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TRANSACTIONS

OF THE

ROYAL

MICROSCOPICAL SOCIETY.

LIBRARY
NEW YORK
BOTANICAL

GARDEN

NEW SERIES.

yOLUME XVI.

LONDON:
JOHN CHURCHILL AND SONS, NEW BURLINGTON STREET.

1868.

TRANSACTIONS OF THE ROYAL MICROSCOPICAL

SOCIETY.

UBRARY
NEW YORK

BOTANICAL

GARDEN

On Microscopic Sublimates ; and especially on the Subli-
mates of the Alkaloids. By William A. Guy, M.B.,
F.R.C.P., F.R.S., Professor of Forensic Medicine, King's
College, &c. &c.

(Read Oct. 9, 1867.)

The paper wliich I submit to the Society this evening has
for its object to extend and strengthen the union which
already exists between micro-chemistry and the microscope.
I wish to show that, by a very simple chemical operation, we
may obtain a vast number of new microscopic objects ; and
that by the application to them of a few chemical reagents,
of which the immediate and remote eflPects must also be
studied under the microscope, the number of such objects
may be almost indefinitely increased. Let me add that this
subject, if I am not greatly mistaken, will, be found to com-
mend itself to the Society by combining in an unusual degree
the claims of novelty, largeness of scope, and practical
utility. I will offer a few remarks under these three heads.

1. Novelty. — The history of this subject dates from the
year 1858, when I proposed to substitute for the reduction-
tube in common use a short specimen tube, closed above by
a flat disk of glass, and, in certain cases, a slab of white por-
celain, a ring of metal or glass, and the same glass disk,
g^he heat of a spirit lamp was to be applied to the tube or
^ab, and the vapour of the object vmder examination was to
^e received on the disk. This simple method was first
^)plied to arsenious acid and the metal arsenic, and bore as
CJts first fruits the analysis of the arsenic crust, and the dis-
bgpvery that metallic arsenic is deposited from its vapour in
■^Q form of globules ; and that the crystals of arsenious acid
*^sume forms not previously described, among which the
tetrahedron is not to be found. The new method was re-
commended, and these facts recorded, in ' Beale^s Archives of
vol. XVI. a

2 Dr. GuY^ on Microscopic Sublimates.

Medicine^ (No. iii, 1858), and in a paper read at a meeting
of this Society; and published in your Journal, in 1861. At
that time, and till within a few months of this date, 1 limited
the application of this method of procedure to the volatile
metals, mercury, arsenic, cadmium, selenium, tellurium, and
some of their salts, and to a few other volatile matters, such
as the muriate of ammonia, camphor, and sulphur. It was
no part of my plan to test these sublimates by reagents ; and
the use of the microscope was restricted to the examination
of the sublimates themselves. But in the year 1864, Dr.
Helwig, of Mayence, made the unexpected discovery that the
alkaloids when submitted to this treatment could be made to
yield sublimates ; and in 1865, he published a work under
the title of " The Microscope in Toxicology,"* in which the
sublimates of the alkaloids and their reactions are minutely
described, and largely illustrated by photo-micrographs. This
work I have recently made the subject of serious study ; and in
verifying its statements, have been led to transgress its
limits, and have found that the method of procedure first
suggested for such mineral substances as arsenic and mer-
cury, and their salts, and then extended by Helwig to the
alkaloids, strychnine, morphine, veratrine, &c., might be still
further extended to such animal products as the constituents
of the urine and the stains of blood, and indeed to all vola-
tile and decomposable matters, whether of vegetable or of
animal origin. A few specimens of sublimed alkaloids were
shown^ a few months ago, at a soiree of the Pharmaceutical
Society, and a larger number, with sublimates of blood-stains,
and choice specimens of arsenious acid and corrosive subli-
mate, at a subsequent meeting at the College of Physicians ;
while an account of several investigations bearing on the
subject, which I have carried on during the last six months,
has appeared in five successive numbers of the ' Pharmaceu-
tical Journal.^ Still, I believe myself justified in speaking of
the whole subject of microscopic sublimates as novel, though
no longer new.

2. Largeness of scope. — Heat, as applied by the flame of
the spirit lamp to the reduction-tube or platinum foil, is one
of the chemist^s familiar tests and means of identifying
arsenious acid and corrosive sublimate ; and it has long sup-
plied an element in the description of the alkaloids and other

* ' Das IVIikroskop in der Toxikologie.' "Beitrjige zur mikroskopischeu
und mikrochemischen Diagnostik der wichtigsten Metall— uud Pflanzengifte,
fiir Gerichtsarzte, gerichtliclie Chemikerund Pbarmaceuten, mit einem Atlas
photographirter mikroskopischer Praparate," von Dr. A. Helwig, pract.
Arzte und Grossherzoglicli Hessischem Kreiswundarzte in Mainz. 1865.

Dr. Gu\% on Microscopic Sublimates. 3

analogous bodies. It is now proposed to apply this test of
heat in such a way that not only shall the direct changes of
form, colour, and position be noted, but the deposit from the
vapour or smoke be collected and examined, and then sub-
mitted to the action of reagents. So that to the one test of
heat the two important subsidiary tests of the microscopic
character of the sublimate, and that of its reactions, are
superadded, the three together constituting a compound test,
or method of procedure, obviously admitting of most extensive
application. Indeed, if we reflect on the number of distinct
elements which a full description of the results of this com-
pound test, as applied to a minute particle of any solid body,
or to the deposit from a solution, must involve, it will be
obvious that there are very few, if any, substances volatile or
decomposable by heat, which by its means we should fail to
identify. This result would be still more certain if we first
submitted the substance to microscopic examination.

3. Practical utility.— ^o turn this simple method of pro-
cedure to practical account in chemistry and toxicology, three
things are necessary. The results obtained should be cha-
racteristic ; the quantities which yield them should be ex-
tremely small ; and the method should admit of application,
not only to the substance itself, but to the deposit from its
solutions. All these conditions are fully satisfied, not only in
the case of such simple matters as arsenious acid and corro-
sive sublimate, but also in the cases of the principal poisonous
alkaloids, such as strychnine, morphine, and veratrine. I
will illustrate these three conditions by instances in point.

As examples of characteristic changes of form due to the
application of heat, I may instance the complete dispersion
in white vapour of arsenious acid and corrosive sublimate ;
the change of colour, melting, fuming, and deposit of carbon,
which mark the alkaloids as a class ; the deposit of carbon
and reduction of silver from the tartrate of silver ; the ex-
plosion of the oxalate of silver; and the quick rosy dis-
coloration of alloxan. As examples of characteristic sub-
limates, I may mention the brilliant octohedral crystals of
arsenious acid, contrasted with the radiating and projecting
groups of needles of corrosive sublimate ; the jointed plates
and prisms of cantharadine ; the crossed twigs of solanine ;
the detached rhomboidal crystals of veratrine ; and the com-
pound crystals and radiating patterns of strychnine, mor-
phine, cryptopia, &c. As examples of characteristic reactions
I may specify that of morphine with distilled water, and with
dilute hydrochloric acid ; and those of strychnine with the
solutions of bichromate of potash and carbazotic acid.

4 Dr. Guy, on Microscopic Sublimates.

That the test of sublimation succeeds with very small
quantities is sufficiently proved by the case of strychnine, of
which I have shown that the T^o^h of a grain will give four-
teen successive sublimates (of these eleven were obtained
prior to any change of form), and that one of the smallest of
these yielded three characteristic secondary sublimates. So
that sublimates may certainly be obtained consisting of as
little as the 3-oVnth of a grain.*

That this mode of procedure is applicable to deposits from
solutions equally with the substance dissolved I showed long
since in the case of arsenious acid, and recently in that of
strychnine, by procuring five well-marked sublimates in suc-
cession from a spot of the alkaloid containing the -^J^^j-^ih. of a
grain deposited from its solution in aether. I have obtained
similar results from a solution of strychnine in benzole, and
from a solution of the acetate neutralized by the vapours of
ammonia.

I have now said all that I deem necessary under the three
heads of novelty, largeness of scope, and practical utility, and
shall content myself, by way of preface, with repeating what
I have said elsewhere of one variety of the sublimates of
morphine, that " in the size and brilliancy of the crystals,
and the rapidity of their formation, they surpass every che-
mical reaction of which I have had experience.^^f I speak of
the reactions of the smoky sublimate of morphine with dis-
tilled water and one or two saline solutions ; but words
nearly as emphatic might be very justly used in speaking of
some of the reactions of strychnine.

And now, having introduced my subject by these prefa-
tory remarks, I am keenly alive to the embarrassment pro-
verbially ascribed to a superabundance of materials. I find
that I have already accumulated a store of new and curious
microscopic objects, which I am naturally tempted to dis-
play, but am restrained by the fear that some at least of those
objects may prove to be exceptional, and not typical, speci-
mens. I have, therefore, determined to select, as the staple
of this paper, the two alkaloids — strychnine and morphine,
to describe and illustrate the leading varieties of their subli-
mates and some of their reactions, introducing other subli-
mates and their reactions only so far as may be required for
the purpose of illustration. I will speak of strychnine first,
and describe the results of an experiment made with this
alkaloid Avhen I had brought my paper to this point. I

* ' Pliavmacculical Journal,' July, 1867.
■j" Ibid., September, 1S07.

Dr. Guy, on Microscopic Sublimates. 5

placed the TiroTrtli of a grain of pure crystallized strycbuine
on a clean slab of white porcelain, in the centre of a glass
ring about an eighth of an inch thick, and with an opening
-y^ths of an inch wide. Over this ring I placed a disk of
window glass, the size of a shilling, quite clean, and dried
and warmed in the flame of the spirit-lamp. This simple
apparatus I supported on the ring of a retort-holder, and
placed before me at such a height that the glass disk was a
little below the level of the eye, so that I could catch the
reflection of the light from the surface of the disk, at the
same time that I could see through the glass the changes
taking place on the porcelain. I then applied a small flame
of a spirit-lamp to the part of the slab bearing the strych-
nine, beginning with the point of the flame barely reaching
the slab, and gradually approaching nearer and nearer, till I
perceived a mist on the glass disk. As soon as this happened
I withdrew the lamp, and found that a milk-white spot
formed in the centre of the mist, and speedily enlarged, till
it became a white circular stain about the sixth of an inch
wide. As the mist settled on the glass, the strychnine was
observed to darken.

After an interval of about a minute, I removed the disk,
adjusted a second, and repeated the operation, with the same
result, only that the white spot was larger and the strychnine
darker. A third disk received a still larger sublimate, and
the strychnine melted into a brown layer. The melted alka-
loid, growing darker with each fresh operation, yielded six
more well-marked sublimates, and was then reduced to a
jet-black spot of carbon about the size of a split-pea. The
seventh spot was the largest, and was formed by several
small, white, circular spots, spreading and coalescing.

In this instance, then, a thousandth of a grain of crystal-
lized strychnine yielded nine distinct sublimates in succes-
sion ; and among these there must have been more than one
weighing less than the ■, ^l o,-,th of a grain.

Of these nine sublimates I took the third in order, sub-
mitted it to the heat of the spirit-lamp, and obtained from it
two distinct white sublimates, leaving on the disk itself a
stain which was not removed by the further application of
heat. Now, if I assume, what I think I am justified in
doing, that this third sublimate did not weigh more than the
-3-J^y^th of a grain, the smaller of the two (for they were of
unequal size) must have consisted of less than the , „ j, ^ ^th of
a grain. 1 may add that from each of three or four succes-
sive -p-o-Jn^,ths of a grain (a quantity visible as a bright speck
on a slab of black glass) I have obtained a single well-

6 Dr. Guy, on Microscopic Sublimates.

marked sublimate of strychnine, and a single black speck of
carbon, as a residue.

The same sublimate, with the same residue, may be ob-
tained from strychnine in powder, and from strychnine as
deposited from its solutions ; but, in this last case, the alka-
loid does not melt, though it leaves a speckled black stain.

I will now describe the sublimates of strychnine, with
these ten sublimates at my side, with notes of the results of
former experiments at hand, and assisted by the recollection
of some hundreds of specimens.

Strychnine yields three kinds of sublimate : a sublimate
consisting of a white spot or spots ; a sublimate consisting of
colourless drops, or a colourless waving pattern j and a sub-
limate consisting of the same drops, or waving lines, more or
less discoloured by smoke. All the first sublimates of the
series have the first form; the second variety shows itself
when the alkaloid is nearly exhausted ; the third when the
alkaloid, being also nearly exhausted, is submitted to excess
of heat. Of the watered and smoked varieties I will merely
observe that, though not characteristic in themselves, they
may behave quite characteristically with certain reagents, of
which I shall speak presently, and that, therefore, they
ought not to be rejected.

The sublimates which belong to the first class consist of a
single white spot, often, though not
^^' always, circular, and often surrounded

by an outer circle of mist ; or of several
circular spots, distinct or coalesced. Fig.
1 shows a spot of this compound form of
natural size, as seen by a good transmit-
ted light. These white spots or sublimates
present, under the microscope, many
forms. I will specify those with which I
am most familiar.

1. Smooth uniform layer, bordered with a sort of fringe or
lacework.

2. The same, but with the layer made up of minute disks.

3. The same, but sprinkled with a fine black dust.

4. The same, but with black feathers, fern-leaves, or furze-
bushes, or with groups of feathers or leaves, projecting from
the layer or crust.

5. Sublimate of varying thickness, white or opalescent,
consisting of parallel waving or curved lines, conchoidal pat-
terns, straight twigs radiating from a point, fine trellis or
lattice-work, and various arborescent forms.

6. Confused mixture of square or oblonj; patches, finely

Fig

5*^

^rs^

E*K'

Dr. Guy, on Microscojnc Sublimates. 7

marked with radiating or concentric lines, discs, prisms,
needles, and arborescent forms.

7. Detached crystals blended with any of the foregoing
forms, and assuming the shapes of the crystals deposited from
solutions in alcohol, ether, benzole, chloroform, or fusel oil ;
— prisms, rosettes, groups of needles, square and oblong
plates, envelopes, and well-marked octohedra.

S. Surrounding any of the foregoing sublimates a thin
mist, consisting of colourless globules, or a colourless waving
network; or the same discoloured by yellow or yellowish-
brown empyreumatic matter.

Of the dark-feathered crystals of No. 4,
I may remark that they are such as gather
on the lip of a short reduction-tube, when
we adopt that mode of sublimation. Many
of them, in shape and colour, resemble
some of the finer crystals of the silver-
tree, obtained by placing a fragment of
zinc in a drop of a solution of nitrate
of silver (one grain to eight fluid ounces)
on a glass slide (fig. 2).

The description which I have just given is such as any
person experienced in crystallization on the small scale, in
whatever way the crystals may be obtained, would have
expected. And I may state at once, as the result of large
experience of the sublimates of strychnine, that it would be
unsafe to infer their composition from their form. It can
only be stated, in general terms, that the compound crystals
of strychnine (the lattice- work especially) are generally built
up of elements arranged at right angles. Curved forms are
rare, and oblique arrangements also, except in the dark-
feathered or fern-like crystals of No. 4.

But though we cannot infer the composition of the subli-
mate from its microscopic characters, we can draw certain
safe inferences from the incidents of the sublimation itself.
We have been dealing with a sparkling crystal, or particle of
white powder ; it has changed colour and yielded sublimates,
melted and yielded others, dried into a black spot of carbon,
and, in doing so, still yielded sublimates. I might add, that
the darkened and melted alkaloid did not travel over the porce-
lain slab, but left its black spot where the substance was first
placed. From these facts I infer that my crystal or speck of
white powder must be either an alkaloid, glucoside, or analogous
substance, or some substance of which we have at present no
knowledge, that also darkens, melts, yields sublimates, and
deposits carbon. And if, before I sublimed the substance, I

8 Dr. Guy, on Microscopic Sublimates.

had been told that it was one of a poisonous character, and
probably strychnine, the presumption in favour of that par-
ticular poison would have been greatly increased. Let me
mention some of the poisons which the results of the process
would have excluded.

Arsenious acid would have been shut out ; for that poison
is wholly sublimed, without change of colour or residue, the
sublimate consisting of brilliant octohedral crystals ; and
corrosive sublimate, for it also is sublimed without change of
colour and without residue, and yields a sublimate not to be
confounded with any sublimate of the alkaloids. The active
principle of the blistering fly, cantharadine, too, would have
been excluded ; for it sublimes without residue or previous
change of colour. Then, among the alkaloids themselves,
solanine would have been excluded by the form of its
sublimate, which is very characteristic; and veratrine,
of which the sublimate assumes the form of detached
crystals. Then, the very peculiar development of the milk-
white spots in the thin mist will probably be found to occur
only in the case of strj^chnine, morphine, and of one or two
other alkaloids at the outside.

But happily we are able to convert this likelihood into
absolute certainty, by treating the sublimate with appropriate
reagents. We owe this good fortune to a circumstance which
was hardly to be expected, that, in spite of change of colour,
melting, and deposit of carbon, the vapour given off by
strychnine holds the alkaloid itself in suspension; as is
proved by the occurrence in many sublimates of detached
crystals, such as we meet with in deposits from solutions of
strychnine, as well as by the close resemblance of the re-
actions of the sublimate to those of the commercial alkaloid
and its solutions, and the solutions of its salts.

Among these reactions there is one of great delicacy and
beauty, known as the colour test. When a drop of strong
sulphuric acid is added to a particle of pure strychnine it
dissolves it without change of colour ; but if we bring
this acid solution in contact with a minute particle of
peroxide of manganese, peroxide of lead, bichromate of
potash, ferridcyanide of potassium, or permanganate of
potash, a rich blue, passing quickly into other colours, is
produced, and stamps the substance as strychnine. Now, this
reaction takes place with the sublimates of strychnine, and,
as I have good reason to believe, more certainly than with
the alkaloid in any other form. It succeeded, for instance,
in two sublimates containing each the T;-;^-^th of a grain, when
it failed Avith two deposits from a solution in ether containini^

Dr. GuY^ on Microscopic Sublimates. 9

the same quantity ; and I may state, in illustration of the
great delicacy of this reaction, that on dissolving one of the
sublimates spoken of in this paper, which certainly did not
contain more than the -nri-oTrth of a grain, in the strong
acid, and bringing a thin line of the acid solution in contact
with a speck of each of the colour-developing substances in
turn, the characteristic rich blue, followed by the equally
characteristic changes of colour, took place in each instance,
and with marked brilliancy and distinctness in the case of the
permanganate of potash. Here the -rooTro^li o^ ^ grain gave
a distinct reaction.

In applying this test, it is not necessary to resort to
the aid of the microscope. But I am now to speak of
two reactions in which the use of this instrument may
be invoked with the greatest advantage and with equal
confidence. The test solutions should be applied to the sub-
limates under the microscope, and the immediate eflPect, as
well as the more remote effects, carefully observed. And
here I would take occasion to insist on the special value of
the instantaneous or speedy effects of our reagents, as ob-
served under the microscope, in all cases in which they con-
sist of saline solutions. For these solutions, I need scarcely
observe, themselves leave crystalline deposits, especially at
and near the outer margin of the drop ; and it very rai^ely
happens that the reagent is so nicely proportioned in strength
and quantity as not to leave its own crystalline deposit
blended with that due to the reaction itself. This is one of
those fallacies of observation against which we cannot be too
much on our guard; and the reality of the danger cannot be
better proved than by the fact that Helwig himself, though
well aware that such mixed results are of common occurrence,
nevertheless, both in his descriptions and in more than one
of his photo-micrographs, shows how easy it is to neglect
this most obvious and familiar precaution. In order, then,
to guard against this fallacy, and to be able to distinguish in
the dry result of a reaction the appearances due to the reaction
and reagent resi^ectively, the first step to be taken is to pro-
cure, and figure for reference, the crystalline forms yielded
by the reagent itself; and, as I am about to treat of two re-
actions with the sublimates of strychnine, to which I have
been led to attach great importance, I will first present to
you the appearances worn by the reagents in question when
they are allowed to dry on a glass disk or slide.

The first of these reagents — a solution of bichromate of
potash (t4-o) — presents, with a solution of this strength, the
form shown in PI. I, fig. 10.

10 Dr. Guy, on Microscopic Sublimates.

The second — a solution of carbazotic acid (^4^0) — puts on^
when dry, the appearances shown in fig. 11.

I take this opportunity of submitting photographs of one
other test — the nitro-prusside of sodium, which not only yields
a very beautiful arborescent crystal^ but appears to be'
somewhat modified and improved by more than one of the
alkaloids (see fig. 12).

The effect of the bichromate of potash is sometimes instan-
taneouS;, often speedy, occasionally slow. It varies, probably,
with the thickness and character of the crust, and is influ-
enced by other caiises difficult to determine. When instan-
taneous, the crust is dissolved, and the whole field is
sprinkled over with groups of fine prisms, radiating from a
point and projecting into the field; when more slowly
formed, the field is strewn with thin plates of various forms,
among which the square plate is most common. When the
process goes on still more slowly (and this seems to happen
most frequently with the thicker crusts) groups of larger
plates, square and oblong, triangular and irregular, spring
up in blank spaces of the crust formed by its partial destruc-
tion. The colour of these crystals, in all their forms, is a
lemon-yellow by transmitted, and a rich golden by reflected,
light. The dry crust shows one or more of these forms
blended with the arborescent crystals of the reagent. This
reaction is, I believe, quite characteristic. (See PI. II, fig. 16,
from which all crystals of the reagent are omitted.)

The effect of the carbazotic acid is equally characteristic,
and much more uniform in its occurrence, and constitutes a
test for strychnine, upon which, I believe, that the utmost
reliance may be placed. Helwig, who describes the reac-
tions of this test with solutions of the salts of strychine, but
not as a test for its sublimates (for he only describes the re-
actions with the sublimates of distilled water, liquor ammo-
nise, dilute hydrochloric acid, and dilute chromic acid) —
Helwig describes this acid as among the most delicate tests
for strychnine, and says that a solution containing one part
in 20,000 will develope sharply- defined crystals. Dr. Letheby
also, in his papers published in the ' Lancet,^ in the months
of June and July, 1856, figures the crystals formed by car-
bazotic acid and the acetate of strychnine, as seen in the dry
spot. Helwig, following the entire reaction as it takes place
under the microscope, describes the formation of delicate,
greenish-yellow " millfoil-leaves," and, at the close of the
reaction (in the dry spot), large colourless plates, which are,
doubtless, the crystals proper to the reagent. But he does
not notice that Avhich foi'ms the leading feature of four

Dr. Guy, on Microscopic Sublimates,

several reactions of a solution of the muriate of strychnine
and carbazotic acid, confirmed by like reactions with the
acetate, nitrate, sulphate, and phos-
phate of strychnine (three with each), -^'S- ^•
namely, groups of curved crystals
waving in the liquid like tufts of
grass. Figure 3 shows these curved
crystals as they appeared in the dried
spot resulting from the reaction of
carbazotic acid with a solution of
the phosphate of strychnine. It is
of these tufts of curved crystals and
layers of " millfoil " that I am now
to speak as developed, when a solution of carbazotic acid is
dropped upon the sublimate of strychnine.

This reaction is not instantaneous, but very speedy. Some-
times, however, the transparent solution thickens as it
touches the spot, just as, when added to a solution of a salt
of strychnine, a dense precipitate is formed. But the reac-
tion commonly shows itself, after the lapse of a minute or
two, in the development of circular, greenish-yellow spots,
in the centre of which a still darker spot appears. These
spots grow in size, and soon display an arborescent form ;
and still growing, often coalesce with neighbouring spots to
form a large continuous layer, or they remain distinct. In
these spots themselves, and often as separate formations, that
feature of the hook or claw to which I wish specially to in-
vite attention develops itself, sometimes springing up into
the liquid, sometimes lying flat upon the glass, and often
forming a delicate and characteristic fringe to the yellow
carpet into which the coalesced spots have formed them-
selves. In the dry spot, the coarse prisms, groups of needles,
and long colourless plates, or plates with markings like those
of the common razor-shell of the seashore, all belonging to
the reagent, intrude themselves, and tend to confuse the
bright yellow patterns, like delicate sea- weeds, and the bun-
dles of hooks which result from the union of the carbazotic
acid with strychnine. Some of these curved forms, in the
case of the sublimate, and several in the case of the solutions
of the salts of strychnine, are delicately feathered. Some-
times, though rarely, and then in the case of the coarser
sublimates, these peculiar hooks or claws are absent ; but
the distinct arborescent forms, forming and growing under
the eye, are always present, and, as I have reason to believe,
are also characteristic. Sometimes, again, when the subli-
mate of strychnine consists of well-marked crystalline forms,

12 Dr. Guy, on Microscopic Sublimates.

the lines forming tlie crystals remain distinct, and the curved
lines form a border to them.

No such reactions as these occur either Avith morphine or
bruciue, or with any other alkaloid with which I am
acquainted ; and as to this reaction with strychnine, I be-
lieve that I am justified, by certainly upwards of a hundred
experiments at the least, in speaking of it as equally uniform
in occurrence, delicate in succeeding with the smallest sub-
limates, and characteristic in the appearances which it puts
on (fig. 17).

I begin what I have to say of the alkaloid morphine by
comparing its reaction with carbazotic acid with that just
described. Its characteristic feature appears to be the forma-
tion, at or near the very margin of the spot, of coarse yellow
masses, approaching the circular form, single, double, like a
dumb-bell, or triple, like a fleur-de-lis. The reagent seems
to contribute largely to these spots, for its own crystalline
forms are rarely to be seen in the dry spot (fig. 18). With the
sublimate of brucine the carbazotic acid produces a brown,
mottled pattern, with, in some parts of the field, a curious
growth of twisted and gnarled roots (fig. 19).

My remaining observations on the sublimates of this
alkaloid must be condensed into as few words as possible.
Morphine, like strychnine, yields its crystalline, its watered,
and its smoked sublimates; and, like strychnine, the
milk-white circular patch may be seen forming on the
disk of glass. But the alkaloid generally melts before
the sublimates begin to form, and yields fewer subli-
mates before it is exhausted and reduced to a spot of char-
coal. It is probable that the minimum quantity which will
yield a sublimate is more than the tits— o^h of a grain, which
suffices in the case of strychnine. I think that it may be
stated at some such quantity as the „ 3',, pth of a grain. The
thicker sublimates very generally present a distinct ciystal-
line arrangement, and the prevailing element in their struc-
ture is the sweeping curved line so rarely seen in the subli-
mates of strychnine. The body of the sublimate accordingly
is made up of very graceful figures, and the fringed border
resembles more some delicate twisting weed than the mossy
border of the strychnine crust. The dark penniform and
fern-like crystals which I mentioned when speaking of strych-
nine are also common in the sublimates of morphine (fig. 20).

The reactions of morphine contrast strongly with those of
strychnine. The sublimate is very soluble in water, caustic am-
monia, dilute hydrochloric acid, and solution of bichromate of
potash; and the crystals are remarkable for their size, brilliancv

Dr. Guy, on Microscopic Sublimates. 13

and beauty of form, no less than for the magical quickness
with which they spring up and spread. Their colour, again,
is peculiar, and may be fitly compared to that of smoked
quartz; and they often rest upon a uniform brown layer,
which cracks as it dries, and throws off the crystals, which
adhere lightly to its surface. The finest crystals are often
yielded by the smoked variety of sublimate. They are some-
times detached masses tilted upwards, nearly circular, like
grindstones ; but they often assume the form of such insects as
the dragon-fly, the wings being beautifully marked with
radiating lines. In the dry spot they become, as it were, en-
tangled in the brown cracked layer of which I have just
spoken (fig. 25). The reactions with ammonia (fig. 24) and
spirits of wine (fig, 23) show some curious crystalline forms ;
andthe large drops of the smoked sublimate are sometimes filled
with dark tracings. These drops, too, show these dark tracings
instantaneously, on the addition of carbazotic acid (fig. 21).

Of morphine sublimates it may be stated, that they con-
trast with those of strychnine by their greater solubility no
less than by the size, brilliancy, and strange forms of the
crystals which result from their reactions.

Of the other alkaloids I have little to say at present. I
content myself with showing photographs of two of their
number — meconine, with its tufts; and the new alkaloid,
cryptopia, with its beautiful stellate patterns (figs. 7 and 8) .
I also show one photograph of the sublimate of an animal
product — Mppuric acid (fig. 9) .

I now bring this paper to a close, and trust that the
Society will accept it as a brief, though not a careless or
superficial introduction to a large and very important subject,
in the treatment of which I may claim to have had very
considerable experience of the peculiar niethod of sublima-
tion which it has been my desire to explain and recommend.

*^* It may be well to explain that the paper, when read to the
Society, was illustrated by a series of admirable microphotographs by my
friends, Dr. Julius Pollock and Dr. Maddox, from which photographs, aided
by the objects themselves, the drawings of Mr. Tuffen West were made.
These illustrations, equally faithful and artistic, may be found in one or two
instances not to correspond ])recisely to my verbal description in the text.
Where this is the case, the verbal description must be preferred, as it is
based on the examination of many specimens, and fairly portrays their gene-
ral features. For the specimens of the alkaloids which have yielded the
sublimates, I am indebted to the Messrs. Morsou, with the exception of the
new alkaloid, Cryptopia, kindly given to me by my friend Dr. Cooke, of
King's College.

On a Peculiar Distribution of Vein in Leaves of the
Natural Order Umbelliferje. By John Gorham,
M.R.CS., &c.

(Commuuicated by Jabez Hogg, Esq., F.L.S., Hon. Sec. Roy. Mic. Soc.)

(Read Nov. 13tli, 18G7.)

Some short time since I was induced to examine the mode
of distribution of the veins in the leaves of that extensive
and difficult family belonging to the natural order Um-
belliferfe. Difficult and distasteful as this order had always
heretofore appeared to me, notwithstanding the charm with
which its classification had been invested by the beauty and
symmetry of the sections of its points (pericarps), it was not
long before I was induced to alter my opinion, for, as leaf
after leaf came under review, a freshness, a character, an
individuality, seemed to spring up and portray itself in each ;
and after some twenty or thirty specimens had been exa-
mined I was almost constrained to admit, not only that my
prejudices were unfounded, and that the plants themselves
were really very beautiful, but, further, that it was sufficient
merely to investigate this particular portion (venation) of the
plant in order to determine its species — a conclusion which, so
far as my present experience will permit me to decide, I do
not feel disposed to modify, and less to forego.

Before proceeding to the immediate subject of this paper
I would beg to make a few remarks, at thea'isk of appearing
somewhat egotistical, as to my investigation of leaves in gene-
ral, with a view to their venation, and 1 do so for the purpose
of clearing the way, of showing, in other words, the grounds
of any claims I may have on the attention of the FelloAvs of
the Royal Microscopical Society of London, but especially
in answer to a very pertinent question which has been put
to me by the Honorary Secretary of the Society, as to
" Whether I have examined other classes, and feel sure that
the mode of venation I have presently to describe is not
pretty general, rather than confined to the Umbelliferse V
Now, in answer to this question, it is necessary that I should
state that so long since as 1845 I made a collection of many
thousands of leaves, taking their impressions, and classifying
them, in order to illustrate every mode of venation that was
described by Dr. Lindley. Many of the impressions of
leaves forwarded by myself to this celebrated botanist were
submitted to him for the purpose of showing that a place
could not be found for them in any single class, owing to the
twofold character of their venation — one part of the leaf

GoRHAM; on the UmbeUifercB. 15

presenting one kind of venation, anotlier part of the same
leaf another kind of venation. Take, for example, the com-
mon sow-thistle (Sonchus oleraceus) ; the lower portions of
this leaf are true feather veinal, while the upper portion, on
the other hand, is as truly notted. This leaf, therefore, fur-
nishes us with an example of the transition or connecting
link between these two kinds of veining, and its position
when classified is mtermediate.

Many examples of this and analogous transitions were fur-
nished to the late Dr. Lindley, who expressed his obligations
to me in the course of a correspondence.

There is, be it observed, no paucity of leaves in the county
of Kent. I had abundant means, therefore, at my command
for specimens. Neither were any pains spared to make a
thorough investigation of them, so that, after collecting and
classifying a goodly number in strict accordance with the
received nomenclature, my labours for the time seemed to
have come to an end, and I rested satisfied that, so far as the
venation of leaves was concerned, 1 at least knew nearly all
about it.

But when recently, and after a lapse of some twenty-two
years, I began for a special purpose to re-examine the distri-
bution of the veins in leaves, and when I found a peculiar
vein occupying a perfectly different position in the leaf to
that of any heretofore seen by myself or, so far as I could
find, described by others, it seemed to me that the position
and course of such a vein were worthy of notice and descrip-
tion. Hence this present communication.

It may be as well here to premise a few remarks as to the
simple exj)eriments by which the result of my inquiries were
arrived at. In the first place, the leaves themselves were
pressed, well dried, and then movmted between two slips
of glass. No one should ever grudge the time spent in care-
fully putting up an object for the microscope, for a well-
mounted object affords such facilities for its examination that
the specimen itself becomes doubly valuable. The glasses are
three inches square, this size being found sufficiently large
to hold a leaflet which is placed between them, and the edges
are then secured with gummed paper. Leaves thus treated
will keep for years, retaining their integrity, while the veins
become bold and sharp, and stand out in stronger relief as
they become drier by age.

With regard to the lenses used for examining the veins in
leaves, I have found a magnifying power of about twelve
diameters amply sufficient to show every vein from the mid-
rib in the centre to the finest reticulations in the margin. A

GoRHAM, on the Umbellifera.

far better idea is gained, indeed, of the structure and real
appearances of any object by using the weakest power com-
patible with correct definition, than by a display with a
regular microscope, which sliows only small detached parts
prodigiously amplified. As microscopists, it is possible we
have paid too little attention to a large class of objects re-
quiring powers intermediate between those of the naked eye
and those of the highest magnifiers to make them visible.

Instruments of low powers, though by far the most
amusing, and in many cases the most useful instruments also,
seem to have been quite neglected, while the higher powers
have been brought to the greatest perfection of which^ per-
haps, they are capable.

It must be recollected, however, that the more we magnify
any object, the less we must be content to see of it, according
to the law of optics.

A lower power, then, with a wide field, becomes a most
useful optical instrument for examining the structure of
leaves ; and if it be placed on a tripod, the proper focu.s may
be obtained once for all, and thus a large number of leaves
may be examined easily and expeditiously.

It may be necessary to view the specimens either by trans-
mitted or by reflected light. If the greater spaces are to be
investigated, the glass should be held up before the window,
when the reticulations will be seen presenting a firm, trans-
parent, and often coloured netAvork, the colours diiferino-
from that of the leaf itself, and often conferring great beauty
and brilliancy iipon it. If, on the other hand, it is desirable
to notice the veins at the margin of the leaf, they will be seen
to the greatest advantage by holding the glass horizontally in
front of the window and placing a piece of white paper
underneath, so as so view them on a white ground.

The anomaly of a marginal venation in a leaf to which I
am about to dn-cct attention will be better understood, and
more properly appreciated, I presume, if the ordinary modes

GoRHAM, Oil the Umbelliferie .

of distribution of the fibro-vascular tissue in leaves generally
are first considered.

To prosecute the study of the venation in leaves with
advantage, it is necessary to have appropriate names for all
the varieties of veins that may possibly present themselves in
a perfectly formed leaf (netted), and then rigidly to classify
them, so that every leaf that may be presented for our inspec-
tion may have its proj)er place assigned to it as regards its
mode of venation.

A perfectly formed netted leaf, such as we find in the lilac,
the rose, burdock, the peach, the nectarine, and in dicotyle-
donous plants generally, was chosen by Dr. Lindley for this
purpose ; and a reference to the mode in which any given
vein named in this leaf distributes itself in other leaves fur-
nishes at once a clue to their classification.

The midrib (1, 1, Fig. I) in
a perfectly formed netted leaf,
sends forth alternately, right
and left, along its whole length,
ramifications. These are called
primary veins (2, 2, 2, 2).
They diverge from the midrib
at various angles, and pass
towards the margin of the leaf,
curving in their course, and
finally forming a junction or
anastomosis with the back of
the vein which lies next them.
That part of the primary vein
which lies between the junc-
tion thus described, having a
curved direction, may be called
the curved vein (3, 3, 3). Be-
tween this latter and the mar-
gin, other veins, proceeding
from the curved veins, occa-
sionally intervene. They may
be distinguished by the name of
external veins (4, 4, 4) . The
margin itself and these last are
connected by a fine network
of veins, marginal veinlets
(5, 5, 5).) Lastly, from the midrib are generally produced, at
right angles with it, and alternate with the primary veins,
smaller veins, which may be called costal veins (6, 6, 6).
The primary veins are themselves connected by fine veins,

VOL. XVI. b

Fig. I.— Netted leaf.

1, 1. Midrib.

2, 2. Primary veins.

3, 3. Curved veins.

4, 4. External veins.

5, 5. Marginal veinlets.

6, 6. Costal veins.

7, 7. Proper veinlets.

8, 8. Common veinlets.

18 GoRHAM^ on the UmbeUifera.

which anastomose in the area between them. Tliese veins,
when they immediately leave the primary veins, may be called
proper veinlets (T, T, 7 j ; and when they anastomose, common
veinlets (8, 8, 8).

In the feather-veined leaf (see PI. Ill, fig. 6), the primary
veins diverge from the midrib in right lines, and lose them-
selves in the margin ; while, if the same veins are curved
instead of straight, the leaf is called curve-veined (Fig. 5).

But the different modes of venation are clearly shown in
the analysis at the commencement of this paper, and which I
have tabulated for the purpose, so that they will not require
to be repeated in this place.

In the foregoing remarks, and in the table of venation, I
have adhered rigidly to the distinctions given by Lindley,
distinctions which, as the doctor observes, may to some appear
over-refined; while at the same time he states his convictions
that no one can accurately describe a leaf without the use of
them, or of equivalent terms yet to be invented.

A cursory examination will suffice to show that many kmds
of venation, defined in the foregoing table, are to be found
amongst the leaves of the Umbelliferse. The netted leaf is
seen in Sium latifolium ;* the feather veined in Heracleum
Sphondylium, and Angelica sylvesti'is ; the falsely-ribbed
in Pimjnnella Saxifraya, Sanicula Europcea, and Bupleurum
fruticosuni* This last is an exotic ; and when examined by
the naked eye only, is sufficiently peculiar to excite admira-
tion ; but under the lens, and by transmitted light, its reti-
culations are surpassuigly beautiful. A ribbed leaflet is seen
in Peucedanum officinale. Examples of the radiating leaf are
found in the Eryngium maritimum,* and in Sanicula Europcea.

It is not my intention, however, to notice the venation in
every individual species of this interesting group of plants,
but rather to point out a peculiar distribution of vein wliich
I have found to occur in several of them, and of which, so far
as I can ascertain, no mention has been made either in our
systematic works, when treating of the organography of
flowering plants, or in our manuals of descri^otive botany.

As this deviation from the ordinary course of a vein is, so
far as I have noticed, constant for the same species, and as
invariable in its direction as that of other veins in other
classes, it would seem to merit a particular description.

It was while examining a fresh specimen oi jEthusa Cyna-
pium (fools' parsley)* that my attention was aroused by the

* See mounted specimens.

GoRHAM, on the lJnihelUfer(B.

curious anomaly, as I supposed, of a vein which seemed to be
situate at the very margin of the leaf, but which was espe-
cially visible at the edges of its lobes. The question natu-
rally arose whether the supposed vein was a vein at all, or
whether the appearance was due to a thickened state of the

margin of the leaf.

Tig. Ill, — Leaflet of Mthusa Cynapium.

Showing the primary veins (p, p), the proper veinlets (v, v, v)
proceeding from the primary veins, bifurcating at the sinus or
angle of the lobes (s, s, s), and becoming confluent with a vein
which entirely surrounds the leaf at its very edge or margin, form-
ing the marginal-veined leaf.

Happening to have by me a dried specimen of a leaf from
the same species, which had been left accidentally in a
manual of botany many years since, I submitted this leaf to
examination, when I discovered that the supposed veins
could be seen distinctly, and could be traced without trouble
to the sinus of two adjacent lobes, where they met with a
single vein proceeding from the interior of the leaf, and
which bifurcated and became confluent with them.* The
next leaf which came under notice was that of the CEnanthe
crocata (water dropwort). (PI. III.) In this leaf the actual
existence of the vein was even still more evident, and a smaller
veinwas seen clearly to proceed to the angle of the lobes, there
to divide into two portions, which emerged and traversed the

* See mounted specimens.

GoRHAM; on the Umbellifene.

very margin of tlie lobes. In order to assure myself that
these appearances represented realities, and that the sup-
posed veins were real ones, I enclosed the two specimens, the
dried one of yEthusa Cyncqiium and the fresh leaf of CEnanthe
crocata, to Mr. Jabez Hogg, who submitted them to careful
examination under a power of 50 diameters, and kindly en-
closed to me a very succinct account of their microscopic ap-
pearances, accompanied by a couple of diagrams. The
insertion of this memorandum, together with a sketch of the
diagrams, will, I am sure, not be offensive to Mr. Hogg.
He says, " My rough sketch will show you that I entirely
concur in the view you have taken. I submitted the leaf to
a power of 50 diameters, which is the best to determine one
in the opinion that the venation (iibro-vascular tissue), as it
proceeds from the stem, is distributed to the outer portion of,
the leaf, and runs on to the summit of the apex, where it
unites and conies to a point with its fellow of the other side.
At the angles of the leaf the vein bifurcates, and gives off a
portion of itself to each side of the leaf, forming a marginal
portion of each.

" In CEnanthe crocata it appears to differ slightly, inas-
much as the leaf is thicker, the layer of parenchyma is
greater, and the veins appear to enclose a thin layer of the

Maernified portion of leaf o\ JSthusa
Cynapium, sliowiug venation.

Outer layer of flbro-vascular
tissue. Veins.

colouring matter of the leaf, so that one can see the chloro-
phylle between two dark veins ; but here, as in the former
case, the veins form a marginal frame, as it were, to the
parenchyma.

GoRHAM, on the Umbellifera. 21

" Viewed with the binocular, you see that the veins are
not imbedded in the parenchyma, but partially raised above
it, giving strength and support to the whole,"

In a correspondence with Dr. Maxwell Masters on this
subject, this gentleman tells me that he has found the vein
at the margin more or less distinct in the Umbellifers —
Nos. 1, 2, 6, 8, 9, 10, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 24, 25, 26, 27,
32, 33, of the following list. I have noticed the vein myself
in the rest, and in fourteen of those mentioned by Dr.
Masters.

1. Apiurn graveolens. Celery.

2. jEthusa Cynapium. Fools' parsley.

3. Bupleurum fenuissimum. Slender hare's ear.

4. Caruni Carui. Caraway.

5. Caucalis daucoides. Small-bur parsley.

6. Chcerophyllum sylvesire. Wild chervil.

7. „ temulum. Kough chervil.

8. Cicuta virosa. Water hemlock.

9. Conium tyiacidatum. Common hemlock.

10. Daucus Carota. Common carrot.

11. Eryngium maritimum. Sea holly.

12. „ campestre. Field eryngo.

13. Helosciadium nodifloi'um. Procumbent marshwort.

14. „ repens. Creeping marshwort.

15. „ inundatum. Lesser marshwort.

16. Libanotis vulgaris. Mountain meadow saxifrage.

17. Myri'his odorata. Sweet Cicely.

18. (Egopodium jJodagraria. Gout weed ; herb Gerarde.

19. (Enanthe crocata. Hemlock waterdrop.

20. „ pimpinelloides. Parsley waterdrop.

21. „ fstulosa. Common water drojDwort.

22. „ Fhellandrium. Fine-leaved water dropw^ort.

23. Pastinaca sativa. Parsnip.

24. Petroselinum sativum. Parsley.

25. „ segetum. Corn parsley.

26. Pimpinella Saxifraga (?). Common Burnet saxifrage.

27. ,5 magna. Greater Burnet saxifrage.

28. Peucedanum officinale. Sulphur weed.

29. „ sylvestris. Milk parsley.

30. Scandix Pecten-veneris. Venus's comb.

31. Silaus pi'atensis. Meadow pepper saxifrage.

32. Sison Aniomum. Stone parsley.

• 33. Smyrnium olusatrum. Alexander.

34. Torilis Anthriscus. Upright hedge parsley

35. Triyiia glaberrina. Glabrous stonewort.

So that about one half of the plants belonging to the

22 GoRHAM, on the UmbeUiferce.

natural order Umbelliferse, and doubtless several more not
yet examined, have their leaves bordered or fringed with a
thickish vein.

But of all the varieties in venation those which are seen
in the two Eryngia {Eryngium maritimum, sea holly, and E.
campestre, field eryngo) are perhaps the most singular and
illustrative of the vein in question.

In Eryngium maritimum the leaf, says Sir Wm. Hooker,
is " beautifully veiny." This is true ; but the same remark
will apply to more than half the leaves of this order, if the
eye is assisted by the use of a lens of moderate power in their
examination. Nevertheless, there are peculiarities in the
veining of this leaf which are not to be found in any other
plant, excepting Eryngium campestre, amongst all the Um-
belliferge. Its veins are prodigiously large, and, when the
leaf is well dried, look more like mas-sive skeletons of ivory
or carved woodwork than delicate veins of leaves. Almost
all the veins, too, are visible to the naked eye, especially
those at the margin, which are exceedingly thick, well
defined, and are essentially typical of what I have ventured
to call a marginal venation. Besides which, every vein is
seen to be much bigger at its termination than at its origin,
and every primary vein enlarges as it proceeds towards the
circumference, until it terminates in a bulge, which finally
tajDers off abruptly into a spine. In fact, the leaf joresents us
with the curious anomaly of having almost every costa, vein,
and veinlet, larger at its termination than at its commence-
ment. Hence the central costa is actually narrower than
the vein by which the circumference of the leaf is bomided.

From the whiteness of the veins the leaf is seen to best
advantage on a black ground — a piece of black paper, for in-
stance, held under the glasses in which the leaf is mounted ;
and as the magnitude of the vein at the margin, conjoined
with the fact of its anastomosis with so many other veins,
precludes the possibility of its being mistaken for a mere
thickened margin, and as the costae themselves, as they
ramify Avithin the leaf, are radiating, I propose to class such
a distribution by itself, under the name of Radio-margi-
natum.

The Eryngium campestre (field eryngo), which is becom-
ing extinct, is similar to the sea holly in the magnitude and
Avhiteness of its veins, but dissimilar in their distribution.
The field eryngo is feather-veined (pennivenium). I would,
therefore, classify it under the name of Marginato-pennive-
nium.

Again, the leaf of Bupleurum rotundifolium (common

GoRHAM, 071 the Umhellifercs. 23

hare's-ear or thorow-wax) has no proper place assigned to it
ill our j)resent classification.

This leaTis disposed of by SirWilliamHooker,of course with-
out any allusion to its venation, as " perfoliate roundish oval."
Its veins are, nevertheless, distributed in a manner so remark-
able, as to characterise this leaf from all the other Umbelliferte.
A cursory examination only would leave the impression that
it was a ribbed leaf; but, on closer inspection, it will be
seen that, although the costse have one common origin, and
proceed in curves toivards the apex, yet that they never reach
it, but join back to back, forming curves like the venae
arcuatfe in a netted leaf, and these, again, are joined by a few
straggling veins which pass to the margin.

This leaf, therefore, is not a ribbed leaf, because none of
its costse pass to the apex. It is not a netted leaf, becavise it
has no primary veins ; but it partakes j)artially of the twofold
character of both. Hence I would suggest that its proper
position should be called Costato-reticidatum.

It may be presumed that the addition of a marginal vein in the
leaves of the Umbelliferous class is for the purpose of givingsoli-
dityand strength to the leaf. I have seen the integrity of leaves
destroyed by caterpillars, parasites animal and vegetable, and
burns from the concentration of the siui's rays by drops of rain,
but I have never yet seen a leaf torn by the wind. This
power of resistance is to be attributed partly to the flexibility
and elasticity of the boughs and branches, but also to that
due adjustment of the fibro-vascular tissue to the parenchyma,
the skeleton to the green part of the leaf, whereby this latter
becomes ex^ianded in space and supported. Now, the leaves
of this order are, many of them, exceedingly thin. Every
one at all conversant with the subject wiU know that if such
leaves are not submitted to pressure almost as soon as
gathered, they curl up and are troublesome to be laid out on
paper. Take, for example, the leaves of Conium, ^thusa
cynapium, Sison amomum, and a host of others, when, on the
contrary, the parenchyma is thicker and stronger, the neces-
sity for the vein no longer exists, as in Heracleum, Angelica,
and others, while the leaf of Apium graveolens (celery) is so
thin that a small type may be read through it when held up
to the light.

The number and course of the veins is, no doubt, very
nicely adjusted to the requirements of the leaf, amongst
which a state of extreme tenuity would appear to demand a
peculiar provision. The netted cordage which envelojoes a
balloon contributes, doubtless, in no small degree, to its safe
ascent, and its return to the earth without bursting ; while

24 GoRHAM, on the UmbelUfercs.

the absence of this in a boy's kite, which has, so to speak,
only a marginal vein outside, and a midrib in the centre, is
the reason why it is so often torn into tatters.

In the foregoing brief and very partial survey of the veins
in the Umbellifers, sufficient has been said, I trust, to make
that portion to which I was anxious to direct attention clear
and intelligible ; while it may serve to show, also, that the
distribution of the veins in leaves, in this as well as in many
other natural orders of plants, will bear revision, which, when
accomplished, will render the description more complete, and
so facilitate classification. It is clear that the examination of
the leaf in the way described in this paper is both interesting
and instructive.

The truth is, that the different parts of a flowering
plant often require lenses of different powers to define them
clearly. It is then only that they become intelligible ; for,
as might naturally be expected, the more minute the object to
be examined, the higher the power necessary to present it, to
the eye. This is well exemplified in a fern leaf during its
fructification, although any other plant, having several organs,
all differing in size, would do as well. In the fern the thin
layer of cellular tissue (indusimri) which envelopes the fruit
is visible to the naked eye, but is seen to the best advantage
by using a low power of from ten to twelve diameters.

Next in order come the capsules or sporangia (cases in which
the seeds are contained). These demand a power of about
from 80 to 100 diameters. Next the spores (seeds) themselves,
which cannot be well defined under a power of less than 200
or 300 diameters. Besides these fructifying organs there are
the veins in the leaves, which can generally be seen under
about 12 diameters. In this way, and this only, by careful
adjustment of the power to the size of the object, can the
parts of a plant be presented to the eye intelligibly. For
suppose the order of arrangement to be reversed — a strong
power for an object of larger size, and a weak power for one
of smaller dimensions — all would be confused and indefinite.
The spores themselves would be seen only as amorphous
specks of matter under a weak lens ; and the indusia, under a
strong lens, too little of their area being thus exposed to
render their shape visible, Avould be reduced to a mere aggre-
gation of dots of cellular membrane. The bursting of the
sporangia, too, with the scattering of its spores, is a sight
worth seeing under a weak power, the spores shooting in all
directions across the field of view. This is well shown in a
recently gathered frond of Scolopendrium, the transit of the
spores reminding one of the saltatory movements observable

GoRHAM, on tilis Umbellifera. 25

in certain of tlie insect tribe, which are prone to disturb our
peace, and especially to induce a strong presentiment of a
nocturnal vioil.

By way of conclusion I would offer the following brief re-
capitulation :

1. That the distribution of the veins in Umbelliferse is very
variable in different sjjecies, but constant and highly charac-
teristic in each species.

2. That many of the leaves of this order have a venation like
that in other leaves, and may be classified with them ; but
that a considerable number of them, on the other hand, have
a kind of venation peculiar to themselves, which does not
find a place under any of the divisions that have heretofore
existed.

3. That this peculiarity consists in the existence of a vein
at the very edge of the leaf itself, and which, more or less,
entirely fringes its whole margin.

4. That this marginal vein is to be found certainly in one
half, if not more, of the species belonging to the Umbelliferae,
and hence that it may be said to constitute a form of venation
peculiar to this order, and to give a character to it which does
not belong to other orders of plants.

5. That when a leaflet is placed between two pieces of glass,
and examined with a Ioav power of 12 diameters, the vein
becomes distinctly visible.

6. But that it is also visible, even to the naked eye, in
certain of the species — Eryngium maritimum, E. campestre,
Silaus pratensis, &c.

7. And, finally, that it is possible that a more attentive
study of the venation of leaves in the manner recommended
in this paper might prove of considerable assistance in the
classification of plants.

For a full description of the veins in ferns I would beg to
refer to the elegant volume, ' Ferns, British and Foreign,'
by Mr. John Smith ; but I am not aware that an analogous
description of the venation in any one single order of flower-
ing plants has ever been attempted.

I noAv beg to offer my thanks, first to the worthy Honorary
Secretary of the Royal Microscopical Society, for the kind
and flattering manner in which he has received and disposed
of my paper ; and, secondly, to the President and Fellows
themselves, for the honour they have conferred upon me in
allowing me to read and discuss its merits before them on the
present occasion.

^26

On the Anatomical Differences observed in some Species
of the Helices and Limaces. By Edwin T. Newton,
(ieological Survey.

(Read December lltb, 1867.)

ALTHOUfiH in all the pulmonated Gasteropoda the general
type of structure remains the same, yet in the different
species there arc some important modifications of the various
organs. Mr. Binney, in his work on the ' Land Shells and
Mollusca of the United States/ has considered very fully the
anatomy of many of the Pulmonata, and has given several
plates of dissections. He, however, includes only a few of
the species found in this country. A paper by Mr. Nun-
nely, in the first volume of the ' Leeds Society's Transac-
tions,' treats of the comparative anatomy of the Limaces of
that district, and some of the facts mentioned by him will be
referred to in this paper.

The differences which we shall have to notice are — in the
reproductive organs, where some of the parts become modi-
fied or suppressed ; in certain additions to the alimentary
canal ; and in the variations which the muscles undergo.

The ovotestis in the Helices occupies the apex of the shell
conjointly with the liver, with which, indeed, it is closely
connected. In the Limaces it is perfectly distinct from the
liver, and varies in difterent species as to its position with re-
gard to other organs in the visceral cavity. In L. maximus
it occupies the posterior extremity of the internal cavity ; in
L. flavus it is in fi'ont of the first flexure of the intestine ; in
L. agrestis it occupies a position beside the intestinal flexure ;
and in Avion ater it is situated midway between the posterior
extremity of the visceral cavity and the flexure of the in-
testine.

Some of the accessory parts of the reproductive organs
found in the Helices are absent from the Limaces. L. maximus
and L. flavus do not possess either the dart, the flagellum, or
the multifid vesicles j and all the Limaces have a short sper-
mathecal duct. L. agrestis has at the internal extremity of
the penis three short cfecal tubes, which occupy the position of
the flagellum in the Helices (PL IV, fig. 4/')- These ap-
pendages of L. agrestis are alluded to both by Mr. Binney
and Mr. Nunnely. L. Sower bii possesses the multifid vesi-
cles, and in this species they consist of several ovoid masses,
connected by very minute threads,, or ducts, with the vagina,
near its junction with tlie duct of the spcrmatheca (fig. 2g).
The spcrmatheca is proportionately large in L. Soiverbii, and

Newton, on the Helices and Limaces. 27

tapers at both extremities (fig. 2st). Professor Allman
{' Rep. Brit. Assoc./ 1846, p. 82) notices that the multifid
vesicles, and a peculiar dart, exist in this species, both of
these organs relating it to the Helix. In Arion ater the
cloaca forms a very definite chamber (fig. 3 c) ; within it is a
fleshy body, which partly surrounds the entrance of the
oviduct, and is of a subtriangular form, grooved, and crenu-
lated at its margins (fig. ^ x). It will be noticed that this
body, being placed just within the cloacal chamber, occupies
very nearly the position of the multifid vesicles, which are
generally situated immediately without it.

Professor Owen tells us in his " Lectures on the Inverte-
brata " that " a short csecal tube is developed from the duct
of the spermatheca of H. pomatia, and a very long one from
that of H. arbustorum." H. aspersa, H. nemoi'alis, and H.
hortensis have also this addition to the spermathecal duct.
In the two latter it is, as in H. po77iatia, only a short tube
(fig. 8 adst) ; but in the former (fig. 7 adst) it resembles that
of H. arbustorum, being considerably longer than the sper-
mathecal duct itself. This additional tube enclosed a
viscid white substance, Avliich, upon examination with the
microscope, was seen to contain spermatozoa. The presence
of the spermatozoa here would lead to the inference that this
tube is only an additional spermatheca. Swammerdamm
thought it to be a duct of communication between the sper-
matheca and the oviduct, thus lessening in some measure the
distance which the spermatozoa would have to traverse in
passing from the former to the latter ; but as it is not found
in H. cantiana, H. rufescens, nor H. vir(jata, nor in any of
the Limaces referred to in this paper, this idea is very im-
probable. It may be mentioned that the spermatheca of
H. cantiana (fig. 10 st) is proportionately very large, and of a
subtriangular form, though its duct is not so long as in most
of the other Helices.

In H. rufescens there are immediately below the junction
of the oviduct with the spermathecal duct four pyriform
bodies, two upon each side (fig. 9 d) ; these are in the posi-
tion usually occupied by the dart-sac, and there appear,
therefore, in this instance, to be four of these organs, but
darts were only to be found in the two lower bodies. As it
often happens, in other species, that the dart is absent from
its sac, it might be thought that it was the case here ; but
in all the individuals of this species which were examined
darts were never seen in the two upper bodies, while they were
invariably present in both the lower ones.

The dart-sac of H. cantiana, or, more correctly, that

28 Newton, o» the Helices and Limaces.

which corresponds in position to this organ in other species,
is a tapering tube (fig. 10 d), which by transmitted light
presents the appearance of alternate lighter and darker rings.
No dart was to be found in this tube in any of the specimens
examined. Schmidt (' Zeitsch. f. Malakozoologie/ 1850, p. 1,
and 1852, p. 1) considers the dart to l)e very important as a
means of determining the relations of the species of Helix ;
and gives tables of those which possess two darts, of those
with one dart only, and of those which are devoid of any
dart. The only anatomical difference between H. nemoralis
and H. hortensis appears to be in the form of the dart.

The flagellum, which in H. aspersa and H. pomatia is very
long (PI. V, fig. 7fl), gradually shortens in //. nemoralis and
H. hortensis (fig. 8//), H. rufescens (fig. 9fl), H. cantiana (fig.
10^;^), and H. virgata (fig. 11 fl) and, as has been mentioned, is
altogether absent from the Limaces.; L. ayrestis, however,
having the trifurcate gland in its place (fig. 4 fl) .

The multifid vesicles present some variations in the dif-
ferent genera and species ; H. pomatia and H. aspersa have
them large and foliated (fig. 1 g), communicating by two ducts
with the vagina ; in H. nemoralis and H. hortensis (fig. 8 g)
there are only two or three long csecal tubes upon each side,
which terminate, as before, by two ducts ; these tubes vary in
length in different individuals. In H. rufescens there are
eight tubes, which open into the vagina by four ducts (fig.
9^). In H. virgata they are irregular in form, and not
laterally symmetrical (fig. 11^).

Limax differs from Helix in the arrangement and number
of its muscles. There are in the Helices two muscles, which
have their origin, together with the retractors of the foot,
buccal body, and tentacles, upon the columella of the shell,
and are inserted into the parietes of the head immediately
within the inferior tentacles. This pair of muscles was not
found in the Limaces. The series of muscles which retract
the foot in Helix are not present in Limax. The retractor
muscle of the penis (when present) is attached in Helix to-
the floor of the pulmonary chamber, and midway between
the extremities of the penis (figs. 7, 8, 9, and 11 rj)), whilst
in L. maximus and L. flavus it is attached to the extremity
of the penis (fig. Irp), and behind the pulmonary chamber,
somewhat towards the left side. In the L. Sowerhii and
L. agre&tis its attachment to the penis is the same as in the
Helix (fig. 2rp and fig. 4 rp). H. cantiana and Arion ater
do not appear to possess this retractor of the penis. L.
Sowerhii has an additional annular band of muscular fibres
(fig. 2 rp'), which is attached to the penis at some little dis-

Nkwton, on the Helices and Limaces. 29

tance from its base, and to tlie parietes of the body around
its base.

In consequence of the position of the great retractor
muscles in the Limaces, the intestine curls round them
shortly before entering the pulmonary chamber. In L.
mawimus, after making this curl round the muscles, the in-
testine passes along the dorsal surface of the visceral cavity
nearly to the tail ; it then bends sharply back and returns
upon itself, terminating in the usual manner ; there is a con-
striction at the last bend (fig. 5 y) . L. flavus has, in place of
this backward turn of the intestine, a large csecum, which
occupies a similar position (fig. 6 a'). Mr. Binney notices a
small csecum upon the rectum of L. agrestis.

It appears to be a general arrangement in both the Helices
and Limaces that the retractor muscle of the right superior
tentacle should pass between the male and the female re-
productive organs. The position of the generative orifice
being further back in Arion would lead us to expect a change
in this arrangement, and we accordingly find in A. ater (and
it may be the same in other species of this genus) that it
passes altogether below these organs. L. Soiverbii is anotlier
exception to this general arrangement, although the opening
of the reproductive organs occupies the normal position.

Having, by the great kindness of Professor Busk, had access
to notes made by him some years back upon this subject,
and which chiefly relate to the microscopic contents and
structure of the various portions of the reproductive system,
I am enabled to append the general results of his observa-
tions.

The ovotestis, like most of the other organs, was found to
vary much, as regards its contents, in different individuals.
Sometimes it contained abundance of spermatozoa, both
coiled and uncoiled (fig. a), with granular cells (fig. b) and
activer moleaules, the molecules being occasionally con-
tained in cells, in which case they were most active. At
other times there were but few spermatozoa, with nucleated
cells, some being in groups (fig. c), and active molecules.
Again, in other cases there were found transparent cells
with granular nuclei, which burst readily in water; small
granular cells, with highly refracting nuclei; and small
transparent cells, apparently having no nucleus. In the ovo-
testis of a H. aspersa, taken whilst laying its eggs, there were
transparent globules of various sizes (fig. d), which were
rendered opaque by acetic acid, and with these a few nucle-
ated cells.

The epididymis, in abnost every case, contained sperma-

30 Newton^ on the Helices and Limaces.

tozoa, both coiled and uncoiled, and in some instances form-
ing fasciculi. Occasionally there were found, mixed with the
spermatozoa, active molecules, or large transparent cells
(fig. d), which sometimes contained other cells, or granular
cells (fig. b).

The tongue-shaped gland almost invariably presented
globules of all sizes (fig. d), together with a few rounded nu-
cleated cells, the globules being rendered opaque and granu-
lar by acetic acid. In one instance the globules were of a
uniform size, and soluble in acetic acid.

The divertikel. — At the base of the tongue-shaped gland
the epididymis appears to double upon itself, so as to form a
complicated organ, which has been termed the " divertikel.^^
It is tolerably certain that this forms the only connection
between the epididymis and the oviduct ; but the connectiou
could not be clearly traced. Injections of mercury passed
readily along the oviduct, but would not penetrate into the
epididymis. Keferstein and Ehlers C^ Kol. Zeitsch.,' vol. x,
1860, p. 269) are of opinion that the impregnation of the
ova takes place in the divertikel ; and this seems the more pro-
bable, as we sometimes find the eggs, covered with shells of
carbonate of lime, in the upper part of the oviduct. The ovi-
duct generally contained transparent globules of various sizes,
some being in groups ; occasionally, there were cells contain-
ing granular matter ; or molecules, which had a tendency to
run into chains (fig. e) ; or a few straight spermatozoa. lu
the H. aspersa, mentioned above, which was taken whilst
laying its eggs, the oviduct was distended with eggs, which
had calcareous shells. In H. pomatia a distinct coat of
irregularly interlaced muscular fibres could be traced.

The lower or non-sacculated portion of the oviduct had
elongated, whip-like epithelial cells, in which, in some in-
stances, oval nuclei could be traced. The glandular portion
of the oviduct consisted of cseca, lined with a coarsely granu-
lar epithelium, which assumed various forms, and was ren-
dered transparent and displaced by acetic acid. Sometimes
the caeca contained fine granular matter, with oblong refract-
ing bodies.

The spermatheca was lined with coarse, elongated epithe-
lial cells, which, in some cases, were produced into whip-like
cilia. Spermatozoa were only sometimes to be seen. In
one individual, which had just deposited its eggs, no sperma-
tozoa were found in the spermatheca itself, but there was a
mass of them in its duct. In the spermatheca of the indi-
vidual surprised whilst laying its eggs there were a consider-
able number of actively moving animalcules, of a fish-like

Tatem, on a New Species of Microscopic Animals. 31

form, and terminating posteriorly in a short filament, by
which their swimming movement was mainly effected; the
other extremity was blnut, and the body, which was con-
siderably longer than the filamentous tail, contained nume-
rous minute granules, and appeared somewhat flattened.
These creatures moved very actively, and to a considerable
distance, swimming about and gliding among the detached
portions of epithelium with great celerity. They bore not
the most distant resemblance to the spermatozoa contained
in the ovotestis, nor were they at all like the detached parti-
cles of columnar epithelium found elsewhere. They were
immediately dissolved by acetic acid, leaving a granular
amorphous residuum. Gratiolet (' Journ. de Conch.,' vol. i,
1850, p. 116) states that the spermatozoa undergo a meta-
morphosis; and that the different forms met with in the
spermatheca, and which are generally spoken of as animal-
cules, are really altered spermatozoa. Other writers have
failed to trace this metamorphosis. The additional tube of
the spermatheca, when examined in individuals immediately
after copulation, contained the sperm atophore ; at other times
it contained free spermatozoa or animalcular bodies, and
sometimes only detached epithelial cells.

The multifid vesicles were lined with coarse granular epi-
thelial cells, having large nuclei, and contained granules,
which had a tendency to run into chains, and large trans-
parent cells, in which other cells might be seen in different
stages of growth.

The frequent absence of the dart from its sac has been
already noticed. It is worthy of remark, that the darts re-
ceived from another individual are very commonly found at
the base of the tongue-shaped gland, and when so found are
discoloured and partially destroyed.

On a New Species o/ Microscopic Animals.
By T. G. Tatem, Esq.

(Read December 11th, 1867.)

The marine form of Epistylis represented in PI. VI, fig. 5, is
sufficiently subversive of the statement that Epistylidese ''are
found exclusively in pure water on aquatic jilants or animals"
(' Pritchard's Infusoria,' p. 589). It may, however, possibly
prove to be merely a fresh-water form, modified by its marine

32 Tatem, on a New Species of Microscopic Animals.

habitat. I strongly incline to that belief, and am to a certain
extent confirmed in it by the fact of a Basticella (unmis-
takably B. convallaria) , considered as exclusively a fresh-
water infusorium, being the constant companion of this Epis-
tylis, and both sufficiently abundant on filamentous algae in
the rock-pools of our south-eastern coast. Until its specific
identity with some one of our fresh-water Epistylideae is cer-
tainly determined, it may be provisionally named Epistylis
marinus.

I. Epistylis marinus (Fig. 6) . — The zooids, never more than
two, are small, ^~-^, pyriform, colourless ; vacuoles numerous ;
main stem robust; branchlets comparatively slender, smooth.
On filamentous algfe.

II. Epistylis ovalis, n. sp. (Fig. T). — Zooids two, small, -^-q ,
colourless, oval, with a contracted raised margin or lip ; main
stem and branchlets long, slender, and of equal thickness.
Very rare. On Anachasis.

III. Epistylis umbellatus , n.sp. (Fig. 5). — It is seldom indeed
that so perfect an example of this elegant form of Epistylis as
that figured is met with ; commonly the stalk, with some
eight or sixteen zooids, more commonly the bare stalk, is
alone obtainable. So far as I am yet aware, it is found in one
ditch only, near the wire mills on the Kennet river, near
this town (Reading). The zooids, which easily become de-
tached, are minute, oval, colourless ; main stem very long,
slender, dividing into four branchlets, which again subdivide
into four each, in an umbellate manner, smooth, and of a
light horn colour.

IV. Canomorpha convolutas, n. sp. (Fig 1). — Whether the
creature I figure is a more advanced stage of the Canomorpha
mecfwsM/a described at p. 597 of Pritchard's Infusoria,' a new
species of Caenomorpha, or the type of a new genus, I leave
to other and authoritative decision. Certainly it differs widely
from the only known species of Caenomorpha.

The body is colourless, smooth, conical, with the apex
somewhat curved downwards, its general outline being that
of a Phrygian cap, fringed at the edge with a closely set row
of long cilia. Twelve to twenty long and stout setae spring
from the under side, and these enable the animal to rest upon
and creep over the surface of the weeds. One large vacuole
has been observed, but no contractile vesicle. The tail, which
has a swollen base, encircled by cilia, is not centrical ; it is
long, tapering to a fine point, and slightly curved upwards,
sometimes, but not commonly, bifid. The vortex raised by
ciliary action is considerable, the current flowing through the
channel on the under side and circulating around the base ;

Tatem, on New Species of Microscopic Animals. 33

No distinct oral aperture has been made out. The creature
is excessively active in its movements, darting through the
water with great velocity, resting or creeping, however, from
time to time, on any weed or flocculent matter the cage may
contain.

I have in vain endeavoured to make out the life history of
this interesting infusorium.

On one occasion, in early spring, I met with a little crea-
ture, in some numbers, which I believed, though I do not
assert it, to be the early form, obtained in the same pools and
ditches which, later in the year, abounded with the perfect
animal of that which I have ventured to call a Caenomorpha,
and to append to it the specific name of convoluta.

VOL. XVI.

TRANSACTIONS OF THE ROYAL MICROSCOPICAL

SOCIETY.

On a Microscopic Ferment /om«6? m Red French Wine.
By Henry J. Sla.ck, F.G.S., Sec.R.M.S.

(Read December 11th, 1867.)

In ' Comptes Rendus ' for the 18th January, 1864, will
be found one of M. Pasteur's papers, entitled " Etudes sur
les Vins," accompanied by a plate showing the character of
fifteen kinds of ferments as exhibited by the microscope. The
third of these illustrations represents small rounded and ovoid
cells, some of the latter being pointed at one end. They are
arranged in groups of from two or three to seven or eight
cells, and attached to some of the larger ones are extremely
small ones, apparently growing from them. Pig. 2 in his
cuts represents more elongated cells, Avith a tendency to a
branched arrangement.

In the text, M. Pasteur says that, if these two kinds of
cells only are seen in wine, the Mycoderma vini or fleurs du
vin only is developed. He describes this plant as consisting
of globular cells or joints, more or less elongated, and vary-
ing in diameter from 0'002 mm. to 0*006 mm., and is pro-
pagated by budding.

These ferments, he states, do not injure the wine, but in
some cases improve it, and are essential to the good matu-
rition (bonne confection) of white wines. By causing them
to groAv artificially, he obtained a " portion of the bouquet "
belonging to Avines of this description.

It may also be observed that M. Pasteur figures the My-
coderma aceti, as found in wines of the Jura that had turned
sour, much like strings of minute spores of the common blue
mould, radiating from a dense central mass of similar
cells. He says that, so long as the Mycoderma vini finds
plenty of nourishment, its growth tends to prevent that of
M. aceti; but as soon as nourishment becomes deficient, the

VOL. XVI. d

36 Slack, on a Ferment found in Red French Wine.

latter ferment is'formed at its expense. He adds, " red wines
commonly produce only the Mycoderma vini, because this
plant multiplies with the greatest facility in wines which
contain most nitrogenous and extractive matter."

In the beginning of November the writer opened a bottle
of so-called " light claret," which he believes to consist of a
mixture of a strong red wine from the South of France with a
thinner white wine from some neighbouring locality. Mixtures
of this sort, if properly made of sound wines, are not objec-
tionable in point of flavour, and there is no reason to suppose
them umvholesome. The wine in question was a good spe-
cimen of its kind, and nothing particular had been observed
in bottles previously tapped. In this case, however, upon
pouring out a quantity in a tumbler, there soon floated ^ to
the top, and adhered round the sides of the glass, a reddish
matter looking much like the powder of a decayed cork.
Microscopical examination with a power of 240 showed a
prodigious number of small cells, which, under this magnifi-
cation, looked jiretty much alike.

Powers of from 900 to 1400, obtained with Messrs. Beck's
Voth objective, enabled the form and structure of the cells to-
be distinctly seen. It was then found that they varied
in size and shape much more than was apparent when

Pig. 1.

X \A-0 0

larger powers were employed (Fig. 1), and many cells
that had appeared simple were discovered to be jointed.
The majority of the cells were ovoid, and jointed at one or
both ends. Small cells were, in many cases, attached to
larger cells, as if growing out of them, and a few very short
mycelium threads were mingled with the cells. Amongst
the largest of these formations were triple groups, consisting
of a small round cell, and a larger round one, surmounted

Slack, on a Ferment found in Red French Wine. 37

by an elongated pointed cell. These, in tlieir largest trans-
verse diameter, measured about 1-7000", and about double
that length. The cells all contained minute dots of whitish
matter.

Some of the cells, taken up on a knife, Avere placed in a
solution of moist sugar. In a" few days a smell of butyric
acid became very noticeable. This increased so as to be ex-
ceedingly powerful, and mingled with it a nauseous scent of
other and unknown substances was observed. A portion of
the sugar was transformed into a slimy, ropy mass. Micro-
scopic examination of the fluid and of the ropy mass dis-
closed only a fcAv cells of minute size, and no bacterium
bodies, like those described by M. Pasteur, which are some-
times associated with the butyric fermentation. If any such
bodies were present, they Avere certainly not in quantities
proportioned to the A'igour with which the butyric fermenta-
tion Avent on ; and that fermentation seemed rather to be a
purely chemical action, excited, perhaps, by the decomposi-
tion of some of the cells, than an action correlative Avith the
groAvth of any organisms.

While this process was going on, an open tumbler, con-
taining the Avine and cells, Avas standing in the same place,
and soon exhibited patches of mould, which in due time be-
came continuous, and Avere covered Avith myriads of Peni-
cilium glaucum spores.

The Avine left in the bottle — rather more than half full
and corked — did not turn noticeably sour, and no mould ap-
peared upon its surface. A little of this wine Avas mixed
with a solution of treacle, in a Avide-mouthed bottle, placed
on a Avarm shelf in a greenhouse, and covered over Avith a
garden-pot to keep out the light. A thick crop of blue
mould soon appeared, covering up the surface, but at the
end of three Aveeks the fluid Avas only slightly acid, as mani-
fested by a feeble action on litmus paper.

The non-formation of butyric acid in this case, and the
formation of that substance in the previous experiment,
would seem to be accounted for by difference in the nutri-
ment supplied to the cells, and in the temperature to Avhich
they were exposed When the butyric acid Avas formed, no
blue mould appeared; and AAhen the blue mould Avas deve-
loped, no butyric acid could be detected. It is obvious that
the experiments are far from sufficient to explain the nature
of the different actions and results, but they serve to indicate
a useful direction for research.

In a fcAv Aveeks, the contents of the bottle in Avhich the
butyric acid was developed underwent a spontaneous change.

38 Slack, on a Ferment found in Red French Wine.

The butyric and other nauseous odours gradually lessened
in intensity, and just before disappearing, were accompanied
by distinct, though faint, smell of some ether — a feet which
may be connected with the function, ascribed by M. Pasteur
to his Mycoderma vini cells, of assisting to develop the
bouquet of white wine.

When the smell of butjTic acid and that of the unknown
cenanthic ether had disappeared, the liquid remained odour-
less for a few days, and mycelium threads, together with
cells, chiefly ovoid, became abundant in the ropy mass
(Fig. 2). Two thirds of the clear fluid was poured off*, and

Fig. 2.

replaced by a weak solution of moist sugar. On this the
mycelium threads and their cells now opeiated, the odour of
fresh vinegar became apparent, and the liquid acted power-
fully in reddening blue litmus paper.

Chemists obtain butyric acid by the process of Pelouze
and Gelis. A solution of sugar is excited to fermentation by
mixing it with poor cheese. Lactic acid is formed, and unites
with lime, which is added in the form of chalk. The lactate
of lime then undergoes a change, carbonic acid and hydrogen
are evolved, and butyrate of lime remains. The butyrate of

Rupert Jones, on Bivalved Entomostraca. 39

lime is mixed with dilute hydrochloric acid, and the butyric
acid distilled off.

The nitrogenous matter of the Mycoderma vini cells pro-
bably acted in the experiment above described just as the
casein of the cheese operates in the process of Pelouze and
Gelis ; but whether the butyric acid disappeared by simple
evaporation, or by chemical action, is not evident. Professor
Miller states, in his ' Elements of Chemistry,' that butyric
acid volatilizes at ordinary temperatures, but a chemical
change probably occurred.

Our great authority upon Fungi, the Rev. M. J. Berkeley,
and Mr. Hoffman, of Margate, raised penicilium from insu-
lated cells of yeast ;* and as penicilium has been raised
in the experiments just detailed from the Mijcoderma vini of
M. Pasteur, it would appear that the cells of that organism
belong to one of the many forms which the yeast plant is
able to assume.

Bivalved Entomostraca, Recent and Fossil.
By Prof. T. Rupert Jones, F.G.S.

(Read January 8th, 1868.)

Ever since naturalists have clearly seen that the many
different layers or beds of stone, clay, and sand, of which
the earth's surface is composed, were formed by the deposits
of mud, silt, and shingle of old oceans, not by any mysterious
inexplicable agglomeration of shapeless matter, they have not
been content with observing the extent, the thickness, and
the general characters of each bed of stone ; but they have
searched diligently for fossils, both large and small — that is,
the petrified remains of animals and plants preserved in those
old sea-deposits. As the naked eye cannot sufficiently dis-
tinguish all the peculiarities of the grains of sand and minute
crystals of carbonate of lime, of which a great part of these
rocks and stones are composed, so also do we require a
lens or a microscope to see in a clay or a limestone all the
particles that have originally belonged to animal structures.
These organic particles are not always fragments and atoms
of bones, of corals, or of shells, but very often are perfect
little organisms themselves — perfect shells, perfect cases and
coatings of minute animals, or perfect frameworks of micro-
scopic plants.

* See article " Yeast," in ' Black's Cyclopaedia of Agriculture.'

40 E-UPERT JoNESj on Bivalvc'd Entomostraca.

Whether we crumble clown a friable freestone, such as the
Bath stone or many of the Oolites of the INlidland Counties —
whether Ave powder a piece of Chalk, or reduce a piece of
Lias or other clay in water, we shall find abundant well-pre-
served relics of ancient Microzoa in the dried and sifted dust.
If we take a j^iece of limestone, whether from Dudley, Mat-
lock, or Westmoreland, or go abroad for our specimens to any
part of the world, we shall find in polished slices of the lime-
stone more or less distinct evidences of perfect little shells of
peculiar forms, requiring a strong microscope for their eluci-
dation.

Among these microscopic fossils are some that play a more
important part than others in the making ujj of the stony
masses of many parts of our own country and of other lands.
There are in particular two kinds of very frequent occurrence
in clays, freestones, limerocks, marbles, chalk, &c., namely,
minute Crustacean animals, and another set of Microzoa called
Foraminifera. Of each of these kinds there are innumerable
individuals living at the present day. These tiny creatures
are as easily to be found in the living state as in the fossil
condition ; they have had great books written about them ;
and they not only afford much instruction to naturalists who
study their structures and observe their habits, but they can
be a source of much interest to any one Avho has an aquarium
— the now frequent ornament of our parlours.

On this occasion I have to explain the nature of the micro-
scopic Bivalved Crustaceans, to allude to their ways of life,
and to draw attention to some of the facts connected Avith
their being found fossilised in clays and stones.

The common Crab and Lobster are important members of
the Crustacean group of Animals ; so also are Shrimj^s,
Prawns, Sandhoppers, Woodlice, the King-crab of the
Moluccas, and many others, which are only noticed by the
naturalist and seen in museums.

A characteristic feature of the Crustaceans is their jointed
structure (placing them among the Articulata or Arthropoda^,
and their Ijeing for the most part coated with a hard, tough
armour — the part that covers the front of the body being
usually formed of a large plate or buckler (called the Cara-
pace or Cephalo thorax j, and the rest consisting of ring-like
segments.

The Shell (or Test) of the Lobster well illustrates this.
In the Crab, however, the body is more shrunk up, as it
were, beneath the Carapace, which is widened and enlarged,
Avhilst the jointed tail-piece is very small and folded neatly
underneath. The organs in the Crab are, as it is said.

RuPEUT JoNESj on B waived Entomostraca. 41

concentrated; and the traces of the many ring-joints (or
" somites ") of which the Crustacean Animal is typically or
theoretically constructed are nearly lost to sight. Indeed, if
we trace the modifications of structure from one Crustacean
to another — from the many-segmented Brine-shrimp to the
more definitely jointed Woodlouse and Sandhopper, almost
equally ringed throughout the length of their bodies — and
through Squills and Shrimps with their carapace in front
and their armoured tail behind, and the Anomoura or short-
tailed members of the Lobster Tribe, until we get to the
Crabs, with scarcely any tail at all, we follow, as it were, the
footsteps of Nature in her advance from the lower and simpler
structures, with their many times repeated parts and organs,
to the higher, more concentrated, more complicated, more
specialised, and, in one sense, more perfect type of animal
structure.

We see the carapace flat in the Crab ; in the Lobster it is
folded down on either side, and so we have it in many other
species ; but this folding is carried a step further in some
groups, the two halves being quite separate at the back,
along the central line that is Avell marked in the Lobster,
and becoming the two valves of a two-sided carapace, re-
sembling that of a common Bivalved Mollusc.

This bivalved structure is not met with among the larger
Crustacea, but only in the smaller and frequently microscoj^jic
forms. These are members of the group known by the general
term "Water-fleas," or Entomostraca ("shelled insects").
Some live in the sea, some in ponds and rivers. They exist
in countless numbers. Like the Sandhoppers, Shrimps, Lob-
sters, &c., they assist in the health-economy of the watery
world ; they are^cavengers, using up all dead matters.

The Crustaceans have been termed " the Insects of the
Sea," and well they may, for they not only take the place of
Insects, Centipedes, and Spiders in the ocean, on every shore
and at nearly every depth, but they emulate the Insect-tribe
in the extremes of grace and ugliness. Though they can
scarcely be said to resemble the Insects in their flight, yet in
their flittings to and fro they are not unlike ; and in their
ceaseless, unwearying crawlings the likeness holds good ; — as
scavengers, too, they claim brotherhood with a world of
Beetles and other Insects. In this, however, as w^ell as in
the less amount of concentration of their organs, they differ
from Insects — namely, the changes which the latter undergo
are from one distinct stage to another, such as caterpillar,
chrysalis, butterfly ; but in the Crustacea we have successive
moul tings of the crust, with some alteration in the body.

42 E-UPERT Jones, on Bivalved Entomostraca.

corresponding with the growth of the individual ; and though
these changes are often striking (in the young state of Crabs,
for instance), yet there is no break in the line of life, no
dormant period, no transition from one mode of living to
another, as there is in Insects.

However diversified the forms of the different kinds of
Crustacea may be — however varied the number and disjDosi-
tion of their limbs, yet this great group have, with few
exceptions, their articulated framework as a feature in
common j and if that be wanting, still (according to Huxley)
the uniformly similar, six-limbed, and Nauplius-like form in
which so many members of the lower groups of Crustacea
begin their existence, furnishes a strong connecting link
among them.

The diversity of organs among the Crustacea is almost
endless ; what serves as jaws in one division are legs in
another ; the antennae in one may be organs of sense, in
another of locomotion or of j^rehension : then there are
thoracic branchiae in some (Decapods), sac-like branchial
appendages in others (Tctradecapods) ; whilst the Ento-
mostraca rarely have any true branchiae, the surface of either
some part or of the whole of the body serving for aei'ation.

In the Crabs, which present the condition of highest
centralisation for the Crustacea, the three front segmental
elements are coalesced and modified as the organs of feeling,
sight, and hearing; the next six supply the mandibles,
maxillee, and palpi for the mouth ; five are devoted to the
organs of locomotion and ^^rehension ; and the remainder are
lost in the abbreviated abdomen or tail-piece. In the other
Decapoda (with ten limbs) also, such as Lobsters, «S:c., nine
segments and their pairs of appendages are thus concentrated
into the organs of sense and the mouth. In the Tetradeca-
poda (with fourteen limbs), such as the Woodlouse, &c., only
seven segments are concentrated for these cephalic organs. In
the Entomostraca, only six thus coalesce for the senses and
mouth in the Cyclops group, only five in the Daphnia and
CaJigus, and only /owr in Limulus.

The essential points in the framework of the body of an
Entomostracan of low organization, and in the arrangement
of the organs, are avcII seen in the Brine-shrimp {Artemia).
Here the body has numerous articulations or seginented jjor-
tions. The head-part takes ujd four or five coalesced somites,
bearing the antenna?, eyes, and masticatory organs ; eleven
pairs of natatory and branchial limbs follow on eleven seg-
ments ; the next two joints or rings have their own modified
appendages; seven segments succeed, without appendages.

Rupert Jones^ on Bivalved Entomostraca. 43

except that the last ends with the caudal flaps (post-abdomen
or tclson).

Others also of these lower Crustacea, or Phyllopoda (whether
bivalved or not), have more than twenty segmented parts in
their body ; but of the twenty theoretical typical somites or
segments (twenty-one,* including the telson) characteristic of
a well-developed Crustacean, several of the hindmost are
absent in most of the Bivalved Entomostraca ; and this cur-
tailed form is wholly enveloj^ed in the two more or less
closely fitting carapace-valves of the cephalothorax.

Thus in the Phyllopodous Liinuadia, after the front part
of the body, bearing the antennae, eyes, and mandibles, suc-
ceed twenty-two pairs of branchial limbs, more or less de-
veloped, followed by the post-abdomen. Locomotion is here
effected by the antennae and post-abdomen. In the Cladoce-
rous (Daphnioid) and Ostracodous (Cyproid) groups, how-
ever, of the Entomostraca, the antennae, eyes, mandibles, and
maxillae, two to six pairs of feet (Avith branchial appendages
attached to some of them), a short abdomen, and a strong,
hooked post-abdomen, are the chief features ; so in these
Bivalved forms, instead of the numerous branchial laminae of
the Phyllopods, Ave have a few pairs of locomotive organs
w'ith their branchial appendages.

The disposition of the organs in various orders, families,
and genera, may be studied in detail in the works of Baird,
Dana, Zenker, Lilljeborg, Eischer, Grube, Sars, Norman,
Brady, and others. For the family and generic characters of
the Ostracoda, see G. S. Brady's memoir in the ' Intellectual
Observer' for September, 1867; and for the specific charac-
ters of many of the Cladocera, see Xorman and Brady's
memoir on the Bosminidte, &c., in the ' Nat. Hist. Trans.
Northumberland and Durham,' I8GT.

The Bivalved Entomostraca diffbr among themselves not
only Avitli respect to the arrangement and characters of the
organs of sense, mastication, locomotion, and aeration, but
also very markedly in the shape and structure of their
carapace- valves.

In Apus, one of the Phyllopods, the carapace (or shell
covering the cephalothorax) is nearly flat and shield-like,
but ridged along the middle. In Nebalia, another Phyllopod,
the carapace is folded doAvn, as it were, on either side of the
animal; the abdomen extends beyond it behind, the legs
below, and the antennae in front, with a small, arched,

* The twenty-one ilieoretical somites are thus allocated by some natu-
ralists : — seven to the head or cephalon, seven to the thorax or pereion, and
seven to the abdomen or pleon.

44 Rupert Jones,, on Bivalved Entomostraca.

moveable projection above the eyes. In tbe Cladocera
{Daphnia, &c.) the carapace is still' more flatly folded down,
with a bend along the dorsal line ; and the whole of the body
is included within it, except that the antenna? (as swimming
limbs) protrude at the head from lateral notches, M'hich give
to the front of the carapace a hood-like or quaintly beaked
shape.

In other Bivalved Entomostraca the two sides of the
folded carapace are quite distinct, forming separate valves,
but united in life along their dorsal margins by either a
simple membranous attachment (as in Estheria, Sec), or by
a more complex system of ridge and furrow, or teeth and
sockets (as in the Cyproidea).

In outline the carapaces of Cladocera range from orbicular
to oblong, with varying contours. They are horny or chitinous,
thin, usually transparent, and ornamented often with some
reticulate pattern, having reference ' to the hexagonal cell-
system of the typical crustacean test, or the network resolves
itself into delicate bands and furrows by the greater develop-
ment of one set of mesh-lines than another. This carapace is
periodically moulted and renewed ; but occasionally it is re-
tained, and one layer succeeds on the inside and at the outer
edge of another until the valve is marked with several con-
centric boundary-lines of the periodic stages of growth. Mr.
Norman points out that this feature, normal in Menosphilus
tenuirostris, is occasional in Lynceus elongatus ; see ' Nat.
Hist. Trans. Northumberland and Durham,' 186T, p. 53. It
is also normal in the Limnadlada, which retain their valves,
v.'hilst they cast only a chitinous skeleton or framework of
the body.

Fossil carapaces of Cladocera have not been recognised,
their extreme tenuity j^robably being neither favorable for
their preservation nor, if j^reserved, to their detection in the
fossil state.

The Bivalved Phyllopods, such as Limnadia, Estheria, and
Lhnnetis, are larger than the Cladocera, and their valves are
usually thicker ai:d stronger. In shape round, oval, or
oblong, they often resemble the shells of Conchifera or
Bivalved ISIoUuscs, and have been mistaken for them when
living, and much more frequently in the fossil condition.
The presence of a straight hinge-line, of umbones, and of
concentric lines of growth, are special features in which they
more or less imitate the Conchifera, such as Avicula, TeU'wa,
Pisidium, &c. Estheria donaciformis came to the British
Museum as a Nucula ; but Dr. Baird recognised its crustacean
characters, disguised as they are by the molluscan shape.

Rupert Jones, on Bivalved Entomostraca. 45

Estheria minuta long passed as a little sliell among geologists
nntil Prof. Quekett's microscope detected the hexagonal cell-
tissue of the Crustacean in fragments of the fossil : see my
' Monograph of the Fossil Estherise ' (Palteontograpliical
Society), 1862, pages 3, 11, &c.

Very different kinds of carapace-valves belong to the
Ostracoda. A synopsis of the recent British forms of this
great group, carefully drawn up and illustrated by Mr. G. S.
Brady in the ' Intellectual Observer ' for September, 186T,
gives us a good general view of these very interesting Bivalved
Entomostraca, amongst Avhich are (excepting some of the
Copepoda and Cladocera) the most common of the marine
and freshwater forms, both recent and fossil. Thus —

Cyprid^. — Cypris ; Cypridojjsis ; Paracypris ; Notodro-
mas ; Candona ; Pontocypris ; Baii'dia ; Macrocypris.

Cytherid.d. — Cy there (and Cythereis) ; Limno cy there ;
Cytheridea (and Cyprideis) ; Cytheropsis (to be changed to
" Eiccy there") ; Hy abates; Loxoconcha (= Normania) ; Xesto-
leberis ; Cytherura ; Cytheropteron ; Bythocythere ; Pseudo-
cythere ; Cytherideis ; Sclerochilus ; Paradoxostoma.

Cypridixid^. — {Cypridina ;) Philomedes ; Cylindoleberis ;
Bradycinetus.

CoxcHCECiADJE. — Coiichoecia.
PoLYCopiDiE. — Poly cope.
Cytherellid-^. — Cytherella.

The valves of the Cypridce (Brady) are small, usually either
kidney-shaped, oblong, or boat-shaped, smooth or bearing
only faint punctation and delicate set^e, and rarely thickened
on the hinge-margins. The Cytherida, on the other hand,
though often smooth, have frequently thick and highly orna-
mented valves, coarsely or neatly pitted, sculptured with
fret-work (more or less reticulate), or bristling with spines
and spikes. Either ovate or oblong in many shapes, they
have usually thick hinge-margins, with furrows and sockets
for bars and teeth. The other families mentioned have
smooth valves ; those of Cypridina are large, thick, and
convex, mostly round or oval, and are marked with an
antero-ventral notch Conchoecia has an oblong, and Poly-
cope a subspherical shell ; both thin. Cytherella has oblong,
compressed, thick valves, usually smooth, one fitting into the
other somewhat like the lid of a wooden snuff-box.

Of the Ostracoda very many are found fossil, such as
belonged to fresh waters, to brackish waters, and to the sea,
in great variety. Miinster, Roemer, Reuss, De Koninck,
Bosquet, Bornemann, and others have described many species

46 Rupert Jones, on Bivalved Entomostraca.

from the strata of Germany, France, Belgium, &c. ; and at
home M'Coy, Salter, Kirkby, Holl, G. S. Brady, and myself
are among those who have treated of such as have been met
with in the British Isles ; but a large number still remained
undescribed.

Amongst the fossil specimens are several that cannot be
readily co-ordhiated with the groupings made out of the
existing forms, as may be expected both by naturalists who
are accustomed to look on the existing races as successional
representatives of older forms, and by those who may regard
successive faunse as creational replacements.

Among such fossil forms are many from the older (" Palaeo-
zoic ") strata ; but even for these existing representatives
occasionally turn up, such as Brady's Heterodesmus, lately
brought from the Japanese seas, which has apparently a
close affinity with M' Coy's Entomoconchus of the Mountain-
limestone. Some, indeed, of the old forms are scarcely dis-
tinguishable, as far as the valves are concerned, from their
modern representatives ; for instance, Cypridina primcBva
(M'Coy, sp.) of the same old limestone, and its associates
CypreUa and Cypridella, present in the various valves of their
multiform species gradations among themselves, and an easy
passage into Cypridina itself. Others among the ancient
faunae possess two or more of the characteristics that are
now divided amongst the several members of a group ; thus
the carapace of the Leperditia of the Silurian period has
resemblances in outline to members of the Limnadiadae,
Cypridininee, and Cypridge ; in muscle-spot to the first two ;
in vascular markings to the first and to the Apodidae ; in the
place of the eyes to the second and fourth ; and in the eye-
tubercles to the third and fourth. Altogether Leperditia, and
its palaeozoic congeners Isochilina,Entomis, Primitia, Beyrichia,
and Kirkby a, seem to be more nearly within the alliance of the
Lhnnadiadce than of the others. Nevertheless, in these as
well as in other groups of Bivalved Entomostraca, we have
ahvays to be careful in assigning special value to differences
of outline, ornament, and structure, because it is not unusual,
among these little Crustacea, to find that similar shells may
belong to different genera, when we examine them alive ;
and on the other hand very closely allied species may have
dissimilar valves.

As a general rule the fossil Entomostraca of freshwater,
brackish, and marine strata, respectively, correspond in
family and generic characters to S])ecies found in such waters
at the present day ; and therefore the geologist often finds his
supposition as to the origin of a set of strata confirmed by the

Rupert Jones, on Bhalved Entomosiraca. 47

presence of this or that kind of Entomostraca ; and in some
instances thin intercahxted bands of freshwater or of estuarine
deposits, amongst marine strata, can be indicated by the pre-
sence of Estherice, which in past, as in present, times appear
to have avoided sea-water, though Hving abundantly in salt-
marshes and lagoons. See the ' Monograph of Fossil Esthe-
rice,' 1862.

Thus, also, Mr. G. S. Brady observes {' Intellectual Ob-
server,' 1867, p. Ill), in noticing the geological interest of
Entomostraca, " My belief is, therefore, that those strata
which exhibit such very abundant and closely packed re-
mains of the smaller CypridaB and Cijtherida have most likely
been formed in shallow, brackish lagoons, or at the mouths
and deltas of rivers. The species of Ostracoda which I have
found in these situations are Cytheridea torosa (Jones), Cy there
pellucida, Baird, and Loxoconcha elliptica, Brady ; while in
water a little further from the saline influence, but still
slightly partaking of it, it is not uncommon to meet Avith
Cypris salina, Brady^ and Cypridopsis aculeata, Lilljeborg,
as well as Entomostraca belonging to other orders."

The Entomostraca act pre-eminently as scavengers in both
salt and fresh waters. Most of the groups (as Copepods,
Ostracods, and Phyllopods) comprise both marine and fresh-
water species ; but the Cladocera are confined to fresh
water. The excessive swarming of the pink Daphnia or
Water-flea has occasionally reddened pond-water so strongly
as to have seemed supernatural to our ancestors, and to have
produced terror, as an evil omen, among the ignorant.
Amongst the British Ostracoda, Cypris, Cyprodopsis, Noto-
dromas, and Candona, are inhabitants of lakes, ponds, ditches,
streams, and rivers ; and they can be readily obtained and
conveniently kept and studied in the aquarium. Paracypris,
Pontocypjris, Bairdia, and Macrocypris, are marine members
of Mr. Brady's group " Cypridae." Excepting the fresh-
water Limnocy there, all the Cytheridce are marine, Cythe-
ridea and Loxoconcha having also a taste for brackish water.
These salt-water species of the Bivalved Entomostraca are
distributed in deep and shallow seas, in pools on the beach
between tides, in lagoons and back-Avaters, and in the brack-
ish water of estuaries and salt-marshes. The ' Trans. Zoolog.
Soc.,' 1867, contains a memoir, by Mr. G. S. Brady, descrip-
tive of some new forms of Ostracoda, in which we find some
" habitats " referred to as being in " shallow water," and
others. at 14, 17, 30, 43, 60-70, 223, S60, 470, and even
2050 fathoms.

The Cyprida, having plumose '^ antennae," or natatory

48 Rupert Jones, on Bivalved Entomostraca.

limbs, possess a greater or less power of sAvimniing, Candona
being a marked exeeption. On tlie other hand, the anterior
locomotive limbs of the CijtheridcB have usually short setae
and hook-like spines, instead of bunches of long, delicate
filaments ; and consequently these animals crawl about on
the weeds, shells, and mud, and few among them can swim
at all.

The Cypridinidae are mostly free-swimming, oceanic forms.
Mr. Brady observes that " some of the members of this
family have very slight swimming powers, and live chiefly
amongst mud; others are very agile swimmers, and are often
taken in the towing-net — more especially at night — near the
surface of the sea. They seem, indeed, to contribute very
materially to the production of the wonderful phosjjhorcs-
cence of the tropical seas" (' Intellectual Observer,' 1867,
p. 115).

The removal of dead animal matter is easily accomplished
by Entomostraca and other small Crustacea ; and, as the
Emmets and their little fellow-labourers pick bare the bones
of large land animals, so these minute creatures of the water
use up the dead bodies of animals in the ocean, the lakes,
and rivers, foraging for the dead zoophyte, and swarming
over the lifeless mass of mollusc, annelid, and star-fish, and
taking their share of the dead Fish that had lived by eating
their fellows,* and of the dead Whale that had strained
from the water myriads of their congeners for his daily food.
When the sailors, in one of Parry's Voyages, hung their salt
beef over the ship's side in the water for a while, it soon dis-
appeared under the combined attack of these little devourers ;
and if a fish be put in a perforated canister in a suitable
stream or pond for a couple of days, its skeleton Avill be pre-
pared by the tiny Crustaceans. Just as Mr. Charles Moore
has found in the Lias of Somersetshire, the fossil Reptiles
overlain by a swarm of Ammonites, buried with the half-
eaten carcase in the mud, so the fossil remains of Fishes (as
noticed by Phillijjs, Binfield, myself, and others) are often
and often found imbedded Avith innumerable carapace-valves
of the Entomostracous scavengers in mud-beds of all as^es,
especially the Carboniferous, Wealden, and Tertiary clays) ;
nor are Entomostraca Avanting among the bones of fish and
reptile in the Lias above alluded to.

Thus also we have seen a crowd of Cyprides and Candonce
cleaning out the shell of a Paludina or a Linnmis in an
aquarium ; and in the fossil state we know that valves of

* See Dr. Baird's " Notes on the Food of some Fresh-water FislTes, more
particularly the Vandace and Trout." 1S57.

Rupert Jones, on Bivalved Entomostraca. 49

Entomostraca are sometimes associated in the shells of ]\Iol-
luscs. Thus Mr. J. W. Kirkby says (' Trans. Tyneside Nat.
Field-Club,' vol. iv, 1859),'" The convex valve of a Conchifer
appears to have been a popular place of resort with the
Bairdia, for out of one I procured some dozens of indi-
viduals."

The rapid increase of some kinds of Entomostraca, and
the tenacity of life possessed by the eggs, are circumstances
that have attracted the attention of naturalists. The almost
sudden appearance of Apus and of Estheria in great numbers
in ditches, and even in cart-ruts, after heavy summer rains,
in Germany and France, have been particularly noted. Here
allusion need be made to these facts only to remind the reader
that the dried mud of ponds will nearly always be found to
contain the still vital eggs of various species of Entomostraca ;
and if small portions be sent home from abroad, and placed in
pure water, the species belonging to the original pond may be
produced under the eye of the naturalist and properly re-
corded. Thus, Mr. Henry Denny and Dr. Baird had the
pleasure of raising in England, from dried mud sent by Dr.
Atkinson from Jerusalem, several species of Entomostraca
new to science. (See ^Ann. Nat. Hist.' for October, 1859,
and September, 1861.

Flourishing, then, in every water-area, fresh or salt, deep
or shallow, running or still, — jjo^^sssing strong powers of
vitality and reproduction, and furnished with relatively
hard or tough coverings, calcareous or corneo-calcareous in
substance, these minute but innumerable Entomostraca have
left their valves, either as the exuviae of periodical castings,
or as the lasting remains of hosts of animalcules buried in
the tide-shifted silt or the mud and sand of the freshet, to be
fossilized in laminated clays, hardened mud-stones, and solid
rocks of limestone.

In the extremely old " Silurian" strata we find abundant
specimens of Primitia, Beyrichia, Leperditia, and Entomis,
apparently related to the Phyllopods, and always associated
with marine fossils. In the "Devonian" beds of marine
origin we find Entomis, &c. ; and in the fresh-water beds of
the same period there is an Estheria, both in Scotland and
Russia. The " Carboniferous " formations next succeed, and
contain a host of Bivalved Entomostraca, many of them not
yet described. Cypridina is well represented in these old
strata wdth Entomoconchus (before alluded to) ; Leperditia
lived on, with Beyrichia ; and Kirkby a flourished with Cythere
and Bairdia. In the fresh- water or estuarine bands Esthei'ia
occurs in several species, and Cypris or Candona is present

50 Rupert Jones, on Bivalved Entomostraca.

also. The persistence of these genera from so old a time to
the present is what is expected of such relatively low forms
of life ; wide geographical extension and long-continuance
belonging to such creatures as have not been highly spe-
cialised. In the " Permian " formations (" Magnesian Lime-
stone " of Durliam and other strata; Buirdia, Cythere, and
Kirkhya play an important part. In the " Trias " or " New
Red Sandstone " we find Estheria, where marine conditions
failed and fresh Avater had an influence, not only in Europe,
but in India and America. (See my ' Monograph on Fossil
Estherite,' 1862.) The Entomostraca of the " Lias " and the
" Oolites " are not few, though not well known. In the
"Pm-beck" and " Wealden " beds they are better known.
Masses of Purbeck building stone are wholly composed of
the valves, and some of the Weald clays split like paper along
the layers of shed valves of Cypridea ; nor are Estherice want-
ing in these old fresliAvater beds. The " Gault " and
" Chalk " are full of Cythere, Bairdia, and other allied
genera, all marine. The " London Clay," the " Brackles-
ham Beds," and " Barton Clay," swarm in some places with
similar forms, whilst the " Woolwich Beds " below them,
and the " Hampstead " and " Osborne " formations of the
Isle of Wight, above, are characterised by Can dona, Cythe-
ridea, &c., such as love estuaries, lakes, and rivers. Lastly,
for England, the " Crag " of Suffolk, and that of Bridlington,
abound in marine forms.

If we had only these little fossils whereby to form an
opinion of the probable conditions under which the clays,
sandstones, and limestones were formed in the long past eras
of this planet, we should have, in nearly every case, ample
evidence of the history of each bed of mud, silt, and shell-
sand, in which these minute Entomostraca can be found.

The seas of the Silurian period had their thick-shelled
Leperditi(B and Beyrichia very distinct from* their noAv living
congeners, but linked to them by close affinities readily dis-
coverable by the naturalist. When land was increased, in
the Devonian period, the sea-coasts still abounded with marine
Crustacea; and the lakes and rivers abounded with -EsMeri^e,
like those of the present day. The coral-seas, which gave
birth to the Derbyshire limestone, abounded with strange
forms of Entomostraca. Land still extended, and miles and
miles of swampy coasts and lowlands crowded with the
dense vegetation of the Coal-period, and, intersected A^dth
black, muddy lagoons, offered a home for endless tribes of
Entomostraca, feeding on animal and vegetable refuse — the
rotting plants and shoals of fish, poisoned by the black mud

Rupert Jones, on Bivalved Entomostraca. 51

of the peaty rivers. These muds and silts, and all their
buried shells, and plants, and fish, and crustaceans, sank
down, and were covered up and hardened — petrified, often
baked by heat, and then, pushed up again by subterranean
force, reappearing at the surface as the hard, rocky base of
many a new country, and forming the bed of new seas, were
eaten into by the ever-working waves, worn down by periodic
rains, aided by the scorching sunbeams, the splitting frost,
and the incessant agency of the atmospheric gases chemically
affecting the surfaces of the rock.

The sea, now occupying fresh areas, continued its great
work of destruction and reparation — wearing down the shores
to make up the sea-beds ; and it continued to be the
abode of life in its myriad forms ; but they were mostly new
forms. In the new deposits laid down on the vipturned edges
of the old strata we find Entomostraca again, similar to those
of to-day, and in the lagoons and lakes of the Triassic
period Estherm abounded. The varying seas, the estuaries,
bays, gulfs, and oceans of the Oolitic period, when land
was rising here and sinking there — the sea ever rolling under
its tidal laws, and coming and going amongst the ever-
shifting land — these seas, we know, swarmed with Entomos-
traca, amongst the world of marine creatures, and the rivers
and lakes were swarming too. The land that bore the great
Iguanodon and Megalosaurus — gigantic lizards wandering
over the marshy grounds, just as the amphibious Hippopotami
of to-day wallow along the African swamps —had its great
rivers ; and their deltas, like those of the Ganges and Missis-
sippi, consisted of mudbanks and muddy lagoons, full of
Uniones, Paludbue, Cyrence, and other shell-fish, and above all
with Cypridce and Estherice, feeding on the dead molluscs and
fish.

The Sussex marble is mainly composed of these sometimes ;
some beds of freestone at Swanage are wholly made up of
them, and flake after flake of black clay, once mud, may
easily be picked by the hand, in the Isle of Wight, in clift's
some miles extent, from beds of shale nearly two hundred
feet thick, every surface being thickly coated with the shells
or carapaces of these minute creatures. What durable wit-
nesses of a long-past age !

The '^ Age of Reptiles " passed away, the land and its
rivers went down, the sea-bed and the estuaries were coated
over with new sands and clays, derived from ncAV cliffs and
new lands, washed by the untiring, enduring sea. Some
parts of what is now the European area sank several hundred
feet, and was covered by a deep sea, and in this were formed

VOL. XVI. e

52 Rupert Jones, on Bivalved Entomostraca.

successively the Greensand, Gault, and Chalk. The shores
were thus gradually changed, and the new land elsewhere
raised up, or remaining as islands here and there, bore new
plants, new trees, and new animals ; the sea also brought
forth new Entomostraca, which may be easily obtained by
washing the Gault clay into mud, drying and sifting it, and
by washing the Chalk into powder, and examining it with a
glass.*

Another great change occurred over half the world, at
least ; the strata that had been accumulating in gradually
deepening seas, and on sinking sea-beds, were hoisted up
again by subterranean force, and a new era was inaugurated
— recognised by geologists in the sands, clays, and limestones
which they denominate " Tertiary." The land was diversi-
fied more than before, — more islands, more bays, more rivers,
more seas; hence a greater variety of life in every shape,
animal and vegetable, and not least in Entomostraca.

From some beds of sand and clays we get Cytheridea
Muelleri, such as now covers the estuarine muds not far from
mouths of rivers ; in other beds we get Bairdia subdeltoidea,
such as is chiefly found in deep seas and warm climates : in
another stratum we get the carapaces of Cytheres, such as we
find in the shallow water of our oAvn coasts. Here we have
evidences of the existence of different conditions of sea-
bottoms, contemporaneous or successive, as the case may be,
in a series of deposits now converted into clay or stone.

Elsewhere we have layers of clay or stone filled and covered
with the shells of Cyprides, as thickly strewn as in the mud
of any river now running.

Tracing these river-deposits and these sea-deposits, the
Geologist traces out the ancient outlines of land and sea in
the long past periods of the earth's history, of which we have
no other record. But this is a record sufficient; and it
teaches us, also, that not only to great things but to small,
not only to nionsterb easts — Iguanodons, Elephants, Whales
— but to microscopic Entomostraca, is our attention to be
turned if we wish to learn aright what has passed on this
earth's surface, if we wish to carefully study God's creation,
and to see all the evidences of perfect design and perfect
adaptation that the history of successive forms of life, Avith
their successive modifications of structure and habits, can
supply.

* See some notes on the preparation of clays, sands, and chalk, for micro-
scopical purposes, in the ' Geologist,' 1858, vol. i, p. 249.

Rupert Jones^ on Bhmlved Entomostraca. 53

Table of the Crustacea ; pt'ovisional, and compiled from
various sources, to illustrate more especially the Groups of
BivALVED Entomostraca.

* These are known in both the recent and the fossil state.

t These are known only as fossils. Lowry's ' Chart of Fossil Crustacea,'
1S65, shows admirably the range in time for all the groups, from the earliest
to the present period.

CLASS. CRUSTACEA.
Subclass 1. Decapoda.* (Cancer, &c.)

S. Tetradecapoda.^ (Oniscus, &c.)
3. Entomostraca."^

Order I. Gnathostomata.*
Legion 1. Lopliyropoda.

Tribe \. Cyclopoidea. (Copepoda.)

Families. Cyclopidse, &c.
Tribe 2. Dapbnoidea. (Cladocera.)

Families. Penilidae, Dapbnidee, Bosmi-
nidse, Lynceidae, «&c.
Tribe 3. Cyproidea.^ (Ostracoda.)
Family I. Cypridse"^ [Brady).
Genus. Cypris."^

Chlamydotbeca.

Newnhamia.

Candona.^

Cypridopsis.

Paracypris.

Notodromas,

Pontocypris.'^

Bairdia."^

Macrocypris.''^
Family II. Cytheridae.
Genus. Cythere.^

Limnocy there.

Cytheridea."^

Eucy there.

Ilyobates.

Loxoconcha.^

Xestoleberis.

Cytherura.^

Cytheropteron.'^

Bythocythere.^

Pseudocythere.

Cytherideis.^

Sclerochilus.

Paradoxstoma.

54 Rupert Jones, on Bivalved Entomostraca.

Family III. Cypridinidse.^
Genus. Cypridina.^
Asterope.
Philomedes.
Cylindroleberis.
Bradycinetus.
Cypridella.t
Cyprella.t
Entoniis.t
Family IV. Halocypridse.
Genus. Halocypris.^
Heterodesmus.
Entomoconchus.t
Family V. Conchoeciadse.

Genus. Conchoecia.
Family VI. Polycopidae.

Genus. Polycope.
Family VII. Cytlierellidse.
Genus. Cytherella.'^

Legion 2. Phyllopoda.

Tribe 1. Artemioidea.

Family I. Artemiadae.

Genera. Artemia, Chirocephalus, &c.
Family II. Nebaliadse.
Genus. Nebalia.

Hymenocaris.f
Ceratiocaris-t

Tribe 2. Apodoidea.
Family. Apodidae.
Genus. Apus.*

Ditliyrocaris.f
Tribe 3, Limnadoidea.

Family I. Limnadiadae.

Genus. Limnadia.
Estheria.*
Limnetis.

Family II. Lejjerditiadae.f
Genus. Leperditia.f
Primitia.t
Beyrichia.f
Kirkbya.f

Report on the Microscopes. 55

Order II, Cormostomata.

Suborder 1. Poecilopoda. (Oaligus, &c.)

2, Pycnogonoidea. (Cyamus, &c.)
Order III. Merostomata,

Suborder 1. Eurypterida.f (Pterygotus,t Eury-
pteruSjt t&c.)
2. Xiphosura.

Genus. Belinurus.t
Prestwichia.f
Limulus.*
[Trilobita.t]
Subclass 4. Cirripedia.

5. Rotatoria.

Anniversary Meeting,

February VZth, 1868.

James Glaisher, Esq., F.R.S., President, in the Chair.

Report on the Microscopes and Cabinet of Objects.

On no previous year have we had to report so favourably
as on the present ; it is, therefore, with much pleasure that
we present the following statement as to the number of
microscopes and objects the property of the Society. First,
as regards microscopes.

No. 1. Wilson's Simple Microscope, with compound body,
several object-glasses, and various adjuncts. This micro-
scope is made of silver, and is of admirable workmanship.

No. 2. Culpepper's Compound Microscope, with various
object-glasses and appliances.

No. 3. Benjamin Martin's Compound Microscope, sup-
posed to be made for King George the Third. This in-
strument is a marvel ; and it is indeed a matter of surprise
to what perfection workmanship was carried in those days ;
the more it is looked into, the more is the spectator struck
with astonishment; and many things have since been
brought out as new which were made for this instrument.
There is a good description of it in our " Transactions," by
Mr. Williams, late Assistant Secretary, and also in Quekett's
third edition of ' The Microscope,' with a good engraving.

No. 4. Powell and Lealand's best Compound Microscope,
made for the Society in 1841, with a full range of object-
glasses and every needful appliance ; this instrument has
lately had Mr. Wenham's Binocular arrangement added.

56 Report on the Microscopes.

No. 5. Andrew Ross's best Compound Microscope^ made
for the Society in 1841, with a full range of object-glasses,
and every needful appliance.

No. 6. Smith and Beck's best Compound Microscope,
made for the Society in 1841, with a few object-glasses, and
some appliances ; the object-glasses of this instrument are
much damaged.

No. 7. A Compound Microscope, presented to the Society
by the late Edwin Quekett, Esq., with one object-glass.

No. 8. Best Compound Binocular Microscope, presented
to the Society by Thomas Ross, Esq., with a full range of
object-glasses and every appliance. This instrument was
used too much, but the generous donor has just put it into
thorough repair. Mr. Ross has also presented to the Society
his new 4-inch object glass.

No. 9. Baker's best Compound .Binocular Microscope,
with bull's-eye condensor, Webster's achromatic condenser,
3-inch, 1^-inch, and |-inch object-glasses.

No. 10. Swift's Compound Binocular Microscope, with
bull's-eye condensor, diaphragm, and Webster's achromatic
condensor and adjusting dia^jhragm.

No. 11. Swift's Compoimd Binocular Microscope, with
bull's-eye condensor and diaphragm.

The three last have been purchased from the Society's
funds, and to see how they are used on Wednesday evenings
is a plain proof that they were altogether needed, and have
given general satisfaction.

No. 12. Browning's Micro-Spectroscope, improved to the
present time, purchased out of the Society's funds.

No. 13. Wray's Jrds object-glass, 50° aperture, presented
by the maker to the Society through the Rev. J. B. Reade.

No. 14. The Writing Machine, which gained the medal
at the Great Exhibition, in 1862, is of Avorld-Avide fame.
Writing has been obtained from it so small, that the whole
Bible could be written twenty- two times in one square inch.
This machine, the invention of William Peters, Esq., and
in a great measure his own handicraft, was most generously
presented to the Society through R. J. Farrants, Esq., in
1862. The value of this instrument is not sufficiently re-
cognised by the Society, and it is hoped that our friend Mr.
Farrants will kindly give his helping hand that this valuable
instrument may be of real use, which can only be done by
instructing others to use it.

We now possess eight microscopes, all in good working
order, four of them binocular, with thirty-two object-glasses,
and every appliance that can be required. It is only during
this last year thoy have been properly looked into and re-

Report on the Cabinet of Objects. 57

paired, and new instruments and new object-glasses obtained,
so that the Society can really boast of having a set of instru-
ments, object-glasses, and appliances of which they may be
proud. It is to be hoped our funds will soon enable us to
add more, for the attendance on Wednesday evenings is
greatly increasing, and the Fellows are finding out that they
have privileges and advantages of no mean order, and it will
be the duty and pleasure of your Committee to render all
under their care more beneficial to the Society.

Cabinet of Objects.

Number of objects in the Cabinet on February 13th,

1867 ■ . . 1414

1867.
Mar. 13. Presented to the Society by Professor H. L.
Smith, of Kenyon College, Gambia, United
States, 146 slides of Diatomacese . . 146
„ 13. Presented by W. Ladd, Esq., seven slides of

Mineral Salts . . . . . . 7

May 8. Presented by Major Owen, eleven slides of

the family Colymbitse . . . .11

„ 8. Presented by Thomas Ross, Esq., twenty

slides of .Gold dust . . ... .20

Nov. 24. Presented by Dr. Carpenter, twenty-four

slides of Foraminifera .... 24

Dec. 12. Presented by Thos. S. Ealfs, Esq., of Mel-
bourne, twelve specimens of Blood-discs . 12
1868.
Jany. 8. Presented by Mr. Lobb, nine slides of Test

objects . . ... . . 9

„ 8. Presented by Dr. Wallich . . . .1031

2674

The objects are being entirely rearranged ; the Cabinet has
been altered to take them all horizontally, instead of verti-
cally, as heretofore. A new classification is about to be
adopted, which will lead to the formation of a new catalogue,
and to every object being reticketed ; this cannot be hurried,
and, no doubt, extra assistance will be required ; no time will
be lost, and no trouble spared, in order to render the Cabinet
of Objects in every way efficient.

The munificent donation of Dr. Wallich will receive special
notice at the hands of our President.

Ellis G. Lobb.
EicH. Mestayee.

AUDITORS' REPORT. From

Receipts.

s. d.

Cash Balance at Bank of England .

230

4 10

Subscriptions

received for 1858

1859 .

1860 .

1861 .

1862 .

1863 .

1864 .

1865 .

1866 .

107

1867 , .

256

1868 .

196

Admission Fees : —

7 Fellows at £1 1*.
61 Fellows at £2 2s.

Compositions : —

14 Fellows at £10 10*.
1 Fellow at £21 .

Dividends on £1023 8.?. hd. Consols
Interest on £300, whilst on deposit at the

Union Bank
Donation to Library Fund, from W. T. Suffolk
Sale of ' Transactions/ &c.
Cash ....

128

147

617 8 0

135 9 0

Assets t — £

Consols . .860

Ditto . .162

Compositions at Union Bank
Charter Fund Balance
Quekett Medal Fund : —

India 5 per cent. Stock 67
Cash Balance . 23

£1201 2 3

s. d.
19 10

8 7 —

•

13 7
6 2 —

£ s. d.

1023 8 5
168 0 0
143 17 0

90 19 9

List of Fellows: — Compounders, 90; Annual Subscribers, 353; Abroad, 1;
= 444. Foreign Fellows, 4 ; Associates, 2 ; Honorary, I ; = 7.

February 11, 1868.

(New Fellows elected, 74.)

W. H. INCE, Aditig Treasurer.

Feb. 12th, 1867, to Feb. Uth, 1868.

Payments.

£ s.

Salary of Assistant Secretary

47 4

„ Curator

7 10

Editors of Journal (3 quarters)

170 1

Delivery and Postage of ditto

22 1

192

Delivery of President's Address

Rent to Christmas, and Gas

Paid King's College — part of Soiree Expenses

24 11

Refreshments and Soiree Expenses .

•

16 11

•i

Printing

•

Stationery

Reporter

Commission paid to Collectors

22 7

3) >)

1 4

23 11

4 17

Lamp Oil, &c.

Ray Society — Subscription for 1867

Petty Expenses,*Postage and Receipt Stamps

Eire Insurance on £800 to Nov., 1868

•

456

Compositions of 1866 invested in £162 Ss.

7d. Consols

147

„ 1867 deposited at the Union Bank

168

Furniture

70 12

Library

81 5

Cost of Two Binoculars .

21 4

Repairs to Microscopes .

•

9 15

182

Petty Cash Balance —

With Treasurer . .212

With Assistant Secretary .296

954 17 3

4 10 8
Cash Balance at the Bank of England (Western

Branch) . , . . 241 14 4

- 246 5 0
£1201 2 3

Liabilities : —

Bookbinder .

£24 19

' Journal ' for January, 1868

50 12

Instruments

6 12

Seal, &c. .

16 16

King's College, on account of Soiree

We, whose names are hereunto attached, have examined the Treasurer's
accounts, and find that he has received the sum of £1201 2^. '6d., and paid
the sum of £954 17s. id., leaving a balance to the credit of the Society at
the Bank of England of £241 14s. id.

(Signed) CHARLES TYLER, 7

February 11, 1868. CHARLES STEWART, )

Auditors.

Auditors^ Report.

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The President's Address /or the year 1867-1868.
By James Glatsher, Esq., F.E,.S., Sec.

Gentlemen, — It gives me pleasure again to address you
after you have heard the report of your treasurer, which
shows the finances of our Society to be in a prosperous and
good condition.

At the present time, too, we have a larger number of
Fellows than at any time of the history of this Society,

We have lost some Fellows by the hand of death, and this
is always a painful subject upon which Ave have to dwell
yearly. During the past year four FelloAvs have been thus
removed, namely, Henry Black, Henry Clark, Bobert
Warington, and Michael Faraday.

Professor Faraday was born at Newington, Surrey, in
the year 1T91, and was apprenticed to a bookseller and book-
binder, with whom he continued till 1812. At this early
period of his life he showed his thirst for science, not only
reading such works on science as fell in his way, but applied
himself to the construction of electric and other machines.
In his letter to Dr. Paris, in reference to his first introduc-
tion to Sir H. Davy, he says, " I was very fond of experi-
ment, and averse to trade. It happened that a gentleman, a
member of the Boyal Institution, took me to hear some of
Sir H. Davy's last lectures in Albemarle Street. I took
notes, and afterwards wrote them out more fully in a quarto
volume. My desire to escape from trade (which I thovight
vicious and selfish) and to enter into the service of science,
which I imagined made its pursuers amiable and liberal, in-
duced me at last to take the bold and simple step of writing
to Sir H. Davy, expressing my wishes, and a hope that if an
opportunity came in his way he would favour my views. At
the same time I sent the notes I had taken at his lectures."
The result of this letter was that in 1813 Faraday was ad-
mitted into the Royal Institution as Chemical Assistant to
Professor Brande.

He soon became the favourite pupil and the friend of his
patron, and in October, 1813, he accompanied Sir Humphrey
Davy on a tour through several countries of Europe, return-
ing to the Boyal Institution in 1815, and in which he con-
tinued up to the time of his death.

63 The President's Address.

In 1821 he discovered the mutual rotation of a magnetic
pole and an electric current ; in 1823 the discovery of the
condensation of gases; in 1831 and following years the de-
velopment of the induction of electric currents, and the
evolution of electricity from magnetism. In 1846 he ob-
tained the Rumford medal, and that of the Royal Society,
for the establishment of the principle of definite electrolytic
action, and the discovery of diamagnetism and the influence
of magnetism upon light. He made known the character
of oxygen, and the magnetic relations of flame and gases, in
1847.

When Mr. Fuller founded the Chair of Chemistry in the
Royal Institution, in 1833, Faraday was appointed First
Professor. In 1835 he received a pension from Government
of £300 a year, for his important services to science. In
1836 he was appointed Scientific Adviser on Lights to the
Trinity House, and was subsequently nominated to a similar
post under the Board of Trade. From 1829 to 1842 he was
Chemical Lecturer at the Royal Military Academy at Wool-
wich.

In 1823 he was made a Corresponding Member of the
Academy of Sciences in Paris; in 1825 he was elected a
Fellow of the Royal Society; and in 1832 the honorary
degree of Doctor of the Civil Laws was conferred on him by
the University of Oxford. He was a Knight of the Prussian
Order of Merit, of the Italian Order of St. Maurice and
Lazarus, and one of the eight Foreign Associates of the
Imperial Academy of Sciences of Paris. In 1855 he was
nominated an Officer of the Legion of Honour, and in 1863
he was made an Associate of the Paris Academy of Medicine.
His death occurred on Sunday, August 25th, 1867 ; and he
was buried at Highgate on Friday, the 30th.

Of the two former — Henry Black and Henry Clark — I have
been unable to gather any particulars. I will therefore pass
to Robert Warington.

Mr. Warington was born at Sheerness on September 7th,
1807, A considerable part of his school days were spent at
Merchant Taylors' School. In 1822 he was apprenticed as
house pupil to Mr. J. T. Cooper, then Lecturer on Chemistry
to the Medical Schools of Aldersgate Street and Webb Street.
When University College opened in 1828, Mr. Warington
was chosen assistant by Dr. E. Turner, at first in conjunc-
tion with Mr. W. Gregory (afterwards Professor of Chemistry
at Edinburgh), then by himself. Three years later he w^as
recommended by Dr. Turner to Messrs. Truman, Hanbury,
Buxton, and Co., who desired to have a young chemist in

The President's Address. 63

their establislinient. He held the post of second brewer there
for eight years. During this period he communicated several
papers to the ' Philosophical Magazine,' and also published
a set of ' Chemical Tables ' for students, &c. Eight years
later, having resigned this position, he canvassed for the
formation of a Chemical Society, and finally convened the
meeting of chemists at the Society of Arts which resulted in
the formation of the present Chemical Society. He held the
office of Secretary to that Society for ten years, and read
many papers before it.

On Mr. Hennell's death he was appointed Chemical
Operator, in 1842, to the Society of Apothecaries, which
office he held until ill health compelled him to resign in
1866. Soon after his appointment, and for many years, his
professional engagements became very numerous. In the
course of his duties there he was struck with the singular
properties of glycerine. Being thought to be useless, it was
allowed to drain away into the common sewer without further
notice. Warington, however, saw this waste with regret,
and, having some empty and unemployed carboys on hand,
he collected the glycerine, and stored it away. He found it
valuable in the mounting of objects for the microscopes, and
mentioned its properties to his medical friends, amongst
others to Erasmus Wilson, F.R.S., and Mr. Startin.

Erasmus Wilson says — " It was not long before we were
startled by the complaint of one of our patients of the ex-
travagant price of the substance. We had recommended it
as inexpensive, and we soon discovered that Waring ton's
hoard was exhausted, and that the enhanced price resulted
from want of supply. Then a supply was obtained from the
soap-boilers, but was so inferior to the first, and so offensive
in odour, that glycerine for awhile lost its popularity. Its
reputation, however, was eventually restored by passing into
the hands of Price's Candle Company, by whom the best
glycerine in the market is at present manufactured. In the
hands of Warington, and with a prevision of its future utility,
glycerine w^as a waste product of no value whatever by the
side of the materials from which it was obtained. Soon,
however, the product rose to occupy the first place, and the
materials were sacrificed in its production ; and for this we
have to thank the foresight, the providence of Warington ;
for the increased consumption of the article was the best
proof of its usefulness to man, and glycerine occupies at
present an important place in the ' British Pharmacopoeia.'
The reputation of Warington and glycernie will for all time
be inseparable ; and we know of no more glorious monument

61 The President's Address.

than tlie association of man's name with, an object of acknow-
ledged ntility to man.

He Avas especially connected with questions of water-
supply and gas (from 1854 to 1861 he was chemical referee
to four of the metropolitan gas companies), and also took a
j)rominent part in most of the great patent cases, &c., in-
volving chemical questions. His scientific activity and
earnestness were unabated ; and when, in 1846, the Cavendish
Society was founded, Mr. Warington became Secretary for
the first three years. In 1849 he commenced experiments
on the relations of animal and vegetable life, which resulted
in the establishment of aquaria, both for fresh and sea water.
He first communicated his results to the Chemical Society in
1850. Subsequently, many natural history observations made
by him were published in ' Annals of Natural History,' and
he delivered a valuable lecture on the Aquarium at one of
the Friday evening meetings of the Royal Institution in 1857.
He was an active member of the Microscopical Society, and
invented a portable microscope for the aquarium.

He Avas appointed one of the jurors of the Chemical Section
of the International Exhibition, 1862; also selected for the
Paris Exhibition in 1867, but Avas then unable to attend.
In 1864 he was elected a FelloAv of the Royal Society. Mr.
Warinscton was Consulting Chemist to the London and Edin-
burgh Pharmacopoeia Committees engaged in the preparation
of the first ' British Pharmacopoeia,' 1864. He had pre-
viously assisted the College of Physicians Avith the ' Pharma-
copoeia Londinensis ' of 1850; and edited, Avith Mr. Denham
Smith, Phillijis's translation of the same, on the death of the
author. He Avas joint editor, Avith Dr. RedAvood, of the
' British Pharmacopoeia,' 1867 ; and assisted Dr. Farre in
preparing a condensed edition of Pereira's ' Materia Medica.'
FcAv men haA^e passed a life of more continuous and honor-
able usefulness.

He died at Budleigh Salterton, Devon, on Nov. 12th,
1867, universally respected and AA'idely lamented.

The most important of his papers were on the folloAving
subjects :

1. Chemical. — Sulphuret of Bismuth (1831); Chemical
Symbols (1832); Chromic Acid, several (1837-41-42);
Coloured Films produced by Electro-Chemical Influence
and by Heat (1840) ; Molecular Changes in Solid Bodies
(1842-43); Biniodide of Mercury (1842); Turnbull's Blue
(1848); Animal Charcoal (1845); The Teas of Commerce
(1844-52-53); Production of Boracic Acid and Ammonia by
Volcanic Action (1855); Refining Gold (1861); besides
many minor notes and memoranda.

The President's Address,

2. Pharmaceutical. — Distilled Waters of the Pharma-
copoeia (1845) ; Alcohol as a Test for the Purity of Croton
Oil (1855) ; Spii'it of Nitrous Ether and Nitrite of Soda
(1865).

3. Microscopical. — New Media for Mounting Crystals and
Organic Substances (1844-48) ; Portable Microscope (1856-
58-59).

4. Natural History. — The Balance between Animal and
Vegetable Life in Fresh and Sea Water (1850-58); Natural
History of Water-Snails and Fish (1852); Habits of Common
Prawn (1855) ; Habits of Stickleback (1855) ; besides various
other lesser memoranda.

I would now direct your attention to the state of our
Library, and this will be best done by quoting the report of
the Library Committee, as follows :

" That upon examining the books of the Society, with a
vieAv to their guidance in making purchases, in conformity
with the orders of the Council, they found that the number
of distinct works, exclusive of tracts and short papers, was
about 240. A large portion of these works, though valuable
for tracing the history of microscopical science, would be of
little use in answering the inquiries of practical workers at
the present day. Another considerable portion of the Library
consists of works which would be rarely required, either for
study or reference, on account of their relating to objects not
often seen by English observers, or to subjects which seldom
engage their attention. Deducting these two portions from
the general mass, and also deducting a few works of inferior
merit, there remained only a few dozen volumes adapted to
the ordinary reqvdrements of students and observers. There
was a great want of text-books on subjects of Natural His-
tory, Botany, Anatomy, Physiology, Geology, Mineralogy,
Chemistry, and Physics. There was also an absence of
Dictionaries, so that, with the exception of an occasional
Glossary attached to a particular work, the Library could
afford no assistance in ascertaining the meaning or derivation
of technical terms.

" With a few exceptions, the purchases made by the
Library Committee may be described as text-books of recent
date, by acknoAvledged authorities, on various branches of the
subjects enumerated above. In the selection of works —
other things being equal — the Committee gave jDreference to
such as were supplied with reliable illustrations, and in a
few instances, where they have procured more than one work

66 The President's Address.

on the same subject, a diversity of illustrations has been
one of the reasons by which they have been guided. The
forced sale of works published by M. Bailliere, consequent
upon the decease of that gentleman, enabled many purchases
of volumes abounding in microscojjical illustrations to be
made at unusually low prices; and the Committee have
availed themselves of other opportunities of obtaining pub-
lications on the most economical terms. Your Committee
have felt it their duty to avoid the piu'chase of any works of
unusual costliness, although there are many publications of
this class which it would be very desirable to place in the
Society's Library whenever it may be prudent to make such
an application of the necessary funds. The orders given by
the Committee are nearly completed. Up to the present they
have purchased of Mr. Wheldon to the extent of rather more
than £60 ; of Messrs. Nock, to the extent of £10 8s. ; and of
Mr. Quaritch, £2 5s.

" A notice of the opening of the Library has been sent by
post to each Fellow, accompanied by a request for donations
of books, or of money for their purchase. The minutes of
the proceedings of the Society will show that some valuable
additions to the Library have been recently obtained through
the liberality of various donors. Your Committee believe
that so excellent an example will be extensively followed, as
the wants of the Society become known.

" The Library Committee hope that the financial arrange-
ments of the Society will permit the continued expenditure,
from time to time, of moderate sums in the purchase of most
important works relating to microscopical science, or of older
works of established reputation, whenever they can be advan-
tageously obtained.

" While the Library remains so small that the number of
works likely to be in request amounts to only a small fraction
of the number of Fellows of the Society, the Committee do
not see their Avay to recommend a resumption of the plan of
lending books ; but they hope that, by donation and pur-
chase, the Society may, ere long, be in possession of suffi-
cient duplicates to permit an issue of works without destroy-
ing what they believe will constitute its chief value, namely,
its offering at all times, to Fellows who think proper to visit
it, the means of reference and research."

Yet some arrangements, I think, must be made to meet
the special wants of hard-working Fellows residing at a dis-
tance from London. I am not prepared to say yet what
those arrangements should be. Perhaps the best plan at
present is to leave the applicatiQn for books from anv Fellow

The President's Address. 67

to the consideration of the Council, who would comply with
such request as far as possible.

From the Library let me direct your attention to our col-
lection of Microscopic Slides. The whole collection last
year amounted to 1414, I have always felt that the deve-
lopment of this part of our property should be one of our
primary objects, and that by exchange of duplicates, by pur-
chase, and by donations, the last mentioned particularly, we
should have a museum of objects worthy the dignity of the
Society.

Perhaps there is no source of instruction more important
to a young inquirer than the oj^portunity of making himself
acquainted with properly-named specimens, and I think this
Society should aid, in all possible ways, the young observer.
It is a real pleasure to have to report that in the past year
the number of microscopic slides have been, nearly doubled.

The first present I have to announce is that of Professor
Smith, of Kenyon College, U.S., who generously gave us
146 slides of Diatomaceae; and 83 other slides have been pre-
sented by W. Ladd, Professor Owen, T. Ross, Dr. Carpenter,
T. Ralfs, and Mr. Lobb.

The next present is one of very high importance, being the
presentation of 1031 slides, a first instalment of the collection
of microscopical slides by Dr. Wallich.

The circumstances under which this present has been
made, I think, should be stated. The first announcement of
Dr. Wallich's intention was in a letter dated October 23rd,
1867, addressed to W. H. Ince, Esq., in which he says :

" I have a very large collection of microscopical slides and material,
pai-tly worked out by me ab-eady, and publislLed, but to a large extent
still requiring further examination. Such examination, if under-
taken by anyone, would, however, be greatly facilitated from the cir-
cumstance of nearly every remarkable specimen I have come across
having been carefully figured by me, and commented on in a series
of rough notes, written whilst sitting over the microscope.

" I have no numerical list of my slides or drawings, biit know that
both amount to several thotisands.

" I wish to present the whole to the Microscopical Society, feeling
sure that the Council for the time being will form the best medium
for determining the mode in which my material can be utilised.

" There are one or two preliminary conditions which I should like
to see obsei-ved, should the Society think fit to accept my gift. _ But
these I would only impose in consultation with and under the willing
sanction of one or two friends on whose scientific judgment I could
rely, and in whose hands I should feel I was placing myself with
perfect safety.

" I woidd name Mr. Glaisher and yourself and Dr. Carpenter as
my advisers in the matter. Of course I cannot say whether you and
they would undertake a task of the kind. Should it be so under-

VOL. XVI. /

68 The President's Address.

taken, however, I would pledge myself to accept tlie suggestions of
this committee, and to allow my materials to be utilised, subject only
to such conditions as it might think right to impose.

" This is what I want. What I do not want is, that my material
should be employed merely for dilettante work.

" Knowing the keen interest you take in the Society, I do not
hesitate to make these proposals to you, and to ask you to commu-
nicate with Mr. Glaisher on the subject."

On receipt of this letter I carefully thought over the sug-
gested conditions, and I kept the letter for some time, but
experienced very great difficulties indeed in drawing up
any conditions which would not restrict the Council, for all
time to come, in such a way as would lessen the Council's
power to utilise the gift, and thus far lessen its value.

It seemed to me that so much material, needing a good
deal of work to prepare the results for publication, might be
undertaken by some of our hard-working Fellows in the
country, and therefore the conditions should be such as to
leave the Council free to let them, for a time, be in the hands
of country members, if necessary.

On November 26th I had a long and final inter\iew with
Mr. Ince upon this matter, who undertook to communicate
to Dr. Wallich my views and the results of our conference,
which he did on November 27th. On November 28th, Dr.
Wallich wrote to Mr. Ince as follows :

" Lest any misgiving may exist or arise on the subject, I think it
as well to ptit thus on record, in order that you may make whatever
use you like of the information, that I submit the offer of my collec-
tions, drawings, &c., to the Society, hampered by no condition or
reservation tchatever. The few words in which you conveyed to me
last evening your opinion that means would be taken to prevent
slides, (fee, from being lost, having at once met the sole purpose I
had in my mind when I previously wrote to you on the subject.

" "When I add that I feel sure the Society will, through its present
executive (supposing my offer to be deemed fit for acceptance), do
whatever is best in the matter, I have said all I have to say."

Thus, generously and unconditionally. Dr. Wallich pre-
sented the " W^allich Collection" to this Society.

It then appeared to Mr. Ince and myself, that if Dr.
Wallich could go over the slides, and make brief notes on
anything necessary, that great additional value would be
given.

On December 5th, Dr. Wallich, in a letter to Mr. Ince,
says :

" I have commenced going over the slides in my cabinet, and see
so much that I should like to make a brief note of, for submission to
the Society, with the specimens themselves, that I cannot help think-
ing it would be highly desirable to defer making over the collection

The Presidtnfs Address. 69

till the January meeting. A few words indicating the object espe-
cially pointed at. the questions they are calculated to throw light
upon, and so forth, could soon be put into shape by me ; but it would
be impossible for me to devote more than a very brief period daily to
the task, and to do it at all by Saturday next is impossible. I should
also like to oifer a few remarks (the last, in all probability, I shall
ever make on subjects of the kind) on the drawings. These would
greatly help any observers who might wish to work out the history
of structures referred to, and, both in the case of the slides and
figures, would save others a vast deal of trou.ble. Now I know each
slide and drawing as if they were old, well-known friends, and to me
the labour would be but trifling. It is the time I want, and there is
no way of gaining this except by the delay I speak of.

" But pray accept this only as a suggestion, meant to do good in
the end. If you would rather your original idea of presenting the
things to the Society at the next meeting were carried out, I shall be
quite willing and happy to be guided by you. Under any circum-
stances I hold myself j3?ec?^ecZ to do as you and Mr. Glaisher wish in
the matter."

After thisj at an interview with Mr. Ince and Dr. Wal-
lich, I having expressed my desire that, as the sHdes and
draA^dngs had relation to subjects of natural history carefully
collected and as carefully studied by him in different parts
of the world, I should be glad if he would classify and ex-
plain the collection of the slides and drawings, and, if possi-
ble, have such a description ready for my address to-day. I
regret to say that, since then, Dr. Wallich has been con-
tinuously ill, and unable to do so ; but I do hope still that
he will enrich our Procedings by such a description, which I
feel would greatly enhance the interest and value, and
perhaps act as a guide to their usefulness in the future.

By the report of the Cabinet Committee, it will be seen
that they are engaged in rearranging, reclassifying, and they
contemplate relabelling every slide. This will necessitate the
printing of a new Catalogue.

I would now call your attention to the state of our Instru-
ments. Upon examining them, preparatory to placing them
in our new Library, many pieces of apparatus were found
wanting. For instance, from the old microscope, by A. Ross,
there were wanting — frog plate, two large animalculse cases,
case of animalculse tubes, -^ object-glass, cabinet micrometer,
1-inch Lieberklihn, single lens cover, case of single lenses.

Since then, Andrew Ross' instrument has been put into
thorough working order, and the objectives have been
adapted to the Society's screw.

Mr. Thomas Ross has presented us with a new 4-inch
objective.

Mr. Wray has presented us with a ^rd-inch objective,
having 50° of angle of aperture.

70 The President's Address.

Mr. Browning has supplied us with a very beautifully
made micro-spectroscope, and fitted it to our large Ross.

We therefore possess, omitting the ancient instruments,
Mr. Peters' instrument for microscopic writing and eight
microscopes, including a most complete binocular by T.
Ross; a good Andrew Ross, wanting the -i-th objective,
which seems to be lost; an old Smith and Beck; a good
w^orking instrument by Powell, lately converted into a
binocular ; a binocular by Baker ; two binoculars by Swift,
purchased this year.

All these instruments are most useful and serviceable ; and
I have reason to believe that good use has been made of
them on the Wednesday evening meetings of the Fellows,
and in the Library.

Our various instruments also mark the progressive stage
of improvement in the microscojie,- beginning with Martin
and Culpepper, to the best of modern makers.

We therefore possess, at present, as complete a set of in-
struments and working tools as it is possible to obtain ; and
I hope, as they will be more used and more constantly under
observation, that we shall not experience more losses ; and I
also hope the Council will always be able to purchase all the
latest improvements of the best makers of the respective in-
struments.

You are already aware that the authorities of King's
College kindly entertained the application of the Council for
a room in the College, and that now we possess, for the first
time, accommodation for the proper use of our instruments,
admitting frequent access to them by our Fellows. We have
had to fit the room up, to furnish it Avith bookcases, &c.

When we came into possession of this room, it was neces-
sary to examine carefully all our j^roperty. This examina-
tion proved that some books were missing, some slides
broken, and some parts of instruments wanting. These ex-
joeriences have taught us that all the property of the Society
should be carefully catalogued, and, I think, has also taught
us the necessity that once, at least, in every year every book,
slide, and parts of instruments, should be compared with
their catalogues.

On the collecting the property of the Society at our room,
and seeing its value, your Council resolved to insure the
property, and have done so,' the amount of insurance being
for £800, a sum, I believe, below its real value.

I have thus endeavoured to sj)eak of the work of your
Council during the past year; and I would ask those
FelloAvs who have expressed disappointment at the temjjorary
suspension in lending books, to consider the circumstances

The Pres'idenfs Address. 71

in which the Council, as trustees of property, found them-
selves placed, and how necessary it was to examine every-
thing we have, to ascertain our deficiencies, and, as far as
possible, to suj^jily them, in order to make our Library, our
Cabinet, and our Instruments, as perfect as possible.

The papers which have been brought before the Society
during the past year have presented many features of con-
siderable interest, and relate to various branches of micro-
scopical science.

Two of these papers have related to parasites — one by
Dr. W. C. Mcintosh, F.L.S., on the " Gregariniform Para-
site of Borlasia " (March 13), and another on the " Parasites
found in the Nerves, «&c., of the common Haddock," by Dr.
Maddox (June 12).

Dr. Mcintosh found abundant specimens of Gregarinae in
the Nemertian worms, known as Borlasia octoculata and
Borlasia olivacea. He likewise discovered numerous ova
containing embryos that appeared to be Gregarinc parasites,
though he did not witness an actual birth. It was remarked
that these parasitic ova were most plentiful in August, while
the Borlasia deposited its ova towards the end of January.

Dr. Maddox's paper gives an elaborate account of curious
parasites discovered and partially described by Monro secun-
dus, more fully investigated by Prof. Sharpey in 1836, and
Mr. H. Goodsir in 1844. Dr. Maddox states that on making
an incision along the caudal extremity over the spinal column
of the common haddock, and dissecting back the muscles,
the series of nerves, as they pass from the spinal cord, are
found studded with flattened bead-shaped bodies, plainly
visible to the naked eye.

Observed under the microscope, these bodies are found to
be cysts, averaging about -j-^-oths of an inch in diameter, and
containing a living parasite similar to Distoma. Many of
the anatomical details described by Dr. Maddox do not
appear to have been noticed by previous observers ; and for
these I must refer to the paper itself, citing only one passage
on which certain important conclusions are expressed.

Dr. Maddox says, ''According to the opinion of many,
the encysted entozoa are regarded as immature parasites or
in their pupa condition, and dovibtless this may be the case ;
but how far the peculiar creature under consideration has
deviated or passed to a higher grade and become partially
sexually mature, I cannot say, but venture to hazard the
following suggestion :

" That we have here, as in other Diatomata, a herma-

72 The Presidenfs Address.

plirodite creature, wliich in its progress towards a reciprocal
sexvial maturity yet carries on self-impregnation, so that, at
the death of its host, and thus wiihin a moderate time of its
own death, impregnated ova may be set free to again become,
perhaps, Monostoma embryos to pass through a Cercarial
stage, or the lowest phase of a Trematode life " (Q. J. M. S.,
Oct., 1867, p. 94). Dr. Maddox thinks it possible that the
earliest stage of the parasites may be passed in the bodies of
shell-fish, Avhich the haddock eats.

In March, Mr. "Whitney brought before us a series of re-
markably interesting researches in a paper " On the Changes
which accompany the Metamorphosis of the Tadpole, in re-
ference especially to the Respiratory and Sanguiniferous
Systems ;" and those Avho had the pleasure of hearing this
paper read will remember the beautiful series of coloured
drawings and anatomical proportions with which it was
illustrated.

Mr. Whitney explained the nature of the two sets of gills,
one external and the other internal, with which the tadpole
is furnished. He showed the way in which the respiratory
function is transferred from the outer to the inner gills ; the
development of the latter taking place in proportion to the
atrophy experienced by the former.

After showing, stage by stage and step by step, the de-
velopment and the changes which take place in these two
sets of gills, Mr. Whitney described the true lungs which
co-exist with the gills of the tadpole in an incipient form,
and pass through their gradations of development simul-
taneously with those phases of maturity, decline, and decay
exhibited by the gill organs. To see the action of the inner
gills in a living tadpole, Mr. Whitney applies a single drop
of chloroform to render the creature insensible, and then
carefully cuts aw^ay the integument with fine scissors, thus
laying the gills bare, while the circvilation is vigorous, and
capable of affording a splendid sjDcctacle on the stage of the
microscope.

In May we were indebted to Dr. Lionel Beale for a paper
on '^ Nutrition exhibiting many facts of the highest im-
portance, arrived at by Microscojiic Investigation, and con-
troverting opinions expressed by Mr. Herbert Spencer and
other well-known writers on Biological Subjects concerning
so-called ' Vital Action Processes.' " Dr. Beale, as my
hearers are well aw^are, divides the matter contained in living
bodies into three classes — germinal matter, formed material,
and pabulum. The first only he considers alive, or possessed
of vital properties. The formed material he regards as no

The President's Address. 73

longer living, and the pabulum consists of appropriate matter
derived from food, and capable of being acted upon by the
germinal matter and converted into its own substance.

He says, in the pajDer to which I am referring, " calling
the germinal matter which was derived from pre-existing
germinal matter a, the pabulum b, and the formed material
resulting from changes in the germinal matter c, that b be-
comes a, and a becomes converted into c, but b can never
be converted into c, except by the agency, and, in fact, by
passing through the condition, of a."

Dr. Beale considers that, in the present state of our know-
ledge it is impossible to explain the conversion of pabulum
into germinal matter by physics or chemistry, but he believes
that "vitality excites germinal matter to divide itself into
smaller portions under the influence of some ' centripetal
force.' " '^ This moving away of particles from a centre will
necessarily create a tendency of particles around to move
towards the centre," and then the nutrient pabulum may be
drawn in.

It is not my purpose to discuss the very important ques-
tions upon which Dr. Beale is at issue with certain other
distinguished authorities ; but the value of that discussion
will be apparent if I bring before you another passage from
his paper, and contrast it with a citation from M. Berthelot,
in whose hands Synthetic Chemistry has made such remark-
able progress.

Dr. Beale says, " The point in which every nutritive
operation differs essentially from every other known change
is this : the composition and properties of the nutrient matter
are completely altered, its elements are entirely rearranged,
so that compounds which may be detected in the nutrient
matter are no longer present when this has been taken up by
the matter to be nourished. The only matter capable of
effecting such changes as these is living matter. * * * *
Desirous as I am to yield all that can be yielded to those who
maintain that there are no vital powers distinct from ordinary
force, I might say that a particle of soft transparent matter,
called by some living, Avliich came from a pre-existing particle,
effected, silently, and in a moment, wdthout apparatus, with
little loss of material, at a temperature of 60° or lower,
changes in matter, some of which can be imitated in the
laboratory in the course of days or weeks by the aid of a
highly skilled chemist, furnished with complex apparatus
and the means of producing a very high temperature and in-
tense chemical action, with an enormous w\aste of material.
It is, therefore, quite obvious that an independent, scientific

74< The President's Address.

man must, for the present, hold that the operations by which
changes arc effected in substances by hving matter are in
their nature essentially different from those which man is
about to employ to bring about changes of a similar kind out
of the body ; and until we are taught what the agent or
operator in the living matter really is, it is better to call it
vital power than to deny its existence altogether."

I am not aAvare of a better expression of the other side
of the controversy than a passage from M. Berthelot.*
M. Berthelot observes that ''the general problems of the
nutrition of living beings are chemical problems, and so are
those of respiration. The study of these problems rests
upon data supplied by organic chemistry. In animal tissues,
as soon as the solids, the liquids, and the gases are brought
into reciprocal contact, under the influence of movements
which are referable to the nervous system and to a special
structure, which we do not know how to imitate, purely
chemical affinities develop themselves amongst these solids,
gases, and liquids, and the combinations to which they give
rise depend exclusively on the laws of organic chemistry."

In another place M. Berthelot affirms that " synthesis con-
ducts us to this fundamental truth, that the chemical forces
which rule over organic matter are really, and without re-
serve, the same as those which rule over mineral matter."

It is evident that while chemistry may do much to solve
questions of this descrixJtion, the microscope is an essential
instrument in their investigations, for without it the student
would be utterly unable to understand the character of the
apparatus which nature employs in living beings, and the
chemist himself would be in constant danger of treating as
homogeneous wholes portions of matter which the micro-
scopist can demonstrate to consist of separate and dissimilar
materials.

I will only further allude to Dr. Beale's paper for the sake
of observing that it contains important reasons for regarding
the materials contained in the serum of the blood as the
pabulum of the tissues.

At the same meeting at which the j)aper on Nutrition was
read. Dr. Beale made a brief communication to meet an
objection made by Dr. Ransom to his i:)lan of staining tissues
with carmine, on the alleged ground that the ammonia
present in the solution rapidly dissolved the germinal vesicle
and contents of the Ovarian ova of a stickleback.

Dr. Beale explains that there must have been some

* ' Lefons sur les Methodes Generales de Synthese en Chemie Orffauioue.'
By M. Berthelot. p. 9,

The President's Address. 75

mistake in Dr. Eansom's method of procedure, as ammonia
does not exert the action he supposed.

In May, Mr. E. E-ay Lankester contributed a paper on
" The Structure of the Tooth of Ziphius Sowerbiensis," and
in November Mr. Edwin T. Newton brought before us
certain " Anatomical Differences observed in some Species of
the Helices and the Limaces," the difference being " in
the reproductive organs, where some of the parts become
modified or suppressed ; in certain additions to the ali-
mentary canal ; and in the variations which the muscles
undergo.

In December, Mr. C. Stewart brought under our notice
the "Structure of the Pedicellariae of the Cidaridae," and on
January 7th Prof. T. Rupert Jones, F.G.S., gave us an
account of '' Fossil Bivalved Entomostraca," showing their
extensive range of distribution in geologic times.

In this last paper allusion was first made to the great
abundance of Entomostraca recognisable in the fossil state in
clays, marble, freestones, chalk, &c., as having left their
shells and cases in the sediments of seas, lakes, and rivers of
all geologic dates, just as at the present day we find the
living species swimming in the water, crawling on the sands,
or burrowing in the mud.

Prof Rupert Jones explained the general nature, structure,
and habits of the Entomostraca, and of the bivalved forms
in particular, pointing out their relations to other Crusta-
ceans. He also gave an account of their distribution in
various rocks, from the Silurian to the Post-pleioccne, for
the details of which I must refer to his paper.

Only one paper during the session referred to Entomology,
which was read in June by Professor Rymer Jones, F.R.S. The
subject was " The Structure and Metamorphosis of the Larva
of Coreihra Phimicornis," one of the most elegant inhabitants
of fresh water ponds. The anatomical details in this paper
will be found of much interest, and the description it gives
of the bursting of the four remarkable air sacs with which
this creature is provided, followed by the rapid appearance
of a tracheal system, suggests very interesting inquiries,
which it is hoped Fellows of this Society will undertake.
It cannot be supposed that an elaborate tracheal system is
made of a sudden ; and it does not appear that either Pro-
fessor Rymer Jones or any other observer has hitherto suc-
ceeded in tracing the usual process of development.

In November Mr. John Gorham read the only truly
botanical paper of the session, on a " Peculiar Distribution
of the Veins in Leaves of the Umbelliferse." Mr. Gorham

76 The President's Address.

observes that " the distribution of the veins in Umbelliferee
is very variable in different species, but constant and highly-
characteristic in each species :" " that many of the leaves of
this order have a venation like that of other leaves, and may
be classified with them ; but that a considerable number have
a kind of venation peculiar to themselves, which does not
find a place under any of the divisions that have heretofore
existed :" " that this peculiarity consists in the existence of
a vein at the very edge of the leaf itself, and which more or
less entirely fringes the whole margin." This venation he
finds in one half if not m(?re of the UmbelliferEe.

In December Mr. Tatem described new species of micro-
scopic animals belonging to the genera Epistylis and Caeno-
morpha.

Two other papers of the session relate to microscopic
organisms : the first by Mr. Sheppard, communicated by the
Rev. J. B. Reade, who previously had investigated the sub-
ject. This paper, " On the Production of Colour by Micro-
scopic Organisms," brought a subject before us interesting
in itself and new to English observers. Dr. Cohn of Breslau
had, however, made similar researches, which are recorded
in our ' Journal ' for last July, and in a letter to Mr. Shep-
pard, dated Breslau, Nov. 1, 186T, which I read at a recent
Council meeting. Dr. Cohn says, " Curiously enough in the
last summer a 'third memoir about * Phycocyan ' (his own
name for the colouring material) has appeared in the
' Botanische Zeitung von Mohl und De Bary,' from Dr.
Aschkenasi, each observation quite independently made from
the others."

We may therefore hope that the question, " Whence the
colour ?" will be soon and fully answered. Mr. Sheppard is
of opinion that the intense colour produced in a few hours
by a few grains of almost colourless organisms, in more than
two ounces of albuminous fluid, is due to the action of life
on this suitable vehicle; and he supports his opinion by a
reference to M. Pasteur's statement on the similar action of
certain monads and vibrios on nitrogenous substances.

Dr. Cohn, on the other hand, is of opinion that his Phy-
cocyan already exists along Avith Chlorophyll in the cells of
these low organisms, and " on the death of the cells the phy-
cocyan is dissolved in the water, which penetrates by endos-
mosis, and then appears by dialysis as a blue fluid, whilst
the chlorophyll remains in the cells." (' Journal,' p. J309.)

But Dr. Cohn, in thanking Mr. Sheppaid " for his highly
interesting communication," admits the necessity of further
experiments J, " that the truth may be established ;" and after

The Presidenfs Address. 77

intimating his intention to pursue the subject further, he con-
ckides, " I shall also endeavour to repeat your experiments
with albumen, the influence of which upon the colour seems
very curious after your investigations."

The Rev. J. B. Eeade exhibited a " thousand grain " bottle
of the dichroic fluid at the Society's Soiree, and Messrs.
Sorby and Browning have described its remarkable spectra.
In a letter from Rev. J. B. Reade, dated Feb. 3, 1868, he
informs me that the convervoid mass, which produced that
splendid colour in a solution of albumen, is growing again,
and that Mr. Sheppard will soon gather it again in velvety
sheets, in sufficient quantity for different observers to work
upon, and no doubt Ave shall soon know the truth.

The second paper referring to minute organisms was by
our Hon. Secretary, Mr. Slack (read in December), " On a
Ferment found in French Wine," corresponding in proper-
ties with M. Pasteur's Mycodenna vini, and shown to be one
of the series of forms assumed by the Yeast plant, the Blue
Mould Penicillum glaucum, Sec. It was incapable in its original
state of exciting either vinous or acetous fermentation.

The subject of Micro-chemistry and Toxicology came be-
fore the Society in a paper read in October by Dr. Guy, " On
Microscopic Sublimates." This paper was richly illustrated
by specimens of the objects described by photo-micrographs
of Dr. Julius Pollock and Dr. Maddox, and by drawings of
Mr. Tuffen AVest. By carrying further than previous ob-
servers had done the preparation and examination of micro-
scopic sublimates, Dr. Guy has opened new and important
fields of inquiry and analysis, which bid fair to be useful in
medico-legal and other investigations. His preparations were
remarkable for the elegance and variety of their forms, and
for the very small quantities of matter which sufficed to pro-
duce them. In one instance -roV-irth of a grain of crystallized
strychnine yielded nine distinct sublimates in succession, and
among them there must have been one Aveighing less than
the y-ij-L_oth of a grain.

Notwithstanding the difficulties arising from the existence
of isomorphic bodies and the changes in crystalline forms,
resulting from peculiar conditions, and the presence of sub-
stances interfering with normal results, there is reason to
hope that processes of this description may in many cases
yield definitely characteristic indications, and in others afford
evidence which may be of great importance as portions of a
chain of proof; and Dr. Guy's researches will be regarded
as all the more valuable from the difficulties that frequently
attend ordinary methods of investigation.

78 The President's Address.

Passing from organized beings to apparatus, I find a
valuable paper, contributed by Dr. Carpenter in June, on
" Nacliet's Stereo-Pseudoscopic Binocular Microscope."

From the construction of this instrument the observer is
able to pass immediately from a stereoscopic to a pseudoscopic
\ie-\v of any object under investigation. It is only necessary
to change the position of the prism figured in the illustra-
tions to this paper, in order to send the rays to the left eye
which belong to the right eye, and vice versa; the effect
being that all stereoscopic results are reversed.

Dr. Carpenter also referred to the application of Nachet's
binocular magnifier to Beck's dissecting microscope, with
which he found its jjerformance of great value.

Microscopic lamps have been brought several times before
us during the year. Mr. Lobb described and exhibited an
elegant little camphine lamp made by Young. Mr. Piper
exhibited a convenient and economical travelling lamp.
Messrs. Murray and Heath exhibited an ingenious telescope
lamp, made with sliding tubes, by which its height can be
varied; and Mr. Bockett exhibited a lamp (made by Mr.
Collins) furnished Avith a form of parabolic illuminator and
chimney screen, adapted to prevent the diffusion of light,
and to concentrate it in parallel rays proceeding in the direc-
tion required.

Amongst the presents which have lately enriched the
Society's collection is a new four-inch objective contributed
by Mr. Ross. Low powers have been too much neglected
by modern microscopists. Messrs. Powell and Lealand in-
deed have been in the habit of making a dividing objective
of which the lowest power was four inches ; but its utility
does not seem to have been sufficiently perceived. Mr. Poss's
four-inch gives great satisfaction to those who have tried it.
It enables a satisfactory view to be obtained of many living
objects, such as polyzoa and compound polyps, too large for
higher powers. It also gives excellent results with many
anatomical preparations, entire insects, and large polariscopic
objects. When employed with the dcejier eye-piece and the
binocular microscope, it enables considerable magnification
to be obtained, accompanied by a depth of penetration Avhich
higher objectives with larger angles of aperture cannot give.

Mr, Wray has presented to the Society a two-thii'ds objec-
tive with an angle of aperture of 50°. This glass is stated by
those who have examined it to possess a high degree of
merit ; but excessive angles of aperture are necessarily fatal
to penetration, and involve peculiar optical errors from a
confusion of perspectives. We very justly praise them as

The President's Address, 79

specimens of an optician's skill in overcoming difficulties,
and they may be valuable for particular investigations ; but
tliey can never take the place of objectives in which the
angles of aperture are so proijortioned to focal length as to
make the microscopic vision of inanimate objects resemble
as closely as possible the natural vision of larger ones. Im-
portant observations on this subject have been made by Mr.
Wenham ; and Dr. Carpenter's paper on Nachet's binocular
contains some valuable information, reinforcing opinions he
has long expressed.

It must not be supposed in these remarks that I am in any
way underrating Mr. Wray's labours. It is certainly de-
sirable that microscopists should be able to form their own
conclusions by experiments on this subject, and a well-made
two-thirds, such as Mr. Wray has presented to us, with what
may be described as an enormous aperture may be advan-
tageously compared with objectives of similar power made by
Mr. Wray or other makers, in which the angle of aperture is
much less.

During the past year few important novelties in micro-
scopical apparatus appear to have been introduced. Mr.
Highley has brought out a very elegant miniature micro-
scope for the pocket. It is contained in a round German
silver case, four inches long and three quarters of an inch in
diameter, and can thus be easily carried in the pocket.
It is furnished with a tin box and a dividing objective,
and a draw tube. Its power is sufficient to enable the
collector to recognise the nature of his gatherings, when
they consist of Diatoms, Desmids, and other microscopic
Algse ; and in many cases it would afford the medical man
the means of distinguishing marked products. Though not
new in principle, the smallness and convenience of this little
instrument entitles it to mention.

Messrs. Murray and Heath also exhibited a new form of
pocket microscope, which can either be used as a hand
microscope or secured by a single thumb-screw to a very
firm folding tripod stand. It is capable of being placed at
any desired inclination, and firmly fixed in any position by
the same scrcAV which fastens it to the stand, and which acts
as an axle clamp. The whole packs in a case measuring only
6Hn. X 3^ in. x 2lin. deep.

Mr. Ross has devised a new object-holder, which will
prove of much use in many special inquiries.

Microscopists frequently desire to examine unmounted ob-
jects of various dimensions, which cannot be held in the
stage forceps, partly on account of their limited oj^ening,

80 The President's Address.

and partly from tlie want of parallelism in tlie approach of
their two blades. In the new instrument a screw motion
adjusts the distance between two parallel blades, so that
they will grasp any object from three quarters of an inch in
diameter to the smallest size Avhich forceps of any kind can
advantageously hold. Natural and artificial crystals to be
viewed with the polariscope or the micro-spectroscope, or
under the Lieberkilhn, may be mentioned as amongst the
objects for which this holder is especially useful. It has
universal motions, and may be used like the stage-forceps, or
attached to a separate brass frame, which is most convenient.

I may also call attention to an apparatus contrived by Dr.
Strieker, for the examination of objects exposed to various
gases, or to an electric current, which is described in the
* Quart. Journ. Mic. Sci.,' p. 40.

Mr. Curteis (of Baker's) has introduced a convenient
series of slide-cells, of different forms and sizes, which are
very handy in viewing living objects. They are hollowed
out of glass slides, and furnished with thin glass covers
attached to revolving brass buttons. They are made in sizes
adapted to objects like Conochilus or to elongated aquatic
larvse.

The International Exhibition at Paris last year afforded
another opportunity of comparing microscopes made by
makers in different countries. As a juror at the Exhibitions
in the years 1851 and 1862, and as reporter at the former,
I had good opportunities in the examination of all the micro-
scopes exhibited, and doubtless, at both these times, the
English opticians held the first place.

It has been reported that this was not the case at the
recent Exhibition, and I have been anxious to ascertain the
facts, as, since 1862, our makers have steadily continued to
improve both stands and object-glasses. I learn that there
was only one meeting of the jury for microscopic examination,
and that was in a small room with many lamps. I scarcely
need say that careful and minute comparison under such
circumstances was imj)0ssible.

That the best continental makers have considerably im-
proved upon their previous efforts is generally admitted ; but
in no case do they appear to have reached the very high de-
gree of excellence attained by the best English artists. It is
rather in America than on the Continent that our opticians
have to fear rivalry; and some objectives, constructed by
Mr. Wales (an Englishman settled in that country), have been
deservedly spoken of in terms of the highest praise.

Dr. Maddox has recently brought before our notice a

The President's Address, 81

series of American photomicrographs of the Podiira scale, in
which the best results were obtained with Powell and Lea-
land's voth, then with Wales' ^th and amplifier, and Wales'
r.^th immersion lens. Hartnack's No. 11 immersion lens
did not give a good result, which Dr. Woodward thinks
might have resulted from the great want of coincidence of
the visual and chemical rays, but which Dr. Maddox is dis-
posed to ascribe to some triflng error in centering when the
necessary chemical correction was made.

In the course of a recent discussion concerning the com-
parative merits of English and continental objectives, there
has been a disposition, in some continental quarters, to con-
demn the use of deep eye-pieces, and this fact points to the
imperfection of the continental objectives. An English
microscopist invariably tests his objectives with deep eye-
pieces, and condemns those which Avill not stand the trial.

A first-rate glass will perform much better with a B or C
eye-piece than a second-rate one with an A eye-piece ; and it
is often extremely convenient to use a lower power with a
deeper eye-piece in preference to a higher power with a
lower eye-piece, as the former method gives a greater work-
ing distance between the lens and the object, and a greater
degree of penetration — that is, presuming the lower objec-
tive has a smaller angle of aperture than the higher one.

No continental maker exhibited any microscope stands
possessing the finish or the mechanical advantages of our
first-class instruments ; but a cheap form, devised by Nachet,
was found to be meritorious and convenient, having an ex-
cellent rotating stage, a point which Dr. Carpenter — than
whom there can be no better authority — considers essential
to the best working of a binocular instrument, as, without it,
it is often impossible to bring an object into the most advan-
tageous position with regard to the light.

There is, however, one point to which I wish to direct
attention, and that is, the excellence of some of the French
objectives corrected for immersion; that is, introducing a
drop of water between the covering-glass of the object and
the outer surface of the objective.

This plan, as Dr. Maddox reports to us, has been success-
fully adopted by Mr. Wales in America. It was originally
introduced by Amici, and some rather rough experiments
were tried by Mr. Andrew Ross and by Messrs. ISmith and
Beck, who came to the conclusion that it was not the best
mode of obtaining the desired result; it may, however, be
advisable to reconsider this decision.

Where the largest possible angles of aperture are required

82 The President's Address.

for the most difficult lined objects, the immersion system
may be found the best and most convenient, though glasses
specially corrected for examining such objects in an un-
covered state, might give a more reliable result.

The late Richard Beck strongly advocated this mode of
observing Diatoms, and had a great number of them
mounted, so as to be viewed without covering-glass. Mr.
Ross has also experimented in the same direction. In such
observations broken valves of Diatoms are the most instruc-
tive in showing the real character of the marking, and the
most ready way of obtaining such specimens is to press the
moist Diatoms between two pieces of thin glass, allow them
to dry, and then separate the glass discs, in which fractured
portions of the valves will be found to adhere.

The extreme angles given to object-glasses for the purpose
of disj^laying the most difficult surface markings, render
them comparatively useless for ordinary and more imjiortant
work ; and microscopists are now agreed as to the soundness of
the opinion enunciated some years ago by a former President
of the Society, Dr. Carpenter, in favour of angles of aperture
which are consistent with a due amount of penetration, and
which do not distort the appearance of objects by the false
perspectives which inordinate angles of aperture produce.

If we regard immersion lenses from this point of view, we
shall perceive that their value must be very limited, when their
object is simply to produce the effect of extreme-angled
objectives ; but they may still have an important field of
utility, when applied to the highest powers, by their action
in increasing the working distance between the object and
the objective.

Where the immersion plan cannot render some peculiar
and sjjecial service, it is open to the objections generally
made by English microscopists^, that the objective requires
frequent wiping, and that the employment of water is dan-
gerous to mounted objects, if any portion of the covering-
glass is cracked, or there should be any marginal crevice
through which the fluid can penetrate.

In my address of last year, I brought before you the very
gratifying fact of the formation of the Old Change Micro-
scopical Society ; this Society, I am glad to say, has pro--
ceeded well, and is prospering under the presidency of Mr.
Leaf. I have heard of the formation of similar Societies,
but I have not had any communication with them ; but every
year adds, and I hope will increasingly add, new evidence of
the appreciation in which microscopical science is held by
all classes, and particularly those interested in education. I

The Presidenfs Address. 83

am glad to learn that under the presidency of one of our
Fellows, Mr. Hall, a Microscopic Section has* been formed
in connection with the Mutual Improvement Society at
Hackney. The earnest uniting together for the purchase of
microscopes and microscopical literatui'e is a gratifying proof
of this new Society's progress. While speaking of Societies,
I think it is a matter of regret that we have no relation or
connection with the many good Microscopical Societies
which are in existence in nearly all our large towns, and
mutual benefit, I think, would follow if some sort of con-
nection could be formed, by which we might afford accommo-
dation to their members when visiting the metro23olis, and
they, in turn, might communicate to us important informa-
tion, and enrich our cabinet by the contribution of duplicate
slides.

During the past year, the wide acceptance of the germinal
theory of disease has given fresh vigour to the emplojanent
of the microscope as an agent in the work of the sanitary
reformer. The Board of Health Privy Council have had
many clever men at work with the microscope investigating
the cattle plague, cholera, «&c. Many of our zymotic and
epidemic diseases will receive much light from the instrument
our Society has done so much to place in the hands of every
one, and taught how to make use of to good pui'pose ; but in
this department the instrument is only in its infancy.

I will now advert to a subject ultimately connected with
our future prosperity.

The growing importance of the Royal Microscopical
Society, and the increasing demand for records of its transac-
tions, have led your Council to take into their serious con-
sideration the mode in which they have been published for
some years past. It is not consistent with the dignity of a
Royal Society that its proceedings should exclusively appear
in a publication over which the President and officers of the
Society have absolutely no control. The arrangements entered
into with the editors of the ' Quarterly Journal of Micro-
scopical Science ' take the mode and form of publication, the
quantity of illustrations, and other important particulars
entirely out of the hands of the Society's officers, which
precludes the Society from obtaining, except at a very heavy
expense, the number of copies required for presentation and
exchange. Considering these and other difficulties arising
from that arrangement, your Council decided upon giving
notice to terminate the agreement after the publication of the
October number for the current year, which will complete the
volume for 1868.

VOL. XVI. g

84 The President's Address.

In devising new plans of publication, the Council hope to
secure for the Fellows of the Society greater advantages in
proportion to the sum expended, and so to meet the views of
gentlemen engaged in original researches that they may be
induced to send their jDapers preferentially to this Society,
even when, as is often the case, other Societies of great in-
fluence might be oj)en to their reception.

I think the time has arrived when the Council may take
into their serious consideration the propriety of aAvarding a
gold medal for the results of patient researches or papers of
high microscopical merit, or for ncAV inventions, &c., in the
hope of encouraging our Fellows and others to work zealously
and patiently.

Annually to confer a Royal Microscopical Society's medal
for work of high merit would, I believe, tend to the j)ros-
perity of the Society, by causing papers of the highest class
to be brought to us. This subject, together with all the
details connected with the publishing of our " Transactions,"
will come under the consideration of your new Council, and
I do not doubt that with their care and attention to this
subject, important improvements may be effected.

There is another matter which, I think, deserves attention.
It has been the practice of the Society to invest in the public
funds all the money paid by compounding Fellows ; this
practice is a sound and good one in the infancy of a Society,
but plainly a time must come when more money will be in-
vested than that corresponding with living compounders, and
after this the death of a compounder might Avith propriety
release for use, if required, the amount of his composition.

By the Treasurer's account to-day we see that we have more
than £1000 consols, and a sum of £168 waiting investment;
that all the extra heavy expenses incurred this year have been
paid, and that the balance at the bankers exceeds by a good
deal our present liabilities.

That our finances are in so good a condition is clue to our
acting Treasurer, Mr. Ince, who has been indefatigable in
the interests of the Society, and to whom our best thanks are
due.

Under these circumstances, it becomes a matter for con-
sideration with the new Council whether we shall noM- con-
form to the usages of other old and well established Societies
in this respect.

I hope by these means to be able to comply with the wish
expressed of the Library Committee to devote some funds
annually to the purchase of necessary Avorks ; and I also
hope the Council will be able to devote any sum necessary

Dr. Collingwood, on Microscopic Alga. 85

for the purchase of slides, when such as we want may be had
by purchase.

At the last year's anniversary our numerical strength was
390; in the session just closed the elections have numbered
seventy-four; we have lost four by death, and eight by
resignation. Our present strength is, therefore, 453 Fellows;
of these 361 are annual subscribers, and ninty-one com-
pounders.

Thus the Society is flourishing, as viewed in respect to
finances, number of its Fellows, and increase in property.

The last year has been one of great and unusual exaction
of time and work from all your officers, and particularly from
the secretaries, without whose zealous assistance I do not
know how all the work could have been done which has
been done, nor the library prepared for use ; I am greatly
myself indebted to them.

In conclusion, I beg to offer my thanks for the courtesy
I have received from every member of every committee, and
from every member of the Council, and to you for the
support you have given me in performing the duties of your
President.

Observations on the Microscopic Alga which causes the
Discoloration of the Sea in various parts of the
World. By Dr. C. Collingwood, M.A., F.L.S.

(Read March 11th, 1S68.)

Although a great deal has been written at various times
on the subject of the floating substance known to sailors as
sea sawdust, whale's food, &c., it does not necessarily follow
that there is not still much to be added by those who have
themselves observed the phenomenon. Moreover, although
travellers have from tigie to time recorded the appearance of
this substance upon the surface of the ocean in different parts
of the world, it so happens that those who have written the
most elaborate articles upon it have either never seen it (as,
for instance, Montague), or had but limited opportunities for
its observation, which latter was indeed the case with Ehren-
berg. Again, the interesting accounts written by these
naturalists have referred almost exclusively to the substance
produced in the Red Sea, and to which they attribute its

86 Dr. Collingwood^ on Microscopic Alga.

name, while other observant travellers have mentioned it as a
singular phenomenon of somewhat rare occurrence, giving
the date, and latitude, and longitude of the event. Thus
Darwin, who circumnavigated the globe, and was five years
at sea, cites but two occasions on which he observed it, viz.,
near the Abrolhos islets, and off Cape Leeuwin ; the conferva
seen near the Keeling Islands having been of quite a different
character.

One circumstance much dwelt on by those who have de-
scribed this substance is the red colour it imparts to the sea,
so much so, that whether it is De CandoUe who examines
the waters of the lake of Morat, or Ehrenberg at the Bay of
Tor, or Montague describing the dried specimens which had
been obtained from the middle of the Ked Sea, they all agree
in calling it erythrmmn, or rubescens, while Ehrenberg im-
proves upon this by naming De Candolle's species Oscillatoria
Pharaonis, from a E-enanish idea that this is the natural ex-
planation of the waters turned into blood in the plagues of
Egypt. It is described by some as blood-red, by others
orange- red, or brick-red Avhen expanded over a large surface,
and we are assured that the Red Sea or Mare eythrseum of
the ancients, Bahr Souph of the modern Arabs, is so called
from this red Alga, the Arabic name simj)ly meaning Mare
algosum.

I do not for a moment call in question this red apj)earance
which seems to have been so often observed in the Ked Sea,
but I only wish to remark that numerous as have been the
occasions on Avhich it has been my fortune to observe the sea
to be discoloured by a floating Alga, in the Eastern and
Western Hemispheres, I have never at any time seen it
approach a red colour, much less assume the rovge de sang
of the French writers. The only time I ever saw the sea of
a blood-red colour was in a limited space in the Formosa
Channel, when I satisfied myself that the red appearance
was due to myriads of minute gelatinous worms which filled
the Avater.

In passing down the Red Sea, indeed, although during a
week always on the look-out, I saw r\,o trace of red or any
other discoloration. This was early in March. Ehrenberg's
observations were made in December and Janviary ; Dupont's
in July ; and De Candolle's " at the end of winter." It was
not till 1 was in the Indian Ocean, in long. 70° E. and lat.
5° N., that 1 first observed that the sea had, as I entered it
in my journal, a dusty appearance, as though myriads of
minute bodies were floating in it, not all upon the surface,
but at various depths beneath. This appearance was rendered

Dr. Collingwood, on Microscopic Alga. 87

■very remarkable by the sun sbining vipon the sea, when they
sparkled in the hght. Not at first recognising their nature,
I supposed they might be minute animals, and the source of
the luminous sparks which had shown so brilliantly at night ;
but, upon examination, I found them to be small bodies,
having the appearance, under a lens, of sheaves of fibres,
constituted as though bound round the middle, but loose at
the ends (see PL VI T, fig. a), like sheaves of corn in miniature.
Placing them under a microscope, they presented appear-
ances to be presently described, but, singularly enough,
having called the attention of the surgeon of the mail-
steamer to them, he at once exclaimed that it was just what
he had seen when he had placed under his microscope some
of the substance upon the Red Sea, which he had more than
once had an opportunity of observing when a red tint was
prevalent.

I will first state the localities in which I have observed this
substance, and its general aspect, and afterw^ards describe the
microscopic appearances presented by it in various places.
I saAv no large patches or discoloration of the sea through it
anywhere in the Indian Ocean, either north or south of the
line, in a single passage across each, but, as I have just
stated, the first traces of it appeared to me in the North
Indian Ocean in March. So in the South Indian Ocean in
May, lat. 28° 29' S., and long. 38° E., I again observed the
sparkling appearance in the water, and once more found it to
be due to " dust," but not of the sheaf form, but in wedge-
shaped bundles to be presently described.

In the Atlantic, I only once observed it, viz., in June (lat.
8° 28' 5" S., and long. 28° 32' W.) , when, standing on the fore-
castle one day, my attention was arrested by the sparkhng in
the water which indicated the presence of sea-dust, and pre-
sently after we crossed three long narrow streaks of the Alga
thickly accumulated upon the surface. This was the only
accumulation I ever observed out of the China Seas, and we
are thus reminded of the " bandes vertes " observed by
Chamisso between Teneriff and Brazil, in 1811.

But the China Sea appears to be the home of this minute
vegetable. Having left Singapore behind, the appearance of
sea-dust became an every-day occurrence, in all its icmark-
able and interesting features. Nearly every day while tra-
versing this sea more or less of it was to be seen, sometimes a
mere sparkling appearance, while sometimes, and not un-
frequently, the sea was covered Avith a thick scum of a
yellowish-brown colour, like that which settles upon a stag-
nant pond. The sea in some places was entirely hidden by

88 Dr. CollingwooDj on Microscopic Alga.

the accumulation of the Alga, which, in calm weather, pre-
sented the appearance of a regular, smooth, cream-coloured
pellicle, thrown up here and there into thick folds and rugosi-
ties ] and where thickest of a dirty yellow colour, but never
red. Such a scum would cover the sea for nearly the whole
day, with little interruption. But if a moderate breeze were
blowing, and the sea Avere raised, instead of an uniform
pellicle, the dust would be"arranged in long irregular parallel
lines, bands, or streaks, extending unbroken as far as the eye
could reach, and always taking the direction of the wind.
On one occasion we crossed a single band of this character,
the only one seen during the day. When the sea becomes
rather rough, the substance is more dispersed, and I have
traced the bands under such circumstances with some diffi-
culty. Out of four times that I crossed the China Sea, I
observed these appearances, more or less well marked, during
three passages. The fourth time Avas in winter (December),
and during the height of the monsoon — the wind very bois-
terous, and the sea very rough — so that the substance was
doubtless so washed and thoroughly disjjersed by the waves,
as to be indistinguishable amidst the turmoil and foam.

The most northerly point at which I observed its accumu-
lations forming a pellicle upon the surface of the sea was at
the north entrance of Formosa Channel, in lat. 25i° N., and
the most southerly point was in Rhio Strait, on the equator.

I have described the first specimens observed, from the
Indian Ocean north of the line, as presenting under a lens
the appearance of a sheaf (fig. a), but this peculiar arrange-
ment I did not elsewhere meet with. There were, in fact,
two modes of aggregation of the vegetable filaments com-
posing the Alga in question. Everywhere in the China Sea,
in the South Indian Ocean, and in the Atlantic, the form
presented was that of small cylindrical bundles, more or less
pointed at one end, but obliquely truncated at the other (figs.
B, c), having an average length of -i-th to -V^h inch. They
were cream-coloured and opaque, and examination with a
lens showed that the ends were fimbriated, owing to the
component fibres being loose at their extremities. A third
form was occasionally mingled Avith these, but in very sm.all
quantities. It was a minute spherical body, solid and
opaque, about the size of an ordinary pin's head, bristling
with minute rays, like a miniature echinus (fig. g). This
form I noticed in the North Indian Ocean, and very rarely
in the China Sea, but, although associated Avith the sheaf-
and wedge-shaped Alga, it appeared to constitute a very

Dr. CollingwooDj on Microscopic Alga. 89

infinitesimal proportion of the scum upon those seas. I look
upon it as a species of Oscillatoria.

The appearances presented by all these three forms under
the microscope are very similar, and the first two apparently
identical. The body, whether sheaf- or w'edge-shaped, is at
first opaque, but gentle pressure shoAvs each bundle to be
composed of a dense mass of cylindrical filaments of unequal
lengths, combined together and interlacing with each other,
forming an intricate network, having the aj^pearance of a
complicated basket-work with the ends of the osiers sticking
straight out, as Avhen the Avork is unfinished (fig. d). Each
filament is long, and beautifully symmetrical, unbranched,
with a rounded extremity, and perfectly even, hair-like out-
line. The filaments appear to be of equal diameter through-
out their entire length, and are filled with a dark-green
granular matter, which, before pressure is applied, renders
them nearly opaque, and prevents any examination of their
structure.

The application of slight compression, however, renders
this form of the cells very evident, as well as their arrange-
ment in the filaments. Each filament apj^eared to be trans-
versely divided by delicate lines, as distinct in character as
the Avail of the filament, each cell being seen to contain some
granules of green matter in the interior, principally clustered
about the centre (fig. e). Every filament, then, Avas composed
of a linear series of tubular cells, and Avas, therefore, truly
jointed, like a Conferva, and not like an Oscillatoria, con-
tinuously tubular. I nowhere descried anything like an
empty tubule Avhich had discharged its contents bodily, nor
anything approaching to such an appearance, and, moreover,
further continued pressure, after rendering the cells more and
more distinct, ended by breaking the filament into distinct
cells, some of which presented a rectangular aspect, others a
round outline, according as they presented their sides or their
ends to view (fig. f).

In neither of these forms did I cA-er notice anything Avhich
could be construed as a movement of oscillation, or indeed of
any kind. Neither was there visible any mucilaginous enve-
lope surrounding any of the specimens AA'hich I examined,
such as is so strongly insisted on by Ehrenberg in the speci-
mens obtained by him in 1823 in the upper part of the Red
Sea.

As for the figures given by Montague in the ' Annales des
Sciences Naturelles ' (see fig. h), I can only say I cannot
recognise them as anything I noticed under the microscope.
Their irregular forms ofier a singular contrast to the symme-

90 Dr. Colli ngwood, on Microscopic Alga.

trical beauty of the filaments when taken fresh from the ocean,
and I can only suppose that Montague's specimens, obtained
upon a piece of linen by M. Dupont, had become, in drying,
so altered in form that subsequent moistening failed to render
them recognisable.

The echiniform body (fig. g), which I consider to be an
Oscillatoria, was surrounded by a gelatinous envelope, and
was hard and dense in the centre, and therefore opaque On
applying gentle j)ressure, the villous appearance was shown
to be due to the free ends of a great number of filaments
which intermix with one another in the mass, and formed a
minute solid ball. They were unbranched, but twisted around
one another, and agglutinated together in a complex manner.
While thus engaged in examining them, the filaments one
after another suddenly broke up, the little masses of con-
tained endochrome separating from one another, not retaining
each its cell-form, as in the case of the Confervse just de-
scribed, but rapidly vanishing under my eyes in a smoke-like
manner, until, at the expiration of five or six minutes, there
was nothing left of the whole ball but a general granular and
amorphous appearance.

A species of Trichodesmium was met with by Dr. Hinds,
H.M.S. Sulphur, in 1826, on the west coast of North America,
and again, in 1837, near St. Salvador, and was referred by
Mr. Berkeley to M. Montague, who regarded it as a new
species, and named it T. Hindsii. This species, he says, w'as
like that of the Arabian Gulf (which has been called T.
Ehrenbergii) , of a fine red colour, and was further remark-
able for the strong musty odour which it gave out, and which
deserved the name of olidum. But as I have, on the one
hand, remarked that I have nowhere met with Trichodesmium
of a red colour, but always of the same fulvous or dirty
yellow, so also I must add that on no occasion have I observed
any peculiar smell, even when it has been thickest, nor have
I ever heard any one with more acute perception of odour
than myself rem. ark anything unusual of that nature.

M. Ehrenberg, in the original article in ' Poggendorf's
Annalen,' states that it was not a permanent phenomenon in
the Red Sea, but having observed it three times, viz., on the
25th and 30th December, and 5th January, he suggests a
periodicity. The appearance and disappearance of the Alga,
other things remaining the same, seems to me to be more re-
markable than its permanence Avould have been, but I have no
reason to believe that it is in any way a periodic phenomenon
in the China Sea, for at any day, on successive days, and at all
seasons, I have observed it unchanged. Ehrenberg's speci-

Dr. Collingwood, on Microscopic Alga. 91

mens, also, he relates, sank to the bottom of the glass during
the night, rising again in the heat of the day. I never ob-
served any phenomenon approaching to this. They always
floated in the water for the most part, but some few seemed
to have greater specific gravity, and sunk to the bottom. In
the ocean, I have observed the scum on the surface in early
morning and at sunset; but in the cases of the sparkling
appearance in the sea, the fasciculi hovered at various depths
below the surface, although it was during the heat of a
tropical day.

Montague appends to his exhaustive paper in the ' Annales
des Sciences' a series of conclusions on what was known,
and questions for further observation, most of which are
referred to, and answered in, the present pajier ; but there
still remains the curious fact that although three species are
described, T. erythreeum, T. Ekrenbergii, and T. Hindsii,
they are all three spoken of as blood-red — a colour which I
have never seen approached. Again, one of the generic
characters of Trichodesmium given both by Ehrenberg and
Montagne is " muco involuti," while I confidently state that
no mucous envelope characterised the species so abundant in
the China Sea, and which I also observed in the Indian
and Atlantic Oceans. But, then, it might be said the ex-
planation is easy, viz., that the China Sea Alga is of a
difierent sj^ecies from that of the Red Sea. I have no doubt
whatever that this is the case, but the Alga met with by
Darwin near the Abrolhos islets, which gave the sea "a.
reddish-brown appearance," and which, from his description
of it, was apparently the same as that I so abundantly met
with in the China Seas, was pronounced by Mr. Berkeley to
be Trichodesmium erythr(Eum, " the same species with that
found over large spaces in the Red Sea." It is true Mr.
Darwin describes it as a reddish-brown, but he elsewhere
states that the endochrome was of a brownish-green — which
is more suggestive of the colour, as I have always seen it.
So also the substance seen by Banks and Solander in the
neighbourhood of New Guinea was doubtless what I have
described, and the name universally given to it by Cook's
sailors, viz., sea sawdust, exactly expresses its appearance
and colour, implying, however, nothing red.

With the exception, indeed, of the observations of Dr.
Hinds, the blood-red Alga seems nowhere to have been met
with but in the Red Sea and Arabian Gulf, and it would,
indeed, be strange if the same Alga Avas always blood-red in
the Red Sea, and yellowish-brown somewhere else. More-

VOL. XVI. /*

92 Dr. CollingwooDj on Microscopic Alga.

over, Hind's specimens were immediately referred to a new-
species.

Next to the China Sea, the coast of Australia appears to
be the favourite locality for this Alga, though there seems,
indeed, to be scarcely any part in the world in which it may
not be seen in greater or less abundance.

TRANSACTIONS OF THE ROYAL MICROSCOPICAL

SOCIETY.

The Lingual Membrane of Mollusca, and its Value in
Classification. By Jabez Hogg, F.L.S., Hon. Sec.

R.M.S., &c.

(Read April 8tb, 1868.)

By the kindness of F. E. Edwards, Esq., the present
possessor of the large and valuable collection of lingual
membranes of mollusca made by the late S. P. Woodward, I
have been placed in a position to offer a few general remarks
upon points which have proved of interest to myself, and,
being based upon a careful examination of the objects, I
hope will not be unacceptable to the Fellows of the Royal
Microscopical Society. It is well known that in any at-^
tempts to characterise groups of animals, we find, as we
advance from small to large combinations, many of the most
obvious external features become of less avail for classifica-
tion ; we are thereby driven to seek for more constant and
comprehensive signs in their development than we looked for at
the outset. To acertain extent any such effort must be arbitrary ^
and artificial; nevertheless, the necessity for some arrangement
is imperatively demanded in this especial, or, indeed, in
any, department of natural history presenting the number and
variety of the mollusca. Any attempt, however, to make a
change in an existing arrangement, or put forth another-
differing from that already accepted, must be expected to be
surrounded with no ordinary difficulties.

I believe it has been authoritatively decided, that in
placing the mollusca in generic groujnngs the distinctive
characteristics of the soft parts are no longer to be relied on
in making out species. Philippi long ago demonstrated this ;
and Mr. Jeffreys more recently observes, " that the body or

VOL. XVI. i

94 Hogg, on the Lingual Membrane of Mollusca.

soft parts of the mollusc, taken without reference to the shell,
offers an extremely slight and variable criterion of specific
difference." Dr. Gray asserts " that no sj)ecies of gasteropo-
dous mollusca can be properly placed in a system unless we
are enabled to examine the animal, the shell, the operculum,
and the structure of the tongue." The shelly covering is a most
■ essential part of a very large number ; its structure is hard and
dense, and it is, so to speak, the skeleton placed outside instead
of within the animal. Or it may be regarded as a pseudo-skele-
ton, serving, not only to protect the soft parts, but also to keep
the whole fabric together, as the internal bony skeleton does
the fleshy parts of vertebrata. There is, it should be observed,
an equally intimate connection between the shell and soft parts,
which is only dissolved by death. The shell, therefore, being
the more permanent of the structures of a very large number
of mollusca, it is but natural to expect that it should remain,
as it, in fact, always seems to be, the most reliable means of
classification.

The forms of shells are not only more permanent, but are
capable of reproduction without modification. The oldest
geological shells are indistinguishable from existing species.
" A large proportion of the fossil shells found in the lowest
of the Pliocene strata (coralline crag) are precisely similar in
every respect to the recent shells of species which still sur-
vive bearing the same names ; and it is impossible for the most
critical species maker to distinguish one from the other.
• Even their varieties, and montrosities, or abnormal forms,
are still repeated."* Dr. Gray, however, does not feel satis-
fied with the bare examination of the shell in geological
formations ; he must have the shell, the operculum, and the
teeth; and as ''none of these except the shell can be examined
in the fossil state, their position in the various genera must
be always attended with more or less uncertainty."! Other
competent observers, both on the Continent and in this
country, share this opinion.

Cuvier founded his primary divisions of the mollusca on
their locomotive organs, and thus obtained the names Cele-

* J. Gwyn Jeffreys, 'British Conchology,' 1865.

Dr. Morch, of Copenhagen, says — " A monographic research, chiefly
based on the teeth of the genera Nassa, Fusus, and Bucciuum, found on the
coast-lines from tlie Arctic regions to the equator, would probably be sufla-
cient to prove whether species in each fauna are created originally, or are
only varieties dependent on different climates, and would at the same time
prove the relations between species of succeeding geological periods." —
Ann. Mag. of Nat. Hist., n. ser., vol. xvi, p. 388.

t Dr. J. E. Gray, 'Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist.,' ser. 2, vol. x, p. 413.

Hogg, on the Lingual Membrane of Mollusca. 95

pliopoda, Pteropoda, Gasteropoda, &c. In a second divi-
sion he made the respiratory organs a foundation for a
systemic arrangement ; but this has proved unsatisfactory,
for, although in most animals respiration appears to be
indispensable to life, special organs are by no means always
and absolutely necessary for the purpose. Thus, in some
vertebrates are found both lungs and gills, which, according
to J. Midler, are not homologous. They sometimes occur
together in the same animal, but do not exactly perform the
same function ; as we noticed in the case of the tadpole
described by my friend Mr. Whitney in a valuable paper
published in our ' Transactions.' Many of the mollusca, as
Cyclostoma, Neritina, and Litorina, are furnished with gills ;
nevertheless, they live frequently on land and breathe air.
Have they, like the land-crab, the power of keeping their
gills moist? Again, in those species unprovided with a
shell respiration in many individuals takes place almost
entirely through the skin ; when, however, a shelly covering
is fully developed, a respiratory organ of some sort is ne-
cessary. In short, it is generally admitted that neither
the respiratory nor the locomotive organs offer reliable cha-
racters for a primary division.

The operculum is said by some authors to answer to the
second hard covering of the bivalves. Loven regarded this
appendage as homologous with the byssus, but this has
been shown to be erroneous, since a byssus is found in
some few univalves — the Cyclostoma suspenmm, Swanston,
Planaxis, Macdonald, Rissoaparva, Gray, «&c. The byssus of
Acaphale is corneous ; a calcareous plate forms a plug in
Anomia, and a pedicle in Tercbratula, which is looked upon
as " a secretion of the ventral face of the foot." Later
investigations seem to point to the conclusion that all parts
of the skin of mollusca can secrete shell, and probably the
same remark applies to the operculum.

Some fewyears have now elapsed since two or three scattered
papers in the scientific periodicals of the day announced a
new classification of the mollusca, founded on the arrange-
ment of the teeth on the lingual membranes. Gray in this
country, and Troschel in Germany, appear to be the most
earnestly devoted to the object of carrying out in a syste-
matic manner this scheme of classification. The only paper,
however, on the subject, one which is likely to have fallen under
the notice of every Fellow of this Society, is from the pen
of Dr. Gray, published in Vol. I, n. s., 1853, p. 170, " On
the Teeth on the Tongues of Mollusca." I must particularly
refer you to this paper, as it offers a somewhat comprehensive

96 Hogg, on the Lingual Membrane of Mollusca.

basis of classification. There is also a work published in the
German language, of all others the most valuable as a book
of reference, it is by Dr. Troschel, of Bohn.* Upon the
value of such a system of classification I beg to oiFer a few
remarks.

Although the patterns or types of lingual membranes
appear to be, on the whole, remarkably constant, " yet,"
says Woodward, " their systematic value is far from uniform.
It must be also remembered that the teeth are essentially
epithelial cells, and, like other superficial organs, liable to be
modified in accordance with the wants and habits of the
creatures. The instruments with which animals obtain their
food are of all others most subject to those adaptive modifica-
tions, and can never, therefore, form the basis of a true
system. t" Di'- Gray, however, on the other hand, has such
confidence in the permanence and importance of the teeth in
the economy of these animals, that, " if any considerable modi-
fications appeared in those of two genera which had been
referred to the same family, or much more of two species
which had been referred to the same genus, it should be
concluded that they had been erroneously placed in such
close proximity, as this modification must indicate an im-
portant difference in the habits and manners of the living
species under consideration Avhich had before escaped obser-
vation.":}: Professor Loven, of Stockholm, in a paj^er on the
miollusca of Scandinavia, proposed to divide the lingual
bands into fourteen groups, and separate the genera into
families and sections, characterised by the number, position,
and forms of the teeth ; adding, " that the teeth, like the
oj^erculum, have usually a structure characteristic of the
genera or subgenera, and remarkably uniform throughout
some whole families or groups of families." Dr. Troschel, in
terms most decided, says — " That if all else were gone, the
teeth would afford a reliable means of distinguishing species,
and that even the minute differences exhibited in closely
allied genera cannot fail in being of great value in the
discrimination of critical species." The following table
gives the last arrangement proposed by Troschel and Gray :

1. Tanioglossa. (Tooth formula 3 — 1 — 3.)

Litorina, Natica, Triton, &c.

2. Toxoglossa. (F. 1—0—1.)

Conus, Terebra, &c.

* 'Das Gebiss der Sclinacken zur Beriinducg einer Naturlichen classifi-
cation.' Bohn, 1856—1858.

t ' Woodward's Manual,' p. 450.

X ' Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist.,' ser. 2, vol. x, p. 413.

Hogg, on the Lingual Membrane of Mollusca. 97

3. Hceniiglossa. (F. 1 — 1 — 1.)

Murex, Buccinum, Sec.

4. Rachiglossa. (F. 0 — 1 — 0.)

Voluta, Mitra, Sec.

5. Gymnoglossa. (F. oc 0. a .)

Pyramidella, CanceUai'ia, Sec.

6. Rhipidoglossa. (F. 00 — 1 — 00) ; or x • — 1 — oc .

Nerita, Trochus, Sec.

Dr. Gray invented the term Ctenoglossa for an order which
shouUl include the numerous uniform teeth of the Puhno-
nata and such like genera, and that of Ctenobranchiata for
an entirely new family. In the paper contributed to our
own Journal he gives a more complete terminology to his
divisions, which he illustrates by figures of the princijjal
types. I may add that Mr. W. Thompson described and
figured various species of British Helices, Lymnea?, &c., and
that Messrs. Ahler and Hancock's well-known ' Monographs
on the Nudibranchiata' have made us familiar with some of the
peculiarities of the lingual membranes of this most interest-
ing family. Some naturalists have proposed to arrange the
tongues into four groups, according to the pattern or type of
the dentition ; and these again have been made to correspond
with the four orders founded by Cuvier, on the character of
the branchiae, such as the Pectinibranchiata, the Scuti-
branchiata, the Cyclobranchiata, and the Pulmonata. The
difficulty in this arrangement appears to be that of retaining
some of the species in the orders to which they have been
assigned ; for instance, the Chitons wath a gill down each side
of the body are evidently out of place among the Cyclo-
branchiata. The grouping of animals differing much in
their general anatomy, as we see in the Purpura and Buc-
cinum, is clearly incorrect. Proceeding, however, with the
more special investigation of the tongues of mollusca, it is
pretty generally believed that the spines Avhich give so much
variety to this organ, although called teeth, are not in reality
teeth, or, at all events, not such as we recognise as such in
mammals, but rather are corneous and silicated outgrowths,
regularly distributed throughout the length and breadth of
a muscular ribbon-like membrane, to designate Avhich
Huxley proposed the term " odontofore " — tooth-bearing
membrane — serving in a vast number of species as an organ
of abrasion and trituration or mastication. The outer part
of the band and spiny processes being those employed for
seizing or securing the food, while those teeth placed in the
central portion are used in trituration or mastication. On

98 HoGG^ on the Lingual Membrane of Mollusca.

making a close examination we find, in by far the larger
number of the Gasteropoda, one or more central or median
teeth,* with a certain number of laterals, diverging in nume-
rous rows on either side. Some species have, besides, one
or more horny mandibles, and even an additional buccal
plate, sometimes armed with minute spines.

The horny mandibles of the mollusca are certainly de-
serving of more attention than they have received, with a
view to the elucidation of tlieir affinities. " The mandible is
a median plate attached to the bulbus pharyngeus over the
oral aperture, serving to divide and pound up the food." So
far as I have been able to make out, there are three, if not
four, different kinds of mandibles or maxillae. 1st. Those
divided by a median articulation into two equal parts, and
covered with fine, acute spiny processes placed in regular
rows throughout, as in Cyclotus. 2nd. The horseshoe
shaped, with a corrugated or sulcated arrangement, chiefly
found in the inoperculata. And 3rd. The smooth, beak-
shaped mandible, belonging to Cephaloj)oda. I believe there
is another form, composed of oblique plates set with tessel-
lated or oblong teeth, but this may be only a variation of the
first named. The mandible is altogether wanting in carni-
vorous Pulmonata, or those which merely cut their food in
small pieces and swallow it whole ; and in marine molluscs
it is found only in a few species. It is seen in the young
Limax when quite in the embryo state ; sometimes before it
leaves the egg it is observed to be divided into two parts.
In addition to the mandible proper, there is, in nearly all
the Tsenioglossa, two other lateral plates, or small-sized fixed
mandibles, described by Dr. Morch as " cheek-plates,'''' and
without cutting edges, " apparently serving only to protect
the mouth from injury," or probably serving the purpose of
the tongue-bones in vertebrata. Some of the flesh-eaters
have the prehensile spiny collar placed quite at the ex-
tremity of their proboscis, as in Ancula ; in Nudibranchs it
is a formidable weapon. In Cephalopods the mandible
should rather be termed maxilla or jaw, for it is fairly divisible
into an upper and lower jaw.

But to return to the teeth of mollusca. These are mostly

* Some authors — Mr. Jeffreys among the latest — on describing the
median part of the band, still apply to it the term rachis. The use of this
term is objectionable as applied to anything pertaining to an animal mem-
brane. Inasmuch as the word simply means "a spine," and the tongue
of the mollusc bears the faintest resemblance to the vertebrate spine,
and finding also that the term has been long appropriated by botanical
writers, it is uiiadvisable that it should longer be employed when describing
tlie median part of the tongue of a soft-bodied animal.

Hogg, on the Lingual Membrane of Mollusca. 99

disposed in longitudinal series. In the Pulmonata there is a
single tooth in each median row, with a number of broad and
similar laterals disposed in rows on each side, Avhile in other
groups the teeth are arranged in three, five, or seven dis-
similar rows. Since each row is exactly similar to every
other, the system of teeth admits of an easy representation
by a numerical formula, in which, when the uncini are nu-
merous, they are indicated by the sign oc , infinity, and the
others by the proper figures. Taking Nerita or Hclicitia as
our type, we designate as laterals the broad teeth on each
side of the median row, the numerous small teeth on the out-
side of the band being termed pleura, and those, still smaller,
on this, uncini ; the latter, found only in certain groups, are
usually of extreme tenuity, often beautifully outlined, and
frequently serrated.

Dr. Gray's scheme for a classication of mollusca is cer-
tainly open to criticism ; and it may fairly be asked if any
reliable classification can be got out of a union under one
formula of so many families as we find grouped in Tsenio-
glossa. Mr. Gwyn Jeffreys, while he expresses a doubt of
the value of such an arrangement, admits that the tongues
of mollusca " may furnish important characters of such
genera as Crepidula, Calyptrsea, Patella, &c., which, from
their having been long attached to particular places, change
the external character of their shells, and thence assume par-
ticular forms, which have been regarded as distinct species."
Mr. Wilton satisfied himself that Patella athletica could be
distinguished from the common limpet of our coasts by its
teeth, and also that a similar difference is seen between the
two Cape species, P. apicina and P. longicostata. It will
not be said that the incongruous group enumerated under
Tsenioglossa, in which the cuttlefish and river-snail are linked
together, at all approaches perfection. Undoubtedly it is a
strong point against this, or any other mode of classification,
that it places together, in an unusual and embarrassing man-
ner, carnivorous and phytivorous mollusca, " widely differ-
ing in habits and anatomical characters." But it may be
replied, that in some classes the general characteristics are
equally liable to mislead. Take, for example, the slug
family, which is made to include Testacella ; the slug being
almost exclusively a vegetable feeder, while the Testacella
is one of the most savage of flesh-eaters well known to
pursue its prey, the earthworm, in its haunts with intense
voracity and cunning. Even the shell affords little or no
protection, being in both alike the merest rudimentary struc-
ture, serving only the purpose of a shield when the long,

100 Hogg, on the Lingual Membrane of Mollusca.

slender body lies curled up, and even then is insufficient to
protect it from the assaults of an enemy. The teeth of the
two, however, differ in some important particulars. Those
of Limax are arranged in very numerous straight rows, the
central one in each of which is the typical tooth, the others
passing through certain modifications of form and character
as they approach the outermost edge of the band. The
whole odontofore is broad, and nearly as wide as it is
long; the number of teeth in each row almost equals the
number of rows the total of which, in the fully grown slug,
reaches, according to Thomson, the enormous number of
28,000. The teeth are very minute, requiring a magnifi-
cation of at least 200 diameters to resolve the finely curved
sjiines, which are obviously intended only for rasping vege-
table matters. The odontofore of Testacella maugei (fig. 80)
offers a contrast ; it is large and wide, furnished with
not more than fifty semicircular rows of teeth, gradually dimi-
nishing in size as they approach the central row, the median
teeth being the smallest, almost rudimentary in their cha-
racter. The outermost teeth on the band are of great
strength, barbed and sharply pointed at the extremity,
broader towards the base, and furnished with a nipple-like
process which serves the purpose of a kind of lever attach-
ment to the tooth, and connects it with the basement mem-
brane. A set of powerful muscles preside over this organ of
destruction, and thus the little animal is enabled to erect its
teeth and plunge them into the body of its victim.

It may be said to admit of a doubt whether the voracious
feeding Cephalopods are rightly placed by G ray — whether Sepia
officinalis (fig. 22), with its contractile proboscis, prehensile
spiny collar, and odontofore furnished with fifty rows of
shark-like teeth, its gizzard for trituration, and its crop for
storing, all implying a higher degree of organization, can be
classed with such families as Paludinidse. Another carnivo-
rous species, though not resembling the Cephalopod in gene-
ral characters and modes of pursuit and destruction, are not
the less equally inimical to the mussel and other shell-
fish— the whelk family.

The odontofore of Buccinum undatum is a rather lonsr,
narrow band, bearnig a hundred rows of teeth, the medians
of which are crested with points bent upon themselves ; the
laterals are similar, but smaller, hooked and tipped with
silica. The proboscis is cylindrical, and armed with sharp,
slender spines, which enaliles the animal by a succession of
strokes to penetrate the hardest shell, and in a short time

Hogg, on the Lingual Membrane of Mollusca. 101

gain access to the interior. In some respects the odontofore
of the whelk resembles that of vegetable feeders.

Chitonidie, with their liorny jaws and long, slender
tongues bristling with numerous rows of teeth, tipped with
strong, dark- coloured claws, two of which are more pro-
minent than the rest, whose general structural characters
closely resemble Patellidae, find a place among a very different
class. Strom nearly a century ago observed both a general
and anatomical resemblance between the Coat-of-mail (Chiton)
and Limpet (Patella), and noted the fact that, although both
were vegetable feeders, and the structure of their shells differ,
there is sufficient general resemblance to induce systemato-
logists to place them in one family. Fissurella is evidently
a near relation of Patella ; it is furnished with nearly the
same kind of mandibles as well as odontofore. Cuvier be-
lieved Fissurella and Haliotis to be closely allied. Indubitably
the latter bears in many of its external characters a striking
resemblance to Patella ; but if a comparison of its lingual
membrane be made, we at once discover much diversity
both in form and arrangement. Dr. Gray sejjaratcs Fissu-
rellidae from Patellidse by arranging Dentalium between
them ; and although Crepidulidse differ very slightly from
Patellidse, he nevertheless places them widely apart.

Trochidse, while they resemble in many respects the
families just spoken of, the odontofore differs in not unim-
portant particulars. The median portion of the band is
armed with many teeth, and the plurse with numerous regu-
larly arranged uncini, grow gradually more and more simple
and slender as they recede from the central row. In Trochus
cinerarius (PI. XI) the medians are large and heart-shaped,
with five somewhat similar teeth on either side, and pleurae
armed with ninety uncini. (Formula cc 5 — 1 — 5 — x.)

Litorinidae, which are found freely scattered over every
quarter of the globe, scarcely differ in any particular, and
are almost exclusively vegetable feeders. A few of this
family seem to prefer sponges and zoophytes, but this prefer-
ence is shown only when such structures are loaded with
young diatoms or vegetable spores ; these they scrape off,
and the animal body is left untouched. The lingual mem-
branes of all are alike, save in the most unimportant par-
ticulars. Osier, in the * Phil. Trans.,' 1832, tolerably accu-
rately describes this phytivorous family, which, he says,
" have three distinct modes of feeding. They browse with
opposite horizontal jaws, they rasp their food with an armed
tongue stretched over an elastic and movable support, or
they gorge it entire. Ti'ochus crassus (fig. 48) is an example

102 HoGG^ on the Lingual Membrane of MoUusca.

of the first, Turbo Utoreus of the second, and Patella
vulgata of the third." The tongue of Turbo Utoreus
(a flat strap-shaped organ of more than two inches long)
presents three longitudinal ranges of teeth, which recline
backwards, and are set like scales, with very little elevation
of their edsjes. In the two outer rows the teeth are sinsle,
irregular, crescentic in shape, and set by their convexity.
In the middle row the teeth are small, and nearly square in
shape. All require a good magnifying power to discover
their beautifully reticulated appeai^nce.

It certainly seems somewhat out of place to class the large
and bold Triton with Litorina, since the odontofore of the
former diifers so much from that of the latter. The median
tooth is armed with strong recurved cusps, the centre one
being long, with five more subdued on either side ; the
laterals, three in number, are bold,. sickle-shaped teeth, one
of which is rather broader than the others. The tongue and
spiny buccal plates of Triton are certainly indicative of
carnivorous habits.

Bulimus (Bulhnus oblongus) and Helix differ but little
either in their anatomical characters or in that of their denti-
tion. The odontofore is a broad band ^vith numerous similar
teeth ; the forms, however, of the teeth themselves are very
Viiried. Some of the cusps on the teeth of this genus are
naturally very pellucid, especially so if the tongue be mounted
in balsam, when they frequently escape observation, and
owing to this have often been wrongly described. Its man-
dible somewhat resembles that of a Cephalopod, and it is
worthy of inquiry how far the divisions proposed by zoologists
are borne out by this part of the organization. The Bulimi
are not numerous in Britain ; it appears there are but three
indegenous species known, and one of them, the most
common {Bulimus acutus), has been restored by Moquin-
Tandon to the genus Helix.

A study of the odontofore of Cyclostoma elegans (PI. VIII,
fig. 5) seems to point to an alliance with Trochus (PI. XI,
fig. 48), or some group possessing pleuree.

In their mode of development Xudibranchs resemble
Aplysia, Bulla, and other of these genera. The fry of the
latter are almost undistinguishable from those of Tritonia
and Doris. The sea-slugs, however, differ in many important
particulars from their land congeners. In the first place,
although formerly they were thought to be phytivorous, it
is noAv certainly known that a greater part of them prefer
animal food.* The odontofore would seem to indicate this;

* Tioschel discovered free sulpliiiric acid in the saliva of Dolium (/alen ;

Hogg, on the Lingual Membrane of Molhisca. 103

and had not a prehensile collar, with its sharp spines, been
found in connection with it, we might without hesitation
have pronounced them carnivorous. JEgirus is furnished
with an additional horny jaw or plate, situated in the buccal
lip ; it acts in the same way as does the corneous jaw
of Limax. The tongue of Doris tubercidata is broad,
and covered over with nineteen rows of simple recurved
teeth. The median tooth appears to be deficient, while the
laterals are numerous, about seventy on each side, hooked
or recurved, increasing in size as they leave the median line.

Eolis papulosa (fig. 40) the odontofore is narrow, and fur-
nished with a longitudinal series of teeth, curiously articulated,
bearing a striking resemblance to the spinal column of
vertebrate animals. And thus do we find the structure of
the odontofore assisting greatly in our knowledge of the
affinities of these animals ; it is, indeed, surprising how the
characteristics of a shell (perhaps before misunderstood)
concur to bear out the affinities indicated by the odontofore ;
and when the mandible can be made available as an addi-
tional distinctive aid to investigation, we may hope at no
distant day to discover " the origin of species " among the
mollusca.

Many other peculiarities will be observed upon making
a close examination and careful comparison of the numerous
tongues represented in the plates accompanying this paper.

The Woodwardian collection of lingual membranes has
not only furnished materials for the observations submitted
to your notice, but has also suggested practical points which
I am sure will be of interest, if not of value, to collectors of
specimens. The late Mr. J. P. Woodward, assisted by friends,
collected upwards of two hundred specimens. Among his
contributors I find the names of K,. M'Andrew, J. W. Wilton,
L. Barrett, Dr. Troschel, Hugh Owen, J. Leckenby, Dr.
Ravenel of South Carolina, &c. The specimens are mounted
in various media, such as the experience pf the preparer and
mounter seems to have suggested — Canada balsam, glycerine,

Pauceri, '6i per cent, of free sulphuric anhydride in the same secretion, as
well as sulphuric acid in four species of Tritonium, — in a Cassis, two
Murices, and an Aplpia. This discovery, apart from its special interest,
offers a partial explanation of the facility with which the boring gasteropod
seems to penetrate shells, &c.

On taking the small quantities at my command of both solid and fluid
portions of carnivorous and phytivorous mollusca, and digesting in ether,
evaporating and submitting them to Browning's direct-vision microspectro-
scope, I obtained indications of Chlorophyll and Cruorine. No doubt, if
larger quantities of each were taken, and the residue carefully heated, posi-
tive bands would appear in the spectrum.

104 Hogg, on the Lingual Membrane of Mollusca.

castor oil, Beale's creasote solution, Farrant's glycerine and
gum ; a few only are prepared dry. Of all the fluids em-
ployed balsam is certainly the worst ; it spoils or destroys all
the details of the more delicate tongues ; they are, indeed,
rendered so transparent that points of importance not only
escape observation, but errors of interpretation are very
likely to creep into our drawings and descriptions. By far
the most suitable medium for the greater number of tongues
is glycerine of various dilutions. The following method of
preparing and mounting I find successful: — After having
killed the mollusc by drowning in cold w^ater, with or with-
out a few drops of sweet spirits of nitre mixed in it, and
having removed as much of the soft parts as possible by re-
peated washings, or by cleanly dissecting out the tongue with
scaljDel and forceps, it may be put into a test tube containing
a small quantity of a weak solution of caustic potash. In a
few days it should be removed, Avashed with water, and sub-
sequently transferred to a very dilute solution of acetic or
hydrochloric acid. On removal from the acid it should be
washed with water, and immersed in a solution of glycerine
of the strength of one part Price's glycerine to two of distilled
water, and finally mounted in a shallow cell in the same
solution. Another medium found to answer well in some
instances is composed of three parts glycerine solution and
one part carbolic acid; the tongue in this instance must
be previously immersed in spirits of wine. Another medium
is comj)osed of two grains of bichloride of mercury, forty
grains of chloride of sodium, fourteen drachms of glycerine,
and eight ounces of water. This, if a cloud appear in the
solution, must be filtered through fine blotting paper. Some
of the tongues of marine species, Cephalopods in particular,
require much cleansing and washing before they can be
mounted ; then it is better to mount them dry in a dark cell.
The catalogue accompanying the prej)arations shows that
AVoodward approved of the tongue classification as projjosed
by Troschel, and he endeavoured to arrange his collection
accordingly. He, however, commences with CejDhalojDods,
four only of w^hich are found among the specimens, and
these by no means well or very suitably mounted. Ptero-
pods ; there is not a single specimen to represent this
family; Gasteropods forming nearly the whole of the col-
lection. The Pulmonifera are tolerably well represented.
The present possessor of the cabinet having added many
specimens, the total number is at the time of writing
about 240, inclusive, I believe, of a few sections of shells.

105

On Fungoid Growths in Aqueous Solutions of Silica,
and their Artificial Fossilization. By William
Chandler Roberts, F.C.S., Associate Royal School of
Mines, and Henry J. Slack, F.G.S., Sec. R.M.S.

(Read May 13th, 1868.)

By kind permission of the Master of the Mint (Professor
Graham) the following experiments and observations were
made in his laboratory by Mr. Roberts.

By bringing together 112 grammes of silicate of soda, 67'2
grammes of dry hydrochloric acid, and 1 litre of water, and
dialysing for four days, a solution of colloid silica, containing
4*9 per cent, of silicic anhydride, remains upon the dialyser,
the chloride of sodium and excess of hydrochloric acid having
diffused away. This solution becomes pectous somewhat
rapidly, forming a sold jelly, which may be dried into a
lustrous hydrate by two days' exposure to vacuum over sul-
phuric acid, or by a more protracted evaporation in air. This
solid is remarkably like the opal from Zimapan, but contains
21'4 per cent, of water. There does not appear to be any
further loss of water by exposure to air ; a specimen dried in
vacuo, that had been in air for three years, still retained
21'35 per cent, of water. Natural opals contain from 3 to 12
per cent, of water.

In a specimen of hydrate of silica prepared as above, and
allowed to consolidate slowly into a compact mineral mass,
Mr. Roberts observed arborescent forms, which, when viewed
with the naked eye, bore considerable resemblance to certain
formations in moss agates. Examination with a microscope
showed that the structure had a vegetable appearance ; and
on being shown to Mr. Slack, he suggested that it might be an
artificial fossil of one of the various forms of mould. In many
cases the vegetation appeared in the form of bundles of radiat-
ing and branched fibres, such as are shown in Pl.XII, fig. 1.
In other instances the fibres were branched, but the radiating
character was imperfectly shown. With a magnification of
100 a beaded structure was apparent in most of the threads,
and this character was strikingly brought out by higher
powers. In many cases the terminal cells were surrounded
by spaces, as shown in fig. 2, as if the silica had been eaten
away, or reduced in bulk by removal of a portion of its water.
These spaces did not exert a refractive power materially
differing fi-om that of the adjacent parts.

Mr. Roberts and Mr. Slack determined to investigate the

106 Roberts & Slack, on Fang old Growths in Silica.

matter further, employing different solutions of hydrate of
silica. Mr. Roberts found that all the air-dried specimens
of silica in the laboratory at the Mint contained bundles of
radiating fibres varying in diameter from 0*2 mm. to 0'5 mm.,
and in some cases 1 mm. ; and when magnified the fibres re-
solved themselves into beaded cells. Specimens of the jelly
dried in vacuo were quite free from these fibres. Gelatinous
silica, stored in completely filled bottles, exhibited no fibres,
but they 'did occur in some other bottles which were only
partially filled.

An examination of about fifteen specimens showed that in
no case was there any appearance of the passage of colloid
silica into crystalline silica.

Mr. Barff, F.C.S., assistant to Professor Williamson, was
kind enough to prepare for Mr. Slack a solution containing
about 4 per cent, of silica, obtained by dialysis in University
College laboratory. In one specimen, which had been exposed
for a few days to the air, Mr. Barff" noticed threads, which
proved to be fungoid. He also found that similar threads
were not destroyed by contact with strong (cold) hydrochloric
acid, nor even by a mixture of hydrochloric and hydrofluoric
acids.

All the specimens of silica solution supplied by Mr. Barff"
to Mr. Slack, whether kept in bottles nearly full and corked,
in bottles containing much air, or in open vessels, exhibited
the mildew threads in the course of a week or ten days.

In order to test the aptitude of a solvit! on of pure dialysed
hydrate of silica to further the growth of fungoid vegetation,
Mr. Slack made the following experiments, selecting silica
solutions in which no trace of vegetation could be discovered.

On the 26th March a small tube bottle Avas nearly filled
with the silica solution, a piece of mouldy cheese was placed
at the bottom, and the bottle corked. In a second bottle,
filled with the solution, a small piece of live moss was placed.
The next day the part of the solution immediately over the
cheese in the first bottle turned milky, and flocculent-looking
projections rose from the cheese. On the third day the solu-
tion was completely gelatinized and milky.

On the 2Tth March a small portion of periosteum from a
mouldy bone was placed in a similar bottle and solution.
Gelatinization took place as when the cheese was employed.
No gelatinization occurred at that time in the bottle contain-
ing the moss.

On the 31st patches of mould appeared at the top of tlie
first bottle, and the next day a similar growth was observed
at the top of the solution in the third bottle.

Roberts & Slack, on Fungoid Growths in Silica. 107

On the 2nd April three tubular-looking threads were noticed
in the bottle with the cheese. Subsequent examination showed
them to be tubes formed by the escape of some gaseous
matter ; and at a later date Mr. Roberts noticed their resem-
blance to some appearances in a moss agate in his possession
(figs. 4 and 5). As the silica contracted, it formed various
lens-shaped bubbles, with remarkably brilliant reflecting
surfaces.

On the same day a small mushroom-shaped ol)ject was
noticed in the bottle with the periosteum, and Mr. Berkely
subsequently pointed out its resemblance to Mucor clavatus.

On the 6th April the bit of moss exhibited a conspicuous
groAvth of mycelium threads. This bottle, though corked,
slowly gelatinized. Another bottle, in which a piece of
parsnip was immersed in silica solution, produced a plentiful
growth of mycelium threads. When gelatinization had taken
place the cork of this bottle was removed, evaporation
ensued, and the silica solidified with numerous cracks and
fissures. The fungoid threads grew freely from the surface of
the silica after partial solidification had taken place, and the
process of cracking by slow contraction did not seem always
to break the slender threads. Fungoid threads growing out
of this partially solidified silica produced little balls of spores
in air. A bottle of the solution, into which a little mould
from stale beer was placed, was filled in a week or two with
fungoid growths, scattered through the silica, which gelati-
nized slowly. Some silica solution placed in an open evapo-
rating dish, slightly covered w^ith paper to keep out dust, soon
exhibited the fungoid threads. It M^as allowed to gelatinize
and solidify. It then presented the appearance of fig. 3.

The preceding experiments show the facility with which
moulds will grow in a solution of pure silica in distilled
water, and the way in which they may be artificially fossi-
lized.

It is curious to note that such delicate structures as these
fungoid and beaded threads are not torn or materially com-
pressed in the process of solidification of the colloid silica. In
Mr. Roberts's specimens, in which the solidification took place
very slowly, the fungoid plants look in as natural a condition
as when they were floating freely in the limpid solution.

Mr. Roberts finds that a jelly containing 5 per cent, of
silicic anhydride, 10 mm. thick, will dry, after three weeks'
exposure to air, at a mean temperature of 10 C, or 50 F., to
a solid lamina 1"5 mm. thick ; but when free floating groups
of the fungoid fibres are compared with those artificially
fossilized in his specimens, there is no evidence that any

108 Hall, on a New Form of Condenser.

similar amount of compression has been experienced by theni,
and a careful microscopic examination by both authors of this
paper shows that only a shght disturbance in the position of
some of the terminal cells has taken place.

It would thus seem that the contraction of the gelatinous
silica into the solid hydrate differs materially from the condi-
tions that would result from a mechanical pressure acting from
wit])out,.as when water is squeezed out of a sponge, or from
a mere rush of molecules from the outer layers towards the
centre.

On a New Form" 0/ Condenser ivith a Blue Tinted Field
Lens. By W. H. Hall, F.E.M.S.

(Read May 13tli, 1868.)

Some few months ago I was asked by several of the
members of the Cambridge Heath Microscopical Society to
recommend a condenser of such a price as to be consistent
with the sums paid for the cheap student's microscopes pur-
chased by them ; but not finding one suitable for this purpose,
I made some suggestions to Mr. Swift, of Kingsland Road,
who undertook to carry them out, and has succeeded so well
that I have thought it desirable to direct attention to the
result.

There are two optical combinations, one — the cheaper —
sufficiently corrected for achromatism for ordinary purposes,
and connected with a suitable mounting; the other achro-
matic, and more elaborate in its mechanical arrangements.
Both forms are on the table, and will be understood by the
engravings attached to this paper.

The under, which may be called the field glass, is a plano-
convex lens of low curvature, made, if intended for use with
artificial light, of blue glass of sufficient depth of tint to
neutralize the yellow rays, and produce a soft daylight eifect,
■which I have found very grateful to the eyes in long-con-
tinued observations. A similar shaped lens of colourless glass
is provided for solar light ; this condenses the light on a deep
plano-convex combination of plate and flint glass, having
somewhat different curves in the cheaper and more expensive
forms, and worked at a much less cost in the one than in the
other. The angle of light given by each is, however, the
same — about 110°.

Hall, 07i a New Form of Condetiser.

109

Mr. Swift has in hand a new and cheaper form of parabo-
loid, that will be made to fit and work in the meehanical
arrangements of this instrument ; it will eventually make

A. Optical combination.

B. Rack adjustment for focussing,
c. Sliding frame with black spots,

for dark-ground illuminatiou.

D. Large diaphragm.

E. Rotating cap to carry test stops,
f . Small diaphragm of apertures.
G. Polarizing prism.
H. Selenite diaphragm.
I. Oblique light shutter. •

part of the condenser I shall have to mention presently.

The mechanical portions of the condenser consist in the
cheap form of an outer tube having a bayonet catch to attach

VOL. XVI. k

f
110 Hall^ on a New Form of Condenser.

it to the under plate of the stage of the microscope, and an
inner sliding tube within that to carry the lenses, and a
diaphragm with perforations for a polarizing prism, spot for
dark-ground ilhiniination, and shutter for oblique light. In
the more expensive instrument the focus is obtained by a
rack-and-pinion adjustment, and the upper part of the tube is
pierced so as to admit of a frame, having two central stops, to
sHde closely beneath the .field glass, thereby giving a more
intensely dark ground than can be got with the stops at a
greater distance from the lenses, and at the same time per-
mitting the polariscope to be used in conjunction with the
spots.

The large diaphragm has also two smaller ones revolving
upon it — one pierced with a series of holes, gradually increas-
ing in diameter, and the other with three perforations, one
ojDcn, two containing selenite films so arranged as to rotate
behind the polarizer. Lastly, there is a revolving cap to carry
stops for the examination of test objects, the stops being made
removable at the will of the operator. The various j^arts
requiring it are centered by spring catches.

The special value of this condenser is considered to be —

1. It can be used with marked advantage with objectives
from 2 inch to |^th inch ; with my Powell and Lealand's ith
and D eye-piece I have easily checked the dots on P. angu-
latum.

2. The remarkable daylight softness produced by the tinted
field lens when used with artificial light, also dispensing with
the necessity of blue lamp chimneys.

o. It is a very effective spot lens, and dark-ground illumi-
nator, with polarized light.

4. An almost indispensable requisite for polarized light
when using high powers with the object mounted in fluid.

5. And not least important, the ease and rapidity with
which the changes from ordinary to oblique and plain or
coloured polarized light, with the other combinations I have
named, can be made.

That you may have the opportunity of examining the
instrument, and judging of its worth for yourselves, I am
desired by Mr. Swift to ask the Society's acceptance of one
in its complete form, with polarizer and paraboloid, and
adapted to the microscopes made by him for the Society.

]12

On the Improvement of Nachet's Stereo-pseudoscopic
Binocular Microscope. By Charles Heisch, F.C.S.,
F.R.M.S., &c.

(Read May 13th, 1S6S.)

At the conclusion of last session Dr. Carpenter brought
before the Society Nachet's Stereoscopic and Pseudoscopic
Microscope, pointing out its advantages and disadvantages.
It struck me that by slightly modifying its construction the
disadvantages might be removed, and that it might thus be
made to combine to a great extent the advantages of both
the Nachet and the Wenham form of instrument. A re-

ference to the subjoined iigure, which represents the essential
parts of Nachet's instrument, will show the defects to be
overcome, a, b is the posterior of the objective, c, d, e, f
a piece of thick parallel glass, ground at one end to an angle

112 Heisch, on Nachefs Stereo-Pseudoscopic Microscope.

oi" 45°, the reflecting surface c, d being just large enough to
cover half the aperture of the objective.

The glass is so mounted that it can be pushed half way
across the objective^ in Avhich case the reflecting surface c, d
will be opposed to the left-hand half of the objective, in-
stead of to the right, as in the figure, g, i, A is a reflecting
prism, the face, y, i, being parallel to e,f, and g, h, at right
angles to rays entering the prism perpendicular to g, i, and
reflected from i, h. One body of the microscope is fixed so
as to receive the rays r, r, which pass from that half of the
object-glass not opjDOsed to the reflecting surface c, d. The
other body is so placed as to receive the rays r', r' , which
have been reflected from c, d, and i, h. When c, d, e, /is in
the position represented in the figure, the effect is stereo-
scopic ; when it is pushed so that the rays from the other
half of the object-glass are reflected, the left-hand image is
j)resented to the right eye, and the right-hand to the left
eye, and the effect is, of course, pseudoscopic.

The disadvantages to be overcome are these :

1. The unreflected image is seen only through the thick
piece of glass c, d, e, f, and though, if this be very perfectly
worked, the loss in definition is not great, it is still quite
perceptible.

2. Owing to its large size, the glass c, d, e, f can never
be completely removed from the object-glass, so the instru-
ment cannot be used as a uniocular microscope.

"3. From the same cause, the prism y, i, h must be so far
from c, d, e, f that the bodies of the microscope must be
nearly parallel, which prevents the possibility of using the
draw-tubes as a means of adjustment for the difference in the
width of different persons' eyes, which adjustment is obtained
by making g, i, h, together with the body over it, move in a
horizontal direction nearer to or farther from c, d, e, f.
This arrangement gives rise to two inconveniences : — First.
If the eyepieces are so made that both images shall be in
focus when g, i, h is in any given position, the reflected
image is thrown quite out of focus as soon as it is moved.
Second. It is difficult to make a fitting to carry the j)i'isn»
and the body of the microscope which shall not become loose
by wear, in which case the instrument is at once out of
adjustment.

To remedy this defect, I first retluce the glass c, d, e, f
to a simj^le reflecting prism by cutting it down the dotted
line from d. The direct image is now seen without the in-
tervention of any glass ; by appropriate mounting, the prism
may still be moved from one side of the object-glass to the

Meisch, on Xachet's Stereo-Pseudoscop'ic Microscope, ll'-j

other, to produce either stereoscopic or pseudoscopic effects,
and on account of its small size can be withdrawn from the
object-glass altogether into a small recess, and thus convert
the instrument into a uniocular microscope, thus removing
the first two objections. The reduction in the size of the
first prism enables the second prism g, i, h to be brought
close into the object-glass, and thus the second body can be
placed at such an angle to the first that the draw^-tubes can
be used, as in Wenham^s instrument, to regulate the distance
of the eyepieces. The seconct prism and body may thus be
made fixtures, and not only the danger of getting loose by
work be done away with, but if the eyepiece be once pro-
perly adjusted for focus, they afterwards move simul-
taneously, and can be focussed together as in an ordinary
instrument, thus removing the third objection.

It may be asked, wdiat advantages does this form of in-
strument possess over that in ordinary use ? I was at first
inclined to think, that beyond being a pretty illustration of
the manner in which the eyes may be deceived by ])re-
senting to them the wrong side of an object, not any. But
closer acquaintance with the instrument has convinced me,
not only that this is of practical value, but that there are
other advantages besides. When there is a very shght
difference in the planes in which two objects or parts of
an object lie, it is difficult, even with the binocular instrument,
to say if two parts, a and b, are exactly in the same plane.
One thinks a may be above b, but does not feel sure ; if, how-
ever, on moving the prism from one side of the object-glass
to the other, a distinct difference is observable, the doubt is
converted into a certainty. Another advantage is that, owing
to the prism ^, i, h having an independent adjustment, it is
easier to get a perfect coincidence in the position of the two
images, together with a perfect reflected image, than where
no independent adjustment is possible after the prism is once
ground. This perfect coincidence of position is of compara-
tively little importance to those who have strong muscles to the
eye, but to those who, like myself, have a weak internal
rectus muscle, it makes all the difference between comfort
and discomfort.

I may mention that I have met with several persons who
have great difficulty in using the ordinary binocular micro-
scope, who use the instrument now brought before the Society
with ease and comfort.

114

On a Reversible Compressorium ivith Eeyolving Disk.
By Samuel Piper, F.R.M.S.

(Read June lOtli, 1868.)

FREQITE^"T iise of the ordinary live-box has made us all
fully aware of its attendant evils. Valuable specimens (seen
perhaps for the first time) are frequently crushed in the en-
deavour to arrest their active movements, thus showing us
the necessity of devising means of applying a gradual pres-
sure which will prevent this danger, and also be of service
where objects are required to be flattened when under
observation.

This requisition has been completely met by the com-
pressorium of Messrs. Ross ; there is, however, one great
disadvantage attending this form, that of being non-reversi-
ble, which is of the utmost importance, as it is only possible
to examine one side or surface of the specimen, instead of all
its parts.

There are two or three reversible forms at present in use,
all of which, however, necessitate removal from the stage of
the microscope, to be readjusted or turned over, and in
consequence, the object has again to be sought for, and if
small, this is not only an uncertain and tedious operation,
but an unnecessary tax upon the eyes and patience.

In the arrangement I am about to submit to the Society,
I think I may say the advantages of both kinds are combined,
with far greater facilities in regard to reversibility and ease
of manipulation, a single motion being sufficient to show both
surfaces of the object almost instantaneously, without the
slightest disarrangement of position or of focus, and in addi-
tion, it is furnished with a revolving disk for the examina-
tion of dry objects.

It is available for all modes of illumination, the Lieber-
kiihn requiring the addition of a small movable arm of
blackened metal carrying a central disk or spot, which can
be turned aside when not employed, as in Liston's dark walls.
It is also applicable to objectives of any depth.

This compressoriimi consists of two circular metal frames,
the inner surface of each being grooved (in a similar manner
as in the mounting of spectacles) to receive a thin glass,
which is held in position by means of a thumb-screw, and in
event of breakage, fresh glasses may be instantly applied by
the most inexperienced, by simply reversing the screw and
dropping another into the recess.

Piper, a Reversible Compressoriuni with Revolving Disk. 115

For the purpose of placing the object in position, the
upper disk is made to turn aside by a lateral movement,
after Avhich it is again brought above, and pressure applied
by a milled-head and fine screw, which depresses the top
frame to the point of contact, or as near as may be desirable.

This movable frame is carried on a cylinder, within which
is a closely-fitting spring box containing the screw, sur-
rounded by a spiral steel coil, which separates the glasses
when it is required to withdraw the specimen.

These tubes working together like the parts of a telescope
secure a perfectly parallel motion, while the opposing screw
and spring produce a remarkably even pressure.

The box carrying the frames is mounted on an arm which
freely turns, for the purpose of reversing the object. At the

opposite end of the box is placed the revolving disk, formed
by enclosing within a metal ring an inner tube filled with
cork, the edges of the tube being turned over, that of the
outer ring in the form of a flange, which being milled is
easily turned in any direction. The arm is supported upon
a metal pillar, made to rotate on a stout brass frame or stage-
plate, three inches by two, which is cut away in the middle
to admit the under-stage illuminating apparatus.

This compressoriuni may be procured of Mr. Swift, 15,
Kingsland Koad, to Avhom 1 have given the right of manu-
facture.

INDEX TO TRANSACTIONS.

VOLUME XVL

Alga, on the microscopic, which causes
the discoloration of the sea, by
Dr. C. CoUiugwood, M.A., F.L.S.,
85

Anniversary meeting, 55.

CoUingwood, Dr. C, on the micro-
scopic alga which discolour the
sea, 85.

Compressorium, on a reversible, by
Samuel Piper, F.R.M.S., lU.

Condenser, on a new form of, by
W. H. Hall, F.II.M.S., 108.

Entomostraca, bivalved, recent and
fossil, by Prof. T. Rupert Jones,
F.G.S., 39.

Ferment, on a microscopic, found in
red French wines, by H. J. Slack,
F.G.S., &c., 35.

Fungoid growths in aqueous solutions
of silica, by W. C. Roberts, F.C.S.,
&c., and H. J. Slack, F.G.S., &c.,
105.

VOL. XVI.

Glaisher, James, F.R.S., President's
address, 61.

Gorham, John, M.R.C.S., on the veins
in the leaves of UmbelliTerse, 14.

Guy, William A., on microscopic sub-
limates, 1.

; Hall, W. H., F.R.M.S., on a new
form of condenser, 108.

Heisch, Charles, on Nachet's binoou-
lar microscope. 111.

Helices and Limaces, anatomical dif-
ferences of, by Edwin T. Newton,
26.

Hogg, Jabez, F.L.S. , &c., on the lin-
gual membrane of the Mollusca, 93.

Jones, Prof. T. Rupert, F.G.S., on
bivalved Entomostraca, recent and
fossil, 39.

Lingual membrane of Mollusca, by
Jabez Hogg, F.L.S., &c., 93.

Microscopic animals, on new species
of, by T. G. Tatem, Esq., 31.

118

INDEX TO TRANSACTIONS.

Molliisca, lingual membrane of, by
Jabez Hogg, F.L.S., &c., 93.

Nachet's binocular microscope, by
Charles Heiscli, F.C.S., &c., 111.

Newton, Edwin T., on the anatomical
differences of Helices and Limaces,
26.

Piper, Samuel, F.R.M.S., on a rever-
sible compressorium, 114.

President's address, by James Glaisher,
Esq., E.R.S., 61.

Roberts, W. C, and Slack, H. J., on
fungoid growths in aqueous solu-
tions of silica, 105.

Slack, Henry J., F.G.S., on a micro-
scopic ferment found in red French
wines, 35.

„ ,, „ and Roberts,

W. C, on fungoid growths in
aqueous solutions of silica, 105.

Sublimates, microscopic, by William
A. Guy, M.B., &c., 1.

Tatem, T. G., on new species of
microscopic animals, 31.

Umbelliferse, on veins in the leaves of,
bv John Gorham, M.R.C.S., 14.

PHINTED BY J. B. ADLAED, BAETHOLOMEW CLOSE.

^fnmd. Mu/K^oi). ^^. jm KS. n I

Tuffen'West, ad.nat. sc-

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TUANSACTIONS OF THE ROYAL MICKO.
SCOPICAL SOCIETY.

DESCRIPTION OF PLATE I,

Illustrating Dr. Guy^s paper on the Sublimation of the

Alkaloids.

Eig.
1. — Arsenious acid, with four-sided prisms.

2. — Arsenious acid, with triangular notched plates and globules of metal.
3. — Corrosive sublimate.
4. — Cautharidine, showing two forms — a, with short plates ; b, with long

jointed plates.
5. — Solanine.
G. — Veratrine, showing detached crystals — a, under a higii power ; 6, under

a lower.
7. — Meconine.
8.— Cryptopia.
9. — Hippuric acid.
10, 11, 12. — Three crystalline deposits from test fluids — 10, from solution

of bichromate of potash (y^o) ; 11, from solution of carbazotic acid

(_a_) ; 12, from solution of nitro-prusside of sodium (y^).

TRANSACTIONS OF THE ROYAL MICRO-
SCOPICAL SOCIETY.

DESCRIPTION OF PLATE II,

Illustrating Dr. Guy^s paper on the Sublimation of the

Alkaloids.

Fig. ,

13, 14, 15. — Sublimates of strychnine — 13, fiue-feathered crystal (-g-^go^h

grain) ; 14, crystals in forms a and b, found in the same sublimate ;

15, sublimate from a deposit from a solution in benzole.

16. — Sublimate of strychnine treated by a solution of bichromate of
potash (voo) ; plates of various forms, single and in groups.

17. — Sublimate of strychnine, treated by a solution of carbazotic acid (2^)5
showing hooks or claws, scattered and grouped.

18. — Sublimate of morphine, treated with the same reagent, showing part of
margin of dry spot.

19. — Sublimate of brucine, treated with the same reagent, showing root-like
forms.

20. — Sublimate of morphine, curved elements contrasting with the nearly
straight elements of strychnine (fig. 13).

21. — Globular sublimate of morphine, showing crystalline forms in the
globules.

22. — Morphine with hydrochloric acid {-io).

23. — Morphine with spirits of wine.

24. — Morphine with liq. ammonise.

25. — Morphine (smoked sublimate), with distilled water. Winged (fly-like)
crystals.

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TRANSACTIONS OF THE ROYAL MICRO-
SCOPICAL SOCIETY.

DESCRIPTION OF PLATE III,

Illustrating Mr. Gorham's paper on a peculiar Venation
in the Leaves of the Umbelliferse.

rig.

1. — Pinna from bi-tri-piunate leaf of Mtlmsa Cynapium.

2. — Pinna from leaf of Silaus pratensis.

3. — Pinna from bi-tri-pinnate leaf of CEnanthe crocata.

4. — Piuna from leaf of Torilis Anthriscvs,

5. — Pinna from leaf of Chcerophi/Utim temulum.

6. — Small dissected leaf of Carum Curui.

7. — Leaf of Eryngmm maritmum.

8. — Terminal piuna from dissected leaf of Feucedanum officinale.

(All the figures enlarged three diameters.)

TKANSACTIONS OF THE ROYAL MICRO-
SCOPICAL SOCIETY.

DESCRIPTION OF PLATES IV & V,

Illustrating Mr. Newton^s paper on the Anatomical Differ-
ences observed in some Species of the Helices and Limaces.

PLATE IV.
Drawu from nature by E. T. N.

rig. . . . .

1.— Reproductive organs of Z. maximus.

2. — „ „ L. Sowerbii.

3. — „ . „ Arion ater.

4. — „ „ L. agrestis.

5. — Backward turn of the intestine of L. maximus.

6. — Caecum of L.flavus.

From drawings by G. Busk, Esq., E.KS., &c.

A. Spermatozoa, coiled and uncoiled.

B. Granular ceils.

c. „ with nuclei.

D. Transparent cells.

PLATE V.
Drawn from nature by E. T. N.

7. — Reproductive organs of H. aspersa.

8. — „ „ H. nemoralis.

9. — „ „ H. rufescens.

9a. — The dart-sacs of H. rufescem enlarged.
10. — Reproductive organs of H. cantiana.
11. — „ „ U. virgata.

References to the Lettering in both Plates,

ot. Ovotestis.
ep. Epididymis.
V. Vitellary, or tongue-shaped gland.

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PLATES V & VI {continued).

0. Convoluted tube, in wliich are combined the oviduct and vas
deferens.
od. Oviduct after its separation from llie vas deferens.
vd. Vas deferens.
J). Penis.

rp. Retractor muscle of penis.
rp'. Additional muscle in L. Sowerbii.

c. Cloaca! chamber.
g. MultiQd vesicles.

d. Dart-sac.
/. Flagellum.

Jl'. Trifurcate gland of L. agrestis.
si, Spermatheca.
adsL Accessory tube to spermatheca.

x. Elesliy body at opening of oviduct in Arion. ctter,

References to Figs. 5 and 6 onli/.

a. Backward turn of the intestine in L. maximus.
y. Its constriction.

«'. Caecum occupying a similar position in L.flavus.

b. Intestine cut through near the liver.

e. Rectum.

dd. Great retractor muscles.
f Curl of intestine round the muscles.

TRANSACTIONS OF THE ROYAL MICRO-
SCOPICAL SOCIETY.

DESCRIPTION OF PLATE VI,

Illustrating Mr. Tatem's paper on New Infusoria.

Fig.
1. — Camomorpha convoluta.

2. — Basal view of same.

3 & 4. — Suspected early stages of same.

5. — Episti/lis umhellahis.

6. — „ marinus,

7. — „ ovalis.

(All the figures magnified 300 diameters.)

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TRANSACTIONS OF THE ROYAL MICRO-
SCOPICAL SOCIETY.

DESCRIPTION OF PLATE VII,

Illustrating Dr. CoUingwood's paper on the Microscopic Alga
which causes the Discoloration of the Sea in various parts
of the World.

Fig.
A. — Slieaf-fonn of Trichodesmiuni, from the Northern Indian Ocean (seen
with a lens).

B. — Ordinary wedge-form of ditto, characteristic of the China Sea (nat.
size).

c. — Ditto (seen with a lens).

D. — The fimbriated ends magnified, showing the loose, simple, filamentous
structure.

E. — A single filament (higlily magnified).

F. — Single cells in process of disruption.

G. — OsciUatoria, found in conjunction with Trichodesminm (nat. size, and
with a lens).

H. — A normal filament of Trichodesmium Ehrenbergii (from Moutagne).

I. — Extremity of a filament of Trichodesmium Hindsii (from Montague).

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TRANSACTIONS OF THE ROYAL MICRO-
SCOPICAL SOCIETY.

DESCRIPTION OF PLATES VIII, IX, X, XI.

Illustrating Mr. Hogg^s paper on the Lingual Membraties of
Mollusca, and their Value in Classification.

[It should be understood that the arrangement of the pkites in no way
serves to indicate Troschel's classification ; the collection of specimens,
although large, was found to be inefiicient for the purpose. The descrip-
tious are taken in the order of numbering, and as the illustrations were
arranged by the artist.]

PLATE VIII.
Tseuioglossa (For. 3—1—3).

1. — lo. {melania) spinosa, U.S. Specimen prepared and mounted in glyce-
rine by Dr. Troschel. Median reflexed and cuspid, central cusp
prolonged, with four shorter on either side. 1st lateral broad, top
reflexed and denticulate; shaft narrow. 2ud narrow, reflexed,
denticulate. Another of the family Melaniadse, PI. IX, fig. 18.

2. — Bilhinia tentaculata, Suffolk. A small and narrow band, not more
than a tenth of an inch in leigth. Median produced outwards,
reflexed, denticulations numerous. 1st lateral reflexed, denticu-
late. 2nd and 3rd narrower, and finely denticulate.

3. — Litorina niece, Brit. A small and narrow band. Median produced
outwards, reflexed, denticulate ; centre cusp long. 1st lateral widens
out at top, reflexed, denticulate. 2nd lateral smaller, denticulate.
3rd simple, hooked, slightly produced base.

4. — Cyclostoma carinatus, Mauritius. Median bold and slightly produced,
reflexed ; centre cusp strong and apical, with two or three on
either side. 1st lateral resembles median ; cusps not so bold.
2nd lateral reflexed and denticulate. 3rd reflexed, numerous den-
ticulations.

5. — Ct/clostoma elegans, Brit., N.B. Median approaching the pyramidal
form, reflexed, denticulate; centre cusp rather long. 1st lateral
produced outwards, reflexed ; centre cusp strongly apical, with
two or three smaller on either side. 2nd lateral narrow, not so
much produced, denticulate. 3rd finely serrated ; more properly,
uncini numerous.

PLA.TE VIII {continued).

6. — Paludina decisa, River Potomac, U.S. Narrow band, witli numerous
minute teeth ; medians and lateral differing slightly. Median
refl.ex.ed, denticulate. Laterals similar, narrower and smaller
denticulatious.

7. — Faludlna vivipara, Brit. Mounted in balsam, and rendered thereby
much too transparent. Median subquadrate, produced outwardly,
refiexed, denticulate. 1st, 2iid, and 3rd laterals narrower, reflexed,
and denticulate.

8. — Lacuna puteolus, Brit. Median broadest, five-cuspid. Laterals, 1st and
2ud denticulate; 3rd simple, hooked, omitted in drawing.

9. — Vahata cristata, Brit., Suffolk. Very minute band, about one fiftieth
of an inch. Median broad, reflexed, denticulate. Laterals similar,
reflexed, and denticulate.

10. — Mandible or buccal plate of V. cristata iu two equal parts, armed with
numerous rows of simple spines.

11. — Cistula catenata, Germany, Dr. Troschel. Median small, narrow,
reflexed; cusp apical. 1st lateral bold; cusp much produced.
2nd lateral broad, denticulate; uneini numerous. This, named
by Gray Cistula, evidently belongs to Cyclostomidse.

12. — TropidopJiora artiodata, Rodriquez. So named by Troschel ; clearly
belongs to Cyclostoma. A large narrow band of well-arranged
teeth. Median large, subquadrate, produced outwards, reflexed,
denticulate. 1st and 2nd laterals similar, denticulate. 3rd, nume-
rous fine serrations extending down outer border.

13. — Pileopsis Eungaricus. Belonging to Calyptra^idse (bonnet-limpets),
found chiefly on oysters. Dentition is seen to be almost identical
with velutina. Drawn from my friend Mr. F. Walker's collection.

14. — Bybocydis gravidum, Manlmein. It appears doubtful whether this
should not be named Cyclotus rugatus. Median broad, produced
outwards, tridentate. 1st lateral produced outwards, bidentate.
2nd lateral similar, but shorter. 3rd still smaller, teeth diminishing
outwards.

\b.—II. gravidim. Mandible iu two equal parts ; numerous rows of finely
acute spines, gradually diminishing.

16. — Lacuna vineta. Median quadrate, reflexed, tridentate. 1st and 2nd
laterals produced outwards, denticulate; 3rd believed to be simple,
but cannot be made out in specimen.

17. — Ci/clophorus aquilum, Burmah. Belonging to operculated land-snails.
Odontofore a narrow, elegant ribbon. Median reilexed, tridentate.
1st lateral looks inwards, tridentate; 2nd and 3rd sickle-shaped;
base flattened out, and set firmly in basement membrane. Man-
dible large and bold, covered with acute spines placed iu numerous
regular rows.

"o'

PLATE IX.

Taenioglossa.

■'»'

18. — Melania multilineata, R. Potomac. A long and minute band of fine
teeth. Median reflexed, and cuspid ; centre cusp long. 1st
lateral reflexed, broad on the upper edge, and multicuspid ; 2ud
and 3rd reflexed, muliicuspid.

T^NIOGLOSSA, &c

Smm-. lim'JK W.WIRSMII

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PLATE IX {continued).

19. — Valutina levigata. Belonging to Naticidae. Median reflexed, multi-
cuspid, central one of which is much produced. 1st lateral
turned to median, multicuspid, the inner cusp much produced ;
2nd and ord simple, hook-shaped. Two rows of laterals seen.

19«. — Mandible divided, and forming two plates of divergent rows of acutely
pointed teeth.

20. — Aporrhais pes-peliccDii, Vigo Bay. Placed by Forbes with Cerithiadse;
clearly an error. Median subquadrate, reflexed, seven-cuspid ;
centre one prolonged. Laterals simple, hooked teeth, very long
and slender, closing over median.

21. — Octopus vulgaris, Vigo Bay. Median much produced, cuspid, centre
one long and acutely pointed, wliile that on either side is much
subdued ; articulated with each other like the bones in the vertebral
column of vertebrates. 1st lateral shnilar, but much smaller,
cusps looking inwards ; 2nd lateral similar, but large and broad ;
3rd lateral slightly curved inwards, and set in membrane like a
thorn on stem of rose. Two rows shown.

22. — Sepia officianalis, Brit. Median simple, slightly hooked. 1st and 2nd
laterals similar; 3rd lateral much larger and bolder, claw-like.
From ]\Ir. F. Walker's collection. Sepiolia atlantica, a small
inferior specimen, being the only one in the Woodwardiaa
collection.

23. — Ampullaria nrceus, Trinidad. Median broad, subquadrate, or boat-
shaped, reflexed, seven-cuspid ; central cusp strongly apical, on
either side three smaller cus])s. 1st lateral broad, reflexed, cuspid ;
centre one prolonged, with two shorter on either side. 2nd and 3rd
simple, claw-shaped.

24. — A. effusa? Brazil, so very nearly resembles the former that the same
description applies to it.

25. — Carinaria cristata. Median reflexed, tricuspid. 1st lateral a trans-
verse plate, with a slightly hooked apex turned to base of median;
2nd and 3rd simple, sickle-shaped.

26. — Cassis sabaron. Median subquadrate, multicuspid, decreasing in size
from central cusp. 1st lateral hooked, denticulate ; 2ud lateral
denticulate, produced towards base; 3rd lateral simple, sickle-
shaped.

26«. — C. sabaron. Mandible divided, covered with fine spines,

'iH.—Loligo media., Tenby. Median bold, and produced at base; tricuspid,
centre one long and acutely pointed, while that on either side is
much subdued. 1st lateral similar, looking inwards ; 2nd and 3rd
laterals hooked or simple.

28. — Cyproea Arabica. Median broad, subquadrate, reflexed, cuspid;
central one longest, and two much subdued on either side. 1st lateral
hook-shaped, cusp prolonged; 2nd and 3rd simple, hooked. Half
only shown in drawing. Somewhat more closely resembles Cyclos-
toma than that of its congener.

29.— (7. Europaa, Galway Bay. Median cuboidal, produced base, reflexed,
multicuspid ; centre cusp longest, with three or four smaller ou
either side. 1st lateral denticulate; 2nd and 3rd simple, hooked.

'i{).—Cilhara [mangelia) gracilis. Specimen imperfect. Median probably
lost in mounting. Lateral simple, slender tooth, ternunating iu a
dilated base, which is firmly set in membrane.

PLATE X.

Hiemiglossa (For. 1—1 — Ij.

'il.—Fusus aniiquus,Bvit. Oilontofore narrow, and at least au inch and
a lialf lonjj. Median broad, base jjroduced ; three subequal
denticles or spines. Lateral, lliree subequal spines, the outer one
curved, hook-like, and longer.

32. — F. gracilis, Scotland. Median small, with three denticles or spines,
centre one lonf^. The medians are placed on a narrow muscular
band, which gives a ladder-like appearance to it. Lateral, two
unequal spines. Odontofores of F. gracilis and F. Islandicus
are exactly alike, while that of F. unticiuus agrees with Baccinuni

, unclatum ; that is, the median is broad, with the margin extended

on each side in a truncated form. The whole tongue is surrounded
by a sheath of muscular fibres.

33. — Cominella maculosa, New Zealand. Median nearly semicircular, armed
with three equal spines; lateral, two unequal spines bent outwards ;
terminal one longest. Clearly belonging to Ivassida;.

34 — Nassa reticulata, Brit., Folkestone. Median crescent ic, crowded with
numerous nearly equal spines, central one slii^hlly the longest.
Lateral armed with two spines triangular in shape ; the formula
of spines 2 — 11—2. The family to which this belongs was
founded by Stimpson on an odontological basis, "on account
of its arched form and numerous deniicled medians." Macdonald
pointed out another characteristic, which distinguishes Nassa from
Euccinum — " the absence of smaller denticles or spines between
the two principal fangs of the laterals."

35. — Murex trunculiis, Malta. Median, base produced, armed with fine
spines alternately long and short ; lateral a simple spine, slightly
curved.

36. — Purpura limnastoma, Madeira. Median slightly curved, narrow, armed
with numerous spines; centre long and acutely pointed ; two sub-
dued, an outer one rather longer. Lateral simple, hooked, pro-
duced at base.

37. — Mitra fasca, Madeira. Odontofore narrow, linear series of similar
teeth. Median armed with seven spines, centre longest ; laterals
numerous, gradually diminishing outwards.

38. — Ci/mha-olla {Fetus of Gray), Gibraltar. A single row of teeth boldly
set on a strong muscular baud, tridentate, and acutely pointed.

39. — Dendronotus arborescens, Greenland. One of the family -^olidjE.
Median subquadrate, reflexed, apical, pyramidal ; laterals nume-
rous similar reflexed teeth. Formula of band 10 — 1 — 10.

40. — ^Eolis papulosa, Aberdeen. Mouth furnished with a horny mandible,
divided into two parts, and united above by a ligament. Odonto-
fore semicircular, armed with numerous rows of simple spines ;
tapers off to the stomach or gizzard.

41. — Aplasia , Vigo Bay. Forty rows of divergent teeth. Median,

broad, produced at base, reflexed, tricuspid ; centre cusp prolonged
and serrated (not well seen in the drawing). Laterals similar,
produced, reflexed, tricuspid, numerous.

42. — A. hybrida, Torbay. Seventy-two rows of divergent teeth. Median,
a truncated cone, much produced at base, reflexed and denticulate;
laterals numerous, similar teeth.

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PLATE X {continued).

4-2(7. — Mandible of same divided and covered lliroiighout witli rows of
irregular spiny processes.

4.3. — Oncidoris (doris) bilammellafa, Brit. 2 — 1 — 2. Median small, reflexed
cusp. 1st lateral claw-like, remarkably strong, and produced at
base; 2iid smaller, similar, booked.

4-i.— Sea pander I'lgnarius, Vigo Bay. Odontofore, median apparently want-
ing: laterals bold, flattened out, rib-like; very strong, o])aque,
dark-coloured teetb. Buccal plate composed of three calcareous
plates, triangular in shape. " Gullet in the form of a corn-sack ;
often found distended with scores of a little bivalve Macfra suh-
truncata. The sack gradually empties itself into the gizzard."

PLATE XI.

Rhipidoglossa (00—1—00).

45. — Fliasianella Australis, Port Curtis. Eamily Turbinidae. Odontofore
remarkably bold. Medians semicircular, ten reflexed cusps, t he-
two centre of which are the larger, diminishing in size as they ap-
proach uncini, the first six of which are remarkable for the
streno-th of their books; uncifSi about sixty in number, hooked,
diminishing outwards.

^io,^Jmperator imperialis, Bombay. Medians reflexed and hooked; centre
one produced at base; five on either side similar. Uncini numerous
hooked, serrated, diminishing outwards.

47. — Thasianella pulliis, Brit. A dark-coloured short band, contrasting with
preceding specimen. Medians similar, reflexed or hooked; uncini
numerous, hooked, diminishing outwards.

4S. Trochus crasftus, Madeira. Medians eleven; central bold and pro-
duced, base forming alffi; reflexed, denticulate. Uncini hooked,
numerous, between seventy and ninety, diminishing outwards.

49. Tr. fragarioides, Malta. Medians eleven, centre largest, hooked;

uncini numerous, hooked, denticulate, diminishing outwards.

^{).— Turlo Australicu. Medians eleven, reflexed, hooked ; uncini numerous,
simple, reflexed, gradually diminishing.

51.— r^. ruhkundus. New Zealand. Medians eleven, reflexed hooked teeth
considerably produced at base, increase in size as they leave the
central tooth, and meeting a larger and bolder hooked-shaped tooth.
Uncini numerous, diminishing outwards, becoming fine small teeth.

52. Neritina zebra, Brit. Median small, subquadrate, base produced.

Uncini, 1st large, transverse, subtriangular, folded on itself.
2nd and 3rd suboval, transverse, giving a currycomb appearance
to the arrangement. Uncini about sixty, reflexed, serrated, and
symmetrically arranged in semicircular rows.

^^.—Neriia alhicilla, Mauritius. Median small, subquadrate, reflexed. 1st
uncini articulating with median; subtrapezoidal. 2ud, wliicli has
a shaft and a head, the transverse portion of which is trapezoidal ;
the shape, however, is rather remarkable, and not very constant
throughout. TJncini numerous similar teeth, hooked, diminishing
outwards.

PLATE XI {continued).

54. — N. comnntnis, West Indies. Odontofore smaller than former and teeth
finer. Median minute, refiexed, apical. Uncini, 1st large, trans-
verse, flattened as it approaches the 2ud, wiiich is sniiill and re-
flexed. 3rd subopaque, trapezoidal ; head large, having the
apjiearance of a double-headed hammer placed on the flat, the
extreme portion being much produced and hooked. Uncini nume-
rous, small, hooked, diminishing outwards.

55. — N. Mauri, West Indies. Median subquadrate, reflexed, apical, nar-
row towards base. Uncini, 1st broad, reflexed ; 2nd small,
reflexed, and narrow ; 3rd large, subopaque, trapezoidal, having a
broad, hood-shaped head. Uncini numerous, hooked, diminishing
outwards; an elegant band, well suited for polarized light. Tliis
group show a close affinity to Helicina, the formula properly
a 3 — 1 — 3 oo.

56. — Haliotis iuherculata, Guernsey. Median subquadrate, base produced
outwards, reflexed. Uncini, 1st resembles a shoulder-girdle, articu-
lating with a subopaque tooth of remarkable strength, hooked ;
this is followed by others similar but smaller. Uncini about sixty,
first four very large, gradually diminishing outwards. The specimen
is mounted dry, and well displays itself under polarized light.
There are several other specimens of the same in cabinet ; the bold
shark-tooth-like appearance of the first of the uncini is very
striking. The odontofore strongly resembles that of Trochus.

{To be continued^

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Wy/est:

TRANSACTIONS OF THE ROYAL MICRO-
SCOPICAL SOCIETY.

DESCRIPTION OF PLATES XII & XIII.

lllustiating Mr. Hogg's paper on the Lingual Membranes of
Mollusca, and tlicir Value in Classification, (pp. 93 — 104.)

PLATE XII.

Rhipidoglossa (00—3—1—3—00).

Fig;.

57. — Pltarmophorus Australia, New Zealand. Odontopliore hold, and an
inch and a half or more in lc!Ugth ; colour deep orange.
Median broad, rellexed, and produced outwards ; four smaller
leeth rcflexed on either side, rieuite'arrned, 1st remarkable for its
strength, reflexed, tricuspid ; numerous, smaller gradually dimiaish-
ing outwards. The teeth have considerable strength, and appear to
belong to an animal feeder.

5S. — Fissurella reticulata, Mazellan. Median subquadrate, rellexed ; three
smaller teeth reflexed on either side. Pleura armed, two strong
sickle-shaped teeth, flanked by smaller. Specimen rendered too
transparent by the balsam mounting.

59. — Fissurella magella. Odontophore differs in some respects from
former. Median broad, slightly produced outwards ; on either side
are t liree reflexed teeth, supported by a bold, strong tooth, tricuspid,
the siiaft of which appears to narrow oft' and bend on itself ; flanked
by numerous smaller teeth, inner border serrated.

GO. — Margarita Greenlandica, Greenland. Median reflexed, serrated ; on
either side five or six much rcflexed teeth; flanked by a wedged-
shaped rudimentary tooth, slightly reflexed, and numerous smaller
ones diminishing outwards.

01. — Chito7t fulvus,W^Q Bay. Odontophore long and narrow. Numerous
rows of strong hooked teeth. Median small, reflexed, dentate.
1st lateral small, reflexed. 2nd tricusjiid, strong, head clump-
shaped, shaft long and narrow. 3rd hooked, tusk-like, flanked
by four subquadrate teeth set in a tesselated manner in the base-
ment membrane.

02. — Chiton citiereus, Red Sea. Median narrow, reflexed ; the shaft, which
is long, articulates with the next tooth, this again with the next,
a large and bold bicuspid tooth. There appears to be a double
row of black glistening teeth, hooked, with plain cutting edges,
separated by a central band, probably muscular; four teeth,
subquadrate and slightly reflexed.

PLATE XII {contuiued).

63. — ChHon piceus, Antilles. Median small, reflexed, extremity articu-
lating with a narrow tooth, the other end of which is connected
with a strong tricuspid tooth, and flanked by three teeth, reflexed,
symmetrically placed on the basement membrane.

6i. — Chiton echinafus, Valparaiso. Odontophore long and narrow ; an inch
and a half in length by one hfth of an inch wide ; a good deal of
colour, orange-red. Median narrow, reflexed ; articulating with an
irregular-shaped tooth, and also connected with a strong-hooked
tricuspid tooth, and this again is flanked by five small subquadrate
teeth, the outer of which is the largest. Basement membrane
dense, and the central part appears to be made up of a set of
muscular bands, crossing and recrossing each other at right angles.

65. — Chiton {tmdnlatus ?), Birmah. Mounted dry, and showing many points
of interest. The medians — indeed all the teeth — are observed to
be erect and hooked, or reflexed. Pleurse armed, first and second
have a chisel-shaped cutting edge ; third, a black-coloured dense
tooth, is armed with two or three strong cusps, and flanked by
three or four slightly reflexed teeth, symmetrically placed on the
membrane, a portion of which is shown in the drawing.

66. — Patella spinosa, Cape. The odontophore in this species appears to
take the semicircular form, the median is much subdued in some
it is said to be wanting. It is, however, quite rudimentary, and
scarcely possible to say what the exact form is. Median rudi-
mentary. Pleurse armed, 1st small, narrow, i-eflexed ; 2nd hooked ;
3rd dense, tricuspid ; flanked by three subdued or rudimentary
teeth, reflexed.

67. — Fatella pellucida, Brit. Numerous small pellucid teeth, on a narrow
band. Median apparently wauiing. Pleurae armed, 1st and 2nd
similar, reflexed, or hooked; 3rd broad-headed, with some three
or four or hooked denticulate.

6S.— Fatella guttata, Yigo B&j. Odontophore very long; exceeding four
inches in length, with 280 rows of teeth. Median much subdued.
Pleurae armed, 1st narrow, reflexed ; 2nd larger, hooked ; 3rd broad,
bold, tricuspid, flanked by three translucent, slightly reflexed teeth.

69. — Fatella crenata, Madeira. Odontophore broader and shorter than
former specimen. INIedian much subdued or wanting. Pleurte
armed, 1st and 2nd reflexed ; 3rd broad, hooked, tricuspid, flanked
by two or three similar teeth.

70. — Fatella radiata, Brit. Odontophore seen in profile. Teeth long and
slender, hooked, placed in a radiating series, all similar in ap-
pearance ; three similar on outer portion of band.

71. — Fatella denticulata. Cape. Median small and narrow, reflexed.
Pleurse armed, 1st dense, clump-headed, with two or three strong
cusps subdued, hooked; 2nd large, bold, tricuspid; 3rd similar,
tricuspid, central cusp much produced ; flanked by three small
reflexed teeth.

72. — Lepeta caca {Fatella or Acmma cceca,)^ Greenland. Median reflexed,
hooked, and acutely pointed. Pleurae armed, 1st narrow, reflexed ;
2nd reflexed, similar. Odontophore minute and narrow. Teeih
set in separated bands of membrane, formula of which api)ears
to be 2 — 1 — 2. a Medians ocen in profile.

PLATE XIII {coutuiui'd).

81. — Glandina truncata, South Caroliua. Mediaus muck subdued; flanked
by numerous rows of strong, slightly curved teeth, firmly set in
membrane by a nipple-like process. Odoutophore very like that
of Tes<-acella.

83.' 'TestaceUa maugei, Brit. Medians much subdued ; flanked by nume-
rous rows of strong barbed pointed teeth, curved, increasing
in size gradually outwards ; strong nipple-like articulation pro-
jecting from shaft.

S3. — Stomatella imbricata, Australia. Odoutophore presents a fine feathery
appearance. Medians bold, hooked ; flanked by semicircular
rows of closely arranged teeth, slightly curved and acutely pointed.

84. — Scalaria Trevehjaiia^ Shetland. Odoutophore very minute, closely re-
sembling Bulla. Medians small, rudimentary ; flanked by numerous
rows of simple curved teeth.

84<«. — Mandible, 5. Trevelyana. Horny, in two equal portions, the upper part
only armed with spines.

85. — Mandible, ^?^/(''m-«5 muUifasciatus. Horny, horse-shoe shaped; odonto-'
phore of the genus nearly resembliug Helicidse. In nearly all we
find a broad band covered by numerous rows of similar teeth,
slightly curved and acutely pointed, presenting little or no
variation either in form or character. The Helices, although well
represented in the Woodwardiau collection (fifteen excellent
specimens), demand no special notice.

COBMGENDA IN LAST NuMBEB.

Page 94, last line of text,yc;?' Celephopoda read Cephalopoda.

„ 9G, foot-note, bottom line, for ' Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist.,' &c., read

'Quar. Jour. Micros. Sci.,' Vol. I, N.S., p. 175.
,, 97, line 36, after recognise atrike out the icords as such.
,, 97, line ■lO,/^;- odoutofore ?r«f/ odoutophore. Make same correcliou

in pp. 100 — 103, and description of plates.
„ 103, foot-note, last line but oue,/t»;- heated read treated.
„ 107, liue 10, /o?- Mr. Berkely read Rev. M. J. Berkeley,.

QUARTERLY JOURNAL

MICROSCOPICAL SCIENCE:

EDITED BY

EDWIN LANKESTER, M.D., F.R.S., F.L.S.,

AND

GEORGE BUSK, F.R.C.S.E., F.R.S., Sec. L.S.

L
VOLUME VIIL— New Seeies.

Mith lllusirations on Maais anir ^tam. c

LONDON:
JOHN CHURCHILL AND SONS, NEW BURLINGTON STREET,

1868.

ORIGINAL COMMUNICATIONS.

On Polymorphism in the Fructification of Lichens. By
W. Lauder Lindsay, M.D., F.R.S. Edinburgh, F.L.S.
London.

About ten years ago I made the secondary or complemen-
tary reproductive organs of Lichens a subject of special study,
submitting to careful and repeated microscopical examination
several thousand specimens from all parts of the known
world. The fruits of these researches have as yet only been
partly published, and that mostly so far as relates to the higher
Lichens. I was struck with the discovery of many instances
of what I have been since led to regard as Polymorphism in
the fructification — plurality in the reproductive organs — of
Lichens. I refer here more especially to the occurrence in the
same species of more than one form, of Spermogonium or Pycni-
dium. I hesitated, however, to publish my results for various
reasons, and, inter alia, because —

I. The observations in question, if correct, are a novelty
in lichenology.

II. I distrusted the correctness of my observations, re-
ferring the multiple forms of Spermogonia and Pycnidia
in question to various Fungi unknown, which did not exhibit
their ordinary fructification in the specimens examined by me.

But since that date I have repeatedly met with instances of
the same multiple forms of secondary fructification in con-
nection with Lichens only; my comparative study of
Lichenoid Fungi has led me every year to discover further
and closer links of connection between the Fungi and
Lichens ; I see less and less reason to doubt that the same
plurality of reproductive organs which characterises Fungi
may to a less extent equally characterise Lichens ; and I have
been more and more led to assign the subjects of my observa-
tions to Lichens, in connection with which they occur, rather

VOL. VIII. NEW SER. A

2 LINDSAY^ ON POLYMORPHISM IN LICHENS.

than to Fungi, which exhibit none of their other and more
usual forms of fructification. I can no longer, therefore,
hesitate in at least calling the attention of botanists to the
subject, in order that observation may be directed to the
groups of organs in question, with a view to the confirmation
or correction of my results as the issue may prove.

It may be that, as Nylander suggests, the organs which I
refer to Lichens as multiple forms of Spermogonium or Pycni-
dium are to be assigned rather to Fungi. But if such assign-
ment is to be agreed to, it must be made on much stronger
grounds than those advanced by that individual, though
experienced, Lichenologist ; especially seeing that my obser-
vations appear to have been so far confirmed by those of
Fuisting in Germany* and Gibelli in Italyf — according to
Professor de Bary of Halle.ij: Until it is proved that the
subjects of my present remarks belong to Fungi, with which
I have never seen them connected, I prefer assigning them
to the lower Lichens, with which I have — sometimes re-
peatedly— found them associated, and in the same relative
position with the recognised Spermogonia and Pycnidia of
Lichens.

The solution of the question is, however, beset with diffi-
culties : whereof the j)i'iiicipal is probably the fact that the
Spermogonia or Pycnidia in question sometimes or frequently
occur by themselves, without association with sporidiiferous
apothecia or perithecia, whether of Lichens or Fungi. This
group of isolated secondary reproductive organs may be held
to be illustrated by the old pseudo-genera Pyrenothea and
Thrombium, which all Lichenologists are agreed, I think, in
referring to Lichens as either Spermogonia or Pycnidia.
The subjects of my present remarks are indistinguishable in
any of their essential characters from these genera, and are,
I believe, quite as much entitled as they to be assigned to
Lichens. The puzzling group known to the older writers as
Pyrenothea contains, I believe, various forms both of Spermo-
gonium and Pycnidium — sometimes referable to the same
species {e.g., Lecidea abietina), sometimes to different
species, especially of genera of the Verrucariacece, Lecideacece
and Graphidece (Arthonia and Opegrapha). Indeed, I re_
gard it as an illustrative group of the organs which are thg
subject of this communication. It includes the followin-

* Vide footnote, p. 9.

t Vide footnote, pp. 7 and 9.

J 'Handbucb derPliysiologischenBotanik,' by Prof. Hofmeister : Section
on " Morpbologie und Pbysiologie der Pilze, Flecbten, und Myxoniyceten,"
by Prof, de Bary : Leipzig, 1866, p. 276.

LINDSAY, ON POLYMORPHISM IN LICHENS. 3

types of secondary reproductive organs — whether these are to
be designated Spermogonia or Pycnidia :

I. White-pruinose, distinct, comparatively large tubercles,
e. g., in

Pyrenothea leucocephala.
P. vermicelli/era.

II. Black, lecidiiform, distinct, also comparatively large
organs, e.g., in

P. corrugata.

III. Minute or microscopic, black, punctiform or papillse-
form conceptacles — by far the commonest form, e. g., in

P. aphanes.
P. rudis.
P. byssacea.

Another source of confusion is to be found in the fact
that not a few Lichenicolous (parasitic) Micro-Fungi occupy
the positions usually occupied by Spermogonia or Pycnidia,
from which, moreover, they are indistinguishable externally,
e.g., species of the genera Sphceria and Torula. But the latter
are distinguishable by their sporidia or spores, or by other
characters supposed by fungologists, on very insufficient
grounds frequently, to separate Fungi from Lichens. Con-
fusion may arise in the same way from hchenicolous (parasitic)
Micro-Lichens, which are apt to be confounded with Spermo-
gonia and Pycnidia, e. g., species of Verrucaria or Micro-
thelia, Tichothecium or Pharcidia, Phceospora or Endococcus.

A third source of difficulty is the varying definition of the
terms " Spermogonium, " and " Pycnidium," and the conflicting
views as to the relation which the one organ bears to the
other, more especially in respect of function. The two
highest living authorities on the subject of Lichen-reproduc-
tion, Tulasne and Nylander, differ as to the nomencla-
ture of the secondary reproductive organs of Peltigera,
which, according to the former, are Spermogonia, to the
latter, Pycnidia. Many of the organs Avhich I regard as
Pycnidia are included by Nylander and other lichenologists
among Spermogonia ; while Tulasne regards as Spermo-
gonia the conceptacles which, in association with Lecidea
abietina, I am disposed to denominate Pycnidia. Hence it is
an obvious necessity to the understanding of any question
afi'ecting the secondary reproductive organs of Lichens that
an author should render clear and intelligible his distinc-
tion between the groups of organs respectively designated

4 LINDSAY, ON POLYMORPHISM IN LICHENS.

by him Spermogonia and Pycnidia. The distinction which I
recognise — and hereto append — is simply an anatomical one
— one of convenience. Hereafter it may prove to be coincident
■with a physiological difference ; but as yet the function of
neither Spermogonium nor Pycnidium has been satisfactorily
demonstrated or determined.

Anatomical or Structural Distinction between Spermogonia

and Pycnidia.

Externally indistinguishable, being similar as to site, size,
form, and colour ; verrucaeform, papillaeform, or punctiform
conceptacles, generally black, sometimes "white-pruinose ; in-
terior— of same or of a different colour, or subhyaline.

I. Sperm,atia. I. Stylospores.

1. Form. — Generally linear 1. Form. — Generally some
and cylindrical ; long in pro- modification of spherical [ob-
portion to their breadth; some- long-ellipsoid, pyriform, oval];
times in exceptional cases split frequently broad in propor-
into two after being shed from tion to length ; variable and
their sterigmata ; of regular irregular ; sometimes bears a
form ; simple ; straight or relation to that of the spori-
curved. dium; sometimes multicellu-
lar and septate.

2. Size. — Generally mi- 2. Size. — Usually larger
nute, especially as regards in all dimensions ; variable,
their transverse dimension,

compared with stylospores ;
sometimes divide into two ;
otherwise uniform ; frequent-
ly atomic (and then mostly
regularly ellipsoid or sub-
spherical).

3. Number. — Usually in 3. Number. — Usually less
myriads. numerous than the sperma-

tia.

4. Colour. — Always hya- 4. Colour. — Sonietimespale
line — devoid of colour. yellow, though usually co-
lourless.

5. Texture. — Solid and ho- 5. Texture. — Vesicular or
mogeneous. cellular ; heterogeneous ; con-
tents frequently oily, or gra-
nular, or both.

6. Site. — Borne on apices 6. Site. — Borne on the

LINDSAY, ON POLYMORPHISM IN LICHENS.

apices only of the Basidia,
one from each Basidium.

or sides of Sterigmata ; in the
case of compound Sterigmata,
many from each "Arthro-
sterigma."

7. Origin. — Given off from
the cells constituting the ste-
rigmata, by a process called

by Nylander " Spiculation," " Progemmation," whereby
whereby the cell- wall be- new terminal or apicial cells

7. Origin. — Given off from
the Basidium-cell or tube, by
a process called by Nylander

are developed from or upon
other older or basal ones.

comes protruded into a spi-
cule, which is ultimately de-
tached by gradual constriction
of its base.

If it can be proved that spermatia are solid, and stylospores
hollow bodies, it may be admitted that the process of separa-
tion in the two cases essentially differs. But in all other re-
spects the processes in question appear identical or similar.

8. Function. — Absence of 8. Function. — Nylander as-
all germinative faculty, so far signs the power of germina-
as known. tion. Berkeley always speaks

of stylospores in Fungi as
"naked spores" — as second-
ary spores capable of germi-
nation; and he distinguishes
in some Sphserise, Pycnidia
from Spermogonia, by observ-
ing whether the terminal cel-
lules are or are not capable of
germination. The fact and
function of germination may
exist ; but in Lichens it still
requires proof. I have not
observed it myself, nor am I
aware of any record of such
an observation by others.

9. Associated substances. —
Oil-globules frequently and
copiously intermixed.

9. Associated substances. —
Oil-globules never inter-
mixed.

II. Sterigmata.

1. Form. — Simple or com-
pound : latter — known as
" Artbrosterigmata" — consist
of a few or many superim-
posed cellules of varying

II. Basidia.

1. Form. — Always simple
or unicellular ; usually linear
and cylindrical; each bear-
ing at its apex a single stylo-
spore; comparatively uniform.

b LINDSAYj ON POLYMORPHISM IN LICHENS.

length and breadth ; fre-
quently of short, roundish,
or oblong, articulated cellules,
each of which bears at its
apex or side a spermatium;
frequently more or less ra-
mose, sometimes only at base ;
variable.

2. Size. — " Arthrosterig- 2. Size. — Usually short ;
mata" frequently long ; va- comparatively uniform,
riable.

The chief forms o{ polymorphism, or plurality of fructifica-
tion, I have apparently observed in the same species of Lichen
are the following :

1. More than one form of Spermogonium.

2. More than one form of Pycnidium.

3. Pycnidia in addition to Spermogonia ; or Spermogonia in
addition to Pycnidia.

4. Pycnidia instead of Spermogonia.

5. Spermatia and Sporidia in the same conceptacle.

6. Different sizes and forms of Spermatia and Sterigmata,
or of Stylospores and Basidia.

Multiple forms of the reproductive organs I have met with
chiefly in the lower Lichens, in species, e.g. of the genera
Verrucaria, Strigula, Stigmatidium, Trachylia, Calicium, Ar-
thonia, Opegrapha, Graphis, Lecidea, Abrothallus, Lecanora.

But I have found them also in a few of the higher Lichens,
e. g. in species of Parmelia, Roccella, Alectoria.

The following short catalogue of species in which I found
deviations from, modifications of, or additions to, the ordi-
nary reproductive organs, with an enumeration of these
deviations, modifications, or additions, will probably suffice
to illustrate the general subject of my present communica-
tion, and to indicate the direction in which future observa-
tion is likely to prove useful, either by correcting the errors
of previous authors, or by confirming and extending their
results :

I. Genus Verrucaria.

V. Taylori, V. chlorotica, V. nitida, V. epidermidis,
V. biformis. Two or more forms of secondary re-
productive organs [Sj^ermogonium or Pycnidium.]
V. gemmata. Spermogonia and Pycnidia.
V. glahrata. Two forms of Sjjermatia and Sterig-
mata.

LINDSAY, ON POLYMORPHISM IN LICHENS. 7

V. atomaria. Sperinatia and Sporidia in same
Perithecium.
I made apparently tlie same observation in Spharia Lind-
sayana, a New Zealand species ;* and Gibelli, in Italy, re-
cords the occurrence of Spermatia in the asciferous Perithecia
of several Veri'ucaria.'f

II. Genus Arthonia.

A. cinereo-pruinosa. Two or more forms of Sper-

mogonia.
A. pruinosa. Pycnidia.

,, var, Spilomatica. Two forms of Stylo-

spores and Basidia.
A. asti'oidea. Spermogonia and Pycnidia.

„ var. Sivartziana. Two forms of Stylo-

spores and Basidia.

III. Genus Opegrapha.

O. herpetica, O. vulgata. Two or more forms of

Spermogonia.
O. atra, O. varia. Pycnidia.

IV. Genus Lecidea :

L. parasema,L. drijlna. Two forms of Spermogonia.

Li. luteola, L. petrcea, L. anomala, L. disciformis,
L. albo-atra, L. Cladoniaria. Spermogonia and
Pycnidia.

L. entcroleuca. Pycnidia in lieu of Sj)ermogonia.

L. abietina. Pycnidia, and two forms of Spermo-
gonia.

L. flexuosa. Pycnidia.

* " Observations on New Lichens and Fungi of Otago, N. Z.," ' Trans, of
Royal Society of Edinburgh,' vol. xxiv, p. 423, pi. xxx, figs. 1 — 7.

f Dr. Giuseppe Gibelli, of Pavia, " Sugli Org. reprod. del. Gen. Verru-
caria" ('Mem. Soc. Sci. Nat. Ital.'), quoted in "Notulse Lichenologicse "
of the Rev. W. A. Leighton ('Annals of Nat. History,' April, 1866, p. 270.)
He asserts — though his statement is contradicted by other lichenologists
{e.ff.y by Nylander, 'Plora,' 1865, p. 579) — that in a number of Ferriicariee,
especially those with simple spores and no distinct paraphyses, — i.e., all saxi-
colous species — there are no separate spermogonia, but the upper portion of
the asciferous perithecium is lined with sterigmata bearing spermatia. He calls
this spermatigerous apparatus, when enclosed in an asciferous perithecium,
a '\Spermatokalium: "and he describes V emicarm as hermaphrodite y^h^re the
spermatokalia constitute a fringe in the upper part of the peritliocium impend-
ing over the asci, and their sporidia. On the other hand, he designates Ver-
rnccma, which have separate spermogonia and distinct paraphyses,
dicinons. All the saxicolous species belong to the former category, and the

crticolous to the latter. A very convenient generalisation, if it he founded

nfact !

8 LINDSAY, ON POLYMORPHISM IN LICHENS.

V. Genus Lecanora :

L. varia, especially var. aitema, L. subfusca, L. atra,

L. Ehrhartiana ; Pycnidia ', and two or more

forms of Spermogonia.
L. umbrina. Pycnidia.
L. cerina. Two or more forms of Spermogonia.

Further, in the genus Strigula, Spermogonia, Pycnidia,
and Apothecia occur together, or Pycnidia alone ; in Graphis
scripta, Pycnidia, two or more forms ; in Stigmatidium
crassum, Trachylia tigillaris, and Roccella Montagnei, two or
more forms of Spermogonia ; in Parmelia sinuosa, and P.
saxatilis, var. sulcata^ Spermogonia and Pycnidia ; in Alec-
toria jubata, Pycnidia ; in A. lata, Spermogonia with Sper-
matia and Sterigmata of the character of those of Ramalina ;
in Scutula Wallrothii, Pycnidia and Spermogonia ; in
Abrothallus, Pycnidia, and Spermogonia; in Neuropogon me-
laxanthus var. ciliatus ; two sizes of Spermatia — full and
half-sized.

Of some of these observations, the details have been already
published in various .memoirs in the ' Transactions ' or * Pro-
ceedings ' of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, of the Linnean
Society of London, or in the ' Quart. Journ. of Mic. Sci. ;'*
of the remainder the details will be given probably in a
' Memoir on the Spermogonia and Pycnidia of the Lower
Lichens," now in course of preparation.

The few lichenologists, to whom these organs are familiar,
describe Pycnidia as rare in Lichens — as occurring excep-
tionally only in a few cases — while Spermogonia are most
abundant. But such a statement arises, I believe, mainly
from the circumstance that Lichen-Pycnidia have not been
made the subject of special research. Among the higher
lichens they are undoubtedly, in my own experience, compa-
ratively uncommon ; but among the lower lichens they are,
on the contrary, comjjaratively abundant, sometimes nearly
as much so as the Spermogonia. In those genera and species,
whose secondary reproductive organs are represented by the
pseudo-genus Pyrenothea, I have found Pycnidia to Spermo-

* ' Transactions of the Rojal Society of Edinburgh,' vol. xxii, p. 101,
" Spermogonia and Pycnidia of the Higher Liclieiis ;" vol. xxiv, p. 407,
" New Zealand Lichens and Fungi." ' JProceedings of the Royal Society of
Edinburgh,' vol. iv, p. 174, " Spermogonia and Pycnidia of the Higher
Lichens." * Transactions of the Linnean Society,' vol. xxv, p. 493, " New
Zealand Lichens." 'Journal of the Linnean Society,' vol. ix, p. 268,
"Arthonia melaspermella." 'Quart. Journ. Mic. Sci.,' January, 1857,
" Abrotlialius."

LINDSAY, ON POLYMORPHISM IN LICHENS. 9

gonia in the proportion of twenty of the former to thirty of
the latter.*

In a few cases, of which I subjoin illustrations, I have met
with a certain resemblance in form between the Stylospores
and Sporidia. There is insufficient ground, as yet, for
supposing that this is other than an accidental coincidence.
But should there hereafter prove to be a morphological rela-
tion between the two, holding good through genera and
groups, it would afford a certain additional probability in
favour of the supposed function of the Stylos j)ores — of the
present current belief that they are secondary spores, capable
of germination.

Illustrative examples —

Opegrapha pulicaris ', Spores fvLSiioxvn.; 3-5-septate.

„ „ Stylospores ellipsoid or oblong ; fre-

quently 3-septate.
O. atra ; Spores fusiform, or obovate-fusiform ; 3-septate.
„ Stylospores broadly ellipsoid, or oblong ; 1- sep-
tate.
Verrucaria Taylori ; >§j»ore5 subfusiform ; 1 -septate.

„ „ Stylospores broadly ellipsoid or oblong ;

1 -septate.
V. cinereo-pruinosa ; Spores oblong ; constricted in middle ;

1-septate.
„ Stylospores oblong or ellipsoid ; sometimes figure-

8 or dumb-bell-shaped.
V. chlorotica ; Spores oblong ; simple.

„ Stylospores oblong, or oblong-oval, or pyri-

form, or dumb-bell-shaped ; sometimes
1-septate.
Lecidea abietina ; Spores acicular or subfusiform ; 3-sep-
tate.
„ Stylospores ; ellipsoid or fusiform ; simple.

Nylander and other lichenologists apparently regard Sper-
mogonia as male or complementary organs of reproduction.
There are many arguments in favour of such a view ; but the
function has yet to be proved. There is no reason to doubt

* Gibelli found Pycnidia in Verrucaria carp'mea^ Pers., Sagedia carpinea,
Mass., S. Zizi/pki, M?LSS., S. callopisma, Mass., S. Thuretii, KcJrb., Pyremda
mitmta, Nseg., P. olivacea, Pers., Verrucaria gibeUiana, Gar. While Fuisting,
of Berlin, met with them in Opegropha varia, Pers., Acrocordia gemminaia,
Mass., A. term, Kovh., Sagedia neirospora, Hepp., /S*. aenea, Wallr. \\\ Acro-
cordia term tlie stylospores are simple ; in Opegrapha varia, Acrocordia gem-
minata, and the maiority of lichens, in which they occur, septate.

10 LINDSAY, ON POLYMORPHISM IN LICHENS.

the physiological relation of the Spermogonia to the Apothecia
or perithecia — of the Spermatia to the Sporidia — save the cir-
cumstance that no act equivalent to impregnation has yet
been actually observed. If my observations and those of
Gibelli, as to the discovery of Spermatia and Sporidia in the
same conceptacle, should hereafter be confirmed, the fact then
proved will furnish a strong argument in favour of the pro-
bability of the occurrence of some such action or function as
impregnation. Meanwhile, if we assume the physiological
relation of Spermogonia to Apothecia, lichens maybe regarded,
as they have been described by Bayrhoffer and other specula-
tive writers, as Monacious and Dicecious, according as Sper-
mogonia occur on the same individuals with the apothecia or
not. It is in the latter case especially, — where Spermogonia
occur by themselves — that the most expert lichenologist and
the most careful student will frequently find it next to im-
possible to determine to what species or genus to refer the
isolated and secondary organs in question. Fortunately, the
general rule is that Lichens are monacious ; and in the cases
in which they are diacious, they are more frequently so acci-
dentally than normally.

There are many other forms of polymorphism in the re-
productive organs or bodies of Lichens, which are of great
interest to the philosophical botanist. Our knowledge
thereof consists, however, of fragmentary and isolated ob-
servations, casually made in different parts of Europe. They
are not more numerous, I believe, simply because Lichen-
ology has been hitherto almost exclusively studied by mere
systeniatists — by species-makers, who describe phases of
plant-life as species, genera, or groups ! Philosophical bio-
graphers of Lichens have been very few — physiologists, I
mean — who have given themselves the time-consuming, and
often fruitless, task of studying all the phases of development
of even a single Lichen. Such labour I believe to be of the
most recondite character ; and it is, perhaps, not surprising
that Lichenologists should always have preferred the in-
finitely more easy task of discovering and describing so-
called new species, three-fourths, however, whereof will,
probably, ultimately be shown by the philosophical Lichen-
biographer to be merely /orm5 or conditions of groivth, un-
deserving, for the most part, separate nomenclature.

There is a most puzzling polymorphism in Gonidic segmen-
tation in Lichens, and its results under varying external in-
fluences, e. ff. temperature and moisture. The Lcprarioid
stage of development of Lichens — the fruit of gonidic seg-
mentation— has, in the hands of systematists, hitherto been

LINDSAY, ON POLYMORPHISM IN LICHENS. 11

described as various genera of AIg(B {e. g. genera Protococcus,
Chlorococcus, Hamatococcus, Coccochloris, Gldeocapsa, Pal-
moglcea, Sec). Kiitzing long ago affirmed that the Lichen-goni-
dium might be developed into an Alga or Lichen, according to
the external influences to which it %vas exposed. I am not in a
position to confirm his observations, because I have not my-
self watched the development of the gonidic cell under the
varying conditions referred to. But I have sufficiently-
studied gonidic develoj^ment in Lichens to admit at least the
probable correctness of Kiitzing's view; while I have no
doubt of this fact, that the cells which constitute a certain
stage of development of certain Algce, Lichens, and Mosses,
and which are generally known as forms of the typical
Lichen-gonidium, are indistinguishable, if they are not iden-
tical.

The subject is one to which I hope to give attention at
some future time, by growing the Lichen-gonidium artificially,
and Avatching its gradual development under different condi-
tions of warmth and moisture, or their negatives. These ex-
periments, I trust, will be connected with a comparative
series by Chas. Jenner, F.R.S. Edinb., on certain of the so-
called Unicellular Alga.* Meanwhile, I may direct atten-
tion to the suggestive papers of Dr. Hicks, on the ' Gonidia
of Algse, Mosses, and Lichens,' in this Journal,t and in the
'Transactions of the Linnean Society, 'J papers which contain
some very interesting results of similar series of experiments.

Among minor forms of polymorphism may be mentioned
— 1, diflferent forms of sporidia ; 2, differences in the number
of sporidia, in the same apothecium or sjjecies. For instance,
quite recently Carroll records a var. heterospora of Lecanora
sophodes, Ach.,§ which, he says, " is remarkable for having

* Mr. Jenner writes me (November, 1867) — " The subject is . . . .
one of the most subtle in nature, and one the exposition of which is only
possible by laborious and well-considered methods oi germination ....
There is no more interesting or important study connected with Natural His-
tory than that arising from the influence of circumstances on the develop-
ment of the simpler forms of life. Early vegetable life, being more simple
and facile of investigation than animal forms of life, renders it, in our present
state of knowledge, the more valuable of the two. . . I have no doubt
at all myself as to the transmutation of species ; but the evidence that is
ample to satisfy the individual workerisinsuiBcient to establish a fact, which
is at variance with principles of thought that rule the world .... I
shall gladly join you in experiments 07i germination ... I scarcely
doubt some important results may be eliminated."

t ' Quart. Jouni. Mic. Sci.,' 1860, pp. 239 ; 1861, p. 15, 90.

X Vol. xxiii, p. 567. All Dr. Hicks's papers have instructive relative
coloured plates.

§ ' Seeman's Journal of Botany,' ] 867, p. 338.

12 LINDSAY, ON POLYMORl'HISM IN LICHENS.

some Asci containing simple, round or oval spores, along
with others filled with spores of the usual form, all in the
same apothecium."* And again, Th. M. Fries describes a
condition of Lecidea {Rhizocarpon) geminatum, Fw., in
which, he says, " sporas singulas et binas in eodem apothe-
cio observavimus."t My own records of observations during
the last ten years will enable me to give many facts of a
similar kind, when I have leisure to treat of the ^' Variation
of the Sporidium in Lichens."

I cannot, however, at present, further pursue the subject
of polymorphism in the reproduction of Lichens. I have
said enough, I think, to show what I mean by the term, and
in what directions the subject may be studied with advan-
tage. I trust that some of the increasing number of stu-
dents of Lichenology throughout Europe will give attention
to the Biology or Physiology of Lichens, rather than to the
mere effort at the multiplication of species and the devising
of new blames, to the greater confusion of an already alarm-
ingly confused synonymy. I have no wish to depreciate
the labours of systematists, of species-describers, of Lichen-
ographers so-called, provided they possess the necessary
qualifications for the determination and description of spe-
cies, and for classification — qualifications that should, how-
ever, confine such authors to a mere fraction of those that at
present are incessantly adding to the already too bulky
" Literature of Lichenology." But my experience has led
me, under present circumstances at least, to esteem more
highly the botanist who studies Lichen-life in all its phases,
over wide areas, and in all the external conditions to which
such life is exposed in Nature. Studies of such a character,
besides correcting, or contributing to, our knowledge of the
physiology of the Lichens (the nature, for instance, of the
. various processes of rej)roduction, of which we have as yet
little positive information), cannot fail to generate liberal and
philosophical views of the range of variation and the artificial
or book-limits of species, and so to lead to the reduction andre-
arrangement — on a simplified plan — of the present unnecessa-
rily and mischievously great redundancy of species and genera.

Quite recently two Russian observers^ have discovered
Zoospores as one of the phases or forms of development of

* The var. octospora, Nyl., of Lecanora vitellina, Ach., differs from the
type iu containing eight, instead of twenty or tiiirty sporidia.

f " Lichenes Spitsbergenses," p. 45, ' Kongl. Svenska Vetenshaps-Alcade-
miens Handlingar,' 1867.

% "Beitrag zur Entwickelungsgeschichte der Gonidien and ^oos/7(??r«-bil-
dung bei Physcia parietina, D. N." ; by Famiutzin and Barauietzky, 'Bota-
nisehe Zeitung,' 1867, p. 189.

KITTON, ON DIATOMACE^. 13

the gonidia of the common Physcia parietina, L. ; and, as in
the case of Kiitzing's results, though I have had no oppor-
tunity of confirming the observation, I have no reason to dis-
beheve its correctness. On the contrary, we are on the eve,
I beUeve, of important discoveries, calculated to increase
materially the number of links in thai chain, which connects
the Lichens with the higher and lower Cryptogamia, and
even with the Phaenogamia*

Remarks on some of the New Species of Diatomace^
recently published by the Rev. E. O'Meara. By
Frederic Kittox, Norwich.

Having studied the Diatomaceae for many years, I am
convinced that a large proportion of the new genera and
species obtained from dredgings or deposits have no claim
to that distinction ; no satisfactory generic or specific
characters can be deduced from form procured from such
sources. It is also a great error to suppose that the locality
from whence a dredging is obtained is the habitat of the
forms found in it. In the majority of instances the valves
only are found, perhaps only one, perhaps only a fragment.
The fact that only one valve or frustule is found, is of itself
sufiicient evidence that we do not know its habitat (it may
be a few yards off or a thousand miles away). The li\ang
diatom multiplies with great rapidity ; if we found its true
habitat, it would occur in myriads and not as a rare or unique
specimen.

The forms found in dredgings, &c., have probably been
deposited by the decay of animal and vegetable matter, as
Noctilucpe, Ascidians, moUusks, seaweed, &c., and brought
there by ocean currents from far distant localities ; or it may
even happen that they have been washed out of some
diatomaceous deposit by river action, and carried forward to
the ocean, and at last deposited amongst the debris of recent
species. I have been induced to make these remarks by the
publication of two papers (' Mic. Jour.,' Vol. VII, n. s.), by
the Rev. E. O'Meara, on "New Species of Diatomacege pro-

* The character of their cellular tissue, of their chemical constitution, of
their contained raphidian or other crystals, of their spiral vessels (recently
observed in Evernia prunastri, L., byA dmiral Jones, ' Dublin Quarterly
Journal of Science,' Jan., 1865, p. 91) form strong points of resemblance to
floveering plants.

\4^ KITTON, ON DIATOM ACE^.

cured from Dredgings." In the following observations I
have assumed the amplification in the first paper to be the
same as that in the second, viz., 600 diameters.

The following forms, described in the Rev. E. O'Meara's
papers (Vol. VII.), may, I think, be referred to previously-
described species.

Navicula pellucida, O'M., fig. 2, is a state of N. Pandura
of De Brebisson.

Navicula IVrightii, O'M., fig. 4. is certainly only N. clavata
of W. Gregory ; the striae next the median line being obli-
terated by abrasion.

Navicula amphoroides, O'M., fig. 3, seems to be an
Amphora resembling A. salina of the Synopsis (= A. proteus
of AV. Gregory). Query, is not the nodule a small grain of
quartz ?

Pinnularia constricta, O'M., fig. 8, jiossibly a form of
Navicula truncata, a very variable species both in size and
costge.

Pinnularia divaricata, O'M., fig. 7, if correctly figured and
described, can be neither a Pinnularia nor Navicula, as none
of these genera have forked striae or costse.

Surirella pulchella and gracilis * O'M., figs. 10 and 11, are
only forms of S. lata of the Synopsis, and this is merely a
variety of that most variable form S. fastuosa. In a good
gathering of this species, S. pulchella, S. gracilis, S. lata,
may all be detected, and probably a dozen other species if
slight differences in size, outline, or striation, constitute new
species. Dr. Greville, in* Trans, of Mic. Soc.,' 1862, p. 19,
makes the only difference between S. lata and S. fastuosa
to consist in the form of the median space ; but an examina-
tion of numerous sjoecimens proves that his only character is
of no value, for in specimens from the same locality all forms
of the median space appear. Dr. Gregory proposed uniting
his Campylodiscus simulans with S. fastuosa, but the former
is a true Campylodiscus having the poles of the opposite
valves at right angles to each other (a feature not peculiar to
C simulans or C. bicruciatus, in the Campylodisci the opposite
valves of the frustule are always in that position). C. bicru-
ciatus is only a frustule of C. simulans, and the latter is only
a large variety of C. parvulus.

Coscinodiscus fasciculatus, O'M., fig. 1, Vol VII, is an

* Herr Grunow describes and fijifures a/S*. gracilis. The following are his
specific characters : — " S. gracilis in (= Tryilionella gracilis, W. Smith ? ?)
Mittelgross, Schalen breit linear mit abgerundeten oder conischen Enden,
E-ippen 12 — 14 im O'OOl Im siisswasser." ' Verhand. der k.k. zoo.-bot.
Gesellschaft in Wien,' Band 12, s. 450, u. , Taf. vii, fig. 11.

KITTON, ON DIATOMACE^. 15

injured valve Actinocyclus [Eupodiscus, Smith) Ralfsi (var.
E. sparsiis of Gregory), that portion of the valve upon
which the pseudo nodule occurs was, I suspect, broken oif, as
the author says it was an imperfect specimen, or it may have
been overlooked as it is sometimes very minute. This is
commonly the case with the Coscinodiscus Barklyi of the
Yarra Yarra deposit and which is, I believe, identical with
C.fuscus ; both are species of Actinocyclus (the presence of a
pseudo nodule is not recognised by Ehrenberg).

Stauroneis costata, O'M, fig. is, I think, a sporangial
state of Achnanthidlum lineare.

The valves of Cocconeis, like those of Arachnoidiscus,
Actinoptychus, and some other genera, are composed of two
(generally) dissimilar plates ; the upper valve (both plates)
and the lower plate of the lower valve have neither median
line nor nodule, while the upper plate of the lower valve has
both, and when the two valves are united, we see the median
line and central nodule of the lower through the upper valve
and imagine it belongs to the upper. All figures hitherto
published are imperfect in so far as they do not give — 1st,
both valves in conjunction, 2nd, upper plate of the upper
valve, 3rd, lower plate of ditto, 4th, lower valve, 5th, upper
plate of ditto, 6th, lower plate of ditto. Occasionally two or
three species present precisely the same aj^pearance in the
lower plate of each valve, and the chief characters are
therefore to be got from the upper plates of the two valves.
But we cannot contrast any figure of the two valves with
either an upper or lower valve separated, nor one of these
with the other. It will thus be evident that any description
of new species from a single specimen or even series of
specimens procured from deposits or dredgings must be
erroneous.

Cocconeis Portii, O'M, fig. 7, Vol. VII, n. s., shows both
valves in conjunction and appears to be a small state of
C. scutellum.

Raphoneis Uburnica, O'M, fig. 8, is the upper valve of a
Cocconeis, but of what species I am not able to say ; it may
probably be C. distans, W. Gregory.

R. suborbicularis , O'M, fig. 9, is one of the plates of the
upper valve of Cocconeis Grevillii.

R. Jonesii and R. Moorii, O'M, figs. 10 and 11, are both
the upper valves of one and the same species of Cocconeis,
perhaps C. scutellum. The absence of the hyaline margin in
fig. 10 is of no specific value, it has possibly become detached,
an accident of frequent occurrence; Cyclotella rotula and

16 KITTON, ON DIATOMACE^.

C. antiqua are frequently found with the marginal band
detached.

R. Archerii, O'M, fig. 12, is the upper valve of a Cocconeis
with the puncta abraded, probably it is C. costata of W.
Gregory {Cocconeis diver gens, fig. 5, may be the same but the
lower valve).

Eupodiscus excentricus , O'M, fig. 2, seems to be a valve of
Coscinodiscus minor of Kiitzing, with an abnormal marginal
development similar to a state of Amphitetras antediluviana,
fig. by Mr. Brightwell, in Vol. VIII of the ' Mic. Journ.'

In conclusion, I will venture to observe that the publica-
tion of isolated and imperfect specimens not only do not ad-
vance our knowledge, but, on the contrary, are an hindrance
to the study of these minute forms, and it would be far better
to keep all such in an obscure corner of the cabinet or throw
them into the fire, than publish them with crude and im-
perfect characters. A far greater service would be rendered
to the study of minute forms of organic life, if the extent of
variation in one single species was made the subject of ex-
amination than the publishing a score of rare species.

Description of a New Genus of Diatomace^, and observa-
tions on the costcB of Pinnularia peregrina. By
Frederic Kitton, Norwich.

A VALUED correspondent has informed me that the form
described in the Synopsis as Gomphonema Fibula is not a
Gomphonema, but must be considered a new genus.

Peronia, N. G., Brebisson and Arnott. Frustules solitary,
elongated, linear, and slightly cuneate, attached by the base.
Valves attenuated but obtuse at the base. Constricted and
subcapitate at the apex, destitute of nodule, and median line,
striae transverse pervious (across the whole valve). P.
erinacea, Breb. and Arn. ; Gomphonema tibula, Breb. MS. ;
G. Fibula, Kiitzing, Smith ; Synedra spinulaformis , Sm.
MSS. Syn. Fibula, Smith, m Brit. Mus. Cat., p. 33.
Fibula being more a clasp than the tongue or pin of the
clasp, is scarcely so good a name for the genus as the Greek
one Peronia, but, at the same time, is too closely allied to
permit it to be used for the specific name. This diatom
covers the leaves of Sphagnum, and the margin of the
decaying leaves of grasses like pins in a pincushion. , )

KITTONj ON DIATOMACE.E. 17

Pinnularia pereyrina. — Whilst examining the valves of
this form Avith a high power (800 diameters), I accidentally
discovered that the costoe are transversely striate on their
internal surface. The stria? are about 50 in -001 of an
inch. I have not been able to detect this peculiarity in
any other species, nor has it been noticed in any work with
which I am acquainted. Dr. Gregory, in ' Mic. Journ.,' Vol.
Ill, Trans., p. 15, says, " I may mention that a friend informs
me that the stria? on P. gracilis have been found by him to
be moniliform, although the fact may not yet be thoroughly
established. This, it ivill be observed, corj'esponds ivith Mr.
Smith's observation on the slrice of P. peregrinaP But where
does Smith say so ?

I may mention that oblique light at right angles to the
valve is necessary to bring out the striae.

VOL. VIII.— NEW SER.

TRANSLATION.

lagttageher anstillede i Lobet af Vinteren, 1863-64, som
have ledet til Opdagehen af de hidtil ukjendte Befrugt-

NINGSORGANER hos BlADSVAMPENE. Af Piof. A. S.

Oersted. {Observations made in the course of the Winter
0/1863-64, which have led to the discovery of the hitherto
unknown Organs of Fructification in the Agaricini.
By Prof. A. S. Oersted.)

(' Oversigt over det Kougelige danske Videnskabernes Selskabs Forliaad-
linger." Copenhageu, 1865, p. 11, pis. i, ii.)

Although, within the last decade, organs of fructification
have been demonstrated in so many of tlie lowest cryptogams,
that we are justified in assuming that a distinction of sex
pervades the whole plant-world, as well as that, as regards
the maintenance of the species, fructification is of the same
import for the spore-bearing as for the flowering plants —
nevertheless, there are whole great groups, especially in the
class of Fungi, in which organs of fertilisation are still quite
unknown. Thus, this applies to the Agaricini (Bladsvampe),
which, as well as by their complex structure, their richness
in forms, and their size, take the highest j^lace in the system
of Fungi. Gleditsch and BuUiard, certainly, have already
attributed the same import as that of the stamens of flower-
ing plants to the cylindrical or clavate cells, discovered by
Micheli in 1729, and designated as " filamenta " or '' ste-
mones,"" which so frequently occur amongst the basidia in
Agarics ;* and so also afterwards Leveille, who brought the
name " Cystidia " for these organs into use, and esjDecially
Corda,t who called them '' Pollinaria," and compared them
with the pollen-grains in the flowering plants, and likewise

* ' Der Befmchtungsprocess im Pilauzeureiche,' von L. Radlkofer, p. 2.
t " Ueber Micheli's Antheren der Fleischpilze," ' Flora (Regeusburg),'
]834, i, p. 113. 'Icones Fungor/ torn, iii, p. 44.

OERSTED, ON THE AGARICIM. 19

also Klotsch,* who sought to maintain the import of these
organs as that of male organs of fructification ; but, after
Hoffmann's researches, it must be regarded as settled that the
pollinaria are only a sterile form of basidia.f If now we add
to this that Tulasne has shown that the organs designated
spermatia by Hoffmann cannot be accepted as organs of
fertilisation, but that they correspond rather to the conidia
(microconidia) in other Fungi,J whereby likewise Karsten's
observations! lose their significance, we thus arrive at the
result that no one has hitherto succeeded in demonstrating
organs in the Agaricini, to which, in the present state of
knowledge of the lower plants, there could be attributed the
import of organs of fertilisation.

The consideration of the Agaricini, viewed morpholo-
gically, leads to the conviction that the whole spore-
receptacle (Sporehus) must be a result of fertilisation, and
that thus the organs of fertilisation must have their seat in
the mycelium, and for several years I have had my attention
directed to this organ.

Experiments in culture were undertaken in order to follow
out the development from the germinating spore to the
formation of the recejitacle, but they did not lead to any
successful result, for the mycelium always died away shortly
after germination. I had only then to go back to Nature to
seek out the first stages of development of the receptacles in
order to be guided through these to the organs of fertilisa-
tion ; but the difficulty here presents itself that the mycelium
is always underground, and does not admit of being easily
brought under the microscope in such a condition that one
can get a clear view of the individual filaments. At last I
succeeded in getting a clue to an agaric, which, contrary to
the habit of Fungi, spreads its mycelium above ground.

This is Agaricus [Crepidotus) variabilis, Pers., which, for
our present research, presents that very favorable condition ;
one of the earliest known Fungi, which has been many times
described and figured, but one whose development-history has
been hitherto the same thinar as unknown. 11 It was in the

* In Dietrich's 'Elora des Konigreicbs Preusseu,' Bd. vi.

t ' Botanische Zeituug,' 1S56, p. 135.

X ' Selecta Fungorum Carpologia,' Tom. i, p. 161. lu the Otli chapter of
this classic work is given a complete review of the whole of the literature
treating on the fructification of Fungi.

§ ' Bonplandia,' 1S61, p. 03.

II E. Fries, ' Systema mycol.,' i, p. 275 ; ' Epicrisis,' p. 211. "Cropi-

20 OERSTED, ON THE AGARICINI.

mushroom-bed in " Rosenborg " garden that this Fungus had
flourished. In the bed prepared for mushrooms it spread its
mycelium like a delicate cobweb over the earth, and in the
same spot one could find receptacles of all sizes. It -svas thus
easy, by arranging the different stages of development in a
descending sequence, to form a series of steps which gra-
dually led from the fully-grown spore-receptacle down to its
first rudiments, hardly perceptible as a white point. Under a
slight magnifying power this shows itself as a conical felted
body. This form is retained by the receptacle until it has
attained a size of l-2mm. The first rudiments of the pileus
begin now to be evident as a little globular expansion at
the point of the conical stem. At the beginning the pileus
grows uniformly at all sides, and the receptacle is therefore
at this stage regularly formed, as in Agarics in general.*
The expanded base of the stem passes quite gradually over
into the mycelium-filaments, which radiate towards all sides,
so that here the organ designated as a root by the older
mycologists is wanting. f Only when the receptacle has at-
tained the size of 4-8mm. does the pileus begin to grow more
strongly at one side, and thus by degrees the horizontal
position is exchanged for the vertical. Since the stem, when
the pileus is first commenced, ceases altogether to grow, the
fully-grown receptacle is very short-stemmed. The pileus is
undulate, wavy at the margin, bulged or lobed, membranous
or half-pellucid. The recej^tacle is often compound and
formed of two receptacles growing together by the stems, or
of three or more united by their bases.

For so far the observation of the development of the
receptacle offers no difficulties. These begin only when, by
the aid of the microscope, we would seek to account for the
relations of the earliest develoj^mental stages to the organs of
fertilisation, and it Avas only after many unsuccessful trials
that I succeeded in making preparations which would serve
to give a distinct conception of these organs. The myceliimi-

dotus, by reason of its sbort-stalked or stalkless eccentrically attached
pileus, forms a subgenus amongst the brown-spored Agarici, analogous to
Pleurotus amongst the white-spored. Both subgenera likewise have this
in common, that they, almost without exception, include species which grow
on trees. The above-named species has been already described in 1690 as
Fungus albus minimus trilobaius TRay, ' Synops. method, stirp. brit.'). It
is figured (amongst other places) in Persoon's ' Observationes mjcologicae,'
ii, t. V, f. 12, and twice in 'Mora Danica,' viz., t. 1073 (as Agaricus pubes-
C5«.?, Vahl), and t. 15S6.

* This condition has not escaped Persoon's attention ('Observ. myc.,' ii,
p. 46).

t The present species is thus described bv E. Tries, " radiculis nullis "
C Syst. myc.,' i, p. 275).

OERSTED, ON THE AGARICINI. 21

filaments have, indeed, so tliin, soft, and gelatinous a mem-
brane, that, when one tries to loose them from the soil, they
become, at the slightest contact, confluent into a mucous
mass, or a mucous net, with larger or smaller openings. Little
better success attends placing some of the soil overgrown by
the mycelium under the microscope, for one is not able to
apply a sufficiently high magnifying power. Ho^vever, one
can, even by this plan, satisfy oneself of the existence of two
organs on the mycelium which cannot be seen by the im-
assisted eye. There thus present themselves numerous short
filaments, which arise up vertically, and bear at their point a
globular cell. These filaments are thinner towards the
points, and appear to consist of three cells, of which the
lowest is only a little longer than broad, the next about twice
as long, and the uppermost much longer. Besides these
filaments one can discern another organ, much smaller, ap-
pearing only just a little above the mycelium-filaments ; but
it is seen so indistinctly that one is not at all able to form a
conception of its structure. I tried, therefore, placing thin
glass plates over the soil, in order to get the mycelium to
become spread thereon. This succeeded so far that one could
get a very clear view of the growth and ramification of the
mycelium. The mycelium grows very quickly, and in the
space of a few hours the glass plate, 10mm. long and 6mm.
broad, became quite covered over by the delicate filaments,
which adhere as closely to the glass as if they were attached
with gum. Since the filaments hardly alter their form in
drying, these glass plates may be preserved without any
further preparation as instructive specimens of the mycelium.
The mycelium so formed remained, however, sterile, and I
was almost about to give up hope of a successful result, when
I hit upon the idea that the mycelium spread upon the soil
would, perhaps, after being dried, more readily admit of
being separated and brought under the microscope in sueh a
condition that one could get a clear view of the organs seated
thereon. This proved itself indeed to be the case, since the
soft and mucous mycelium-filaments are prevented by drying
from falling together, and can be separated by a fine needle
into minute portions, which are quite free from particles of
earth, and thus can be examined under the microscope, with
the highest magnifying powers. The mycelium is now
softened, first with alcohol — when this precaution is not
observed, the view is made very indistinct by the quantity of
air-bubbles — and, after a drop of water is added, the indi-
vidual filaments and the organs seated thereon quickly assume
the same nature which they had previous to being dried.

23 OERSTED, ON THE AGARICINI.

It was only by preparations made in this way that I suc-
ceeded in getting a clear view of the mycelium-filanaents, and
of the organs seated thereon, of which I had previously only
got an indistinct glimpse, as well as arriving at a knowledge
of the organs of fertilisation so long in vain sought after in
these fungi.

The mycelium consists of very long, tubular, and branched
cells, -jl-^ = —Iro mm. in diameter, and loosely felted amongst
one another. These cells are very regularly dichotomously
branched, which is especially distinctly seen when the
mycelium is formed, as above mentioned, upon little glass
plates, as the mycelium then forms only a single layer.

The principal stem divides into two branches ; these divide
again in the same manner ; and this branching is repeated to
the extreme points. The cell-membrane is extraordinarily
thin and soft and mucous — it has almost the character of a
mucous membrane — so that the cell-filaments readily become
confluent, a condition which has a peculiar interest in that it
shows the relationship of these mycelium filaments with the
Plasmodium of the Myxogastres (Slimsvampe) ;* the cell-con-
tents, when slightly magnified, appear as a light-yellow
mucus ; but with a higher magnifying power they are seen to
be almost exclusively formed of greyish, partly very minute,
partly larger granules, amongst which occur minute yellow
globules (oil-drops ?.) ; the larger granules are often sur-
rounded by a clear mucous investment, and sometimes there
occur large, almost clear, slightly reddish, mucous masses.

Of the organs which present themselves upon the myce-
lium, should be first mentioned the bud-cells (Knopceller), or
the above mentioned three-celled filaments, with a globular
cell at the apex. These now present themselves under so
different an appearance, that one cannot readily believe them
to be the same organs which were previously before one.
The septa have quite disappeared from the stems, and,
instead of the globular cell, have come a considerable number
of verv minute cells. That the above described form, that
under which these organs present themselves when seen in air,
depends upon an optical illusion produced by the draAving
together of the cell-contents and cell-membrane, we can
readily satisfy ourselves by observing the gradual transforma-

* Compare, thus, the mucous net formed by tlie uuion of the mycelium
filaments (tab. i, fig. 10) with the plasmodinm o{ Didj/mium leucopns (Prings-
heim's ' Jabrbiicher fiir wissench. Botanik,' 3 Bd., 1SG3, tab. xviii, fig. 7).

OERSTED, ON THE AGARICINI. 23

tion which takes place when the alcohol, and afterwards the
water, is brought in beneath the covering-glass, under which
the dry mycelium is placed. One sees then that these organs,
by degrees, expand to more than double their dimensions,
whilst at the same time they are changed, so that the septa
disappear, and the (seemingly) single terminal cell gradually
breaks up into a number of smaller cells. The stem-cell is
often slightly narrowed at the base, and it is not separated by
any septum from the mycelium cells, whence it proceeds,
and has the same contents as it. The cells united into a
globular head at the end of the stem vary much in size and
number; sometimes they are larger, and then fewer in
number ; sometimes smaller, and then much more numerous.
They easily fall off, and then it is seen that they are oval,
and that they present themselves as round only when seen
from the ends ; they have hyaline contents, and only seldom
is there seen a nucleus-like body. As regards the develo]3-
ment of these organs, there appears to be formed first a cell
at the end of the stem-cell ; when this has reached a size of
about -^ mm., and while the stem grows in length to about
-1^0 mm., the end cells gradually increase in number. These
organs cannot be regarded as serving fertilisation, but cor-
respond quite to the conidia or bud-cells, which of late years
we have learned to know in many fungi, and especially in
many Sphaeriae, * whilst under this form they have not
hitherto been knov. n in agarics. But if they have not been
known as conidia, yet have they been not quite unknown ;
of this we may satisfy ourselves by comparing with Corda's
figure of Cephalosporium macrocarpum.-\ There cannot, in-
deed, be any doubt but that both figures refer to the same
plant; and we arrive thus at the result that the species
included under the genus Cephalosporium are not independent
fungi, but the mycelium of Agarics forming bud-cells.

From the same mycelium-filaments which bear the bud-
cells, or from others, proceed likev/ise the organs of fructifi-
cation. The female organ of fructification occurs, as in most
of the lowest spore-bearing plants, as a single cell — the
oogonium. The first rudiments of this cell present them-
selves as an eversion, which from the beginning is curved
down towards the mycelium filament, and, by degrees,
as the oogonium grows, it becomes almost reniform, becoming
appressed, its apex lying against the side of the mycelium
filament. Such oosronia originate in numbers from the
mycelium filaments, and have always essentially the same

* Tulasue, ' Selecta Fungorum Carpologia," torn. 2.
t ' Tcon. Fung.,' iii, tab. ii, fig. 30.

24 OERSTED^ ON THE AGARICINl.

form, the same size, and the same position.* They have a
length of Vo- mm-, and are about -^-o mm. in diameter ; and
they seem to he separated by a septum from the filaments
whence they proceed. The contents arc mostly but little
different from those of the mycelium, only the granules are
larger ; and especially there are found here many of the
yellow or yellow-brown globular bodies, which, besides, are
very large. However, there are often seen intheoogonia a quite
clear, hollow space (vacuole) of varied form, and taking up
about the one half of the cavity of the cell. In the hollow
sj)ace is observed a nucleus-like body, or in its place are seen
several vellow-brown ^lobules. In one oo";;onium was
found, in place of the hollow space, a clear, yellow mucus ;
and here the yellow-brown globules lay between this and
the cell-membrane.

From the base of the oogonium there jDroceeds at each side
a filiform antheridium-cell, which is very thin (only --i-o-
4-J-^mm> in diameter), two or three times as long as the
oogonium, and usually gradually diminishing in thickness
towards the point; sometimes the antheridial cells are
furcately branched ; or only one of them is normally de-
veloped, whilst the other is either altogether wanting or is
very short. The contents are usually quite pellucid, more
rarely a few granules are present, but antherozoids are not
found here any more than in most other Fungi. As regards
the relation of the antheridial cells to the oogonia, they are
usually seen hanging freely at the side without coming in
contact with the latter. Only twee were the antheridial
cells seen in such a union with the oogonia as is ac-
customed to take place during fertilisation. In one of the
cases it was the antheridial cells belonging to the oogonium,
in another case it was an antheridial cell from another
oogonium which presented itself in this xmion.

Amongst many antheridial cells an altogether peculiar
condition was observed but once, and there can hardly be
attributed to it therefore any special significance. This con-
sisted in the fact that three adjacent antheridial cells, placed
about the usual distance from one another, were mutually
united.

Notwithstanding that thus we have only^imjoerfect observa-
tions with regard to the act of fertilisation itself, it yet does
not admit of the slightest doubt but that the organs just
described actually have the significancy which has been here
attributed to them, since they agree so exactly wdth the
r gans of fertilisation in other Fungi (for instance, in
* Once were seen two oogonia proceeding from the same place.

OERSTED^ ON THE AGARICINI. 25

Peronospora and Saprolegnia) ; in the flowering plants,
indeed, fertilisation has been observed in only a compara-
tively small number of species, and yet it will not be doubted
that this takes place in all plants furnished with stamens and
pistils.

If, then, we come to inquire as to the operation of the
fertilisation, and as to the relation of the organs of fertilisa-
tion to the receptacle, I have not yet succeeded in obtaining
so clear a view of this stage of development as to be able to
repeat it by a figure ; but, after Avhat I have seen, it must be
assumed that the operation of the fertilisation consists in
there being thereby called forth a peculiar growth of the
mycelium filaments bearing the oogonia, so that there be-
comes produced a dense tissue proceeding from them, in-
cluding several oogonia, which, when it has attained a certain
size, presents itself as a little Avhite felted spot, hardly-
evident to the naked eye — the above-mentioned first rudi-
ments of the receptacle. The oogonia after fertilisation do
not appear to undergo any further transformation ; only once
was seen a beaklikc elongation of the anterior part of the
oogonium. The fertilisation thus appears to stand in the
same relation to the formation of the receptacle as that which
(resulting from de Bary's researches) must be assumed to
take place in Peziza.*

To sum up, in conclusion, the results to which the fore-
going observations in the development of Agaricus variabilis
have led, are as follow :

1. The mycelium of this Fungus is formed of long dicho-
tomously branched tubular cells, without septa, united into a
loose Aveb, and with so thin and soft a membrane that it has
almost quite the character of a mucous membrane.

2. From the mycelium cells proceed both vegetative organs
of propagation or bud-cells and organs of fructification.

6. The organs formed as bud-cells have been previously
described as and independent species amongst Hyphomycetes
( Cephalosporiimi macrocarpuiTi).

4. The female organ of fructification is a reniform oogo-
nium, which is curved down against the mycelium-filament,
whence it originates, with its apex pressed towards it. The
male organ of fructification consists of two filiform antheridial
cells proceeding from the base of the oogonium.

5. After fertilisation several oogonia in union give rise to
the formation of a receptacle. The oogonia are included in

* ' Ueber die Fruchtentwickelung der Ascomyceten,' von Dr. A, de Bary,
1863.

26 OERSTED^ ON THE AGARICINI.

the dense filamentous tissue which forms the first rudiments
of the receptacle, without fas it appears) their undergoing
any transformation.

6. The stem is that part of the receptacle which is first
produced, afterwards the pileus. This is at first regular,
horizontal, and attached to the stem by the middle of the
under surface, afterwards it becomes oblique, vertical, and
attached to the stem in the neighbourhood of the margin.

QUARTERLY CHRONICLE OF MICROSCOPICAL

SCIENCE.

Archiv fur Mikroskopische Anatomie. Bd. Ill, heft iii.
Supplementary Notice.

Our Chronicle was necessarily curtailed considerably last
quarter, hence we here give more extended notices of some of
the Papers in this part of the ' Archiv.' ■*■

1. " 0)1 the Genesis of the Seminal Corpuscles,''^ by La Valette
St. George.

Referring to a paper published in 1865, in the ' Archiv,' by
Schweigger-Seidel, the writer remarks that that author states
that the substance of which the spermatic corpuscles are
composed is by no means of uniform nature throughout, but
always presents peculiar characters at various parts. These
apparently simple corpuscles, consequently, are composed of
segments distinctly differing in form and chemical constitu-
tion. For instance, in the mammalia the upper part of the
filament is distinguished from the remainder by its large and
more uniform thickness, gi'eater brilUancy, and different be-
haviour under various chemical reagents. Neither does it
take any part in the movements of the filament. In birds
and amphibia it is also characterised by certain differences.
Schweigger-Seidel, therefore, regards it as a special segment
or " intermediate-piece," interposed between the head and
tail. M. Valette St. George, however, states that in some
instances in human spermatozoa he has noticed this inter-
mediate-piece, which it is sometimes difficult to discern, to
take part, though faintly, in the motion.

In those of the Hedgehog, taken from the epididymis, this
" intermediate-piece " was usually very readily discernible,
though sometimes not so well denned. M. St. George states
that the testis of this animal is peculiarly well adapted for
the study of the development of the spermatozoon, owing to
the greater transparency of the contents of the sperm-cells.
In the Guinea-pig, Rabbit, and Dog, a similar constitution of
the corpuscles can be readily perceived.

28 QUARTERLY CHRONICLE.

Witli respect to the development of the spermatic bodies,
nearly all that is essential has been already communicated by
Schweigger-Seidel in the paper above cited; and like that
observer, M. Valette St. George has been able to trace the
transformation of the nucleus of the sperm-cell into the rod-
shaj^ed head, as well as the formation of the filament from
the cell-contents. The process may be well seen, he says, in
the Sjiotted Salamander. The nucleus becomes elongated
and transformed into the head of the spermatozoon, being
frequently rolled up in the cell. Its outermost part forms a
distinctly defined appendage, O'OOSmm. long.

The author proceeds to compare the result of his re-
searches on the development of the spermatozoon in the Ver-
tebrata with those of other observers — as Kolliker, Anker-
mann, Pfliiger, and Henle,'who, though agreeing with Kolliker
that the head of the spermatozoon is a metamorphosed
nucleus, conceives, nevertheless, that for the formation of
the tail a persistent connection of the head with the cell is
indispensable. He also notices the views of Grohe, who
considers the nu.cleus of the sperm-cell'as merely a particle of
contractile substance, Avhich he thinks it probable is de-
veloped spontaneously from the cell-contents.* According to
Schweigger-Seidel the spermatozoon is not a simple nuclear
formation, but corresponds, as a transformed one-rayed ciliate
cell, to an entire cell. Of the two kinds of cells found in the
tubuli seminiferi, only one kind with minute clear nuclei
undergoes the transformation into spermatozoa.

The author's own views, as above stated, appear to coin-
cide pretty nearly with those of ScliAveigger-Seidel, viz.,
that the nucleus and the cell-contents arc both engaged in
the formation of the spermatozoon. In the mammalia the
first change consists in the nucleus becoming more trans-
parent, and losing its granular contents, or exhibiting instead
a round nucleolus, which in its turn disappears. One half of
the nucleus then exhibits a thickened contour as w^ell as an
appendage in the form of a nodule, which may become
developed into a sort of cap. At the same time it becomes
elongated, and assumes a brilliant aspect, and now, or a
little before this, a filament sprouts out of the cell which
comes into connection Avith the nucleus. The cell substance
disappears by degrees, and ultimately becomes attached as a
smaller or larger appendage to that part of the filament
designated by Schweigger-Seidel the " intermediate-piece."

Some observations, but not of much importance, on the

* " Ueber die Beweguug der Samenkorper." Von F. Grolie. Virchow's
' Archiv,' xxxii.

QUARTERLY CHRONICLE. 29

development of the spermatozoa in certain insects and snails,
conclude the paper, which is illustrated by numerous figures.

2. " On the Structure and Development of the Labyrinthulece,''''
by Professor L. Cienkowski.

In the last Chronicle a brief notice of this paper was
given, and the author's summary of his conclusions (vol. vii,
p. 277).

The organisms in question were found in the harbour of
Odessa by Professor Cienkowski. His observations have led
him to recognise provisionally in them a new group, for
which he proposes the name of Labyrinthuleae.

The members of this family are of microscopic dimensions.
They form thin, reticulate, colourless filaments, on which
fusiform bodies circulate very slowly in various directions.
The meshes of the net exhibit extreme differences in size and
shape. Another characteristic of these organisms consists in
the presence in various parts of imbedded globular or fusi-
form masses, from and into which the filaments appear to
arise and to be inserted. The reticular arrangement is often
wholly absent, Avhen the filaments are disposed in an ar-
borescent manner.

The network, as well as the arborescent ramifications,
spring from a central mass, which is sometimes as big as a
pin's head. And in these globular or irregularly formed
aggregations the Labyrinthulesc are met with on fragments of
wood encrusted with algoe, when they have been allowed to
remain in water for several days.

The author has been able at present to make out only two
specifically distinct forms, in one of which the fusiform par-
ticles are of a yellow colour, and in the other colourless.
Including both in one genus, Lahyrinthula, he names one
L. vitellina and the other L. macrocystis.

In L. vitellina the central mass consists of an aggregation
of globules 0-012mm, in diameter and having a very delicate
contour, and whose contents seem to derive their colour from
a reddish or bright yellow pigment. The entire mass is held
together by a delicate, finely -granular, _ cortical substance,
which often forms at the periphery a thin enveloping layer.
On the addition of alcohol this layer appears in the form of
a delicate membrane at some distance from the shrunken
globules. The material of which it is composed is not
coloured either blue or brown by iodine. It is dissolved in
concentrated sulphuric acid, but the author has been unable
to perceive any proof of its containing cellulose.

Besides the large central mass, there are observed in
various parts of the net smaller aggregations of globules,

30 QUAllTERLY CHRONICLE.

Avhich, however, are not surrounded by any cortical sub-
stance. From the central mass, as well as from these smaller
masses, spring in all directions the colourless, usually very
fine, but sometimes coarser, anastomosing threads in which
the coloured fusiform corpuscles, either simply or several
together, pursue their lazy course.

Observation shows that by degrees all the globules in the
central and other aggregations assume the fusiform shape,
and proceed along the filaments until, at the end of several
hours, the greater part of them may be observed to have
reached the edge of the fluid in which the specimen was
immersed.

The fusiform corpuscles vary greatly both in size and shape;
the latter varying from perfectly globular to that of a thread
slightly thickened in the middle. They seem to consist of a
homogeneous protoplasmic substance.- They are never seen
to coalesce. When closely examined the body is seen to be
flattened, and Avithout any visible membranous enveloj)e;
it represents a mucus-corpuscle, with scattered granules and
pigmentary particles. In the centre is a nucleus, which ap-
pears like a clear vacuole, containing a strongly refractive
nucleolus. The colouring matter in its chemical reactions
seems to resemble the red spots in ^uglena, the Rotifera,
Uredinea, &c.

The motion of the fusiform particles, which, from the de-
scription, would appear to bear some analogy with that of the
granules in Traclescantia, &c.j is excessively slow, not ex-
ceeding, according to the author's observations, tV^^ to Virth
of a millimetre in a minute, nor is it very uniform. The
principal direction seems to be towards the periphery of the
drop of water, but the shortest road is not invariably selected,
so that sometimes, missing the way, they return to the central
mass from which they had started. With respect to the
cause of the motion the author has been unable to make out
anything satisfactory. It appears certain, however, that
whatever it is, it resides in the corpuscle, and not in the fila-
ment, although the former is unable to move, except when in
connexion with the latter.

With regard to the nature and properties of the filaments
and the substance of which they are composed, it is re-
marked that they are solid, and the substance non-contractile ;
consequently, they in no way resemble the pseudopodia of the
Khizopoda.

The author enters into a long discussion regarding the
mode of origin of the threads and their component fibrillae,
and the result at which he has arrived is, that the ultimate

QUARTERLY CHRONICLE. 31

fibrils of which the thicker fihiments are composed are all
produced from the fusiform corpuscles. The whole network,
in fact, may be described as a gelatinous, fibrillated secretion
of the corpuscles.

The second species, L. macrocystis, agrees with the former
in all essential particulars of structure, &c. Its corpuscles,
however, are somewhat larger (0"018 — 0"025 mm.) and of
denser consistence ; the nucleus is better defined, and the
contents more granular and colourless, or with the faintest
yellow tinge. The cells constituting the central mass have
in this species usually an arched or curved form, with rounded
ends, and the convexity directed towards the perijDhery of
the mass. When viewed with a pocket lens, the masses
appear as white or yellowish gelatinous drops, which are
sometimes aggregated into vermiform growths which are
seen, several together, on varioiis parts of the algan incrusta-
tion.

In further illustration of the nature of the Labyrinthuleae,
the author states that the fusiform corpuscles multiply by
division, the first indication of which is the formation of a
septum, usually running obliquely across the cell in the line
of its future scission. In this process the nucleus does not
divide, but a new nucleus is formed in one of the segments.

Under certain circumstances, as, for instance, when exposed
to partial desiccation, L. macrocystis has the power of very
readily becoming quiescent, that is to say, of becoming
encysted, in which condition it may remain for many weeks
unchanged.

o. "On Clathndina, a Neiv Acthiophryan Genus'' by Pro-
fessor L. Cienkowski. The growths to which the name of
Clathrulina has been applied, and of which it would seem
Professor Cienkowski has distinguished two species, or rather
varieties, consist of protoplasmic masses, lodged free within a
fenestrated shell, through the wide openings of which the
numerous pointed'pseudopodia project, and which is supported
on a long, rigid peduncle, by which it is affixed to various
subaqueous objects. The shell or case also not unfrequently
itself forms the basis of support of the peduncles of other
Clathrulina disposed in a radial manner, and again serving
for the support of a second series, and so on.

It was in this aggregated form that the author first dis-
covered the genus about ten years since in St. Petersburg, in
a tank containing Nitella, Vaucheria, &c. ; and he has since
observed it in Dresden, Franzensbad, but very rarely, and in
small quantity. The growth may be simply described as an
Actinophrys contained in a fenestrated case of a globular or

32 QUARTERLY CHRONICLE.

pyriform shape, about 0'072 mm. in diameter, and whose
Avail is composed of polygonal, firmly connected convex rings,
or perforated plates. Its surface consequently presents nume-
rous dej^ressions. The fenestrce are of various sizes and forms ;
most have a rounded or polygonal, more or less regular out-
line, but the smallest are large enough to admit conveniently
CMamydoraonadce, spores of Alf/a, &c. The stem is many
times longer than thick, and it is tubular, the calibre being
about 0003 mm.

Clathndina multiplies itself much in the same way as
Actinojjhrys, Sec, viz., by scission, and the production of
motile zoospores after having undergone the process of
encysting ; of course it is only the soft protoplasmic mass
that participates in these processes. In either case the
segments of the divided body, or the motile zoosjjores, escape
through i\\Q fenestr(e; and either at- once, or after moving
about for a short time, become affixed, and, secreting the
fenestrated case, become Clatlirulince.

The systematic relations of this interesting genus are too
obvious to require remark, but, as the author observes, it is
extremely interesting to find in it an intermediate form of
Hhizopoda between Actinophrys and the Radiolaria?, as re-
presented, for instance, by Coscinosphcera of Stuart,* which
may, in fact, as he says, be described as a cased Actinophrys
furnished with pigment-cells.

4. "On the Origin and Development of Bacterium termo,
Duj., Vihreo Vineola, Ehrb," by Job. Liiders, of Kiel.

5. "Remarks on the above 2)aper^^ by Dr. Hensen. The
very interesting observations of Frau Liiders on the develop-
ment of Vibriones from the spores and germ -filaments of
various of the lower fungi were first communicated in the
' Botanische Zeitung ' (1866, p. oo) ; and her results were
commented upon, and strongly controverted, by Professor
Hallier in the ' Archiv. f. Mikroskop. Anatomic,' vol. ii.
p. 67, 1866.

The present paper by Frau Liiders is intended to support
her previous observations, and to establish her conclusions
upon fresh experimental grounds.

In the second brief communication by Professor Hensel,
all that she says is strongly supported ; and there can be no
doubt that the subject is one demanding the earnest and
zealous attention of microscopists.

Madame Liiders conceives thatshe has proved that Vibriones
(leaving aside the question of there being more than one

* ' Zeitscb. f. wiss.,' Bd. xvi, Heft, 3.

QUARTERLY CHRONICLE. 3S

species) are produced from tlie spores and germinal filaments
of various fungi — amongst wliicli are enumerated 3Iucor,
PeniciUiKiu, Botrijtis, Toriila, Manilia, AspergiUum, Septo-
sporiiim, Arthrobotrys, Acremonium, and Verticillium.

In Madame Lllders' experiments on the cultivation upon
the stage of tlie microscope, either under a covering-glass or
in the moist chamber, all the glasses employed, both thin
and thick, were previously purified from all organic germs,
by exposure to a strong heat in the spirit lamp ; and in order
to avoid both the drying of the preparation and the admis-
sion of foreign germs, they were kept under a glass bell,
secured by water.

In cases where it was intended to kill the spores by dry
heat, they were kept for fifteen to thirty minutes at a tempe-
rature of 160° C, for Madame Liiders has seen them germi-
nate after they had been heated to only 100°, when placed
for some days in flesh- or sugar-water.

The experiment farther consisted in the sov/ing in test-
glasses, prepared as above stated, and filled with boiled flesh-
Avater, at the moment they were taken from the boiling
apparatus, the spores of the y?iX\o\xs fungi above enumerated,
taken by means of forceps which had previously been heated
to redness ; the tubes were then closed Avith varnish, &c.
When the tubes thus prepared were placed, immediately
after the sowing, into the warm bath, a cloudiness was often
observed in the fluid in the course of a few hours, and within
twenty-four hours they always swarmed with Vibriones,
whilst at the same time the contents of a similar tube, con-
taining the same fluid, and prepared in precisely the same
way, but into which no spores had been introduced, remained
unchano-ed.

The Vibriones produced in this way by direct germination
from the spores oi fungi difler in no respect from those which
are commonly found in putrescent fluids.

Madame Liiders is induced to believe that the blood of
living animals contains Vibriones, either in the catenated form
or in that of the constituent granules ; but during life, and
until putrescency commences, these are always quiescent,
and show no signs of active existence.

An experiment, by Professor Hensen, in support of this
opinion, is thus described :

The extremity of a glass-tube, bent in the form of a W
with the ends drawn out, and quite closed, and which had
been exposed for half an hour to 200° C, was thrust into the
heart of a recently killed guinea pig, and then broken off".
After the blood had been sucked into the tube from the

VOL. VIII. — NEW SER. C

34 QUARTERLY CHRONICLE.

other end, which was melted oft' in order to remove any small
quantity of fluid that might Imve entered in the process of
suction, the ends of tlie tube having been hermetically
closed, it was kept at a temperature of from 13° to 15° C.

From one of several tubes thus prepared, on the 8th Nov.,
1866, the point was broken off on the 10th, and on the follow-
ing day a drop of the blood was expelled by warming the air
contained in it. Microscoj)ic examination showed that this
blood contained numerous fungus-germ-vibriones, in the form
both of isolated granules, as well as in that of rods or chains ;
mobile rods, however, were rare. On the 12tli the latter had
become more numerous, and their motions were much accele-
rated on the addition of water.

Milk also contains the minute, isolated germs of vibrios in
still greater abundance, and which, as in the case of the blood,
are motionless until j^utrescency coinmcnces. As might be
expected, cheese contains them in greater abundance even
than milk, as may be proved by placing a bit of cheese in
water, which soon becomes filled with active vibrios, which
correspond in every respect with what M. Pasteur describes
as the butyric-acid ferment.

Similar germs are also found in the yolk of eggs treated in
the same way as the blood in the experiment above related ;
and Madame Liiders thence remarks that it is by no means
necessary to conclude from M. Donne's experiments, in which
the access of extraneous spores to the egg was prevented, that
the Vibrios found in it were the product of spontaneous
generation.

In the mouth and on the epithelium of the tongue the
Vibrio-germs occur in the form of Leptothrix buccalis, Remak.
When Leptothrix, or fungus-spores, are cultivated in pure
water, the rods, it is true, exhibit but very faint indications of
movement ; but when placed in flesh- or bloody Avater, they
multiply and present all the phenomena witnessed in the
Vibriones produced in such media from the spores of moulds,
or in those which arise spontaneously in putrifying fluids.

The facts first made known by Professor Hallier, that, under
certain circumstances. Yeast may be produced from Lepto-
thrix, has received confirmation from Madame Liiders' re-
searches, as have also the statements of Bail, Berkele)', and
Hoffmann, that yeast can be producedfrom the spores of various
moulds. In experiments on this subject much depends on
the composition of the fluid, the amount of germs introduced
into it, but, above all, on the temperature.

The mixture which afforded the best results contained
from 13 to 16 parts of cane-sugar to 100 of water. When

QUAHTKKLV CHKONICLE. 35

this solutiou, after having been heated to 140° C, is exa-
mined microscopically, the minute germs which it always
contains are seen to be still browner than the fluid, and they
never germinate. The solution, consequently, in this con-
dition is fitted for further experiment with the spores of
various fungi. When these have been introduced the tubes
should be placed in a bath at from 30° to 40° C, which should
be maintained as nearly as possible uniform. In three or four
days yeast will be abundantly formed. The spores of Peni-
ciUium glaucum appear to afford the most certain and copious
results, whilst from those of Miicor, Aspergillus, Arthro-
botrys, VerticilUum, and Acremonium, it is more difficult to
produce yeast in pure sugar water, especially when the
spores are at all old. But the addition of a little fruit-juice
at once promotes its production.

The results at a lower temperature arc widely different.
Even at the temperature of 25° C. an extraordinary quantity
of thick germ-filaments are produced, Avhich, as it were, ab-
sorb the entire plasma for their own nutrition, and conse-
quently few or no granules are afforded.

In similar manner it Avould seem that the yeast-cells may
be produced from the Yibriones of a putrescent fluid in the
course of forty-eight hours. In this experiment care must be
taken that too great a cjuantity of the Vibrio-germs should
not be introduced into the sugar solution. Vice versa, on
the addition of yeast-cells to a putrescent animal fluid, the
production of Vibrio-germs from them may be witnessed.

In the few observations appended to this valuable commu-
nication by Madame Liiders Professor Hensen gives his
testimony as to the patience, perseverance, and care with
which the experunents were performed, many of which were
repeated by himself with similar results. He remarks also
upon the fact, deducible from all recorded observations on
the subject, that the germination of fungi, the formation of
yeast-cells, and of Vibrios, never proceed at one and the same
time and spot, but are always successive — one form disappear-
ing as the other comes ujjon the stage. In illustration of this
general law he cites a valuable paper by Oehl and Cantoni,*
who, in their researches with an extract of beans, invariably
observed, after the disappearance of the Vibrio -fauna, the en-
trance of a flora, eventually passing into the development of
fungi.

6. A Contribution toivards the Knoivledge of the ^' SaccuU
of MiescherJ' By Professor W. Manz. — Miescher's Sacculi

* ' Aunall uuiversali,' vol. cxcvi, p. 352, '■ Pdcclicrcbe sullo sviluppo degli
Infusori."

36 QUARTERLY CHRONICLE.

are the minute bodies wliich occur in muscular tissue, and
whicli were known as " Cattle Plague Entozoa " in this
country a year or two since. They have, of course, nothing
to do with cattle plague, and were well known to the German
microscopists twenty years since, and have also been described
by Mr. Raincy, who regarded them as embryo-cysticeri,
from the pig, in 1859. Dr. Beale's paper in the ^Med.
Times and Gazette,' in which he described these sacculi
very carefully at the time when they attracted atten-
tion in England, is not referred to by Professor Manz. It is
a very strange thing that not one of the writers on these animals
(which evidently belong to the group of Gregarinida) has
given them a name. AYe offer that of Sarcocystis Miescheri
for the use of future writers. Professor Manz observes that
the common cylindrical form of these vesicles depends entirely
on their size ; and the change of size is the consequence
of a development which takes place longitudinally ; the
thickness does not depend upon this ; they are some-
times broader and sometimes narrower than the primitive
bundle of muscular tissue in w^hicli they occur. The tunic
of the sacculi is composed of a fine homogeneous membrane
which surrounds its contents pretty close. From some observa-
tions made on decomposing sacculi, the author thought the
tunic was very porous, but in fresh subjects I could discover
no trace of such a condition.

Smaller sacculi from the jjig were observed, which were
acuminate at one, or, more frequently, at both ends ; and at
these points a conical space was left containing no reniform
corpuscles, but only brilliant granules. A very important
character of the tunic of the sacculi is the presence of a
ciliary investment, which was first described by Mr. Rainey.
This exists, however, only on the smaller or younger sacculi ;
it is of a very delicate nature, and may easily be detached in
the extraction of the sacculus from its site. Its aspect con-
veyed to the author the same impression that it has done to
Leuckart, viz. that it is due to a cuticular fissuring or stria-
tion, rather than to the existence of actual cilia, lor ciliary
movement has never been witnessed in it.

The contents of the sacculi consist of a homoo-eneous,
very transparent, gelatinous substance, in whichare imbedded
the well-known kidney- or bean-shaped corpuscles. But
besides these the author has noticed bodies of a crescentic
form, and pointed at each end ; and also, but more rarely,
straight rods, and, lastly, sj^herical corpuscles. The latter
appear to have a special significance, inasmuch as they repre-
sent the earlier stage of development of the others. They are
found chiefly, if not exclusively, in the smallest sacculi.

QUARTERLY CHRONICLE. 37

In appearance not unlike the colourless blood-cor2')uscles,
these bodies at first appeared pale, with faintly granular con-
tents and ill-defined nucleus. But when placed in dilute
glycerine their aspect soon changed, OAving to the retraction
at one spot of the contents from the now distinctly visible
membrane, the contents presenting a defined outline, whilst
at the same time the vacuole-like nucleus Avas also more dis-
tinctly seen. This condition, however, did not last long ; the
membrane soon bursting, the contents escaped in an elongated
form, and assumed the character of the well-known reniform
corpuscles, Avhich are thus seen to arise from the direct trans-
formation of the contents of a cell. That this phenomenon is
a normal one, and indicative of a normal process of develoji-
ment, is sIioavu in the circumstance that the reniform cor-
puscles are found in sacculi, lodged in perfectly fresh muscle.
"With regard to the structure of the reniform corpuscles, the
nucleus, as remarked by Hessling, rather apj^ears like a divi-
sion of the protoplasm ; but, from the j^art it takes in the
scission of the corpuscle, it must be regarded as a true
nucleus. It is, without doubt, vesicular, usually solitary, and
placed in the middle of the corpuscle tOAvards its concave
side. Other smaller, probably fatty particles, or minute
A'acuoles, are seen in the pointed extremities of the corpuscle.
The corpuscle does not seem to be furnished Avith a mem-
brane, the existence of Avhich Avould scarcely be reconcilable
Avith the above-described mode of its genesis. Hessling states
that he has often Avitnessed division of the corpuscles. The
author has sometimes, in corpuscles from the smaller-sized
sacculi, noticed the apjDcarance of a delicate line crossing the
nucleus, and probably betokening its division. Besides this, he
has frequently obserA-ed Avhat may be regarded as the last
stage in the process of scission, viz., tAA'o corjDuscles in close
apjoosition by their concave sides, and still attached to each
other at one end, but both of Avhich presented the fully deve-
loped reniform shape. As nothing like a membrane could be
seen surrounding these tAvin corpuscles, he concludes that
the scission does not take place Avithin a cell.

The moA'cments of the corpuscles appear to depend alto-
gether upon external agencies, such as currents in the fluid
in Avhich they may be placed, or upon the molecular motion
or the minute brilliant particles to Avhich some are attached
by delicate filaments.

The corpuscles, AAdien Avithin the sacculus, are imbedded in
a matrix, Avhich is subdiAaded into separate segments, AA'hich,
as long as they remain enclosed, have a polygonal shape from
their mutual pressure, but, Avlien freed, assume a globular
form.

38 QUARTERLY CHRONICLE.

Amongst the animals (-which other observers say are in-
habited by psorospermian vesicles) the author has found
them in the deer, ox, mouse, rat, and pig, but never in the
human body. He always found them inhabiting the trans-
versely-striped miiscles, and in no other organ or texture.
They are, like the Trichin, found in great numbers at
the commencement of the tendon of the muscle. If in large
numbers, they arc found in almost every muscle of the animal,
ft is also to be remarked that where they are few and small,
they occur chiefly in the peritoneal covering and the regions
about the stomach. According to the size of the vesicles so
is the number ; where they are few they are small — from a
quarter to one line in length ; and where numerous, larger,
even two inches long. As to the exact time of year
of their appearance the author is uncertain, for he was not
able to carry on his observations during a whole year. He can
only say that in the early months of last year he examined a
great many animals, and found ninnbers of the cysts both in
rats and pigs, whereas in the following summer until August
he found none ; but from August to October they appeared
again, though only of the small or very smallest size. To
prove the manner in which these parasites are communicated,
he made numerous experiments, placing them in wet earth,
in sugar-water, and leaving the flesh in which they were
found to putrify or to dry ; but in all these experiments the
sacculi perished, or rather the contents, which underwent a
sort of granular disintegration, usually even before the mus-
cular structure itself had disappeared. He then tried feeding-
different animals on flesh which contained them, but when
these were opened he simply found remains of the vesicles in
the stomach, but no trace of them in the muscles.

Although these results were all negative, and although he
lias not met with any of the granular bodies in the flesh of
the heart, which Hessling believes to be the young stage, the
author thinks that the different sacculi, which are found in
various animals, simply indicate degrees of age, which arc
distinguished by the absence of cilia and the comjDarative
abundance of the spherical or of the reniform corpuscles.

Since he has ascertained from direct observation that the
reniform or fusiform corpvisclcs are developed in the spherical
cells above noticed, from Avhich they are subsequently
liberated, and, moreover, since in the sacculi of the smallest
size only these s^jherical cells Avith uniform granular contents
are met with, there can be no doubt that those saccnVi, in which
the spherical cells predominate, are younger than those contain-
ing the fusiform corpuscles. But it is precisely the sacculi,
jU the former condition, which are almost invariably furnished

QUARTERLY CHRONICLE. 39

"witli cilia, Avhicli organs, on tlie other hand, are wanting in
those of the largest as well as in those of the smallest size.
The occnrrence of the ciliated investment in the young sacculi
suggests the question whether the cilia may not have some-
thing to do with their migration ? As yet we know nothing
with respect to the form under which the parasite penetrates
into the muscular suhstance, Avhether in that of a sacculus, or
whether, as would appear probable from Hessling's observa-
tion, the saccular membrane be not developed secondarily
around an aggregation of pso7'osperins, or perhaps of the sphe-
rical cells, their parents, which had previously penetrated.
As regards the latter point, he has no facts to adduce, and in
support of the former has only a single observation to record.
In a sacculus of the smaller size, taken from the diaphragm
of a pig, one end of it appeared to be produced into a filament
about four times the length of the sacculus itself, and con-
tinued in a straight line with it, parallel to the long axis, and
through the otherwise untouched striated substance of the
fasciculus. But what was at first taken for a filament
turned out, upon closer inspection, to be merely a narrow
fissure in the muscular substance, which gradually Avidened
as it approached the sacculus. The suggestion at once arose
whether this fissure might not represent the accidentally
remaining vestige of the passage of the sacculus. The expla-
nation, however, is given with reservation, as the appearance
in question was only observed once.

Although the author has not been able to say anything
positive as to the way in which the vesicles penetrate the mus-
cles, he thinks, considering their being so like the Trichina,
and also that they are generally found in the neighbourhood of
the stomach, that we may pretty safely conclude that it is
through some part of the alimentary canal that they first enter
the body. It is also certain that they are conveyed from here by
some means to different parts of the body ; why not by the
blood-vessels ? He has himself only observed one case which
in any way would prove this ; a young sacculus was found
very close indeed to an artery in the diaphragm. Nothing
however can at present be positively stated until the whole
history of the development of the sacculi is known.

T. "Oti the Structure of the Human Conj?mctiva/^ by Pro-
fessor Ludwig Stieda. — The author'g observations, founded
upon sections in various directions of the conjunctival mu-
cous membrane, show that it presents numerous deeper or shal-
lower grooves or furrows, which pervade it in all directions,
and are lined with a cylindrical epithelium, Avhilst the inter-
mediate parts of the surface are covered with a scaly epithe.

40 QUARTERLY CHRONICLE.

Hum. By the existence of this structure, he thinks, may be
reconciled the somewhat conflicting vicAvs of anatomists re-
specting the structure of the conjunctiva. By it he also
explains the aj^pearances which have induced Henle to
imagine that it was furnished with innumerable glandular
follicles, inasmuch as in vertical sections of the membranaB
the appearance afforded by the deeper furrows is precisely
that of mucous follicles. Sections parallel with the surface
are requisite to show the true structure.

8. "Description of a Gas-Chamber for 3Iicroscopical pur-
poses." by Dr. S. Strieker. — It is often desirable to be able
to examine certain objects exposed to various gases, and also
to be able to pass a galvanic current through them or the
fluid in which they are immersed ; and it may be added that
an apparatus suitable for these purposes might be made
available for the application of various chemical reagents to
objects contained in a close chamber under the microscope.

These objects apjiear to be very ingeniously and, he says,
comfortably carried out by Dr. Strieker's contrivance, which
may be thus briefly described with the aid of a woodcut :
|R In the middle of a piece of thickish plate glass of suitable
dimensions (a) a circular groove (r) is cut, and from this a

■V-

^-l-TVgz^J Cl

straight furrow {g, g), of the same depth, to each end. In
each of these furrows is placed a slender metallic tube (f and
f ), preferably of platinum, and each having at its extremity
a small bulbous enlargement, for the purpose, Avhen needed,
of affixing caoutchouc tubes. These metallic tubes are ce-
mented into the furrows by means of shellac or other suitable
cement, and thus serve as the sole means of communication
with the circular furrow (>•). The whole surface of the glass
is now covered either with a layer of paper or of some var-
nish, but in either case has a circular space left open in the
centre {a, a). The object of the paper or other covering is
to keep the covering glass {b, b, b, b) at a suitable distance
from the central circular portion of glass (o) upon which the
object to be examined is placed. The mode of using this

QUARTERLY CHRONICLE. 41

simple contrivance will be readily perceived. When it is
desired to apply a current of gas of any kind, or of a fluid, it
will be readily carried through the tubes and central space
by suction at one of the tubes, or by forcing the gas onwards.
In the same way the tubes, either of themselves or as admit-
ting the passage of a fine wire, may be made to conduct a gal-
vanic current, when brought into connection through the
wires (d, d) with the poles of a battery.

The covering glass is secured round the edges by a little
softened talloAv.

9. " Spongological Notes,'" by Oscar Schmidt. — In a very
brief communication O. Schmidt makes some remarks on the
structure of the Halisarcina;, founded mainly upon H. guttula
and H. lobidaris. He has ascertained that in the interior of
these sponges there is an internal sarcodous network, and
also an external layer, which are continuous Avith each other.
This network encloses numerous irregular vacuities, which
are quite distinct from the ciliated true canals. He points
out certain points of analogy between these forms and the
Gummineae.

Among the calcareous sponges he notices a new Sycon-like
form, with the characters of Danstervillea, in wdiich latter he
states that he has as yet been unable to detect the non-cili-
ated canals described by Kolliker. He has confirmed his
previous observation that Nardoa is, if not always, yet fre-
quently, furnished with oscula.

With respect to the siliceous sponges, the author remarks
that a new species of Scoparina shows, from the same
locality, the extreme variability of the spictda, and that thus
some doubt may exist as to the value of the specific charac-
ters derived from these elements. In conclusion, he states
that Lieberkiihn's Halichondria {Myxilla) anlielans is not a
species, but composed of two distinct forms, for which, sepa-
rating them from Myxilla, he proposes the names of Reniera
inflata (blue, with only one kind of spicules) and R. muggiana
(brownish, with the spicules described by Lieberkiihn).

Siebold and Kolliker's Zeitschrift. — The fourth part of this
journal for the year 1867 contains the following microscopical
papers, which we cannot notice in this number :^1. '"'•Re-
searches on the Natural History of the JVorms. On Chceto-
soma and Rhabdogaster," by Elias Metschnikoff. 2. " Studies
on the Development of the Sexual Glands in the Lepidoptera,"
by Dr. E. Bessels. 3. " On the Muscles of the Cyclostomians
and Leptocardians," by H. Grenacher. 4. " On the Semi-
circular Canal System in Birds," by Dr. C. Hasse.

Sitzungsber d. Wien. Akad. June, 1867. — '' Observations on

42 QUARTERLY CHRONICLE.

the Morpholoyical Constitution of the Red Corpuscles of the
Blood" by Professor Bruckc.

On treating the red corpuscles of the blood of the Tritons
with boracic acid, Brucke found that they consist of two
distinct parts, which he names, the one zooid, the other
cecokl. Having cut off the head of a living Triton, he let
the blood drop into a solution which contained one part of
boracic acid dissolved in one hundred parts of water ; the
globules fell to the bottom, and were examined with the im-
mersion lens of Hartnack. Then were recognised two
parts — the one uncoloured and diaphanous, which is the
oecoid ; the other coloured with the colour of the globules,
which is the zooid. At first the zooid is completely within
the cecoid, then it is implanted upon it, and finally in many
cases it becomes entirely separated. The a?coid is not the
supposed membrane of the globules, for there is no sudden
rupture, but a gentle development, by which the zooid se-
parates itself from the oecoid. The oecoid is a soft substance
which takes a spheroid or ellipsoid form during and after the
act of separation ; sometimes there is to be seen the vestige of a
crater in which the zooid was last implanted before separation.

The zooid is made up of two different parts — of a nucleus
which can be seen in the living corpuscle as a colourless
elliptical spot, and of a part of the corpuscle which contains
all the haemoglobin (cruorine), and which in the living state
is sjDread out in the entire globule, but contracts itself round
the nucleus under the influence of boracic acid, Sometimes
there may be seen coloured prolongations of the zooid in
some number, which pass to the periphery of the cecoid,
which then has preserved the form of the globule almost un-
altered. It seems, therefore, that the tracts, according to
which the coloured substance of the zooid is distributed in
the globule when alive and whole, are disposed in a radial
manner ; and that the form of the living corpuscle is the
consequence of the intimate junction of the zooid with the
cecoid ; in fact, that this changes its form during the separa-
tion not by a vital act, but as the result of the same physical
causes by which fluid masses floating in fluids of the same
density tend to assume the spherical form. The action of
boracic acid on non-nucleated corpuscles is said to be very
curious, but it is not given in detail.

Bibliotheqne Univers. Oct., 1867. — " The Development of
Sepiola," by Elias Mecznikow.

A notice of this memoir, which aj^peared in Russian, is
given by M. Claparede. Van Beneden and Kolliker have
investigated the embryology of the Cephalopoda, but have

QUARTERLY CHRONICLE. 43

left something to be done. The ova of Sepiola are oblong in
shape, and contained, to the number of fifteen or sixteen, in
a thick mucilage. The ovum has but a single envelope,
which is not the vitelline membrane, since it is furnished
with a micropyle, and must hence be regarded as a true
chorion. The ova are quite transparent, and their develop-
ment lasts from thirty-four to thirty-five days. Three periods
are distinguished by the author — to the completion of the
blastoderm, ten days ; formation of organs, five days ; de-
velopment and completion of organs, tvrenty days. The two
lamellae of the blastoderm form on the third day, and by the
eighth day its growth envelops the whole ovum. The single
layer of cells in each lamella execute very marked amoeboid
movements. At the commencement of the second period the
cells of the outer lamella of the superior part of the blasto-
derm become covered with vibratile cilia, the movements of
which cause a rotation of the embryo. The demarcation of
the foetus from the vitelline vesicle placed above it gradually
proceeds, and the rudiments of eyes, mantle, arms, &c., ap-
pear. These organs are formed chiefly at the expense of the
inner lamella. The nutritive-vitellus at the end of the
second period presents a projection corres]3onding to the
mantle ; it also gives off two prolongations into the cephalic
sinuses, beneath the oj^tic ganglia. The author denies that
this vitellus is surrounded by the proper membrane described
by Kolliker. In the third period the growth of the organs is
the chief feature. The nutritive-vitellus is absorbed little
by little into the body of the foetus, and finally only re-
presents a sort of wart upon the head betAveen the bases of
the arms. The cartilaginous skeleton of the head is now
developed, whilst about the same time the chromatophores
develop in the skin, and the rudiments of the cuttle bone
make their appearance. The two lamella? which play so im-
portant a part are called by M. Mecznikow epithelial (ex-
terior) and parenchymatous (interior) lamella?. The first
gives rise to the general envelope of the body, the cartilages,
the organs of sense and digestion, and the inkbag. The
inner layer gives origin to the muscles, the nervous system,
the mass of the pharynx, and the vascular system. These
lamellse correspond exactly to what M. Mecznikow has de-
scribed in the embryo of the scorpion.

It appears from this that the formation of the nervous
system of the Sepiola cannot be paralleled with that of the
same system in the Vertebrata. On the other hand, the
formation of the skin and the organs of sense is effected, as
in Vertebrata, at the expense of the internal lamella.

44 QUARTERLY CHRONICLE.

Hensen's observations on chickens seem also to authorise a
parallelism between the formation of the internal skeleton of
Sepiolce and that of the chorda dorsa/is of Vertebrata. M.
Mecznikow rejects all analogy between the foot of the
Cephalophora and the siphon of the Cephalopoda. He is
equally adverse to Hackel's hypothesis, according to which
the Pteropoda are the ancestors of the Cephalopoda.

Hobin's Journal de rAnatomie et de la Physiolgie. Septem-
ber and October.

1. On the Peripheral Termination of Motor Nerves. By
Professor S. Trinchese, of Genoa. This paper is illustrated
by four very clear and well-drawn plates, in which are
figured the " plaques motrices " of various animals in con-
nection with the terminating nerve-filament and the sarco-
lemma of the muscle-fibre — Echinoderms, Molluscs, Fish,
Reptiles, and Mammals.

These corpuscles are considered by the author to be, with-
out doubt, the terminal bodies of the nerves, and he remarks
that they are held to be so by Doyere, Quatrefages, Eouget,
Kiihne, Krause, Engelmann, Waldcyer, Greef, and Moxon,
whilst only Kolliker and Beale refuse to believe in them.
The first-named authors are only disagreed as to the connec-
tion of the plaques motrices with the cylinder axis. Professor
Trinchese's paper, though interesting in many ways, does not
throw that light on the subject ■which a careful examination
of these bodies in connection with the different methods of
preparation used by various authors, would do. He has
used very dilute hydrochloric acid as a reagent, and a power
of only 300 diameters. It is obviously most unfair in this
case, then, to speak of Dr Beale's researches in the slighting
manner which he makes use of. He says that Dr. Beale's
beautiful drawings give but a confused idea of his observations,
and are unlike what can be seen. Now, nearly all impartial
observers must admit the faithfulness of Dr. Beale's draw-
ings ; he has drawn only what he has seen ; there is nothing
diagrammatic in them, as in Professor Trinchese's. Dr. Beale
has used a power of 1500 diameters and elaborate methods of
preparation ; and only one who will do the same has a right
to pronounce upon the truth of Dr. Beale's views. It is not
at all improbable that the two views of nerve termination, as
to networks and terminal plates, may then be reconciled.
Professor Trinchese's observations may be taken for Avhat
they are worth — as observations made Avith an ordinary
power of 300 diameters — but cannot prove that more than
what he has seen cannot be seen.

Professor Trinchese states his conclusions as follows : —

QUARTERLY CHRONICLE. 45

1 . In all animals in Avliicli it has been possible to study the
termination of motor nerves, a special organ has been found,
named the "motor plate " {^pldque motrice), at the extremity
of the cylinder axis. 2. The union of the nervous element
with the muscular bundle is accomplished in the following
manner. When the muscular bundle is provided with sar-
colemma, and the nervous element with a sheath, this latter
becomes fused with the envelope of the primitive muscular
bundle, at the point where the nervous element meets the
muscular bundle. At this same point, or a little before, the
medullary substance stops, whilst the cylinder axis pursues
its course, and penetrates the " motor plate." 3. The motor
plate is placed beneath the sarcolemma. It presents usually
the form of a cone, with its summit directed to the side of
the nerve-tube, Avhilst the base is applied to the primitive
muscvilar fibres. 4. This plate is formed by tAvo superposed
and very distinct layers, especially in those animals provided
with large " plates," as, for instance, in the torpedo. The sub-
stance of the superior layer is granular, that of the inferior
layer is perfectly homogeneous, and probably it is nothing
more than a thickening of the cylinder axis. 5. In the sub-
stance of the granular layer of the plate is found, in the
torpedo, a system of canals, in which the cylinder axis rami-
fies, forming a coarse netAvork. These canals are limited by
a sheath, which forms their walls. 6. When the muscular
bundles possess a central canal, the granular substance of the
plate is continuous with the granular substance contained in
this canal. 7. In animals provided only with smooth mus-
cular fibres the cylinder axis traverses the granular substance
of the plate, dividing itself into two filaments, which pass to
the two extremities to terminate in the points of the contrac-
tile element. 8. Everything tends to the belief that each
primitive muscular fibre has but one motor plate. In this,
one or several nervous elements can terminate, arising from
the subdivision of one and the same nerve-tube. 9. The
diameter of the motor plate augments in proportion to the
thickness of the primitive muscular bundle.

In Dr. Beale's new edition of his work ' On the Micro-
scope,' recently published, a reiteration of his views will be
found, and a defence against such attacks as this of Pro-
fessor Trinchese.

November and December. — 1. "Memoir on the Anatomy
and Zoology of the Acari, of the Genera Cheyletiis, Glyci-
phagiis, and Tyroylyphiis,^^ by MM.'A. Fumouze and Ch.Robin.

This is the continuation and finish of a very detailed and

46 QUARXERLY CHRONICLE.

no doubt valuable account of these genera of Acari, illus-
trated Avitli several plates.

2. " Histological Researciies on the Genesis and on the
Structure of the Capillaries,^^ by Dr. Strieker, of Vienna,
notice by M. Ominus.

Dr. Strieker, from investigations on the capillaries of the
tadpole and frog, is led to very interesting results. The
nictitating membrane of the frog was found very Avell
adapted for observation, since its vessels remain filled with
blood when it is cut away, and it is easy to see the walls of
the capillaries. Dr. Strieker maintains that there are peri-
vascular spaces around the capillary vessels, confirming the
opinion of Eobin, and others who have demonstrated them
by injection. Kolliker's supposition that the perivascular
spaces Avere post-mortem products is answered by Dr.
Strieker's observations on living frogs. The contractility of
the Avails of the capillaries was observed also, and it is urged
as likely that they would have independent contractility,
since they are formed hy protoplasm that simplestof elementary
tissues Avhich Max Schultze, Haeckel, and Briicke have de-
scribed as essentially a contractile substance. M. Ominus
remarks that protoplasm, used in this sense, viz., as forming
the moving substance of diatoms, mycetozoa, Avhite blood-
cells, and sarcode more or less, must not be confounded
Avith the old restricted use of the Avord, in which it means
the intracellular substance merely in vegetables or embryonic
animals. The capillary Avail is then not to be regarded as
structureless, but as modified proto]3lasni, producmg fresh
capillary branches by giving off processes. Further, Dr.
Strieker has observed blood-cor]Duscles traverse, and in the
act of traversing, the capillary-Avall, Avhich can only be ac-
counted for by the hypothesis of innumerable perforations,
or of a jelly-like consistency, A\-hich is the vieAV Dr. Strieker
takes. As to the fact of the capillary Avail being penetrated
and traversed by blood-corpuscles, he is confirmed very fully
by his pupil M. Prussak. Dr. Strieker has observed in
studying inflammation in the brain of the foAvl, that ca-
pillaries may be produced and branch out in all directions
from those normally existing, thus increasing greatly the
A'ascularity of a tissue.

The use of injections of nitrate of silver is interesting, as
demonstrating difterent chemical properties in this and that
part of the capillary vessels, but cannot. Dr. Strieker be-
lieves, be considered as indicating any particular embryo-
logical development.

Dr. Strieker then concludes that tlie finest capillary vessels

QUARTERLV CHRONICLE. 47

are formed of protoplasm in the embryo, and the same in
the adult, at any rate for a f>reat part of their thickness.
With high powers granulations may be detected here and
there, just such as may be observed in protoplasm. The
conditions which determine the contractions of the finest
capillaries are not known, nor are those which determine the
contractions of protoplasm in other forms of life.

Mem. Acad. Imp. de St. Petersb, — " On the Anatomy of
Balanoglossus,^'' by M. A. Kowalewsky.

Under the name of Balanoglossus, Delle Chiaje described
a vermiform animal of the Bay of Naples, known to the
fishermen as lingua di hue. It has since attracted but little
attention from naturalists, and the very incomplete investiga-
tion of it made in 1860 by M. Keferstein taught us nothing
of importance about it. Balanoglassus, according to M.
KowaleAvsky, is a vermiform animal having its body com-
posed of a series of successive regions — of Avhich the first is a
tactile organ, the second a mouth-bearing muscular collar,
the third a branchial region, presenting within a perforated
sac, like that of Ascidians, and apertures above, by which
the water taken in at the mouth is expelled; the fourth
region bears the sexual glands, and succeeding it are
numerous papillse, into which diverticula of the intestine
pass ; lastly, there is a smooth, finely annulated caudal
region. The vascular system is simple, consisting of a dorsal
vessel impelling the blood forAvard, and a ventral vessel
carrying it in the opposite direction. M. Keferstein has
ascribed to these very interesting animals a position amongst
the Nemertida, whilst M. Kowalewsky especially approxi-
mates them to the Annelida. Another writer considers it
necessary to make the Balanoglossi a distinct group of
Vermes, allying that sub-kingdom to the Vertebrata. It will
hardly do, we think, to refer every animal with a segmented
body to Vermes, without reference to other structural
characters.

Annals of ¥at. Hist. November. — " On the Structure of the
Annelida" by E. Claparede.

Professor Claparede is without doubt one of the most care-
ful and reliable of zoological observers ; he is eminently well
fitted to undertake the decision of disputed questions, and
his observations and opinions have the very highest autliority.
During a sojourn of some six months at Naples, he has, in
spite of the ill-health which caused him to go there, investi-
gated minutely the Annelida of the Bay, and has now in the
press a Avork on these animals, Avhich is to be illustrated by
thirty -one quarto plates of his beautiful drawings. In this

48 QUARTERLY CHRONICLE.

paper he gives a brief summary of some of his resiiUs, more
especially criticising the statements lately put forAvard by
M. de Quatrefages in his volumes on the natural history of
the Annelids. He pays a high tribute to Delle Chiaje, for
he remarks, " In every page in the course of this memoir I
shall have to bring Delle Chiaje out of the undeserved
obscurity in -which he has too often remained immersed, and
to show him shining in the fron-t rank. I hope I shall not
be accused of partiality in his favour. If I often leave his
errors, Avhich, I admit, are numerous, in obliv'ion, it is be-
cause they have no influence on the progress of science."
M. Claparede is very severe on M. de Quatrefages for
neglecting the bibliography of his subject, and for not fully
verifying references, &c., and he also condemns (as we had
occasion to do) the numerous new species which he has made
from specimens preserved in spirit in the Paris museum. In
the present sketch of his own work, M. Claparede gives a
running comment on the 'Histoire Naturelle des Anneles,'
and discusses various points in their order of treatment in
that work. We ca:r here notice only one or two points.
The integument is described by Professor Claparede as com-
posed of two layers — one internal and cellular (corium,
Eathke), corresjionding with the subcuticular or chiti-
nogenous layer of the other articulata ; the other extra-
cellular, the cuticle (^epidermis, Rathke), sometimes very
delicate, and sometimes composed of a thick layer of chitin.
Kolliker is the author who has studied the integuments
carefully, but his observations are not mentioned by de
Quatrefages. The cells of the hypodermis are often not
well defined, but present scattered nuclei in a granular
stratum, as has been seen in some Arthropoda. The cuticle
when thick presents a double series of stripe crossing at right
angles , which have been Avell observed by Kolliker. The
tubular pores which perforate the integument, Avhen they
exist, are distributed in lines congruent Avith these striae.
Kolliker doubted whether these pores should be compared to
the tubular pores (Porenkanale) of the Arthropoda, or
whether they were the apertures of cutaneous glands, such as
those described by Leydig in the Piscicolre, or, again, might
they represent the har is of insects and Crustacea ? Claparede
states that the two categories of pores exist in Annelida, and
he has described them minutelv in Eunice — both larcire
glandular pores few and scattered, and minute numerous
canal-pores. In the subcuticular layer exist glandular folli-
cles in all parts of the worm, discharging themselves out-
wards by the large scattered granular pores ; some of these

QUARTERLY CHRONICLE. 49

secrete only a thick liquid, others produce bundles of bacilli
in their interior, others, again, secrete granules. The bacilli-
parous follicles have been described by M. Claparede (who
compares them to cells filled with aciculee in Turbellaria,
and to Nematophores) and by other authors in very many
genera. They are not mentioned by de Quatrefages.

The muscular tissue varies very much, being sometimes
simply fibrous, sometimes nucleated, and sometimes an un-
fibrillated protoplasmic mass, with scattered nuclei. M.
Claparede promises details on this subject.

The perivisceral cavity is in some cases throughout lined
with cilia, but by no means always ; certain points, such as
the segment organs, being often the only ciliated parts. The
ciliation is stated, as a rule, to be general only in those
genera which have no vascular system.

The following are anangian Annelids : — All the Aphro-
ditea (except A. aculeata), Glycerea, Polycirrida, and
Tomopteridea. The existence of blood-corpuscles in the
vessels of certain Annelida is now-a-days indubitable. In
Glycera the red corpuscles are floating in the perivisceral
cavity, no vessels existing (hence a condition very similar to
that of a Vertebrate is brought about), and Phoronis is
denied a place among Annelids by M. Claparede. The true
cases are to be found among the Syllidea, in the Opheliea,
the Cirratulea, and Staurocephalse.

M. Claparede promises some important details on the
generative glands and segment-organs. He maintains that
a connective-tissue framework and vascular supply can
always be detected as the origin of the ova and sperm-cells.
Figures of segment-organs from many species will be given.
In some genera they are represented by apertures. Their
functions may be partly educatory of generative products
and partly excretory.

The structure of the nervous system has also been carefully
investigated, and a follicular arrangement such as that
described by Leydig in the Hirudinea, observed in many
genera. The terminations of the nerves both in organs of
sight and hearing, and tactile corpuscles, is very fully to be
entered upon. Victor Carus is wrong in stating in his
' Handbuch' that nearly all Annelida have auditory capsules.

Reniarkable observations on the regeneration of lost parts
are referred to. In many cases M, Claparede has no doubt
that the anterior region, both head and many succeeding
segments, is reproduced.

Altogether from his own account of it, M. Claparede's

VOL. VIII. NEW SER. D

50 QUARTERLY CHRONTICLE.

forthcoming volume (in the Soc. de Phys. and Hist. Nat. de
Geneve) promises to be a most vahiable and important work,
perhaps exceeding in value, if that be possible, his former
essays on the Oligochoeta, Development, &c.

Boston Society of Natural History (America). — " On the Spon-
gice Ciliatce as Infusoria Flagellata ; or, Observations on the
Structure, Ayiimality and Relationship of Leucosolenia botry-
oides, Bowerbank, by H. James-Clark, A.B., B.S. We have
already had occasion to notice a portion of this memoir,
which appeared a few months since, but wish to draw atten-
tion to the paper in its complete form, Avhich has a very high
interest, and should be carefully read by those interested in
the loAvest forms of animals. Two plates illustrate the
memoir, which are certainly more satisfactory than the white
and black outlines which illustrate the author's first series of
observations.

Professor James-Clarke has applied a power of 1200
diameters to that form of life which is usually spoken of as a
" Monad," in fact, the Monas termo of Ehrenberg. In this
very common and minute creature he has demonstrated a
mouth, contractile vesicle, and nucleus spot, which has not
been recognised by previous observers. By a gradual series
of forms he passes from this Monas, which sometimes is free,
and sometimes attached by a short stem as are Vorticelli,
up to the ciliated sponges, the individual elements of which
he most clearly shows may fairly be regarded as Monas-forms.
Some forms closely allied to Monas present a projecting cup
or calyx surrounding the oval end of the creature, and from
within it arises the flagellum. New genera and species
presenting this calyx structure, and varying in aggregation
from solitary to compound animals of five or six, are described,
and these gradually lead on to Leucosolenia, a cilated sponge
in which the calyx, flagellum, and mouth are traceable in the
cell-like monads embedded in the sponge tissue, which build
it up as a colony of compound Actinozoa build up a coral
reef. Mr. James-Clark's paper also contains some observa-
tions on Dysteria, that very strange flagellate Infusorian
first described by Prof. Huxley in this Journal, and a
description of a remarkable new form, Heteromastix. The
author's conclusions may be accepted so far as they prove a
close relationship in elementary structure between the cilated
Sponges and flagellate Infusoria, but we do not know that as
yet there is any ground for a change in the classification of
either group on this account. We have one deficiency to
jjote in Prof. James-Clark's treatment of his subject, and that

QUARTERLY CHRONICLE. 51

is, that he has not given measurements of his Infusoria, but
has satisfied himself by stating the diameter- power of the
glass used. It would be well just to state, in fractions of an
inch or millimetre, the size of the various objects, or to give
a scale of thousandths of an inch on the plate.

NOTES AND CORRESPONDENCE,

On a New Nozzle and Pipe for Injecting Syringes.— Having had
many years' experience in the frequent use both of small and
large injecting syringes, either for the injection of the whole
animal or detached organs, I have frequently felt the gieat
inconvenience of the ordinary plan of fixing the syringe on
to the injecting pipe, and consequent need of some simple
plan for keeping the pipe firmly attached to the syringe while
in use. By the present method of fitting the nozzle of the
syringe to the pipe it is generally necessary, more particularly
when the syringe is large, to keep the left hand constantly on
the pipe to prevent its being forced away from the syringe
when any amount of pressure is being applied, thus
preventing the hand being quite free to lift the specimen
from time to time, to see how the injection is going on.
When any extravasation takes place, and an assistant is not
at hand (the operator wishing to have both hands quite
free), it is not safe to lay the syringe with the pipe attached
down, but the nozzle has to be detached and a cork placed in
the pipe till the extravasating vessels are taken up. It also
often happens that Avhen considerable pressure is being applied
to the syringe, and the hand is not kept firmly on the pipe,
it is violently forced away from the nozzle, and the ope-
rator and articles about the room are smothered with injecting
fluid. This happens very often with beginners, and is one
of their greatest difficulties. I had for many years thought
of various plans for fixing the pipe on the syringe, but had
never hit on a satisfactory and simple method till I joined
the volunteer force, and became acquainted with the method
of fixing the bayonet to the long Enfield rifle, when it oc-
curred to me that a similar arrangement was just what was
required to remedy the evils I have enumerated.

A small pin is inserted into the nozzle of the syringe, suf-
ficiently long to project a little way beyond a corresponding

MEMORANDA,

slit in the pipe, when fixed in its place (fig. 1). A slit a
trifle larger than the pin on the nozzle is carried a short dis-
tance down one side of the pipe, and then a short way across
and slightly downwards, to allow the pin to tighten against

Fro, I

the edge of the slit without going right across, and also to allow
for the slight wear which takes place in turning the syringe
off and on (fig. 2). I have had several large and small
syringes fitted with this simple contrivance, and if the fitting
is carefully done there ought not to be any leakage, and the
nozzle should twist oif and on quite easily. — Charles
Robertson, Demonstrator of Anatomy, Oxford.

Note on the Synaptae of Guernsey and Herm, and a New
Parasitic Rotifer. — When in Guernsey last summer I had a
brief opportunity of examining the Synaptae so abundant in
the sandy part of the shore there, and at the opposite island
of H erm. Besides the differences mentioned by Dr. Hera-
path, in his paper in this Journal on Synaptae, I noted one
or two other points Avhich distinguish Synapta Sarniensis
from Synapta inharens or Duvernoea. S. mh<srens is of a
much deeper rose tint, and its integument is tougher and less
elastic than in S. Sarniensis. The colouring matter, when
extracted with ether, did not furnish any marked absorption
bands with the spectroscope in either case. An important
distinctive character is found in the miliary spicules, espe-
ially those of the tentacles, in the two species. In S. in-

MEMORANDA.

hcsrens these average -j\-q of an inch m length, and are
much branched and broken up at either end ; in S. Sarnien-
sis, on the other hand (in which the large wheel and anchor
plates are the more ornate), the miliary spicules are very
small, irregularly oblong rods, quite simple in form, and
averaging -^-^ of an inch in length. This is a most de-
cisive differentia, and may be thoroughly depended on. It
is a curious, and to me inexplicable fact, that S. Sarniensis
occurs only on the Guernsey shore, with an occasional S. in-
hcerens as an intruder ; while exactly opposite, on the Herm
shore, four miles distant only, S. inhcerens occurs, and very
abundantly.

I hoped to find the remarkable molluscan genus Entocon-
chon, described by Miiller from S. digitata, in the Guernsey
Synaptse, but in a rather hurried examination failed. I, how-
ever, found a very remarkable parasite in the body-cavity of
both the Channel-Island species in very great abundance,

- A' //SUCKER

New Parasitic Rotifer.

/i-^''rj~:^

ISf?fl^\

Method of progression.

Miliary spicule from tentacle of
S. inhmrens.

Miliary spicules from tentacle of
(S. Sarniensis.

namely, a Rotifer. In the figure is given all that I could aseer-
tain of the structure of the parasite at that time. It never
fa%oured me with a view of its expanded discs, and was ex-

MEMORANDA. 55

ceedingly small (^-^^ of an inch), whilst the difficulty of
close observation was further increased by the debris of the
genitalia of the Synaptse, with -which it was always con-
nected. Mr. Gosse has kindly given me his oj)inion as to
the Rotifer, which he regards as likely to prove the type of
a new genus ; but no definite opinion is warranted by my
fragmentary observation. Associated with the Rotifer in
the body-cavity of the Synapta was also a very active Ti^i~
chodina, very similar to that infesting the common Hydra
viridis. — E. Ray Lankester, Christ Church, Oxford.

PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES.

EOTAL MiCEOSCOPICAL SoCIETT.

October 9tk, 1867.

This was the first meeting of the season. The chair was taken
by James Glaishee, Esq., F.E.S., and the attendance of Fellows
was numerous.

The President annovmced that the Library of the Society
(Eoom No. 5), King's College, Somerset House, would be open
for the use of Fellows, on Mondays, Tuesdays, Thursdays, and
Fridays, from 11 to 4 p.m. ; on Wednesdays, in the evening only,
from 6 to 10 p.m. ; and on Saturdays, from 11 till 2 p.m.

The issue of volumes from the library he recommended to be
suspended for the present, and steps taken to make the collection of
books more complete. He likewise stated that the cabinet of
slides was being rearranged to facilitate their use. The cabinet
would be opened to Fellows as early as possible, together with
the Society's collection of microscopes, but the issue of slides to
Fellows as heretofore would be suspended.

Notice was given that a special general meeting would be held
in the Library of King's College, at the close of the ordinary
meeting to be held on the 13th of November next, at 8 p.m., to
consider the following resolutions for altering the Bye-Laws, to
be moved by Ellis Gr. Lobb, Esq. :

" Every Fellow who shall be elected after the meeting on 11th
December, 1867, shall, in addition to the entrance-fee of two
guineas, pay a further sum of two guineas as his first annual sub-
scription ; and shall pay, so long as he continues a Fellow, an
annual subscription of two guineas, which shall be due on the 1st
of January in each year ; and that Bye-law No. 6, Sect. 2, be
altered in conformity with this resolution."

" Every Fellow who shall be elected after the meeting on the
11th of December, 1867, and who may desire to compound for
his future annual subscriptions, may do so by a payment of twenty
guineas, in addition to his entrance-fee of two guineas ; and that
Bye-law No. 7, Sect. 2, be altered in conformity with this resolu-
tion."

PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES.

The following donations were annoimced, and thanks voted to
the respective donors :

Presented by
T. Ross, Esq.
The Society.
The Publisher.
Ditto.

The Society.
Ditto.

The Author.
The Society.
Ditto.

Twenty slides of Gold from various parts of the world

The Quarterly Geological Journal

The Popular Science Review

The Intellectual Observer. 3 Nos.

The Journal of the Linnean Society

The Journal of the Society of Arts

The Floral World, by Shirley Hibberd

The Proceedings of the Essex Institute

The Proceedings of the Boston Natural History Society .

The Results of Twenty-five Years' Meteorological Observa-
tions in Hobart Town, by Prancis Abbot . . The Author.

Report on Epidemic Cholera in the Army of the United

States during the year 1866 . . .Surgeon General.

A Handy Book to the Collection and Preparation of Fresh-
water and Marine Algse, Diatoms, Desmids, etc., by
Johann Nave, translated and edited by the Rev.
W. W. Spicer, M.A. .... The Author.

A set of Photographs . . . .M.J.Girard,Paris

The names of the following gentlemen proposed for election as
Fellows were ordered to be suspended :

G. E. Legge Pearce, M.E.C.S. Eng., 2, St. George's Square;
Peter Teames Gowlland, E.R.C.S., F.R.Med.Chir.S., &c., 34,
Pinsbury Square; Charles Coppock, 31, Cornhill; H. Sugden
Evans, Holland Eoad, Kensington, W. ; and John Williams,
Eoyal Astronomical Society, Somerset House, as an Honorary
Fellow.

The following gentlemen were balloted for and duly elected :

Daniel Woodin, Peldon, Eichmond ; Henry Alexander Glass,
Gray's Inn Square.

A paper was read by Dr. Gut, F.E.S., Professor of Forensic
Medicine, King's College, &c., on " Microscopic Sublimation, and
especially on the Sublimates of the Alkaloids." (See 'Trans.,' p. 1.)

The usual vote of thanks was passed to the author, and a short
discussion followed, in which Dr. Cakpenter, Dr. Silver, Prof.
Tennant, and Mr. Hogg, took part,

Mr. J. Hogg, Hon. Sec, placed on the table a collection of
Photomicrographs, the productions of Dr. Maddox, many of which
were considered very fine examples of the art. Mr. Hogg said
that Dr. Maddox had succeeded in showing, under a magnifying
power of 3000 diameters, some of the peculiarities of the Pleuro-
sigma, which, when attentively examined, must be thought to
have the effect of unsettling the minds of those who, after re-
peated examinations with the best objectives, believed that they
had finally succeeded in resolving their markings. Take for in-
stance the Pleurosigma formosum, magnified 3000 diameters,
printed for the stereoscope, a copy of a print sent to America ;
it is not printed deep enough : it nevertheless shows the white
spaces as little ivory-balls suspended between the eye and

58 PKOCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES.

tte object. Another, also imperfectly printed, and magnified 3000
diameters, shows short, abrupt, strongly-defined shadows, sup-
porting, as it were, the areas — an eff"ect produced probably by
interference at the junction of the hemispheres. This print
should be examined and compared with another of Pleurosigma
formosum, which shows the valve under various powers from
700 up to 3000 diameters. There is a small bit of print on
this card which is remarkable and valuable to those particu-
larly interested in resolving markings. The print of P. angu-
latum presents some interesting points as to its structure. Some
of the areas appear quite round, not hexagonal; bright angular
points separate these nodules in the one case, converting
them into divisional lines in another; and the curious point
is, they are both from the same negative. With regard to this
plate, Dr. Maddox observes that " the negative was a failure from
the plate being dirty ;" nevertheless it is very instructive in
various points. The larger prints exhibuted should be regarded
rather as pictures than representations of the sharp outline
figures seen in the microscope.

iVbi?. IStk, 1867.

James Glaishee, Esq., F.E.S., President, in the Chair.

The minutes of the previous meeting were read and con-
firmed.

The following presents were announced and thanks voted —

Presented by

A Four Inch Object Glass • . . T. Ross, Esq.

Hogg on the Microscope, Sixth Edition . . The Author.

Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society . . The Society.

The Journal of the Society of Arts. 4 Nos. . . Ditto.

Acta Universitatis Lundiuensis. 3 Parts . . Ditto.

Natural History Transactions of North Durham , Ditto,

lutellectual Observer .... The Publisher.

Certificates in favour of the following gentlemen were ordered
to be suspended :

George Potter, 7, Montpellier Eoad, Upper Holloway ; Richard
Bannister, Inland Eevenue Laboratory, Somerset House ; F. Thos.
Baker, 184, King's Road, Chelsea, S.W. ; Henry Owens, M.D.,
Croydon, S. ; William Thomas Loy, Dingwell Road, Croy-
don, S. ; the Rev. Frederick William Russell, M.A., Charing
Cross Hospital ; the Rev. Francis Pigou, M.A., 14, Suffolk
Place, Pall Mall East ; James Murie, M.D., Zoological
Gardens, Regents Park ; John Mayall, 224, Regent Street ;
James J. Simmons, 18, Burton Crescent, W.C. ; Thomas Wilcox
Edmunds, 32, Old Change ; Frederick Clarkson Francis, 9,

PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES. 59

St. Thomas Place, Hackney ; Joliii Hopldnson, 8, Lawn
Eoad, Haverstock Hill, N.W. ; John Barber, 29, Bruns-
wick Gardens, Campden Hill ; Samuel John Mclntire, 22,
Bessborough Gardens, S."W. ; William Allbon, 525, New Oxford
Street ; James Bell, Inland Revenue Laboratory, Somerset
House ; Arthur Raymond Betts, St. John's Park, Upper
Holloway ; Henry James Helm, The Laboratory, Somerset
House; John Edmund Ingpen, 7, Putney Hill, Surrey;
AVilliam Manning, 47, Clifton Eoad East ; John Eogerson,
St. Clair Cottage, St. John's "Wood ; George Naylor Stokor,
Inland Eevenue Laboratory, Somerset House ; Arthur O'Brien
Jones, The Shrubbery, Epsom, Surrey ; John Martin, M.D.,
Cambridge House, Portsmouth ; John Robinson Barnes, M.D.,
Ewell, Surrey ; William Savill Kent, 56, Queen's Eoad, Netting
Hill ; William White, 3, Miiner Square, Islington.

The following gentlemen were balloted for and duly elected
Fellows of the Society :

Charles Coppock, 'Peter J. Gowlland, F.E.C.S., G. E. Legg
Pearce, Henry Sugden Evans, and John Williams, as Honorary
Fellow.

The President repeated the notice given at the former meet-
ing respecting the opening of the Library.

A paper was read by John Goeham, M.R.C.S,, &c., " On
Some Peculiarities in the Distribution of Veins in Umbelliferas."
(See 'Trans.,' p. 14.)

Mr. Jabez Hogg expressed surprise to find that a subject
of apparently much interest, one most ably brought to the notice
of the Society, had received so small an amount of attention frorQ
botanical writers. In a letter received from Dr. Maxwell
Masters, that botanist offered a few remarks bearing on the
question before them, which he would, with the permission of the
president, read to the Society. Dr. Masters says: — "I have had
some correspondence with Mr. Gorham about the matter (of the
venation of the Umbellifera'), and believe that the facts he has
discovered have not been recorded before ; at any rate, I have
failed to find any notice of them up to the present time. The
peculiarity in question is found in some other plants, and is not,
I should imagine, of any very great physiological importance. In
a group like the Umbelliferse, where the species, and even the
genera, are often so hard to discriminate, it is an excellent thing
to get hold of facts like those discovered by Mr. Gorham, and I
am very glad that he has taken the matter up, as I believe there
are many similar things that have been overlooked, and which
when collated will be very serviceable. Nature printing has done
a good deal in this way. The publications of some Austrian
botanists — Ettingohausen, Pokorny, and others — are worthy of at-
tentive examination with reference to the venation of fossil, or of
recent leaves."

Although quite true that some other plants have a similar kind
of venation, Mr. Hogg believed it would be difficult to show that

60 PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES.

a peculiar kind of venation runs through the whole of any other
order than that of the Umbelliferse, and that it runs through that
order appeared to be a fact. After having carefully examined all
the plants he, Mr. Hogg, could get together, they one and all
confirmed the statements made by Mr. Grorham with regard to
this group. It was quite true that some few attempts had been
made to classify, or rather tabulate the venation of plants, but
only a slight advance had been seen in this respect since the time
of Dr. Grew, who, in his treatise on the " Anatomy of Plants,"
presented to the Royal Society in 1682, noticed the peculiarities
of the structure of the fibres of the leaf, and published
drawings showing something like an attempt at classification.
As Mr. Gorham had shown his observations to Dr. Lindley
it appeared strange that this eminent botanist had not made
use of them to perfect his own classification of leaf venation,
which, it must be acknowledged, was left in a very imperfect state.
Now, however, Mr. Gorham proposes to reduce the question of
leaf venation to practical utility, and in a large and important
order of plants as that of the TJmbelliferse, which includes those
yielding articles of diet, medicinal substances, and acro-narcotic
poisons, it must become a subject of considerable value ; and,
although the facts brought to the notice of the Society may not
at the present moment appear to have " any great physiological
importance," it was, nevertheless, an excellent thing to get hold of
a point in the perfect discrimination of a large genus, which, in-
cluding as it does so many edible species, has very many more
containing active poisonous principles, aromatic oils, gum-resins,
&c. A morphological analogy had been shown to exist between
the stem and the ribs or veins of the leaf; doubtless an analogy
can be traced between the skeleton of the leaf and the skeleton
of the branch in a number of points, as well as in the general
resemblance between the ramifications of the plant and that of
the venation of the leaf. On making a close examination under
a power of fifty diameters of the leaves of the Umbelliferae pre-
pared by Mr. Gorham, Mr. Hogg observed that the analogy is
borne out to a remarkable degree in the whole : and further that
the analogy can be carried even to the venation of the petals and
stamens. The umbels of the hemlock show this exceedingly well,
and, no doubt, when others have been more closely examined,
it will be found that the plant, the branches, the leaves, and
flowers, present a morphology as uniform as it is remarkable.
Thanks were unanimously voted to Mr. Gorham for his paper.

The meeting was then made special.

Ellis J. Lobb, Esq., proposed the following resolutions :
" That every Fellow who shall be elected after the meeting on
11th December, 1867, shall, in addition to the entrance-fee of
two guineas, pay a further sum of two guineas as his first annual
subscription ; and shall pay, so long as he continues a Fellow, an
annual subscription of two guineas, which shall be due on the

PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES.

1st of January in each year ; and that Bye-law No. 6, Sect. 2, be
altered in conformity with this resolution.

" Every Fellow who shall be elected after the meeting on the
11th of December, 1867, and who may desire to compound for his
futiire annual subscriptions, may do so by a payment of twenty
guineas, in addition to his entrance fee of two guineas ; and
that Bye-law, No. 7, Sect. 2, be altered in conformity with this
resolution.

" And that Bye-laws 6 and 7, Sect. 2, be altered accordingly."
Major Owen seconded the resolutions, which, after a brief
discussion, were put from the chair and carried.

December 11th, 1867.
James G-laisheb, Esq., F.R.S., President, in the Chair.

The minutes of the previous meeting were read and confirmed.
The following presents were announced :

Presented by
( W. Wray,
[ F.R.A.S.

E. Richards,

The Society.

Institute.

The Society.

Ditto.

The Siirs;eon-

Gen. of U.S.

Mr. T. Curties.

The Society.

The Editor.

The Author.

Ditto.

Ditto.
Ditto.
Ditto.

A Two-thirds Object-glass, with 50° angle of aperture

An Investigating Tube

Journal of the Society of Arts

The Canadian Journal

The Photographic Journal .

The Journal of the Linnean Society

Catalogue of the Surgical Section of the U.S. Army Medi-
cal Museum ....

Daphnia Pulex, framed ....

British Journal of Dental Science

Land and Water (Weekly)

Life and Death in our Mines, by J. Hogg

Anatomy of Urethra and Glans Penis, by J. Hogg

Vegetable Parasites of Human Skin, by J. Hogg

Developmental History of Infusorial and Animal Life, by
J.Hogg .....

The Vinegar Eel, by J. Hogg

The Common TrufHe, by J. Hogg

The Structure and Formation of Certain Nervous Centres,
byDr. Beale, F.R.S.

How to Work with the Microscope. Fourth Edition. By
Dr. Beale .....

The Microscope in its Application to Practical Medicine.
Third Edition, by Dr. Beale

Germinal Matter and the Contact Theory, by Dr. Morris .

Natural History Review. Vol. 1 .

The following certificates were ordered for suspension : — Alfred
James Puitick, 47, Leicester Square, W.C. : Hildebrand Eamsden,
M.A., Cantab, Forest Eise, Walthamstow, Essex, N.E.

. The twenty- eight gentlemen whose certificates were ordered to
be suspended at the previous meeting were balloted for, and duly

Ditto.

Ditto.
Ditto.

Hogg.

62 PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES.

elected Fellows of the Society, (For names see report of ISth
November meeting).

Charles Stewakt, Esq., M.E.C.S., F.L.S., &c., read a paper,
illustrated by drawings, on the " Pedicellariae of the Cidaridae."

Mr. Jabez Hogg remarked on the importance of examining
these appendages in the living animal. He also inquired whether
Mr, Stewart had arrived at any conclusion as to the functions
performed by pedicellariae. He had witnessed their action in
handing particles of food from one to another till they reached
the mouth.

Mr. Stewaet stated that he had examined the pedicellarise of
the living animals in many species, but had not had that ad-
vantage with respect to the Cidaridae. From the position of the
pedicellariae, and the nature of the food of the Echinoderms to which
they belonged, he did not think that the passing forward of
particles of food to the mouth could be their chief or special
function. The more these objects were studied in the different
classes of animals furnished with them, the greater was the diffi-
culty of assigning any special functions to them. One particular
form, the Snake's Head, was found near the mouth. Other forms
were extensively scattered, and were abundant near the anus in
Cidaris. In Gonaster they were embedded in the thick calcareous
surface layer with their two valves flush with the surface, so that
they could not pass anything to the mouth. In Luidia stalked
forms were found near the secondary spines.

Mr. Cook remarked that Agassiz had seen pedicellaria pass
faecal matter away from the anus.

H. J. Slack, Esq., F.G.S., Sec. E.M.S., read a paper on a
" Ferment found in Bed French Wine."

Mr. Jabez Hogg remarked on the value of reasearches into these
organisms, which he regarded as agents of destruction. He con-
sidered M. Pasteur wrong in asserting that Bacteria were found in
the butyric fermentation. They belonged to the lactic fermen-
tation, which was an earlier stage.

The Pkesident then called upon Dr. Maddox to show a series
of photographs to the Fellows.

Dr. Maddox said he had the pleasure of bringing before
the notice of the Fellows of the Royal Microscopical Society a
series of beautiful photomicrographs, which he had just received
from the Army Medical Department, Washington, the labours of
Drs. Woodward and Curtis, and trusted he might be able to con-
Tey to those gentlemen the thanks of the Society. He thought
that the interest occasioned by a little " generous rivalry" might
advance the subject in this country, where he was sorry to find
existed so much negligence and apathy in this branch of science.
Other countries were utilising its advantages, as France, America,
&c., the latter being in advance of all. Some of these photo-
micrographs were exhibited as competitive photographic tests
of various lenses, ranging from Powell and Lealand's 3'^th, ^^j-th,
and x^gth ; Wales' ^th and amplifier ; Wales' -gJjth immersion ;

PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES. 63

and Hartnack' s 'No. 11 immersion lens ; the object being the
Podura scale, and the diameters 2100 and 756. In the foremost
rank, in Dr. Maddox's opinion, stood Powell and Lealaud's 3-'^^th ;
then Wales' -^th and amplifier ; Wales' -3 jth immersion ; and
Powell and Lealand's -^Vth. Hartuack's did not give a good
image photographically : but as Dr. Woodward, in a private
letter to Dr. Maddox, remarked, this might have depended on
the great want of coincidence of the visual and chemical rajs, as
it had to be " ruled out " considerably ; but Dr. Maddox seemed
to think it might be due to some trifling error in the centring,
when the necessary chemical correction was made. Dr. Maddox
said he believed the Podura scale had never yet, in this country,
been photographed by a 55th.

The series of twenty photomicrographs were greatly admired,
especially a JVavicula rhomhoides, magnified more than 800 dia-
meters, and taken with Wales' -^th and amplifier.

The Fellows of the Society felt themselves highly gratified
with the opportunity of examining the excellent results that had
been placed before them.

Mr. Slack exhibited an ingenious lamp, made by Mr. Collins,
and devised by Mr. Beckett. Mr. Highley had been the first,
many years ago, to construct lamps so shaded that no light was
allowed to escape except in the direction required for microscopic
use. Mr. Beckett carried out the same idea by means of a para-
bolic silvered reflector and a dark screen. All the rays from this
lamp were emitted straightforwards, in approximately parallel
rays. Such a plan would eflfectually screen the eyes of an ob-
server from extraneous light.

In reply to an inquiry, Mr. Collins said the parabolic reflector,
witliout the lamp, would cost about 7*. Qd.

Mr. Browning remarked that, with such a reflector, it was
highly necessary to correct the increased amount of the yellow
ray, by using a blue chimney, as Mr. Beckett had done.

The following papers were read :

" On the Anatomical DiflTerences observed in some Species of
the Helices and Limaces," by Edwin T. Newton, Esq. (See
' Trans.,' p. 26.)

" On New Species of Microscopic Animals," by T. G-. Tatem,
Esq. (See ' Trans.,' p. 31.)

The usual vote of thanks was passed to their respective authors ;
and the President announced that at the next meeting, January
8th, Professor Eupert Jones, F.G.S., would read a paper "On
Eecent and Fossil Bivalved Entomostraca."

Errata. — The errors in reference to some of the figures named in the text in
Dr. Maddo.x's paper on " Parasites of the Common Haddock," not correspond-
ing with those in the plate, arises from all the illustrations sent not being
engraved. It is necessary to erase references to figures on pp. 88, 90, and 92.

64 PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES.

QuEKETT Microscopical Club.

September 27, 1867.

Mr. Arthue E. Durham, President, in tlie Chair.

Mr. Suffolk called attention to hia most recent method of
Pry Mounting.

Mr. J. Slade read a paper on " Snails' Teeth."

Dr. Maddox exhibited a collection of beautifully executed
micro-photographs.

Two members were elected.

Octoler 25, 1867.
The President in the Chair.

Mr. Mclntire read a paper on " Chelifers," whichhe illustrated
with drawings and numerous living specimens.

A paper by Mr. Charles ISicolsou, M.A., B.Sc, on "Object-
Glasses for the Microscope," was read.

Nine members were elected.

Novemler 22, 1867.
The President in the Chair.

Mr. N. Burgess read the first portion of a paper on " The
Wools of Commerce, Commercially and Microscopically Con-
sidered," and exhibited specimens of fine wool.

Mr. Bockett read a paper on a New Four-inch Object-Glass,
by Ross.

Eight members were elected.

Dublin Microscopical Club.
18^^ July, 1867.

Dr. John Barker drew attention to a little epiphytic growth
seated upon Sormospora mutahilis. This consisted of what one
might most quickly convey an idea of by saying it represented- a
green "comma," the tail prolonged into an extremely slender
stipes, reaching through the enveloping gelatine and standing
upon the cell of the Hormospora. This, though presenting a
considerable resemblance to the little " pin-like" production
drawn attention to by Dr. Wright at the January meeting
(probably identical with that alluded to by Dr. Wallich, as found
upon Streptonema trilohatum. Wall. 'Ann. Nat. Hist.,' 1860), was
quite a different thing. The filament bearing this very minute
production in rather considerable numbers, was very singular-
looking.

Mr. Archer was desirous to record the occurrence of a seemingly

PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES. 65

rare little alga — DictyospTicerium reniforme (Bulnheiin) — in a
gathering lately made near Snowdon in North "Wales, thus new
to Britain. This he identified from the description and figure
given in Eabenhorst's " Kryptogamen- Flora von Sachsen, &c. ;"
the figure, however, he thought, must have been drawn from a
specimen, or rather group or family, somewhat distorted by the
pressure of the covering-glass. The individual cells stand more
regularly than is there depicted ; they are naturally posed with
their concave side, that is the sinus of the reniform cell, towards
the centre of the group, and it is by the sinus that they are
attached (by whatever means that may be) to the slender stipes.
This stipes on each self-division of the cells at the summit (seem-
ingly usually into four), becomes itself branched. The colour of
the cells is a deep green, being densely filled with contents;
reminding one considerably in this respect of those of Nephrocy-
tium, in which plants the cells, likewise, are reniform, but not so
distinctly so as in Dictyosphcerium reniforme. So densely filled
were the cells, that the two eye-like granules inferred in the figure
given in Rabenhorst, did not at all present themselves in the
Welsh specimens.

Mr. Archer showed Welsh and Irish specimens of a Coelastrura,
side by side, to show the absolute identity deducible from the
marked character presented by the form. This form he would
refer to Ccelastrum microporum (Al. Braun), as given in a note
(but without a figure, and only briefly referred to, hardly
described) in Braun's work (" Algarum unicellularium genera
nova et minus cognita," page 70.). The group (coenobium) is
formed of rather large cells, externally globularly rounded, their
margins, where in mutual contact, being straight, and leaving at
the angles exceedingly minute, somewhat triangular interspaces,
like very minute pores, leading into the central cavity, charac-
teristic of the forms appertaining to this genus. Mr. Archer was
able to present some specimens showing some of the cells with a
young coenobium within, formed from the contents of the parent
cell; and these were seen to be quite like the parent in all respects as
regards form of the cells and their mutual arrangement, diftering
only in size. Simultaneously therewith Mr. Archer was able to
show another form of Ccelastrum, obtained on bis late brief visit to
Wales, which was not referable to either of the remaining forms
as described by Nageli, though perhaps showing most afiinity with
Ccelastrum cuhicum (Niig.), but differing in each cell possessing
but one process or tubercle-like appendage, not three. These
likewise showed various conditions of growth of the young
coenobia within the mother-cells, from the earliest stage, the most
minute of which showed the full character of the cells, each with
the truncate tubercle-like process. It seems to difier quite
from C. sphericum (Nag.) by the cells possessing this process and
not being, like those of the species just referred to, conically
rounded. For this form, Mr. Archer would propose the name
Ccelastrum cambricum.

VOL. VIII. NEW SER. E

66 PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES.

Mr. Crowe exhibited "Welsh specimens of Euastrum didelta con-
jugated, showing the zygospore fully formed. This is very like that
of E^iastriim oblongum, only, as a matter of course, the species
being itself considerably smaller, so too is the zygospore. Ealfs
does not figure the zygospore of this species, but he describes it
as spinous, the spines subulate. They do not, however, appear to
be subulate but nearly cylindrical, and ending bluntly, and they
are pellucid. Sometimes they are not posed vertically on the
zygospore, but lean a little in different directions, and this is more
especially the case in regard to those spines which project through
the apertures of the empty halves of the parent-cells into their
cavities ; this circumstance, that is the divergence of the spines,
seems as if it assisted in retaining the empty halves for some time
attached.

By a curious coincidence, Mr. Archer too was able to present
Irish specimens (from near Carrig Mountain) of the same species,
Euastrum didelta, also conjugated, and showing in all respects
characters similar to those of the examples exhibited by Mr.
Crowe, gathered in "Wales. Conjugated specimens of this species
had also presented themselves to Mr. Archer during his late
excursion to Wales. He was besides able to bring forward fine
conjugated examples of Euastrum oblonrjum from the Co. "Wick-
low locality which had presented the zygospores of Euastrum
didelta simultaneously exhibited, — an opportunity to see at one
time the zygospores of these in themselves common forms, yet
seemingly very rarely found conjugated, would not be without
interest to the meeting.

Mr. Archer likewise exhibited a solitary " skeleton " brought
from Wales, the only one which he had seen out of Ireland, and it was
not living, of the Eadiolarian E-hizopod he had previously found
and exhibited living from " Callery-bog," near Bray (see minutes
of April last). This creature seemed to him to come nearest to
certain marine forms close to Heliosphjera amongst the Ethmo-
sphaerida (Hack.). Erom them, however, it differed in at least two
points seemingly of importance, one of a negative, the other of a
positive character. In the first place the so-called "yellow cells "
were quite absent, and in the second place the hollow perforate
globe, containing within it the sarcode actinophryan body, was
supported, when living, upon a nearly pellucid stipes. At first
Mr. Archer had overlooked this stipes, and even when, by the
seeming constancy of its occurrence in the living specimens, it had
caught attention, he had at first taken it for a fibre of some
Leptothrix-like plant upon which the perforate shell had got
accidentally, as it were, impaled. But by degrees it became
evident that this hyaline thread-like structure, which bore aloft
the perforate globe, was indeed part of the organisation of this
curious and interesting form. Two points had been mentioned
in which this creature presented a dissimilarity to the marine
Eadiolarians. A further more important negative character
would be the absence of a "centi'al capsule," if really there were

PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES. 67

none ; but still a fair proportion of tbe examples seen by him showed,
within the perforate shell, an inner sharply-marked outline,
possibly indicating that of an inner vesicle or membrane of some
kind, which might represent the boundary of a very thin-walled or
delicate central capsule, or at least correspond to that part of the
typical organisation of a " Radiolarian " in Hackel's application of
the term. But be that as it may, further examination of future
specimens might, he hoped, throw some further light on this
interesting form, seemingly connecting, be it more or less di-
rectly, the fresb-water Actiuophryans with the marine Eadiolaria.
It was to be regretted, however, that this creature seems suflS.-
ciently rare — only a limited number of specimens had as yet
turned up ; they are exceedingly minute, and hence, in a great
measure, only accidentally observed ; therefore, the discovery of
even a dead shell at the other side of the Channel might have some
interest. This form had been brought before the Natural History
Society by Mr. Archer at a recent meeting, under the name of
Fodosplicera SaecJceliana.

Mr. Tichborne exhibited a slide of Cryptopia. This is an alka-
loid, occurring in opium in very minute quantities. It was lately
discovered by Messrs. T. and H. Smith. It is difficult to
crystallise well on a slide, but when produced makes a very
pretty and characteristic polariscopic object. It forms hexagonal
plates when crystallised from alcohol.

Read — the following extract from a letter addressed by Dr.
Steele to Mr. Archer, secretary: — "Will you kindly mention at
the Microscopical Club a very singular fact relative to the pollen
of certain species of Primula which appears to me deserving of
record. Most persons are aware that the flowers of the garden
* Polyanthus,' as well as those of the Primula veris and P. imlgaris,
assume two forms, called by gardeners ' Pin-eyes' and ' Trim-eyes.'
In the former the pistil reaches to the summit of the corolline
tube, within which latter the anthers are sessile, about half way
up. In the latter the pistil is relatively much shorter, the stigma
reaching to about the middle of the tube, whilst the anthers are
sessile at the mouth. The point to which I wish to direct the
attention of observers, however, is, that the grains of the pollen of
the former ('Pin-eyes') are about half the size of those of the
latter ('Trim-eyes')."

lUh August, 1867.

Eev. E. O'Meara exhibited some new and interesting diatoms ;
amongst which were a new species of Pleurosigma, remarkable
for a row of bead-like dots running round the margins and along
both sides of the median line, and a new Navicula. These were
from the prohfic Arran gathering ; full descriptions and figures
thereof will appear in this Journal.

Mr. Archer showed specimens of a Staurastrum which he
considered identical with Staurastrum apiculatum (Breb.) ; it was

68 PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES.

longer in the spines than is figured in the illustrative plate
accompanying M. de Brebisson's " Liste des Desmidiees observees
en Basse-Normandie ;" otherwise, however, agreeing therewith.
These examples were accompanied by St. dejecttcm and ^S*^. cusjyi-
datum, but always seemed quite distinguishable from both. This
belongs, indeed, to a group of nearly allied forms, which, although
they agreed essentially in outward characters, Mr. Archer ventured
to think seemed always readily distinguishable ; these are
Staurastrum apic^dattim, St. dejectum, St. cuspidatum, St. Dickiei,
St. O'Mearii, St. (jlcibrwrn.

Mr. Archer showed, new to Ireland, Bpirotcenia ininuta (Thuret);
this occurred near Carrig Mountain.

Dr. Frazer showed a sublimate of arsenious acid in fine crystals
displaying interesting hemihedral forms.

Dr. Frazer likewise, on the part of Mr. "Woodworth, exhibited
specimens of human hair, now -mvich sold in commerce for the
manufacture of chignons, as "Marseilles hair." This had the
hair-bulbs unremoved, and the enlargements had been imagined to
indicate the presence of " Gregarinse," but the microscope showed
their true nature. An interesting inquiry results as to the origin
of this kind of hair in commerce : it cannot be derived from living
human beings, for its removal in quantity by epilatiug would be
extremely painful, and, if obtained from the dead, it is probably
removed when putrefaction has set in.

19M Sepemher, 1867.

Mr. Archer exhibited good recent specimens of the two little
algae lately recorded by him from Wales, then new to Britain, and
now for the first time discovered in Ireland — Dictyosplicerium
reniforme (Bulnh.), and Cosmocladium saxonicum (de Bary).
These specimens, which were from near Carrig Mountain, were
quite identical in every respect with those from AVales. For the
first record of these pretty little plants, see Club minutes of June
and July last.

Eev. E. O'Meara showed a new species of Gephyria, of which
figures and descriptions wall hereafter appear in this Journal.

Mr. Archer also showed conjugated specimens, with the zygo-
spores, oi Peniuni digitus (Ehr.), Breb.,now recorded for the first
time, commonly as this species presents itself As, however,
might almost be predicated, the zygospore is simply large and
elliptic and smooth, being placed between the for some time per-
sistent empty parent cells, which are kept aj^art from the zygo-
spore by a conspicuous and thick gelatinous envelope.

Mr. Archer drew attention to a form of Arcella agreeing with
Arcella angulata in surface characters of the test and in colour (no
foreign bodies whatever entered into its composition), but difiering
in being of a quite globose form, with the exception of a small
chord, as it were, being cut ofi" at the aperture, in place of being
hemispherical or rather more or less broadly campanulate. Thus,

PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES. 69

in place of the flat surface bearing the (as usual in Arcella
inverted) aperture being much dilated, as is the case in the ordinary
form, by reason of its hemispherical or campanulate figure, in the
present form the flat surface was much contracted by reason of
its globular figure, hence the tests were prone to roll over and
over. Tliis was, moreover, a large form — though, not at any
point expanded (like the ordinary form) out of the even globular
outline — its diameter was considerably greater than that of D.
angulata. In Dr. Wallich's plate of Difllugian forms (' Ann. Nat.
Hist.') none, properly referable to Arcella, occur like this. It
was not to be mistaken for the so-called Arcella aculeata, nor does
Wallich's figure 22 (pi. xvi., loe. cit.), agree with the form now
shown, either in form of aperture or in character of test, as that
is evidently a built-up test. Pending the rediscovery of this form
and further examination, Mr. Archer thought it would be not
without advantage that, for sake of reference, it should possess a
name, and he would venture therefore to call it, ad interim, Arcella
globosa.

In the same gathering, Mr. Archer pointed out a couple of
specimens of the rather common Difflugia sjnralis, which seemed,
as it were, to be turning a Closterium lunula to some advantageous
account. They were closely attached thereto by the apertures of
the tests, and seemed, as it were, to be sucking their prey; the
contents of the Closterium were nearly completely eflTete and
brown. A similar occurrence appears, indeed, not to be very
uncommon.

Mr. Archer exhibited a form of Aetinophrys, first drawn
attention to by Dr. John Barker, and which he likewise had
obtained himself in a gathering made from the same locality.
This form was minute, colourless, pseudopodia very long and
rather slender, but variable in thickness. It was, moreover,
remarkable for two seeming specialities, one internal, the other
external. The first consisted in the orbicular sarcode mass
possessing two well-marked regions — a sharply-defined central
body, which was surrounded by shallow margin of a lighter
colour and of a " streaky " appearance, with an indefinite
outline, whence emanated the pseudopodia. The central portion,
occupying by far the greater proportion of the mass, was some-
what different in colour and much more dense in structure than
the marginal portion, being of that granular appearance and
somewhat bluish hue characteristic of the "nucleus" in Amoeba.

This description calls to mind Stein's Actinoplirys oculata, but,
judging from his figures (repeated in ' Pritchard,' pi. xxiii, figs. 24,
25), they represent, indeed, quite a different thing. In that form
the " nucleus," or eye-like central body giving the specific name,
is very small, instead of occupying by far the greater portion of
the mass of the body. The character alluded to, however,
certainly indicates a resemblance, and in both this central body
may be homologous, whatever be its actual nature or function.
But the present form is still further unlike by reason of the

70 PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES.

absence of the conspicuous series of marginal vacuoles and by the
much more long and slender pseudopodia than depicted by Stein.
So far as can be judged, too, from Carter's figures (' Ann. Nat.
Hist.,' XV, pi. xii, fig, 1), his form does not seem to be identical
with that of Stein, nor with the present.

Having proceeded so far with the description and exhibition of
this form, fearing that a certain amount of coincidence of its
characters with those of the form Mr. Archer had brought forward
before the Club in April last (see minutes of that date) might
lead some to suppose they were identical, he again presented
some good examples of tlie latter. This latter is much more
frequently met with in our moor pools (near Bray, &c.), than is
the form which was now particularly drawn attention to. A very
slight inspection showed it was indeed quite a distinct-looking
thing, both in colour and in structure of body and character of
pseudopodia.

But if the Actinophrys now for the first time exhibited to the
Club appeared a priori to be a diftereht thing from Actinophrys
oculata in the points alluded to, it seemed (in a measure) to agree
with it in that circumstance which had been alluded to as the
second or external speciality^ — and that was, their occurring occa-
sionally consociated into elegantly and definitely arranged groups ;
this union being caused, however, not by a complete confluence
of the bodies, but merely by the mutual fusion of a number of the
pseudopodia, along which certain granules could be occasionally
seen to flow from one animal to another. These composite groups
did not contain many individuals, six being the greatest number
observed ; and these were mostly arranged in two alternating
triangles, or four arranged in two alternate pairs, but three or two
individuals only were sometimes joined. This combination by
means of the fusion of the pseudopodia did not, however, extend
to the bodies, like that of A. oculata.

A suggestion then presents itself, looking on these groups in a
perhaps superficial way — a suggestion, indeed, which future
examination of this animal, when it may be again encountered by
observers, may refute. May, indeed, the large central body with
its sharply-defined outline, almost looking like a definite wall or
envelope, be considered at all homologous witli the " central
capsule" of such marine Badiolarian forms as CoUozoum? Nor
would the absence of spicules militate against the correctness of
this idea, for Collozoum is without them, and the central capsules
of certain of the Eadiolaria are described as very delicate and thin.
The constituent animalcules of a group seem to cohere much in
the same kind of way as do those of the compound marine forms ;
in the form now exhibited this union does not seem to represent
any " conjugation," but rather a combination of individuals
carrying on a community of life, but at the same time, as the free
individuals upon the slide proved, quite capable of becoming
disengaged and living solitary. Compare it, too, with Mr.
Archer's animal, Raphidiophrys viridis (referred to in Club

PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES. 71

minutes of December, 186G), which rhizopod indicates a kind of
compound life, not only by the union of numerous hollow globular
clusters of granules pointing to so many centres, as it were, of a
kind of secondary individuality, but these seemingly compound
clusters are themselves sometimes combined, in certain limited
numbers, into larger groups by the union of the pseudopodia.
Eaphidiophrys, too, is furnished with spicules — as marked as
Sphcerozoum italicum (Hack.) — but it is destitute of "yellow
cells." Equally, however, with Eaphidiophrys, as well as the
Eadiolarian with a perforate shell twice brought before the Club
by Mr. Archer (from Ireland and "Wales : see minutes of April
and July), which latter indicated even stronger affinity to the
marine types, the present Actinophryau likewise showed nothing
comparable to the "yellow cells;" and hence the perhaps vague
idea here thrown out touching the principal subject of the present
exhibition may be of little value. Yet, though the similarity may
be regarded as but superficial and the affinity be thought remote,
still one could not look at Hackel's figures nor his statements
without being at least in a measure struck by the resemblance.

Tlie allusion to the perforate Eadiolarian suggested to Mr. Archer
to inform the Club that identically the same animal as his had been
brought forward in May last, by Cienkowski, in Schultze's ' Archiv
fiir mikroskopische Anatomic ' (Bd. iii. Heft iii, 1867, p. 311,
t. xviii), which Mr. Archer had only just had an opportunity
of seeing. Cienkowski had described it under the name of
ClathruUna elegans. There could not be any doubt whatever
that the animal Mr. Archer had mentioned (and which he had
described at the June meeting of the Natural History Society of
Dublin, but which he would now withdraw) was perfectly iden-
tical with the newly-described Eadiolarian, ClathruUna eleqans
(Cienkowski). Having, however, seen Cienkowski's paper and
figures, it now seemed probable to Mr. Archer that he must have
mistaken the " cyst " referred to by that author for the repre-
sentative of the "central capsule" (see pi. xviii, fig. 7, loc. cit.).
Of these sharply-defined bodies (probably Cienskovvski's cysts)
only one had ever presented itself in any single individual of the
Irish specimens as yet, hence (not having been so fortunate as to
see any further development) the mistake might be considered
the more excusable, as, moi'eover, a by no means indefinite internal
contour was to be seen even in examples with extended pseudo-
podia.

It would at least be not without its interest, however, to have
recorded the occurrence of this novel form in the British Islands,
especially as only two other localities are given for it (in Eussia
and in Germany) ; and there as here, as Cieuskowski states, it
" occurs very sparingly and rarely." Its minuteness, however,
may be partly the cause of its not having been previously detected
in other localities. As indicating the likelihood of this, Mr. Archer
thought it might be interesting to add another Irish locality to
that of Callery Bog, and that was in Co. Tipperary, in a gathering

72 PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES.

from whence he had found a single dead shell or skeleton —
enough, however, to establish its occurrence.

Although without the experience justifying hira to speak at all
definitely on Eotatoria, Mr. Archer ventured to bring forward as
new a very handsome free-swimming form belonging to the Family
Brachionoea, and seemingly appertaining to Perty's genus Poly-
chaetus, a genus disallowed by Leydig, as he imagined Perty's
Polychcetus suhquadratus to represent some Crustacean. Yet the
present form (obtained both from Carrig and Gallery districts)
seemed to fit here, and it at least was assuredly a rotatorian.
However, the character of tlie genus (if this animal be correctly
referred as congeneric with Perty's) must be slightly modified,
inasmuch as the present form had a carapace toothed not only at
the four corners of its subquadrate outline, but was minutely
toothed all round the margin — more strongly, however, at the
uj)per outer angles, and more strongly still at the posterior angles,
which were each terminated by a long conspicuous spine accom-
panied by two intermediate. Instead of from ten to twelve long
spines on the flat surface, as in P. suhquadratus, there were four
only, and these of considerable length. When the animal turned
so as to present a side view, these spines stood forth, long and
conspicuous, as sword-like weapons. At a distance from each
lateral margin of about one-fourth of the width of the carapace,
and seemingly on both surfaces, there was presented a line or series
of spines, similar to those fringing the margin and running parallel
thereto and taking a nearly similar curve, from the anterior to the
posterior end of the carapace. All the intervening portion of the
surface of the carapace was thickly covered with very minute tooth-
like acute spines, rather irregularly scattered, and giving it a rough
appearance. On the " tail" (of two joints) were also two rather long
acute spines, and there were two spinous " toes." The eye was
single, large and red, and the head ivhiskered on each side by a
row of minute, very acute spines, very prominent when the animal's
head and neck became fully protruded from the carapace — in
fact then standing out like a comb on each side — the teeth at the
middle being the longest, and gradually diminishing above and
below. There was a frontal continuous tuft of cilia, not conveying
the idea of a " rotatory " motion, but waved with considerable
energy. The motion of this pretty creature was not very rapid or
active ; it seemed rather to glide, or in a measure gently flutter
about. The thickness of the body was comparatively pretty
considerable, and the viscera appeared very opaque. It would
seem, hence, diflficult to portray the internal organisation, and
Mr. A.rcher had much to regret that, partly from this cause and
partly from his want of experience in these animals, he was unable
to throw any light on the internal characters. In the meantime,
however, he ventured to think there could be no doubt but that
this was an undescribed rotatorian, and he would suggest for this
elegant creature the name of Polychcetus spinulosus.

ORIGINAL COMMUNICATIONS.

Oa New Species of Diatomaceje, being a Reply to Mr.
Kitton's Remarks. By the Rev. E. O'Meara.

In reply to Mr. Kitton's animadversions on my two papers
recently published in the ' Microscopical Journal/ I venture
to make a few remarks. To resent the temper of his criti-
cisms could subserve no useful purpose^ and therefore I refer
to it merely to express my sincere regret that the intrinsic
value of the remarks should have been depreciated by the
tone in which they have been expressed. It is not unneces-
sary to say that I have been for very many years devoted to
the study of the Diatomaceae of Ireland, and have carefully
examined many thousands of gatherings made by me, in all
parts of the country and at all seasons, and have never at-
tempted to publish any forms as new until the Arran dredg-
ings of Dr. E. Percival Wright were placed by him in my
hands. I do not make this statement of facts for the pur-
pose of arrogating to myself a right to speak on the subject
with an authority equal to that which Mr. Kitton has
assumed, but of vindicating myself from the charge of being
a novice in the matter, and of being affected with the dis-
ease usually known as the cacoethes scribendi, Avhich his
observations not very graciously suggest.

How inapplicable are some of Mr. Kitton's observations
on dredgings to the forms found by me in the dredgings from
Arran, the following letter from Dr. E. P. Wright sufficiently
proves :

" My dear O'Meara, — The collection of Diatoms from
Arran was made by me during the autumn of 1866, under
the following circumstances. In the harbour of the larger
island, and near the little island called Straw Island, I found
large meadows of several species of brown Alga^, such as
Desmarestea liyulata, Cordaria flagelliformis, &c. On one or
two days in which the wind was too strong to admit of
dredging in the open bay, I made a large collection of these

VOL. VlII.-'-NEW SER. F

74 o'mearA; ox diatom ace^.

difFerent Algce. The dredge was thrown into water of some
seven or eight fathoms' depth at low water, and dredged
along into water of such a depth that the boat would just
float. I brought the material thus gathered to the hotel for
the purpose of searching it over for minute Crustacea, Anne-
lids, &c., &c. ; and being struck on several occasions, when
examining it with a low power (li objective) of the micro-
scope for Foraminifera, with the number of Diatoms present,
I dried the weed in the sun, and then shook off" all or the
greater part of the fine particles adherent to it. This
siliceous dust I gave to you. I also brought a small basket-
ful of the weed with me to Dublin, and having steei:)ed it for
some hours in about two quarts of distilled water, I filtered
it gradually through a muslin strainer, and gave you a
bottleful of finely divided mud that passed through. One
very small stream of fresh water flowed into this bay, a fact
that may account for the presence of fresh-water forms in
the Arran gathering. I feel very certain that all the Diatoms
were attached to the Algse, and were not taken on the ground,
as, OAving to the quantity of sea-weecl, the dredge did not
scrape the bottom. — Ever very sincerely yours, Edw, Per-
civAL Wright, Lect, on Zoology Dub. University."

It will, doubtless, seem strange to most readers that Mr.
Kitton should have ventured to pronounce his judgment on
the forms referred to without having had an opportunity of
examining them. Had he vouchsafed to ask, I would have
gladly supplied him with some of the material, and then he
would have been in a better position to form a judgment, and
more weight would attach to his opinion.

I cannot forbear to express the surprise I experienced on
the perusal of his paper to find that one so sharp to detect
what he regards as the mistakes of otherS;, and so forward to
expose them, should himself have been guilty of such in-
accuracies as the following — inaccuracies I cannot attribute
to any other cause than a hasty and superficial perusal of the
papers he undertook to criticise.

" NavicuJa peUucida, O'M., fig. 2, is a state of Navicida
Pandura of De Brebisson." In my paper, N. 'pellucida is
fig. 3, and to it his observations are utterly inapplicable. I
suppose he intended to refer to iV. denticulata, fig. 2^ wliich
does exhibit some general resemblance to N. Pandura,
thougli at the same time the difference is so marked and so
constant, as not only to justify but as I think to require
a distinct name.

Again, " Raphoneis Jtburmca, O'M., fig. 8." In my paper
this form is referred to in the following terms : — Raphoneis

o'meara, on diatomacEjE. 75

lihurnica, var., fig. 8. By the Avord he has omitted, and the
letters he has unwarrantably introduced, Mr. Kitton charges
me with claiming this designation as my own, Avhereas I
attributed it to Grunow, and represented the form described
by me merely as a variety of Raphoneis libwnica of that
distinguished author.

Again, at page 16, we read, '' Cocconeis divergens, fig. 5,
may be the same," &c. Although no form so named occurs
in my papers, that to which I suppose he intended to refer
is Cocconeis clavigera, Avhich is so dissimilar in all respects
to C. costata of W. Gregory, as well as to Raphoneis At'cheri,
it is difficult to comprehend how they could be confounded.

These inaccuracies, however, although evidences of care-
lessness, do not materially affect the judgment pronounced,
but the same cannot be said regarding the following mistake.

Page 14, " In the following observations I have assumed
the amplification in the first paper to be the same as in the
second, viz., 600 diameters." Now, the amplification in the
second jDaper is not invariably 600 diameters, as the words
referred to would lead the reader to suppose. In some in-
stances, as indicated in the table, it is 800 diameters ; and in
the description of the figures, which accompanied the first
paper, the amplification is plainly stated to be 400 diameters,
and not 600, as was assumed.

As regards the forms in my papers which have happily
escaped animadversion, it is to be presumed they are exempt
from objection; and if so, enough remains to attach con-
siderable interest and value to the Arran gatherings.

But as regards the forms which have provoked the censure
of Mr. Kitton, Avhat is his judgment, and by what process
has he reached it ?

" The following forms described in Rev. E. O'Meara's
papers may, I think, be referred to previously described spe-
cies." It is difficult to understand how his remarks on
Pinnularia divaricata are reconcileable with this form of ex-
p)ression. They are to this efiect. " Pinnularia divaricata,
O'M., fig. 7, if correctly figured and described, can neither
be a Pinnularia nor Navicula, as none of these genera have
forked striae or costse." On the assumption, then, that the
figure and description are correct, and 1 can assure him that
they are, this form, in Mr. Kitten's opinion, must be sepa-
rated from these genera — must, in fact, be assigned to a neiv
genus. How incongruous the opinion thus expressed Avith
the previous statement, so far as the form in question is con-
cerned, " the following forms may, I think, be referred to
previously described species.^''

76 o'mEARAj on DIATOMACEiE.

The decision Mr. Kitton has pronounced is expressed with
so much doubtfuhiess^ and so much that is conjectural, as
might reasonably, in my opinion, have suggested the propriety
of dealing with the subject in a gentler tone. But to give
colour to the verdict as it stands it is necessary to supply
the deficiency of facts from the suggestions of imagination.
It is necessary to presume that the forms are imperfectly
figured and described — that I am not capable of discrimi-
nating between a central nodule and a small grain of quartz
that chance has thrown in the position — that the sculpture
in certain portions of the valve has been obliterated by abra-
sion— that a certain peculiarity of structure is nothing more
than an abnormal marginal development. How far such
presumptions are warrantable, and what weight is due to a
judgment reached by such a process, I leave'to others to decide.

Some of Mr. Kitten's remarks I freely acknowledge, on
mature consideration of them, appear not without some reason
to support them, though many others, as I think, afford
ample justification to doubt their accuracy.

Having carefully re-examined my specimens of Navicula
Wrightii, I have no hesitation in expressing my conviction
that the absence of sculpture in the spaces on either side of
the median line is perfectly normal, not a trace of stria? is to
be found throughout their entire length, while on the mar-
ginal portion of the valve the stria) are in all cases perfectly
distinct, and exhibit no traces of the valve having been sub-
jected to the process of abrasion. The general resemblance,
indeed, between Navicular clavata, N. Hennedyi, and N.
Wrightii is so obvious that I consider future systematisers
Avould be warranted in so modifying the descriptions of these
forms as to include them under one denomination, but so
long as the two former are regarded by the authorities as
distinct from each other the last has a right to be regarded
as distinct from both.

It is not improbable that Raphoneis Jonesii and Raphoneis
Moorii might be advantageously classed with Cocconeis
scutellum, to which they bear in some respects a strong family
resemblance, but a careful inspection of the valve, and, as I
think, a careful consideration of the figures and descriptions,
would convince that Mr. Kitten's opinion that they belong to
one and the same species is untenable. The sculpture in the
two forms exhibits a much greater diversity of structure than
is considered sufficient in other forms to mark diversity of
si^ecies. The figures, unhappily, were printed off without
being submitted to me for correction, but to obviate the mis-
take which mere inspection of the figures might lead to, I

o'.MEAEAj ON DIATOMACEiE. '7^

added to my original descriptions of the forms such further
particulars as I considered necessary to convey a clear con-
ception of the difference between them so obvious to the
observer. If these forms be referred to Cocconeis scutellum,
they differ from any I have seen in nature, or in the figures
of such authors as have come under my notice, and seem
entitled to be regarded as undescribed and distinct varieties.

On this subject T may remark further that Mr. Kitton
appears to confound what I call the border in Raphoneis
Jonesii with the cinguluni or hoop which unites the two
valves of the frustule ; the latter is separable, as he observes,
but the former, as an essential portion of the valve, is not
altogether an insignificant character of the structure.

Before Mr. Kitten's remarks came under my notice, the
valuable German publication ' HcdAvigia ' had made me
aware that the specific name of gracilis had been previously
applied to a form of Surriella, and I had determined on the
first occasion that offered to correct my mistake, and give the
name Gracillima instead of Gracilis. Grunow's figure was
familiar to me, and I know not how the name escaped my
notice when examining his list, as well as others, to ascertain
whether the name I had selected had been anticipated. Mr.
Kitten's remarks on Surirclla are at variance with the views
of the highest published authorities on the subject ; Dr.
Gregory and Dr. Greville, as he frankly acknowledges, differ
from him. Pritchard and Grunow in their classification of
the genus Surirella make use of those differences in the out-
line of the valve and the structure of the costoe, Avhich Mr.
Kitton considers of little value. Surirella lata and S. fastuosa
are regarded by these authors, as well as by Smyth, as dis-
tinct species. Both the species I have described occur
frequentlv in the Arran dredgings ; the forms belonging to
them respectively differ little in outline, and invariably
exhibit the peculiarities in the shape and arrangement of the
costge which I have noticed in my descriptions. Supported
by the example of these authors, so illustrious in this depart-
ment of science, I considered myself — and still consider my-
self— justifiable in giving distinct names to these forms of
Surirella.

In addition to the characters already referred to, I avail
myself of the present opportunity to notice a peculiarity in
the general structure of these forms, which strengthens my
reasons for separating them from S. fastuosa. On the side
view the valves in these species are flat, whereas in S. fastuosa
the centre is deeply depressed, and in the front view, although

78 o'mEARAj on DIATOMACEjE.

tlie valves are larger than those of S.fastuosa, their breadth
is considerably less.

When Mr. Kitton suggested that Pinnularia constricta may-
be ''possibly a form of Navicula truncata, a very variable
species both in size and costa?," I presume he referred to a
species so named in Dr. Donkin's interesting paper published
in the'Mic. Journal^' Jan., 1861. The side view of Dr.
Donkin's form is not described^ and from a careful com-
parison of my form with his figure I considered they were
distinct. In any case the specific name of Truncata for that
form must be dropped, because Kiitzing, in his ' Bacillarien
oder Diatomeen,' taf. iii, fig. 34, and taf. v, fig. 4, has figured
and described a form with this specific name which bears no
resemblance to Pinnularia constricta.

But further, some of Mr. Kitten's conjectures seem to me
untenable, except on principles which would have the effect
of involving the classification of the Diatoms in utter con-
fusion ; for if Navicula clenticulata is to be confounded with
N. pandura — N. amphoroides with Amphora salina (in which
case I must assure Mr. Kitton that the suggestion so un-
graciously offered in the " query,' is not the nodule a small
grain of quartz ?" is the baseless figment of his fancy) — Rapho-
neis Archeri with Cocconeis costata or C. clavigera — Eupo-
discus excentricus with Coscinodiscus minor — the hope of dis-
tinguishing species with any reasonable certainty must be
abandoned in despair.

In the case of Raphoneis Archeri there is nothing to sustain
Mr. Kitton' s conjecture that the pun eta have been abraded.
Since the paper describing it Avas pubhshed, the same form
has been found by me in considerable abundance on sea-
weeds from the Falkland Islands and from Kerguelen's Land.
In the structure of Eupo discus excentricus there is not even a
remote resemblance to that of Coscinodiscus minor. Had
Mr. Kitton identified it with Coscinodiscus excentricus, he
would have had some reason to support his view, for in this
form the sculpture is similar to that of Coscinodiscus excen-
tricus, a fact which suggested the name. This form frequently
occurred in the dredgings, and invariably exhibited the pecu-
liarities noticed — a smooth submarginal border, and distinct
processes on the secondary surface. Even suppose it be con-
ceded that the former is, as Mr. Kitton suggests, " an abnormal
marginal development," he has not accounted for the latter,
namely, the processes which seem to remove the form from
the genus Coscinodiscus, as defined by the latest published
authorities on the subject.

o'meara, on diatom ace.«. 79

In common witli many who have devoted their attention to
the study of the Diatoms, I entertain the opinion that the
system of classification requires and is capable of much im-
provement. Generic characters might be more satisfactorily
defined than they are at present, and more comprehensive
specific descriptions might be adopted ; and by this means
the existing nomenclature might be advantageously reduced.
I hope and expect that the promised work of Herr Th.
Eulenstein, whose extensive experience and sober judgment
eminently qualify him for the task, shall soon supply the
desideratum, and place the classification of the Diatoms on a
basis more simple and more satisfactory than the present.

But Mr. Kitton, as it appears to me, would apply the knife
before the patient is prepared for the operation. Deep-seated
and long-standing maladies may be allayed, perhaps, by
superficial applications, but will certainly return unless the
remedy be of such a nature as to reach the seat of the disease.
That our department of science has been embarrassed by an
excessive nomenclature must be obvious to every experienced
observer. The evil is traceable in some considerable degree
to the fact that the descriptions of species are not as compre-
hensive as they might be. When, therefore, the student, in
the course of his investigations, discovers forms similar to
some he finds described, but at the same time exhibiting
constantly some peculiarities not noticed in the description, he
has no alternative but that of either adopting a defective
description or of marking the peculiarities he has noticed by
some distinctive name. By the adoption of the former course
he relieves his memory at the cost of exactness ; by choosing
the latter he secures precision, though it be at the expense of
a tax upon his memory. This latter method I regard as the
more scientific, and that which will eventually prove more
efficacious to remedy the evil and obviate its recurrence for
the future.

Impressed with this conviction, and with this object in
view, I consider the proper coin-se for the student is to adopt
the existing descriptions of species, to note carefully all con-
stantly occurring deviations, and to mark them by a distinc-
tive name. By such means his labours will increase the
materials for the construction of a more satisfactory system of
classification ; and if this result be ultimately attained, they
whose observations have been conducted on this principle
will be amply consoled for the animadversions their method
may have occasionally provoked.

On certain Butterfly Scales characteristic of Sex. By
T. W. AVoNFOR, Hon. Sec.

(Read before tlie Members of the Brighton and Sussex Natural History

Society, Nov. 1S67.)

Nearly every one who has worked with the microscope
and turned his attention to the scales of insects (especially
the Butterfly tribe) has perhaps been struck wdth the great
variety of form to be found not only in different butterflies,
but on the under and upper side of the wings of the same
insect. If, too, an attempt has been made to And in the
'* whites" or ''blues" the scales described in all works on
the Microscope, as found on certain members of each group,
he has undoubtedly met with disappointment, especially if
he has looked where our standard Avorks tell us they are to
be found. Thus, in the case of the azure blue {Polyom-
matus argiolus), we meet with instructions tending to mis-
lead; thus in the ' Micrographic Dictionary,' under " Poly-
ommatus," p. 564, we read — " The scales upon the under
surface of the wings of P. argiolus and P. argus have been
proposed as test objects. They are of two kinds — one re-
sembling in structure the ordinary scales of insects, the other
of a battledore form." Again, under the head of " Pontia,"
p. 571 : — " The form and structure of certain scales existing
upon the under side of the male is curious." Now, any in-
quirer looking, in either case, in the situations named, will
undoubtedly not find them, for the simple reason that these
particular scales are never found on the under side.

It was in endeavouring to work out, in 1864, these and a
kindred scale that I hit upon certain facts, which perhaps may
have been discovered before ; but as I have not been able to
find any record of them, I thought the subject sufficiently inte-
resting to bring before the microscopic world. One fact has
reference to the 2JOsition of the battledore scales ; the other
tends to the belief that they, and certain other forms to be
described, are, in the three families of the Polyommatus,
Pontia (or Pieris), and Hij)parchia, characteristic marks of
sex — at least I have proved such to be the case, as far as I
have been able to obtain specimens for observation. In the
" blues " projier there is a marked dissimilarity in the colour
of the sexes ; for, while the males are of various shades of
blue, answering to the names azure, mazarine. Sic, the
females are of a brownish hue, spotted or dashed Avith bluish
scales. Any person seeing them together for the first time

WONFOR, ON BUTTERFLY SCALES. 81

would consider the bro-\vn-coloured ones a distinct species ;
in fact, one often hears the remark made, " Are you sure they
are bhies V Now, this difference of colour may have led to
the ordinary error that the " battledore " is found on the
" blues," for undoubtedly it is found only on the blue-
coloured males. Curiously enough these " battledore " scales
are j^laced in rows, under the ordinary scales, and at the in-
tervals, as in fig. 10 ; so that, if the ordinary scales be re-
moved from the upper portion of the wings, the " battledores "
will be found arranged in rows, plentifully on the fore wings,
but more sparsely on the hinder wings. I have examined
P. alexis, PL I, fig. 1 (common blue) ; P. argiolus, fig. 2
(azure blue) ; P. acis, fig. 3 (mazarine blue) ; P. corydon,
fig. 4 (Chalk-Hill blue) ; P. adonis, fig. 5 (CHfden blue) ;
P. argus, fig. 6 (silver-studded blue) ; P. avion, fig. 7 (large
blue) ; P. alsus, fig. 8 (Bedford, or little blue) ; and P. boetica,
fig. 9 (tailed, or Brighton blue) ; and in each case found them
only on the upper surface of the wings of the males, and
arranged, as before mentioned, in rows ; in the case of un-
battered and well-preserved insects in about equal projjor-
tions with ordinary scales. As might, perhaps, be expected,
the battledores differ in size, shape, length of blade or handle,
according to the particular species, and, perhaps, might be
used as adjuncts in determining varieties sometimes met
with. I am anxious to obtain an hermaphrodite form of the
common blue P. alexis, as figured in ' Humphrey and West-
wood's Butterflies,' in which one side is of the character of
the ordinary blue male, the other of the brownish female.

Thus far with the " blues " my observations have proved
that the " battledore " is characteristic of sex. I had a con-
firmation of this in the case of the '' tailed blue." A collector
had supplied me Avith portions of wings of one of these in-
sects, but was uncertain whether from males or females. I
examined all without finding any trace of a battledore ; but
the next day, obtaining from him an undoubted male, I
found at once any number of battledores.

By reference to figs. 1 — 9, all drawn to the same scale
(240 diam.), it Avill be seen how great a difference exists in
form and size; thus figs. 4 and 7 are from the Chalk-Hill
and large blue respectively, the two largest British ; while
fig. 8 is from not only the smallest blue, but our smallest
butterfly.

To turn now to the whites, or genus Pontia or Pieris. I
had found the two forms of " tasseled " scales, or those
having a brush-like termination, figured in the ' Micro-
graphic Dictionary/ on males of the large and small cabbage

82 WONFOR, ON BUTTERFLY SCALES.

white (Pontia or Pieris brassicce, fig. 11, and P. rapce, fig. 13),
and argued that something similar ought to be found on other
members of the same family. The first I tried was the green-
veined P. ncqn (fig. 14). This gave a scale differing slightly
from the small white, but somewhat broader and more trian-
gular. The orange ti^) (P. cardimines, fig. 12) for a long
time puzzled me, as my specimens were battered ; but having
caught insects in good condition, I found the short brush-
like scale differing considerably from the other whites. On
the Bath white {Mancipium or Pieris daplidice, fig. 15) I
found a scale half-way between the orange tip and small
white, that is, the ribbon-like form of the one and triangular
brush of the other. All these whites differ also in their
modes of attachment to the wing, the stalk being of a
different construction from that of the ordinary scale or the
battledore of the blues. Though the arrangement of the
scales is in rows and at intervals, as in the battledores, they
are not so readily made out in situ, but from their greater
length present the appearance of hairs.

In the case of the Hij^parchia family, I happened while at
Dorking this summer toco me across plenty of the H. semele,
fig. 18 (grayling), and conceived, as there was a well-known
scale, brush-like and tajiering after the manner of the large
white, but differing from it in the markings on the ribbon-
like portion, on the H.jariva, fig. 17 (meadoAv brown), that
there might be something on the grayling. At first I was
disappointed, until I discovered my sj^ecimens were all
females. The next morning I caught some males, when a
decidedly shaving-brush like scale was the result. Pursuing
the same plan with all the Hipparchise I could procure, I
have obtained the following results : distinctive scales, differ-
ing from each other in H. tithonus (large heath), fig. 16;
H. pampMlus (small heath), fig. 19; H. ceyeria (wood argus),
fig. 21; and H. vnagcera (wall argus), fig. 20. In all these
cases the brush-like scales are plentifully arranged in rows,
and project considerably beyond the ordinary scales. I have
not yet had the opportunity of ^Jursuing^ my investigations
among the other families ;* but as far as I have gone, I think
it is clear there are in the three families of Polyonimatus, Pieris
or Pontia, and Hipparchia, forms of scales found only on the
males. In addition to this, the ordinary scales in males and
females are the same, so that these peculiar scales may be
taken to be characteristic of sex, , "What purpose, if any, they
serve, I cannot conceive. They seem to me to have their

* I have since found characteristic scales on members of the Argynnida
(Fritillaries).

AVONFORj ON BUTTERFLY SCALES. 83

analogues in the beard of man, the mane of the lion, and the
pkimage of some bh"ds.

In obtaining the scales, I have found the best way to
examine a wing is to lay it on a clean slide, place another
upon it, and apply a moderate amount of pressure. Upon
separating the slips, plenty of scales from cither side, in their
relative positions, will be found on the glass slides. If re-
quired to mount, a ring of varnish may be run round, and
when nearly set, a glass cover being laid on the slide, it re-
quires only a finishing coat when dry to make it ready for the
cabinet.

Note. — My observations have been confirmed by the examination of
many tropical and Continental species of tlie above-mentioned families ; and
since January of thisj'ear (18G8), 1 have become aware that Mr. J . Watson,
of Manchester, has read papers on the " Plumules," before the Manchester
Literary and Philosophical Society, and is engaged, as I learn by corres-
pondence, in publisliiug a work ou that subject, to be illustrated by GOO
figures.

REVIEWS.

The Microscope, its History, Construction, and Application.
By Jabez Hogg, F.L.S.', Sec. R.M.S. Sixth Edition.
London : George Routledge and Sons.

It is quite needless for us to do more than to announce
this new edition of Mr. Hogg's work. A book that has gone
through six editions, each edition consisting of ten thousand
copies, has little need of any recommendation from the
reviewer, whilst its enormous sale is its own best advertise-
ment. We may, hoM'ever, say a word or two on the reasons
of the success of Mr. Hogg's book. In the first place, it is a
very complete history of all that has been done with the
microscope, and may be used, through the aid of its good
index, as a dictionary on all matters connected with the
instrument. In this new edition, also, Mr. Hogg has brought
his information up to the present time, and we are especially
flattered to see how extensively he has used our own pages to
bring up his book to the knowledge of his day. It has
always been our effort in the ' Journal,^ which accompanies
the 'Transactions of the Royal Microscopical Society,^ to
supplement these important labours of our own great school
of English microscopists, by giving an account of everything
that is being done in other countries, and in our local English
Societies. We are glad to find our labours extensively
acknowledged, and it is gratifying to find them contributing
to so valuable a volume as that by Mr. Hogg. In the next
place, Mr. Hogg's volume is really capitally illustrated.
It contains upwards of three hundred and fifty w^ood en-
gravings, and the present edition contains eight beautiful
coloured plates, executed by Tuffen West. The name of
Mr. West is a sufficient guarantee for the accuracy and
value of these illustrations. We have never seen more suc-
cessful work turned out even by Mr. West himself. In
addition to these great recommendations, the price of this
volume is so small that nothing but its amazing sale could

HARLEY, ON HISTOLOGICAL DEMONSTRATIONS, 85

have enabled its enterprising publishers to have offered the
volume for so small a sum. We most cordially recommend
this sixth edition of Mr. Hogg's book.

Histological Demonstralions for the Use of the Medical and
Veterinary Professions. By George HarleY;, M.D.,
F.R.S., and George T. Brown, M.R.C.V.S. London:
Longmans.

We ought to have noticed this book earlier, but have put
it aside from quarter to quarter in the hope of being able to
write such a notice of its contents as its value and importance
demands. Press of other matter has, however, prevented
this, and we now feel that we ought not to allow another
issue to pass without introducing it to our readers. For
many years Dr. Harley has been in the habit of giving a
course of physiological demonstrations at University College.
" The observation of the facility with which objects were pre-
pared for examination in the presence of the class, and the
readiness with which the directions of the demonstrator were
comprehended and carried into effect by the students," sug-
gested to Mr. Brown " the possibility of describing in an
intelligible manner the method of instruction which was so
successful in practice." The volume thus commenced by the
pupil has been superintended by the master, and a very
valuable aid to anatomical research by the use of the micro-
scope has been the result.

There is no doubt that the microscope is popularly regarded
as a very amusing instrument, and we wish we could divest
our minds of the feeling that a great many microscoj)ical
societies regard it as anything more, but the medical student
should remember that it is as much his duty to use the
microscope as an instrument of observation as the stetho-
scope, the laryngoscope, or any other instrument that modern
science has put into his hand. Examining boards may
not think so, and some medical examiners would perhaps
be sorely puzzled to make the simplest microscopic demon-
stration, but, nevertheless, life and death may hang on the
ability of a medical man to make a microscopic diagnosis,
and woe to the man, however many diplomas he may possess,
who goes through life with " knowledge through one entrance
quite shut out."

The medical student will find this volume a thorough

86 NAVEj ON ALGJE, FUNGI; LICHENSj ETC.

introduction to both physiological and morbid histology.
The introductory chapters are devoted to a short account of
the best instruments and apparatus to be employed for histo-
logical purposes. Subsequently each healthy tissue is taken
up and examined. After this, diseased tissues are considered,
and all the principal points in microscopic investigation
which ought to be mastered by the medical student are
taken up. The descriptions of tissues and morbid products
are accompanied with an extensive series of illustrations on
wood; some of which are copied from Kolliker's great work,
others are taken from the ' Cyclopsedia of Anatomy/ whilst
a large number are original. This work will not only be
found useful to the medical student, but the medical prac-
titioner whose early education was conducted in a pre-micro-
scopic era will find in it a most convenient manual for
teaching him what are the practical points to which the
microscope may be applied in the practice of medicine.

A Handy Book to the Collection of Alga, Fungi, Lichens,
Mosses, Diatoms, and Desmids. By Johann Nave. Trans-
lated by the Rev. W. W. Spicer, M.A., F.R.M.S. London :
Hardwicke.

Although this little book is devoted to the subject of the
collection and preparation of all the lower Cryptogamia, it
will have a peculiar interest to the microscopist on account
of the especial directions given for the collection and pre-
servation of the microscopic forms of plants. A large pro-
portion of the work is devoted to the fresh-water Confervse,
the Diatomaceee, and Desmidiacea?, and there are few collec-
tors, however practised, who will not find valuable hints in
it. To the young collector it will prove a storehouse of
information, and contribute greatly to the success of his re-
searches. The work is accompanied by a series of plates in
wood, which will materially assist the beginner in working
at the microscopic algse. It has been translated Avitli great
care by the Rev. W. Spicer, and no one interested in the
lower forms of plants can fail to receive instruction and
interest from its unpretending pages.

QUARTERLY CHRONICLE OF MICROSCOPICAL

SCIENCE.

Siebold and KoUiker's Zeitschrift. f. wissensch Zoologie. —
Bd. xviii, heft i.

I. Studies on the Central Nervous System in the Osseous
Fishes, by Dr. Ludwig Stieda.

In 1861j Dr. Stieda published, under the title of 'The
Spinal Chord and some part of the Brain of Esox Lucius,^
certain observations on the central nervous system of the
pike. Since then he has investigated the same parts in
various classes of the vertebrata, and the results so far as con-
cerns the osseous fishes, are given in the present valuable com-
munication, illustrated by two plates. The subject is treated
under the heads of (1) the nerve-cells; (2) nerve-fibres j
(3) the connective tissue and blood-vessels; and (4) the
epithelia.

The cells, both peripheral and central, are described as
bodies furnished with a vesicular spherical nucleus, and
usually also with a nucleolus. They have no cell-membrane,
and are consequently to be regarded as simple masses of
protoplasm, which presents a finely granular aspect. These
cells differ in size and form, the latter depending upon the
number of processes given off, and which vary in number
from one to four or five. The processes are merely continua-
tions of the granular cell-substance, and, so far as the author
has seen, are never connected with the nucleus. He regards
the apparently apolar cells as artificial products, and he has
never noticed any division of the processes, nor any connection
between one cell and another. Besides these true nerve-
cells, the central nervous substance presents numerous
minute cellular elements, whose nature is not quite deter-
mined, but which have been termed "granules" from their
resemblance to the so-termed "granules" in the retina.
The author, contrary to an opinion he formerly entertained,
is now disposed, with Gerlach and others, to regard these
bodies as a kind of " nerve-cells." The nerve-cells are

88 QUARTERLY CHRONICLE.

described as enclosed in a delicate covering of connective
tissue^ which in the fresh state is closely applied to the
surface of the granular cell-substance, but in chromic acid
preparations becomes separated from it by a clear space^
which the author denominates the " area."

2. The peripheral nerve-fibres consist of an " axis-
cylinder/^ enclosed in a medullary sheath, and surrounded
by a delicate neurilemma of connective tissue. The axis-
cylinder isj as before said, a direct continuation of the cell
substance, whilst the medullary sheath, which occupies the
space between the axis-cylinder and the neurilemma, appears
to commence abruptly at the nerve-cell, but to have no other
connection with it. The neurilemma is described as con-
tinuous with the connective-tissue sacculus in which the
nerve- cell is lodged. In the central organs the fibres consist
only of the '^ axis-filament," and the author has never been
able to trace any direct continuation of these fibres into the
sheathed peripheral ones ; notwithstanding the frequent
assertion to the contrary of other observers.

3. The matrix, as it may be termed, of the central nervous
masses presents different appearances in diff'erent parts. In
some places it exhibits more or less of a granular aspect, and
has been termed by the author the " granular matrix/'
whilst in others it has a finely reticulated structure, and has
thence been termed the '^ reticulated basis-substance." The
colour varies according to the greater or less prevalence of
the " axis-fibres," or of the '^ medullary fibres " by which it
is pervaded.

As regards the blood-vessels, the author has nothing par-
ticular to remark.

After these general histological observations, the remainder
of the paper is occupied with a full and minute description
of the structure of the spinal chord and brain, in which will
be found much highly interesting information.

II. " The Histology of the Semicircular Canals and the
OtoUte-Sacculus of the Frog," by Dr. C. Hasse.

In this paper we have a very minute and detailed account
of the structure of the parts in question, and a comparison
between it and that of the same tissues in the Mammalia
and birds.

III. ''On the Egg of the Epherneridce,^' by Dr. H. Grenadier.
The author describes certain appearances observed by him

in ova, procured from the larvce of a species of Ephemera.
The ova in question, about 0'27 mm. in length, by ()'12 mm.
breadth, were furnished at either end with a semicircular
appendage. These appendages were of a reddish-brown

QUARTERLY CHRONICLE. 89

colour, and formed rather more than half a sphere. Two
distinct portions might be discerned in them, an outer, con-
sisting apparently of radiating rods or fibres in close apposi-
tion, and a basal portion of a solid homogeneous substance,
forming a short stumpy peduncle.

The author observes that these polar appendages doubtless
correspond with those noticed by Leuckart in the ova of
three other species of Ephemeridse : Palingenia horaria,
Oxycypha hictuosa, and O. lactea ; and which were described
by that observer as constituted of adherent masses of sper-
matozoa, struggling to enter the micropyle. Dr. Grenacher,
however, has traced the gradual formation of these appendages
from the ovarian ovum, and shows clearly enough that they
are not of the nature assigned to them by Leuckart.

He farther describes other curious appendages which arise
to the number of from eight to twelve in two circular zones
from the source of the ovum. When fully developed, they
consist of an elongated filament composed of excessively
delicate fibrils, from four to six times as long as the ovum,
and supporting at the extremity a globular capitulum, which
seems to be fashioned something like a suctorial acetabulum.
He regards these processes as serving to fix the ovum upon
foreign bodies, and consequently terms them " anchors. ^^

IV. '' Contributions to the Anatomy of EnchytrcBUS vermicu-
Im'is," by Fritz Ratzel.

This paper contains —

1. A description of a special pharyngeal system of nerves,
corresponding apparently with the visceral nerves in various
other annelids.

2. On the structure and development of the receptacula
seminis.

The author is inclined, with M. Claparede, to look upon
these organs, and consequently. uj)on their homologues in
the earth-worm, as representing a portion, at any rate, of the
" segmental organ," and so far to agree with the views of
the late Dr. Williams. A view in which, however, from a
study of these parts in Lumbricus, we are not inclined to
coincide; seeing that in that Annelid, at any rate, the
segments in which the spermatic receptacles are found at the
proper period, also contain at the same time the entire
segmental organ ; as, in fact, Buchholtz says they do in
Enchytroeus itself.

3. The salivarv jrlands are described as branched tubular
organs, which open into the ventral side of the pharynx
in the third segment of the body.

4. Miscellaneous observations. — In these it may be noted

VOL. VIII. NEW SER. G

90 QUARTERLY CHRONICLE.

that the author describes the muscular tissue in all parts as
transversely striated; which is a very remarkable circumstance,
as it is certainly not so in Lumbricus.

V. " Sapj)lementary observations on the Anatomij and Classi-
fication of the Holothurids,'" by Dr. Emil Selenka.

This is in continuation of the author's previous paper on
the same subjects in vol. xvii of the Zeitseh. f. wiss. Zool.,
1866; since which he has been able to examine most of the
Holothuriffi in the Berlin Collection, and the whole of those
contained in the Zoological Museum at Paris.

The present paper contains systematic description of
several new genera and species.

VI. '■'Contribution to the Knowledge of the Sexual Reproduc-
tion of the Infusoria." Of this paper we have given a trans-
lation in another part of the journal.

VII. " M.Landois' Theory contradicted by Experiment," by
Emil Bessels,

The author shows by direct experiment, and apparently
quite successfully, that the strange assertions propounded by
M. Landois (Zeitseh., Bd. xvii, 1867, p. 375), that the
different sexes in the hive-bee depended upon the food upon
which the larvae were nourished, and not, as shown by
Dzierzon and Siebold, upon the impregnation or non-impreg-
nation of the ovum, is opposed to fact, and that the latter is
a true explanation. And that notwithstanding the discovery
by Claus of the long-wanting male of Psyche helix, the
dogma that fertilised ova alone are capable of development,
does not hold universally.

8. " On the terminations of the Gustatory Nerve in the
Frog's Tongue" by Th. W. Engelmann.

After a brief notice of the different ^dews on this snbject
entertained by Billroth, Fixsen, Hoyer, and Axel Key, the
author gives the results of his own observations, which are in
the main in accordance with and confirmatory of those of
the last-named author.

The rounded terminal surface of the papilla fungiformes
presents three distinct forms of epithelial cells, which are
termed from their form the calyx-cells, cylinder-cells, and
furcate-cells ; all of which are peculiar to that part of the
papilla alone.

The calyx-cells, which are by far the largest of the three
kinds, constitute the greater part of the epithelium, and
when viewed on the surface exhibit a sort of hexagonal,
tesselated appearance; and they constitute the outermost
layer of the epithelium. The cylinder-cells are, as the name
implies, elongated, slender bodies, extending from the deeper

QUARTERLY CHRONICLE. 91

layer of tlie epithelium to the surface passing between the
interstices of tlie larger cells. Between the two are situated
the third or forked kind of cells, if such they can be called,
consisting of a fusiform body with delicate processes, which
arise from either pole and in varying number. Those spring-
ing from the peripheral pole penetrate between the calyx-cells
to the free surface of the epithelium ; and they are frequently
divided once or twice dichotomously. The processes arising
from the opposite or centrad pole, and Avhicli in appearance
resemble an axial nerve-fibre, also subdivide once or twice,
and appear to terminate in the connective-tissue substratum
of the papilla.

A branch of the gustatory nerve on entering the papilla,
divides into a leash of branches which divide and subdivide,
till at length they form or terminate in a sort of cushion
upon which rest the central processes of the cylinder- and
furcate-cells. In this nerve-cushion may be observed very
delicate fibrilloe, but whether or no these are continuous with
the inner processes of the furcate-cells has not been ascer-
tained, though there appears to be every probability in
favour of the view that they do.

Max Schultze's Archiv fur mikr. Anatomie. Part IV, 1867.

I. " ^ Contribution to the Knoivlcdye of the Ltjmph-vessets
of Birds," by Dr. S. Kostarew.

II. " Researches on the Liver of Vertebrates," by C. J.
Eberth, of Zurich.

This is an interesting paper just at the present time, when
the structure of the liver is so much under discussion.
The researches of Hering, and the natural injections of
Chrzonseuzezki, have shown that the finest branches of the
gall-ducts ramify between the ultimate liver-cells in mam-
mals, bounded by only two cells, whose sides are grooved to
form the channel ; in other vertebrata surrounded by a larger
number of cells, large in size relatively, but still more closely
approaching a typical gland duct. Eberth has already pub-
lished in ' Virchow's Archiv' an account of his investigations,
in which he points out the complexity of the structure of the
mammalian liver, as compared with that of Batrachiaus in
particular. In the present communication he gives a special
account of the comparative histology of the liver, illustrated
with a beautiful coloured plate. The two points w^hich he
discusses are : 1st. The gall-capillaries, their structure, and
distribution. 2nd. The pigment of the liver, and its varia-
tion in the amphibia. He alludes to Ilering's paper with
high praise, but at the same time expresses a disagreement
with him as to the lateral blindly-ending process of the

92 QUARTERLY CHRONICLE.

gall-capillaries, and as to the membrane of the finest gall-
vessels. He describes his method of preparation and injec-
tion, which in amphibia appears to have depended on the
absorption of flviids injected beneath the skin while the
animal was living. He figures the small lateral processes
spoken of, and with regard to the membrane of the ducts
observes that whether it be considered as a development of
intracellular substance, or formed by the cell-walls, there is
a true cuticle to the finest ducts. The observations on the
development of pigment in the liver in amphibia are extremely
interesting. Amongst other facts observed, Herr Eberth
found that in the Salamanders in spring, the cortical sub-
stance of the liver, and its continuation in the deeper
parts of the liver, consists of a mass of cells^ exhibiting active
amoeboid movement.

3. '' Studies on the Structure of the Cerebral Cortical Sub-
stance," by Dr. R. Arndt.

4. " The Ciliary Muscle of Man," by F. E. Schultze.
This paper give a most minute account of the attachments

and distribution of the fibres of the ciliary muscle, illustrated
with a coloured plate. The author has used chromic acid in
his studies. He remarks that the results of this anatomical
investigation lead to a theory of the accommodation of the
eye in sight, identical with that of Helmholz, for all the
movements required by Helmholz's theory are provided for.
We already have learnt that, in the movement of accommoda-
tion, the stretching of the zonula leads to the decrease of the
curvature of the anterior surface of the lens, and the conse-
quent pushing forward of the middle and pupillary edge of
the iris. It is quite clear that a small contraction of the side
of the lens must take place by this curvature of the middle,
because the mass of the lens cannot be changed more or less.
Consequently it is easy to understand the small decrease in
the curvature of the posterior face of the lens, the mid-point
of which never leaves its place, as well as the small retro-
cession of the outer edge of the iris, both Avhich phenomena
may be ascertained in the living subject during the process
of accommodation. The widening of the pupil in accommoda-
tion for near objects can be explained. Professor Schulze con-
siders, by his view, in consequence of the compression of the
arteries of the iris which pass into and run along the ciliary
muscle, whilst the exit of the blood through the veins is not
in any way checked. The experiments of C. A'olker and
V. Hensen on dogs, by irritation of the ciliary nerve, agree
with the results arrived at by the author's anatomical
investigation.

QUARTERLY CHRONICLE. 93

5. " Embnjological Note," by Dr. V. Hensen.

(). " The Ejnthelium of the ^Papilla Vallata," by Dr. G.
Scliwjilbe.

This paper is of importance in connection with the very
detailed paper on Epithelium^ published in the second part
of the ' Archiv/ by Dr. Franz Eilhardt Schulze. It also is
remarkable that Dr. Christian Loven, of Stockholm, has
arrived at results ver}^ similar to those of Dr. Schwalbe.
Dr. Loven's paper is translated in the first part of the
' Archiv' for 1868, and at the same time the detailed paper
of Dr. Schwalbe, of which the present is only a preliminary
notice, is promised. He has found in the pavement-like epi-
thelium of the papillae vallatae of the matnmalian tongue, large
flask-like bodies or open cells, which he considers, without
doubt, are the analogues of the end-organs of the nervous
glossopharyngeus of fishes, described by Franz E. Schulze in
the paper already alluded to. Although their connection with
the sense of taste is not certain, he will call them, as Professor
Max Schulze suggests, " schmeckbechers " (taste-cuplets).
In a further paper he hopes to show the relation of the nerve
twigs and the connective tissue which lies beneath the cells
or cuplets. This is known to be peculiarly rich in fine nerve
twigs, some of which W. Krause traced to end-bulbs in the
tips of secondary papillse. It is noticeable that the
" schmeckbechers" do not appear on the free surface of the
papillae^ but in the wall and fossa^ where there is an accumu-
lation of fluids.

Part I, 1868. — 1. " The Adenoid Tissue of the Pars nasalis
of the Human Pharynx," by Professor Dr. Hubert von
Luschka.

The rounded follicular developments at the back of the
pharynx, which in many ways closely resemble the Peyer's
glands of the intestine, form the subject of this paj^er. The
distribution of the structures, and the minute arrangement of
the tissue, are carefully considered^ and illustrated in a plate.

2. '' On Rods and Cones of the Retina," by Dr. W.
Steinlin.

3. " Remarks on Dr. Steinlin' s Paper '^ by Max Schultze.
Dr. SLcinlin remarks that since Professor Max Schultze

has endeavoured to establish a physiological difference be-
tween rods and cones, it is necessary to be very exact in the
use of those terms. He has himself described the rods of
birds, amphibia and fishes, as cones (Zapfen), deprived of
the fat-drop. He, therefore, proposes to call every element
of the columnar layer of the retina, which consists of three
parts clearly separable from one another — Cones (Zapfen) :

94 QUARTERLY CHRONICLE.

and the three parts — respectively cone points, cone bodies,
and cone tails. He says that Max Schultze and Hasse have
only distinguished an outer and an inner division of the cone,
but that Max Schultze's "lens-like body" corresponds to
his "cone-body." After some further remarks on the signi-
ficance of these parts, Dr. Steinlin alludes to the observation
made by Max Schultze, that the " cone-points" are striated,
and states that he has often seen this himself, but did not
regard it as a normal structure. He novr, however, compares
it to the structure found in the cones of the eyes of crustacca.
He particularly describes the case of SquUla, in which he
found the striated portion breaking up into series of four
small laminae, or plates transversely. Professor Max Schultze,
in his remarks upon Dr. Steinlin's paper, points out what he
considers the errors in that communication. He regards the
columnar elements of the retina as differing in this, that
whereas the rods have their outer division ("point" of
Steinlin) of a cylindrical shape, the cones have that division
of a conical shape. The distinction does not rest at all in
the presence or absence of a lens-shaped body (the third
division of Steinlin), but in this difference of form. The
rods are the fundamental organs of vision, to which the cones
are in certain cases superadded. As to the lamination of the
cone in Crustacea, Professor Schultze is very glad to be con-
firmed by Dr. Steinlin's observations. He has himself
recently published a separate work on this subject, w^hicli we
notice elsewhere. On other points on which Dr. Steinlin
propounds new views, such as the connection of the nervous
elements and the connective tissue, Professor Schultze simply
expresses his complete disagreement.

" On the Furkinjian Fibres," by Dr. Max Lchnert.

These fibres were discovered in 1845, by Purkinje, beneath
the endocardium of the sheep, ox, pig, and deer. They have
since been w^ritten on by Kolliker, von Hessling, Reichert,
Remak, Acby, and others. They appear to consist princi-
pally of striped muscular tissue disposed in a very remarkable
way with connective tissue. They are described at great
length in this paper, and figured in a large plate.

" 071 the Structure of the Spinal Ganglia, ivith Remarks on
the Sympathetic Ganglion-cells j" by Dr. G. Schwalbe.

This appears to be a valuable paper ; it is of considerable
length, and well illustrated. The author has used iodine-
serum largely in his observations.

"Researches on the Tooth-pulp," by Franz Boll. — This
paper is by a medical student of Bonn — one of Prof. jMax
Schultze's pupils. The points to w''ich he has directed his

QUARTERLY CHRONICLE. 95

attention arc^ first, tlic mode of termination of the nerves of
the tooth, whicli is a subject as yet but little investigated ; and,
secondly, the relation of the intertnbular dentine substance of
the tooth to the tooth-pulp, and the development of the former
from the latter. He has found the long incisors of Rodents
admirably adapted to this investigation, and in examining
the nerves has made use of the terchloride of gold, which
was lately recommended by Cohnheim, and used by him in
the investigation of the nerves of the cornea. With regard to
the first of these matters in question, he states that extremely
fine nerve filaments pass between the pulp-cells, and penetrate
the dentine of the tooth, just as do the processes from the
peripheral cells of the pulp : hence it is necessary to distinguish
two sorts of dentinal canals — those which contain processes
from the pulp-cells, and those which contain nerve-fibres.
(See Plate II, fig. 3) . Three views as to the origin of the iiiter-
tubular substance of the dentine have been current : one is
KoUiker's, who conceives it to proceed from the calcification
of a soft matrix excreted from the dentinal cells and their
thin prolongations; the second is Wakleyer's, who modifies
KoUiker's view considerably, and denies the existence of a prse-
formative membrane to the pulp. He maintains that the forma-
tion of the dentine consists in the conversion of a part of the
protoplasm of the dentinal cells into a coUaginous substance,
which is subsequently calcified, while the remaining part of
the cell-protoplasm continues in the form of soft fibres to
occupy the interior of the tube surrounded by the calcified sub-
stance (figs. 1, 2) . H. Hertz, in a paper published in Virchow's
' Archiv,^ 1866, states that the intertnbular substance of the
dentine is the chemically changed and calcified intercellular
substance of the pulp-cells. Herr Boll proceeds to discuss
the views of Waldever and Hertz, but fact after fact has
convinced him that Waldeyer is correct. He gives several
figures of the peripheral-cells of the tooth-pulp — the odonto-
blasts— with fromone to four processes projecting into the
dentine substance. One of his sections (fig. 2) shows the cells
completely detached from contact with the dentine, excepting
through their long, fine processes ; and it is most clearly seen
that there is no connection between the hard substance of the
dentine and any intercellular matter of the pulp : in fact,
no such intercellular matter exists at the periphery. The
limitation of the hard substance of the dentine whei'e it comes
in contact with the cells of the pulp is termed membrmia eboris.
The multiplicity of processes from the odontoblasts, instead of
a single fibril, as originally described by Lent, is an interest-
ing observation.

96 QUARTERLY CHRONICLE.

" Contributions to a Knoivledge of the Structure of the Taste-
papilloi of the Tongue," by Dr. Christian Loven. Translated
from the Swedish. — This is an important histological memoir^
illustrated with a plate.

" The Hearing-organ of the Stag-beetle" (Lncanus cervus),
by Dr. H. Landois (figs. 4^ 5^ 6). — There is no insect in which
the nerves of the head can be more beautifully or more readily
prepared than the Stag-beetle. The nerves are particularly
large in relation to the brain, and may be well dissected under
spirit. The antenuary nerve is very large, and by slitting
up the antenna it may be traced even to the last joint, in the
cavity of which it gives rise to a peculiar structure. If the
terminal bit of the antenna of the stag-beetle be examined,
even with the naked eye, a small point-like depression can
be detected both on the under and upper surface. These
pits occur in male and female specimens both, varying
only with the size of the antenna; they occur only on the
terminal-joint, which has a T)eculiar shape, like that of
the sole of a boot. The pits are seen, with a magnifying
power, to lead into the inside of the antennal plate. Cross
sections and a solution of concentrated nitric acid and
chlorate of potassium are used in the further investigation.
The aperture of the pits is somewhat circular, and internally
they have a pitcher shape. The whole j)late-bit or joint is
covered externallv with hairs, which are of two sorts — small
and large. They are all short and thick projDortionately, and
the large ones, Avhich are fewest in number, are seen to be pro-
vided with a swollen knob-like base. The integument presents
two chitin-layers, of which the inner is rendered separable by
the treatment with acid. The outer is excavated by large
pitcher-shaped canals, from which the hairs emerge. Beneath
lies the hypodermis of rounded nucleated cells. Three or
four expanded tracheal vesicles lie in the middle of the
terminal-joint, connected with the general antennary trachea.
The nerve, which is the important thing in this organ, enters
it as a single stem of some thickness, which then splits up
into three or four branches spreading out in the "plate.'''
The nerve and these branches are covered with a conspicuous
neurilemma, in which are many nuclei. Fine twigs proceed
from the branches in every direction towards the surface of
the organ, devoid of a neurilemma. The end-organs of these
branches are very peculiar. Each nerve-twig on reaching
the hypodermis gives rise to a large oval ganglion-cell, which
lies just below the chitinous layer, and corresponds in position
to one of the flask-shaped canals from which the hairs of the
surface emerge. The ganglion-cell is continued up into this

QUARTERLY CHRONICLE. 97

cavity, exhibiting here an axis-fibre of nerve-matter, \vhich
terminates in apposition with the knob-like base of the hair,
so that each liair is in direct connection with a nerve-fibre,
throngh the interposition of a ganglion-cell. Dr. Laudois
refers to certain structures seen by Leydig in Diptera and in
Water-beetles, which appear to be identical, and were con-
sidered by Leydig as organs of hearing. He then discusses
the probability of this being an auditory organ. It pre-
sents, he maintains, the same essential structure as that
demonstrated by Hensen in Crustacea — a depression (the
" pits ") provided with hairs in connection with nerve-fibres.
It has not at all the necessary structure of an organ of smell,
and that function must be put out of the question. Experi-
ment shows that there is some other means by which smell
acts. A stag-beetle, subjected to the action of sulphurous
acid, ammonia, or tobacco-smoke, struggles and moves its
antennae back from the irritating substance; but if the
terminal-joints be now cut off, which contain the organ in
question, the beetle still exhibits the same movements, which
shows that the antennse's movements must depend upon
some other source of uerve-irritation than is provided in the
terminal joint. It is very probable that the antennse serve
as organs of touch, for soft, small objects, when drawn across
them. Dr. Landois considers that it is the large hairs which
subserve this purpose, the smaller ones being protected from
contact by the superior size of the larger hairs. The small
hairs he considers as responding to the vibrations of sound.
The " pits " are arranged in such a way. Dr. Landois observes,
as to concentrate more or less the waves of sound, and the
presence of the trachean-vesicles is best explained if the
organ is considered as auditory, since they would act as
additional vibrating structures. The measurements of the
various parts are given in great detail, as also in a species of
Dorcus. A plate, with four large and very well executed
figures, accompanies the paper, from which we extract three.

Bibliotheque Universelle et Revue Suisse.— In this excellent
journal are frequent notices of German, Italian, Kussian,
Swedish, and other memoirs, with critical notes from the
able hand of the distinguished naturalist, Professor Claparede.
Some of these we shall from time to time here translate.

February. " Om Vestmdiens Pentacriner," by Dr. Liitken.
• — In a very interesting notice of recent researches on the
living crinoids by M. Claparede, in which he sketches the
observations of Carpenter and Wyville Thompson recently
published in the ' Philosophical Transactions ' (whither we
must refer the reader), a paper by the Scandinavian naturalist.

98 QUARTERLY CHRONICLE.

Liitken, is also noticed. His studies liave been more zoolo-
gical than anatomical, and refer not only to the Antedons
[Comuttdce), but also to the Pcntacrini. He shows that the
first are not merely Pcntacrini detached from their peduncle,
and that the second also are not merely Antedons which have
preserved their lai'val stalk. Amongst fossil Pcntacrini but
one is known, figured by Buckland, of which the calyx is
entirely preserved. From the disc of this animal a sort of
recurved rostrum is seen to issue with an aperture at its end,
which has been considered the mouth. But since the living
Pcntacrini, as M. Liitken observes, agree with the Antedons
as to mouth and arms, it is evident that the rostrum is an
anal tube. Miiller was aware of this. It is, however, to be
remarked that among the Comatulae, some, as the Antedons,
have a central mouth, with a more or less eccentric anal tube
whilst others, as the Actinometra?, have a central anal tube,
and a lateral mouth. Therefore we may expect similar dif-
ferences in the Pcntacrini. Another explanation of the tube
of certain fossil crinoids is, that in them the anal and oral
apertures arc united. If this be the case, it cannot be
regarded as in the Ophiuridea, and the Asteridea with conical
ambulacral vesicles, as resulting from the suppression of the
anal aperture, but rather must be looked at as the assumption
of oral functions by the anal aperture.

Note on the Polymorphism of the Anthozoaria and the
Structure of the TuMpora^' by Alb. Kolliker, — The polymor-
phism of individuals, so remarkable among the Acalephaj, had
till now no parallel among the other Ccelenterata. It is, there-
fore, a discovery as little expected as that of a veritable poly-
morphism, which Professor Kolliker has made among various
genera of Anthozoaria, and Alcyonaria. This polymorphism
consists in this, that besides the large individuals susceptible of
taking nourishment, and provided with generative organs,
there exist also other smaller, asexual polyps, which appear
to preside essentially over the introduction of sea-water into
the organism, and its expulsion, and which are, perhaps, at
the same time the seat of an excrementitious secretion.
These asexual individuals possess, like the others, a body-
cavity divided into chambers by eight septa, and a pyriform
stomach furnished with two apertures. They are entirely
destitute of tentacles, and in place of the eight ordinary
mesenteric filaments, no more than two are found applied
over two consecutive septa. The cavity of the body of these
individuals is always in communication with that of the
sexual individuals, but the manner in which this communi-
cation is established is liablq to vary with the genera. Two

QUARTERLY CHRONICLE. 99

types can be distinguished in regard to the mode of distribu-
tion of the sexual individuals, on the polyparies. In the first
they are distributed in great number in all the polypigerous
region of the polypary, between the sexual individuals. Thus
amongst certain Alcyonia, which Professor Kolliker places in
the genus Sarcophyton, in the Veretilla, the Lituaria, the
Cavcrnularia, and the Sarcobelemmon. In the second case
the asexual individuals are restricted to certain places, per-
fectly definite, but varying with the genus. Thus, in certain
Pterceides they are found on the inferior face of the pennatea
leaflets of the region, serving for attachment under the form
of a plate of more or less size : in other species of the same
genus, they are found besides at the summit of the polypary:
in the Pennatulse, the varicosities of the trunk correspond to
the place where the sexual individuals are situate ; Fumicuiina
quadranyularis exhibits them disposed in longitudinal ranges
between the sexual individuals ; whilst the Yirgularise always
present behind each leaflet, on their trunk, a simple transverse
range of asexual indiAdduals.

It is probable that all the Pennatulidpe present a like
dimorphism, at least among the Renillse polyps may be seen
well-developed from secondary bodies, which appear to be
individuals of a different form. On the other hand, with the
exception cited above of the genus Sarcophyton, Professor
Kolliker has sought in vain for dimorphism among the Alcyo-
iiidte and the Gorgouidse. It must not be forgotten, too,
that there appear to exist relations between the buds of the
sexual and asexual individuals in the polymorphic polyparies,
for in the Veretilla at any rate, the asexual individuals
appear to be able under certain circumstances to transform
themselves into sexual individuals. Professor Kolliker has
also studied a polypary of Tubipora still enveloped in its soft
parts, and coming from the Yiti archipelago. In spite of the
great resemblance between the polyparies of Tubipora3, and
those of the madrepores, the author has convinced himself
that by all their structure and their development these
polyps are Alcyonaria which ought to take place by the side
of the genus Clavularia. Both the tentacles and the bodies
of the polyps of Tubiporai contain spicules.

" On an Hermaphrodite Nemertine from Saint-Maloj" by
Professor Willi. Keferstein. — Formerly a great importance
Avas assigned in zoology to the union of the sexes in the same
individual, or to their separation in distinct individuals.
Even recently a French savant has tried to class the inverte-
brata in great measure by this character. It is certain, how-
ever, to-day that the raonoecia and the dioecia have only a

100 QUARTERLY CHRONICLE.

secondary value. Do we not know, for instance, that both
in Annelids and in Nematoids, which, as a rule, have the
sexes separate, a certain number of hermaplirodite species
are found ? We know also some Treraatods which are dioe-
cious in a group, otherwise entirely hermaphrodite. And
recently in the group of the hermaphrodite Planarians, has
not a dicecious species been made known [Planaria dioica of
St. Vaast, described by M. Claparede) ? Thus the discovery
made by M. Keferstein at Saint-Malo of an hermaphrodite
Nemertine, is not at all surprising. But it is nevertheless
very important, as it is the first case of hermaphrodism in
this group. In this animal, to which M. Keferstein gives the
name of Borlosia hermaphroditica, the testicles have been found
filled with ripe zoosperms and the ovaries full of ovules in
course of formation. The author having only studied a single
individual, one may suppose that the organs designated by
him testicles are only spermatic receptacles filled with sperm.
However, Professor Keferstein believes that he has reason to
be convinced that such an interpretation is false. However
that may be, the author suggests that the discovery of an
hermajDhrodite Nemertine throws some light on theNemertians
in the perivisceral cavity of which Max Schultze, Claparede,
and Keferstein himself have found small, living Nemertians
well developed.

Eobins' Journal de TAnatomie. January, 1868. ''Researches
on the Nerves of the Neurilemma, or Nervi-nervoruyn," by M.
C. Sappey. — The neurilemma receives nerve-fibres which are
to the nerves what the vasa vasorum are to the vessels, whence
the name of nervi-nervorum, under which M. Sappey proposes
to describe them. Their existence in the fibrous coat of the
nerves had not yet been pointed out ; it is constant neverthe-
less, and can be easily demonstrated. The disposition which
the nervi-nervorum take in the neurilemma diff'ers little,
however, from that which the nervous ramifications in the
other dependencies of the fibrous system present. Like these,
they follow in general the arteries : like these also, they
anastomose freely. It is not only in the common or princi-
pal sheath that one meets them, but also on those which
surround the principal fasciculi, and the tertiary fasciculi,
M. Sappey has also followed them on to the sheaths of the
secondary fasciculi. But, in proportion as the calibre of the
sheath diminishes, they become more delicate and fewer.
One never sees them extending on to the envelope of the
primitive fasciculi, (an envelope which is quite different from
the preceding and which has been studied by M. Ch. Robin,
under the name of perineure (' Comptes Rendus,' 1854).

QUARTERLY CHRONICLE. 101

The absence of the nervi-nervorum on the sheath of the
primitive fasciculi explains to us their absence from certain
large nerve- branches. The tubes which compose them are
remarkable for their extreme tenuity. Each of them, how-
ever, is composed of an envelope, of a medullary layer and of
a cylinder axis. The optic nerve possesses two fibrous enve-
lopes ; 1st. A very thick external envelope, which extends
from the optic tract to the globe of the eye, and which con-
stitutes for this last organ a sort of ligament; 2nd. An
internal envelope which is very fine, and from which septa
are given, which dividing, and subdividing, and uniting one
with another, form longitudinal canals, all of about the same
diameter. This second envelope, which has the same relation
to the optic nerve as has the neurilemma to other nerves —
receives not the smallest'nervous twig. The external envelope,
on the other hand, receives a great number which take their
origin from the ciliary nerves. These nervi-nervorum of the
external sheath run at first in the superficial layers, where
they form an irregular plexus, and send off a few branches to
deeper layers. The external sheath of the optic nerves, so
rich in nervi-nervorum, is remarkable also for the abundance
of the elastic fibres, which enter into its formation. It was
formerly very erroneously considered as a uniting link
between the dura mater and the sclerotic. It differs, however,
from both; 1st. By its elastic fibres which are deficient in
both ; 2nd. By its nervi-nervorum, which are of an extreme
rarity in the cranial dura mater, and of which no vestige is
seen in the sclerotic. The anatomical analysis, therefore,
far from confirming the analogy which so many anatomists
believed to exist, attests that this part on the contrary is
distinguished from the two membranes with Avhich it is con-
tinuous by characters which are peculiar to it.

" Pulmonary Epithelium," by C. Schmidt. Thesis at
Strasbourg, 1866. A notice of this memoir, which appears
one of some value, is given. The conclusions of the author
are— 1. In the three classes of Vertebrates (fishes, reptiles,
mammals), the whole extent of the respiratory apparatus is
lined by an epithelial membrane. 2. The trabeculse in the
reptiles, and the bronchia in the mammals, are clothed with
a cylindrical vibratile epithelium. 3. The terminal parts of
resjpiratory apparatus (vesicles, alveoli, aerial cells) in which
the exchange of gases between air and blood takes place, are
lined with a simple pavement epithelium, without vibratile
cilia. 4. The passage from vil)ratile epithelium to pavement
epithelium takes place gradually. The last divisions of the
bronchia possess only pavement-cells, not vibratile. 5. The

10.2 QUARTERLY CHRONICLE.

alveolar epithelium is continuous and complete. It covers the
capillaries in all directions. The cells which constitute it
present varieties in their disposition according to the different
classes of animals. G. Amph'M a. —QgWh of uniform size,
flattened at that part which covers the capillaries, dilated
into an ampulla, enclosing the nucleus, at the intervals of the
capillaries. 7. Reptiles.— Two sorts of cells.^ One, the
smaller, containing a nucleus, united in groups in the inter-
vals of the capillaries ; the other, larger, flattened without
contents, placed between the groups of little cells, and cover-
ing over the capillaries. 8. Mammalia embryo. — Cells
regular and of uniform size. Newly-born. — A part of the
preceding cells increase in size and cover the capillaries ; the
others do not exhibit any change, and remain united in
groups in the meshes of the capillaries. Adults. — The cells
are united in smaller number to form the groups; many
from among them are isolated. The large cells which
separate the groups seem to fuse themselves in part and take
the aspect of very thin and nearly amorphous membranous

plates.

" On the Anatomy andPhysiologij of the Erectile Tissue in the
Genital Organs of Mammifers, Birds, and some other Verte-
brates," by Ch. Legros. — This is an excellent resume of the
subject, and is illustrated by five good plates. The most
detailed and careful account of the structures is given, and
certain new explanations given.

" Zoological and Anatomical Researches on the Glyciphagi,
with Palmate or Plumose Hairs," by MM. Fumonze and Ch.
llobin. — Several species of Acaridians have been described in
his journal by M. Robin. In the last number we noticed
detailed studies of Tyroglyphus ; in the present the two
species of Glyciphagus, G. Palmifer and G. Plumiger, are
very fully described and figured in five plates. These forms
are'chiefly remarkable for the very large branched hairs which
project from their bodies. G. Plumiger has hairs not unlike
those of the shore-crab, while those of G. Palmifer are broad
leaf-like expanses, exhibiting a central shaft and numerous
cross pieces.

Miscellaneous. — A new Animal Colouring Matter In the
Spectroscope. Professor Church, of Cirencester, has dis-
covered a very interesting colouring matter in the crimson
feathers of the Turacou of South Africa, a bird which is well
known as sometimes washing out its own colour. Mr. Ray
Lankester in a paper read at the British Association at
Dundee, stated that he had failed to obtain any definite bands
of absorption from the colouring matter of bird's feathers,

QUARTERLY CHRONICLE. 103

thoiigh examined when in solution in ether as well as in the
feather. Professor Churcli's discovery of Tiiracin is there-
fore very interesting, as this colouring matter gives in the
feather two absorption bands quite close to those of scarlet
cruorine, but sutFicieutly distinct to be readily recognised.
Turacin is readily soluble in animoniacal water, and gives a
solution the absorption bands of which differ greatly from
those of the feather, being much "higher." Acids precipitate
the Turacin again in its original form. Professor Church
has made careful chemical analyses of Turacin, and finds it
to contain copper. Many amphibia and fishes are coloured
by copper. Professor Church considers that this new body
has some relation to cruorine, but in all its reactions and in
its spectroscopic characters it is most obvious that the two
bodies are very distinct. They only happen (as alkanet root
does too) to give two absorption bands in nearly the same
part of the spectrum.

Green Wood. — The spores of Peziza eruginosa multiply in
rotton wood in such abundance as to give it a bright blueish,
green aspect. Such wood is used by the turners of Tunbridge
Wells in their ornamental work. A great stir has recently
been made with regard to similar wood found in the forest of
Fontainbleau. Two French chemists have examined it, and
one terms the green colouring matter Xylochloric acid,
whilst the other gives it an equally euphonious title Xyliudein.
The colouring matter should be examined with the spectro-
scope in order to ascertain if any absorption bands are pre-
sent, and if possible, what relation this colouring matter has
to those described by Dr. Ferdinand Cohn.

NOTES AND CORRESPONDENCE.

Eulenstein's Series of Diatomacess — lu the ' JournaP for
January, 1867 (p. 64), we took occasion to call attention to
a prospectus which had been issued by M. Eulenstein of
Canstadt, respecting two Series of Collections of Diatomaceae
which he was proposing to issue, each in five Parts, containing
100 species. Owing partly to illness, and partly to the large
number of subscribers, the issue of these collections has been
somewhat delayed, but we have now before us the First
Century of the second or "Standard" series, which contains
the following species, amongst which those marked with an
asterisk are from original specimens or gatherings. The
specimens appear to be in an admirable condition, and to be
well mounted, and the present issue shows that M. Eulenstein's
laborious and most useful design will, doubtless, be carried out
in the manner to be expected from his well-known reputation.
We are sorry to find that, in consequence of the undertaking,
on the original terms, proving more expensive than was antici-
pated, a reissue of the series could only take place at a some-
what advanced charge, which, however, would then leave the
collection very cheap.

The specimens in the present collection are, with few
exceptions, quite unmixed, and remarkably clean. In most
cases both entire frustules and separate valves are given, and
in some the entire organism is preserved in a fresh state in
one slide, and the cleaned valves in another. Many of the
species, as will be seen, are of considerable rarity.

List of the species of Diatomaceae contained in the First
Century of ^Eulenstein's Typical Series' :

AclmanMies longipes *Hemiaulus polycystinorum

„ brevipes * „ alatus ?

*Achnantliidium lanceolatum llomoeocladia martiana

* ,, lii.eare *HYalosira obtusangula

Ampliipleiira pellucida Istlimia enervis

Aniphiproia paludosa Licniophora flabellata

,, Pokoniyana Mastogloia lanceolata

Amphitetras antediluviana * „ elegaus

MEMORANDA.

105

Amphora ovalis
„ saliaa
„ arenaria
Araclmodiscus ornatus
Aulacodiscus orieutalis
Berkeleya fragilis

„ Dillwynii
Biddulphia pulchella
Campylodiscus clypeus
Cerataulus turgidus

,, Isevis

Ceratoneis arcus
Clisetoceras arraatum
Cocconeis pediculus
„ scutellura
„ Grevillei
Coscinodiscus ompbalanthus
*Cyclotella rectangula
Cymatopleura apiculata
Cymbella gastroides
*Deuticula obtiisa

* „ t.lienualis
*Diatoma graiide

„ liiemale
Doukinia carinata
*Eiicyonema prostratum
Endosigma eximium.
Epithemia turgida
argus
„ sorex

* „ constricta
Eunotia pectinalis

„ uudulata
Fragilaria virescens
„ mesolepta

* „ minima

* ,, Harrisonii
Gomphonema tenellum

„ acuminatum

„ geminatum

Grammatopliora marina

*MeIosira numrauloides
Navicula nobilis

„ oblonga

„ lata
*„ Brebissonii

„ cryptocephala

„ affinis

,, serians

„ spliaerophora

„ cuspidata
Nitzschia obtusa

* „ Palea
„ tenuis

* „ lanceolata
„ Ciosterium

Orthosira Boeseana

* „ Dickieii
„ arenaria

Pleurosigma strigosum
„ balticum

„ attenuatum

„ acumiuatum

Rhabdonema arcuatum
Rlioicosphenia curvata
Scliizonema Grevillei
*Scoliopleura tumida
Stauroneis Phoenicenteron
Striatella unipunctata
Sui'irella biseriata
„ gemma
,, ovata
*Syuedra pulchella

* „ Vaucherige
„ splendens

* „ affinis
„ fulgens

Tabellaria flocculosa
Terpsinoe musica
*Tetracylus lacustris
Triceratium arclicum

Test-Diatoms — When one speaks of " test/^ how is it
possible that Navicula affinis and N. rhomboides can be con-
founded ? These diatoms do not resemble each other in any
way, either in form or in the fineness of their striae.
Navicula affinis is always distinguished by the line or nervure
which runs along the margins of the valve, which is gently
contracted towards its extremities, and the ends of which are
rounded off. The stripe, though difficult to resolve, are much
less closely packed (46'60 in "OOl") than those of N. rhom-
boides. Different authors, however, have described and drawn

VOL. VIII. NEW SER. H

106 MEMORANDA.

the one for the other. The opticians often give to A^. affinis
the name of N. amici, no doubt because this diatom was the
favourite test of that able micrographer. N. affinis is also
confounded with the N. gracilis, N. rhombica, N. cuspidata,
&C.J in such a way that it is sometimes difficult to recognise
them. I have said that the two diatoms in question ought
not to be confounded. In fact, whilst the N. affinis, with the
elliptic valve, is pinched up towards its ends, it is quite other-
wise with N. rhomboides, which has a nearly quadrangular
form, and the ends of which are lanceolate. The striae of this
diatom (85 in "OOl") make it a test of the first order. What
astonishes me is that certain authors of consideration, such
as MM. Arthur Chevalier, Henri Van Heurck, Heinrick
Frey, and many others, have not given to the diatom, which
they describe as the N. affinis, or test of Amici, its real name.
Lastly, it appears that M. de Brebissou, the able French
micrographer, in a new work, which he is preparing on the
diatoms, has dedicated to one of these authors, M. Henri
Van Heurck, a genus Vanheurckia, which ought to com-
prise N. rhomboides, crassinervis, cuspidata, ambigua, collet,
viridum, and vulgare Perhaps this will preserve us from the
approach of complete confusion. — Mouchet, Rochefort-sur-
mer.

Corethra plumicornis. — The note on the Bibliography of
this interesting insect and its larvae, which appeared in the
Notes and Correspondence of the October number of the
' Journal,' in which number, also. Professor Jones's paper
appeared, should have been signed " T. Rymer Jones," since
it was sent for publication to the Editors by that gentleman.

Note on a Proposed Form of Condenser. — By the intersec-
tion at right angles of two equal and similar half-cylinders,
whose flat sides are in the same plane, a solid is formed,
which is represented in the accompanying figure.

MEMORANDA.

107

Were sucli a solid made of glass, and placed below the
stage of the microscope, with its square side uppermost, rays
entering its curved surfaces in directions parallel to the axis
of the instrument would all be focalised into two lines, or
narrow spaces, intersecting each other at right angles. The
light would increase in intensity towards the centre of the
field. By stopping off a diagonal half of the square side I
think that a form of illumination would be obtained well
adapted for exhibiting at the same time the longitudinal and
transverse lines of PI. fasciola, Nav. rhomboides, &c. —
William Robertson, M.D., Edinburgh.

Fiddian's Metallic Chimney. At the last meeting of the
Royal Microscopical Society Mr. C. Collins exhibited a
novelty in the way of a chimney, shade, and reflector com-
bined for the microscopist's lamp. The chimney is very
light, being made of thin copper, and without a seam, there-
fore not likely to open out or crack with any amount of heat

COLLINS FIDDIAK METALLIC CHIMNEY.

that may be applied ; the inside is coated over with a material
of intense whiteness. An aperture is left in one side, as
shown in the woodcut, for the insertion of a circular piece
which carries a thin glass, either plain or tinted, through
which the rays of liglit are emitted in one direction only. The
durability, and consequent economy of such a constructed
chimney, setting aside other qualities, is a recommendation
of no small importance.

108 MEMORANDA.

Cheap Achromatic Microscopes. Referring to the last edition
of Beale^ ' How to work with the Microscope/ I note that
on page 10, paragraph 15, Mr, Salmon and Mr. Highly are
stated to have been the first in London to bring out a good
and cheap Achromatic Microscope. I take it that this
remark does mean to confine itself exclusively to London ; if
this be so, I beg to inform you that this is by no means correct.
My late partner and friend, Mr. A. Abraham, brought out
as early as 1841 a very efficient instrument, with two sets
of achromatics as powers, these last (the powers) being made
by Nachet of Paris, and of which (complete in a case with
apparatus) great numbers were sold at £8 retail. I am glad
to be able to send you a lithograph of this instrument, with
full description, printed at the time named.

Upon the principle of awarding honour to whom honour is
due, I shall be glad if you will insert this in your forthcoming
number. — George S. Wood, 20, Lord Street, Liverpool.

"Slide-Cell," or new Live-Box for Aquatic Objects. In the ex-
amination of these objects, which from their numbers and
variety are conveniently classed under the term '' pond life,^'
I have felt the want of some apparatus which would confine
them within a limited space, and yet afford means of watch-
ing their habits and processes of development. After em-
ploying the different patterns of live-boxes, troughs, &c.,
which have been recommended, I have found none more
useful or better adapted for practical observation than the
'' slide-cell," and which, for the benefit of my fellow-micro-
scopists, I briefly describe.

By reference to the drawing it will be seen that the ap-
paratus can be manufactured for a few pence, and this is, of
course, a recommendation.

Figures 1 and 2 are plan and section views of the " slide-
cell .''

A is a glass slip 3 x 1, in the centre of which a circular or
oval well is " punted " out in the usual manner. B is a thin
glass cover, to one end of which is attached, by shellac or
other cement, a brass disc, C, having a frilled edge. A hole
is drilled through one end of the slip A, and also through
the centre of the disc B. Through these holes is passed a
stud pin D, which has a small head at the lower end, the
other end being tapped to receive a small nut, E. A thin
washer of leather is placed upon the stud D, between the
disc and the slip to ensure a proper bite. By unscrewing the

MEMORANDA.

109

nut E the disc B, and with it the thin glass cover, may be
removed for the purpose of cleaning, or for attaching a fresh

cover in the case of breakage.

On moving the disc and cover

riG .1

llllniiiinitiiiiiitiniiiiiiiiiii

aside, as shown in fig. 1, the object, with a sufficient supply
of water, can be readily introduced ; some care, however, is
required in doing this, but dexterous management of the
dipping tube will suffice to disperse all air-bubbles. — Thomas
CuRTBis, F.R.M.S.

PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES.

EOTAL MiCEOSCOPICAL SOCIETY.

January Sth, 1868.

James Glaishee, Esq., E.R.S., President, in the Chair.

The minutes of the preceding meeting were read and confirmed.

The President reminded the Fellows that the Library of the
Society, at King's College, is open for their use, together with the
collection of objects, microscopes, &c., on Mondays, Tuesdays,
Thursdays, and Fridays, from 11 a.m. to 4 p.m. ; on Wednesdays
in the evening only, from 6 to 10 p.m. ; and on these days Mr.
Walter W. Peeves is in attendance as Assistant-Secretary,
Librarian, and Curator.

The following presents were announced, and thanks voted to
the respective donors.

Nine Slides of Test Objects

Journal of Linnean Society.

Journal of Society of Arts

Journal of Geological Society

Proceedings of Essex Institute, U. S.

Intellectual Observer

Land and Water (weekly)

Popular Science Review

Photographic Journal

Martin's Lectures on Natural and Experimental Philo-
sophy .....

A Book containing a large collection of Original Drawings,
and a Cabinet of Slides of 1031

Presented by
Mr. Lobb,
The Society.
Ditto.
Ditto.

The Institute.
The Publisher.
The Editor.
Tlie Publisher.
The Editor.

H. Lee, Esq.

Dr. Wallich.

In bringing to the notice of the Society the gift of Dr. Wallich,
the President characterised it as a splendid present bestowed in
the most handsome way. He remarked upon the great scientific
value of the collection of slides, which was much enhanced by the
MS. and drawiugs which Dr. Wallich had sent with them. It
would be the anxious desire of the Council to devise plans by
which the valuable labours and original researches of Dr. Wallich,
as represented in the objects, drawings, and MS. should be put
to the best uses for the advancement and for the honour of their
generous donor.

The President having read a letter from Dr. Wallich, which
accompanied this valuable gift (see his Address, p. 67), proposed
a special vote of thanks to Dr. Wallich, which was carried by
acclamation.

The following gentlemen were duly elected Fellows of the
Society : — Alfred James Puttick, ; H. Eamsden, M.A.

Projfessor Eupeet Jones, F.G-.S., then read a paper " On

PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES. Ill

Eecent and Fossil Bivalved Entomostraca." (See ' Trans.,' p. 39.)
This was followed by a discussion.

The President remarked upon the high degree of interest
which microscopists felt in the organisms to which Prof. R. Jones
had called their attention.

Mr. Slack observed that, in certain specimens of Artemia salina
obtained during the season at Hayliug Island by Mr. Burr, he
had noticed the presence of groups of crystals, apparently uric
acid, in their intestines, and suggested that it would be advisable
to ascertain if similar products were to be found in other Ento-
mostraca.

Mr. Hall said that he had not been able to find any crystals
in the specimens of Artemia he had examined.

Mr. Hogg observed that the presence of urate of soda or urates
in some form might be suspected in such animals.

Anniversary Meeting.

Fehruanj 12th, 1868.

James Glaisher, Esq., F.R.S., President, in the Chair.
The following presents were announced :

Presented by
The Society.
Tlie Editor.
Ditto.

Tlie Society.
Tlie Editor.
Surgeon General.
The Club.
The PubHsher.

British Journal of Dental Science .

Photographic Journal

Land and Water (weekly)

Journal of Society of Arts

Naturalists' Note Book, 18C7

Annual lleport of Surgeon General, U.S.

Journal of Quekett Club

The Student, No. 1 .

A Case containing selected Catalogues of Philosophical Newton Tomkius,

Instruments .... Esq.

Five Slides of Stagshorn in section, with the Blood in them Thos. White, Esq.
Twenty-four Slides of Indian Bat Hairs . W. M. By water, Esq.

John Dawson, Esq., was elected a Fellow of the Society.
The ballot was taken for the election of Officers for the year
ensuing, when Mr. Stewart and Mr. Ladd, having been appointed
scrutineers, declared the election to have fallen on the following
gentlemen :

Fresident. — James Glaisher, Esq., F.E.S, &c.
Vice-Fresidents.
W. B. Carpenter, M.D., F.R.S., &c.
Arthur Farre, M.D., F.E.S., &c.
The Rev. J. B. Reade, M.A., F.E.S., &c.
G-. C. Wallich, M.D., F.L.S., &c.
Treasurer.— C. J. H. Allen, F.L.S., &c.
Secretaries.
H. J. Slack, F.Q.S. | Jabez Hogg, F.L.S.

112

PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES.

Council.

Charles Brooke, M.A., P.E.S.
H. C. Bastian, M.A., M.D., &c.
W. A. Guy, M.B., E.E.S.
James Hilton, Esq.
W. H. Ince, F.L.S.
Henry Lee, E.L.S. & G.S.

Ellis G-. Lobb, Esq.
Eichard Mestayer, Esq.
John Millar, Esq., F.L.S.
Major S. E. I. Owen, F.L.S.
Thomas Sopwith, M.A., F.E.S.
F. H. Wenham, Esq., C.E.

The Auditors presented the Treasurer's Eeport for the past
year. (See 'Trans.,' p. 59.)

The Cabinet and Library Committees duly presented their
Eeports, which were read and ordered to be entered on the
Minutes. (See ' Trans.,' p. 55.)

The Peesident then delivered his Annual Address, which he
was requested to print for distribution among the Fellows.

March nth, 1868.
J. B. Eeade, F.E.S., Vice-President, in the Chair.
The following presents and purchases were announced :

A Photographic Portrait of Prof. Bell, F.R.S., framed and

glazed
Journal of Society of Arts
Land and Water (weekly)
Journal of Dental Science
Journal of Linnean Society
Photograpliic Journal
The Student, No. 2 .
Formation of so-called Cells in Animal Bodies. Ed.

Montgomery . . . .

American Patent Office Reports, 4 vols., 1863-4

Presented by

T. Bell, Esq.

The Society.

The Editor.

Ditto.

The Society.

The Editor.

The Publisher.

. Dr. Murie.

. Commissioners of

Patents, U. S.
Thomas White, Esq.
. Ditto.
. Purchased.

Quekett's Histology, vol. 1.

Five Slides of Hippuric Acid

The Aunals of Natural History.

A Monograph of British Entomostraca, by Norman and

Brady ..... Ditto.

Johnston's History of British Zoophytes. 2ud edition , Ditto.

Darwin's Origin of Species. 4th edition . . Ditto.

The Variations of Animals and Plants under Domestica-
tion, Darwin .... Ditto.

The presents to the Society included a series of nine slides, with
models of the jaws and rotatory apparatus of a Eotifer, from the
Eev. Lord S. G-. Osborne ; a very valuable and complete series of
preparations of bones and teeth, numbering 424 slides, from Mr.
Joseph Beck, to whom a special vote of thanks was moved, and
carried by acclamation; a first-class binocular microscope with
glass shade had been purchased of Mr. Baker, of Holborn, who
had agreed to supply it at a price which made it partially a present.

PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES. 113

Mr. Beck's Cabinet was accompanied by a letter addressed to
the President, in the following terms :

My dear Sik, — I beg to offer for the acceptance of tlie Royal Micro-
scopical Society a collection of bones and teeth made by nie many years ago,
when Professor Quekett was prepai-ing for the publication of ' Part II Histo-
logical Catalogue.' The collection contains 424 specimens, and is pretty
nearly complete. It originally formed part of a collection in our Microscopical
Subscription Room, and the slides have on them a monogram, which, however,
by a liberal interpretation might be considered to imply Royal Microscopical
Society. I am so much occupied in business that I am but seldom able to look
at them, and therefore I have ventured to offer them to the Society in the
hopes that they may be useful. — Believe me, dear Sir, yours sincerely, Jos.
Bece.

A gentleman, through H. Lee, Esq., engaged to present the
Society with a complete series of objects, illustrating some special
department of microscopy, to the extent of £20, hoping thereby
to induce others who may have the means, to aid in fully furnish-
ing the cabinet of the Society.

The following gentlemen were duly elected Fellows of the
Society : — Edward Thompson Draper, Arthur Waller, John
"Wheldon, Alfred Sangster, Wm. Barnett Burn.

Mr. Slack called attention to a microscope which Mr. Crouch,
of London Wall, had kindly sent for the Society's inspection. It
was a new modification of his " Cheap Binocular," as it was termed
in his catalogue, and was fitted up with a very excellent rotatory
stage of black glass, slightly modified from the form constructed
by Nachet, and which Dr. Carpenter had highly commended. The
rotation movement resembled that of Beck's well-known popular
microscope. The object-holder was fitted to a glass plate, and
moved very smoothly on the glass stage in any direction, being
kept in its place by ivory points attached to brass springs, pressing
upon it with sufiicient force. This form of stage was adapted to
all ordinary requirements, but when zoophyte troughs were used
it did not give quite enough vertical motion. It was, however,
easy to add to the instrument a simple trough-holder, which
would obviate the difficulty. The instrument as a whole was well
worthy of attention, and decidedly one of the best of the cheaper
forms.

Mr. C. CoLi/iNS introduced a new metallic chimney for micro-
scope lamps, made by him for Mr. Eiddian, of Birmingham. The
interior of the chimney is coated with plaster of Paris, and it
emits a beautiful white light, in one direction only, through a
circular aperture in the metal, to which a flat piece of glass is
attached. The combustion appears to be more perfect than it is
with the ordinary glass chimneys. The opaque sides of this chim-
ney act as a screen, intercepting all rays excepting those actually
required for use.

A paper was read by Dr. Colling-wood, E.L.S., &c., " On the
AlgEe which cause the Colouration of the Sea in various parts of
theAVorld." (See 'Trans.,' p. 85.)

A discussion followed the reading of this paper, in which the

114 PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES.

Peesident, the Eev, J. B. Eeade, Dr. Wallich, and Mr. Hogo
joined.

Dr. "Wallich was fully able to confirm the valuable observa-
tions of Dr. Collingwood, having had opportunities of examining
and figuring the organisms referred to during voyages to and from
Bengal, in the years 1851 and 1857. Although, in common with
Dr. Collingwood, he had never w^itnessed the blood-red colour,
ascribed by some writers to the occurrence of minute algae in the
waters of the ocean, he had on many occasions, during protracted
calms, seen the normal clearness modified to a considerable extent,
and indeed tinged of a yellowish or greenish-yellow hue by in-
numerable minute protophytic masses, in some cases consisting of
structures allied to the Trichodesmium* of naturalists, in others
of true Diatomaceae. The former occurred in the Bay of Bengal
and Indian Ocean, and were met with from 18° N. lat. to nearly
30° S. One form, probably similar to that spoken of by Dr. Col-
lingwood, presented itself in minute spherical masses, about -V^h
of an inch in diameter, composed of filaments radiating from a
common centre, each filament consisting of cells, about twice as
broad as long, placed in linear series, and filled with a pale
yellowish-green endochrome. The other form Occurred in fasci-
cular clusters, like minute bundles of faggots, from -^i-th to ^^ih
inch in length, compressed or constricted at the centre of the
masses, and from the centre spreading out into brush-like expan-
sions. In this variety the surface of the filaments was covered
with very delicate hairs, but in other respects the filaments and
cells were not distinguishable from those in the spherically-aggre-
gated form.f

The Diatomacese alluded to belonged to the genera Ehizoselenia
and Coscinodiscus. The Ehizoselenia occurred in dishevelled tufts,
varying in diameter from half an inch to an inch and a half,
without any regular arrangement, and looking, whilst floating in
the water, like flocculent tufts of delicate yellow silk. The indi-
vidual filaments were of great length, being formed sometimes of
a series of from twenty to forty frustules. It was whilst examining
these in the fresh and living condition that Dr. Wallich found
what he believes has not heretofore been noticed, namely, distinct
connecting zones, which were wanting to prove the true diato-
macean nature of the Ehizoselenise. These connecting zones are
extremely hyaline, and require most careful manipulation and
lighting to render them visible under the microscope. They
embrace the corresponding halves of adjoining frustules, are
devoid of all striation, and from their very delicate nature are
at once rendered invisible, or become actually destroyed, on
submitting the organisms to the action of acids. Another "notable
character in this Ehizoselenia is aflforded by the manner in which

* See the translation of a paper by M. Uareste, published in Vol. Ill,
N. S., 1863, of the 'Societies' Transactions,' p. 1180.

t Both forms are figured in the Volume of Sketches which Dr. Wallich
had recently presented to the Society.

PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES. 115

the minute claw-like appendage at the apex of each frustule is
inserted in a corresponding depression on the bevelled surface of
the frustule with which it was in apposition, as if with the view
to give additional support at the point of union of adjacent
frustules.

From the profusion in which these flocculent masses of Ehizo-
selenia occur, and their rapid accumulation to a greater and
greater extent so long as calms prevailed, it seems probable that
at some depth below the surface they may form considerable
layers ; and this view is further borne out by the fact that the
digestive cavities of Salpae and certain other oceanic Hydrozoa
are at times found almost entirely filled with the frustules. On
the Atlantic side of Africa Dr. Wallich captured salpse in chains,
numbering from half a dozen to a score individuals, each five or
six inches in length, the digestive sacs of which, measuring nearly
three quarters of an inch in diameter, were completely distended
with this organism only.

Dr. Wallich wished to draw attention to this fact for another
reason, namely, that it would indicate the possession by these
humbly-organized beings of a power to search for and pick out
from amongst a variety of free floating microscopic algae a pai'-
ticular form ; unless it be assumed (which is far from probable)
that, having incepted a single frustule, this retains the faculty of
growth and multiplication within the cavity in which it becomes
imprisoned.

Dr. Wallich invited the attention of those who have oppor-
tunities of carrying on microscopic investigations at sea to the
influences (whatever they may be) which cause the minute algse
of the open ocean to rise at certain periods to the surface, and
again to descend to unknown depths. He suggested that atmo-
spheric pressure, or the more ready transmission of light and heat
during calm weather, might produce the effect, but pointed out
that the question is still an open one, and well calculated to repay
any labour bestowed upon it. To show how little is really known
of "the extent to which animal life is capable of being carried on
imder the widely-varying pressures occurring near the surface
and at great depths, he mentioned having repeatedly seen large
turtle " caught napping " at the surface in the Bay of Bengal,
several hundreds of miles away from the nearest point of land,
and where the sea was many hundreds of fathoms in depth.
These turtle must necessarily descend to the bottom to feed, if
they feed at all. He also drew attention to the circumstance that
their carapaces were studded with minute living algse, diatoms,
and foraminifera, the latter belonging, in some instances, to
sessile families, such as the Miliolidae.

The Coscinodiscus referred to, and which has been described
and flgured by Dr. Wallich under the name of C. Begins* is pro-
bably the largest known diatom, the frustule measuring ^V^^ ^^

* One or more mounted specimens will be found in the Cabinet presented
to the Society.

116 PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES.

an inch in diameter. Like the minute tufts already spoken of, it
was met with in countless myriads, during calms, in the Bay of
Bengal ; its size and the brilliant tiut of the endochrome enabling
the frustules to be readily observed at a height of several feet
above the surface. Two frustules were generally found still ad-
hering together after division had taken place.

Dr. Wallich finally mentioned having, in 1859, seen Cosci-
nodiscus present in great profusion, and under similar circum-
stances as to weather, around the Channel Islands.

_Mr. Hogg thought it a remarkable circumstance that those
with large opportunities for making investigations of the curious
bodies which give colour to the waters should have seen nothing
of "the blood-red colour" spoken of by some authors. Neither
was it so certain that Cohn's more recent investigations served
to clear up "the mystery" which surrounds similar freshwater
colorations, such as Mr. Sheppard's " monad colouring matter."
To any one who had the opportunity of making an examination
of this peculiar fluid it certainly did not appear quite possible to be-
lieve it to be "identical with that which Cohn calls ' ph/cocyan.'' "

The Rev. J. B. Reade, in proposing a vote of thanks to Dr.
Collingwood, alluded to the value of the paper as a record of the
personal and accurate observations of the author. Some who
have written largely on the subject are indebted entirely to the
observations of others, and these being cemented with a certain
amount of imagination paste, yield a report of no substantial
value. Of such inaccuracies the author justly complains. Mr.
Eeade referred to a paper in the 'Phil. Trans.' for 1772, by
Captain Newbold, of the " Kelsall," who described the appearance
of the sea near Bombay as milky white, owing to an innumerable
quantity of animalcules, perceptible to the naked eye. He also
observed, with reference to the Eed Sea, that Dean Stanley states,
in his work on Palestine, and as a result of personal observation,
that forests of submarine vegetation and red coral reefs gave the
whole sea its Hebrew appellation of the " sea of weeds," and that
these coralline forests form the true weeds of this fantastic sea.*
He referred also to the testimony of the late Captain Newbold,
who describes the waters as marked with annular, crescent-shaped,
and irregular blotches, of a purplish red, extending as far as the

* In II Book of Kings, cliap. iii, an account is given of the rebellion of the
Moabites against the reigning kings of Judah, Israel, and Edom. Elisha
had received a Divine intimation that though they should not see wind,
neither rain, yet that the valley should be filled with water. " And it came
lo pass in the morning, that, behold, there came water by the way of Edom,
and the country was filled with water. And the Moabites gathered all that
were able to put on armour, and stood in the border. And they rose up
early in the morning, and the sun shone upon the water, and the Moabites
saw tlie water on the other side as red as blood. And they said, This is
blood : the kings are surely slain, and they have smitten one another : now,
therefore, Moab, to the spoil." The Moabites were thus deceived by this
appearance and their, perhaps, not -unnatural conclusion. Tiiey came ac-
cordingly to the camp of Israel, and the Israelities rose up and smote them.

PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES. } 17

eye could reach. They were curiously contrasted with the beau-
tiful aquamarina of the water lying over the tvJiite coral reefs.
"The red colour I ascertained," says Captain Newbold, "to be
caused by the subjacent red sandstone and reddish coral reefs.
A similar phenomenon is observed in the Straits of Babel Mandeb,
and also near Suez, particularly when the rays of the sun fall on
the water at a small angle." Pliny speaks of the Red Sea as a
vast forest : " Kubrum mare et totus Orientis oeeanus refertus
est sylvis." Sandstone and granite lend the strong red hiie which
is connected with the name of Edom. It is described by Diodorus
Siculus as of a bright scarlet hue, and is represented in legendary
pictures as of a bright crimson. We are thus supplied with suffi-
cient reasons for the colour of the Red Sea without assigning it
wholly, as some have done, to red algse, which Dr. Collin gwood
never saw. The nature and effect of what he did see is admirably
described, and we are greatly indebted to him for his communi-
cation.

Dr. MuME read a paper " On the Arrangement and Classifica-
tion of Microscopic Objects in Cabinets."

The Chairman observed that the views brought forward by
Dr. Murie were well worth attention, and would be valuable in
assisting the Council to rearrange the Society's collections. He
suggested that, as the subject was of a very technical character,
and required mature consideration, it might be advisable to post-
pone any discussion upon it.

The best thanks of the Society were offered to the respective
authors of these papers.

QUEKETT MlCEOSCOPICAI/ ClUB.

December 27th, 1867.
Mr. Aethur E. Durham, President, in the chair.

Mr. N. Burgess read the concluding portion of a paper on
" The "Wools of Commerce, Commercially and Microscopically
considered."

Mr. BocKETT called attention to a form of live-box, in which
he exhibited some Acari under a microscope.

Specimens of Stephanoceros, Conochilus, and some sections of
wood, were distributed. Eleven members were elected.

January/ 24th, 1868.
The President in the chair.

Mr. M. C. Cooke read a paper on " The Hair of Indian Bats,"
which he illustrated with numerous diagrams and mounted speci-
mens which he afterwards presented to the club.

Eleven members were elected.

Felruarij 28fh, 1868.
The President in the chair.
Dr. T. P. Purley, of U. S. America, was introduced to the

118 PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES.

meeting, and he exhibited an American objective of ^ij power
constructed for use on the immersion principle or otherwise.

Mr. HiSLOP read a paper entitled " Some Suggestions on Oblique
Illumination."

Mr. Draper read a paper " On the Proper Application of the
Microscope by Amateurs."

Three members were elected.

March ISth, 1868.

The annual conversazione was given at University College,
under the presidency of Mr. Durham, when the entire suite of
rooms, comprising the noble library, Flaxman Hall, Shield Eoom,
museum, and a dark room for the exhibition of the oxyhydrogen
lantern was thrown open, and a numerous company of members
and their friends assembled on the occasion.

Various objects of interest were exhibited by the members.
They were well supported by the leading opticians, who vied with
each other in the introduction of attractive novelties. Some
beautifully-executed pliotographs, a large collection of diagrams,
electric apparatus, fish-hatching contrivances, micro-specti^oscopes,
stereoscopes, &c., greatly promoted the success of the evening.

DuBLiK Microscopical Club.
17th October, 1867.

Mb. Abchek desired to record and to exhibit some examples of
the zygospore of Closterium costatum (Corda) for the first time seen
conjugated. The zygospore, as for this form might be aj^rm^i pre-
dicated, is large, broadly elliptic, smooth, and placed between the
for some time persistent, empty parent-cells, quite like the similar
condition of Closterium striolatum.

Mr. Archer likewise showed a Closterium new to this country,
Closterium cynthia (De Notaris), if, indeed, he were right in the
identification, which, without original authentic specimens, is, of
course, open to some amount of uncertainty ; yet at the same time,
in the present instance, he did not feel much doubt. This species
has only just been published by De Notaris in his ' Elementi per lo
Studio delle Desmidiacee Italiche ' (p. 65, tab. vii, fig. 71), and it
is well distinguished amongst the much curved forms by the cell-
wall being striolate, not smooth. It is, moreover, marked by
having but a solitary, somewhat large granule in the middle of the
terminal space, not a cluster of minute ones. It at once catches
the eye by its peculiar curvature, differing from that of the much
curved forms at all liable to be mistaken for it ; it is not so equally
arched, and the ends are more rounded and blunt than in them;
in fact, it is not so graceful a form as C. Leihleinii or C. Diance,
which it seems most to approach in size ; it comes nearest C. Jenneri
in outline, but is a good deal larger. But from all these, as before
mentioned, it diff'ers in being striolate, not destitute of markings.
Along with these specimens occurred a variety of other Closteria,

PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES. 119

more or less closely related, but all perfectly distinguishable from
each other.

Eev. E. O'Meara showed some new diatoms, descriptions of
which will hereafter appear.

Mr. Archer exhibited specimens of three seemingly distinct forms
of an organism, not any of which are by any means uncommon in
moor gatherings, but at the same time seemingly not recorded in
this country. One of these seemed to be referable to Monas conso-
ciata (Fresenius), as figured in his ' Beitriige zur Kenntniss mikro-
skopischer Organismen,' which Mr. Archer exhibited (PI. X, fig. 31).
This formed minute, but variously sized mucous patches of a colour-
less, semipellucid, somewhat granular appearance, the substance not
forming, however, a uniform mass, but flattened and gradually
expanding branches, arranged in a radiate or fan-like manner, some-
times, indeed, almost forming a complete circle. The arms or
branches (often several times irregularly divided) more or less ex-
panded, to a certain extent in a staghorn-like manner, from the base
upwards, or, if forming a circular mass, from the centre outwards.
Immersed within the gelatinous granular substance, and seated close
to the upper outer margin or extremity of the mucous branches,
occur more or less numerous greenish, uniciliated, monadiform
bodies, whose flagella wave about in the water. Occasionally this
radiate or ramified appearance of the basic gelatinous substance
seemed to be more obscure, and thus was a certain amount of
homogeneity and a more uniform appearance produced. And in
such instances the resemblance to the figure given by Fresenius is
greater. The form here alluded to presented tufts or masses vary-
ing in size. The second form shown is of equally pale colour, and is
ordinarily far smaller in mass and of an evenly rounded outline,
without evident arm-like extensions ; the centre of the almost disc-
like mass is apparently less dense than the outer portion, and more
granular in appearance, and the " monads" are located more evenly
and equidistantly from the centre, in an annular manner ; and as one
looks into the microscope, when present, these organisms render
themselves noticeable by this ring-like appearance. The third form
drawn attention to is of varying size in the mass, but often seems to
reach dimensions not attained by either of the others, and it seems
distinguishable from them by its red or brown colour and more dense
character ; the mass of indefinite figure, often more or less lobed,
but without the expanded arm-like or branch-like character of the
first. Seated all over the periphery are the " monads." The ciliary
motion of the monads in specimens sufficiently small, and thus
not impeded by being confined, imparts a, generally indeed very
limited, locomotive power to the total " colony." When seen
side by side these three forms seemed to off'er very tangible differ-
ences, but he would leave them for further observation before he
would venture to speak more decidedly as regards them.

21st Mvemher, 1867.
Dr. John Barker exhibited a Chytridium, which, so far as could

120 PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES.

be made out, is doubtless a new, and certainly a very distinct, form.
This, when first detected, was found growing on Glosterium didi/-
motocum, but the specimens now presented were upon EremosplKsra
viridis. This Chytridium, when fully formed, is globose, but beset
all round by numerous minute, hyaline, acute, short, spine-like pro-
cesses, one of these, somewhat longer than the rest, occupying the
pole or summit, whilst a few smaller than this, but notably longer
as a rule than those irregularly placed over the surface, stand out
equatoriallv ; the young cells are without these little spinelets ; and
when these iDCcome first manifested the polar one is the most pro-
minent, and those equatorially disposed lend, along with it, some-
what of a halbert-shape to the growing Chytridium. A root, or
mycelium-like process, seems to penetrate into the infested plant.
Dr. Barker had not seen the evolution of zoospores. For this seem-
ingly very marked form in this curious little genus he would
propose the name Chytridium spinulosiim.

j\Ir. Archer desired to place on record the occurrence, for a second
time, of Chytridium Barkerianum, ejus ; and again, from Gallery
Bog, and, as on the first occasion, growing upon Zygnema. It had
occurred exceedingly sparingly ; but there could be no doubt what-
ever but that it was one and the same thing as the form he had first
brought forward (see Minutes of 20 Sept., 1866), and a very marked
and distinct form in this genus, and seemingly rare,

Mr. Archer likewise desired to record the occurrence of Cosmo-
cJadium saxonicimt in the same gathering from Gallery Bog ; the
first Irish specimens were from near Carrig Mountain. This appears
an exceedingly sparing plant when met with.

Mr. Archer exhibited some fine examples of an organism taken
from Gallery Bog, which he thought he would be justified in identi-
fying as Syniira uvdla, Ehr. This occurred tolerably plentifully
along with several other pretty things, such as JPandoritia morum,
a few specimens of Gonium pectorale, various Desmidiese, &c. They
formed a very pretty sight, slowly revolving under the microscope.
Garter has claimed Synura as some state of development of Volvox
glohator. Quite irrespective of its seeming complete diff'erence in
structure, Mr. Archer thought that one very strong argument
against that assumption was that the present specimens, at least,
were taken from a station (Calleiy Bog) which had never yet pro-
duced Volvox glohator, and he would venture to hazard a conjecture
that it never would be found there. Volvox occurs in the Rocky
Valley, some hundreds of feet lower down than Gallery ; but it cer-
tainh" has never yet presented itself, after repeated searchings, so
high up as the top of the Long Hill. Neither has it ever shown
itself in Featherbed Bog. Parenthetically, then, he thought he
might put the query, possibly not without its interest — At what
elevation does Volvox cease ? It does not appear to be an alpine
form in its distribution. But further, Synura appears to be quite
different in structure from Volvox, and quite diff'erent in colour too,
being of a yellowish dull colour, in place of a bright herbaceous
green. Unlike Volvox, the individual monad-like structures areuni-

PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES. 121

ciliated, and they are prolonged below into a slender stii)es-like
posterior extremity, all these running towards a common point in
the centre of the colony-. These filiform stalk-like prolongations
seemingly divide with ever\' self-division of the bodies at the peri-
phery, being sometimes simply forked, at others divided into four,
each upper extremity bearing one of the monad-like structures, thus
presenting a certain amount of parallelism with the algal genus
Dictyosphaerium. Nay, the resemblance is thus greater to Uvella,
or even to the forms brought forward at last meeting, one of which
was doubtless the same thing as that called Monas consociata by
Fresenius. The organism now shown, believed to be nothing else
than Synura uvella, differed, indeed, from Monas consociata by the
far less dense character of the mucous matrix, and by the tail-like
or stalk-like terminations, and by the far more active motion of the
total colony. But, notwithstanding these resemblances, the orga-
nism now brought forward was clearly, a priori, quite a distinct
thing in itself from either Monas consociata, Uvella, or Yolvox, or
Pandorina, or from the so-called Sphcei^osira Volvox ; and it is hard
to see how so very distinct structures as the Synura and all these
could be evolved the one from the other. It is satisfactory, until
further research is bestowed on these organisms, to see that Diesing
keeps them separate (' Revision der Prothelminthen,' p. 377), for
it does not seem justifiable to consider such forms as Synura as not
autonomous merely on suspicion, for whilst volvocinaceous plants
without doubt pass through very remarkable phases, Mr. Archer
would venture to think that Synura hardly seems truly volvoci-
naceous at all.

Kev. E. O'Meara reported that certain diatomaceous materials
submitted to him for examination by the Club had been investigated
by him with the following result :

No. 1, from the Greysers, Iceland, contained several species of
Epithemise, including E. Argus, E. ocellata, E. zehra, and E.
Westermanii.

No. 2, fossil earth from New Zealand, transmitted by our corre-
sponding member, Captain Hutton. This material was most
interesting, containing peculiar forms of Melosira and Achnanthes
in great abundance. Whether these species are new or not, remains
for further investigation.

No. 3, from Calcutta. Tliis gathering contains Pleurosigina
reversum (Greg.) in considerable abundance. The form was de-
scribed by the late Dr. Gregory in his paper on the Clyde forms.
Onlj'^ four specimens were found by him, and in all cases the striae
were so faint that he was unable to ascertain their character. In
these specimens from Calcutta the striiB are distinctly marked and
transverse.

Dr. Alexander Dickson exhibited embryos of Pinguicnla vulgaris
and P. grandiflora. He pointed out that the embryos of these species
agreed in having only one cotyledon, but that they presented marked
differences by which they might readily be distinguished from each
other. In P, grandiflora the base of the single cotyledon almost

VOL. VIII. NEW SER. I

122 PROCEEDINGS 05 SOCIETIES.

completely surrounds the axis of the embryo ; while in P. vulgaris
there is a considerable interval between the two halves of the base
of the cotyledon, exposing the extremity of the axis of the embryo
or rudimentary plumule. In P. grandijlora, again, the extremtiy
of the cotyledon is constantly and deeply- bifid, while in P. vulgaris
it is almost constantly entire, Dr. Dickson having only seen two
or at most three cases, out of a large number of embryos, where
the cotyledon was more or less divided at its extremity.

Dr. John Barker showed examples of a Mallomonas (Perty),
probably M. PlossUi (Perty), and referred to the copy of Perty's
fiofure cfiven in Pritchard.

Mr. Archer ventured to think there might be two forms con-
founded in this genus, as the figure given by Fresenius (which
fortunately he happened to have brought down with him) agreed
much better with Dr. Barker's specimens than did Perty's figure ;
the latter is stouter and broader, being broadly egg-shaped, whilst
that of Fresenius and the present form is much narrower, and
might be designated as oat-shaped.

Rev. T. G-. Stokes exhibited some pretty and interesting Diatoms.
He remarked that it was very difficult to grasp the idea tliat the
genera and species of the angular forms of Diatomacese did not
depend upon the number of angles. He thought that at present,
so far as he knew, the basis of induction for this theory was rather
narrow, though the curious and bizarre forms o{ Triceratiuvi variahile,
throwing out, as they do, angles in every direction, formed a most
important link in the evidence. It is no small confirmation of a
theory if, assuming it to be true, and arguing from the seen to the
unseen, we are enabled to explain known or predict the discovery
of unknown phenomena, and that our views are justified by the
result. He begged to direct the attention of the meeting to what
he believed to be a case of this kind. In October, 1865, the late
Dr. Greville published a paper in which he said that he believed
the Amfhitetras parallela of Ehrenberg to be a quadrangular
form of Triceratium, although the triangular form had not yet been
discovered. Mr. Stokes then exhibited a specimen authenticated by
Dr. Grreville of the quadrangular form, and a form which he (Mi'.
Stokes) believed to be truly the triangular form of the same species.
Both were from the Moron deposit. Mr. Roper, of London, however,
thinks it to be a small form of Triceratium gigantemn.

Mr. Stokes likewise showed a curious form which was discovered
by Mr. O'Meara to consist of two frustules of Biddulphia aiirita,
united by a perfectly transpareut band of silex, leaving a fenestra-like
opening in the centre.

December I9t7i, 1SG7.

Mr. Archer exhibited a Difflugia which occurs in the moors
about Carrig and Gallery, and yet not very commonly, but which he
had long noticed, and would now refer to Difflugia ohlonga (Ehr.),
Fresenius ; and he showed the figure given by Fresenius in his use-
ful paper, ' Beitrage zur Kenntniss mikroskopischer Organismen,'

PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES. 123

1858. This form seems quite distinct and constant ; it is compara-
tively but a small form, and the test of a reddish or foxy colour,
and broadly elliptic figure ; the foreign particles are impacted with
beautiful regularity, so that the mosaic work presents a very even
external surface ; there is a short but distinct neck, of a smooth
appearance and darker colour, seemingly without particles and
undulate at the opening, presenting thus a few shallow lobes. This
is a quite distinct looking form, its reddish colour and even outline
causing it to be readily detected even under a moderate power.

Dr. John Barker exhibited excellent characteristic examples of
the very minute but seemingly very distinct and constant little
rhizopod to which he had first drawn attention at the Club meeting
February, 1867 ; but on that occasion he had not a specimen to
show. This is exceedingly minute, nearly orbicular or broadly
elliptic ; from two opposite points there emanates a tuft of filiform
pseudopodia ; and in the body of the organism is immersed an oil-
like refractive globule of an orange or amber colour. The tufts of
pseudopodia have been here alluded to as opposite one another, but
they are not diametrically so, being alwaj's placed slightly oblique
to one another. There are, of course, two positions of the organism
as regards the observer, when the tufts of pseudopodia might present
the appearance of being exactly opposite, but a partial revolution of
the organism shows that they are not really so. Dr. Barker showed
some examples with the pseudopodia retracted, and their place
occupied seemingly by a minute globular, hernia-like, sarcode pro-
trusion ; other examples showed neither pseudopodia nor this little
globular protrusion, but in their place a little depression, pointing
to the existence of a kind of coat or cuticle, with two minute aper-
tures for the emission of the pseudopodia. For this creature Dr.
Barker would propose the name of Diplophrys (uov. gen.), and
would call it Diplophrys ArcJieri.

Mr. Archer, in reference to Dr. Barker's new rhizopodous form,
said that, so far as he could venture to form an opinion, it should be
relegated to a new genus, although, supposing it has a test, it
might be thought by some to appertain to and form a second species
in his own rhizopodous genus Amphitrema. But Diplophrys would
be to Amphitrema in some measure as Cyphoderia or Euglypha to
Pseudodifflugia (Schlumberger), or as Arcella to Difflugia, which
he thought as yet to be well founded as distinct generic types, not-
withstanding the views of some that all these are but extreme
varieties of one and the same protean rhizopod. Nothing could be
more distinct and constant, pei- se, than Dr. Barker's little
Diplophrys. Mr. Archer had several times met with it since Dr.
Barker first pointed it out, and it was always readily recognisable
when encountered, even when its pseudopodia were not extended ;
but its great minuteness well calculated it to elude observation,
unless it accidentally presented itself under a comparatively high
amplincation.

Dr. Robert M'Donnell exhibited some specimens of the entozoon
known as the Trichina spiralis, met with in the muscle of man.

124 PROCEEDINGS^OF SOCIETIES.

Dr. M'Donnell observed that the life history of this worm had
been well worked out by German investigators. Existing, suppose,
in the muscle of a mouse in what is known the encapsuled state, it
remains, and seemingly would always remain, in the larval condition.
If this mouse, however, is eaten by a cat, the encapsuled larval
Trichinae get into the intestinal canal, and there grow, and their
sexual development becomes complete. They have offspring, which,
while still very small, penetrate the wall of the intestine, migrate
through the bodj', and finally take up their abode in the voluntary
muscle of the cat, there to remain until it, in its turn, falls a prey
to some flesh-eating animal. Dr. M'Donnell exhibited several pre-
parations showing the minute worm coiled up within its capsule in
the muscle, and also taken out of the capsule by dissection.

Mr. Archer once more ventured to show Conochilus volvox, in fine
condition ; but this would not be worthy of another record, except
to mention that the numerous specimens to be seen were taken from
under ice some three or four inches in thickness (during the late
brief and sudden frost), which had to be smashed with a heavy
stone, after some labour, before a gathering could be made. More-
over, the specimens had been nearly three weeks in the house,
whilst sometimes in warmer months they had disappeared ere as
many days. As it is sometimes thought that fine objects of inte-
rest are not to be had in winter, this reference to this striking rota-
torian may not be thought wholly uninteresting.

Dr. Alex. Dickson exhibited the " Protonema " of Scliistostega
osinundacea, showing the curious structure presented by the confer-
void filaments giving off" here and there a globose cell, which, in its
turn, gave oft" by constriction strings and clusters of similar cells,
each eventually cut off" from its neighbour by a septum, thus
originating an almost fruit-like structure. To the presence of these
globose cells, which contain chlorophyll, is due the peculiar green
lustre presented by this moss.

Dr. Moore had taken this pretty little moss in Yorkshire, and
had it under successful cultivation.

Dr. Dickson further showed the unicellular hair-like roots from
the thallus of Marchantia. These were seen to present the remarkable
character amongst vegetable cells of possessing a secondary internal
deposit, in the form of minute spine-like processes extending
into the cell-cavity. It " sometimes seemed as if these ran in
a spiral direction, and occasionally the whole filament assumed a kind
of spiral twisting, to use a familiar illustration, comparable to that of
a stick of barley sugar. Dr. Hofmeister mentions a somewhat
similar form of deposit in the hairs of the related genus Riccia, as
well as Marchantia, to which Dr. Dickson referred.

BlEMrSTGHAM AND MlDLAND IlfSTITUTE.

TnE Second Annual Dress Conversazione of this institution was
held in the Town Hall, Birmingham, on "Wednesday evening,
December 4th, 1867. The invitations to this meeting are

PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES. 125

issued to those gentlemen only who are annual subscribers to the
institute (of whom thei*e are about 1000) and to ladies. The
number present was upwards of 1100, and the spacious hall soon
after the commencement of the proceedings presented a very
animated appearance. AVe do not remember, in our some-
Mhat extensive experience of provincial microscopical soirees,
having before noticed so large a number of people devote their
attention solely to the microscopes for the greater part of
the evening. Altogether, whether regarding the number of
instruments exhibited, their character, or the appreciation of
them shown by the company, the success of the display must have
been highly gratifying to those gentlemen who have had the care
and labour of making the arrangements. One of the gentlemen,
on whom a large share of this labour fell (Mr. Thos. Viddian),
exhibited and explained the use of the Sorby-Browning micro-
spectroscope. This delicate instrument received a large amount
of attention and admiration. Those portions of the floor of the
hall which were not available for the display of microscopes, were
placed at the disposal of Mr. C. J. Woodward, B.Sc, who had
charge of the display of scientific apparatus. There, among many
interesting objects, a collection of apparatus including Maxwell's
stereoscope and Graham's polytrome, lent by Messrs. Elliott of
London, an ice machine in operation, lent by the Wenham L;ike
Ice Company, a cylinder printing press and a pantograph, both in
operation, were exhibited. A lithographic press was kept pretty
constantly at work in printing copies of a drawing which had been
reduced from its original size by means of the pantograpli. Mr.
Woodward also exhibited a, to us, novel arrangement for showing
experiments with sensitive and singing flames. In the galleries
we noticed some beautiful photograms from Dr. Maddox's nega-
tives, a case of exquisite casts from the same by Woodbury's
process, and an extremely valuable collection of burettes for the
purposes of volumetrical analysis, lent by Mr. J. How of London.
Mr. AVheeler showed a large collection of microscopic objects and
cabinets. Among its many objects of attraction, a set of models
in operation showing Mr. Lewis Jones' method of regulating
clocks by electricity formed an interesting exhibition. The re-
mainder of the space in the galleries was occupied by photograms,
specimens of drawings produced by the new process of grapho-
typing, a curious collection of books printed by Baskwills, some
admirable stereoscopes and graphoscopes provided by Messrs.
Murray and Heath and local makers, and a costly and exceedingly
beautiful collection of enamels and jewellery from the respective
establishments of Messrs. Elkington and Messrs. Eandel, both of
which are calculated to uphold the reputation of Birmingham for
art metal work.

126 PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES.

Royal College of Surgeons, Hunterian Lectures on the
Invertebrata. By Prof. T. H. Huxley, F.R.S. (Abstract.)

Lecture I. — Having treated of the vertebrata in previous
courses, there remained for consideration the rest of the
animal kingdom known as Invertebrata. Professor Huxley
remarked that the line between Vertebrata and Invertebrata
was very definite. There are no links leading in any way
from any of the great groups of Invertebrata to the Verte-
brata. It must not, however, be supposed that the Inver-
tebrata are equivalent as a group to the Vertebrata : they
are a much larger and more various assemblage. The Inver-
tebrata cannot be limited so sharply at the other end of the
scale, viz., where they approach plants. The higher plants
are very broadly distinguished from the higher animals.
Plant-cells (using the term "celP' without prejudice) are
surrounded by cellulose — a non-nitrogenous substance. No
animal cell ever presents this. By this prison-wall of cellu-
lose, all undoubted plants are prevented from exhibiting
locomotive processes. For the same reason no plant takes
solid nutriment. All the higher plants are manufacturers :
they have the wonderful power of uniting carbonic acid,
water, and ammonia, to form protein compounds. Plants
alone are known to possess this power of making " vital
matter." All animals on the other hand -(omitting the
debateable organisms) exhibit the reverse action of breaking-
down and using up this vital matter. But when we come to
the lowest forms of life, these tests of animality and vege-
tability fail us. Cienkowski has recently shown that those
well-known forms called monads lose their cilium and become
amoebiform, taking in solid nutriment like undoubted animals.
But soon they become enclosed in a cyst of cellulose (by its
reactions), and become coloured with chlorophyl. In this
stage they are no less undeniably plants. The mass enclosed
in the cyst breaks up into four or more pieces, which in due
time become again the animal-like monad. This case and
many similar examples have led many naturalists to abandon
altogether the attempt to make a sharp line between plants
and animals. Not only do the morphological tests fail, but also
the physiological ; for many fungi we know require to be fed
on organic materials. Professor Huxley believes that opinion
has long been tending to this, that Man and the magnolia
are but extreme terms of a continuous series. This must by
no means be understood as implying development from a
common stock ; that is quite another question, and does not
aflect the facts. Other naturalists have proposed a group of
neither plants nor animals — a sort of " no-mau's land " to

PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES. 127

receive the doubtful forms. Ernst Hackel, of Jena, proposes
to form such a group with the name Protista. In it he
inckides the following: — 1. Moneres. 2. Protoplasta. 3.
Diatomea. 4. Magellata. 5. Myxomycetes. 6. Noctilucfe.
7. Rhizopoda. 8. Spongiadae. Professor Huxley spoke
most highly of Hackel's recent work on the 'General Mor-
phology of the Organism,' but he could not agree entirely
with this grouping of the lower animals and plants. Proto-
plasta, Noctilucse, Rhizopoda and Spongiadae, he considers
are certainly animals. Diatomea he regards as plants on
account of their mode of nutrition and reproduction. Flagel-
lata {Volvox Euglena, &c.) have only their lashing cilia in
common with animals : the Myxomycetes (fungoid growths
occurring on old tan and trees) are more doubtful. Anton de
Barry's researches have shown that they have an amoeba
stage, in which they take solid nutriment ; but their mode of
reproduction (by spores) places them among plants. Professor
Huxley would admit the Moneres alone as intermediate
ground : one of these beings, Protogenes, described by
Hackel, is the simplest bit of living matter possible. It is
clear and jelly-like, witiiout any nucleus or contractile vesicle,
and actively spreads its pseudopodia over the minute particles
it feeds on. Its existence proves the absence of any mys-
terious power in "nuclei," and shows that life is a property
of the molecules of living matter, and that organization is
the result of life, not life the result of organization. By using
such a group as Protista we only double our difficulty, for we
have to define it as well as plants and animals. All our classi-
fications are very transitory, and are almost matters of sub-
jective inclination. The important thing is the facts. You
may have three sorts of classification : 1st, Logical, which is
very useful and desirable, but is artificial ; it consists in mark-
ing ofi' groups by sharp differentiation. 2nd, Gradational, one
in which more attention is paid to resemblance than difi'erence,
and in which the gradation of forms is exhibited. 3rd, Genetic,
which is the only one that can be final ; in such a classifica-
tion the relations of the various forms of life in their origin
and descent would be exhibited. Professor Hulxey adopts
the following grouping of Invertebrate animals :

A. Protozoa.
1, Monerozoa; 2, Protoplasta; 3, Radiolaria; 4, Spongiadse.
B. Infusoria.
c. Annuloida. c. Coelenterata.

D. Annulata. n. MoUuscoida.

E. Arthropoda. e. Mollusca.

He thinks a gradation can be clearly pointed out from

128 PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES.

the Protozoa through the Infusoria, and succeeding groups
to the Arthropoda, whilst a similar gradation is trace-
able from the Sponges, through Ccelenterata to the Mollusca.
The break, however, is very great between Sponges and
Ccelenterata. No hypothesis is involved in this: it is simply
a matter of fact. The probability of genetic relations Pro-
fessor Huxley did not propose to discuss.

Lecture II. — The Foraminifera were considered in this lec-
ture. They may be placed as a gi'oup among the Monerozoa,
containing, as they do, some of the very simplest forms of
life. One of the simplest of Foraminifers is Gromia — a
jelly-like mass, with extensive pseudopodia enclosed in a
small horny shell. Some Foraminifers have more or less
calcareous matter in place of this horn ; and in Carpenteria,
a very remarkable encrusting form, siliceous spicula exist,
leading on thus to the Sponges. Some Foraminifera have
an arenaceous shell, built up of particles of foreign matter
cemented together, instead of an excreted one, and the
arenaceous species exactly repeat in many cases the forms of
the calcareous ones. By the aggregation of a number of
simple chambers, such as that of Gromia or Orbulma, a great
variety of forms may be produced; and it is in this way that
many of the simpler Foraminifers are constructed. If the
chambers grow one out of the other so as to leave a space
between the adjacent walls of succeeding chambers, we get the
interstitial canals of such genera as Operculina. If in addition
to this the chambers completely enclose their j)redecessors
as they develop — leaving at the same time an interval
between the adjacent walls — we get the complicated structure
of Nummulina. It is found that the most distinct-looking
forms of Foraminifera — helicoid, globular, cylindrical, &c. —
run into one another by completely gradated series, and
hence the old classification of them by the form of aggrega-
tion has been abandoned. Carpenter, Parker, and Rupert
Jones have shown the impossibility of drawing such fine
distinctions, and in some cases have demonstrated that fifteen
genera of D'Orbigny are but varieties of a single " species^'
or type. The group is now divided, first, into Imperforata
and Perforata, according as the shell-structure is whole or
perforated by minute canals, through which the sarcode sub-
stance of the animal passes in every direction. The Imper-
forata includes three families : the Gromida, the Milio/ida,
and the Lituolida. The Perforata also presents three families :
the Lagenida, the Globigerinida, and the Nummulinida. The
Gromida, all have a membranous or horny shell ; the Millio-
lida have a porcellanous calcareous shell ; the Lituolida repeat
the Milliolida forms, but in arenaceous instead of calcareous

PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES. 129

substance. The Lageuida are perforate^ but present no inter-
stitial canals — the Globigerinida are said to have coarse per-
forations and interstitial canals — whilst the Nummulinida
present perforations and interstitial canals as well as that
peculiar mode of growth already mentioned. Professor
Huxley, having had occasion to examine Globigerina himself,
states that he does not find the coarse perforations, but the
surface presents a series of prismatic outgrowths which
might mislead as to their presence. No distinctions of
genera and species can be made at all satisfactorily in the
Foraminifera. They present great linked and unbroken
assemblages of forms. With regard to geographical distri-
bution, all the larger species are found in the warmer oceans.
Their geological distribution is more interesting. In the
Laurentian rocks of Canada, below the great Cambrian
series, once called Azoic^ Sir William Logan found a struc-
ture which Dr. Dawson of Montreal had the great courage
to declare organic. This was the Eozoon, which is fairly
proved to be an encrusting Foraminifer, such as Carpenteria
in its habit, and not unlike Nummulina in structure. In
the Lower Silurian beds Ehrenberg detected Foraminifera by
internal casts of the chambers of their shells in silicate of
iron, which formed a sort of greensand. The shells them-
selves were dissolved away. In the Trias they are found, and
thence abound in all strata to the present time. But in
all this series there is no change in structure or in form ; the
species appear to be identical ; in the chalk, at any rate,
Globigerina abounds, as it does in the grey chalk now found
in the bed of the Atlantic. This is an exceedingly significant
fact. The bed of the Atlantic is a vast plain, covered by
some 16,000 feet of water; the chalky matter now depositing
there is made up of Globigerina, curious little bodies which
Professor Huxley called Coccoliths, and five or six per cent,
of Radioloria andDiatomese. WHience do they come? Pro-
fessor Huxley believes that the Globigerinse live and die at
the bottom; but the Radiolarians float while alive at the top,
and sink when dead. Vast deposits are made up in the same
way as the bed of the Atlantic. The great Nummulitic form-
ation belonging to the Eocene period stretches from south
England to India, and is made chiefly of the remains of the
large Foraminifer Nummulina. The chalk presents exactly the
same species as the Atlantic bed, and Mr. Sorby has detected
in it even the little Coccoliths found in the Atlantic sea-bed.
The siliceous organisms in the chalk have been in great
measure dissolved and redeposited in cracks, seams, and
cavities ; it is they, in fact, which have furnished the chalk-
flints.

VOL. VITI. NEW SER. K

OBITUARY.

JOHN HEPWORTH, M.R.C.S.

Died, 28th January, John Hepworth, M.R.C.S., at Croft's Bank,
near Manchester, set. 62, after a brief ilhiess. Three days before he
had been explaining a fine celestial microscope to a few friends, and
seemed then much in his usual health, complaining, however, of
spasms.

He was a pupil of Mr. Jordan, of Manchester ; tlien studied at
the Middlesex Hospital ; commenced, practice in 1827. His
published communications all appeared in the ' Quart. Jour. Mic.
Sci.' as follows : " On the Foot of the Fly," Vol. II, 1854 ; two
short additions on the same subject in Vols. Ill, IV, 1855—56 ;
" On the Mandibles of Acari," Vol. IV ; " Practical Use of the
Microscope" (in Medicine), Vol. V; a more extended article on the
same subject, with the title " On Compound Nucleated Cells," in
the same year ; in Vol. V, N. S., appeared a paper " On the (Micro-
scopic) Structure of the Horse's Foot."

Mr. Hepworth's collection of microscopic objects, most of which
were mounted by himself, exceeded in number any other collection
in Britain. These are now in the possession of his son, Mr. Francis
Hepworth, M.R.C.S., of Eccles.

The use of transparent carmine injection, after the model of the
beautiful ones imported from the Continent, had received much
attention, and a great deal, both of time and money, had been given
to it with fair success.

For some time before his death Mr. Hepworth had devoted much
time to the examination of polarized light; he had intended shortly
to give the results of his researches to the public. Unfortunately
his ideas on the subject are not committed to paper.

Mr. Hepworth was always ready to impart information to those
whom he thought capable of appreciating it. His lectures at the
Mechanics' Institutions in his neighbourhood were invariably well
attended.

He was a man of genial disposition, and a great favourite with all
who had the privilege of intercourse with him.

ORIGINAL COMMUNICATIONS.

Nobert's Test-plate and Modern Microscopes.
By Charles Stodder.

(From the 'Americau Naturalist,' April, 1868.)

Every possessor of a first-class microscope wishes to know
what his instrument is capable of doing. To the practical
worker it is a matter of much importance, for when the
utmost power of his instrument is exhausted he will know
that it is a waste of time to endeavour to see more. One of
the desirable and important properties of a microscope is the
power to show or " resolve" very fine lines grouped together,
e.g. the striation of the frustules* of the Diatomaceae. For
the purpose of testing the resolving power of the microscope,
the lines ruled on glass by F. A. Nobert, of Barth, Pomera-
nia, have long been admitted by experts as the best known
test, not only in consequence of their exceeding fineness, but
also because they are ruled lo a known scale, and because
they are so close that physicists have asserted that it is im-
possible that they ever can be seen, Nobert himself being in
this category ; and all trials of these plates, excej)t those to
be herein mentioned, have resulted in failures to resolve the
finer lines of these plates.

The Nobert test is a series of groups of parallel lines ruled
on glass thus |||1||| ||1|||, each succeeding group being finer than
the preceding one. Different plates have a different number
of groups, ruled to different scales. The one used by Messrs.
Sullivant and Wormly (' American Journal of Science,'
1861) has thirty bands or groups, the coarsest having its
lines TuVo o^ ^ Paris line apart, and the finest being

8 0 0 0 J

each group or band being about a-o'o-o of an English inch in
width, and the whole thirty occupying a space perhaps a

* A frustule {L. frustrum, a fragment) is one of the fragments into which
diatoms separate.

VOL. VIII. NEW SER. L

132

STODDER, ON NOBERT S TEST-PLATE

little more than -^'-q of an inch. Now it is a difficult matter
for the mind to appreciate such minute divisions- of space^
yet it is essential, in order to estimate a little of the difficulty
of seeing such lines, to form some idea of their minuteness.
The average diameter of a human hair is about xrrmr of an
inch, yet in a space of only one half as great in the coarsest
band of the Nobert plate there are seven lines, while in the
30th band tliere are forty-live.

The plate which I liave used in the trials to be detailed
was made in 1863. It has nineteen bands, the first being
ruled to -nnro of a Paris line, and each band increasing by
five hundred, so that the 19th is twtto'

The following table gives in the second column the frac-
tional part a Paris line * between the lines of each band ;
the third column, the decimal part of a line as marked on the
plate by Nobert; the fourth, the number of lines to an Eng-
lish inch ; the fifth, the number of the band in a thirty-band
plate corresponding in fineness

Corresponding

Paris line.

Decimal of

Lines to Eng-

No. of Sullivant

Paris line.

lish inch.

and Wormly's

plate.

1-1000

•1001

11,240

1st

1-1500

•000633

'6.

1-2000

•0005

22,480

1-2500

•0004

1-3000

•000333

1-3500

1-4000

•00025

44,960

1-4500

1-5000

•0002

56,200

15th

10.

1-5500

11.

1-6000

•000167

67,622

20th

12.

1-6500

13.

1-7000

•000143

78,737

25th

14.

1-7500

84,400

15.

1-8000

•000125

90,074

30th

16.

1-8500

•000117

96,234

17.

1-9000

•000111

101,434

18.

1-9500

■000105

107,167

19.

1-10000

•000100

112,668

Has human art ever made an instrument capable of ren-
dering lines 112,000 to an inch visible? If not, is it possi-
ble to do so ? Is there anything in the laws of light which
renders it impossible to see lines so close, and therefore

* One Paris line = -0888] 5 of the English inch.

AND MODERN MICROSCOPES. 133

renders useless the labours of the optician to improve his in-
struments beyond a certain point ? and, as a corollary, is it
decided that it will be useless for the naturalist to try to
investigate the structure of tissues beyond what the best
existing instruments have shown ? It must be borne in mind
that the power of seeing a single object is not the question,
but the power of distinguishing two or more objects nearly
in contact. The problem is exactly the parallel of that of
the power of the telescope of separating double stars. A
brief sketch of what has been done and what opinions on the
problem have been expressed by eminent microscopists and
opticians is essential to a full understanding of the question.

Professor Quecket, in 1855, asserted that "no achromatic
has yet been made capable of separating lines closer together
than the . ^ ^^^ of an inch." " Mr. Koss found it imjiossible
to ascertain the position of a line nearer than g ^^q „ of an
inch." " Mr. De la Hue was unable to resolve any lines on
Nobert's test-plate closer than -g-roiro of an inch."

Dr. William B. Carpenter, in his work on the micro-
scope, published in 1856, says, " Even the -pV objective will
probably not enable any band to be distinctly resolved
whose lines are closer than ^ g ^qq of an inch. At present,
therefore, the existence of lines finer than this is a matter of
faith rather than of sight ; but there can be no reasonable
doubt that the lines do exist, and the resolution of them
would evince the extraordinary superiority of any objective,
or of any system of illumination, which should enable them
to be distinguished," In his second edition, issued in 1859,
Dr. Carpenter repeated the same remarks, but substituted
3^ ^Qo for - Q ^00, and then addefl, " There is good reason to
believe that the limit of perfection (in the objective) has now
been nearly reached, since everything which seems theoreti-
cally possible has been actually accomplished." In the third
edition, 1862, he again alters the figures to -^-^^^-o-o, but adds
nothing more.

On the other side the late Professor J. W. Bailey claimed
to have seen lines as close together as , ^-^^ ^ ^ to the inch,
and Messrs. Harrison and Solitt, of Hull, England, claimed
to have measured lines on the diatom Amphipleura pellucida
as fine as 120,000 to 130,000 to the inch, and expressed the
opinion that lines as fine as 175,000 might be seen with
proper means.

To determine, if possible, the truth between these conflict-
ing opinions, Messrs. SuUivant and Wormly (' American
Journal of Science,' January, 1861) made an exhaustive trial
of one of these " marvels of art." They state that the opti-

134 STODDER^ ON NOBERt's TEST-PLATE

cal appai-atus at their command was ample ; it included a
" Tolles' -jL objective of 160° angular aperture — an objective
of rare excellence in all respects — besides -j-V and -\ objec-
tives of other eminent opticians." They were able to obtain
an amplification of 6000 diameters. The plate contained
thirty bands, as previously mentioned.

" tip to the 26th band (y-gxo-o) there was no serious diffi-
culty in resolving and ascertaining the position of the lines;
but on this and the subsequent ones, spectral lines, that is,
lines composed of two or more real lines, more or less pre-
vailed, shoAving that the resolving power of the objective
was approaching its limit. By a suitable arrangement, how-
ever, of the illumination, these spurious lines were separated
into the ultimate ones on the whole of the 26th, and very
nearly on the Avhole of the 2Tth band (-^ili^) ; but on the
28th, and still more on the 29th, they so prevailed, that at
no one focal adjustment could more than a portion of the
width of these bands be resolved into the true lines. The
true lines of the 30th band Ave Avere unable to see, at least
■with any degree of certainty.

" These exjoeriments induce lis to believe that the limit of
the resoh-ability of lines, in the present state of the objective,
is wellnigh established," and they draAV the conclusion,
"that lines on the Nobert's test-plate, closer together than
about -s-y^-o-o of an inch cannot be separated by the modern
objective."

Although the paper of Messrs. SuUivant and Wormly
was republished in the ' Quarterly Journal of Microscopical
Science,' in London, and might be considered as being a
challenge to the opticians and microscopists of Europe to
show what they could do in resolving the test-plate, yet no
rejiort can be found of any attempts to resolve the lines
until 1865, when Max Schultze ('Quart. Journ. Mic. Soc.,'
January, 1866) described the Nobert plate of nineteen bands,
and gave the results of his trials for resolving them. " The
highest set he has been able to define Avith central illumina-
tion is the 9th, which is resolved with Hartnack's immersion
No. 10, and Merz's immersion system -:^^. With oblique
illumination he has not been able Avith any combination to
get beyond the 15th." It will be seen by reference to the
table that Schultze saw finer lines than Sullivant and
Wormly. This is the only report we can find in print
from Europe.

In this country we find no published results ; but Mr.
R. C. Greenleaf, of Boston, and the writer were Avell
satisfied that they saw the lines 90,000 to the inch with a

AND MODERN MICROSCOPES. 135

Tolles' i in 1863, and the next year Mr. Greenleaf saw the
same lines, unmistakably, with a Tolles' Vtt. Dr. J. J. Wood-
ward, of Washington, in a communication to the ' Quarterly
Journal of Microscopical Science,' London, October, 1867,
p. 253, states that with monochromatic light, and Powell
and Lealand's 3^'-^, ttV? and -^V objectives, a Hartnack immer-
sion. No. 11, and a Wales 4^, with amplifier, he satisfactorily
resolved the 29th and 30th bands of Nobert's test-plate. In
a letter to the writer written since, Dr. Woodward informs
me that the plate used was the same one used by Sullivant
and Wormly, as the 30th band was the finest on that ; the
result did not show that finer lines could not be seen. Dr.
Woodward informs me that, since writing that paper, he has
received a Nobert plate with the nineteen bands, and that
the covering glass was too thick for the -L objective, but
with all the others he was able to resolve the 17th band
(101,000 to the inch) ; the 18th and 19th he was unable to
resolve. Dr. WoodAvard has sent to me a j)hotograph of the
16th, 17th, 18th, and 19th bands, taken by Dr. Curtis with
the Powell and Lealand ^V- In the photograph the lines
of the 16th and 17th bands may be counted with some
difficulty, but if the whole band is copied, or if the bands
are of the width of ^roVo of an inch, there are not lines
enough. The lines of the 18th and 19th bands cannot be
counted in the photograph. From this it will be noticed
that Dr. Woodward has resolved finer lines than any other
observer had yet seen, so far as report gives us any informa-
tion.

My esteemed correspondent, M.* Th. Eulenstien, of Stut-
gard, Wirtemberg, Avrites to me, under date of Dec. 17th,
1867, " I have myself resolved the 14th band with a -^ Powell
and Lealand, and also, but less unmistakably, with No. 11
Hartnack's immersion, with oblique light." " Nobert him-
self has never seen with his highest powers higher than the
14th." " This will show you the Continental state of affairs.^'
Mr. R. C. Greenleaf and myself have lately tried several
objectives, and the result is a^^pended below.*

* Wales' \ ang. ap., 140°, B eye-piece, power 475 diam.,

sunlight oblique ..... 8tli band.

Hartnack's immersion No. 10 z= J-, ang. ap. 155°, power

1062, B eye-piece, light oblique . . . lOlh „

Nachet's immersion No. 6 = -^-^, B eyepiece, sunlight

oblique ....... 8th „

Nachet's immersion No. 10 = ^V ^ eye-piece, sunlight

central ....... 9th „

Nachet's immersion No. 10 =: -g^y, B eye-piece, sunlight

oblique ....... 12th „

1 5 '

136 STODDER^ ON NOBERt's TEST-PLATE

With Tolles' -^ immersion, angular aperture 170°, B eye-
piece, power 550, Mr. Greenleaf and myself both saw the
19th band satisfactorily. Thus being probably the first ever
to see lines of 112,000 to the inch, and establishing the fact
of the visibility of such lines, contrary to the theory of the
physicists. (It should, however, have been mentioned in
the projDcr place that Mr. Eulenstien says that Nachet claims
to have seen them by sunlight recently, which claim needs
some confirmation, as his No. 10 failed so completely in my
hands.)

In the present month (January, 1868), Dr. F. A. P.
Barnard writes to Mr. Greenleaf, that he had tried several
objectives, naming a Spencer ^^-^ and ^V, a Tolles' -^-g and |
a Wales ^, and a Nachet immersion No. 8, equal to a
" The Spencer -^ and the Nachet -^ broke down at about
the 11th or 12th band. With the Wales ^ I got as far as
ten, or perhaps eleven bands. With the Tolles' i I made
out distinctly ten."

In another communication he says, " The highest band I
can count is the 16th." In a more recent letter to the writer
Dr. Barnard gives the count of the lines on a portion of his
plate, corresponding as nearly as could be expected to
figures given in the table up to the 14th ; but the 16th band
he could not count satisfactorily, different attempts giving
varying results. It has been said that the resolution of the
lines to the eye implies the ability to count them, but this I
think is a fallacy ; a few lines of a gi'oup may be counted
correctly, and then it becomes difficult to identify the line
last counted and the one to be counted next. Let any one
try to count the pickets in a fence, when the pickets are
distinctly visible, say at a distance of 100 or 150 yards, he
will find this difficulty almost insurmountable. In the micro-
scope the micrometer is an aid in counting, but in counting
lines of such exquisite fineness either the micrometer or the
stage must be moved, and it is next to imjDOSsible to construct
apparatus that can be moved at once TWomj-o of an inch and
no more. It would require the genius and skill of Nobert
himself to do it.

These trials show conclusively that it is not the great

Tolles' immersion -^-q, aiig. ap. about 160^, B eye-piece,
power about 800, sunlight central . . . 8th baud.

Tolles' immersion ^, ang. ap. about 160°, B eye-piece,

power about SCO, sunlight oblique . . . 12th „

Tolles' immersion r^, ang. ap. about 160°, B eye-piece,

petroleum, light oblique .... 12th „

Tolles' immersion j^, on another occasion I saw the . 15th „

AND MODERN MICROSCOPES. 137

power of the objective that is important (for in many of the
trials here reported the lower powers have given the best
results, and the Tolles' -^ immersion the best on record), but
it is the^^kill of the optician in making the instrument.

Mr. Greenleaf has just tried (February 7th) an immersion
objective by Wales' Vi- He resolved the 10th, 11th, and
12th bands perfectly; the 13th was doubtful. Another trial
of the Hartnack No. 10 resolved the I3th band perfectly —
the 14th doubtfully.

I have since tried the Wales' objective dry, and resolved
the 13th band well, thus doing what Mr. G. did with it in
water ; the inference must be that Mr. G. did not obtain its
best work.

Note. — Since the foregoing was written Dr. Barnard has
made more trials, and I am well satisfied that he has seen
the 19th band with a Spencer -j-V and Tolles' i, both dry
objectives. This performance fairly surpasses anything yet
done, either in this country or Europe. Dr. Barnard writes
(Jan. 29), that he found that the coxuiting of the lines was
attended with the very difficulties referred to above, in addi-
tion to which there is another trouble, the whole width of a
band is not in perfect focus at once ; this necessitates a slight
change of focal adjustment, and any change renders it ex-
tremely difficult to fix, even Avith the cobweb micrometer,
the exact line last counted. He made five counts of the
19th band with the -5-^, namely —

. 1. 110,392 to the English inch

2. 108,270

3. 113,737

4. 106,226

5. 115,474

Mean, 110,820

The number, according to Nobert, is 112,668. He counts
for the 15th, 91,545; Nobert, 90,074. Though there is
apparently considerable discrepancy between the count and
Nobert's figures, yet I consider it as near as can be reason-
ably expected when all the difficulties are appreciated.
Besides, it must be remembered that Dr. Barnard gives as
above the number of lines to an inch, not the number
actually counted. The actual number in the 19th band
should be 56'5, if the band is exactly -roW of ^^ inch, a
variation of two lines each way covers the extremes of his
counting.

138 STODDEE^ ON NOBERt's TEST-PLATE^ ETC

English and American opticians name their objectives
(i. e. the lens or lenses placed next the object, that next the
eye being the eye-piece) from their magnifying power —
thus a i inch objective has the same power as a simple lens
of ^ inch focus. Continental European makers generally
distinguish their instruments by numbers, the higher num-
bers indicating higher powers ; but as each maker has his
own system, the actual power of an instrument must be
ascertained by trial. Instruments also often differ from their
names, and they cannot generally be depended on. The
theoretical power of a microscope is measured from an
arbitrary standard of ten inches — thus, a one inch is said
to magnify ten diameters ; a ^ inch, forty diameters. If the
standard is taken at five inches, as it is by some, then
the " poAver " is but one half as much. The " power "
of the microscope is that of the objective multiplied by
that of the eye-piece ; if the objective magnilies ten
diameters, and the eye-piece ten, the result is one hundred
diameters.

Angular ap.erture is the angle in the surface of the front
lens, at which light will enter the objective — the greater the
angular aperture, the more light, and usually the greater
resolving power.

An amplifier is an achromatic combination inserted in the
compound body of the instrument to increase the " power "
of the objective and eye-piece.

Immersion lenses have lately attracted great attention,
though they were made by Amici many years since. The
objective is immersed in water — that is, there is a film of
water between the front of the objective and the object, or
the thin glass covering it. The effect is a great increase of
light, and better definition.

139

New Species of Diatomace^.
By F. KiTTON, Esq.

In the previous number of this Journal, the Rev. E. O'Meara
has charged me with carelessness, and thinks if I had read
his papers with greater attention I should have expressed
my doubts of the genuineness of his new species more
cautiously. I have, therefore, read them again, in order to
apologise for any misrepresentation, and correct any errors.
I find two or three mistakes ; viz., Cocconeis diver gens
should have been C. clavigera, the remarks on Navicula
pellucida ought to have preceded the passage quoted by the
Rev. E. O'Meara. I have also inadvertently made him the
author of Raphoneis liburnica, whereas he is only respon-
sible for the variety. With these exceptions, I really find
nothing to retract". At page 91, the Rev. E. O'Meara
says : " How inapplicable are some of Mr. Kitton's observa-
tions on dredging to the forms found by me in the dredgings
from Arran." I find, on referring to his first paper, he
says, " this material was procured from depths varying from
ten to thirty fathoms," &c. I do not think, therefore, I was
unjustified in assuming that his material was similar to others
procured from like depths, and which, in almost every case,
consist of sand, animal and vegetable debris, and valves of
diatoms. My copy of the ' Microscopical Journal ' in which
his first paper appears has no description of the figures. I
therefore assumed that the figures were magnified 600
diameters, as that was the degree of amplification more
frequently used in the second paper. I do not find the
number of diameters stated in the, text. If the Rev. E.
O'Meara refers to the text of his first paper, he will find
Navicula pellucida is fig. 2 ; and fig. 2 in the plate is the
form which, I think, resembles Navicula pandura much too
closely to entitle it to rank as a new species.* N. denticutala
is fig. 3 in text. I am still unconvinced of the specific
distinctness of Surirella pulchra and S. gracilis, or that
they differ sufficiently from S. lata to warrant their separa-
tion from that species. I am willing to admit that a re-
markable difference exists between the figures of S. pulchra
and S. gracilis ; viz., the crenulate margin ; alse are also
wanting, but as these differences are not noticed in the text,
I am inclined to doubt the correctness of the figures, and

* N. dcnticulata of the text, is frequent in the so-called " Corsican moss."
VOL. VIIT. NEW SER. M

140 KITTON, ON DIATOMACE^.

suppose the crenulations represent the undulations of the
alse, and that the margin of the valve is not shown in the
figure.

Mr. Roper, at page 17, vol. viii, of this .Journal {Campy -
lodiscus productus), says : " The markings and canaliculi on
most species of Surirella are subject to considerable varia-
tion, and afford no good grounds for specific distinction."
Professor W. L. Smith, who has long studied the habits of
living diatoms (quoted by Dr. Lewis in his valuable paper
on " Extreme and Exceptional Variations of Diatoms"), says :
*' When I find Navicula amphirynchus congregating, and
producing Navicula ferma, Stauroneis gracilis producing
S. PhcBnieenteron, and Surirella splendida S. nobilis, quite
different in form and striation, I cannot but doubt the
propriety of making new species out of every different form

AND MARKING. '^

Eupodiscus excentricus I still refer to Coscinodiscus
minor* of Kutzing (not of the synopsis), and, after a careful
examination of many specimens from various localities, I
find the excentric areolation precisely as figured by the Rev.
E. O'Meara, and in he majority of cases a circle of obtuse
spines may be easily seen. I do not, however, find any
with what I suppose to be an abnormal marginal development,
as shown in E. excentricus.

The Rev. E. O'Meara says, that a careful consideration of
the figures and descriptions of Raphoneis Jonesii and R.
Moorii would convince that Mr. Kitten's opinion, that they
are identical, is untenable. '' The sculpture in the tAvo forms
exhibits a greater diversity in structure than is considered
sufficient in other forms to mark diversity of species." I
have carefully compared the figures, and to me the sculptur-
ing seems to be precisely the same in both forms ; take away
the margin, and it would be impossible to distinguish one
from the other. I saw that the description did not accord
perfectly with the figure, but as it was nowhere stated that
the figure was erroneous, I had no means of knowing which
was correct. The suggestion that Raphoneis Archerii might
be the upper valve of Cocconeis clavigera is not so difficult
to comprehend when the structure of the genus Cocconeis is
understood ; the difference between Raphoneis Archerii and
Cocconeis clavigera is not greater than that between the
upper and lower valves of Cocconeis Grevilli.

Stauroneis rhombica, n. sp., O'M., appears to resemble
Stauroneis apiculata of D. Greville (in ' Edinburgh New

* This may possibly be the small form of C. excentricus figured in the
' Synopsis.'

KITTON, ON DIATOMACEiE. 141

Philosopliical Journal/ July, 1859) much too closely to
warrant its separation from that species.

The Rev. E. O'Meara remarks, " that our department of
science has heen embarrassed by an excessive nomenclature
must be obvious to every experienced observer. The evil is
traceable in some considerable degree that the descriptions
of species are not as comprehensive as might be." Surely
the reason why they are not so, obviously arises from the
circumstance of so many new genera and species being
constituted from unique or rare specimens, and until the
system of making new species of scarce forms is abolished,
this evil will continue. Before a species can be correctly
described, it is necessary to see it in a living condition, and,
if possible, its sporangial form. A botanist, before he
published a new species, would require to see more than a
few leaves. In conclusion, I venture to quote two or three
authorities whose opinions are of infinitely greater weight
than mine.

Dr. Berkeley (in the preface to his ' Cryptogamic Botany ')
says : " So long as essential characters are neglected, *and
fleeting external characters put in their place, difficulty
must needs exist, and the student will never be certain that
he has come to a correct decision till he has seen an au-
thentic specimen, or compared his own with that of other
botanists, as manifested in extensive herbariums. A state of
uncertainty is always one of more or less pain, and the
temptation to a solution of the difficulty by the supposition
that he has made a new discovery present such attractions as
to appear insurmountable. Nor will he find it possible,
without that mental discipline which arises from a patient
study of every detail of structure, and of the various shapes
which organs may assume under different circumstances.
The great point in all cases is never to describe from single
or imperfect specimens, where there is some form evidently
very closely allied. A proposer of bad^ ill-defined species is
no promoter of science.'^ Another acute observer (Dr. G.
A. W. Arnott), whose knoM'ledge of diatoms is perhaps
superior to that of any other observer of those forms, says,
in his paper on " Rhabdonema " (vol. vi, p. 87, of this
Journal), " That it is better not to publish a new species, or
give it a name, than to do so from scanty or imperfect
material, which leaves both genus and species doubtful.
Even now I have some hesitation in writing on the subject,
as my views are diametrically opposed to those who consider
it necessary to give names to forms which to the eye appear
distinct, butwhich have not structural differences sufficient for

142 KITTON, ON DIATOMACEiE.

a specific character; and this alone entitles them to be acknow-
ledged and referred to by others." And again, at page 106,
"Microscopical differences are by themselves of little im-
portance. To see is one thing, to understand and combine
■what we see is another. The eye must be subservient to the
mind. Every supposed new species requires to be separated
from its allies, and then subjected to a series of careful
observations and critical comparisons.

" To indicate many apparently new species is the work of
an hour ; to establish only one on a sure foundation is some-
times the labour of months or years. A naturalist cannot
be too cautious. It is better to allow diatoms to remain in
the depths of the sea, or in their native pools, than, from
imperfect materials, to elevate them to the rank of distinct
species, and encumber our catalogue with a load of new
names, so ill defined, if defined at all, that others are unable
to recognise them. The same object may be more easily
obtained by attaching them in the mean time to some
already recorded species, Avith the specific character of
whigh they sufficiently accord. In all such cases, the
question to be solved for the advantage of naturalists is not
vs^hether the object noticed be a new species, but whether
it has been proved to be such, and clearly characterised.^^*

Dr. Carpenter, in the preface to his introduction to the
* Study of Foraminifera,' says : " But nearly a parallel case,
as regards the first of these points (the derivation of a
multitude of distinguishable forms from a few primitive
types) as presented by certain of the humbler groups of the
vegetable kingdom, in which it becomes more and more
apparent from the careful study of their life history — not
only that their range of variation is extremely wide, but that
a large number of reputed genera and species have been
created on no better foundation than that afforded by
transitory phases of types hitherto only known in their state
of more advanced development.^' "And the main principle,
which must be taken as the basis of the systematic arrange-
ment of the groups of Foraminifera and Protophyta, that of
ascertaining the range of variation by an extensive com-
parison of individual forms, is one which finds application
in every department of Natural History, and is now recog-
nised and acted upon by all the most eminent botanists,
zoologists, and palaeontologists."

* Since the above quotation was written, I have to deplore the loss of my
old friend and correspondent, — a loss that will be acutely felt by all who
have had the pleasure of corresponding with him. He was at all times most
willing to assist the student with information and specimens..

SMITH, ON MICROSCOPIC ILLUMINATION. 143

If my previous paper was wanting in courtesy, as the
Rev. E. O'Meara seems to think^ I can only say that it was
unintentional, and beg to apologise for it ; my only desire
was to protest against the addition of so many " new
species/' their claim to that position (in my opinion) being
more than doubtful. I could, if I thought it desirable,
publish a score or two of new species, if the fact of their
appearing different to any hitherto published is all that is
necessary to constitute a new species.

Microscopic Illumination.
By Edwin Smith, M.A.

It is often difficult to obtain an equally illuminated field
for both eyes when a half-inch object-glass is employed with
the binocular. The prism causes the field to be darkened
on opposite sides for the two tubes of the body. This defect
becomes more apparent when the lenses of the object-glass
are further separated from the prism by the additional thick-
ness of the nose-piece. Difi"using the light with ground
glass partly remedies the defect, but not entirely ; moreover,
difi'used light is not suitable for many objects, where definite
shadows are desired for the purpose of displaying structure.
I find, however, that an achromatic combination with wide
aperture as condenser, and a half-inch mounted in short
cells, completely satisfy the conditions of the problem, and I
am now able to employ the half-inch binocularly with per-
fect ease, by night or day.

Double diaphragm. — To the single diaphragm with which
my Webster's condenser is provided, I have added a second
plate, revolving close behind the former, and perforated with
various stops. By having a large opening in each plate, the
stops of either can be brought into play at the choice of the
operator, giving a vast range of modifying power, both for
dark-ground and transparent illumination. I find the
double diaphragm so exceedingly convenient that I wonder
it is not always supplied by the makers, the additional cost
being a mere trifle.

Exclusion of incident light. — When viewing transparent
objects it is generally important to shade off" the incident
light. For this jDurpose I have found much satisfaction in
the use of small blackened cardboard tubes, made to slide

144

SMITH, ON MICROSCOPIC ILLUMINATION.

easily and firmly on the end of the object-glass, their length
being adapted to the focus and form of the latter. When
brought down upon the slide under examination, they slip
back readily to allow of adjustment, and completely exclude
light from the upper surface of the object.

Light-modifier. — Some apparatus attached to the micro-
scope is required for the purpose of diffusing and purifying
light. It should admit of easy change from one kind of
modification to another during the examination of an object,
and without having to withdraw the eyes. The following
contrivance suggested itself to me, and answers the purpose
extremely well. Cut a sector of a circle of convenient size
out of a piece of sheet brass, and make three holes, centred on

the circumference of a circle concentric with the first, a short
distance apart, each hole equal to the largest aperture of the
diaphragm of the microscope. Fit a short slit tube at the
angular point, at right angles to the plate, and having its
central axis passing through the centre of the larger circles
first mentioned. The tube should fit closely on the round
stem of the body-support beneath the stage and above the
mirror. Be careful to take the radius of that circle which
passes through the centres of the three holes, so that -when
the plate is moved from right to left, or vice versa, each hole
shall in turn coincide, with the large aperture of the dia-
phragm. Solder three rings exactly round the three holes,
a little larger than they, to form a ledge for the reception of
the glass circles next to be described. Let in and secure,
with gold-size or other cement, three circles of plane glass ;
one white ground, for diff"using ordinary daylight ; a second
neutral tint ground, for diffusing lamp-light or strong sun-

m'ixtosh, on young salmon. 145

light ; a third neutral tint, not ground, for use when the
light has to be purified or subdued, but not diffused. The
advantage of being able to bring any one kind of modifica-
tion into play during an observation is great, whilst being
always at hand the apparatus is likely to be employed, to the
immense comfort of the observer, especially by artificial
light. ■

Lamp-light may be diffused by means of a small globe. The
following plan, however, has certain advantages. Grind one
side of the chimney itself at its lower part near the flame,
which may easily be done with a piece of wetted sandstone.
A strongly illuminated area of small extent is thus available
as the source of light, when the breadth of the flame is not
sufficient ; while, by half a revolution of the chimney on its
support, the uncovered flame may be instantly substituted
whenever it is to be preferred.

Experiments on Young Salmon.*
By ^Y. C. McIntosh, M.D., F.L.S.

Early in 1862, and in the winter of 1862-3, the develop-
ment of numerous salmon ova was observed, and some
experiments performed on the young fish. Unfortunately,
these had to be laid aside in March, 1863, for more pressing
engagements, with the intention of again resuming them on
a favorable opportunity ; but since this has not occurred, the
results — such as they are — are now briefly narrated. I may
likewise state that during the progress of the experiments
much valuable advice was kindly given by Prof. Christison,
some of whose experienced suggestions were not fully car-
ried out, on account of the sudden interruption of the work.

The transparency of the young fish renders the central
organs of the circulation, as well as the minutest capillary,
equally visible, thus affording a much better subject for the
examination of irritants and other poisons than the web of a
frog's foot, since only a limited area of the vascular system
in the latter case can be observed by the experimenter, and
better than can be afforded even by the very young tadpole.

The most numerous experiments were those performed
with Fleming's Tincture of Aconite. The doses of the drug

* Extracts from this paper were read at the meeting of the British Asso-
ciation last year at Dundee (Sept., 1867).

146 m'intosh, on young salmon.

were added to a vessel containing two drachms of water, and
the chief features of its action were similar in all cases.
The young fish experimented with were from two to six
days old.

In the healthy animal, before adding the poison to the
water, the action of the heart is quite regular, the con-
traction of the ventricle {a, PI. Ill) succeeding that of the
auricle {b) in a methodical manner, and varying from 70
to 100 per minute; the pectoral fins are also kept in rapid,
whirring motion. In a few seconds after the addition of the
aconite the young fish showed symptoms of uneasiness, dart-
ing round the vessel, jerking its head, and twitching its body
and tail. The violent exertions of the animal increased the
frequency of the heart's action, and caused congestion of
both cavities; but for a time the action of the organ Avas
rhythmical. Before the expiry of ten minutes, however, it
could generally be observed that there was a tendency to
irregular action of the heart, both cavities occasionally con-
tracting at once. The respiratory movements, as evinced by
the action of the lower jaw, became very hurried, but the
flapjjing of the pectoral fins was sloAver. In about a quarter
of an hour the animal does not respond to irritation, unless
the dose has been very small, pressure on the yolk-sac only
causing a slight twitch. A diminution in the frequency of
the heart's action was noted in some at this time. A very
remarkable symptom now appeared, viz. a tendency to a
more rapid motion in the auricle, with a retardation ofthe
ventricular movement, and this became more marked as the
paralysis of the muscles of voluntary motion increased.

When a sii)gle minim of the tincture Avas added the in-
crease of auricular and diminution of ventricular action ap-
peared move slowly, generally within an hour, at which
period, e. g., the beats of the auricle in one instance were 1^4,
those of the ventricle (i2. The auricle resembles a circular
caoutchouc bag in a state of rapid contraction and dilatation,
while the ventricle retains its shape, but is less vigorous than
in the normal animal, especially, in some instances, as re-
gards every alternate contraction. Complete paralysis did
not ensue with such small doses for a long time, though the
fish kept its body motionless, the pectoral fins being in rajnd
vibration, and the respiratory movements of the lower jaw
very hurried. This state continued fir many hours, the jaw
moving 160 times in a minute, and the pectoral fins resem-
bling the rapidly vibrating wings of a butterfly or humming
bird. This vibratory action now and then became intermit-
tent ; but the animal gradually loses the power of responding

m'intosh, on young salmon. 147

to stimuli, fins and jaw become motionless, the current in the
caudal capillaries (c) fails, and the vis a tergo in the veins is
little marked (these being evidently affected by the cardiac
impulse) ; yet the auricle goes on pulsating twice for each
ventricular contraction, and throws two rapid jets into the
ventricle before the latter contracts. Animal lite is in abey-
ance, with the exception of the heart and the larger blood-
vessels. The current of blood in the cardinal vein [e)
(great subvertebral trunk) seemed quicker in some than that
of the aorta (/), and the minute branches (/') of the latter
had also a swifter current than their parent trunk.

In one instance, after two hours' immersion, and the oc-
currence of the usual results, viz. the doubling of the
auricular action as compared with the ventricular, and the
general retardation of the circulation, two minims more were
added to the water, with the effect of considerably improving
the circulation in the vessels of the tail, yolk-sac, and other
parts, apparently because the heart's action, though slower,
became more regular. The streams sent out of the ventricle
were now uniform, and, not as before, alternately full and
thready. In a normal specimen the pulsations amounted to
90, whereas in this they were 95, but the heart of the latter
appeared to have little more than half the amount of blood.
This state, however, is only temporary, as in twenty minutes
the auricle again beat twice as quickly. When this condi-
tion is gradually induced the vitality of the central organ is
great, the contractions continuing for ten or twelve hours in
water rendered milky by the poison ; and at the end of that
period a distinct increase in the frequency of the pulsations
is noticed after a fresh addition of the tincture. If the water,
however, be poured off, and a few drops of the tincture ap-
plied to the animal, the action of the heart at once ceases,
and every vessel remains paralysed and full of blood-discs.
The biidy and yolk-sac also rapidly become opaque.

After remaining for many hours in the state in which the
ventricular contractions are but half the auricular, the blood
does not distend the latter cavity to its normal size, and there
is a white border apparent, while its contractions do not
quite empty it of blood. The ventricle again shows a large,
pale, muscular border, a diminished cavity, and sometinies
irregularity in the currents sent along the bulhus. Symp-
toms of partial recovery now and then appear after small
doses, such as twitchings of the tail and slight Mrigiilin;^s,
but these gradually pass off, and the animal remains motion-
less. Some survived for two days, though neither cavity of
the heart contained much blood, and the proportion of the

]48 m'intosh, on young salmon.

auricular and ventricular contractions remained as before.
Though the young fish were placed under running water,
little alteration ensued at this stage. On the third day, in
some, the auricle was still contracting, Avhile the ventricle
was almost undistinguishable on account of its pallor. The
aviricle begins its contraction at the bulbus venosus first, and
then a rolling, spongy, squeezing motion creeps over all the
cavity. Though the auricle was thus filled and contracting
with moderate force, 1 could not see any blood passing into
the ventricle, so that the quantity must have been small ;
and though the vitelline vein (g) showed motion, it was
mere oscillations of the blood-discs backwards and forwards,
without any actual progress, and the same was true of the
brachial arteries. In regard to the gradual stoppage of the
current in the blood-vessels, long before arriving at the state
of exhaustion just described the capillary trunks (c) are ob-
served to be stagnant in the tail, as well as many of those
in the yolk-sac, while the current in the vessels of the trunk,
and in the curving vessels (A) of the pectoral fins, continues
in the apparently dead animal. They gradually cease from
without inwards, until mere oscillation, and finally stasis,
occur in the aorta and larger veins.

When a large dose (from six to ten minims) is added to
the water, the symptoms are much more boldly marked.
After the first turgidity of the cardiac cavities during the
violent motions of the animal, the pulsations become slower,
retaining, however, for a time, their regularity. They (pul-
sations) steadily decrease in frequency, e.g. from 105 to 22
per minute, the ventricle occasionally missing a contraction,
and the action of each cavity in the latter case being indis-
tinctly double. The aortic stream moves in slow jerks, the
vein in a more continuous current ; only at the end of the
arterial stasis it halts, and again proceeds as the fresh arterial
impulse reaches it. This happens in about a quarter of an
hour in the case of the highest dose (ten minims), and the
animal becomes completely paralysed. If the dose is rather
less (six minims) , some interesting features may be observed
in the heart's action after half an hour's immersion. In this
case and at this time the ventricular action has fallen behind
the auricular (vent. 78, auric. 88, per minute), and every now
and then, on account of the non-rhythmical action of the
heart, the two contractions are simultaneous, thus causing an
arrest of the cardiac action ; for the auricle contracting Avhen
the ventricle is distended finds no cavity to pump into, and
only crams an already full cavity, and prevents its contrac-
tion. The fault, doubtless, is primarily in the ventricular

m'intosh, on young salmon. 149

fibres, for after the cavity is filled by the rapid jerk of the
auricle it does not immediately contract, and is thus thrown
back a beat. This is especially observed after the auricle
has gained greater frequency of action. Occasionally there
was marked jerking of the arterial system, very well seen in
the branchial coils (i), and indeed throughout. The blood in
the aorta appears of a deeper red than that in the vein, but
this is probably due in some measure to the thickness of its
coats, since the vein becomes about as dark when it passes
beneath the muscular bands.

When the animal has been reduced to a state of complete
paralysis by a large dose it may sometimes be seen that the
ventricle contracts only at wide intervals, while the auricle
may be pulsating 68 to 70 times per minute. The auricular
jet scarcely reddens the ventricle, and several are required
before the cavity is tinged in the centre ; then the ventricle
contracts. Four, five, or even seven, contractions of the
auricle ensued before the ventricle acted. In one case it was
seen that only every second beat forced the blood through
the auriculo-ventricular opening. The blood in the early
stage of the dilating ventricle assumed a Y-shaped outline,
with the fork directed posteriorly; but after a few more
auricular beats this became lost in the general red. In these
and other instances in which the ventricle is filled with
blood, and just before contracting, it may be observed that
processes dip here and there into the whitish walls of the
cavity, showing that even in this early stage the chamber
contains muscular bands with interspaces.

If the action of the heart be quickly reduced to 22 by a
powerful dose of the poison, and the animal removed to run-
ning water, the pulsations in some become regular and in-
crease in strength, and the circulation throughout the body
improves ; but before reaching the stage in which the auri-
cular action is tAvice as frequent as the ventricular an inter-
mediate state occurs, in which a pause takes place every
sixth or seventh beat.

When the fish experimented with is older, and the yolk-
sac well absorbed, a very small dose (scarcely a minim)
creates urgent symptoms, such as immediate irritation, rapid
respiratory movements, gasj)ing, violent muscular tremors,
retardation of the circulation, gradual diminution of blood in
the heart, loss of voluntary motion, and death. Minute ob-
servation, however, in such instances is difficult, on account
of the opacity of the animals.

The muscles of respiration were paralysed in common with
the others, yet one could scarcely attribute death to this

150 m'ixtosh, on young salmon.

alone, and they certainly were much stimulated at the begin-
ning. The increase of the auricular and the diminution of
the ventricular action were independent of the respiratory
process, as I have seen the latter in full action, while the
ventricle contracted only half as frequently as the auricle.
The action of the poison on the ventricular fibres is peculiar,
yet, though produced in a circuitous manner, it is analogous
to that on the ordinary muscles.

Tincture of digitalis, in doses varying from three to seven
minims in two drachms of water, first causes symptoms of
irritation, the animal darting vehemently round the vessel,
and wriggling convulsively. If the dose is small the rapidity
of the heart's action is for a time increased during the period
of excitement ; and the respiratory movements of the lower
jaw are likewise very rapid, indeed in some instances so rapid
that they would seem to be inefi'ectual or impede respiration.
According to the strength of the dose, in ten or fifteen
minutes the cavities of the heart become loaded, the
pulsations much diminished in frequency and irregular,
the contractions falling, perhaps, from 110 to 60, and
even lower.* There is a decided failure in the power of
the ventricular contractions, and the cavity seldom empties
itself completely. Moreover, shortly after this it could often
be observed that both cavities contracted at the same time,
unless the dose was minute, e. g. a single minim, in which
case the contractions were slightly alternate. Coincident
with the retardation of the heart's action is loss of power iu
the voluntary muscles and the diminution of respiratory
eflfi)rts in the pectoral fins and jaw. After a time the auricular
action is more vigorous and sharp than the ventricular, the
latter being somewhat distended. The action of the heart
gradually grows feebler, and generally ceases in about an
hour ; and even with a dose of only one minim death occurs
within an hour and a half.

A probe was dipped in creasote and the small adhprent
quantity (less than one minim; mixed with the two drachms
of water. "When the fish is immersed therein the first
symptoms are those of irritation, the animal darting about
and wriggling spasmodically ; violent tremors and jerking
also occur. In three or four minutes the heart's action had
been reduced from 90 to 50 per minute, but was regular,
the ventricle slowlv contracting? after distension. The cardiac
action grndually failed, and v. .luntary motion became indis-
tinct. After the auricle contracts and is dilating, l)lood flows
into it by the auriculo-ventricular opening before the ven-
* Compare witli effects on man, ' Poisons,' by Prof. Christison, p. 633.

m'intosh, on young salmon. 151

tricle contracts, and the shrinking of the latter swells the
cavity suddenly and distinctly. Regurgitation is thus ap-
parent. The body becomes more or less rigid in about one
hour, and death ensues in about two hours, from gradual re-
tardation of the cardiac action, the auricle continuing to act
longer than the ventricle.

Sulphuric ether had a simple irritant action at first, then
depressed the circulation, there being a diminution of the
quantity of blood in the heart in a quarter of an hour, so that
both cavities presented a pale muscular ring. Before death
ensues the animal is easily recovered by the proper measures.

Chloroform exerted a peculiar influence on the action of
the heart after the preliminary excitement had passed away.
The cavities contracted slowly and regularly in a quarter of
an hour, sometimes ceasing to beat for a few seconds, and
again commencing, while there was a stasis in the vessels of
the tail and vein (k) beneath the intestine. In the former
the current in the vessels was gradually slowed, and the
jerking of the arteries became more marked. A retrograde
motion of the blood was apparent in both sets of vessels, in
the arteries backwards towards the heart, and in the veins
away from the heart, the current in each by-and-by proceed-
ing and again jerking backwards. The smaller vessels
suffered first. The auricle performed its duty most vigo-
rously, for the ventricle remained congested after every
pulsation. The animal, however, wriggles convulsively, even
after the heart's action has altogether ceased for a minute.
Thus, the continuance of muscular vigour would have been no
criterion of the dangerous condition of the fish, since active
wriggling took place a considerable time after the heart had
ceased to pulsate. I did not see the heart's action become
irregular at any period ; it appeared solely to fail in contract-
ing at all, its beats becoming few, and then ceasing altogether.
There were none of the tremulous contractions sometimes
met with, and where portions of the fibres seem to show
greater inability than others.

Solution of the muriate of morphia was somewhat slow in
its action on the fish, requiring a large dose (about fifty
minims in two drachms of water) to produce complete loss of
voluntary motion in an hour. A more lengthened immer-
sion was necessary to produce the same effect on an embryo
in ovo. Both recover completely if placed under running
water before the circulation has altogether ceased. This was
but a mild poison when contrasted with others.

A few minims of a clear solution of bleaching powder, added
to three ounces of water, proved rapidly fatal to the young

152 M^IXTOSH^ ON YOUNG SALMON.

fish. They immediately evinced symptoms of extreme dis-
tress, with a tendency to turn on the side. The motion of
the pectoral fins was sometimes arrested, and the organs
pressed close to the body. The respiratory movements of the
lower jaAv became slower and slower ; starting and gasping
occurred, and the operculum was stretched outwards to the
utmost. Though placed under running water while still
able to jerk, they did not recover.

Chloric ether (one drachm to one ounce of water) caused
congestion of the cardiac cavities and great diminution in
the frequency of pulsation, viz., from 90 to 30 per
minute in a quarter of an hour. In forty minutes the con-
tractions almost ceased, and both cavities were gorged. After
immersion in running water the heart began to act more
rapidly, but recovery was gradual,, the pulsations only
amounting to 32 in three quarters of an hour.

Death ensued very speedily when a little ammonia (liquor)
was added to the water, after spasmodic and violent motions.
Though plunged in cold water within a minute, recovery did
not ensue. The mouth remained widely distended after death,
and the branchiae gorged with dark blood.

Ten minims of foreshat, added to half an ounce of water,
produced at first an instant action, with increase of cardiac
movements, but the animal soon lay still. The heart's action
gradually slowed, the large trunk sending off the blood into
the capillary branches ff") with less and less force, so that
the latter almost disappeared from sight. Sometimes only a
single disc at a time passed along the vessel, whereas many
passed formerly. Eetrogade and oscillatory movements
appeared in the vessels, and the cardiac congestion increased.
Both cavities remained distended after death, which occurred
in a quarter of an hour or less.

When young fish about twelve days old are placed in pure
sea water they display little irritability, swimming round the
vessel perhaps once or twice, and then quietly resting on the
bottom. For the first five or six hours little change is
observed beyond a tendency to repose speedily after exertion.
Towards the seventh hour there is a considerable diminution
in activity, yet the animal readily responds to irritation. The
heart's action, which in the fresh water had been 92,
has now sunk to 60; both cavities are well filled, and,
though rather feeble, the contractions are rhythmical. The
pulsations steadily decrease ; and in ten or twelve hours the
animal lies motionless. It is likewise apparent that the
cutaneous textures are shrivelled and rendered more or less
opaque. The mouth gapes, and the pectoral fins stand stiffly

m'iNTOSHj ON YOUNG SALMON. 15

out at right angles to the body. Both cavities of the heart
are gorged with blood, and though in some there are
feeble contractions (from 15 to 20 per minute), the dark
central mass is never dispelled from either chamber. This
congestion is doubtless augmented by the shrivelling of the
superficial textures of the body. In other cases the action
of the heart becomes intermittent before ceasing, remaining
inactive for a time, with the auricle dark and distended to
the utmost, the ventricle also dark, but less bulky, but by-
and-by it begins to contract, and pvdsates, perhaps, for forty
times, and again suddenly ceases, while the feeble circulation
— for the moment set agoing — is arrested. No other action
of a vital natvire could be elicited. The most remarkable
change, however, is that which ensues in the yolk-sac before
death. This consists of an alteration in its form (from a short
to a more elongated condition) , and Avhat may be termed a
coagulation of its contents, w^hich become at first doughy, so
that after being dimpled by a glass rod the outline is re-
covered very slowly, and finally resiling from the touch of the
rod like a rounded and smooth bit of cartilage. Some, indeed,
resemble a mass of amber, having a clear yellow aspect, and,
when punctured, are not much softer than a fresh lens.
Death in this case would seem to arise from cardiac conges-
tion, aggravated by the shrivelling of the cutaneous textures
and consequent shutting up of the blood-channels ; and,
secondly, from interference with nutrition, arising from the
change in the condition of the yolk-sac*

Several young salmon were allowed to touch the tentacles
of an Actinia (Tealia crassicornis), and then removed ; in all
the instances death seemed to result sloAvly from the physical
injuries inflicted by the dart-cells on the brain and other
organs. The influence of a subtle poison or paralysing
agent, at any rate, was not apparent.

Operations. — When the tail of a young salmon, from eight
to twelve days old, was cut off" at any point behind the bend
of the corda (e. g. through the dotted line A b), the following
effects ensued : — The animal did not wriggle much, and soon
rested; an immediate eff'usion of blood occurred from the
ends of the divided vessels, and by-and-by, in some, four or
five rounded knobs of blood, or clots, projected from the ends
of the vessels, or else a general mass of clot along the cut

* In a sketcli of tlie natural history of tlie Salmo salar, by Daniel Ellis,
drawn up from evidence contained in two re|)orts of a Select Connnittee of
the House of Commons, &c. (Jameson's ' Edin. Philos. Jour., vol. iv), it is
mentioned that when ova were put in salt water none came to life, and that
when a young hatched fish was similarly dealt with it died in a few hours.

154 m'intosh, on young salmon.

surface. No vein as yet carried back blood. Then a vein,
running parallel with the bent corda (origin of the cardinal)
"was observed to commence its current, and soon carried it on
most vigorously. This was due to the fact that the main
arterial trunk tunnelled a channel in the clot, and poured its
contents into the vein. Very rapidly, however, the vein
ceased to carry back so much, and finally stopped altogether ;
and the arteries, which for some time had been diminishing,
grew indistinct, sending only a few corpuscles in single file.
The clot soon became blanched (from solution and dispersion
of its hsematoglobulin), and the cut border had its margin
roughened in a few hours. In eight or nine hours the tip of
the corda is protected by a continuation of the cellular
border, and there is a considerable increase on the margin of
the wound below this. Where the incision is close to the bend
of the corda (between a b and b c) bleeding takes place to a
greater extent, but the artery slightly contracts, and a clot
forms. The animal respires slowly, gasps, and the heart is
pale and slow in action. In this condition it is then seen
that the aorta also grooves a channel in the clot and pours its
contents at once into the vein. When the incision was on
the proximal side of the bend of the corda (through b c) this
peculiar channelling of the clot did not occur, but the current
of the artery passed into the vein after a time by a communi-
cating branch — before reaching the border of the wound.
The animal will live for three or four days after the body is
severed through the fatty fin, showing the comparatively unim-
portant part played by the posterior part of its body at this
stage, whereas a wound of the yolk-sac is generally fatal.

Kegeneration takes place very rapidly in wounds inflicted
on the young fish from six to ten days old. For instance,
when pieces (d) are removed from the fatty fin, the edges in
twelve hours are found papillose from cellular processes, and
the angles rounded, while the wound, which formerly was
spade-shaped, has now the form of a V, the new texture being
readily detected by its paler hue. The same ensues in inju-
ries of the tail. When the wound has been deep and some-
what narrow an arch of new texture closes in the cavity
before cicatrization takes place at the sides. Considerable
portions cut from the pectoral fins are also reproduced.

TRANSLATION.

On the Sexual Reproduction uf the Infusoria.
By Dr. Ernst Eberhard.

(From ' Zeitsoli. f. wissenschaft. Zoologie,' vol. xviii, p. 120.)

After a delay which must have appeared of long dura-
tion to all who are interested in the study of the Infusoria,
the second volume of F. Stein's excellent work* has made
its welcome appearance. The volume contains a general re-
view of the present state of our knowledge respecting tlie Infu-
soria ; and especially discusses the difficult problems that have
arisen concerning their sexual reproduction, connected with
which is the question of the value of the systematic arrange-
ment of the Infusoria, as proposed by Stein himself, to be based
upon the mode of disposition of the cilia. This part is fol-
lowed by a detailed exposition of the systematic arrangement
of the heterotrichous Infusoria, in w^hich will be found a full
account of Bursaria truncatella, one of the giants of a pigmy
world, and whose structure and organization is, for the first
time, fully expounded.

Dr. Eberhard, who has had abundant materials at his
command, has, in almost every essential point, arrived at the
same results as those of Stein ; and he proposes, in a subse-
quent memoir, to explain where they appear to differ. On
the present occasion he confines himself solely to the point
of sexual reproduction, since his results in this subject, though
in some respects agreeing with those of Stein, yet in others
present a very marked contrast with them.

Stein remarks that he has not unfrequently met with in-
dividuals of Bursaria truncatella which were filled with a
great number of indubitable embryos. The individuals in
question, he says, are distinguished from the rest by their
spherical form, and the almost complete closure of the peris-

* ' Der Organismus der Infusionsthieie.'
VOL. VIII. NEW SER. N

156 DR. EBERHARD, ON SEXUAL REPRODUCTION.

tomatous opening. The embryos were dispersed pretty
nniformly throughout the entire parenchyma, and most of
them closely embraced by the parenchyma, and were
quiescent, Avhilst others had hollowed out, as it Avere, the
surrounding substance, and moved about actively, and
around their own axes, in the watery fluid. The parent
animal always had a strap-shaped nvclevs, but which was
not always as large as in the ordinary individuals. I'he em-
bryos were oval or obovate, and uniformly rounded, and
beset with short, delicate cilia. At the anterior extremity
they appeared to Stein to be furnished with a small tubular
process, which he looked upon as a caecal suctorial disc. At
the posterior end was situated a minute, round, contractile
vesicle, and in the middle of the body a spherical or elon-
gated nucleus. The embryos certainly had no tentacullform
processes, such as are commonly observed in the embry^os of
other Infusoria. No conjugation of tlie mature animals was
ever witnessed.

The above is a summary of Stein's observations, and the
author proceeds to describe his own. In a series of glasses
containing Lemna minor, for the most part in a state of
decay, he was furnished with an abundant supply of Bur-
saria truncateUa. At the end of a few days, to his great
astonishment, he noticed that all the animalcules were filled,
and some of them even crammed with globular bodies of
uniform size. Some among them, in which the peristome was
almost entirely closed, resembled mere sacculi filled with
globules, so that it seemed as if the animalcules had surfeited
themselves with some kind of pollen, but that the process was
in reality one of reproduction was evident enough. He soon
remarked that some of the globules were protruded from
the still open slit in the parent body, but remained adherent to
its outer surface. After the disintegration of the parent —
which occurs so readily in this Infusorium — had taken place,
and the globular bodies had become liberated, the latter,
which were furnished with a contractile vesicle and spherical
nucleus, presented an Acincto-\\ke form, whilst short tenta-
cles, with transparent nodular extremities, sprung up irregu-
larly, in greater or less number, all over the surface. These
tentacular processes, in several of the quiescent globules,
were seen to increase in size, and occasionally^ to attain such
a length that it would be difficult to distinguish them from
the sessile form of Podophrya fixa. Some of the more
mature globules, soon after their liberation, and often in the
course of a few minutes, became elongated, and assumed the
form of a somewhat flattened grain- of Avheat, including even

DR. EBERHARI), OM SEXUAL REPRODUCTION. 157

the median furrow. Towards the anterior pointed end, on
one side, was situated the contractile vesicle, and behind
this the rounded nucleus. The hinder end was more
obtuse. The surface of the body, as has been said, was
furnished all over with the knobbed tentacular processes,
which, however, were more closely set towards either
end. In a short time the entire surface became covered with
cilia, from amongst which the tentacles projected. The
creature now began to exhibit a slow and clumsy kind of
movement, which became more and more brisk in proportion
to the progressive development of the cilia. The mouth
might be perceived in the anterior part of the longitudinal
furrow. This end is termed the anterior, because it was in
the direction towards which the movement tended.

Here, the author remarks, w'e have an Acinetaform, which
at the same time belongs to the group of the Ciliata. The tenta-
cular processes gradually disappeared, and the transformation
of the animalcule Avas completed into a ciliated Infusoriimi,
with whose aspect the author had often been familiar, and
which he had hitherto regarded as an independent species.

The case above described, so far as he is aware, is the first
recorded instance, in the young of Infusoria, of a transition
from the Acineta- into the ciliate-form.

The observation, moreover, confirms Stein's notion that
the minute Acinetce proceeding from Paramoecium are in
reality its offspring, and not parasites, as asserted by Bal-
biani. It is no longer doubtful that these forms also even-
tually assume the ciliate-aspect, which aj)proximates them to
that of the parent.

The author has satisfied himself that the embryos of Bur-
saria truncatella above described originate from the nucleus
of the parent body. Those individuals which Avere entirely
crammed with embryonal globules had either no nucleus
whatever remaining, or merely portions of it, in a decided
state of disintegration.

In conclusion, it should be remarked that the diameter of
the o-lobular bodies was about twice the usual diameter of the
strap-shaped nucleus, and that the length of the ciliated form
into which they passed was about two thirds of that
diameter.

It would seem, therefore, that the points with respect to
which the author is at issue with Stein are —

1. That whilst the latter observer insists upon the pre-
sence of a nucleus in all the individuals filled with embryos,
the author denies its existence.

^, Stein positively denies the occurrence of the Acineta-

158 DR. EBERHARD, ON SEXUAL REPRODUCTION.

form of progeny, whilst the author, relying upon numerous
observations, asserts it with equal positiveness.

3. The contractile vesicle which, according to Stein, is
situated in the hinder part of the embryo, is placed by the
author in the anterior; and the latter was also unable to per-
ceive any trace of a suctorial acetabulum.

Such decided contradictions are probably to be explained
by some diversity in the modes of propagation, which still
demand closer investigation.

REVIEW.

The Journal of the Qaekett Microscopical Club. London :

Robert Hardwicke.

When the Quekett Club was originally projected we
hailed it as an association of amateur microscopists that Avould
diffuse widely a taste for scientific investigation, and contri-
bute to the great object we had in view in establishing the
* Quarterly Journal of Microscopical Science.' It is true that
some of the members of the old Microscopical Society looked
with a little jealousy at the young club, much as the old
Fellows of the Linnean Society in their day regarded the
Zoological Club, Avhich terminated in the foundation of the
Zoological Society; but in a vast population like London
there is, undoubtedly, room for a number of ncAV societies
devoted to scientific pursuits. The result has shown that
not only has the Quekett Club succeeded, but, so far from
doing any injury to the old Society, it has gone on increas-
ing in numbers and influence ever since the establishment of
its supposed rival. The truth is, tbe Quekett Club has been a
great feeder of the old Society, and the Members (the Fellows
— we beg their pardon) recognised this fact when, at their last
meeting, they received with cheers the announcement that
the President of the Quekett Club was unanimously elected a
Fellow of the Royal Microscopical Society. Tlie President
also, with that graciousness which has all along characterised
his four years of laborious and useful office, pronounced from
the chair his belief that the mother and daughter, after all,
had but one common object in their constitution and pro-
ceedings. Let us, then, hang down our heads and blush
when we think of the hard words and ungenerous feelings
which have been exhibited between the two societies.

We do not feel called upon to give any opinion about tlie
propriety of the Quekett Club starting a journal of their own.
Did we stand upon our dignity, we think they ought to have
consulted ourselves, and asked us whether we thought

160 THE JOURNAL OF THE QUEKETT CLUB,

their journal would interfere with our interests. But
as they have not thought fit to do so, we heartily forgive
them, and here hold out the right hand of fellowship to them
as fellow-journalists. Of course, we hold our right to fall
foul of them, to criticise them severely, and to encourage
them benignly, as all elder journalists think they have a right
to doAvith the younger and aspiring fry.,

Our young competitor is small, as most babies are, but still
it gives promise of a vigorous growth. The original papers
are interesting, and we should have been glad to have pub-
lished them in our own Journal had they been sent us. We
think they would have been no disgrace to the ' Transactions'
of our own Royal Society. One of the features of the journal
is a " Microscopical Bibliography," which, if it is continued
as well as it has been begun, will be a real acquisition to
microscopic observers. Our young friend has not, in the
present number, ventured on plates ; and as these are ex-
pensive things, as we know to our cost, it will probably, with
the wisdom which has characterised all the proceedings of
the Club, consider well this question in the future.

In conclusion, we heartily wish the Quekett Microscopical
Club and its Journal success, feeling assured that no earnest
effort in scientific research is ever lost. The jealousies and
rivalries, yea, even the noble ambition of seekers for the truth,
vvdll all one day be thrown into oblivion, but the smallest
contribution to the accumulated stores of human knowledge
will remain for ever, the imperishable record of the existence
of the man who made it.

QUARTERLY CHRONICLE OF MICROSCOPICAL

SCIENCE.

Bibliotheque ITniverselle — " Reisen im Archipel der Philip-
pinen," by C. Semper.- — Prof. Claparede gives a most inte-
resting notice of this recently published and highly important
work. M. Semper has resided for seven years in the Philip-
pines and Carolines, and now intends publishing the scientific
results at which he has arrived, and the history also of his
travels. This publication Avill comprise naturally two parts,
and it is to the second, the more especially scientific, that
the author has first put his hand. The three first livraisons
of the first volume are devoted to the study of the Holo-
thuriae. They are accompanied by twenty-five plates, printed
in colour, which do the greatest honour to the chromolitho-
graphic studios of M. Hener at Hamburg, and of M. Bach
at Leipzig, as well as to the celebrated ])ublisher and true
protector of natural sciences, Herr Wilhelm Engelmann.
This first volume may Avith propriety be termed a monograph
of the Holothurians, for the author offers us not only a careful
zoological aud anatomical study of the new species which he
has met, but also a critical revision of the forms already
known, and some general considerations on the entire class
of Holothurids, and on the orders and families which com-
pose it.

Amongst the well-known calcareous corpuscles, of which
the position is always in the Holothurians the coriura,
M. Semper distinguishes two categories : on the one hand
the anchors and wheels, generally known from the Synaptids,
as aho the very characteristic corpuscle of the proper Holo-
thurians, corpuscles which the author distinguishes because
of their form by the name "stools" (Stiihlchen) ; on the
other hand, the perforated j^lates, the ramified corpuscles,
&c., which always have their position in deeper layers of
the corium than the preceding. The author calls these last
connective corpuscles. It is these which in certain cases
give rise, by their union, to large calcareous plates ( P solus,

162 QUARTERLY CHRONICLE.

Ocnus, Sec), which recall the cutaneous skeleton of the
Echinids. Either the " stools " or the connective corpuscles
may sometimes be entirely deficient. However, the case
where calcareous corpuscles of all forms are absolutely
wanting are very rare (in certain types of the family of the
Synaptids and of the Molpadids).

It is well known that all the Holothurise are characterised
by the presence of a ring composed of calcareous pieces dis-
posed round the pharynx ; a ring which one might, perhaps,
consider as the homologue of the lantern of Aristotle in the
Echini. This organ is formed, as a rule, by ten pieces, of
which five are radial and five interradial, the former each
pierced by an opening for the passage of the aquiferous
ambulacral vessel. M. Semper cites a case, that of a
Pentacta from Japan, in which the interambulacral pieces
are entirely absent, and the ambula.cral pieces are reduced
to little calcareous j^lates, lodged in the skin of the pharynx.
M. Semper distinguishes two forms of ambulacral appendices :
the ambulacral feet, furnished at the extremity with a sucker
strengthened by a calcareous plate ; and ambulacral papillce,
which are conical and pointed. The first belong, as a rule,
to the ventral trivium; the second to the dorsal bivium.
However, in certain cases, one can find ambulacral feet on
the back, and also ambulacral papillae on the belly — excep-
tions which are both realised together in the genus Sporadipus.
As is known, ambulacral appendices are totally wanting on
the back of the Dendrochirotids. Among the Molpalids
these appendages are absent throughout, though the branches
corresponding to the five ambulacral vessels do not the less
pierce the skin. Lastly, in the SynajDtids of the tropics, the
author establishes the complete absence of the five ambulacral
vessels, which M. Baur had already done for the European
Synaptae.

The organs of Cuvier sometimes are attached directly to
the cloaca, sometimes to the stem of the lungs. The author
confirms afresh the view that they are not hollow, but solid,
and he contests their glandular nature. He considers them
as a sort of weapon that the animal can j^ush out behind by
the cloaca. It is true that this phenomenon is always accom-
panied, like the projection of the viscera so peculiar to the
Holothurise, by the rupture of the wall of the cloaca.

Among many Holothurise (Aspidochirotids) the dorsal
vessel is broken up in the intestinal loop into a rete mirabile,
which becomes entangled with the ramifications of the left
lung. Johannes Miiller admitted that this entanglement
does not constitute bv anv moans a close union of the two

QUARTERLY CHRONICLE. 163

organs, but a simple juxtaposition. At the same time,
M. Semper has established the existence of fine strands,
which pass from the rete mirabile to the follicles of the
pulmonary tree, and lose themselves in the connective tissue
of this organ. It is true that, to judge from the expressions
of the author, these " cordons " do not appera* to enclose
vessels, and that the respiratory function of the so-called
lungs remains as ever somewhat problematical.

'Ihe new Holothurise collected by M. Semper have been
figured with very great artistic skill, some by the author
himself, others by Madame Anna Semper. Many among
them are remarkable not only for their form, but also for
their size, since we find among them Synaptae of five or even
of seven feet in length, to which the natives of Celebes have
with reason given the name of sea-serpents. Among the
anatomical and zoological details which accompany the de-
scription of each of them, we find many new and interesting
facts.

The anchors of the Synaptae are by no means, as is often
believed, locomotive organs ; when they have laid hold of
any part, the animal cannot disengage itself without sacri-
ficing them. They are, it is true, movable on their basilar
plate, but there are not any muscles destined to move them,
and the will of the animal has no action on their movements.
Besides, the body of the Synaptae does not cling to the hand
except when one touches it roughly. In reality the Synaptse
crawl on stones and plants without hooking on to them,
and in Synapta Beselii, the anchors are lodged so deeply
in the skin that M. Semper believed in their complete absence
until microscopic examination showed him the contrary.
M. Semper has increased the number of known Synaptae in
a considerable manner. The Archipelago of the Philippines
ranks to-day as one of the best known tropical regions,
thanks above all to the researches of Mr. Cuming, that
"prince of collectors," as he has been called; and although
before M. Semper's work only a single Synapta was known
from that archipelago, the number is now, owing to his re-
searches, increased to eleven, without counting a Chirodota.
It is true that Mr. Cuming appears to have collected among
Invertebrates only those animals Avith a hard shell, since he
has completely neglected the Cephalopods, which so abound
in tropical seas. In 1859 the total number of known S}nap-
tids was thirty-three species. This number ought to be in-
creasecl now-a-days by fifty-seven per cent. ; for if we con-
sider the fact that the majority of the new species come from
the Philippines, and thence too from a single locality (the

164 QUARTERLY CHRONICLE,

little isle of Bohol), it is probable that researches made in
other seas of the tropics will increase this number largely.

E-elatively to the ciliated funnels (Entonnoirs of d'Ude-
kem) of the Synaptids the author affirms, as Miiller and M.
Baur also do, that they cannot be considered as the internal
terminations of the aquiferous system any more than of
blood-vestels. It is, then, impossible to assimilate the blood-
vessels of the Holothurids to the vascular excretory appa-
ratus of worms, and the ciliated funnels of the Synaptids
cannot be compared to those of Annelids. They are, with-
out dovibt, an apparatus destined to excite a current in the
liquid of the cavity of the body.

The family of the Molpadids embraces a series of forms,
united, it is true, by common characters, but connected,
nevertheless, by certain points, to the most diverse genera of
other families of Holothurians. One might consider them
in a certain way as a collection of jDrototyniical forms. The
complete absence of feet apj^roximate them in appearance to
the Synaptids ; but the genus Echinosoma is the only one
which justifies entirely this approximation by the complete
absence of the radial canals of the skin. In the other genera
studied by M. Semper, the aquifei^ous canals traverse the
skin fully from part to part ; but instead of being prolonged
into feet, as in the Holothurise, they terminate in caeca, under
the epidermis. One part, at least, of this family appears to
comprise hermaphrodites species. If the family of the Mol-
padids comprises forms to a great extent heterogeneous, that
of the Dendrochirotids is, on the contrary, very uniform.
M. Semper is led to reduce notably the number of the genera
which has been increased in a large pro2:)Ortion by M.
Selenka. From what Ave knew till now as to this family,
we had the right to consider it, in opposition to that of the
Aspidochirolids, as belonging essentially to the boreal and to
the temperate region. This opinion would, however, have
been entirely false. Before the recent work of M. Selenka,
the relation of the known species in the tropical region to
that of the species of the temperate and boreal zones was as
one to twelve ; after the work of this savant, the ratio was as
one to five ; and now, after the study of the species of the
Philippines, it is become as one to one and a half. It is,
therefore, probable that researches made in other tropical re-
gions will continue to modify the ratio in the same Avay.
When one runs through the list of the Holothiiriai of the
Museum of Cambridge (Massachusets), published by M.
Selenka, that of the Museum of Berlin, and that of the
Godefroy Museum at Hamburg, one might be disposed to

QUARTERLY CHRONICLE. 165

consider that the tropics are very poor in Dendrochirotids ;
but this would be an error. These Echinoderms have not
yet been collected by searching out their mode of life. In
fact, whilst the majority of the Aspidochirotids live in the
shallows within the reach of travelling naturalists, the Den-
drochirotids of the tropics live all at a great depth, whence
the dredge only can gather them. A thing well worth re-
mai-k is, that these Holothuriae, living at great depths in the
Philippine ArchipeLigo, are precisely of the forms which (as
the Psoli, Cucumarise, and Echinocucumes) approach most
nearly species of the boreal zone. It may be mentioned in
passing, that it is in these conditions that M. Semper has
fished up at the Philippines a Stellerid of the genus Pteraster,
which he can scarcely distinguish from P. militaris of the
coasts of Scandinavia.

The Aspidochirotids, or Holothurians properly so-called, as
well as being very numerous in species, constitute, like the
Synaptids and the Dendrochirotids, an extremely uniform
family. It has often been repeated that the inspection of a
single calcareous corpuscle of the skin of a Holothuria is suf-
ficient to permit of the determination with certainty of the
species to which the animal belongs. M. Semper shows, on
the contrary, that the majority of these corpuscles can fur-
nish only very, uncertain conclusions, not only as to species,
but also as to genus.

M. Semper adds to his ' Monograph of the Holothurise'
some very curious details as to the parasites of these Echi-
noderms. With the exception of some little Copepods living
as Epizoa on different Holothurice, the Dendrochirotids ap-
pear to be entirely free from parasites. The singular para-
sites observed by M. Semper live all on the body or in the
interior of the Aspidochirotids. Nearly all belong to zoolo-
gical groups, in which parasitism is a rare exception. For
example, in the first place, the fishes, — Avhich belong almost
all to the genus Fierasfer, Quoy and Gaimard. These fishes
were first described by Risso, and Delle Chiaje has figured
the two jMediterranean species very well. Their entrance
into the Holothuria, as well as their exit, appears to take
place through the lung. M. Semper possesses the pulmo-
nary tree of a Holothuria, in which is lodged one of these
fishes, which appears to be in the act of entrance, for its
head is turned towards the further ramifications of the organ.
They appear to be true parasites, since the author has
always found their stomach filled up with the debris of the
lung of their host. Another genus of parasitic fishes of

166 QUARTERLY CHRONICLE.

the Holothuria is that of Enchelyophis (Joh. Miiller j, which
is entirely destitute of pectoral fins.

As to Crustacea, M. Semper mentions, besides some small
Copepods, t\vo species of the genus Pinnotheres, which lives,
as is well known, ordinarily as a parasite in I.amellibrancha.
It is remarkable that these two species are parasitic in the
same Holothuria, where they are constantly found in the
right lung, that is to say, in that which has no connection
with the enteric vessels. Sometimes the lung which lodges
a Pinnotheres is completely atrophied, but in this case
another is developed in an abnormal position.

The Molluscs number several parasites of Holothurise ; and
firstly the celebrated Entoconcha mirabiUs, discovered by
Joh. Miiller in the Synapta d'ujitata of Europe, has its coun-
terpart, not now in a Synapta, but in a Holothurian pro-
perly so-called, found in the Philippines. This extraordinary
Gasteropod has been christened by M. Semper by the name
Entoconcha MilUeri. It appears to be restricted, as a rule,
to the cloacal region. Mr. Cumming long since pointed out
the presence of Eulima in the stomach of the Holothuriee ;
but it appears to have been generally considered that these
Gasteroi)ods had been swallowed by the Echinoderms. This
opinion is erroneous. M. Semper possesses two or three spe-
cies, which he has found alive and crawling joyously in the
intestine of the Holothuria?. These species are exceedingly
active in their movements, in opposition to the epizoic spe-
cies, the foot of which is in general buried in the skin of
their host. The sole food these Gasteropods have at their
disposal is the chyme, or indeed, the secretions of the intes-
tinal epithelium. They may, therefore, well be called para-
sites. It is not improbable that conchologists are wrong
when they state that the Eulimse and the Stylifers (which live
among the spines of Cidaris and other Echinids) do not ob-
tain tbeir food from their hosts. They appear to forget that
the spines of the Echinoderms are not merely cuticular forma-
tions, like the shells of molluscs. Parasitism is clearly evi-
dent in a species of Eulima found by M. Semper in a cavity
of the skin of a Holothuria, of the genus Stichopsis. During
the life of the Echinoderm the shell is nearly entirely hidden
in the skin, the summit of the spire alone slightly protrud-
ing. If one tries to remove it a strong resistance is felt.
But when the Holothuria is moribund, one can succeed in
withdrawing the mollusc armed with a long and fine thread,
which, in large individuals, at any rate, can penetrate right
into the cavity of the body of the Holothuria. This thread is
nothing else than the greatly elongated proboscis of the mol-

QUARTEKLY CHRONICLE. 167

liisc ; and the mouth of this animal being thus deeply lodged
in the skin of the Echinoderm, it is clear that it can only be
nourished by means of the latter. This mouth, being de-
prived of all trace of armature, is, without doubt, destined to
absorb liquid or soft parts. M. Semper aj)pears to be dis-
posed to consider that all the other Eulimse (equally destitute
of jaws) which live on Holothurise, or on other Echinoderms,
are nourished by the mucus secreted by the epidermis of
their host.

Lastly, a very singular parasite is a little Lamellibranch,
which lives on the skin of a Synapta, where it is found crawl-
ing actively by means of a large and almost membranous
foot. This animal belongs to that small group of Lamelli-
branchs which, like certain Cephalophora, have only an
internal shell, or at least in which the mantle is reflected so
as to envelope the primitive external shell. In the species
in question the mantle is, it is true, completely closed, in such
a manner that the shell is internal in every sense of the term,
whilst in certain Erycinae the suture of the two halves of the
mantle is not complete.

The richness of the materials of which this first volume
gives us knowledge makes us impatient, concludes Professor
Claparede, to see the appearance of those which are an-
nounced to succeed it.

Max Schultze's Archiv. Vol. IV, Part II.

I. " On the Neri^es in the Tail of the Frog Larva," by Dr.
V. Hensen.

II. "On the Cells of the Spinal Ganglion and of the
Sympathetic in the Frog,"" by L. G. Courvoisier.

III. " On the Structure of the Lachrymal Glands,''^ by
Franz Boll.

IV. " On the Taste-Organs of Mammals and of Man,'' ^ by
G. Schwalbe.

V. " On Invaginated Cells,''' by Dr. F. Steudener.

VI. " On the Structure, especially of the Vaterian Bodies,
of the Beak of the Snipe,"" by Franz Leydig, of Tubingen.

This number of the ' Archiv ' is remarkable for its papers
on nerve-structure, especially as to nerve-endings. Dr.
Hensen has carefully studied that favorite subject for
investigation in these matters, the tadpole's tail. He points
out and figures very beautifully the termination of nerves in
the epithelial cells. As the result of various researches, he
is led to conclude that the nerves, with the exception of the
sympathetic, are exclusively a tissue belonging to the cor-
neous layer of the embryo ; that they, therefore, must end in
cells or cell-derivatives of the corneous layer, to which.

168 QUARTERLY CHRONICLE.

according to Hensen's experience, the striped muscles alf^o
belong ; and that the nerves do not grow out into a tissue,
but, through the separation of particular cellsand tissues from
one another, become differentiated. He quotes, in addition
to his own observations, the ending of nerves in the salivary-
gland-cells, in the epithelial cells of the cornea, the rods and
cones of the retina, which are simply the epithelium of pri-
mary optic vesicle, and therefore continuous with the body-
surface originally ; also, lastly, the ending of nerves in teeth.
Kowalevsky, in his researches on the development oi Amphi-
oxus lanceolatus, recently pointed out the termination of
nerves in the epidermic cells of the skin of this fish.

Courvoisier's paper is principally controversial, and
intended to establish his claims in the matter of the spiral
and straight fibres of bipolar ganglion-cells. It is illustrated
by a plate. The views of Beale, KoUiker, Arnold, Sanders,
and Krause, are fully discussed.

Franz Builds paper is one of gi-eat interest, and, like his
paper on the structure of the tooth-pulp and its nerves,
which we recently noticed, is a most creditable example of
the work which Professor Schvdtze enables his pupils at
Bonn to accomplish. The author's observations are similar
to those of Pflueger on the salivary glands. He points out
the existence of a network of multijiolar nerve-cells in the
tissue of the gland, and traces the termination of some of the
nerve -fibres in the gland-cells. These matters are illustrated
in a clear and well-drawn plate.

Dr SchAvalbe's paper is a very extensive treatise on the
minute structure of the papilla; of the tongue, the peculiar
" schmeckbechers," and their relation to the nerves. He
points out the existence of certain very remarkable nervous
structures. The paper is illustrated with two plates, and,
taken in connection with that of Dr. Christian Loven,
published in a previous number of the ' Archiv.,' furnishes a
very noteworthy addition to the knowledge of the structure
of special-sense-organs.

The invaginated cells observed by Dr. Steudener occur in
carcinomatous lymph-glands and in carcinomatous livers.
The appearance presented is such that the structure might
be taken for mother-cells, with enclosed daughter-cells ; but
by a series of transitional forms figured in his plate, the
author shows that one cell may be gradually squeezed into,
or closed in by, another.

In the beak of the snipe {Scolopax rusticola) are certain
large corpuscles in connection with the fibres of the nerve,
and surrounded bv a denselv vascular tissue. These are

QUARTERLY CHRONICLE. 169

described, drawn, and their meaning discussed by Dr.
Leydig.

Societa Italiana di Scienze Naturali. " Studies on Cochineal
Insects,'' by A. Targloni Tozzetti. — Professor Tozzetti has
been good enough to send us this and the following memoir,
which are very exhaustive and valuable treatises. The com-
plete history and anatomy of several Cocci is most elaborately-
worked out by the author, and illustrated by most faithful-
looking drawings in seven large quarto plates. So
thoroughly complete and careful examination as Professor
Tozzetti has given to these insects makes his work a most
important pendant to the researches of Huxley, Lubbock,
Balbiani, Mecznikow, and Claparede, on allied hemipterous
forms.

" On the Light-organ of Luciola Italica, and on the Muscular
Fibre of Arthropods" by Targioni Tozzetti, This paper
contains a full and careful description of the organs in
question, illustrated by two plates.

'K\%ce\\2i\iQ0VL.s.—" A Monograph on the Strncture and De-
velopment of the Shotdder-Glrdle and Breast-Bone in the
Vertebrata;' by W. Kitchen Parker, F.R.S. (Ray Society.)
• — " We cannot," says Mr. Parker, " take a step in this de-
partment of anatomical science without a thorough acquaint-
ance, not only with the histology of the skeleton, but also
with that of the rest of the tissues that go to make a verte-
brate animal." Hence the last volume issued by the Ray
Society has considerable interest for microscopical observers.
The study of osteology is just now receiving from the hands
of such men as Professors Gegenbaur and Huxley and Mr.
Parker a turn in quite a new direction, the importance of
which cannot be overestimated. Following in the steps of
Rathke, the osteologist has now to consider in his determina-
tions of homologous bones, not merely the position or rela-
tions of the bone in question to other bones, but, above all,
he has to ascertain and make allowance for its origin and
mode of development. "Skin-bones," "membrane-bones,"
and "cartilage-bones," are now carefully discriminated.
Mr. Parker, taking counsel, as he says, with Professor
Huxley, proposes three terms — endostosis, ectostosis, and
parosiosis — by which to distinguish the three chief modes of
ossification. " Endostosis " is that ossification Avhich com-
mences in the intercellular substance of hyaline cartilage.
That bony matter which is first found in the almost structure-
less inner layer of the perichondrium, in immediate contact
-with the outermost cartilage-cells, is formed by a process
which may be called " ectostosis." Such a bony formation

170 QUARTERLY CHRONICLE.

as appears primarily in the skin, in the subcutaneous fibrous
mesh, or in the aponeurotic tracts, may be called " parostosis."
Bones which were thought to be homologous prove, when
examined by the light of" this division of the ossifying pro-
cess, to be quite distinct, originating in many cases quite
differently ; and others supposed to be simple prove to con-
tain both ectosteal and parosteal elements. In the Elasmo-
branch Fishes IMr. Parker has studied (as also has Gegen-
baur) the essential cartilaginous part of the shoulder-girdle.
In the Ganoid and Teleostean Fishes he is able to point out
what membrane and dermal bones (parosteal elements) are
added thereto ; and thus, starting with a clear knowledge of
these two distinct factors, he is able, when he arrives higher
up in the scale, amongst reptiles, birds, and mammals, to
trace out the gradual fusion of the two elements, and to
show, in the simple-looking but often highly complex bones
of the shoulder-girdle which part represents this or that
membrane- or cartilage-bone in the fish, and what is special
and peculiar to the class under consideration. The magnifi-
cent volume, with its thirty coloured plates, Avhich 'Sir. Parker
has produced, contains the most accurate details concerning
these structures, and is the result of a surprising amount of
research and industry. ]Mr. Parker's method has yet to be
applied fully to other parts of the skeleton, and, as he him-
self suggests, it is to be hoped that the present volume may
be looked upon as a specimen of what sound osteological
research should be at the present time, and that others may
be induced to work in the same way and with as valuable a
result.

A new Rotifer. — We recently noticed Professor Mecz-
nikow's discovery of Apsilus lentiformis, a Rolatorian entirely
destitute of vibratile cilia, and M. Claparede noAv communi-
cates an account of an animal of the same kind observed by
him some years ago in the Seine, a small river of the canton
of Geneva. It was found creeping on the bodies of Tricho-
drili, and other small Oligochoeta. The body of this animal,
to which M. Claparede gives the name of Balatro calvus,
is more or less vermiform, and very contractile. Its poste-
rior extremity (foot) is divided into two lobes, of whicli the
ventral is semilunar, with acute angles, which are capable
of invagination. The dorsal lobe forms a flattened cylinder
ter«iinated by three mammilla?. Between the two lobes the
anus is situated. The anterior extremity, which is indis-
tinctly annulated, is capable of retraction as in other Rota-
toria. The mastax is not largely developed, and is armed
with a verv small inciis, and with two curved mallei ; it

QUARTERLY CHRONICLE. 171

opens directly into a thick-walled intestine, the inner layer
of which is brownish. The intestine is more simple than
in the Rotatoria generally ; it extends in a straight line from
the mouth to the anus, and its narrowed anterior part scarcely
merits the name of oesophagus. No glands were observed in
connection with the stomach. When the animal is extended
the curved mallei project externally. All the individuals
observed were females. The ovary occupies the ventral por-
tion of the body; beneath the intestine, the mature ovules are
ovoid, and occupy the posterior extremity of the body. M.
Claparede characterises his genus Balatro as follows •. — Body
vermiform, very contractile ; posterior extremity terminated
by two lobes — one ventral, of a semilunar form, transverse ;
the other dorsal, nearly cylindrical, acting as a foot. Mallei
in the form of crooks. No vibratile organs ; no eyes. Besides
Apsilus and Balatro, Taphrocampa of Gosse is a genus of
Rotatoria destitute of vibratile cilia. Mr. Gosse placed it
originally near Notommata and Furcularia, but has since
removed it to the neighbourhood of Choetonotus, among the
Gastrotricha. In this M. Claparede thinks he is wrong, as
Taphi'ocampa possesses a mastax, the structure of which is
very near to that of the Furcularise and Monocercse. M.
Dujardin also describes his genus Lindia as destitute of cilia;
and M. Claparede regards it as nearly allied to his Balatro,
which is still more closely related to Albertia.

" On the Mode in which certain Rotatoria introduce Food
into their Mouths," by E. Claparede — In the Zygotricha of
Ehrenberg the vibratile apparatus may be regarded as double.
The movement of the cilia is always in the same direction,
namely, opposite to that of the hands of a watch ; hence it is
dhected towards the mouth in the right wheel, and from it in
the left one. But observation proves that food passes to the
mouth both from right and left, which is incompatible with
the received notion that the currents conveying the food are
produced by the vibratile apparatus. The examination of
such Rotatoria as the Melicerta? and Lacinulariae leads to
the same result. In Melicerta ringens, on the lower surface
of the membranous vibratile organ and parallel to its margin,
M. Claparede finds a sort of crest, between which and the
margin there is a deep furrow. The extreme margin bears
the well-known large cilia; the crest also bears cilia, but
these are long and delicate, and their movement is opposite
in the two halves of the apparatus. By their means foreign
bodies which get into the channel between the two ciliated
crests are pushed gently along and conveyed to the mouth,
being retained in their position by the inferior range of cilia.

VOL. VIII. — NEW SER. O

172 QUARTERLY CHRONICLE.

The action of the whole apparatus is explained as follows by
Professor Claparede : — The superior range of cilia, when in
action, produces currents tangential to the vibratile organ
and perpendicular to its plane. These currents are closed,
and apjjear to be nearly of an elliptical form ; particles in-
volved in them pass repeatedly over the same course, and if
they are thus brought in contact with the extremities of the
inferior cilia, which reach a little above the base of the
superior range, they pass into the channel above mentioned,
and are pushed along in it towards the mouth. The author
remarks that the apparent movement of the inferior cilia is
from the mouth ; but this is illusory, and due to the circum-
stance that the slow elevation of each cilium preparatory to
its stroke produces a greater effect upon the eye than the
more rapid stroke itself. This double row of cilia in Melicarta
and Lacinularia has been observed and described in this
country by Huxley and Williamson, and in Germany by
Leydig, but its existence seems to have escaped the notice
of subsequent observers. Professor Huxley has also observed
this second row of cilia in Philodina, a genus belonging to
the Rotatoria Zygotrocha. M. Claparede here describes and
figures it in Rotifer inflatus (Duj.), in which the inferior cilia
are borne upon a crest which is oblique relatively to the
plane of the vibratile wheel ; in all other respects the arrange-
ment and action of these inferior cilia are the same as in
Melicerta. The same characters have been observed in
Rotifer vulgaris (Ehr.). M. Claparede appends to this
paper a note confirming Mr. Gosse's account of the mode
in which Melicerta ringens builds up its tube, and remarks
that this does not appear to have attracted attention on the
Continent.

" Teeth of Fossil Fishes from the Coal-measures, North-
umberland."— Professor Owen has published a paper, illus-
trated by very beautiful figures in fifteen plates, in the
* Proceedings of the Odontological Society.' He describes
various new genera and species on these characters. Mr.
Albany Hancock and Mr. Thomas Atthey, however, publish
papers in the ' Annals and Magazine of Natural History,' in
which they point out what they consider to be serious errors
in Professor Owen's paper, and refuse to admit some of his
genera, they being founded on fragments only of the teeth of
other genera.

" Dentition of the Mole." — Mr. C. Spence Bate has also
sent us a copy of his paper on this subject, published by the
Odontological Society. Mr. Bate's researches on the develop-
ment of the teeth are highly interesting, and clearly prove

QUARTERLY CHRONICLE. 173

that the tooth called canine in the upper jaw is no canine at
all. Unaccountably^ Mr. Bate comes to the conclusion that
Professor Owen's formula is the right one — a conclusion from
which, on a former occasion, we dissented.

"Researches on the Compound Eyes of Crustacea and
Insecta." (Untersuchungen iiber die zusammengesetzten
Augen der Krebse und Insecten.) By Max Schultze.

" The percipient elements of the retina," as the author
observes, " both in Invertebrate and Vertebrate animals pos-
sess a definite structure adapted to the function they have to
perform, and as this, in both cases, is the perception of one
and the same motion in the waves of the ether upon which
all luminous imj^ressions depend, it is, prima facie, probable
that the structure in question would be essentially alike.
Another question, however, arises — whether we are at the
present time or ever shall be able to discover by means of
the microscope the actual physical conditions upon which it
must be presumed the percipient power of the termination of
the optic nerve depends. For although we know the length
of the undulations, and are able easily to measure them, the
difficulty still remains of reconciling the enormous rapidity
of their recurrence with what we know respecting the rate
of perceptivity through the nerves themselves ; a difficulty
which would seem calculated much to lessen the hoj^e of our
being able to discover any relation between the visible struc-
ture and the undulations of light."

The discovery, however, by the author, of the universal
existence of a very regular, laminated structure in the outer
segments of the " rods " and " cones " of the retina in man
and other Vertebrata,* affords an inkling of the direction
in Avhich we may look for some definite view with respect to
a purely mechanical theory of Kght- and colour-perception.
If Zenkerf is right in considering that in the case of the re-
flection of light in the laminated structure of the rods, which
may be compared to a set of glass-plates, a system of
statical waves must be estabhshed (which can only take
place, for the different coloured rays, where the reflecting
surfaces are at the proper distances apart), we may arrive at
some idea as to how the varying length of the undulations of
the different coloured rays is perceived irrespective of their
enormous rnpidity.

In this view the laminated structure of the percipient rods
would seem to be of fundamental importance, and the author

* 'Arcliiv. f. microscop. Anat.,' Ill, 1867, p. 215.
t 'Versuch einer Theorie der Farbenperception.'

174 QUARTERLY CHRONICLE.

has consequently been led to inquire whether it exists as
well in the invertebrate as in vertebrate animals. The result
of his observations is fully confirmatory of what had been
already stated by Leydig in 1857, viz., that the bacillar
stratum of the retina in the Arthropoda corresj)onds in all
respects, physically and chemically, Avitli that of the same
elements in the vertebrate retina, and that the rods exhibit a
fine transverse striation, which is readily perceptible, espe-
cially on the addition of water, even in the large '^ rods " of
the naked Amphibians.

But a still more important question was to be decided — as
to what parts in the eyes of Crustacea and Insects were
destined for the collection of the visual rays, and by which
of them the percipient function was performed.

Each segment of the compound eye, as is well known,
represents a sort of tube closed at the outer end by a convex
transparent cornea, and containing a conical crystalline body,
supported on the outer end of the " rod," whose inner end is
in connection with the optic ganglion, upon which the whole
organ is, as it were, supported.

Since Miiller's researches in 1829, it has been generally
conceived that the cornea and crystalline cone together
formed the refractive apparatus, and that the image was
perceived at the extremity of the nerve, where the point of
the crystalline cone comes in relation with it. The question
then arises as to whether each separate segment or tube of
the eye receives and perceives a distinct image, or whether
all of them together concur in the formation of a general
image, and the conveying of its impression to the per-
cipient centre. Miiller appears to have been inclined to
adopt the latter view, but it has been since shown by
several observers, and especially by Gottsche'^ and Zenker,t
that minute inverted images are formed in each facet ; so
that, as stated by Zenker and R. Wagner, " the compound
eye can only be regarded as an aggregation of so many
simple eyes."

But this view demands the solution of the question as to
the point and mode of termination of the nerve fibres
behind the " crystalline cone," and also as to the number
of the percipient terminal points at that situation, since it
is clear that a single nerve-termination cannot j)erceive
an entire image. Leydig, whose opinion on any question
of the kind is of the greatest weight, says that the " nerve-

* Miiller, 'Archiv,' 1852, p. 483.

f ' Aaatomisch-systemat. Studien liber die Krebsthiere,' 1854, p. 30.

QUARTERLY CHRONICLE. 175

fibre," or "rod," and the "crystalline cone" are con-
tinuous in substance, and constitute merely divisions of
one and the same structure; thus, in fact, regarding the
entire apparatus as resembling the " rods and " cones " of
the vertebrate eye. As this view is opposed to that of many
other writers, amongst whom M. Claparede may be cited in
the first place, it became an object to determine the exact
relation between the " crystalline cone " and the " rod."
According to Max Schultze, its point is merely in apposition,
and has no organic connection with the outer end of the
" rod." The next point he takes up is the intimate structure
of the " rod " itself, which he shows to possess the same
laminated structure that he had discovered in the outer
segment of the " rods " and cones in the human and other
vertebrate retinas.

The memoir also includes an interesting account of the
differences existing betAveen the eyes of nocturnal and diurnal
insects. In the nocturnal moths, for instance, the cornea is
usually quite colourless, and thus is capable of transmitting
all the luminous rays, whilst in the diurnal Lepidoptera the
corneal facets have in most cases a yellow border, sometimes
very intense, so that in these cases the rays towards the
violet end of the spectrum must be in great measure absorbed.
It is to be observed also that in the diurnal Lepidoj)tera the
" crystalline cone " has itself a yellowish tint, and is im-
bedded in a coloured pigment, whilst in the nocturnal it is
colourless and at the same time larger, so as to be capable of
collecting a greater number of rays. It is curious to observe
the close analogy thus shown to exist between the " rods "
and " cones " of the retina in night- and day-flying birds, as
referred to in the notice of a former paper by Max Schultze,
given in the Journal (Vol. XV, p. 25).

Other interesting peculiarities respecting the differences
between nocturnal and diurnal Lepidoptera will be found in
the memoir.

'' Deiixihne Serie d' Observations Microscopiques sur la
Chevelure.'' Paris, 1868. (Extrait du Tome iii, des ' Memoires
de la Soc. Anthrop. de Paris.^)

A ' Second Series of Microscopic Observations on the
Human Hair,' by M. Pruner-Bey, has lately appeared, with
five plates of figures, showing the forms of transverse sections
of the hair in various races of mankind, and in many cases
at different ages. Several of the more interesting races are
represented by a considerable number of individuals, so that
the characters of their hair have been established with great

176 QUARTERLY CHRONICLE.

precision. Other isolated specimens belong to less known
races, but M. Pruner-Bey has thought it advisable to include
them for future comparison. He says a few words with
reference to the observations contained in his former memoir
on the same subject respecting the characters of the hair^
which are visible to the naked eye.

1. With respect to colour, he has established the fact that
it is not always blade in the negress. Besides a red colour,
"which is very exceptional, he has met with hair of an ashy
{cendree) tint in some cases, in which the other characters
were perfectly nigritic. 2. Among two hundred specimens
of hair from natives of India, only one occurred of a straw-
colour, and even this might have been of foreign origin.
The hair of every race south of the Himalayahs is jet black;
but in proportion as we ascend into the more elevated region^
a brown colour occurs more and more frequently.

In general, M. Pruner-Bey's recent observations have con-
firmed what he has before announced, viz., that the colour
may differ in different branches of one and the same race,
independently of any other change in the characters of the
hair. But the same observation does not hold good between
different races, especially when the pigmentation is examined
microscopically in transverse sections.

As was shown in his former communication, the differential
characters of the hair of various races are found chiefly in
the forms presented by transverse sections. Such sections,
moreover, afford an opportunity of determining not only the
form, but also the size of the hair, a character which M.
Pruner-Bey considers of the greatest importance.

Amongst the principal races whose hair forms the subject
of the present communication may be enumerated amongst
the Semitic — Arabs and Jews ; and as types of the Arian
family, Greeks, Brahmins, Lithuanians, &c. It would appear
that, according to M. Pruner-Bey, there is a marked difference
between the Semitic and the Arian races. The latter show-
ing a regular oval outline in the transverse section, and the
former one of a more or less angular outline; so that, as the
learned ethnologist remarks, we might almost fancy that the
angular traits of the Hebrew visage were repeated in the
transverse section of the hair !

Amongst the so-termed Turanian races, we find Fins,
Esthonians, Samoyedes, natives of Sicily and Kabyles, &c.
Other races are Korouglous, Nigritoes, Australians, Malays
and Polynesians — Americans, Chinese, Annamites, Japanese,
Santals, and finally an ape ; the hair of the latter having been

QUARTERLY CHRONICLE. 177

diagnosed by M. Pruner from its microscopic characters alone.
It resembled in some respects the hair of the human infant,
but differed from it in the perfectly uniform dissemination of
the black pigmentary matter and the consequent entire ab-
sence of any trace of structure,

NOTES AND CORRESPONDENCE.

Colour of the Sea. — As a pendant to the admirable paper
by Dr. Collingwood, published in the April ' Quarterly Micro-*
scopical Journal/ permit me to send you the following notes.

During the voyage of this vessel from Valparaiso hither,
at the end of last and beginning of this month, the sea was

noticed to be sensibly discoloured for about 500 miles. Some
sixty miles south of Callao (lat. 13° south) the colour was
brownish-green ; close to and at about ten miles from Callao
the sea was covered by many patches of thick reddish-broAvn
This occurred at intervals ; but more to the north.

scum.

off the Lobos Islands, the scum had disappeared, and there

MEMORANDA. 179

were only scattered clouds of bloody water. This was at
some fifty miles from the shore.

It was several times examined, either as scum or the
strainings of the discoloured water, and always with the same
results, I enclose a specimen, and also a very rough sketch,
taken near Callao.

It may not be irrelevant for me to say that I have many
times seen and examined red water, more especially while
off the West Mexican and Californian coast. The colour
was not always due to Trichodesmium, but I do not re-
member any instance of animal life being the cause. The
Gulf of California is so notorious for its occasional tinging
as to have been called by the old Spaniards Colorado, red or
ruddy. — J. Linton Palmer, F.R.C.S.E., Surgeon H.M.S.
Topaze, at Panama.

PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES.

Royal Microscopical Society.

A2>ril 8th, 1868.

James Glaishee, Esq., F.R.S., President, in the Chair.

The minutes of the preceding meeting were read and confirmed.
Dr. Jayaker was duly elected a Fellow of the Society.
The following presents were announced, and thanks voted to the
respective donors :

Presented by
Mr. .T. Norman.
Mr.E.D.Harrop.
Society.
Editor.
Society.
Editor.
Club.
Publisher.
Ditto.
Editor.

Seven Slides of Crystals .

Six ditto from Tasmania

J ournal of Linnean Society

Land and Water (weekly)

Journal of Society of Arts (weekly)

Journal of Photographic Society

Journal of Quekett Club

The Student

Popular Science Review

British Journal of Dental Science .

Dental Characters of Genera and Species, chiefly of

Fishes, from Shales of Coal, Northumberland. By

Professor Owen, F.R.S., &c. .
Spectroscope and Microspectroscope in the Discovery of

Blood-stains. By Dr. Herapath
The Works of W. Hewson, F.R.S.
Portrait of Professor Owen
Album of Portraits of Fellows
Scliacht on the Microscope
Ray Society's Volume for 1867

A paper was read by Major Eoss, R.A., " On Micro-crystals
and Iridescent Films obtained by the use of the Blow-pipe."
Major Eoss showed his method of operation. He melted borax
on a platina wire bent into a ring at one extremity, and then in-
troduced the various metals. By employing a mechanical blow-
pipe to maintain the borax bead in fusion, he was able to blow it
into a thin bubble by means of an ordinary mouth blow-pipe. The
borax bubbles exhibited iridescent colours, and after being left
for some sime undisturbed micro-crystals made their appearance.
Major Eoss thought that the colours of the films and the forms of

Author.

Ditto.

G.Gulliver,r.R.S.
Professor Owen.
Messrs. Maul.
Henry Lee.
Ditto.

PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES. 181

the crystals were characteristic of the particular metals or other
bodies fused with the borax. He then described at length the
beautiful effects produced, and gave theoretical explanations of
the phenomena.

Belbre this paper was read the Peesident stated that, as Major
Ross was about to leave London, he had consented to its being
brought befure the Society, although the Council had not had an
opportunity of seeing it. Under these circumstances they would
exercise their discretion as to its publication.

Mr. Brooke, P.R.S., remarked that the author had not
discriminated between two distinct phenomena in optics, refraction
and interference. He also referred to the attempts made by Newton
(to which Major Eoss alluded) to explain the colours of films by
bis corpuscular emission theory of light. The colours in Major
Ross's experiments were entirely produced by the well-known
action of films, and were perfectly accounted for by the undulatory
theory.

Mr. Jabez Hogg thought that inferring the composition of
bodies from special forms of micro-crystals would easily lead to
error. Mr. Waddington had shown him specimens of micro-
crystals resembling those obtained in Dr. Guy's sublimations, and
showing the uncertainty of that class of evidence.

Mr. Slack, while differing entirely from the theoretical portions
of Major Ross's paper, was of opinion that he had indicated an
interesting field of research, in which facts of importance might be
discovered.

In reply to observations of Major Ross, Mr. Brooke explained
that, although various forms might be obtained from a cry stall izable
body by crystallizing it under different conditions, they would all
be referred to the same system.

Mr. Hogg then read a paper on " The Lingual Membrane of
MoUusca, and its Value in Classification." (See ' Trans.,' p. 93.)

At the close of the above paper Mr. Hogg pointed out the ad-
vantage of mounting palates in glycerine. He found that Canada
balsam materially damaged the delicate portions of the structure.

The Rev. Thos. H. Browne asked if Mr. Hogg thought
" lingual " a proper term for all the structures to which it was
applied. He considered that it should be restricted to palates in
which one portion was detached and capable of protrusion. The
best way to see the form of lingual teeth was to tear the palate
from the outside towards the centre.

Mr. Hogg thought Huxley's term odontophore preferable to
lingual membrane.

Soiree, Wednesday Evening, April 12nd.

The invitations issued by the President and Council were
generally responded to, and the soiree was attended by upwards of
1300 visitors and Fellows. By the courtesy of the authorities

182 PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES.

of King's College the whole building was thrown open on
this occasion, including the Museum of G-eorge III and the
Natural History Museum, the interesting contents of which
were a great source of attraction, and contributed to prevent the
large hall and libraries from being overcrowded. The refresh-
ment department, which proved insufficient on former occasions,
was conducted this year on a much larger scale, an additional
room having been assigned to it, and nothing omitted that could
promote the comfort of the visitors. The exhibition of objects of
beauty and interest was such as not only to afford satisfaction to
the Society and their guests, but also to create a belief that the
interest for microscopical research is greatly on the increase.

There was, on the whole, a larger display of microscopes of every
description than usual, contributed by nearly all of the London
makers — Messrs. Ross, Messrs. Beck, Messrs. Powell and Lealand,,
Mr. Ladd, Mr. Baker, Messrs. Murray and Heath, Home and
Thornwaite, J. How, Crouch, Swift, Browning, Collins, Norman,
Wheeler, Salmon, &c. &c.

The collection of old microscopes, superintended by Mr.
Williams, occupied one of the most attractive tables of the exhi-
bition. Under the Martin's microscope a splendid crystallized
mass of bismuth, with iridescent colours, formed a most splendid
object, while it demonstrated the large field and power of this
remarkable instrument. There was also the microscope made for
George III, with other curious early microscopes. A new reflect-
ing goniometer was shown by Mr. Browning, as well as a number
of spectroscopes. The absorption bands of the red feather of
the Turacus alho-cristatus, in which Professor Church discovered
the red organic pigment turacine, containing copper, were exhi-
bited by Mr. Browning, and the structure of the feather was
shown by Mr. Slack. The platform was occupied by Dr. Carpenter
and Mr. Henry Lee, the former bringing a beautiful collection to
illustrate the structure of the Ophiuridse, and the latter exhibiting
a selection of objects from the Paris Exhibition, and some elegant
drawings of snow crystals on the squares of a chess board.

]Mr. Ladd's exceedingly fine specimens of Iceland spar were a
source of much attraction ; and under one of his microscopes a
" spirally crystqjlized sulphate of copper." This salt, it appears,
when permitted to crystallize from warm solutions, assumes,
according to the temperature, a spiral appearance, as though the
solution during the process of cooling had been full of minute
whirlpools, or rather had taken on a rotatory motion. In this
state it becomes an attractive object for polarized light. Mr. W. S.
Waddington showed a beautiful and interesting series of micro-sub-
limates ; and in one of the lecture-rooms Mr. How, by the aid of
the oxy-hydrogen light, exhibited at intervals a series of Dr.
Maddox's micro-photographs, and a superb collection of photo-
graphs from various parts of Europe. Mr. How's kaleidoscope,
applied to the gas microscope, was also much admired.

Mr. Hopkinson's collection of fossils, among which we noticed

PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES.

183

a remarkable specimen of Diplograpsus angustif alius, Hall, in
which the prolonged axis is enveloped in a non-celliferous portion
of the periderm ; also a series of fossil woods illustrative of Mr.
Carruther's paper in the ' Intellectual Observer,' May and June,
1867.

Under the Society's microscopes were shown an interesting series
of objects from the AYallich and Beck collections, and objects pre-
sented by T. Eoss, Dr. Carpenter, and T. White. A series of
bronzes reduced to scale from the antique, by Mr. Flaxman
Spurrell, were much admired, as also were a series of drawings of
the British mosses by Dr. Braithwaite, and another series of
tongues of mollusca illustrative of Mr. Hogg's paper, a fine set
of coloured figures of fungi by G . W. Smith, and micro-photo-
graphs by Dr. Millar.

It would occupy too much space to particularise all the objects
of novelty, but we must mention Mr. Koss's new four-inch objec-
tive, and his tank microscope; Ackland's alcohol thermometers,
graduated on an entirely new plan to ensure accuracy ; a new form
of Eeade's double hemispherical condenser; Fiddian's lamp
chimney, by Mr. CoHins ; a new meteor-spectroscope, with an
enormous field, by Mr. Browning ; an improvement on Nachet's
stereo-pseudoscopic microscope, by Messrs. Murray and Heath ; a
pocket microscope by ditto; a travelling microscope by Mr.
Moginnie, &c.

May lUh, 1868.
James Glaishee, Esq., F.R.S., President, in the Chair.

The minutes of the preceding meeting were read and confirmed.

The following gentlemen were duly elected Fellows of the
Society :— Arthur E. Durham, F.R.C.S., &c. ; Charles S. Baker;
Dr. Edward Dowson.

The following donations were announced, and thanks returned to

the respective donors :

Presented by

. J. Smith, Jun.

. J. Swift.

. R. farmer.

. Society.

. S. J. M'lutire.

. Editor.

. Society.

. Editor.

. Society.

. C. Brooke, Esq.

. Publisher.

A aV^ Object-glass

A Condenser, with Polariscope, &c.

Adams on the Microscope, 2nd edition

Catalogue of Royal Society's Papers, vol. 1

Six Slides of Podura Scales

Land and Water (weekly)

Journal of Society of Arts

Photographic Journal _ .

Journal of Linnean Society

Journal of Geological Society

Portrait of Charles Brooke, Esq., F.

The Student ....

Untersuchungen ueber Eutwickelungsgeschichte des
Farbstofifes in Pflanzenzellen, von Dr. Adolf Weiss,
2 Parts . . . . •

R.S., &c.

Author.

184 PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES.

Presented by

Beitracr zu einer MonoE^rapliie der Sciarinen, von Joh.

Winnertz in Crefeld . . . Author.

The Microscope, 4tli edition, by Dr. Carpenter . Ditto.

Die Diatomeen der Hohen Satra bearbeit, von J. Seliu-

niann . . . . , Ditto.

Diagnosen der in Ungarn und Sclavonien Bisher Beo-

bachteten Gelasspfianzen, Verliandlunofen der kai-

serlich-koiii^licben Zoologisch-botanibchen Gessell-

schaft in Wien .... Ditto.

The attention of the Society was called to a set of models of the
gizzard of the PhilocUna roseola, made by the Hon. and Rev. the
Lord Sydney Godolphin Osborne.

Mr. Heisch read a description of improvements be had effected
in Nacbet's Stereo-pseudoscopic Binocular Microscope. (See
'Trans.,' p. 112.)

Mr. Bbooke explained the action of Nachet's construction.
_ A paper was then read " On Fungoid Growths in Aqueous Solu-
tions of Silica, and their Artificial Fossilization," by William
Chandler Roberts, F.C.S., Associate of the Royal School of
Mines, and Henry J. Slack, F.G.S., Sec. R.M.S. "(See ' Trans ,'
p. 105.)

Mr. Roberts gave some further account of the mode of pre-
paring silica solutions and their behaviour.

Mr. Barff, F.C.S., stated that, in his experiments referred to in
the paper, every care was taken to exclude dust. The silica solution
was dialysed in a vegetable parchment dialyser covered with filterino-
paper. After the potash and acid had passed away, the solution of
silica was filtered. Some growths were found on the filter, and
growths came abundantly in the solutions kept in University
College Laboratory. Some gelatinized specimens contain dozens of
the fungoid plants. As the gelatinized silica dries, the process does
not seem to go on by steady evaporation. He had observed a layer
of water on the top of some silica in a flask, as if it had been squeezed
out from the mass below. Peculiarities in the mode of drying mio-ht
account for the fungoid branches keeping their form during the
contraction of solidification. From some experiments he thought
that the presence of alkalies prevented these fungoid growths.
Where the growths had occurred the plants had no nutriment but
what they might derive from silica, air, and water. He thought
further observations might lead to a better understanding of the
part played by silica in agriculture. He considered that the
importance of silica had not been fully recognised hitherto.

Mr. Browning said that he had heard the vegetable appearance
compared with the peculiar fractures produced by electrical perfora-
tions in glass, but their actual growth was conclusive as to their
character.

Mr. Slack observed that the foliated aspect of glass perforations

PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES. 185

did not look like vegetation when properly examined, but did
resemble certain mineral crystallizations.

The Eev. J. B. Eeade said he had been struck with the im-
portant part played by silica in many plants. It was not confined
to cuticles of straw, &c., and was deposited as part of a true process
of growth. He inquired whether any carbon had been detected in
the artificial fossils of moulds.

Mr. RoBEETS replied that the quantity was probably too small ;
that Mr. Slack and himself had obtained a carbonaceous appearance
by heating mycelium threads, taken from silica solutions, in hot sul-
phuric acid ; nitric, hydrochloric, and nitro-hydrochloric acids, even
when hot, acted slowly upon them.

A paper was then read " On a New Form of Condenser with a
Blue Tmted Field Lens," by W. H. Hall, Esq., F.R.M.S. (See
'Trans.,' p. 108.)

Mr. Hall presented to the Society, on behalf of Mr. Swift, a con-
denser and paraboloid, made according to his pattern.

The thanks of the Society were unanimously voted to Mr. Swift.

The meeting was then made special, and the following amend-
ments of the Bye-Laws unanimously passed :

Proposed by the Rev. J. B. Reade, seconded by Mr. Lee —

" That Bye-Law Sec. 2, No. 7, shall be amended by the addition
of the following words, viz. — ' That, at the death of any com-
pounder, the fee paid by him for his composition may, by the direc-
tion of the Council, be released from such investment, and applied
as the Council may think fit.' "

Proposed by Dr. Millar, seconded by Chas. Brooke, Esq. —

" That, for the future, Sec. 2, No. 14, shall be as follows, viz. —
' Any Fellow who may be absent from tlie United Kingdom during
the space of one year, or who may permanently reside out of the
said kingdom, may, upon notifying such fact to the Secretaries in
writing, be exempted from paying one half of the annual subscrip-
tion of £2 2s. so long as his absence may continue. The publica-
tions due to Fellows residing out of the kingdom (Honorary Fellows
excepted) shall be delivered to such agent in London as they may
appoint.' "

June lOtk, 1868.
James Glaisher, Esq., F.R.S., President, in the Chair.

The following gentlemen were duly elected Fellows of the
Society : — Robert Luke Howard ; Joseph Russell ; Edward Davy
Harrop.

The President announced that the Reading-room would be
closed during the month of August, but, with that exception, it
could be used by Fellows in the recess.

The following donations were announced, and thanks returned to
the respective donors :

186 PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES.

Presented by

Slide of Spiral Sulphate of Copper . . . Mr. Ladd.

Journal of Linuean Society . . . Society.

Canadian Journal, No. 66 . . . Institute.

Photographic Journal .... Editor.

The Student ..... Publisher.

Micro-sublimation, by H. J. Waddington . . Author.

Proceedings of the Academy of Sciences of Philadelphia,

4 Parts ..... Academy,
Abhanlungen herausgegeben von Naturwissenschaftlichen

Vereine zu Bremen, 1868

Land and Water (weekly) . . . Editor.

Journal of Society of Arts . . , Society.

Portrait of James Bowerbank, Esq., F.R.S., &c. . J. Bowerbank.

Report of Board of Health on Cholera Epidemic of 1854 Jabez Hogg.

Annals of Natural History . . . Purchased.

The Seceetaet described " A Eeversible Compressorium, with
a Revolving Disk," designed by S. Piper, F.RM.S. (See p. 114.)

Dr. Thudichum delivered an interesting address " On the
Relation of Microscopic Fungi to Pathological Processes, particu-
larly the Process of (Cholera." He proceeded to a critical exami-
nation of the latest inquiries of Klob, Thome, Hallier, &c., all of
whom attribute the symptoms of cholera to a "fungus contagium,^''
and which they say can be found in all the excretory fluids of
persons affected with this disease. Their so-called " micrococci,"
which, as they suppose, destroy the villi of the intestines with
much rapidity, were, in Dr. Thudichum's opinion, the results of
granular disintegration, and could be met with in all albuminous
and nitrogenous matters after standing a few hours. As to the
" cylindriform fungi " of Klob, they were not fungi at all, but
bodies termed " vibriones," which rapidly multiply by self-division,
and when present have nothing whatsoever specifically to do with
the cause of cholera.

Mr. Hogg highly eulogised the scientific and valuable labours
of Dr. Thudichum, and observed that the subject offered an attrac-
tive and promising field of research for the Fellows of the Society,
skilled, as most of them were, in the use of the microscope. He
quite concurred in the views expressed by Dr. Thudichum ; and
Dr. Hassall, who during the epidemic visitation of 1854 made
twenty-five examinations of the rice-water discharges, stated
" that in none could he find either sporules, threads, or any
species of fungus." In some, however, after standing by for a
space of twenty-four hours, he observed " myriads of vibriones."
A full account of these examinations, with illustrations, appeared
in the ' Annual Report of the Board of Health ' of the period, a
copy of which Mr. Hogg had much pleasure in presenting to the
Society. He would also direct attention to the valuable researches
of Dr. Thudichum on this subject, published in the ' Blue Book'
of last year. In this report Dr. Thudichum shows, by the aid of

PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES. 187

micro-spectroscopy, that a marked alteration of the blood takes
place during the progress of choleraic disease.

The President, upon rising to propose a vote of thanks to Dr.
Thudichum, expressed the great pleasure with which he had
listened to his interesting remarks, and repeated that the " blue
mist," which he had described as being present during a cholera
visitation, had been visible during the past fortnight, but with
special diiferences in its appearance from that presented during
the prevalence of the disease.

A special vote of thanks was accorded to Mr. Bailey and Mr.
Collins for services rendered at the last soiree, which brought the
work of the session to a close.

QuEKETT Microscopical Club.

March 27tTi, 1868.

Dr. TiLBUBT Fox, Vice-President, in the Chair.

Mr. Curties read a paper by Mr. Tatem on "Some Eare and
TJndescribed Species of Infusoria."

Mr. E. T. Lewis read a paper on " The Application of Berlin
Black to Microscopical Purposes."

Mr. S. J. M'Intire read a paper on " Some Cheap Aids to Micro-
scopical Study."

According to notice given, the meeting was made special to con-
sider the following proposition : — " That ladies be permitted to be-
come members of the Club, and that such alterations in the rules be
made as may be necessary to effect this object ;" which, on being
put from the chair, was negatived.

Fifteen members were elected.

A2^ril 24<tli, 1868.
Mr. Arthur E. Durham, F.L.S., President, in the Chair.

Dr. Braithwaite read a paper on "The Mosses gathered at a
recent Excursion of the Club," illustrated by a collection of dried
specimens and numerous drawings, which he presented to the
Club as the first of a series of mosses found in the metropolitan
district.

Mr. S. J. M'Intire read a paper entitled " Some Additional Notes
on Podurse."

Twelve members were elected.

Ilay 22nd, 1868.
Mr. Arthur E. DuRHA\f, F.L.S., President, in the Chair.
Mr. James Martin read a paper on "The Crystallization of

vol. VIII. NEW SER. p

188 PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES.

Sulphate of Copper at different Temperatures," and exhibited a
series of specimens under the microscope.

Mr. J. Slade read a paper on " The Microscopic Structure of the
Shells of Crustacea," which he illustrated with several coloured
diagrams.

Dr. Braithwaite presented specimens of mosses in continuation of
the series, and called attention to four as being rare, viz. FissiJens
exilis, found by Mr. W. W. Reeves ; Ilypnum impotens and Bux-
haumia aphylla, found by Professor Lawson ; and Ilypnum llle-
cehrmn, found by Dr. Braithwaite, who also exhibited specimens of
WolJFia arhiza, the smallest of the British flowering plants, and
recently discovered here.

Thirty members were elected.

Dublin Microscopical Club,

IQtJi January, 1868.

Dr. Moore, alluding to the exhibition at last meeting of the
Protonema of ScMstosfeya osimmdacea, by Dr. Dickson, brought
forward a frond of this little moss, which he had in cultivation,
forming a very pretty low-power object.

Eev. E. O'Meara exhibited a new Navicula, to be hereafter
described.

Eev. T. Gr. Stokes exhibited a fine specimen of Actinoptycus
tricmgulus ; also, on the same slide, a test of a Difilugia obtained
from guano, which had withstood the action of the acid used in the
preparation of the diatoms. This was a balloon-shaped pellucid
form, externally marked by reticulations.

Dr. CoUis exhibited sections of a wart, which was passing into
cancerous degeneration. The sections showed the first two stages
of this degeneration, and corresponded with wonderful accuracy to
some diagrams on the subject which had appeared in his work on
' Cancer and Tumours.' In one portion of the section, the cuta-
neous papillse were seen in a state of simple hypertrophy, with tlie
epithelial covering lying in a dense horny mass upon the surface
of each papilla, and crowded irregularly in the interspaces between
the papillse. In a neighbouring part, the horny epidermis had
encroached on some of the papillse, and, by its pressure, produced
ulcerative absorption of them. Traces even of the third stage, or
interstitial deposit of the eperdermic scales in the substance of the
skin, could be faintly made out in some points. The difference of
colour and of refractive power in the true skin and the epidermis
brought out these points with more than usual sharpness.

20th February, 1868.

Dr. John Barker mentioned his having seen in "conjugation"
th.at minute rhizopod Trinema acinus, and described the alternate

PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES. 189

transference of the granular contents to take place quite in the
same manner as previously referred to by Mr. Archer in one or two
species of Difflugia.

Rev. E. O'Meara exhibited Surirella reniforme.

Mr. Archer exhibited a couple of instances of the conjugated
state of the common and widely-distributed diatom, Stam^oneis
phcenicenteron, the more interesting as being for the first time
seen seemingly in any species of that genus. The process in the
form shown is, however, nearly a complete parallel to the mode of
conjugation described by Carter for Navicula serians (' Ann.
Nat. Hist.,' V. XV., N.S., p. 161. PI. iv, f. 7) ; at least, this
might be said for it so far as could be gathered from the present
specimens, which were in such a condition that the process was
quite completed, and the so-called " sporangial frustule," more
properly regarded rather as simply the first ordinary frustule of a
new cycle, was fully formed. The main point of difference was
that seemingly there was but one young frustule produced, not two,
as in JVavicula serians. Another distinction, of less importance,
was that the secondary coverings of the new fi'ustule were neither
so numerously nor so distinctly marked by annular ribs — these
were much fewer than depicted by Carter, and confined to the
middle, the ends being without these transverse markings. The
" Caps," or hemispheres, of what ought seemingly to be called the
Zygospore, were present, and borne aloft, as in iV. serians, by the
new large young frustule. As in Navicula, the conjugating frus-
tules were very small, the resultant frustule evolved from the
Zygospore being twice the linear dimensions in every way of the
former. But one meets this and other forms, as is well known, of
many various dimensions, and the young frustules were in every
respect perfectly similar to all those of the same species around, save
in size merely. It is, perhaps, curious that this almost cosmopolitan
species should never before have been met with conjugated ; that
fact would, however, render the present specimens the more in-
teresting.

Dr. Purser showed specimens of the goblet-shaped epithelial cells
(" Becherzellen " of the Germans) from the small intestine of the
cat, and he made some remarks on the structure and probable
function of the unicellular glands for the secretion of mucus.

Capt. Crozier showed some elegant diatoms ; amongst others
Mastoglcea eleqans, Cymhoseira impressa, &c.

Dr. Macalister showed Docophorus semisignatus, a parasite of
the Raven.

Mr. Archer likewise drew attention to a characteristic recent
specimen of the new Rhizopod, ClathruUna elegans (Cienskowski),
showing the encysted condition as in that observer's plate, fig. 6,
being that state which Mr. Archer had once imagined to represent
a " central capsule," comparable to that of the marine Radiolaria of
Hackel. Mr. Archer had only once before been able to show a
specimen of this creature to the club, and it was not in the encysted
state, but with the sarcode body in the ordinary condition.

190 PROCEEDINGS Olf SOCIETIES.

Resolved, that the menohers of the club desire to place on record
their unfeigned regret at the loss to science and to the club,
caused by tlie death of their lamented friend, and respected and
esteemed honorary member, the late Admiral Jones, F.L.S.

19ih March, 18G8.

Rev. Eugene O'Meara exhibited Navicula zanzibarica from Dr,
E. Perceval Wright's collections at the Seychelles.

Rev. E. O'Meara likewise exhibited a' new species of Actinocy-
clus given to him by the Rev. T. Gr. Stokes. The following is an
extract from a communication from the latter gentleman :

" I have been for some time engaged in examining a quantity of
Haliotis shell cleanings, and, owing to the great number of sponge
spicules, found it necessary to mount the diatoms by the method
of selection, using a simple microscope. There were in it three or
four forms similar to that which I send. Dr. Grreville, a short time
before his death, sent me a slide from a Californian gathering, con-
taining three or four frustules of this species. He named it pro-
visionally Actinocyclus, but was so uncertain as to the genus, that
he was unwilling to give it any specific name. Had he seen it, as
I have, floating in fluid, inclined at various angles to the axis of
vision, and exhibiting, even under a simple microscope, the cha-
racteristics of the genus, his opinion would have been confirmed.
This form is not extremely rare, but it is far from common. Under
a low power, when at rest, this diatom appears like a plain yellow
disc, but when examined under a high power, the radiating lines and
subraargmal pseudonodule are visible, as well as fine transverse
markings, similar to those on Triceratium marylandicum.'''

Mr. Archer exhibited a couple of authentic specimens of
JKicrasterias Hermanniana (Reinsch), as well as that author's
figure of the same, in his " Algenflora des mittleren Theiles von
Franken," t. viii, fig 1. He also showed Grrunow's figure of his
Mlcrasterias Wallichii, given in his paper in Rabenhorst's ' Bei-
trage zur naheren Kenntniss und Verbreitunor der Al£:en,' t. ii, fiff.
21, and this in order, whilst pointing out their great resemblance,
to which Reinsch does not allude, to indicate that they may be
nevertheless quite distinct. M. Wallichii (Grrunow) is furnished
with an inflation at the base of the segments, which does not seem
to exist in M. Hermanniana, and the ultimate lobes of the former
are not so slender as in the latter. Yet they seem to resemble
each other quite as much, or more, than many of our common and
familiar home forms, which, however, Reinsch himself would com-
bine as single species, but still, if we were equally well acquainted
with the two forms in question, we should, perhaps, just as readily see
that they were truly distinct. But, be it as it may eventually turn
out, the two figures are worthy of comparison by those interested
in these forms.

Rev. E. O'Meara read some remarks in reply to a communication

PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES. 191

from Mr. Kitton in preceding number of this Journal, animadvert-
ing on new species of Diatomacse described by the former gentle-
man, and which has already appeared in the last number.

Royal College 0/ Surgeons, Hunterian Lectures on the
Invertebrata. By Prof. T. H. Huxley, F.R.S. (Abstract,)

{Continued, from page 129.)

Lecture III. — The jSIonerozoa include besides the Forami-
nifera and Protogenes, other forms in which there is a
marked advance in structure. The Amoebee generally, which
used to be classed as Rhizopoda lobosa, belong here^ and
present a nucleus and contractile vesicle. Professor Huxley
doubts as to whether the contractile vesicle has a permanent
opening. The AmoebEe multiply by fission, and also present
an approach to a sexual mode of reproduction. The Amoeba
becomes quiescent, and perhaps encysted, when the nucleus
splits up into several pieces, each of which becomes sur-
rounded by a definite mass of the parent Amoeba's sarcode
substance, and each when set free becomes a new and very
small Amoeba. The next step onwards in structure is found
in the Gregarinse. These organisms are all internally
parasitic. No distinct cuticular membrance is to be traced
in normal individuals, but the outermost part of the jelly-
like substance of which the animal consists is denser than
the rest, more or less, and forms a sort of cortical substance.
The inner and more liquid material contains innumerable
coarse granules, and a clear vesicular body or nucleus. No
pseudopodia are ever extruded by these animals. They live
by imbibition, being continually bathed in a nutritious broth
formed for them by the animal they infest. They reproduce
by a breaking up into bodies called pseudo-navicula. These
pseiido-naviculce, which are formed by encysted Gregarinse,
give rise to Amoeba forms which become Gregarinse. One
Gregarina can alone produce pseudo-naviculce, at the same
time Professor Huxley considers that the analogies of this
process with the conjugation of Algse should be borne in
mind. It is noteworthy that the younger Gregarinse have
almost no granular matter, and are by far more active than
the larger specimens. The Foraminifera, with Protogenes,
Lieberkuhnia, &c., the Amoebse and the Gregarnise, form the
group Moyierozoa. The Radtolaria form the second group of
the Protozoa. Professor Huxley, in his voyage in the

192

PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES.

Rattles7iake , observed the jelly-like spiculated masses to
which he gave the name Thalassicolla. Johannes Miiller
subsequently showed that they had been observed by Meyen,
and he himself studied them. But it is to his pupil, Pro-
fessor Hackel of Jena, that we owe our knowledge of the
group. He has published a very large work on them, illus-
trated with most beautiful coloured figures (1862). Ehren-
berg described the siliceous shells of many of these Radiolaria
as Polycystina. A Radiolarian consists of a rounded mass of
sarcode, capable of extruding pseudopodia (which Professor
Huxley confessed he had missed in his examinations on
board ship) ; in this are scattered numerous yellow cells,
probably, as Hackel says, acting the part of liver, as we see
also in Hydrozoa. In the midst of this is a sac with
granules, and a clear nucleus, sometimes containing also
curious crystals of sulphate ©f lime. In addition to this, we
may have a skeleton, composed either of scattered spiculse,
{Sjjhoerozoum) , or a complete enclosing basket-work (Poly-
cystina), or radiating siliceous rods {Acanthometra) . These
skeletons, which are siliceous, have the most wonderfully
beautiful forms, and all this modelling force exists in a mass
of homogeneous jelly ! Some Radiolaria are aggregated into
masses, as Sphcerozoum, others are single. Their reproduc-
tion is but little known. Division has been observed, but no
sexual process. In some respects the Radiolaria lead to the
Sponges, although perhaps they ought to be regarded rather
as a terminal group than as leading anywhere. They are to
a small extent rock-makers : as we see in the celebrated
Barbadoes earth, which contains Polycystina.

Spongiad(je . — The structure of Spongilla was described
(see Lectures on Classification, p. 14;) as a type. The
sponges are to be regarded as aggregations of Amoeboid
animals. The ova and spermatozoa are developed in any
part of the sponge, and the ciliated embryo, which is pro-
duced, encloses the germ or future sponge (fig. 1). It is

<y4^^

tMH^

not known if yelk division takes place. The sponges fall
into five groups. (1.) HaUsarcida — very simple forms, with
no spicula ; the presence of water canals not ascertained.

PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES. 193

(2.) Clionidce — the perforating sponges ; they use their spicula
for perforating ; each species makes a pattern of its own like
the leaf-burrowing caterpillars. Silurian species have been
observed. (3.) Spongidce — having the structure of Spongilla.
Fritz jMiiller has lately described (see Quart. Chronicle, vol.
for 1866) a genus Darwinella, which has horny spicula as
well as horny fibres building up its skeleton. Some sponges
have very few spicula, and are then used for washing, &c.
Grantia has calcareous spicula, which are very long, and
placed round the apertures. They are the nearest approach
to the enormously long siliceous spicula of Hyalonema from
Japan. Professor Huxley fully supported Max Schultze's
view of the parasitic nature of the Actinozoon found at
the base of Hyalonema. (4.) Petrospongidoe, — abound in the
chalk : such forms as Ventriculites, &c. They have a peculiar
arrangement of the fibres of their skeleton (fig. 2) . They are
doubtfully placed among the sponges. (5.) Tethyadce — large
spheroid bodies with huge spicula radiating from the centre ;
sometimes provided with anchors at their ends. Their sexual
condition has been well studied.

Lecture IV. — The Infusoria seem to stand between Pro-
tozoa and Annuloida. ParamcEcium was described as in
former lectures, as a type. (See Lect. on Classif., 1865.)
A distinct cuticula was admitted for the Infusoria, which is
continuous with the cilia. The mouth leading into the semi-
liquid substance of the body, and the appearance of pellets of
food surrounded by water when taken in, were described.
Professor Ehrenberg still retains his view as to plurality of
stomachs {Polygastrica), being ^'a man who does not give
up an opinion which he has once adopted." The cause of
the slow rotation of the food within Infusoria is still un-
known. Professor Huxley compared it to the circulation in
Anacharis and Valisneria. A distinct anal aperture is now
admitted to exist in Infusoria, which can only be detected
when matter is being expelled from it. The chlorophyl
granules which abound in some Infusoria are admitted by
Professor Huxley to be formed in all probability by the
animal itself. He also adopts the view that the contractile
vesicles have a permanent communication with the exterior.
The notion that Infusoria are unicellular organisms has had
to be considerably modified. Their so-called nucleus is only
in a limited sense to be regarded as a nucleus ; it is in
another sense an ovary. Miiller, Claparede, Balbiani, and
lastly, Stein, in his second great book lately published, have
contributed to our knowledge of sexual reproduction in
Infusoria. Balbiani showed that what Miiller took to be a

194

PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES.

process of fission, was really the result of the coujunctiou of
two infusors, which he maintained exchanged spermatic
elements (nncleoH). Stein now denies the exchange, but
maintains that the conjugation merely gives a stimulus to
the development of the sexual organs. Professor Huxley
thinks that, at first sight, Balbiani's is the more likely view.
The nucleus, at any rate, splits up, and each piece becomes
an embryo — not acting therefore like a true ovary, but in a
measure like the nucleus of a cell. The embryo so formed is
a ciliated creature, with long sucker-like pseudopodia ; it is
what is called the Acineta-form (fig. 3) . There are four definite
modifications of the Infusorian type, illustrated respectively
by — (1.) Paramoecium and the free forms. (2.) Yorticella
and the stalked forms, in which the cilia are confined to a
double row on the " head,^^ one row on each side the crescent-
shaped oval aperture. The stem of Vorticella contains a
true muscular fibre. No nucleoli or testes have ever been
detected in Yorticellse, and Stein maintains that the little
fellows hanging on to large Vorticellse, which used to be
thought "buds," are really the male forms conjugating (as do
two Paramtecia), and that they are ultimately absorbed into
the larger individual. The view which Stein put forward as
to the connection of Vorticella, Aciueta, and Actinophrys,
he has now withdrawn. It is quite erroneous. (3.) Acineta
and Podophrys. These are most remarkable as presenting
permanently (?) the condition of young Infusoria. The
hollow sucker-like pseudopodia in them take the place of a
mouth. They are in fact " polystomatous/' (4.) Noctiluca.
Hackel A'cry erroneously places this animal with his Protista.
It is difficult to put it anywhere, but Professor Huxley prefers
to place it here. De Quatrefages has shown that it is the
granules of the superficial layer that give rise to the light.
Noctiluca is like a reticulate monerozoon placed quite within
a peach-shaped capsvile, to which is attached the tail-like
process, and in which is the mouth, its horny ring, and
cilium-like tongue. (See papers in this Journal by Professor
Huxley and others.)

The Annuloida have their tissues differentiated into cellular
elements. They exhibit a Bilateral and often a successional
symmetry of parts (contrasting in this with Infusoria). They
never have a chain of ganglia. They all have the water-
vascular system. Two groups may be distinguished among
them, the Scolecida and the Echinodermata. The Piotifera
form a good commencement for the study of the Scolecida as
they present the typical structure. The cuticle of the Rotifera
is more or less chitinous ; the body is faintly annulated. At

PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES.

195

the anterior end is the trochal disc^, a ciliated expanse vary-
ing in its structure ; at the anal end there is often a pair of
pincers ; there may be, however, no apendages at all. The
mouth leads into a proventriculus or gizzard provided with a
chitinous crusliing apparatus ; the intestine which follows is
large but straight and simple. In Hyclatina, a pair of glands
called by Ehrenberg " pancreas " open into the alimentary
canal. From the cloaca proceed two long tubes which coil
up the sides of the body, and each give oft' four delicate
branches terminating by ciliated trumpet-shaped organs
hanging freely in the perivisceral fluid. These form the
water- vascular system which is the great characteristic of the
Scolecida. The generative organs are simple enough, consist-
ing in the female of a simple ovary opening into the cloaca ;
in the male, which is much smaller than the female, and
destitute of alimentary apparatus, a testis and penis are
found.

Lecture V. — The Scolecida include the following groups in
addition to the Rotifera, the Trematoidea, and Turbellaria, the
Cestoidea, and Acanthocephala, the Nematoidea and Gordia-
cea. The Trematods have no proper perivisceral cavity, that is
to say, instead of a corpusculated fluid, there is a cellular tissue.
The details of structure of Aspidogaster were given (see
former lectures) . The existence of a germarium and of a
vitellarium was especially noticed — it being possible for the
impregnation of the ova to be eft'ected before the accessory
yolk from the vitellarium was poured round it. The integu-
ment of Fasciola presents numerous lancet-like bodies of a
chitinous material, which aid it in progression, and call to mind
the bodies in the integument of some other Scolecida (fig. -i).

The alimentary canal is in Trematods a blind sac, either
single or double, or, as in Fasciola, much branched. The
water-vascular system, essentially as in Aspidogaster, varies as
to the presence or absence of a pyriform sac. In the flukes

196 PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES.

there is a median dorsal vessel which is not ciliated. Distoma
Okeni and Bilharzia hoematobium are the only Trematods of
distinct sexes. The latter is a dangerous parasite of Egypt,
causing the death of hundreds of the poorer class. The male
permanently embraces the female, so that they present through
life this appearance (fig. 5). No complete case of Trematod
development is yet known. Leuckhart has found that the
common Fluke gives rise to a ciliated larva (fig. 6), but he
has been unable to trace it further. But by comparing the
Monostonum of birds, the Redia and Cercaria of water-snails,
which subsequently become encysted, and give rise to a Dis-
toma, we are able to frame some notion of^the order of
development. It is evident that two hosts are necessary, of
which the second is nearly always higher in the animal series
than the first. "VVe get, then, the following order : — 1. Ciliated
embryo ; 2. Redia, which may produce other Redise by in-
ternal budding, but eventually produces, 3. Cercarise, whi<;h
become encysted, and emerge, as 4. Distomata, which lay
eggs. In some cases the Rediae are simple oval masses, and
are then called Sporocysts. In the fresh-water Mussel, a
form of Cercaria is found which has not yet been traced out ;
it has two long tails instead of one, and is known as Buce-
phalus. D'qjlozoon is a Trematod ; the individuals are hatched
separately, but come together and fuse or conjugate as in the
Infusoria, and then the sexual organs develop.

Lecture YI. — The Turbellaria are very near to the Trema-
toidea, but none are parasitic, they never have prehensile
hooks as some Trematods do, nor any suckers. In the inte-
gument are bodies resembling thread-cells and aciculi. The
alimentary canal exhibits the simple and the branched form,
as in the types Nemertes, Opisthomum, and PoIyceUs. The
proboscis, which some Nemertians have in front of the mouth,
but usually packed in the body-cavity, is a very remai'kable
structure. The water-vascular system in some has more than
one pore. In Nemertians it is open when young, but in
adults it is closed definitely, forming a contractile system of
vessels like that of Annelida. The nervous system consists
of a couple of ganglia, giving off two long stems, but there is
no gangliated chain. The reproductive organs present two
extremes of complexity ; in Nemertians they are simple
masses which escape by dehiscence, the sexes being distinct ;
in Planarians they are as complicated with accessory parts,
&c., as in any group of animals. The development of Tur-
bellarians presents many points of interest, and is not yet
known in more than a few forms. A certain species of
Planaria presents a larva of the form in fig. 12, presenting

PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES. 197

two ciliated ridges produced into well-marked processes. These
subsequently shrink up^ and the animal becomes a simple
Planaria ; the resemblance to some Echinoderm larvae in this
form is striking. In a Nemertes, a larval form which has
been named Pilidium is produced^ in the interior of which
the young worm develops, enclosing the alimentary canal of
the larva, and finally escaping from it, leaving the rest of the
larva to perish. This is identical with what goes on in some
Echinoderms. The Cestoidea are represented by the common
Tape- worm. When in its habitual haunts, the tape-worm is
quite an active creature, exhibiting considerable power of
movement. The head presents two rows of hooks and four
suckers. A circular vessel exists in the head from which
proceed four longitudinal stems, the branches of which are
ciliated ; they open together by a terminal pore at the last
joint, the canals of each joint being connected to those of the
succeeding joint by such a pore. It is said that a nerve-
ganglion exists in the head of Taenia, but this appears very
doubtful. In the integument are minute oval bodies, vari-
ously dispersed. They are the so-called " calcareous corpus-
cles," but are by no means always calcareous. It is suggested
that these corpuscles are at the extremities of fine branches of
the water-vascular system, and are composed of Guanin (an
eflFete product allied to uric acid), since such bodies have been
found in the vessels of Distomata, where Guanin also has been
detected. Each segment of the tape-worm is hermaphrodite,
and has its genital pore. The organs are arranged essentially
on the Trematod plan — a penis, testicular sacs, vagina,
ovarium, germarium, and great uterine chamber. The penis
has been continually seen to pass into the vagina of the same
joint, whence self-impregnation has been inferred but not
proved.

Two hosts are not necessary for the tape- worm. A man
who swallowed the joint of a Tania solium would have the
eggs hatch in his stomach, and make their Avay into his
muscles. , There they would assume the hydatid form, and
when this man was eaten by another (for men were un-
doubtedly cannibals in the earlier periods), the head of the
hydatid would give rise to a tape- worm. Usually, uow-
a-days, the pig or ox hatch the tape- worm's eggs for us. The
larva has a bilateral symmetry, with three pairs of hooks.
On being carried by the blood into the muscular tissue it
assumes the pupal condition, developing into a large sac, in
an involution of which the head appears growing inwards
until by pressure it is forced inside out. The terms larva,
pupa, and imago may be fairly used in this case. The pupa

198 PKOCEEBIXGS OF SOCIETIES.

or hydatid is to be regarded, as Siebold says, as an abnormal
dropsical condition ; the creature has lost its way, as it were,
and is waitiug to be removed by the mastication of some
carnivorous animal. The restriction of the existence of
species of tape- worm to certain stomachs is very noticeable.
The pig's stomach will not support its (the human) cysticerci.
Lecture VII. — Van Beueden's classification of Cestoidea
was considered very good by Professor Huxlev. 1. Carvo-
phyllidea : simple forms found in the carp, of only one joint
and an unarmed head. 2. Tetraphyllidea : found in sharks
and rays, whilst the pupge live in osseous fish ; they have
very complete hooks, and four probosces like tli^t of Echino-
rhynchus. 3. Diphyllidea : contains the single genus, Echino-
bothriiim, also found in Plagiostomous fish. 4. Pseudo-
phyllidea : with no suckers, and but- few hooks, not in a
circle. To this group belongs Ligula, common in fresh-water
fish. The imago is found in water birds, Ligula is band-
like, and unsegmented in appearance, but contains many
series of reproductive organs. Bothriocephalus belongs here.
In Eussia, Poland, the Baltic, Switzerland, and Ireland, it
occurs as a human parasite. Fresh-water fish have been
supposed to be the means of introducing it. The larva,
unlike that of any other Cestoid, is ciliated. The genital
pore is in the middle of each joint of the adult worm, and
the uterus is coiled. 5. Teeniada : almost exclusively as
adults in the mammalia. The differences presented by the
group are greatest in the pupal state; there is the Cysti-
cercus, the Coenurus, and the Echniococcus form. The com-
mon tape-worm is not T. soUum, but T. mediocaneJlata,
which has no hooks. Its hydatid or pupa harbours in the
ox. A man who liked mutton seemed in spite of this
discovery to be safe, but now, alas ! a hydatid has been
found in a mutton chop.^ The Cysticercus form of larva
is a bag, with a single small hooked head, which becomes
the tape-worm head. Coenurus has many of these heads, and
is a much larger sac ; they are found in the brain of sheep,
and as the heads are hooked and retractile cause considerable
cerebral disturbance. The tape-worm of the Coenurus lives
in the sheep-dog. The terrible Echinococcus, which some-
times forms cysts in the human liver, has a disputed structure.
Its tape-worm is very small, and lives in the dog, having only
three joints. Professor Huxley some years since had the
opportunity of examining an Echniococcus cyst from the
Quaggaj and he now described it in some detail. The first

* Horse seems after ail the only food that can be relied on.

PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES.

199

membrane of the Ecliniococcus is a large elastic tunic, forming
the cyst^ not adventitious, but secreted by the worm (fig, 8, c,m) .

Within this is a fine cellular membrane {v, m), with ramifying
vessels, belonging to the water-vascular system, and said to
be ciliated. Inversions of this membrane are to be found,
which are in fact Taenia heads (A, h) . The fluid within contains
granules and some calcareous matter, and also large floating
and attached sacs, with inversions forming Taenia heads ; but,
strange to say, Professor Huxley found on some of the float-
ing cysts Taenia heads growing outwards as eversions. Leuck-
hart says that these will eventually point in, but Professor
Huxley agrees with Siebold, and thinks that we have here
really heads growing from both surfaces of the cellular mem-
brane. Now, in Coenwus (fig. 9) we have heads all growing out-
wards, but in this there is no cyst membrane ; and in Echino-
coccus, where there is, we may explain the inward growth of
the heads by the pressure from without. This explanation
of the inward growth would be very sufficient were it not for
this observation of Professor Huxley^ s, that in the contained
cysts heads grow on both surfaces. Some further explana-
tion is required. Suppose, therefore, he says, that the cel-
lular membrane of the cyst is folded into itself thus, as is
readily admissible from analogy of Cysticercus (figs. 10, 11),
Then both a and b are continuous surfaces, and the heads,
after all, are produced only as processes from one and the
same surface. This hypothesis depends on the observation of

200 PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES.

heads on two opposite surfaces in the cysts of the Quagga,
and Professor Huxley would like to have further confirmation
of his observations.

In the Acanthocephali {Echinorhynchi) the head^ provided
with a spiny proboscis, is thrust through the wall of the
intestine of its host. There is no segmentation, and no ali-
mentary canal ; the genitalia are simple, and open in a large
posterior funnel. The integument exhibits an extraordinary
arrangement of reticulating canals, which arise very curiously.
It has lately been shown that in the ovary three shells or
coverings form around the ovum. The embryo, which is
directly developed, has four hooks, and is covered over with
spines. Those of fresh-water fish bore their way into the
legs of Gammari, and there lose their outer investments^ and
are left as mere sacs. A new blastema appears within and
develops into the chief organs of the worm, and touching
the wall of the sac at intervals, gives rise to the extraordinary
system of reticulate vessels. They are quite different, there-
fore, to the vessels of the water-vascular system. It is very
difficult to assign a distinct position to the Echinorhynchi.

Lecture VIII. — The group Nematoidea was held to include
the Gordiacea, which in former lectures Professor Huxley has
kept as a distinct group. One of the most remarkable
features in Nematoides is the radial symmetry observable in
a cross section. It does not seem possible in them to distin-
guish dorsal and ventral surface, but there is a quadruple
arrangement round a centre, whilst the alimentary canal
presents in section the form of an equilateral triangle. In
this radial arrangement they approach the vermiform Echino-
derms. The cuticle is very thick and chitinous. Its lami-
nated layers, which cross and intercross, were till recently
mistaken for muscular layers. The integument is also very
largely perforated by pore canals. In these worms, too,
ecdysis is a constant phenomenon. Schneider, who has
recently written a great work on the group, states that twice
in the life of every nematod the skin is shed. Beneath
the thick cuticle is a cellular dermis, by which it is secreted.
This cellular dermis gives rise to four longitudinal ridges or
thickenings pi'ojecting inwards, causing those lateral lines
which have been so variously interpreted by different writers.
The two lateral thickenings a a are the most prominent, and
contain each a vessel of the water- vascular system. They
open by a pore placed near the oesophagus. Professor
Huxley, in an unknown species of nematod, observed that
the vessels were distinctly contractile, but no one has yet
confirmed this. However that may be, there are no cilia in

PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES. 201

these vessels, and they most certainly represent the contractile
non-ciliated portion of the water-vascular system. Deeper
than the dermis and its thickenings lie the muscles.
Schneider has divided the Nematoidea in accordance with
the arrangement of the muscular system thus : 1. Holo-
myaria (Gordius, Mermis). 2. Meromyaria (Trichina, &c.).
3. Polymyaria (Ascaris, Anguillula). In the first division
there is a uniform, unbroken sheet of muscular tissue spread
beneath the dermis ; in the second division the muscular

layer is broken up into series of rhomboidal plates of mus-
cular tissue ; whilst in the third it is still more broken up,
and projects in masses into the cavity of the body. These
projections have been mistaken for glands by some observers.
A remarkable confluence of some of the muscular fibres along
the ventral line of the body, forming a sort of " raphe,'^
has been mistaken for the gangliated cord of a nervous
system. The nervous system is found in a ring surrounding
the trihedral pharynx, and presenting three ganglionic enlarge-
ments. Four trunks appear to proceed from this, but two
only can be traced, one along each water-vessel. The
pharynx is trihedral, and presents an enlargement, which
is worked by three powerful muscles, and serves as a pump.
In Trichina the gullet is extremely narrow, and obscured by
cellular growth ; whilst in ^lermis, the place of the alimen-
tary canal is completely taken up by a mass of cells, which
have received the name of corpus adiposum. The history of
the development and sexual conditions of the Nematoidea is
in many respects very interesting.

Lecture IX. — Cucullanus elegans has two hosts, a fish and
a crustacean larva. Gordius and Mermis are parasitic when
asexual, but free when mature. Dracunculus, the guinea-
worm, presents a case in which there is a parasitic propaga-
tive state, but since no one has detected spermatozoa, the
idea is suggested that they reproduce by budding, as parasites,
but that, as Carter suggests, their sexual parents are free-
living Nematoids of the ponds and tanks. Sphm^'ularia is
another very strange case. In this there is no alimentary

20.2 PROCEEDINGS 01' SOCIETIES.

canal, but large ovarian tubes ; at one end grows out a small
neraatoid worm, said to be the male by Sir John Lubbock, who
found it. At one period it is the same size as the female, as
in Diplozoon, but the female grows enormously, while the
male does not. Schneider, however, says that the supposed
large female is merely a huge prolapsed ovarian sack. A
third remarkable case is that of Ascaris mgrovenosa. In the
lung of the frog they are found reproducing viviparously.
The young so produced pass into the intestine, where they
accumulate in the clacaa. They are very minute. When
they are set free, and kept in moist earth, they become
Anguillulae, and develop into males and females. The eggs
laid by these when placed in the frog's mouth pass into the
lung, where they develop into the viviparous form again.
No male Ascaris nigrovenosa (that is, the lung-infesting stage)
has ever been seen, and Leuckart believes the reproduction
is asexual. Schneider, however, says he saw spermatozoa in
them, and he believes they are hermaphrodite. If this
should prove true, the case would be one completely without
parallel in the whole animal kingdom. Such an alternation
of monoecious and dioecious generations is not known.

ORIGINAL COMMUNICATIONS.

On SOME Organisms living at Great Depths in the North
Atlantic Ocean. By Professor Huxley, F.R.S.

In the year 1857, H.M.S. *' Cyclops," under the com-
mand of Cajitain Dayman, was despatched by the Admiralty
to ascertain the depth of the sea and the nature of the bot-
tom in that part of the North Atlantic in which it was pro-
posed to lay the telegraph cable, and which is now commonly
known as the " Telegraph plateau."

The specimens of mud brought up were sent to me for
examination, and a brief account of the results of my obser-
vations is given in ' Appendix A ' of Captain Dayman^s
Report, which was published in 1858 under the title of
" Deep-Sea Soundings in the North Atlantic Ocean." In
this Ajjpendix (p. 64) the following passage occurs :

" Hut I find in almost all these deposits a mvdtitude of
very curious rounded bodies, to all appearance consisting of
several concentric layers surrounding a minute clear centre,
and looking, at first sight, somewhat like single cells of the
plant Protococcus ; as these bodies, however, are rapidly
and completely dissolved by dilute acids, they cannot be
organic, and I will, for convenience sake, simply call them
coccoliths."

In 1860, Dr. Wallich accompanied Sir Leopold McClin-
tock in H.M.S. " Bulldog," which was employed in taking a
line of soundings between the Faroe Islands, Greenland, and
Labrador ; and, on his return, printed, for private circula-
tion, some " Notes (m the presence of Animal Life at vast
depths in the Sea." In addition to the coccoliths noted by
me. Dr. Wallich discovered peculiar spheroidal bodies,
which he terms " coccospheres," in the ooze of the deep-sea
mud, and he throws out the suggestion that the coccoliths
proceed from the coccospheres. In 1861, the same writer
pubHshed a paper in the ' Annals of Natural History,' en-
titled " Researches on some novel Phases of Organic Life,

VOL. VIII. NEW SER. (i

204 PROF. HUXLEY, ON SOME ORGANISMS FROM GREAT

and on the Boring Powers of minute Annelids at great
dejiths in the Sea." In this paper Dr. Wallich figures the
coccoliths and the coccospheres, and suggests that the cocco-
liths are identical with certain bodies which had been ob-
served by Mr. Sorby, F.R.S., in chalk.

The 'Annals' for September of the same year (1861) con-
tains a very important paper by the last-named writer, " On
the Organic Origin of the so-called 'Crystalloids' of the
Chalk/' from which I must quote several passages. Mr.
Sorby thus commences his remarks :

" The appearance of Dr. Wallich's interesting paper pub-
lished in this magazine (vol. viii, p. 52), in ■s\ihich he alludes
to my having found in chalk objects similar to coccoliths,
induces me to give an account of iny researches on the sub-
ject. I do not claim the discovery of such bodies in the
chalk, but to have been the first to point out ( 1) that they
are not the result of crystalline action ; (2) that they are
identical with the objects described as coccoliths by Professor
Huxley ; and (3) that these are not single separate indivi-
duals, but portions of lai'ger cells."

In respect of the statement which I have numbered (1),
Mr. Sorby observes :

" By examining the fine granular matter of loose, uncon-
solidated chalk in water, and causing the ovoid bodies to
turn round, I found that they are not flat discs, as described
and figured by Ehrenberg, but, as shown in the oblique side
view (fig. 5), concave on one side, and convex on the other,
and indeed of precisely such a form as would result from
cutting out oval Avatch-glasses from a moderately thick, hol-
low glass sphere, whose diameter was a few times greater
than their own. This is a shape so entirely unlike anything
due to crystalline, or any other force, acting independently of
organization — so different to that of such round bodies,
formed of minute radiating crystals, as can be made artifi-
cially, and do really occur in some natural deposits — and
pointed so clearly to their having been derived from small
hollow spheres, that I felt persuaded that such was their
origin."

Mr. Sorby then states that, having received some speci-
mens of Atlantic maul from me, he at once perceived the
identity of the ovoid bodies of the chalk Avith the structures
wliich I had called coccoliths, and found that, as he had pre-
dicted several years before, " the ovoid bodies were really
derived from small hollow spheres, on which they occur,
separated from each other at definite intervals."

The coccospheres themselves, Mr. Sorby thinks, may be

DEPTHS IN THE NORTH ATLANTIC OCEAN. 205

** an independent kind of organism, related to, but not the
mere rudimentary form of, Foraminifera."

" With respect to the coccoKths, their optical character
proves that they have an extremely fine, radiating, crystalline
structure, as if they had gi-own by the deposition of car-
bonate of lime on an elongated central nucleus, in accordance
with the oval-ringed structure shown in fig. 1 (magnified
800 linear)."

I am not aware that anything has been added to our
knowledge of the " coccoliths" and " coccospheres" since the
publication of Mr. Sorby's and Dr. Wallich's researches.
Quite recently I have had occasion to re-examine specimens
of Atlantic mud, which were placed inspirits in 1857, and
have since remained in my possession. I have employed
higher magnifying powers than I formerly w^orked with, or
than subsequent observers seem to have used, my great help
having been an excellent -Vth by Ross, which easily gives a
magnifying power of 1200 diameters, and renders obvious
many details hardly decipherable with the -g^th inch objective
which I used in 1857.

The sticky or viscid character of the fresh mud from the
bottom of the Atlantic is noted by Captain Dayman.*
" Between the 15th and 45th degrees of west longitude lies
the deepest part of the ocean, the bottom of which is almost
wholly composed of the same kind of soft, mealy substance,
which, for want of a better name, I have called ooze. This
substance is remarkably sticky, having been found to adhere
to the sounding rod and line (as has been stated above)
through its passage from the bottom to the surfjice — in some
instances from a depth of more than 2000 fathoms."

This stickiness of the deep-sea mud arises, I suppose, from
the circumstance that, in addition to the Globigerina of all
sizes which are its chief constituents, it contains innumer-
able lumps of a transparent, gelatinous substance. These
lumps are of all sizes, from patches visible with the naked eye
to excessively minute particles. When one of these is sub-
mitted to microscopical analysis it exhibits — imbedded in a
transparent, colourless, and structureless matrix — granules,
coccoliths, and foreign bodies.

The granules vary in size from ^f-fJj-jj^th of an inch to
"s o'oo^^? ^^^ ^''® aggregated together into heaps of various sizes
and shapes (PI. IV, fig. 1), some having the form of mere irre-
gular streaks, but others possessing a more definitely limited

* Loo. cit., p. 9.

206 PROF. HUXLEY, ON SOME ORGANISMS FROM GREAT

oval or rounded figure (fig. 1 c). Some of the heaps attain
i_i_^th of an inch or more in diameter, while others have
not more than a third or a fourth of that size. The smallest
granules are rounded ; of the larger, many are biconcave
oval discs, others are rod-like,* the largest are irregular.

. Solution of iodine stains the granules yellow, while it does
not affect the matrix. Dilute acetic acid rapidly dissolves
all but the finest and some of the coarsest granules, but appa-
rently has no eff'ect on the matrix. Moderately strong solution
of caustic soda causes the matrix to swell up. The granules
are little affected by weak alkalies, but are dissolved by strong
solutions of caustic soda or potash. *

I have been unable to discover any nucleus in the midst of
the heaps of granules, and they exhibit no trace of a mem-
branous envelope. It occasionally happens that a granule-
heap contains nothing but granules (fig. 1 a), but, in the
majority of cases, more or fewer coccoliths lie upon, or in
the midst of, the granules. In the latter case the coccoliths
are almost always small and incompletely developed (fig.
\b,c).

The coccoliths are exceedingly singvilar bodies. My own
account of them, qiioted above, is extremely imperfect, and
in some respects erroneous. And though Mr. Sorby's
description is a great improvement on mine, it leaves much
to be said.

I find that two distinct kinds of bodies have been de-
scribed by myself and others under the name of coccoliths.
I shall term one kind DiscoUthus, and the other Cyatho-
lithus.

The Discolithi (fig. 2) are oval discoidal bodies, with a
thick, strongly refracting rim, and a thinner central portion,
the greater part of Avhich is occupied by a slightly opaque,
as it were, cloud-like patch. The contour of this patch
corresponds with that of the inner edge of the rim, from
which it is separated by a transparent zone. In general, the
discoliths are slightly convex on one side, slightly concave on
the other, and the rim is raised into a prominent ridge on
the more convex side, so that an edge view exhibits the
appearance shown in fig. 2 d.

The commonest size of these bodies is between xVo-otb and
^-jjip-^th of an inch in long diameter; but they may be found,
on the one hand, rising to Ti^'Trnth of an inch in length,
(fig. 2/), and, on the other, sinking to -j-rJrTrrrth (fig. 2 a).
The last mentioned are hardly distinguishable ftom some of

* Tlicse a])p;ireiit roils arc not merely cilu'e views of disks.

DEPTHS IN THE NORTH ATLANTIC OCEAN. 207

the granules of the granule-heaps. The largest discoliths
are commonly free, but the smaller and smallest are very
generally foimd imbedded among the granules.

The second kind of coccolith (fig. 4 a — m), when full
grown, has an oval contour, convex upon one face, and flat
or concave upon the other. Left to themselves, they lie
upon one or other of these faces, and in that aspect appear
to be composed of two concentric zones (fig. 4 d, ^, o)
surrounding a central corpuscle (fig. 4 d, 1). The central
corpuscle is oval, and has thick walls ; in its centre is a clear
and transparent space. Immediately surrounding this cor-
puscle is a broad zone (2), which often appears more or
less distinctly granulated, and sometimes has an almost
moniliform margin. Beyond this appears a narrower zone
(3), which is generally clear, transparent, and structureless,
but sometimes exhibits well-marked striae, which follow the
direction of radii from the centre. Strong pressure occasion-
ally causes this zone to break up into fragments bounded by
radial lines.

Sometimes, as Dr. AVallich has already observed, the clear
space is divided into two (fig. 1 e). This appears to occur
only in the largest of these bodies, but I have never observed
any further subdivision of the clear centre, nor any tendency
to divide on the part of the body itself.

A lateral view of any of these bodies (fig. 4/ — i) shows that
it is by no means the concentrically laminated concretion it at
first ajipears to be, but that it has a very singular and, so far as
I know, unique structure. Sujiposing it to rest upon its con-
vex surface, it consists of a lower plate, shaped like a deep
saucer or watch-glass ; of an upper plate, which is sometimes
flat, sometimes more or less watch-glass-shaped ; of the oval,
thick-walled, flattened corpuscle, which connects the centres
of these tAvo plates ; and of an intermediate substance, which
is closely connected with the under surface of the upper plate,
or more or less fills up the interval between the two plates,
and often has a coarsely granular margin. The upper plate
always has a less diameter than the lower, and is not wider
than the intermediate substance. It is this last which gives
rise to the broad gi'anular zone in the face view.

Suppose a couple of watch-glasses, one rather smaller and
much flatter than the other; turn the convex side of the former
to the concave side of the latter, interpose between the centre
of the two a hollow spheroid of wax, and press them together
— these will represent the upper and lower plates and the
central corpuscle. Then pour some plaster of Paris into the
interval left between the watch-glasses, and that will take the

208 PROF. HUXLEY, ON SOME ORGANISMS FROM GREAT

place of the intermediate substance. I do not wish to imply,
however, that the intermediate substance is something totally
distinct from the upper and lower plates. One would naturally
expect to find protoplasm between the two plates ; and the
granular asjiect which the intermediate substance frequently
possesses is such as a layer of protoplasm might assume. But
I have not been able to satisfy myself completely of the pre-
sence of a layer of this kind, or to make sure that the inter-
mediate substance has other than an optical existence.

From their double-cup shape I propose to call the cocco-
liths of this forin Cyatholithi. They are stained, but not very
strongly, by iodine, which chiefly affects tl^e intermediate
substance. Strong acids dissolve them at once, and leave no
trace behind ; but by very weak acetic acid the calcareous
matter which they contain is gradually dissolved, the central
corpuscle rapidly loses its strongly refracting character, and
nothing remains but an extremely delicate, finely granulated,
membranous framework of the same size as the cyatholith.

Alkalies, even tolerably strong solution of caustic soda, affect
these bodies but slowly. If very strong solutions of caustic
soda or potash are employed, especially if aided by heat,
the cyatholiths, like the discoliths, are completely destroyed,
their carbonate of lime being dissolved out, and afterwards
deposited usually in hexagonal plates, but sometimes in
globules and dumb-bells.

The Cyatholithi are traceable from the full size just described,
the largest of which are about -piJ^-uth of an inch long, down
to a diameter of g ^'o „th of an inch. Their structure remains
substantially the same, but those of -j-,jV(yth of an inch in
diameter and below it are always circular instead of oval ;
the central corpuscle, instead of being oval, is circular, and
the granular zone becomes very delicate. In the smallest
the upper plate is a flat disc, and the lower is but very slightly
convex (fig. 1 /). I am not sure that in these very small
cyatholiths any intermediate substance exists, apart from the
under or inner surface of the upper disc. When their flat
sides are turned to the eye, these young cyatholiths are ex-
traordinarily like nucleated cells ; and it is only by carefully
studying side views, when the small cyatholiths remind one
of minute shirt-studs, that one acquires an insight into their
real nature. The central corpuscles in these smallest cyatho-
liths are often less than Tnnhrdth of an inch in diameter, and
are not distinguishable optically from some of the granules of
the granule-heaps.

The coccospheres occur very sparingly in proportion to the
coccoliths. At a rough guess, I should say that there is not

DEPTHS IN THE NORTH ATLANTIC OCEAN. 209

one of the former to several thousand of the hitter. And
owing to their rarity, and to the impossibility of separating
them from the other components of the Atlantic mud, it is very
difficult to subject them to a thorough examination.

The coccospheres are of two types — the one comjjact, and
the other loose in texture. The largest of the former type
which I have met with measured about -i-rcnrth of an inch in
diameter (fig. 6 e) . They are hollow, irregularly flattened
spheroids, wdth a thick transparent wall, which sometimes
appears laminated. In this wall a number of oval bodies
(1), very much like the "•' corpuscles " of the cyatholiths,
are set, and each of these answers to one of the flattened facets
of the spheroidal wall. The corpuscles, which are about
_.^ij_^th of an inch long, are placed at tolerably equal distances,
and each is surrovmded by a contour line of corresponding form.
The contour lines surrounding adjacent corpuscles meet and
overlap more or less, sometimes appearing more or less poly-
gonal. Between the contour line and the margin of the
corpuscle the wall of the spheroid is clear and transparent.
There is no trace of anything answering to the granular zone
of the cyatholiths.

Coccospheres of the compact type of y-=L_th to -n-J^y^th of
an inch in diameter occur under two forms, being sometimes
mere reductions of that just described, while, in other cases
(fig. 6, c), the corpuscles are round, and not more' than half to a
third as big (j , ooo^h of an inch), though their number does
not seem to be greater. In still smaller coccospheres (fig. 6 a, b)
the corpuscles and the contour lines become less and less dis-
tinct and more minute until, in the smallest Avhich I have
observed, and which is only T-Wth of an inch in diameter
(fig. 6 a) they are hardly visible.

The coccospheres of the loose type of structure run from
the same minuteness (fig. 7 a) up to nearly double the size of
the largest of the compact type, viz. ^-oth of an inch in
diameter. The largest, of which I have only seen one specimen
(fig. 7, d), is obviously made up of bodies resembling cyatho-
liths of the largest size in all particulars, except the absence
of the granular zone, of which there is no trace. I could not
clearly ascertain how they were held together, but a slight
pressure sufliced to separate them.

The smaller ones (fig. 7 b, c, and a) are very similar to
those of the compact type represented in figs. 6, c and d ;
but they are obviously, in the case of b and c, made up of
bodies resembling cyatholiths (in all but the absence of the
granular zone), aggregated by their flat faces round a common

210 PllOF. HUXLEY, ON SOME ORGANISMS FROM GRKAT

centre, and more or less closely colierent. In a, only the cor-
puscles can be distinctly made.out.

Such, so far as I have been able to determine them, then, are
the facts of structure to be observed in the gelatinous matter
of the Atlantic mud, and in the coccoliths and coccospheres.
I have hitherto said nothing about their meaning, as in an
inquiry so difficult and fraught with interest as this, it seems
to me to be in the highest degree important to keej) the ques-
tions of fact and the questions of interpretation well apart.

I conceive that the granule-heaps and the transparent
gelatinous matter in which they are imbedded rej^resent
masses of protoplasm. Take away the cysts which charac-
terise the Radiolaria, and a dead Spharozoum would very
nearly resemble one of the masses of this deep-sea " Ur-
schleim," which must, I think, be regarded as a new form of
those simple animated beings Avhicli have recently been so well
described by Haeckel in his ' Monographic der Moneren.'"^
I proposed to confer upon this new " Moner '^ the generic
name' of Bathybius, and to call it after the eminent Pro-
fessor of Zoology in the University of Jena, B. Haeckelii.

From the manner in which the youngest Discolithi and
Cyatholithi are found imbedded among the granules ; from
the resemblance of the youngest forms of the Discolithi and
the smallest " corjjuscles " of Cyatholithus to the granules ;
and from the absence of any evident means of maintaining
an independent existence in either, I am led to believe that
they are not independent organisms, but that they stand in
the same relation to the protoplasm of Bathybius as the
spicula of Sponges or of Radiolaria do to the soft part of
those animals.

That the coccospheres are in some way or other closely
connected with the cyatholiths seems very probable. Mr.
Sorby's view is that the cyatholiths result from the breaking
up of the coccospheres. If this were the case, however, I
cannot but think that the coccospheres ought to be far more
numerous than they really are.

The converse view, that the coccospheres are formed by
the coalescence of the cyatholiths, seems to me to be quite as
probable. If this be the case, the more compact variety of
the coccospheres must be regarded as a more advanced stage
of development of the loose form.

On either view it must not be forgotten that the com-
ponents of the coccospheres are not identical with the free
cyatholiths ; but that, on the supposition of coalescence, the
disappearance of the granular layer has to be accounted for ;

* ' Jeuaische Zeitschrift,' Bd. iv, Heft ].

DEPTHS IN THE NORTH ATLANTIC OCEAN. 211.

Avhiie, on tlie supposition that the coccospheres dehisce, it
must be supposed that the granular layer appears after de-
hiscence ; and, on both hypotheses, the fact that both cocco-^
spheres and cyatholiths are found of very various sizes
proves that the assumed coalescence or dehiscence must take
place at all periods of development, and is not to be regarded
as the final developmental act of either coccosphere or
cyatholith.

And, finally, there is a third possibility — that the differ-
ences between the components of the coccospheres and the
cyatholiths are permanent, and that the coccospheres are
from the first independent structures, comparable to the
wheel-like spicula associated in the wall of the " seeds " of
Spongilla, and perhaps enclosing a mass of protoplasm
destined for reproductive purposes.

In addition to Bathybius and its associated discoliths,
cyatholiths, and coccospheres, the Atlantic mud contains —

a. Masses of protoj^lasm surrounded by a thick but incom-
plete cyst, apparently of a membranous or but little calcified
consistence, and resembling minute G7'omice. It is possible
that these are unfinished single chambers of Globigerina.

b. Globigerinoe of all sizes and ages, from a single chamber
-i-3^^_th of an inch in diameter, upwards. I may mention in-
cidentally that very careful examination of the walls of the
youngest forms of Globigerina with the TVth leads me to
withdraw the doubt I formerly expressed as to their per-
foration.

In the absence of any apparent reproductive process in
Globigerince, is it possible that these may simply be, as it
were, ofifsets, provided with a shell, of some such simple form
of life as Bathtjbius, which multiplies only in its naked
form ?

c. Masses of protoplasm enclosed in a thin membrane.

d. A very few Foraminifera of other genera than Globi-
gerina.

e. Radiolaria in considerable numbers.

/. Numerous Coscinodisci and a few other Diatoms.

g. Numerous very minute fragments of inorganic matter.

The Radiolaria and Diatoms are unquestionably derived
from the surface of the sea; and in speculating upon the
conditions of existence of Bathybius and Globigerina, these
sources of supply must not be overlooked.

With the more complete view of the structure of the
cyatholiths and discoliths which I had obtained, I turned to

212 NORMAN, ON RARE BRITISH POLYZOA.

the chalk, and I am glad to have been enabled to verify Mr.
Sorby's statements in every particular. The chalk contains
cyatholiths and discoliths identical with those of the Atlantic
soundings, except that they have a more dense look and
coarser contours (figs. 3 and 5) . In fact, I suspect that they
are fossilized, and are more completely impregnated with
carbonate of lune than the recent coccoliths.

I have once met with a coccosphere in the chalk ; and, on
the other hand, in one specimen of the Atlantic soundings
I met with a disc with a central cross, just like the body
from the chalk figured by Mr. Sorby (fig. 8).

Notes on some Rare British Polyzoa, with Descriptions
of New Species. By the Rev. Alfred Merle
Norman, M.A.

•

The object of the following paper is to embrace a few
notes upon some of the rarer of the British Polyzoa, and
to describe several species new to science.

Brettia pellucida, Dyster.

Brettia pellucida, Dyster. Quart. Jour. Mic. Sc, N. S.,

vol. vi (1858), p. 260, pi. xxi, figs. 3—5.

This species is omitted in the ' Catalogue of the British
Marine Invertebrate Fauna ' published by the British Asso-
ciation. The type specimens were found at Tenby. In
1865 I procured some small fragments when dredging with
my friend Mr. Jefi"reys in the Minch.

Brettia pellucida seems to be congeneric with Alysidium
Lafontii, Busk; but that species can hardly belong to the
same genus as Alysidium j)a.rasiticum, Busk. I would pro-
jiose, therefore, to leave the latter as the type of the genus
Alysidium, and to remove A. Lafontii to the genus Brettia.

ScRUPARiA clavata, Hlncks.

Scruparia clavata, Hincks. Quart. Jour. Mic. Sci., N. S.,

vol. V (1857), p. 175, pi. xvii, figs.
5—8.

Huxley a fragilis, Dyster. Quart. Jour. Mic. Sci., N. S.,

vol. vi (1858), p. 260, pi. xxi, figs. 1, 2.
There cannot be, I think, any doubt as to the identity of

NOKMAN, ON RARE BRITISH POLYZOA. 213

Dyster's genus Huxleya with the Scruparia clavata of Hincks,
pubKshed in the preceding volume of the 'Microscopical
Journal.'

Hub. Filey and Lamlash Bay (Hincks). Tenby (Dyster).

Cellularia Peachii, Busk.

Cellularia Peachii, Busk. Ann. Nat. Hist., N. S., vol. vii,

p. 82, pi. viii, figs. 1 — 4 ; Cat. Marine
Polyzoa, p. 20, pi. xxvii, figs. 3 — 5;
Sniitt, Ofversigt af K. Vet. Akad.
Forhand., 1867, p. 285, pi. xvii, figs.
51—53.
Mr. Busk gives no further locality for this species than
" Hab. Britain (North ?)." I have dredged it off" the North-
umberland coast and Shetland, and have received it from
Scarborough (Bean) and Aberdeenshire (Dawson). Smitt
records it from Bahusia and Spitzbergen.

Menipea Jeffreysii, n. sp. PI. V, figs. 3 — 5.

Polyzoary dichotomously branched. Cells 4 — 7, at an in-
ternode, elongated below; apertures regularly oval, margin
a little raised, above three (or four) spines -, on the outer
angle of each cell is a small process, probably the base of a
larger spine, which has been broken off"; a small avicularium
in front of each cell beneath the mouth ; mouth furnished
with an operculum, which is entire. Ovicell erect, smooth.

A minute portion of this species was found by Mr. Peach
among sand dredged in Shetland in 1864, and two other still
more microscopic fragments were found by him in sand
dredged by Mr. Jeffi-eys and myself in Shetland in 1865.
These fragments are amply sufllcient to show that we have
a new species in them, but not sufficient to enable the cha-
racters to be accurately defined. In every cell except one
the operculum is broken off"; that one Mr. Alder has, in the
figure he kindly drew for me, represented as lobed, but the
operculum was dirty at the time, and having since cleansed
it, I find it to be entire, and that what appeared to be divi-
sions were surface markings only.

At Mr. Peach's request, I have dedicated the species to
my friend Mr. Jeffi'eys, with whom I have spent so many
a happy hour in examining the Fauna of our seas.

This species approaches, in its general characters, to the
Arctic Menipea which is figured by Smitt, in his recently
published papers on Scandinavian Polyzoa, as Cellularia

214 NORMAN, ON RARE BRITISH POLYZOA.

ternata, forma duplex, but differs from it in the presence of
the oral spines and operculum, and the absence of well-
marked lateral avicularia. As I cannot regard the form
figured by Smitt as a variety of M. ternata, and it seems
desirable to point out the distinguishing characters which
separate it from its allies, I draw up the following descrip-
tion from the figures referred to, and name the form after its
discoverer.

Menipea Smittii, n. sp. [not British).

Menipea ternata, y,foi'ma duplex, Smitt. Ofversigt af K. Vet.

Akad. Foi-han., 1867, p.

283, pi. xvi, figs. 25, 26.

Cells in a double row, as many as twelve to an internode,

elongated ; oral aperture ovate, not furnished with spines or

operculum. A lateral avicularium of moderate size, and also

a small suboral avicularium in front of each cell.

Found by Malmgren in 50 fathoms, at Spitzbergen, in
1861.

SCRUPOCELLARIA SCRIJPEA, BusTc.

Scrupocellaria scrupea, Busk. Cat. Marine Polyzoa, p. 24,

pi. xxi, figs. 1, 2.
— — Heller. Die Bryozoen des Adria-

tischen Meeres (1867), p. 10.
Guernsey and the Minch (A. M. N.). Adriatic Sea
(Grube and Heller).

The ovicells in this species, which had not apparently been
seen by Busk, are imperforate ; and in this respect the spe-
cies differs from the Crisia pilosa, Audouin (Saviguy,
' Egypt,' pi. xii, fig. 1), to which, in its other characters, it is
closely allied.

ScRUPOCELLARiA SCABRA, Van Ben.

Sertularia halecina, Fabric. Faun Groenl., p. 443 (fide

Smitt).
Flustra scruposa, Fab. Nye Zool. Bidr. in Vid. Selsk. Phys.

Skr., 1821, p. SS (fide Smitt).
Cellarina scabra, V. Beneden. Bull. Brux., vol. xv, p. 73,

figs. 3—6.
Cellularia scrupea. Alder. Trans. TjTieside Nat. Field Club,

vol. iii, p. 148.
Scrupocellaria scruposa, Busk. Quart. Journ. Mic. Sci.,

vol. iii, p. 254.

NORMAN, ON RARE BRITISH POLYZOA. 215

Scrupocellaria Delilii, Busk. Jour. Mic. See, vol. vii, p.

65, pi. xxii, figs. 1 — 3 (but not C.
Delilii of Audouin).
— — Alder. Quart. Jour. Mic. Sci., N. S.,

vol. iv (1864), pi. iii, figs. 4—8;
Nat. Hist. Trans. Northumberland
and Durham, vol. i, p. 163, pi. viii,
figs. 4—8.

Cellularia scabra, Smitt. Ofversigt af K. Vet. Akad. Forh.,

1867, p. 283, pis. xxvii — xxxiv.

The species described by Busk and Alder is most certainly
not the Crisia Delilii of Audouin (Savigny, ' Egypt,' pi. xii,
fig. 3), which is characterised by an unusually developed
lateral avicularium, and an erect vibracular capsule, while in
the Madeira and British species the avicularium is not
larger than usual in the genus, and the vibracular capsule is
large and placed transvei'sely. Mr. Alder had not seen
Savigny's figure, and ascribed his specimens to S. Delilii,
fide Busk.

Scrupocellaria inermis, Norman. PI. V, figs. 1 — 3.

Scrupocellaria inermis, Norman. Report of the British

Association, 1866 (186TJ. Report,
p. 203.

Polyzoary rather stout, yellowish horn-coloured, dichoto-
mously branched. Cells oblong ; apertures ellijjtical, having
a broad flattened margin Avithout spines or operculum.
Marginal avicularia not prominent ; no central avicularium,
Vibracular capsules subtriangular, scarcely so broad as high,
with the open margin, stretching diagonally downwards and
inwards ; vibracula short. Ovicells smooth and imperforate,
set at a slight angle inclining inwards. Height about half
an inch.

One or two small specimens of this Scrupocellaria were
dredged by Mr. Jeff'reys and myself in Shetland in 1863,
and it was again found in the following year by Mr.
Peach. In 1866 I met with a small specimen when dredging
in the Minch. Its characters come very near to those of
S. sci'uposa, but it differs in its more robust form, in the
broad flattened margin of the apertures, and in the absence of
spines ; the marginal avicularia are less prominent, and the
vibracular capsules are broad and triangular, with the open
margin extending diagonally downwards. This last is, ])er-
haps, the best character to distinguish the two species, as the

216 NORMAM, ON BARE BRITISH POLYZOA.

vibracular capsules of S. scruposa are narrow and erect, with
the opening extending perpendicularly downwards.

HiPPOTHOA EXPANSA, 11. sp. PI. VI, figS. 1, 2.

Polysoary adherent, branched, spreading, calcareous and
semitrans'parent. Cells oblong-ovate, ribbed transversely,
and very minutely striated longitudinally, tapering below
into a tubular stem ; aperture terminal at the upper end,
rather small and rounded, with a sinus below, the rim thin
and a little elevated. The cells and connecting tubes are
bordered by a thin calcareous expansion, through which the
tubes run, those of each branch arising from the side of a
cell at a very slight angle, the branches occasionally anasto-
mosing. Length of cells about one twentieth of an inch,
expansion of polyzoary from a quarter to half an inch.

Dredged in 100 fathoms off Unst, Shetland, in 1864, by
Messrs. Jeffreys and Peach.

The specimen from which this description is taken is upon
an old shell of Pecten Islandicus, a species which has not
been found recent on our coast. There are also adhering to
the same shell a Spirorbis and a Lepralia {ventricosa) , which
are common in the same seas at the present time, and an
unknown Cellepora, apparently subfossil. The Hippothoa,
however, is quite fresh, preserving a gloss and transparency
which leave little doubt of its being a recent species. This,
the only known specimen, is now, with the rest of the collec-
tion of the late Mr. Alder, in the Museum at Newcastle-
upon-Tyne.

^TEA siCA, Couch.

Hippothoa sica, Couch. Corn. Fauna, iii, p. 102, pi. xix,

fig. 8 ; Johnston, British Zoophytes,
2nd edition, p. 292.

^tea recta, Hincks. Catalogue of Zoophytes Devon and
Cornwall, p. 35, pi. vii, fig. 3.

— anguina, (5, forma recta, Sniitt. Ofversigt af K. Vet.

Akad. Foih., p. 281, pi.
xvi, figs. 5, 6.

This species is probably distributed all round our coasts,
as I have procured it from the following localities: — Guernsey,
Clornwall, Antrim, West of Scotland, and Shetland. Sniitt
finds it in Scandinavia.

NORMAN, ON RARE BRITISH POLYZOA. 217

Caberea Boryi, Audouin.
Crisia Boryi, Audouin. Explic. Savigny, Egypt, pi. xii,

Cellularia Hookeri, Fleming. Brit. Animals, p. 539 (not

C. Hookeri, Johnston).
Caherea Boryi (plates named C. zelanica and C. patagonica) ,

Busk. Cat. Marine Polyzoa, p. 38, pi. xvi,

figs. 4, 5, and pi. xxxviii.

— — Heller. Die Bryozoen des Adriatischen

Meeres, p. 13.

This species is essentially a southern form. It is common
in Guernsey, and I have also found it in Jersey. On the
English coast I believe it has only been met with at Torquay
(Hooker) and Budleigh-Salterton (Hincks). It was origin-
ally described from the coast of Egypt, and Heller finds it
in the Adriatic. Busk gives the following localities: —
Cumberland Island ; New Zealand; E. Falkland; S. Pata-
gonia, 49° S.; Port St. Julian, Patagonia; Strait of Magel-
lan ; Algoa Bay. If these habitats be all correct, the range
of this species is most extraordinary. No other Polyzoa —
probably very few marine animals — have so extensive a dis-
tribution. L. Boryi may at once be distinguished from the
next species by the presence of its oral opercula.

Caberea Ellisii, Fleming.

Flustra Ellisii, Fleming. Mem. Wernerian Soc, vol. ii, p.
251, pi. xvii, fig. 1.

— setacea, Fleming. British Animals, p. 536.
Cellularia Hookeri, Johnston. Brit. Zoophytes, 2nd edit.,

p. 338, pi. Ix, figs. 1—2 (but not C.
Hookeri, Fleming).
Caberea — Busk. Cat. Marine Polyzoa, p. 39, pi.

xxxvii, fig. 2.

— Ellisii, Hincks. Cat. Zoophytes Devon and Corn-

wall, p. 63 ; Smitt, Ofversigt af K. Vet.
Akad. Forhand., 1867, p. 287, pi. xvii,
figs. 55, 56.

This I find to be one of the more common Polyzoa in the
Shetland seas. I have also dredged it in the Minch, the
most southern habitat in which the species has as yet been
found. Coasts of Scandinavia and Finmark (Smitt).

218 NORMAN, ON RARE BRITISH POLYZOA.

BiCELLARIA AlDERI, Busk.

Bicellaria Alderi, Busk. Quart. Journ. Mic. Sci., 1860, p.

143, pi. xxviii, figs. 1 — 3 ; Smitt, Ofver-
sigt af K. Vet. Akad. Forh., 1867, p.
289, pi. xviii, figs. 4—8.
— unispinosa, M. Sars. Geol. Zool. og Jagttagelser

anstellede paa en Raise i en Deel af
Trondhjens Stift, 1863, p. 34.
The ovicells in this species remind one, in their form, of
the flower of the calceolaria, to the form of which they bear
a close resemblance. They lean backwards, are imperforate,
polished, sculptured with fine raised lines radiating in a fan-
like form from the centre of the lower margin, and terminat-
ing at a circular, similarly raised line, which girdles the
ovicell near its summit.

The only spot in Shetland in which I have dredged this in-
teresting Bicellaria is 5 — 7 miles east of the Island of Balta,
in 40 — 50 fathoms. The ground is soft ; the dredge comes up
choked with thousands of Ascidia sordida, great quantities of
Tubularia gracilis, Halecium halecinum, &c., and attached
to these Hydrozoa is found the Bicellaria. Since the species
was described by Mr. Busk from Mr. Barlee's specimens it
has been found by Professor Sars in Norway, and described
under the name above quoted.

BUGULA CALATHUS, n. sp. PI. YI, figs. 3 — 8.

Polyzoarij consisting of a number of strap-formed, dicho-
tomously dividing brancbes, spreading regularly round on
all sides from the base, and forming an elegantly shaped
shallow cup, all the straps generally of about equal length ;
drying of a yellowish horn colour. Cells in about 6 — 8 rows,
oblong above, with two stout, blunt spines at each angle,
Ovicells globular, large, imperforate, smooth, polished, with a
raised, thread-like, transverse line near their base. Lateral
avicularia large ; smaller avicularia here and there on the
margins of the inner cells. Height of a large specimen three
fifths of an inch, diameter one inch and a quarter.*

Under stones between tidemarks, Herm.

This species comes very near to B. jiabellata, and much
more so in its microscopical than in its general characters.
Instead of being convoluted, as is generally more or less the
case with B. flabellata, it always takes the form of an elegant
simple cup, and the breadth is much greater in proportion
U) the height than in the allied species. B. fidhellata turns

NORMAN, ON RARE BRITISH POLYZOA. 219

to an ashy colour hi drying, but B. calathus preserves the
yellowish horn-coloured hue which it has in life. The ovi-
cells are proportionately somewhat larger, the lateral avicu-
laria much larger, and the spines shorter and blunter than in
B. flabellata, of which a figure (fig. 9) is given for com-
j)arison.

My late friend Mr. Alder agreed with me in considering
the species here described to be distinct from B. flabellata ;
and for the accurate illustrations of this and the other species
here described, except the Hemescharee, I am indebted to him
as among the last of many kindnesses. Some of the figures
were among the last drawings that he made before he w^as
seized with the fatal illness which deprived us of the most
able and the most accurate of British marine zoologibts.

BUGULA PURPUROTINCTA.

Buyula fastigiata, Alder. Cat. Zoophytes Northumberland

and Durham, p. 59.
Cellularia plumosa, Johnston. Brit. Zooph., 2nd edit., p. 341,

pi. Ixi {but not of Busk) .

This Bugula seems generally to take the place of B.jjlumosa
in the north, but both species are found on the coast of
Durham. I have dredged it at Shetland and on the North-
umberland coast, and have received it from Seaham, county
Durham (Mr. Hodge), and Scarborough (Mr. Bean). The
beautiful purplish-red tint it assumes when preserved will
enable it at once to be distinguished without any micro-
scopical examination from B. j)lumosa ; it is also a much
larger and stronger species. Norway (Sars).

Mr. Alder referred this Bugula, which he well described,
to the Sertularia fastigiata of O. Fabricius ; but Smitt has
pointed out (' Ofversigt af K. Vet. Akad. Forh.,' 1867, p.
291) that Fabricius, in a subsequent paper {' Nye Zool.
Bidr., in Vid. Selsk. Skr.' (Havniaj), vol. i, 1821, p. 35),
stated that the S. fastigiata of his ' Fauna Groenlandica ' was
synonymous with Sertularia argentea ; and, judging from
the synonyms given by Linnseus, it w^ould seem that the
Sertularia fastigiata of the ' Syst. Nat.' is our B. plumosa
rather than the present species, which it becomes necessary,
therefore, to name.

Bugula turbinata, Alder,

Bugula turbinata, Alder. Mic. Journ., vol. v, p. 1T4, j)l. xvii.
This pretty species appears to be much more common and

VOL. VIII. NEW SER. R

220 NORMAN, ON RARE BRITISH POLYZOA.

generally diifused than B. avicularia, with which it was
formerly confounded. Specimens from under the granite
rocks at Herm are most beautifully developed.

Flustra Barleii, Busk.

Flustra Barleii, Busk. Quart. Jour. Mic. Sci.. vol. viii

(1860), p. 123, pi. XXV, fig. 4/
— membranaceo-truncata, Smitt. Ofversigt af K. Vet.

Akad. Forh. (1860), p. 358,
pi. XX, figs. 1 — 5.
The polyzoary in this species is very thin ^nd remarkably
brittle. The species is very scarce in Shetland. Much as I
have dredged there, I have only met with a few fragments in
about fifty fathoms off" Unst, and the original examples pro-
cured by Mr. Barlee still remain the only good ones in my
collection. It has very recently been described by Smitt
from Arctic specimens.

ESCHARA ROSACEA, Busk. PI. YI, figS. 10 — 12.

Eschara rosacea, Busk. Ann. Nat. Hist., 2nd ser., vol. xviii,

p. SS, pi. i, fig. 4.
Escharoides rosacea, Smitt. Ofversigt af K. Vet. Akad.

Forhand. (1867), Bihang, j). 25, pi.
xxvi, figs. 155 — 159.

Polyzoary consisting of flat, subpalmate, foliaceous lobes,
composed of two layers of cells placed back to back ; the
lobes variously curved, and not in the same plane. Cells
elongated ovate, granulated, only slightly convex, quin-
cuncially arranged ; mouth sunken, well arched above, with
a sinus on the lower lip, and an avicularium, which has a
lateral direction, appearing on one side of the sinus ; man-
dible semicircular. Ovicell semiglobose, granulated.

Loch Fyne, on small stones and old shells of Pecten oper-
cularis, now first added to the British Fauna. Known pre-
viously on the coast of Norway, where it has been procured
by McAndrew ; Finmark (Loven) ; Spitzbergen (Malmgren).

The size of a large British specimen is three quarters of
an inch broad, and not quite as high. Figs. 10 and 11 are
drawn from a British specimen ; fig. 1 2 is added to show the
ovicells, and is taken from a Norwegian typical example sent
to Mr. Alder by Mr. Busk.;

According to Smitt, the Eschara rosacea of Sars is not
Busk's sjDecies, being distinguished from it by having the
mandible of the avicularium triangular, and he has named
it Escharoides Sarsii.

NORMAN, ON RARE BRITISH POLYZOA. 231

EscHARA QuiNcuNCiALis, Nomian. PI. VII, figs. 1 — 3.

Eschara quincuncialis. Rep. of the Brit. Assoc. 1806(1867).

Report, p. 204.

Pohjzoary wliite, smooth, polished, cylindrical. Cells
distant in linear series, regularly arranged in quincunx
round an imaginary axis, swollen, mamm^eform; mouth
key-hole shaped, rounded above, with a small sinus below,
and a small inconspicuous avicularium on the margin.
Ovicell small, with 1 — 4 round perforations.

The type specimen is apparently a mere fragment, and is
not more than a quarter of an inch long. It is, however,
clearly distinct from all the allied species with which we are
acquainted. It was dredged by Mr. Jeffreys and myself in
1866 in deep water in the Minch.

HeMESCHAHA STRUMA, n. sp. PL VII, figs. Q—%.

Polyzoary sometimes encrusting stones, at others creeping
over Porella cervicornis, and stretching from branch to
branch of that coral, in both cases rising here and there
into free frill-like expansions ; y^ellowish, glistening. Cells
immersed, quincuncially arranged, obovate ; throat greatly
swollen (goitre-like), surface channelled with irregular
depressions, which, hoAvever, round the edge assume the form
of wedge-shaped fovcolae ; a rounded avicularium just within
the lower lip ; mouth broader than high, upjjer and lower lips
simple, w^ell arched, meeting at a point at the sides. Ovicell
semicircula]', not much raised (about equal in elevation to
the goitre-formed throat), surface uneven, not punctate.

The more mature cells are seen to be separated from each
other by a raised line, and the marginal foveolae become
much more distinct. The figures are taken from young
cells.

The cells of this species are, in their general character,
very like those of L. concinna ; they are, however, consider-
ably larger than in that species, and the surfiice is channelled
with foveolse, instead of being rough and granulated; the
mouth is also of different form, and broader than long, in-
stead of the reverse.

Dredged in 100 fathoms about twenty-five miles north of
the Island of Unst, the most northern of the Shetland group.
It is very rare, and the specimens obtained are small, the
free expansions not exceeding half an inch high, and con-
sisting of a single series of cells.

222 NORMAN^ ON RARE BRITISH POLYZOA.

Hemeschara sanguinea, n. sp. PL VII, figs. 9 — 11.

Polyzoary spreading in a film-like, semi-attached state
over shells, and sometimes rising in frill-formed, free expan-
sions, consisting of a single series of cells ; colour deep red,
shining. Cells subquadrangular, distributed in nearly
straight subparallel lines, and qnincuncially arranged, flat-
tened, perforated ; perforations large, circular ; mouth well
arched above, having a central sinus on the lower lip, on
each side of which is a little notch cut in sideways (see fig.
11); no oral avicularia. Ovicells semiglobose, tumid, perfo-
rated, surface between the perforations raisecf into nodulous
processes.

H. sanguinea differs from the other species here included in
the genus in not having any oral avicularium. Several
sjiecimens were dredged off Fermain Bay, Guernsey, based
on shells {Pecten maximus, Pectunculus ghjcymeris, &c.), and
one on Eschara foliacea.

I suspect that Busk^s figures, pi. Ixxviii, figs. 1 and 2, are
drawn from this species. They are called Lepralia pertusa ;
but in L. pertusa the cells are ovate and very tumid, the
mouth without any sinus on the lower lip. That species is
well figured (Busk, pi. Ixxviii, fig. 3 ; and pi. Ixxix, figs.
1 and %).

Celleporella lepralioides, n. sp. PL, VII, figs. 4, 5.

Polyzoary small, encrusting, in little lobed patches on
small stones. Cells irregularly disposed, cylindrical, elon-
gated, semi-erect, upper portion free (except in marginal
cells), surface rugose ; mouth nearly circular, apical, opening
upwards ; peristome much raised, no avicularia. There are
large scattered punctures here and there upon the sides of
the cells, but they are not always very easily seen.

Hub. Shetland, in 90 to 110 fathoms, living on small
pebbles. This is another addition to the large assemblage
of Polyzoa which live in the deep waters of the Shetland
seas, and have not been found elsewhere oiF our coasts.

223

On the " MuFFA " of the Sulphur Springs at Valdieri.
By J. MoGGRiDGE^ F.G.S., Richmond.

The baths of Valdieri, not far from a Piedmontese
town of that name, are situated in a valley on the northern
side of the Maritime Alps, and have long been celebrated,
not only for the coolness of their climate and the excellence
of their mineral waters, but also for the " Muffa," a sub-
stance occurring in one of those waters, which, while of great
medicinal value as an external
application, is interesting, when
viewed under the microscope, for
the vegetable, animal, and mineral
productions which it contains.
These baths are 4426 feet above
the level of the sea. Found in
those sulphur springs which have
a temjjerature of about fifty de-
grees Centigrade, the Muifa first
appears as tender mmute fila-
ments, soft and floating, of a
greenish- white colour, surrounded
by a mucilaginous milky-white
substance imbued with a sulphu-
rous deposit. Of little consistency
in its early state, it soon becomes
more substantial ; changing in
colour to violet, then light yellow,
and finally to a pale green. When
mature, the Muffa resembles a
gelatinous lard, carpeting the
rock down which the water flows.
The vegetable above referred to
was considered by Allioni to be
Ulva labyrinihiformis of Linnaeus.
In 1837 Fontan detected a dis-
tinct organization, describing it as
composed of white filaments from
^j~roth to irrroth of a millimetre in diameter; tubular, cylindrical,
simple, devoid of septa, containing small semi-opaque globules,
collocated when young, and separated towards the ends of
the tubes in mature individuals. To this plant he gave the
name Sulphuraria, it not ha^ang been found in any except
sulphur springs. Delponte, of the Botanic Garden at Turin,

Stalactic form of the Muffa
when not clinging to tlie
rock from which it depends.

224

MOnCRTDGE, ON THE MUFFA OF A^ALDTERI.

after careful microscopic examination, places it in the genus
Leptotlirix (Kiitzing), near to L. compacta and L. lamellosa,
naming it after the place of its nativity, Vaklcria. A para-
sitic Ulva accompanies the ahove, growing upon it, and an

COO. Leptothrix valderia.

Oscillatoria sometimes covers the upper surface, where the
water has not more than thirty degrees of temperature.
Conferva nigra also occurs.

2. The microscope reveals curious spontaneous movements
in the Muffa ; these are the work of numerous minute ani-
mals, Avhich live and multiply at a temperature of forty
degrees. Professor Defilippi considers them to be coleop-
terous insects of the genera Cryptophagus and Comurous,
with others which he could not determine.

3. The residuum after burning dried Muffa was 28-055 per
cent. Of this 10924 were mineral substances belonging to
the vegetable organization— i. e. true cinders, and 17-134

WOODWARD, ON NOBERT's TEST-PLATE. 225

sand mixed wdth the vegetable, from which it had been found
difficult to separate it. One hundred parts of pure cinder
contained — oxide of potassium, 15,271 ; oxide of sodium,
11,637; oxide of calcium, 7938; oxide of magnesia, 1915;
oxide of alumina, 9833 ; oxide of iron and manganese,
24,162; chlorine, 2445; sulphuric acid, 9232; phosphoric
acid, 4481 ; silicious acid, 13,115.

Remarks on the New Nineteen-Band Test-plate of
NoBERT. By J. J. Woodward, Assistant-Surgeon and
Brevet Lieut.-Col. U.S. Army.

In comparing the various object-glasses belonging to the
microscopical section of the Army Medical Museum, the test-
plate of Nobert has been much employed recently as the most
accurate means of determining defining power. The plate
used was one of the nineteen-band plates most recently fur-
nished by Nobert ; and its use for the purpose indicated has
led the writer to a somewhat detailed study of the plate
itself.

Nobert has at various times issued test-plates with lines of
different degrees of fineness, the finest on the recent plates
being much closer than those of the earlier ones.

An interesting account of these several test-plates is given
in Starting's work on the microscope.* It appears from this
account that the first test-plate issued by Nobert had ten
bands, the lines of the 1st being ruled at the rate of 443,
those of the 10th at the rate of 1964 lines to the millimeter.

In 1849 he prepared plates with twelve bands, then plates
with fifteen, the 15th band having its lines ruled at the
rate of 2216 to the millimeter. In 1852 he issued plates with
twenty bands, the lines of the 20th band being -y-gVoth
of a Paris line, or -^-^j'^^th of a millimeter apart.

This twenty-band plate has recently been described by
Mr. Kichard Beck, who gives an engraving which professes to
be a view of portions of each of the twenty bands, " as shown
by a -^th with number three eyepiece x 1300 linear." f

* ' Geschichte und gegenwartiger zustand des Mikroskops,' von P. Hart-
ing. ' Deutsche Original Ausgabe, herausgegeben,' von Dr. E. W. Tlieile,
zweile auflage. ' Braunschweig,' 1866, band iii, s. 369.

t 'A Treatise on the Construction, Proper Use, and Capabilities of
Smith, Beck, and Beck's Achromatic Microscopes,' by Richard Beck. Lou-
don, 1865. Page 19, plate 8.

226 WOODWARD, ON NOBERt's TEST-PLATE.

According to INIr. Beck, the lines of the SOtli band are
thirty-five in number, and are ruled at the rate of 70,000 to
the English inch, which corresponds almost precisely Avith
the statement of Starting.

ISobert subsequently prepared a test-plate with thirty
bands, the lines of the 1st being the -, „'„ „th, those of the
30th the -^^'^y-fyth of a Paris line apart. He states that the
lines are ruled at the following rates, for the bands named :

No. of Hues to No. of lines to

a nullimeter. a millimeter.

No. 1 443 No. 20 2(353

5 806 25 3098

10 1612 30 ./. . 3544

15 2215

The 20th band of the twenty-band plate corresponds
nearly with the 22nd band of this plate.

An analysis of this thirty -band plate has been made by-
Messrs. Sullivant and Wormley,* wdio succeeded satisfactorily
in resolving the first twenty-seven bands, and counting the
lines in them. Up to the 26th band they encountered
" no serious difficulty in resolving and ascertaining the posi-
tion of the lines ; but on this and the subsequent ones
spectral lines, that is, lines each composed of two or more
real lines, more or less prevailed, showing that the resolving
power of the objective was approaching its limit. By a suit-
able arrangement, however, these spurious lines were sepa-
rated into the ultimate ones on the whole of the 26th, and
very nearly on the w^hole of the 27th band ; but on the 28th,
and still more on the 29th, they so prevailed that at no one
focal adjustment could more than a portion (a third or a fifth
part) of the width of these bands be resolved into the true
lines. The true lines of the 30th band we were unable to
see, at least with any degree of certainty."

Still more recently Nobert has prepared the plate of nine-
teen bands, mentioned at the commencement of this article.

The folloAving statement of the distance of the lines in the
several bands of this plate, with the number of lines to the
millimeter for each, is taken from Starting. f

No. of band. Distance of lines. 5°' '^^-ll^^^^^

the millimeter.

1 -nhro of a Paris line 443

2 -oVo „ 665

* " On Nobert's Test-plates, &c.," by W. S. Sullivant and T. G. Worm
ley. ' American Journal of Science and Arts ' for January, ISGl.
t Loc. cit., p. 374.

WOODWARD, ON NOBERT's TEST-PLATE, 227

^- „ , , -p.. , ,,. No. of lines to

No. of baud. Distance of hues. ^1,^ millimeter.

3 Ww „ 886

4 .oV. ,, 1108

5 W^o- ,, 1329

6 -.^ „ 1550

9 5 0*0 0 55 /v215

10 3^^ „ 2437

11 T,^ „ 2658

12 -s-^ of a Paris line 2880

13 Wwo » 3101

14 -r^ „ 3323

15 -^ow „ 3544

16 vxuo „ 3T66
n Win. ,5 3987

18 ^-r^ „ 4209

19 -nnroir ,, 4430

It will be seen tliat tlie lines of the 15th band of this plate
are the same distance apart as those of the 30th of the thirty-
band plate, and those of its 11th band are the same distance
apart as those of the 20th band in the twenty-band plate de-
scribed by Mr. Beck.

Max Schnltze* has published a short account of some ob-
servations made by him with one of these new nineteen-band
plates, from which it appears that with central illumination
he succeeded in resolving the ninth band with two objectives,
viz., Hartnack's immersion system No. 10 and Merz's im-
mersion system -^. By oblique light he was able to see the
true lines in the 14th band. Mr. Charles Stodder,t in a re-
cent article on the Nobert plate, quotes the abbreviation of
Schultze's article in the ' Quarterly Journal of Microscopical
Science,' January, 1866, as follows : — " With oblique illumi-
nation he has not been able with any combination to get
beyond the 15th." This, I think, is hardly what was in-
tended by Schultze's somewhat ambiguous remark, "Bei
Schiefem Licht bin icli mit den besten systemen bis zur
15ten gruppe gekommen," which I understand to mean
that he resolved the 14th band, getting thus as far as to the
15th, which he did not resolve ; an interpretation which is
confirmed by the quotation made by Mr. Stodder in the same

• ' Archiv fiir Mikroskopische Anatoniie/ erster band. Bonn, 1865, p.
305.

t " Nobert's Test-plates and Modern Microscopes." ' American Natu-
ralist,' vol. ii, p. 97.

228 WOODWARD, ON NOBERt's TEST-PLATE.

article from a letter recently received by him from Eulen-
stein, of Stutgard, in which that microscopist says, " I have
myself resolved the 14th band with a -jLth of Powell and
Lealand." " Nobert himself has never seen with his highest
poAvcrs higher than the 14th band/' Eulenstein would
hardly have written thus in 1868 if Schultze had resolved
the 15th band in 1865.

After commenting on the various observations hitherto
published with regard to the Nobert lines, Mr. Stodder goes
on to state — "With Tolles' ^th immersion,' angular aperture
170°, B eyepiece, power 550, Mr. Greenhaf and myself both
saw the i9th band satisfactorily." These gentlemen, how-
ever, w^ere not able to count the lines, and Mr. Stodder en-
larges on the difficulty of counting such fine lines by any
means in our possession. He says, " In counting lines of
such exquisite fineness either the microscope or the stage
must be moved, and it is next to impossible to construct
apparatus that can be moved at once the t o o^o o oth part of
an inch and no more."

Shortly before reading Mr. Stodder's paper, I had com-
menced a series of observations on Nobert's nineteen-baud
plate. These observations have convinced me that Messrs.
Stodder and Greenhaf saw spurious and not real lines, and
as the difficulty of counting the lines is readily overcome by
following the method I shall presently detail, I hope tliese
gentlemen will repeat their observations, and endeavour to
count the lines they see in the 19th band — an attempt Avhich
I am sure will convince them that my opinion is correct.

The following is a brief account of my own analysis of the
nineteen-band plate of Nobert. The jjlate used is the pro-
perty of the Rev. Dr. F. A. P. Barnard, President of Colum-
bia College, New York. As in all the Nobert plates which
I have seen, the lines are ruled on the under surface of a thin
glass cover, Avhich is cemented at the edges with Canada
balsam to a glass slide, on which the fractions of a Paris
line corresponding to the principal lines are written with a
diamond.

This plate was obtained of Nobert in 186T, and by special
request the ruling had been made on a cover much thinner
than I have ever seen on other plates of Nobert. On trial
I found that I could readily emj^loy the TrVth of Powell and
Lealand, and even with some difficulty the ^^tli of the same
makers.

Out of the series of lenses at my disposal, including a ^th
of Ross made two years ago, a -jV th of Tolles made five years
ago, an immersion system No. 11, by Hartnack, made two

WOODWARD, ON NOBERt's TEST-PLATE. 229

years ago, a ^th, an immersion -J^^th, and a -|Vth, by Wales,
&c., I obtained the best results -with the ^th and -^Lth of
Powell and Lealand. In illuminating the object I found it
best to use the larger diaphragm opening of the achromatic
condenser without any central stop, and to give obliquity to
the pencil by throwing the condenser to the right or left of
its true centreing. AVith this management and both of the
above-named lenses, I at first supposed I had seen the lines
of all the bands, including the 19th. On attempting to
count them, how^ever, with a good cobweb micrometer made
by Stackpole, of New York, I found myself unable to get
beyond the 9th or 10th band, on account of the tremor com-
municated to the instrument when the micrometer screw
was turned. This tremor, almost imperceptible with a -^^th,
appeared so considerable with a ijVth as to render an accurate
count impossible. Under these circumstances, I requested
my able assistant, Dr. E. Curtis, to undertake the prepara-
tion of photographs of each of the bands. This he did with
the -jVthj and a distance which gave as nearly as possible
1000 diameters.

The photographs showed that the true lines had been seen
up to the fifteenth band inclusive ; those seen in the last four
bands were spurious. A subsequent count of the lines in
the last four bands, by the method to be detailed hereafter,
verified this opinion. A photographic trial of the 3Vth on
the twefth band did not give so sharp a picture as that of the
same band obtained by the -oVth, probably because the cover
was somewhat thick for this glass, for on Podura, with a suit-
ably thin cover, the 3Vth has excelled the iji^ th in our hands.

The series of photographs thus obtained give the following
count for the lines in each band :

1st band . . 7 lines. 11th band . . 34 lines.

2nd

}}

. . 10

12th

. . 37 „

3rd

. . 13

13th

. . 40 „

4th

. . 15

14th

. . 43 „

5th

)}

. . 17

15th

. . 45 „

6th

. . 20

16th

not counted.

7th

. . 23

17th

>> >)

8th

)}

. . 25

18th

>} }>

9th

))

. . 27

19th

}> >>

10th

))

. . 30

The photographs of these bands present the following cha-
racteristics : — In the first band, the space immediately bor-
dering each side of the broad, deep, black lines is brighter

230 WOODWARD, ON NOBERt's TEST-PLATE.

than the rest of the fiekl, and a spurious line is seen in the
centre of the space between the adjacent lines. In the
second, third, and fourth bands, the spaces between the lines
are brighter than the rest of the field, and the first and last
lines of each band have a similar clear sjoace on their out-
side, beyond which, again, is a line-like shadow, which, in
the fourth and fifth bands, might be mistaken for additional
true lines. By changing the illumination, however, the true
character of these shadowy lines is plainly shown. Several
such spurious lines are to be seen beyond the first and last
true lines in some of the higher bands, but their true cha-
racter can also be determined by changing the^ illumination.

In the first four bands the ruling is extremely regular, and
the lines in each successive band are not only closer but finer
than in the preceding ones. The same general characters
are presented in the higher bands ; but from the fifth band
on, the difficulties in the way of ruling such fine lines evenly
are not wholly overcome, and every here and there two lines
are ruled too close together, with a corresj^onding too great
distance on each side of the pair.

The photographs of the eighth band, and of those subse-
quent to it, would seem to indicate that the progressively
greater fineness of the lines noticeable throughout is obtained
by diminishing the pressure on the point by which the
ruling is effected; moreover, the lines are not only at unequal
distances, but are somewhat wavy, as though, perhaps, the
point moved with a certain amount of tremor. These pecu-
liarities are best appreciated by examining the photo-
graphs ; but it must be confessed that the degree of regularity
and precision still exhibited in the fifteenth band is truly
astonishing.

The negatives of the fifteenth band show the lines per-
fectly defined from one edge of the band to the other, but
they are so fine and close that they are indistinct in the paper
prints. A copy of this negative of twice the size has, there-
fore, been prepared, from which prints have been made,
which show the lines very well. A pale line at the right
edge of this band in the photograj)h may, perhaps, be a real
ruling, which would give 46 lines ; on the whole, however,
I am inclined to regard this line as a sj)urious one, and the
real number of lines as 45.

Two photographs of the 16th, 17th, 18th, and 19th bands
have also been prepared, which show spurious lines in all
the bands, which in one of these photogi'aphs do not exceed
thirty in number ; in the other forty. In the photographs,
moreover, the spurious character of these lines is plainly re-

WOODWARD ON NOBERT's TEST-PLATE. 231

cognised by their appearance, as well as by their number.
They are j)ale and broad, and their margins quite unlike the
sharp, clear edges of the real lines ; but in the microscope,
even with the -^oth of an inch, they look to the eye so like
the real ones as readily to deceive. It is these spurious lines,
no doubt, that Mr. Stodder saw in the 19th band, with
Tolles' immersion, -^th.

In order that no doubt of the character of these lines
might remain, additional photographs have been prepared of
the iJ^th, 13th, and 14th bands, with the illumination
so arranged as to produce spurious lines. One mode of
illumination gives lines which do not exceed sixteen in
number in any of these bands. The other gives about
twenty-five lines for the 12th band instead of forty, which
is the real number. The character of the lines in the last
two photographs is quite similar to that of the lines shown
in the photographs of the 16th, ITth, 18th, and 19th bands.

The 15th band is therefore the highest which I have
resolved with the glasses at my disposal. It corresponds
to the last band of the thirty-band plate, and I believe the
true lines have never been seen in it before.

It is probable that if opaque markings of still greater fine-
ness could be produced, the same objectives would resolve
them, but with the superficial scratches on glass afibrded by
Nobert's plate this result is not possible. Nevertheless, the
opinion may be expressed that the lines of the last four
bands have been ruled as Nobert claims, and that with lenses
of better definition they could be seen.

I may here mention that one of the photographs of the
I6th, 17th, 18th, and 12th bands, showing spurious lines, was
made at the museum by Dr. Curtis, with a Wales ^th and
amplifier, a few months previous to the other photographs. I
supposed at the time, and, indeed, until qiiite recently, that
the lines shown in the 16th and 17th bands by this photo-
graph were the real ones, and accounted for their being too few
in number (the 16th counting only thirty-seven, the 17th only
forty, lines) by supposing that the whole of each band was not
to be seen in any one position of the focal adjustment. I have
since learned more of the appearance of spurious lines, and
recognise that all the lines shown in this earlier photograph
were such.

I learn from Dr. Barnard that Nobert, to whom it was
shoAvn by Eulenstein, accounted for the small number of
lines in this photograph by supposing that Dr. Curtis had, by
mistake, cojHed the 12th, 13th, 14th, and 15th bands. I can
assure the distinguished optician that we have made no such

232 WOODWARD, ON NOBERt's TEST-PLATE.

error, as he will doubtless acknowledge when he examines
the photographs of the 12th, 13th, 14th, and 15th bands now
prepared, and copies of Avhich I have sent him.

It only remains to indicate how the Nobert's lines may be
counted, even in the highest bands, without photographing
them. To do this, we set up the microscope as though to
take a photograph, remove the eyepiece, receive the image on
a piece of plate-glass, and ^dcAV it A\ith a focussing glass, on
the field-lens of which a black point is remarked. As the
focussing glass is moved on the plate from side to side, the
black point is moved from line to line. The lines may thus
be counted Avitli as much ease and precision as though they
were large enough to be touched by the finger.

Or they may be counted by a cobweb micrometer, if the
precaution is taken to keej) the micrometer eyepiece separate
from the microscope, clamping it firmly about half an inch
from the end of the body of the instrument on a stand, which
should be screwed down to the table A piece of black
velvet should be used to connect the micrometer with the
microscope tube. It Avill now be found that turning the
micrometer screw communicates no tremor to the instrument,
and the lines can be counted with great ease. On the whole,
I think the first of these two methods preferable.

A set of the photographs above described is herewith for-
warded to the editors of this Journal.

Note. — Since writing the above, I have seen Mr. Stodder's
paper reproduced in the July number of this Journal, with
a note, in Avhich he claims that Dr. Barnard had resolved
the 19th band with a Spencer -yVth and a Tolles' J-th.
Dr. Barnard certainly saw lines in the 19tli band, as
Mr. Stodder and I have done, but undoubtedly these lines
were spurious, since the counts given in Mr. Stodder's note
do not agree with each other or ^^dth the true number of
lines; and Dr. Barnard himself writes me, July 21st, 1868,
that his opinions on the subject are not matured, and that he
intends to make further observations.

233

Address delivered by the Rev. M. J. Berkeley, President
of the Biological Section of the British Association, at
the Meeting held in Norwich, September, 1868.

Few points are of greater significance than those which
touch npon the intimate connection of animal and vegetable
life. Fresh matter is constantly turning up, most clearly
indicating that there are organisms in the vegetable kingdom
which cannot be distinguished from animals. The curious
observations which showed that the protoplasm of the spores
of Botrytis infestans (the potato mould) is at times ditferen-
tiated, and ultimately resolved into active flagelliferous
zoospores, quite undistinguishable from certain infusoria,
have met their parallel in a memoir lately published by
MM. Famintzin and Boranetzky, respecting a similar differ-
entiation in the gonidia of lichens belonging to the genera
Physcia and Cladonia. It is, however, only certain of the
gonidia which are so circumstanced; the contents of others
simply divide into motionless globules.

A still more curious fact, if true, is that described by De
Bary, after Cienkowsky, in the division of fungi known under
the name of Myxogastres or false puff-balls. Their spores,
when germinating, in certain cases give rise to a body not
distinguishable from Amoeba, though in others the more
ordinary mode of germination prevails. In the first instance
De Bary pronounced these productions to belong to the
animal kingdom, so striking was the resemblance ; but in
our judgment he exercised a wise discretion in comprising
them amongst vegetables in a late volume of Hofmeister's
* Hanclbuch.'

The point, however, to which I wish to draw your atten-
tion, and one of great interest if ultimately confirmed, is that
the gelatinous mass produced either independently, or by the
blending of these amoeboid bodies, is increased, after the man-
ner of tru.e Amoeba?, by deriving nourishment from different
organisms involved by accident from the extension of the
pseudopodia. These foreign bodies, according to our author,
behave themselves precisely after the same manner as those
enclosed accidentally in undoubted animals. If this be true,
it shows a still more intimate connection, or even identity of
animals and vegetables than any other fact with which I am
acquainted.

You are all doubtless aware of the important part which
minute fungi bear in the process of fermentation. A very

234 BERKELEY, ADDRESS AT NORWICH.

curious contribution to our information on cognate matters
has lately been published by Van Tieghem, in which he
shows that tannin is converted into gallic acid by the agency
of the mycelium of a species of Aspergillus, to which he has
given the name of Aspergillus niger. The paper will be found
in a late number of the ' Annales des Sciences Naturelles,'
and is well worth reading.

We now come to a subject which is at present of
much importance, viz. the theory of Hallier respecting
the origin of certain diseases. His observations were at
first confined to Asiatic cholera, but he has since made a
communication to the authorities of the medioal department
of the Privy Council office to the effect that, in six other
diseases — typhus, typhoid, and measles (in the blood) , variola,
variola ovina, and vaccinia (in the exanthemes) — he has found
certain minute particles which he calls micrococci, which
under culture experiments give, for each of the above-men-
tioned diseases, a constant and characteristic fungus. He
states that in variola he gets the hitherto unknown pycnidia
oi Eurotium herbariorum ; in yaccinia., Aspergillus glaucus, Lk.;
in measles, the true Mucor mucedo of Fresenius ; in typhus,
Rhizopus nigricans, Ehrenberg ; and in typhoid, Penicillium
crustaceum, Fries. He adds that the culture experiments,
especially with the variola diseases, have been so very nume-
rous as to exclude from the results all supposition of accident
— that different districts, different epidemics, and different
times have given identical results. I am anxious to say a
few words about the subject, because most of the reports
which have been published in our medical journals give too
much weight, in my opinion, to his observations, as though
the matter had been brought to a logical conclusion, which
is far from being the case. I am happy to say that it has
been taken up by De Bary, who is so well calculated to give
something like a conclusive answer to the question, and also
that it has been taken in hand by the medical authorities of
our army, who are about to send out two of their most pro-
mising young officers, perfectly unprejudiced, Avho will be in
close communication, both with De Bary and Hallier, so as
to make themselves perfect masters of their views, and to in-
vestigate afterwards the subject for themselves.

The fault, as I conceive, of Hallier's treatise is that, while
his mode of investigation is unsatisfactory, he jumjis far too
rapidly to his conclusions. It is quite possible that certain
fungi may occur constantly in substances of a certain chemi-
cal or molecular constitution, but this may be merely a case
of effect instead of cause. Besides, as I conceive, the only

BERKELEY, ADDRESS AT NORWICH. 235

safe way of ascertaining what really originates from such
bodies as those Avhich he terms micrococci, or the larger ones
commonly called yeast globides, is to isolate one or two in a
closed cell so constructed that a pellicle of air, if I may so
term it, surrounds the globule of fluid containing the bodies
in question, into which they may send out their proper fruit
■ — a method which "was successful in the case of yeast, which
consists of more than one fungus, and of the little Sclerotium,
like grains of gunpowder, which is so common on onions.
Any one who follows the growth of moulds on moist sub-
stances, and at different depths, as paste of wheat or rice
flour, will see that immberless different modifications are as-
sumed in different parts of the matrix, without, however, a
perfect identification with fungi of other genera. Some of
these will be seen in the figures I have given in the ' Intel-
lectual Observer,' Nov., 1862, and ' Journal of Linnean So-
ciety,' vol. viii. No. 31, of different forms assumed by the
moulds to which that formidable disease, the fungus foot of
India, owes its origin. This is quite a different order of facts,
from the several conditions assumed by the conidiiferous
state of some of the vesiculiferous moulds. As, for example,
Botrytis Jonesii, which has been ascertained to be a coni-
diiferous state of Mucor mucedo, wdiile two forms of fruit
occur of the same mould in what is called Ascophora elegans,
or the still more marvellous modification which some of the
Mucors undergo when groAvn in Avater, as evinced by some
of the Sajorolegnise, the connection of which was indicated by
Cams some fifty years ago, but which has never been fully
investigated.

When Hallier intimates that he has raised from cholera
evacuations such a parasite as Urocystis occulta, he should
have been content with stating that a form of fructification
occurred resembling, but not identical with, that fungus.
Indeed, a comparison with authentic specimens of that
species, published by Rabenhorst, under the generic name
of Ustilago, shows that it is something very different, and
yet the notion of cholera being derived from some parasite on
the rice plant rests very much on the occurrence of this
form. But even supposing that some Urocystis (or Poly-
cystis, as the genus is more commonly named) was produced
from cholera evacuations, there is not a particle of evidence
to connect this with the rice plant. In the enormous collec-
tions transmitted by Dr. Curtis from the Southern United
States, amounting to 7000 specimens, there is not a single
s])ecimen of rice with any endophytic fungus, and it is the same
with collections from the East. Mr. Thwaites has made

VOL. VIII. NEW SER. S

236 BERKELEY, ADDRESS AT NORWICH.

very diligent search, and employed others in collecting any
fungi which may occur on rice, and has found nothing more
than a small superficial fungus nearly allied to Cladosporium
herbarum, sullying the glumes exactly as that cosmopolitan
mould stains our cereals in damp weather. Rice is occasion-
ally ergoted, but I can find no other trace of fungi on the
grains. Again, when he talks of Tilletia, or the wheat bunt,
being derived from the East — supposing wheat to be a plant
of Eastern origin, there is no evidence to bear out the asser-
tion, as it occurs on various European grasses ; and thei'e is
a distinct species which preys on wheat in North Carolina,
which is totally unknown in the Old World.

I might enter further into the matter, were it advisable to
do so at the present moment. All I wish, however, is to give
a caution against admitting his facts too implicitly, especially
as somewhat similar views respecting disease have lately
reached us from America, and have become familiar from
gaining admittance into a journal of such wide circulation as
' All the Year Round,' where Hallier's views are noticed as
if his deductions were perfectly logical.

The functions of spiral vessels, or of vascular tissue in
general, have long been a subject of much controversy, and
few matters are of more consequence as regards the real
history of the distribution of sap in plants. A very able
paper on the subject, to which allusion Avas made by
Dr. Hooker in his address, has been published by Mr.
Herbert Spencer (than whom few enter more profoundly
into questions of physiology) in the 'Transactions of the Lin-
nean Society.' By a line of close argument and observation
he shows, from experiments with coloured fluids capable of
entering the tissues Avithout impairing vitality, and that not
only in cuttings of plants, but in individuals in Avhich the
roots were uninjured, that the sap not only ascends by the
vascular tissue, but that the same tissue acts in its turn
as an absorbent, returning and distributing the sap which
has been modified in the leaves. That this tissue acts some
important part is clear from the constancy with which it is
produced at a very early stage in adventitious buds, estab-
lishing a connection between the tissues of the old and nevv
parts. This appears also from the manner in which in true
parasites a connection is established between the vascular
tissue of the matrix and its parasite, as shoAvn by our presi-
dent in his masterly treatise on Balanophone, and more
recently by Solms-Laubach in an elaborate memoir in
* Pringsheim's Journal.' It is curious that in organs so
closely analogous to the tracheee of insects a similar connectioa

BERKELEY, ADDRESS AT NORWICH. 237

should long since have been pointed out by Mr. Newport, in
the case of certain insect parasites.

A circumstance, again, which constantly occurs in the
diseases of plants confirms the views of Mr. Herbert Spencer.
In diseased turnips, grapes, potatoes, &c,, it is especially the
vascular tissue which is first gorged with the ulraates which
are so characteristic of disease.

Monsieur Casimir de Candolle, in a clever memoir on the
morphology of leaves, has come to the conclusion, after
studying the arrangement of their vascular tissue, that they
are branches in which the side towards the axis, which he
calls the posterior, is atrophied. This subject has been
followed out in those organs which are considered as modi-
fications of leaves, as, for example, stamens, in which he
finds sometimes the posterior side, sometimes the anterior,
atrophied. If his theory is true, this would result from the
Avay in which they originated, and the reference they bore to
contiguous organs. The subject is well worth attention, and may
eventually throw considerable light on those anomalous cases
in teratology which will not accommodate themselves to the
usual theory of metamorphosis. Some of these cases are so
puzzling and complicated, that a very clever botanist once
told me, " Monstrous flowers teach us nothing," — not mean-
ing to abjure all assistance from them, but simply to indicate
that they may be deceptive. Such flowers as double prim-
roses, and the strange developments on the corollas of some
gloxinias, may possibly receive their explanation from a care-
ful study of the course of the vascular tissue. As the colour
on the anterior and posterior order in the latter case is
reversed, the doctrine of " dedoublement" does not at all
help us.

Hofmeister,inhis 'HandbuchderPhysiologischen Botanik,*
has an important chapter on free-cell formation, which at the
present moment is of great interest as connected with Mr.
Darwin's doctrine of Pangenesis. Mr. Rainey has shown
that the formation of false cells takes place in solutions of
gum and other substances ; and if this is the case vrhere no
vital agency is concerned, -we may well be prepared for the
formation of living cells in organizable lymph, or in other
properly constituted matter. The curious cell-formation of
gum tragacanth may be an intermediate case. Be this,
however, as it may, Ave have examples of free-cell formation
in the formation of nuclei, in the embryos of plants, and
above all in the asci of asconiycetous fungi. In plants whose
cells contain nuclei new cells are never formed without the

238 BERKELEY, ADDRESS AT NORWICH.

formation of new nuclei, the number of which exactly corre-
sponds with that of the new cells.

It would be unpardonable to finish these somewhat desul-
tory remarks without adverting to one of the most interesting
subjects of the day, — the Darwinian doctrine of Pangenesis.
After the lucid manner, however, in which this doctrine was
explained by Dr. Hooker in his opening address, I should be
inclined to admit it altogether had I not looked at it from a
somewhat different point of view, so that I should not be
trespassing upon your time in going over the same gi'ound.
Others, indeed, as Owen and Herbert Spencer, have broached
something of the kind, but not to such an extent, for the
Darwinian theory includes atavism, reversion, and inheri-
tance, and embraces mental peculiarities as well as physical.
The whole matter is at once so complicated, and the theory
so startling, that the mind at first naturally shrinks from the
reception of so bold a statement. Like everything, however,
which comes from the pen of a writer whom I have no hesi-
tation, so far as my own judgment goes, in considering by
far the greatest observer of our age, whatever may be
thousfht of his theories when carried out to their extreme
results, the subject demands a careful and impartial con-
sideration. Like the doctrine of natural selection, it is sure
to modify, more or less, our modes of thought. Even sup-
posing the theory unsound, it is to be observed, as ~\\ hewell
remarks, as quoted by our author, " Hypotheses may often
be of service to science when they involve a certain portion
of incompleteness, and even of error.'^ Mr. Darwin says
himself that he has not made histology an especial branch of
study, and I have therefore less hesitation, though '' impar
congressus Achilli," in expressing an individual opinion that
he has laid too much stress on free-cell formation, which is
rather the exception than the rule. Assuming the general
truth of the theory, that molecules endowed with certain
attributes are cast off by the component cells of such infi-
nitesimal minuteness as to be capable of circulating with the
fluids, and in the end to be present in the unimpregnated
embryo cell and spermatozoid, capable of either lying dor-
mant or inactive for a time, or, when present in sufficient
potency, of producing certain definite effects, it seems to me
far more probable that they should be capable under favor-
able circumstances of exercising an influence analogous to
that which is exercised by the contents of the pollen tube or
spermatozoid on the embryo sac or ovum, than that these
particles should be themselves developed into cells; and
uiuler some such modification I conceive that the theory is

BERKELEY, ADDRESS AT NORWICH. 289

till- more likely to meet with anything like a general accepta-
tion. Be this, however, as it may, its comprehensiveness
will still remain the same. We must still take it as a com-
pendium of an enormous mass of facts, comprised in the
most marvellous manner within an extremely narrow com-
pass.

I shall venture to offer a very few words in conclusion,
which, perhaps, may be thought to have too theological an
aspect for the present occasion.

It is obvious how open such a theory is to the charge of
materialism. It is an undoubted fact, however, that mental
peculiarities and endowments, together with mere habits,
are handed down and subject to the same laws of reversion,
atavism, and inheritance, as mere structural accidents, and
there must be some reason for one class of facts as well as
the other ; and whatever the explanation may be, the hand
of God is equally visible and equally essential in all. We
cannot now refer every indication of thought and reasoning
beyond the pale of humanity to blind instinct, as was once
the fashion, from a fear of the inferences which might be
made. Should any one, however, be still afraid of any
theory like that before us, I would suggest that man is
represented in Scripture as differing from the other members
of the animal world, by possessing a spirit as well as a
reasoning mind. The distinction between ipv^n and irvivfxa,
which is recognised by the Germans in their familiar words
seele and geist, but which we have no words in our language*
to express properly, or in other terms between mere mental
powers which the rest of the creation possess in greater or
less degree in common with ourselves, and an immortal
spirit, if rightly weighed, will, perhaps, lead som.e to look
upon the matter with less fear and prejudice. Nothing can
be more unfair, and I may add unwise, than to stamp at once
this and cognate speculations with the charge of irreligion.
Of this, however, I feel assured, that the members of this
Association will conclude with me in bidding this great and
conscientious author God-speed, and join in expressing a hope
that his health may be preserved to enrich science with the
results of his great powers of mind and unwearied observa-
tion.

* A proof of this poverty of language is visible in the w^ords used iu our
trauslation for i|/i)xikov and irvtvinariKov — natural and spiritual, their proper
meaning, taken in connection with dwiia, being a body with a soul, and a
body with a spirit.

240

On the Nature of the Discoloration of the Arctic Seas.
By Egbert Brown, Esq., F.R.G.S.^

The peculiar discoloration of some portions of the frozen
ocean, differing in a remarkable degree from the ordinary
blue or light green usual in other portions of the same sea,
and quite independent of any optical delusion occasioned by
light or shade, clouds, depth or shallowness, or the nature of
the bottom, has, from a remote joeriod, excited the curiosity
or remark of the early navigators and whalemen, and to this
day is equally a subject of interest to the visitor of these
little-frequented parts of the world. The eminent seaman,
divine, and savant, William Scoresby, was the first who
pointedly drew attention to the subject, but long before his
day the quaint old searchers after a North-west Passage " to
Cathay and Zipango " seem to have observed the same phe-
nomenon, and have recorded their observations, brief enough
it must be acknowledged, in the pages of * Purchas — His
Pilgrimes.' Thus, Henry Hudson, in 1607, notices the
change in the colour of the sea, but has fallen into error
when he attributes it to the presence or absence of ice,
whether the sea was blue or green — mere accidental coin-
cidences. John Davis, when, at even an earlier date, he
made that famous voyage of his with the " Sunshine " and
the " Moonshine," notes that, in the strait which now bears
his name, " the water was black and stinking, like unto a
standing pool." More modern voyagers have equally noted
the phenomenon, but without giving any explanation, and it
is the object of this paper to endeavour to fill up that blank
in the physical geography of the sea. In the year 1860 I
made a voyage to the seas in the vicinity of Spitzbergen and
the dreary island of Jan Mayen, and subsequently a much
more extended one through Davis' Straits to the head of
Bafiin's Bay, and along the shores of the Arctic regions lying
on the western side of the former gulf, during which I had
abundant opportunities of observing the nature of this dis-
coloration. At that jjeriod I arrived at the conclusions Avhich
I am now about to state. In the course of the past summer
I again made an expedition to Greenland, passing several
weeks on the outward and homeward passages in portions of
the seas mentioned, during which time I had an opportunity
of confirming the observations I had made seven years pre-

* Read before tlie E(1inburgh Botanical Society, December 12, 1867, and
printed in tlie '►Journal of Botany' for March, 18G8.

BROWN, ON DISCOLORATION OF THE ARCTIC SEAS. 241

viousl}^ so that I consider that I am justified in bringing my
researches, so far as they have gone, before the Botanical
Society.

1 . Appearance and Geographical Distribvtion of the Dis-
coloured Portions of the Arctic Sea. — The colour of the Green-
land Sea varies i'rom ultramarine blue to olive-green, and
from the most pure transparency to striking opacity, and
these changes are not transitory, but permanent.^ Scoresby,
Avho sailed during his whaling voyages very extensively over
the Arctic Sea, considered that in the " Greenland Sea " of
the Dutch— the " Okl Greenland " of the English— this dis-
coloured water formed perhaps one fourth jjart of the surface
between the parallels of 74° and 80° north latitude. It is
liable, he remarked, to alterations in its position from the
action of the current, but still it is always renewed near
certain localities year after year. Often it constitutes long
bands or streams lying north and south, or north-east and
south-west, but of very variable dimensions. " Sometimes I
have seen it extend two or three degrees of latitude in length,
and from a few miles to ten or fifteen leagues in breadth. It
occurs very commonly about the meridian of London in high
latitudes. In the year 1817 the sea was found to be of a
blue colour and transparent all the way from 12° east, in the
parallel of 74° or 75° north-east, to the longitude of 0° 12'
east in the same parallel. It then became green and less
transparent; the colour was nearly grass green, with a shade
of black. Sometimes the transition between the green and
blue waters is progressive, passing through the intermediate
in the space of three or four leagues ; at others it is so sudden
that the line of sej^aration is seen like the rippling of a
current ; and the two qualities of the water keep apparently
as distinct as the waters of a large muddy river on first enter-
ing the sea."t In Davis' Straits and Baffin's Bay, wherever
the Avhalers have gone, the same description may hold true
— of course making allowances for the differences of geo-
graphical position, and the discoloured patches varying in
size and locality. I have often observed the vessel in the
space of a few hours, or even in shorter periods of time, sail
through alternate patches of deep black, green, and cserulean
blue ; and at other times, especially in the upper reaches of
Davis' Straits and Baffin's Bay, it has ploughed its way for
fifty or even a hundred miles through an almost uninter-
rupted space of the former colour. The opacity of the water

* Scoresby, 'Arctic Regions,' vol. i, p. ]75.
t Ibid , p. 176.

242 BROWN, ON DISCOLORATION OF THE ARCTIC SEAS.

is in some places so great that " tongues " of ice and other
objects cannot be seen a few feet beneath the surface.

2. Cause of the Discoloration. — These patches of discoloured
w'ater are frequented by vast SAvarms of the minute animals
upon which the great " Kight whale " of commerce {Bulcena
mysticetus, Linn.) alone subsists, the other species of Cetacea
feeding on fishes proper, and other highly-organised tissues.
This fact is "well known to the whalers, and, accordingly, the
" black water " is eagerly sought for by them, knowing that
in it is found the food of their chase, and, therefore, more
likely the animal itself. From this knowledge, and from
observations made Avith the usual lucidity ^f that distin-
guished observer. Captain Scoresby attributed the nature of
the discoloration to the presence of immense numbers of
Medusae in the sea, and his explanation has been accej^ted by
all marine-physical geograjDhers ; and for more than forty
years his curious estimate of the numbers of individual
Medusae contained in a square mile of the Greenland sea has
become a standard feature in all popular works on zoology,
and a stock illustration with popular lecturers. In 1860,
and subsequently, Avhilst examining microscopically the
Avaters of the Greenland sea, I found, in common with pre-
vious observers, that not only were immense swarms of animal
life found in these discoloured patches, but that it was almost
solely confined to these spaces. In addition, however, I ob-
served that the discoloration Avas not due to this medusoid
life, but to the presence of immense numbers of a much more
minute object — a beautiful raoniliform diatom, and it is this
diatom AA'hich brings this paper within the ken of botanists.
On several cold days, or from no apparent cause, the Medusa?,
great and small, Avould sink, but still the Avater retained its
usual colour, and on examining it I invariably found it to be
SAvarming Avith Diatomacece — the vast prejjonderance of
which consisted of the diatom referred to.

It had the appearance of a minute beaded necklace about
-4-i^ part of an inch in diameter, of Avhich the articulations
are about 14^ or 1^- times as long as broad. These articulations
contain a brownish-green granular matter, giA'ing the colour
to the Avhole plant, and again through it to the sea in which
it is found so abundantly. The whole diatom A'aries in
length, from a mere point to -pV of an inch, and appears to
be capable of enlarging itself indefinitely longitudinally by
giving off further bead-like articulations. WhercA'cr, in
those portions of the sea, I thrcAV OA^er the towing-net, the
muslin in a few minutes Avas quite broAvn Avith the presence
of this alga in its meshes. Again, this summer, I have had

BROWN, ON DISCOLORATION OF THE ARCTIC SEAS. 243

occasion to notice the same appearance in similar latitndes
on the opj)Osite shores of Davis' Straits where I had princi-
pally observed it in 1860. This observation holds true of
every portion of discoloured water which I have examined
in Davis' Straits, Baffin's Bay, and the Spitzbergen or
Greenland Seas, viz., that wherever the green water occurred
the sea abounded in Diatomaceaj, the contrary holding true
regarding the ordinary blue water. These swarms of dia-
toms do not appear to reach in quantity any very great dej)th,
for in water brought up from 200 hundred fathoms there were
few or no diatoms in it. They seem also to be affected by
physical circumstances, for, sometimes in places where a
few hours previously the water on the surface was swarming
with them, few or none were to be found, and in a few hours
they again rose. But the diatom I found plays another
part in the economy of the Arctic Seas. In June, 1860,
whilst the iron-shod bows of the steamer I was on board of
crashed their way through among the breaking-up floes of
Baffin's Bay, among the Women's Islands, 1 observed that
the ice throAvn up on either side was streaked and coloured
brown, and on examining tliis colouring matter I found that
it was almost entirely composed of the moniliform diatom I
have described as forming the discolouring matter of the ice-
less parts of the icy sea. I subsequently made the same
observation in Melville Bay, and in all other portions of
Davis' Straits and Baffin's Bay where circumstances admitted
of it. During the long winter the Diatomaceae had accumu-
lated under the ice in such abundance that when disturbed
by the pioneer prow of the early whalers they appeared like
brown slimy bands in the sea, causing them to be mistaken
more than once for the waving fronds of Laminaria longi-
cruris (De la Pyl.) (which, and not L. saccharina, as usually
stated, is the common tangle of the Arctic Sea). On examin-
ing the under surface' of the upturned masses of ice, I found
the surface honey-combed, and in the base of these cavities
vast accumulations of Diatomaceae, leading to the almost
inevitable conclusion that a certain amount of heat must be
generated by the vast accumulations of these minute organ-
isms, which thus mine the giant floes, so fatal in their majesty,
into cavernous sheets. These are so decayed in many in-
stances as to be easily dashed on either side by " ice-chisels"
of the steamers which now form the greater bulk of the
Arctic-going vessels, and they get from the seamen, who
too frequently mistake cause for effect, the familiar name of
" rotten ice." I find that, as far as the mere observation
concerning the diatomaceous character of these slimy masses

211 BROWN, ON DISCOLORATION OF THE ARCTIC SEAS.

is concerned, I was forestalled by Dr. Sutherland (Appendix
to ' Penny's Voyage/ cxcviii, and vol. i, pp. 91, 96). This
gives me an opportunity of remarking that though one
diatom, as I have remarked, predominates, yet vast multi-
tudes arc there of many different species, and even protozoa
are included ; for though Dr. Sutherland expressly states
that this brown slimy mass was principally composed of the
moniliform diatom spoken of, yet Professor Dickie (noAv of
Aberdeen) found in it also Grammonema Furgensii, Ag.,
Pleurosigma Thuringica, Kg., P. fasciola, Triceratiurn strio-
latuni, Naviculse, Surirellse, &c. Is it, therefore, carrying
the doctrine of final causes too far to say that»these diatoms
play their part in rendering the frozen north accessible to the
bold Avhalemen, as I shall presently show they do, in furnish-
ing subsistence to the giant quarry wdiich leads them
thither ?

I have spoken of the discoloured portions of the Arctic
Sea as abounding in animal life, and that this life was no-
where so abundant as in these dark spaces which owe this
hue to Diatomacea?.

These animals are principally various species of Beroidae,
and other Steganophthalmous Medusa? ; Entomostraca, con-
sisting chiefly of Arpacticus Kronii, A. Chelifer and Ceto-
chilus articus, septentrionalis ; and pteropodous moUusca,
the chief of which is the well-known Clio borealis, though I
think it proper to remark that this species does not contribute
to the whales' food nearly so much as we have been taught
to suppose. The discolored sea is sometimes perfectly thick
with the swarms of these animals, and then it is that the
whaler's heart gets glad as visions of " size whales" and " oil
money" rise up before him, for it is on these minute animals
that the most gigantic of all known beings solely subsists.
What, however, was my admiration (it Avas scarcely sur-
prise) to find, on examining microscopically the alimentary
canals of these animals, that the contents consisted entirely
of the Diatomaceae which give the sable hue to portions of the
Northern Sea in which these animals are principally found !
It thus appears that, in the strange cycle of nature, the
"whales' food" is dependent upon this diatom ! I subse-
quently found (though the observation is not new) that the
alimentary canals of most of the smaller MoUusca, Echino-
dermata, &c., were also full of these Diatomaccfe. I also
made an observation which is confirmatory of what I have
advanced regarding the probability of these minute organisms
giving off en masse a certain degree of heat, though in the
individuals inappreciable to the most delicate of our instru-

BROWN, ON DISCOLORATION OF THE ARCTIC SEAS. 245

ments. On the evening of the 4th of June, 1867, in latitude
67° 26' N., the sea was so full of animal (and diatomaceous)
life that in a few minutes upwards of a pint measure of En-
tomostraca, Medusee, and Pteropoda would fill the towing-
net. The temperature of the sea was then, by the most
delicate instruments, found to be 32*5° Fahr., and next
morning (June 5th), though the air had exactly the same
temperature, no ice at hand, and the ship maintained almost
the same position as on the night previoiis, yet the surface
temperature of the sea had sunk to 27*5° Fahr., and was clear
of life — so much so, that in the space of half an hour the
towing-net did not capture a single Entomostracon, Medusa,
or Pteropod. I also found that this swarm of life ebbed and
flowed with the tide, and that the whalers used to remark
that whales along shore were most frequently caught at the
flow of the tide, coming in with the banks of whales' food.
This mass of minute life also ascends to the surface more in
the calm arctic nights when the sun gets near the horizon
during the long, long summer. In 1860 I was personally
acquainted with the death of thirty individuals of the " right
whalebone whale" {Balcena mysticetus, L.), and of this num-
ber fully three fourths were killed between ten o'clock p.m.
and six o'clock a.m., having come upon the " whaling
grounds" at that period (from amongst the ice where they had
been taking their siesta) to feed upon the animals which
were then swarming on the surface, and these again feeding
on the Diatomaceae found most abundantly at that time in
the same situations. I would, however, have you to guard
against the supposition, enunciated freely enough in some
compilations, that the whales^ food migrates, and that the
curious wanderings of the whale north, and again west and
south, is due to its " pursuing its living;" such is not the
case. The whales' food is found all over the wandering
ground of the Mysticete, and in all probability the animal
goes north in the summer in pursuance of an instinct im-
planted in it to keep in the vicinity of the floating ice-fields
(now melted away in southern latitudes) ; and again it goes
west for the same purpose, and finally goes south at the ap-
proach of winter — but where, no man knows. There are
some other streaks of discoloured water in the Arctic Sea,
known to the whalers by various not very euphonious names,
but these are merely local or accidental, and are also wholly
due to Diatomacea?, and with this notice may be passed over
as of little importance. I cannot, however, close this paper
Avithout remarking how curiously the observations I have
recorded afford illustrations of representative species in dif-

246 BROWN, ON DISCOLORATION OF THE ARCTIC SEAS.

fercnt and Avidely separated regions. In the Arctic Ocean
the Balana mysticetus is the great subject of chase, and in
the Antarctic and Southern Seas the hardy whalemen pursue a
closely allied species, Bulana australis. The northern whale
feed upon a Clio borealis and Cetochilus sejjtentrionalis ; the
southern whale feeds upon their representative species, Clio
australis and Cetochilus australis, which streak with crimson
the Southern Ocean for many a league. The Northern Sea
is dyed dark with a diatom on which the Clios and Cetochili
live, and the warm waters of the E,ed Sea are stained crim-
son with another ; and I doubt not but that, if the Southern
Seas w^ere examined as carefully as the Nortliern have been,
it. Avould be found that the southern whales' food lives also
on the diatoms staining the waters of that Austral Ocean.

I do not claim any very high credit for the facts narrated
in the foregoing paper, either general or specific, for really it
is to the exertions of the ever-to-be-admired s?a\ox-saoant,
William Scoresby, that the first faint light which has led to
the question is due, though the state of science in his day
would not admit of his seeing more clearly into the dark
waters of that frozen sea he knew and loved so well.

At the same time I believe that I am justified in conclud-
ing that we have now arrived at the following conclusions
from perfectly sound data, viz. : —

1. That the discoloration of the Arctic Sea is due not to
animal life, but to Diatomaceee.

2. That these Diatomacese form the brown staining matter
of the " rotten ice " of Northern navigators.

3. That these Diatomacese form the food of the Pteropoda,
Medusae, and Entomostraca, on which the Balcena mxjsticetus
subsists.

I have brought home abundant specimens of the diatoma-
ceous masses which I have so frequently referred to in this
paper, and I am now engaged in distributing them to com-
petent students of this order, so that the exact species may
be determined ; but as these take a long time to be examined
(more especially as diatoms do not seem so popular a study
as they w^ere a few years ago) , I have thought it proper to
bring the more important general results of my investigations
before you at this time, and to alloAV the less interesthig sub-
ject of the determination of species to lie over to another
time. I have to apologise to you for introducing so much of
another science, foreign to the objects of the society, into this
paper ; but when the lower orders of plants are concerned,
we are so near to the boundaries of the animal world, that to

KDWARDSj ON LIVING FORMS IN HOT WATERS. 247

cross now and then over the shadowy march is allowable, if
not imjiossible to be avoided.

Finally, you will allow me to remark that, in all the annals
of biology, I know nothing more strange than the curious
tale I have unfolded : the diatom staining the broad frozen
sea, again supporting myriads of living beings which crowd
there to feed on it, and these again supporting the huge
whale, — so completing the wonderful cycle of life. Thus it
is no stretch of the imagination to say that the greatest
animal in creation,* whose pursuit gives employment to many
thousand tons of shipping and thousands of seamen, and the
importance of which is commercially so great that its failure
for one season was estimated for one Scottish port alone at a
loss of £100,000 sterling, t depends for its existence on a
being so minute that it takes thoiisands to be massed toge-
ther before they are visible to the naked eye ; and, though
thousands of ships have for hundreds of years sailed the
Arctic, iniknown to the men who were most interested in its
existence ; illustrating in a remarkable degree how nature is
in all her kingdoms dependent on all — and how great are
little things !

On the Occurrence of Living Forms in the Hot Waters
of California. By Arthur Mead Edwards.

(In a letter to the Editors of the ' Am. Jour. Sci.,' dated 49, Jane Street,

N. Y., Jau. 23, 1868.)

In the May (1866) number of the 'American Journal of
Science' were some notes by Prof. Brewer on the occurrence
of living forms in the hot and saline waters of California, in
which a slight error appeared, tending to mislead naturalists
more particularly with regard to certain observations of mine.
In the subsequent number for November Prof. Brewer inserted
a note making a correction in this matter, but, as the subject
is one of importance, I have taken the liberty of putting
together a few notes relating thereto, and beg of you to in-
sert them at your convenience.

* Nilsson, in his ' Skandinaviske Eauna,' vol. i, estimates the full-grown
B. wysticetus, at 100 tons, or 220,000 lbs., or equal to 88 elephants or 442
wliite bears.

■\ In 1807 the twelve screw steamers of Dundee only took two whales,
and the loss to each steamer was estimated at £5000, and to the town in all
at the sum I have given.

248 EDAVARDS, ON LIVING FORMS IN THE

The facts in the case of the Californian water are as fol-
lows : — Prof. Brewer was under the impression that I had
found animal as well as vegetable organisms in several speci-
mens collected by him during the prosecution of the ^tate
Geological Survey, and so wrote. I received but one speci-
men from hot or saline water, and that was gathered at the
Geysers, in water of a temperature of 120^° F. Unfortu-
nately the rest of the collections made at this and similar
localities did not come into my hands, but I have arranged
so that I shall before long have specimens of this descrip-
tion, and doubtless the examination of them Avill throw
much light upon the subject under consideration. Of the
material I did receive the amount was very small, and I
made, as I had been requested, a very careful examination,
with these results. I found it to consist mostly of fine sand,
mixed with a little of what seemed to be the refuse of decay-
ing vegetation, which we might easily understand would be
blown or otherwise carried into the Geyser. Besides these
substances, I found it to contain a very few frustules of
Diatomaceae ; true aquatic plants. They are an Orthosira,
most likely O. crenulata of Kiitzing, which is the same as
GaiUionella crenulata, Ehr., and has been placed under
Orthosira orichalcea, "W. S., and by Smith in his ' Synopsis.'
The number of frustules of this species is small, but enough
for its determination. Besides this, I found perhaps half a
dozen frustules of Fragillaria, most likely F. capucina, Desm.,
which is synonymous with F. rhabdosoma, Ehr. I also saw
a fragment of a much larger species, which looked as if it
were Cocconema lanceolatum, Elir., but, as the piece was very
small, I cannot be certain. 1 here are also present some
hollow hairs or spines which might have belonged to aquatic
crustaceans, but are of a dark brown colour, and therefore I
am of opinion were derived from some insect, and of ex-
traneous origin. It will thus be seen that what I found in
the single specimen I examined hardly bears out Prof.
Brewer's remarks on the occurrence of living organisms in
these hot waters. The only oroanized matters I detected
were the siliceous loricse of Diatomaceae, which we have no
proof were living in the water of the Geyser, and might, on
account of their extreme minuteness, be carried from a dis-
tance, and the hollow spines or hairs which I am convinced
are of insect origin. In connection Avith this matter and
bearing upon it in a very close manner, it will be as well to
mention here, and thus place upon record, one or two facts
to which it mav be desirable to refer at some future time.
In the nujr.ber for Januarv, lf^^>!7, vol. iii, of Max Scliultze's

HOT WATERS OP CALIFORNIA. 249

' Archlv fiir Mikroskopische Anatomic ' is a paper by Ferdi-
nand Cohu, of Brcslau, entitled " Researches on the Physio-
logy of the Phycochromaceae Florideaj." Therein, besides
mentioning many facts of interest to students of vegetable
physiology, he states that certain Oscillariae, namely, the
Beggiatoa (one of which, B. mirabilis, bends and twists itself
in a veiy remarkable manner, so that it prod^^ces vermicular
waves and a motion looking like the peristaltic action of the
bowels), which live in waters charged wdth sulphates at a
high temperature, and hence, during the process of their
growth, decompose the salt present and cause the evolution
of free sulphuretted hydrogen. In the abstract of Dr. Cohn's
paper in the ' Quarterly Journal of Microscopical Science '
the writer remarks that Dr. C. says, " Since this group of
alga? alone can flourish in hot and strongly saline solutions,
it is probable that the iirst organisms which were present in
the primordial sea which covered the earth, and was of very
high temperature, if we may reason from the deductions of
geologists, were Oscillariae, or rather Chroococcacete." Now,
in the hot springs of California there have been found Oscil-
lariaj probably belonging to this order, besides Diatomaceffi.
Prof. Whitney says ('Geology of California,' vol. i, p. 94),
*' Both the earth and the stream are highly charged witli
sulphuretted hydrogen and sulphurous acid, and the waters
hold in solution a great variety of salts, especially sulphates
of iron, lime, and magnesia; these salts, as well as crystal-
lized sulphur, are deposited over the rocks in the canon,
giving a peculiar and vivid colouration, which is perhaps
the most striking feature of the place.'^ This is also con-
iirmatory of the supposition of the growth of plants of this
kind in these springs, and it is easy to understand how the
sulphur can be eliminated from the sulphates, or even the
oxygen abstracted by the vegetation, during the period of its
life, and sulphides deposited. In fact, the dark-coloured
iron sulphide is particularly mentioned by Prof. Whitney as
found in abundance at the Geysers. Furthermore, in the
number of the ' liOndon Quarterly Journal of Microscopical
Science' for July, 1867, is a paper by Dr. Lauder Liudsay,
" On the Protophyta of Iceland," wherein he mentions that
in the Geysers of that country grow Conferva? and Diatoma-
cese, of which latter he enumerates seven genera, and says
" the abundance of diatoms in the thermal waters of Central
and Southern Europe warrants us in expecting large addi-
tions to the Icelandic Diatomacese from this source alone."
Now, it would be of extreme interest to ascertain in Avhat
way and to what degree the saline and hot waters affect

250 WOOD^ ON SOME ALGM FROM A

species of Diatomaceae, as collections might be made in fresh
water if it occurs near the hot springs.

Besides, these forms from the saline as well as from the
fresh waters of the Pacific coast should be very carefully
compared with those found in the immense deposits so com-
mon in that part of the world ; one of which deposits Fremont
found on the Columbia River, and others have been detected
by the State Geological Survey of California in that state
and elsewhere. The origin of these deposits, and all facts
connected with them, are of especial importance at the pre-
sent time. It must, at the same time, be remembered that
the fact as to what constitutes a species in the Diatomacea? is
by no means settled, as less really is known of the life his-
tory of these minute organisms than of almost any other
plants. Moreover, in the study of the Diatomacese and allied
families the observer has presented to him extremely advan-
tageous opportunities of making himself acquainted with
many points in the phenomena of cell-life in simple as well
as more complex plants and animals. I therefore ask the co-
operation of every one at all interested in the prosecution of
science and the acquisition of knowledge to the furtherance
of this branch of study ; and to such as are able and willing
to collect I will furnish plain printed directions, and to all
who desire to pursue this branch of investigation I will gladly
furnish all the assistance in the shape of information and
specimens in my power.

Notes on some Alg^ from a Califoknian Hot Spring.
By Dr. H. C. Wood, Jun., Professor of Botany in the
University of Pennsylvania. — (' American Journal
Science,' July, 1868).

Some time since Professor Lcidy handed me for examina-
tion a number of dried Alga>, which he had received from
Professor Seidcnsticker, by whose sister, Mrs. Partz, they
had been gathered in the Benton Spring, Avhich is situated
in the extreme northern point of Owen's Valley, California,
sixty miles south-west from the town of Aurora. Afterwards
a number of similar specimens came to me directly from
Mrs. Partz by mail. The subject of life in thermal springs
is one of so much general interest, especially in connection
with that of spontaneous generation, as to induce me to

CALIFORNIAN HOT SPRING. 251

make a very careful examination of the material and offer
the results to the readers of this journal. In this connection
the followino- extract from a letter of Mrs. Partz to her
brother is very relevant :

'' I send you a few samples of the singular vegetation
developed in the hot springs of our valley. These springs
rise from the earth in an area of about eighty square feet,
which forms a basin or pond that pours its hot waters into a
narrow creek. In the basin are jjroduced the first forms,
partly at a temperature of 124° — 135° Fahr. Gradually in
the creek and to a distance of 100 yards from the springs
are developed, at a temperature of 110° — 120° Fahr., the
Algse, some growing to a length of over two feet, and looking
like bunches of waving liair of the most beautiful green.
Below 100 Fahr., these plants cease to grow, and give way
to a slimy fungus growth, though likewise of a beai\tiful
green, which, finally, as the temperature of the water de-
creases, also disappears. They are very difficult to preserve,
being of so soft and pulpy a nature as not to bear the least
handling, and must be carried in their native hot water to
the house, very few at a time, and floated upon paper. After
being taken from the water and allowed to cool they become
a black pulpy mass. But more strange than the vegetable
are the animal organizations, whose germs, probably through
modifications of successive generations, have finally become
indigenous to these strange precincts. Mr. Partz and myself
saw in the clear water of the basin a very sprightly spider-
like creature running nimbly over the ground, Avhere the
water was 124° Fahr., and on another occasion dij^pcd out
two tiny red worms."

In regard to the temperatures given, and the observation
as to the presence of animal life in the thermal waters, Mr.
Wm. Gabb, of the State Geological Survey, states that he
has visited the locality, knows Mrs. Partz very well, and
that whatever she says may be relied on as accurate.

The colour of the dried specimen varies from a very
elegant bluish green to dirty greenish and fuscous brown.
After somewhat prolonged soaking in hot water, the s]3eci-
mens regained apparently their original form and dimensions,
and were found to be in very good condition for microscopical
study.

The plant in its earliest stages appears to consist simply of
cylindrical filaments, Avhich are so small that they are re-
solved with some difficulty into the component cells by a
first-class one-fifth objective. Fronds composed entirely of
filaments of this description Avere received. Some of these

VOL. VIII. NEW SER. T

252 WOOD, ON SOME ALG^ FROM A

were marked as " first forms/' and as having grown in Avater
at a temperature of 160° Fahr. Probably these were col-
lected immediately over the spot Avhere the heated water
bubbled up. At this temperature, if the collection made is
to be relied on as the means of judging, the plant does not
perfect itself. To the naked eye these " first forms " were
simply membranous expansions, of a vivid green colour and
indefinite size and shape, scarcely as thick as Avriting-j)aper,
with their edges very deeply cut and running out into a long
waving hair-like fringe. Other specimens, which grew at a
much lower temperature, exactly simulated those just de-
scribed, both in general appearance and microscopical cha-
racters. *

These, I believe, were the immature plant.

The matured fronds, as obtained by the method of soaking
above described, were " gelatinous membranous," of a dirty
greenish or fuscous brown at their bases, and bright green at
their marginal portions, where they were deeply incised and
finally split wp into innumerable hair-like processes. Proxi-
mally they were one, or even two, lines in thickness, distally
they were scarcely as thick as tissue paper. Their bases
were especially gelatinous, sometimes somewhat transculent,
and under the microscope were found to have in them only a
few distant filaments.

Two sets of filaments were very readily distinguished in
the adult plant. The most abundant of these, and that
especially found in the distal portions of the fronds, were
composed of uniform cylindrical cells, often enclosed in a
gelatinous sheath. The diameter of such filaments varies
greatly ; in the larger the sheaths are generally ap)parent, in
the smaller they are frequently indistinguishable.

In certain jolaces these filaments are more or less parallel
side by side, and are glued together in a sort of membrane.
It is only in these cylindrical filaments that I have been able
to detect heterocysts, which are not very different from the
other cells ; they are about one-third or one-half broader,
and are not vesicular, but have contents similar to those of
the other cells. In one instance only was I able to detect
hairs upon these heterocysts.

The larger filaments are found especially near the base and
in the other older portions of the frond. Their cells are
generally irregularly elliptical or globose, rarely are they
cylindrical. They are mostly of an orange-brown colour;
and there exists a particular gelatinous coating to each cell
rather than a common gelatinous sheath to the filament.

CALIFORNIAN HOT SPRING. 253

These larger threads are apparently produced from the
smaller filaments by a process of growth.

Near the base and in the under portions of the fronds,
these filaments are scattered in the homogeneous jelly in
which they run infinitely diverse courses. In the upper por-
tions of the frond, and at some little distance from the base,
the adjoining cells are very close to one another, and pursue
more or less parallel courses, with enough firm jelly between
to unite them into a sort of membrane.

This plant certainly belongs to the Nostochaceae, and seems
a sort of connecting link between the genera Hormosiphon
of Kiitzing and Nostoc.

The best algologists now refuse to recognise the former
group as generically distinct ; and the characters presented
by this plant seem to corroborate that view.

The species appears to be an undescribed one ; and I
would propose for it the specific name Caladarium, which is
suggested by its place of growth. There are several species
of allied genera, which grow in the hot springs of Euro]je ;
but no true Nostoc has, I believe, been found before in ther-
mal waters. The following is the technical description of
the species :

N. caladarium, sp. nov.

iV. thallo maximo, indefinite expanse, aut membranaceo-
coriaceo vel membranaceo-gelatinoso vel membranaceo, aut
Isete virdi vel sordide olivaceo-viridi vel olivaceo-brunneo,
irrcgulariter profundc laciniato-sinuato, ultimo eleganter
laciniato ; trichomatibus ina^qualibus, interdum flexuoso-
curvatis, j^lerumque subrectus et arete conjunctis, in formis
duabus occurentibus : forma altera parva, viridis, articulis
cylindricis, cum celkilis pcrdurantibus hie illic inteijectis,
vaginis interdum obsoletis, seepius diflfluentibus, instructa ;
forma altera maxima, articulis globosis vel oblongis, auran-
tiaco-brunneis, cellulis pcrdurantibus ab ceteris baud di-
versis.

Diam. Cellulae cylindricee maximae , „ j,oo unc. ; cellulgc
perdurantis ^-oVo unc.

Diam. Forma; primaj articuli maximi -tjtmTo i-^nc. ; cellida?
perdurantis -^-nVo unc. Forma) secunda; articuli longi -o^-^Vu
to WcTo unc, lati ^-^ to ^-Vu, articuli globosi -^^hu to Tinnr
unc.

Adherent to, and often more or less imbedded in, the
fronds of the Nostoc, were scattered frustules of several
species of diatoms, none of which was I able to identify.
In some of the fronds there were numerous unicellular Alga%
all of them representatives of a single species belonging to

254 WOOD, ON algjE from a califorman hot spring.

the genus Chroococcus, Nageli. This genus contains the
very lowest known organisms — simple cells without nuclei,
multiplying, as far as known, only by cell-division. These
cells are found single or associated in small families ; and in
certain species these families are united to form a sort of in-
determinate gelatinous stratum. In these species the families
are comj^osed of but very few cells, surrounded by a very large,
more or less globular or elliptical mass of transparent firm
jelly. The species is very closely allied to Chroococcus tur-
gidus, var. thermaUs, Rabenh., from which it differs in the
outer jelly not being lamellated.

The following is the technical description ef the species :

C. thermophilis, sp. no v.

Ch. ccllulis singulis aut geminis vel quadrigeminis et in
familias consociatis, oblongis vel subglobosis, interduni
angulosis, hand stratum mucosum formantibus ; tegumento
crassissimo, achroo, haud lamelloso, homogeneo ; cytioplas-
mate viridi, interdum subtiliter granulate, interdum homo-
geneo.

Diam. Cellulae singulse sine tegumento longitude maxima
TT^' latitude maxima ^xcro '•

TRANSLATIONS.

On the Multiplication and Reproduction of the Diato-
MACEiE. By the Conte Ab. Francesco Castracane

DEGLI AnTELMINELLI.

(From the 'Atti deH'Academia pontificia de Nuovi Lincei,' April 19, 1868.)

The numerous improvements in the microscope, of late
years, have made us acquainted with an infinite number of
new forms belonging to the lower divisions of the vegetable
kingdom, and especially to the DiatDmace^, the known
number of which has advanced from the two or three species
which had been distinguislied at the end of the last century,
to not less, according to Brebisson, than 2000 at the present
time. But however great this addition to the number of
facts serving to elucidate the natural history of these most
interestiug organisms may have been, the same cannot, un-
fortunately, be said regarding our knowledge of their organic
development * and general economy. This lamentable
condition of things must be attributed to the too natural
desire which observers entertain to associate their name with
the discovery of a new form, to which end, consequently, the
majority devote themselves. And an additional reason may
be found in the difficulties Avhich are met with in the inves-
tigation of the mode of development of organisms of such
astonishing minuteness, which renders it almost a matter of
chance when we are able to observe the various j)hases of the
organic life of the Diatomacese. Whence arises the necessity
of examining with the utmost attention everything that is
presented in the field of the microscope, and esjoecially in the
case of living diatoms, which should be daily observed at all
seasons to enable us to watch all the epochs of their develop-
ment.

The apparent function of tlie Diatomacese in the economy
of nature, viz. to vivify, as it were, the immensity of the
ocean, as well as all fresh and brackish waters, decomposing,
as they do, carbonic acid under the influence of light, and

256 CASTRACANE, ON DIATOMACE^E.

consequently giving off oxygen, is sufficient to show tli<at
organisms of such excessive minuteness must be endowed
with an extraordinary reproductive capacity in order to
sup])ly, hy their number, the; vast scope of the office they arc
destined to fulfih Their most obvious mode of reproduction
or muhi])hcation is by a process of spontaneous division or
fissiparitii, similar to that which is seen to take place in the
unicellular alga^ and lyroto'phyta generally, and as may also
be said to be universal in the vegetable cell. This process of
division is effected in the same way. as in the Desmidiea,
connnencing with an internal movement in the granular sub-
stance or cndocromc, which exhibits a tendency to separate
into two portions. These separate j^ortions* become applied
to the extremities of the cell, that is, to the two valves, whilst
at the same time may be observ(>d the secretion of two siliceous
Inmelke or valves, which are probably invested with a delicate
mucous layer (or membrane) on either surface. These tAvo
siliceous lamellce are the counterparts of the two primitive
valves, and exhibit the same markings and structural pecu-
liarities. In this way the primitive cell ultimately becomes
divided into two cells, each formed of an old and new valve,
and each having a siliceous border or cmgulum, in the way
I have on another occasion observed, at any rate, in the
genera Navicula, Pinnularia, Stauroneis, Eunotia, and
Grammatophora.

In some species the two frustules or individuals after divi-
sion remain free, and enjoy an individual, independent life,
and in turn undergo a new division. In manji other species
the two new frustules continue more or less adherent to each
other at one of the angles, as takes place in Diatoma, Grani-
matophora, TabeUaria, Isthmia, and Bidclulphia ; or closely
applied side to side, as in Odontidium, Himantid'mm, Denti-
cula, Meridion ; or, finally, remain imbedded in an amorphous
mucuous substance, or disposed in tubes or fronds.

This process of multii)lication in the Diatomaceos is a
generation and an extension of the individual life, of which
an infinitude of instances will at once present themselves to
any one accustomed to consider the general hnvs of the vege-
table kingdom. But every plant which is capable of multi-
plication, by gemmation or offsets, is more commonly repro-
duced by seed. It cannot, therefore, be supposed that the
highly interesting class of the Diatomaceaj is not also capable
of true and proper reproduction by seeds or by germs. With
respect to this, we may refer to the statement contained in
the classical Avork of Mr. W. Smith, ' Synopsis of British
DiatomaceiT,' founded on his own observations, and on

CASTRACANE^ ON DIATOMACE^. 257

those of Thwaitcs, Griffith, and Carter. According to
these observers, cases of conjugation have been noticed in the
Diutomaceee similar to that which occurs in the Desmidine,
and this in thirty-one distinct species belonging to seventeen
genera ; and from which conjugation resulted the formation
of one or two sporangia, and of one or two sporangial frus-
tules.

According to Mr. Smith, the various conditions which
accompany the state of conjugation may be ranged in four
classes — 1. From the two conjugate frustules are produced two
sporangia, as in the genera Epithemia, Cocconema, Encyonema,
and CoUetonema. 2. From the conjugation of two frustules
arises a single sporangium, as is witnessed in Himaritidium.
o. The two valves of a single frustule separate, the contents
increase rapidly in volume, and finally become condensed
into a single sporangium, as has been observed in Cocconeis,
Cyclotetla, Melosira, Orthosira, and Schizonema. 4. Lastly,
from the two valves of a single frustule as above, results, by
a process of conjugation, the formation of two sporangia, as in
the genera Achnanthes and Rhabdonerna.

The formation of one or of two sporangia, the result of the
process of conjugation, can only be regarded as a reproduc-
tion of the species by germs, which is the most ordinary
mode by which plants are propagated, the sporangium in
the present case being considered as the organ destined to
elaborate and emit the fecundated germs. But all this is at
the present time involved in such obscurity that the author
of the ' Synopsis of British Diatomacege ' merely observes
that it " seems to him " that the result of the sporangium
may be the production of a swarm of diatoms.

Nor does Dr. Carpenter, in his valuable w^ork, ' The Micro-
scope and its Revelations,' appear to be more explicit on this
poiiit, saying only that he is inclined to believe in the multi-
plication of the Diatomaceas by the subdivision of the endo-
chrome in the gonidia, from which they emerge either in the
active condition of zoospores or in the state of hypnospores.
For this doubtful observation he relies upon the authority of
Focke, who, in relating certain observations relative to the
multiplication by germs, makes use of the argument from
aufdogy with what takes place in other protophytes, which,
besides possessing the faculty of organic multiplication by
fission of the cell, are also capable of being formed by the
ordinary method proper to all organisms, both vegetable
and animal, in which reproduction is effected by sexual con-
junction.

Moreover, various observations have already been recorded,

258 CASTRACANE^ ON DEATOMACE^.

from which it appears to me that it may be concluded and
positively admitted beyond all doubt that in the Diatomacea
reproduction takes place by means of germs emitted from the
sporangia and sporangial frustules. And in the first place it
should be remarked that, whilst the existence of sporangial
frustules, very easily distinguishable by their unusual size,
can be recognised, we may at the same time note their paucity
in proportion to the ordinary frustules — a circumstance that
(if I am not wrong) appears to indicate their partial and
transitory scope for the elaboration of the reproductive germs.
Besides which Rabenhorst, in his work on the ' Freshwater
Diatoms,' noticed in 1853 a Melosira with s^porangial frus-
tules, from one of which, from a lateral aperture, he witnessed
the escape of the germs, an occurrence of which he gives
a figure in pi. x. In the Sixth Volume of the ' Quart.
Journ. Mic. Sci.' it is stated that, at the meeting of the
Dublin Natural History Society on the 7th of May, 1858,
the excellent microscopist Mr. O'Meara read an account of
a circumstance which he had for the first time observed some
days before in a recent gathering containing Pleurosigma
Spencerii. In these diatoms the endochrome, instead of the
usual coloui-, Mas of a beautiful green, with scattered granules
of a bluish green. These individuals were seen to move with
sudden starts to the lower part of the vessel, until first one or
two, then others, and at last seven or eight individuals, at some
distance from the diatoms, were seen to be furtiished at the
extremity with vibratile cilia moving with great activity.
On the following day the appearance of the frustules was
changed, inasmuch as but fcAv granules were visible, and the
colour of the endochrome had become olive green, whilst, in-
stead of being disposed across the cell, it appeared collected
in narrow bands along the two sides of the valves.

These two observations of Rabenhorst and of O'Meara
conclusively prove the formation of the germs of the Dia-
tomacese in the sporangial frustules, and their exit from
the interior of the cell. Moreover, other instances have been
noticed in which numerous minute diatoms have been ob-
served within a cyst, a circumstance which was recorded by
Mr. Smith in April, 185'-3, in a gathering of Cocconema cistula,
in which instance he remarked the perfect resemblance
between the included frustules and the surrounding ones,
amongst which some of the most minute, both of those con-
tained in the cysts and the rest, presented every gradation in
dimension up to those of the adult form and in the state of
conjugation. Similar cysts were observed in October, 1851,
by Mr. Christopher Johnson, in a gathering of Synedra

CASTRACANE, ON DIATOMACE^. 259

radians, and by Smith in November of 1853 in the same
species ; and I had myself an opportunity of making the
same observation in the spring of 1856 in a gathering of
Cocconeis phicentula made near Palazzuolo, under the aque-
duct of the Fountain of Albano.

But it appears to me impossible longer to entertain any
doubt as to the reproduction of the Diatomacea? by germs
after the observations which I have been able to make during
the months of February and March last (1868). AVith the
view of studying the development of these organisms I com-
menced by exposing to the light a cup of water of Trevi, in
which on the 10th of February I had immersed a small piece
of a green j^ellicle, which was picked by the point of a lancet
from a small mass of refuse. This little aquarium, covered
with a piece of glass and exposed in the window, at the end
of a few days presented a beautiful vegetation of minute
green masses, many of which rested on the bottom of the
aquarium, whilst others coated its sides, and some were seen
floating on the surface. On the 26th of February one of the
minute floating masses was subjected to microscopic observa-
tion under a thin class cover. It exhibited an irniinnerable
multitude of beautiful green spherical spores, inclosed in a
granular substance; in which might be perceived some nuclei
or rounded corpuscles of a bluish or glaucous green colour.
All the spores did not present the apparently uniformly
granular contents, many exhibiting, together with a gradual
disappearance of the granular asjject, some in more and some
in less degree, a disposition to become organized into various
distinct masses, with such gradations as to show the identity
of nature between the granular spores and the very numerous
hyaline cysts which were visible in the same mass. These
cysts included two, three, or more navicular forms, furnished
with a glaucous green endochrome and with two large vesicles,
probably oily from their strongly refractive aspect. It wa,s
impossible to entertain any doubt as to these bodies being
diatoms, for, having slightly moved the covering-glass, some
of the cysts were ruptured, and allowed the escape of the
navicular corpuscles, which, as they were carried aAvay by
the current, exhibited alternately the elliptical side and
rectangular fro7it of the frustules. Besides this some valves
were noticed deprived of their endochrome, which, when
attentively examined, plainly showed the usual median line
and central nodule.

Amongst the numerous hyaline cysts in a state of quies-
cence enclosing diatoms I noticed two which exhibited a
gyrating motion, which was at flrst extremely active, and

260 CASTRACANE, ON DIATOMACE^.

gradually became slower, and at last scarcely apparent. Some
minute floating corpuscles in proximity to these active cysts
Avere suddenly attracted, as it were, into a vortex whence
I concluded that the movement of the tAvo cysts in
question was due to vibratile cilia. In fact, I discovered
two excessively delicate cilia in both of the cysts, dis-
posed in opposite directions, in the most lively motion,
and longer than the diameter of the cyst, which, from
the presence of these appendages, was proved to be a true
zoospore.

I have since omitted no opportunity of making further
observations respecting the circumstances accompanying the
production of the Diatomacece, being persuaded that, from an
exact knowledge of these conditions, we may probably be
able to deduce laws serving to fix the limits of the species at
present so uncertain, by distinguishing in the various forms
of the diatoms the true diagnostic characters from the varia-
tions, affording either temporary indications of the age of the
individual or abnormally arising from a monstrous produc-
tion determined by accidental circumstances, amongst which
may be enumerated the place of birth and the development of
the diatom. Among the different observations 1 have made,
and the peculiarities I have noticed, 1 would relate that, having
placed another of the little green masses, taken from the same
aquarium, in an apparatus in which an object could be re-
tained in water for many days Avithout being disturbed, after
some time the glass with which the preparation was covered
began to exhibit a considerable extent of surface sprinkled
overAvith extremely minute green corpuscles. Some of these
appeared as round points, Avhilst others were slightly oval,
amongst which the smallest appeared to be composed of a
green substance, whilst others, of larger size and more deve-
loped, presented the aspect of an oval cell enclosing tAvo
distinct masses, and the largest exhibited no difference from
a A^ery small Navicula.

These observations respecting the reproduction of diatoms
from isolated germs is in no Avay opposed to the endogenous
mode above referred to, according to Avhich they are organized
Avithin a cyst, since the different mode of reproduction might
indicate specific differences, and in any case the occurrence
of such apparent anomalies in the reproduction of the loAvest
members of the vegetable kingdom is familiar to any one
engaged in their study.

A more constant character, that I have observed on every
occasion in which I have noticed diatoms in the nascent or
young condition, is the peculiar colour of the endochrome.

CASTRACANE, ON DIATOMACE^. 261

This colour, from the bright green hue of chlorophyll, passes
into a glaucous or bluish-green, olive-green, and yellow,
until it assumes the rusty yellow or ochraceous tint belonging
to the endrochrome of the perfect or adult diatom. This
observation of mine accords with a circumstance noticed by
Mr. O'Meara in Pleurosigma Spencei'ii, which at the moment
of emitting the germs exhibited a green colour, which, on
the following day, had become olivaceous. This seems to me
confirmatory of the view that the endochrome of the
Diatomacese is composed of chlorophyll, which takes on the
ferrugineous yellow or ochraceous colour in proportion as it
assimilates iron, the presence of which metal in the Dia-
tomacese has been proved by the analyses conducted by Pro-
fessor Frankland at Manchester. And the identity thus
proved of the endochrome of the diatoms with chlorophyll
affords a further insuperable argument in favour of their
vegetable nature.

After these observations I was further desirous of subject-
ing to the action of nitric acid some of the green masses in
the aquarium above mentioned, and which I judged to contain
nascent diatoms, with the view of proving the presence of
silica in them, and possibly of determining the period at
which that mineral element is developed, I conducted the
experiment with the utmost care I could bestow, so as, in
the repeated necessary washings, I might lose as little as
possible of these delicate corpuscles. From the minute
traces of siliceous matter thus procured as the ultimate pro-
duct I mounted a preparation in Canada balsam; and
although the embryonal forms had been inevitably lost, I was
able clearly to distinguish, though unusually small, Nitzschia
minutissima, linearis, and amphioxys, Pinmdaria radians,
and an Amphora. But in order to discern these I was
obliged to employ an oblique illumination, to which was
adapted an excellent objective No. 10, with correction for
immersion, by Hartnach. In the same preparation, besides
others of difficultly recognisable forms, were some of extreme
minuteness, in which I was unable to distinguish any details
on the surface of the valves ; and others, again, which I was
able to determine, are of such astounding minuteness as I
Wve hitherto never witnessed in all the numerous circum-
stances under which I have studied these species.

This would be the place to consider the question whether
the frustule, when once formed, is capable of further develop-
ment or growth, and if new strise continue to be added to
the valves ; or if, on the other hand, those already existing
may become wider apart, so tluit in a given space of the

262 BOLL, ON THE STRUCTURE OP

valve a smaller uunibcr of since may be counted. Although
my opinion may not agree with that of any one of the most
distinguished microscopists, I am at present inclined to the
belief that the DiatomacecE, like any other organism which
is produced from a germ, is born of small size, and grows as
it passes through the various stages of life. And I believe
that this growth may take place in various ways in different
species. But as an inquiry of this kind is ultimately con-
nected with the very thorny question of the true limits
between the genera, species, and varieties of the Diatomaceaj,
I will reserve it for a future occasion.

On the Structure of the Lachrymal Glands.
By Franz Boll.

Recently, in histological researches, peculiar star-shaped
cells have been noticed in the aciniferous glands. Krause
was the first man wdio isolated these, in the case of the
parotid of a cat, by means of maceration in vinegar. He is
inclined to treaty them as nervous organs. Henle also
describes stellate cells in the walls of the rennet glands, as
well as the parotid and mamma?. He also thinks that they are
most likely of a nervous character, although he has never
seen any connection wdth the nerve-fibres. Pflueger describes
multipolar cells in the salivary glands of the rabbit. He
holds them to be multipolar ganglion-cells, and observed on
one side their connection with the fibres, and on the other
side with the secretory epithelial cells. Finally, KoUiker
has made closer researches concerning the cells in question
in the salivary glands. He considers them to be simply
forms of the covering structure of the alveolus, which seem
to him to represent a kind of reticukim.

I began to give my attention to these doubtful objects
whilst examining the lachrymal glands in the summer vaca-
tion of 1867, and continued in Btmn later on to do so.

The lachrymal glands of the pig, sheep, calf, and dog, also
the submaxillary of the rabbit, calf, and dog, and the parotid
of the cat and rabbit, served me as objects of examination.
The following are the methods of isolating these cells :—
Maceration in vinegar (Krause); treatnient with bichro-
mate of potash (Henle) ; with o3 per cent, liquor potassge
(Pflueger) ; and placing in a solution of iodine, later on

THE LACHRYMAL GLANDS.

263

by twenty-four hours in chromic acid j'j per cent., and
bichromate of potash -p^y per cent. (PHueger). I liave found
the last two methods of Pflueger the most useful, and all
the results laid down herein are obtained by this process. If
the glands are examined by any other method but macera-
tion the star-like cells are only partly, or not all, seen.

What now appears in the preparation by means of
maceration in a solution of iodine is the peculiar form of
epithelium, the cells of which swim about in the liquid,
either singly or t^vo or three together. I must agree with
Pflueger, as against Giannuzzi, that they all show a distinct
nucleus. Also, the cell itself is very rarely simply round
or polygonal, but mostly breaks out into one or more projec-
tions. The projecting forms are peculiary numerous.

Besides the epithelium here noted, all other glands that 1
have examined by this method have shown the star-like cells,
so that I must note it as being a constant appearance. These
cells show generally a granular nucleus without nucleoli,
which comes out more clearly by the addition of acetic acid.
The cell-substance is not true granular protoplasma, but
ap])ears to be more homogeneous, soft, pale, and shows a
feeble but clear striping in the direction of the outshooting
projections. Only in the substance immediately surrounding
the nucleus can a fine granulation be seen. The delicate,
nearly transparent, smooth projections show the longitudinal
striae the most clearly. The form and size of the real cell-
body, the number of projections, and their more or less
secondary division and branching, present numerous varia-
tions. I only need draw attention to fig. 2, where different
forms are represented from the lacrhymal gland of a calf.
The species of animal in which they are found also gives

264 BOLL, ON THE STRUCTURE OF

rise to clifFerences. Thus, for instance, in the glands of
the calf the cells have large dimensions, and a distinct,
richly developed cell-substance. The projections become
prominent by gradual contraction of the cell-body, and
branch very numerously, generally at a very acute angle.
The cells of the rabbit and dog are very thin and small ;
the processes, which project sharply from the cell-body,
branch much less. Between these two forms stand the
isolated cells of the lachrymal glands of the sheep.

If, now, we trace these interesting cells by means of
the above method (best in the lachrymal glands of the calf) ,
we soon find that they do not present then\selves alone,
but form singular nets, with tree-like branched tendrils and
complicated anastomoses ; it may even so happen that we obtain
one of these networks which still retains the form of the
alveolus, like a basket in which the acinus of the gland lies.
The epithelial cells adhere to the spaces in the net which
open from the periphery into the hollow enclosed by the net-
work, as by a "scaffolding" (fig. 1). By the inner connec-
tion of the surrounding cell-basket with the secreting cells
of the alveolus, it often seems as though two kinds of cells
were in direct connection. On the other hand the branched
cells of the first can easily be mistaken for those of the
alveolus — for instance, in such a case as Avhere one or more
of the processes are knocked ofi". •

The radiate and much branched tendrils of the cells are,
as already shown, smooth and band-like. In the rabbit and
sheep the cells themselves are so. In the glands of the calf,
and particularly in those of the dog, the parts of the net
where the nuclei lie, that is, the cell-bodies, show a distinct
thickening. Here we have, according to my idea, a perfectly
undeniable exj)lanation of the peculiar formations, which some
time ago were described and figured by Giannuzzi from the
submaxillaries of the dog, as " mondchen " (lunula). The
crescent-shaped forms (fig. 2) are to be obtained in numbers
from the lachrymal glands of the calf by means of maceration.
They are multipolar cells, which have retained the curve of
the alveolus, and are seen in profile, their processes lying in
the plane of the profile. If one allows such a form to roll
about under the microscope, the transformation of the peculiar
crescent form into a multipolar cell takes place under one's
eyes. Fig. 2 shows two forms, which appear not unfre-
quently, where one or more processes are disposed about the
crescent, and, coming out of the profile-plane, become visible.
If this explanation is adopted the want of the lunula? in the
submaxillaries of the rabbit, where both Pfiuegcr and Kollikcr

THE LACHRYMAL GLANDS. 265

missed them, is of no consequence. The special thinness of
the multipolar cells in the rabbit does not allow the profile
view to appear as a half-moon ; but yet in these glands the
peculiar net-like structure is found, although not nearly so
strongly developed as in the calf.

All the above-named glands were examined also as to their
nerve-endings by means of the capital method of Pflueger,
that is, by the use of very diluted chromic acid. Concerning
this method^ I need only to mention the writing of Pflueger,
and again repeat the advice not to overlook any of the pre-
cautions given by him.

In the preparations kept by means of this method the cells
which lie close to one another within the alveolus appear irre-
gularly polygonal, and, as Pflueger says, nearly of the same
size. If not at first sight, at least by different focussing, all
show sometimes a simply round, but generally an excen-
trically placed nucleus, which often sends out a pointed pro-
jection. We see no trace of the multipolar cells, and it is
only in the glands of the calf and dog that we see peculiar
crescent-shaped forms, which generally are disposed about
the blind end of the alveolus.

The alveoli appear to be surrounded by connective tissue.
In the rabbit this is^scarcest and the fibrils finest, and attaches
itself very loosely to the alveoli. In old rabbits it is more
mixed with stronger fibrils and elastic tissue, and more
solid, and is with difficulty detached from the alveolus. It is
the carrier of the blood-vessels and nerves. As a peculiarity
of the lachrymal glands of the sheep, I may here mention the
enormous abundance of stellate pigment-cells which accom-
pany the nerve-branches.

We will now direct our attention to the examination of
the course and endings of the nerve-fibres. I will begin
with the lachrymal glands, Avhere the relations are simpler,
because one nerve, namely the n. lachrymalis, has the whole
care of the glands, whilst in the salivary glands the nerves
which rule the secretion are difficult to be seen by naked-eye
anatomical preparation.

If one examines quite freshly-prepared n. lachrymalis in a
solution of iodine, serum, or chromic acid, it will be found
that by far the greater portion of the nerve-fibres (in my
opinion four fifths) are medullary nerve-fibres. It is worth
remarking that all sizes lie close to one another, from the
rudest to the finest. Besides these fibres there are also
others. Their diameter is very changeable. They consist of
a very soft, very easily burst, connective-tissue-like covering,
in which granuli are often to be seen, and of a peculiarly

266 BOLL, ON THE STRUCTURE OF

weak, shining, and finely granulated contents. In the inside
of the covering it appears finely granulated, pale, or in some
places striped with peculiarly fine longitudinal markings.
If, however, it should have burst, as may be the case by
a careless placing of the covering-glass, it forms peculiar
dark balls and shapes, which are to be distinguished from
the characteristic pipe-like forms of the nerve-tubes through
their more finely granulated character, and therefore more
clouded appearance, as well as through the want of double
outline.

It is well known that Pflueger saw that in the salivary
glands the nerve-fibres approached the alveolus, entered
the same, branched out between the single cells, and at last
came into connection Avith the epithelium. I can only
endorse these statements of Pflueger. Some of my figures are
taken from the lachrymal glands of the sheep. In some,
exactly as in the plates of Pflueger (taf i, 1 — 4), are to be
seen the fibres, already known, which come from the stem of
the lachrymal nerve, and enter the blunt end of the alveolus,
where they pass into an obscure mass, which is not clearly
separated from the neighbouring epithelium. Whilst some
of these fibres do not show any further diflference, and are,
therefore, not to be separated from the common fibres of
Remak, as M. Schultze has pictured them from the spleen-
nerves of the ox, there are others which have the peculiar
property of containing, buried in their inside, two and
even four peculiar, shiny, soft fibres, which are certainly to
be considered as axis-cylinders. Cases such as Pflueger
pictures in table i, figs. 5 — 9, are comparatively seldom seen
in the lachrymal glands of the sheej) and calf. Nevertheless,
I have twice undoubtedly observed the entrance of a large
medullary nerve into the alveolus, and have been able to con-
vince myself of the frequent appearance of these forms in the
submaxillaries of the rabbit, which certainly, of all glands, is
the be*it for the study of nerve-endings. Oftener, however,
forms are to be seen in the lachrymal glands of the sheep, as
in fig. 3, where an undoubted fine medullary nerve enters
the alveolus, and branches off amongst the epithelial cells.
To follow the continuation of the axis-cylinder, which is
enclosed in the fibres of Remak, through the finely granii-
lated mass of the place of entrance, is very difficult, although
some of my preparations show undoubtedly a soft fibre which
branches out amongst the epithelial cells, but whose connec-
tion with the axis-cylinder at the place of entrance is not
proved with certainty.

Lastly, I must shortly mention the peculiar organs which

THE LACHKYMAL GLANDS. 267

Pflueger discovered, and to which, in the submaxillaries, he
has given the name of salivary canals (Speichelrohren). These
are clothed with cylinder epithelium, and must by no means
be mistaken for the excretory ducts of the salivary glands,
which are covered with pavement epithelium. They appear
to me to be forms of a very high functional importance,
because in the submaxillaries of the rabbit, Avhere, after treat-
ment with 1 per cent, hyperosmic acid, they come out
beautifully, they take up a fourth of the volume of the
whole gland. That they do not act only as a conducting
apparatus, that is, as passages for the secreted saliva, is seen
from the fact that some end blindly. By the above-mentioned
method one can see very plainly, at the end of the cylinder
epithelium, when it is turned to the light, a striping, which
might be the indication of a fine system of fibres, or fibrilla-
tion. " Lachrymal canals " also appear in the lachrymal
glands of the animals examined, but by no means in such
numbers as the canals in the submaxillaries of the rabbit.

VOL. VIII. NEW SER. U

QUARTERLY CHRONICLE OF MICROSCOPICAL

SCIENCE.

Kolliker's and Siebold's Zeitschrift fur Wissencb. Zoologie.
Part II, 1868.

\. " A Contribution to the Knowledge of the T(sni(e" by
Johannes Feuereisen, of Dorpal. One plate, forty-five pages.

2. ''Anatomy of the Bed-bug {Cimex lectularius, L.), by
Dr. Leonard Landois, of Greifswald. — This is a detailed
memoir of nineteen pages, illustrated by two plates, and is a
worthy successor to the author's treatises on the anatomy of
the Pediculi infesting the human species. The various glands
of the insect — salivary, Malpighian, and stink-glands — are
carefully described and figured. Dr. Landois has examined
especially the secretion of the last. He finds that it crystal-
lizes from an ethereal solution in colourless prisms, and has
a powerfully acid reaction. Its chemical formula appears to
be C.^gHogO^. The name Cimicin acid is given to this body.

o. "On the Tunics which surround the Yelk of the Bird's
Egg," by W. von Nathusius, of Konigsborn. — This is a
memoir of forty-six pages, illustrated by five large plates, and
worthy of more detailed notice than we can noAV give to it.

4. " On the Genus Cynthia as a Sexual Form of the Mysidian
Genus Siriella/'' by Prof. Dr. C. Claus. Four pages, one plate.

5. " On the Snake-like Amphibians (Ccecilice) ; a Contribu-
tion to the Anatomical Knowledge of the Amphibia," by Prof.
Leydig, of Tvibingen. Eighteen pages, two plates.

6. " On Deposits of Tyrosin oti Aiiimal Organs,'^ by Carl.
Voit. — This notice, as explanatory of an apj)earance not \\\\-
frequently met with in ill-preserved preparations of animal
tissues, is of some interest, amongst others, to the micro-
scopist.

Some years since sj^ecimens of fish which had been kept
in weak spirit were sent to Herr Voit to determine the nature
of a peculiar deposit upon the surface of the scales, which
was so copious as entirely to destroy the value of the speci-
mens.

QUARTERLY CHRONICLE. 269

The deposit in question was composed of a multitude of
snow-white globuhir masses about the size of a pin's head.
Wlicn viewed under the microscope, the globules were seen
to be formed of grovips of minute radially disposed needles.
They could be easily detached from the scales, and conse-
quently afforded a tolerably pure material for chemical ex-
amination. They Avere very difficultly soluble in cold water,
insoluble in alcohol and ether, whilst they were readily dis-
solved in cold hydrochloric acid and alkalies. From the
amraoniacal solution, by evaporation, the characteristic
acicular bundles of tyroshi were readily j^i'ocurable. De-
composed by concentrate dnitric acid, they afforded a yellow
solution, Avhich on evaporation left a yellow-brown re-
siduum, which when moistened with a solution of caustic
soda gave a deep reddish-yellow colour, which became
brown on evaporation, and finally black (Scherer's test).

From these and other indications no doubt could be enter-
tained that the crystalline material was tyi'osin, and further
investigation only confirmed this conclusion, and proved the
distinction of the deposit in question from x ant ho globulin and
leucin.

Leucin and tyrosin, as is well known, occur in many animal
organs, even when quite freshly prepared, and the demon-
stration by Kiihne, that albuminous matters can be trans-
formed into these products by the action of the alkaline
pancreatic juice, is extremely interesting. Stadeler and
Frerichs have shown their presence also in the lower animals,
and especially in the Crustacea, Arachnida, and Insects. But
with respect to fish, they were unable to procure leucin and
tyrosin from the Kay and from several organs of the Dogfish,
although a small quantity of leucin was procurable from the
spleen and pancreas, and some tyrosin from the spleen of the
latter It is consequently impossible to assign the
deposit of tyrosin in the preparations above referred to to
any pre-existing in the fish.

From many considerations it is obvious that in these and
in numerous other cases cited the tyrosin is the product of
decomposition of the albuminous substances, although it
would seem that putrefaction, or an aj^proach to it, is un-
necessary to produce the effect, as the author cites an instance
of some smoked ham in which the intermuscular substance
was studded with innumerable white points, standing in
strong contrast with the red flesh, and which had been
regarded by the dealer as encysted Trichina), but on examina-
tion by the author proved to be nothing more than minute
deposits of tyrosin.

270 QUARTERLY CHRONICLE.

In this case it "was indeterminable whether the deposit had
being formed during life, or whether it was the product of
incipient putrefaction before the smoking. But this seemed
to be unlikely, as the ham appeared qviite fresh, and tasted
and smelt quite sweet. The author is convinced that similar
deposits of tyrosin v/ill often be met with, and it seems
useful to bear the likelihood of such an occurrence in mind
when the microscope may be called upon to determine the
nature of doubtful appearances in ham or pork.

Max Schultze's Archiv. — Part III has not yet been received
in this country.

Bibliotheque TJniverselle. June. — " On the Contractile Tissue
of Sponges," by N. Lieberkiihn. — In a recent supplement to
his numerous investigations of Sponges, Lieberkiihn has paid
special attention to the ciliated embryos of the Spongillge.
The ova present a perfectly regular segmentation. They are
situated, like the embryos, in lacunae of the parenchyma of
the body. It is there also that the spermatic cells are found.
To observe the embryos, Lieberkiihn divides the Spongilla
into thin sections, which he leaves to soak in water for a day.
The embryos, up to the moment when they commence their
independent life, remain in the envelope formed by the con-
tractile tissue of the sponge, in which they turn about by
means of their ciliary coat. During this jjeriod the cavity of
the body, which is filled with liquid, is formed. A portion
of the spheres of segmentation which have not undergone
much modification are crowded together in the posterior part
of the body, where they form an opaque mass. The cilia of
the embryo are very long, and implanted upon still amorphous
sarcode, and not upon true cells. The mass of the embryo
properly so called, however, is formed by contractile and
nucleated cells, a portion of which enclose siliceous spicules
in their interior. This tissue is identical with the contractile
parenchyma of the sponge itself.

July. — " On Inflammation and Suppuration,''^ by J. Cohn-
heim. — The labours of Herr Virchow on connective tissue
have inaugurated a new era in histology, in which all authors
are agreed in attributing to the stellate corpuscles of this
tissue an extreme importance.* Perhaps this importance
may have been exaggerated ; at any rate, a reaction against
the ideas of the school of M. Virchow is beginning to make
itself felt. The corpuscles of the pus, on the origin of which
anatomists have so much disserted, are considered generally
at present, with Herr VirchoAv, as resulting from the ab-

* See Translation of Franz Boll's paper on the Lachrymal Glands in this
uiniber of the Journal.

QUARTERLY CHRONICLE. 2*1

normal multiplication of the stellate cells of connective
tissue. The labours of Herr Cohnheim have, however, con-
ducted him to a very different result. He has assured him-
self that the colourless corpuscles of the blood, the amajboid
movements of Avhich are well known, possess the property of
passing through the wall of the capillaries without tearing
them. They appear to make themselves a way by the dilata-
tion of " stomata " in the vascular epithelium, or perhaps
even they may actively pierce the wall. It is, therefore,
right to consider whether there may not exist between the
colourless corpuscles of the blood and the corpuscles of pus
something more than a simple resemblance of form, and
whether they are not actually identical one with another.
M. Cohnheim gives his adhesion to the affirmative, and he
tests his theory by an ingenious experiment. He impreg-
nates Avith a coloured substance the anueboid corpuscles of a
lymphatic sac in a frog, whose cornea he has previously jjut
into an inflammatory condition by a lesion ; then he searches
with the microscope, among the globules of the pus of the
cornea, for the cells impregnated with the colouring matter.
As a matter of fact he finds them there, which appears singu-
larly favorable to his view of the matter. The globules of
pus would then be lymphatic corpuscles extravasated from
the c<apillaries, although one cannot affirm that these cor-
puscles are not capable of multiplying themselves outside of
the circulatory system.

Comptes Rendiis. May.—'' The Tactile Corpuscles:' — M.
Rouo-et believes he has demonstrated the actual structure of
these bodies, which have so often baffled anatomists. He
prepares the tissues by soaking them for some time in acidu-
lated water. He then acts on the siDccimens with strong
nitric acid; this, he says, stains the nerve-fibres, and not the
adjacent structures. Preparations made in this way lead him
to believe that the nerve-fibres are not simply coiled round
the cone-like corpuscle, but absolutely enter its substance,
and penetrate it.

We shall shortly notice M. Rouget's observations more
fully, since he has recently published them, illustrated by
two plates, in the ' Archives de Physiologic,' a publication
which we are glad to see has just made its appearance under
the distinguished direction of MM. Brown-Sequard, Charcot,
and Vulpian.

" Development of Bacteria:'' — ]M . Bechamp,in a note, which
was read to the Academic on May 4, entered into a long
account of the developmental relations of Bacteria and Micro-
zyniata. Indeed lie considered the latter to be the first stage

272 QUARTERLY CHRONICLE.

of the former. The Microzymata are normally simply minute
spherical bodies. In this state they exist normally in the
human body. But when the tissues are exposed to the air
they grow into chains and become Bacteria. MM. Bechamp
and Estor seem to think it a proof of these Bacteria being
normal c(mstituents of the body, that they are found in the
liver. But after all, what is to prevent any organic germs
from reaching the inmost centre of the liver, through the
mouth, stomach, and gall-duct?

July. — " On the Existence of Capillary Arterial Vessels in
Insects. By Jules Kiinckel.* — Zoologists supposed that the
circulation of the blood in insects was limited to certain cur-
rents detected by Cams in transparent larvse, when in 1847
M. Blan chard proved that the tracheae of these animals ful-
filled the function of arteries, by conveying, in a peripheral
space, the nutritive fluids to all the organs. He ascertained,
by means of delicate injections, the existence of a free space
between the two membranes composing the tracheae : the
injected fluid expelled the blood and replaced it.

After having verified and confirmed M. Blanchard's dis-
covery, M. Agassiz insisted upon the evidence of the demon-
stration. Seeking afterwards to complete this discovery, he
paid particular attention to the termination of the tracheae.
In a memoir published in I849,t this naturalist distinguished
the ordinary tracheae terminating in little ampullae, and the
tracheae terminated by little tubes destitute of a spiral fila-
ment, which he named the capillaries of the trachea. M.
Agassiz expresses himself as folloAvs : — " In the grasshoppers
which I injected by the dorsal vessel I found in the legs the
muscles elegantly covered with dendritic tufts of these ves-
sels (the capillaries of the tracheae) all injected Avith coloured
matter ; and in a portion of a muscle of the leg of an Acri-
dium fiavovittatum, submitted to a high magnifying power, I
observed the distribution of these little vessels, which has a
striking resemblance to the distribution of the blood-vessels
in the bodies of the higher animals."

Nearly twenty years have passed since the period Avhcn
M. Agassiz announced these facts, which appear to have been
but little understood ; for the authors who have written on
the anatomy and physiology of insects have not even men-
tioned them.

The direct observation of the ]->henomenon of circulation
was wanting j no one had succeeded in detecting the move-

* Ti-aiisla(r.d in ilic 'Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist.,' Sept., ISGS.
t 'Proo. Aniericaii Association,' 1819, pp. IJO— 143; tiaiiblatcil in
'Ann. (les Sci. Nat.,' 3*^ ser., xv, pp. 358— 3()2.

QUAKTEKLY CHRONICLE. 273

ment of the blood either in the peritracheal space or in the
capillaries ; and M. Milne-Edwards indicated as a fact to be
regretted that " the existence of currents in the tubiform
lacunae had not yet been ascertained." Having been led, by
general researches upon the organization of the Diptera, to
study the apparatus of circulation and respiration, I have
frequently examined the tracheae. 1 always saw, without
difficulty, the globules between the two coats ; but, the
animals being dead, the blood was motionless. In pursuing
my investigations of the distribution of the tracheae in the
muscles, I was too much struck by the character of this dis-
tribution not to dwell upon it. Having succeeded in remov-
ing a muscular bundle from a living Eristalis, without tearing
it, and brought it quickly into the focus of a powerful micro-
scope, I had the surprise of seeing the blood imprisoned
between the tvvo membranes of the tracheae running in this
peritracheal space, and penetrating into the finest arterioles.
I observed the course of the blood-globules with the same
facility as in the caj^illaries of the mesentery or the membrane
uniting the digits of a frog. I was, therefore, fortunate
enough to see the circulation of the blood in the capillaries
of insects.

I have been able to convince myself of the existence of a
system of arterial capillaries in all insects : the most delicate
arterioles creep, not only through the muscles, but also over
the other organs. In general the blood thus observed by
transmitted light presents a rosy tint very favorable for
observation. When the blood abandons the trachea and its
arterioles, which I have frequently seen, they lose their
coloration. The trachea, recognisable by its spiral filament,
may always be perceived ; but it is very difficult to distin-
guish the arterioles, so delicate and transj^arent are their
walls.

The difficulties of the experiment are great. The insect
must be quickly opened, a muscular bundle must be taken
from the living animal, and this bundle conveyed under the
microscojjc; and then, under favorable conditions, the blood
is seen flowing rapidly through the arterioles. For these
investigations a considerable njagnifying power is necessary.
I have been singularly aided by the very perfect immersion-
objectives which M. Nachet was kind enough to place at my
disposal.

It is necessary to give a precise explanation of the structure
of the arterioles and their mode of distribution.

The tracheae, as is well known, are composed of two
coats: the inner coat foinis the envelope of "^he aiJriferous

274 QUARTERLY CHRONICLE.

canal; the outer coat, or peritracheal membrane (^peritoneal
membrane of the Germans), surrounds the former enve-
lope, leavmg an interval, the peritracheal space. But at the
point where the tracheae jienetrate between the muscular
fibres, the inner coat disappears, and the aeriferous canal
terminates csecally, whilst the outer coat or peritracheal
membrane becomes the wall of the blood-vessels or arterial
capillaries. It is not only the spiroid thickening of the
inner coat, or spiral filament, that disappears, it is the inner
coat itself that stops and suddenly closes the aeriferous canal.
In this way we see, starting from a more or less voluminoiis
tracheal stem, very delicate blood-vessels, in larger or smaller
number, which divide and subdivide regularly to their
extremities.

The blood retained in the peritracheal space remains
throughout its course in contact with oxygen ; it reaches the
capillaries perfectly vivified, and is a true arterial blood.
The capillaries are not in communication with venous capil-
laries ; the blood diffuses itself through the tissues, nourishes
them, and falls into the lacunae ; the lacunar currents convey
it aarain to the dorsal vessel.

Thus, to sum up, the tracheae of insects, which are aeri-
ferous tubes in their central portion and blood-vessels in their
peripheral part, become at their extremities true arterial
capillaries.

August. — " Note on the Microzymata contained in Animal
Cells,'''' by M. A. Estor. — The author makes additional re-
marks as to the evolution of Microzymata, or molecular granu-
lations, normally in cells of animals. These Microzymata, in
the conditions specified, group themselves two and two, or in
still larger numbers ; then elongate slowly, at length in such
a manner as to represent true Bacteria. These facts are the
results obtained from a great number of exj^eriments made
on different animals. The following observation shoAvs that
the same transformations may take place in man. A cystic
growth, cut out three days before, and filled with a half-
liquid, greenish matter, was submitted to a microscopic
examination. Microzymata at all periods of development
were observed : isolated granulations, others associated, others
a little elongated, and lastly true Bacteria.

Robin's Journal de I'Anat. et de la Physiol — " Micrographic
Society of Paris." — The reports given in ' Robin's Journal'
of the meetings of this Society are very interesting, and show
that a great deal of real work is being done by its members.

M. Balbiani drew attention, at the Fel)iuary meeting, to
the tubular prolongations of the nucleolus in certain cells,

QUARTERLY CHRONICLE. 275

>vhich, he said, Lubbock had noticed in the ova of Myria-
pods, though he had not regarded them as tubes. As to the
question of the movements of cells, they are of two sorts —
amoeboid or movements of reptation, and movements of con-
traction. These last may be observed in the ovules of Myria-
pods and of Arachnida. Thus, in the ovule of Phalangium,
the central globule possesses several vacuoles, called gene-
rally nucleoli by the German authors. The greater part re-
gard them as solid bodies, but La Valette St. George con-
siders them as vacuoles. If one examines one of these ovules
without the addition of any liquid, on a preparation closed
with wax, one sees one of these vacuoles enlarge. It
becomes sufficiently voluminous to be excentric relatively to
the nucleus, and to make the surface bulge. It bursts
then, and is replaced by a depression, and finally disappears.
Several of these vacuoles enlarge and burst successively in
the same way, which can be confirmed by looking for two
hours at the same preparation. This is very diflerent to
movements of reptation. A German botanist. Dr. Cohn, has
seen similar vacuoles. M. Mecznikow has observed them in
the cells of the salivary glands of insects. It is vacuoles
similar to these which communicate with the tubes which M.
Bal])iani described in various cells.

M. Balbiani has discovered what he considers to be Psoro-
sperms in the jMyriapod Geophyllus. This is interesting, as
widening the area of habitat of these parasitic growths. M.
Balbiani considers the fungoid growths which occur in the Silk-
worm disease to be Psorosperras. If these bodies, which are
clearly vegetable, be identified with the Psorosperms of Fish,
then must we be very careful to draw a sharp line between Pso-
rosperms and Pseudonavicells — the bodies which result fi'om
the breaking up of the Gregarinfe ; for it requires very much
more proof than we at present possess to admit the Grega-
rinse into the group of half-plants half-animals which has
been brought to light by Cienkowski's observations on
Monad-forms, and De Bary^s on Myxogastres. At present
the Gregarinse are known almost solely in the active animal
form.

At the May meeting M. Lionville described corpuscles
from serosities of blisters and burns, which are active, and
capable of developing movements. They are minute vesicles,
with a black central point; others appear as irregular cor-
puscles. M. Lionville has also detected vibriones in urine
taken fresh from its passage. M. Yulpian remarked that
the observations of these motile corpuscles in serosities
tended very much to lessen the significance of Hallicr^s

276 QUARTERLY CHRONICLE.

recent observations.'^ M. Balbiani stated that the epidermic
cells of the skin often contain Bacteria, and may thus be the
means of introducing them into blisters, pustules, &c.

Miscellaneous. — '' Action of the Poison of Snakes on the
Blood." — Dr. Halford, of Melbourne, some time since drew
attention in this Journal to the remarkable abundance of
white corpuscles in the blood of animals killed by snake-
bites. Dr. Joseph Jones, of New York, relates some careful
experiments on the action of the poison of the American
copperhead snake in the ' Medical Record.' Of several cases
observed the following appears to have been the most fully
studied. The dog lived six days, and directly after being
bitten alteration of the red blood-corpuscles was noticed
about the wound. A post-mortem examination was made
thirty hours after death.

The fore-leg which had been struck by the copperhead was
infiltrated by the bloody serum ; all the fibrous tissues of the
leg and thigh beneath the skin, up to the abdomen and
beyond, were greatly infiltrated with dark purplish-black
serum. Under the microscope this presented numerous oil-
globules and altered blood-corpuscles, with ragged star-like
edges ; long acicular crystals were also seen floating amongst
the altered blood-corpuscles. The blood, from the swollen
infiltrated cellular structures of the head and nose, where
the snake inflicted the severest bite, presented a peculiar
appearance ; thousands of small acicular crystals were min-
gled with the altered blood-corpuscles, and as the bloody
serum and effused blood dried, the blood-corpuscles seemed
to be transformed into crystalline masses, shooting out into
crystals of hmnatin in all directions. The blood-vessels of
the b)-ain were filled with gelatinous coagulable blood, which
presented altered blood-corpuscles and acicular crystals.

The muscular system everywhere presented a dark pur-
plish colour. The heart was filled with coagulated black
blood. When spread upon a glass slide, the blood-corpus-
cles almost immediately commenced to assume a crystalline
form. Blood-vessels of brain filled with dark blood ; mem-
branes and structures of brain presented a normal appear-
ance ; there were no lesions of the brain recognisable to the
eye. The exterior fibrous sheath of the spinal cord presented
a red appearance, as if the colouring matters of the blood
had been efl'used ; structure of spinal cord natural; vertebral
arteries filled with coagulated blood.

From this and other cases in which the blood was ex-
amined of the living animal. Dr. Jones concludes that the

* Vide Kcv. M. J. Berkeley's Address in thi.s number of the Jounuil.

QUARTERLY CHRONICLE. 277

special toxic effect of the poison of the snake is due to its
destructive effects on the red blood-corpuscle.

Mr. Frank Buckland also, in a recent note on this subject,
arrives at a similar conclusion. He says that the poison
seems to " curdle" the blood.

" The Mic7'oscopical Illumination of Diatoms." — A paper
read before the Societe Philomathique, of Paris, on April
18th, on the above subject, contains one or two points of in-
terest. The author, M. Freminau, makes the following
remarks: — "The ordinary method of examining the Dia-
tomacese consists in illuminating the object by means of
oblique light, so arranged that the reflected bundle strikes it
at an angle of 45°. This method he considers most unsatis-
factory. Here, then, are three other ways of illuminating,
say Navicula. The first consists in passing solar light
directly through the object, and protecting the retina by a
blackened glass placed over the objective. This mode, he
says, gives the strife very well. The second consists in em-
ploying the solar spectrum, reflecting from the mirror the
light between orange-yellow and greenish-yellow. The third
consists, whatever may be the magnification, in illuminating
the Navicnla directly, as opaque objects are illuminated, but
by a somewhat different process. We place, says the author,
an equilateral prism on the level of the stage, and then we
direct a bundle of rays — either white or spectral — between
the preparation and the object, and we see the striae black
upon a coloured ground. These processes do not require
great experience for their satisfactory employment, but may
readily be adopted by the amateur. These methods, says the
author, have given me valuable assistance in the examination
of Diatomacese, and they are equally applicable to other sub-
stances. He suggests the following substitute for solar
light : — A hemispherical condenser is placed in front of a
conical reflector, and a lamp is set between the two. This
lamp should be a magnesium lamp, or a lamp in the centre
of whose flame a cylinder of solid magnesia has been placed.

British Association. — 1. '' On, the Homologies and Notation
of the Teeth of Mammalia," by W. H. Flower, F.R.S. The
author stated that he proposed to bring before the meeting
an endeavour to ascertain how much of the generally adopted
system of classification of the homologies and notation of
the teeth of the mammalia, a system mainly owing to tlie
researches of Professor Owen (whose labours in this depart-
ment of anatomy he gratefully acknowledged), stands the
test of renewed investigations, how much seems doubtful and
requires further examination before it can be received into

278 QUARTERLY CHRONICLE.

the common stock of scientific knowledge, or how much (if
any) is at actual variance with well ascertained facts. One of
the most important of the generalisations alluded to is the
division of the class mammalia in regard to the times of
formation and the succession of their teeth, into two groups ;
the Monophyodonts, or those that generate a single set of
teeth, and the Diphyodonts, or those that generate two sets
of teeth ; the Monophyodonts including the orders Monotre-
mata, Edentata, and Cetacea, all the rest of the class being
Diphyodonts. The teeth of the former group are more simple
and uniform in character, not distinctly divisible into sets to
which the terms incisor, canine, premolar, and nKjlar, have been
applied, and follow no numerical law. The group is, in fact,
equivalent to that which the term Homodont has been applied
by some authors. On the other hand, in the Mammalian orders
with two sets of teeth, these organs are said to acquire fixed
individual characters, to receive special denominations, and
can be determined from species to species, being equivalent
to the Heterodonts. The author then showed that among
the Homodonts the nine-handed Armadillo Avas certainly a
Diphyodont, having two complete sets of teeth, and among
the Hetorodonts many were partially, and probably some
completely, Monophyodonts. Moreover, that almost every
intermediate condition between complete Diphyodont and
simple Monophyodont dentition existed, citing especially
the Sirenia, Elephants, Rodents, and Marsupials. He then,
by the aid of diagrams, showed particularly two modes of
transition between monophyodont and diphyodont^dentition —
one in which the number of teeth changed was reduced to a
single one on each side of each jaw, as in marsupials, and
the other in Avhich the first set of teeth, retaining their full
number, were reduced to mere functionless rudiments, and
even disappearing before birth, as in the case of the seals,
especially the great elephant seal. These observations showed
that the terms "monophyodont" and "diphyodont,"' though
useful additions to our language as a means of indicating
briefly certain physiological conditions, have not, as applied
to the mammalian class, precisely the same significance that
their author originally attributed to them. The classification
and special homologies of the teeth of the heterodont mammals
was next discussed. Certain generalisations as to the pre-
vailing number of each kind of teeth in different groups of
animals were sustained, but deviations were shown from some
of the rules laid down — such as that when the premolars fall
short of the typical number, the absent ones are from the
fore-part of the series. The general inference was that,

QUARTERLY CHRONICLE. 279

although in the main the system of notation of the mamma-
lian teeth prepared by Professor Owen was a great advance
upon any one previously advocated, Ave must hesitate before
adopting it as final and complete in all its details, and need
not relax in our endeavour to discover some more certain
method of determination.

Professor Huxley gave an account of the observations
•which form the the subject of his paper in this Journal.

Other papers relating to microscopical science were the
Rev. A. M. Norman^ s, on " A New Sponge (Oceanapia)
from the Shetlands/^ and on " Hyalonenia boreale of Loven."
That by Mr. Moggridge, on the " Muffa," appears in another
part of the Journal; whilst the President's (Rev. M. J.
Berkeley) Address we have also given in full, since it con-
tains a valuable review of some recent speculations in crypto-
gamic botany. There was, we regret to state, a very marked
absence in the Department of Anatomy and Physiology, of
papers on histological subjects.

Medical Meeting at Oxford. — A most interesting and care-
fully arranged series of preparations, under nearly 120
microscopes, was exhibited by Dr. Lionel Beale at the August
meeting of the British Medical Association at Oxford. The
series was described in an illustrated catalogue presented to
each member, and formed, perhaps, the most complete histo-
logical exhibition ever arranged.

NOTES AND CORRESPONDENCE.

Microscopy.— When mounting objects in fluids I have used
for a long time, a simple contrivance, which, as I have seen
it nowhere described, and as it is so simple and useful, seems
worthy of a note. Its use is for holding the thin glass cover
firm, when applying the cement.

I make it of a j)iece of hoop-spring, about three inches
long, heating and bending into a large curve, to approxi-
mate the ends, as in Fig. 1. The lower arm, A B, should

Fia. I,

be quite straight, and the curve should not project below its
level ; the end A should project a little beyond the end C,
that it may catch under the edge of the slide in applying it.
The arm C D should not be quite parallel to the arm A B,
but so inclined that when applied to the slide (see Fig. 2) the
thickness of the slide will bring them parallel. The arm
C D must be quite short, so that it shall not occupy more
than half of the thin covering glass. The large curvature
allows the cement to be applied quite round the cover. It
may be tempered to suit — some stiff, others more flexible.
One can be made in five minutes ; and, to me, they have
proved very useful.— T. F. Allen, M.D., New York.

MEMORANDA. 281

Heuriscopometer.— Those who study the animalcules, and who
make researches among the diatoms or other microscopical
shells as a matter of preference, experience great difficulties in
exploring a preparation which often contains several millions
of these little creatures, each of which has a siliceous carapace,
and which have played such an important part in the earth's
phenomena of the tertiary epoch. The difficulty is much greater
still when it is necessary for them to refind in a considerable
number of individvials those which particularly attracted their
attention at the time of a first examination. It sometimes
happens that, after several hours of research, they cannot
attain it, and if patience is not wanting to them, fatigue, at
least, obliges them momentarily to relax their labours. Not
to refind what one has already seen in a preparation which
can scarcely be a centimetre in diameter will doubtless
appear extraordinary to those who are strangers to micro-
scopical studies. Whilst the smaller the animals one exa-
mines the greater ought the magnifying power of the
microscope to be, it is certain that the field of the instrument
diminishes in proportion as the extent of the preparation in-
creases. With a magnifying power of 2000 diameters, for
instance, a preparation of one centimetre square will attain,
then, a superficies of twenty centimetres on each side. Every
one will comprehend the difficulty of finding in so large a
space, of which the field of the microscope occupies but a
very small part, the little being which at first attracted atten-
tion, whether on account of its peculiar formation, or by certain
characteristics indicating in the individual a new species
which it is necessary to classify. To obviate this inconve-'
nience several methods have been used. In 1855 Professor
T. W. Bailey, of the United States, proposed a universal
indicator ; it was not really an instrument, for it consisted
but of a divided card that was placed on the stage of the
microscope, and Avhich ofiered, as one may suppose, no
guarantee for the exactitude of the researches. The one
lately indicated by Mr. Wright, in the ' Microscopical
Journal,' was not more practical. I sent to the London
Universal Exhibition, in 1862, a metal indicator of a very
simple construction, depending on a geometrical principle,
and being adaptable to all microscopes. It was entered in
the general catalogue, No. 1419, in the loth class. This
instrument was very simple ; in fact, one of its movements is
regulated by a micrometric vice, the other by the fingers only.
This indicator, once placed on the stage of the microscope in
a fixed and invariable position, the object is refound by the help
of the co-ordinates, of which the figures have been written

282 MEMORANDA.

down. I have just made another indicator, a little more
complicated, but "on the same principles. It is provided with
two grooves, cutting each other at right angles, and moving,
one on the top of the other, by the help of micrometric vices.
With this instrument, not only do I immediately refind the
objects, but I can measure them with a certain precision by
means of divided circles placed near to the racked heads of
the vices, opposite an index or fixed needle. Each turn of
these vices equalling J-th of a millimetre, the circles being
divided in a hundred parts, one division corresponds to ^^th
of a millimetre. With this new indicator I can first explore
in full a microscopic preparation, then refind, nearly instan-
taneously, the object Avhich I desire to examine afresh. To
conclude, I can also tell the exact dimensions of the object ;
I therefore call it the Heuriscopometer. Before finishing
this note I ought to say a word about Maltwood's Finder.
1 have used this instrument several times, and it has ren-
dered me some service. But to substitute photography
for the preparation, or the preparation for photography, when
one wishes to seek or refind objects, is trouble, and, above all,
a loss of time. The shortest way is always the best. —
MoucHET, Rochefort-sur-Mer.

[We shall be glad to have a further account of this instru-
ment.— Eds.]

Soiree of the Eoyal Microscopical Society.— In your report on
the Soiree of the Royal Microscoj)ical Society you mention
a series of fossil woods as being exhibited by me in illustra-
tion of a paper by Mr. Carruthers in the ' Intellectual
Observer.' The fossils I exhibited comprised about thirty
species of Graptolites (an extinct order of Hydroid Zoo^ihytes),
with graptolite germs, &c. ; but not a single specimen of fossil
wood. The papers by Mr. Carruthers in the ' Intellectual
Observer,' and in the ' Geological Magazine,' to which I re-
ferred, contain our latest and most accurate information on
these interesting fossil zoophytes. — John Hopkinson,
8, LaAvn Road, Haverstock Hill.

Cutting Thin Glass.— A correspondent inquires how or with
what instrument the thin glass for mounting objects is cut I

Blood-stains.— The ready detection of the presence of blood
in a medico-legal case is a matter of importance and interest,
and several advances have been made of late years in this

MEMORANDA. 283

direction. The microscope was found to be of great value,
when first introduced, in showing, by the form of the blood-
corpuscles, the class of animals whence the blood came ; and
even now it can hardly be dispensed with, inasmuch as the
aj^pearances which it discloses are characteristic, and can be
made to last for some time. Further, it introduces* no fallacv
into the test. A few years later, the discovery of blood-
crystals of definite shape and reactions led observers to believe,
not only that this was a test more delicate than that which
the corpuscles afforded, but that, by noting the different
crystalline forms, we might ascertain the animal from which
it came, or at least distinguish the blood of man from that of
other mammals. Observation, however, proved the incorrect-
ness of this view ; and also that, in cases where there was a
mere stain, the test was inapplicable. The process, too, was
one of by no means easy application.

The next advance was made by examining the blood-solu-
tion by means of the spectroscope, and noting the position of
the dark bands in the green portion of the spectrum. This
process has the advantage of dealing with very minute quan-
tities ; but it requires considerable practice and a good deal of
scientific knowledge to be certain of the result.

A simpler test, and one easy of application, has been lately
devised by Dr. Day, of Geelong. It consists in the addition
of tincture of guaiacum and " ozonized ether " to a weak solu-
tion of blood, when a bright blue colour is produced.
Schonbein, it will be remembered, first described accurately
the existence of two differently active states of oxygen, called
ozone and antozone. A molecule of oxygen may, in this view,
be looked upon as neutral or passive, and formed by the union
of a negative and positive particle. Ozone, as is well known,
is supposed to be found in atmospheric air, in certain electrical
conditions ; and it may be produced by passing currents re-
peatedly through a tube containing oxygen. Some inorganic
bodies, as the peroxides of manganese, lead, and potash, con-
tain oxygen in the state of ozone ; others, as the peroxides of
hydrogen and barium, are supposed to be in an opposite
state, and to contain antozone. Ozone has an oxidizing in-
fluence on guaiacum resin, and turns it blue, and thus differs
from antozone, which has no effect on it. Further, antozo-
nides differ from ozonides, in converting red chromic acid
into blue perchromic acid. Van Deen many years ago drew
attention to this subject, but Dr. Day has more fully Avorked
it out. See a paper on "Allotropic Oxygen " in the 'Austra-
lian Medical Journal,' May, 1867. When tincture of guaiacum
is exposed to air or oxygen, it becomes blue ; and this change

VOL. VIII. NKW SER. X

284 MEMORANDA.

takes place more or less readily, according as more or less
ozone is present. " Ozonides," or bodies containing ozone,
have a similar eifect. Among organic substances, gum,
gluten, and unboiled milk render the resin blue. The reac-
tion with the pulp of the raw potato is well known. Other
bodies, as starch, fibrine, boiled milk, and the red colouring
matter of the blood, have no such effect. Boiling prevents
the development of this blue colour ; nor do these bodies
recover it when cool. But while neither blood nor antozone,
when applied separately, have any bluing action on guaiacum,
yet, Avhen they are applied together, an intense blue is the
result. If a drop of blood be mixed with half an ounce of
distilled water, and a drop or two of guaiacum be added, a
cloudy precipitate of the resin is thrown down, and the solu-
tion has a faint tint, due to the quantity of the tincture used.
If now a droj) of an ethereal solution of peroxide of hydrogen
be added, a blue tint will aj)pear, which will gradually
deepen and spread after a few minutes' exposure to the air.
This test acts better when very small quantities of blood are
used ; as otherwise, if the blood is in excess, the solution is
red, and gives, with antozone, a purplish or dirty green
colour. So minute and delicate is the reaction, that in a case
where the microscope failed to identify any blood from a stain
in a man's trousers Dr. Day succeeded in obtaining sixty
impressions.

Water has the effect of destroying the shape of the blood-
corpuscle, and so it cannot sometimes be recognised by the
microscope, but it in no "svay interferes with this new
chemical test. Its accuracy may be thus sho^^m. A piece of
linen was stained with blood in the year 1840 (Guy's
' Forensic Medicine,' 3rd ed., p. 316) ; from this a fibre was
taken, containing at its extremity a most minute stain of
blood; this was placed on a white slab, and treated first with
a dro]3 of tincture of guaiacum, and then with a drop of
" ozonized ether ;" and, although the quantity was so
small, and no less than twenty-eight years old, the
chai'acteristic blue appeared at once. We have found
same result in blood obtained from the urine in a case of
haematuria, and also in blood drawn from different animals.
Dr. Taylor, in ' Guy's Hospital Reports,' has shown that red
colouring matters, cochineal, kino, catechu, carmine, &c.j
exert no such influence; and, as far as it is at present known,
no other red stain will produce this result.

Black currants will cause a stain resembling that of blood
more than any other ; but antozone has no effect upon it.

Ink-stains will cause a blue with guaiacum ; so will rust-

MK^rORANDA. 285

stains produced by citric or acetic acid on iron ; but then no
" ozonized ether " need be used, and this at once distin-
guishes such stains from blood. " Ozonized ether " is a
wrong term to use ; for it contains antozone, and not ozone,
and to this is due its reaction. Ether which contained an
ozonide would blue guaiacum resin, whether blood was pre-
sent or not. The test solution is the ethereal solution of
peroxide of hydrogen, which is an antozonide.

The so-called "ozonized essential oils,'^ as oil of turpentine,
lavender, &c., really contain antozone ; and to this may be
ascribed their use in detecting blood ; for at first oil of tur-
pentine was used, instead of the peroxide of hydrogen, but
the results were unsatisfactory.

If the blood-stain be on dark cloth, the test, as above
described, may be used ; but then an impression must be
taken off on white blotting-paper, otherwise the blue colour
will not be visible.

The exact nature of the chemical change that takes place
is doubtful ; but the test is so simple and easy of applica-
tion, and, above all, so very delicate, that it is likely to become
very generally used. This test fails, as other tests have
failed before, to show whether the blood-stain is human or
not. The microscope will point out whether a corpuscle
comes from a fish, a reptile, or a mammal ; biit we do not
think any microscopist would rely on the mere size of the
corpuscle to say whether a cell came from one class of mam-
mals or another, seeing that slight differences in the density
of the fluid considerably alter the shape of the corpuscle.
When to this delicate chemical test of Dr. Day we shall add
one that is decisive as to the derivation of tVie stain, we shall
require no more aids in detecting blood for the purposes of
medico-legal investigation. — British Medical Journal.

We have received from Mr. W. Andrews a specimen of
sponge which he conceives to be Amphitrema M'Collii {Pachy-
matisma), Bowerb. " It is," he says, '*from the most western
land in Europe, Innisveikelane, the western Blasket Island."
The swell was too heavy to allow Mr. Andrews to collect
some fine specimens he saw. No one else, he observes, has
met with this sponge in Ireland but Mr. M' Colli and him-
self, the former in Roundstone Bay, and the latter on the
coast of Kerry. It has never been met with on the south
coast, as mentioned by Bowerbank.

PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES.

Dublin Mickoscopical Club,
16^ April, 1868.

Dr. Jolin Barker sliowed specimens of Micrasferias fimhrlata,
Ealfs, taken near Carrig Mountain, new to Ireland, possessing,
besides the ordinary characteristics of this fine species, the
additional one furnished by the presence of a number of acute,
somewhat curved spines, variously, but seemingly definitely, dis-
posed over the surface. A series of these spines ran in a curve
near the base of each segment across its whole width, and a series
of similar spines ran close to and parallel with the margin at
each side of the end lobe, whilst a few others were disposed here
and there (seemingly definitely, though not in rows) over the sur-
face. Inasmuch as no spines, beyond those at the tips of tlie
teeth, thus fringing the margin of the frond, have been mentioned
by any writer who records this species (except by Buluheim, in
' Hedwigia,' ii, p. 21, providing that the form there mentioned be
the same as the present). Dr. Barker was inclined to suppose this
form may, probably, eventually be regarded as a distinct species,
owing to the presence of these spines, notwithstanding the outline
and general character of the forms agreed so closely with the
published figures. It would, however, be the safer course simply
to record this interesting form, leaving it for the future to com-
pare it with foreign specimens, or until both be found con-
jugated.

Mr. Archer expressed his strong opinion at present that the
very pretty form exhibited by Dr. Barker could not be regarded
as distinct from Micrasferias jimhriata, Ralfs, notwithstanding
tlie presence of the superficial spines, inasmuch as the general
form of the cell, and disposition, character, and number of the
lobes, agreed so completely with Ealfs' figure, as well as that of
Eocke in his ' Physiologische Studien,' t. i, fig. IG (which he
showed), which was doubtless the same plant, though there
called Euastrum '[Aficrasteriasi ajyiculatum ; but M. apiculata
(Ehr.), Balfs, seems to be another plant. No doubt the spines in
lines on the surface were a remarkable addition to the characters

PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES. 287

appertaining to this species {If.Jlmiriata), and it would almost
appear as if these may have been possibly overlooked by previous
observers, so identical was the form in other respects with the
figures alluded to. A few common species are occasionally found,
however, both with and without certain spines, but in regard to
which their identity was beyond any doubt. This does not ap-
pear to be the plant referred to in ' Hedwigia,' 1866, pp. 58, 59,
under the name of M. fimbriata, var, ornata, Bulnheim, where it
is stated that the entire surface is covered by very many spines,
and the ultimate divisions of the lobes pass over quite gradually
into the spines, without becoming previously rounded off", and
that, therefore, the most suitable name would appear to be M.
aculeata ; but whether this is a new species or an equivalent to
AT. aculeata, Ehr., as it possibly is (and which is appareutly the
same as M. apiculata) , does not appear.

Mr. Archer exhibited fine and numerous specimens of a minute
organism, which appeared to him to appertain to the genus Dino-
bryou, and to be an uudescribed form. This is a rather rare pro-
duction in our moor pools, and from its generally hyaline character
and its minuteness somewhat readily overlooked. That which
first strikes the eye is a cluster, occasionally rather dense, of
cylindrical (sometimes, when very crowded, somewhat bent), very
slender hyaline tubes, disposed in a radiant manner. Each of
these tubes is inhabited by a minute monad-like green organism,
like that of Dinohryon sertularia, but, of course, a good deal nar^
rower and more minute, as the tube in which it dwells is in itself
so much less in diameter than the campanulate cells of that
species. This monad-like organism is contractile, being some-
times extended up to the terminal aperture of the quill-like tube,
and sometimes rather quickly withdrawn into it, though in large
clusters with long tubes, it seemed to be permanently placed near
the top, the lower portion of the tube being seemingly empty.
Very dense clusters sometimes present a rounded outline, those
less dense a hemispherical or a fan-shaped form, the tubes appear-
ing distinct to the base, though in a crowded condition, not
readily traceable the one from the other all the way down. It
would seem that this production must be referred to Dinobryon,
though it does not accord with any of the forms already described,
though, as Mr. Archer did not know any figures of them, he
thought it better to allow it to remain an open question for the
present.

Dr. Moore exhibited hairs of a stellate and palmate form from
the gamosephalous orange-coloured calyx of Steriplioma para-
doxa, a Capparidaceous plant from Trinidad, which formed a very
pretty object.

Eev. E. O'Meara showed a new Stauroneis from the Seychelles,
a description of which will hereafter appear.

Mr. Crowe drew attention to a curious case of malformation in
Closterium striolatum, consisting in the fusion of two perfect
Closteria by their ends, the portion uniting them having become

288 PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES.

inflated in a globose manner ; at each free end of the so united
Closteria there was the usual clear space with moving granules,
but at the fused ends there was but one such space, and this
occupying the centre of the globose inflation. This outre speci-
men offered a curious example of apparently the same mons-
trosity which is occasionally seen in various species, especially of
Cosmarium and Euastrum, but is seemingly more rare in the
present genus.

Mr. Archer observed that no instance similar to that drawn
attention to by Mr. Crowe had ever been met with by himself in
the genus Closterium, and he knew of but one figure of a similar
case, that given by Eeinsch in his ' Morphologische Anatomische
und Physiologische Fragmente, 'pi. ii, fig. 7, whioh, opportunely
enough, he happened to have brought down with him. In that
instance, however, the middle or intervening inflation had not
become at all so largely expanded as in. that drawn attention to
by Mr. Crowe. But Eeinsch's interpretation of this singularity
did not apparently agree with that which Mr. Archer thought to be
the true one, for that author seemed to regard this as an instance
of normal self-division, and as simply proving that in Closterium
this followed the same law as in Cosmarium and other desmidian
genera, whereas it appeared to Mr. Archer to be but an instance
of abnormal gi'owth, quite comparable to that not uncommon in
other genera, where no intervening septum is formed between the
new young half-cells, and hence the new and old growth forms
but one uninterrupted cavity, the central portion being often dis-
torted and misshapen. So far from this phenomenon, depicted
in Eeinsch's figure and that of Mr. Crowe, representing normal
growth, it is easy to find in a fresh gathering of Closteria many
examples of self-division, which accords quite with that of a Cos-
marium or Euastrum in essential points, mainly differing, indeed,
in the fact that the growth of the new half-cell in Closterium is,
for the most part, perfected after separation, in place of remain-
ing attached until the new half-cells (or segments) have acquired
nearly or wholly the size and character of the old ones. The phe-
nomenon in Closterium represented in the figure alluded to seemed
to be quite the same as that illustrated in other genera (Cos-
marium and Staurastrum) by other figures on the same plate
(1. c, pi. ii, figs. 4, 5, G), and well explained at p. 37 (1. c). It
seems evident that, if a double wall is not formed at the very
commencement of vegetative growth, there must be then a fusion
or soldering together of the segments, just such as Eeinsch's
Closterium and that now exhibited evince.

Dr. E. Perceval "Wright exhibited thespicula in situ,and explained
the character of certain Corticate sponges met with by him in
Seychelles ; but as he intends to present the Club with a con-
nected detail of his observations on this group of sponges, it would
be premature to enlarge upon them here.

l)r. Dickson exhibited longitudinal sections from the stem of a
Bpecies of Smilax, showing scalariform ducts, forming a very

PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES. 289

pretty object, and tluis indicating that scalariform tissue, when
ibunci fossilized, should not necessarily be referred to Cryptogams.
Dr. John Barker exhibited a seemingly novel production, but
one aa yet impossible to determine, even in a general way. This
consisted of a large, very broadly elliptic or nearly orbicular,
thiek-walled cell, densely filled with green contents, having at
one or both poles a very slight external depression, and the outer
surfiice minutely and densely pilose all over. On one occasion
there was seen springing from one of the depressions of the cell
a conical, colourless projection, seemingly of a mucous consist-
ence. No self-division or any mode of growth was seen, and its
location or nature seems a problem. This occurred in the same
gathering as the 3Iicrasferias Jimbriata, shov^^n at an earlier period
of the evening ; and it is to be hoped that another visit to the same
source may disclose more of this seemingly simple-looking, but
very hard to be determined, production, in order that, if possible,
a light might be shed upon its true nature.

21st 3Iay, 1868.

Dr. John Barker showed a remarkable little parasitic produc-
tion, growing on the joints of an CEdogonium ; this was very
minute, balloon-shaped, and containing green contents, the stipes
and margin of the inflated portion hyaline, and connected with
the interior of the CEdogouium-cell by a little aperture in the
side of the latter, whose contents were either partially absorbed
and the residue generally effete and brown, or had wholly dis-
appeared. This presented some resemblance to a Chytridium,
but would require further examination as to development before
its nature could be decided upon ; but it formed a curious and
singular-looking object.

Mr. Archer presented numerous examples of a very singular-
looking encysted state, so to call it, of Staurastrum cuspidatiim,
Breb. The outer coat or envelope, having always imbedded
within it either one or two examples of this species of Stau-
rastrum, was of a definite figure, and with yellowish-green granular
contents and a thick wall, and thus the two, one inside the other,
presented a somewhat surprising appearance. The most usual
form of the outer enclosing cells was that of a depressed or very
short prism, the wall rather thick, and the angles somewhat drawn
out and thickened into a more or less prominent, colourless
tubercle. A variety of forms, however, occurred besides, such as
polyhedral, semicircular, &c. ; and in all instances the margins
thickened more or less, and the angles tuberculated. Inside these
cells the contained Staurastrum mostly stood vertically, and when
there were two contained they were mostly one above the other
in a direct line, often seemingly as just after self-division, inas-
much as the inner segments frequently appeared smaller than

290 PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES.

those above and below. In the triangular forms the contained
Staurastrum mostly stood with its angles directed towards the
angles of the former, with usually but a little space between the
ends of the Staurastrum at either end and the inner surface.
Not unfrequently, however, this regular position seemed to be
disturbed, and this especially in those outer cells of an indefinite
figure. When first taken the contained Staurastra seemed to
present their ordinary green appearance, but in many of the forms
shown this evening they had become more or less brown and dead-
looking. One distinct entity thus right in the middle of another,
in fact completely invested thereby, and seeming both of vegetable
nature, presented a somewhat startling appearance, nor, unfortu-
nately, could as yet any light be thrown on th^ mystery as to
how this phenomenon took place. It is worthy of note that the
gathering abounded with multitudes of this species of Stauras-
trum, with many instances of conjugation, showing the charac-
teristic zygospore of this, in itself, not uncommon species, though
not seemingly frequently to be found conjugated. It is, how-
ever, not very uncommon to find certain Desmidiese (especially of
the genus Euastrum — for instance, E. ollongum or E. didelta)
completely enclosed in an elliptic or indefinitely shaped coat,
which is smooth, without angles or tuberculations, and with
colourless granular contents, the included Desmid seemingly
always eff'ete and dead. Occasionally one sees more than one
(even three or four) enclosed in such a " cyst," or even sometimes
two distinct species so included. It is also to be seen in other
genera, such as Cosmarium and Staurastrum. Yet, though this
phenomenon does not seem to be very uncommon, it is not appa-
rently noticed in any published work. But to say that the more
definite and striking form now exhibited seems to be the same
kind of thing, is by no means an explanation. The present, in-
deed, differs in having a definite and marked form, the wall
thickened at the angles, and the contents decidedly of a green
colour. In fact, a priori they might be taken (at first glance,
and before one catches sight of the always present Staurastrum)
for a distinct form of unicellular algse appertaining to Niigeli's
genus Polyedrium. It may not be here superfluous to observe
that this is by no means the same thing as that adverted to
by Mr. Archer on a former occasion. (See Club Minutes,
' Microscopical Journal,' Dec, 1866.) The only assumption
possible in this case seems to be that they are of a parasitic
nature, not living simply upon the surface or inhabiting the
interior of the plant attacked, but surrounding and completely
investing it. In one instance one of these triangular produc-
tions contained, besides the Staurastrum, two half-joints oi Syalo-
theca dissilJens, thus pointing to a kind of swallowing up, so to
say, of the included algae (Desmidiese) during the formation or
growth of these singular organisms. A question might arise,
Could they possibly be beings of rhizopodous nature, whose food
consisted of the Staurastra, and themselves passing through an

PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES. 291

encysted condition ? That is, could they really be organisms at
all comparable, for instance, to Cienkowski's Vampyrella (' Archiv
fiir Mikroskopische Anatomie,' p. 223) ? It is very unfortunate
that nothing could be communicated of the development of the
production now exhibited ; but opposed to the foregoing view
would seem to be the definite figure, mostly triangular and pris-
matic, the ribbed margins and swollen angles, and the greenish
contents.

Though thus quite unable to throw any light on the curious
production now drawn attention to, the thing itself presented so
odd an appearance, Mr. Archer felt justified in requesting the
meeting to look at it, although by no means a gay or attractive
object.

Dr. Alex. Dickson showed examples of the curious circum-
stance of the cells of the root of Neottia filled with the mycelium
of a fungus, as described and drawn attention to by Hofmeister.
Besides the marvel as to how this parasite obtrudes at all into
the cavity of the cells of the orchid, and those not of the super-
ficial layer, but of the stratum immediately under them, it is
stated that in all the specimens of this plant in which this pro-
duction has been sought, it has been found, almost as if it were a
part of its nature to be so infested.

Mr. Crowe recorded Mio'asterias Jimlriata from the late
gathering made on the occasion of the Club excursion to 'J'inne-
hely. This is the second instance of this rare species being found
in Ireland, the first being that by Dr. Barker, and that only at
last meeting.

Mr. Archer desired to place on record a rather extraordinary
example he had met with of that not uncommon kind of mal-
formation seen in Desmidiese when no septum is formed during
new growth, and an abnormal, misshapen, intervening portion
becomes interposed between the old segments, the whole forming
but one common cavity. A case of this sort in Closterium was
brought forward by Mr. Crowe at last meeting. The present
instance occurred in Micrasterias rofata, and the irregular mal-
formation was carried on to such an exaggerated degree as to
present a somewhat grotesque appearance. The old segments
were here separated by no less than five intervening, misshapen,
irregularly cut, and lobed portions ; these marked out by rather
deep constrictions from one another, and margined by irregular
teeth, and at the two constrictions next to the central one at each
side a new growth or malformed segment, so to call it, had grown
out vertically to the general plane of the whole structure, which,
all taken together, formed but a single unbroken cavity, the cell-
contents pervading all the compartments of this singular mon-
strosity.— Mr. Archer likewise drew attention to a similar mal-
formation in Xanthidiiim armatum, but the new intervening
portion of the growth was simply a large orbicular inflation, the
noteworthy circumstance being that at the centre of the latter
on each front was a single dentate, vertically set process,

293 PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES.

characteristic of the genus to which tliis common ami fine form
appertains (not two such, as ])erhaps might be anticipated).

Rev. E. O'Meara exhibited a very curious and interesting new
diatom appertaining to the genus Amphiprora, and obtained from
the contents of the stomach of a Holothurian from the Sejchelle
Ishmds, taken by Dr. E. P. AV right, and it occurred therein not
unfrequently. This at first somewhat puzzling form was named
by Mr. O'Meara Amphiprora rimosa, and described as iollows : —
Valve constricted; length, '0070" ; greatest breadth, 'OOSS''; breadth
at the constriction, •0C2G". The central line at about three fifths of
its length diverges slightly, and, again bending back, proceeds to-
wards the apex ; at one end of the valve this divergence takes plaae
towards the right, at the other towards the left ; at the point of di-
vergence the line sends out two branches, alternately disposed, and
one somewhat longer than the other; the longer branch curves
towards the apex, the shorter is straight. Further on, the line
forks, one branch, as in the former case, being longer than tlie
other, the longer being also curved towards the apex. The longer
and shorter branches are arranged on one side of the line in one
portion of the valve, and at the opposite side on the other. Striae
linear, fine, disposed in nearly parallel curves around the extremi-
ties of the branches of the central line ; the keel is ornamented
with a row of moniliform dots. More enlarged description, with
illustration, of this fine form, as well as others, are in preparation
by Mr. O'Meara, to appear on a future occasion.

Mr. Archer wished to mention having seen the escape of the
monad-like body from the encysted condition of Dinohryon sertu-
laria. This encysted condition has been described by Hermann
(in Eabenhorst's ' Beitrage zur naheren Kenntniss und Verbrei-
tung der Algen,' Heft i), and Mr. Archer had once had an oppor-
tunity of showing some specimens at a meeting of the Club ; but
the escape of the contents seems to be a new fact, so far as it goes.
The globose cyst at the mouth of the well-known campanulate
carapace of the Dinobryon becomes tilted up, and the monad or
zoospore-like body escapes through an opening, which terminates
a projection previously pointing into the mouth and towards the
bottom of the carapace, which is thus left behind. Nuuibers of
these cysts, empty and separated, others still attached to the cara-
pace, occurred in the water; few colonies remained combined as
in the ordinary condition, but were broken up nearly altogether
and scattered about in some abundance.

Mr. Archer placed on the table a number of Desmidiea^, showing
their zygospores, some of them not hitherto seen in that condition,
others rarely so.

The zygospore of Closterium gracile (Breb.) is new, but is very
like that of C.juncichmi, that is, it is orbicular or broadly elliptic
and smooth, and placed between the four halves of the pair of
mother- cells, which are all pushed asunder by the interposition of
the spore. Mr. Archer thought that, although the form and general
character of the zygospore in many of the species of Closterium

PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES. 293

and Peniuin agreed, the relative position and arrangement of the
parent conjugated cells afforded characters of a certain amount of
value.

There was also shown the zygospore of a minute species of
Cosmarium, close to C bioculatum on the one hand, and to C. tinc-
tum on the other ; this is globular and smooth, and quite destitute
of spines, and apparently very large in proportion to the dimen-
sions of the parent forms. The segments of this species are elliptic
and smooth, constriction deep, end view elliptic. But irrespective
of dimensions and general contour giving quite a different impres-
sion to the eye, this form is distinguished from C. hioculatum,
inasmuch as the zygospore of that species has spines. "Whilst,
indeed, that of C. tinctum is without spines, the present plant in
itself is a good deal larger, and wants the reddish colour so charac-
teristic in that species. In its smooth zygospore it agrees with
C. pygmcBum (Arch.), but it is quite distinguished therefrom by
the elliptic, not sub-quadrilateral, segments. He would name this
marked little species now exhibited Cosmarium tenue.

Another new zygospore, shown by Mr. Archer, was that of a
Cosmarium rather common with us, but rarely found conjugated ;
but he had taken it at least three times this spring, and from as
many distinct sources. This is a form he had not as yet been able
to determine, but was desirous to see one or two examples • of
certain allied Continental forms for that purpose. It is somewhat
like Cosmarium margaritiferum, but with us more frequently
presents itself. Although both may be called common, they do
not seem to occur, like some others, in quantities and unmixed
with other forms. In fact, it would almost appear as if Ealfs
himself may have confused tliis and C. margaritiferum together,
judging from his figures. Thus, it may be conjectured that Half's'
figure (' British Desmidiese,' pi. xvi, fig. 2 (T) may represent the
present form (the zygospore partially formed only), and that fig. 2
a and h may be the true G. margaritiferum, the zygospore of which
is shown at pi. xxxiii, fig. 6 h. The present plant can be
detected with the greatest readiness, and distinguished from
C. margaritiferum, xxndev the very lowest power that reveals either,
by the semicircular shape of the segments, and by its coarse
granules as compared with the much more elegant reniform
segments and fine granules of the latter ; neither must the pre-
sent plant be confounded with C. hotrytis, which is a very different
thins: indeed. But what would seem to set the matter at rest is
the very different zygospore of the form now drawn attention to.
The present has an orbicular zygospore covered by not very nu-
merous, but large and jDellucid hemispherical tubercles, whilst that
C. margaritiferum is beset with numerous and elegant forked
spines. Nor could it be imagined that the tubercles on the pre-
sent zygospore were but rudimentary, and might become event-
ually elongated into spines ; for Mr. Archer had now taken this
form conjugated at least three times, and from various localities,

294 PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES.

and watched it in all stages, and felt quite satisfied that the mature
zygospore was now exhibited.

Several other forms rarely found conjugated were also shown,
such as ^antliidiumfasciculatiim, Staurastrum cuspidatum, Arthro-
desmus convergens (always with a zygospore without spines), A.
incus, Euastruon ohlongum, E. didelta, JE. elegans, Docidium
Ehrenhergii, and others.

Further, amongst the zygospores shown were those of Micras-
terias rotata and M. denticulata. This latter had not before been
met with in Ireland in the conjugated condition. It was pretty
abundantly taken on the late Club excursion to Tinnehely. Some
of the present examples were, however, from near Carrig Moun-
tain, where Mr. Archer had taken it, associated with M. rotata,
also conjugated ; and ^ now exhibited examples of both on the
' same slide. The zygospore of M. rotata had not been recorded
till he met with it last year sparingly in Wales, and a few weeks
subsequently in Co. Wicklow, and here it turned up again along
with that queen of zygospores, so far as elegance and size are
concerned, that of M. denticulata. These are quite unlike, in
fact more so than are the forms themselves, abundantly distinct
as these are. M. rotata has a larger zygospore than M. denticu-
lata, and is beset by elongate, simple, subulate, acute spines ;
whereas, as is well depicted in Rails', that of Jil. denticulata is
smaller, and beset with shorter, much-branched spines, the
branches finally curved downwards. These are, however, scarcely
strictly spines, but rather hollow, branched processes, the granu-
lar contents from the central general cavity of the spore reaching
often a good way up the tube ; they are at first fringe-like cylindri-
cal projections, ultimately acquiring thicker walls, and becoming
branched. Mr. Archer could not help regarding the very decided
difierences in the zygospores of these two common species as a
conclusive argument for their specific distinctness, for which he
had, indeed, on other grounds, long contended.

Mr. Crowe likewise showed examples of the zygosjDore of
Micrasterias denticulata taken at Tinnehely.

Dr. John Barker showed examples of the conjugated state of
Closterium lunula, for the first time seen in Ireland. These
were quite in accord with , the figures given by De Bary, and de-
scribed in his work ' Untersuchungen iiber die Familie der Con-
jugaten,' p. 48. It would seem not to be quite certain that the
figures given by Mori'en, and called G. lunula, do not, some of
them at least, apply to G. Ehrenhergii, a species quite distinct
from the former.

Mr. Archer showed, new to Ireland, Didymolielix ferruginea
(Griflith, in ' Micrographic Dictionary') = GaUionella ferruginea,
(Kiitz.). This elegant, excessively minute,doubly spiral filament
is an excellent test for the higher powers to resolve into its two
component helically coiled fibres, though they often occur not
intertwined. This plant seems to bear a relationship to Lepto-
thrix comparable to that of Oscillatoria to Spirulina.

PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES. 295

Dr. Macalister showed some Fossils from the Lias, believed to
he Fish, of which, however, he would make sections, and try to
work and exhibit at a future meeting.

Mr. Archer drew attention to a species of ffidogonium unde-
scribed, though it is just possible it may be identical with
one alluded to, though uot described, in Pringsheim's splendid
paper ; and though cousidered here as undescribed, it is again
possible that it may be identical with some of Hassal's, though,
from the insufficient descriptions, it would be impossible to be
certain. The present plant may be thus characterised :

QSdogonium Prinffsheimianuin (s]). nov.). *

Plant monQ?cious ; oospore elliptic, its wall marked by some-
what coarse longitudinal striae, not filling the cavity of the much
larger and elliptic oogonium ; apertiire of the oogonium very
high up, being quite close to the annular striae of the " caps."

Of Pringsheim's species none are described at once monoecious
and elliptic-spored, though in a note he says he knows one such.
Can this be the same ? Following Pringsheim, now that he has
shown us on what characters the true species in the (Edogoniese
seem to depend, it is doubtless better to ignore all old species in
this group based merely on relative dimensions of the cells and
such like characters, whose value is no more than subordinate.

Mr. Archer further showed fine characteristic specimens of
(Edogonhcm acrosporiwi (De Bary), showing the three-celled,
very long, and slender dwarf male, the terminal striate oogonium,
without a special wall to the oospore ; in fact, every character of
this singular species in the most absolute manner, so that there
could not be any doubt of the identity of the present plant with
that described by De Bary. This species Mr. Archer had once
before encountered and exhibited, but it appears rare ; and the
present specimens were in so nice order, and they are always
fugitive, and hence it was well to seize the opportunity of bringing
them forward.

Mr, Archer drew attention to a species of Chytridium attacking
the oospores of the plant referred to above under the name of
(Edogonium PrmgsJieimianum. These occurred mostly in pairs,
sometimes one only being present, and were seated upon the
oospores, and of an irregular clavate or pyriform figure, tapering
off into long necks, which protruded, side by side (or singly),
through the aperture in the oogonium, which, as just described
for the species, is very high up. From the base of the Chytridium
an elongate process or root is sent into the oospore, which is, of
course, killed. The zoospores escape by the opened apertures of
the neck. It becomes a query whether this may be identical or
not with the Chytridium decipiens (A. Braun), which also lives
upon the spore of an (Edogonium, but for it is described no neck.

Mr. Archer finally drew attention to a new rhizopod, the type
of a new genus, which he thought should be thus characterised,
and would name it —

Cystophrys (nov. gen.).

296 rROCEEDINGS OK SOCIETIES.

Body irregular in figure, without test or integument, possessing,
immersed in its substance, a number (often considerable) of sphe-
rical cells, each with nucleus, nucleolus, and special wall, their con-
tents increasing by self-fission ; pseudopodia slender, and more or
less ramified, and occasionally mutually incorporated.

Ci/stophrys HaecTceliana (nov. sp.). Cells of a bluish tint and
granular appearance ; nucleus of a sharply bounded, clear, circular
outline, and the nucleolus a darkish dot within ; cell-wall of a
yellowish tint, apparent only when the contents have somewhat
receded. Pseudopodia often long, slender, hyaline ; branches
irregular, their ch^ges of form very slow. Diameter of cells
about "xyoTT^^^ ^^ ^^ inch.

lUh June, 1868.

Dr. John Barker again showed the little parasite exhibited at
last meeting, in a seemingly more mature condition, in which the
cell-contents of the inflated upper portion had become balled
together into a spore-like, greenish body, suspended in the centre
of the balloon-shaped parasite by means of radiating, linear, pel-
lucid processes, reaching to the inner surface of the pellicular
covering ; the hyaline stipes and outer investment had become
contracted and, so to say, withered-looking.

Dr. Barker likewise showed another minute parasitic structure
inhabiting the interior of a number of specimens of Closterium
attenuatum. These, too, had greenish contents, and were of an
elongate form, rounded at ends and somewhat contracted at the
middle, and they lay in single or double, or even triple rows,
longitudinally disposed, and more or less evenly end to end,
though occasionally somewhat irregularly scattered. These had
been noticed some weeks ago, and remained up to the present
without any perceptible change.

Mr. Archer showed a pretty and well-marked little Staurastrum,
seemingly very rare, and now noticed for the first time in Ireland
— Staurastrum arachne.

Eev. E. O'Meara exhibited a new Navicula, remarkable for its
undulate outline ; of this, as of other novelties, he is preparing a
detailed description and figures.

Dr. Traquair showed scales of Calamicthys.

Mr. Archer recorded the occurrence of Micrasterias fimbriata
(Ealfs) from Gallery, a locality still closer to Dublin than that in
which it had been first met with by Dr. Barker. It was singular
that this fine species had so long escaped observation here, being
shown for the first time only the meeting before last by Dr. Barker,
and for the second time at last meeting by Mr. Crowe, and this
third, instance was from a locality different from either of the other
two. The present specimens, Mr. Archer thought, were calcu-
lated to bear out his view as to the spines drawn attention to by

FROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES. 297

Dr. Barker not being of specific value, for the same spines were
to be seen here in those now shown, only much more diminished,
and in a few they were very scarce or seemingly absent. There
could not be a question, however, as to their being quite the
same, nor had Mr. Arclier any doubt but that the Irisli form
must be regarded as one and the same thing with that of Ralfs
and Focke, so identical were they in outline and figure of the
cell, and its lobes and teeth.

Mr. Teates showed a new Pocket Microscope, recently con-
structed by him, adapted for high powers, and very manageable ;
also some nice mounted objects.

298

NOTICE.

The Editors of the Quarterly Journal of Micro-
scopical Science have received a notice from the Royal
Microscopical Society of London, cancelling the agreement
which has hitherto existed between them as to the supjily
of copies of the Journal to the members of the Society, and
the admission of the papers read at the Society into the
pages of the Journal. Henceforward, therefore, the Fellows
of the Royal Microscopical Society will not receive the
Journal gratis, but should order it through their booksellers.
The few pages hitherto taken up by the Society's transac-
tions in the Journal Avill noAv be occuiiied with valuable
original articles or translations, whilst any papers of real
interest read to the Society will be fully reported with
illustrations.

The Journal will retain its present form, each quarterly
part being illustrated, as before, with lithographic plates
and engravings on wood.

The Editors take this opportunity of inviting communica-
tions from all engaged in microscopic research in this country
and abroad. Besides extended papers, they will be glad to
receive short notices, proceedings of Microscopical Clubs and
Societies, and to enter into correspondence as to specimens,
new apparatus, or other matters relating to Microscopical
Science.

INDEX TO JOURNAL.

VOL. Vm, NEW SERIES.

AcAKi, on the anatomy, &c., of, by A.

Eumouze and Cli. Robin, 45.
Agaricini, on fructification in the, by

Prof. A. S. Oersted, 18.
Algse, handy book for the collection

of, by Johann Nave, 86.
,, from a Californian hot spring,

by Dr. H. C. Wood, 250.
Allen, T. F., M.U., on microscopy,

280.
Annals of Nat. Hist., 47.
Annelida, on the structure of the, by

E. Claparede, 47.
Anthozoaria and Tubipora, by Alb.

KoUiker, 98.
Archiv f. Mikr. Anat., Max. Schultze's,

27, 1B7.
Arctic Seas, discoloration of, by R.

Brown, E.R.G.S., 240.

Bactekia, development of, by M.
Bechamp, 271.

Bacterium termo, on the origin and de-
velopment of, by Joh. Liiders, 32.

Balauoglossus, ou the anatomy of, by
M. A. Kowalewsky, 47.

Bate, C. Spence, on the dentition of
the mole, 172.

Bathybius, Prof. T. Huxley on organ-
isms (so called), 203.

Berkeley, Rev. M. J., address at the
British Association, 233.

Bessels, Emil, contradiction of Landois'
theory, 90.

Bibliotheque Uuiverselle, 42, 97, IGl,
270.

Birmingham and Midland Institute,
proceedings of the, 124.

Bird's egg, tunics of the yelk of, by
W. von^Nathusius, 268.

Blood-corpuscles, on red, by Prof.
Bruckc, 42.
„ stains, 282.
VOL. Mil. — NEW SKR.

Boll, Eranz, researches on the tooth

pulp, 94.

„ on the structure of the

lachrymal glands, 262.
Boston Society of Natural History, 50.
British Association, address of Rev.

M. J. Berkeley as president of

biological section, 233.

„ paper by W. H.

Flower, E.R.S., 277.
Brown, Robert, F.R.G.S., on discolo-
ration of the Arctic Seas, 240.
Brucke, on red blood-eorpuscles, 42.
Bug, bed, anatomy of the, by Dr. L.

Landois, 268.
Butterfly scales, as characteristic of

sex, by T. W. Wonfor, Esq., 80.

Capillaries, on, by Dr. Strieker, 46.

Castracane, Count, on Diatomacese,
255.

Charter fund of the Royal Microsco-
pical Society, list of subscribers, 75.

Chimney, Fiddiau's metallic, 107.

Cieukowski, Prof. L., on Clathrulina,
31. ■

Claparede, on the mode in which cer-
tain Rotatoria introduce food into
their mouths, 171.

„ on the structure of the

Annelida, 47.

Clathrulina, on, by Prof. L. Cien-
kowski, 31.

Cohnheim, J., on inflammation and
suppuration, 270.

Condenser, on a proposed form of, 106.

Core thru plumicornis, 106.

Corpuscles, tactile, by M. Rouget,
271.

Curteis, F. R. M., on a "slide-cell,"
or new live-box, for aquatic objects,
108.

300

INDEX TO JOURNAL.

DiATOMACE^, on new species of, by
Trederic Kitton, 13.

,, on new genus of, &c.,

by ditto, 16.

„ M. Eulenstein's series of,

64, 104.

„ on new species of,

being a reply to Mr. Kitton's re-
marks, by tbe Kev. E. O'Meara, 73.

„ new species of, by F.

Kitton, Esq., 139.

„ multiplication and repro-

duction of, by Count Crastracane,
255.
Dublin Microscopical Club, proceed-
ings of, 64, lis, 188, 286.

Eberhard, Dr. Ernst, on the sexual

reproduction of the Infusoria, 155.
Eberth, C. J., researches on the liver

of vertebrates, 91.
Edwards, Arthur Mead, on_ living

forms in hot waters of California,

247.
Enchi/lrcEus vermicularis, by Eritz

Ratzel, 89.
Eugelmaun, T. W., on the termination

of gustatory nerve in the frog's

tongue, 90.
Epithelium, pulmonary, byC. Schmidt,

101.
Estor, M. A., on Microzymata, 274.
Eulenstein's series of Diatomacese,

104.
Eyes, compound, researches on, of

Crustacea and Insecta, by Max

Schultze, 173.

Fiddian's metallic chimney, 107.
Fishes, osseous, studies on the central
nervous system, by Dr. L. Stieda,

„ teeth of fossil, in the coal-
measures, Northumberland, by
Prof. Owen, 172.

Flower, F.R.S , on the homologies and
notation of mammalian teeth, 277.

FructiCcation in the Agaricini, by
Prof. A. S. Oersted, 18.

Ganglia, spinal, &c., by Dr. G.

Scliwalbe, 94.
Gas chamber, description of, by S.

Strieker, 40.
Genital organs of vertebrates, by Ch.

Legros, 102.

Glycijjhagi, by MM. Fumouze and

Robin, 102.
Green wood, 103.
Gustatory nerve, on the termination

of, in the frog's tongue, by T. W.

Engelmann, 90,

Hair, human, by M. Pruuer-Bey, 175,

Halford, Dr., on action of snake's
poison on blood, 276.

Hemiauscus, a new genus of para-
sitic Isopods, 49.

Hepworth, John, M.R.C.S. (late), 130.

Heuriscopometer, by Mouchet, '281.

Histological demonstrations, by Geo.
Harley, M.D., F.R.S., and G. T.
Brown, M.R.C.V.S., 85.

Hogg, Jabez, F.L.S., Sec. R.M.S., on
the microscope, 84.

Holothurise, anatomy and classification
of the, by Dr. Emil Selenka, 90.

Hunterian lectures, by Prof. T. H.
Huxley, F.R.S. (abstract), 126, 191.

Huxley, Prof. T. H., F.R.S., Hunte-
rian lectures (abstract), 126, 191.
„ on organisms living at great
depths in the Atlantic (Batliybius),
203.

Illumination, microscopic, by Edwin

Smith, M.A., 143.

„ of diatoms, 277.

Inflammation, by J. Cohnheim, 270.
Infusoria, on the sexual reproduction

of the, by Dr. Ernst Eberhard, 155.

James-Claek, H., on Leucosolenia
botri/oides, 50,

Kefekstein, Prof. W., on an herma-
phrodite Nemertine from Saint
Malo, 99.

Kitton, Frederic, on new species of
Diatomacese, 13, 139.

,, „ on new genus of

Diatomacese, &c., 16,

Kitton's, Mr., replv to remarks of, by
Rev. E. O'lMcara, 73.

Kolliker, Alb., on Anthozoaria and '
Tubipora, 98.

and Siebold's Zeitschrift, 268.

Lacurymal glands, on the structure

of, by Franz Boll, 262.
Landois' theory contradicted by cxpe-

riuienl, by Emil Bessels, 90,

INDEX TO JOURNAL.

301

Landois, Dr.-H,, on the hearing organ
of the stag-beetle, 96.
„ Dr. L., on the bed-bug, 2GS.

Lankester, E. R., on a new parasitic
llotifer, o'6.

Leucosolenia botryoides, by H. James-
Clark, 50.

Lichens, on the polymorphism in the
fructification gf, by W, Lauder
Lindsay, M.D., F.R.S., 1.

Lieberkiihn, N., on the contractile
tissue of sponges, 270.

Lindsay, Lauder, M.D., F.R.S., on
polyiiiorphisni in the fructification
of Lichens, 1.

Liimean Society, proceedings of, 76.

Liver of vertebrates, on the, by C. J.
Eberth, of Zurich, 91,

Liiders, Joh., on the origin and deve-
lopment oi Bacterium termo, 32.

Liitkeu, Dr., " Om Vestindiens Peu-
tacriner," 97.

Manchester Literary and Philoso-
phical Society, proceedings of, 92.

Manz, Prof. W., on the sacculi of
Miescher, 3.5.

Mcintosh, W. C, M.D., F.L.S., ex-
periments on young salmon, 145.

Mecznikow, Elias, on the development
of Sepiola, 42.

Medical meeting at Oxford, 279.

Microscope, the, by Jabez Hogg,
F.L.S., Sec. R.M.S., 84.

Microscopes, cheap achromatic, by G.
S. Wood, 108.

Microscopical Society, Royal, proceed-
ings of, 56, 110, ISO.

,, soiree of, 2 82.

Microscopy, by T. F. Allen, M.D,,
New York, 280.

Microzymata, by M. A, Estor, 274.

Moggridge, J., on the Muffa of Val-
dieri, 223.

Mole, dentition of, by Mr. C. Spence
Bate, 172.

Mouchet, on the heuriscopometer, 281.
„ test diatoms, 105.

MuffaofValdieri, by J. Moggridge, 223,

Muscle, the ciliary, of man, by F. E.
Schultze, 92.

Nemertine, hermaphrodite, on an,
from Saint Malo, by Prof. W.
Kefersteiu, 99.

Neurilemma, nerves of (or nervi-
nervorum), on the, by M, C. Sappey,
100.

Nerves, motor, on the termination of,
by Prof. S. Trinchese, 44.

Nobert's test-plate and modern micro-
scopes, by Charles Stodder, 131.
„ J. J. Woodward on, 225.

Norman, Rev. A. M., on new and
rare British.Polyzoa, 212.

Obituary, John Hepworth, M.R.C.S.,

130.
Oersted, Prof, A, S., on fructification

in the Agaricini, 18.
O'Meara, Rev. E., on new species of

Diatomacese, being a reply to Mr.

Kitton's remarks, 73.
Owen, Prof., on fossil fish teeth in the

coal - measures, Northumberland,

172.

Palmer, Lintox, F.R.C.S.E., on the

colour of the sea, 178.
PapilUe vallate, the epithelium of the,

by Dr. G. Schwalbe, 93.
Parker, W. Kitchen, F.R.S., mono-
graph on the shoulder-girdle and

breast-bone in the Vertebrata, 169.
Pentacriner, Om vestindiens, by Dr.

Liitken, 97.
Pharynx, on adenoid tissue of the

pars nasalis of the human, by Prof.

Dr. H. von Luschka, 93.
Philippine Archipelago, voyages in the,

by C. Semper, 160.
Polymorphism in the fructification of

Lichens, by W. Lauder Lindsay,

M.D., F.R'.S., 1.
Polyzoa, new and rare British, by Rev.

A. M. Norman, 212.
Pruner-Bey, on the human hair, 175.
Purkinjiau fibres, by Dr. Max Leh-

nert, 94.

QuEKETT Microscopical Club, proceed-
ings of, 64, 117, 159, 187.

Ratzel, Fritz, on Enchytrceus vermicu-

laris, 89,
Reproduction, on the sexual, of the

Infusoria, by Dr, Ernst Eberhard,

155.
Robertson, Cliarles, on a new nozzle,

&c., for injecting syringes, 54.

302

INDEX TO JOURNAL.

Robertson, W., M.D., on a proposed
form of condenser, 106.

Robin's Journal de I'Anatomie et de
la Physiologie, 44, 100, 274.

Rotatoria, mode in which certain, in-
troduce food into their mouths, by
E. Claparede, 171.

Rotifer, a new, 170.

„ parasitic, on a new, by E.
Ray Lankester, 53. •

Sacculi of Miescher, by Prof. W.

Manz, 35.
Salmon, experiments on young, by W.

C. Mcintosh, M.D., F.L.S., 145.
Sappey, M. C, on the nerves of neu-
rilemma, or nervi-nervorum, 100.
Schmidt, C, on pulmonary epithelium,

101.
Schultze, E. E., on the ciliary muscle

of man, 92.
„ Max, Archiv f. Mikr. Anat.,

91, 167, 270.
„ „ on the compound eyes

of the Crustacea and Insecta, 173.
Schwalbe, Dr. G., the epithelium of

the Papillce vallatcs, 93.
Sea, colour of, by Liuton Palmer,

E.R.C.S.E., &c., 178.
Selenka, Dr. Emil, on the anatomy

and classification of the Holothuria,

90.
Semper, C, Reisen im Archipel der

Philipiuen, 160.
Seminal corpuscles, on the genesis of

the, by La Valette St. George, 27.
Sepiola, on the development of, by

Elias Mecznikow, 42.
Shoulder-girdle and breast-bone ia

Vertebrata, by H. Kitchen Parker,

E.R.S., 169.
Siebold and KoUiker's Zeitschrift, 41,

87, 268.
"Slide-cell," or new live-box, for

aquatic objects, by T. Curteis,

E.R.M.S., 108.
Smith, Edwin, M.A., on microscopic

illumination, 143.
Snake's poison, action of, on blood, by

Dr. Halford, 276.
Societa Italiana di Scienze Natural!,

169.

Spectroscope, a new animal colouring
matter in the, by Prof. Church, 102.

Sponges, on the contractile tissue of,
by N. Lieberkiihn, 270.

Spongological notes, 41.

Stag-beetle, the hearing organ of the,
by Dr. H. Landois, 96.

Steinliu's paper on the rods and cones
of the retina, reiuarks on, by Max
Schultze, 93.

Stieda, Dr. Ludwig, .studies on the
central nervous system iu the
osseous fishes, 87.

Stodder, Charles, o«i Nobert's test-
plate and modern microscopes, 131.

St. George, La Valette, on the genesis
of the seminal corpuscles, 27.

St. Petersburg Academy, memoirs of,
47.

Strieker, Dr., on capillaries, 46.
,, S., a description of a gas-
chamber, 40.

Suppuration, by J. Cohnheim, 270.

Syringes, injecting, on a new nozzle,
&c., for, by Charles Robertson, 54.

Taste-papilla of the tongue, by Dr.

Christian Loven, 96.
Test diatoms, 105.

„ lines, on Nobert's, by J. J.

Woodward, Surgeon, 225.
Tooth pulp, researches on, by Eranz

Boll, 94.
Triuchese, Prof. S., on the termiuation

of the motor nerves, 44.
Tyrosin, deposits of, on animal organs,
. 268.

Vienna Academy, proceedings of, 41.
Voit, Carl, on deposits of tyrosin on
animal organs, 268.

WoNFOB, T. W., on certain butterfly
scales as characteristic of sex, 80.

Wood, Dr. H. C, on algae from a
Californian hot spring, 250.

Woodward, Surgeon, on Nobert's test
lines, 225.

Zeitschrift, Kolliker and Siebold's,
41, 87, 268.

PKINTED BY J. E. ADLAKD, BAKTHOIOMEW CLOSE.

M/rJowmM WENS 9i I

11 m

T.WWanfer del T.West sc.

"WWest my

JOURNAL OF MICROSCOPICAL SCIENCE.

DESCRIPTION OF PLATE I,

Illustrating Mr. Wonfor's paper on '^ Certain Butterfly Scales

characteristic of Sex."

Fig.

1.-

-Polyommattis alexis. (Common blue.)

2.-

- ,, argiolus. (Azure blue.)

3.-

- „ acis. (Mazarine blue.)

4.-

,, corydon. (Chalk-Hill blue.)

5.-

„ adonis. (Ciifdeu blue.)

6.-

„ argm. (Silver-studded blue.)

7.-

„ arion. (Large blue.)

8.-

„ alsus. (Little blue.)

9.-

„ batica. (Tailed, or Brighton blue.)

10.-

-Relative arrangement of battledore and ordinary scales

11.-

-Pier is hrassicce. (Large white.)

12.-

- „ cardimines. (Orange tip.)

13.-

- „ rap^. (Small white.)

14.-

- „ napi. (Green-veined white.)

15.-

- „ daplidice. (Bath white.)

16.-

-Hipparchia tithonus. (Large heath.)

17.-

„ janria. (Meadow brown.)

18.-

„ semele. (Grayling.)

19.-

„ pamphilus. (Small heath.)

20.-

„ megoera. (Wall argus.)

21.-

„ oegria. (Wood argus.)

(All, except fig. 10, magnified 240 diameters.)^

JOURNAL OF MICROSCOPICAL SCIENCE.

DESCRIPTION OF PLATE II,

Illustratin;^ the Structure of the Tooth-pulp, and of the
Stag-beetle's Auditory Organ (from Max Schultze's
' Archiv ') .

Fig.
1. — Section through the tooth-pulp of an embryo calf, 30 centim. long,
treated with nitric acid, showing the mnlticandate odontoblasts.

2. — The same, in which the layer of cells has been separated from the
" substance" of the dentine.

3. — Nerve-endings in the pulp of the incisor of a young rabbit. The pro-
cesses of the odontoblasts are torn away.

4. — Terminal joint of the antenna of the stag-beetle, partly opened, show-
ing the auditory " pit " and hairs on the surface ; tlie large nerve
sending its twigs, one to each hair, the trachean vessels, and the
hypodermic tissue.

5. — More magnified view of the hairs, sliowing their connection with the
nerves by oval cells; also the two chitin-laycrs, the superior ex-
cavated, and the cellular hypodermis.

6. — Jmcanus cerviis, drawn in outline to show the origin of the antennary
nerve, and the antennae themselves, with the shoe-shaped terminal
joint.

M(/r:J(nmm , YIRNSM.IL

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JOURNAL OF MICROSCOPICAL SCIENCE.

DESCRIPTION OF PLATE III,

Illustrating Dr. Mcintosh's paper on Experiments on Young

Salmon.

The figure represents in outline the general structure of a salmon one day
old, reduced from a drawing nineteen inches in length.

Fig.

a. — Ventricle.

b. — Auricle.

c. — Caudal capillaries.

d. — Venous dilatation at tail.

e. — Cardinal vein.

e' — Branches of the latter.
/.—Aorta.

/'. — Larger branches of the latter.
/". — Smaller branches.

g. — Vitelline vein.

h. — Curving vessel of the pectoral fin.

i. — Branchial coils.

k. — Visceral (portal) vein lying beneath the digestive tract,

A B. — Section beyond the chorda.

B c. — Section within the bend of the chorda.

D. — Outline of portion cut from the fatty fin in its early stale. The
dotted internal lines represent the condition of the parts
some hours afterwards.

JCuT^JowmmMIIESmiV.

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TuffeaWest I

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JOURNAL OF MICROSCOPICAL SCIENCE.

DESCRIPTION OF PLATE IV,

Illustrating Prof. Huxley's paper on Organisms from Great
Depths in the North Atlantic Ocean

Fig.

1. — Masses of the gelatinous substance.

2. — DiscolifM from Atlantic mud.

3. — ,, from the chalk of Sussex.

4. — Cyatholithi from the Atlantic mud.

5. — ,, from the chalk of Sussex.

6. — Coccospheres of the compact type.

7.— „ of the loose type.

8. — A crucigerous disk from Atlantic mud.

All the figures are drawn to the same scale, and are supposed to be
magnified 1200 diameters.

JOURNAL OF MICROSCOPICAL SCIENCE.

DESCRIPTION OF PLATES V, VI, & VII,

Illustrating the Rev. Alfred Merle Norman's Notes on
British Polyzoa, -with Descriptions of New Species.

PLATE V.
Fig.

] . — Scrupocellaria inermis, Norman. Front view.
2. — „ „ Back view.

O. 1) j;

4. — Menipea Jeffrei/sii, Norman. Natural size of fragment.
5. — „ „ Tiie same magnified, front view.

6. — „ „ » side view.

7. — „ „ Avicularium more highly magnified.

8. — „ „ Another specimen, showing oviceUs

and operculum.

PLATE VL

1. — Hippothoa expansa, Norman, Natural size.

2, — ,, „ Portion of same, magnified.

3. — Bugula calathns, Norman. Natural size.

4. — „ „ Portion magnified, front view.

5. — „ „ „ back view.

6, 7, 8. — „ „ Lateral avicularia.

9. — Bugula fiahellata, J. V. Thompson. Portion magnified, front view.
10. — Eschara rosacea, Busk. Natural size.
11. — ,, „ Cells magnified ; British specimen.

12. — „ „ Cells of typical Norwegian specimen, from

Mr. Busk, to show oviceUs.

PLATE VII.

1. — Eschara quincuncialis, Norman. Natural size.

2. — „ „ The same, magnified.

3. — „ „ Portion more highly magnified.

4. — Celleporella kpralioides, Norman. Natural size.

5. — „ „ Cells of the same, magnified.

6. — Hemeschara struma, Norman. Fragment, natural size.

7. — „ „ Cells of same, magnified.

8. — »> » A. cell, more highly magnified.

9. — Hemeschara sanguhiea, Norman. Fragment, natural size.
10. — „ J, Cells, magnified.

11. — „ „ A cell, more highly magnified.

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