamped, in full force, 
at the mouth of the Scamander, or Simois, for, at the mouth, 
they were united. | 

I REGRET that, in the note, I have endeavoured to fupport 
this idea, by fuppofing, that “ the Scamander, even in the fum- 

VoL. IV. ) * mer, 


* See his Letters, Appendix, No. VI. 


58 TABLEAU de la PLAINE de TROYE 


“ mer, when the Simois was dry, continued to convey its pure 
“ and perennial, though lefs copious, ftream through the midft 
“ of the camp, in the fame channel through which the Simois, 
“ after having joined it, difcharged its winter torrents.” (p. 104.). 
Ever fince I read Mr Heyne’s Effay, I have given up this hy- 
pothefis, and willingly accede to his idea, which fuppofes, that 
the camp only ftretched on both fides towards the promontories 
Rhoeteum and Sigeum ; and that on the north-eaft it extended no 
farther than the Simois*. In this way the whole is rendered 
clear, and free from every objeCtion. This, however, makes 
nothing againft M. Cuevaxter, but that he was not fo fortu- 
nate in his hypothefis as Mr Hreyne, on this-occafion, which I 
am fure he himfelf would have been the firft to admit. 

Mr Heywne’s notion of the fituation of the camp is confirm- 
ed by Dr DaLiaway ; and the more ftrongly, as the latter does 
not appear to have feen the former’s Effay on the Topography 
of the Iliad, or to have known any thing of the coincidence of 
Mr Heyne’s opinion with his own. In a very diftinct note on 
this fubjeét, (p. 336.), he obferves, that “ between thefe pro- 

““montories the Grecian fleet was drawn up on dry ground, 
“and probably remained fo during the whole war.” And he 


concludes the note thus: “ The purfuit of the Trojans by | 


““ AcHILLES, fixes the fituation of the Grecian camp between 
“the confluence of the rivers and Sigeum, for they retreated 
“‘ over the Scamander to gain Troy, and he kills many of them 
<* (One Piven. 


Of Jome other Miftakes, and erroneous Critici/ms. 


THE author, in fpeaking of the two tumuli near the Sigean 


promontory, (Ch. IV. XXI.), fays, that “ he was informed by _ 


“a Greek inhabitant of the place, that the name given to the 
ce 
more 


* See Appendix, No. III. 


Se ee ee ee 


ye 
- 
¢ 
a. 


ILLUSTRATED and CONFIRMED. 59 


*“ more confiderable of the two was Dios-tapé, which he inter- 
“ prets the divine Tomb.” Mr Liston obferved, that the inhabi- 
tants {poke of both monuments by the appellation of dtheo tepé, 
which, in their language, has no other meaning than the two 
tombs. He therefore concluded, that M. CHEVALIER had been 
deceived by the fimilarity of the found. This is alfo noted in 
Dr Dattaway’s book, with an affertion, (but not of Dr DAL- 
LAWAY himfelf), that the miftake proceeded from M. CHEva- 
LIER’s ignorance of modern Greek ; which I have the greateft 
teafon to believe to be without foundation. 

In examining carefully the furface of the rock of Ba/li-dahi, 
M. CuHeva.ier thought he “ diftinguifhed foundations of an 
* cient buildings, the mafonry of which had affumed the con- 
“ fiftence of the rock itfelf.” Mr Liston, on a narrow infpec- 
tion, was convinced that nothing could be difcerned but the real 
fubftance of the rock, which is indeed rough, of a chalky ap- 
pearance, and, at firft fight, feems as if there was mortar adhe- 
ring to it. He brought away a fragment of it, which I have 
here in my cuftody ; and the gentlemen prefent may judge. 
~ Tr feems furprifing that there fhould be a total difappearance 
of every ruin or veftige of a building, to mark the fite of fo fa- 
mous acity. STRasBo, however, gives a good reafon for this, 
as follows: ‘Ore yao txrerogSyuivev trav nvtrw worEwv, ov rertws OF 
nureorocmevar, rovrys 0’ ex Badeuy CVT ET CCE LEVIS, ob AiJos wevrEs Gig 
Ty enciveay avrg mereveydnony. Aeyosavanra yovy Qaot cov Mirv- 
Anvoiov ex rav excirev Aidov ro Yivyeioy exrevyioos. (L. XIII. p. 8g5.). 
For when all the cities around were laid wafte, but not entirely de- 
_ molifbed ; and while this one was totally overturned, all the ftones 
were carried off from it to rebuild thofe others. Accordingly, they 
Jay, that ARCH EAN ax of Mitylene with the flones taken from thence 
fortified Sigeum. Dr Dautaway, fpeaking of the city of Ilium, 
once fituated near the junction of the Scamander and Simois, and 
which owed its origin to ALEXANDER and Lysimacuus, fays, 

h 2 (p. 388.)s 


60 TABLEAU de la PLAINE de TROYE 


(p. 338.), “ It excites no wonder, that, after fo long pofleffion of 
“it by the Turks, not a ftone fhould remain ; yet fome con- 
*“‘ tend againft the exiftence of Troy, becaufe no veftiges were 
“ difcoverable when ALEXANDER founded the fecond city, 
“ whilft they admit the latter fact equally unauthorifed by pre- 
“ fent appearances *.” | 

In a paflage quoted from HERopotus, in which an account 
is given of the march of XERxEs’s army from Sardes to Aby- 
dos, the expreflion—77) ldnv dé rAaBayv &g aoiseeny eects is tranflated 
advancing towards the left branch. of Mount Ida, different from 
the common way of rendering it, having Ida on the left. As this 
interpretation is difapproved of both by Mr Heyne and Mr 
Bryant, I have no inclination to difpute the point with fuch 
learned antagonifts, provided they can make it appear, that 
Xerxes could and did proceed, with Ida on his left. ‘“‘ Ida,” 
fays Mr Heyne, “ has many branches and ridges. ‘The army 
“ may have gone round one of thefe outfkirts of the mountain 
*“‘ approaching towards the fea, in fuch a manner as to leave it 
“ on the left T.” ; 

From M. CHEVALIER’S letters, it appears that he was fen- 
fible that he had at times introduced unneceflary or inaccurate 
reflections ; of which kind are thofe in Chap. VI. refpecting 
: travellers 


* See, in Mr WaKEFIELD’s letter to Mr Bryant, (p. 11, 12.), a remarkable 
fact refpe€ting the total difappearance of Flaxford Church, about five miles from 
Nottingham. 


+ I oBSERVE, too, that this notion is fupported in a paper in the fixth volume 
of Commenit. Soc. Reg. Scient. Gotting. Ann. 1783, 1784; entitled, Heroporti ac 
. Tuucypipis Thracia, Jos, CuristopH. GATTERERI: with a map, where XER- 
XEs’s march is traced accordingly. Mr Bryant enters into a long difcuflion upon 
the fubject, through which I have -no inclination to follow him now, nor fhall I 
afterwards, I fuppofe, when I come to take more particular notice of his Ob/erva- 
tions; but will freely confefs myfelf refponfible for the whole blame of this miftake, 
having fuggefted the culpable interpretation to M. CHEVALIER, on my firft reading 
his paper; and I am anxious that he fhould here be cenfured only for paying fo 
much deference to my judgment as to introduce an equivalent expreffion into the 
French original. 


ILLUSTRATED and CONFIRMED. 61 


travellers of high diftinCtion, and the priefts in the early ages of 
Chriftianity : both of which he defires may be ftruck out in a 
new edition. The former, I obferve, has already been omitted ' 
in the German tranflation ; and the latter, which begins thus : 
* But why did not the priefts of the lower empire demolifh 
“ thofe monuments ?”’—has given great offence to, and has been 
cenfured and reprobated with uncommon afperity by, Mr 
BrYANT, in his Obfervations. (p. 42. 43.). 


Of the Notice that has been taken of STRABO. 


In giving a defcription of the Troad, it was neceflary to ad- 
vert particularly to what a geographer fo refpectable as SrRABO 
has faid upon that fubje@t. This M. Cuevaxier has done in 
his VIIth and VIUIth chapters. Srraso derived the greateft 
part of his information, relating to the Troad, from DEME- 
TRIUS of Scepfis, who, though he had his refidence in thofe 
parts, was evidently deceived refpecting the true fource of the 
Scamander, and has led StrRaso into the fame error. They 
fuppofe that this river takes its rife in Mount Cotylus, far be- 
yond the place where ancient Troy was fituated. M. CHEva- 
LIER has fhewn this to be a grofs miftake ; and it is evident that 
it was likewife the chief caufe of Mr Woon’s errors. STRABO 
faw and frankly admitted the difficulty of reconciling this with 
HomeEr’s account in the XXIId book of the Iliad, where the: 
two fources are explicitly mentioned, the one a hot and the 
other a cold f{pring, and both as being in the vicinity of the, 
Scean Gate; but StrAzo has not been fuccefsful in his attempt 
to obviate this difficulty *. | 

* Mr Heyne, in a note on the German verfion, (p. 85.), as well as in the pre- 
face to the fame work, (See App. No. I1.), thinks it evident that Demetrius fet 
out on a wrong hypothelis, in confequence of mifunderftanding a paflage of the Iliad, 


(XII, 19.). This paffage I had quoted and explained in a note. (p. 59. of the Eng- 
hih Tranflation.). 


6. TABLEAU de la PLAINE de TROVE 


M. CHEVALIER being clearly convinced of this error of De- 
METRIUS and STRABO, and {truck with the confufion to which 


it has given rife, has perhaps fhewn too great a degree of fufpi-- 


cion of the latter, in refpect to fome other paflages of his ac- 
count of the Troad ; and may have cenfured him fomewhat too 
keenly. Wherever this feems to be the cafe, Mr Hrywe, in his 
notes on the German verfion, has taken the part of the ancient 
geographer, to whom fcholars have been fo long accuftomed to 
look up with the greateft refpect: and if I were to publifh a fe- 
cond edition of the Englifh, I fhould certainly, in confequence 
of carte blanche given by the author *, avail myfelf of Mr 


Hryne’s affiftance to obviate, as far as poffible, every objection . 


made to STRABO, except upon the great and fundamental error 
ref{pecting the fource of the Scamander. For this I take to be 
altogether untenable. “In general,” fays Mr Hryne, in one 
of his notes, “ nothing can be objected again{t Srraso, but in 
“the fingle cafe where he has allowed himfelf to be feduced by 
“ DemeETRIvS, and changed the fources of the Simois and the 
“ Scamander.” M.'CHEevaLiEr perhaps fhould have been fatis- 
fied with gaining this point. 

But though it fhould appear, that the author or his editer 
had, in one or two inftances, mifconceived or mifinterpreted 
STRABO, where the text is acknowledged to be obfcure, not yet 
having been properly elucidated by any able editor or commen- 
tator, this furely would furnifh no argument for fetting afide 
M. CuEvaALiEr’s account of the Troad, founded on the author’s 
actual obfervation, fupported by fo many fubfequent refpectable 
travellers. In the VIlIth chapter he has, with due refpect, ta~ 


ken occafion to quote and comment upon fome paflages of. 


STRABO ; from which it is clear, that the plain of Troy has not 
changed its appearance fince the days of that learned writer. 


The 
* See his Letters, Appendix, No. VI. 


ILLUSTRATED and CONFIRMED. 63 


The opening of ACHILLES’s Monument. 


Tue XXIft chapter contains a number of pleafing remarks 
on the fubject of the ¢wmuli to be feen on the fhores of the Hel- 
lefpont ; and any perfon of fenfibility muft, on the perufal, feel 
his mind affected with a foothing, though folemn, fenfation ; and 
be ready to confefs, that M. CuEvazier has there exprefled 
himfelf in a moft elegant and interefting manner, Inaccuracies, 
however, and redundancies, may now and then be perceived, 
fome of which were pointed out to me by Mr Liston, and they 
ought to be corrected in-a new edition. df 

Ir appears, in particular, that M. CHEvaLiER had not recei- 
ved very accurate information refpeGting what was found in the 
tomb of AcHILLES, in confequence of the operation of digging 
into it, which had been performed after his departure from Con- | 
ftantinople, by the direCtion of Count pz Cuorszut Gourrier, 
the French Ambaflador. He had been told, that towards the 
centre of the pile were found “ two large ftones leaning at an 
“angle the one againft the other, and forming a fort of tent, 
** under which was difcovered a {mall ftatue of M1inERvA, feat- 
“ed in a chariot with four horfes ; and an urn of metal filled 
“ with afhes, charcoal, and human bones; which urn was encir- 
“cled in fculpture, with a vine branch, from which were fuf- 
“ pended bunches of grapes done with exquifite art.” 

THERE does not appear to -have been any foundation for the 
figure of a chariot. ‘There were however fome curious reliques 
found there. Mr Liston faw at Conftantinople the very per- 
fon who had been employed to conduct the operation of dig- 
ging ; and who had retained fome of the fragments in his own 
euftody, which he offered to difpofe of. It appears from a let- 
ter, publifhed in a note by Dr DaLiaway, and giving a very 
particular account of this affair, that this perfon was the Signiar 

SOLOMON 


64 TABLEAU de la PLAINE de TROYE 


Sotomon GHorMEZANO, fon of the late French Conful. After 
immenfe labour, he at laft difcovered the place where the re- 
liques were depofited. When collected, they filled a large cheft. 
He delivered them to his employer M. Cuorstu1, who repaid 
his trouble with thanks only: but he referved feveral fpeci- 
mens, which he afterwards fhewed and explained, when the 
Count was no longer formidable. Of thefe a lift is given in the 
letter ; fuch as, pieces of burnt bones; pieces of a metal vafe ; 
charcoal of vine branches ; a piece of mortar and ftone ; a piece 
of metal of a triangular fhape; pieces of very fine pottery, 
well painted with wreaths of flowers of a dark olive colour, &c. 
‘An account is then given of the ftrata of earth dug through. 
Dr Datuaway, in the text, fays, that “ extreme age, and the 
“ preffure of the ground, had crumbled into atoms of ruft all 
“the metallic fubftances. The urn or vafe, M. Fauvat, an 
“ ingenious artift, now refiding at Athens, received from M. 
“ CHOISEUL in its decayed form, and made a model from it, 
“ which has been exhibited to feveral conoiffeurs, as much to 
“ their furprife as fatisfaction.” Dr DatLaway adds: “ And 
“* the godde/s, with her chariot and four horfes, feems to prove that 
“‘ the Troad continues to be the land of invention.” Yet it is 
very remarkable that Mr Hawkins, who faw M. Fauvat at 
Athens, exprefsly fays, that this laft mentioned gentleman de- 
nied the exiftence of an urn, but {poke of a {mall bronze image 
of MINERVA, of which he fhewed them a caft. ‘ At Athens,” 
fays Mr Hawkxuns in his fecond letter to Mr Liston, “ we fell 
“in with M. Fauvat, a very ingenious artift, long in the fer- 
** vice of M. DE CuHoisEuL, who affured us, that M. CuEva- 
* LIER’s account of the goblet, difcovered in the tomb of AcuIL- 
“« LES, is perfectly fabulous. It originated, it feems, from the 
“ fragment of a-{mall bronze figure, which, when he had clean- 
“fed, and put together, proved to be a very curious image of 
“MINERVA. He fhewed us a caft which he had made of it in 
* platter, 


ILLUSTRATED and CONFIRMED. 65 


** plafter of Paris *.” According to M. Cueva ier, then, there 
were both an urn:and a figure of Minerva; according to Dr 
DALLAWaAy an urn, but no figure or ftatue; and according to 
Mr Hawkins a fmall ftatue, but no goblet or urn. It fhould 
feem, therefore, that this affair ftill ftands in need of further 
elucidation f. 

But whatever may be thought of thefe barrows; “ fuppo- 
“ fing,” fays Mr Heyne, “ that M. CHEVALIER was miftaken, 
“‘ and that the eminences were not at all tombs, the main point 
* yemains what it was. The fources of the Scamander are near 
“ Bounar-ba/bi, and in that neighbourhood is the fite of Troy +.” 


Of the Objections made by Mr Bry ant. 


Mr BryAnt, whofe name has been long fo well known in 
the learned world, has, in the warfare he has thought fit to wage 
with M. CHEvALieEr, been, no doubt, pretty fuccefsful in feve+ 
ral affaults, where the latter has laid himfelf fomewhat open ; 
(as we have admitted to be fometimes the cafe) ; but he has to- 
tally failed in obtaining any thing like a decifive victory. 

Tuis learned gentleman having, thirty years ago, embraced 
an opinion, not a new one indeed, but, I believe, almoft general- 
ly efteemed very extravagant and paradoxical, that no Trojan 
war, fuch as forms the foundation of the poems of Homer, was 

Voz. IV. mh i . ever 


* Appendix, No, V. 


+In the above-mentioned letter, quoted by Dr Datzaway, an inftance of a 
- very ftrange pitch of arrogance is recorded. It is there faid, that ‘‘ when the bar- 
“ rows were clofed up, Count Cuotsgut canfed a fheet of lead to be placed on the 
“ bottom, infcribed, Oxurage fait par le Comte DE Cuo1sEuL GourFIER, /’an 1787. 


$ Conciusion of his preface to the German verfion. See Appendix, No. I, 


66 TABLEAU de la PLAINE de TROYE 


ever carried on *, and that even no fuch city as Troy ever exifted, 

had employed himfelf occafionally, during that long period, in 

an attempt to eftablifh the truth of this odd opinion. The fub- 

jet had grown a favourite one ; and the author feemed to him- 
felf to be upon the point of achieving his great undertaking ; 

when M. CHEvALier’s performance appeared. This obliged 

him to ftop fhort for a little, and to paufe. He took his refolu- 
tion. Encouraged, by obferving fome flips committed by an 

author, as yet raw in the art of fyftematizing, it feemed more 
eligible to him to endeavour to reduce the obftructing fabric toa 

heap of ruins, than to demolifh and fupprefs his own occafional 

labour of thirty years. ‘The avowed object, then, of Mr Bry- 

ANT’s pamphlet, is to fet afide M. CHEVALIER’s De/cription, as 
unfound and fanciful. I once indeed heard, that, after the Ob- 
Jervations had come out, the author met with fome travellers, 
who affured him, that M. CHEVALIER’s account of the prefent 
ftate of the Troad was a fair and true one; in confequence of 
which, it was reported, that he had renounced his heretical opi- 
nion upon the fubject, and was to fupprefs his Differtation. This 
I was very glad to hear, as I thought the fo doing would have 

redounded very much to Mr Bryant’s honour. But I was 

foon convinced that this information was premature, by my re- 
ceiving a printed copy of the Di/értation, in a prefent, from the 

learned author himfelf ; in the perufal of which, one, every now 

and then, regrets (at leaft this was the cafe with me) that Mr 

BryAnrT had ever undertaken fuch a toilfome inveftigation, em- 

ployed fo much learning, and wafted fo much ingenuity, which 

the appearance of M. CHEVALIER’s work, thirty years fooner, 

might have prevented ; and perhaps ‘might have engaged thofe 

very talents to affift in fupporting and illuminating a fyftem, 

which 


* See Mr Mactaurin’s Differtation, to prove that Troy was not taken by the 
Greeks. Vol. I. p. 43, &c. Lit. Cl, of Tranfaétions of this Society. 


“ILLUSTRATED and CONFIRMED. +67 


which they have now been employed to puzzle, perplex, and 
obfcure. After all, if the learned veteran had feen Mr Heyne’s 
_Effay on the Topography of the Iliad*, and Dr Da1nLaway’s 
late publication, in both of which M, Cueva ter is fo ably 
fupported, I imagine he would have been deterred from publifh- 
ing his grand {ceptical work, notwithftanding the great labour it’ 
had coft him. ; 

Mr Bryant, in the introduction to his Ob/ervations, charges 
the author and his editor with indulging in fevere critical cen- 
fure again{ft Dr Pocockr, Mr Woop, Dr CHANDLER, and StrRaA- 
Bo. But I can’t help thinking that the accufation is too ftrong- 
ly ftated. I hope it was not with an intention to create an early 
prejudice in the mind of the reader againft the perfons animad- 
verted upon, and in favour of what was to follow. 

WitH refpect to the firft of the above-mentioned authors, M. 
- Guevatter had faid, that “ his account of Troas, though full 
“ of errors, and in every refpect obfcure, yet. proved to him a 
“ very ufeful guide in his refearches.’’ (Ch. VI.). He, no doubt, 
found confiderable obf{curity, and a number of errors, in Dr 
PococKe’s account ; and where was the harm in faying fo? But 
Mr Bryant, in his complaint that Dr PococKe has been un- 
juftly accufed, does not fubjoin the qualifying claufe of the fen- 
tence, viz. that “‘ notwithf{tanding thefe defects, the work pro- 
* ved a very ufeful guide ;” but he referves this latter part of 
the expreflion, till he find an opportunity of introducing it with 
more effect, and more fitly for his own purpofe afterwards. I 
am not fure if this way of difmembering expreffions, and expo- 
fing them in disjointed morfels, fhould be confidered as a very 
fair ‘mode of attack. If'M. CHEvaALier was convinced that Dr 
Pococke was mifled by Strano, and regrets that he did not 
rather “ truft to his own obfervation, which probably would 

42 ** have 


* See Appendix, No. III. 


6$ TABLEAU de la PLAINE de TROYE 


*‘ have brought him to agree with Homer,” I cannot perceive 
any very fevere cenfure in this: On the contrary, M. CHEva- 
LIER finds out, and adds a very good excufe for PococKkE, which 
is, that he could not, at that time, have the afliftance of a geo- 
metrical apparatus in his obfervations, as it was then hazardous 
to produce any fuch to the view of the Turks. On other occa- 
fions, M. CHEVALIER pays compliments to Dr PocockE, calling 
him, in one place, “ that excellent traveller,” infomuch, that he 
appeared to me to have even over-rated his merit. In a note, 
therefore, (p. 100.), I have ventured to fay as much, in as far 
as related to the art of compofition. For, on reading Po- 
cockE’s travels, I certainly thought him very deficient in point 
of arrangement, and very confufed in the communication of 
his ideas. This, however, was exprefled with all due defe-. 
rence to his veracity, which I believed to be quite unim- 
peachable. But, if it will give any fatisfaction to Mr Bry- 
ANT, I am ready to admit, that I may have been miftaken in 
thinking Dr Pococke a confufed and inelegant writer. And 
yet the late Mr Gipson, whofe acutenefs nobody will deny, 
when he pays a compliment to Dr Pococke’s plan of the feven 
hills of Conftantinople, adds, “‘ that this traveller is feldom fo 
 fatisfactory.”” 

As to the manner in which Mr Woop is treated, it will no 
doubt feem very difrefpectful in the eyes of thofe who are dif- 
pofed to believe in his doétrine concerning the fource of the 
Scamander; but to M. CHEva.ier this appeared fo palpably 
untenable and abfurd, and he was fo confcious of his victory, 
that he has, no doubt, purfued his triumph with a great deal of 
vivacity and pleafantry. Where Mr Woop appeared to have 
merit, it has been allowed him; but becaufe he viewed the 
' Troad erroneoufly, Mr Bryant thinks it inconfiftent to admit 
that his defcription of the coaft is exact; and fmartly fays, (with 

what 


ILLUSTRATED and CONFIRMED. 6g 


what reafon I leave others to judge), “ a mah fo erroneous, and 
“* fo exact, was never before feen.” 

Dr CHanD_eR, in one paflage, is blamed for giving his rea- 
ders too much credit; but a good feafon for this is affigned in. 
the note. In another place, he is noted as having once inadver- 
tently {poken of the rivers, repugnantly to his own right notion 
of them. I have not had time to examine what foundation M. 
CHEVALIER had for this remark. Perhaps it might as well have 
been fpared. I find it is omitted in the German edition: very 
probably at the author’s own defire. Of Dr Cuawp er, M. 
CHEVALIER {peaks elfewhere with the greateft deference and re- 
fped&t ; and I queftion, if Dr CHANDLER will thank Mr Bryant 
for coming forward as his champion, where he had not himfelf 
obferved any antagonift on the field. 

Ir is furprifing that Mr Bryant, in his zeal for the reputa- 
tion of Srrazo, did not perceive that he himfelf is as guilty of 
rejecting the teftimony of that admired geographer as M. CHE- 
VALIER, when it happens to difagree with his own ideas. An 
inftance of which we find in his Differtation. (p. 44.). “ Of 
“Troy,” fays he, “there is no fign: no remainder: nor was 
“ there ever any upon record.”—“ Srraso endeavours to give a 
** reafon for this: but I believe that it will not be deemed {atis- 
“ factory.” And fo he produces the paflage which we had occa- 
fion to quote above. (p. 59.). 

Mr Bryant employs the firft three pages immediately fuc- 
ceeding his introduction, in endeavouring to prove that the city 
of Troy, as defcribed by Homer, muft have been much nearer 
the fea than the fituation affigned to'it by M. CHEVALIER, which 
is afferted to be contrary to the very evidence of the poet him- 
felf. 

I am glad I have it in my power to give a very fhort, and, I 
think, a very fatisfatory anfwer to this objection ; and I feel 
tke more fo, becaufe Mr Bryant’s arguments have, in this par- 

| ticular, 


70 TABLEAU ‘dela, PLAINE 2eOTROYE 


ticular, brought over to his fide a very learned and intelligent 
Reviewer in the Briti/b Critic, (May and June 1797); infomuch 


that, after combating Mr Bryant fuccefsfully in the other — 


parts of the Obfervations, he at laft feels himfelf under the ne- 
ceflity of feeking for the fite of Troy farther down the plain, in 
which I am forry I cannot go along with him. The anfwer al- 
luded to is furnifhed in a few-words by Dr DaLLAway; and 
coming from one who has been upon the ground, muft have 
more weight than any thing which could be faid on the fubje& 
by a perfon who has not had that advantage. ‘‘ The diftance 
“‘ from the Grecian camp to the fite of Troy,” fays this accurate 
obferver, ‘‘ has fupplied thofe who contend againft its exiftence 
“ with many plaufible objections. It is, however, certain, that 
“the prefent village of Koum-kaleh is fituate on a fand-bank 
“ more than a mile in extent, which will reduce the diftance, 
‘*‘ fuppofing it to be an accretion from, the Hellefpont, to lefs 
“ than eight Englith miles from Bounar-bafli, where the Sczan 
* Gate once ftood. The advanced works, both of the Greeks 
“and Trojans, leffened the intermediate fpace.. The diftance of 
“ the moft advanced rank of fhips from the fea is not mention- 
‘ed ; perhaps we might not be far from the truth in fuppofing 
“it half a mile, anda quarterof a mile farther from thence to 
“the fea. Allowing the firft circumftance of the accretion at 
“ Koum-kaleb, and the Grecian camp having been advanced in- 
“ to the plain, the diftance. of Troy as, perfectly reconcileable 
“‘ with every incident mentioned’ by Homer., It is likewife evi- 


“ dent from the circumftances of. the wat. Had the city, been, 


“ very near, the firft work,of) the Grecians.muft have been a 
“ {trong fortification to prevent. fudden, attacks; without it, 
“ their deftru€tion muft be inevitable. Befides, there had not 
“been a, theatre, large’ enough for. the actions) of the war.” 


(p. 336,.337+)s | 
Mr 


ILLUSTRATED and CONFIRMED. 71 


Mr Bryant afterwards, (p. 14.), argues from a paflage of Ho- 
MER, (Iliad, XX. 216.),—érel aw Tasos ion Ey wedia wewoAsso,—that 
Troy muft have been fituated in the plain, much nearer the 
fhips than M. CHEvALigeR imagines. To this Dr DALLAWAY 
alfo gives the following fatisfactory anfwer: “ The moft eleva- 
““ ted ground on the edge of a precipice was the Acropolis, other- 
*“ wife called Pergamus, (Iliad, IV. 507. V. 460. and XXIV. 
“ 4o00.). Ilion was lofty enough to be called windy, (paffim), yet 
“ it was lower than Pergamus, (XXIV. 700.) ; fo that it is once 

-* faid to be in the plain, & wediw, (XX. 216.), as ftanding at the 
“ head of the plain on an eafier acclivity, and being lower than 
“ the mountains of Ida. It is, notwithftanding, incontrovertible, 
“ that Troy ftood on the afcent, (VI. 74. XXIV. 390.); and the 
“ éeiveoe, which was without the town, has the fame epithet wr- 
“ dy, (XXII. 145.), from its unfheltered fituation. The wall ex- 
“ tended only in the front of the plain, the natural fortification 
“of cliffs above the Simois rendering its continuance unnecef- 
“fary. Mr Bryant lays much ftrefs on the expreflion & wedia, 
“ which might have been ufed comparatively, and in contradi- 
“ ftinétion to higher acclivities, and not pofitively.”’ (p. 349.)- 

Wuat Mr Bryant fays of the diftance between the promon- 
tories, the fituation of the Grecian camp, and of the Sewouds re- 


‘Bio; (p. 4. to p. 13.); alfo his criticifms relating to SrRaso, 


and upon a paflage of HzeRopotus, (p. 15.—28.), do not here 
require a particular anfwer or difcuffion, after the conceflions 
already made, and the amendments which have been propofed. 
In the cafe of a new edition of M. CHEVALIER’s Treati/e, it is 
admitted that feveral of Mr Bryant’s remarks might furnifh 
affiftance in the corre€tion of fome errors and inaccuracies, and 
would merit a tribute of praife to the learned author’s acute- 
nefs ; but they can have no effect in fubverting the great and 
effential articles of M. CHEVALIER’s inveftigations and difcove- 
ries, ar 


Nor 


72 TABLEAU de la PLAINE de TROYE 


Nor will I enter any further into what is objected to the ac- 
count of the Scamander, taken from the diminutive fize of the 
river; enough having been already faid upon that fubje& to 
convince any unprejudiced perfon that the ftream, which has 
its fources at Bounar-ba/bi, and which has, been explored and 
defcribed by other refpectable travellers, as well as M. CHEvaA- 
LIER, anfwers perfeétly to all the defcriptions and hints to be 
found in the Iliad ; allowance being always to be made for the 
poetic way of reprefenting fuch things*. Enough too has been 
already faid concerning the tombs. 

THE pafflage in the defcription, where M. Cnevniene has 
expofed himfelf moft to the power of Mr Bryant, is contain- 
ed in two paragraphs in the Vith chapter, where CLEMENS 
Alexandrinus is referred to, and where the priefts of the low- 
er empire are mentioned. The obfervations there made are evi- 
dently ill digefted, and rafhly thrown out. This the author 
has frankly admitted, by dire@ting them to be totally rejected 
in the cafe of his book’s being reprinted +. But ftill this does 
not in the leaft affect the material parts of the Treati/e; and fuch 
diminutive or partial victories as this will fcarcely entitle Mr 
Bryant to the honour of an ovation, far lefs to the glory of a 
triumph. 

Mr Bryant, I find, willingly allows the Jie and the edi 
tor fome praife for exploding the idle notion of Hector’s flight 
three times round the city of Troy ; and fupports them in their 
endeavour to fhow the abfurdity of fuch a fuppofition. At firft 
I was afraid there might be fome fort of decoy in this, fome 
contrivance, like that of the wooden horfe, for deftroying us ; 
efpecially as this was a quarter (—i9« PLAN Ap Bares est KOAGS, 
HOb émbOgopnoy earaero resyos—) where I never had felt very bold, 
having {till had my doubts about the poet’s acceptation of zegi. 

But 

* See Mr Heyne’s Preface, Appendix, No. I. 


See Appendix, No. VI. 


“ILLUSTRATED and CONFIRMED. 73 


But I was foon convinced that Mr Bryant had no treacherous 


'  defign in making this conceflion; and the hypothefis having al- 


fo the {trong fupport of Mr Heyne*, there is now good reafon 
to be confident that it is well founded. 

M. CHEVALIER, in the beginning of his XIIth chapter, had 
remarked, that Mr Bryant has endeavoured to prove “ that 
“ the Greeks were miftaken in fuppofing thofe to be the tombs 
“ of heroes, which were in reality confecrated mounds.” This 
obfervation, it feems, was of too general a nature. Mr Bryant 
meant what he faid:to be taken in a limited, not a general, 
-fenfe ; and thinks himfelf much injured by this mifreprefenta- 
tion. He wifhes, therefore, that M. CHEVALIER had paffed him 
by unregarded ; and in this. with I heartily concur: for I am 
fure M. Cuevatier will fincerely regret that he fhould have 
written any thing that could be conftrued into a defign to in- 
jure Mr Bryawt’s reputation; which I am as much convinced 
he never intended, as I am confcious that I never meant, by the 
long unfortunate note fubjoined on the fubject of barrows, to 
fupport him in any fuch defign. 

Bort in following Mr Bryant any further, I am afraid | 
fhould trefpafs on the indulgence of the Society. I did former- 
ly, and do now, entertain a high refpeé for that gentleman’s 
talents, learning, and character: at the fame time, I cannot help 
lamenting, that he fhould ever have mifemployed thofe talents, 
and that learning, in a laborious attempt which can never en- 
lighten the mind with any cheerful rays of conviction ; nor 
ever reach beyond a dreary and difguftful {tate of obfcurity and 
doubt, tending to blunt or extinguifh thofe pleafing fenfations 
which the poems of Homer excite in every breaft qualified to © 
feel their genuine fpirit; and for a diminution of which, the 
efforts of a frigid and phlegmatic erudition, even if fuccefsful in 
proving them to have been derived entirely from fiction, would 
{carcely be able to compenfate. But that “ the war on which 

Vor. IV. k “* HomMER 


* See his Note, Appendix, No. II. 


74 TABLEAU de la PLAINE de TROVE. 


“ Homer founded his famous poems was never carried on, and. 
“ that, if. the city called Troy ever exifted, it muft have been in 
“‘ Egypt, and not in Phrygia ;—nay, that Homer himfelf, un- 
“ der the name of ULyssEs, was the hero of his own Odyfley,” 

are paradoxes, I fhould think, too whimfical, too violent, and too 
repugnant to the beft authorities of hitting ever to admit of 
any thing like a proof. 

On the other hand, that the fcene of the Iliad has, derived 
great light from the laudable refearches and fortunate difco- 
veries of M. CHEVALIER mutt be allowed; and therefore he de- 
ferves the thanks of every admirer of the works of the great 
poet. This is the decided opinion of many ; and particularly 
of one, whom the world allows to be qualified in an eminent 
degree to judge of this fubject, the learned and fagacious Pro- 
feffor HEyNE ; to whofe Effay on the Topography of the Iliad, 
which is annexed in the Appendix*, I beg leave to direct your 
attention. | f 


APPEN- 


* No. ITF. 


APPENDI x, containing Papers and Letters referred 
to in the foregoing Detail. 


No. IL (p. 3i.)e 


From Profefor HEYNE’s Preface to the German T; ranfiation of. M. 
CHEVALIER’S Treatife*. 


O penetrate, at leaft with the mind’s eye, beyond the nar- 
row circle to which life is bounded, and to ftudy na- 
ture on a large feale, is a propenfity in the conftitution of man. 
From this principle arifes the pleafure which we receive from 
the defcription of foreign lands, and in the reprefentation of na- 
tural fcenes and profpects. In the cafe of celebrated places, this 
pleafure is enhanced, when, in countries well known to fame, 
the remembrance of illuftrious actions is before us. ‘The inte- 
reft rifes ftill higher, if the {pot be what is termed claffic ground, 
the mention of which in ancient authors is connected with im- 
portant events; or where the topography is doubtful, and has 
become a fubject of controverfy. 
Tus is the cafe with the Troad. Homer furnifhes us with 
fo much accurate obfervation, that we are ready to imagine our- 
k2  felves 


* I am indebted for the tranflation of the following Extracts, from the German 
of Mr Heyne’s Preface and Notes, and of the Effay on the Topography of the Iliad, 
to a very ingenious young gentleman, now the Reverend ALEXANDER Bronton, 
minifter of Bolton in Eaft Lothian ; formerly educated at this Univerfity, and who 
refided fome time at Berlin, as private fecretary to the late Josrrn Ewart, Efq 
Britifh minifter at that court. My learned friend, Mr James Bonar of the Excife, 
took the trouble of revifing and preparing it for the prefs. D. 


46 TABLEAU de la PLAINE de TROYE. 


felves able to make a vifible reprefentation of the.country. But 
if we try to complete the picture in all its parts, we fhall meet 
with gaps and with places which do not coincide with the reft 
of the defign. Accurate defcriptions of this diftri€t have not 
been obtained. 

StrAgo is the only author who has furnifhed us with a mi- 
nute account of the Troad, compofed not from the perfonal ob- 
fervations of this great geographer, but borrowed from DEME- 
TRivs of Scepfis. DEMETRIUs feems indeed to have a juft title 
to belief and refpedt, as he was born in the neighbourhood of 
the Troad, and had in all probability furveyed it himfelf. Our 
good opinion of him is confirmed by the accuracy with which 
particular places are laid down, and by their coincidence with 
the defcriptions of the ancient poets. 

Tu1s author, however, gives rife to a ftill greater embarrafl- 
ment, not fo much refpecting the fituation of Troy, for it is af- 
figned to what, in all probability, is its exact place, as in regard 
to the river Scamander and its fources, which are thrown far 
back in the mountainous region behind Troy. 

SUCCEEDING travellers have thrown little light on the Troad, 
Woop, alone, made it a ferious object to explore this claflic 
ground, and to form an accurate idea of it. He was prepared 
for the inveftigation by claflical erudition. He travelled, he 
fays, with his Homer in his hand, but he feems to have had 
STRAEO alone in his eye. Without attending to fo many other 
circumftances, which might have directed his view, the fources 
of the Scamander were his only point, from which he furveyed 
every thing elfe; and as he was miftaken in the fituation of 
thefe, every thing elfe muft have received from him a falfe po- 
fition and appearance *. 


To 


* AN ingenious criticifm on Woop's Effay on Homer, which appears in the ori- 
ginal of this preface, is here omitted, as not immediately connected with the prefent 
fubje&. D. 


\ t 
a ee ke et 


ABR END DX Newt: 79 


To the edition in.1775 of Woop’s Effay on the Original Genius 
and Writings of Homer, was added his Comparative View of the 
ancient and prefent State of the Tread. Some years afterwards, I 
read in the Society a paper attempting to explain the military 
tranfactions in the Iliad, according to the topography of the 
country *.. Had,I kept. by Homer | fhould have fallen into 
fewer miftakes: but, unfortunately, from confidence in fuch a 
man as Woop, who had vifited the country with his Homer, in 
his hand, I took him and his chart of the Troad for my guides, 
and thus allowed myfelf to be entangled in fuch a labyrinth of 
errors, that I {trove in vain to extricate -myfelf. - 

THE main blunder in Woon is the alteration of the fources 
of the Scamander, and the confequent placing of ancient Troy 
deep in the mountainous region of Ida. Every thing elfe was 
now confounded. Woop did not perceive that DemEeTRIvs of 
Scepfis, whom Srraso- follows, builds, in. this inftance, on a 
mere hypothefis. DEMETRIUS, I imagine, founded it on an er- 
roneous interpretation of Iliad, XII. 18, &c..+, which he under- 
{tood geographically, without confidering that he had before 
him a poet, not a geographer. Woop, indeed, traced the courfe 
of a ftream, till at laft he found another that flowed into it: he 
then fought the fources of this new ftream, and difcovered 
them. Thus far, all is accurately obferved, and coincides with 
DeEmeETRiIvs’s affertion. But was this ftream of courfe the 
Scamander ? ‘and, was. Troy to be immediately transferred to 
that fpot? Had not Straso preceded him with a multitude 
of doubts? Woop helped himfelf out with changes of nature, 
which muft have taken place here, and have altered of confe- 
quence the face of the country. But fuch changes hiftory knows 
of only upon the coaft, or when occafioned by the overflow of 

rivers ; 


* Tuis paper is publifhed in Coszmentat. Soc. Reg. Scientiarum Gottingenjis, 
tom. VI. under the title of De acie Homerica, et de oppugnatione caftrorum a Tra- 
Jans facta. 


+ See above, p. 61. 


78 TABLEAU de la PLAINE de TROYE. 


rivers: and fuch Homer himfelf defcribes, Iliad, VII. 459, &c. 
XI. 13-33, 

THE transference of Rhceteum to Cape Berbier is an error not 
peculiar to Woop: but the Grecian camp derives from thence 
an extent which again does not accord with Homer’s defcrip- ~ 
tion. ‘The poet is not indeed to be a geographer; but he muft 
not feign any thing which contradiéts the firft glance at nature, 
or clafhes with the known accounts of the topography of the 
country. The epic poet muft reprefent nature as certain leading 
circumi{tances require. ‘The main circumftance here is the ge- 
neral chart of the face of the country, and an eftablifhment of 
certain principal fpots. As to the reft of the fcene, fancy muft 
have full play in fuggefting its greatnefs and extent. The epic 
poet’s chief engine is the marvellous. By an accurate determina- 
tion of every particular, the illufion would quickly vanifh. Much 
mutt appear only in great mafles: Some things muft be and muft 
remain in obfcurity, that the fancy of the hearers or readers may 
have room to work, to form to itfelf an idea of greatnefs and 
power. Homer therefore does not give an accurate determination 
of the Grecian camp, or of the field of battle. Here the fancy of 
the reader has room to operate, as that of the poet himfelf has been 
engaged in working up every thing into the great and wonder- 
ful. Every thing appears to him many degrees higher than it 
is in real nature. Muft he not raife the reader to the fame 
pitch? “ I fee gods arifing” is the language of the poet; and 
when he is read as a poet ought to be, it will be the language 
of the reader alfo. If we are at any time to figure to ourfelves 
the Scamander as a tremendous torrent, which, as a god, fights 
with AcniLLeEs, and threatens to bury him in its waves, Ho- 
MER muft not inform us how diminutive its real fize is. He 
muft leave us, by affociation with the greatnefs of the effect, to 
give it all the bulk our fancy can grafp. He in no place gives 


the exact dimenfions of the town and fortrefs of Troy. This is 
quite 


APPENDIX, No 1 79 


quite natural; for fuch accuracy could in no refpect have had 
an advantageous effect. The combat of AcHILLEs and Hector 
is filled with the wonderful. The race of both heroes is traced 
by means of points, which the fancy of the reader may extend 
as far as it can; the walls, the wild fig tree, the watch-tower, 
the fources of the Scamander. But it may be premifed, that to 
_a perfon who knew the topography of the country in the days 
of Homer, nothing would be reprefented, which he would have 
recognifed and declared to be falfe and erroneous, elfe the effect 
of the poem would have been loft, ‘ 

“WueEn we fpeak of the Troad, it may be viewed in various 
lights. “What is the prefent appearance of that country ? What 
was it formerly, at different times, particularly in the days of 
Homer? and how can its prefent appearance be reconciled with 
the defcriptions of that poet? Or, again; in Hower there is a 
certain appearance of the country defcribed. How far does this 
actually accord with nature? Each of thefe views and queftions 
it is rather the province of the geographer and hiftorical critic 
to anfwer. There is {till another view of the fubje@t. As the 
poet cannot be read with pleafure, without a fenfible reprefenta- 
tion, what is the reprefentation he gives of the face of the coun- 
try? To what extent does he give it? and how much of this 
kind of knowledge muft accompany or precede the reading of 
the Iliad? q . 

Tue explainer of Homer is properly bound to difcharge on- 
dy the laft cafk.. With this view I had entirely new modelled 
the above mentioned. Memoir, according to Homer, and had. 
taken no further affiftance from Srraso than coincided with 
and illuftrated Homer’s account. So much the more lively 
was my pleafure, when I perceived, in the paper of M.Cueva- 
LIER, a greater coincidence with my ideas than I had found,in 
Woop, or in any other work. This induced me to annex to 

this 


8. TABLEAU dela PLAINE de TROYE. 


this publication my Memoir in a new drefs, in order, at leaft, to 
remedy the errors it may have formerly occafioned. . 

TuatT the fources of the Scamander are {till found near Bou- 
nar-ba/bi ;—that of its junction with the Simois the ancient 
channel ftill remains, as the ftream is now diverted into a canal, 
which falls into the fea below Sigeum ;—that the ftream which 
comes down from the hills is the Simois, and not the Scaman- 
der ;—and, alfo, that the other ftream, which the former re- 
ceives, is no Scamander ;—that Bounar-ba/bi exhibits the fite and 
veftiges of ancient Troy ;—that even the citadel is ftill diftin- 
guifhed by its abrupt precipice :—all thefe are leading remarks 
and obfervations which we owe to M. CHEVALIER. The coatt, 
the promontories, the tombs, the temple of APOLLO at Thymbra, 
Callicoloné, and other places, receive from him all the diftin@- 
nefs that readers of Homer can with. 


M. Cuevarier vifited the country about the year 1787. He 


was at that time attached to the embafly of M. DE CHoIsEUL 
Gourrier at Conftantinople. The occafion both of his draw- 
ing up the paper, of its being read before the Royal Society of 
Edinburgh, and afterwards publifhed by Mr Dauzet, are de- 
tailed in the preface of this laft gentleman *. 

I waD the pleafure of M. CHEVALIER’s acquaintance during 
his fhort refidence at Gottingen. The perufal of parts of his tra- 
velling journals made me defirous to communicate to my coun- 
trymen the whole work. ‘This propofal, however, was attended 
with feveral difficulties, particularly, that the paper was the pro- 
perty of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, and that it was affign- 


ed to a place in the third Volume of their Zran/actions, which ~ 


was not to be publifhed for a twelvemonth. 
In the mean time, upon fignifying my wifhes, I experienced 
a complaifance and readinefs to oblige, which calls for the 
warmett 


* See the Preface to the Englifh Tranflation. 


Ac PRE IN AD! 15S NBT “tata 


warmeft and moft grateful acknowledgment on my part. Not 
only M. CHEVALIER gave me every afliftance, but, on the part 
of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, I was anticipated with aflu- 
rances which fhew the liberal fentiments of thofe Literati, who 
are far fuperior to any little felfifh vanity. I had even imme- 
diate accefs' to a tranflation of the Paper before it had ‘ap- 
peared in the Society’s Tran/actions. A copy of this tranflation 
was fent to me before its publication, and the earlieft impref- 
fions of the'!maps were communicated to me. If ever the occu- 
pations of learned men merited the title of the ftudies of huma- 
nity, it was m the prefent'inftance. To the exertions of Pro- 
feflor Datzex;"I am particularly indebted.» He ‘preferved, on 
this occafion, his character, already high in my eftimation, by 
fhewing himfelf in no ways actuated by envy, omby any little 
jealoufy, towards a profeffor in his own line. : 

- | commitrep the German tranflation to ‘a young pisoaciht 
{cholar, Mr Coarues FREDERIC DoRNEDDEN. According to the 
permiffion which I received from Edinburgh, and from the au- 
thor, I have added fome remarks, which are chiefly critical, or: 
relate to the interpretation, particularly of StRaBo, or refer to a 
comparifon of ‘paflages in Homer. On different points I have 
received from the author written explanations, and have, by his 
permiflion, made fome changes and additions. The particular 
{tate of literature in Germany would perhaps have required 
other changes, omiflions, and abbreviations ; but the work was 
not my property. 

THE author fets out always from tombs, and feems to lay the 
greateft ftrefs on the obfervations he has made refpecting thefe. 
There may have been particular reafons for this. For us they! 
decide little. Suppofing’ that M. Coev ater was miftaken, and 
that the eminences ‘were not at all tombs, the main point re-. 
mains what it was; the fources of the Scamander are near Bou- 
nar-bafbi 5 and in that neighbourhood is the fite of Troy. 

Vor. IV. l No. II. 


é . 
82 TABLEAU de la PLAINE de TROYE. 


No. IE. (p. 73-)» 


Mr Heywne’s Note, additional to Mr Datzeu’s, on ACHILLES’S 
Purfuit of Hector. (Thad, XXH. 165.). 


LONG as this note has been*, I find it neceflary ftill to fub- 
join another. We ought, | think, to take-up the fubjec& im this 
way. Here, as frequently happens in regard to Homer, two 
diftinct queftions occur: 1. How the Ancients underftood Ho- 
MER? 2. How he may and /hould be underftood ? 

UNQUESTIONABLY the ancients often underftood their Ho- 
mer furprifingly ill; and in the inftance before us it may very 
well have happened that they miftook his. meaning. His com- 
mentators have conftantly been deficient in pomt of acquaint- 
ance with the topography of the Troad. Seldom was this rug- 
ged coaft vifited by travellers, as no great road either led to or 
run through it. Over the precipices of Mount Ida it was hardly. 
poffible that there fhould lie- any much frequented path. To 
the prefent hour this coaft continues to be but rarely vifited. 
Thofe traéts only are known to us through which caravans tra- 
vel. Even where an accurate acquaintance with the topography 
of the country might have been moft confidently looked: for, 
in STRABo for inftance, we find nothing more than an abridg- 
ment of the accounts of DEMETRIUS of Scepfis ; and, that this 
laft mentioned) author, in his examination of the ground). car- 
ried throughout in his mind a preconceived hypethefis, is, evi- 
dent in what relates to the fountains of the Simois and Scaman- 
der. This may perhaps have been the cafe too, whem he affert- 


* See the Englifh: Tranflation of M. CuevaciEr’s Effay, p. 135, &c.; and the 
German, p. 206, &c. D. 


APPENDIX, No. Ut. 83 


ed, as follows, of the place which he had rightly marked ont 
as the fite of ancient Troy, “‘ Hxcror could not poflibly have 
“ been purfued round about New Ilium, but he might very 
“‘ well have been fo round ancient Troy,” —7 d¢ rurase eyes 
regideoumy. (STRABO, p. 8g5. A.).  _In Quintus of Smyrna, 
who, as well as DEMETRIUS, refided juft upon the weftern 
coaft of Afia, we find a fimilar deficiency in point of local 
knowledge. No wonder, then, that even he makes HEcror 
be dragged around the walls, awgi xorno. (1. 111. XIV. 132.) 

ViRGIL’s imitation of this incident, in the combat between 
#inEas and Turnus before Laurentum, (quoted and referred 
to in the Effay), can prove nothing more than that VirGit ei-- 
ther adopted in his narrative a different plan from Homer, or 
endeavoured to give fomewhat more probability to his ftory; 
jut as in another paflage we find him fubftituting, for the tri- 
ple chace of the combatants, the more probable incident of 
dragging the dead body of Hecror round the city ; 


Ter circum Ihacos raptaverat HeEcTORA muros. 


He obferved, in this, the fame rule by which he conduéted him- 
felf on other occafions, not always to be anxious to tread in the 
very fteps of Homer, but, where a different delineation fhould of- 
fer more poetical beauties, to carry his imitation at large through 
the whole circle of poets, epic or dramatic. In this particular, of 
the dragging of Hectror’s body, he followed fome other poet, 
probably Euripipes. (See Excurf. XVIII. ad An. 1). 

IF it is to be maintained, that the paflage in Homer, refpect- 
ing this purfuit of the combatants, cannot mean that it was ac- 
tually round about the city, and that fuch a purfuit could not 
poflibly have taken place, the main proof muft be drawn from 
the topographical fituation of the country. Ancient Troy was 


acceflible only on the fide next the fea. On the quarter of the 
12 Acropolis, 


84 TABLEAU de la PLAINE de TROYE. 


Acropolis it was furrounded by abrupt precipices, and deep ra- 
vines ; and at the bottom lay the rocky bed of the Simois, as 
M. CHEVALIER, an eye witnefs, aflures us. His teftimony, by 
the by, affords a folution why the Greeks, numerous as they 
were, never completely invefted the city, though this would 
have been a natural and effectual plan of operation. It explains, 
too, why they did not cut off all approach to the place; for we 
find frefh fupplies and provifions received without interruption 
from Phrygia; allies and auxiliaries arriving conftantly at Troy. 
On the fide next the mountains there muft therefore have been 
a free accefs to the town. Hence, too, it is no lefs evident, that 
Homer, intimately acquainted as’ he was with the ground, ne- 
ver could have faid what has been afcribed to him, that Acutr- 
LES chafed Hector thrice round the walls. Still lefs can this 
be fuppofed, when what the poet is thus made to fay is palpa- 
bly abfurd in itfelf, that two combatants fhould run three ‘times 
round the walls of a city. For either, if we fhould reckon the 


thing poflible, our idea of the city muft be diminutive and con-_ 


temptible ; or, fhould we fuppofe the city to be large, the im- 
probability becomes obvious, and we are ftruck with the abfur- 
dity of the army’s ftanding idle, waiting for the re-appearance 
of the runners from the oppofite fide of the walls. Add to this, 
that fuch an abfurdity is by no means neceflarily imphed in the 
words ; nor would it at all occur, were the paflage read without 
prejudice, and with proper attention to its meaning. All the 
combats take place before the Sc#an Gate. Thus far had Pa- 
TROCLUS, the preceding day, driven back the flying Trojans. 
(XVIUI. 453. XVI. 712.). No battle, no tranfadion, is men- 
tioned, as happening in any other quarter, or on the oppofite 
fide of the town. It is on the Scean Gate that Priam and his 
Trojans ftand, to be fpectators of the fight. (Iliad, II. 145—154. 
XXIL 25. 462.). Even during the flight of Hector, we do 
not find Priam running from one gate to another, from one 


fide 


- 
ai SS EEE 


4PPENDIX, No. Ul. gs 


fide of the walls to the other; he continues ftanding on the 
Sczan ‘Gate.—The whole narrative of the tranfaCtion i in queftion — 
is as follows :— 

Hecror at firft takes his ftation before the Scean Gate, 
waiting on foot the approach of Acurturs, (XXII. 96.); but 
as ACHILLEs draws near, he is feized with a panic. ‘To efcape 
from him, he takes his flight along the foot of the wall, (ré-yos' 
ixd Tedoy. XXIL. 144.), partly with the view of being protected 
from the walls, partly, perhaps, in order to get away towards 
the mountains. © ACHILLES gets between him and the wall, and 
drives him to the oppofite fide againft the Grecian army. This 
track brings HecTor to the watch-tower, the wild fig-tree, and 
the fources of the Scamander. Here he finds an opportunity to 
wheel round, and again approach the walls. AcHILLEs, once 
more, interpofes betwixt him and the city, and drives him back 
towards the fources of the Scamander; and this is repeated four 
times, (v. 157. 165. 188. 194. ‘Ocodas—). On this fpot, at a di- 
{tance from the walls, near the fources of the Scamander, HrEc- 
ToR at:length me a ftand, and the laft combat, with his death, 
enfues. ! 

Wuewn the fubject is taken up in this aes tot view, the word 
TEoh, in the phrafes regs oid, meek SDs meek TEV OS, can be under- 
ftood: inno other fenfe, than: about—before the city,’ without 
any idea of its meaning “ round about the city itfelf.” Even 
the. 165th line, “Q¢ ca sreig Meremoto morw regidivnbgrm, (or rather 
meet dunbarnr); proceeds exprefsly upon the notion, that the flight 
was) directed’ away from the city towards the fources of the Sca- 
mander:; fo that no idea of a round about.can be admitted. The 
matter:is completely cleared up by verfes:194—+208.: The circle 
of the flight ‘is there accurately marked! out, as extending mere- 
ly from! the walls towards the fources of the Scamander ; confe- 
quently verfes 2 3° and 251, cannot be underftood in any other 
fenfe, isi | 


As. 


86 TABLEAU de la PLAINE de TROYE. 


As Acuitues flew Hector before the Sczan Gate, fo it was 
decreed that he himfelf fhould one day fall before the fame 
gate, (Iliad, XXII. 359. and 360.), evi Zxaimor rvAnor. This is ex- 
prefled by Quintus, III. 82. Sxaiye aug avrnos. 

Arrer Hecror is killed, AcHILLEs exprefles the idea,—wor- 
thy of a warrior; but which would haye embarrafled the poet 
in the execution, by giving the Iliad at omce an inconvenient 
termination,—the idea of hazarding immediately, while the pa- 
nic of the Trojans was frefh, an aflault upon the city ; v. 381. 
Eid” ayer, compl rorw oy revyecs resenbaprer. Here, alfo, it ig net ne- 
ceflary to fuppofe, that the troops were to advamce towards the 
wall round about on every fide. The expreflion' implies only 
fomething indeterminate in regard to the place, provided other 
circumftances do not more accurately mark it out. In Quin- 
Tus, (IV. 86. and 87.), DiomEeDE fays, 


"AAN aye, ov revyeos 5 cpuoow, nde 4 ixrois 
Tomer audi roAna. 


Let us affault the city itfelf,—On one fide, is underftood,—in 
one place, where an aflault is practicable. On the contrary, 
when AcHILLEs drags the body of Hector round the tomb of 
ACHILLES, Teig Dégurus ati oxua,—(Lliad, XXIV. 16.), it feems 
clear, from the nature of the thing, that, in this paflage, the ex-- 
preffion may fignify round about. 

Upon the whole, one muft here call to mind the remark, 
which I have elfewhere introduced,— What other poets do by 
art, in throwing into the fhade certain parts of their ftory, that 
the effect of the whole may be more forcible, HOMER does 
here, certainly not from theoretical notions, but by the guidance 
of true feeling, and in the glow of imagination. The poet was 
now arrived at the great, the decifive moment, when his hero 
ought to appear with the higheft luftre. The combat itfelf is rai- 
fed to the marvellous ; even deities muft take a part in it, and 

contribute 


APPENDIX, No. I. 87 


contribute to the wonders of the feene. So terrible is the look 
of AcHiLies, that Hector, prepared as he was to ftand the 
conflict, lofes courage at his approach. The race of the two he- 
roes goes far beyond human force; but how far,—over that 
the poet throws a vail. Fancy has now room to work, and may 
reprefent every thing as far beyond what is common and natu- 
ral as fhe will or can. They run three times round at the city, 
—the fpace, the diftance, may be conceived as great as we 
choofe; but the poet neither does nor ought to determine them. 
Such determination would fall either into the gigantic or the 
diminutive. The cafe is different, when, by means of a com- 
parifon, an idea and image can be enlarged or extended. The 
poet then makes ufe of what is defined, to render the undefined. 
object more diftin@, and to throw light on what is obfcure. 
That however 1s not the’ cafe here. 


No. HI. (p. 34. 67. 74.). 


ESSAY on the Topography of the Hiad*. By Profeffor HryNe 
of Gottingen, Aulic Counfellor to His Britannic Maje/ty, ec. 


FOR nine years had the war between the Greeks and Trojans 
been carried on. The former now lay encamped in the neigh- 
bourhood of Troy, when the quarrel between AcHILLEs and 
AGAMEMNON, occafioned a divifion in the army. 

AGAMEMNON,, 

*. THE tahense Effay follows out the train of ideas, fuggefted ina Paper read be- - 
fore the Royal Society of Sciences at Gottirigen, De acie: Homerica, et oppugmatione 
a-Trojanis fata, in the yearn 1783, publifhed in: the fixth volume of. their Tranfae- 
tions. All the difquifitions, there introduced, refpeting the origin of military tac- 
tics, the manner of drawing up an army, and giving battle, and the art of fortifying 
and. attacking. a poft, as deferibed in) the Iliad, are here’ omitted); many topics, of 
the other hand, are now correéted and enlarged. That Effay was my firft on the 
Topography of the Iliad ; a fubjeét involved in fo much difficulty. I allowed my- 

felf 


$8 TABLEAU de la PLAINE de TROVE. 


AGAMEMNON, to convince ACHILLEs'that, even without his 
afliftance, victory might be, obtained, caufes the army to march 
out of the camp,-and advance towards the city.. Hitherto the 
Trojans had kept clofe within their walls, following the advice 
of their.old men*, who faw plainly, that, if a fiege fhould ac- 
tually take place, the Greeks could, make Jittle impreflion on, the 
town: -for. the firft. rudiments of the arts of. attack were.then 
hardly known.. Encouraged, however, it fhould feem, by intel- 
ligence of the divifion in the Grecian army, the Trojans quitted 


the city, and ‘met the Greeks, in the field ;—a, new, gratification _ 


to the. proud fpirit of AcHiLs£eEs, that now, for the firft time, 
when it was known he was not, withthe ary the paren 


fhould venture out into the plain fF. 
THE two armies met. Four principal baialaass are  dedanilvedis in 


the Iliad. The firft, (the fubject of our prefent inveftigation), on 
the 


felf then to be mifled by refpeét for Por= and Woop, fo far as to renounce my own 
ideas, and to mould, according to the reprefentations of thefe gentlemen, the views 
I had drawn from Homer himfelf. I foor found, however, that I had trufted to 
bad guides, and at once refolved, laying afide all fecondary aids, to attempt, from the 
defcriptions given in the poem itfelf,'a fketch of the Topography of the Iliad, fuch 
as Homer exhibits it. This Effay I now prefent to the public, I had for a long 
time thrown it afide, when its coincidence with the information colle&ted by M. 
CHEVALIER on the fubjeét, induced me to revife it, and now inclines me to fubmit 
it, for further inveftigation, to the friends of the poet. Amendment after this will 
be an eafy tak. H. . dl Lea 


nt d 


* InraD, XV. 721, &c. ‘The fage Porypamas, afterwards, likewife, when 
the defign of an attack upon the camp feemed likely to mifgive, gave his advice ra- 
ther to retire again within the city, and take refuge, as formerly, behind the walls, 
But the rafh Hector would not confent, (X VIII. 266. &c.).. Unqueftionably the 
long fiege muft have proved extremely harraffing. ‘The provifions, as well as the 
treafure, of PR1AM were exhaufted, as Hector himfelf urges. (Ibid. 288.), H. 


+ OncE only HecrTor had ventured beyond the Scan Gate, as far as the beech 
tree; but on that occafion he with difficulty efcaped from ACHILLES. oe IX. 352, 
&c.). > H. 


AP PIE ND, 1:X, Nox Uk 89 


the plain between the camp and the city, (ILIV. 422. VI. 306.); 
—the fecond, when the Greeks were driven back to their camp, 
(Iliad, VIL. 55-—213.) ;—the third, which extends not only to | 
the flight of the Grecians into their camp, but likewife to the 
ftorming of the camp itfelf by the Trojans, who break in and 
fet fire to a fhip, till at length they are repulfed, and purfued al- 
moft to the city by Parroctus. Here Patroctus falls; and 
the Greeks, put to flight, are once more driven back to their 
camp. (Iliad, XI—XVIIL). In the fourth battle, AcHILLEs 
beats back the Trojans again to the city, and crowns his vic- 
tory by the fall of HEcTor. | ; 

No lively idea can be formed, either of thefe battles or of 
the ftorming of the camp, without fome general conception of 
the environs of Troy. 

From Mount Ida, run two hilly ridges from the eaft down to 
the fea, where two promontories bound a jutting beach. The 
promontory on the north is Rhoeteum ; that on the fouth Si- 
geum. Within thefe two ridges lies a plain, floping down to 
the fhore, and inclofed within their femicircular compafs. (STR A- 
BO, X VAIL. p- 892, B.), In this plain run two rivers: on the ~ 
north (fide the Simois; on the fouth the Scamander, called alfo 
the Xanthus. The latter now difcharges itfelf into the fea to 
thefouth, below Sigeum, but formerly, before approaching the 
fhore, it muft have united with the Simois, fo that both rivers 
had ‘a common outlet into the fea, above or to the north of Si-. 
geum. This embouchure was furrounded with many marthes, 
and hence was called Stomalimné ; a name which occurs but 
once in Homer, in an interpolated paffage. (Iliad, VI. 4.). The 
exact fituation is laid down. by StRaBo, (XIII. p. 890. A. PLiny, 
V. 20. 33%). | 

VobeiN:. mm THE 

* Or all thefe places, the charts of Pore and Woop give very different views ;, 


that of M.-CQuEVABIER, however, accords exactly with what is faid by StRazBo.and. 
PLiny, 


90 TABLEAU de la PLAINE de TROYE. 


Tue Grecian fleet was drawn on fhore at'a place between 
the two promontories. The diftance betwixt the two, according 


to STRABO, (p. 8go. B. 891. A.), was 60 ftadia, (about two Ger- 


man or nine Englifh miles), in a direét courfe by fea. The cur- 
vature of the land, however, would increafe the diftance in keep- 
ing along the fhore *. 

It is generally fuppofed, that the Grecian camp éavitidiea from 
cape to cape. This notion involves very confiderable difficulty. 
Had it done fo, the camp muft have reached beyond the Simois, 
and the marfhes on both fides of it; a cireumftance by no 
means probable, particularly as the ftream is fo apt to overflow; 
and not the fmalleft trace occurs in Homer, either of the river 
running through the camp, or of the left wing being ftationed 
beyond the river. When Homer, therefore, fays; that the fhips 
occupied the whole fhore | between the two promontories, he 
probably fpeaks in a poetical ftyle, to convey a magnificent idea; 
and it is more likely that the camp only ftretched on both fides 
towards the promontories Rhceteum and Sigeum, and that on 
the north-eaft it extended to the Simois f. 

WITHIN this fpace were the fhips of the Greeks hawled up 
on the land, at a confiderable diftance from the fhore, with their 
fterns towards the land, and arranged in feveral rows ||. The 

rows, 

* D’ANVILLE, in his defcription of the Hellefpont, (Memoires de l Academie 
des Infcriptions, tom. XXIV. p. 329.), allows only half the diftance ; M. CuEva- 
LIER does the fame, (Ch. VIII.), on the authority of the paflage in Piiny, (V. Be) 


where the diftance is reckoned from AZanteum. Still, however, it is a contefted 
point, what part of the coaft muft properly be regarded as Rheeteum. 


+ Iniap, XIV. 35 ee nek TART AY amaons 
. Hiovos orone peneov, oooy ouveceyebay & AK Eh» 
He does not exprefsly name either Sigeum or Rheteum; on the contrary, he al- 
ways places the camp on the Hellefpont, in the more extenfive fignification of that 
term, as meaning the northern part of the Aigean Sea. 

{ See above, p. 57, 58. D. 

|| Tue fhips are therefore faid to have ftood xpéxgoorar, (XIV. 35.), parallel and 
behind one another, like the fteps of a ladder. That this is the meaning we learn 
from Heropotus, (VII. 188.). 


APPENDIX, No. Ill. QI 


rows, however, muft have been drawn backwards, according to 
the oblique direétion of the whole camp, from the north towards 
Sigeum. Behind the foremoft row of the fhips the troops were 
encamped, fo that the fhips themfelves muft have ferved for a 
kind of rampart, as is plain from a comparifon of different paf- 
fages*. In the rear of the left wing muft have been the marfhes 
called Stomalimné. StTRasBo afligns particular names to feveral 
parts of the coaft, though he has not put them down in geogra- 
phical order f. As only one part of the coaft bears the name of 
Station of the fleet, it may perhaps be inferred from this, that the 

Grecian camp occupied only a part of the beach. 
Tue fhips ftood in the order in which they had been drawn 
afhore. The veflels of PRoTESILAUs, accordingly, occupied the 
foremoft place ; and next to them were the fhips of Ajax, the 
fon of TELamon. (Iliad, XIII. 681. XV. 706, &c.). Ajax was 
ftationed towards Rhceteum, confequently on the left wing of 
the camp; ACHILLEs, with his Myrmidons, on the right to- 
wards Sigeumt. In regard to the two extremities there is no 
doubt; but the arrangement in the intermediate {pace cannot 
be fo exactly afcertained ; unlefs, perhaps, thus far: Near to AJ Ax, 
and farther to the right, lay IpomENnevs, with the Cretans, 
m 2 | (Iliad, 


*Ix1ap, XV. 653, &c. 408. 426. XIV. 34. 


} Strapo, (XIII. 890. A.). “ After Rheeteum follows. Sigeum, a town in 
* ruins, then the ftation of the flect, (ro Neveraéasy), and the harbour of the Greeks, 
“ (6 Ayaidy amen), and the Grecian camp, (ro Ayaixdy areaténedoy), and Stomalzmné, 
* and the mouth of the Scamander, (viz. of the Scamander united with the Simois), 
“ then the promontory of Sigeum.” Compare MEra, I. 19. Puiny, V. 30. 33- 


t Intap, XI. ad init. It is true that in XVII. 432. it is faid, that the hor- 
fes of AcuILLEs would not return without Parrocius to the Hellefpont, a) én 
yas txt mAatdy “EAAnowovrey, But this whole northern arm of -the fEgean Sea, before 
the entrance of the ftrait, is more than once called the Hellefpont: (Iliad, XVIII. 


ESQ. 


92 TABLEAU delaPLAINE de TROYE. 


(liad, X. 112.); befide him Nestor, with his Pylians; then 
followed MENESTHEUS, with the Athenians; next to him was 
Utysses; near to whom were ftationed the Argives, Myce- 
neans, and Lacedemonians; after thefe came feveral other 
corps ; and, laftly, on the right wing were the Myrmidons, 
- with whom, it fhould feem, the other Theffalian tribes (the troops 
of PROTESILAUS excepted) were united. 

By this arrangement, the following paffages appear both to 
be cleared up themfelves, and to throw light on others in their 
turn. The poft of Ajax is all along the moft important. To- 
wards this wing the main aflault upon the camp’ takes place. 
To that fide alfo the battles tend. When Nestor conduéts the 
wounded MacHaon into his. own tent, ACHILLEs is at fiich a 
diftance that he fees only his back, and cannot diftinétly recog- 
nife his perfon, (XI. 596. 610. et feq.)s PatTroctus, difpatch- 
ed by ACHILLEs to make inquiry, in returning from NEsTOR 
paffes the place where the fhips of Utysszs are lying. (XI. 805.). 
Juft at this fpot he finds Eurypyius, who was coming back 
from the engagement at the left wing wounded, and was going, 
it would appear, to the right wing, where probably his Thefla- 
lians were ftationed. Macuaon, though a Theffalian, was con= 
ducted by NeEsTor into 4is tent, probably becaufe he was too 
much exhaufted to be able to reach the right wing. The fhips 
of Utysses lay in the centre, fo that, from thénce, the fhout, 
which called the troops to arms, could be heard on both wings *. 
To this the form of the camp, which, from its pofition, extend- 
ed more in depth than in length, probably contributed. Hard 

| by 
t50. XXIV. 346. Odyff. XXEV. 82. alfo Iliad, VII. 86. XII. 30. XV. 233. 
XXUI. 2.). And hence muft be derived the explanation of the epithets xausd; 


and dz:¢gav, which do not feem well applied to the proper Hellefpont; though, in- 
deed, broad and marrow are relative terms: 


*Turap, XI. 5. Thefe verfes are likewife inferted, though rather awkwardly 3 
ib. VIII. 222. et feq. , 


AP PON DT Xj Noth 93 


by thefe fhips of Unysses, and confequently behind the fore- 
moft row, was the place for holding the public affemblies, and 
for the altars for the facrifices. (Iliad, XI. 806-7.), One of thefe, 
it fhould feem, was the altar of JurITER Panomphzus*. 

Tue order of the fhips in the catalogue, (Iliad, IJ.), appears 
to have fome connection with this arrangement in the camp, fo 
that the Boeotians, and: thofe after them, ‘as far on as the Sala- 
minians, under Ayax, belonged to the left wing. The Argives, 
and thofe next in order, as far as the Cretans, Rhodians, and 
other Iflanders, compofed the centre. The Theffalians, with the 
Myrmidons, formed the right wing. 

Tue fucceflion and order of the troops, when afterwards 
drawn up in the field of battle, is fomewhat different. -Aca- 
MEMNON runs through the midft of the battle ; and after paff- 
ing fome, who are not named, he comes to IDoMENEUS. with 
the Cretans, to Ajax and the Salaminians, to NEsTor with his 
Pylians, to the Athenians under MENESTHEUsS, to ULyssxs, and 
laftly to DiomeEDE f: 

AGAMEMNON, it appears, went from the left to the right 
wing. ULyssEs was at fuch a diftance from the {pot where the 
Trojans were prefling on to the affault, that he as yet knew no- 
thing of their approach, (IV. 331.). In the battle itfelf all or- 

der 


*TItrap, VIII. 249, 250: Ovip. Met. XI. 197. Arottxo ftands on the Trojan 
fhore, 


Dextera Sige’, Rhetet leva profundi 
' Ara Panompheo vetus eft facrata Tonanti. 


What notion the editors have had of this paflage, it is not eafy to divine. At all 
events, a point muft be put after. ath and that line muft be underftood as a com- 
plete fentence: 


tInrap, IV. 231, &c. The leaders and the corps are by no means all particu- 
larifed by name. Thus, it appears from lib. XI, 808. IJ. 736, that the Thefla- 
lians, commanded by EuryryLus, were there: 


04 TABLEAU de la PLAINE de TROVE. 


der is loft; and the combatants, individuals as well ah f{qua- 
drons, are confufedly mixed with one another. (IV. 457, &c.). 


Tue ground in this neighbourhood muft have experienced — 


alterations by the overflowing of the rivers, as well as by the 
operation of the Simois at its mouth. Homer himfelf inti- 
mates this, when he takes notice, that not a trace of the wall of 
the Grecian camp was remaining. (Iliad, XIL ad init.). Hero- 
potus alfo quotes the fhore of Troy as an inftance of fuch 
changes. (lib. II. 10.). And fhould we even incline to rejeé 


the teftimony of StTRaBo, (lib. XIII. p. 890. A.), the fat may - 


be regarded as certain. Whether the alterations of the ground, 
however, have been fo great as Woop fuppofes, is a different 

queftion *. , 
BEFORE the camp, as already mentioned, a plain, gradually 
rifing, ftretched towards Troy, diverfified, it fhould feem, with 
feveral little eminences t. That the two rivers Simois and Sca- 
mander inclofed this plain, and that farther down they united 
with each other, Homer exprefsly teftifies{; but he furnifhes 
us with no further or more accurate information|]. The field 
of battle lies in the neighbourhood of the Scamander §, and 
is called likewife the Scamandrian Plain 4], though it alfo re- 
celves, 


* M. CHEVALIER anf{wers this queftion. 


+ Or this kind was one immediately in front of the camp, the Sgacuds redo. 
(Iliad, X. 160. XI. 56.). It lay juft before the place for croffing the Scamander, in 
going from the camp, on the road towards Troy ; for in the laft battle the Trojans 
had taken poft tx} Sgacua wediow, (XX. 3.), and from thence they came, in the courfe 
of their flight, to the paflage of the Xanthus, wigov Sévfov. (XXI.2.). In fo far the 
delineation, on M. GuevaLier’s map, is erroneous. H. See above, p. 56, 57. D. 


jt In1ap, V. 713- et feq. Vid. StRaBo, XIII. p. 890. A. 892. C. 


|] Straso fays: “ A little way before New Ilium the ftreams unite.” It is. 
doubtful, however, whether by this expreffion he means between Ilium and the fea,- 
or on the inland fide of the town. 


§ Inrap V. 36. VII. 329. XI. 498-9. q Tliad, IL. 465. 467. 


: 


a ee 


: AP: PiBO ND LX, Noy HI. “O05 


ceives, at leaft in the more immediate vicinity of the city, the 
epithet of Trojan*. More precifely ftill it is faid, (Iliad, VI..1, 
8zc.), “the battle raged between Simois and Xanthus.” The lat- 
ter muft have been neareft the Grecian camp; for when the Tro- 
jans had advanced very nigh the rampart, and lay a night in the 


‘field before it, they are faid to be between the camp and the Sca- 


mander. (Iliad; VIII. 556.). At the Scamander + Hecror holds 
a council of war; and when the Trojans; are compelled to re- 
tire from before’the camp, ‘the wounded Hecror is laid down 
at the fide of the Scamander. (Iliad, XIV. 433.)..: When, again, 
PatTRoctius drives the Trojans finally from the camp, he cuts 
off the retreat of a part of the fugitives to the city, forces them 
back towards the camp, and falls on them betwixt the ftation of 
the fhips, the river and the city {. AcHILLEs, in advancing from 
the camp to the Xanthus, drives a part of the flying enemy into 
the:river; thereft efcape to the town. (Iliad, XXI. 1. et feq.). 
Here it feems to be plainly intimated, that, on the way between 
the camp and the city, the river muft be paffed. And this is 


confirmed by feveral paffages in the laft book, where Priam, 
in going from ‘the city to the Grecian camp, after pafling the 
_tomb of ILus, arrives at the river,—undoubtedly the Scaman- 
der. Here he waters his horfes. (Iliad, XXIV. 349.). In re- 


murning, be comes again to the fame {pot, (vy. 692.) ; and here 
P | there 
* Inrap, X. 11. XXIII. 464. “STRABO,’p. 892. C. 
Tt For this muft be the woraué ter! Duverns of iad, VIII. 490. 


f fand ote 


Tae RE Méonyo | 
Najy mei eorayd no Tei NgE0s tnpnrcio. Iliad, XVI. 397: 


fees it is 5 difficult to form a diftin&: idea of the DW oSt(pibical fituation, unlefs we 


underftand it thus: Firft, between the fhips and the river ; and farther on, between 
the river and the town. 


96 TABLEAU de la PLAINE de TROYE. 


there was a place for crofling the river *.. Homer guides us 
no farther. f 
I FORMERLY thought it probable that Homer meant only a 
near approach of the two rivers, not.an entire confluence of 
their ftreams ; but this opinion I have long fince abandoned. 
The Scholiafts, and even EvsTaTHius, ogive us no:aid here; 
they rather miflead; they themfelves had probably \no. ocular 
knowledge of the place. The Scholia, however, on Iliad, LI.. 
465. fay, “ the Scamander comes from Ida, divides. inthe 
~“ midft the plain that ftretchés to the fhore, and difcharges it- 
“felf, on the left hand, into ‘the fea.” ‘But show. is this to be 
underftood ? If the left hand from Troy is fpoken of, the prefent 
mouth, to the fouthward of Sigeum, muft)be antended; and on 
that fuppofition this mouth would ‘be of confiderable antiquity. 
If the commentator, however, means onthe left hand:going from 
the foore.to.Mount Ida, it isthen the united f{tream of the Scaman- 
der and Simois, that is s faid to fall i into the fea at this i: ibe 
onEVEN 


% AAW ore on, magoy nites t Saat oral a 


It-is here’ that- Mi CHEVALIER’ 's obfervations on the fpot, and ie teat ‘ypon 


the map, give us fo. much light. The Scamander,. as it came near. the fhore, direct 


ing its courfe-obliquely over the plain, approached the Simois, and run into it, exe 
actly as defcribedin StraBo. At ‘préfent the’ Scamander is conduéted into a/canal, 
and: difcharges itfelf into the fea below Sigeum. This is one important obfervation 
made by M. Cneva.ier. There is another, alfo, relating to the fources of the Sca- 
mander. Still it is a perplexing circumftance, that, neither in the advancing, nor 


in the retreat, of the armies, is any exprefs mention made of fo important a circum- 


ftance as croffing the river. *Almoftyall the paffages, except perhaps the laft, rather 
imply that the rivers run on each fide. H. See above, p. 46. Note*. D. 


+ 1 DovsT whether-any of, the poets, , QuINTUS of Smyrna, TayPuroporus, or 
Coturtnus, had an accurate knowledge of this neighbourhood. ‘Tayrmioponvs, for 


sinitance, lays, (lin. B65 ed3 30.2 


: > y ' 
"Nes nah Eaybe worams xuxdovuevoy vowe 
Kal cropace nexrnyes Disozioiore 


“oud 


APPENDIX, No. lll. 67 


Even in Srrazo’s time the fite of Old Ilium was unknown, 
and was a fubject of difpute; but he marks out diftinétly a new 
flium. Alexandria Troas was a different place from both, and 
lay more to the fouthward. New Ilium was twelve ftadia (three- 
eights of a German mile, fomewhat lefs than two Englifh miles) 
from the Grecian harbour. Thirty ftadia (almoft a German 
mile, or about four Englifh miles and an half) higher up, eaft- 
ward from New Ilium, and nearer Mount Ida, was fituate Old 
Ilium, on a {pot where then ftood a village named Ilium *. 

TuE road from the city of Troy to the fea fhore ran from 
the Scean Gate, paft a beech tree, to the tomb of ILus, on 
which ftood a pillar +. Another monument was called Ba- 
tiela, or the tomb of the Amazon Myrinna, an infulated hil- 
lock, where the Trojans took poft in the firft battle. (Iliad, II. 
811—15.). Upon another tomb; that of AisyETEs, fat PoLITEs, 
as a {cout on behalf of the Trojans. (Iliad, I. 793.).. The Sca-_ 

Vou. IV. n mander 


“ Lond roar’d the Xanthus, and the mouth of the Simois ;” fo they were not then uni- 

ted at the mouth. A little after, (lin. 319.), ‘‘ They were dragging the wooden 

* horfe, but were retarded, the way being interfected by rivers, and very uneven.” 
“Odds 9’ teagdiero paxpn, 


a ~ 0) Ws = — J « 4 
LxComsrn worapuoior, Kool ¥ wedscrcwy onary. 


* StrRago, XIII. p- 889. Ov yee Ci) tvradde ideuce chy modu cu voy oti (New 
Ilium), arrw oxedoy Ts j rpicbxovree cevarepa %EO5 fu nocd ie THY Iduy, xah thy Axedavicey, (as this 
old habitation of Darpanus lay ftill deeper in the mountains I], XX. 216, 217. 
northward from Old Ilium, Straso, XIII. p. 891. D.) card viv dy neervpeivay Tris 
HOBHYe Compare p- 81. A. 892. D. When Homer fays of Ilium é 20 ita TET OATTOy 
this is faid in refpe& to Dardania, which lay among the mountains. Troy, however, 
actually ftood at the foot of the Azl/, at the entrance of the valley or the plain. 


+ Intap XI, 166. 371.. Here Hector. had his poft, on the night when he en- 
camped before the Grecian camp. (X. 415.). Here Paris ftood behind the pillar, 
when he wounded DioMEDE with an arrow. (XI. 372.). Juft by the beech APoLto 
ftood near the city, and the place muft likewife have commanded a view of the coune 
try. (XXI. 549.)- | : 


98 TABLEAU de la PLAINE de TROYFE. 


mander could not be far from the hillock where the tomb of 
ILus was. (XXIV. 349. 350. Compare 692, 693.). Nearer 
the city, on the fouth-weft fide, and juft under the walls, the 
Watch-tower mutt have {tood, where the deities reforted*. Next 
to it was the wild fig-tree +, and the fources of the Scamander ; 
and then the place where clothes were commonly wafhed ft. Be- 
fore the city, on the north fide, was Callicoloné (zaay zorwrn), 
a pleafant hill upon the Simois, five ftadia in circumference, and 
ten ftadia from the village llium |. 
Tuart it fhould ftill be poffible, after fuch a lapfe of time, to 
recognife all thefe places, is not to be expected; but there is one 
of them which we fhould think could even yet be traced, and 
which, if difcovered, would furnifh at once the moft certain di- 
rection for all the reft, and even for the fite of ancient Troy it- 
felf;—that is, the fources of the Scamander, fo accurately and 
circumftantially defcribed by Homer, (XXII. 147. et feq.), 
the one of them a warm and {moking fountain, the other, even 
in 


* Sxomide (XX. 136.). 


+ Ess. (XXII. 146. XI. 167.), Quite clofe upon the walls, and at the place 
where they were fo low that the Greeks had once attempted ta force their way into. 
the city from that quarter. (VI. 433—9.). 


t See above, p. 44. D. 


|) AccorDine to StRaBo, (p. 802. D.), who borrowed this information from 
Demetrius of Scepfis. The Venetian Scholiaft A, upon Iliad, XX. 3, quotes 
the paffige refpecting Callicoloné, as if taken from the latter; but he miftakes this 
hillock for the 9,aeud; wsdioo on the Scamander. He adds alfo, “ Here it was that 
“Paris faw the three goddeffes.” At v. 53. the obfervation is repeated, more 
juftly indeed, but in a mutilated form. In all other refpeéts, the places hitherto 
mentioned are determined by M. CnevaLier with great plaufibility and diftiné- 
nefs. I find upon the map, which I had not an opportunity of feeing till too late, 
the hill Callicoloné more rightly laid down, than, from the words of the Memoir, 
I had fuppofed ; (fee p. 94.); and 1 retra&t what I there advanced. The paflages 
refpecting Callicoloné (XX. 53. 151.) are not, as I imagined, contradictory. 


APPENDIX, No. Ik 99 


in the middle of fummer, of an icy coldnefs. Yet even here there 
is a very great chafm in our topographical knowledge. At the 
place, where (according to DemEtRuivs of Scepfis, whom StR4- 
BO follows), the Scamander had its rife, one {pring only was to 
be met with ; and Woop, with Srraso in his hand, fought and 
found this fpring, and this alone*, 


Arter this preliminary fketch of the Topography of the 
Troad, let us now try whether it be poffible to get a clear idea 
of the battles of the Greeks and Trojans. 

Tue firft battle took place on the plain between Troy and 
the Grecian camp. The Greeks were drawn out in the Scaman- 
drian plain. (Iliad, II. 467.). The Trojans, on the other hand, 
had taken poft on the hill Batieia. (Iliad, II. 811. The engage- 
ment commences. Paris and Menexaus foon defcry each 
other. HercrTor negociates a combat between them, which is 
not attended with any decifive confequences. The armies muft 
have been pofted at no great diftance from the city, for PR1AM, 
with his old men, fees from the walls the Grecian-chiefs, and 
learns their names from HEexLen }. The treacherous PANDARUS, 


* STRABO, p. 898.9: Woob, p. 323-4. (98. of the German tranflation). And 
yet Mr Woop did meet with a hot {pring, but in a place where he was not looking 
for the Scamander. (p. 329.). »M. CHEVALIER was more fortunate in this refpect. 
He fearched for and difcovered the fources of the Scamander ‘precifely at the hot 
{pring ; and thus cleared up the whole matter in doubt. 


+ Tue diftance, formerly ftated, of the city from the fhore, or more accurately 
from the harbour of the Greeks, making in all forty-two ftadia, (one and one-fourth 
German, nearly five and’ one-half Englifh miles), and the high commanding fituation 
of the town, render this circumftance by no means improbable, 


100 TABLEAU de la PLAINE de TROYE. 


by difcharging an arrow, brings on a general action. The Tro- 
jans attack the Greeks, (IV. 221.), and at length the armies 
clofe. (446.).. The poet defcribes, as a poet muft, individual - 
combats only. (457, &c.). Thefe however muft have taken 
place in the neighbourhood of the city; for ApoLto furveys 
the combatants from Pergamos, and animates them by his 
fhout. (IV. 507. V. 460. VII. 20.). For a long time the two 
armies alternately advance and retreat between the Simois and 
Scamander, (VI. 2, 3.), till Ayax at laft makes the Trojans give 
way. When near the gate of the city, and not till then, they 
are rallied by the exertions of /ENEAs and HecTor, and again 
make a ftand. (VI. 73, &c.). Hector, by the navies of HE- 
LENUs, and on account of the impending danger, as may be con- 
jectured, has recourfe to religious rites. He goes into the city, 
and gives directions for a female proceflion to the temple of M1- 
NERVA. Inthe mean time, a fingle combat between Giaucus 
and DIOMEDE terminates in a friendly parley. Upon the return 
of Hector, the battle is renewed. At length a fingle combat 
between Hector and Ajax is propofed. With this the narrative 
of the day clofes. (VII. 1—306.). Both parties retire, the one 
into the city, the other to their camp. (VII. 310, &c.). 

Tue following day an armiftice is agreed upon for burying 
the dead. The Greeks avail themfelves of this interval, and 
rear in hafte a rampart round their camp. (VII. 325, &c.). Of 
this more will be faid by and by. 

NEXT morning, by break of day, a new battle enfues ; the 
fecond, on the plain between the city and the camp. (VIII. 60, 
&c.). Towards noon a panic fpreads among the Greeks. They 
flee, and retreat in diforder to the very camp. (VIII. 68. &c. 
139, &c. 213, &c.). At one time, indeed, they again advance 
to the charge ; but ftill they are forced to give way ; and at laft 
fhut themfelves up in their camp. (336—34 3° .)» Fortunately for 


them night intervenes. (485, &c.). 
HEcToR, 


APPENDIX, No. Ul. tah 


Hector, on this occafion, does not draw off his troops into 
the city, but makes them pafs the night at the river, in the open 
air, at fome diftance from the camp*, and orders them to kindle 
watch-fires. By the advice of Nestor, the Greeks likewife fet 
a watch}. The fame night a deputation is fent by the Greeks 
to AcHILLES, and Utysses and DiomeEpE fet out on a fcouting 
party. The fitwation of the Trojan encampment, at this junc- 
ture, is accurately delineated. (X. 415. 428.). Hector had af- 
fembled the chiefs at the tomb of Itus. ‘The watch-fires, like 
the foldiers, were {cattered over the field without any order. 
The troops extended themfelves down to the fea, (probably the 
right wing of the Trojans pointed on the north towards Rhee- 
teum, beyond the Simois), and fome of their pofts reached. as. 
far as Thymbra. At the outermoft extremity lay the new ar- 
rived Thracians and RueEsus. (434.).. This muft have been to- 
wards the fea or the mouth of the Simois, and farther out be- 
fore the Trojan army towards the Grecian camp; for ULysszs 
and DiomeEpeg, who furprifed them, went along the ftream of 
the Simois {. The diftance cannot have been great, for they fet 
off a good while after midnight, and had returned to the camp 
by day-break. 

NEXT 


* NocQs sav ayayav moraye emt dwnv7. (VIII. 490.). 


What river now could this be? The Scamander is termed diets, eddying. ‘The Si- 
mois, however, was ftill more fo, Yet ifthe Scamander had its courfe obliquely thro’ 
the plain, it muft be the river here intended. 


+ TX, 67. Out at the tomb, azzodas wupa reiQpov epuxtay reixto5 éxtos.. It is more 
diftin@tly faid afterwards, (v. 87.), between the tomb and the wall, 22d}. pécor rolpeor: 
xy ttixzos.. Compare 180. 194. 198; 


+ HENcE we find mention made of the heron, (Iliad, X. 274.); of the tamarifks, 
Cuveixn), and of the fedges, (466-7.). Homer does not take notice of their pafling the 
river. This, however, they muft.have done.. 


ron TABLEAU de la PLAINE de TROVE. 


Next day the Trojans affault the Grecian camp. And here 
it becomes neceflary to have fome idea of the newly conftructed 
fortification of the camp. 

THE fituation has been generally defcribed already. The 
camp, according to my fuppofition, did not occupy the whole in- 
termediate fpace, but only a part of the ground, between the two 
promontories Sigeum on the fouth, and Rheeteum to the north. 
Perhaps on this fide it went no farther than to the Simois. By 
all appearances the camp muft have had an oblique front, the 
right wing receding towards Sigeum, the left bending forwards, 
and hence more expofed to the enemy’s attacks *. 

As the Greeks in the firft battle had not been fuccefsful, NE- 
STOR propofes, during the truce agreed upon for burying the 
dead, to fortify the open camp. Such a precaution was before. 
unneceflary; the Trojans having till now kept themfelves fhut up, 
within their walls. Nestor muft now have been terrified at the fu- 
periority of the Trojans, and the valour of HEcTor particularly, 
when there was no ACHILLEs to oppofe him}. The idea of for- 

/ tifying 


* Tus reprefentation feems to be corroborated by M. CHEVALIER’s map. 


+ To give a hiftorical probability to the circumflance of the Greeks having now, 
for the firft time, thought of fortifying the.camp, we muft fuppofe, with Tuucyp1- 
Des, (I. 11.), that immediately upon their firft landing they had beat back the 
Trojans, or, at leaft, that the latter fought their fafety by remaining within their 
walls, while the Greeks were unacquainted with any means for catrying on a fiege. 
In the above quoted paflage of THucypipEs, I may obferve, in paffing, there is 
fomething which feems to contradi& this explanation, imsd) 02 d@ixcusvoy moyen expernowr, 
(dmrov dt +o yee true TH otgaromtoy ex Gy iruxicavre), Sc. One fhould think the *«x muft 
be erafed. Should it be faid, THucyp1DEs may have underftood the matter in a 
different light; the Greeks would not have been able to fortify their camp, had they 
not remained mafters of the field. This is contradi¢ted, firft, by the time of their. 
fortifying the camp, which took place in the tenth year; and, next, by the occafion 
of its being done: for it was when they were defeated that they firft thought of 
fortification. The Scholiaft fays: This is to be underftood of a former flight forti- 
fication. But that is a creature of his own fancy, which only ferves to prove, that, 
even then, when he wrote, the ’sx was to be found in the MS. 


APPENDIX, No. Ill. 103 


tifying the camp was then entirely new, and the plan for-accom- 
plifhing it was fingular enough. Nestor advifes to rear, for 
burning the dead, a common pile on the outfide of the fhips, 
and upon and round this pile to throw up a hillock, from which 
a wall and ditch fhould be drawn in front of the camp. The 
propofal is agreed to, (Iliad, VII. 327343. 434, &c.), the pile 
is erected, the mound thrown up, and befide it a rampart con- 
{tructed, (Iliad, XII. 29. 255, &c.), which the poet terms a wall, 
(refyos and cvgyes). (VII. 338. 436. et al.). It had battlements 
and breaftworks, and was provided with gates, baftions, and tur- 
rets*, That all this was a very flight piece of work, may be fup- 
pofed from the fhortnefs of the time in which it was conftruct- 
ed. No wonder, then, if, in a fhort time, no trace of it remain- 
ed. Homer, by an ingenious and highly epic turn, afcribes its 
annihilation to Neptune and Apotxo. (XII. 1, &c. 459, &c.). 
It was, however, the firft attempt we know of to fortify a camp; 
and, in fo far, is fufficiently remarkable to merit fome attzntion. 
A Few elucidations refpecting the work of this fortification 
may be added. That the mound was raifed to the north-eaft, 
in front of the camp, can fcarcely be doubted. Its pofition 
muft therefore have been on the left wing, to which it muft 
have ferved for a protection ; and it may be fuppofed, that Ne- 
STOR, in propofing it, had this very end in view. But, as the 
river Simois ran on the fame fide, it is not clear what was the po- 
fition of the mound in relation to the river, and what was the fi- 
tuation of the left wing, and particularly what was the pofition 
of the fhips and of the poft of Ajax with refpect to both. In 
the affault on the camp, which took place on this wing, no 
mention is made either of the river or the mound. We on- 
ly fee that the rampart muft have been conftructed at a confi- 
derable diftance before the fhips; for here, between the fhips 
and 


* Lhaes Henares! (XII. 259.). Compare Lycoruron, 291. and the Scho-- 
hiaft. 


1044 TABLEAU dela PLAINE de TROYE. 


-and the rampart, a fevere engagement enfued. (XIII. 136, &c. 
ATW ssg09 Bec.) *; 

THE mound terminated in the rampart, properly a fence of 
earth, upon which turrets were erected, compofed of beams and 
{tones. (XII. 29.). That the rampaft was low is clear, from 
the circumftance of SARPEDON’s being able to catch hold, with 
his hand, of the battlements of the breaft-work. The fide on 
which the fhips of Ayax were placed, is defcribed as the loweft. 
(XIII. 682-3.).. What Quintus sila (VII. 474.), has a.refe- 
rence to this circumftance. 

TurovucsH the rampart gates led into the plain}. Among 
thefe, it fhould feem, there was one principal gate, at the extre- 
mity of the left wing of the camp. Through it the Greeks 
marched out to battle. (XII. 118. Compare XIII. 326.). 

On the outfide of the rampart, towards the plain, a ditch was 
drawn (VII. 341.) to break the firft onfet of the Trojans. In 
the ditch palifades were fixed {. 

Tue fortification feems not to have extended along the whole 
front of the camp. We do not find, at leaft, that it reached to 

the 


* THE poet indeed fays, The mound was thrown up in the field, not far before 
the fhips. (VII. 334- 433> &e.), turQav mare meo vey yratuuGoy aut HUCNYy—er mediig mort 
Vdvrav y—veyes tbnrgs eiAce WNDY TE Ky LUT. 

THE mound muft have been thrown up upon and round the {pot where the burn- 
ing took place. Compare XXIII. 255, &c. and VirGiL, /epulchrum imponit, VI. 
292. in like manner upon the {pot where the funeral pile had been erected ; which 
is precifely what HomMER means by éugi rognv. In Quintus of Smyrna we find, in 
like manner, mvexciny x TaPgov, (read taov). XII. 163, 164. 


+ daa (VII. 339, 340. 438-). The Scholiaft on v. 339- feems to be in the 
right, when he fays, “On the left hand of the fhip-ftation (vatera0uos) was a large 
‘« gate, befides which feveral other gates were conftructed.” 


t VII. 441. XII. 54. 63, &c. Between the ditch and the wall no intermediate 
{pace was left, as may be inferred from VIII. 2, 3.3; ages wégyé mutt be united. 


APPEND JX, No. Ul tos 


the quarter where AcHiLLEs was ftationed. The oblique pofition 
of the camp muft have been the caufe of this. To the fame 
circumftance we muft have recourfe to explain how, from the 
fpot where the Trojans made a breach in the rampart, and at 
length fet fire to a fhip, the diftance could be fo great to the 
tents of AGAMEMNoN, and the quarter where the remaining 
vefléls were hauled up on the land *. 

- We now come back to the aflault of the camp. At day 
break the Greeks, leaving their chariots behind them, (XI. 48.), 
marched out from the camp. The Trojans had taken poft on 
the field: of battle) which had an acclivity towards Troy j.. Till 
about noon the fate of the day was equivocal; but then the 
Greeks made the Trojans give way. The Trojans fled, paft the 
tomb of Irus,; (XI. 166, &c.), through the midft of the plain, 
towards the wild fig-tree, (XI. 167.), and never ftopped their 
flight till they had reached the beech tree and the Scean Gate. 
(XI..170:).. Here the battle is renewed. (211, &c.). » During 
all this day AGAMEMNON diftinguifhes himfelf, till he is wound- 
ed. On this the Trojans take frefh courage, repulfe the Greeks, 
drive them back again paft the tomb of ILus, where Parts lies 
in ambuth, and wounds DioMEDE: with an arrow. (XI. 369, 
&c.). . The combat fpreads to a great diftance over the plain, 
for Hector fought on the left wing, towards the Scamander, 
(XI. 498, &c.), againft Nestor and IpomeENeEus, and knew 
nothing of the defeat which DromEpE, Uryssrs and Ayax had 
given the Trojans towards the Simois.° Hecror flies ‘to that 
quarter, and Ayax himfelf is now forced to fall back. (521, &c.): 
The Greeks flee to their camp, and fhut themfelves up in it. 
Hector ‘purfues, and refolves to attack them in the camp, to 


(AVog.. Viens off? ‘3 0 break 


* Ser Iliad, XIV. 30, &c.; a paflage which I know not how to explain. 


T Emi Searua mate. (XI. 56.); of which we have fpoken already. 


306 TABLEAU dela PLAINE de TROYE. 


break in, fet the fhips on fire, and annihilate the whole Grecian 
army. 

TuIs operation was fo new to the Trojans, that they did not 
know how to conduct the attack, fo as to make themfelves ma-~ 
fters of the camp. At length, by the advice of Porypamas, 
(Iliad, XII. 75.), the chiefs difmount from their chariots, and 
bring the infantry in five columns over the ditch. Astus alone 
remains in his chariot. He obferves, upon the left wing of the 
{hips *, the gate open, through which the Greeks had pafled to 
and from the field. He makes am attack here, but with an un- 
fortunate iffue. (XII. 110, &c.). The other divifions affault at 
different points the rampart and the entrances. (175, &c.). As 
there were five columns of the Trojans, it is commonly fuppofed 
that the gates of the fortification muft have alfo been five in 


number. HeEcTor’s divifion exert themfelves to the utmoft to 


demolifh the rampart, (251.), particularly around and near one 
of the gates. (291.). SARPEDON aflaults the rampart at the 
quarter defended by MEnEstTHEUs, leader of the Athenians. 
(331.). Mernestueus finds himfelf worfted, and calls for af- 
fiftance to AyaAx and TEUCER, who were engaged with Hector. 
By the abfence of thefe two, Hecror is left at liberty to.act. 


He burfts the gate with a piece of rock, and forces his way into 


the camp. (437. et feq.). 

Tue terrified Greeks retreat towards their fhips.. Here the 
two Ajyaxes had joined. They rally the fugitives, and lead 
them on again againft the enemy. This column of the Greeks 
appears to have fome refemblance to a phalanx, the firft outlines 


of which it is believed may be found here; for the braveft 


troops, we are told, drew up in thick clofed ranks, and waited 


for the approaching foe. (XIII. 126, &c.). The enemy, by this 


manceuvre, is quickly repulfed. 
WHILE 


¥ Naar do dpirrigds (XI. 11Q.). 


ALP PAE NSD. PX Now TH. 107 


Wuite the battle rages here among the fhips *, IpDomenrus, 
accompanied by MERION, repairs to the left wing }, and there, 
with the veffels in his rear, makes head againft the troops of 
Asius. The divifion commanded by HNEAs muft have join- 
ed the column of Asius, and the troops of PARts united with 
thefe two. At leaft, all the three detachments, as well as feveral 
others after them, muft have formed a junction to oppofe Ipo- 
MENEUs, in the place mentioned above. (XIII. 490.). 

Tue Trojans, in the mean time, began to crowd in on all 
fides round the place where Hector was engaged. By the ad- 
vice of PoLyDAmaAS, (Ib. 726. et feq.), HECTOR calls the chiefs 
together to a council. He himfelf goes off, (Ib. 674. et feq. f. 
754. et feq.), colleéts the braveft_of the chiefs, with their batta- 
_ lions, and advances with them againft Ayax. (789.). 

02 MATTERS 


* STi: 312. Ey wiornos vyvots 


+ IBID. 326. Ex’ dgireed orgars. Ajax, as afterwards appears, fought in front 
of his own fhips. The left wing of the camp, therefore, muft have extended beyond 
the ftation of Ayax.. Compare 679, &c. At that quarter, too, there were fhips 
lying ; for IDomENEus fought én! medyonzs vecos. (Ibid. 333.). 


{ A rassace of confiderable difficulty, in refpeét of the topography, occurs here. 
It is faid, (XII. 675.) : “ Hector knew not yet that, on the deft hand of the hips, 
“ vaav ex’ aesoreg, his Trojans were fuffering fo much; but he ftill kept the place 
“* where he had firft penetrated into the camp, befide the quarter where the fhips ‘of 
“* Ajax and ProTesiLaus were hauled up.” (679—682.) The rampart, in front 
of the fhips, was loweft at this fpot. Here the aftion was fliarpeft. (v. 684.). 


” - 
ev Ooe ariocra 


~ = ’ ? ‘ NRE 
Layencss yiverro aay Ail) GUTOL TE XOb trot. 


This laft expreffion embarrafles me. How could chariots be of any ufe in the nar- 
row {pace between the fhips and the rampart? Homer fays further: “ Here fought 
‘** the Beeotians, the Ionians, (Athenians), the Locrians, the Phthians,” not thofe 
fubject to ACHILLES, but thofe who had come with ProTEsILaus, out of Phylace 
in Theffaly, (II. 695.), but at this time fought under the command of PoDaRcEs, 
(XIII. 693.), “the Epeans.” I hardly think the fhips of thefe people lay there, 

. but 


108 FABLEAU dela PLAINE de.TROYFeE. 


Matters had now advanced fo far, that Hecror thought 
the completion of his wifhes at hand, when the Grecian chiefs, 
after getting their wounds dreffed, return to the combat. (XIV. 
128. 365-——387.).. Hector is wounded, and the Trojans driven 
from the rampart to the outfide,of the ditch. (XVI. ‘1.). 

HEeTor recovers again, rallies the Trojans, aflaults the ram- 
part once more, fills up the ditch, (Ibid. 355. et feq.), and re- 
news the battle between the fhips and the tents. (367: 384. et 
feq.). The Greeks beaten back take fhelter behind and between 
the foremoft row of the {hips on the beach, and with their fhip- 
poles ward off the Trojans as they prefs on. (Ib. 653. et feq.). 
Ajax boldly encounters Hector. At length Hecror catches 
hold of the ftern of a fhip, belonging to the {quadron of ProtE- 
sILAus, and fets it on fire. (Ibs: 704. et feq. XVI. 124. et feq:). 

Hers the fuccefs of the Trojans ftopped. PatTrocLus came 
forward to the combat. The Myrmidons, to the number of 
2500, advanced in five divifions, drawn up in clofe columns *. 
The Trojans are defeated, and forced to retreat to the outfide 
of the ditch. (XVI. 366. et feq.), There a complete flight en- 
fues. PaTRoctus cuts off one part from the city, and deftroys 
them betwixt the fhips, the river, and the town t. Intoxicated 
with fuccefs, he purfues the fugitives, contrary to the orders of 
ACHILLES, to the very walls, and even attempts an aflault upon 

the 


but that the troops happened to come together in that place. Befides, fo far as I 
can find, throughout this whole paflage, even where Hecror is fpoken of, the 4 
fide muft be underftood as referring to the Grecian camp. It is fo, where mention 
is made of Paris, (v. 765.), as well as, in apreceding paflage (v. 326.), of IDoME- 
NEUS. 


* XVI. 212. Acnitzes and his foldiers, we find, evidently excelled the reft of 
the Greeks in military fkill. Writers on the art of war, Puysxcur for example, 
difcover, in this arrangement of the troops Jed on by PatRoc.us, the firft rudiments 
of cohorts. 


_ + HERE occurs the remarkable expreffion formerly adverted to, Serbs inti 1 0 
‘vay Ky TEX 05 “bapnroio. (XVI. 396. et feq.). 


a es 


-° BYOA VA PVE WD. OX, SNS 109 


the city. (698—710.). Hxcror, having halted at the Sczan 
Gate, rufhes again upon the Greeks and flays Parrocius. He 
purfues the flying Greeks to their camp; they bring off with 
them, however, the body of Parrocxus. (XVII. 736.). The 
fight of AcuILLEs, though unarmed, deters the Trojans from 
advancing farther. | 

Tus time too the Trojans pafs the night in the open plain 
before the camp. (XVIII. 243. et feq.). Hrcror oppofes the 
fage advice of PoLyDAMAS, to retire into the city, and defend 
themfelves behind the walls. (Ib. 274. et feq.). At day-break 
AcHILLES, clothed in new armour, comes out from the camp. 
(XX. 1, et feq.). The Trojans draw up on the rifing ground* 
before the camp. This is the fourth and laft battle. At firft 
both armies difplay equal valour; but at length the Trojans 
give way, and fall back upon the Scamander. (Ib. 494. et feq.). 
Here AcHILuLEs feparates the flying army. (XXI. I. et feq.). 
One part are fortunate enough to effect their efcape acrofs the 
plain to the city. The remaining part he drives into the river, 
which, being choked in its courfe, {wells and overflows its 
banks. . ACHILLES now comes clofe up to the city, (Ib. 520.), 
which the flying Trojans had already entered by the Scean 
Gate. (Ib. 526.). . Hecror alone remains before the town; 
and then enfues the fingle combat, in which HecTor is flain by 
ACHILLES. ; 


No. IV. 


W Emi Seurue medio 5 before the camp. (XX. 2.)e 


‘gio TABLEAU de la PLAINE de TROYE. 


No, IV. (p. 32.). 


The Reverend Dr Jackson, Dean of Chrifi Church, Oxford, ta 
Mr Dayzeu*. 


I caNNOT permit myfelf to leave Oxford for the fummer, 
without paying you my very fincere thanks for the obliging 
manner in which you tranfmitted to me the prefent of M. CuE- 
VALIER’S Effay; and I beg you, when you have an opportunity, 
to prefent my acknowledgments to M. Cuevarier himfelf: 
accompanied, however, with a little reproach, for his having for- 
gotten the promife he made me, of calling at Oxford whenever 
he came to the fouth of England. 

I HAVE had a very particular pleafure from the perufal of the 
work itfelf. No reader of Homer could poflibly be fatisfied 
with the accounts we had before of the Troad; and Mr Woop’s 
book, in particular, was idle and childifh in the extreme. 

Ir was impoflible, alfo, for the reader of Homer to doubt of 
the fituation of Troy, and the adjacent country, as defcribed in 
the Iliad ; and I had always, therefore, heard, from the few men 
who underftood Homer, one and the fame language ;—a lan- 
guage which I thoroughly adopted, that we were mifinformed and 
miftaken as to the Scamander: And when I had the pleafure of 
meeting a fet of friends, a few weeks ago, at Lord Srormont’s 


in London, I was not furprifed to find that we all agreed in the. 


fame 


* At M. Cuevatier’s defire, Mr Daze fent a copy of the Effay to the 
learned and refpectable Dean of Chrift Church, (to whom M. CHEVALIER was 
known), and received the above anfwer. 


Ay PPE NID. TeX, \N6piy. III 


“ 


fame opinion, that M. Cuevatrer had cleared up our difficul- 
ties, and brought every thing into its right place, by difcover- 
ing the true Scamander.—I have the honour to be, with perfect 
efteem and regard, &c. 

Cyr. JACKSON. 


Curist “ieee 
Jaly 7. 1792. 


The late Earl. of MANSFIELD, (formerly Lord Stormont), to Mr 
DALZEL. 


I mMUsT not omit repeating my thanks for the Differtation 
you were fo good as to fend me, which is upon a fubject that 
has always interefted my curiofity, and which I read twice in 
the courfe of laft fummer. [After a compliment to the Tran- 
flation and Notes, his Lordfhip adds] :—I underftand that you 
may foon expect an anfwer from a very ingenious gentleman*, 
but one who doubts even of the exiftence of the Trojan war. I 
can venture to foretel that he will not fhake my faith, which is, 
and Jong has been, that Homer refted upon hiftorical tradition, 
not only for the principal faéts, but alfo for the leading diffe- 
rences in the characters of his heroes ; and that they know little 
of his real excellence, who afcribe to him that fort of invention,. 
which is the paltry merit of a modern writer of romance.—L. 
am, with great efteem, &c.. 

MANSFIELD.. 


PoRTLAND-PLACE, 3 
June 17. 1793- 


No. V.- 


* Tus proved to be the learned Mr Bryant. 


112 TABLEAU Ue la PLAINE de TROYE. 


1 Now V. (p. 33. 39: 41» 45. 48. 52. 65.). 


Rosert Liston, E/q; His Britannic Majefty’s -Ambaffador at 


Conftantinople, to Mr DauzeEu, Greek Profeffor in the eis ity 
of pa aahins 


My pear Friend,  — Conftantinople, Sept. 25. 1794. 


To day I have not time to fay a fingle word with regard to 
myfelf: but I cannot avoid the temptation of fending you co- 
pies of letters from gentlemen who lately left me, and at my re- 
queft promifed to infpect the Troad with attention. They are 
both ingenious men. Dr SisruHorre is Profeflor of Botany in 
Oxford: The other, noted for his knowledge in mineralogy, 
and his geographical refearches, a brother of Sir CHRISTOPHER 
Hawk:Ns. | 

You will be glad to fee their obfervations tend to confirm M. 
CHEVALIER’s fyftem. I ever am moft cordially yours, 

RoBeErT LisTon. 


i. Hawkins, E/gs to his Excellency ROBERT Liston, His Bri» 
tannic Majefty’s Ambaffador at Conftantinople. 


At Anchor, oppofite Karanlik-limani, 
Sept. 15.1794. Monday Eve. 


I seize the firft oportunity of giving your Excellency fome 
account of our expedition to the Troad, but the time will not 
permit to enter into particulars, 

WE 


¢ 


APPENDIX, No. V. 11g 


We caft anchor at Koum-kaleh; about mid-day, on Saturday, 
engaged horfes; and croffed the plain in three hours to the vil- 
lage of Bounar-ba/bi, where we flept. We fpent the whole of). 
the next day in vifiting the hill, which M. Cuevaxibr fappofes 
to have been the fite of Troy, aid the fprings of gwater, which: 
he confideérs as the fountains of the Scamander. A day, I think, 
is fully fufficient for this purpofe, unlefs the traveller means to 
make topographical obfervations, which was thé cafe with me. 

We were well lodged and entertained in a Chiftlik at Bounar= 
bajbi, belonging to Hapcrt MEHEMET Bey, a perfon of forme 
confequence; who actually refides at the Dardanelles, but is now 
on a pilgrimage to Mecca. His fubftitute ‘or fteward received 
us in a manner which left us nothing to wifh for; and our arri- 
val there feemed to caufe no furprife, as they were accuftomed 
to frank vifitors. ~We returned by a different rout this day, vi- 
fiting the tomb of AisvErTEs, (fee CHEVALIER’s map), and thofe 
néar Cape “Fenitchert, fappofed to be of ‘AcHiuLESs and ‘PaTRo- 
CLUS. 

Your Excellency naturally wifhes ‘to hear ‘our prefent fenti-. 
ments refpecting the hypothefis of M. Cuevanier. We ftill 
thik ‘it a very platifible one; and although his ‘map 4s incor- 
rect'in'the detail, it-gives a pretty good idea of the Troad.in 
general. He ‘has certainly pitched upon a place for the  fite 
ef old Troy,’ which has»much natural ftrength to recommend 
it,-particularly the eafternmoft angle of the hill, which, from 
its height above the Simois, and its peninfular form, muft have 
been confidered:as'a very ftrong:natural faftnefs in. thofe times. 
of warfare,'and could have been eafily rendered an impreg-. 
nable citadel; for it is not large enough for the fite of the 
whole city. Some tvmu/i near this {pot ;are certainly. ftrong in- 
dices. 

THERE are two places diftant from each other about two hun- 
dred yards, in which the fuppofed Scamander iflues out of the 

Vou. IV. p ‘ earth ; 


114: TABLEAU de la PLAINE de ‘TROYIE. 


earth ; in each, however, by many mouths. The water proved 
equally cold in them all: neverthelefs in winter one is faid to 
be warm. 

We faw the place where the courfe of this river is diverted 
by an artificial canal to the Archipelago. We are now about to. 
fhape our courfe for Samothraki. The bearer, our janiffary, fets 
out alfo on his return to the Dardanelles, where he will confign 
this to the care of our Conful, to whofe great attention and civi- 
lities, as well as to thofe of his uncle Mr Kaim, we are much 
indebted. 

I szG leave to add, how much I am flattered by the civilities 
paid me at Conftantinople, and with what truth I have the ho- 
nour to be, &c. 

J. HawkIns. 


Dr Joun S1pTHORPE, Profeffor of Botany in the Univerfity of Ox- 
ford, to bis Excellency RoBERT Liston, His Britannic Majefty's 
Ambaffador at Gonftantinople. 


DEAR SIR, Troy, Sept. 15. 1794. 


I am juft returned from Troy, as perfuaded as a faithful 
Muffulman who has made his pilgrimage to Mecca, or as a 
pious crufader who has been at Jerufalem, that my eyes have 
beheld the tombs of thofe mighty heroes Homer has fung near 
two thoufand years fince. It was the “ Campus ubi Troja fuit.” 
The piety of former ages raifed tombs more lafting than marble 
or brafs, which time has not deftroyed. Troy and its temples 
have been fo completely rafed, that not a column, or even a 
{tone that has been ufed in archite€ture, remains to tell its fite ; 
and it is from the ¢umuli only, with their relative fituation to 


the Simois and Scamander, that we are to learn where it once 
ftood: 


APSR EYNSD. BX>> NooV. 115 


ftood. The fituation where we fuppofe the citadel to be, is par- 
ticularly fteep and rocky. It is girt by the Simois, the bed of 
which is now entirely dry. Perhaps the winter torrents might 
raife it into a confiderable river. Its banks are fringed with 
planes, agnus caftus, and tamarifk. We flept at Bounar-ba/hi, a 
little below which rifes the Scamander, fed by numerous {prings 
of a pure cryftalline water. One of thofe is faid to be warm 
in winter. At prefent it communicated to us no fenfation of 
heat. The courfe of the Scamander is often interrupted and 
choked up. It had overflowed the adjacent lands, which were 
become reedy, and offered a favourable fituation to wild ducks, 
fnipes, and coots. The plain of Troy is rich and fertile. We 
traverfed it from Koum-kaleh to Bounar-bafbi, an extent of nine 
miles, and flept at the houfe of the Aga. He was himfelf gone 
to Mecca, but his bomme-d'affaires, or fteward, received us with 
much hofpitality. Your Excellency will find it the beft fitua- 
tion to fleep at, when you vifit the Troad. Troy feems to have 
been built on a moft rocky fpot. We could not find on it even 
a {pring of water. It 1s covered with prickly barnet, and a few 
thorny fhrubs. The almond tree, which grows wild, is not 
without its thorns. It has even more pleafing plants, the yellow 
jafmine and the wild olive. . 

I wrITE to your Excellency in hafte, our veffel toffing about 
at anchor oppofite the tomb of Ajax, where it has been juft 
drove by a hard gale of wind. The janiflary, who accompanied 
us from the Dardanelles, is waiting for my letter. He was re- 
commended to us by our Conful, and has done credit to the re- 
commendation. In appointing Signior TARAGANO,. your Ex- 
cellency has nominated a Conful very defirous to oblige and 
render every fervice to his countrymen. &c. 

2 JoHN SIBTHORPE, 


BP 2: Pt 


16 TABLEAU de la PLAINE de TROYE. 


A fecond Letter on the Subject of the Tread, from his Exee(leney 
Roserr Liston, Li. D. F. R. S. Epiy, Ais Britannic Ma- 
Jefy’s tir. at Conftantinople, t@ Mr Dauzen, Profeffor of 
Greek in the Univerfity of Edinburgh, 


My DEAR FRIEND, 7 Conftantinople, April 25+ 1799: 


Your letter of the 28th of December reached me after a long 
delay, occafioned by the interruption of the communication 
through Holland. 

It gives me pleafure to obferve, that the cireumftances I 
tranfcribed for you, on the fubject of the Troad, appeared inte- 
refting. I have fince had another letter from Mr Hawks, 
which confirms {till more perfectly the topography of CHEVA- 
LER, by removing the only difficulty that could poflibly. caufe 
HERE SIE a difficulty which had been propofed to mein fo 
pofitive a manner, as to make an impreflion on my mind, deep- 
er (it feems) than it ought to have done, As I have not as yet 
any near-profpe& of vifiting the {pot myfelf, I will once more 
copy from Mr Hawkins. 

“T am extremely happy” (fays he) “ that our communications 

* refpecting the Troad pr oved fo fatisfactory ; and I am happy 
“that it is in my power to remove the only remaining doubt 

“ expreffed in your letter, by affuring your Excellency, that Te- 

** nedos is really to be feen from the hill of Troy; even the whole 

“ coaft of the rfland is vifible from the northern to the, fouthern 

* point. 

“ Tue mott effential oe in fubftantiating the evidence of 
‘ GHEVALIER, is that of the canal made to divert the waters of 

*{ the ee from their original courfe t towards the Simois. 

“ This 


t 


APPENDIX, No. V. ri 


* This canal we can bear teftimony to. The errors of Woop 
* feem to arife from the overlooking this circumftance. As for 
“ §rrazo, he had never vifited the fpot-in all probability, and 
“ relied on the authority of Demetrius of Scepfis. 

“At Athens we fell in with Mr Fauvat, a very ingenious — 
“ artift, long in the fervice of M. pE CuorsEut, who affured us, 
* that M. CHEVALIER’s account of the goblet, difcovered in the 
“tomb of AcHILLES, is perfectly fabulous. It originated, it 
“ feems, from the fragments of a fmall bronze figure, which, 
* when he had cleaned, and put together, proved to be a very 
“curious image of Minerva. He fhewed us a caft which he 
* had made of it in plafter of Paris. : 

“ Tuis gentleman fhewed us fome genuine Etrufcan vafes, _ 
“ difcovered in tumuli he had opened in Attica. This will throw 
“ new light on the hiftory of art. For my own part, I confider 
*‘ the Etrufcan as nothing elfe than the early Greek ftyle.” 

I HAVE copied more than I intended when I took Mr Haw- 
KINS’S letter into my hand; but you will think probably that 
the whole is interefting. Ever moft truly and cordially yours, 


RoBERT LISTON: 


Ie. -V 1.030. 65, cases 7. 02. 72: )2 


M. CHevALieErR to Mr DALZEL: 


MonsiguR ET CHERAmI, Londres, ce 11. Avril 1796. 


J’at regu votre reponfe du 2, et j’ai été enchanté d’apprendre 
que M. l’Ambafladeur Liston avoit prit la peine d’aller verifier 
lui- 


48: TABLEAU Alb sla RL AT Eee eR OTE. 


lui-méme mes obfervations fur la plaine de Troye. Son temoi- 
gnage fera du plus grand poids dans la difpute qui s’éleve entre 


le Dr BRYANT et nous. Quant aux fautes qu’il a trouvées dans © 


la Carte, je ne demande pas mieux qu’on les corrige, et je préte 
de tout mon cceur les mains 4 toutes les ameliorations dont cet 
ouvrage eft fufceptible; mais je ne crains pas de vous aflurer 
d’avance, que les changemens qu’on pourra faire ne fauroient 
tomber fur des monumens effentiels a l’intelligence de I’Iliade, tels 
que la fituation de l’ancienne Troye, les fources du Scamandre, 
les tombeaux des guerriers, les caps, &c. Tous ces points font 
fixés relativement les uns aux autres, avec aflez de precifion pour 
que les changemens qu’on y fera ne puiffent pas affecter fenfible- 
ment mon ouvrage. Quant aux monumens modernes, tels 
qu’Alexandria Troas, &c. j’avoue que je n’ai pas cru qu il fut 
neceffaire de les traiter avec une aufli {crupuleufe attention. La 
ligne de la cOte a été faite avec la plus grande exactitude; ainfi 
que l’embouchure de l’Hellefpont et Vile de Tenédos. Je doute, 
en confequence, que la nouvelle carte y faffe aucun alteration. 


Au refte: encore une fois je vous donne carte blanche, et de 


tout mon cceur. Vous pouvez couper, tailler, rogner a votre 
fantaifie. 

LorsQue vous publiez la feconde edition, mon ami, vous 
m’obligerez beaucoup de vous fouvenir du petit nombre d’ob- 
fervations que je vais vous faire; ou plut6t, que je crois deja 
vous avoir faites. 

Je defire, d’abord, que vous fupprimiez ma tirade contre les 


princes et les femmes voyageurs. Je defire, en feconde lieu, que: 


Yautre tirade contre les prétres des premiers Chretiens foit aufli 
fupprimée ; et Mr Bryant vous en adit la raifon. 3°, Tout 
le chapitre du thro/mos,.et du tombeau d’ILus, ne vaut rien. 
Mr HeyNeE m’a fuggeré autrefois une trés excellent idée fur 
ce barrow qu’on voit fur les bords du Simois, en avant le 

camp 


: 
; 
: 
: 
y 
’ 
4 


ANP POE. N Del X,° Nov Vi, 11g 


camp des Grecs. Ce monument eft: certainement le tombeau 
commun que les Grecs éleverent a leur foldats tués dans le com- 
bat. Vous voudrez bien profiter de cette idée, et arranger a 
votre facon. Un tombeau fi voifin du camp des Grecs ne pou- 
voit pas étre un tombeau ‘T'royen. 

ADIEU, mon ami, vous aurez encore une fois des mes nou- 
velles avant mon depart. 


LE CHEVALIER. 


M. CHEVALIER to Mr DALZEL. 


MONSIEUR ET CHER AMI, Londres, ce 5 Mai 1790. 


* * * * * Tr joins ici les corrections que vous m’avez deman- 
-dées, et qui font beaucoup trop longues pour étre écrites a la 

marge d’un de nos livres, comme vous aviez paru le defirer. 
Mo, Jinfifte furtout fur la fuppreffion totale du Chapitre 16. 
page 112. de la traduction Angloife, qui traite du tombeau 
dIzus. Il eft évident que je me fuis grofliérement trompé ; pre- 
miérement, en confondant le Sewcpos| avec le tombeau d’ILus ; 
et fecondement, le tombeau d’Inus avec. le monument que j’ai 
decouvert prés des ruines du pont, a peu de diftance de l’em- 
bouchure du Simois. Mr Hryne, qui fait beaucoup mieux 
P’Mliade que moi, avoit foupconné que ce monument pouvoit bien 
étre le tombeau qu’on éleva en commun aux foldats Grecs aprés le 
premier combat, et dont il eft queftion dans le 7¢ livre, verf. 334, 
&c. Il me fit part de fes idées, que j’adoptai fur le champ, et 
c’eft ce qui lui a fait dire, page 168. de fa tradu@tion Allemande, 
dans une des notes, que M. Lu CHEVALIER, n’étoit pas éloigné de 
crore que ce tombeau, au lieu d’étre celui d’Iius, éoit vraifem- 
blablement 


120 TABLEAU de ta PLAINE de TROYE. 


Risin: le tombeau commun. En effet ¢ ce tombeau commun n’étoit 
pas loin des vaifleaux, puifqu’ Homene le place, 


TorSov oro ot iene VIL A. 

: £103 19 ‘ase YEE 
et que le retranchement fut_bati deletes ma lui. _Ces circor- 
{tances s’accordent fort bien avec la fituation du monument de- 
couvert prés des ruines du pont. 

Do, Je defirerois aufli que vous fupprimafliez tout-a-fait le 
paflage qui a rapport aux princes voyageurs; vous n’imagineriez 
jamais qu'il y a eu des perfonnes affez malveillants pour m/’ac- 
cufer d’avoir voulu faire des applications auxquelles vous favez 
“que je n’ai jamais fonge. 

gto, J’ai dit, ala page 12, que du fommet d’Udjek-tepe j’avois 
appercu a l’oueft la mer Egée, les iles de Tenédos, d’Imbros, de 
Samothrace, et de Lemnos ; j’ai dit, de piss, a la page 30. qu’en 
arrivant 4 Kowm-kalé avec M. Casas, j’avois encore remarqué 
‘les mémes pics d’Imbros et de Samothrace, &c. Lorfque je fai- 
fois cette obfervation, j’ignoroit entiérement qu’HomerE lavoit 
juftifier dans le 13¢ livre de I’lliade, verf. 11, &c. ow il reprefente 
Neptune obfervant les combats du haut du’pic de Samothrace;, 
Car de la, dit il, on li ee toute la chaine de l*Ida': 


~ Kab yoe o Seopitn§ 150. sivinath TE MOY NY TE 
"Ls ex’ auporarns noeuP7s Lewes vAgecons 
a yoe acigias THEO a TOn,— 


obai Pa, de NEPTung, ON le quitte ‘Samothrace pour fe 
,sendre au camp des Grecs, s’accorde aufhi trés bien avec mon 
sohicat ait ; car il laifle fes chevaux a moitié chemin, entre 
Imbros et Tenédos : 


Meconyds Tevédoro xe} "IuBex romerotcons Ibid, 22. 
47°, 


To 


) 
: 
7 
E 


A PRPRE LINED AUK ANG. VI. 121 


47°, Du moment ou nous fupprimons enti€rement le chapitre 
qui traite du tombeau d’ILus, je n’ai pas befoin de vous avertir 
qu'il faut fupprimer le méme tombeau, encore mentionné a la 
page 63. comme faifant encore aujourd’hui partie des monu- 
mens cités par STRABON. 

VoILA, mon ami, tout ce que je puis vous dire en pofte pour 
le moment. Recevez, pour la derniére fois, mes finceres re- 
mercimens pour toutes les marques d’amitié que vous m’avez 
données ; et comptez fur la mienne a la vie ala mort. J’at- 
tends de jour en jour mon pafleport ; auflit6t qu’il arrive je me 
mets en route. Mes complimens a tous nos amis. Adieu. 


Le CHEVALIER.. 


END OF THE FOURTH VOLUME. q 


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HISTORY. 


Page 14. line 32, for flots, read floats. 
30. line laft, for laft Article, Part II. read laft Art. Phyf. Cl, Part I. 


PART Il. PHYS, PAPERS, 
Page 111. line 4. from the bottom, for M, read N. 
12. from the bottom, for Join AH, read Join EH. 

11g. 4. from the bottom, for ArrpoLLonius read APOLLONIUS. 
120.. ‘11. from the bottom, for hence the quadrilateral, read hence, if AG, 

GK be joined, the quadrilateral, &c. 
132. 6. from the top, for fig. 20. PI. IV. read fig. 13. Pl. I. 

N. B. In Pl. IV. fig. 18. the points B and K mutft be joined by 

a ftraight line. 


135. This Paper is by miftake numbered V- inftead of VI. and the 
fame error is continued in numbering the seimalnints Papers of 
the Phyf. Cl. 


age line laft. for the latitude here given, viz. 57°. 9’. 1/’, read 57°. 8’ 59%”, the 
fun’s femidiameter, ufed in the reduction of the obfervations, 
, having been 13’ too great. 


i 
178. 6. inftead of the term = e, read >: e". 
193: 4. from the bottom, for quilt-like read quill-like 


PART III. LIT. PAPERS. © 


Page 86. line 21. for ACHILLES, read PATROCLUS, 
10or.  . §. from the bottom; Notes, for tomb read trench 


+ 


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= 


DIRECTIONS FOR THE BINDER. 


Tue Binder is defired to obferve, that this Vou. confifts of Four Sets of Pages, to 
be arranged, after the TaBLe oF Contents, in the following Order, viz.: Part I. 
containing the History oF THE SociETY, with the Pages regularly numbered as far 
as 40; and afterwards going on with the numbers included between parenthefis, thus 
(1), &c. to the end of PartI. Then follows Part II. confifting, 1ft, Of Parers 
OF THE Puysicat Crass, with the Pages numbered in one Series; and, 2dly, PAPERS 
OF THE LITERARY CLAss, with the Pages numbered in another Series. The Binder 
will alfo obferve, that there are in all 13 Puates, 6 for the Puystcat Cxass, and 
7 for the Literary, which are to be placed exactly according to the references 
marked on the margin of each. 


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