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ROYAL
XII.
XIII.
XIV.
Ba A ras
ae AY 95
TRANSACTIONS
OF THE
CONTENTS.
. Lhe Chemistry of Strophanthidin, a Decomposition Pr wine of Str ene By Tuomas R.
Fraser, M.D., F.R.S., and Luonarp Dossin, Ph.D.,
. Circular Mag isha accompanying Axial and Sectional Currents along aie Tubes. By
Professor Carcitt G. Knorr, D.Sc., F.R.S.E. (With Plate),
. On the Number of Dust Particles in the Atmosphere of certain Places in Great Britain and on.
the Continent, with Remarks on the Relation between the Amount of Dust and Meteoro-
logical Phenomena, By Joun Arrxen, F.R.S. | (With Plate), “
. On the New Star in the Constellation Auriga. By Professor Ratpu Corsuanp, Astronomer-
Royal for Scotland. Together with Observations of the Same. By Dr L. Becker. (With
a Plate), . , : ;
. The Lateral Sense Organs of Elasmobr: oie I. The Sensory Canals of Lemargus. By J. C.
Ewart, M.D., Regius Professor of Natural Sapte ere of Edinburgh. Sara:
I. and II.), :
. On the Lateral Sense Organs of Genito ae Ef. The Seas ‘y ents of the- Contnil Skate
(Raia batis). By J. C. Ewarr, M.D., Regius Professor of Natural Piston; and J. C.
Mircuet, B.Sc., University of Edinburgh. (Plate III.), - ’
. On the Latest Phases of Literary Style in Greece. By Emeritus Professor. et
. The Lower Carboniferous Volcanic Rocks of East Lothian (Garlton Hills). By FRreprrick H.
Hatcu, Ph.D., F.G.S., of the Geological vials Communicated by Sir ARcHIBALD
Geikig, F.R.S. (With Two Plates),
On the Glacial Succession in Europe. By Professor pine came D; C. je me De By RB. She be
(With a Map), :
. On some Eurypterid Remains from the Gps Siluri tan Rocks of the Pentland Hills by
Matcomm Lauris, B.Sc., F.L.S. (With Three Plates),
. On Borolanite—an Igneous Rock intrusive in the Cambrian Postehe of Pe Suter dais.
shire, and the Torridon Sandstone of Ross-shire. By J. Horne, F.R.S.E., and J. J. H.
Taw, F.R.S., of the Geological Survey. (Communicated by ae of the Director-
General of the Geological Survey. (With a Plate),’
On the Action of the Valves of the Mammalian Heart. By D. Noiit Baal M. ibe) FROPE,
Superintendent of the. pitti nee of the igen cies of Physicians. (With
Two Plates),
A Contribution to the sider y of haa By ae E. Buppan, M.A., Beatie to the
Zoological Society of London. (With a Plate), :
A Compan wson of the Minute Structure of Plant Hybrids with that d their inp ant and tts
Bearing on Biological Problems. By J. Murrurap Macrarzans, D.Sc, F.RS.E
(Plates I.—-VIII.), : te ee : : : . é
EDINBURGH:
PUBLISHED BY ROBERT GRANT & SON, 107 PRINCES STREET,
SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH.
VOL. XXXVII. PART I.—(Nos. 1 to 14)—FOR THE SESSION 1891-92.
17
51
59
AND WILLIAMS & NORGATE, 14 HENRIETTA STREET, COVENT GARDEN, LONDON. fw
MDCCCXCIII. J
(Issued February 17, 1893.) ‘a
4
é
\
: TRANSACTIONS
OF THE
=
"
©
- - ROYAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH.
ome:
* ‘
ae @ y
I
,
af
i
-“ . ¥ c
| Seat. oes
RMA) 4 7 ee
iy bs a a Ol ee
TRANSACTIONS
OF THE
rer ab SOCILETY
OF.
EDINBURGH.
VOL. XXXVILI.
EDINBURGH:
PUBLISHED BY ROBERT GRANT & SON, 107 PRINCES STREET,
AND WILLIAMS & NORGATE, 14 HENRIETTA STREET, COVENT GARDEN, LONDON.
MDCCCXCYV.
No.
VE:
xe
XI.
XII.
XIII.
XG
XV.
XVI.
XVII.
Published
March 23, 1892.
June 13, 1892.
July 7, 1892.
August 5, 1892.
August 19, 1892.
August 20, 1892.
September 26, 1892.
November 2, 1892.
November 5, 1892.
November 3, 1892.
November 10, 1892.
December 5, 1892.
January 17, 1893.
March 29, 1893.
?
”
2)
”
XVIII.
XIX.
2. OG
XXI.
XXII.
DOH
XXIV.
XXYV.
XXVI.
XXVIT.
XXVIII.
XXIX.
OOS.
XXXI.
XXXII.
XXXII.
XXXIV.
Published
February 24, 1893.
April 12, 1893.
July 28, 1895.
August 26, 1893.
September 16, 1893.
September 15, 1893.
October 3, 1893.
November 13, 1893.
March 28, 1894.
May 1, 1894.
June 20, 1894.
July 12, 1894.
October 15, 1894.
February 13, 1895.
February 8, 1895.
NUMBER
1.
i.
TUT.
LV.
V.
VI.
CONTENTS.
PART I. (1891-92.)
The Chemistry of Strophanthidin, a Decomposition Product of Strophan-
thin. By Tuomas R. Fraser, M.D., F.R.S., and Leonarp Dossin,
PhD., « F :
Circular Magnetisations accompanying Axial and Sectional Currents
along Tron Tubes. By Professor Careitt G. Knorr, D.Sc., F.R.S.E.
(With a Plate), :
On the Number of Dust Particles in the Atmosphere of certain Places in
Great Britain and on the Continent, with Remarks on the Relation
between the Amount of Dust and Meteorological Phenomena. By Joun
AITKEN, F.R.S. (With a Plate),
On the New Star in the Constellation Auriga. By Professor RALPH
CopELAND, Astronomer-Royal for Scotland. Together with Observa-
tions of the Same. By Dr L. Becker. (With a Plate),
The Lateral Sense Organs of Elasmobranchs. 1. The Sensory Canals of
Lemargus. By J. C. Ewart, M.D., Regius Professor of Natural
History, University of Edinburgh. (Plates I. and IL),
On the Lateral Sense Organs of Elasmobranchs. U1. The Sensory Canals
of the Common Skate (Raia batis). By J. C. Ewart, M.D., Regius
Professor of Natural History, and J. C. Mircuett, B.Sc., University
of Edinburgh. (Plate III), .
PAGE
17
51
87
Vi
NUMBER
VIL.
VEC.
fe
XI.
XII.
ATT.
XIV.
XV.
CONTENTS.
On the Latest Phases of Literary Style in Greece. By Emeritus Pro-
fessor BLACKIE,
The Lower Carboniferous Volcanic Rocks of East Lothian (Garlton Hills).
By Frederick H. Hatcn, Ph.D., F.G.S., of the Geological Survey.
Communicated by Sir ARCHIBALD GEIKIE, F.R.S. (With Two Plates),
On the Glacial Succession in Europe. By Professor JAMES GEIKTE,
D.C.L., LL.D., F.B.S., &e. (With a Map),
On some Eurypterid Remains from the Upper Silurian Rocks of the
Pentland Hills. By Matcotm Laurig, B.Sc., F.L.S. (With Three
Plates), : : :
On Borolanite—an Igneous Rock intrusive in the Cambrian Limestone of
Assynt, Sutherlandshire, and the Torridon Sandstone of Ross-shire.
By J. Horne, F.R.S.E., and J. J. H. Treaty, F.R.S., of the Geo-
logical Survey. (Communicated by permission of the Director-
General of the Geological Survey.) (With a Plate),
On the Action of the Valves of the Mammalian Heart. By D. Nor.
Paton, M.D., F.R.C.P.E., Superintendent of the Research Labo-
ratory of the Royal College of Physicians. (With Two Plates),
A Contribution to the Anatomy of Sutroa. By Frank E. BEpDARD,
M.A., Prosector to the Zoological Society of London. (With a
Plate), . ‘ . :
A Comparison of the Minute Structure of Plant Hybrids with that of
their Parents, and its Bearing on Biological Problems. By J. Mutr-
HEAD MACFARLANE, D.Sc., F.R.S.E. (Plates I-—VIIL),
PART IL. (1892-93.)
The Skull and Visceral Skeleton of the Greenland Shark, Leemargus
microcephalus. By Puitie J. Wuire, M.B., Demonstrator of
Zoology, University of Edinburgh. Communicated by Professor
Ewart. (With Two Plates),
PAGE
127
151
163
179
“195
203
i)
ee)
~I
NUMBER
XVI.
XVII.
XVIII.
XIX.
XX.
XXI.
XXII.
XXIII.
XXIV.
CONTENTS.
On the Fossil Plants of the Kilmarnock, Galston, and Kilwinning Coal
Fields, Ayrshire. By Rosert Kinston, F.R.S.E., F.G.S. (Plates
I.-IV.), . ; : ‘ : ' ‘
Electrolytic Synthesis of Dibasic Acids. By Professor A. Crum Brown
and Dr James WALKER. II. On the Electrolysis of the Ethyl-
Potassium Salts of Saturated Dibasic Acids with Side Chains, and
on Secondary Reactions accompanying the Electrolytic Synthesis of
Dibasic Acids,
On Impact, II. By Professor Tarr,
A New Algebra, by means of which Permutations can be transformed
in a variety of ways, and their properties investigated. By T. B.
Spracue, M.A., F.R.S.E.,
On the Particles in Fogs and Clouds. By Joun Aitken, Esq., F.B.S.,
E.R.S.E., : : : : : ; ;
On the Path of a Rotating Spherical Projectile. By Professor Tarr.
(With a Plate), : : , : ‘
On the Present State of Knowledge and Opinion in regard to Colour-
Blindness. By WitutaM Pote, F.R.S., F.R.S.E., Mus. Doc. Oxon.,
Honorary Secretary of the Institution of Civil Engineers. (With
a Plate),
On the Chemical Changes which take place in the Composition of
the Sea-Water associated with Blue Muds on the Floor of the
Ocean. By Joun Morray, LL.D., Ph.D., and Rosert Irvine,
E.C.S., : : : 5 :
The Anatomy and Relations of the Eurypteride. By MaAtcotm
Lavrigz, B.Sc., B.A., F.L.S. Communicated by R. H. Traquarr,
M.D., F.R.S., F.R.S.E. (With Two Plates),
vil
PAGE
307
361
381
399
4135
427
441
481
509
Vill CONTENTS.
PART III. (1893-94.)
XXV. On Lepidophloios, ‘and on the British Species of the Genus. By
Rosert Kinston, F.R.S.E., F.G.S. (With Two Plates),
XXVI. On the Fossil Flora of the South Wales Coal Field, and the Relation-
ship of tts Strata to the Somerset and Bristol Coal Field. By
RosErt Kinston, F.R.S.E., F.G.S. (With a Plate),
XXVII. On Bistratification in the Growth of Languages, with Special
Reference to Greek. By Emeritus Professor BuackiE,
XXVIII. On the Number of Dust Particles in the Atmosphere of Certain Places
in Great Britain and on the Continent, with Remarks on the
Relation ‘between the Amount of Dust and Meteorological Pheno-
mend. Part III. By Joun Arrxen, F.R.S. (With Three
Plates), : :
XXIX. On the Variations of the Amount of Carbonic Acid in the Ground-
Air (Grund-Luft of Pettenkofer). By C. Hunter Stewart,
B.Sc, M.B. (From the Public Health Laboratory of the
University of Edinburgh.) (With Three Plates),
PART IV. (1894-95.)
XXX. Note on some Fossils from Seymour Island, in the Antarctic Regions,
obtained by Dr Donald. By G. SHarman and E. T. NewrTon.
(With a Plate), .
XXXI. On the Partition of a Parallelepiped into Tetrahedra, the Corners of
which Coincide with Corners of the Parallelepiped. By Professor -
Crum Brown. (With Two Plates),
XXXII. On the Manganese Oxides and Manganese Nodules in Marine
Deposits. By Joun Murray, LL.D., Ph.D., of the Challenger
Expedition, and Rosert Irving, F.C.S., .
PAGE
615
621
695
707
711
721
CONTENTS.
NUMBER
XXXII. 1.—On the Estimation of Carbon in Organic Substances by the Kjel-
dahl Method. I1.—Its Application to the Analysis of Potable
Waters. By Cuartes Hunter Stewart, D.Sc., M.B. (From
the Public Health Laboratory of the Mea of Edinburgh.)
(With Two Plates),
XXXIV: The Chemical and Bacteriological Examination of Soil, with special
reference to the Soil of Graveyards. By JAmEs BucHaNan
Youne, M.B., D.Sc. (From the Public Health Laboratory,
University of Edinburgh),
APPENDIX —
The Council of the Society,
Alphabetical List of the Ordinary Fellows,
List of Honorary Fellows,
List of Ordinary Fellows Elected during Session 1891-92,
List of Honorary Fellows Elected during Session 1891-92,
Fellows Deceased or Resigned during Session 1891-92,
List of Ordinary Fellows Elected during Session 1892-93,
Fellows Deceased or Resigned during Session 1892-98,
List of Ordinary Fellows Elected during Session 1893-94,
Fellows Deceased or Resigned during Session 1893-94, .
Laws of the Society,
The Keith, Makdougall-Brisbane, Neill, and Gunning Victoria Jubilee
Prizes,
Awards of the Keith, Makdougall-Brisbane, and Neill Prizes, from 1827
to 1893, and of the Gunning Victoria Jubilee Prize from 1884 to
1898,
PAGE
759
778
779
794
796
797
798
799
800
801
802
803
810
CONTENTS.
APPENDIX—continued.
Proceedings of the Statutory General Meetings,
List of Public Institutions and Individuals entitled to receive Copies of the
Index,
Transactions and Proceedings of the Royal Society,
PAGE
TRANSACTIONS.
I.—The Chemistry of Strophanthidin, a Decomposition Product of Strophanthin. By
Tuomas R. Fraser, M.D., F.R.S., and Ltonarp Dossin, Ph.D.
(Read 7th December 1891.)
In a paper on the Chemistry and Pharmacology of Strophanthus hispidus, it was
pointed out by one of us that when strophanthin, the glucosidal active principle present
in the seeds and several other parts of this plant, is subjected to the action of dilute
acids, it yields, among other products, a crystalline body—strophanthidin. A brief
description was also given of processes by which this body may be prepared, and of
several of its characters and chemical properties.*
The chemistry of strophanthidin will be more fully described in the present paper.
Preparation.—Strophanthidin may conveniently be prepared by allowing a 5°/,
solution of strophanthin, or of pure extract of Strophanthus, in 1°5 or 2°/, sulphuric acid
to stand at the ordinary temperature for a few days. When this is done, the originally
nearly clear solution soon becomes hazy, the haziness gradually increases during the
following day or two, and then the solution again becomes clear, much glucose is found
to be present in it, and a deposit forms, which consists, for the most part, of crystals. The
crystals are usually sufficiently large to be apparent to the naked eye,t but sometimes
they are so minute that their crystalline form is recognisable only when they are magnified.
They are slightly coloured when prepared from the extract, but are almost colourless when
prepared from strophanthin.
Crystalline strophanthidin may be produced in the cold not only by the action of dilute
sulphuric acid, but also of dilute hydrochloric, nitric, phosphoric, acetic, oxalic, and
hydrocyanic acid. It is, however, more rapidly produced by these acids at a temperature
of from 50° to 78° C., when it often appears in the form of long friable needles, from six
to ten millimetres in length; but at higher temperatures, an amorphous coloured sub-
stance, and not an almost colourless crystalline body, is obtained.
By the above process, so much as 37°/, of crystalline strophanthidin has been obtained
* Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin., vol. xxxv. part iv. pp. 1004-1017. + Ibid., pl. vii. fig. 10.
VOL, XXXVII. PART I. (NO. 1). A
2 PROFESSOR FRASER AND DR DOBBIN ON
from strophanthin, and 30°/, from the extract, although more frequently the extract
yielded from 20 to 25°/..
In order to effect the complete decoloration of the crystals, from whatever source they
have been obtained, they may be washed with distilled water and digested for a few
hours with a little pure charcoal in a hot rectified spirit solution. The filtered hot solu-
tion deposits, on cooling, colourless crystals of considerable size, which continue to form
on the spontaneous evaporation of the solution. The crystals consist of four-sided,
apparently monoclinic, prisms, terminated either by the end faces alone, or also by
pyramidal faces. To ensure the absolute purity of the product, it may several times be
recrystallised from alcohol, or precipitated by petroleum ether or by water from a con-
centrated solution in alcohol, or in several of the other solvents afterwards to be mentioned.
General Characters.—The crystals are easily broken down in a mortar, but the
particles are somewhat adhesive, and may even form a friable paste during triturition.
A solution in water is neutral in reaction, and a moderately persistent froth is produced
when it is shaken. A saturated watery solution is strongly, though not intensely, bitter ;
and slight bitterness can be perceived also in a solution of one part in sixty thousand.
Solubilities.—Unlike strophanthin, strophanthidin is insoluble in glycerine, very
slightly soluble in cold water, only moderately soluble in rectified spirit, and more soluble
in absolute than in dilute alcohol. Absolute alcohol and acetone, however, dissolve a
larger quantity of it than of strophanthin. It resembles strophanthin in being insoluble
in olive oil.
The results of determinations of its solubility in various. liquids, at the ordinary
temperature, are as follows :—
Absolute ethyl alcohol (sp. gr. mele 1in 30,or3°3 per cent.
Acetone ; : f sh 35, or 2°85 in
Rectified spirit . or. 838) . . 47, or 2°1 a
Amy] alcohol (sp. gr. *820)_. » _ £65, or 0°606 _
Chloroform (sp. gr. 1°497) n., O90,0r U"1AAg”
Distilled water ’ , : ». 20. or 00465 a
Ethyl ether (sp. gr. 793) > 2196, or 0°0455 .
Ethyl ether (sp. gr. °730) : : 1; 2222, of 0045 2
Petroleum ether (boiling below 50° C. ‘ae Absolutely insoluble.
Its solubility in several of these liquids, as for example in rectified spirit, is much
increased by elevating the temperature. After hot saturated solutions in alcohol have
become cool, and have ceased to deposit strophanthidin, they hold in solution a larger
quantity than alcohol is capable of dissolving without the aid of heat.
Strophanthidin is precipitated by petroleum ether from solution in absolute alcohol,
acetone, rectified spirit, amyl alcohol, ethyl ether, and chloroform; and by water from
solution in absolute alcohol and rectified spirit. Precipitation is, however, only slowly
produced in rectified spirit and ethyl ether solutions. The precipitates, either imme-
THE CHEMISTRY OF STROPHANTHIDIN. 3
diately or after the lapse of several hours, assume the form of broad or needle-shaped
rhombic crystals, which are bright and translucent.
Ethyl ether, which so readily precipitates strophanthin from solution in ethyl and
amyl alcohol and in acetone, fails to precipitate strophanthidin when dissolved in these
liquids ; nor is it precipitated by ethyl alcohol, acetone, amyl alcohol, or chloroform,
from solution in any of the liquids in which its solubility was determined. Weak alcoholic
solutions are rendered hazy by the addition of water, even when the quantity of added
water is itself more than sufficient to dissolve the strophanthidin present ; and a similar
change is produced in watery solutions by the addition of a little rectified spirit.
Melting point.—Strophanthidin melts at between 170° and 171° C., with incipient
decomposition and the disengagement of bubbles of gas. When heated on platinum foil
over a Bunsen’s burner, it suddenly liquefies, bubbles of gas are profusely disengaged,
combustion takes place with a bright flame, and very quickly the whole substance entirely
disappears. No decided odour is evolved during the heating and burning.
Specific Rotation.—It possesses positive rotation in alcoholic solution. One gramme
dissolved in 50 cc. of rectified spirit (sp. gr. 0°838) was found to have a specific gravity
of 0°85, and, with a 5 decimetres column, it produced a rotation of + 4° 7’, which cor-
responds with a specific rotation of + 41° 12’.
It was found that the specific rotation of strophanthin, in the same conditions, is
+ 14°.
Elementary Analysis—When crystallised from rectified spirit, strophanthidin does
not lose weight at 100° C. It does not contain nitrogen. When heated for two hours
at 100° C. in 2 per cent. sulphuric acid, it is converted into a brown resin-like substance,
but no glucose appears in the solution. A carefully purified specimen, recrystallised from
rectified spirit, when subjected to ultimate analysis, yielded the following results, in two
combustions :—
1. 0°1134 gramme yielded CO,, 0°2746 gramme, = 66°04 per cent. C.
”? ” H,0, 0°0857 ” = 8°39 ” 13h
2. 0°1150 gramme yielded CO,, 0°2793 __,, rir Zorl Saas) a.
i f: H.oo-0ses * {, (°S 886 0°), “RL
These percentages correspond with the formula C,,H,,0,.
Found (average of Calculated for
two analyses), Cy 4H 5204.
Carbon, . 66°13 66°14 per cent.
Hydrogen, : : 8°37 ; : 8°66 ‘
Oxygen (by subtraction), 25°50 : 25°2 .
In the absence of knowledge regarding the constitution of strophanthidin, the formula
C,,H,,0, may, therefore, provisionally be adopted.
4 PROFESSOR FRASER AND DR DOBBIN ON
Reactions of Dry Strophanthidin.
1. When strong sulphuric acid was placed in contact with a little finely powdered
strophanthidin, an immediate orange red colour was produced, and slowly a bluish-green
colour appeared at the margins. In 40 minutes the green colour had extended itself,
and soon afterwards it had entirely displaced the red. The green, in its turn, slowly faded,
and the whole then assumed a faint brownish-yellow tint, which persisted for several
hours. After the addition of strong sulphuric acid had developed an orange-red colour,
the subsequent addition of nitric acid immediately changed the colour to dusky yellow,
which slowly faded to pale brownish-yellow.
When strophanthidin, moistened with strong sulphuric acid, was slowly heated
between 42° and 45° C., the orange-red first produced became a yellowish-red with a
shght green tint at the margins, then altogether greenish-yellow, and finally brown.
2. Contact in the cold with dilute sulphuric acid (10 per cent.) failed to develop any
colour within half an hour. On now heating gradually to 48° C., yellowish-green
appeared at the margins and yellow at the centre; the green soon became very dark
until it was almost black, and the yellow at the centre changed to brown; and in about
an hour and a half the whole assumed a brownish-black colour.
3. Strong nitric acid produced in the cold merely a very faint brown tint, which
appeared only after prolonged contact, but remained unchanged for several hours. On
the addition of strong sulphuric acid, the very faint brown tint immediately became
pinkish-yellow, which very soon changed to greenish-yellow.
When strophanthidin was mixed with strong nitric acid, and placed in an air chamber
with a temperature of 43° C., which was gradually raised to 52°, in one minute a faint
pink tint appeared, which very soon changed to brownish-yellow, and in a few minutes to
pale yellow, which slowly deepened in hue until a deep yellow, almost gamboge, was
developed. The last colour remained for more than an hour and a half.
4, Dilute nitric acid (10 per cent.) produced no change in the cold. When, however,
the temperature was slowly raised to 47° and 48° C., a light orange colour was speedily
produced, which persisted for several hours.
5. Contact in the cold with strong hydrochloric acid merely caused the particles of
strophanthidin to become slightly brown, even when the contact was continued for
several hours.
On slowly heating to from 43° to 48° C. with strong hydrochloric acid, yellow appeared
at the edges and gradually spread over the whole surface of the mixture, and this yellow
colour remained for several hours, during which the heating was continued.
6. Dilute hydrochloric acid (10 per cent.) produced no change in the cold.
On heating between 47° and 48° C., an orange colour was produced, which persisted
for several hours.
7. Strong sulphuric acid and bichromate of potassium produced a crimson colour, which
THE CHEMISTRY OF STROPHANTHIDIN. 5
passed slowly into brown with patches of green, and then the whole gradually became
very pale brown.
8. Strong sulphuric acid and chlorate of potassium produced a crimson colour, which soon
became pale reddish-yellow.
9. Phosphomolybdie acid very slowly developed a pale greenish-blue colour. When an
alkali was added along with or after the phosphomolybdic acid, a blue colour was imme-
diately developed.
10. After contact with strong sulphuric acid had developed the usual orange-red colour
in powdered strophanthidin, exposure to the vapour of bromine rapidly deepened the
colour to a dark salmon-red, in which the undissolved’ particles of strophanthidin
appeared black; and, soon afterwards, the salmon-red became dusky red, and the dusky
red, after several hours, changed to green.
11. Solution of potash, soda, ammonia, lime, and baryta, and of carbonate of potash and:
carbonate of soda failed to produce any colour change ; and negative results were also
obtained on the addition of iodie acid and starch, of hydrobromic acid and starch, and of nitric
acid followed by stannous chloride.
Reactions of Solution of Strophanthidin in Water (saturated, 1 : 2000).
1. Solution of iodide of potassium and of potassio-mercuric iodide produced a light brown
colour, and when this had been developed, the addition of starch solution produced the
usual blue reaction indicative of free iodine.
2. When to a drop of the strophanthidin solution, placed on a white porcelain slab, a
drop of very dilute solution of ferric chloride was added, and then a drop of strong sulphuric
acid, a yellow colour was immediately produced, and, on stirring, a faint pink tinge
appeared, and in a few seconds the mixture became almost colourless.
Negative results were obtained on the addition of solutions of chloride of gold, nitrate
of silver, platinic chloride, cobaltous chloride, acetate and subacetate of lead, mercuric chloride,
cupric sulphate, tannic acid, picrie acid, ferric chloride, metatungstate of sodium, hydrobromic acid,
bromide of potassium, tribromide of potassium and Nessler’s reagent.
VOL. XXXVII. PART I. (NO. 1). B
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16
(ney)
Il.—Circular Magnetisations accompanying Axial and Sectional Currents along Tron
Tubes.. By Professor Carcity G. Knort, D.Sc., F.R.S.E. (With Plate.)
(Read 18th January 1892.)
The experiments now to be described have for their object the investigation of the
magnetic induction in an iron conductor under the influence of a current passing through
it. The method of experiment was briefly in this wise. An iron tube was magnetised
circularly by a current passed from end to end along its entire length ; and the induction
so produced in the iron was measured in terms of the current induced in a coil of wire
wound longitudinally round the walls of the tube.
In the experiments four tubes were used, all of the same length and nearly the same
external diameter. The internal diameters of one pair were approximately double those
of the other. The various dimensions are given accurately in the following table, the
tubes being distinguished as A, B, a, b. Hach diameter measurement is the mean of
eight measurements taken across different diameters.
Length of Tubes = 34°8 cm.
Tube Diameters in cm.
; Internal. External.
A, : ; ‘ ; 1031 +°012 3°022 + 003
B, : : q : 1:050 +010 3°027 +:003
a, ; : : : 2°036 + °004 3°022 +003
b, ; ; : : 2°052 + :005 3°021 +002
The tubes were all of wrought iron, turned on the lathe and bored. The a tube was
made at a much later date than the other three. The results given below show that it
was made out of quite a different specimen of iron.
To measure the circular magnetisation, four turns of insulated copper wire were
coiled longitudinally round the walls of the tubes A, B, and 0; and sixteen round a.
Each tube could be magnetised circularly in two ways :—
(1) By an aaal current passing along a copper wire led through the axis.
(2) By a sectional current passing longitudinally through the substance or
wall of the tube.
It was by a direct comparison of the inductive effects of these two methods of apply-
ing the magnetising force that the action of the latter was studied. To this end two of
the tubes were taken and arranged so that the same current could be passed axially or
sectionally along them. The induced currents produced in the coils were then balanced
on a galvanometer exactly as in the familiar method for comparing mutual inductances
VOL. XXXVII. PART I. (NO. 2). C
8 PROFESSOR CARGILL G. KNOTT ON
of two pairs of coils. In this way the magnetic induction produced by the “sectional ”
current along, say, the A tube could be directly compared with the magnetic induction
produced by the “axial” current along the B tube ; and vice versa.
To complete the investigation it was necessary to know the laws governing the mag-
netic action of the axial current. At first it seemed sufficient to assume, in accordance
with the usual view, that the magnetic force due to the axial current was inversely as the
distance in the iron substance as well as in the air spaces, and that with the currents used
the value of the force was small enough to warrant us taking the permeability as constant
throughout the iron. There were hints, however, that these assumptions were not even
approximately true. Accordingly, a series of experiments was undertaken in which the
circular inductions due to various axial currents were carefully measured. In some experi-
ments the induced currents were measured on a ballistic galvanometer ; in others the
induced currents were measured by balancing them against the induced currents produced
in the secondary of a standard pair of coils in whose primary the axial current was made
to flow. The results obtained by both methods were in good agreement ; and I give here
only the one series. It was the last in point of time, and was very carefully carried
out by Mr Sawapa, a graduating student in physics of the Imperial University of Japan.
The quantity directly measured was the total induction across a radial section of the
tube. It can obviously be written in the form
a
of ucrar 5
b
where / is the length of the tube, a and b the external and internal radii, & the magnetic
force at a point distant 7 from the axis, and wu’ the permeability at this point. In general
v’ will be a function of R. If, however, pv’ is unity, we know that R has the value 22/r
where 2 is the total current passing axially through the tube. In this case the integral
gives us what might be called the total ‘normal induction” across the radial section of
the tube. Its value is
2
li log - d
Dividing by the area of the section, viz., /(a-b), we get the average magnetic force
influencing the tube. Thus we may calculate what might be called the average permea-
bility #, where
eon ee i
pt log nea ue Rar ,
b
or pr=%.
Here % is measured experimentally, and h is calculated in terms of the current and the
known dimensions of the tube. The values of these quantities are given in the following
table.
CIRCULAR MAGNETISATIONS IN IRON TUBES. 9
TaB_eE I.
Showing the relation between the average magnetic induction (%) in an iron tube
under the influence of an axial current, and the average magnetic force (h) as it would be
throughout the region occupied by the iron if the iron were replaced by a substance of
unit permeability.
h B u=8/h h B “u=B/h
0299 9-2 307°9 1654 2251 1361
"0475 14°6 308°8 2°068 3612 1747
0572 18°6 326°2 2°481 4900 1975
0724 25°1 347°2 2°895 5688 1965
"1046 39°2 375°2 3°308 6391 1932
1234 47°8 387°5 3°722 6967 1872
"1900 79°6 419-2 4°136 7377 1784
eis 94:9 440°3 4°570 7823 1720
3218 162°8 505°7 4°963 8276 1668
“4136 213°4 516°2 5377 8692 1617
4626 249°0 538°6 5°790 9054 1564
"8270 544°2 6580 6°204 9452 1524
"8493 577-9 680°5 6°617 9825 1485
1241 1266 1021
It should be mentioned that in the tube used, A namely, one ampere of axial current
corresponds to an average magnetic field of 0°2150. Thus the highest magnetic field
corresponds to an axial current of fully 30 amperes. In the experiment this highest
value was attained by using a multiple wire of many insulated strands, and passing a
moderate current through all in series.
It is important to notice that with a current of one ampere the field at the internal
surface of the tube is nearly 0°4 ; and similarly in any case the maximum field acting on
the iron is about 1°8 times the estimated average field acting over the entire radial
section.
The relations existing between the quantities tabulated above are shown graphically
in the Plate. The induction curve and permeability curve are both shown complete, and
on a large enough scale to bring out the deviations from smoothness. They are drawn
through all the points.
The induction curve is very similar in form to the induction curves obtained when an
iron rod is longitudinally magnetised. The same may be said in a general way of the
permeability curve. One particular, however, in which the results differ appreciably
from results obtained for iron rods and anchor rings is in the comparative values of the
maximum permeability and the permeability for the smallest field. This smallest
permeability is remarkably high as compared with the initial permeabilities given, for
example, by Rowianp, Ewrne, or Lord RaytereH. On the other hand, the maximum per-
meability is comparatively small, falling short of 2000. How far this may be due to the
form of the iron tube, or to the inaccuracy of the estimate of the average magnetic force,
10 PROFESSOR CARGILL G. KNOTT ON
it is impossible to say. It is more than probable, however, that it is largely referable to
the mode in which the magnetisation is applied.
There is a second particular that appears to be an essential peculiarity ; and that is,
the way in which the permeability curve begins its ascent. It will be seen from the
table that the permeability has nearly the same value for fields below 0°05 ; but that
above this it begins to grow rapidly. It is evident, then, that for axial currents greater
than half an ampere, we cannot assume a constant permeability throughout the A and B
tubes. Even for the a and 6 tubes, for which one ampere gives an estimated average
field of nearly 0°16, it would be unsafe to assume a constant permeability for stronger
axial currents than half an ampere.
It will be seen from the curve that the permeability is almost accurately proportional
to the magnetic field from a field of about unity up nearly to its maximum. The curious
hump-like character of the earliest part seems difficult to explain as a result of hetero-
geneity in the metal. Whatever be its cause, its existence indicates a remarkably rapid
increase of permeability when first it begins to increase. J am not aware that any like
peculiarity has been noticed in other magnetic experiments. Permeability curves seem
always to begin convex to the axis, and not to become concave until the maximum point
is being approached.
In the experiments in which the inductions were measured by ballistic swings, the
swings were taken at make and break of the magnetising current which was passed first
in one direction then in the other. . From the numbers so obtained it was an easy matter
to calculate the residual magnetism in terms of the total induced magnetism. With an
axial current varying from 0°25 of an ampere to 4 amperes, and a corresponding average
field varying from 0°055 to 0°882, it was found that the ratio of the residual magnetism
to the total induced magnetism varied from 0°05 to 0°20.
I now proceed to the discussion of the experiments which form the real subject-matter
of this paper.
The method as already briefly described was a nul-method. Two tubes were taken
and subjected to the inductive effect of the same current. This current could be purely
axial along both tubes, or purely sectional; or it could be axial along the one and
sectional along the other. ‘To guard against any confusion, I shall here formally define
these terms, although the definition is fully implied in what precedes. An Axial Current
is a current which flows in a wire forming the axis of the tube, but quite insulated from
it. A Sectional Current is a current flowing through the substance or walls of the tube
parallel to the axis.
The following combinations of tubes with currents were tried :—
B axial with A axial. 6 sectional with a sectional.
Bsectionl , A , . 6 axial le, 5
B > » A sectional. a 5 » A axial.
B axial ee Bil 95 a sectional ,, ‘
OF pe eaeeaeil, a axial » A sectional.
bsectionl , a ,,
CIRCULAR MAGNETISATIONS IN IRON TUBES. 11
The ratios of the inductions in these different pairs, calculated from the resistances
needed to be inserted in the secondary circuits so as to obtain a balance on the galvano-
meter, are given in the succeeding table for three different strengths of current. The
current strengths are given in amperes at the head of each column. The symbols A, B,
a, 6 mean the inductions produced by the axial current; and A’, B’, a’, b’ the inductions
produced by the sectional currents. —
Current = “4.9 1:05 2°09
(1) B/A 1:088 1:0548 1:0340
(2) BA 333 2960 2898
(3) B/A' 3°60 3°857 3°893
(4) BA’ 1 1:077 1:0868
(5) bla 1-338 1°3395 1°3333
(6) U'/a 1:556 "DAZ7 533
(7) b/a’ 3°105 3°303 3°404
(8) B'/a’ HES 1:340 1:360
(9) af A 2735 2536 249
(10) a'/A “Ly ane 0974
(11) A'/a eae 1:080 aac
From these the following pairs of same ratios are obtained, and final means taken of
these pairs.
Current = "49 1:05 2°09
1/3 AA 302 ‘2735 2663
2/4 5 298 "2748 "2667
(12) 5 ‘3007 ‘2739 "2664 (means.)
2/1 B'/B "307 2806 2803
4/3 3 312 2793 "2792
59 3087 "2802 ‘2799 (means.)
5/7 a'|a 431 4054 392
6/8 rs 420 “4058 392
(13) Z ‘427 4056 "392 (means.)
6/5 b’/b 423 4059 4000
8/7 _ 426 "4057 3995
ms AQ4 ‘4058 3999 (means.)
9 a/A 2735 2536 "2490
10/13 $5 274 360 "2485
12/11 . 2536 z
. 2738 "2536 "2488 (means.)
12 PROFESSOR CARGILL G. KNOTT ON
It will be noticed that the means are not simple arithmetical means. They are
obtained by weighting the individual values in accordance with the accuracy of the
experiments on which these values depend.
Finally, we may calculate the ratio b/B for each current thus :—
Collecting, then, all the results that are of importance, we obtain Table II., showing the
ratios between the sectional and axial inductions in each tube, and also the ratios between
the axial inductions in the thin-walled and thick-walled tubes.
TABLE II.
Current = ‘49 1:05 2:09
A'/A ‘3007 2739 2604
BB 3087 2802 2799
a /a 427 ‘4056 392
b'/b 424 ‘4058 3999
al/A 2738 2536 2488
b/B 3367 3220 3208
For a tube of radii a and 8 (a>) the sectional current 2 produces (in accordance
with the usual theory) at any point r a field
If 7 is the length of the tube, the total sectional induction across a radial section is
v= fish
B
= mi(i ae
poi 8? *)
where, for simplicity, we assume p’ to be constant over the section, and where p=a/B.
With the same assumption, we find for the total axial induction the expression
B=lpi log p*.
It is advisable to distinguish » from yp’, since clearly the average magnetic force due
to a given axial current is greater than the average magnetic force due to a sectional
current of the same value ; and we have seen above how much the permeability varies
with the force.
CIRCULAR MAGNETISATIONS IN IRON TUBES. 15
In the following table, the various dimensional quantities on which the inductions
depend are shown for the four tubes :—
Tube 2a 26 log p? p-l Bad log p* B' [Ip
A 3022 1031 271508 7591 2833 ‘7167
B 3°027 1:050, 21211 7315 2900 ‘7100
a 3'022 2°036 7898 1:203 6565 3435
b 3021 2°052 “‘T735. 1:168 "6625 3375
The column headed log p’ gives the values of 8/lu:.
By dividing the numbers in the 8’ column by the corresponding numbers in the %
column, we obtain the following ratios of the inductions :—
A‘fA=3332 &
i
B/B=3347 &
e aan
a’ja =-4349 #
i
bib = 4363 &
i
where it must be remembered that the ratio u’/w is not necessarily the same in all.
We also get the following ratios :—
alA ="3669 4
b/B ='3647 My
Me
where the suffixes are attached to « to show that the permeabilities for the two kinds of
tubes subject to the same axial current are not necessarily the same.
In the light of these results we shall now discuss Table II. In the first place, it is
evident at once that the a tube must differ specifically from the other tubes, being indeed,
as already noted, of a different kind of iron. A comparison of the 6 and B ratios leads
to the immediate conclusion that
pb for b tube ;
Momento 33 for axial current °*49 amp.
=-9830 E105...
=8800 _,, BE apgg”
Now the average magnetic field acting within the substance of the tube is, in terms of
the usual theory, 0°2127 for the B tube, and 0°1592 for the b tube; 7 being measured in
amperes. Thus the average fields for the two tubes under influence of the currents given
above are
104, °223, 445 for the B tube, and
078, ‘167, ‘333 for the 0 tube.
14 PROFESSOR CARGILL G. KNOTT ON
From Table I. we may readily calculate that these corresponding pairs of magnetising
forces give for the ratios of the inductions
989\,. 914,. “957
respectively. These are all somewhat higher than the experimental values just given.
This, however, is not surprising inasmuch as the kinds of iron composing the two tubes
may differ enough to render the numbers in Table I. not strictly applicable to the b tube.
And, again, the theory itself that is made use of in estimating the average magnetic force
and the induction due thereto is admittedly only approximately true. The comparison
just made seems to show that it is nevertheless a tolerably fair approximation to the
truth.,
The ratios of the sectional and axial inductions call next for consideration. Ata
glance we see that the ratios given in Table II. are all less than the corresponding
multipliers in equations H. This means that p’ is less than mw in every instance. Ina
general way, it is easy to see that this ought to be so. The fields due to axial and
sectional currents of the same strength, although they are the same in the region outside
the tube, have quite different values in the substance of the tube. The field due to the
axial current increases as we pass inwards to the interior surface; while that due to the
sectional current diminishes, and has the value zero at the interior surface. In any case,
we may estimate the average field by dividing the total normal induction by the radial
section. The values of the average fields, so estimated for the different tubes, are
shown in the following table :—
Average Field due to Current
Tube,
"49 1:05 2°09
A 1058 2268 4514
A’ 0353 0756 1503
B 1049 "2247 4473
ce 0350 0749 1491
a ‘0785 "1682 3348
a’ 0342 0732 1457
b 0782 1675 3333
b ‘0341 ‘0731 1455
Now each of these fields has its appropriate permeability ; and by means of Table I.
we may calculate the permeabilities in the case of Tube A. From Table IL. we see that
Tube B behaves very similarly to Tube 4; and that Tube a, notwithstanding the fact
that the permeability of its material is comparatively small, behaves almost exactly like
Tube b. This is significant as showing that the relation between the sectional and axial
inductions is largely independent of the numerical values of the permeabilities involved.
Hence we may reasonably discuss the case of the Tubes @ and b by applying to them
the results of Table I. In this discussion we shall take the means of the various values
CIRCULAR MAGNETISATIONS IN IRON TUBES. 15
for the a and b tubes; but shall leave Tube B out of consideration, since Table I. applies
directly to Tube A.
Calculating, then, the permeabilities for the fields due to the several currents, we find
as follows :—
Permeabilities due to Current
Tube
“49 1°05 2°09
A 376 447 533
A’ 308 350 400
ab 352 408 507
ab 308 348 398
From these we at once obtain the ratios (y’/) for the different currents and tubes.
These we shall call the calculated ratios; while the ratios obtained from equations E by
use of the values of Table II., we shall call the observed ratios. It remains now to com-
pare these sets of ratios, as in Table III.
TABLE III.
Ratios of Permeabilities of Sectional and Axial Inductions.
Current
Strengths in A'/A a'b'/ab
Amperes.
Obs, Cale. Obs. Cale.
“49 902 819 ‘978 “874
1:05 832 ‘783 932 853
2°09 “781 ‘750 ‘910 ‘785
Tt will be seen at once that a ready explanation is found for the diminution of the
ratio of the two inductions as the field is taken stronger. The numbers in the “ calculated ”
columns fall off according to much the same law as those in the “ observed” columns. In
all cases, however, the calculated ratios are smaller than the corresponding observed
ratios. This may be explained in several ways, thus: either the average magnetic field
acting on the iron is over-estimated for the axial induction or under-estimated for the
sectional induction; or the permeability is really greater under the influence of the
current passing through the iron than it is under the influence of an equal average mag-
netic field unaccompanied by such a sectional current.
If the last be the true explanation, then a direct experiment should show an appreci-
able increase in the axial induction when a current is in addition sent along the iron
tube. Now, the effect of a sectional current sustained steadily while the axial is being
VOL. XXXVII. PART I. (NO. 2). D
16 CIRCULAR MAGNETISATIONS IN IRON TUBES.
reversed will be to impart to the tube a mean circular magnetisation of definite
amount. The induction will not, at reversal of the axial current, oscillate to equal
amounts on the opposite sides of zero induction. On the contrary, it will oscillate
about a mean value of definite amount, so that the total induction will be less on one
side than on the other. In the ballistic method of measuring inductions, however, this
one-sidedness or bias would not be apparent. But if the explanation suggested above be
the true one, the induction due to reversal of the axial current should be greater when
this current is also directed steadily without reversal along the tube. The experiment
was accordingly tried in January of 1892, not with the tubes investigated above (which
being in Japan were unfortunately not at my disposal), but with a short tube supplied me
by Professor Tarr, to whom I would here express my thanks for liberty to work in the
Physical Laboratory of the University of Edinburgh. The tube was 10 cm. long, had an
external diameter of 4°1 cm., and an internal diameter of 2°7. The average field through-
out the region occupied by the iron wall is consequently 0°122 for one ampere of current
along the axis. The following are some of the results obtained, the first column giving
the current in amperes, the second column containing numbers proportional to the induc-
tion produced by reversal of the axial current, and the third column similar induction
numbers when the current was in addition sectional but steady :—
Axial Induction.
Current in Amperes.
Pure. With Sectional Current,
3°26 29°8 30
4°44 43°3 43
8:43 87°3 856
16°85 194°6 194°5
There is no evidence here that the sectional current has any distinct effect upon the
susceptibility. At any rate, what effect is produced is certainly not increase.
The discrepancy in Table III. is consequently not to be explained in terms of a direct
effect upon the susceptibility. We must look for the explanation in the other directions
indicated. That is to say, the ordinary theory of the circular magnetisation of iron under
the influence of an axial, or a sectional, current does not strictly apply. It will be noticed,
however, that the discrepancy is not large, amounting only to 7 per cent. To this
approximation, therefore, we may regard the ordinary theory as holding for sectional
currents whose current density does not exceed 0°2 ampere per square centimetre. For
much greater current densities, as when, for example, a fairly strong current passes along
a thinnish iron wire, nothing can be asserted; and it is difficult to see how an experi-
mental investigation into the circular magnetisation of a solid wire could be undertaken.
JK WOMP OW Cr Gwe AR WANE I Dai SN ana oem
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NG
IIl._—On the Number of Dust Particles in the Atmosphere of certain Places in Great
Britain and on the Continent, with Remarks on the Relation between the Amount
of Dust and Meteorological. Phenomena. By Joun. A1tKEN, F.R.S. (With. Plate.)
Pane i
(Read 4th January 1892.)
In a new investigation of this kind it is always desirable to repeat the observations
under as many conditions as possible. The variables are so many that with a limited
experience it cannot be expected that the subject will be exhausted, or that the
conclusions arrived at from early observations will be in all cases confirmed. As an oppor-
tunity offered in the beginning of 1890 for repeating the tests made the previous year on
the amount of atmospheric dust at different places on the Continent, it seemed desirable
that the old ground should be gone over again rather than that the investigation should
be extended to new areas. The observations made in this country have also been
confined to the same stations as in 1889; and in this paper I intend giving the results
of a series of tests repeated at the same stations, at about the same dates, but under
the conditions existing in 1890, as has already been given for 1889 in Part I. of
this subject. |
At the end of this paper is given a table in which are entered the places where
observations have been made, the date and hour when the observations were taken, the
direction and force of the wind, the temperature and humidity of the air, and the trans-
parency of the atmosphere at the time. It has not been thought necessary to occupy
space by entering in the table all the observations made at the different places ; only a few
of them taken at some of the stations are given; the others being similar and having no
special interest are omitted. At Hyéres, tests were made from the 26th March to the 3d
of April 1890. The general result was somewhat similar to that given in the previous
paper. The highest number observed on Fenouillet was 15,000 per c.c., the wet-bulb
depression 5°, the result being a very thick haze. The lowest number observed was 725
per ¢.c., with a wet-bulb depression of 9°5°. On this occasion the air was very clear, the
wind being from the 8.W. and strong. The other observations made at Hyeres have no
special interest, and are not entered in the table. At Cannes, observations were made
on only two days, and the results call for no special remark. .
Observations were made at Mentone from the 11th to the 19th of April. The tests
were made on a hill about 800 feet high to the N.W. of the town. The number of
particles varied greatly with the direction of the wind, being as high as 26,000
when the wind was 8.E., «ze. from the direction of Mentone, while the number fell
to a little over 800 when the wind was northerly, or from the mountains. This does
not come out in the table, as the directions of the winds entered in the table are the
directions from which it was blowing at the place of observation ; but as it was situated
VOL. XXXVII. PART I. (NO. 3), E
18 MR JOHN AITKEN ON THE NUMBER OF DUST PARTICLES IN THE
among the hills, with high mountains to the N., the direction was often quite local.
From an examination of my weather tubes taken at Mentone at the time, I find that
the true wind on the 14th and 16th was northerly, and not 8.E. or E. as observed
among the hills.
During the time of the previous observations at Bellagio the weather was always dull
and the amount of dust great, but on this occasion there were opportunities of testing clear
air. It will be observed from the table that whenever the wind fell or went southward
at this station that the number of particles was great ; and, on the other hand, when it
went northerly, or became strong, the number of particles fell. j
In the later observations I have tried to introduce a more definite measure of the
clearness of the air than that given in the table in Part I. For this purpose the limit of
visibility, or the extreme distance at which a mountain could be seen, has been used. If
there were any mountain sufficiently far away to be just visible, then the distance of that
mountain was the limit of visibility for the air at the time. At most stations, however,
mountains are not available at sufficient distance, and the hazing effect on near ones has to
be estimated, and from this estimate the extreme limit of visibility is calculated. This
plan, however, is not very satisfactory, as the air is not equally clear in all
directions, being greatly influenced by the position of the sun, At mid-day, two hills
equally distant, but one N, and the other 8. of the observer, will not look equally
hazed; the one to the N. always looks much clearer, or, stated generally, there is
always more haze when looking in the direction of the sun than when looking away from
it. Itis for this reason that the direction of visibility requires tc be known as well as
the distance.
It will be seen from the Bellagio observations given in the table that with over 6000
particles, and a depression of the wet bulb of from 5° to 8°, nothing could be seen beyond
a limit of 15 miles looking in the direction of the sun, though in the opposite direction
hills could be seen to a much greater distance. On the other hand, when the number
of particles fell to about 1000, while the humidity remained the same, the air was
clear, and all hills within range could be seen, and only some haze between the observer
and hills 15 miles distant. The relation between the transparency and the humidity
of the air, which has been pointed out in Part L., is also clearly seen in these Bellagio
observations. Increase in the number of particles, if accompanied by constant humidity, is
in a general way accompanied by a decrease in transparency ; and increase in the humidity
is also accompanied by a decrease in the transparency if the number of particles remains
constant—z.e., both dust and humidity tend to decrease transparency. These con-
clusions can, however, only be looked for in a general way from observations taken at a
place of this kind, where it is difficult to get air for testing which is free from local
pollution.
There are no points of special interest in the Baveno observations, nor in those taken
at the entrance to the Simplon Pass. There was no bright, clear air while the observations
were being made; the quantity of dust was always large and the air thick. The wind
ATMOSPHERE IN GREAT BRITAIN AND ON THE CONTINENT. 19
during the period generally blew from inhabited parts, and when it blew from the moun-
tains it only did so for a short time, and with but little force, so that the accumulated
impurities were not swept away. It will, however, be observed that the velocity of the
wind, even though it blew from a polluted direction, had a considerable influence on the
amount of dust. On the 3rd, 6th, and 9th of May there was much dust in the air
in the morning, but as the day advanced the wind rose and the number of particles
became smaller.
Rigi Kulm Observations.
Turning now to the observations made in Switzerland, and comparing them with those
made in 1889, a marked difference in the state of the atmosphere will be noticed. During
. the first visit the weather generally was fine, and the air had the crisp clearness which
gives that hard outline and crude colouring one generally associates with Swiss scenery ;
whereas on the present visit the air was remarkably thick and heavy, the weather dull,
and the mountains loomed through a thick impure atmosphere. From the conclusions
arrived at in Part [, one would expect that this great difference in the condition
of the atmosphere on the two occasions would be accompanied by a difference
in the amount of dust in the air, if the humidity were the same on both occasions.
On comparing the results given in the tables for the different years, it will be seen that
there was no marked difference in the humidity; but it will also be seen that
the quantity of dust in the atmosphere was much greater during the visit
in 1890 than during the previous year. In 1889 the highest number of particles
observed at this station was a little over 2000 per e.c., and this number was observed on
only one occasion, whereas in 1890, 10,000 particles per c.c. were observed—z.e., the
highest observed in 1890 was five times greater than the highest of 1889; and if
we compare the condition of the air at the level of the lake, the same contrast is apparent.
On the previous visit the number of particles at low level ranged from 600 to 3000,
while during this visit they varied from 1700 to 13,000 per c.c. Speaking roughly,
there was about four times as much dust in the air during the visit of 1890 as there was
in 1889, and the air was about four times as thick.
On my way up the Rigi on the 15th May of 1890 I stopped at Vitznau, at the
foot of the mountain, to test the air at the level of the lake. From the table it will be
seen that the number of particles was much greater than in 1889, and that the air was
very thick. Three tests were made at different times, giving results varying from 10,000
to 11,750 pere.c. This thick haze was not due to humidity, as the wet bulb was depressed
10°, so that the air was what we would call very dry. On arriving at the top of the
mountain, the air at that elevated situation was tested two hours later. It was found
that here also there was a large quantity of dust, the number of particles being slightly
over 4000 per c.c., or double the highest number observed in 1889.
As the air on.this day was in marked contrast to anything seen on the previous visit,
I shall make a few extracts from my notes on the points which specially attracted my atten-
20 MR JOHN AITKEN ON THE NUMBER OF DUST PARTICLES IN THE
tion. On looking downwards to the valleys and lakes, the air was’ thick and black
looking. Sometime before sunset the air was so thick to the westwards that the lower
slopes of Pilatus were scarcely visible.. The lake to the south was visible through a thick
haze ; and the haze was also distinctly seen when the eye was turned in a direction at a
level with the top of the mountain. Between the observer and the mountains it appeared
as if a veil were hung between him and the distant scenery.
Sometime before sunset this hazy veil became coloured by the rays of the setting
sun, and its upper limit was well defined in the eastern sky at an elevation considerably
above the highest Alp. At sunset the dusty impurity became still more apparent as the
earth’s shadow crept up its lower edge. The shadowed part looked bluer by contrast
with the red haze above, and where the upper edge of the veil mingled with the blue of
the sky, it passed by imperceptible degrees through white, till it was lost in the blue of
the heavens.
Although the sun set on this evening in a cloudless sky, it looked more like a
harvest moon than the orb of day, and was so dull that it could be gazed at without the
shghtest discomfort. Its rays after penetrating the thick air were so feeble that no colour
effects were seen on the mountains; as they were not strong enough to give any percep-
tible direct illumination, while there was much diffused light reflected by the dust-laden
alr.
The air on the 16th continued much the same as it was on the previous day, only if
anything thicker in the afternoon. As the wind rose a little on the afternoon of this day,
its Increase may have been one of the reasons for the increase in the number of particles
observed as the day advanced. At low levels increase of wind is accompanied by a decrease
in dust. As a natural sequence, an increase in wind gives rise to an increase in dust
at high levels. This will be the case at least when the wind begins to blow and mixes
the lower impure air with the purer air above; but after the winds have blown for some-
time, and cleared the lower impurity away, the amount of dust at high levels will fall again,
During the 17th the wind remained much the same as on the previous two
days; the same thick pall hung over the lower landscape and veiled the hills in the
distance, the number of particles remained high, and the air fairly dry. During
the afternoon the clouds on the distant mountains began to clear away, but
about 5.30 p.m. a large mass of clouds formed in the 8.W. This bank of clouds
gave rise to a fine thunderstorm, with a good deal of lightning and rain, which passed to
the W., but did not come near the Rigi. About 6.30 P.M. another fine mass of clouds
streamed in from the &., filling the sky to the $.E. On the N. also there lay large
masses of thunder-clouds. The. storm-clouds to the E. and W. of the Rigi passed
northwards, while the lower wind was directly opposite. The sun set on this evening
amidst grand towering masses of thunder-clouds, which filled the sky in all directions,
save over the place of observation, By 9 p.m. these clouds had all passed pay to the
N., the wind had fallen, and the stars shone in a clear and tranquil sky.
The 18th was a day of special interest. 'The morning opened much the same as the
ATMOSPHERE IN GREAT BRITAIN AND ON THE CONTINENT, : 21
previous mornings during this visit: the air still had the same thickness, the amount
of dust was high for the morning, and there was little change in the humidity. Before
8 a.M., when the first observations were being made, small clouds occasionally formed on
the S.E. face of the hill and passed over the place of observation. While in these
clouds, the temperature fell and the humidity increased ; the temperature being 46°
and the wet-bulb depression about 1°, which was 2° colder than the surrounding air and
3°5° less depression of the wet bulb,
By 10 a.m: the clouds ceased passing over the mountain, but were still forming lower
down. As the day advanced, clouds began to form on the Alps to the 8, and
these seemed to have their origin in the air coming from the same sources as on the
previous day; one mass formed to the 8.W. and moved northwards, while another
mass came streaming over the Alps from the 8. and formed a mass in the S.E.
and spread northwards, while over the Rigi the sky was clear. Both on this occasion
and on the previous day the formation of the mass of cloud in the E. was particularly
interesting ; on both occasions it formed in a cloudless sky. It seemed to be caused by
hot moist air driven up the southern slopes of the Alps by the wind, and appeared to
come streaming northwards through some opening in the mountains, At first the
current formed only a long thin cloud, but as the day advanced the current strengthened
and the little stream gradually grew and expanded as it moved northwards, and rose in
the air; and by the time the day was well advanced, it had grown to a mighty mass
of thunder-cloud, thousands of feet thick, which completely filled the eastern sky. It
would be difficult to imagine anything grander than this billowy mass of thunder-cloud
as it moved northwards shining brightly in the sunlight.
Between 4 and 5 p.m. the clouds to the 8.W. had increased considerably. They
were forming at an elevation very little above the top of the Rigi. About 5 p.m. thunder
was heard to proceed from this mass. After a time the active area seemed to move east-
wards, «.¢., to the 8. of the Rigi. It then went to the S.E., and finally it came
directly overhead. As this seemed a favourable opportunity for testing the effect of a
thunderstorm on the amount of dust, observations were at once begun, and as many
tests taken as possible while the storm lasted, At 6 P.M: there was a marked increase
in the violence of the storm. Large hailstones fell thickly and with great force while
the tests were being made, which made working extremely difficult. So near was the
storm at this time that the thunder followed close on the flash, and on one occasion no
perceptible interval was noticed between a very brilliant flash and the deafening crash
which accompanied it.
It has often been contended that thunderstorms cause the “ turning ” of milk and other
putrefactive actions by some effect they have in bringing about the deposition of living
organisms floating in the atmosphere. If thunderstorms really have this effect, then we
would, expect that. they would cause the fine dust in the atmosphere to settle also. I
had Jong been desirous of testing this point, to see if thunderstorms had’ really any
effect on the amount of dust in the atmosphere, but as‘yet had but few opportunities, as
22 MR JOHN AITKEN ON THE NUMBER OF DUST PARTICLES IN THE
there had been but few storms during the period of these observations. I therefore
made the most of the opportunity which presented itself while the violent storm of the
18th was going on. ‘The occasion was a highly favourable one for getting information
on the effect of the electric discharge on dust, as the observations would be made
in the very centre of the storm, and in the air in which the lightning discharges were
taking place ; and I therefore resolved to take the observations that evening, and with as
much accuracy as the difficult and trying conditions would admit of.
The observations made on the 17th as well as those of the 18th bear directly on this
important point, as on both days there was a good deal of thunder and lightning. - Now,
though there was a good deal on the 17th, yet there was no indication of any reduction
intheamount of dust. It is true that in this case the thunder was somewhat distant, and
took place in the evening, while the air was not tested till next morning.
The storm of the 18th, however, is open to none of these objections. From an
examination of the numbers in the table, one might at first sight be inclined to conclude
that in this case there was evident proof of the reduction of the dust by the storm. The
number of particles at mid-day was nearly 4000 per c.c., at 6 P.M. it was still as high as
"3000, but just in the middle of the storm the number suddenly fell to about 800. In my
notes I find a remark to the effect that the observations made during the storm may not
be very accurate, owing to the conditions under which they were made. For instance,
the 6.20 P.M. observations were taken when the storm was near its worst, and had to be
made in the open, as it was too dark to work under shelter; and at this time the
lightning and thunder were excessively near and violent, and the hail came down in
heavy showers which obscured the lens of the dust-counter, and made accurate counting
almost impossible. Under these conditions only five tests could be made, of which the
one given is the average, when a rush had to be made for shelter. The 7 P.M. observa-
tions may not be correct from the small amount of light at the time. Although I have
thrown some doubt on these observations from the conditions under which they were
made, yet, as the number was much the same next morning, there does not seem to be
any reasonable cause for supposing they are not fairly correct. If there be any error, the
number may probably be too low owing to some of the drops escaping detection in the
feeble light at the time.
But supposing that these observations are correct, and that as low a number as 800
was observed after the storm, do they prove that the storm, as a thunderstorm, had any
effect on the amount of dust in the atmosphere? I think it must be admitted they do
not. The violent hail-shower falling at the time of the observations would produce a
downrush of upper air, and displace the impure air on the mountain by a purer air from
above. The purifying influence of the downrush of air produced by the hail in this case
was not nearly so great as that observed in a heavy shower of rain on the Hiffel Tower
recorded in Part I., when the numbers fell from a very high figure to 226 perec. The
purifying influence of such downrushes depends chiefly on the purity of the air in the
upper region from which the air is earried by the shower.
- ATMOSPHERE IN GREAT BRITAIN AND ON THE CONTINENT. 23
On the morning of the 19th there was an entire change in the atmosphere ; it was now
clear and looked very much as it did during the previous visit. All the thickness was
gone; there was nothing but a fine haze in all directions. Had anyone been present on
this morning who was inclined to believe in the dust-clearing effect of thunderstorms, his
belief would have been much strengthened by the improved and purified appearance of
the atmosphere after the storm. We have given reasons for supposing that the storm,
as a thunderstorm, had no influence on the amount of dust, and it will be seen later on
that the change was not due to any change in the air, but to a change of the air itself.
The increase in the transparency of the air on this morning was accompanied by a
reduction in the number of particles, which was now as low as last year. As the day
advanced the number gradually diminished to about 400 per c.c. The air was fairly dry
and very clear. Zurich, which is 25 miles distant, was visible, as weli as the range of the
Jura Mountains to the N., while far in the E. was clearly seen Hochgerrach, one of the
most distant mountains seen from the Rigi, bemg about 70 miles away. All these were
seen on this morning for the first time this year, The upper atmosphere remained clear
during the whole day. It, however, did not remain long in this condition, as next
morning the air was beginning to thicken, and by mid-day there was a thick haze, and
the air had much the same appearance it had during the first days of this visit, and the
number of dust particles was again very great.
The last of the observations made on the Rigi were taken at mid-day of the 20th, after
which I proceeded on my way to Lucerne. On arriving at Vitznau, at the foot of the
mountain, the air was tested at 3 p.M., when it was found to be very impure ; the number
of particles being as high as 10,250 per c.c,, or much the same as it was when tested on
the way up the mountain. Its humidity was also much the same, and the air had very
much the same thick appearance.
I was just completing these observations at Vitznau, and was about to pack up to
catch the boat for Lucerne, when, on looking over the figures in my note-book, I noticed
an unusual unsteadiness in the numbers. At first I began to fear something had gone
wrong with the instrument, and that the observations would require to be rejected. It
was, therefore, necessary before packing up to test the apparatus. On doing this, no fault
from leakage or otherwise could be found, There was, therefore, no reason for rejecting
the observations ; it was, however, thought advisable to repeat the test. When this was
done, it became evident that the number of particles was becoming still smaller. The
second test showed that the number had fallen from 10,250 to 6000 per cc. The
next test gave only 3500, As usual, all these figures are from averages of ten tests.
Under these conditions it was difficult to get rid of the feeling that the instrument was
not working correctly. The rapid fall to about one-third the number of particles did
not add to my comfort, but again gave rise to unpleasant feelings regarding the value of
the observations, more especially as the next test showed the number to be now under
3000 per c.c. Fortunately, my discomforts were soon ended and confidence restored.
It was now time to take the readings of the wet and dry bulb thermometers, and also
24 MR:JOHN AITKEN ON THE NUMBER OF DUST PARTICLES IN THE
the hygroscope, which is generally hung alongside the thermometers. It was not a little
gratifying to find that these instruments also showed the air had entirely changed. The
temperature had risen 3 degrees since the first test was made, having risen from 71° to 74°.
But not only had the air risen in temperature, it had also become greatly reduced in
humidity. The wet bulb was now 3° lower than when the observations were begun, the
depression having increased from 11° to 17°, showing thatthe air was not only dryer owing
to rise of temperature, but that its absolute humidity was much less than at first. It was,
therefore, evident that some change had taken place by which air from a different source
was now coming to the place of observation, and that we were now testing quite a different
air from what was tested at first. On looking into the cause of this change it was found
that, when the tests were begun, the local wind was light and came from the westwards,
z.e., off the lake; but afterwards it had changed first to S.W., then to 8.E., and had, at
the place of observation, greatly increased in force. This rapid change in the direction
of the lower current seemed to be caused by the upper south-westerly wind striking
the face of the mountain, which is here nearly vertical in some places, and curving
downwards and outwards from the mountain to the lake; and in a direction nearly
opposite to the true wind. The trees on the face of the mountain were distinctly seen
bending in the strong wind ; their movements clearly indicated that the air coming to the
place of observation was upper air, forced down to the level of the lake by the upper
current meeting the face of the mountain. So long as this circulation was kept up, and
the air blew down from the mountain side and out to the lake, the number of particles
tended to get lower, the air also tended to get hotter and dryer, till at last the number
of particles was as low as 1700 per ¢.c., or one-sixth of what it was at first; the tem-
perature had risen about 4 degrees, and the wet bulb was fully 18 degrees below the dry.
About an hour after the observations began it was noticed that the upper 8. W. wind,
which was causing the lower counter-current, was gradually extending downwards. It not
only struck the mountain face high up, but began to affect the trees very little above the
level of the lake, and, at last, the counter-current ceased, and the 8.W. current extended
quite down to the lake, and the air again came in off the water. When the wind returned
to its original direction, the quantity of dust rapidly increased, and became rather larger
than it was at first. ‘he air rapidly fell in temperature at the same time to rather under
what it was at the beginning, while it also regained its original humidity.
These Vitznau observations point an important lesson which one is apt to forget,
which is this, that in testing the air we are testing the condition of only a thin layer of
air resting on the ground. The very exceptional and favourable conditions which
existed for a short time at Vitznau, when the upper air was driven down to the place of
observation, show how much the upper and lower air may differ as to dust, temperature,
and vapour. If this be so, it may be objected that all tests of dust as ordinarily made
are valueless, It must, however, be remembered that almost all our meteorological
observations are made on the conditions of this same thin layer. If we are to abandon
all observations because we cannot get. perfect conditions for our tests, there would be
ATMOSPHERE IN GREAT BRITAIN AND ON THE CONTINENT. 25
an end to all advance. We must, however, always bear in mind that our tests only
show the condition of a thin stratum of air resting on the ground and tell us little of
the condition higher up. Even on mountains we do not test the upper air, as the air
resting on the mountain face is often only the lower air more or less diluted with the
upper air. It must also be remembered, that though the lower stratum is very different
from the air immediately over it, yet it is from this lower layer that the upper
atmosphere receives most of its dust and humidity, and a study of these at their source
may tell something of their future.
The Rigi Kulm observations for 1890 show very clearly the ascent of the lower air
to the mountain top during the day. When the mountain slopes are exposed to radia-
tion at night, the air resting on them gets cooled, and a downward current is produced.
This downward current draws its supplies more or less from the pure air above, and the
air on the mountain top in the morning is pure. But after the sun is up, the mountain
slopes get heated, the direction of the current is reversed, and the air from the valleys
drawn to the top of the mountain. The Ben Nevis dust observations show the daily
variation very well. The large dust-counter fitted in the tower of the Observatory ,
enables observations to be made at all hours of the night as well as day ; and by getting
observations before and after the sun has risen, important information has been obtained
on this point. An examination of the Rigi observations will show that on all days,
except the 19th May, the number of particles was lowest in the morning, and that they
increased as the day advanced. It will be observed that the valley air had generally
arrived at the top of the mountain by mid-day. Of course, wind and cloud will have
great influence on this up and down movement, both on its amount and on the hour of
its arrival at the-top. The observations made in 1889 on the Rigi do not show the
day maximum well, except on the 22d May. The reason for this may have been that
during the period of the 1889 observations, the lower air was comparatively pure, so
that though it may have arrived at the top of the mountain it was not recognised, as
it bore no indication of having passed through, the valleys.
Pilatus Kulm.
The 21st of May, the day after the Vitznau observations were made, was wet nearly
the whole day, and the morning of the 22d opened dull. and cloudy. As a complete
change had taken place in the weather since the Rigi observations were made, it was
thought some information might be gained by testing the air in its altered condition at
a high level. Instead, however, of returning to the Rigi Kulm, Pilatus was selected for
the purpose. On the way up the mountain, we passed through irregular masses of
cloud. ‘The first of these were met at an elevation of about 1500 feet, and on the top
we were surrounded by dense clouds, which continued all day. The wind during the
visit was extremely light and variable. It looked as if the movements were due to the
clouds surging up the face of the mountain. They seemed to rise sometimes on one
side and sometimes on the other. Many tests were made during the day, but it has not
VOL, XXXVII. PART I. (NO. 3). F
26 MR JOHN AITKEN ON THE NUMBERS OF DUST PARTICLES IN THE
been thought necessary to enter them all in the table. As might have been expected
from the irregularity of the movements of the air, the numbers varied greatly at short
intervals, The highest number observed was 1275 per c.c., and the lowest 625 per ce.
Dust and Wind on the Rigr.
During the first visit to the Rigi the air was generally clear, whereas during the
second it was almost always very thick. On looking for an explanation of the greater
thickness on the second occasion, we may suspect two things, either together or separately,
as the cause of the increased thickness,—either there was an increase in the humidity or an
increase in the dust, or an increase in both. The observations show no sufficient increase
in the humidity to account for it, while the dust observations show a vast increase in
the number of particles. The question now is, What was the cause of the greater
number of particles during the second visit? One naturally expects that the force and
direction of the wind will have an important influence on the amount of dust. We
have previously seen that increase of wind reduces the amount of dust at low level. This
gives rise to an increase at high level when the wind first begins to blow, though after
it has blown for sometime it causes a decrease of dust at high level also, The direction
of the wind, however, has an important influence at this station, as all to the north of
it is densely inhabited, while the Alps close in round it to the south.
An examination of the air circulation during the two periods has been made from the
weather charts of Switzerland kindly supplied to me by M. Brttwituer. Selecting the
meteorological stations surrounding the Rigi, an examination was made of the force and
direction of the winds during the periods to see if there were less wind, or if it blew more
frequently, from the N., «e., from polluted areas, in 1890 than in 1889. No satis-
factory explanation of the difference was obtained from this examination, partly because
the information about the winds, as regards their force, is too slight, but principally
because the winds were generally light and variable. And often the direction at one
station bore no relation to the direction at the others, and at two adjoining stations the
wind would often be blowing in exactly opposite directions. No satisfactory conclusion
could, therefore, be drawn from these charts worked in that way. One interesting point,
however, came out from an examination of the winds during these periods. It was found
that the wind had a decided tendency to set in towards the 8. during the day, and
from the 8. at night—w.e., when the morning observations were taken at 7 A.M.
the direction was frequently southerly, z.e., from the Alps; and when taken at 1 P.M.
it had frequently changed to northerly, ze. to the Alps. One is quite prepared to
find this up and down movement near mountains, but one would scarcely expect to find
it takes place over a great part of Switzerland.
From these remarks it is evident that no satisfactory explanation of the difference on
the two occasions could be obtained from an examination of the winds at all the stations,
Another plan was then tried, and the winds of only the high-level stations examined.
The true explanation was likely to be obtained from them, as they would show the
ATMOSPHERE IN GREAT BRITAIN AND ON THE CONTINENT. 2h
general circulation of the air, while the low-level stations gave frequently purely local airs.
The high-level stations near the Rigi area, and suitable for our purpose, are the Santis,
8215 feet; the St Gothard, 6935 feet; and the Rigi, 5905 feet—using for the latter
station my own observations, as none are entered in the Swiss Records for this station
on these dates, the telegraph not being in use till later in the season.
An examination of the winds at the high-level stations at once showed the cause of
the difference on the two occasions. During the visit in 1889 the wind was always
southerly, whereas during the second visit it was frequently northerly. Entering more
into detail, I find that on the morning of the day I arrived, on the first visit, the wind
at the St Gothard was blowing strong from the %., and that it continued to blow from
that direction, and generally with some force, all the days of the visit. At the Santis it
was generally southerly, but occasionally it went a little E., or W., of S.; while on
the Rigi it was always E. of S.—ze., during the first visit the upper wind always came
from the mountains, and brought pure air to Switzerland. On the occasion of the second
visit, when the observations were begun on the 15th May, the wind was northerly on
the St Gothard and the Rigi, and westerly on the Santis. The wind continued in much
the same direction on the 16th at the St Gothard and the Santis, while on the Rigi it
was southerly but light. On the 17th the wind was still northerly on the Santis and
Rigi, but showed a tendency to change on the St Gothard, there being a slight southerly
air by mid-day. During the days of northerly circulation the number of dust particles
was much greater than in the previous year, when the wind was southerly. During the
continuance of the N. wind, with its great number of particles, the air remained thickly
hazed and the hills veiled. The 18th brought a change in the conditions. In the
morning it was blowing fresh from the S. at the St Gothard, and the wind also had
changed to southerly on the Santis and Rigi. By mid-day there: was only a slight
reduction in the dust on the Rigi. The impure air seemed to be still passing, but by the
evening the great impurity brought up by the northerly winds was rapidly being
cleared away, the dust particles having fallen from a maximum of 3800 to 725. It is
possible that part of the reduction of the dust may have been due to the heavy hail-shower
already referred to, but its effect would be only temporary. On the 19th, the wind
continued to blow from the S. at all the stations, and the number of particles continued
to fall, and fell quite as low as on the previous year; the air also became as clear, the
distant mountains being quite as distinct as on the previous visit. It seems, therefore,
probable that the clearing of the air was not due to the thunderstorm which took place on
the 18th, but to the change of wind bringing purer air from the unpolluted area of the Alps.
It is interesting to note that on this occasion the-thunderstorm took place where the con-
tending pure and impure currents met. So long as the storm was to windward, the number
of particles was high; but in the immediate rear of the storm the air was pure. _
On the morning of the 20th the number of particles showed a decided tendency to
increase, and was very high by mid-day. The wind on the St Gothard was still
southerly ; on the Santis it was 8.W.; and on the Rigi, E. But while the upper current
28 MR JOHN AITKEN ON THE NUMBER OF DUST PARTICLES IN THE
was mostly southerly, the circulation was a little confused, the winds .on the Santis and
Rigi being nearly opposed. The upper circulation was evidently weakening, while at the
lower stations north of the Rigi the winds had set in from the N., and at some stations
were blowing with considerable force.
This impure northerly air would seem to have penetrated some distance into the
northern valleys of the Alps, and been turned over by the upper southerly currents.
Judging from the number of particles, the upper, fold of this current would be as high as
the top of the Rigi. This folding over of a contrary lower current by an upper one has
been frequently observed, both with the dust-counter and by actual observation. On one
occasion it was seen very clearly on the Rigi, when the upper wind was from the S. and
the lower one from the N. The northerly air low down penetrated some distance into
the valleys, where it rose on the mountain slopes and curved upwards. This air being
nearly saturated, as it rose on the mountain slopes it condensed much of its moisture,
forming a cloud which revealed the directions of its movements. The advanced and upper
part of the cloud rose, and was caught by the southerly wind and carried northwards again.
If anyone had been testing in that southerly current at the top of the cloud, he would
have been testing not southerly but northerly air. A similar condition of matters seems
to have prevailed on the 20th. The lower impure northerly wind forced its way into the
valleys of the Alps, where it rose on the mountain slopes into the region of the upper
current, and was carried by it in the opposite direction. When the air at low level was
tested on the afternoon of this day it also was found to be very impure.
Kingairloch Observations.
The next observations entered in the table are those taken at Kingairloch about the
same time of the year as the observations given in Part I. The first thing that strikes
one on looking over the table for 1890 is, that the number of dust particles fell very
low on a number of occasions, the lowest being much lower than anything observed in
the previous year. Indeed, the lowest numbers are much lower than any given in any
previous table, and are the lowest yet observed at any low-level station. Associated with
this low number of dust particles was a low temperature, as will be seen by a comparison
of the temperatures given in the tables. The weather on the two occasions showed a
marked contrast. During the first visit the weather was warm, bright, and sunny ; whilst
the July of 1890 will long be remembered as one of the worst experienced for many
years, being cold, wet, and windy.
During the time I was working at the low level, Mr RanxKIn was taking observations
at the Observatory on Ben Nevis as frequently as his many other duties permitted. Ben
Nevis is situated in a north-easterly direction from Kingairloch, at a distance of about 28
miles. The two stations are not as close as is desirable, but Kingairloch possesses the
advantage of being situated in a less locally polluted area than most places nearer the
foot of the Ben.
ATMOSPHERE IN GREAT BRITAIN AND ON THE CONTINENT. 29
Before going further, I wish to call attention to a few of these Kingairloch observations
that are so exceptional that it is difficult to put a value on them. It will be noticed that
on the afternoons of many of the days the numbers, which had been low in the morning,
became very great. When the afternoon observations of July, made on the 8rd, 4th, 6th,
7th, 11th, and 15th, are examined, it will be seen that the numbers were much higher than
they were in the morning; also that they were very high for the direction of the wind.
All previous experience has shown that winds from uninhabited districts are pure.
These afternoon observations, however, stand out as marked exceptions to this rule.
It cannot be said that any very satisfactory explanation has been found of these
abnormal readings, though the following considerations show how they may possibly be
accounted for. For the purpose of studying these Ben Nevis and Kingairloch observa- .
tions, the diagram given with this paper has been prepared. In the diagram are entered
the dust observations taken at both stations from the 1st to the 28th July. The observa-
tions taken on Ben Nevis were made by Mr Rankin, a copy being kindly supplied to
me by the Scottish Meteorological Office. Each observation is represented in the
diagram by a black spot, and the successive observations are connected by straight
lines. The Kingairloch observations are represented by large spots and connected
by thick lines, while the Ben Nevis observations are represented by smaller spots and
connected by finer lines. These irregular lines may, for convenience, be called dust
curves, and their rise and fall indicate the variations, from time to time, in the amount of
dust at the two stations.
At the top of the diagram is entered a series of arrows representing the direction and
force of the winds on Ben Nevis at the hours the observations were made; and at the
bottom another series of arrows representing the winds at Kingairloch. ‘Then, as the
amount of dust at these stations would probably depend on the general circulation of the
air over the area of the British Isles, a study of this was made from the weather charts
kindly supplied to me by Mr Scorr of the Meteorological Office, London. The result of
this investigation is given in the diagram, being shown by a third series of arrows. The
series of arrows indicating the general circulation are placed between the upper series
indicating the Ben Nevis winds, and the lower series showing the Kingairloch winds. If
the general circulation was regular over one area, and the winds blew in one direction at
all places, then one arrow is sufficient to represent the conditions ; but when the circula-
tion is mixed, blowing from one direction at one place, and from another direction or
directions at other places, then two or more arrows are required. By examining this
series of arrows for any date, it is at once seen whether at the time the general air cir-
culation was regular or irregular over one area.
Further, on examining the meteorological weather charts itis seen that, whenever the
isobars were wide and irregular, the winds were various and variable, and that they blew
with but little force. On considering what the effect of these conditions would be, it seems
probable that on the days when the general circulation is confused and light, we cannot be
certain of the source of the air we are testing ; while we are working in a northerly wind
30 MR JOHN AITKEN ON THE NUMBER OF DUST PARTICLES IN THE
it may really be southern air we are testing. This seems to offer a possible explanation
of the abnormal readings referred to, as the middle series of arrows in our diagram shows
that the circulation over the British Isles was confused on the 1st, 2nd, 8rd, 4th, 7th,
8th, 11th, 15th, 16th, 17th, 18th, and 26th. It will be noticed that these dates cover
most of the days on which the abnormal readings were got. When the general air
circulation is in a confused condition, we cannot expect the same uniformity in the air as
when it is regular. As might be expected, abnormal readings were not got on all days,
nor during the whole of the days, on which the circulation was mixed. It may, however,
be mentioned that the observations on Ben Nevis support this explanation, as on 1st,
2nd, 3rd, 4th, 6th, 8th, 11th, 25th, and 26th, the numbers were high at the Observa-
tory at some time of the day. With one exception, these are all days on which the
circulation was irregular.
There is, however, another explanation possible. An examination of the weather
charts shows that all these abnormal readings were got after a certain distribution of
pressure and circulation. Whenever a low-pressure area appeared over our islands, and if
its centre passed to the S. of this station when it had moved to a position to the
S.E. or E. of Ben Nevis, the numbers went high with northerly winds during some
period of the day. When a cyclone moves along this route, the effect is to give rise,
while it is approaching our area, to south-westerly winds over France and Belgium.
This drives the impure continental air to the N.E. Then as the centre of depres-
sion advances, this air is driven northwards; and when the centre of the cyclone lies to
the E. of this station, the air which moved northwards curves round and arrives at our
station from a northerly direction. By this explanation, the impurity of these northerly
winds was not due to contamination acquired in our area, but was due to impure con-
tinental air which had been driven northwards over the North Sea, and had curved round
and come to the station as a northerly wind. This explanation would account for the
high readings got on the 6th, when the general circulation was regular, and the wind
was from the N.W.
The irregular circulation within our own area, or the circulation northwards of con-
tinental air, may or may not be the cause of these abnormal readings. These explana-
tions are offered at present for want of better, though one or other, or both, may possibly
be true; yet the evidence is far from conclusive. It would be difficult, by studying
the weather charts, to trace the different masses of air on these days from the place of
observation to their sources.
Dust and Wind at Kingairloch.
The effect of the direction of the wind is very evident in these Kingairloch observa-
tions. It should be mentioned that winds from §. to E. at this station bring the most
polluted air, being from the most densely inhabited district, while winds from S.W.
to N. blow from the least inhabited areas. From the table and the diagram it will be
seen that from the afternoon of the 2nd to the afternoon of the 10th, with the exception
ATMOSPHERE IN GREAT BRITAIN AND ON THE CONTINENT, 31
of the abnormal afternoon readings already referred to, the amount of dust was small,
and wind northerly or westerly. On the 11th the number was high at both upper and
lower stations, owing to the general circulation being light and irregular. On the morn-
ing of the 12th the number of particles was still very high, but before mid-day the wind
went to the W. of S. and cleared away the dust. The wind remained westerly
during the 13th, 14th, and morning of the 15th, and during these days the dust remained
very low. On the afternoon of the 15th the circulation became irregular, and the number
of particles great. On the 16th there was much dust in the air, partly owing to a mixed
air circulation and partly to the wind being E. of 8. The wind changed on the after-
noon of the 16th to N.W., and the amount of dust fell greatly. On the morning of the
17th the 8. wind was again blowing in the early morning, and the amount of dust had
increased, but it again fell in the afternoon under the influence of a N.W. wind. On the
18th there was little dust, and the circulation was slight from the N. The wind on
the 19th changed to E., and the dust increased greatly, but fell on the 20th, and remained
low till the 25th, owing to a N.W. wind which blew during all these days. On the
afternoon of the 25th the dust rose under the influence of a S.E. wind, but fell on the
following day, when the wind went W., but rose again on the 27th owing to easterly
wind, and fell on the 28th, the air on that day coming from a westerly direction. These
results confirm the conclusions arrived at in Part I.
During the time these observations were being made at Kingairloch, the weather was
frequently disturbed by depressions which passed across the United Kingdom, and gave
rise to very unsettled conditions; but on the 20th an anticyclone approached our
islands from the W., and the conditions remained fairly steady till the afternoon of the
25th. During all these days the isobars were regular, and kept their direction constant,
and the wind blew steadily from the same point. From an inspection of the table and
diagram it will be seen that the wind on these days blew steadily from the N.W. This
N.W. wind rapidly swept the impure air away, and during the five and.a half days it
blew the number of particles was very low,—on two days excessively low,—and remained
low till the direction of the wind changed.
A comparison of the number of particles at low level at Kingairloch and on Ben Nevis
shows that though there is considerable resemblance in the figures at the two stations, yet
the likeness is not very close (see diagram). We could not expect otherwise, as the con-
ditions are so different at the two stations. The day maximum of dust on most days at
high level interferes greatly with the parallelism of the two sets of observations. Further,
the effects of the force of the wind on the number of particles is not the same at high
and low level; and, again, the winds are often different at the two stations. As a
rule, however, when the numbers were high at the low level they were also high on the
Ben, and when low at low level they were low on the Ben. On the Ist, 2nd, 8rd, 4th,
11th, 12th, 19th, 25th, and 26th, the numbers were high at Kingairloch, and on the Ben
they were also high, On the 5th, 7th, 10th, 20th, 21st, 22nd, 23rd, 24th, and morning
of 25th, they were low at both stations. Between the 12th and 18th only two high-
32 MR. JOHN AITKEN ON THE. NUMBER OF DUST PARTICLES IN THE
level observations were taken, so that for this interesting period no comparisons can be
made. Asa rule, the number at the high level was less than at the low one, but there
were exceptions to this. For instance, on the morning of the 4th the number was much
greater on the Ben than low down. This was owing to the upper station being in a N.E.
wind, while the lower one was in a purer N.W. one. Again, on the 24th, under the
influence of an easterly wind, the number at the high station was greater than was observed
in a N.W. wind at the low station. This tendency of the number to rise at the upper
station with easterly winds is also shown in the numbers for other days. For instance,
the numbers during the night of the 22nd rose with an E. wind from 225 to 550, and
the number which was about 200 on the 25th rose during that night to 1500 by the
wind changing from N. to 8.8.E. |
As the observations taken from the 19th to the 25th illustrate the effect of the
wind on the distribution of the dust at the two stations, we shall here consider them
more in detail. On the 19th, when there were variable light airs, the number of particles
was occasionally very high at both upper and lower stations. But a change took place
in the wind next day. At 1.30 a.m., when the first observation was made at the high
level on the morning of the 20th, a N.N.W. wind had begun to blow, and had swept
away the impurities of the previous day, the number having fallen from 2200 to
562 per c.c. ; and the number remained about 500 till 6 4.M., when the observations were
stopped, and were not resumed till near midnight. When the observations were begun
at low level on the morning of the same day, «e., the 20th, the number was almost
exactly the same as it was in early morning at the high level being a very little under
500. During the whole of this day the air remained about the same degree of purity at
the low level. When work was resumed about midnight at high level the number was:
very low, as low as 10 per cc. Early on the following morning, 2.e., on the 21st, the
number was excessively low at high level, being only 2 per cc. at 4 A.M., and the number
remained very low all day, the day maximum being about 200. At low level the number
was also found to have fallen very low. When testing began in the morning the number
was occasionally under 50 per cc., and the maximum during the day only 180. Next
day the numbers remained very low at both stations, though not quite so low as on the
previous day. On the 23rd matters continued in much the same condition, the wind .
-was still blowing strong from the N.W., and extremely low numbers were observed at
both stations. Less than 40 per e.c. was twice observed at the high level, whilst under
20 was observed at the low one. The maximum at neither station got much over 250
during the whole day. On the 24th the number was under 50 at the high level in early
morning, but as the day advanced the number rose to 675, under the influence of the
day maximum and change of wind to the E.; whilst at the low station the numbers
never rose over 210, owing to the N.W. wind coutinuing to blow all day at that level.
The numbers which were large during the day at the upper station fell to 200 during
the night, under the influence of a northerly wind. At 10 a.m. on the morning of the.
25th the number of particles at both stations was about 200, and the wind at low level,
ATMOSPHERE IN GREAT BRITAIN AND ON THE CONTINENT. 30
was still northerly, while at high level it had just ceased to blow. About mid-day it
had changed to 8. high up, and to 8. and then to S.E. low down, and the dust at both
stations had begun to rise. At 12 o'clock it was 450 at the high station, while at
the low station it had risen from 203 at 10 a.m. to 1825 at 3 p.m., and 2200 at 6 P.M.
At high level also the number continued to rise after mid-day, and was over 1000
at 10 p.M., and continued rising till a little after 1 a.m. on the following morning,
when the number was 1500 per c.c. At midnight the wind had greatly increased
in strength, and was blowing with a force of 3, and had backed to 8.S.E. After 2 a.m.
on the 26th the number at high level had greatly decreased under the influence of
the strong wind, which had still further increased and swept away the impure air. As
the morning advanced the wind changed to S.W., and in the afternoon it had gone
N.W. and fallen in force to 1 to 2. With these changes the number of particles fell from
1500 to 175 per c.c.
While all these changes were taking place on the 26th at the high level, matters were
somewhat different at the low one. The wind, which was 8.E., had changed to §.W. by 7
A.M. at the high station, and the number of particles had fallen ; but at the low station the
wind was still S.E., or the same as it was the previous night, and the number of particles
was still high, being 1950, or very near what it was the previous evening. When the 1
P.M. observations were made at low level the wind was found to have changed to the W.,
with the result that the number of particles was now low at the low station also. The
number fell to 35 per c.c., which was much lower than was observed at high level on this
day. On the following day, the 27th, the wind went southerly at both stations, and the
dust increased to 1950 at the low station and 662 at the high. The following day the
wind was westerly at both stations, and the amount of dust fell at both.
While these high and low level observations were being made, a record of maximum
and minimum temperature was kept at the low level. Observations were also made on
the solar and terrestrial radiation by means of a thermometer with black bulb im vacuo,
and aminimum thermometer placed on the grass. These observations were kept with the
view of seeing whether the dust in the atmosphere has any effect on the temperature
of the air and on the radiation, as previous observations seemed to indicate.
Unfortunately, owing to the climatic conditions during the period,—there being no
days of continuous sunshine nor nights without clouds,—these radiation records are of
no value, as the temperature of the air during the period was more a question of the
direction and force of the wind than of local influence.
Dust and Transparency.
During these Kingairloch observations an attempt was made to measure more
accurately the transparency of the air in the manner described in previous parts of this
paper, by estimating the amount of haze on the distant mountains. This was done with
a view of testing more closely the relation‘ between the amount of dust in the air and its
transparency. In order to prevent any mental bias, from a knowledge of the number of
VOL. XXXVII. PART I. (NO. 3), G
34 MR JOHN AITKEN ON THE NUMBER OF DUST PARTICLES IN THE
particles actually present, the estimates of clearness were always made before the
dust, temperature, and humidity readings were taken, and were entered in the field note-
book along with the direction and force of the wind. The clearness was measured by
estimating the amount to which a mountain was hazed. Then, knowing the distance of
the mountain selected, it is easy to calculate the extreme limit of visibility of that particular
sample of air. For instance, if the hill selected were 20 miles distant, and half hazed,
then 40 miles would be the extreme limit of visibility of the air at the time. In this way
all the observations can be reduced to one scale for comparison. It should be stated that
at Kingairloch all observations of this kind had to be done in a south-easterly direction,
as only in this direction could distant hills be seen. In the other directions the view
was closed in by mountains only a few miles distant.
In working out these observations on the haze they were divided into sets, and
arranged in tables according to the humidity of the air at the time, for the reason already
given in Part I.,—all the observations taken when the wet-bulb depression was 4° being
entered in one table, all those taken while it was 5° in another, and so on. (When the
wet-bulb depression is less than 4° the real humidity is frequently uncertain, because
when the depression is slight it is generally after rain, and the wet-bulb depression is
thus very much influenced by local conditions, such as wet ground, trees, &c.) The
observations in the different tables were then rearranged,—the observation which has
the greatest number of particles being put at the top of the column, then the next
greatest, and so on, down to the observation which has the fewest particles. Then
as the humidity of all the observations in each table is about the same, the limit of
visibility of the observations at the top of the table ought to be the least, as at this end
of the column there is most dust, and the limit of visibility should imerease towards the
foot of the column, and be greatest in the last entered observation.
When this is done and all doubtful dust observations are rejected, as well as all
observations taken in or immediately after rain, on account of the uncertainty of the
value of the humidity readings taken under the conditions, it is found that in the tables
for depressions of 4°, 5°, and 6°, the order of the limit of visibility is, in a general way,
inversely as the number of particles. In all three tables the lowest limit is associated
with the greatest amount of dust, and the widest limit with the least. There is, how-
ever, some mixing of the relative positions of the intermediate numbers, as might be
expected,
The results obtained by this method of working are not so satisfactory when we
come to test the effect of the dust in very dry air, such as that giving depressions of 7°
and more. In the tables for high depressions the figures for the limit of visibility are
very much mixed, large numbers appearing near the top of the column as well as near the
foot. ‘There are many reasons for this. One is the conditions under which the estimates
of haze have to be made. When the air is very dry, it is clear with even much dust in
it. All estimates have, therefore, to be made on a thin haze, as seen on distant and high
mountains, and it is difficult to estimate a thin haze. And, further, as these estimates
ATMOSPHERE IN GREAT BRITAIN AND ON THE CONTINENT. 35
have to be made on the hazing of high mountains, they have, therefore, always to be
made on a good deal of upper air, which may vary greatly from the air tested at low
level. Further, there is a fundamental error in this: method of estimating haze which
was not observed till after the observations had been made. As we have said, when the
air is clear the haze on some distant mountain has to be estimated. And in making
this estimate one compares the whiteness of the haze on the mountain with the whiteness
or brightness of the background, which in this case is the sky. Now, it is evident that
if the sky be full of white clouds, and: the background bright, it will require far more
haze to make the mountain. invisible than if the: background were darker. Again,
suppose there are no clouds and the background is only haze, and suppose the con-
dition to: be such that the mountain seems half lost in haze. If we were now to double
that haze, the mountain would not become invisible; because whilst the air between us
and the mountain has been thickened, the brilliancy of the background, against which we
see: the mountain, has also been, increased.. If the brilliancy of the background were
doubled, the mountain would still be only half hazed; but, of course, double hazing
will give- less than double brilliancy to the background. It seems to be for these
reasons that the estimates for clearness in dry air do not show the hazing effect of the
number of particles in the same way as when the air is damper, and the estimates of
haze: are: made on lower and nearer mountains, and, therefore, more in: the: air: tested.
The estimates of haze when the air is dry being of no value, they have not been
entered in: the table. It is evident from these: remarks that a. more: accurate method
of measuring haze is required.
In the Appendix to Part I., when discussing some observations made during a gale
of wind, it is pomted out that high winds will probably have the effeet of making the
air look thick for the number of particles and the humidity. This conclusion is con-
firmed by the observations in the table given with this paper. In all the observations
taken while, or immediately after, the wind was high, the transparency was very low for
the number of particles and the humidity. As will be seen from the table, on-the 9th,
22nd, and 24th July, the wind was high and the transparency very low for the other con-
ditions. On some other days the transparency was also low for the dust and humidity,
but. on these days the thickening was due to passing showers. The hazing effect of high
winds: would seem to be due to. the air carrying large particles, such as dust from roads,
&e., and also to the wind mixing impure lower air with the upper. Part of the hazing
may also be-due to the unequal densities of the-mixed. airs.
Alford.
At this station bothipurer and less pure air was observed in 1890 than in 1889. As
will be seen from the figures,in the tables, the purest observed in 1889 had about 500
particles per c.c:, whereas in 1890 under: 200 per c.c. was observed on three occasions.
During last visit the maximum: was 5700, while on this visit it was 6800 per c.c,
36 MR JOHN AITKEN ON THE NUMBER OF DUST PARTICLES IN THE
Dust and Wind at Alford.
In examining into the cause of the fluctuations in the number of particles at Alford
as given in this year’s observations, it is at once seen that, here also, the direction of the
wind is the principal agent in producing the changes. With the exception of the 8th
September, on all days when the wind was W. or N.W. the number of particles was small
and the air clear, and when the wind went southerly the numbers became great.
As the meteorological conditions remained very constant durmg most of the time
while these Alford observations were being taken, we shall describe somewhat fully the
conditions prevailing during the period. An examination of the weather charts shows
that when these observations began, the weather over our area was very much governed
by anticyclonic conditions. During the beginning of the month an anticyclone lay to
the S. of our area, and the centre of high pressure had moved in a north-easterly
direction, and lay off the S.E. coast of England on the evening of the 7th. The
winds on this day were southerly over most of our area, and the air at our station was
impure air from inhabited districts. On the 8th, the day when the testing began, the
centre of the anticyclone began to move westwards. This caused a change in the
direction of the winds, making them more westerly over most of our area; but the wind
was light, and, as the figures in the table show, it had not yet cleared away the impure
southerly air, as the amount of dust was great. On the 9th the centre of the anti-
eyclone had moved still further W., and the winds over our area were now all westerly ;
and, as will be seen from the table, the pure westerly air had displaced the southerly air,
the number of particles having fallen greatly. On the 10th and 11th the centre of
the anticyclone still lay to the 8.W. of our islands. The wind, therefore, continued
to blow from a westerly direction, and the air remained pure. On the 12th the anti-
cyclone again approached our islands, and its centre was over the Irish Sea. The wind
was, however, westerly at our station, and, being from the direction of the Atlantic, it was
still pure. On the 13th, however, the centre of high pressure continued to move east-
wards, and now lay to the 8.E. of our station, near where it was on the 7th, and a
corresponding change took place in the circulation. The air no longer came in from the
direction of the Atlantic, but from the inhabited parts of our islands; the position of
the anticyclone giving rise to southerly winds at our station. During the rest of the
time the anticyclone remained fairly constant, moving about a little, generally in an
easterly direction; but even so late as the 28rd its centre still lay over Western
Europe.
On the 15th a depression approached our islands from the W. and moved N.W.
outside our area. As the area of high pressure was at this date situated to the E.,
the isobars were all parallel and regular, but their direction was N. and §&., «e.,
for southerly winds at our station. Under this distribution of pressure the polluted air of
the inhabited parts of England and Scotland was carried to our station, and the number
of dust particles observed was high while the cyclone passed.
ATMOSPHERE OF GREAT BRITAIN AND ON THE CONTINENT. oT
Another depression appeared in our area on the 19th. On that day its centre lay to
the 8.W. of Ireland. This cyclone moved in a northerly direction, with its centre just
touching our extreme western coast. As the high-pressure area remained firm in the E.
at this date, this second depression, like the first, gave rise to regular and somewhat close
isobars ; but as their direction was again N. and S., southerly winds prevailed. over our
area, and continued to bring impure air to our station, as, it will be seen, the number of
particles remained high. Our station did not get free from this distribution of pressure till
after the observations were stopped, and the amount of dust remained high to the end of
the observations.
Callievar.
As on the previous visit to Alford, an ascent of Callievar was made in 1890 also.
The morning ‘of the 22nd being fine it was selected for the purpose. At low level the
number of particles was high, and the wind slight and from the 8. On arriving at
the top: of the mountain the view was in striking contrast to what it was the previous year,
though the weather‘on both occasions was much the same. On the first visit the Cairngorms
and Lochnagar were quite distinct, though seen through some haze ; and the number of
particles was 262 at mid-day, and rose to 475 two hours later. In contrast with this, on the
second visit the air was thick and densely hazed, only a slight outline of the Cairngorms
being occasionally detected, while Lochnagar was quite invisible during the whole time.
The number of particles was 710 at 12.30 p.m., and rose to 1575 two hours later—+.e.,
there were about three times as many particles at the time of the second visit as there
were at the time of the first, and there was a correspondingly thicker atmosphere. »
Not only was the air much thicker on the second visit, but it also seemed to vary in
‘clearness in different directions and at different times. It looked as if the air was of
very different constitution, z.e., came from different sources, at its different parts. When
the second test was made at 2 p.m., the number of particles had greatly increased from
what it was at first, and the air had also got thicker. It was also observed that the air
was still thickening. Tests were, therefore, made at intervals, and from the table it will be
seen that the number rose to 1575 at 2.30P.m. A little before this hour it was noticed that
the air was thicker than it had been half an hour before. At 3 P.M. the air to the W. was
again clearing, while to the E. it had got much thicker, and the limit of visibility in that
direction was much reduced. On testing the air at 3 p.m. it was found to be much’ ee
the number having fallen to 1050.
These observations show that between 2 P.M. and 2.30 P.M. a mass of impure air was
approaching from the west. This impure air thickened the atmosphere to the west and
caused the number of particles to rise at the place of observation. This mass of impure air
drifted across the mountain and passed to the east, after which the air to the west cleared
and the numbers fell, but the impure air in its passage eastwards thickened the atmos-
phere in that direction. My reason for entering so fully into these Callievar observations is
that the conditions were such as to give ‘an opportunity of testing the hazing effect of
38 MR JOHN AITKEN ON THE NUMBER OF DUST PARTICLES IN THE
dust under favourable conditions. The observations were all made in a short time, and
under the same conditions of cloud, sunshine, and humidity. It will be seen from the
table that the humidity remained fairly constant during the whole time, so that the
thickness of the mass of air which obscured the atmosphere in the W. between 1.30 and
2.30 p.m., and which passed over the mountain about 2.30 P.M., and afterwards thickened
the air to the E., was due to an increase in dust particles and not to humidity.
On searching into the cause of the want of uniformity in. the air on this occasion, it
seems possible it may have been due to the influence of the cyclone which was. passing: to
the W. of our islands at the time. On the morning of the day the Callievar observa-
tions were made the centre of the depression lay very near, being on the coast of Scot-
land immediately to the west of the place of observation, so that there would be at the
time a considerable difference in the directions of the winds over the immediate neigh-
bourhood. There would, consequently, be a considerable mixing of airs from. different
places.
From the tables it might be thought that the great difference in the clearness of the
air on the occasion of the two visits to Callievar was due to difference of humidity, as
the figures seem to indicate that the air was much drier during the first than during
the second visit. The figures in the tables, however, give no information on this point,
because the wet-bulb depressions. for Alford, given in the table in Part I, are maximum
depressions for the day, calculated from the observations made at Logie Coldstone, one of
the Scottish Meteorological Stations situated in the same district, whereas the wet-bulb
depressions in the table in this paper are from observations made at the hours stated, and
on the mountain. The Logie Coldstone observations for 1890, however, do show that
the air in that year was not quite so dry as in 1889. The morning observations of the
day of this visit show 1°4° less depression than the morning of the last, and the evening
observations 2°5° less, so that part of the greater thickness in 1890 may have heen, due
to greater humidity.
Garelochhead Observations.
February of 1891 will be remembered in Scotland as having been an unusually fine
February, fine though that month often is. The temperature was much above the average,
while the rainfall was much below it. Temperatures between 50° and 60° were frequently
recorded in our area, and even up to 64° was observed at more places than one. As the
weather continued very fine towards the end of the month, the opportunity seemed a
favourable one for testing the amount of dust in, the atmosphere, while we had this
settled and exceptional weather. or this purpose I went to Garelochhead in the end of
the month, and was just in time to test the air before the meteorological conditions
changed, and brought about a state of matters such that the March which followed the
fine February will long be remembered as one of the coldest experienced in Scotland.
As will be seen from the table, the number of particles was very large and the air
excessively thick when it was tested on the 27th of February. The smallest number
ATMOSPHERE OF GREAT BRITAIN AND ON THE CONTINENT. 39
observed this day was 7250, while other observations gave nearly 10,000. On the previous
visit the highest number was 2360 ; this, however, was the only occasion when it was over
1000. From the table it will be seen that on the 28th the conditions began to change,
the amount of dust having fallen considerably. The conditions continued to improve,
and by the 2nd of March the number of particles fell exceedingly low, and remained low
till the 5th, when the observations were stopped.
On enquiring into the cause of the great amount of dust in the air in the end of February,
the meteorological weather charts gave the same explanation as has already been given of
the impure state of the air during the latter part of the last visit to Alford. For many days
before the 27th of February the climate of our islands was under the influence of an anti-
cyclone, the centre of which moved about over Europe, and gave rise to southerly winds
over our area. These winds brought the impure air of the Continent and England to the
place of observation. On the 27th the winds were still southerly and light over our area,
with a confused circulation, and the amount of dust was great and the hazing of the
atmosphere intense. But on the 28th a depression was passing to the N. of our
islands, and the isobars were closing in and becoming regular, with their direction E.
and W. Winds were, therefore, beginning to set in from the W., and, as will be seen
from the tables, the pure westerly winds beginning to make themselves felt, the
number of particles fell from near 10,000 to 1750. On the 1st of March the iso-
bars closed still further, and were situated more due E. and W. The conditions con-
tinued to strengthen next day, the 2nd, by which time the isobars had become very close,
and the winds had veered a slight amount to N. The result of the change is seen in
the table; the dust went down to 51 per c.c., or about g}o5 of what it was three days
before. During the 3rd, 4th, and 5th, the isobars kept much the same position as on the
Qnd, and the amount of dust continued very low. It may be stated that the isobars
opened a little on the 3rd and 4th, but came close again on the 5th; and it will be
noticed that the dust increased a little on the 3rd and 4th, but decreased again on the
5th, The interpretation of this may be, that closely-situated isobars indicate great
general circulation and consequent reduction of local impurity, though it may be noticed
that the local wind was not so high on the 5th as on the two previous days.
Dust and Isobars.
In Part I. it is shown that the amount of dust depends greatly on the force of the
wind, and also on its direction. In working out the results of these last observations the
effect of the direction comes out in a very marked way. Although all increase in wind is
accompanied by a decrease in dust, yet it would appear that certain directions of wind
have a much greater purifying influence than others, 7.e., winds from certain directions
are purer than those from others. ‘The directions of the purest winds are not the same at
all stations ; the conditions of the areas surrounding the stations determining the purest
directions. In Switzerland, the southerly winds are pure, while northerly ones are
40 MR JOHN AITKEN ON THE NUMBER OF DUST PARTICLES IN THE
impure. In Scotland, the southerly winds seem to be the most impure, while the
north-westerly ones are the purest. It would appear that dusty impurities can be carried
great distances, as they are found in air that has travelled over wide tracts of country
in which no pollution has been added.
In studying the distribution of pressure for the periods of cee observations in Scot-
land, it became evident that there was a certain relation between the isobars and the dust.
In all the cases wherever the isobars were situated east and west, the air was pure, and
the closer the isobars were the purer it was, which means that under these conditions
we have westerly winds, and as it comes from the Atlantic, the air is purer than any
other in our area. Further, if the isobars were situated north and south, even though
they were fairly close, the wind never brought very pure air, which means that under
these conditions we have southerly winds, and coming from the polluted districts of
our country and the Continent it brings much dust with it.. It should be remarked that
during all the tests the relative position of the areas of high and low pressure was
such as to give us W. winds with east and west isobars, and 8. winds when situated
north and south.
Air seems to carry its impurities long distances. For instance, southerly winds at
Alford brought a good deal of dust though they had to travel over a considerable extent
of mountainous and uninhabited country before coming to the place of observation. As
bearing on this point, it may be remembered that the discussion of the Kingairloch obser-
vations showed, that when a cyclone had advanced over our area from the west, and had
given rise to a circulation of air from France over Holland and northwards over the North
Sea, that after the centre of the cyclone had passed, and we got northerly winds, the air
was not always under these circumstances pure ; though northerly winds under most con-
ditions are pure. It looks as if, under the conditions above described, the air from the
Continent had circled northwards, and passed over the sea to the north of the station,
where its curving movement has brought it as a northerly wind to the point of
observation.
From these remarks it would appear that we may be able to get an idea of the
amount of dust in the air by studying the isobars at and before the date. When
the isobars are close, and situated in an easterly and westerly direction with the
area of high pressure to the south of the depression, the air will be pure. But if the
isobars are situated north and south, with the area of high pressure to the right, the air
will not be so pure. Again, if the isobars are wide the winds will be light, and the air
tending to become impure ; or, if the isobars are irregular, the circulation will be confused,
and the impurity may be very great at times. Further, though N. winds in Scotland
are generally pure, as they blow from uncontaminated areas, yet it seems probable that
if they follow a period during which the air of the Continent has been circling northwards,
they may be sometimes impure.
ATMOSPHERE OF GREAT BRITAIN AND ON THE CONTINENT. 41
Dust and Temperature.
In Part I. diagrams are given showing the maximum and minimum temperatures and
the amount of dust in the air at the dates of three sets of observations. An examination
of these diagrams seemed to show that the dust has an influence on the maximum and
minimum temperatures, as the highest maximum temperatures were observed on the days
when the amount of dust was greatest. The dust also seemed to have an influence in
checking the fall of the temperature at night, z.e., high dust was generally accompanied by
high mean temperature. We, therefore, naturally turn to the observations of 1890 to
see if they also support this conclusion. The observations made on the Continent being
too fragmentary, it is unnecessary to consider them. Passing over these, and coming to
the set of observations corresponding to those shown in the diagrams given in Part I., we
come first to the Kingairloch observations. As already stated, the weather during the
period of these observations was much disturbed by frequent cyclones. The skies were
generally cloudy, and consequently solar and terrestrial radiation would have but little
influence on the temperature of the air. The Kingairloch observations of 1890 are
therefore of little use for our purpose, as the maximum and minimum temperatures would
be determined principally by the winds. It may, however, be stated that during the
period of the observations the mean temperature of all the weeks was below the average,
sometimes as much as 5° and 6°, and that during the whole of this period the amount of
dust was much lower than in 1889, and was probably much below the mean, as excep-
tionally low readings were frequently obtained during this period.
On examining the Alford observations the result is similar to that pointed out in the
diagram for 1889. Mr Bucwan having again kindly supplied me with a copy of the
Logie Coldstone temperature observations for 1890. (It may be mentioned that Logie
Coldstone is one of the Scottish Meteorological Stations, and is situated in a south-
westerly direction at a distance of about 10 miles from Alford.) From these observations
I find that the highest maxima were recorded on the 8th, 13th, and 14th; on these
days the temperature went up to 72° or more. From the table for 1890 it will be
seen that on these days the dust was also about its maximum. Again, the lowest
minimum was recorded on the 10th, at which date the dust was also at a minimum. It
would, however, be rash to draw a conclusion on so important a point from so few observa-
tions as are yet at our disposal. As has been already stated, we must have more observa-
tions, and the observations of radiation, both solar and terrestrial, must be continuous
before we can get any satisfactory answer to this question.
As an illustration of the influences at work affecting the temperature of the air, I find
that if we add to the diagram showing the dust, and the temperature, another curve to show
the number of hours of sunshine, we shall find this latter curve and the curve of maximum
temperature to be very similar, and therefore, the high maxima. may be due to long
hours of sunshine. Since the curve of maximum temperatures follows the curve of hours
of sunshine, the dust curve must also follow the curve of sunshine, all three rising and
VOL, XXXVII. PART I. (NO. 3). H
42 MR. JOHN AITKEN ON THE NUMBER OF DUST PARTICLES IN THE
falling together. And one now naturally asks, What can be the relation between the
amount of dust and the number of hours of sunshine? So far as the observations go at
present the reason for the close relation observed at this station is, that the same winds
—viz., southerly ones—that brought the high dust also brought clear skies, and when
the wind went either E. or W., though it brought a purer air, it also brought cloudy skies,
and the lower temperature may in part have been due to the clouds.
Turning now to the observations made in the end of February and beginning of
March of 1891, let us see what information they give on the effect of the dust on the
temperature. As will be seen from the table, the amount of dust in the air in the end of
February was excessive, and from other observations, which are not entered in the table,
I find that during most of the month the air was very full of dust. On turning
now to the Meteorological Report for February it will be found that the average weekly
temperature for the stations in Scotland was above the mean, and was frequently very
high for that month. The warm weather of February was certainly accompanied by a
very dusty atmosphere; the dust, however, may or may not have been the cause of the
high temperature. Turning again to the table, we see that the amount of dust suddenly
fell in the beginning of March to an exceptionally low figure, and that it continued low
for some days. On now consulting the Meteorological Report for March, we find that
the mean temperature for these days was not low, but over our area it was 2° above
the average. Here the relation between the dust and the temperature seems to break
down, as the air was very pure, and yet the mean temperature was high. Let us,
however, examine the conditions more closely, and I think it will be admitted that the
facts are open to quite a different interpretation. It is true the mean temperature was
above the average on the days when the dust was very low. But during all these days
the wind blew with great force and the skies were clouded, so that the temperature of
the air would be entirely governed by what the winds brought us, As it was winter, it
was probable that the winds would bring a temperature higher than the mean, just as in
summer they will probably bring a lower. If we are to find any effect from the low
dust observed during the first days of March, we must look for it in the conduct of the
air after the wind has fallen. The weather charts for March, from the 1st to the
6th, both included, all show the isobars to be close, regular, and across the map. On
the 7th the isobars began to widen out, and from the 8th on to the 15th they were wide
and irregular, indicating light and variable winds; and during these eight days there was
no steady inflow of air from any impure direction, so that the pure air which covered our
area in the beginning of the month probably circulated backwards and forwards over our
area. Though the lower air would be becoming impure, yet as the winds were light, and
being the winter season, the impurity would not ascend to the upper air, so that
probably the upper air remained pure. The Meteorological Report shows that during
the second week of March, after the winds had fallen, the temperature became exces-
sively low, the different stations in Scotland for that week being as much as from
8° to 11° below the mean.
ATMOSPHERE OF GREAT BRITAIN AND ON THE CONTINENT. 43
It may, of course, be contended that we are here stretching a point to support the
theory that dust checks terrestrial radiation and consequent cooling, as the only
evidence produced to show that the air was pure during the cold period is the direction
of the air circulation after the country was covered with pure air, However, as the
circulation was purely local, it seems probable the increase in impurity would be slow
compared with the sudden increase of dust which we have seen takes place with a change
of circulation.
After writing the above, it appeared to me that the point was one of some importance,
and worth following up. I therefore trespassed so far on the kindness of the Scottish
Meteorological Society as to ask for information regarding the state of the air as observed
on Ben Nevis during March. Mr Ranxty, the observer at that date, has kindly written me
as follows :—‘ The observations of March dust are very interesting. There are two well-
marked periods of purity, Ist to 12th, beginning and ending sharply, again 25th to 29th.”
During the first period the numbers were excessively low; a not unusual reading was 7
per c.c., and sometimes it was much lower. From the extract from Mr Ranxiy’s letter it
will be seen there was the same rapid change on the Ben from impure to pure air in the
beginning of March as was observed at low level. It will be also seen that during the
period of excessively low temperature at low level, the upper air was remarkably free from
dust. In this case the evidence in support of the relation between the dust and tempera-
ture is very strong, as the air was exceptionally cold during this exceptionally pure
period.
Table of the Number of Dust Particles in the Atmosphere.
oe es =
Place. Date. Hour, eae Wind, B, # = pie x : REMARES.
aks aS} 8 the Air.
= fal oy o =
A a |
1890.
Hyéres . .|Mar.31] 3,30 pm 725 | S.W. 3 | 56 9°5 | Very clear | Observed on Fenouillet.
April
4 1 3 P.M. 15,250 E, 2 59 5 | Very thick Ps s
CANNES . . 5 5 P.M. 2,850 | N. 0:2 | 58 6: | Haze Observed on La Croix des
Gardes,
4 MimelOes an, | 1,275 | N, 02 | 60 8 | Medium 53 Ze
Mentone. .| 11 4 PM. 14,000 | W.3 | 56 » | Thick haze | Observed on hill 800 feet
high,
%9 12 4.30 P.M. Sram UN 48 3°5 | Clear Observed on hill, Snow on
hills to half-way down.
5 14 3 P.M, 810 | S.E.?1 | 50 4 | Raining Raining all the 13th,
56 16 3 P.M. 900 | E.20°5 | 54:5} 2°5 | Medium Observed on hill.
FA 19 4 pM, 26,000 | S.E, 0°5 | 58 3°5 | Thick Observed on hill. Number'
varied greatly.
Bgtiracio. .| 23 3 PM. 6,300 S. 2 65 8 | Thickish Limit of visibility 15 miles S.
haze
< 24 10 aM. 1,225 N, 4 585] 16 | Clear
11.30 am, | 5,300) N.1 59..; 16 | Hazy Air much thicker than at
10 aM.
44
Place.
BELLAGIO .
BavENOo
Srupron Pass
BavENo
3?
Simeon Pass
BAvENO
LocaRNo .
LUCERNE .
ViITZNAU .
Rici Kum
MR JOHN AITKEN ON THE NUMBER OF DUST PARTICLES IN THE
Table of the Number of Dust Particles in the Atmosphere—continued.
30
16
17
Number of
Particles
600
20,500
5,200
7,700
10,750
1,750
State of
the Air.
Thick
Very thick
Clear
Very clear
Clear ~
Very clear
Extremely
clear
Thick haze
Thick
Thickish
haze
39
Medium
Thick
Hazy
”
Tekiah
Thick
Thick haze
Thickish
»”
”
Hazy
oP)
Thick haze
Mihickieh
haze
”
REMARKS.
Limit of visibility 15 miles N.
Air thicker than in morning.
Air getting clearer.
Too high from local impuri-
ties,due to absence of wind.
Almost no haze through 15
miles N., and only a little
through 15 miles S.
Too high from local pollution.
Limit of visibility 15 miles
S.
Taken in boat on Lake. Be-
ginning to rain,
Taken in boat on Lake.
Taken on land.
Rain just ceasing.
Taken at Baveno..
Probably local impurities.
Taken in boat on Lake.
Increase of wind, reduction
of dust.
Wind inshore,
Taken in boat on Lake,
Taken on shore.
Wind increasing.
Raining, wind slight and
variable,
Been raining, wind slight.
Hills thickly veiled in haze.
Air extremely thick looking
downwards, and thickish |
at level.
Increase in dust, probably due
to lower air rising. :
Wind variable, changing from
S. of E. to N. of E.
Place.
Riet Kum
VITZNAU .
Pinatus Kum
ATMOSPHERE OF GREAT BRITAIN AND ON THE CONTINENT. 45
Table of the Number of Dust Particles in the Atmosphere—continued.
‘Date.
May
ee
18
19
20
20
22
Hour.
10 a.m.
12.15 p.m.
5.30 P.M,
5.45 PM.
7.45 aM.
10 a.m.
12.15 p.m.
12.20 p.m.
6.10 p.m.
6.20 P.M.
7.10 pm.
7.15 PM.
9 aM.
9.15 am
12.15 P.M,
12.30 a.m.
2 P.M.
2.15 P.M.
5.30 P.M,
5.40 P.M.
9 AM.
- 9.10 a.m.
12.10 p.m.
12.20 p.m.
3 P.M.
3.45 P.M.
4 PM.
4.10 P.M.
12.20 P.M.
Number of
Particles
per c.c.
Wind.
Tempera-
ture
Humidity.
[0.2]
oe
9
4°5
75
State of
the Air.
Thickish
haze
Thick haze
”
Thickish
haze
Extremely
thick _
”
”
”
Medium
Fairly clear
”
”
Clear
Very clear
>b]
”
Medium
Thiel haze
REMARKS.
Air much the same as on two
previous evenings.
Clouds passing over hill.
Clouds forming below top of
hill, top clear.
Halo at 10 a.m.
Raining ; thunderstorm since
5 P.M.
Violent storm of thunder,
lightning, and hail.
Much clearer than
previous morning.
any
Clearer than in morning.
In the afternoon the Jura
Mountains and Zurich were
visible for first time ; Hoch-
gerrach was also distinctly
visible.
Air like what it was at
beginning of visit.
Wind slight and inshore.
Wind increasing and coming
offshore.
Wind inshore.
9
46
Place.
MR JOHN AITKEN ON THE NUMBER OF DUST PARTICLES IN THE
Table of the Number of Dust Paiticles in the Atmosphere—continued.
Date.
Hour.
Pinatus Kum
May
22
July
KINGAIRLOCH . 1
»
2
10
re
12
13
1 P.M,
1,30 P.M,
2.30 P.M,
4,30 P.M,
5 P.M,
10 aM.
6 P.M,
6.15 P.M,
10 a.m.
6 P.M,
10 a.m.
11.30 p.m.
4 PM,
6 P.M,
10 a.m,
11,30 a.m.
1 PM.
6 PM.
10 a.m.
7 P.M.
10 a.m.
1 P.M.
1,30 P.M,
6 P.M.
10 am,
12.30 p.m,
4 PM.
9 PM.
10 a.m.
1 PM,
6 P.M.
10 a.m.
2 P.M.
7 BM,
10 a.m.
‘12.15 p.m,
1 P.M.
1.30 p.m.
3 P.M,
6 P.M,
10 aM,
11 am,
3 P.M,
6 P.M,
10 a.m,
10,30 a.m,
2 P.M,
2.10 P.M,
Particles
per c.c.
Number of
Wind,
A
A
SS.)
Tempera-
ture
Humidity.
State of
the Air.
Hazy
Thickish
Medium
Clear
”
Very clear
PP
Haze
Very clear
Clear
Medium
Thick
bb}
Very thick
Very clear
Very clear
Thickish
”
”
| Clear
Thin haze
Hazed
Clear
Thick
”
Very ‘thick
”
REMARKS.
Fog very dense.
Raining,
20 m, 4.
20 m, 7%.
20 m, t.
20 m. 74, showers,
Humidity too high local,
20 m. +45.
Sky blue to the horizon.
Passing showers.
20 m. $; mist on hills.
20 m. }.
Limit 12 m.
Limit 6 m.
Raining.
20 m. 31, ; been rain.
20 m. 7), ; showers.
12 m. 75; been rain.
12 m. 4; showery.
12 m. 4; showery.
20 m. 4; showery.
20 m. 4.
Number varying a good deal.
20 in. 3.
12 m. 4.
12 m. 4; slight rain.
12 m. 4; been a shower.
Limit 15 m, ; raining.
Limit 6 m.; raining.
”
Place.
KINGAIRLOCH .
ATMOSPHERE OF GREAT BRITAIN AND ON THE CONTINENT.
47
Table of the Number of Dust Particles in the Atmosphere—continued.
Date.
July
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
23
Hour,
2.20 P.M,
6 P.M.
6.10 p.m.
6.20 p.m.
6.30 P.M.
6.40 P.M.
10 am.
1 P.M.
6 P.M,
10 a.m.
1.20 p.m.
2.20 P.M.
6 P.M,
10 a.m.
10.45 a.m.
1 PM.
2.30 P.M.
6 P.M,
10 am,
10.15 a.m.
1 pM,
2 P.M,
6 P.M.
10 a.m,
1 P.M.
6 P.M,
10 aM.
2.15 P.M.
3 P.M.
6 P.M.
8.15 P.M,
10 aM.
3 P.M,
7 P.M.
10 aM.
10,45 am,
12.30 P.M,
1 PM,
3 PM,
6 P.M,
10 a,
1 PM.
3PM .
6 P.M.
10 a.m.
10,30 a.m,’
11 am.
11.20 am,
11.40 a.m.
12 am,
Number of
Particles
per ¢.c
Wind,
S6| i State of
RS 5 the Air.
al =
59°5| 1:5] Very thick
59 23 ”»
2 ” ”?
54 3 Thickish
555} 3°5| Thick
57 4 | Thickish
56 3 Clear
58 4°5 | Thickish
62 6°5 | Clear
575 | 4 Ss
58°5| 4:5| Hazy
60 6 Medium
56 3°52 a
60 8 o
55°5| 7:5! Very clear
59 7 | Haze
HTS) T'S a}
59 8 | Clear
58 » »
54 6 | Very clear
53 2 Very thick
54:5 | 2°5 by
55 2 .,
60 6 Hazy
63 9 Very clear
64°5| 85 4
59°5| 7 -
55 ” ”
56 3°5| Thick
60 5 | Clear
55 1 Very thick
62 4 | Clear
6 6 bb} 33
6 4 bb} 2
60 3 | Very thick
58 2 5
58 6 Hazy
57°5| 4:5] Thickish
585 |, »
5 7 3 5 ”
58 1 | Very thick
REMARES.
Heavy rain,
6 m. 75; showers.
Raining.
12 m. 4; showers.
Showers.
*
4.
20 m. 4
20 m. +; showers.
Steamer 5 miles to windward.
20 m. +.
Limit 6 m.; raining.
Limit 6 m.; misty rain,
Limit 6 m.; misty rain.
20 m. 4.
Bluish haze.
”
»
Raining; carry W.
20 m, 7.
Raining.
6 m, gy; distance clouded.
10 m. 3); distance clouded,
Misty rain.
6 m. 4; misty rain.
10 m. 4; cloudy.
10 m, $; slight rain.
+P)
Blowing hard all day.
14m. 4; drifting rain.
48
MR JOHN AITKEN ON THE NUMBER OF DUST PARTICLES IN THE
Table of the Number of Dust Particles in the Atmosphere—continued.
Date.
Place.
July
KINGAIRLOCH . 23
ALFORD .. 8
Hour.
1 P.M.
3 P.M.
6 P.M.
10 am.
1 P.M,
6 P.M.
9 AM.
10 a.m.
3 P.M.
6 P.M.
9 aM.
10 a.m.
1 PM.
3 P.M.
6 P.M.
10 a.m.
3 P.M.
7 P.M.
10 a.m.
1 P.M.
3 P.M.
7 P.M.
6 P.M.
10 a.m.
11 a.m.
5.30 P.M.
10 am.
5 P.M.
10 a.m.
5 P.M.
10 a.m.
10 a.m.
5.30 P.M.
10 a.m.
1.30 P.M.
5.30 P.M.
10 aM.
5.30 P.M.
10 am.
5.30 P.M.
10 aM,
6 P.M.
10 a.m.
Number of
Particles
—
lo 2)
Tempera-
ture
oO
or
[ory
i)
Hm OO OLR OLN DS DK OOH
ae a é
Or
>) 1
Or
Cs
OL
NONE FoOnNb ows
OL
OU
for)
Or
bo wr DD wD
bo Or OL
He OO DO | Humidity.
State of
the Air,
Very thick
Medium
Thickish
Clear
Thick
Very clear
Clear
Hazy
Clear
Extremely
thick +
”
Thick
Clear
Very thick
Thin haze
Thickish
Clear
Thick
”
”
”
Medium
Clear
Thick
Very clear
”
Clear
Very clear
Hazy
Thick haze
Extremely
thick
”
Very thick
Extremely
thick
REMARKS.
Sky clearing.
6 m. 75; rain ceasing.
10 m. $; been blowing very
hard.
10 m. 4; showers.
10 m. a.
Raining.
10 m. ao
10 m. 745; a few drops of rain,
10 m. 4.
20 m. 7.
Limit 14 m.; raining,
Raining.
Misty rain.
”
10 m. 7.
14m. $3 raining.
10 m. }.
Passing showers.
” ”
” ”
Passing showers; very stormy
on loch,
Thick haze ; fine day.
Cloudy.
Half clouded.
Beginning to rain.
Cloudy.
Clouded all day.
Showers on hills,
Numbers variable.
Clouded.
Numbers very variable.
Wind been §,
Clouding over.
Clouded.
Passing clouds.
Cloudy.
Thickest day here.
Dull, clouded.
Quarter clouded.
Raining during night.
ATMOSPHERE OF GREAT BRITAIN AND ON THE CONTINENT.
49
Table of the Number of Dust Particles in the Atmosphere—continued.
Place. Date. Hour. 2 S ~ | Wind. Sy 5 _ Sa a : REMARKS.
BS 0 aS 5 the Air.
ete a | 5
Sept.
ALFORD 19 6 P.M. 1,850 S. 0°5 54:5] 2 Extremely | Dull, clouded.
thick
Pe 20 10 a.m. 1,025 |S.S.E.1°5 | 56 2 | Thickish Clearing.
6 P.M 2,300 8.1 54 2°5| Thick Been raining.
i 22 10 aM 2,850 | S.02 | 52 2 5 Fine morning ; half clouded.
CALLIEVAR . 5 12.30 p.m 710 | S.W. 3 | 57 5 | Thickish Cairngorms just visible.
2 P.M. 1,200 | S.W. 2 sei son || Jblaneles Air thicker.
2.10 p.m 1,385 5, 58 45
2.30 P.M 1,575 A 56 4
3 P.M 1,050 ¥, 55 4 Thickish Air clearer.
ALFORD op 5 P.M 2,700 Calm BS 5)|| aia) || Month ke Quarter clouded,
5,30 PM 2,100 aes 57 4 9 | sa 5
vf 23 10 a.m 4,200 | S.0°2 | 55°5| 2:5) Extremely |
thick
6 P.M 3,000 | N.E. 0°2 | 55 2 . Raining.
1891 |
GARELOCHHEAD | Feb, 27! 12.30 p.m. | 7,250 Calm 40 3 - | Limit of visibility 2 miles low
down; 4 high up.
1 P.M. 7,500 7 £6 59 9 Rs 5
WHISTLEFIELD . 4 PM. 9,000 | E.02 | 43 3°5 i | Limit of visibility 3 low
down ; 4 high up.
9,750 33 425] 3°5 »
GARELOCHHEAD| ,, 28| 12.30 p.m. | 1,750 | S.W.2 | 44°5| 4:5) Thickish Dull.
March
55 2 4 PM. 82°5 | N.W. 2 | 40°5| 3:5] Very clear | Clouded; beginning to rain.
68 ” ”
83 ” ”
51 és wate ace 5
6 P.M. 62 i 40 4 A
5 3 11 aM 143 N.W. 4 | 36 2 Clear Passing showers, hail and rain.
5 P.M, 154 N.W. 5 | 40 2°5 Fe 3 i
es 4 12 a.m 175 N.W. 5 | 48 1 Thickish Drifting rain.
4 P.M, 192 es 485] 1°5 ie -
5 12 pM. TLS by NOW. 1 | 54 1 BF _
VOL. XXXVII.
PART I. (NO. 3).
{
1
AT BEN NEVIS AND KINGAIRLOCH
2|2 pe ae
eye
JS 2 Ne ht
Bey eee me Oe le
PaVaitn. ANY Ve
AOA SR eae
Lea? See ceeka oases
Sad estectontedestedtons
eee eer NA Taz iz TA
__| | SE RR eee
___ | Se eee
| EERE Sees
s.|_ | DR RRESRRRRReRRRE
is | CSR
So an SESS SEER
__ Sh ee aah Se
SANS OLA
ease eee Ame
Ree peal 252
The Thi ie Upper Arrows show the direction and force of the Wind on Ben Nevis.
The Thiche Lower i _ ie . at Kingairloch.
he Intermediate ,, Py of the Winds over the British Isles.
oy sole apascatee Peppa Nala i ree
‘3
ia ene uae F a iia ee eT ght *)
DATE.
i H
DIAGRAM SHOWING THE NUMBER OF DUST PARTICLES IN THE ATMOSPHERE AT BEN NEVIS AND KINGAIRLOC
DURING JULY 1890.
Se
[NZ
Sy
»
N
The Thin Line shows the number of Particles at Ben Nevis,
The Thick Line shows the number of Particles at Kingairloch,
The Upper Arrows show the direction and force of the Wind on Ben Nevis.
of the Winds over the British Tsles.
ans. Roy. Soc. Edint— Vol, XOMVil
6000
5000
4000
3000
2000
1000
DATE.
6000
5000
£000
3000
2000
{000
DATE.
4
A
a
‘Lj
4
IV.—On the New Star in the Constellation Auriga. By Professor RALPH CoPELAND,
Astronomer-Royal for Scotland. Together with Observations of the Same. By
Dr L. Becker. With a Plate.
(Read 15th February 1892.)
The discoverer of Nova Aurigze is the Rev. THomas D. AnprRson of Edinburgh, D.Sc.
in Classical Philology. Dr ANnpERsOoN is “almost certain” that he saw the star at 2 a.m.
on January 24 of this year; it was then slightly brighter than x Aurige. Unfortunately,
he mistook it for 26 Aurigz, which it precedes by about 6™ 39%, merely remarking to
himself that the star was brighter than he had previously thought it to be. Twice in the
following week he made the same observation at about the same hour of the night. At
last, on the morning of January 31, it flashed upon him that, after all, the star was not
26 Aurige, and that 26 Aurige had a much greater right ascension. He consulted a
small star-map, and the discovery was made. Regretting that he had not earlier com-
pared the map with the heavens, and thinking that the star might be well known to
astronomers, Dr ANDERSON wrote an anonymous postcard to me on the same morning
bearing the words :—“ Nova in Auriga. In Milky Way, about two degrees south of
x Aurigee, preceding 26 Aurige. Fifth magnitude, slightly brighter than x.” I may
add that Dr AnpERson’s plant consists of a small hand spyglass adapted to astronomical
purposes by removing the front pair of lenses from the eyepiece. In this state it
magnifies about ten times, and, of course, gives inverted images. Dr ANDERSON hopes
that amateurs, although provided with only the most modest appliances, may, by his
unexpected success, be induced to persevere in their observations.
I have examined a large number of star-maps and catalogues, ancient and modern,
without finding any previous record of the new star. Several stars are mentioned by
Sur! as being visible in the tenth century which we cannot now identify, but they seem
certainly to have no connection with the Nova. Two stars named “the Shaker” and
“the excellent Milch Camel” may, however, possibly be identified by a study of certain
Arabian authors referred to by Surt.
As to our observations of the Nova at the Royal Observatory, its place has been
found by differential methods by Mr Hearn, First Assistant Astronomer, using the
transit instrument, and by Mr J. A. Ramsay, student of astronomy, observing with the
Mural Circle. The mean co-ordinates for 1892-0 derived by them are :—
R.A. = 5 25™ 3*25-+0°02 (9 obs.). Decl. = +380° 21’ 48°"760°"09 (7 obs.).
Already on the night of February 1, a small spectroscope revealed the presence of
bright lines, of which some account was at once telegraphed to the Central Station for
Astronomical Telegrams at Kiel, and also to the President of the British Association,
VOL, XXXVII. PART I. (NO. 4). K
52 PROF. COPELAND AND DR L. BECKER ON THE
Dr W. Hucerns. Already in the daytime, before the star was visible, a message had
been forwarded to Greenwich Observatory.
The remarkable nature of the star’s spectrum once established, Dr Becker imme-
diately set about packing the most suitable apparatus to take to Dunecht, where the
15-inch refractor is fortunately still in perfect adjustment. Meanwhile I arranged to
keep a record of the star’s magnitude, and try what could be done with the apparatus at
Calton Hill. Owing to the great loss of light in the universal spectroscope of the 24-inch
reflector, it soon became evident that only a few of the very brightest lines of the
spectrum could be measured therewith, while it was impossible when using it to obtain a
good general idea of the spectrum and its possible changes. Eventually I returned to a
small instrument of VocGEL’s pattern, which had proved useful on former occasions.*
With it were obtained, on February 9, a set of measures which eventually yielded the
following rough approximations to the positions of the principal bright lines in the
spectrum of the Nova :— !
Wave-length. eine Remarks,
mmm.
657°1 10 C.
645 ce Edge of black band extending from C.
594°2 2 Possibly an inaccurate place of D.
562°1 3
534°5 6
519°3 10 Possibly carbon band or magnesium.
5032 5 Bright band near nebular line, but not identical therewith.
495°25 3 Near nebular line, but also distinct therefrom. |
487°] 4 é
450°8 ik Extremely faint ; place very uncertain.
Respecting the brightness or “magnitude” of the star there is a telegram from
Professor PickERING of Harvard College, Cambridge, Mass., dated February 5 :—“ Nova
bright on photograph December tenth, faint December first, maximum December twenty,
spectrum unique.” ‘This is understood to mean that the star could be detected on a
photograph taken on December 1, that it was brighter on December 10, and brighter
still on December 20. At least, this is the very probable reading offered by Professor
Kruecer of Kiel. So far as is known, there is no certain record of the star’s having
been seen or photographed previous to December 1, 1891. A faint star seen by KruncEr
near to the spot, 1858, March 23, in one of the revisional zones of ARGELANDER’S Atlas,
has been identified in the heavens near to the Nova. Then we have Dr ANDERsoN’s
observations, January 23 to January 80—Nova slightly brighter than x Aurige, 4°8
magnitude.
From February 1 to 11 I have a complete set of estimations. These indicate a
* See Copernicus, vol. ii. p. 105, for a description of this instrument.
NEW STAR IN THE CONSTELLATION AURIGA. 53
maximum about the 7th or 8th. [Compare the curve in fig. 3, and the table on p. 58,
which have been extended so as to include the subsequent observations.| Not one of
the four novee of modern times has exhibited a curve of this character, at least as far as
one can judge from the present available data for Nova Aurige.
From Dr Becker I have received the most satisfactory results, derived from observa-
tions made on February 3, 4, and 5, and again on the 10th and 11th. [These results
were exhibited to the Society in a graphic form, but it is here preferable to give
Dr Becxer’s written account of the observations as received from him on February 16. |
Observations of the Bright Lines in the Spectrum of Nova Auriga,
made at Dunecht by Dr L. BEcKER.
The day after the discovery of the new star was announced, I left for Dunecht
Observatory in order to observe its spectrum with the 15-inch refractor. The large
spectroscope by Cooke, with a collimator 24 inches in length, having already been
removed to Edinburgh, I employed in my observations the.smaller spectroscope by
Grubs, the same with which Professor CopELaNnD had made the greater part of his former
observations. The collimator of this instrument has 7 inches focal length, and an effective
pencil of light 0°6 inch in diameter; the viewer is 10 inches in length, and turns by a
worm-screw with a divided head working against a sector which can be clamped to the
prism-box. The prism is kept in a fixed position. In these observations a compound
prism was used at the minimum deviation for b. On the first night, February 3, a power
of 14 diameters was used, but on the following nights one of 7. For comparison I
employed the sodium and lithium lines, and the lines of the zinc-lead spark spectrum, as
produced by a 5-inch induction coil in connection with a Leyden-jar. The light from the
spark passes through a lens, and is reflected to the upper and lower part of the slit by a
small silver mirror, which is fixed in front of the slit and has an opening for allowing the
light from the object-glass to pass. The same battery which works the coil serves to
illuminate the field of view by reflection from the last surface of the prism, and also to
produce bright wire illumination. By means of a small rheostat, which is clamped to
the sector, the light may be moderated, while a switch enables the observer to put either
the incandescent lamps or the coil into circuit. This arrangement, which I introduced
in the last weeks of my stay at Dunecht in 1889, is very convenient if the observer has
to observe without assistance. In reducing the observations to wave-lengths (Potsdam
system) I first determined, once for all, 4 constants of KrTreter’s formula of dispersion
from measures of four solar lines equidistant between A and H, and computed a table
giving the wave-length as a function of the readings of the screw. The deviations of
this curve from the one given by the observations of solar lines are so small that they may
be determined with great accuracy by the graphical method. The lines of the spark
spectrum were measured along with the solar lines, the latter being at the centre part of
the slit, the former below and above. Although the values of their wave-lengths thus
54 PROF, COPELAND AND DR L. BECKER ON THE
determined are erroneous by the amount of curvature of the lines, they have to be
employed in the reductions of the star observations in order to reduce the lines of the
stellar spectrum to wave-lengths.
In the night observations I measured at the beginning and end of each set the
prominent spark-lines in the part of the spectrum under observation, always turning the
screw in such a manner that the viewer moved opposite to the direction of gravity. Their
readings thus being known, I could then also pick them up while observing the stellar
lines without being obliged to turn the screw in the opposite direction. ‘The first obser-
vations serve to correct the reduction-table, the second to determine the changes of
the zero point. Since the spectroscope is not rigid enough for taking several pointings
of one line, without observing each time the spark spectrum, I measured through one
region of the stellar spectrum without turning back. Tor this reason all the observations
of any one line are quite independent. Almost all the measures were taken in bright
field illumination. It is needless to say that the observations of most of the lines were
very difficult, but I have not the least doubt that those repeatedly observed refer to real
bright lines, and are nat merely an effect of contrast produced by dark lines on the
continuous spectrum. There are 302 observations, belonging to 71 lines, made on
February 3, 4, 5,10, and 11. Afterwards I made arrangements for photographing the
spectrum, but the sky did not clear up before my return to Edinburgh.
The mean values of the wave-length A and their intensity I, (where 1 stands for faint,
6 for very bright) are :—
Number Number
1892. of r I 1892. of r I
Observations, Observations.
Feb. 4, 5, 10. 5 657:0 5 || Feb. 3, 4, 5. 5 560-0 3
as) 00;-4, 10) 5 640°5 3 jy) 10574508 6 557:0 3
a ae. 16 4 632°5 y OOS 5 552°4 9
sano ALO: 2 624+ 1 we os 2 551:0 il
ss SLO: 3 620°3 9 sana 3 548°8 2
oD LO: 6 615:1 Y 5) 2 Oy ds Os 6 544°6 3
&. | irae D0; 5 609°9 2g as 1 5434+ il
1, 8, LO: 16 604°7 9 ee 3 5 540°7 3
37 Oy 45, 10; i 598°5 3 BY, } 539+ il
iy) By Ay DLO: 8 593°4 33 ye Be 6 537°4d 3
sy) OVA Ds 13 589°7 40°15 4 er er 6 533°0* 4
oy a ros 4 583°8 1 j, WEEARD 5 528:°0, 3
i Ones 3 580°5 2 ep ee) 6 524°6 2
4D 3 5771 2g oe 3 519°6 D
a) 4 o 3 5729 3 ho 4500) al 8 517-45 +0:12+ | 5
fe. ey Aa Bi 4 568'°7 p ca 1 513+ i
oS sD: 4 564°9 3 MN, Hee EL, 4 51l1 2
* Many close lines in this part of the spectrum, of which this is the most prominent.
+ On Feb. 10 it was recorded that the bright line 517:4 is very broad, and that the intensity fell off gradually
towards the red, while it was cut off abruptly at the more refrangible edge.
NEW STAR IN THE CONSTELLATION AURIGA.
TABLE—continued.
5D
Number Number
1892. of r I 1892. of x I
Observations. Observations.
Feb. 3, 4. 2 508-2 2 || Feb. 5, 11. 3 468:0 2
eee 4.05 11, 6 502°68+0°11* | 5 ya, LO: 3 466°8 1
5 eS 1 5Ol+ © 2 deo. LO) Tue 6 465°4 3
a4 11, 2 497°9 1 -, by WO. Tl 5 464°3 3
BOs, 4 2 494°7 1 a Sy LO, 4 463°3 2
pees, 4, 0, 10; 11 6 49317 +0°17* | 5 Be rele 3 462:°3 3
3. 1 490 + ie eee 5. 10: Tal 5 460-2 3
eos 4, 9, 10, 11 9 486°88 +0:08* | 6 5. Yay 6 459-1 2
£4 10: 1 483-6 Ie | Sek 45; LO 9 4578 | 3
aes 45, 0» LO, 11 6 482-0 2 BA fat: ee 3 455°4 4
oy AO 2 480°7 2 ie. Be 4 453°8 2
3 3 4, 10: 3 478°8 2 a9 4s Bi 3 451°4 2
4,5, 10, 11 6 ATT At Felli ee. De 1 449°2 1
=, 24 3) 10: 4 475°7 4 a 2 448:0 D
SG 2 474-8 Dil, x sd Bi 3 A45-5d | 3
po; 4, 5, 10; 11, 7 4737 4 pe aD. 5 449-1 4
LO; ale 5 471°7 3 De 3 439°4 3
op MORE 2 4702 1 me MIDE 4 435°5 4
eae LO! 3 469:0 9
The lines marked d are double. All the measured lines are shown in fig. 1, where
the fainter grades are indicated by shortening the lines. In fig. 2 an attempt has been
made to represent the relative intensity of the various parts of the spectrum.
In the spectrum the Sodium line (D), and the two Hydrogen lines C and F, are
present; Hy is very probably 435°5, which was just at the limit of visibility. All
these lines show a decided shift towards the red, from which I find the following velocity
of the body per second relatively to the solar system :—
C,+211 miles, D,+135(+47) miles, F, 290(+31) miles.
The very bright line 517°45 lies within the magnesium lines 6,, b., b4, and, considering the
shift of the lines, lies close to the iron lines b;, 6,. However, the great intensity of the
line compared with that of the other lines of the spectrum, if iron be supposed to be
present, also the gradual falling away of the light towards the red, are in favour of
magnesium. The remaining two bright lines are not the nebulous lines.
As the great intensity of the spectrum in the green, due to numerous lines, many of
which I was not able to measure, suggests the presence of iron in the Nova, I have entered
in the second line of the diagram the most prominent lines of the iron are-spectrum for the
Although a number of the lines fall together with those of the Nova,
one cannot lay much stress upon these coincidences, owing to the great number of lines
in Iron and the Nova scattered over the whole visible spectrum.
* It was noted on Feb. 3 that the three lines, 502-7, 493-2, and 486:9, “look as if they are double.”
the line 493:2 is entered as the “ middle of two lines.”
“Dark spaces between the very bright lines” were seen on every night of observation from Feb. 3 to Feb. 11.
t More close lines in this place.
sake of comparison.
On Feb. 4,
56 PROF. COPELAND AND DR L. BECKER ON THE
It is noteworthy that some of the brightest lines given above were observed by me at
Dunecht in the spectra of R Andromedz and R Cygni on October 28, 1889, on an intima-
tion by the Rev. T. E. Espin that the / line appeared bright in the spectra of these stars.
Although the observations of these stars could not be completed on account of my remov-
ing to Edinburgh shortly afterwards, I give the wave-lengths of all the brighter lines in
their spectra, all of which, it will be seen, agree closely with prominent lines in the spec-
trum of the Nova. R Andromedee was observed with the slit rather open.
R Andromede. R Cygni. Nova Aurige.
r Intensity. r Intensity. r Intensity.
ae 532°3 4 533°0 4
528°6 3 5289 3 528°0 3
517-1* 4 517°0 4 517°4 5
494°5 4 asain me 493°2 5
486°7 6 486°0 6 486°9 6
Postscript added 14th March 1892.
The new star still continuing bright enough to be observed with the spectroscope,
I returned to Dunecht on February 24, but was very unfortunate with the weather.
On March 4 I found that the intensity of the spectrum had much decreased, but that the
bright lines were still easily seen. From C’ to 550 I again measured all the brighter lines,
while between 550 and F’'I obtained almost every line that is given above. Thirty-eight
lines in all were re-measured, but the results are not combined with those already given.
Beyond F' the light was too faint for measuring. The results agree with the earlier ones
as closely as the size of the spectroscope entitles one to expect. The power 14 was
employed. ‘The intensity of some of the lines relatively to each other appeared to be
changed. Certainly /’ was no longer the brightest line, the line 517°5 considerably sur-
passing any of the others. I was not able to detect any narrow dark lines which had been
announced in the meantime, but I measured the middle of the dark spaces to the violet
of some of the brightest lines, which formerly I had attributed to the effect of contrast.
The wave-lengths of the brightest lines in the green-blue, and their relative intensities
(the brightness in February is given in parentheses), were observed as follows :—
onus of ; Xr Intensity. Remarks. !
servations.
2 533°4 4 (4)
2 528°7 4 (3)
2 524°6 4 (2)
2 5175 6 (5)
2 502°7 5 (5) | Breadth, 0°5.
1 501°2 Middle of dark space ; breadth, 2°0.
3 493°0 4 (5) _ Dark bands to the red and violet.
5 487°1 4 (6) |
] 4848 ae Middle of dark space ; breadth, 3°6.
* A companion on either side 1°5mmm. off.
+ One very bright line missed (according to note-book) near F' towards the red.
NEW STAR IN THE CONSTELLATION AURIGA. 57
Further Remarks on Nova Auriga. By Professor RALPH CoPELAND.
(Communicated 21st March 1892.)
The most remarkable additional fact that I have to communicate is a sudden diminu-
tion in brightness that seems to have set in about the 7th of March. Throughout the
month of February the Nova exhibited continual and irregular changes of brightness,
which are shown by the dots in the diagram. The state of the sky was unusually
favourable during the earlier part of February, and later on still offered occasional
opportunities of comparing the star with its neighbours. Unfortunately, on March 8,
I had the misfortune to lose the very fine binocular that had up to that time been used
in these observations. Hoping that it might be recovered, and not apprehending that
any very surprising change in the star’s brightness was about to occur, I did not attempt
to replace it until the 18th, when, on examining the heavens with a good opera-glass, I
was unable to identify the star. It was, however, readily found with a 34-inch refractor,
but had declined to the 8°6 magnitude. [See figure 3, and the table on p. 58.] On the
19th it had lost a further 0°"3, while last night it had so far faded as only to be of the
9°1 magnitude. We thus see that on February 7 the Nova was about 132 times as
bright as it was last night. Its brightness on the 8th and 20th are in the ratio of 14
to 1.
Last night, March 20, Nova being about one magnitude brighter than the small star
close to it, which was observed at Bonn 34 years ago, it was still practicable to analyse
its light with the small spectroscope. The spectrum was strongly continuous in the
yellow, green, and blue, with several intenser parts that probably represented bright lines.
No trace of the bright Cline, formerly so conspicuous, could be made out. It does not
seem, at present, that the spectrum is likely to become reduced to a single bright line as
was the case with the Nova of 1876, but it seems rather to resemble the continuous
spectrum of Nova Corone, as it appeared in 1866, when the bright lines were superposed
on the continuous spectrum.
Note added April 17.
The further history of this star, as seen in the Edinburgh reflector, is one of steady
and continued decline. The magnitudes on the days of observation are given below
until April 1, when it was seen for the last time. The place was examined in a hazy
sky on April 14, and again on the 18th, when the night was clear, with the exception
of a little inevitable smoke; on neither of these occasions was a trace of the star dis-
cernible. Its spectrum was “ continuous with traces of dots” on March 25, the star being
estimated of the 10°7 magnitude. The brighter magnitudes have been apportioned in
accordance with the Durchmusterung and some Harvard measures. ‘The fainter part
of the scale has been formed on the assumption that the “Bonn star” is 9™9, while the
28
PROF, COPELAND AND DR L. BECKER ON NEW STAR IN AURIGA.
small star, which forms an equilateral triangle with it and the place of the Nova, is set
down as 12°77.
On March 28, when it had fallen to 119, it could no longer be seen through a
prism which gave a distinct spectrum of the neighbouring 99 Bonn star.
Hence we
may certainly conclude that on this day the light of Nova Aurige was, far from
monochromatic, or it would have been visible through a prism.
Observed Magmitudes of Nova Aurige.
Day Hour.
1892 h
Feb, 1 6.1
(gj 8923 8.1
5s Oe 9.4
ay 8.1
gti! BD. 7.3, to 9.8
» 6..| 6.5 and 7.8
Sonne 12.0
» - 8 | 6.0 and 11.1
BA eee: 7.8
y 10. |°8.8 and 11.1
ee 10.0
oy gkG. 1,58 70.2nd 8:8
3, LT | 96:9 to. 12.2
ae LS: =| MeO stO 12.4
» £19. }998.3and:9:2
Sie ae ik
Py ee fy)
Mar. 5. 9.6
Oh ae, Ee
oe 8. NRO" and? OS
el 3 9.8
» 20. | 9.0 and 9.5
yoo. 9.4
op nhs 11.6
seins 10.8
ap oie 8 8.7
35 Ae 9.0
rg OO 9.0
Apr. 1. 9.1
The instruments used were F.G., a large field-glass ;
Magnitude.
DDH O.S OH WW ADM S- Svar gugugurs
Cor ANMawddtewo BeoeOdDdDCm®
DADMDROM wr woo
ee
CAKRSAIOTES
Comparison Stars and Remarks.
26 Aurige; Nova strong yellow. Image strictly
stellar afterwards in the 24-inch telescope.
26. Nova seen with naked eye.
26 and x Aurige.
x:
26 and x.
x; moon very near; Nova seen with unaided eye.
26 and x.
26 and x.
26 and x.
¥6 and D.M.+30° 898.
26, 898, and x; Nova certainly brighter than last
night.
26 and x.
xX:
xX:
26.
x:
26.
D.M. + 30° 912 and 913.
913 and+ 30° 932.
913, 932, and Bonn star of 1858.
Bonn star.
Bonn star.
Bonn star and p * of a pair sf=f.
f and faint star of triangle = g.
g.
g and next * to s.
- Instrument.
0.G.
3} in.
3} and 24 in,
24 in.
0.G., two different opera-glasses ;
a 34-inch refractor by Cooxs, with a power of 27 ; and, lastly, the 24-inch GRUBB reflector
ae a power of 138.
thin and imperfect.
The silvering of the last- named instrument is at present somewhat
SPECTRUM, INTENSITY-CURVE AND MAGNITUDES OF NOVA AURIGA, 1892.
Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin. Vol. XXXVII.
( 59)
V.—The Lateral Sense Organs of Hlasmobranchs. 1. The Sensory Canals of
Lemargus. By J. C. Ewart, M.D., Regius Professor of Natural History,
University of Edinburgh. (Plates I. and II.) .
(Read 6th July 1891.)
INTRODUCTORY.
Some years ago, when studying the electrical organs of the torpedo, I was forced to
the conclusion that the nerves supplying the batteries had not been accurately described,
and that notwithstanding the statements in the most recent works, the first electric nerve
is not derived from the trigeminus. Finding some difficulty in making out the arrange-
ment of the cranial nerves in the greatly specialised torpedo, I directed my attention,
first to the skate, and later to certain sharks, more especially to the Greenland shark
(Lemargus). I had not proceeded far before I was convinced that we had still much to
learn as to the anatomy of the cranial nerves of both the higher and lower vertebrates.
Up to a certain point I made satisfactory progress, and early in March 1889 was in
a position to communicate to the Royal Society a preliminary paper ‘“ On the Cranial
Nerves of Elasmobranch Fishes” (1); and, in the following year, papers on the cranial nerves
of the torpedo (2) and on the development of the ciliary ganglion (3). When, however, I
endeavoured to interpret my results, more especially when I endeavoured to compare the
cranial nerves in Selachians with those of the higher vertebrates, innumerable difficulties
presented themselves. After full consideration, there seemed only two possible lines
along which further progress was possible. The one was to study anew the development
of the cranial nerves in two or more vertebrate groups; the other to make a special
study of the innervation of the more important organs peculiar to fishes.
Many able investigators having already directed their attention to the development
of the nervous system, without, it must be confessed, arriving at any very generally
accepted conclusions, I ventured to think that, with the help of the embryological facts
already established, 1 would best succeed by trusting mainly to the old methods of the
comparative anatomist. I believed that, by a careful study of the conditions in the adult
Selachians, certain morphological questions would be settled, and that a new base of
operations might be opened up for the embryologist. Hence, instead of publishing the
views I entertained as to the relation of, e.g., the complex facial of the Selachian, with its
comparatively simple homologue in the higher vertebrates, I decided to first thoroughly
work up the lateral sense organs—structures which reach a remarkable development in
fishes, but are entirely absent in the higher vertebrates. In this way I hoped to
determine which of the many large and well-marked nerves of the fish we should expect
to find absent in Sauropsida and Mammalia.
VOL. XXXVII. PART I. (NO. 5). L
60 PROFESSOR J. C. EWART ON THE
This plan necessitated the delay of any lengthened discussion of the cranial nerves,
and the breaking up of the work into a number of more or less independent investiga-
tions. Now that the work has advanced towards completion, I am satisfied that the
best plan was adopted. When I originally discovered four ganglia in connection with
the facial in the fish, I was inclined to believe that I ought to find their counterparts in
other vertebrates, and at once set about preparing schemes with a view to establishing
their relationships. By a roundabout process, however, I now know that there is no
necessity, in many cases, to look in the adult higher vertebrates for even the vestiges of
some of the nerves largely developed in fishes.
As the optic and olfactory nerves dwindle or disappear when their related organs are
in a vestigial condition or absent, so some of the ancestral ganglia and nerves have
disappeared as their organs (only useful for an aquatic life) have degenerated. Prepared
for the complete absence of various nerves the work has been simplified, and time saved
which might have been wasted in making impossible comparisons. Now that the whole
ground has been roughly worked over, I propose, first, to describe the lateral sense
organs in several fishes, paying. special regard to their innervation. This done, I shall
describe fully the cranial nerves in two or more members of the Elasmobranch group ;
and, finally, complete the work by making a comparative study of the eranial nerves of
the more important divisions of the vertebrata.
THE LATERAL SENSE ORGANS.
J. HistTorIcat.
In Elasmobranchs, the lateral sense organs consist of two distinct systems of canals,
and, in addition, of minute pit organs or follicles. Hitherto, the two kinds of canals
have usually been known as mucous canals; but as they differ in structure and arrange-
ment, and, perhaps, also in function, distinctive names are obviously necessary. The
canals of the one system open on the surface of the skin by numerous usually short and
simple tubules; and they further, in some cases, give off long branches, also provided
with tubules. The canals of the other system radiate from a given number of centres in
the head region; and each canal presents an expansion (ampulla) at its proximal end,
and opens on the surface of the skin by its distal end. These radiating canals, however,
though often running a considerable distance side by side, never communicate with each
other ; nor do they give off tubules or branches.
The canals with tubules, which include the canal of the lateral line and a number of
canals in the head region, I have, for various reasons, decided to speak of as the Sensory
Canals. They are not only characterised by their tubules and branches, but also, and very
specially, by the presence of numerous sense organs—structures which are present when
the tubules are absent, and when grooves or furrows take the place of the canals. The
canals without tubules and branches I shall invariably refer to as Ampullary Canals,
SENSORY CANALS OF LAMARGUS. 61
chiefly because they are especially characterised by the ampulle at their proximal ends—
the ampullz of LoRENZINI.
In Lemaregus, according to the nomenclature I have adopted, there are three main
canals in the head region and one in the trunk—the cranial canals having over
four hundred sense organs, and a nearly corresponding number of tubules. The
ampullary canals, though numbering over one thousand, will be found to radiate from
four centres, all situated in the head region. Having indicated the main features of
the two canals, and the names by which they will be described, I need only further say,
before referring to the history of the subject, that sensory follicles have not yet been
found in Leemargus.
The first observations relating to the lateral sense organs of fishes seem to have been
made by STENoNIS, who, in 1664, described certain openings in the skin of the skate for
the discharge of mucus (4); and, in 1669, discovered similar openings in a shark (5).
About ten years later (1678), LorEenzini (6) not only found the openings described by
Stenonis, but made the important discovery that the openings belonged to two kinds
of canals (the sensory and ampullary canals mentioned above), and especially noted the
expansion (ampulla) at the proximal end of each of the simple (ampullary) canals.
Since the time of LorENzINI, many anatomists and zoologists have studied the
“mucous” canals of fishes; but Lorenzini’s discovery that the canals were of two
kinds has been too often overlooked ; and it was not until 1813 that it was first suggested
these canals played any other part than that of secreting and distributing mucus over
the surface of the skin; and not until 1868 that their right, from a morphological point
of view, to be considered sensory structures: was finally established.
Very little progress was made in working out the structure of the lateral sense organs
from the time of LORENZINI to that of Monro secundus, who, in the latter half of the
eighteenth century, worked at ‘The Structure and Physiology of Fishes” (7). Monro
especially directed his attention to the “‘ mucous” canals of the skate, and he made out
(what seems to have escaped the notice of LorEnzint) that large nerves proceeded to the
gland-like masses (groups of ampullee) formed by the inner ends of what I have termed
the ampullary canals. There is no evidence, however, that Monro was acquainted with
LorENZINI's work or that he recognised the difference between the branched (sensory) and
simple (ampullary) canals, or specially observed the ampulle of LorEnzinr; and though
he traced large nerves to the central masses, he apparently considered the canals as mere
mucus-producing structures. He describes them as “very elegant structures for the
preparation of mucus for keeping moist the surface of the skin.” Nevertheless, Monro’s
noting that large nerves reached the central masses (the groups of ampullee) may have
helped JAcoBson, in 1813, to arrive at the conclusion that the mucous canals of sharks
and rays were sensory organs (8).
During the first half of the present century, the lateral sense organs attracted the
attention of several investigators besides Jacopson, more especially Sr Huvarre,
TREVIRANUS, DE BLAINVILLE, Detta Cutase, Savi, Mayer, and Rogin. The central
62 PROFESSOR J. C. EWART ON THE
masses (groups of ampulla) which Jacopsown considered sense organs, St Hizarre (1801)
described as electric organs (9), and this extraordinary mistake was also made by MayER
(10) (1843), Jopert DE LAMBALLE (11) (1858), and M‘Donnetu (12) (1861). As early as
1822, BLAINVILLE (13) pointed out Sr Hinarre’s mistake; and Rosin (14) and several
others have confirmed the observations of BLAINVILLE, as to the correctness of which there
can no longer be any doubt, notwithstanding M‘DonNnELL’s statements to the contrary.
Unfortunately, Mr Darwin refers to M‘DonnELL’s observations, and remarks, in the
Origin of Species (p. 150, 6th edition) :—‘‘In the Ray ..... there is an organ near
the head, not known to be electrical, but which appears to be the real homologue of the
electric battery of the Torpedo.” M‘Donneti’s homologue of the torpedo’s battery,
which exists in sharks, as well as rays, will be afterwards described as the hyoid group
of ampulle.
TREVIRANUS (15), who was one of the first to describe the central masses (ampullary
groups) in sharks, considered them as sensory structures. Savi (16), Rosin, and others,
followed Jacospson and Trevrranus ; while Detia Cuiase (17), probably unacquainted
with Jacospson’s work, like Monro, considered the mucous canals as simply concerned in
the secretion of mucus.
But little real progress was made until Leypie and H. MUuuer directed their attention
to the subject. Lxypie’s first paper appeared in 1850 (18); but it was not until 1868 that
he published a full account of his observations. Lrypie’s monograph (Ueber Organe ewes
sechsten Simnes) is by far the most important work that has hitherto been published on
the lateral sense organs of fishes (19). The author points out that, from the morphologist’s
standpoint, not only the mucous canals—the sensory and ampullary canals—but also
the peculiar little follicles found in the torpedo by Savi, are all sensory organs. They
were together regarded by LEypic as the organs of a sixth sense.
H. Mutter, like Leypic, considered the follicles of Savi, as well as the two forms of
mucous canals (sensory and ampullary), as concerned in sensation rather than in secre-
tion. His observations (20) were published seventeen years before the important memoir
by Leypic. K6xiiKker (21) and Max Scuvtrze (22), prior to 1868, had pointed out the
existence of sensory cells in the follicles of Savi. .
Since 1868, amongst others who have worked at the lateral sense organs of fishes,
may be mentioned BouL, Gortrz, SEMPER, BAaLrour, SappeEY, BEARD, GARMAN, ALLIS, and
Frrrscu. Bout (23) refers especially to the structure of the ampulle and their canals.
Gortre (24), Semper (25), Batrour (26), and Brarn’s (27) work relates chiefly to the
development of the canals and their nerves; while Sappry’s (28) work is, in a manner,
an extension of the investigations of Monro. Garman (29), who studied the canals
chiefly with a view to ascertaining their value in classification, shortly describes and
figures their arrangement in a large number of sharks and rays; while ALLIs (30) gives
an able and exhaustive account of the lateral line system in Amia. Frirscu (81 and 32)
deals with the canal system in the Selachia as a whole, and also describes shortly the
lateral sense organs of the torpedo, and peculiar little follicles (spalt-pupillen) which he
SENSORY CANALS OF LAMARGUS. 65
discovered in the skate. Notwithstanding what has already been done, there does not
yet exist a complete and systematic account of the lateral sense organs of a single
Elasmobranch. As pointed out by various writers, the general anatomy of the canals
has been strangely neglected. When studying the sensory canals of Selachians, we have
still to fall back on the very meagre account of these structures given by Monro, or the
more elaborate, but in many respects unsatisfactory, work of SAPPEY.
Il. DEVELOPMENT AND GENERAL ANATOMY.
Recent work on the origin and development of the nervous system of vertebrates has
necessitated, more than ever, a full account of the structure and general distribution of
the sensory canals in both sharks and rays, and especially of an accurate description of
their innervation.
Now that the origin and distribution of the cranial nerves—more especially of the
trigeminal and facial—are better understood, and that the sensory canals have been
shown to be at the outset intimately related to certain cranial ganglia, we are in a
position to study their anatomy with the prospect of obtaining more valuable results
than was possible even a few years ago.
Although both systems of canals have reached a remarkable development in many
fishes, and sensory canals or furrows with well-developed sense organs exist in nearly all
fishes, it has not yet been possible to determine the function of either the sensory or
-ampullary canals. Not only is the use of the lateral sense organs still a mystery, but
also very little is known as to their development in Elasmobranchs. From what is
known, it appears to me that, in describing the.canals, special attention should be given
to their innervation. According to Brarp (27), an epiblastic thickening is found in young
embryo Selachians over each visceral cleft. Towards this thickening the dorsal root of a
cranial nerve grows outwards from the neural crest, reaching and blending with it on a
level with the notochord. Where the fusion takes place, the cells proliferate and give
rise to the rudiment of a cranial ganglion, and, more superficially, to the rudiment of a
lateral (branchial) sense organ. After a time, a separation takes place ; and, eventually,
the deeper group of cells gives rise to a ganglion, while the superficial gives rise to the
sense organ. A connection between the ganglion and the sense organ is maintained by
a nerve (the dorsal or supra-branchial nerve), which is split off from the under surface of
the epiblastic thickening as development proceeds. Though, by division and growth in
different directions, the original simple sense organ may become complex, the dorsal
nerve and its branches maintain a connection between the sense organs and their related
ganglion,
Taking these and other observations into consideration, together with what has
recently been made out as to the innervation of the sensory canals in Lemargus and
Raia, it appears that, while the lateral canal of the trunk in Elasmobranchs has been
formed in connection with a backward growth of the lateralis division of the vagus, the
64 PROFESSOR J. C. EWART ON THE
principal cranial canals have been formed in connection with three extensions of the
faciak—two forwards and one outwards. One of these divisions of the facial (the
ophthalmicus superficialis) has grown forwards above the eyeball, another (the buccal)
has grown forwards under the eyeball, and the third (the hyomandibular) outwards and
forwards behind the spiracle. The three canals in relation with these nerves should have a
corresponding position ; one should run forwards above the eyeball, one curve downwards
and forwards below the eyeball, and a third should lie behind the spiracle.
If we turn to Leemargus we first of all notice, all over the head, but especially above
and below the snout, a large number (over 1500) of small but perfectly distinct pores.
The majority of the pores have the margin slightly projecting and deeply pigmented.
Without much ditliculty it becomes evident that some of the pores serve as openings
for ampullary canals; while others lead by short tubules into sensory canals. If the
arrangement of the openings of the sensory tubules is studied, or if the canals from which
the tubules spring are exposed, it will be found that, as expected, one canal extends
above, while a second lies below the eyeball. The first, which is related to the
ophthalmicus superficialis nerve, may be known as the supra-orbital canal (8.0., figs. 1
and 2). The second, which is related to the buccal nerve, may be known as the infra-
orbital (1.0., figs. 1 and 2). But although the canals of the ophthalmic and buccal
divisions of the facial are easily recognised in Lemargus, there is some difficulty
in distinguishing the canal related to the hyomandibular division. This canal, though
not at first evident in Lemargus and other Selachians, is easily distinguished in the
ganoid Amia. By referring to figure 3 (Pl. II.), a canal (HM.) as complete and distinct
as the infra-orbital (I.0.) will be seen beginning on the same level as the infra-orbital,
and extending downwards and forwards along the mandible. This canal is supplied
throughout its entire length by the hyomandibular division of the facial, and it has the
same relation to the hyomandibular as the infra-orbital canal has to the buccal division
of the facial.
I propose to call this canal the hyomandibular canal. ALuis (30) describes it as the
operculo-mandibular ; but this name could not well be used for either sharks or rays, in
which, though the lower part of the canal is usually more or less complete, the proximal
part is never, so far as I know, present.
In the remarkable fish Chlamydoselachus (33), the mandibular portion (Q.), as shown
in figure 4, is complete, and, in addition, there is an extension forwards (ang.) to join
the infra-orbital and another backwards (j.) over the operculum, which bifurcates near its
margin, one division running upwards and forwards (sp., fig. 5), the other downwards
and forwards (g., fig. 4), to join the mandibular portion.
In Lemargus, the lower (mandibular) as well as the upper part of the hyomandi-
bular canal is absent ; and the only representative of the long canal of Amia is a short
horizontal canal (HM., fig. 1, Pl. I.) which runs backwards from the infra-orbital, external
to a well-marked fold of skin at the side of the mouth.
That this short canal belongs to the hyomandibular and not to the infra-orbital,
SENSORY CANALS OF LAMARGUS. 65
is clearly indicated by its being innervated by the hyomandibular branch of the
facial. ;
In addition to these three main cranial canals and the lateral canal of the trunk,
there are in Lemargus only two other canals :—(1) a canal (l.c., fig. 1, Pl. 1.) which
lies behind the auditory pores and serves to connect the canal systems‘of the two sides
(as this commissural canal is innervated by the lateralis nerve, it will be considered as
part of the lateral canal); (2) a short canal (0.t., fig. 1, Pl. L) continuous with the
lateral canal, which seems to form its most anterior portion, but as it is innervated by
the buccal branch of the facial nerve, it will be looked upon as belonging to the infra-
orbital canal. It thus appears that in Leemargus all the sensory canals are supplied by
two nerves—the vagus and facial, or to be more explicit, by the lateralis division of the
vagus and the ophthalmic, buccal, and hyomandibular divisions of the facial ; and hence
we might speak of the ophthalmic, buccal, hyomandibular, and lateral sensory canals.
Hitherto in Selachians, the sensory (mucous) canals have been studied per se, with the
result that an extremely complicated nomenclature has arisen. For example, GARMAN (29),
who refers shortly to Leemargus under the name of Somniosus carcharias, indicates the
presence of fourteen cranial canals, In doing this he follows the system of AGassiz and
most other writers, and practically takes no heed of the relation of the canals to the
cranial nerves, as has been recently done to a considerable extent by ALLis in his descrip-
tion of Amia. From the statement of Garmay, in his introductory chapter, that the
canals on “the head are innervated mainly from the fifth pair,” it may be inferred that
he has not directed his attention specially to the nerve-supply of the canals; the fifth, as
I have already indicated, taking no part in innervating the canals. To admit of the old
and complex nomenclature being compared with the simpler one I propose to use, I have
reproduced Garman’s figures of Leemargus (Somniosus—woodcuts A and B), and will in-
dicate, as I proceed, which of his canals correspond to the cranial canals I have already
mentioned, viz., the supra- and infra-orbital and hyomandibular canals.
In referring to the development of the lateral sense organs, it was mentioned that
while the superficial portion of each epidermic thickening gives rise to the rudiment of a
branchial sense organ, the deep portion assists in forming a cranial ganglion. According
to Bearp (27), there should be in a typical Selachian seven dorsal (supra-branchial) nerves,
and a corresponding number of sense organs—.e., (1 and 2) an ophthalmicus profundus
and an ophthalmicus superficialis of trigeminus in connection with sense organs over the
snout ; (3 and 4) an ophthalmicus superficialis of facial in connection with the supra-
orbital, and a ramus buccalis of facial in connection with the infra-orbital sense organs ;
(5 and 6) the glossopharyngeus and anterior vagus branches in connection with the supra-
temporal sense organs; and (7) the nervus lateralis of vagus with the organs of the
lateral line. Whether this supposed typical arrangement obtains in embryo Selachians
remains to be seen; but I have: not found that Brarp’s scheme holds for either fully
developed sharks or rays, and according to ALLIs it does not hold in the case of Amia. In
Amia, ALLIS states that “the trigeminal and ophthalmicus profundus take no part with
66 PROFESSOR J. C. EWART ON THE
any of their branches in the innervation of the canals or pit organs,” and that “ there is a
large and important operculo-mandibular line of organs,” in the innervation of which
none of the supra-branchial branches given in Brarp’s scheme take any part (30).
These statements as to Amia apply also to Leemareus, and the only essential difference
in the innervation of the canals in the two, in many respects, diverse forms, is that in
Leemargus I have not succeeded in finding a branch from the glossopharyngeal nerve to
any of the sense organs.
In view of the statement that the embryonic epidermic thickening assists in forming
a cranial ganglion as well as a branchial sense organ, it 1s worth specially noting that
each of the four nerves which sends branches to the sensory canals, 7.e., the ophthalmicus
superficialis, buccal, and hyomandibular divisions of the facial, and the lateralis
division of the vagus, presents some distance from its origin a well-marked ganglionic
swelling crowded with large nerve cells. In the skate these ganglia are relatively as
large as or larger than the ganglia on the profundus, trigeminal, and glossopharyngeal
nerves—nerves which in adult sharks and rays have not yet been found in connection
with lateral sense organs. It is further worthy of note that the buccal and superficial
ophthalmic ganglia are sometimes in contact with each other by their proximal ends.
From this it might be inferred that there has been a splitting of the original epidermic
thickening above the spiracular cleft, the splitting resulting not only in the formation
of two ganglia, but also of two sensory canals—the supra-orbital above, and the infra-
orbital below, the eyeball.
Ill. Tue Sensory Canats oF LAMARGUS.
The position of the four main canals already mentioned is indicated by their names.
The supra-orbital canal (S.0., fig. 1, Pl. I.) begins some distance in front of the auditory
pores and extends forwards towards the tip of the snout, which it perforates, and then
runs backwards to unite with the infra-orbital as it bends inwards towards the middle
line.
The infra-orbital (less the accessory otic portion ; 1.0., fig. 1), beginning in connection
with the supra-orbital, runs outwards behind the eyeball, and then forwards between the
eyeball and the mouth, and after communicating with the supra-orbital it bends inwards
and forwards towards the tip of the snout.
The hyomandibular (HM., fig. 1), communicating in front with the infra-orbital, runs
backwards in a nearly horizontal direction.
The laterals (L., fig. 1) continuous in front with the otic portions of the infra-
orbitals, after communicating with each other behind the auditory pores, run almost
directly backwards, one at each side of the trunk, until on a level with the posterior
margin of the lower lobe of the caudal fin, when they bend upwards to terminate on the
upper lobe of the fin, one at each side of the terminal portion of the vertebral column.
1. The Swpra-orbital Canal.—This, the canal of the superficialis ophthalmicus
SENSORY CANALS OF LAMARGUS. 67
division of the facial, represents the cranial (er.), rostral (7.), and subrostral (s7.) canals
of Garman (figs. A and B). Garman figures and describes the cranial (first portion of
the supra-orbital) as beginning in front of, and distinct from, the orbital (orb., fig. A), 7.e.,
the first portion of infra-orbital. This view I was at first prepared to accept; but on
cutting into the canals, I found that they not only communicate with each other, but
open to the exterior by a common pore.
The course of the supra-orbital canal will be best understood by a reference to
figure 1 (Pl. I.). Beginning 3°25 cm.* in front of the auditory pore, and 1 em. from the
middle line, it first bends outwards and forwards, and then forms a wide open curve
(S.0."), within which lie the openings of numerous ampullary canals.
On approaching the region of the nasal capsule, the canal runs inwards and then
forwards to perforate the snout, about 24 cm. from the middle line, and 1 cm. behind its
anterior margin. ‘Turning sharply backwards, it runs outwards, and then returns to the
dorsal aspect (S.0.*), arching over the nasal capsule to again reach the ventral surface ;
where, after curving first inwards and then outwards, it terminates (8.0.*) by communi-
eating with the infra-orbital canal (1.0.”).
The supra-orbital canal has, throughout the greater part of its length, a diameter of
from 3 to 4 mm.; but the first 3 or 4 cm., and the portion which curves over the
nasal capsule, are only from 24 to 3 mm. in diameter. The walls of the canal are from 1
to 14 mm. in thickness. The canal not only varies in diameter, but also in its relation
to the skin. Some parts lie in contact with the skin; while others lie embedded, some
distance from the surface, in the subcutaneous tissue. Usually, the portions in contact
with the skin have a smaller calibre than the portions lying deeper. Beginning in
contact with the skin, the canal, when about 3 cm. from its origin, sinks to a distance of
4mm. When on a level with the nasal capsule, it lies 6 mm. from the surface; and the
* The measurements refer throughout the paper to a fish that had a total length of 11 feet.
VOL. XXXVII. PART I. (NO. 5). M
68 PROFESSOR J. C. EWART ON THE
depth rapidly increases as it runs forwards to perforate the snout. The ventral portion
lies at an average depth of 5 mm.; but the part in front of the snout is deeper, while
the part over the nasal capsule is immediately under, or actually embedded in, the skin.
The supra-orbital canal contains numerous sense organs, and is perforated by two rows of
pores or apertures, an inner row for the nerves which reach and end in the sensory
hillocks, and an outer row of larger apertures, which lead into the tubules by which the
canal communicates with the exterior. The sense organs and tubules are shown on the
right side of figure 1.
Eighty-three tubules, and a corresponding number of sense organs, were found in the
supra-orbital canal of the specimen examined. Lach organ received a delicate branch
of the ophthalmicus superficialis nerve, the nerves entering by the minute pores nearly
opposite the inner ends of the tubules,
The length of the tubules varies almost constantly with the distance of the canal
from the surface. Some of them are under 2 mm. in length, while others are nearly
lcm, The majority of the tubules run obliquely outwards ; but a number proceed from
the outer surface of the canal directly through the skin. ‘The openings of the tubules
are from 1 to 1°5 mm. in diameter ; and the outer 2 or 3 mm. are distinctly pigmented.
The openings of the tubules are readily distinguished from the openings of the ampullary
canals. They are more regular in their arrangement than the openings of the ampullary
canals, and the margins are usually more deeply pigmented.
By comparing the supra-orbital canal of Leemareus with that of Chlamydoselachus
(cr., 7., s7., figs. 4 and 5), it will be noticed that it differs in several respects. Not only
is it not in a line with the lateral canal as is the case in Chlamydoselachus, but it neither
directly nor indirectly communicates with this canal ; and, further, unlike all the ordinary
Selachians, it returns to the dorsal surface of the snout as it proceeds backwards to join
the infra-orbital. This return to the dorsal surface seems to be due to the nasal opening
occupying a more outlying position than is usually the case. Posteriorly, the two supra-
orbitals bend inwards towards each other, and thus approach the arrangement in the
Holocephala, in which the connection between the canals of the two sides is accomplished
by the union of the supra-orbitals instead of the union of the laterals behind the auditory
pores. —
Innervation of the Supra-orbital Canal.—The nerve (the superficial ophthalmic of
facial (s.0.f,, fig. 1) of the supra-orbital canal gives off branches as it runs forwards over
the eyeball to the first (cranial) part of the canal. On reaching the nasal capsule, it
sends a branch downwards and outwards (s.0,f-”, fig. 1) to supply the sense organs of the
ventral part of the canal; and, then, as it passes forwards towards the end of the snout, it
gives off twigs for the sense organs in the part of the canal in front of the nasal capsule.
A more detailed account of the innervation of this and the other canals will be a
in a paper, in course of preparation, on the cranial nerves of Lemargus.
2. The Infra-orbital. Canal.—This canal (I.0.-I.0.', fig. 1), as already mentioned,
communicates at its origin with the supra-orbital, From the common opening it runs out-
SENSORY CANALS OF LAMARGUS. 69
wards nearly at right angles to the long axis of the head, and passes downwards behind
the orbit. Having reached the ventral aspect, it communicates with the hyomandibular
canal (HM., fig. 1), and then bends forwards and inwards to meet and communicate with
the supra-orbital canal (S.0.*, fig. 1), as it turns sharply inwards towards the middle line.
On the way it forms a characteristic forward projecting loop (I.0.’, fig. 1). On reach-
ing the middle line it blends, for a short distance, with the corresponding canal of the
opposite side (1.0.*, fig. 1). Leaving its fellow it runs outwards and forwards to sink
well into the substance of the snout, and terminate blindly about 6 mm. from its anterior
margin, and 14 cm. from the middle line (1.0.°, fig. 1). This canal corresponds to the
orbital (orb.), suborbital (so.), orbito-nasal (0.n.), nasal (n.), median (half of) (m.), and
prenasal (pn.), canals of GarMmaN (figs. A and B).
In diameter the infra-orbital resembles the supra-orbital. Narrow at first, it
gradually widens until it reaches the side of the head, where it contracts slightly, to
again expand as it reaches the under surface. With the exception of the median and
terminal portions, the ventral part of the canal has a diameter of from 3 to 4 mm.
The median portion is from 5 to 6 mm. wide, while the terminal portion varies from
2to3mm. The canal, at first in contact with the skin, soon sinks to a depth of 5 mm.,
but on reaching the level of the spiracle it again approaches the surface and remains all
but in contact with the skin until it joins the hyomandibular. Between this canal and
the supra-orbital, it les at a depth of nearly 5 mm.; but as it bends inwards it becomes
more superficial, lying at a depth of 3 mm. until it reaches the under surface of the
rostrum, where it sinks to a depth of 5 or 6 mm., and finally, at its termination, to a
depth of 1 cm.
Highty-seven twigs from the buccal nerve were found penetrating this canal to reach
and end in a corresponding number of sense organs. Of these nerves there were 24 in
the first part of the canal (orbital and suborbital), 11 in the second (orbito-nasal), 23 in
the third (nasal), 3 in the common median part, and 26 in the terminal (prenasal) part.
The nerve pores varied considerably in their arrangement ; near each other at first, they
became less numerous in the descending part of the canal, after which they were fairly
regular with the exception of the anterior (prenasal) part, in which they were especially
abundant. The distribution of the fibres of the buccal to the nerve hillocks is indi-
cated on the right side of figure 1.
This canal opens through the skin by tubules similar to those of the supra-orbital.
Altogether 86 tubules were counted, and, as a rule, they proceeded from the canal
opposite the pores for the entrance of the nerves. The majority of the tubules varied in
length with the distance of the canal from the surface; the dorsal tubules extended
backwards ; the majority of the ventral directly outwards; but those from the terminal
portion of the canal projected outwards and forwards. The irregular ventral part of the
infra-orbital canal comes into intimate relation with numerous ampullary canals ; the
openings of some of which are with difficulty distinguished from the openings of the
tubules, |
70 PROFESSOR J. C. EWART ON THE
The infra-orbital canal has a simpler course than in most Selachians, and the absence
of the suborbital loop, found, for example, in Acanthias, is especially noteworthy.
ALLIS considers the infra-orbital canal of Amia as the main canal of the cranial
system. He describes it as being “ directly continuous with the lateral canal,” 2.e., as
extending in Amia to the posterior boundary of the cranium (21, fig. 3, Pl. I.)—some
distance beyond the ‘ supra-temporal cross commissure” (lc., fig. 8).
The infra-orbital canal of ALLis is thus something more than the canal of the buccal
nerve, for it receives branches from the glossopharyngeal and vagus nerves; and this
being the case, it must presumably have originated from parts of three branchial sense
organs. It seems to me most desirable in dealing with the canals, to be guided as far as
possible by their innervation. Hitherto the canal of the lateral line has been usually
described as terminating at the anterior end of the trunk, 7.e., as not extending into the
head region ; but, seeing that the lateral canal is supplied throughout by a cranial nerve,
I fail to see why it may not be considered as extending into the head region. If it is
right to consider the supra-orbital canal as co-extensive with branches of the ophthalmicus
superficialis nerve, and the hyomandibular with branches of the hyomandibular nerve, in
other words, to consider the whole of the canals, or portions of canals, developed in
connection with any given nerve as forming one system, it is only logical to look upon
the whole of the canal or canals innervated by the lateralis nerve as forming one system,
and to consider the infra-orbital canal as coming to an end at the point where it ceases
to be supplied by the buccal nerve. Following this plan in the case of Amia, I would
describe the infra-orbital canal as beginning at the upper end of the hyomandibular canal
(HM.", fig. 3), and extending forwards and then downwards under the eyeball, after
communicating with the supra-orbital. If, as seems probable, the superficial ophthalmic
and buccal nerves and their ganglia have resulted from the splitting of a single nerve, it
might be more accurate, in the case of Amia, to consider the canal between the upper
end of the hyomandibular canal and the point at which the supra- and infra-orbital canals
separate from each other as a special (say otic) portion (ot., fig. 3)—formed from an
unsplit part of an embryonic sense organ—more especially as in Amia it is supplied by a
nerve (ot.n., fig. 3) which springs, according to ALL1s, directly from the facial ganglion,
The short portion (T., fig. 3) in Amia, between the upper end of the hyomandibular
(operculo-mandibular of ALis) and the supra-temporal cross commissure (Ic., fig. 3), 1
would describe as the temporal canal or canal of the glossopharyngeal nerve; and the
whole of the canal behind this, on to the end of the trunk, including the supra-temporal
cross commissure, I would describe as the lateral canal—the canal of the lateralis nerve.
If in the ancestral forms there was but a single cranial canal, as there is now only a
single canal in the trunk, it is possible that the single ancestral cranial canal is now
represented by the infra-orbital canal. This is a point, however, that may be made clear
when the development of these canals is worked out. Assuming that the infra-orbital
is the main canal of the head, as the lateral is the main canal of the trunk, the supra-
orbital would require to be looked upon as a dorsal offshoot from the infra-orbital ; and
SENSORY CANALS OF LAAMARGUS. zi
the hyomandibular, either as a ventral offshoot or as an independent canal, developed
from a branchial sense organ immediately behind the one in connection with which the
infra-orbital canal originated.
The supra-orbital offshoot may have been developed as the eye increased in size ;
while the hyomandibular offshoot or canal is in all probability correlated to the mandible,
and, when present, the operculum. It is, however, extremely probable that from the
first the main canal of the head forked on reaching the orbit, and thus formed supra- and
infra-orbital canals.
The accessory or proximal portion of the infra-orbital canal in Leemargus may be
known as the otic part (ot., fig. 1). Though continuous with the anterior part of the
lateral canal, it is not continuous with the infra-orbital. It may be considered as repre-
senting that part of the canal system in Amia containing the sense organs numbered 15
and 16 (fig. 3), which are supplied by the otic branch of the facial nerve.
The otic canal in the specimen of Leemargus under consideration is 2°5 cm. in length.
It begins 1 cm. behind and slightly further from the middle line than the common
terminal pore of the supra- and infra-orbital canals. It then bends outwards and back-
wards, and on the way gradually sinks to a distance of 4 mm. from the surface, and
becomes continuous with the cranial portion of the lateral canal.* The canal is penetrated
by four branches of the otic nerve, and it opens to the surface by four tubules, the anterior
tubule having a length of 3°5 mm., the others increasing in length from before back-
wards—the fourth measuring 7 mm.—the increase being partly due to the deeper position
of the canal, and partly to the posterior tubules running obliquely outwards through the
skin.
The part described as the otic canal I expected at first to find supplied by a dorsal
branch of the glossopharyngeal nerve—a nerve which, even in Amia, takes part in
innervating the lateral sense organs. Hitherto, however, I have failed to trace any
branches from the glossopharyngeal to either sensory or ampullary canals in Lemareus.
It is, however, possible that the most anterior portion of the lateral canal—the part
immediately continuous with the otic—is supplied by fibres which spring from the glosso-
pharyngeal nerve before it leaves the cranial cavity.
Innervation of the Infra-orbital Canal.—The otic portion is supplied by fibres which
leave the buccal nerve immediately after it separates from the superficial ophthalmic.
As the buccal passes outwards and forwards to run under the eyeball it gives off branches
for the first portion of the infra-orbital canal proper. It then divides into two main
branches, the inner of which supplies the sense organs of that part of the canal which
runs inwards and forwards under the rostrum, while the outer division supplies the sense
organs of the intermediate part of the canal.
3. The Hyomandibular Canal._—This canal (HM., fig. 1) which, as already
explained, is only partially represented in Leemargus, consists of a canal about 10 cm. in
length, which runs backwards and outwards from the infra-orbital canal. This part of
* This is supposing the glossopharyngeal nerve sends no branches to the sense organs,
72 PROFESSOR J. C. EWART ON THE
the hyomandibular corresponds to the angular and jugular canals (ang. and 7., fig. A) of
Garman. It lies immediately under the skin, and gradually diminishes in size from
before backwards. It receives eighteen branches from the hyomandibular nerve, and
communicates with the surface by eighteen tubules and a small terminal pore. The
majority of the tubules run directly outwards, and are consequently extremely short ;
but a few which run obliquely inwards are slightly longer.
As already mentioned, the hyomandibular (operculo-mandibular) is more extensive in
Amia than in Lemareus. Beginning on a level with the infra-orbital canal (HM.’,
fig. 3), it courses downwards and forwards to reach and extend along the entire length
of the mandible (HM.’, fig. 3). In the case of Chlamydoselachus, the lower or mandi-
bular portion (oral of GARMAN) is complete ; and there are, in addition, to use GARMAN’S
terms, angular (ang.), jugular (7.), spiracular (sp.), and gular (g.) portions (fig. 4).
In some sharks, the mandibulars are represented by a continuous commissural canal,
in others by two short isolated canals; but in the skate, as will be described in a future
paper, each hyomandibular gives off a long ventral loop, the outer limb of which reaches
the dorsal surface, and runs backwards to terminate in an offshoot from the lateral
canal.
Innervation of the Hyomandibular Canal.—The sense organs of the hyomandibular
canal in Leemargus are supplied by branches of the hyomandibular nerve, which leave the
main trunk in the region of the hyoid group of ampullee.
4. The Canal of the Lateral Line.—This canal may be said to. consist of three
portions :—(1) the trunk portion, which, beginning on a level with the spiracle, extends
backwards along the side of the body to end on a level with the terminal portion of the
vertebral column; (2) a transverse portion (/c., fig. 1), which runs inwards behind the
auditory pore to form with a corresponding portion from the canal of the opposite side
the temporal commissure; and (3) a short pre-commissural part (/p., fig. 1) which
runs forwards to join the otic portion of the infra-orbital. All the three parts (with the
possible exception of the portion immediately behind the otic) are supplied by the nervus
lateralis. The anterior or pre-commissural portion measured 1:25 cm. in length. It
receives branches from the most anterior fibres of the lateralis nerve, and opens to the
exterior by five tubules which curve outwards and backwards. This portion of the lateral
corresponds to.a part of the occipital canal of Garman (oc., fig. A). Further investiga-
tions may show that one or more of its sense organs are, as in Amia, supplied by the
glossopharyngeal nerve. The commissure (aural canals of Garman, au., fig. B) connect-
ing the two main lateral canals was 8 cm. in length. Running across from 3 to 4 mm.
beneath the surface and about 6 mm. behind the auditory pores, it opens through the
skin by sixteen short, delicate tubules, and its floor is perforated by sixteen pores for
branches of the most anterior fasciculus of the lateralis nerve. It may be mentioned that
in Chlamydoselachus, the temporal commissure lies in front of the auditory pores and
has no tubules (fig. 5). This difference in the relation of the canal to the auditory pores
is more apparent than real; for even in Chlamydoselachus the commissure lies behind
SENSORY CANALS OF LZ MARGUS, 73
the vertical parts of the Fallopian canals; and its apparent altered position is due to
these canals being continued some distance backwards under the skin, before opening to
the exterior. In Heptanchus, the aural portions of the lateral canals do not unite to
form a commissure ; while in Acanthias, the commissure, instead of running right across,
bends forwards a short distance between the auditory pores.
The main part of the lateral canal (L., fig. 1) begins on a level with the spiracle (sp.,
fig. 1), and runs backwards in a nearly straight line until on a level with the posterior
margin of the lower lobe of the caudal fin, when it bends downwards to reach the lower
edge of the caudal muscles. It then runs obliquely upwards along the edge of the
muscles to terminate on a level with the last seement of the vertebral column. Through-
out its whole extent, the lateral canal is tubular, and thus differs from the arrangement in
Chlamydoselachus and Heptanchus, in which the lateral canal is represented throughout
the whole, or nearly the whole, length by a groove or furrow. Along its entire length,
the lateral canal lies immediately beneath the skin, or partly embedded in its substance.
The first part of the lateral canal behind the commissure resembles the supra- and infra-
orbital canals ; it has nearly the same form and diameter as the part of the canal in front
of the commissure. But about 8 cm. beyond the commissure, the canal is reduced in size
(in the greater part of the trunk to, on an average, 2°5 mm., and in the caudal region to
about 2 mm. in breadth) ; and throughout it presents a somewhat flattened appearance.
The tubules are more slender in the trunk than in the head, and the apertures are slightly
smaller, and consequently less evident. The anterior tubules, owing to their running
obliquely outwards through the skin, are nearly one centimetre in length ; the remainder
are slightly shorter—the length, in all cases, depending chiefly on the angle at which they
traverse the skin. As in the cranial canals, the tubules are all quite simple.
Innervation of the Lateral Canal.—In the embryo Selachian, five sense organs are
said to lie above the five branchial clefts; one above the cleft of the glossopharyngeal
nerve, and four above the clefts of the four branchial divisions of the vagus. Hence, in
a typical condition, we might expect to find, extending from the auditory region back-
wards, a canal innervated by five dorsal (supra-branchial) branches; one branch from
the glossopharyngeal, and four branches from the vagus. If, however, we consider the
condition in the adult, we find, e.g., in the case of Amia, that while the glossopharyngeal
nerve supplies one of the cranial sepse organs, all the other (post-auditory) sense organs
are innervated by the nervus lateralis of the vagus complex. In Lzmargus, the
glossopharyngeal nerve has the typical branches, and a well-marked ganglion; but I
have failed to trace any of its fibres to the sense organs of the lateral canal. The four-
branchial divisions of the vagus are all well developed; they have in connection with
them an extremely large ganglion; nevertheless, they take no. part, as far as I can dis-,
cover, in innervating any portion of the lateral canal.
In all the specimens of Lemargus examined, the lateralis aon of the vagus has:
been the only nerve found passing to the lateral canal—the commissural.and pre-com-:
missural portions included. | Livi etree selene at ale cee srl
74 PROFESSOR J. C. EWART ON THE
It might be asserted that in the case of Leemargus, the sensory fibres of the five
dorsal branches of the branchial divisions of the vagus have united together to form the
lateralis nerve. A careful examination, however, of the lateralis seems to point to a
different conclusion. ‘The fibres which form the lateralis nerve spring from the side of
the medulla nearly in a line with the middle roots of the facial nerve ; and the anterior
fibres lie in front of, and on a higher level than, the roots of the glossopharyngeus.
Further, although the lateralis accompanies the other divisions of the vagus through
the long vagus canal behind the auditory capsule, it is only intimately related to the
nerve of the first vagus cleft. In connection with the lateralis and the first division of
the vagus (vagus I.) there is a ganglionic swelling crowded with large ganglionic cells.
‘Taking these and other facts imto consideration, it may be inferred that the lateral canal
has been mainly developed from a sense organ on a level with the first vagus cleft, and
in relation with a special group of sensory fibres (similar to those of the facial which
innervate the three cranial canals already described), which afterwards gave rise to the
lateralis nerve. It may be further inferred that by growing in different directions, this
embryonic sense organ has given rise to the pre-commissural, commissural, and trunk
portions of the lateral canal, with or without involving the branchial sense organs lying
above the second, third, and fourth vagus clefts.
IV. THe DorsaL BRANCHES OF THE CRANIAL NERVES.
Having succeeded in making out the innervation of the cranial canals in an Elasmo-
branch, in showing that the canals instead of being mostly supplied by the trigeminal,
as has been hitherto supposed, are intimately related to certain well-marked divisions or
branches of the facial and vagus nerves; and having in previous papers dealt with the
cranial nerves of Leemargus, Raia, and Torpedo, it is now possible to construct a plan
indicating the arrangement of the dorsal branches in an adult Selachian.
Leaving out of consideration the olfactory and optic nerves, the first nerve with a
dorsal branch is the ophthalmicus profundus (0.n., fig. 2). Notwithstanding the fact
that this nerve has a distinct root in embryo Elasmobranchs, that it sometimes remains
separate from the trigeminal in the adult, and that in Lemargus, Raia, Torpedo, and
others, it has a large ganglion lying sometimes a considerable distance in front of the
Gasserian ganglion, notwithstanding all these facts, this nerve has sometimes been
considered a part of the trigeminal, sometimes as belonging to the oculo-motor, or as
“a communicating nerve between the third and fifth” (36, p. 153).
A discussion of the views held as to the oculo-motor and profundus nerves would be
out of place in this paper. It is, however, desirable to say a word as to the composition
of a dorsal branch. In the case of the dorsal branch of a typical spinal nerve, the fibres
seem to be entirely distributed to the skin, and hence may be spoken of as somatic
sensory fibres. In the case of a typical cranial nerve, on the other hand, the dorsal
branch not only contains ordinary sensory fibres for the skin, but also special (in at least
SENSORY CANALS OF LAZAMARGUS. 75
a physiological sense) sensory fibres for the lateral sense organs. These fibres may be
known as special somatic sensory fibres.
In order to distinguish between these two kinds of fibres, those innervating the sense
organs might be known as the supra-branchial fibres of the dorsal branch. This would
admit of the term dorsal, so long in use, being retained in fishes and also in the higher
vertebrates in which the lateral sense organs, with some possible exceptions, and the
nerve fibres (supra-branchial) supplying them, have completely disappeared. Seeing
that not one of the many hundreds of sense organs in the skin of Selachians has been
found in the skin of adult higher vertebrates, we must expect in studying the dorsal
branches of the cranial nerves, even in fishes, some of the supra-branchial fibres, either
in process of degenerating, or entirely absent.
In the case of the ophthalmicus profundus in Leemareus, there are no lateral sense
organs (neither nerve hillocks, ampullee, nor pit organs) supplied by its dorsal branch,
2.e., What I have designated the supra-branchial fibres of the dorsal branch are either
absent altogether or have changed their function, and are now playing the part of
ordinary sensory somatic fibres. That they have degenerated (supposing they once
existed) and not changed their connections, may be inferred from the fact that when
the supra-orbital sensory canal disappears, its nerve, the superficial ophthalmic of the
facial, also disappears. That there is a supra-branchial sense organ in connection with
the ganglion of the profundus in the embryo, seems to have been placed beyond doubt,
but it has not yet been shown that the embryonic sense organ in connection with the
profundus either develops into canals or pit organs.
What then is the distribution of the dorsal branch of the profundus? The dorsal branch
(o.n., fig. 2), on leaving the large profundus ganglion (0.n.g., fig. 2) passes over the
eyeball under the rectus superior, rectus internus, and obliquus superior muscles, and
eventually reaches the anterior part of the snout, where it terminates in the skin. ‘The
profundus, which has a similar distribution in Raia and in Amia, also gives off several
branches which enter the eyeball. Some of these branches (long ciliary) arise from the
dorsal branch as it passes through the orbit (/c., fig. 2), others spring from the ganglion,
and either pass directly to the eyeball, or unite with a branch of the deep division of
the oculo-motor, having a similar destination. The ciliary ganglion (c.g., fig, 2) lies at
the junction of the profundus and oculo-motor fibres. Large ganglionic cells sometimes
extend a considerable distance along the dorsal branch, and ganglionic cells extend
from the profundus ganglion to form the ciliary ganglion at the junction of the deep
branch of the profundus (/7., fig. 2) with a branch (sr., fig. 2) from the oculo-motor (8).
The second nerve having a dorsal branch is the trigeminal (Tr., fig. 2); the dorsal
branch is the ophthalmicus superficialis trigemini. In sharks and rays this nerve sup-
plies the eyelids, and the skin over the anterior part of the cranium, but it also sends
fibres into the snout. More or less distinct in sharks, the superficial ophthalmic of the
trigeminal in rays consists of very few fibres which, on leaving the trigeminal, at once
more or less completely unite with the superficial ophthalmic of the facial.
VOL. XXXVII. PART I. (NO. 5). N
76 PROFESSOR J. C. EWART ON THE
The dorsal branch of the trigeminal, like the profundus, neither innervates sensory
nor ampullary canals. It may, however, supply some of the taste-buds found in the
roof of the mouth of certain fishes. If these taste-buds are modified lateral sense organs,
the nerves supplying them are hkely to be made up of supra-branchial fibres.
In Amia it has a similar distribution, but while not connected with canals or pit
organs, it supplies a number of surface sense organs, and anteriorly completely fuses with
the ophthalmicus profundus.
While there is no doubt as to the nature of the first two dorsal branches, it is difficult
to settle whether the third dorsal branch is represented by one or two nerves—whether
the superficial ophthalmic and buccal divisions of the facial together represent a single
dorsal branch. This question has been supposed to depend on a still larger question,
viz., whether, as suggested by Dourn (34), there is a hyomandibular segment behind the
mouth, and in front of the hyoid. If there are two segments—a hyomandibular and a
hyoid—between the mouth and the auditory region, we should expect to find two dorsal
nerves. In sharks there are undoubtedly two large nerves, each with a large ganglion,
extending forwards one above and one below the eyeball; but these two nerves may
have resulted from the splitting of a single dorsal branch. That this is the case, may be
inferred from the fact that the sensory thickening, which in the embryo lies above
the hyoid arch, bifurcates and grows forwards over the face. The superficial and
ophthalmic branches of the facial, and their related canals (supra- and infra-orbital), are de-
veloped in connection with the two forward growths from this sense organ above the hyoid.
The superficial ophthalmic of the facial (s.o.f,, fig. 2) is the first nerve that innervates
lateral sense organs. Unlike the profundus and the ophthalmic branch of the trigeminus,
it seems to be entirely made up of supra-branchial fibres, 2.e., of special sensory somatic
fibres.
Having left the buccal nerve (bu., fig. 2), the facial ophthalmic expands to form a
ganglion, and then passes forwards above the contents of the orbit, following more or
less closely the supra-orbital canal, all the sense organs of which it supplies. The rest
of its fibres reach the superficial ophthalmic group of ampulle (8.0.A., fig. 2). In Amia,
this nerve supplies a line of pit organs as well as the supra-orbital canal (8.0., fig. 3).
The buccal nerve (bu., fig. 2) is at first inseparably connected with the superficial
ophthalmic of the facial. In some cases (e.g., Laemargus) it leaves the ophthalmic on the
proximal side of the ganglion ; while in others (e.g., Amia) the two ganglia are united
at their proximal ends. In other words, the fusion is more complete in some cases than
in others ; or, according to the other and more likely view, the splitting is less extensive
in Amia than in Lemargus. The buccal, which like the ophthalmic of the facial, seems
to consist entirely of supra-branchial fibres, having left the ophthalmic, at once passes
outwards and downwards under the orbit, and divides into two main branches (buw.’, bu.2),
which he in intimate relation with the maxillary and mandibular divisions of the
trigeminal. The buccal supplies (1) the sense organs of the infra-orbital canal, and (2)
the inner and outer buccal groups of ampulle.,
SENSORY CANALS OF LHZMARGUS. 77
It seems at first sight remarkable that the sense organs of the snout in Selachians—
the sensory canals and ampullee—are not supplied as has hitherto been supposed by the
trigeminal, but by the facial, a nerve which, without doubt, belongs to a posterior
segment. It is, however, no more remarkable than the innervation of the entire length
of the lateral canal by the lateralis division of the vagus, and may be accounted for by
the two portions of the branchial sense organ, that in the embryo lies above the hyoid
cleft, growing forwards over the head (carrying their nerves with them) in very much
the same way as the lateral canal grows backwards along the trunk.
Although I have not thought it necessary to discuss the question as to the segmental
value of the ophthalmic and buccal divisions of the facial, I may state that, with Van
WisHE (35), I regard them as together representing a single dorsal branch, 2.e., that
they have both been developed in connection with a single branchial sense organ.
The next dorsal nerve, the hyomandibular (hm., fig. 2), also belongs to the facial.
It is an extremely large nerve in many Selachians, more especially in the skates, and,
unlike the dorsal nerves already considered, it runs outwards almost at right angles to
the long axis of the head. While the superficial and buccal branches of the facial have
in all probability been formed by the splitting of a single dorsal branch, much might be
said in favour of considering the large bundle of sensory fibres that. proceeds outwards
behind the spiracle, as representing an independent dorsal branch. If the sensory fibres
of the hyomandibular nerve represent one dorsal branch, and the ophthalmic and buccal
branches of the facial together represent a second dorsal braneh, there is no escape from
the conclusion that there are two nerves between the trigeminal and -auditory—a con-
clusion which supports strongly Doxrn’s contention that there is a hyomandibular as
well as a hyoid segment. On the other hand, it is possible that all the three dorsal
nerves, viz., ophthalmic, buccal, and hyomandibular; and their respective canals and
ganglia, have been formed in connection with a single branchial sense organ which grew
outwards behind the spiracle, as well as forwards above and below the orbit.
The large nerve which supplies the hyoid and mandibular* groups of ampulle,
and the hyomandibular sensory canal, has until recently been looked upon as a branch
of the trigeminal, and strangely enough has not found a place in the various schemes
prepared with a view to illustrating the branchial sense organs, and the segmental
arrangement of the cranial nerves. The hyomandibular nerve, made up entirely of
supra-branchial fibres, extends outwards behind the spiracle towards the great hyoid
group of ampulle (H.A., fig. 2). A large number of the fibres abruptly end in the
ampulle, others pass in front of or through the ampullary eapsule and end in the sense
organs of the hyomandibular canal (HM., fig. 2), and the mandibular group of ampulle
(M.A., fig. 2). A nerve (fa., fig. 2) corresponding to the facial of the higher vertebrates
hes in contact with the hyomandibular. It contains no supra-branchial fibres, but a branch
which runs backwards to the first branchial cleft may include some fibres for the skin.
* The mandibular group of ampullz, which is easily found in the skate, has not hitherto been referred to by any
writers on the lateral sense organs. F
78 PROFESSOR J. C. EWART ON THE
Leaving out of consideration the auditory nerve (Aw., fig. 2), the next dorsal branch
springs from the glossopharyngeus. This nerve I have traced to the skin over the
auditory region, but though I have not yet succeeded in tracing it to any of the sense
organs of sharks, I am inclined to believe that, as shown in the scheme (g/., fig. 2), it
innervates one or more of the sense organs immediately in front of the most anterior
organs supplied by the lateralis nerve, and also the auditory group of follicles (pit
organs) found in the skate. ALtis has shown that it supplies one sense organ, and a
long transverse row of pit organs in Amia (g/., fig. 3). Hence its direct relation to sense:
organs has been sufficiently established in at least one group of fishes. Pit, or at least
pit-like, organs are sometimes found in the mouth and pharynx of fishes, almost identical
with those in the skin. Sometimes they lie in the sides of the branchial clefts, and.
they are even said to extend into the cesophagus. The pit-like organs in the mouth are
usually described as taste-buds. In the mammal they are said to be innervated by the
glossopharyngeal nerve, and it has been suggested by Bearp and others that they are
modified lateral sense organs that have reached the back of the tongue, palate, &c.
through one or more branchial clefts. If the taste-buds are altered lateral sense organs
innervated by the glossopharyngeus, the fibres reaching them will belong to the dorsal
branch. It does not, however, follow that because the taste-buds are innervated by the
glossopharyngeal they are altered lateral sense organs, for the nerves reaching them may
spring from the pharyngeal branch, and consist of special sensory splanchnic fibres.
The next dorsal branch (/n., fig. 2) arises from the great vagus complex. It is not
yet possible to speak definitely as to the dorsal branches of the vagus for the reason that
it has not yet been determined how many of the branchial sense organs lying above the
branchial clefts of the vagus take part in the formation of the lateral canal. According to
BrarD (27), “the ‘ lateral line’ has arisen solely by the extension and multiplication of
the primitive branchial sense organs of the vagus.” He observes they are ‘‘ connected in
development, being formed from one continuous sensory rudiment, and as they form one
physiological whole, we could expect a connection in the adult.” Brarp describes first
what he terms vagus L., z.e., the nerve of the first vagus cleft. It appears that from the
long sensory thickening above the vagus clefts, to which the broad band representing all
the vagus nerves grows out, there is soon slightly separated the anterior portion which
gives rise to the ganglion of vagus I., and later, to part of the supra-temporal branchial
sense organs. ‘The rest of the sensory thickening is described as growing backwards along
the lateral surface of the trunk, 7.¢., the sensory cells, ‘“‘ which anteriorly give rise to the
compound vagus ganglion (v.g. 2, 3, and 4), repeatedly and rapidly divide,” and thus
give rise to the “lateral line.” Again, it is stated, “each of the elementary nerves
making up the vagus compound, viz., v.g. 2 and 3, and the intestinal branch, v.g. 4 and_5,
takes part in the formation of the so-called ‘lateral line.’” In other words, ‘the lateral
line is made up of supra-branchial nerves of at least four segmental nerves, probably of
more than four, viz., vagus 2,3, 4, and 5.” It is further stated, that there is only one supra-
branchial branch—the lateral nerve—for all the elements of the vagus except the first (27).
SENSORY CANALS OF LAMARGUS. 79
From these statements I infer that while the supra-branchial branch of vagus I. (the
nerve of the first vagus cleft) supplies thesupra-temporal sense organs, the united supra-
branchial branches of vagus II., III., [V., and V. form the lateralis nerve and innervate
the sense organs of the lateral canal of the trunk, or, more accurately, the sense organs of
the lateral canal not supplied by vagus I.
In the case of the facial the majority of the sensory fibres for the sensory canals,
v.e., the fibres of which the superficial ophthalmic, buccal, and the greater part of the
hyomandibular nerves are largely composed, escape at a comparatively high level from
the side of the medulla. From the side of the medulla in front of and on a higher level
than the root of the glossopharyngeal and the rootlets which unite to form the chief
portion of the vagus, there escape a number of fibres which unite to form the nerve
(lateralis) which supplies the entire length of the lateral canal, the temporal commissure
included. In Lemargus this nerve lies in intimate relation with the first division of
the vagus (vagus I.). In the skate, it is from the first a distinct nerve, with an inde-
pendent ganglion (i.g., fig. 2), but it may receive fibres from the branchial divisions of the
vagus. In Lemargus the three posterior branchial divisions of the vagus, together with
the intestinal branch, are inseparably united, and in connection with one long ganglion,
but they send no distinct branches to the lateralis nerve. In Raia, the three posterior
branchial branches of the vagus, and the intestinal branch, are in contact with each
other, but not blended, and each, like vagus I., has a distinct ganglion (I.-V., fig. 2), but,
as in Lemargus, they send at the most very slender branches to the lateralis nerve. The
condition in the adult thus seems to indicate that the lateral canal as above described
has mainly arisen from the branchial sense organ above the first vagus cleft, and that the
epidermic thickenings above the second, third, and fourth vagus clefts, while probably
assisting in forming a long ganglion (Lemargus), or four separate ganglia (Raia), have
taken little or no part in forming the ‘‘lateral line.” The lateralis nerve behind the
first branchial cleft consists entirely of special sensory somatic fibres ; in front, it seems
to be accompanied by a few ordinary sensory fibres which reach the skin.
If figure 2 is compared with the schemes previously published, it will be found to
differ in several important points. It contains not only the dorsal but also the more
important branchial and visceral branches, and in addition to the sensory canals, the
various groups of ampullee, and also the follicles or pit organs.
it is not intended to represent the arrangement in any given Hlasmobranch, but
rather to indicate the position, innervation, &c., of the lateral sense organs in a Selachian
having these structures well developed. In the schemes hitherto constructed, the relation
of the profundus nerve to the ciliary ganglion, and to the oculo-motor nerve, is not
shown, and it is taken for granted that the profundus supplies a group of sense organs.
This scheme represents (1) the dorsal branch of the profundus (0.n.) proceeding to the tip
of the snout without supplying either sensory or ampullary canals; (2) the long ciliary
nerves (/.c.) passing to the eyeball; and (3) the offshoot (/.7.) to the ciliary ganglion (c.g.);
this offshoot may, perhaps, be looked upon as a visceral branch.
80 PROFESSOR J. C. EWART ON THE
The trigeminal (¢7.) agrees with the trigeminal of other schemes ; but as in the case of
the profundus, it is not represented as taking any part in innervating lateral sense
organs. It gives off a dorsal branch (s.0.¢.), and sends one branch (m.z.) in front of, and
a second (m.d.) behind the mouth.
There is, however, a marked difference between the facial of this and other schemes.
The facial was considered by MarsHAtt (36) as a simple and typical nerve, and it has been
represented as possessing a single root, a single root ganglion, and as breaking up into
the three typical branches, 2.e., dorsal, pre- and post-branchial branches—the dorsal branch
forking as it proceeds forwards. In my scheme the facial is represented as arising by
five roots and possessing three large dorsal branches, each with a ganglion. One of the
roots (fa.) lies immediately in front of the auditory nerve. This root, which has an
independent ganglion, and represents the facial of the higher vertebrates, breaks up into
four branches—a dorsal (d,f:), which passes backwards towards the first branchial cleft ;
a small pre-branchial (p.s.) in front of the spiracle; a larger post-branchial (p.b.), which
passes behind the spiracle round the hyomandibular cartilage to proceed to the mucous
membrane of the mouth within the hyoid arch; and a pharyngeal (p.l.) which supplies
the roof of the mouth. As the post-branchial branch bends forwards, it sends a few
fibres to the muscles in the region of the hyoid cartilage and the jaw arches. These
motor branches reach a large size in the torpedo, and they represent the main portion of
the facial of higher vertebrates.
Two of the dorsal branches—the superficial ophthalmic (s.o,f) and buccal (bu.)—
result from the splitting of an originally simple branchial sense organ. The superficial
ophthalmic passes above the eyeball to supply the supra-orbital canal, and the superficial
ophthalmic group of ampulla. The buccal passes below the eyeball and supplies the
infra-orbital canal and the inner and outer buccal groups of ampulle. The third dorsal
branch—the segmental value of which is not yet known—runs outwards behind the
spiracle and supplies the hyomandibular canal and the hyoid and mandibular groups
of ampullz. This hyomandibular nerve has not hitherto found its way into any of the
schemes intended to show the general arrangement and distribution of the cranial nerves.
The glossopharyngeal in my scheme agrees in its arrangement with that of other
schemes. It is represented as giving off the four typical branches. The dorsal one I.
have represented as supplying a short part of the great lateral canal as well as a row of
pit organs; but I ought to mention that though this is the distribution of the glosso-
pharyngeal in Amia (30), it has not yet been traced to sense organs in Selachians.
The vagus complex, as shown in my scheme, differs very considerably from the vagus
of other writers. I have found it far more simple and primitive than I expected. The
usual plan has been to represent the vagus as made up of (1) one separate nerve with
a ganglion for the first vagus cleft, and (2) of a compound nerve with one large ganglion
made up of fibres for the three or four remaining clefts. The first nerve (vagus I.) has
been described as having a dorsal branch for the supra-temporal commissure, while the
nerve for the lateral line of the trunk has been described as springing from the large
SENSORY CANALS OF LAMARGUS. 81
compound nerve, and made up of four sets of dorsal fibres—the dorsal branches of vagus
Il, Ill, IV., and V. In my scheme, which represents the arrangement in Raia and
Lamna, the lateralis nerve is represented as springing by a special set of fibres on a
higher level and partly in front of the glossopharyngeal, and it supplies not only the
lateral line (the lateral canal of the trunk), but also the temporal commissure and a
portion of the great lateral canal in front of the commissure. The lateralis either receives
from or gives slender branches to the four or five divisions of the vagus as it proceeds
backwards ; but whether this implies that all the divisions of the vagus have contributed
to the formation of the lateralis, 1 am not yet in a position to say. Strangely enough,
the lateralis has a special and distinct ganglion.
Vaeus I., IL, and III., in the case of the skate, are all separate nerves, and each has a
ganglion, visceral, pre- and post-branchial branches. Vagus IV., which has also the
usual branches, is intimately connected with the intestinal division, but the ganglia are
partly or completely separate. In the skate there are thus in connection with the vagus
six ganglia. The value of these, and especially the origin of the ganglion of the lateralis,
whether it arises independently or from vagus I., or from all the branchial divisions of the
vagus, are points well worth further investigation.
It is worthy of note that all the groups of ampulla—the superficial ophthalmic
(S.0.A.), inner (I.B.A.) and outer (O.B.A.) buccal, hyoid (H.A.) and mandibular (M.A.,
fig, 2)—are supplied by dorsal branches of the facial, and that the lateralis, in addition
to supplying the entire length of the lateral canal, innervates (e.g., in Mustelus and
Raia) a row of pit organs (p.o.l., fig. 2).
CoNCLUDING OBSERVATIONS.
Although from a morphological point of view there seems no doubt that the sensory
canals subserve some important function, it has not yet been discovered by actual
experiment what this function is.
GARMAN (29) thinks that it has been pretty well established that the function of the
sensory canals is “that of very delicate tactile organs receiving and carrying the slighter
vibrations of the water, noting changes of density, currents, &c.”
It is now most desirable that experiments should be instituted, under favourable
conditions, to test the various suggestions made as to the function of both the sensory
and ampullary canals. In view of further experiments being undertaken, I cannot do
better, in concluding this paper, than point out some of the more striking modifications
of the sensory canals found in Elasmobranchs.*
In the first place, in some of the sharks, as already noted, a furrow takes the place of the
greater extent of the lateral canal. In Chlamydoselachus, e.g., the lateral canal, with the
exception of a small part behind the temporal commissure, is represented by a groove,
guarded by overlapping scales. In Heptanchus maculatus, the canal opens into a groove
* For outline figures showing the arrangement of the canals, see GARMAN (29).
82 PROFESSOR J. C. EWART ON THE
on a level with the anterior part of the pectoral fin; while in Acanthias, the canal is
closed except for a short distance in the caudal region. In as far as these species have
furrows, they agree with Chimeera, in which grooves take the place of canals in the head
as well as in the trunk, but differ from Callorhynchus, which has canals like the skates
and rays, and the majority of the sharks. The difference, however, between canals and
furrows is, in most cases, more apparent than real, as the sense organs which lie in the
furrows are protected by overlapping scales or folds of skin, which practically convert the
furrows into canals.
In some sharks, the arrangement of the canals is simpler and the tubules less
numerous than in others. In Lemargus and Heptanchus, the arrangement of the canals
is very simple. Their length has not been greatly increased by the formation of loops,
and the tubules are short and never break up into branches before opening on the
surface. But in the extremely active thresher shark Alopias, there is a loop on the infra-
orbital under the eyeball; and the mandibular part of the hyomandibular is well
developed and provided with long branching tubules. But Alopias is especially noticeable
for the remarkable development of the lateral canal and its tubules, which are not only
extremely abundant, but are of unusual length, and give off numerous branches.
It is extremely probable that the remarkable development of the tubules in Alopias is
related to the active pelagic habits of the fish, which in this respect differs strikingly
from Lemargus, which, from its being frequently taken in the beam trawl, seems to move
about in a leisurely manner, near the bottom.
Further evidence of a relation between the development of the sensory canals and the
habits of the fish is especially found among the skates and rays (Batoidei). In the
common skate (aia bates) the expansion of the pectoral fins has been accompanied with
a great extension of the hyomandibular canal ; and the appearance of long, dorsal offshoots
or branches from the lateral canal.
That there is a relation between the extent of the sensory canals and the size of the
pectorals is placed beyond doubt by comparing the condition of the canals in the more
specialised Batoidei with such shark-like forms as Rhinobatis and Pristis. In these,
although the ventral loop so characteristic of the Batoidei has made its appearance, it is
very short and narrow, not reaching as far as the first branchial cleft.
As fully explained in a paper in process of preparation, the hyomandibular in the
skate has extended backwards external to the branchial region to form a long, wide,
ventral loop, one end of which passes to the upper surface to form, with a branch from
the lateral, a long and still wider dorsal loop over the pectoral fin ; while a second branch
from the lateral extends over the fin behind the loop.
By these extensions and folds an extremely sensitive apparatus has been arranged
over the surface of the pectoral fin. Though, in the meantime, it is impossible to
account for these complex arrangements of the sensory canals, it may be taken for granted
that they are far from meaningless.
In the rays there seems to be, as in the sharks, a relation between the development
ia ———
SENSORY CANALS OF LAMARGUS. 83
of the sensory canals and the habits of the fish. In the sluggish members of the Batoidei,
the canals are in a more or less vestigial condition ; while in the active forms they are
amazingly complex. For example, in Narcine brazilensis, a small inactive torpedo found
often in brackish water on the east coast of Central America, in the Caribbean Sea, and
on the coasts of the West Indian Islands, the whole of the ventral canals are absent, and
the supra-orbital stops short on a level with the nasal capsule; and while the dorsal loop
is present, the post-scapular branch is undeveloped. Moreover, the tubules are few in
number, short and simple, and the number of the sense organs is limited.
In the torpedoes, a similar state of matters prevails. They are all, apparently, in the
habit of resting long on the bottom; and with the possible exception of one or two
species, they seldom seem to move, save in the most sluggish fashion. As the sluggish
habits were gradually acquired, the extent of the sensory canal system, it may be pre-
sumed, has been gradually reduced. The ventral sensory canals having become useless,
natural selection has made no effort to preserve them, with the result that only vestiges
are left in the form of small vesicles—the follicles of Savi—one for each of the sense
organs that persist in connection with the ventral branches of the facial nerve. At the
same time, the dorsal sensory canals are, compared with the skate, less highly developed ;
the canals are simpler in their arrangement; the post-scapulars are entirely absent; and
the tubules in most species are simple, short, and few in number.
If, from the sluggish electric rays, we turn to the active Mylobatide, eg., to
Dicerobatus, the difference in development is most striking; the area covered by the
tubules and their numerous branches being far more extensive than in the common
skate ; the openings of the tubules being especially numerous on the ventral surface,
and on the dorsal surface near the margins of the pectoral fins, and at each side of the
middle line of the trunk. The ventral loop, which even in the skate is almost destitute
of tubules, has in Dicerobatus reached an extraordinary development, and throws
numerous branching tubules backwards towards the pelvic fin; and there is a row of
tubules along the entire length of the anterior border of the pectoral fin. On the dorsal
surface, the branching tubules from the lateral canal are so numerous that they seem to
form a network at each side of the middle line—some of them even meet in the middle
line, and thus form trunk commissures ; and a large number of branching tubules occupy
the area enclosed by the dorsal pectoral loop.
Judging from the complexity of the sensory canals, and especially from the
abundance of the tubules—the feelers of the canals—which they throw out in all
directions, it may be concluded that whatever their function, they are of the utmost
importance.
It may be presumed that they take up and transmit various kinds of impressions
other than those which are taken cognisance of by the sense organs of the auditory
apparatus. Whether they enable the fish the better to obtain its food, or the better to
escape from its enemies, or both, remains to be made out. In comparing Dicerobatus
with the skate (Raia batis) and the torpedo (7. marmorata), one is especially struck with
VOL. XXXVII. PART I. (NO. 5). )
84 PROFESSOR J. C. EWART ON THE
the difference in the condition of the sensory canals of the ventral surface. In the
torpedo the ventral loop is entirely absent, and there are only a few follicles under the
snout, representing the anterior canals. In the skate, the ventral loop and the various
ventral portions of the cranial canals are well developed, but the tubules are extremely
few in number—the long loop only possessing nine in all. In Dicerobatus, as pointed
out above, the ventral loop and its tubules have reached a state of great elaboration.
These differences might very well be accounted for by the differences in the mode of life
of the three forms. The torpedo moves about little, and trusts both for its defence and
its food to its batteries ; and the sensory canals are, as it were, only sufficiently developed
to enable it to appreciate ordinary disturbances in its immediate vicinity.
The skate moves about more than the torpedo, but less than Dicerobatus ; but in its
movements it usually keeps close to the bottom, and apparently it has comparatively few
enemies. It is far less often captured by other fish than one would naturally suppose ;
and it seems to have little difficulty in obtaining its food. Hence, though the ventral
loop is present, it possesses few tubules ; and, though the dorsal canals are well developed,
the tubules are simple and less numerous than in Dicerobatus.
As to the habits of Dicerobatus, little is known ; but it undoubtedly differs from both
the torpedo and the skate. Instead of resting almost constantly on, or merely skimming
along the bottom, it is in the habit of taking long flights through the water. This prob-
ably accounts for the great development of the tubules of the ventral loop. Why the
dorsal tubules are so enormously complex is more difficult to account for; but their
development may have some relation to the unprotected condition of the tail, which is
not only devoid of a spine, but comparatively short and powerless.
Taking into consideration the marked difference between the sensory canals of the
sharks and those of the skates and rays, it will be well, before dealing further with the
sharks, to give an account of the sensory canals in one of the Batoidei—this I hope to do
in a subsequent communication.
(For Explanation of Plates see page 102.)
| BIBLIOGRAPHY.
DADA wD H
SENSORY CANALS OF LAIMARGUS. 85
BIBLIOGRAPHY.*
Ewart, “On the Cranial Nerves of Elasmobranch Fishes,” Roy. Soc. Proc., vol. xlv., 1889.
. Ewart, “The Cranial Nerves of the Torpedo,” Roy. Soc. Proc., vol. xlvii., 1890.
Ewart, ‘On the Development of the Ciliary or Motor Oculi Ganglion,” Roy. Soc. Proc., vol. xlvii., 1890.
. Stenonis, De Musculis et Glandulis Observationum specimen, &c., Amst., 1664.
. Stenonis, Llementorum Myologie specimen, &c., Amst., 1669.
. LorEnzint, Osservaziont intorno alle Torpedint, Firenze, 1678 ; Lond., 1705, Angl.
. Monro, The Structure and Physiology of Fishes, 1785.
. Jacoznson, “ Extrait d’un Mémoire sur un Organe particulier des Sens dans les Raies et les Squales,” Vouv.
Bull. des Sciences, par la Société Philomatique de Paris, 1813, vi. p. 332.
. St Hinaree, “Sur Anatomie des Organes électriques,” &c., Ann. du Mus., i. p. 392, 1801.
. Mayr, Spicilegium Observationum anatomicarum de Organo electrico in Raiis anelectricis, 1843.
. Lapaz, Des Appareils électriques des Poissons électriques, 1858.
. M‘Donnett, ‘Electric Organs of the Skate,” Wat. Hist. Review, p. 59.
. DE Buarnvitie, Principes d’ Anatomie comparée, 1822, I.
. Rosin, Bull. Soc. Philomatique, 1846; Ann. Sc. Nat. (3° sér.), vii. pp. 193-204.
. Treviranus, “Ueber die Nerven des fiinften Paars als Sinnesnerven,” Vermischte Schriften anat. und
physiol. Inhalts., 1820.
. Savi, Atti della terza Riunione degli Scienziati Italiani in Firenze, 1841; ‘Etudes anatomiques sur la
Torpille,” 1884, in Matheucci Traité des Phénoménes Electro-physiologiques des Animaux.
. Dewie Curasn, Lnstituzione di Anatomia comparata, 1836; ‘‘ Anatomiche Disamine sulle Torpedini,” in
Atti del Reale Instituto a Incorragiamento alle Scienze Naturali di Napoli, vi., 1840.
. Luypie, ‘‘ Ueber die Schleimcanile der Knochenfische,” 1850, Miiller’s Archiv Anat.
. Leypie, ‘ Ueber Organe eines sechsten Sinnes, 1868, Vova Acta Acad. Caes Leop. Nat. Curios. xxxiv. 93.
20.
. Kounixer, “Ueber..... Savi’s Appareil folliculaire nerveux,” Verhandl. phys.-med. Gesellschaft zu
Miuuter, H., Verhandlungen der phys.-med. Gesellschaft zu Wirzburg, 1851.
Wiirzburg, 1858.
. Max Scuurzn, Untersuchungen tiber den Bau der Nasenschleimhaut, 1862.
23.
. Gortte, Entwicklungsgeschichte der Unke, 1875.
. Semper, Das Urogenitalsystem der Plagiostomen und seine Bedeutung fiir das der Uebrigen Wirbelthiere,
Bout, “ Die Lorenzinischen Ampullen der Selachier,” 1868, Schultze’s Archiv fiir mikr. Anat., iv.
1875.
. Batrour, The Development of Elasmobranch Fishes, 1878 ; Comparative Embryology, 1881.
. Bearp, “The Branchial Sense Organs and their Associated Ganglia in Ichthyopsida,” &c., Quart. Journ.
Micro. Sc., 1885.
. Sapper, Etude sur Appareil mucipare, &c., 1879.
. Garman, “On the Lateral Canal System of the Selachia,” &c., Bull. Mus, Comp. Zool., vol. xvii. No. 2.
. Auuis, “The Anatomy and Development of the Lateral Line System in Amia calva,” Journal of Mor-
phology, vol. ii.
. Frirscu, ‘‘ Ueber Bau und Bedeutung der Kanalsysteme unter der Haut der Selachier,” Sttzungsberichte
d. Konigl. Akad. d. Wissensch. zu Berlin, 1884, Halbbd. I.
. Fritscu, Die Hlectrischen Fische, Die Torpedinen, Leipzig, 1890.
. Garman, “ Chlanvydoselachus anguineus, 1885, Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool., xii.
. Doury, “Studien zur Urgeschichte des Wirbelthierkirpers,” No. 7, Mitthedl a. d. Zool. Stat. zu Nesp,
vol. vi. part 1.
. Van Wine, Ueber die Mesodermsegmente u. die Entwicklung der Nerven des Selachierkopfes, Amsterdam,
1882.
. Marsnatt, “The Segmental Value of the Cranial Nerves,” Jour. Anat. and Phys., 1882, p. 164
* A more complete list of works on the Lateral Sense Organs will be found in GARMAN’s paper (29).
PROFESSOR EWART ON THE SENSORY CANALS OF LAMARGUS.
Vol. XXXVI.
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VL.—On the Lateral Sense Organs of Elasmobranchs. Il. The Sensory Canals of the
Common Skate (Raia batis). By J. C. Ewart, M.D., Regius Professor of Natural
History, and J. C. Mircuert, B.Sc., University of Edinburgh. (Plate III.)
(Read 21st December, 1891.)
INTRODUCTORY.
In the paper on the sensory canals of Leemargus, communicated to the Royal Society
in July last, it was pointed out that the arrangement of the sensory canals differed con-
siderably in the Batoidei from that in Selachoidei, and it was mentioned that the sensory
canals of the skate would be next described.
The skate has been selected chiefly because the sensory canals are more typical than
in the torpedoes and the whip and sting rays. In the torpedoes some of the canals are
in a vestigial condition; while in the rays proper they have in most species undergone
_ great specialisation. But another reason is, that an account of the development of the
lateral sense organs in the skate is likely ere long to be published ; and, further, the skate
will be more easily obtained and kept under observation than the rays, when physiologists
eventually direct their attention to the lateral sense organs of Elasmobranchs.
In describing the sensory canals of the skate, an acquaintance with the papers on
the sensory canals (1) and the cranial nerves (2) of Leemargus will be taken for granted.
THE GENERAL ANATOMY AND INNERVATION OF THE SENSORY CANALS.
The lateral sense organs in the skate consist of (1) sensory canals; (2) ampullary
canals ; and (8) sensory follicles or pit organs. As in Leemargus, the sensory canals may
be said to consist of four main canals—viz., (1) a supra-orbital; (2) an infra-orbital ; (3)
a hyomandibular; and (4) a lateral canal. The ampullary canals radiate from five
centres, their inner dilated ends giving rise to five groups of ampulle. _ One, the most
posterior (hyoid) group of ampullee, lies at the outer end of the hyomandibular cartilage ;
a second (the superficial ophthalmic) group lies at the side of the rostrum ; a third (the
inner buccal) group lies in front of the nasal capsule; a fourth (the outer buccal) group
lies in front of the antorbital cartilage ; while the fifth (the mandibular) group lies near
the outer end of themandible. The sensory follicles (‘‘ spalt-papillen ” of Frrrsc#) consist
of three rows of shallow pits, one of which lies internal to the canal of the lateral line, a
second row lies under the orbit, and a third row near the auditory pores.
In the Lemargus paper it is pointed out that Srenonis discovered the openings of
the mucous (ampullary) canals of the skate in 1664, and that both the ampullary and
sensory canals were discovered some years later (1678) in the torpedo by Lorenz1nq, who,
VOL. XXXVII. PART I. (NO. 6). P
88 PROFESSOR J. C. EWART AND MR J. C. MITCHELL ON THE
in addition to distinguishing the simple (ampullary) from the branched (sensory) canals,
noted and described the expansions, now usually known as the ampullee of LorEnzint,
at the inner ends of the simple canals. Reference was also made to the work of Monro
secundus, who, in his memoir “ On the Structure and Physiology of Fishes” (1785),
figures, without describing, several of the sensory as well as the more important am-
pullary canals. The most ambitious paper since the time of Monro, dealing with the
lateral sense organs of the skate, is one by Sappry (3). Unfortunately, Sappry’s account
of the sensory canals is far from complete, and there is no reference to their innervation.
The groups of ampullee are described as glands for secreting mucus, and the ampullary
canals as ducts for conveying the mucus to the surface ; and all the ampullee are said to
be supplied by the trigeminal nerve. It is difficult to make out which of the skates
Sappey examined. From the drawings it appears to be Ff. clavata, but the arrangement -
of the canals in both clavata and batis very decidedly differs from Sappry’s figures.
Three other investigators have considered at some length the lateral sense organs of
the skate, viz., MmrKEL, GarMAN, and Fritscu. Merxket (4) evidently failed to make out
the arrangement of the sensory canals in the skate, more especially the hyomandibular
canal, which is represented in one of his figures as springing from the great lateral canal,
a condition which does not obtain in any Elasmobranch.
Garman (5), following Acassiz, studied the sensory canals mainly with a view to
determining their value in classification. To admit of this, he examined and prepared
outline figures of the canals of a large number of skates and rays. Necessarily, the
descriptions are very short, and, as pointed out in the previous paper, there is no attempt
to consider.the canals either in reference to their development or innervation, with the
result that a somewhat complex nomenclature has been introduced. Nevertheless, the
figures and short descriptions of a large number of species cannot but be of service to the
comparative morphologist as well as to systematists. Again and again we have found
them most useful. Frirscx (6), in addition to giving a short account of the canal system
of the torpedo, has described a special form of sense-organ in the skate, to which he has
given the name of “spalt-papille.” Frrrscu’s spalt-papille probably correspond to the
minute pit organs of Amia, Mustelus, and Squatina.
The four main sensory canals are related to the same nerves as in Lemargus. The
supra-orbital (S.0."°, figs. 6 and 7, Pl. III.), or canal of the ophthalmicus superficialis branch
of the facial, runs forwards above the eyeball, pierces the snout, and then extends back-
wards external to the nasal capsule to communicate with the infra-orbital. The infra-
orbital (1.0."*, figs. 6 and 7), or canal of the buccal nerve, passes downwards and forwards
external to the eyeball, and then backwards along the ventral surface to bend inwards
and forwards after communicating with the supra-orbital and the hyomandibular. The
hyomandibular (HM", figs. 6 and 7), or canal of the hyomandibular nerve, is far more
extensive than in any of the sharks, though (as in sharks) the hyoid portion is absent
and the mandibular portion is incomplete and disconnected. Beginning where the
infra-orbital bends sharply inwards, it forms a long ventral loop, and then reaching the
SENSORY CANALS OF THE COMMON SKATE. 89
dorsal surface it curves backwards, and eventually terminates by communicating with a
long offshoot from the lateral canal.
The two lateral canals, or canals of the lateralis divisions of the vagus nerves, begin
on a level with the spiracle (sp., fig. 6), and extend backwards to the tip of the tail,
giving off branches which unite and form the temporal commissure, and also two long
(scapular) branches, the anterior of which communicates with the dorsal extension of the
hyomandibular to form a wide dorsal loop.
I. The Supra-Orbital Canal.—This canal not only communicates by its proximal end
with the infra-orbital canal as in Leemargus, but also with the anterior end of the lateral
canal, as in Chlamydoselachus, Acanthias, and certain other sharks. Beginning on a
level with the anterior margin of the spiracle, as shown in figure 6, it first arches inwards
and then runs forwards parallel to the middle line as far as the nasal capsule; it then
inclines inwards as it proceeds to the tip of the snout (S.0.’, fig. 6), which it pierces, and
thus reaches the ventral surface, to run backwards and slightly outwards, as shown in
figure 7. When some distance from the nasal aperture, it bends forwards and outwards
to form a close loop (8.0.‘, fig. 7), and finally runs outwards and backwards in front
of the nasal capsule, to terminate by opening into the infra-orbital canal (8.0.°, fig. 7).
Notwithstanding the great difference which obtains between the skate and Leemargus,
the supra-orbital canal in the skate only really differs from that of Leemargus in being in
direct connection with the canal of the lateral line, and in presenting a well-marked loop
before it unites with the infra-orbital.
The supra-orbital canal, as above described, includes the cranial, rostral, and. subrostral
canals of Garman (5). The first (cranial) part of the supra-orbital lies immediately under
the skin, and in some cases occupies a shallow but well-marked groove in the cranial
cartilage. It has an internal diameter of 0°5 mm., while the entire canal is oval in form,
measuring about 4 mm. by 2mm. in thickness. Seven short, slender tubules spring from
the first part of the canal (¢.—t.’, fig. 6), and run inwards to open by minute pores about
1:2 em. from the middle line. From the next part of the canal, nine slender tubules
(t.-t.™, fig. 6), only one of which is over 3 mm. in length, extend directly outwards, and
from the part of the canal that lies over the nasal capsule there are seven tubules (¢.-¢.”,
fig. 6) which run outwards and forwards, the three anterior ones being over 2 cm. in
length. Passing to the first section of the canal are sixteen nerves, the majority of which
at once penetrate the canal, but the anterior ones break up and supply the sense organs
corresponding to the anterior tubules. There are probably altogether twenty-three ter-
minal branches. .
The part of the supra-orbital canal which runs along the rostrum (rostral canal of
Garman; 8.0.'-8.0.’, fig. 6) differs from the part just described, and from the cranial
canals in Lemargus, in giving off no tubules—in having no direct communication with
the exterior. It lies about 2 mm. below the skin in the subcutaneous tissue, and has
throughout the greater part of its length a diameter of 2°7 mm. It has thus a diameter
fully five times that of the cranial portion, while the wall is only about 1 mm. in thick-
90 PROFESSOR J. C. EWART AND MR J. C. MITCHELL ON THE
ness, As it approaches the tip of the snout it is reduced to 1°4 mm., and this diameter
it retains for some distance as it extends backwards under the rostrum. The rostral part
of the canal receives twenty branches from the superficial ophthalmic nerve as it proceeds
to the tip of the snout.
The ventral part of the supra-orbital canal (subrostral canal of Garman; §.0.’, fig. 7)
may be said to consist of three segments—(1) a part lying nearly parallel with the middle
line ; (2) the loop (S.0.*, fig. 7) already mentioned ; and (8) a slightly curved part that runs
outwards to the infra-orbital (1.0.*, fig. 7). The first part, as it runs backwards, increases
slightly in diameter, and then expands considerably as it turns sharply forwards and out-
wards to form the loop. As the top of the loop is reached, the canal contracts and again
expands slightly as it returns to bend backwards and outwards in front of the nasal
capsule. It lies embedded in the gelatinous tissue of the snout, from 2 to 3 mm, from
the surface. The first part opens to the exterior by ten extremely short tubules (¢.-2.”,
fig. 7), the first two being under 2 mm. in length. There are no tubules from the looped
portion ; there are, however, twelve regularly arranged but short tubules from the terminal
portion (t.-t.”, fig. 7). Passing to the sense organs in the ventral part of the supra-orbital
canal, forty-five nerves were counted—sixteen to the first part, seventeen to the loop, and
twelve to the terminal portion. All the nerves to the sense organs of the supra-orbital
canal spring from the ophthalmicus superficialis of the facial—a nerve which has almost
universally been described as a branch of the trigeminal, and which is still apt to be con-
fused with the superficial ophthalmic branch of the trigeminal or with the ophthalmicus
profundus.
Innervation.—According to Brarv’s scheme, referred to in the Leemargus paper (1),
the three ophthalmic nerves—viz., the ophthalmicus profundus, the ophthalmic of the
trigeminal, and the ophthalmic of the facial—are supra-branchial branches, and each
should have sense organs in connection with it; in other words, all three nerves should
take part in supplying sense organs in the supra-orbital region or in the snout. As to the
ophthalmicus profundus, which lies in front of the trigeminus proper, we are satisfied that,
as in Leemargus and Amia (7), it takes no part in supplying lateral sense organs. The
superficial ophthalmic branch of the trigeminal so completely blends with the ophthal-
micus superficialis division of the facial that it is all but impossible to trace its fibres. On
the other hand, in the Elasmobranchs in which the ophthalmic division of the trigeminus
is a separate nerve, it has not been found supplying any of the sense organs ; while, even
in the skate, the numerous branches for the sensory canals have been found springing
directly or indirectly from the main trunk of the superficial ophthalmic division of the
facial. This nerve (s.0,f,, fig. 6), on leaving the buccal division of the facial, escapes from
the cranium along with the ophthalmicus profundus, leaving which it runs forwards super-
ficial to the orbital muscles, and reaches the snout by traversing a canal at the junction
of the nasal capsule and the cranium. On the way it gives off sixteen branches, which
penetrate the roof of the orbit. These, after dividing, enter the first (cranial) portion of
the supra-orbital canal, and terminate in sense organs, probably twenty-three in number.
SENSORY CANALS OF THE COMMON SKATE, ; 91
As it runs along the side of the rostrum it gives off the twenty branches for the second
(rostral) part of the canal ; while, as it passes through the cartilage in front of the orbit,
it gives off a large branch (v.., fig. 7) that curves outwards and downwards to break
up into the forty-five twigs for the ventral portion of the supra-orbital canal—viz., sixteen
for the inner part, twelve for the outer part, and seventeen for the looped part. This
branch of the superficial ophthalmic comes into intimate relation with various branches
of the buccal nerve.
Il. The Infra-Orbital Canal.—This canal (1.0., figs. 6 and 7), which is. continuous
with the cranial portion of the lateral canal, and in communication with the supra-orbital
canal, runs obliquely outwards between the eye and the spiracle, and then bending
forwards runs for some distance nearly parallel to the supra-orbital canal. It next
curves forwards and outwards to the margin of the snout, which it pierces to reach the
ventral surface. It then runs backwards, communicating on the way with the supra-
orbital, and on reaching the hyomandibular (HM., fig. 7) turns inwards, to dip into
the naso-buccal groove. Emerging from the groove it soon unites with the corresponding
canal of the opposite side, and forms a very short median portion (1.0.’, fig. 7) from
which two canals curve sharply outwards, and then running forwards in close contact
with the suborbital canals again unite near the tip of the snout (1.0.°, fig. 7).
The infra-orbital canal includes the orbital, suborbital, orbito-nasal,. nasal, half of the
median, and the prenasal canals of GarMAN. The first (orbital) part of the infra-orbital
canal seems to be a direct continuation forwards of the lateral canal. It has the same
diameter and structure as the lateral canal. For the first 4 or 5 mm. of its course, it lies
in a groove in the cartilage of the cranium, and afterwards is embedded in the fibrous
tissue between the eye and the spiracle. As it bends forwards outside the eye it gives
off a large tubule (¢.’, fig. 6),* which runs backwards external to the spiracle, and opens by
a terminal pore to the exterior. The portion of the canal which runs forwards in front of
the eye (I.0.1-L.0’) lies immediately underneath the skin, and slightly increases in size
before passing to the ventral surface. The ventral portion may be said. to consist of
three parts :—(1) A straight part continuous with the hyomandibular canal, and in com-
munication with the supra-orbital (I.0.*-1.0.’) ; (2) a looped part (1.0.’-I.0."), which
runs inwards to the middle line posterior to the nasal capsule ; and (3) an inner part
(1.0."-L.0.*, fig. 6; L.0O., fig. 6a), which runs forwards almost in contact with the inner
ventral part of the supra-orbital (S.0.*, fig. 6a). These three ventral segments lie em-
bedded in the gelatinous tissue of the snout from 2 to 4 mm. from the surface, and possess,
as a whole, a considerably larger lumen than the dorsal portion of the infra-orbital.
As is the case with the supra-orbital, some parts are provided with, while other parts are
without, tubules. The tubules in front of the eye (t.-t.”, fig. 6), twelve in number, spring
from the dorsal part of the canal. At first under a centimetre in length, they gradually
increase up to two centimetres, Four of them (3-6) have a peculiar arrangement; they
connect the infra-orbital canal with the dorsal part of the hyomandibular (H.M.%, fig. 6),
--* This tubule Garman considered a branch of the main canal—a view not supported_by it. structure, _
92 PROFESSOR J. C. EWART AND MR J. C. MITCHELL ON THE
which later unites with an offshoot from the lateral canal. The third and fifth tubules
terminate in the hyomandibular canal; but the fourth and sixth, which are nearly 1°50
em. in length, simply communicate with the canal as they pass obliquely outwards.
Passing to the ventral surface, the outer or straight part (suborbital and orbito-nasal
of GARMAN) opens to the exterior by nine extremely short tubules (¢.-¢.”, fig. 7); the
middle part (nasal of Garman) by seventeen tubules (¢.—v.”, fig. 7), twelve short ones
external to the naso-buccal groove, and five, slightly longer, internal to the groove ; and
the inner (prenasal) part gives off, from about its middle third, eleven tubules (t.—t.”,
fig. 7). The direction of the tubules is indicated in the figure.
Innervation.—The first part of the infra-orbital canal is supplied by a slender nerve
which springs from the buccal division of the facial as it separates from the superficial
ophthalmic part of the facial. This nerve (bw.', fig. 6) runs upwards posterior to the
eyeball, and breaks up into six terminal branches, which enter the canal as represented
in figure 6. For the next segment of the canal, two slender nerves spring from the
buccal as it passes forwards under the eyeball. These nerves arch outwards, the first
enters the canal nearly opposite the first tubule, the second by three branches opposite
the origin of the three following tubules. To supply the middle portion of the canal on
the dorsal surface a somewhat larger nerve springs from the buccal as it appears from
under the eyeball. This nerve, as it turns outwards and forwards, breaks up into
eleven branches, eight of which enter the canal opposite the eight remaining tubules,
while three terminate in the canal immediately in front of the tubules.
The buccal, having given off this branch, divides into an internal and an external
portion—the inner (bw.*, fig. 7) runs forwards above the palato-quadrate cartilage, and is
mainly concerned in supplying the inner buccal group of ampulle ; while the outer (bw.?,
fig. 7) runs obliquely outwards, and sends the most of its fibres to the outer buccal group
of ampulle. From this outer division of the buccal, a branch passes forwards and inwards
to supply the remainder of the dorsal part of the infra-orbital canal, the branch pene-—
trating the canal by six slender filaments. Supplying the ventral part of the infra-orbital
canal, as far back as its junction with the supra-orbital (8.0.°, fig. 7), are nine twigs,
which spring from a second branch from the outer division of the buccal that usually, at
first, accompanies the one just described. The remainder of the outer part of the canal
(orbito-nasal) is supplied by six slender nerves which also spring from the outer division
of the buccal. The outer division of the buccal thus supplies the outer straight ventral
portion, and the anterior part of the dorsal portion of the infra-orbital, «.e., part of the
suborbital and the orbito-nasal of GarMAN ; the rest of the suborbital and the orbital of
GARMAN being supplied by branches which spring from the main trunk of the buccal as
it passes forwards under the eyeball.
The remaining ventral portion of the infra-orbital canal is supplied by the inner
division of the buccal nerve. As the nerve reaches the anterior margin of the palato-
quadrate cartilage it sends branches both outwards and inwards, while the main portion
runs forwards to enter the inner buccal group of ampulle, from which a few fibres escape
SENSORY CANALS OF THE COMMON SKATE. 93
and run forwards all but in contact with the terminal portion of the ophthalmicus
superficialis—the division of the facial with which the buccal was originally united.
Two of the branches which proceed outwards from the inner division of the buccal
supply the part of the canal lying between its junction with the hyomandibular canal
and the inner margin of the naso-buccal groove. The part outside the groove receives
seven twigs, the part which dips into the groove, six. Another branch breaks up into
nine filaments for the part of the canal between the groove and the short commissure.
This short expanded median portion receives as many as ten relatively large branches—
five from the right and five from the left buccal nerve. The inner (prenasal) portion of
the infra-orbital canal receives altogether twenty-six nerves from the inner division of
the buccal as it runs along the rostrum; eleven of these, which reach the curved part of
the canal behind the tubules, are relatively large, while the fifteen which pass to the
anterior two-thirds are more slender and further apart. It thus appears that the buccal
nerve innervates nearly one hundred sense organs—ninety-eight terminal twigs having
been traced in the specimen examined.
The infra-orbital canal, though containing nearly one hundred sense organs only,
opens to the exterior by forty-nine tubules. The two canals communicate with each
other in front of the mouth, and also, as in Amia, at the tip of the snout, and by means
of four of its tubules with the hyomandibular canal; while, by its proximal end, it is
continuous with the lateral and supra-orbital canals. In communicating with the lateral,
and in having a commissure at the tip of the snout,* the infra-orbitals of the skate differ
from those of Leemargus; they also differ in having a limited number of tubules—far
fewer tubules than sense organs.
Il. The Hyomandibular Canal.—The hyoid portion of this canal, as in Leemareus,
is absent, but the distal part of the mandibular persists. The horizontal portion, on the
other hand, has been greatly extended, forming a long loop under the pectoral fin; and,
with the help of an offshoot from the lateral, a long wide loop on the upper surface.
Beginning where the infra-orbital bends inwards, the hyomandibular (HM., fig. 7) runs
backwards, external to the branchial clefts, as represented in figure 7, to form the long
ventral loop (HM.’, fig. 7). The outer limb, when opposite the mouth (HM.’), curves
inwards, and then runs forwards immediately outside the infra-orbital canal, to pierce
the tissues inside the propterygium and reach the dorsal surface. Having gained the
dorsal surface, it at once dilates, to form in some cases a club-shaped expansion (HM.’,
fig. 6)—the end of which is connected, as already explained, by tubules with the infra-
orbital canal. _ From this expansion the canal, now comparatively slender, curves out-
wards and backwards for some distance along the margin of the pectoral fin, and then
bends inwards to join a branch (scapular ; sc., fig. 6) from the lateral canal. This greatly
extended hyomandibular corresponds to the angular, jugular, subpleural, and pleural
canals of GARMAN. | :
The inner limb of the ventral loop gradually diminishes in size as far as the middle of
* The union of the prenasals at the tip of the snout is said by GaRMAN not to take place in R. Jevis.
94 PROFESSOR J. C. EWART AND MR J. C. MITCHELL ON THE
the branchial region; throughout the remainder of the inner loop, and the entire length
of the outer loop up to where it approaches the beginning of the canal, the same diameter
(about 2 mm.) is maintained. The part which runs forwards side by side with the first
part of the hyomandibular and the outer part of the infra-orbital has a diameter of 3:2
mm. The part in front of the gill region, like the part of the infra-orbital with which it
is continuous, lies in gelatinous connective tissue, some 3 mm. beneath the surface; the
rest of the ventral loop occupies a very superficial position. There are extremely few
tubules given off from the ventral loop. Between the junction with the infra-orbital
and the gill region there are ten tubules (¢.-¢.", fig. 7). Of these, the four anterior are
very short and near each other, while the remaining six are from 1°‘7 to 5 mm. in length,
and wider apart. From the outer limb of the ventral loop, only four tubules (¢.-¢.”, fig. 7)
arise: these tubules are wide apart, and they vary considerably in length and position, as
shown in figure 7.
The dorsal extension of the hyomandibular canal is at first somewhat dilated, and at
some distance (about 8°5 mm.) from the surface; the remainder, which is flattened and
has a small lumen, occupies a superficial position, and takes an irregular course towards
the outer angle of the pectoral fin before it bends inwards to join the scapular branch of
the lateral canal. The expanded anterior portion does not open directly to the exterior,
but it has two tubules from the infra-orbital opening into its wide inner end, and two
infra-orbital tubules open into the canal as it leaves the dilatation. From the long part
of the canal that runs backwards over the ampullary canals to eventually end in the
offshoot from the lateral canal, thirty-nine tubules (¢.-¢.%, fig, 6) were given off in the
specimen figured. These, as the drawing indicates, are relatively numerous, and of
varying lengths. They all run outwards, the majority outwards and backwards.
The two mandibular portions of the hyomandibular canals form a single canal behind
the mouth. They lie immediately beneath the thin skin covering the mandible ; and
they together give off twenty-six short tubules (¢.—¢.”, fig. 7) which open by a row of
minute pores posterior to the openings of the mandibular ampullary canals.
Innervation.—The entire length of the hyomandibular canal (including the ventral
loop, the long dorsal extension, and the mandibular part) is innervated by the hyo-
mandibular branch of the facial nerve. ‘This large nerve (Wm., fig. 6), as it approaches the
hyoid group of ampulle (H.A., fig. 6), breaks up into numerous branches, the majority of
which terminate in the ampulle. Some of the branches for the sensory canal leave the
nerve before it enters the ampullary capsule, while others pass through between the
ampullze, and then radiate to the dorsal and ventral portions of the canal.
The part of the canal in front of the hyoid group of ampullee is almost entirely
supplied by branches which leave the nerve before it enters the ampullary capsule.
From these branches nine nerves were given off to the anterior part of the hyomandibular
canal (fig.7). The whole of the long ventral loop, with the exception of the curve formed
by the outer limb and the straight part that lies alongside the infra-orbital canal, is
supplied by branches of the hyomandibular nerve, which penetrate the ampullary capsule
SENSORY CANALS OF THE COMMON SKATE. 95
(fig. 7). The main branch runs backwards nearly parallel with the inner limb of the
‘loop. From this branch (1) slender twigs reach and penetrate the middle third of the
inner limb, and (2) longer delicate filaments proceed to the posterior third of the inner
and posterior half of the outer hmbs. ‘The rest of the outer limb, as far forward as
the point where it begins to bend inwards, is innervated by four branches, each of which
has a separate exit from the ampullary capsule. The bend formed by the outer loop
receives its nerves from the precapsular branches, which reach it by passing under the
anterior portion of the canal. The straight, most anterior, ventral portion, and the
dilated anterior portion on the dorsal aspect, are supplied from a large superficial pre-
capsular branch which runs directly forwards and divides into two main branches (hm.’,
fig. 6). The outer dips downwards and sends six twigs to the ventral part; the inner
sends a long slender branch forwards which gives six twigs to the longitudinal part of
the dilatation, and a short branch inwards, which sends several twigs to the transverse
part of the dilatation. From the same precapsular branch three filaments proceed to
supply the part of the canal immediately beyond its connection with the suborbital
tubules. The next segment of the canal, the part from which the second to the four-
teenth tubules are given off, is supplied by twelve twigs which radiate from a second
precapsular branch. ‘The rest of the dorsal portion of the hyomandibular canal is supplied
by four branches, which escape from the capsule and break up into long, delicate fila-
ments as they run outwards and backwards. This part of the canal gives off twenty-five
tubules, and is penetrated by twenty-seven nerves, most of which enter near the origin of
the tubules ; the two last nerves enter the terminal part of the canal which runs inwards
to communicate with the anterior (scapular) offshoot from the lateral canal.
The mandibular canal is supplied by a branch (him.*, fig. 7) of the hyomandibular
nerve, which leaves it and passes downwards between the first branchial chamber and the
jaw muscles. This branch, after parting with the majority of its fibres to the mandibular
ampull (M.A., fig. 7), runs along the posterior border of the mandible, and sends thirteen
filaments to the sense organs of the canal.
The hyomandibular canal, with its remarkable ventral loop (subpleural of Garman)
and its long dorsal extension (pleural of Garman), has many points of interest. In the
first place, these pleural or pectoral extensions are characteristic of the Batoidei. In all
of them the dorsal extension, which bends backwards to join the scapular branch of the
lateral canal, is invariably present ; and, except in the torpedoes, the ventral extension is
also present, though in some of them, e.g. Raja ocellata, the outer limb of the loop is
absent. Sappry’s description of what may be called the pectoral portions of the hyo-
mandibular canal is in many respects remarkable. Having failed, apparently, to establish
a connection between the ventral and dorsal portions of the canal, he describes the
ventral loop as forming the external and internal branches of the ventral mucous canal,
which he describes as beginning near the front of the snout and extending backwards
and then forwards to terminate near its origin. The inner limb is thus made to include
the ventral part of the infra-orbital, which he evidently failed to discover was continuous
VOL. XXXVII. PART I. (NO 6). Q
96 PROFESSOR J. C. EWART AND MR J. C. MITCHELL ON THE
with the dorsal part, @.e., with what he calls the anterior part of the dorsal longitudinal
canal. The dorsal portion of the hyomandibular he represents accurately enough as con-
nected with the infra-orbital—his dorsal longitudinal canal. He makes no reference to
the innervation of any of the cranial canals, and, like Monro, considers the hyomandibular
division of the facial as a branch of the trigeminal.
GARMAN, after pointing out that “ the manner in which the Batoidei became possessed
of the ‘pleurals’ is a question of considerable interest,” states that the “clue to the
solution of the problem is to be seen in Chlamydoselachus” (5). He considers that the
dorsal portion (pleural canal) was derived from the spiracular, and the ventral loop (sub-
pleural canal) from the jugular. Elsewhere he says, “ No doubt the pleural originated
as a branch of the orbital.” Why Garman should suppose the “ pleurals” originated
from the “orbital” (v.e., the first portion of the infra-orbital) canal, it is difficult to under-
stand. Some of the tubules of the infra-orbital open into the dorsal extension, and in
some cases, ¢.g. 2. ocellata, this dorsal portion is disconnected from the ventral portion.
But, on the other hand, both the ventral loop and the long dorsal extension are supplied
by the hyomandibular nerve; and when the canals are examined in embryo skate, and
in the less specialised members of the Batoidei group, it becomes evident that the ventral
loop (subpleural) has been formed by a backward extension of the hyomandibular canal,
which turned upon itself (in some cases before reaching the level of the first branchial
cleft), and grew forwards to penetrate the snout and then proceed backwards along the
margin of the pectoral fin, thus forming, first, the ventral, and afterwards the dorsal
loop.
IV. The Lateral Canal.—This canal has been frequently figured, and more or less
accurately described. Hitherto, it has usually been looked upon as beginning in the skate
at or near the temporal commissure. The commissure has been said to consist of two canals
(the aurals), and the part between the end of the commissure and the supra-orbital canal
has been described as a separate canal (the occipital.) But, as the commissure and the
whole of the longitudinal canal, including its branches, from the beginning of the supra-
orbital to the tip of the tail, is innervated by one nerve, viz., the lateralis division of the
vagus, we shall consider the lateral canal as including in addition to the trunk portion,
the commissural portion and the part immediately in front of it.
The first precommissural portion (occipital of GarMAN ; lp., fig. 6) runs backwards
and inwards to the outer end of the temporal commissure. It has the same diameter as
the cranial part of the supra-orbital, and lies for the most part in a groove in the cranial
cartilage.
The commissure (/c., fig. 6), formed by the union of two branches, one from each
lateral canal, runs right across the cranium, immediately behind the auditory pores. It
lies immediately beneath the skin and firmly adheres to it. Neither of those portions
give off any tubules, nor do they open to the exterior by means of pores.
The first part (L., fig. 6) of the lateral canal of the trunk, after running for a short
distance directly backwards, forms a sigmoid curve, and reaches the supra-scapular
SENSORY CANALS OF THE COMMON SKATE. 97
prominence. At the anterior margin of the supra-scapula, it gives off a long (scapular)
branch (sc., fig. 6), which runs backwards and outwards towards the margin of the fin,
communicating on the way with the dorsal extension of the hyomandibular canal. A
second (post-scapular) branch (p.sc., fig. 6) springs from the canal opposite the posterior
margin of the scapula, and runs backwards in a similar direction to the first (scapular)
branch. The main canal having given off the posterior scapular, curves inwards, and
runs along first the trunk, and then the side of the tail, terminating at or near its tip.
The lateral canal and its scapular branches are flattened, and have a small lumen—the
diameter diminishing as the tip of the tail is reached.
From the part of the canal in front of the scapular branch there spring eleven tubules
(t.t.", fig. 6); ten of these, which are of about the same length, curve inwards, and
one, longer than the others, bends forwards and outwards. The part of the canal lying
on the supra-scapula gives off no tubules, but from the origin of the post-scapular branch
to the tip of the tail tubules are regularly given off. These tubules, which first run
backwards and outwards, and afterwards backwards and inwards across the canal,
eradually diminish in length from before backwards. The scapular branch gives off twelve
tubules before, and fourteen after, communicating with the dorsal part of the hyomandi-
bular canal. The inner tubules, which are of considerable length, run outwards and
forwards, while those beyond the junction run almost directly outwards. The latter
gradually diminish in length, and lie nearer each other than the former.
The post-scapular branch gives off twenty tubules, which arch outwards; the last eight
rapidly diminish in length as the end of the canal is reached.
Innervation of the Lateral Canal.—The precommissural and commissural portions,
and the part of the trunk portion of the canal up to near the origin of the scapular branch,
are supplied by a special nerve which springs from the lateralis division of the vagus at
or near its ganglion. This branch passes upwards behind the auditory capsule, and as it
approaches the surface breaks up into three bundles. One runs forwards to innervate
the precommissural, another bends inwards to the commissural part of the canal, the
third passes backwards at some distance below and to the outer side of the first part of
the trunk portion of the canal, which it supplies as far as its eighth tubule (fig. 6).
For the part of the canal immediately in front of the scapular branch, the two scapular
branches, and the short part of the main canal between them, the lateralis gives off two
special branches. The first, a fairly large nerve, springs from the lateralis in front of the
shoulder-girdle, and, after approaching the surface, runs backwards and outwards immedi-
ately behind the scapular branch of the canal. It sends three twigs to the main canal in
front of, and a similar number to the main canal behind, the scapular branch; and, as it
accompanies the scapular branch outwards, it gives off thirty-two twigs, the majority
of which enter the canal opposite the tubules (fig. 6). The second, or post-scapular
nerve, springs from the lateralis as it reaches the posterior border of the shoulder-girdle.
Having sent a twig to the main canal, it proceeds outwards behind the post-scapular off-
shoot, to which it contributes twenty-four twigs, the greater number of which enter
98 PROFESSOR J. C. EWART AND MR J. C. MITCHELL ON THE
opposite the tubules (fig. 6). No other large branches proceed from the lateralis nerve.
As it proceeds backwards, first at some distance from the canal, but afterwards in close
contact with it, the lateralis gives off slender branches which either directly, or after
dividing, enter the canal to terminate in the sense organs.
THe HistoLoGy oF THE SENSORY CANALS.
Many investigators have studied the minute structure of the lateral sense organs of
fishes, but to Leypie (8), Merxet (4), Souerr (9), and Frirscu (6) we are most indebted
for information on this subject. In this paper it will only be necessary to give a short
account of the minute structure of the canals of the skate.
Hitherto it seems to have been taken for granted that the cranial canals differed in
structure from the lateral canal. This, however, is not the case; for in the skate, for
example, some parts of the cranial canals exactly agree in structure with the canal of the
trunk. It would be more accurate to say that the canals of the dorsal surface differ in
structure from the canals of the ventral surface; but even to this statement there are
exceptions, for the anterior (rostral) part of the supra-orbital canal and the anterior dorsal
part of the infra-orbital canal, as well as the dilated dorsal portion of the hyomandibular
canal, all differ from the canal of the lateral line, and agree with the canals of the ventral
aspect. Apparently the difference in structure depends on the relation of the canals to
the skin; for the canals which are imbedded in, or lie immediately in contact with, the
skin, differ from those that lie more or less deep in the subcutaneous tissue. The canals
intimately related to the skin, we. the lateral canal, and, with the exceptions just
mentioned, all the dorsal cranial canals, are flattened, have a small lumen, and are to a
large extent composed of fibro-cartilage.
The ventral canals and the portions of the supra-orbital, infra-orbital, and hyomandi-
bular already specified, have, on the other hand, a rounded form; the lumen is often five
to six times greater than that of the lateral canal, and there is little or no fibro-cartilage
in the wall. Further, while the wall of the ventral canals is of nearly the same thickness
all round, the wall of the lateral canal, and of the cranial canals which resemble it, while
presenting thick fibro-cartilaginous sides, have only a thin roof and floor. It may here be
mentioned that Frirscu (6) gives a figure of a “trunk canal” of the torpedo, and states
that while the trunk canals are fibrous, the head canals bear a fibro-cartilaginous character.
This may be true of the torpedo, but it does not hold for the skate.
The Dorsal Canals.—tThe lateral canal may be taken as an example of what might be
known as the dorsal or cutaneous type, while the ventral part of the infra-orbital may
serve as an example of the wide, thin-walled ventral or subcutaneous type. The lateral
canal, which lies either in or immediately beneath the skin, is flattened, and somewhat
resembles a long narrow slightly tapering ribbon, having one of its surfaces parallel with
the surface of the skin. The small lumen occupies less than a third of the width of the
ribbon ; and, while it is bounded at each side by a thick fibro-cartilaginous wall, the floor .
SENSORY CANALS OF THE COMMON SKATE. 99
and roof agree in consisting of a thin layer of fibrous tissue with at the most a few car-
tilage cells. The roof is translucent ; hence, when a canal is exposed, the position of the
lumen is at once evident, presenting quite a different appearance from the dense lateral
walls.
The thin, fibrous roof and floor, and the thick, fibro-cartilaginous lateral walls, and the
sense organ, are shown in figure 8. The sense organ (s.0.), it will be observed, stretches
almost right across the inner wall. Usually the tubules run obliquely through the
wall, and the fibro-cartilage extends along each tubule to within a short distance of
the external aperture. Beyond the cartilage the tubule consists of epidermal cells,
with pigment cells interspersed ; these pigment cells, by forming a dark ring, often
indicate the position of the terminal pore.
The sense organs throughout the greater part of the lateral canal do not, as might be
expected, lie in the floor; but, as shown in figure 8, in contact with the inner lateral
wall. In front of the shoulder-girdle they are either on the side of the canal or on the
roof.
The canals (with the exception of the parts occupied by the sense organs) and the
tubules are lined with two layers of epithelial cells. The deeper layer consists of rounded
and somewhat irregular cells which rest on a basement membrane, and are often separated
by intercellular spaces containing leucocytes.
The superficial cells are columnar in form; in most cases they are short and broad,
having the free outer end non-granular, and the deep end occupied by the nucleus.
These columnar cells, though resembling mucin-forming cells, were never seen assuming
the goblet form, or giving evidence of being actively concerned in the production of
mucus. They contrasted strongly with the goblet cells which exist in great numbers in
the epithelium of the skin (fig. 8); and, undoubtedly, produce the abundant coating of
mucus always present in the skate.
In longitudinal and transverse sections through the areas occupied by the sense
organs, it is observed that, as the sense organ or hillock is approached, the deeper layer
of cells disappears, while the superficial layer assumes the form of long narrow columns,
each with a nucleus near the middle of its length. These columnar cells form, a well-
marked zone around the sense organ proper—a zone sometimes fifteen cells wide. The
sense organ which lies within this zone consists of sense cells, supporting cells, and of
highly refractile processes, which project into the hillock from the basement membrane.
The sense cells, which are of a cylindrical form, lie within and between the support-
ing cells. ach has a large nucleus near its deep, inner end, and a hair-like process
projecting from its outer end. These hair cells are less numerous than the supporting
cells, which lie between and around them. The supporting cells, especially towards the
centre of the hillock, are long and narrow, and thus differ from the short and compara-
tively broad cells which line the canal and the hair cells already mentioned. The pro-
cesses which project into the hillock from the basement membrane SoLGER describes as
“awischen-pfeiler” (9). They seem to extend from between the inner ends of the support-
100 PROFESSOR J. C. EWART AND MR J. C. MITCHELL ON THE
ing cells to the top of the hillock, and thus they in a way resemble the Miillerian fibres
of the retina.
Resting on the top of the hillock there is often what SotcER terms the “ cupula-
bildung.” This seems to consist of mucin. In some cases we have seen long threads of
mucin extending from the hillock into the cupula or across the canal, the threads having
frequently leucocytes entangled between them.
Each sense organ has a nerve passing to it. The nerves, usually accompanied with
one or more capillaries, enter the canal a short distance from their respective sense organs,
and run obliquely through the canal to break up under the hillock into a number of
terminal fibres which seem to end in close connection with the hair cells.
With the exceptions already mentioned, the dorsal canals have the same structure as
the lateral canal.
But, while the sense organs and tubules have a metameric arrangement in the trunk,
there is no relation between the sense organs and segments in the head region ; and, as
already pointed out, some portions of the cranial canals, though possessing numerous
sense organs, have no tubules connecting them with the exterior.
In all the cranial canals, both dorsal and ventral, there are far more sense organs than
segments, @.g., in the supra-orbital canal there are nearly ninety sense organs, and in the
infra-orbital there are over ninety. Why the sense organs of the head are so numerous,
may be understood should we in course of time discover the function of the lateral sense
organs.
The writers who assert that the sense organs and tubules agree in number have
probably only directed their attention to the sensory canals of sharks; for certainly, as
figures 6 and 7 clearly show, there are long stretches of canals with few or no tubules.
As to whether in the embryo the tubules are more numerous than in the adult we have
no information. If there are more tubules in the embryo than in the adult, it may
be inferred that the parts of canals that have lost their tubules are in process of
degenerating—of being reduced to vesicles, such as take the place of the ventral sensory
canals in the torpedo.
The Ventral or Subcutaneous Canals.—In these canals, which have usually a lumen
five or six times greater than that of the dorsal canals, the wall is of uniform thickness,
and composed of a thin layer of fibrous tissue (fig. 9). Like the dorsal, they are lined by
two layers of cells, except at the sides of the sense organs. The sense organs only differ
from those of the dorsal canals in being slightly larger, and in having a wider zone of
columnar cells surrounding them. .
It may be mentioned that in a very young skate we had the opportunity of examining
the lining cells, and to a certain extent the sensory cells differed from those of the adult.
The two layers of cells which line the canals closely resemble each other ; and, as the
sense organ is reached, the layers separate, the deeper one passing under the hillock, while
the superficial becomes continuous with the supporting cells. The sensory cells are pear-
shaped, and have oval nuclei, while the supporting cells are long and narrow.
SENSORY CANALS OF THE COMMON SKATE. 101
Tuer Sensory FoiiicLes or Pir ORGANS
The sensory follicles (‘‘spalt-papillen” of FrirscH), as already indicated, lie in relation
to the lateral and infra-orbital canals. Those related to the lateral canal form a row
which extends from the region of the supra-scapula as far as the first dorsal fin—one for
every two segments. ‘The follicles lie between the lateral line and the middle line of the
trunk and tail (p.o., fig. 6).
The second group consists of two follicles (p.o.’, fig. 6) which lie in front of the audi-
tory pores ; while the third group consists of five follicles (p.o., fig. 6) which lie external
to the eye, immediately within the infra-orbital canal. The follicles though small are
quite visible without the assistance of a lens in fresh specimens, especially when the
epidermis is removed with the edge of a scalpel from the slight papillae by which they
open on the surface. With the help of a lens, the groove or split which runs across the
papilla, and leads into the pit, becomes evident. In those related to the lateral canal, and
the two in front of the auditory pores, the split is at right angles to the long axis of the
fish ; while in those lying within the infra-orbital canal, the split is nearly parallel to the
long axis.
In uninjured specimens, each follicle is seen to present externally a slight rounded
projection, divided into two by a fissure which leads into the pit or follicle proper.
The elevation consists chiefly of layers of epithelial cells, amongst which are many
goblet cells. In vertical sections the epithelial layer, still containing goblet cells, is seen
to extend well into the follicle. The bottom of the follicle is occupied by a large rounded
sense organ (fig. 10), which in many respects resembles a taste-bud. The sense organ
consists of pear-shaped sensory cells, with large oval nuclei and hair-like processes at the
outer end of each cell. The sensory cells are surrounded by columnar supporting cells,
in which the nuclei are deeper than in the hair cells. Passing to the sense organ of each
follicle are several nerve fibrils. These fibrils pass obliquely upwards through the
epidermic cells which underlie the follicle, and terminate in the sense organ. ‘The nerves
for the trunk follicles seem to come from the lateralis, those for the infra-orbital group
from the buccal, while those for the two follicles in front of the auditory pore may either
arise from the lateralis nerve or from the glossopharyngeal—this is a point we have not
been able to settle. We look upon these follicles as homologous with the pit organs of
Amia. MERKEL states they have been found in Mustelus and Squatina.
102 PROFESSOR J. C. EWART AND MR J. C. MITCHELL ON THE
BIBLIOGRAPHY.*
(1) Ewart, “The Sensory Canals of Lemareus,” Roy. Soc. Trans. Edin., vol. xxxvii. part i. p. 59.
(2) Ewart, “The Cranial Nerves of Elasmobranch Fishes,” Roy. Soc. Proc., vol. xlv., 1889.
(3) Sappry, Etude sur Vappareil mucipare, &ec., 1879.
(4) Merxen, Ueber die Endigungen der sensiblen Nerven in der Haut der Wirbelthiere, Rostock, 1880.
(5) Garman, “On the Lateral Canal System of the Selachia,” Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool., Cambridge, Mass.,
vol. xvii. No. 2.
(6) Fritson, Die Electrischen Fische Die Torpedineen, Leipzig, 1890.
(7) Auuis, “‘The Anatomy and Development of the Lateral Canal System of Amia calva,” Journal of Morpho-
logy, vol. ii., 1889.
(8) Leypie, Lehrbuch d. Histologie des Menschen u. d. Thiere, 1857.
(9) Soncer, “Neue Untersuchungen zur Anatomie der Sectenorgane der Fische,” Arch. fiir mikro Anat.,
1879-80. ;
EXPLANATION OF PLATES.—PLATE IL.
Fig. 1. The sensory canals of the head and part of the lateral canal of the trunk, and the nerves which
innervate their sense organs. The position and relations of the various canals and nerves have
been represented as accurately as possible from actual dissections.
§.0.-8.0.4, The supra-orbital canal. §S.O., where the canal begins on the dorsal surface in connection
with the infra-orbital; 8.0.1, the middle of the great dorsal outward curve ; 8.0.2, where the canal
dips into the snout to reach the under surface ; 8.0.°, the canal as it arches over the nasal capsule ;
8.0.4, the end of the supra-orbital canal communicating with the infra-orbital. The tubules by
which the canal communicates with the exterior are shown on the right side; the ventral part of
the canal is represented by dotted lines.
s.0.f., The superficial ophthalmic branch of the facial nerve. On the right side it is represented as
giving off numerous branches which enter the canal and terminate in the sense organs (hillocks) ;
s.0. f.2, the deep or ventral branch which supplies the distal portion of the supra-orbital canal. The
ophthalmic branch is represented as being intimately related at its origin with the buccal (dw.) and
hyomandibular (im.) branches. The fibres which supply the ampullz of the ophthalmic group of
ampullary canals are not figured. s.0. f1, the ganglion of the superficial ophthalmic branch of
the facial.
1.0.-1.0.5, The infra-orbital canal. I.0., the infra-orbital in contact with the supra-orbital ;
I.0.1, where the canal, after it has reached the ventral aspect, communicates with the hyo-
mandibular (HM.); I.0.?, where it communicates with the supra-orbital ; I.0.°, the ventral loop ;
1.0.4, where the two infra-orbitals meet in the middle line; I.0.°, the infra-orbital terminating at the
front of the snout. The tubules are as far as possible represented on the left side of the figure ;
the ventral tubules have been represented as running obliquely outwards, but in reality the majority
of them project directly downwards from the under surface of the canal. of., the (otic) part of the
infra-orbital canal continuous with the lateral canal (/p.); bw., the buccal branch of the facial; on
the left side, the buccal branches to the infra-orbital canal are shown ; ot.2., the branch to the otic
portion of the infra-orbital springing from the buccal ganglion (bu.gl.) ; bu.1, the inner branch of the
buccal which supplies the greater part of the canal beyond its connection with the supra-orbital,
and also the inner buccal group of ampulle ; bw.?, the outer branch of the buccal which sends the
most of its fibres to the outer buccal group of ampulle.
HM.-HM.!, The Hyomandibular canal. hm., the hyomandibular branch of the facial with its
ganglion (hm.gl.). It sends most of its fibres to the hyoid group of ampulle, but a slender branch,
hin.', supplies the sense organs of the hyomandibular canal.
* A more complete list will be found appended to the paper on Leemargus.
SENSORY CANALS OF THE COMMON SKATE. 103
L.Jp.lc., The lateral canal. Jp., the most anterior part continuous with the otic portion of infra-orbital ;
Ic., the commissure connecting the two canals; L., the anterior portion of the trunk canal—the
tubules are shown on right of figure; /., the lateralis nerve arising above the level of the glosso-
pharyngeal nerve ; /.9/., the ganglion of the lateralis ; /.1, the first branch passing to the sense organs
of the commissure and the precommissural part of the lateral canal—this branch may contain
some glossopharyngeal fibres; /.*, the second branch supplying sense organs of anterior part of
trunk canal; 7.a., nasal aperture; E., eye; sp., spiracle; mo., mouth; 1,7, labial fold ; a.p., auditory
pores ; fa., facial nerve—the homologue of facial in higher vertebrates ; p/., its palatine branch ;
ps., pre-branchial, and p.d., post-branchial branches; s.f., the most superficial root fibres of facial,
_some of which pass to all three supra-branchial nerves—these fibres probably innervate the
ampulle of the ampullary canals ; v.gl., large ganglion of vagus with which the branchial branches
(0.10.4) and the intestinal branch are connected.
PLATE II.
Fig. 2. Diagram to indicate the distribution of the dorsal branches of the cranial nerves. Pr., Ophthalmicus
profundus, springing from brain in front of the trigeminal (Tr.); 0.7, root of profundus (oculo-
nasal) ; 0.”.g., ganglion of profundus ; 0.n.!, dorsal branch of profundus ; /.c., long ciliary branches ;
or., orbital branch ; 7.7, long root of ciliary ganglion ; 0.m., deep branch of oculo-motor giving off
short root (s.7.) of ciliary ganglion (c.g.) ; s.c., short ciliary nerves passing to eyeball.
Tr., Trigeminus. 7#7., trunk of trigeminus near Gasserian ganglion (G.); s.0.4., dorsal or superficial
ophthalmic branch of trigeminus ; ma., maxillary (pre-branchial) branch ; md., mandibular (post-
branchial) branch ; mo., mouth,
Fal,, Four roots, the fibres of which are rearranged to form the three supra-branchial branches
of the facial (the superficial ophthalmic, buccal, and hyomandibular), which innervate the five
groups of ampullz, and the supra-orbital, infra-orbital, and hyomandibular sensory canals.
Fa., Root of the nerve which corresponds to the facial of higher vertebrates. It lies in contact
with, and receives a communicating branch from, the auditory nerve (Aw.).
s.0.f., The first dorsal branch of facial—the ophthalmicus superficialis—which supplies the supra-
orbital canal (S.O.), the superficial ophthalmic group of ampulle (S.0.A.). s.0,7.1, the ganglion ;
s.0.f.*, the ventral branch passing to the terminal portion of the supra-orbital canal (8.0O.).
bu., The second dorsal branch of facial—the buccalis—which supplies the infra-orbital canal (I.0.),
and the inner (I.B.A.) and outer (O.B.A.) buccal groups of ampulle. bu., the ganglion on
the buccal nerve, from which a branch springs to supply the proximal part of the infra-orbital
canal; 6w.1, the inner division of the buccal which innervates the inner buccal group of ampullz
(1.B.A.) and the greater part of the infra-orbital canal beyond its connection with the supra-
orbital ; bu.?, the outer division of the buccal which supplies part of the infra-orbital canal and
the outer buccal group of ampulle (O.B.A.); hm., the third dorsal branch of facial—hyomandi-
bularis—which innervates the hyoid and mandibular groups of ampulle, and the hyomandi-
bular canal, including the ventral loop, the dorsal extension, and the mandibular part, when
present; /.g., the ganglion of the hyomandibular lying in contact with the ganglion of the
facial proper (fa.); hm.1, the large branch for the hyoid group (H.A.) of ampulle; hm., the
branch which supplies the mandibular group of ampulle (M.A.), and the mandibular canal (m.c.)—
the mandibular offshoot and the mandibular group of ampulle are both absent in Lemargus ;
sp., spiracle.
fa., The homologue of the facial of higher vertebrates. pl., palatine which passes from the ganglion
to roof of mouth; p.s., pre-branchial fibres to the spiracle; p.b., post-branchial branch which
passes behind spiracle, and eventually reaches the mucous membrane over the hyoid arch; m.f.,
motor fibres which leave this nerve to supply some of the jaw muscles.
Au., The auditory nerve passing to the auditory apparatus (A.A.). a., auditory pore; Gi., glosso-
pharyngeal nerve arising under cover of the lateralis; gl., its ganglion, beyond which are the
pharyngeal pre- and post-branchial branches; g/., the dorsal branch represented as supplying
VOL. XXXVII. PART I. (NO. 6). R
104 PROFESSOR J. C. EWART AND MR J. ©. MITCHELL ON THE
(1) a short segment (T.T.) of the great longitudinal canal immediately behind the infra-orbital
canal, and (2) a row of pit organs (p.o.). That the dorsal branch of the glossopharyngeal
innervates sense organs and pit organs in Selachian as in Amia has not yet been demonstrated.
T.T., The part of the longitudinal canal which the glossopharyngeal might be expected to innervate
in a typical Selachian. This might be known as the glossopharyngeal or temporal canal. 1 6r.,
first (glossopharyngeal) branchial cleft.
La., Lateralis nerve. d.g., lateralis ganglion ; /.1, first branch passing to the temporal commissure
(Le.), and the anterior part of the lateral canal (L.).
1.1, Branch springing from the ganglion to supply part of the canal and the anterior follicles or pit
organs (p.o.l.). d.m., the lateralis extending backwards, nearly parallel with the lateral canal (L.).
V.1-V.8, The first three branchial branches of the vagus, each with a ganglion (II.—IV.), pharyngeal
pre- and post-branchial branches.
V.4-V.5, The united fourth branchial and intestinal branches of vagus. V., ganglion of vagus IV. ;
z.gl., ganglion at root of intestinal branch (7.n.) ; 2 br.—5 br., second to fifth branchial (vagus) clefts.
Fig. 3. The Cranial Canals of Amia. This figure has been introduced to admit of a comparison between
Amia and Selachians, and to indicate the new system of grouping the canals. The details are
from a figure by Atxis (30), with which it should be compared.
8.0., Supra-orbital canal. s.o,f., superficial ophthalmic of facial supplying the canal and a row of
pit organs (s.p.).
L.0., Infra-orbital canal. ot.n., the otic branch of facial which supplies the sense organs 15 and 16
of the first segment (of. of.!) of the infra-orbital; 6w., the buccal nerve supplying the infra-
orbital canal, with the exception of the otic part. HM., the hyomandibular canal extending
downwards from the proximal end of the infra-orbital to run along the mandible; hm., the
hyomandibular nerve supplying the hyomandibular and four rows of pit organs.
T., Temporal canal lying between infra-orbital and lateral. gi.1, glossopharyngeal nerve supplying
the single sense organ of the temporal canal and a row of pit organs; gl., ganglion of glosso-
pharyngeal nerve.
L., Lateral canal beginning at the posterior end of the temporal and extending on to the trunk.
l.c., supra-temporal commissure ; /., lateralis nerve; J.1, first branch supplying commissure, a line
of pit organs, and two sense organs of the main canal; /.2, second branch supplying a sense organ
and a row of pit organs (p.o.) ; 1.8, a third branch supplying the sense organ (21), which, according
to Axis, lies at the junction of the infra-orbital and lateral canals.
Figs. 4 and 5, Sensory Canals of Chlamydoselachus (after Garman). c¢r., 7., s7.=supra-orbital canal; orb., on.,
n., pn. =infra-orbital ; oc., aw. =precommissural and commissural parts of lateral canal (/.); ang.,
angular; j., jugular; o., oval; g., gular; sp., spiracular—part of hyomandibular canal.
PLATE IIL
Figs. 6 and 7. Sensory Canals of Raia batis. §.O.-S.0.°, Supra-orbital canal. §.O., proximal part; S.0.1,
beginning of rostral portion ; S.O.?, point where canal penetrates snout to reach ventral aspect ;
8.0.3, 8.0.4, ventral loop ; 8.0.°, canal joining infra-orbital ; ¢.’, 4.7, 2.58, 4.45, tubules.
s.0.f., Superficial ophthalmic branch of facial with ganglion on root. It supplies supra-orbital canal
and the ophthalmic group of ampulle. v.d., ventral branch passing to sense organs of ventral
portion of canal; 8.O.A, position of superficial ophthalmic group of ampulle.
I.0.-I.0.%, Infra-orbital canal. I.0., canal continuous with lateral canal and communicating with
supra-orbital ; I.0.1, sub-orbital portion ; I.0.”, canal passing to ventral surface ; I.0.°, beginning of
ventral portion; I.O.4, its communication with supra-orbital ; I.0.5, canal communicates with
hyomandibular and bends inwards ; I.0.°, part of canal which dips into buccal groove ; I.0.’, union
of two infra-orbitals in front of mouth; 1.0.8, union of two infra-orbitals at tip of snout;
t.1, 18, ¢.%9, 4.59, tubules of canal; bw., buccal nerve with ganglion on its root, supplying infra-
orbital canal and inner and outer buccal groups of ampulle ; bw.0., branch for first part of canal—
this branch probably supplies the sub-orbital row of pit organs, p.o.?; bw.”, outer division of buccal
SENSORY CANALS OF THE COMMON SKATE. 105
passing to outer buccal group of ampulle; O.B.A., part of the dorsal and part of the ventral
portion of the infra-orbital canal; dw.1, inner division of buccal passing to inner buccal group of
ampulle and the infra-orbital canal from its junction with the hyomandibular.
HM.-HM.’, Hyomandibular canal. HM., canal communicating with the infra-orbital (I.0.°) ;
HM.!}, end of ventral loop; HM.?, outer limb of loop bends inwards; HM.°%, canal passing to
dorsal surface; HM.*, canal as it reaches dorsal surface; HM.°, expanded part communicating
with tubules of infra-orbital; HM.°-HM.®, long dorsal extension which terminates in scapular
ofishoot from lateral canal; HM.’, mandibular portion of hyomandibular canal ; ¢.11, #1, 4.4, £.67,
tubules; fm., hyomandibular nerve; hm.g., its ganglion; hm.?, branches passing in front of or
through the hyoid group of ampullz (H.A.) to innervate the sense organs of the various parts of
the hyomandibular canal, with the exception of the mandibular portion; hm.}, branch for the
mandibular group of ampulle (M.A.) and the mandibular portion (HM.") of the hyomandibular
canal.
L.-L.?, The lateral canal. /.p., the precommissural part, and /.c. the commissural part, of lateral
canal ; sc., scapular offshoot; p.sc., post-scapular offshoot ; p.o.1, lateral row of pit organs 3. p.0.,
pit organs near the auditory pore (a.).
1.1.2, Lateralis nerve. 7.g., its ganglion ; /.¢., branch which innervates half of commissure (/.c.), part of
lateral canal in front of commissure (/.p.), and anterior part of main canal ; /.sc., branch fov scapular
offshoot (sc.) ; 7..se., branch for post-scapular offshoot ; /.1~/.?, lateralis giving off branches to sense
organs of lateral canal posterior to shoulder girdle.
Fig. 6a. Transverse section through snout of young (just hatched) R. batis. §.O., supra-orbital canal
(rostral ak ; 8.0.1, ventral part of the same canal (subrostral) ; I.O., infra-orbital canal (prenasal
part); 7., cartilage of rostrum; a.c., ampullary canals from superficial Splint group of
ampulle ; g.c., goblet cells of ee
Fig. 8. Transverse euion through lateral canal of a young (just hatched) &. batis, showing the thick
cartilaginous lateral walls, and thin roof and floor. s.0., the sense organ on inner wall of canal ;
g.c., goblet cells of skin. x 120, From a photograph.
Fig. 9. Transverse section through a ventral subcutaneous canal (ventral part of supra-orbital), showing the
large sense organ (s.0.) lying in the roof of the canal, and some of the connective tissue in which
the canal is embedded. x 300. From a photograph of a section of a R. batis 16'5 cm. long.
Fig. 10. Transverse section through a pit organ, showing the sense organ at the bottom of the involution.
From near root of tail of a young R. batis.
te yr ,- _ eS > a a _ aan dale
es - : ae
PROFESSOR EWART & J.C.MITCHELL, ON THE SENSORY CANALS OF THE COMMON SKATE. Vol. XXKVII
ol.
N
\
Trans. Roy: Soc. Edin?
|
(ions
VII.—On the Latest Phases of Literary Style in Greece. By Emeritus Professor
BLACKIE.
(Read 4th April 1892.)
In the two papers which I had the honour of reading to the Society in the spring of
1890, my object was, in the first place, to combat the vulgar idea that modern Greek is a
‘corrupt and barbarous language, almost as far removed from classical Greek as Italian is
from the dialect used by Horace and Virgil; and, secondly, to show that, between the
two distinct strata in which Greek had flowed down continuously from Constantinople
in A.D. 333 to the present day,—the literary structure used by educated men, and the
Greek of the popular ballads used by the uneducated masses,—a compromise had been
achieved by that great scholar and patriot, Adamantius Coraes. This compromise was
made on the principle that the unity of action on which Greek nationality depends,
requires that the learned classes should cheerfully adopt those few idiomatic peculiarities
which had asserted themselves in the thought and expression of the great mass of the
people; while the great body of the language bore visibly the stamp of those whose
genius in Church and State had shaped it forth in the Attic and Byzantine periods. On
this basis the modern Greek language was left at the death of Coraes in 1833. But it is
not to be imagined that a formative rule of this kind, in the mode of national speech,
could be established at a stroke. All living language, like all living things, is a growth; ©
and besides, no exact law could be laid down for the limits of the compromise; and the
practical result of this giving and taking on both sides during the course of two genera-
tions, from the establishment of the Greek kingdom in 1830 to the present hour, is what
in this paper I intend to lay in some detail before the Society. Of course, in such
circumstances there would naturally grow up two styles of literary expression, the one
inclining more to the popular side, the other to the side of the higher culture; and these
two tendencies exist to the present hour, one class of writers inclining more to the
xvdaia, or vulgar, and the other to the ca@apevovca, or the usage of classical purity. But
though there are two distinct tendencies, with some intermediate shades of variation, it was
not difficult to prophesy on which side, under the action of powerful forces, the ultimate
preponderance would be. These forces were three :—first, the natural tendency of the
lower stratum of society, in proportion as intelligence and education advance, to imitate
the style of their social superiors ; second, the pride that the Greeks felt, especially after
the glorious result of the War of Independence, in their inheritance of a language which
had conquered the world by its wisdom, and triumphantly refused to be corrupted by
centuries of Roman, Italian, and Turkish domination; and third, perhaps most powerful
VOL. XXXVII. PART I. (NO. 7). S
108 EMERITUS PROFESSOR BLACKIE ON THE
of the three, was the fact that the Greek of the New Testament was the Greek which
reoulated the services and the liturgies of the Greek Church, and which could no more be
profaned by the corruptions of the vulgar tongue than the existing Scottish language,
however excellent for popular ballads, could dare to show its face in a Scottish pulpit.
How potently these purifying and elevating forces have acted can be shown in a very
tangible way by merely taking a series of Greek publications in chronological order, and
counting their gradually lessening deviations from the pure type of classical antiquity.
Starting from the period previous to the great reform of Coraes, as a standard from which
to measure the stages of advance, I find in twelve lines of the Hrotocritus, a popular
novel written in the Cretan dialect by Vicentius Kornares, published at Venice in
the year 1756, twenty-four deviations from correct Greek; in the same number of
lines of a Greek version of the Arabian Nights (Venice, 1792), nineteen deviations ;
and in the first five verses of the second chapter of the Gospel of Luke (Athens, 1824),
covering about the same space, about the same number. ‘Taking Coraes himself, in
twelve lines of his familiar correspondence with a Smyrniote merchant, I count twelve
deviations, and in another letter, only forty variations in three hundred and sixty lines,
the reason of this difference being, plainly, that as the points of variation affect rather
the connecting particles than the substantial material of the style, they are soon
exhausted, and, on occurring twice, do not require to be numbered as special points of
deviation. In Tricoupi’s well-known History of the War of Independence (London,
1833), such was the advance in identification with the correct Greek style, that in
thirty-four lines I find only three marks of the influence of the vulgar tongue; and in
Rangabes’ Drama of Ducas (Athens, 1874), only four such instances in twelve lines; in
a translation of Miss Agnes Smith’s (now Mrs Lewis) Travels in Greece (Leipzig, 1885),
I find eight in twelve lines; while in twenty-four lines of Paspates’ History of the
taking of Constantinople by the Turks (Athens, 1890), only three deviations are found ;
and of two Greek newspapers, the "Axpézods, October 1891, and the *Acrv, of December
1891, the first shows only two variations in sixteen lines, and the second the same
number in thirty lines. To the same most recent date belong the translation of
Shakespeare’s Hamlet, by Damirales (Athens, 1890), which, in twelve lines, shows only
five small peculiarities of the vulgar style; the Xpiorvankat Medéra, a religious magazine,
at present issuing from the Athenian press, in which two whole pages, of forty lines each,
contain only five ; lastly, in the Romaic New Testament, published by the Bible Society
(Cambridge, 1890), I find in the first five verses of Luke ii. only six deviations from
the pure type, as contrasted with nineteen in the version above quoted, before the day
of political and literary regeneration. This is truly wonderful, and to be accounted for
only from the operation of the powerful forces above mentioned, taken along with the
spread of education in school and university, so characteristic of the intelligent Greek
people. Nor do we do full justice to the advance when we merely count the quantitative
amount of deviation from the pure style that occurs in this diminishing ratio ; we must
look also at the quality, Well, the first thing that strikes us in this regard is the
LATEST PHASES OF LITERARY STYLE IN GREECE. 109
absolute banishment from the current literary style of every trace of foreign infection,
such as used to be not uncommon in books some forty or fifty years ago. No man now
writes omjr: (from hospitiwm) for oikos, daysdia for oikoyévera, or Bardp: for a steamboat ;
even a tramway, the most recent of importations from England, is not a tpauas, but
immoc.dnpodpopos, a horse railway, which you may latigh at as too polysyllabic a word for
popular use; but there it is, showing in the most determined fashion the instinct of the
uncorrupted Greek tongue to borrow from nobody, when everybody is found to borrow
from it. Taking even those types of the vulgar tongue, most of which do not appear in
the current literary style of the day, how insignificant are their divergencies, and not more
diverse from the style of Xenophon or the Greek plays, than the style of Xenophon or
feschylus differs from the style of Homer. Aéeyv for ov«, for instance, is merely a natural
curtailment for ovdév,—the accented syllable, according to a well-known law, being always
retained, Ovy for ovo: in the third person plural, present indicative, of verbs, plainly
points to an old brotherhood with the Doric ovr and the Latin unt. The preference for
verbal forms in », as in xvyw and dvve, is plainly Homeric; the loss of the infinitive mood
and the optative, for which va for va the subjunctive is regularly substituted, will cause
neither surprise nor difficulty ; -rod for avrév, and 76 for avr@, is rather an improvement ;
6 oré.os for os and éc7:s, borrowed, no doubt, from the 2 quale of the Italian, has its
analogies in the which and the whilk of our old English; and if es be used for év, and
eivat for €or, and ro for 7v, these are mere grammatical peculiarities not greater than
what occur in Pindar, and in the choruses of the Greek drama. Not a few of what
certain nice modern scholars would call corruptions are no modern inventions at all, but
as old as the foundation of Constantinople, or older; and such words, if formed accord-
ing to the native structure of the language, even though made yesterday, are not
corruptions, but expansions and enlargements of the Greek speech. If, for instance, the
modern Greek uses éuzopa for dvvaua, he is as much entitled to do so as the ancients
were to use dzop@ or ov dvvaua, But that the lust of innovation is not a fault with
which modern Greek can largely be charged, is evident from the style of the New
Testament, in which pefioravw takes the place of ueOioTnm, and wa, with the sub-
junctive, habitually takes the place of the superseded optative, and not seldom also of
the infinitive mood.
So much for the triumph of what we may call the style of restorative purism in the
current Greek language; but there is a conservative party, and a party represented, as
such a party requires to be, under such hostile influences, by men of distinguished
literary eminence. And two such men, unquestionably, the party of the xvdata
diadexros can boast, Bikelas and Polylas—the one a writer well known to the students of
history by his excellent work on Christian Greece (Paisley, 1891), translated by the
Marquis of Bute, as also by his Greek versions of some of Shakespeare’s best plays ; and
the other a Corfiote gentleman, who, besides a translation of Shakespeare’s Hamlet, has
given to the world a translation of Homer’s Odyssey into Romaic. To give the
classical scholar an idea of the degrees of departure from classical correctness exhibited
110 EMERITUS PROFESSOR BLACKTE ON THE
by these writers, as contrasted with the purist party, we cannot do better than set before
him at length one of the most familiar passages in Hamlet, act i. scene 2, as translated
by Polylas and Bikelas, and the same in the translation above named, by Damirales.
“ O, that this too too solid flesh would melt,
Thaw, and resolve itself into a dew!
Or that the Everlasting had not fix’d
His canon ’gainst self-slaughter! O God! O God!
How weary, stale, flat, and unprofitable
Seems to me all the uses of this world !
Fie on’t! O fie! ’tis an unweeded garden
That grows to seed ; things rank and gross in nature
Possess it merely. That it should come to this!
But two months dead !—nay, not so much, not two:
So excellent a king; that was, to this,
Hyperion to a satyr: so loving to my mother,
That he might not between the winds of heaven
Visit her face too roughly.”
7 A: ! ee. Lal Pets Ne: , , Ul
X! va nUTOPOUTE TOVT 7 TOTO OTEPEN TAapKa
A A ° A A A ,
va €evrayooy Kal ws axvos Spocta va yivy!
\ \ , e ’ N ‘ >
9 Tov vomov Tov O IINaorns va uny eixe oToY
\ a ‘ 5) , ! ra) , i 3) ,
va Tiuwpy TOY avTopovoy! Ve wou, © VE mov,
, lA A Ve] rt
TOTO AVOTTG, KOWa Kal avodeAa Kal axpeia ©
, >» of. ? pr N No E/; > ’ lal lol id {
pavovT OAa s Eue Ta Epy avToU TOU KocnoV!
, if n i Ve
Packeda va ’xouw! Kiros eivar xoptiacpmevos
A A , , A \ ,
Mes TO EeoTrOplLagUa Tov, Kat ONO TOY Yeuioav
A NY A ,
XovTpoedy puta kal EePAacTapwpeva.
>) na ‘ ,
Avrot va caraytioy! ’AmeOapévos porss
geen \ , z Ian , ION sn ,
a7ro Ovo pyvats’ ovdE TOTO, OUdE KAY SvO.
,? , Ie , iO
Ti é€aicvos Bacidéas! Yarepioy jrav
A lal a ,
Kal TOUTOS éuTpoacOev Tov LaTupos’ TOTO
A 5) ° , na
Tpuvpepyy elxe ayamnv THs MNT pos pou! unre
” a n~ A A
avemo. T ovpavov Oa UTopepve va TvéouUv
fxd A , fy
okAnpa ¢ TO TpOTwTO TNS!
A nA A ld 4 A SA ,
Q! “As riv €Brera atriy Tiy oTEpedy THY CapKa
Ny: Ser , 3) 5c. ° \ x !
va €dvove, va 'oKkopTice k’ evas ATMOS Va yelvy!
nA , A ¢ , A
H vopoy ds wny opite 6 Tidaorns va radey
x > , > , , ?
Tov avroxrovoy !—*Q Océ, Océ mov, Tocoy Kovdia
aie A ‘ ° ‘ r
KU avopeAyn Kat maTaa KU avovola Kal cama
an , A , ~ ,
Mov PalvovTa TA Tpay"MaTa TOU KOcMoU TOUTOV bAa !
, / , t if ly
Ti cixama! ri cixapa! Xwpadu xépoor etvar,
, { 41 by 5) 10 ‘ ,
eomopiacuevoy! "Léuoe ayxiabia kat tTprBorovs
? :o. ” yo , ! ’ wt ‘ , !
Kt ovd exer GAXO TivoTe! ... ’9 avTO va KaTayTYCY!
, ‘ a ~ me
MoXss vexpos mpo duo pyvov . . . wire Kav vo! “Oxe!
Ti Baorreds! “Qpotage we rovrov cov ‘moraker
6‘ Yepiwy 6 eds we Darvpov! Kat récov
yAvkos Tpos THY MYNTEpA MoU, TOU Gs Kal TOV aépa
dev Oddie ’s TO Tpdcwrov oKANPA va Ths Puojon!
LATEST PHASES OF LITERARY STYLE IN GREECE. 111
"OQ, eiOe va érijKeTo, va SteAveTO Kal es Spocoy va mereBadrreTo 7 UTEpayay oTEpEed adTY caps!
“H va uy eixe Ocomice 6 Aisuos Tov kara THe avToxetpias vouov! *O Océ! Océ! Ildcov dxAnpa,
fwra, TaTEWa Kal avogpeNy mot palvovrat Ta TOD Kdcmov To’TOV! "Es Képaxas! Eive yh xeyeprwpuern,
év 7 pvovra Aypia YopTa, KaTéxovot 0 adTHY CaTpa povov TpayuaTa Kat pice evTEAH His Tovro
v amoAnén! Moris dvo pnvav vexpos! “Ox, 0xt, ovdE TOTov, ovdE SVo. Bacirevs Tocov é€aiperos,
doris, TVYKpLWOKMEVOS TPOS TOUTOY, ATO ws YTepiwy mpos Latupov! Tocoy dé yyaTa THY UNTEPA pov,
wate ovd els avTOUS akoun Tous avéuous TOD Ovpavod HOcrev éemTpeWwer va Tvewor Biaiws ert TOU
Tpoowrou THs.
To make the contrast complete, I may as well insert here a specimen of the prose
style of Bikelas, with a passage from the columns of a current Greek newspaper. The
extract from Bikelas is from a small volume (Athens, 1890), in which he gives to an
Athenian audience his impressions of Scotland and its people. The extract relates to
St Andrews, and the game of golf there practised. |
A ~ ~ , 4 ~
"Oxe waxpay Tis Kwuo7roAews Falkland, eis ras tepirov mpas ardcTacw Ova Tov cLdnpodpduov,
- paw a , e? , , ast , ? , A , e lé oe uf
Keirat emt THS Oadacons 4 apxaia woAts TOU A-yiov ’Avdpéov. Thy onuepov 4 Tod avTn Pynuierat
‘ A 6 , ‘ A A
da Ta Tapa THv Oadraccay Tedia OTOV TaifeTar dia THalpov TO Kat’ eEoxHy UKwTLKOY Talyvioy TOU
\ A , co 7 A a \ ~ OF
Golf. Aé xaxai yAéooa Aéyour OTL of elpynviKol oUTOL Gya@ves ATOTEAOUY TO ATOKXELTTIKOY,. TOVAG-
A , A , v o \ A
XloTov TO KUpLWTepov Ogua ouirALas TOV AoVXwWY KaToikwv THs. ~ANAoTE Guws, KATA TOV MeTaLova
4 , > , A \ f. A | \ loa , ° Ni e ,
Kpavyat ToAcuov avTnxnoav ToAXNaKIs Tept TA TELXN THS Kal TO aiwa ExVON ets Tas OdovS THS-
In this passage only five idioms distinctive of the popular dialect occur, viz.—
dxe for ov, ets for ey, Thy onuepov for onuepov, ovv for over, and tus for avrys ; nevertheless,
it is sufficiently differentiated from the more advanced style of the “Actv newspaper
(Athens, 5th December 1891), in a passage of twice the length, containing a notice of
the new Professorship of Modern Greek in the Liverpool College.
“O “ ‘Huepyotos Taxudpomos ris AcBeptrovAns” édnuocievoe rept THs els TO aVTOOL TaveTLaTHMLLOV
eisaywyns Tis veocAAnuiKhs Tas Emouevas NeTTOMEpElas ev TH TOU LaPBarov 23)2 AcxeuBpiov PiAw
avTov, ds kal kataxwptfouey Bde ws TOTOUTH MaAXoV évOLapEepovaas, bow ev ETEpals Kwpats 7 EAXyVIKH
KAaotky Te Kal vewrépa Sewas KaATaToAEuELTAL WS O7Oer IKITTA XpHTIMoS.
A iz an ~ fol
Mera mAcelorys Sons evxapioTycews ayyedAopev OTL 4 VyKANTOS Tis TaveTioTHMLAKHS TKOATS
7) Ld A , x07 , , ~ , e a , 7 ~ lat
amepaciae Thy cVoTaTW diwy Tafewy didacKadias THs véas EAANUIKYHS yAwooNs Ev TH OXOAH, TpocAa-
fol 6 A AY 6d Xl , A K K A oe Me XN A 4 Jar > a
Bovoa did thy didackadtay TavTyy Tov K. Kowvor. Kovpjy, doris emi ixava Hon ery edidackey ev TH
¢ > , U € A ? ~ ? , , EA \ , im ,
eAAyuiky KowoTyTe AtBeprovAns. “O x. Koupijs. ex tev “Toviwy vijcwy wywv TO yevos, eive SraKexpimevos
OiTA@PATOVXOS TOU TaveTicTHulov "AOnvav Kal KaTOXOS OV MOVOY THe emIaTHMOVLKNS Yyvaoews THs
veoecAAnuikys ywrons, GAAG Kat evpelas Kraus mabijoews KaOws Kal TOANGY eipwrraikGy yrwooor.
"EX ’ o € r , , e , Of e A > Come) las A
mifomev OTL 9 uyKaTaNrekis SidakTopos ToLavTys tKavoTnTos, o1as OK. Kovupis, ev To apiOuo Tov
2 , ~ K) a a aS an >
nueTepwy evtoTioy KaOnynrav, értat aTovdaioy TAEovexTHUA TH TaVveTLATHULAKH TKOAH Kat OpeXos
A ~ ca aA , »y ~ ~ x
ov opiKpov Tots porryTais adrhs. “H rakis airy tov x. Kovpy eorat xarws a€toveplepyos ws moos TO
‘ n \ . an
TPOTWTIKOY AUTHS Kat WieTEeveTat OTL 7 StdacKkadla avdTod Beret cuVTEAeTEL TA MEYLTTA TPOS KpElTTOVEA
kal axpiBerTépay yvaow THs veoeAAnuikhs yAwoons Tapa TeV cKovdaoTav THs AtBepmrovAns.
In this long passage there are only two points of the popular Romaic idiom,
viz.—eive for éor, and the auxiliary O¢d\w with the future indicative; and _ this
suggests the important remark that it is by no means the intention of the advocates of
the xafapevovca style to restore the classical idiom pedantically in all its detail; they
112 EMERITUS PROFESSOR BLACKIE ON THE
merely aim at reducing its vulgarisms to a minimum, and retaining only as much of it
as has become thoroughly engrained into the general structure of the language, and
could not be extruded without violence.
After this detailed exhibition of the two styles, the, only question that remains is
how far the minority, as represented by these two eminent writers, are right, and on
what grounds they justify their departure from the prevalent style approved by the
great majority of their countrymen. On this head Bikelas says nothing; but his motive
must be, no doubt, the notion that when a man writes for the people, he must write in a
style which the people understand. This, of course, is very proper as a general rule, but
its propriety depends on circumstances; and if the majority of the people, as seems
plainly to be the case, prefer a style endeared to them by classical and ecclesiastical
tradition, the argument loses jts validity. There are in Greece two peoples and two
dialects, just as there are in Scotland English and Scotch, each with its separate and
well-marked sphere, but one of the pair for general currency universally allowed to
dominate the other. But what does Polylas say? In the preface to his learned and
scholarly translation of the play from which we have quoted, he says “that the essential
character of the spoken language neither has been destroyed nor can be destroyéd by
any merely external changes; its internal organism remains, which expresses the inborn
inherent reason (évdcaGerov Adyov), and breathes the living spirit of the people.” This
also is very true as a general principle; but it seems somewhat too strong language
to apply to the loss of the infinitive and the optative moods, and the use of auxiliary
verbs in a few cases. Besides, may we not justly ask, Does not the organism of
the upper stratum of the language, which came down in a continuous stream direct
from Constantinople, express the character of Greek thinking and the internal organism
of the Hellenic mind as much as the style of loose conversation and the popular ballad ?
Then, again, further on he says that “ while the structure of ancient Greek was decidedly
synthetic, that of the modern dialect is as decidedly analytic.” Here, again, we feel
compelled to make the remark that the instances relied on, as the use of the auxiliary
verbs, are too few to justify so large a conclusion and establish so striking a contrast.
Greek has never, like English, lost its native power of holding by the wealth of its
melodious terminations, and forming new compounds, when required, out of the fulness
of its own vitality.
So far, our verdict is decidedly in favour of the procedure of the immense majority of
Greek writers from Coraes downwards—in favour, namely, of the tendency to abolish, as
far as possible without pedantry, the gap that, a hundred years ago, separated the Greek
of the common people from the Greek of the educated classes. In fact, without any
reasoning at all about the matter, the spread of education and intelligence among the
Greek people is filling up this gap day by day by an uncontrollable necessity. Of this
I will give two instances from my own experience, When in Athens for the first time
some forty years ago, a little girl, my landlord’s daughter, was going down with me to
the Pirzeus to get a boat for Salamis, Looking down to the shore, I said to my little
LATEST PHASES OF LITERARY STYLE IN GREECE. 113
guide, rod eivar 7 Bapxérra—‘ Where is the boat?” ‘ You should not say Sapxérra, sir,”
was the reply, “but Aé¢uGos,”—the genuine Greek word used by Thucydides, not an
Italian word which reminded the little patriot of the departed days of Venetian domina-
tion in the Morea. Another instance of the same patriotic purism occurred to me last
spring in the case of a group of common schoolboys. I was standing on the pier of
Nauplia, beside a train of cabs, waiting to take me and my fellow-voyagers to Mycene,
when a crowd of these lively urchins, attracted by our appearance, gathered round us to
stare at the strangers. Wishing to show them that I could speak Greek, and Greek that
they could understand, not like the usual Englishmen’s Greek, which, as old Thomas
Fuller said, nobody understands but themselves, I said, pointing to one of the horses in
the cab, ras ovouafes TO Coov Tovro—What is the name of this animal? The reply
jumped out forthwith, not as I expected in the popular “ dAoyo,” the unreasoning brute,
but “tos,” the old classical designation for the noble animal. Aey etvac trmog etvar adoyo,
was my reply ; but they had been taught too well, and parried my’ thrust as emphatically
as the little girl at the Pireeus.
Of course, nothing in the above strictures should be interpreted to imply that the
vulgar Romaic dialect is to be disowned altogether, and consigned to a limbo of intolerable
barbarism. On the contrary, in its own sphere, in the sphere of the historical ballad and
popular song, it is invaluable, and is, in fact, too closely bound up with the best patriotic
recollections of 1821 to be willingly forgotten so long as Greece remains Greece.
Polylas, therefore, is right so far; and, while the style of the popular ballads may carry
with it associations which harmonise ill with the elevated style of such a serious and
thoughtful tragedy as Hamlet, it may for that very reason be the best neo-Hellenic form
in which to dress, as this author has done, the Odyssey of Homer (Athens, 1875),—a
poem which partakes more of the easy breadth of a series of popular ballads, than of the
sustained majesty of such lofty epics as those which have immortalised the names of
Virgil and Milton.
In conclusion, as a practical man, and of half a century’s experience in the educational
treatment of languages, I take the liberty to make the following threefold application of
the living power of the living Greek language as set forth in this paper :—(1) That our
great schools and universities should give up treating Greek as a dead language, and should
forthwith fling overboard their present fashion of pronouncing it in a barbarous and
arbitrary fashion, which nobody understands but themselves; (2) that considerations of
policy, as well as of human sympathy, should induce all persons, whether inside or
. outside the University, to cultivate a living familiarity with the living inheritors of
the noble Greek language; and (3) that the Christian Churches, with whom Greek is
not only an intellectual luxury, but a professional tool, should institute travelling scholar-
ships for distinguished young theologians, for the purpose of getting in five months a
living hold of the language of St Luke and St Paul, with more pleasure and profit than,
under the present scholastic system of dead books and grammatical rules, can be achieved
in as many years.
sr
(Gulisge)
VIII.—The Lower Carboniferous Volcanic Rocks of East Lothian (Garlton Hills). By
Freperick H. Harcu, Ph.D., F.G.8., of the Geological Survey. Communicated by
Sir ARCHIBALD GEIKIE, F.R.S. (With Two Plates.)
(Read 2nd May 1892.)
PAGE
Introduction : Physical Features of the District, . é : : : : : : : . 115
Part I. The Lower, Basic Lavas, . ; c : é : ; : : : : } . 116
» ALI. The Upper, more Acid Lavas, . F : ; é : : 4 ‘ ; F . 119
», III. The Materials Filling the Vents, . : : ‘ j : é ; ‘ : 5 ule,
Summary, : : : : : : - : : : : : ‘ ; F : . 125
INTRODUCTION: PHysicaL FEATURES OF THE DISTRICT.
The rich agricultural tract of country that forms the north-western part of East
Lothian, undulating uniformly from the foot of the chain of the Lammermuirs towards
the Firth of Forth, swells near Haddington into the cluster of the Garlton Hills, and the
neighbouring masses of Traprain Law and North Berwick Law.
The rocks that build up this elevated ground are lavas and tuffs that were produced
during the period of volcanic activity that characterised the deposition of the Lower
Carboniferous beds of Scotland. In East Lothian their eruption followed close on the
deposition of the sandstones and marls that constitute the base of the calciferous sand-
stone group.*
Voleanic rocks of Lower Carboniferous age cover a considerable area in the Midland
Valley of Scotland. Thus they form the ranges of the Campsie Hills and Kilpatrick, as
well as the uplands of Renfrewshire and North Ayrshire. In all of these areas there is
an intimate relationship of petrographical types. But in the Garlton Hills we meet with
types not elsewhere developed.
The stratigraphical relations of the rocks about to be described are somewhat obscured
by the nature of the ground. The main features are given in Sir ARCHIBALD GEIKIE’S
classic paper on the “Carboniferous Volcanic Rocks of the Firth of Forth.”t He
estimates the thickness of the volcanic series between the red sandstones and the base of
the Carboniferous Limestone at 1500 feet, though the estimate is stated to be only
approximate on account of the paucity of sections. At the base of this thick pile lies a
series of red and green tuffs, which can be well seen along the coast to the west of
Dunbar, and on both sides of North Berwick. “ After the cessation of the showers of
ash and bombs, lava began to flow and continued to do so with little intermission until
* A. Gerxiz, Trans. Roy. Soc. Hdin., vol. xxix., 1880, p. 447. See also his Presidential Address to the Geological
Society, 1892. + Loe. cit.
VOL. XXXVII, PART I. (NO. 8). 7.
116 DR HATCH ON THE LOWER CARBONIFEROUS
the mass of the Garlton Hills had accumulated. No thick zones of tuff, nor interstrati-
fied layers of sedimentary rock can anywhere be seen, separating the numerous lava beds,
though it must be owned that the sections of the rocks are few and unsatisfactory.” *
The source of these streams of lava is indicated by the hills of Traprain Law and
North Berwick, and the Bass Rock in the Firth of Forth. These are regarded as vents
or “necks” by Sir ArcurBaALD GrErKre. A microscopic examination shows that the
material filling these vents is of similar character to that composing the flows.
The lavas are divisible into two distinct series. Of these the lower consists of
strongly basic rocks and forms a band extending from Traprain Law by Linton, White-
kirk, and Balgone to Fenton Tower, while the upper is a more acid (trachytic) series.
It forms the Garlton Hills and stretches away to the south between Whittingham and
Linplum.t
I. Tor Lower, Basic Lavas (Basatts).
The basic rocks vary, from a type rich in olivine, and almost entirely free from
felspar (limburgite), through ordinary olivine-basalts, to a more acid, strongly felspathic
type (labradorite-basalt). In this series the percentages of silica and magnesia vary
inversely. Thus the limburgite of Whitelaw Hill yields 40 per cent. of silica and 12 per
cent. of magnesia; the olivine-basalt of Kippie Law, 46 per cent. of silica and 6°8 per
cent. of magnesia; the Hailes Castle rock, 49 per cent. of silica and 4°4 per cent. of
magnesia; while the labradorite-basalt of Markle Quarry contains 49°5 per cent. of silica
and only 2°8 per cent. of magnesia.
The Limburgite of Whitelaw Hill.— Whitelaw Hill ie 4} miles south-east of
Haddington. The material examined was obtained from Chester’s Quarry. It is composed
of olivine, augite, and magnetic iron-ore.{ Felspar is unrepresented, save by an occasional
skeleton-crystal. The augite is of a pale claret colour, deepening to violet at the margin
of the crystals. The olivine also is mainly unchanged in fresh specimens, but the course
of the alteration is indicated by the presence of a bright green pleochroic substance,
developed along the cleavage cracks. In more altered material the olivine is entirely
replaced by the same chloritic substance.
The larger crystals lie in a ground-mass, which consists chiefly of an aggregate of
augite microlites, with intervening films and patches of a colourless glassy substance,
which in places is powdered over with a yellowish dust.§ Slender needles of apatite are
* A. GeIKIR, loc. cit.
+ Survey Memoir on Last Lothian, p. 47, and Sir A. Gurxin’s Presidential Address already cited.
+ The name limburgite was first applied by RosrenBuscg to the rock of the Kaiserstuhl in Breisgau. Limburgites
have since been described from numerous foreign localities, but are hitherto unrecorded in Great Britain. Quite
recently I have been able to note the occurrence of a similar type among the basic rocks of the Carboniferous volcanic
series in several places in Scotland besides that of Whitelaw Hill, ¢g., Hill of Beath, Cowdenbeath (Fife) ; Pitandrew,
Fordel Castle (Fife) ; Southdean Law, 7 miles south of Jedburgh.
§ A similar appearance is described by Boiticxy as characteristic for his “lichte Magmabasalt.”
VOLCANIC ROCKS OF EAST LOTHIAN. 117
occasionally seen, being conspicuous by reason of their great length; and, here and there,
scales of brown mica are present. In places the colourless “‘ base” shows weak double
refraction, and a close examination now and then discloses the presence of a six- or four-
sided erystal of a colourless and pellucid mineral. The low index of refraction, shown by
its faint outline and clear aspect, distinguishes it from apatite. Probably it is nepheline.
The rock gelatinises readily with cold hydrochloric acid, and the jelly contains much
soda, as shown by treatment with uranium acetate. Mr Piayer has been good enough
to analyse a specimen of this rock, with the following result :—
Silica, . ‘ ‘ : : ; : 40°2
Titanic oxide, . : : ‘ ; : 29
Alumina, : f ; ; : 2 128
Ferric oxide, . : ‘ : : ‘ 4:0
Ferrous oxide, . ; : ; ‘ : 10°4
Lime, . : E : ; ; : 10°4
Magnesia, , “ : : : . 11°9
Potash, . ‘ : : : ; : 8
Soda, . ; : A ; i ‘ 27
Loss by ignition, ; : ; é : 3°4
99°5
Phosphoric acid is present. Sp. G. = 3°03.
The points brought out by this analysis are the low percentages of silica (40 per cent.),
and alkalies (3°5 per cent., mostly soda), the high percentage of ferrous oxide (10:4 per
cent.), magnesia (11°9 per cent.), and lime (104 per cent.), and the comparatively large
amount of titanic acid (2°9 per cent.). The titanic acid appears to be mainly present in
the augite, as the iron-ore, when isolated, proved to be magnetite and not ilmenite.
Knop found 4°57 per cent. of titanic acid in the augite of the limburgite of the
Kaiserstuhl in Breisgau.*
The Olivine-Basalt of Kippie Law.t—This is a dark compact rock, in which small
glistening facets of felspar can be seen without the aid of a lens. The examination of a
thin section under the microscope reveals the presence of porphyritic crystals of felspar
and olivine, lying in a ground-mass composed of lath-shaped felspars, granular olivine
and magnetite, and microlitic augite.{ Olivine was originally the most abundant con-
stituent, but that mineral has, during the processes of chemical change that make up the
life-history of a rock, been converted into a fibrous aggregate of serpentine. With the
serpentine limonite is associated, this mineral having been deposited along the boundary
edges and in the cleavage cracks.
The felspar is not abundant as a porphyritic constituent. It is a colourless and fresh
* A. Knop, Zeitschrift fur Krystallographie, vol. x., 1885, p. 58.
+ No. 631 of the Survey Collection.
{ The Kippie Law type is occasionally found in other areas occupied by the Carboniferous volcanic rocks of
Scotland. Thus it occurs south of Jedburgh, at Neides Law and Bonchester Hill, also in the Campsie Hills, 1} miles
north of Lennoxtown. It is nearly allied to rocks of the Dalmeny type, which are abundantly distributed. It differs
from these in the presence of porphyritic felspars.
118 DR HATCH ON THE LOWER CARBONIFEROUS
variety of plagioclase—probably labradorite, for its high extinction angles, measured to
the twin-striation, places it near the basic end of the lime-soda series. The larger crystals
present the usual phenomena characterising the felspars of volcanic rocks—zonal extince-
tions between crossed nicols, and numerous inclusions (augite, magnetite, &c.). The
lath-shaped felspars of the ground-mass extinguish in too indefinite a manner to permit
of the nature of the felspar being determined. A third stage in the genesis of the felspar
is represented by the presence of small patches of a clear unstriped variety. Since there
is no glassy base present, these felspar patches apparently resulted from the crystallisa-
tion of the mother-liquor of the rock left in consolidation.
With regard to structure, its most prominent feature is the more or less idiomorphic
character of all the constituents. The porphyritic felspars occur in short rectangular
prisms; and the serpentinized olivine, in forms characteristic of that mineral. In the
ground-mass the felspars have a long, lath-shaped habit; olivine occurs in grains which
in part are bounded by crystallographic contours ; and magnetite, in rectangular granules.
Most pronounced of all, however, is the idiomorphic character of the microlitic augite.
Viewed under a high power, the ground-mass is seen to be crowded with delicately-
shaped prisms of augite, most of which are terminated at both ends by faces of the
hemi-pyramid.
In addition to the minerals already enumerated, apatite is present in fine needles,
and there are a few patches of a bright green chlorite, with which brown mica is
occasionally associated.
The inter-relations of the various constituents indicate that they were probably
formed in the following order :—iron-ore and apatite, olivine, augite, plagioclase, and
finally, the unstriped felspar occurring in patches in the ground-mass.
The rock was analysed some years ago for the Geological Survey by Mr J. 8. Grant-
WILSON :—
SiO, . , f : : : ; 46°01
Al,O, . ; f ; ; , é 19:19
Fe,0,. 5 : : : : 5 5°91
FeO . : : ‘ : : : 6°75
MnO . Z : 5 4 ; ; 19
CaO . d , } ; 5 ‘ 8°68
MgO . ; ; : ; ‘ 3 6°81
KON. d ; : j ! 2 1:20
Na,O . ; ; ? : : 5 3°27
HO . ; 5 4 : é ; 3°07
101:08
Sp. gravity = 2°8.
The Olivine-Basalt of Hailes Castle.*—This rock has a more felspathic character.
It consists chiefly of felspar microlites and slender laths, with granules of augite and
particles of magnetite. In this ground-mass lie isolated limonitic pseudomorphs after
olivine, and a few glomero-porphyritic crystals of striped felspar. A basalt occurring at
* No. 630 of the Survey Collection.
VOLCANIC ROCKS OF EAST LOTHIAN. 119
Blackie Heughs is similar to that of Hailes Castle, in the character of its ground-mass,
but it differs from that rock by the absence of porphyritic crystals of felspar. On the
other hand, there is a greater amount of olivine crystals, with which some porphyritic
grains of augite are associated.
The chemical composition of the Hailes Castle rock is represented in the following
analysis, made for the Geological Survey by Mr J. 8. Grant-Wizson :—
Si0,. ; : ; F ; 5 : 49°07
ALO, } : ; 5 , : F 19°43
Fe,0, - Dee . 10°58
FeO . ; ; : : H ; 2°35
MnO . : : ‘ F ; ; 0B
CaO. . : : : ; : : 7:87
MgO . : . . : : ; 4°36
10 : > A : : : 98
Na, . ; 3°31
HZO'. : : : : ; : 2:26
100°53
Sp. G. 2°76.
The “ Labradorite-Basalt” of Markle Quarry.*—This is a still more felspathic
type. In this rock olivine only occurs in small sporadic grains, while plagioclase felspar
is present in numerous large porphyritic crystals lying in a ground-mass of laths,
microlites, and granules of felspar, together with dispersed magnetite and probably
augite, the latter mineral being obscured by a ferruginous product of decay.
This rock, which must be classed as a felspathic basalt (‘‘ labradorite”), has also been
analysed by Mr Wi1son with the following result,:—
S10, : : J E : ; 49°54
AOR: ; ; ss : : . 22°23
He, 0, . : : : ‘ f : 9°55
FeO . E : : f i . 1:12
MnO. : ; : : S , 08
CaO . : : . ’ . : Helle!)
MgO . E , ; : : : 2°80
KO 5. ‘ ; 3 : : ; 181
Na,O . ; , é ; : : 4°56
EEO": : : ; : : : 2.42
101°30
Sp. G. 2-7.
I]. Tur Upper, more Acrp Lavas (TRACHYTES).
The Porphyritic Trachytes are compact rocks of pale grey, buff, and brown colours,
and are chiefly characterised by the presence of clear glancing crystals of unstriped
felspar. These crystals vary considerably in the different flows, both in regard to size
and abundance. They are largest and most plentifully developed in the rock quarried
at Peppercraig, close to the town of Haddington. This rock consists of clear felspar
crystals, sometimes as much as 10 mm. in length, and a dark microcrystalline ground-
* No. 629 of the Survey Collection.
120 DR HATCH ON THE LOWER CARBONIFEROUS
mass in about equal proportions. On the other hand, the rock on which the Hopetoun
Monument stands has an almost flinty texture with few and small felspars.
With respect to chemical composition, these rocks contain from 60 to 63 per cent. of
silica. The alkalies generally amount to about 10 per cent., but in some cases are
lower. The magnesia is always less than 1 per cent., while the lime varies from 2 to 3
per cent. The ratio between potash and soda is not the same for all the types. Thus
in the Peppercraig rock the soda is slightly in excess of the potash, while in a specimen
from Kae Heughs the reverse is the case. The chemical composition of the Garlton
trachytes is thus in accord with that of well-known trachytes from other areas.*
Examined under the microscope, these sections show that the rocks are composed of
large and remarkably limpid felspar crystals, imbedded in a minutely crystalline ground-
mass. The latter consists chiefly of felspar, but also contains granules of augite and
particles of magnetite. None of the rocks contain any interstitial glassy matter; for
under a high power the ground-mass is invariably found to be completely crystalline.
One of the most striking points about these rocks is the decided separation of the por-
phyritic felspar from the microlitic felspar of the ground-mass. In no case could any
gradation or passage between the two generations be made out. There is no doubt that
we have here an instance of the crystallization of one constituent of the same rock-magma
under widely separated conditions. The porphyritic felspars represent the intra-telluric
conditions, that is to say, they were developed while the imprisoned magma simmered
below, prior to its escape upwards. On eruption, the cooling was quick enough to pro-
duce a uniform and even-grained ground-mass, but not sufficiently rapid to permit of any
of the magma consolidating as glass. As further evidence in favour of this view, attention
is directed to the remarkable zones of fresh felspar deposited round fragments of intra-
telluric felspars broken on eruption.
Nature of the Felspar.—With the exception of isolated occurrences, the great
majority of the rocks contain porphyritic crystals of sanidine, showing the rectangular
form, Carlsbad twinning, and clear glassy habit characteristic of that mineral. A
cleavage flake (parallel to the face M) gave an extinction angle of 6-7°, measured to the
edge P.M. In many of the sections examined the crystals are as clear and unaltered as
in the most modern trachytes. Since the rocks are of Carboniferous age, this shows a
most remarkable resistance to the disintegrating action of the weather.
Inclusions of augite, magnetite, &c., are abundant. These are often of a globular
character, and are irregularly scattered through the crystals or arranged in marginal
zones. The large amount of included matter occurring in marginal zones suggests that
a considerable portion was taken up during the continued growth of the crystals.
The lath-shaped microlites and granules that make up the ground-mass also consist
of a clear glassy felspar, apparently of the same nature as the porphyritic sanidine.
Although in most of the rocks the whole of the porphyritic felspar is orthoclastic, in
* The Puy de Déme trachyte has SiO,, 62°83 ; K,0, 8°88; Na,O, 5°03—one of the Rhon trachytes ; SiO,, 63°40 ;
K,0, 3°54 ; Na,O, 8°39 (Kalkowsky)—trachyte from Monte dell’ Imperatore, Italy ; SiO,, 61°05; KO, 5:28 ; Na,0,
5°94—trachyte from Monte Vettia ; SiO,, 61°87 ; K,O, 6°51 ; Na,O, 5:07.—(J. Rots.)
.
>
VOLCANIC ROCKS OF EAST LOTHIAN. 121
some a striped felspar is also developed (Phantassie Quarry, Skid Hill, Bangley Quarry).
In the Bangley Quarry so much plagioclase is present as to suggest a passage to the
andesites. The chemical analysis points the same way, the silica percentage being only
58°5. (See Chemical Analyses of the trachytes. )
Structure of the Trachytes.—The holocrystalline character of the ground-mass, and
the wide breach between its constituent microlites and the porphyritic sanidine crystals,
have already been alluded to. One interesting feature in regard to the porphyritic
erystals remains to be noticed. There is, namely, a tendency in the latter to pack
themselves together, producing a glomero-porphyritic structure. This is especially
evident in the rocks of Kae Heughs, Dirlton Craig, and Peppercraig. The crystals are
so closely fused that the composite character of the glomero-porphyritic aggregates is only
noticeable between crossed nicols. The component grains then become distinct in con-
sequence of their different action on polarised light. One such mass, that appeared
homogeneous in ordinary light, was found to be made up of fifteen distinct grains when
examined between crossed nicols. In some cases the grains are allotriomorphic towards
the interior of the mass, but present idiomorphic contours at the exterior. The same
phenomenon has been observed by Mr TEatu in the glomero-porphyritic felspar of the
Tynemouth Dyke.*
With regard to the ground-mass, a beautiful micro-fluidal structure is produced in
many of the rocks (e.g., Dirlton Craig and Skid Hill) by the orientation of the microlitic
felspars of the ground-mass in lines which flow and eddy round the porphyritic crystals.
The interstices between the lath-shaped felspars are filled with allotriomorphic felspar and
with granules of augite: in no case was any glassy or felsitic base observed. Larger and
in some cases well-contoured crystals of a Brocyen augite sometimes occur. They usually
contain much enclosed magnetite.
The Non-Porphyritic Trachytes.—Non-porphyritic varieties of the trachytes occur at
Score Hill, Lock Pit Hill, Craigie Hill, and Pencraig. They are pale rocks, tinted
variously with buff, pink, mauve, and cream colours. In texture they are compact and
“trachytic,” and present a somewhat glistening appearance when subjected to minute
inspection. Examined under the microscope, they are seen to consist of a mass of close
interlacing lath-shaped crystals of a felspar which, between crossed nicols, gives no sign
of twin-striation. Scattered evenly through the sections are small patches of powdery
carbonate (calcite or dolomite), in some cases apparently pseudomorphous after augite.
Under a higher power the structure is seen to be completely, though minutely, crystalline,
the interspaces between the lath-shaped felspars being filled with granules of the same
mineral. lIron-ores are present in small quantity. A fluidal structure is occasionally
indicated by a parallel arrangement of the felspar microlites.
In the salmon-pink rock of Lock Pit Hill the microlitic and long lath-shaped character
of the felspars is strongly pronounced, slender crystals of orthoclase, lying in a ground-
* Some North of England Dykes, Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., 1884, p. 234.
122 DR HATCH ON THE LOWER CARBONIFEROUS
mass of minute spicular microlites of the same mineral ; but in other rocks (e.g., Pencraig
Quarry *) there is less tendency to develop lath-shaped crystals, the granular form taking
its place. In others, again (e.g., at Craigie Hill), a passage to the porphyritic trachytes
is produced by the sporadic appearance of sanidine crystals belonging to an earlier
generation.
Chemical Analyses of the Trachytes.t
Bangle
Peppercraig, See Kae Heughs,.| Phantassie,* oun
Sect. No. 615 Sah i 620 Sect. No. 635| Sect. No. 622] goct,. No. 625
(Wilson). (G. “Beanie ). (Wilson). |(A. Dick, jun.). (A. Dick,jun.).
SiO, 62°61 62°50 61°35 59°50 58°50
Al,O, 18:17 18°51 16°88 18°25 21°12
Fe,0, 0°32 ne 41 4°81 4-68
FeO 4:25 5:01 2°34 AGE
MnO 21 gc 26 mee
CaO 2°58 2°00 2°39 2°10 3°70
MgO 74 61 44 70 93
K,O 4:02 6°31 6:12 6°30 5°84
H,O 6°49 3°44 5:26 5°03 3°90
Bess Cea 80 2-10 1-70 1°60 2-00
tion
100719 99°86 99°82 100°63 100°67
Sp. G. 2°6 + 2°6
Ill. THe Voucanic VENTS.
The position of the vents, from which the lavas of the Garlton Hills took their source,
is indicated by the presence, on the margin of the volcanic area, of masses of agglomerate
and plugs of igneous rock. Some of these are exposed along the coast of the Firth of
Forth, between Dunbar and North Berwick; others form good-sized hills, such as North
Berwick Law (612 ft.), on the north of the district, and Traprain Law (724 ft.), on the
south. The Bass Rock (350 ft.) marks the site of another “neck.” |
A portion of the earliest (basic) lavas doubtless flowed from vents situated near
Dunbar. Thus the knob of olivine-basalt on which Dunbar Castle stands, is probably the
exposed. core of one of the pipes of emission. This rock proves to be very basic, being
composed of numerous porphyritic crystals of olivine, imbedded in a brown crypto-
crystalline ground-mass, containing grains of augite, but not much felspar. Again, a
limburgite, very similar to that which forms Whitelaw Hill, occurs as an intrusive mass
in tuff at Gin Head, Tantallon.
* Figured by Sir ARcHIBALD GEIKIR, loc. cit.
+ These analyses were kindly made for me by Messrs G. Barrow and A. Dick, jun., in the Laboratory of the
Geological Survey at 28 Jermyn Street, London.
VOLCANIC ROCKS OF EAST LOTHIAN. 125
Trachytic material builds up the plugs that form the Bass Rock and North Berwick
Law, while Traprain Law consists of an interesting trachytic phonolite,* a type of rock
which does not appear to be represented elsewhere in the district, although it belongs to
the same petrographical family as the sanidine-trachytes of the Garltons.
North Berwick Law.t—This shapely hill, which forms a prominent feature in the
scenery near North Berwick, is built up of a reddish brown rock of close texture, and
characterised by a curious glistening appearance. The microscope shows it to be a
trachyte. It is composed of a plexus of long and slender lath-shaped crystals of clear
felspar (sanidine), occasionally twinned on the Carlsbad type. The meshes between the
longer crystals are filled with a confused mass of minute spicules and microlites of the
same mineral. Beyond an indefinite ferruginous material, felspar is the only constituent
visible in the slide.
The rock has been analysed by Mr J. 8. Grant-Witson for the Geological Survey of
Scotland, with the following result :—
Sid, . ; ; : 5 : a‘ 60°15
Al,0, 18:04
Fe,0, 4°44
FeO . 1:82
MnO . 13
CaO . 1°68
MgO . 98
KO. 4°15
NaoO*. 6:07
H;O. : 2°06
99°52
Sp. G. = 2°46.
It will be seen from this analysis that the composition of the rock is in close agree-
ment with the trachyte-flows (compare the analysis of the Peppercraig rock). In
petrographical habit it resembles some of the non-porphyritic trachytes of the district.
The Bass Rock.—It was suggested by Sir Archibald Geikie that the Bass Rock was
one of the vents from which flowed the lavas of the Garlton Hills. I have been able to
substantiate the correctness of the suggestion by a petrographical study of material
obtained by Mr J. G. Goopcuitp during a recent visit to the island. The rock proves to
be a trachyte, similar in character to that of North Berwick Law, and to the non-
porphyritic division of the trachytic flows. The reddish-brown material is composed
almost exclusively of felspar (sanidine), the rectangular facets of which can be easily
* The only phonolite that has hitherto been described in the British Isles is that of the Wolf Rock, off the coast
of Cornwall.
t In the Survey Memoir on East Lothian (p. 51), North Berwick Law is described as “a round or slightly oval
plug of felstone, which comes up vertically through the ash, and when it reaches the surface of the ground tapers up
into a cone, of which the top is 612 feet above the sea, The rock on the higher part of the hill is a compact and finely
crystalline clinkstone, while further down it becomes more loose and granular in texture. At the foot of the cone, on
the west side, sandstone and black shale (strata, probably in the ashy series) are seen to dip away from the felstone at
Oo 9)
an angle of 30°,
VOL. XXXVII. PART I. (NO. 8). U
124 DR HATCH ON THE LOWER CARBONIFEROUS
distinguished with the lens, when the hand-specimen is held in a good light. A slice
examined under the microscope is seen to be made up of rather broad lath-shaped
crystals, colourless, of glassy habit, and showing no twin-striation between crossed nicols.
The crystals are either single individuals or dual twins built up on the Carlsbad type.
When not in juxtaposition, the intervening spaces between the lath-shaped crystals are
filled with microlitic felspar. No ferro-magnesian mineral was observed, but there is a
good deal of dusty ferruginous material present. ,
Mr G. Barrow, of the Geological Survey, has kindly analysed this rock for me in
the Survey Laboratory at Jermyn Street :—
SiO, . , : : : C 57°50
Al,Oz . : : t : i 18°89
FeO, .
mea ee ’ ; fF 7-51
CaO . : : J ‘ . ae 1°80
MgO . : : ; : : 1°33
KOm: : : : ; ‘ : 5°90
Na,O ; : : : ; ‘ 571
Loss on ignition : : : ; : 1:70
100°34
Traprain Law.—This hill, which rises out of white sandstones and shales on the
southern margin of the volcanic area, is built up of a close-grained, dark-brown to grey
rock, occasionally presenting glancing cleavage surfaces of a clear, glassy felspar (sanidine).
Fresh-fractured surfaces have the glistening or greasy lustre already noticed in the
trachytes of North Berwick Law and the Bass Rock. Some varieties are speckled over
with dark spots, while others show a distinct banded (flow) structure, especially visible
in the stone quarried at Black Cove. A tendency to split into rather thin plates is also
noticeable. Under the hammer the stone has a remancable sonorous ming, and small
fragments rattled together give a metallic clink.*
Microscopic examination shows that the rock consists mainly of ehral lath-shaped
crystals of sanidine, arranged so as to produce a marked micro-fluidal structure.
Porphyritic crystals are rare, but occasionally occur.
A bright green pyroxene is distributed through the rock in anal amor anil
ophitic patches. It shows allotriomorphic relations with regard to the felspar. That
this mineral is a soda-augite is proved conclusively by the chemical analysis, there being
practically no magnesia present. In the few cases, however, where extinction-angles
could be measured to definite boundaries, they proved too high for zgirine; but the
presence of this mineral cannot be considered to be thereby excluded, as the association
of eegirine with a soda-augite of similar ApESe ance: but ‘high extinction-angles, has been
recorded.
A small quantity of iron-ore and of apatite occurs in isolated granules.
* This property, which appears to be a characteristic of the phonolites, was noticed in the Survey Memoir (p. 52),
where the rock of Traprain Law is described as a “ felstone (clinkstone).”
VOLCANIC ROCKS OF EAST LOTHIAN. 125
Certain parts of the sections are dusted over with a brown powdery material. A near
examination of these portions discloses in them the presence of small colourless patches
which, when rotated between crossed nicols, remain nearly or quite dark. These small
patches consist of nepheline, or of zeolitic products of its decomposition ; but only a close
examination of very thin sections enables one to detect the presence of occasional six- and
four-sided crystal-contours.* The mineral, however, has been very largely converted into
the zeolites, analcime, and natrolite, of which there is abundant evidence in the sections.
With regard to micro-chemical tests, a drop of hydrochloric acid placed upon a smooth
surface of the rock rapidly produces gelatinisation ; and the jelly, dried and treated with
acetate of uranium, develops abundant and characteristic crystals of uranate of sodium.
The distribution of the nepheline, and its zeolitic products of decomposition, is well
shown by treatment with hydrochloric acid, and subsequent staining with fuchsine.
Mr Prayer has kindly analysed the rock for me, and his results are the following :—
ANALYSIS OF PHononite (Szct. No. 4526).
Silica, : : : 3 : ; 56'8
Titanic acid, . F j : : ; 5
‘Alumina, : : is : : : wer
Ferric oxide, . : : , ; 4 2°2
Ferrous oxide, . : : a ; : ay
Manganous oxide, : : F F : 2
Lime, . , F j ' . : 2°2
Magnesia, : : : 5 : : “4
Soda, . : ; ; : ; 2 4:3
Potash, : : ‘ ; yee : ft
Loss by ignition, : : : ; : 2°5
99-4
Sp. G, = 2°588,
The small amount of magnesia (*4 per cent.), and the high percentage of alkalies (11°4
per cent.), are interesting points brought out by this analysis.
SUMMARY.
The Carboniferous volcanic rocks of East Lothian (the Garlton Hills, &c.) consist of
(1) A lower, basic serves, comprising felspar-free basalts, rich in olivine and augite,
and containing much glassy matter with occasional crystals of nepheline (limburgite of
Whitelaw Hill) ; normal olivine-basalts (e.g., Kippie Law and Hailes Castle) ; and a very
felspathic type (labradorite-basalt of Markle Quarry).
(2) An upper, trachytic series, which builds the main portion of the Garlton Hills,
comprising trachytes with porphyritic sanidine (e.g., Peppercraig, Kae Heughs, and
* The low index of refraction, and the absence of a needle-form, serve as a distinction from apatite. Professor
Rosrnsuscu of Heidelberg, to whom I submitted specimens, confirms the identification of the nepheline, and refers the
rock to the trachytic phonolites of his classification.
126 LOWER CARBONIFEROUS VOLCANIC ROCKS OF EAST LOTHIAN.
Hopetoun Monument); trachytes with porphyritic sanidine and plagioclase (e.9.,
Phantassie Quarry, Skid Hill, and Bangley Quarry), and non-porphyritic trachytes (eg.,
Score Hill, Lock Pit Hill, Craigie Hill, and Pencraig).
(3) The material filling the volcanic vents, comprising basic rocks (olivine-basalts
and limburgites), at Dunbar and Tantallon ; trachytes, at North Berwick Law and the
Bass Rock; and a phonolite, at Traprain Law.
EXPLANATION OF THE FIGURES.
Puate I.
Fig. 1. Limburgite of Whitelaw Hill, composed of olivine, augite, magnetite, and glassy matter. In
ordinary light.
Fig. 2. Labradorite-Basalt of arkle Quarry, Garlton Hills, composed of porphyritic crystals of striped
labradorite and olivine in a microlitic ground-mass with granules of magnetite. Between crossed nicols.
Fig. 3. Trachyte of the Bass Rock, composed of lath-shaped crystals of sanidine. Between crossed
nicols.
Fig. 4. Trachyte of North Berwick Law, composed of lath-shaped crystals and microlites of sanidine.
Between crossed nicols.
Prats II.
Fig. 1. Phonolite of Traprain Law, composed of sanidine, nepheline, and green soda-augite. In ordinary
light.
Fig. 2. Sanidine-Trachyte of Peppercraig, near Haddington, composed of sanidine and augite in a
microlitic (felspathic) ground-mass of glomero-porphyritic structure. Between crossed nicols,
Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin’, Vol. XXXVIL.
D° FH. HATCH. ON THE PETROGRAPHY OF THE ROCKS OF THE GARLTON HILLS.
Piate |.
4
. ie
Pe)
- > = Te
RD ee ey:
(9 1290}
IX.—On the Glacial Succession in Europe. By Professor JAMES GEIKIE,
D.C.L., LL.D., F-R.S., &. (With a Map.)
(Read 16th May 1892.)
For many years geologists have recognised the occurrence of at least two boulder-
clays in the British Islands and the corresponding latitudes of the Continent. It is no
longer doubted that these are the products of two separate and distinct glacial epochs.
This has been demonstrated by the appearance of intercalated deposits. of terrestrial,
freshwater, or, as the case may be, marine origin. Such interglacial accumulations
have been met with again and again in Britain, and they have likewise been detected at
many places on the Continent, between the border of the North Sea and the heart of
Russia. Their organic contents indicate in some cases cold climatic conditions ; in others,
they imply a climate not less temperate or even more genial than that which now
obtains in the regions where they occur. Nor are such interglacial beds confined to
northern and north-western Europe. In the Alpine Lands of the central and southern
regions of our Continent they are equally well developed. Impressed by the growing
strength of the evidence, it is no wonder that geologists, after a season of doubt, should
at last agree in the conclusion that the glacial conditions of the Pleistocene period were
interrupted by at least one protracted interglacial epoch. Not a few observers go
further, and maintain that the evidence indicates more than this. They hold that three
or even more glacial epochs supervened in Pleistocene times. This is the conclusion I
reached many years ago, and I now purpose reviewing the evidence which has accumu-
lated since then, in order to show how far it goes to support that conclusion.
In our islands we have, as already remarked, two boulder-clays, of which the lower
or oldest has the widest extension southwards, for it has been traced as far as the valley
of the Thames. The upper boulder-clay, on the other hand, does not extend south of
the Midlands of England. In the north of England, and throughout Scotland and the
major portion of Ireland, it is this upper boulder-clay which usually shows at the surface.
The two clays, however, frequently occur together, and are exposed again and again in
deep artificial and natural sections, as in pits, railway-cuttings, quarries, river-banks, and
sea-cliffs. Sometimes the upper rests directly upon the lower; at other times they are
separated by alluvial and peaty accumulations or by marine deposits. The wider
distribution of the lower till, the direction of transport of its included erratics, and the
trend of the underlying roches moutonnées and rock-strie, clearly show that the earlier
mer de glace covered a wider area than its successor, and was confluent on the floor of
the North Sea with the Scandinavian ice-sheet. It was during the formation of the
\lower till, in short, that glaciation in these islands attained its maximum development.
VOL. XXXVII. PART I. (NO. 9). x
128 PROFESSOR JAMES GEIKIE ON THE
The interglacial beds, which in many places separate the lower from the upper till,
show that after the retreat of the earlier mer de glace the climate became progressively
more temperate, until eventually the country was clothed with a flora essentially the
same asthe present. Wild oxen, the great Irish deer, and the horse, elephant, rhinoceros,
and other mammals then lived in Britain. From the presence of such a flora and fauna
we may reasonably infer that the climate during the climax of interglacial times was as
genial as now. The occurrence of marine deposits associated with some of the inter-
glacial peaty beds shows that eventually submergence ensued ; and as the shells in some
of the marine beds are boreal and Arctic forms, they prove that cold climatic conditions
accompanied the depression of the land. To what extent the land sank under water we
cannot tell. It may have been 500 feet or not so much, for the evidence is somewhat
unsatisfactory. |
The upper boulder-clay of our islands is the product of another mer de glace, which
in Scotland would seem to have been hardly less thick and extensive than its predecessor.
Like the latter, it covered the whole country, overflowed the Outer Hebrides, and became
confluent with the Scandinavian inland ice on the bed of the North Sea. But it did not
flow so far to the south as the earlier ice-sheet. iy
It is well known that this later mer de glace was succeeded in our mountain regions
by a series of large local glaciers, which geologists generally believe were its direct
descendants. It is supposed, in short, that the inland ice, after retreating from the low
grounds, persisted for a time in the form of local glaciers in mountain valleys. This
view I also formerly held, although there were certain appearances which seemed to
indicate that, after the ice-sheet had melted away from the lowlands and shrunk far into
the mountains, a general advance of great valley-glaciers had taken place. I had
observed, for example, that the upper boulder-clay is often well developed in the lower
reaches of our mountain valleys—that, in fact, it may be met with more or less
abundantly up to the point at which large terminal moraines are encountered. More
than this, I had noticed that upland valleys, in which no local or terminal moraines
occur, are usually clothed and paved with boulder-clay throughout. Again, the aspect
of valleys which have been occupied by large local glaciers is very suggestive. Above
the point at which terminal moraines occur only meagre patches of till are met with on
the bottoms of the valleys. The adjacent hill-slopes up to a certain line may show bare
rock, sprinkled perchance with erratics and superficial morainic detritus ; but above this
line, if the acclivity be not too great, boulder-clay often comes on again. These appear-
ances are most conspicuously displayed in the Southern Uplands of Scotland, particularly
in South Ayrshire and Galloway, and long ago led me to suspect that the local glaciers
into which our latest mer de glace was resolved, after retreating continuously towards
the heads of their valleys, so as to leave the boulder-clay in a comparatively unmodified
condition, had again advanced and ploughed this out, down to the point at which they
dropped their terminal moraines. Subsequent observations in the Highlands and the Inner
and Outer Hebrides confirmed me in my suspicion, for in all those regions we meet with
‘GLACIAL SUCCESSION IN EUROPE. 129
phenomena of precisely the same kind. My friends and colleagues, Messrs PEacn and
Horns, had independently come to a similar conclusion ; and the more recent work of the
Geological Survey in the North-West Highlands, as they inform me, has demonstrated
that after the dissolution of the general ice-sheet, underneath which the upper boulder-
clay was accumulated, a strong recrudescence of glacial conditions supervened, and a
general advance of great valley-glaciers took place—the glaciers in many places coalescing
upon the low grounds to form united mers de glace of gonsiderable extent.
The development of these large glaciers, therefore, forms a distinct stage in the
history of the Glacial Period. They were of sufficient extent to occupy all the fiords of
the Northern and Western Highlands, at the mouths of which they calved their icebergs,
and they descended the valleys on the eastern slopes of the land into the region of the
great lakes, at the lower ends of which we encounter their outermost terminal moraines.
The Shetland and Orkney Islands and the Inner and Outer Hebrides at the same time
nourished local glaciers, not a few of which flowed into the sea. Such, for example, was
the case in Skye, Harris, South Uist, and Arran. The broad Uplands of the south were
likewise clothed with snow-fields that fed numerous glaciers. These were especially
conspicuous in the wilds of Galloway, but they appeared likewise in the Peeblesshire
hills ; and even in less elevated tracts they have left more or less well-marked traces of
their former presence.
It is to this third epoch of glaciation that I would assign the final scooping out of
our lake-basins and the completion of the deep depressions in the beds of our Highland
fiords. All the evidence, indeed, leads to the conviction that the epoch was one of long
duration.
Tt goes without saying that what holds good for Scotland must, within certain limits,
hold good also for Ireland and England. In Wales and the Cumberland Lake District,
and in the mountain regions of the sister island, we meet with evidence of similar
conditions. ach of those areas has obviously experienced intense local glaciation sub-
sequent to the disappearance of the last big ice-sheet.
Attention must now be directed to another series of facts, which help us to realise
the general conditions that obtained during the epoch of local glaciation. In the basin of
the estuary of the Clyde, and at various other places both on the west and east coasts of
Scotland, occur certain clays and sands, which overlie the upper boulder-clay, and in some
places are found wrapping round the kames and osar of the last great ice-sheet. These
beds are charged with the relics of a boreal and Arctic fauna, and indicate a submergence
of rather more than 100 feet. In the lower reaches of the rivers Clyde, Forth, and Tay
the clays and sands form a well-marked terrace, and a raised sea-beach, containing similar
organisms, occurs here and there on the sea-coast, as between Dundee and Arbroath, on
the southern shores of the Moray Firth, and elsewhere. When the terraces are traced
inland they are found to pass into high-level fluviatile gravels, which may be followed
into the mountain valleys, until eventually they shade off into fluvio-glacial detritus
associated with the terminal moraines of the great local glaciers. It is obvious, in short,
130 PROFESSOR JAMES GEIKIE ON THE
that the epoch of local ice-sheets and large valley-glaciers was one also of partial sub-
mergence. This is further shown by the fact that in some places the glaciers that
reached the sea threw down their moraines on the 100-feet beach. It must have been
an epoch of much floating ice, as the marine deposits contain now and again many
erratics, large and small, and are, moreover, frequently disturbed and contorted as if
from the grounding of pack-ice.
The phenomena which I have thus briefly sketched suffice to show that the epoch
of local glaciation is to be clearly distinguished from that of the latest general mer de
glace. I have long suspected, indeed, that the two may have been separated by as wide
an interval of time as that which divided the earlier from the later epoch of general glacia-
tion. Again and again I have searched underneath the terminal moraines, in the faint hope
of detecting interglacial accumulations, My failure to discover these, however, did not
weaken my conviction, for it was only by the merest chance that interglacial beds could
ever have been preserved in such places. I feel sure, however, that they must occur
among the older alluvia of our Lowlands. Indeed, as I shall point out in the sequel, it is
highly probable that they are already known, and that we have hitherto failed to recog-
nise their true position in the glacial series.
Although we have no direct evidence to prove that a long interglacial epoch of mild
conditions immediately preceded the advent of our local ice-sheets and large valley-glaciers,
yet the indirect evidence is so strong that we seem driven to admit that such must
have been the case, To show this I must briefly recapitulate what is now known as to
the glacial succession on the Continent. It has been ascertained, then, that the Scandi-
navian ice has invaded the low grounds of Germany on two separate occasions, which
are spoken of by continental geologists as the “first” and “second” glacial epochs.
The earlier of these was the epoch of maximum glaciation, when the inland ice flowed south
into Saxony, and overspread a vast area between the borders of the North Sea and the
base of the Ural Mountains. This ice-sheet unquestionably coalesced with the mer de
glace of the British Islands. Its bottom-moraine and associated fluvio-glacial detritus are
known in Germany as lower diluvium, and the various phenomena connected with it
clearly show that the inland ice radiated outwards from the high grounds of Scandinavia.
The terminal front of that vast mer de glace is roughly indicated by a line drawn from
the south coast of Belgium round the north base of the Harz, and by Leipzig and Dres-
den to Krakow, thence north-east to Nijni Novgorod, and further north to the head-
waters of the Dvina and the shores of the Arctic Sea near the Tcheskaia Gulf.
The “lower diluvium” is covered in certain places by interglacial deposits and an
overlying “ upper diluvium ”—a succession clearly indicative of climatic changes. In the
interglacial beds occur remains of Klephas antiquus and other Pleistocene mammals, and
a flora which denotes a genial temperate climate. One of the latest discoveries of inter-
glacial remains is that of two peat-beds lying between the lower and upper diluvium
near Griinenthal in Holstein,* Among the abundant plant-relics are pines and firs (no
* Neves Jahrbuch f. Min, Geol. uv. Paleont., 1891, ii. pp. 62, 228; Ibid., 1892, i. p. 114.
GLACIAL SUCCESSION IN EUROPE, 131
longer indigenous to Schleswig-Holstein) aspen, willow, white birch, hazel, hornbeam,
oak, and juniper. Associated with these are Ilex and Trapa natans, the presence of
which, as Dr WEBER remarks, betokens a climate like that of western Middle Germany,
Amongst the plants is a water-lily, which occurs also in the interglacial beds of Switzer-
land, but is not now found in Europe. The evidence furnished by this and other inter-
glacial deposits in North Germany shows that, after the ice-sheet of the lower diluvium
had melted away, the climate became as temperate as that which is now experienced in
Europe. Another recent find of the same kind is the “diluvial” peat, &c., of Klinge
in Brandenburg, described by Professor Nenrinc.* These beds have yielded remains of
elk (Cervus alces), rhinoceros (species not determined), a small fox (?), and megaceros.
This latter is not the typical great Irish deer, but a variety (C. megaceros, var. Rufft,
Nehring), The plant-remains include pine, fir (Picea excelsa), hornbeam, warty birch
(Betula verrucosa), various willows (Salix repens, S. aurita, S. caprea? S. cinerea),
hazel, poplar (?), common holly, &. It is worthy of note that here also the interglacial
water-lily (Cratopleura helvetica) of Schleswig-Holstein and Switzerland makes its
appearance. Dr WesBER writes me that the facies of this flora implies a well-marked
temperate insular climate (SrEKLimA). The occurrence of holly in the heart of the
Continent, where it no longer grows wild, is particularly noteworthy, The evidence
furnished by such a flora leads one to conclude that at the climax of the genial inter-
glacial epoch, the Scandinavian snowfields and glaciers were not more extensive than
they are at present.
The presence of the upper diluvium, however, proves that such genial conditions
eventually passed away, and that an ice-sheet again invaded North Germany. But this
later invasion was not on the same scale as that of the preceding one. The geographical
distribution of the upper diluvium and the position of large terminal moraines put this
quite beyond doubt. The boulder-clay in question spreads over the Baltic provinces of
Germany, extending south as far as Berlin, and west into Schleswig-Holstein and Den-
mark, At the climax of this later cold epoch glaciers occupied all the fiords of Norway,
but did not advance beyond the general coast-line, Norway, at that time, must have
greatly resembled Greenland—the inland ice covering the interior of the country, and
sending seawards large glaciers that calved their icebergs at the mouths of the great
fiords. In the extreme south, however, the glaciers did not quite reach the sea, but piled
up large terminal moraines on the coast-lands, which may be followed thence into Sweden
in an easterly direction by the lower end of Lake Wener and through Lake Wetter. A
similar belt of moraines marks out the southern termination of the ice-sheet in Finland.
Between Sweden and Finland lies the basin of the Baltic, which, at the epoch in ques-
tion, was filled with ice, forming a great Baltic glacier. This glacier overflowed the
Aland Islands, Gottland, and Oland, fanning out as it passed towards the south-west and
* Naturwissenschaftliche Wochenschrift, Bd. vii. (1892), No. 4, p.31. The plants were determined by Dr WzszER,
Professor Wirrmack, and Herr Warnstorr. [More recent investigations have considerably increased our knowledge of
this flora... See Naturwissenschaftliche Wochenschrift, Bd. vii. (1892), Nr. 24, 25. Ausland, 1892, Nr. 20.]
132 PROFESSOR JAMES GEIKIE ON THE
west, so as to invade on the south the Baltic provinces of Germany, while in the north
it traversed the southern part of Scania and overwhelmed the Danish islands as it spread
into Jutland and Schleswig-Holstein. The course of this second ice-sheet is indicated by
the direction of transport of erratics, &c, and by the trend of rock-strize and roches
moutonnées, as well as by the position of its terminal and lateral moraines.
Such, then, is the glacial succession which has been established by geologists in Scandi-
navia, North Germany, and Finland. The occurrence of two glacial epochs, separated by
a long interval of temperate conditions, has been proved. The evidence, however, does
not show that there may not have been more than two glacial epochs. There are certain
phenomena, indeed, connected with the glacial accumulations of the regions in question,
which strongly suggest that the succession of changes was more complex than is generally
understood. Several years ago Dr A. G. Naruorst adduced evidence to show that a great
Baltic glacier, similar to that underneath which the upper diluvium was amassed, existed
before the advent of the vast mer de glace of the so-called “ first glacial epoch,”* and his
observations have been confirmed and extended by H. Lunpsoum.t The facts set forth
by them prove beyond doubt that this early Baltic glacier smoothed and glaciated the
rocks in Southern Sweden in a direction from south-east to north-west, and accumulated
a bottom-moraine whose included erratics yield equally cogent evidence as to the trend
of glaciation. That old moraine is overlaid by the “lower diluvium,” 2.e., the boulder-
clay of the succeeding vast mer de glace that flowed south to the foot of the Harz—the
transport of the stones in the superjacent clay indicating a movement from N.N.E. to
S.S.W., or nearly at right angles to the trend of the earlier Baltic glacier. It is difficult
to avoid the conclusion that we have here to do with the products of two distinct ice-
epochs. But hitherto no interglacial deposits have been detected between the boulder-
clays in question. It might, therefore, be held that the earlier Baltic glacier was
separated by no long interval of time from the succeeding great mer de glace, but may
have been merely a stage in the development of the latter. It is at all events conceivable
that before the great mer de glace attained its maximum extension, it might have existed
for a time as a large Baltic glacier. I would point out, however, that if no interglacial
beds had been recognised between the lower and the upper diluvium, geologists would
probably have considered that the last great Baltic glacier was simply the attenuated
successor of the preceding continental mer de glace. But we know that this was not the
case; the two were actually separated by a long epoch of genial temperate conditions.
There are certain other facts that may lead us to doubt whether in the glacial
phenomena of the Baltic coast-lands we have not the evidence of more than two glacial
epochs. Three, and even four, boulder-clays have been observed in East and West
Prussia. They are separated, the one from the other, by extensive aqueous deposits,
which are sometimes fossiliferous, Moreover, the boulder-clays in question have been
* Beskrifning. till geol. Kartbl. Trolleholm : Sveriges Geologiska Undersokning, Ser. Aa. Nr. 87.
+ Om de aldre baltiska isstrémmen i sédra Sverige : Geolog. Forening. 1 Stockholm Forhandl., Bd. x. p. 157.
- GLACIAL SUCCESSION IN EUROPE. 1338
followed continuously over considerable areas. It is quite possible, of course, that all
those boulder-clays may be the product of one epoch, laid down during more or less con-
siderable oscillations of an ice-sheet. In this view of the case the intercalated aqueous
deposits would indicate temporary retreats, while the boulder-clays would represent
successive readvances of one and the same mer de glace. On the other hand, it is equally
possible, if not more probable, that the boulder-clays and intercalated beds are evidence
of so many separate glacial and interglacial epochs. We cannot yet say which is the
true explanation of the facts. But these being as they are, we may doubt whether
German glacialists are justified in so confidently maintaining that their lower and upper
diluvial accumulations are the products of the “first” and “second” glacial epochs.
Indeed, as I shall show presently, the upper diluvium of North Germany and Finland
cannot represent the second glacial epoch of other parts of Hurope.
For a long time it has been supposed that the glacial deposits of the central regions of
Russia were accumulated during the advance and retreat of one and the same ice-sheet.
In 1888, however, Professor PavLow brought forward evidence to show that the province
of Nijni Novgorod had been twice invaded by a general mer de glace. During the first
epoch of glaciation the ice-sheet overflowed the whole province, while only the northern
half of the same region was covered by the mer de glace of the second invasion. Again,
Professor ANNACHEVSKY has pointed out that in the province of Tchernigow two types of
glacial deposits appear, so unlike in character and so differently distributed that they
can hardly be the products of one and the same ice-sheet. But until recently no inter-
glacial deposits had been detected, and the observations just referred to failed, therefore,
to make much impression. The missing link in the evidence has now happily been
supplied by M. Kriscutarowrtscu.* At Troizkoje, in the neighbourhood of Moscow, occur
certain lacustrine formations which have been long known to Russian geologists. These
have been variously assigned to Tertiary, lower glacial, postglacial, and preglacial
horizons. They are now proved, however, to be of interglacial age, for they rest upon
and are covered by glacial accumulations. Amongst their organic remains are oak
(Quercus pedunculata), alder (Alnus glutinosa, A. incana), white birch, hazel, Norway
maple (Acer platanoides), Scots fir, willow, water lilies (Nuphar, Nymphea), mammoth,
pike, perch, Anadonta, wing-cases of beetles, &c. The character of the plants shows
that the climate of Central Russia was milder and more humid. than it is to-day.
It is obvious that the upper and lower glacial deposits of Central Russia cannot be
the equivalents of the upper and lower diluvium of the Baltic coast-lands. The upper
diluvium of those regions is the bottom-moraine of the so-called great Baltic glacier. At
the time that glacier invaded North Germany, Finland was likewise covered with ice,
which flowed towards the south-east, but did not advance quite so far as the northern
shores of Lake Ladoga. A double line of terminal moraines, traced from Hango Head
on the Gulf of Finland, north-east to beyond Joensuu, puts this beyond doubt.t The
* Bull. de la Soc. Impér. des Naturalistes de Moskau, No. 4, 1890.
t Sederholm, Fennia, i. No. 7; Frosterus, ibid. iii., No. 8; Ramsay, 2bid. iv., No. 2.
134 PROFESSOR JAMES GEIKIE ON THE
morainic deposits that overlie the interglacial beds of Central Russia cannot, therefore,
belong to the epoch of the great Baltic glacier. They are necessarily older. In short,
it is obvious that the upper and lower glacial accumulations near Moscow must be on the
horizon of the lower diluvium of North Germany. And if this be so, then it is clear that
the latter cannot be entirely the product of one and the same mer de glace. When the
several boulder-clays, described by ScHRODER and others as occurring in the Baltic pro-
vinces of Germany, are reinvestigated, they may prove to be the bottom-moraines of as
many distinct and separate glacial epochs.
It may be contended that the glacial and interglacial deposits of Central Russia are
perhaps only local developments—that their evidence may be accounted for by oscillations
of one single mer de glace. This explanation, as already pointed out, has been applied
to the boulder-clays and intercalated aqueous beds of the lower diluvium of North
Germany, and the prevalent character of the associated organic remains makes it appear
plausible. It is quite inapplicable, however, to the similar accumulations in Central
Russia. During the formation of the freshwater beds of Troizkoje, no part of Russia
could have been occupied by an ice-sheet; the climate was more genial and less “ con-
tinental” than the present. Yet that mild interglacial epoch was preceded and succeeded
by extremely Arctic conditions. It is impossible that such excessive changes could have
been confined to Central Russia. Germany, and indeed all Northern and North-Western
Europe, must have participated in the climatic revolutions.
So far, then, as the evidence has been considered, we may conclude that three glacial
and two interglacial epochs at least have been established for Northern Europe. If this
be the case, then a similar succession ought to occur in our own islands; and a little
consideration of the evidence already adduced will suffice to show that it does. It will
be remembered that the lower and upper boulder-clays of the British Islands are the
bottom-moraines of two separate and distinct ice-sheets, each of which in its time
coalesced on the floor of the North Sea with the inland ice of Scandinavia. It is obvious,
therefore, that our upper boulder-clay cannot be the equivalent of the upper diluvium of
the Baltic coast-lands, of Sweden, Denmark, and Schleswig-Holstem. Dr Ger and
others have shown that while the great Baltic glacier was accumulating the upper
diluvium of North Germany, &c., the inland ice of Norway calved its icebergs at the
mouths of the great fiords. Thus, during the so-called “second” glacial epoch of Scandi-
navian and German geologists, the Norwegian inland ice did not coalesce with any British
mer de glace. The true equivalent in this country of the upper diluvium is not our
upper boulder-clay, but the great valley-moraines of our mountain regions. It is our
epoch of large valley-glaciers which corresponds to that of the great Baltic ice-flow. Our
upper and lower boulder-clays are on the horizon of the lower diluvium of Germany and
the glacial deposits of Central Russia.
It will now be seen that the evidence in Britain is fully borne out by what is known
of the glacial succession in the corresponding latitudes of the Continent. I had inferred
that our epoch of large valley-glaciers formed a distinct stage by itself, and was probably
GLACIAL SUCCESSION IN EUROPE. 135
separated from that of the preceding ice-sheet by a prolonged interval of interglacial
conditions. One link in the chain of evidence, however, was wanting: I could not point
to the occurrence of interglacial deposits underneath the great valley-moraines. But
these, as we have seen, form a well-marked horizon on the Continent, and we cannot
doubt that a similar interglacial stage obtained in these islands. We may feel confident,
in fact, that genial climatic conditions supervened on the dissolution of the last great
mer de glace in Britain, and that the subsequent development of extensive snow-fields
and glaciers in our mountain regions was contemporaneous with the appearance of the
last great Baltic glacier.
We need not be surprised that interglacial beds should be well developed underneath
the bottom-moraine of that great glacier, while they have not yet been recognised below
the corresponding morainic accumulations of our Highlands and Uplands. The conditions
in the low grounds of the Baltic coast-lands favoured their preservation, for the ice in
those regions formed a broad mer de glace, under the peripheral areas of which sub-
glacial erosion was necessarily at a minimum and accumulation at a maximum. In otr
mountain valleys, however, the very opposite was the case. The conditions obtaining
there were not at all comparable to those that characterised the low grounds of Northern
Germany, &c., but were quite analogous to those of Norway, where, as in our own
mountain regions, interglacial beds are similarly wanting. It is quite possible, however,
that patches of such deposits may yet be met with underneath our younger moraines,
and they ought certainly to be looked for. But whether they occur or not in our
| mountain valleys, it is certain that some of the older alluvia of our lowlands must belong
to this horizon. Hitherto all alluvial beds that overlie our upper boulder-clay have been
classified as postglacial ; but since we have ascertained that our latest mer de glace was
: succeeded by genial interglacial conditions, we may be sure that records of that temperate
_ epoch will yet be recognised in such lowland tracts as were never reached by the glaciers
of the succeeding cold epoch. Hence, I believe that some of our so-called “ postglacial ”
alluvia will eventually be assigned to an interglacial horizon. Amongst these may be
cited the old peat and freshwater beds that rest upon the upper boulder-clay at Hailes
Quarry, near Edinburgh. To the same horizon, in all probability, belong the clays, with
Megaceros, &c., which occur so frequently underneath the peat-bogs of Ireland. An
interesting account of these was given some years ago by Mr Wittams,* who, as a
collector of Megaceros remains, had the best opportunity of ascertaining the nature of
the deposits in which these occur. He gives a section of Ballybetagh Bog, nine miles
south-east of Dublin, which is as follows :—
. Peat.
. Greyish clay.
. Brownish clay, with remains of Megaceros.
. Yellowish clay, largely composed of vegetable matter.
. Fine tenacious clay, without stones.
. Boulder-clay.
* Geol. Mag., 1881, p, 354.
VOL. XXXVII, PART I. (NO. 9). iY
|
m pW £& oO oO
136 PROFESSOR JAMES GEIKIE ON THE
The beds overlying the boulder-clay are evidently of lacustrine origin. The fine clay
(No. 2), according to Mr WILLIAms, is simply reconstructed boulder-clay. After the
disappearance of the mer de glace the land would for some time be practically destitute
of any vegetable covering, and rain would thus be enabled to wash down the finer
ingredients of the boulder-clay that covered the adjacent slopes, and sweep them into the
lake. The clay formed in this way is described as attaining a considerable thickness near
the centre of the old lake, but thins off towards the sides. The succeeding bed (No. 3)
consists so largely of vegetable débris that it can hardly be called a clay. Mr Wittiams
describes it as a “ bed of pure vegetable remains that has been ages under pressure.” He
notes that there is a total absence in this bed of any tenacious clay like that of the under-
lying stratum, and infers, therefore, that the rainfall during the growth of the lacustrine
vegetation was not so great as when the subjacent clay was being accumulated. Remains
of Megaceros occur resting on the surface of the plant-bed and at various levels in the
everlying brownish clay, which attains a thickness of 3 to 4 feet.: The latter is a true
lacustrine sediment, containing a considerable proportion of vegetable matter, inter-
stratified with seams of clay and fine quartz-sand. According to Mr Witttiams, it was
accumulated under genial or temperate climatic conditions like the present. Between
this: bed’ and the overlying greyish clay (30 inches to 3 feet thick) there is always in all
the bog deposits examined by Mr Witi1ams a strongly-marked line of separation. The
greyish clay consists exclusively of mineral matter, and has evidently been derived from
the disintegration of the adjacent granitic hills. Mr Writ11aMs is of opinion that this
clay is of aqueo-glacial formation. ‘This he infers from its nature and texture, and from
its abundance. “ Why,” he asks, “did not this mineral matter come. down in like
quantity all the time of the deposit of the brown clay which underlies it? Simply
because, during the genial conditions which then existed, the hills were everywhere
covered with vegetation ; when the rain fell it soaked into the soil, and the clay being
bound together by the roots of the grasses, was not washed down, just as at the present
time, when there is hardly any degradation of these hills taking place.” He mentions,
further, that in the grey clay he obtained the antler of a reindeer, and that in one case
the antlers of a Megaceros, found embedded in the upper surface of the brown clay,
immediately under the grey clay, were scored like a striated boulder, while the under
side’ showed no markings. Mr Witttams also emphasizes the fact that the antlers of
Megaceros frequently occur in a broken state—those near the surface of the brown clay
being most broken, while those at greater depths are much less so. He shows that this
could not be the result of tumultuous river-action—the elevation of the valley precluding
the possibility of its receiving a river capable of producing such effects. Moreover, the
remains show no trace of having been water-worn, the edges of the teeth of the great
deer being as sharp as if the animal had died but yesterday. Mr Witx1ams thinks that
the broken state of the antlers is due to the “ pressure of great masses of ice on the
surface of the clay in which they were embedded, the wide expanse of the palms of the
antlers exposing them to pressure and liability to breakage ; axtd even, in many instances,
GLACIAL SUCCESSION IN EUROPE. 137
when there was 12 or 14 inches in circumference of solid bone almost as hard and sound
as ivory, it was snapped across.” It is remarkable that in this one small bog nearly one
hundred heads of Megaceros have been dug up. |
’ Mr Wit1ams’ observations show us that the Megaceros-beds are certainly older than
the peat-bogs with their buried timber. When he first informed me of the result of his
researches (1880), I did not believe the Megaceros-beds could be older than the latest
cold phase of the Ice Age. I thought that they were later in date than our last general
mer de glace, and I think so still, for they obviously rest upon its ground-moraine. But
since I now recognise that our upper boulder-clay is not the product of the last glacial
epoch, it seems to me highly probable that the Megaceros-beds are of interglacial age—
that, in short, they occupy the horizon of the interglacial deposits of North Germany, &c.
The appearances described by Mr Wixurams in connection with the ‘“ grey clay” seem
strongly suggestive of ice-action. Ballybetagh Bog occurs at an elevation of \800 feet
above the sea, in the neighbourhood of the Three Rock Mountains (1479 feet), and during
the époch of great valley-glaciers the climatic conditions of that region must have been
severe. But, without having visited the locality in question, I should hesitate: to say
that the phenomena necessarily point to local glaciation. Probably frost, lake-ice, and
thick accumulations of snow and 1 névé et suffice to account for the various facts cited
by Mr Wit.tias. t
I have called special attention to these Irish lacustrine beds, eens it is highly
probable that the postglacial age of similar alluvia occurring in many other places in
these islands has hitherto been assumed and not proved. Now that we know, however,:
that a long interglacial stage succeeded the disappearance of the last general» mer de
glace, we may feel sure that the older alluvia of our lowland districts cannot: belong
exclusively to postglacial times. The local ice-sheets and great glaciers of our “third”.
glacial epoch were confined to our mountain regions; and in. the Lowlands, therefore,
which were not invaded, we ought tu have the lacustrine and fluviatile accumulations of
the preceding interglacial stage. A fresh interest now. attaches to our older alluvia,
which must be carefully re-examined in the new light thus thrown upon them.
Turning next to the Alpine Lands of Central Europe, we find that geologists there
have for many years recognised two glacial epochs. Hence, like their confréres in
Northern Europe, they speak of “first” and “second” glacial epochs.* Within recent
years, however, Professor PENcK has shown that the Alps have experienced at least three
separate periods of glaciation. He describes three distinct ground-moraines, with
associated river-terraces and interglacial deposits in the valleys of the Bavarian Alps,
and his observations have been confirmed by Professor Brickner and Dr Béum.t The
* Mortot, Bulletin de la Soc. Vaud. d. Sciences nat., 1854, 1858, 1860; DrtcKE, Bericht. d. St. Gall. naturf. ges.,
1858 ; Heer, Urwelt der Schweiz; Mtuupere, Festschrift d. aarg. naturf. Ges. 2. Feier ihrer 500 Sitz., 1869 ; RorHpLerz,
Denkschr. d. schweizer. Ges. f. d. ges. Natwrwissensch., Bd. xxviii. 1881; WETTSTEIN, Geologie v. Zurich u. Umgebung,
1885; BaxrzErR, Mittedl. d. naturf. Ges Bern, 1887; Renevier, Bull. de la Soc. helvet. d. Sciences nat., 1887.
+ Penck, Die Vergletscherung d. deutschen .Alpen, 1882; Brickner, “Die Vergletscherung des Salzachgebietes,”
Geogr. Abhandl. Wien, Bd. i.; Boum, Jahrb. der k. k. geol. Reichsanst, 1884, 1885 ; see also O. Fraas, Newes Jahrb. f.
Min. Geol. uv. Paleont., 1880, Bd. i. p. 218; E. Fuecrr and C, Kastner, Verhandl. d. k. k. geol. Reichsanst, 1883, p. 136.
138 PROFESSOR JAMES GEIKIE ON THE
same glacialists, I understand, have nearly completed an elaborate survey of the Eastern
Alps, of which they intend shortly to publish an extended account. The results obtained
by them are very interesting, and fully bear out the conclusions already arrived at from
their exploration of the Bavarian Alps.* A similar succession of glacial epochs has quite
recently been determined by Dr Du Pasquier in North Switzerland.t Nor is this kind
of evidence confined to the north side of the Alps. On the shores of Lake Garda,
between Sald and Brescia, three ground-moraines, separated by interglacial accumulations,
are seen in section. The interglacial deposits consist chiefly of loams—the result of
subaérial weather mg—and attain a considerable thickness. From this PENnoxK infers that
the time which has elapsed since the latest glaciation is less than that required for the
accumulation of either of the two interglacial series—a conclusion which, he says, is
borne out by similar observations in other parts of the Alpine region.
Although the occurrence of such subaérial products intercalated between separate
morainic accumulations is evidence of climatic changes, still it does not tell us how far
the glaciers retreated during an interglacial stage. Fortunately, however, lignite beds
and other deposits charged with plant remains are met with occupying a similar position,
and from these we gather that during interglacial times the glaciers sometimes retired to
the very heads of the mountain valleys, and must have been smaller than their present
representatives. Of such interglacial plant-beds, which have been met with in some
twenty localities, the most interesting, perhaps, is the breccia of H6tting, in the neigh-
bourhood of Innsbruck.§ This breccia rests upon old morainic accumulations, and is
again overlaid by the later moraines of the great Inn glacier. From the fact that the
breccia contains a number of extinct species of plants, palzeontologists were inclined to
assign it to the Pliocene. Professor PENck, however, prefers to include it in the
Pleistocene system, along with all the glacial and interglacial deposits of the Alpine
lands, According to Dr von WettsTEIN, the flora in question is not Alpine but Pontie.
At the time of the formation of the breccia the large-leaved Rhododendron ponticum
flourished in the Inn valley at a height of 1200 metres above the sea; the whole
character of the flora, in short, indicates a warmer climate than is now experienced in
the neighbourhood of Innsbruck. It is obvious, therefore, that in interglacial times
the glaciers must have shrunk back, as Professor PENcK remarks, to the highest ridges
of the mountains.
We may now glance at the glacial succession which has been established for Central
France. More than twenty years ago Dr Juxien brought forward evidence to show
that the region of the Puy de Déme had witnessed two glacial epochs. || During the
* Mittheil. des deutsch. u. oesterreich. Alpenvereins, 1890, No. 20 u. 23.
+ Beitriige z. geolg. Karte der Schweiz, 31 Lief., 1891; Archiv. d. Sciences phys. et nat., 1891, p. 44.
{ “ Die grosse Eiszeit,” Himmel u. Erde.
§ Penck, Die Vergletscherung der deutschen Alpen, p. 228; Verhandl. d. k. k. geol. Reichsanst., 1887, No. 5 ; Himmel.
und Erde, 1891. Boum, Jahrb. d. k. k. geol. Reichsanst., 1884, p. 147. Biaas, Ferdinandewms Zeitschr., iv. Folge ;
Bericht. d. nat.-wissensch. Vereins, 1889, p. 97.
|| Des phénomenes glaciaires dans le Plateau central de la France, &c., Paris, 1869.
GLACIAL SUCCESSION IN EUROPE, 139
first of these epochs a Jarge glacier flowed from Mont Dore. After its retreat a prolonged
interglacial epoch followed, during which the old morainic deposits and the rocks they
rest upon were much eroded. In the valleys and hollows thus excavated freshwater
beds occur which have yielded relics of an abundant flora, together with the remains of
Elephas meridionalis, Rhinoceros leptorhinus, &c. After the deposition of these fresh-
water alluvia, glaciers again descended the valleys and covered the interglacial beds with
their moraines. Similar results have been obtained by M. Rames from a study of the
glacial phenomenon of CantaL, which he shows belong to two separate epochs.*~ The
interval between the formation of the two series of glacial accumulations must have been
prolonged, for the valleys during that interval were in some places eroded to a depth of
900 feet. M. Rames further recognises that the second glacial epoch was distinguished
by two advances of valley-glaciers, separated by a marked episode of fusion. Dr JULIEN
has likewise noted the evidence for two episodes of fusion during the first extension of
the glaciers of the Puy de Déme.
Two glacial epochs have similarly been admitted for the Pyrenees;t but Dr PENok
some years ago brought forward evidence to show that these mountains, like the Alps,
have experienced three separate and distinct periods of glaciation. {
We may now return to Scotland, and consider briefly the changes that followed upon
the disappearance of the local ice-sheets and large valley-glaciers of our mountain regions.
The evidence is fortunately clear and complete. In the valley of the Tay, for example,
at and below Perth, we encounter the following succession of deposits :—
. Recent alluvia.
. Carse-deposits, 45 feet above sea-level.
. Peat and forest bed.
. Old alluvia.
. Clays, &., of 100-feet beach.
. Boulder-clay.
me bo tc & Or OD
The old alluvia (3) are obviously of fluviatile origin, and show us that after the
deposition of the clays, &c., of the 100-feet beach the sea retreated, and allowed the Tay
and its tributaries to plough their way down through the marine and estuarine deposits
of the “third” glacial epoch. These deposits would appear to have extended at first as
a broad and approximately level plain over all the lower reaches of the valleys. Through
this plain the Tay and the Earn cut their way to a depth of more than 100 feet, and
gradually removed all the material over a course which can hardly be less than 2 miles
in breadth below the Bridge of Earn, and considerably exceeds that in the Carse of
Gowrie. No organic remains occur in the “old alluvia,” but the deposits consist princi-
pally of gravel and sand, and show not a trace of ice-action. Immediately overlying
* Bull. Soc. géol. de France, 1884; see also M. Bout, Bull. de la Soc. philomath. de Paris, 8° Sér. i. p. 87.
t+ Garricou, Bull. Soc. géol. de France, 2° Sér, xxiv. p. 577; JEANBERNAT, Bull. de la Soc. d’Hist. nat. de Toulouse,
iv. pp. 114, 138; Pierre, Bull. Soc. géol. de France, 3° Sér. ii. pp. 503, 507.
{ Mitteilungen d. Vereins f. Erdkunde zu Letpzig, 1883.
140 PROFESSOR JAMES GEIKIE ON THE
them comes the well-known peat-bed (4). This is a mass of vegetable matter, varying
in thickness from a few inches up to 3 or 4 feet. In some places it seems to be made
up chiefly of reed-like plants and sedges and occasional mosses, commingled with which
are abundant fragments of birch, alder, willow, hazel, and pine. In other places it
contains trunks and stools of oak and hazel, with hazel-nuts—the trees being rooted in
the subjacent deposits. It is generally highly compressed and readily splits into lamine,
upon the surface of which many small reeds, and now and again wing-cases of beetles,
may be detected. A large proportion of the woody débris—twigs, branches, and trunks
—appears to have been drifted. A ‘“dug-out” canoe of pine was found, along with
trunks of the same tree, in the peat at Perth. The Carse-deposits (5), consisting
principally of clay and silt, rest upon the peat-bed. The occurrence in these deposits of
Scrobicularia piperata and oyster-shells leaves us in no doubt as to their marine origin.
They vary in thickness from 10 up to fully 40 feet.*
A similar succession of deposits is met with in the valley of the Forth,t and we can-
not doubt. that these tell precisely the same tale. I have elsewhere { adduced evidence
to show that the peat-bed, with drifted vegetable débris, which underlies the Carse
accumulations of the Forth and Tay is on the same horizon as the “ lower buried forest ”
of our oldest peat-bogs, and the similar bogs that occur in Norway, Sweden, Denmark,
Schleswig-Holstein, Holland, &c. Underneath the “lower buried forest” of those regions
occur now and again freshwater clays, charged with the relics of an Arctic-alpine flora ;
and quite recently similar plant-remains have been detected in old alluvia at Corstorphine,
near Edinburgh. When the beds below our older peat-bogs are more carefully examined,
traces of that old Arctic flora will doubtless be met with in many other parts of these
islands. It was this flora that clothed North-Western Europe during the decay of the
last local ice-sheets of Britain and the disappearance of the great Baltic glacier.
The dissolution of the large valley-glaciers of this country was accompanied by a
general retreat of the sea—all the evidence leading to the conviction that our islands
eventually became united to the Continent. The climatic conditions, as evidenced by
the flora of the “lower buried forest,” were decidedly temperate—probably even more
genial than they are now, for the forests attained at that time a much greater horizontal
and vertical range. ‘This epoch of mild climate and continental connection was even-
tually succeeded by one of submergence, accompanied by colder conditions. Britain was
again insulated—the sea-level in Scotland reaching a height of 45-50 feet above present
high-water. To this epoch pertain the Carse-clays of the Forth and Tay. A few erratics
occur in these deposits, probably betokening the action of floating ice, but the beds more
closely resemble the modern alluvial silts of our estuaries than the tenacious clays of the
100-feet terrace. When the Carse-clays are followed inland, however, they pass into
coarse river-gravel and shingle, forming a well-marked high-level alluvial terrace, of much
* For a particular account of the Tay-valley Succession, see Prehistoric Europe, p. 385.
+ Proc. Roy. Soc. Edin., 1883-84, p. 745 ;, Mem. Geol. Survey, Scotland, Explanation of Sheet 31.
{ Prehistoric Europe, chaps. xvi., xvii.
~ GLACIAL SUCCESSION IN EUROPE. 141
the same character as the yet higher-level fluviatile terrace, which is associated in like
manner with the marine deposits of the 100-feet beach.
Of contemporaneous age with the Carse-clays, with which indeed they are continuous,
are the raised beaches at 45-50 feet. These beaches occur at many places along the
Scottish coasts, but they are seldom seen at the heads of our sea-lochs. When the sea
stood at this level, glaciers of considerable size occupied many of our mountain valleys.
In the west they came down in places to the sea-coast, and dropped their terminal
moraines upon the beach-deposits accumulating there. Thus, in Arran* and in Suther-
land,t these moraines are seen reposing on the raised beaches of that epoch. And I
think it is probable that the absence of such beaches at the heads of many of the sea-
lochs of the Highland area is to be explained by the presence there of large glaciers,
which prevented their formation.
Thus, there is clear evidence to show that after the genial epoch represented by the
“lower buried forest,” a recrudescence of glacial conditions supervened in Scotland.
Many of the small moraines that occur at the heads of our mountain valleys, both in the
Highlands and Southern Uplands, belong in all probability to this epoch. They are
characterised by their very fresh and well-preserved appearance.{ It is not at all likely
that these later climatic changes could have been confined to Scotland. Other regions
must have been similarly affected. But the evidence will probably be harder to read
than it is with us. Had it not been for the existence of our “lower buried forest,” with
the overlying Carse-deposits, we could hardly have been able to distinguish so readily
between the moraines of our “third” glacial epoch and those of the later epoch to which
I now refer. The latter, we might have supposed, simply marked a stage in the final
retreat of the antecedent great valley-glaciers.
Lhave elsewhere traced the history of the succeeding stages of the Pleistocene period, and
adduced evidence of similar, but less strongly-marked, climatic changes having followed
upon those just referred to, and my conclusions have been supported by the independent
researches of Professor BLytr in Norway. But these later changes need not be considered
here. It is sufficient for my general purpose to confine attention to the well-proved
conclusion that after the decay of the last local ice-sheets and great glaciers of our “ third”
elacial epoch genial conditions obtained, and that these were followed by cold and humid
conditions, during the prevalence of which glaciers re-appeared in many mountain valleys.
We have thus, as it seems to me, clear evidence in Europe of four glacial epochs,
separated the one from the other by protracted intervals of genial temperate conditions.
So far, one’s conclusions are based on data which cannot be gainsaid, but there are certain
considerations which lead to the suspicion that the whole of the complex tale has not yet
been unravelled, and that the climatic changes were even more numerous than those that
[ have indicated. Let it be noted that glacial conditions attained their maximum during
* British Association Reports (1854): Trans. of Sections, p. 78.
+ L. Hinxman: Paper read before Edin. Geol. Soc., April 1892.
t Prehistoric Europe (chaps. xvi. xvii.) gives a fuller statement of the evidence.
142 PROFESSOR JAMES GETKIE ON THE
the earliest of our recognised glacial epochs. With each recurring cold period the ice-
sheets and glaciers successively diminished in importance. ‘That is one of the outstanding
facts with which we have to deal. Whatever may have been the cause or causes of
glacial and interglacial conditions, it is obvious that those causes, after attaining a
maximum influence, gradually became less effective in their operation. Such having been
the case, one can hardly help suspecting that our epoch of greatest glaciation may have
been preceded by an alternation of cold and genial stages analogous to those that followed
it. If three cold epochs of progressively diminished severity succeeded the epoch of
maximum glaciation, the latter may have been preceded by one or more epochs of
progressively increased severity. That something of the kind may have taken place is
suggested by the occurrence of the old moraine of that great Baltic glacier that preceded
the appearance of the most extensive mer de glace of Northern Europe. The old moraine
in question, it will be remembered, underlies the “ lower diluvium.” Unfortunately, the
very conditions that attended the glaciation of Europe render it improbable that any
conspicuous traces of glacial epochs that may have occurred prior to the period of
maximum glaciation could have been preserved within the regions covered by the great
inland ice. Their absence, therefore, cannot be held as proving that the lower boulder-
clays of Britain and Northern Europe are the representatives of the earliest glacial epoch.
The lowest boulder-clay, I believe, has yet to be discovered.
It is in the Alpine lands that we encounter the most striking evidence of glacial
conditions anterior to the epoch of maximum glaciation. The famous breccia of
Hétting has already been referred to as of interglacial age. From the character of its
flora, ErTINGHAUSEN considered this accumulation to be of Tertiary age. The assemblage
of plants is certainly not comparable to the well-known interglacial flora of Diirnten.
According to the researches of Dr R. von Wertstern,* the Hétting flora has most affinity
with that of the Pontic Mountains, the Caucasus, and Southern Spain, and implies a
considerably warmer climate than is now experienced in the Inn valley. This remarkable
deposit, as Dr PencK pointed out some ten years ago, is clearly of interglacial age. His
conclusions were at once challenged, on the ground that the flora had a Tertiary and not
a Pleistocene facies; consequently, it was urged that, as all glacial deposits were of
Pleistocene age, this particular breccia could not be interglacial. But in this, as in
similar cases, the palzeontologist’s contention has not been sustained by the strati-
graphical evidence, and Dr PEnox’s observations have been confirmed by several highly-
competent geologists, as by MM. Boum and Du Pasquigr. The breccia is seen in several
well-exposed sections resting upon the moraine of a local glacier which formerly descended
the northern flanks of the Inn Valley, opposite Innsbruck, where the mountain-slopes
under existing conditions are free from snow and ice. Nor is this all, for certain erraties
appear in the breccia, which could only have been derived from pre-existing glacial
accumulations, and their occurrence in this accumulation at a height of 1150 metres
shows that before the advent of the Hotting flora the whole Inn Valley must have been
* Sitzungsberichte d. Kais. Acad. d. Wissensch. in Wien, mathem.-naturw. Classe, Bd. xevii. Abth. i, 1888,
GLACIAL SUCCESSION IN EUROPE. 143
filled with ice. The plant-bearing beds are in their turn covered by the ground-moraine
of a later and more extensive glaciation. To bring about the glacial conditions that
obtained before the formation of the breccia, the snow-line, according to PeNcK, must
have been at least 1000 metres lower than now; while, to induce the succeeding
glaciation, the depression of the snow-line could not have been less than 1200 metres.
These observations have been extended to many other parts of the Alps, and the con-
clusion arrived at by Professor PENcK and his colleagues, Professor Brickner, and Dr
Boum, is briefly this,—that the maximum glaciation of those regions did not fall in the
“first” but in the “second” Alpine glacial epoch.
The glacial phenomena of Northern and Central Europe are so similar—the climatic
oscillations which appear to have taken place had so much in common, and were on so
grand a scale—that we cannot doubt they were synchronous. We may feel sure,
therefore, that the epoch of maximum glaciation in the Alps was contemporaneous with
the similar epoch in the north. And if this be so, then in the oldest ground-moraines of
the Alps we have the records of an earlier glacial epoch than that which is represented
by the lower boulder-clays of Britain and the corresponding latitudes of the Continent.
In other words, the Hétting flora belongs to an older stage of the Glacial Period than
any of the acknowledged interglacial accumulations of Northern Europe. The character
of the plants is in keeping with this conclusion. The flora has evidently much less
connection with the present flora of the Alps than the interglacial floras of Britain and
Northern Europe have with those that now occupy their place. The Hétting flora,
moreover, implies a considerably warmer climate than now obtains in the Alpine regions,
while that of our interglacial beds indicates a temperate insular climate, apparently much
like the present.
The high probability that oscillations of climate preceded the advent of the so-called
“first” mer de glace of Northern Europe must lead to a re-examination of our Pliocene
deposits, with a view to see whether these yield conclusive evidence against such climatic
changes having obtained immediately before Pleistocene times. By drawing the line of
separation between the Pleistocene and the Pliocene at the base of our glacial series, the
two systems in Britain are strongly marked off the one from the other. There is, in
short, a distinct “break in the succession.” From the Cromer Forest-bed, with its
abundant mammalian fauna and temperate flora, we pass at once to the overlying Arctic
freshwater bed and the superjacent boulder-clay that marks the epoch of maximum
glaciation.* Amongst the mammalian fauna of the Forest-bed are elephants (Elephas
meridionalis, EH. antiquus), hippopotamus, rhinoceros (R. etruscus), horses, bison, boar,
and many kinds of deer, together with such carnivores as bears, Machxrodus, spotted
hyena, &c. The freshwater and estuarine beds which contain this fauna rest immediately
upon marine deposits (Weybourn Crag), the organic remains of which have a decidedly
Arctic facies. Here, then, we have what at first sight would seem to be another break
* In some places, however, certain marine deposits (Leda-myalis bed) immediately overlie the Forest-bed. See
postea, footnote, p. 145.
VOL. XXXVII. PART I. (NO. 9). Z
144 PROFESSOR JAMES GEIKIE ON THE
in the succession. The Forest-bed, one might suppose, indicated an interglacial epoch,
separating two cold epochs. But Mr CLement Rep, who has worked out the geology of
the Pliocene with admirable skill,* has another explanation of the phenomena. It has
long been known that the organic remains of the marine Pliocene of Britain denote a
progressive lowering of temperature. The lower member of the system is crowded with
southern forms, which indicate warm-temperate conditions. But when we leave the
Older and pass upwards into the Newer Pliocene those southern forms progressively
disappear, while at the same time immigrants from the north increase in numbers, until
eventually, in the beds immediately underlying the Forest-bed, the fauna presents a
thoroughly Arctic facies. During the formation of the Older Pliocene with its southern ~
fauna our area was considerably submerged, so that the German Ocean had then a much
wider communication with the seas of lower latitudes. At the beginning of Newer
Pliocene times, however, the land emerged to some extent, and all connection between
the German Ocean and more southern seas was cut off. When at last the ‘ Forest-bed
series” began to be accumulated, the southern half of the North Sea basin had become
dry land, and was traversed by the Rhine in its course towards the north, the Forest-
bed representing the alluvial and estuarine deposits of that river.
Mr Ret, in referring to the progressive change indicated by the Pliocene marine
fauna, is inclined to agree with Professor Prestwicu that this was not altogether the
result of a general climatic change. He thinks the successive dying out of southern
forms and the continuous arrival of boreal species was principally due to the North Sea
remaining fully open to the north, while all connection with southern seas was cut off,
Under such conditions, he says, ‘‘ there was a constant supply of Arctic species brought
by every tide or storm, while at the same time the southern forms had to hold their own
without any aid from without; and if one was exterminated it could not be replaced.”
Doubtless the isolation of the North Sea must have hastened the extermination of the
southern forms, but the change could not have been wholly due to such local causes.
Similar, if less strongly-marked, changes characterise the marine Phocene of the Medi-
terranean area, while the freshwater alluvia of France, &c., furnish evidence in the same
direction. ;
The Cromer Forest-bed overlies the Weybourn Crag, the marine fauna of which
has a distinctly Arctic facies. The two cannot, therefore, be exactly contemporaneous :
the marine equivalents of the Forest-bed are not represented. But Mr Rerp points out
that several Arctic marine shells of the Weybourn Crag occur also in the Forest-bed,
while certain southern freshwater and terrestrial shells common in the latter are met with
likewise in the former, commingled with the prevailing Arctic marine species. He thinks,
therefore, that we may fairly conclude that the two faunas occupied adjacent areas.
One can hardly accept this conclusion without reserve. It is difficult to believe that a
temperate flora and mammalian fauna like that of the Forest-bed clothed and peopled
Eastern England when the adjacent sea was occupied by Arctic molluscs, &. Surely
* Mem. of Geol. Survey, “ Pliocene Deposits of Britain.”
GLACIAL. SUCCESSION IN EUROPE. 145
the occurrence of a few forms, which are common to the Forest-bed and the underlying
Crag, does not necessarily prove that the two faunas occupied adjacent districts. Mr
REID, indeed, admits that some of the marine shells in the Forest-bed series may have
been derived from the underlying Crag. Were the marine equivalents of the Forest-bed
forthcoming we might well expect them to contain many Crag forms, but the facies of
the fauna would most probably resemble that of the existing North Sea fauna. Again,
the appearance in the Weybourn Crag of a few southern shells common to the Forest-
bed, does not seem to prove more than that such shells were contemporaneous somewhere
with an Arctic marine fauna. But it is quite possible that they might have been carried
for a long distance from the south; and, even if they actually existed in the near
neighbourhood of an Arctic marine fauna, we may easily attach too much importance to
their evidence.* I cannot think, therefore, that Mr Retn’s conclusion is entirely satis-
factory. After all, the Cromer Forest-bed rests upon the Weybourn Crag, and the
evidence as it stands is explicable in another way. It is quite possible, for example, that
the Forest-bed really indicates an epoch of genial or temperate conditions, preceded, as it
certainly was eventually succeeded, by colder conditions.
If it be objected that this would include as interglacial what has hitherto been regarded
by most as a Pliocene mammalian fauna,t I would reply that the interglacial age of
that fauna has already been proved in Central France. The interglacial beds of Auvergne,
with Hlephas meridionalis, rest upon and are covered by moraines,{ and with these have
been correlated the deposits of Saint-Prest. Again, in Northern Italy the hgnites of Leffe
and Pianico, which, as I showed a number of years ago, § occupy an interglacial position,
have likewise yielded Elephas meridionalis and other associated mammalian forms.
* The inference that the Forest-bed occupies an interglacial position is strengthened by the evidence of certain
marine deposits which immediately overlie it. These (known collectively as the Leda-myalis bed) occur in irregular
patches, which, from the character of their organic remains, cannot all be precisely of the same age. In one place, for
example, they are abundantly charged with oysters, having valves united, and with these are associated other species of
‘molluses that still live in British Seas. At another place no oysters occur, but the béds yield two Arctic shells, Leda
myalis and Astarte borealis, and some other forms which have no special significance. Professor Orto ToRELL pointed
out to Mr Rep that these separate deposits could not be of the same age, for the oyster is sensitive to cold and does
not inhabit the seas where Leda myalis and Astarte borealis flourish. From a consideration of this and other evidence
Mr Rerp concludes that it is possible that the deposits indicate a period of considerable length, during which the depth
of water varied and the climate changed. Two additional facts may be noted : Leda myalis does not occur in any of
the underlying Pliocene beds, while the oyster is not found in the Weybourn and Chillesford Crag, though common
lower down in the Pliocene series. These facts seem to me to have a strong bearing on the climatic conditions of the
Forest-bed epoch. They show us that the oyster flourished in the North Sea before the period of the Weybourn Crag
—that it did not live side by side with the Arctic forms of that period—and that it reappeared in our seas when favour-
able conditions returned. When the climate again became cold an Arctic fauna (including a new-comer, Leda myalis)
once more occupied the North Sea.
+ Elephas meridionalis is usually regarded as a type-form of the Newer Pliocene, but long ago Dr Fucus pointed
out that in Hungary this species is of quaternary age: Verhandl. d. k. k. geolog. Reichsanstalt, 1879, pp. 49, 270.
It matters little whether we relegate to the top of the Pliocene or to the base of the Pleistocene the beds in
which this species occurs. That it is met with upon an interglacial horizon is certain ; and if we are to make the
Pleistocene co-extensive with the glacial and interglacial series, we shall be compelled to include in that system some
portion of the Newer Pliocene.
+ Juimn, Des Phénoménes glaciaires dans le Plateau central, &c., 1869 ; Boutn, Revue d’ Anthropologie, 1879.
§ Prehistoric Europe, p. 306. Professor PENcK writes me that he and the Swiss glacialist, Dr Du Pasquier, have
recently examined these deposits, and are able to confirm my conclusion as to their interglacial position.
146 PROFESSOR JAMES GEIKIE ON THE
There can be no doubt, then—indeed it is generally admitted—that the cold
conditions that culminated in our Glacial Period began to manifest themselves in Pliocene
times. Moreover, as it can be shown that Elephas meridionalis and its congeners
lived in Central Europe after an epoch of extensive glaciation, it is highly probable that
the Forest-bed, which contains the relics of the same mammalian fauna, is equivalent in
age to the early interglacial beds of France and the Alpine Lands. We seem, therefore,
justified in concluding that the alternation of genial and cold climates that succeeded the
disappearance of the greatest of our ice-sheets was preceded by analogous climatic changes
in late Pliocene times.
I shall now briefly summarise what seems to have been the glacial succession in
Kurope :—
f 1. Weybourn Crag; ground-moraine of great Baltic Glacier underlying “lower
diluvium ;” oldest recognised ground-moraines of Central Europe.
Glacial ‘ These accumulations represent the earliest glacial epoch of which any trace has
been discovered. It would appear to have been one of considerable severity, but not
(So severe as the cold period that followed.
{ 2. Forest-bed of Cromer; Hoétting breccia; lignites of Leffe and Pianico; inter-
Interglacial .{ glacial beds of Central France.
Earliest recognised interglacial epoch ; climate very genial,
( 3. Lower boulder-clays of Britain; lower diluvium of Scandinavia and North
Germany (in part); lower glacial deposits of South Germany and Central Russia;
Glacial | ground-moraines and high-level gravel-terraces of Alpine Lands, &c.; terminal
moraines of outer zone.
The epoch of maximum glaciation; the British and Scandinavian ice-sheets con-
( fluent; the Alpine glaciers attain their greatest development.
4, Interglacial freshwater alluvia, peat, lignite, &c., with mammalian remains
(Britain, Germany, &c., Central Russia, Alpine Lands, &.); marine deposits (Britain,
Interglacial , | Baltic coast-lands).
Continental condition of British area; climate at first cold, but eventually tem-
porte Submergence ensued towards close of the period, with conditions passing from
temperate to Arctic.
( 5. Upper boulder-clay of Britain; lower diluvium of Scandinavia, Germany, &c.,
| in part; upper glacial series in Central Russia; ground-moraines and gravel-terraces
in Alpine Lands,
Glacial : Scandinavian and British ice-sheets again confluent, but mer de glace does not
extend quite so far as that of the preceding cold epoch. Conditions, however, much
oe severe than those of the next succeeding cold epoch, Alpine glaciers deposit
the moraines of the inner zone.
GLACIAL SUCCESSION IN EUROPE. 147
f 6. Freshwater alluvia, lignite, peat, &c. (some of the so-called postglacial alluvia of
Britain; interglacial beds of North Germany, &c.; Alpine lands (?); marine deposits
of Britain and Baltic coast-lands).
Britain probably again continental; climate at first temperate and somewhat
insular; submergence ensues with cold climatic conditions—Scotland depressed for
100 feet; Baltic provinces of Germany, W&c., invaded by the waters of the North Sea.
Interglacial .
¢ 7. Ground-moraines, terminal moraines, &c., of mountain regions of Britain; upper
diluvium of Scandinavia, Finland, North Germany, &c.; great terminal moraines of same
regions; terminal moraines in the large longitudinal valleys of the Alps (Penck).
Major portion of Scottish Highlands covered by ice-sheet; local ice-sheets in
Glacial .4 Southern Uplands of Scotland and mountain districts in other parts of Britain; great
valley-glaciers sometimes coalesce on low grounds; icebergs calved at mouths of
Highland sea-lochs; terminal moraines dropped upon marine deposits then forming
ane beach). Scandinavia shrouded in a great ice-sheet, which broke away in ice-
bergs along the whole west coast of Norway. Epoch of the last great Baltic glacier.
( 8. Freshwater alluvia (with Arctic plants); “lower buried forest and peat” (Britain
and North-west Europe generally). Carse-clays and raised beaches of 45-50-feet
level in Scotland.
| Britain again continental; climate at first cold, subsequently becoming temperate:
ee forests. Eventual insulation of Britain; climate humid, and probably colder
Interglacial .
than now.
( 9. Local moraines in mountain-valleys of Britain, here and there resting on 45-50-
feet beach ; so-called “ postglacial” moraines in the upper valleys of the Alps.
Glacial _| Probably final appearance of glaciers in our islands. Some of these glaciers attained
a considerable size, reaching the sea and shedding icebergs. It may be noted here
| that the decay of these latest glaciers was again followed by emergence of the land
Land a recrudescence of forest-growth (“upper buried forest ”).
A word of reference may now be made to that remarkable association of evidence of
submergence, with proofs of glacial conditions, which has so frequently been noted by
geologists. Take, for example, the succession in Scotland, and observe how each glacial
epoch was preceded and apparently accompanied by partial submergence of the land :—
1, Epoch of greatest mer de glace (lower boulder-clay}; British and Scandinavian ice-sheets
coalescent. Followed by wide land-surface=Continental Britain, with genial climate.
Submergence of land—to what extent is uncertain, but apparently to 500 feet or so.
2. Epoch of lesser mer de glace (upper boulder-clay); British and Scandinavian ice-sheets
coalescent. Followed by wide land-surface=Continental Britain, with genial climate.
Submergence of land for 100 feet or thereabout.
3. Epoch of local ice-sheets in mowntain districts ; glaciers here and there coalesce on the
low grounds; icebergs calved at mouths of Highland sea-lochs (moraines on 100-feet
beach). Followed by wide land-surface=Continental Britain, with genial climate.
Submergence of land for 50 feet or thereabout.
4. Epoch of small local glaciers, here and there descending to sea (moraines on 50-feet
beach).
148 PROFESSOR JAMES GEIKIE ON THE
These oscillations of the sea-level did not terminate with the emergence of the land
after the formation of the 50-feet beach. There is evidence to show that subsequent to
the retreat of the small local glaciers (4) and the emergence of the land, our shores
extended seawards beyond their present limits, but how far we cannot tell. With this
epoch of re-emergence the climate again became more genial, our forests once more
attaining a greater vertical and horizontal range. Submergence then followed (25 to 30
feet beach) accompanied by colder and more humid conditions, which, while unfavourable
to forest growth, tended greatly to increase the spread of peat-bogs. We have no evi-
dence, however, to show that small local glaciers again appeared. nally the sea retired,
and the present conditions ensued.
It will be seen that the submergence which preceded and probably accompanied the
advent of the lesser mer de glace (2) was greater than that which heralded the appear-
ance of the local ice-sheets (3), as that in turn exceeded the depression that accompanied
the latest local glaciers (4). There would seem, therefore, to be some causal connection
between cold climatic conditions and submergence. This is shown by the fact that not
only did depression immediately precede and accompany the appearance of ice-sheets and
glaciers, but the degree of submergence bore a remarkable relation to the extent of
glaciation. Many speculations have been indulged in as to the cause of this curious
connection between glaciation and depression; these, however, I will not consider here.
None of the explanations hitherto advanced is satisfactory, but the question is one well
deserving the attention of physicists, and its solution would be of great service to
geology.
A still larger question which the history of these times suggests is the cause of
climatic oscillations. I have maintained that the well-known theory advanced by JAMES
Cro. is the only one that seems to throw any light upon the subject, and the observa-
tions which have been made since I discussed the question at length, some fifteen years
ago, have added strength to that conviction. As Sir Ropert Baty has remarked, the
astronomical theory is really much stronger than CroLL made it out to be. In his
recently-published work, The Cause of an Ice Age, Sir Rosert says that the theory is so
thoroughly well based that there is no longer any ground for doubting its truth. ‘“ We
have even shown,” he continues, “that the astronomical conditions are so definite that
astronomers are entitled to direct that vigorous search be instituted on this globe to
discover the traces of those vast climatic changes through which astronomy declares that
our earth must have passed.” In concluding this paper, therefore, I may shortly indicate
how far the geological evidence seems to answer the requirements of the theory.
Following Crott, we find that the last period of great eccentricity of the earth’s orbit
extended over 160,000 years—the eccentricity reaching its highest value in the earlier
stages of the cycle. It is obvious that during this long cycle the precession of the
equinox must have completed seven revolutions. We might therefore expect to meet
with geological evidence of recurrent cold or glacial and genial or interglacial epochs ; and
not only so, but the records ought to show that the earlier glacial epoch or epochs were
GLACIAL SUCCESSION IN EUROPE. 149
colder than those that followed. Now we find that the epoch of maximum glaciation
supervened in early Pleistocene times, and that three separate and distinct glacial epochs
of diminished severity followed. Of these three, the first would appear to have been
almost as severe as that which preceded it, and it certainly much surpassed in severity
the cold epochs of the later stages. But the epoch of maximum glaciation, or the first of
the Pleistocene series, was not the earliest glacial epoch. It seems to have been pre-
ceded by one of somewhat less severity than itself, but which nevertheless, as we gather
from the observations of PENncK and his collaborateurs, was about as important as that
which came after the epoch of maximum glaciation. Hence it would appear that the
correspondence of the geological evidence with the requirements of the astronomical
theory is as close as we could expect it to be. Four glacial with intervening genial
epochs appear to have fallen within Pleistocene times; while towards the close of the
Pliocene, or at the beginning of the Pleistocene Period, according as we choose to classify
the deposits, an earlier glacial epoch, followed by genial interglacial conditions, super-
vened.
In this outline of a large subject it has not been possible to do more than indicate
very briefly the general nature of the evidence upon which the chief conclusions are
based. I hope, however, to have an opportunity ere long of dealing with the whole
question in detail. .
EXPLANATION OF PLATE.
Map of Europe showing the areas occupied by ice during the Epoch of Maximum Glaciation (Second
Glacial Epoch), and the extent of glaciation in Scandinavia, Finland, Baltic coast-lands, &c., and the British
Islands during the Fourth Glacial Epoch. For the limits of the greater glaciation on the Continent,
Hasenicut, Penck, Nixitin, and Natuorst have been followed. The Great Baltic Glacier is chiefly after
De Geer.
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(1511)
X.—On Some Eurypterid Remains from the Upper Silurian Rocks of the Pentland
Hills, By Matcotm Lavris, B.Sc., F.L.S. (With Three Plates.)
(Read 21st December 1891.)
The Upper Silurian rocks of the Gutterford Burn, in the Pentland Hills, have for
some time been known to contain Eurypterid remains,* but the fossils procured from these
beds—chiefly owing to the exertions of Mr Harpy of Bavelaw Castle, and Mr HENDERSON,
late Curator of the Phrenological Museum—have never been submitted to a thorough
examination. When, therefore, by the kind permission of Sir R. Murpocn Smrirtu,
Director, and Dr R. H. Traquarr, Keeper of the Natural History Collection in the
Edinburgh Museum, I was given an opportunity of examining Mr Henperson’s collec-
tion, which was acquired by the Museum some years since, I entered upon the work
with the expectation of finding some new and interesting forms which would repay
description. My expectations in this respect have been more than fulfilled, as the collec-
tion has yielded five undoubtedly new species, one of which I have made the type of a
new genus. If to these one adds at least two other new species which are in the collec-
tion of Mr Harpy of Bavelaw, and which I hope to have the pleasure of examining and
describing at some future time, one is justified, [ think, in saying that the Gutterford
Burn is unequalled among Eurypterid localities with regard to the variety of forms it
has yielded. Unfortunately the bed which has yielded these specimens is limited in
extent, and further work on it would entail. quarrying operations on a somewhat exten-
sive scale. ee
The rock in which the Eurypterids are preserved is an irregularly fissile fine-grained
sandstone, containing a considerable amount of carbonaceous matter distributed in thin
layers. The only other recognisable fossil which occurs in the rock is the so-called
Dictyocaris Ramsayi, which occurs in considerable abundance.
One point which has struck me in working at this collection is the large size of the
eyes in most of the forms. The reason of this must be sought in the conditions under
which they lived, and a comparison with recent forms would suggest deep water, but
there is not sufficient evidence to make this more than a conjecture.
I would like to take this opportunity of expressing my thanks to Dr Traquair, both
for the permission to examine this interesting collection, and for the assistance he has
given me throughout the work.
Genus Stylonurus (H. Woodw.).
This genus, which is characterised by “the peculiar form of the carapace, the great
length of the telson or terminal joint, and the substitution of two pairs of long, slender,
* HenDERSON, Trans. Edin. Geol. Soc., vol. iii,
VOL. XXXVII. PART I. (NO. 10). QA
152 MR MALCOLM LAURIE ON SOME EURYPTERID REMAINS FROM THE
oar-like jaw-feet, instead of the single pair of broad, short, natatory organs more usually
met with in this group,”* is represented by two species, both hitherto unknown to
science.
- Stylonurus ornatus, n. sp. (PI. I. figs. 1-8.)
This species is represented by fragments of three or four specimens which leave much
to be yet ascertained as regards the exact proportions.
The carapace, of which only the ventral surface is shown, is horseshoe-shaped, with
a somewhat straight front margin. At its broadest point, which is about one-third of its
length from the front end, it measures 150 mm., while at its posterior margin the breadth
is only about 90 mm. In length it was probably about 150 mm. The anterior edge is
bounded by a border 7 mm. in width, marked by 3 equidistant parallel lines. This border
diminishes in breadth down the sides, and finally disappears about half way down. Inside
this border lies the inturned portion of the carapace, broad in front (32 mm.), but, like
the border, narrowing down the sides, and disappearing close to the posterior edge of the
carapace. A pair of curved lines run one on each side about 15 mm. from, and nearly
parallel to, the margin of the carapace, approximating slightly to it along the anterior
border. These lines approach to within 20 mm. of each other in front, and then bend
abruptly, and run in a posterior direction to near the margin of the inturned portion.
While the border appears to be free from any surface sculpture, this is far from being the
case with the inturned portion. Down the sides where they are best shown, the sculp-
ture consists of very fine scale-markings (fig. 3), with the convex side turned outwards
towards the margin of the carapace. These markings do not extend to either boundary
of the inturned portion, as they disappear some little way from the margin of the cara-
pace towards the outer side, and towards the inner side are replaced by fine anastomosing
lines, more or less longitudinal in direction. Within the inturned portion of the carapace
the central space is occupied by the bases of the legs, but these are unfortunately not
clearly enough shown to be accurately described.
The eyes can be made out lying just within the inner margin of the inturned portion
of the carapace, 34 mm. from the anterior margin, and about 31 mm. from the side. They
appear to have been oval in form, the major axis, which lies at an angle of 45° to the
axis of the body, measuring 18 mm. and the minor 10 mm. This is small in proportion
compared with the eyes of some of the other members of the genus.
The first six (mesosomatic) free seements are partly seen in fig. 1. Owing to less
than half the segments being preserved, it is impossible to determine their width in this
specimen, The length of the respective segments is as follows :—Ist, 16 mm. ; 2nd,
18mm.; 3rd,21mm.; 4th, 23mm.; 5th,23mm.; 6th,18mm. The 5th segment thus
shows no increase, and the sixth a slight diminution in length. The posterior margin of
each segment in this specimen, which shows the ventral body wall, is bounded by a well
* WooDWARD, Monograph of Brit. Fossil Crustacea, p. 122.
' UPPER SILURIAN ROCKS OF THE PENTLAND HILLS. 153
marked border or selvage, 4 mm. in breadth. The surface of these segments is covered
with a very small inconspicuous ornamentation of the usual character. Down the right
side of the specimen are seen what I take to be the plate-like abdominal appendages,
between which and the body wall traces of branchial leaflets may be seen in the 3d and
5th segments. The markings on these abdominal appendages are not shown in this
specimen, but in the specimen which shows the central lobe of the genital plate, they are
seen to have the form figured in fig. 4, the scales being rather angular, and giving the
impression of zigzag lines running across the body. On the dorsal surface (fig. 2) a third
type of ornamentation is met with, consisting of very broad (4 mm.) flat scales, in
addition to which there is a single row of tubercles along the posterior margin of each
segment. ‘This variety of ornamentation in the one region of the body is worth noting
as a warning against making species from fragments, the ornamentation on which is the
only available character.
The form of the central lobe of the genital plate is outlined in fig. 5. It differs
very markedly from that figured by Dr Woopwarp in the restoration of S. Logani
(Monograph, &c., p. 131), being long (36 mm.) and rounded at the end. Unfortunately
the genital plates are not shown.
_. The six posterior (metasomatic) segments and the beginning of the telson are only
shown in one specimen (fig. 2). The figure represents the cast of the dorsal surface of
these segments, certain portions being completed from the other half of the slab. The
segments are crushed somewhat obliquely, and this makes the determination of their
breadth very difficult, the following figures being only an approximation :—
Segment. Width. Length.
6th, 5 f , 118 mm. . : 20 mm.
ith, : : é EO; j ‘ 2ZO0bir,
8th, ; E : 94 ,, : 4 TS es
9th, s : / 84 ,, P : een
10th, 4 ; : Tou5,, ' ks PAD) as
11th, ; ; é 60s, Oh re
12th, : é 4a 5
Telson, ? ; ‘ nO 5.
These segments are all produced at the sides into curved “ epimeral” pieces, which
arise from the posterior corners of the segments. The posterior margins of the segments
are ornamented by a single transverse row of slightly elongated tubercles, and the
surface is covered, like that of the mesosoma, with large scale-markings. The last
segment appears to be very short, with enormously expanded epimerites, and the
markings on it are very much smaller than on the preceding ones.
The Yelson is attached between the large epimerites of the last segment, and is
12 mm. in width. Unfortunately only a small portion of it is visible, and there is no
clue to its probable length. Fig. 8 is one of two fragments of detached telsons which
154 MR MALCOLM LAURTE ON SOME EURYPTERID REMAINS FROM THE
probably belong to this species, though they differ from the usual form of telson. in
Stylonurus in tapering to a point. -
The metastoma is comparatively long and narrow, with a deep groove down the
centre. The posterior margin is straight or slightly incurved, about 12 mm. in length,
and ending in sharply rounded corners. The sides are slightly curved, and run almost
parallel to each other. The anterior margin is not seen in any of the specimens.
The only appendages preserved are a pair of long narrow legs on each side, one of
which is seen in situ in fig. 1, and another, the best of a number of detached fragments,
is drawn in fig. 6.. The bases of these limbs, one of which is outlined in fig. 7, appear
to have been of about the same size, so that there would be two pairs of “ ectognaths.”
They are similar in general shape to the ectognaths of Pterygotus or Slimoma, and bear
five strong conical teeth along the biting margin. The postero-external angle is sharp
and almost rectangular, and the surface, especially of the posterior part, is closely
covered with angular scale-markings. The mode of attachment of the limb and the first
joint of it are not shown. The five distal joints of the limb are marked by a strong
longitudinal ridge. They decrease regularly in breadth, and vary considerably in length,
the antepenultimate (5th) joint being the longest, a point in which they differ markedly
from most other genera of fossil Merostomata. The measurements of the limb in fig. 7
are as follows :—
No. of Segment. Width. Length.
ord, 5 : ; 18 mm. : : 2 mm.
4th, > : : Lo; ; : 24,
5th, Se Spin : 40 , :
6th, : : : lo ‘ ; Zl cpess
7th, 5 . 8.5) ‘ ‘ AVE
The margin of the limb shows in places an obtuse crenulation (fig. 6a), and this probably
existed along the whole length of the posterior margin. The penultimate joint bears a
spine about 6 mm. long, inserted on the outer side of its articulation with the last
seoment. The last segment tapers to a point. No trace of ornamentation is seen on the
appendages. :
This species, which I have ventured to name ornatus on account of the variety and
abundance of the ornamentation, differs from S, Logani in size and in the form of the
carapace, as well as in many minor points. The shape of the carapace and the position
of the eyes distinguish it from most of the Old Red Sandstone forms. From S. Powrei
it differs further in the possession of epimera on the metasomatic segments and in the
form of the limbs.
Stylonurus macrophthalmus, n. sp. (Pl. II. figs. 9-11.)
This species is considerably smaller than the preceding one, the length of the whole
animal, minus the telson, being only 130 mm. The carapace is 37 mm. long and horse-.
UPPER SILURIAN ROCKS OF THE PENTLAND HILLS. 155
shoe-shaped, but does not narrow towards the posterior margin so markedly as in S.
ornatus. The breadth at the widest portion, which is close to the front margin, is 40 mm.,
and at the posterior margin 35 mm. ‘The margin is bounded in front by a narrow border
(2 mm. wide), which runs out about half way down. A well developed ridge runs down the
centre to within about 1 cm. of the front margin, and on each side of this are placed the
prominences for the lateral eyes. These prominences are about half as long as the
carapace (16 mm.), and about 10 mm. wide. The eye itself runs as a curved band,
3 mm. broad, round the anterior and outer sides of the prominence. No trace of the
occelli can be seen. The surface of the carapace is covered with a well marked, strongly
curved scale ornamentation, and the posterior border is marked by a marginal row of
elongated tubercles.
The dimensions of the body segments are as follows :—
isi. : : 34 mm. wide. : : 6 mm. long:
2nd, , ; BA 3 6 as
ord, ¢ : : 38 4 2 2 8 ae
4th, . : ; 38 ii : : 6
Sth, : ; 38 . 6 »
6th,’ * : : 32 x 6 s
‘ atayy : 2 30 3 8 3
Suligs) : a 4 luee é ; : Oa as
Sth, . : . 24, ma : ae ;
Oth, . : ‘ 22 F 11 55
Ji eal : p Lea’. TS;
b2th, ~ . ' : 2 Soh
The segments thus diminish in width from the third, and increase markedly in length
from the 7th on, The anterior segments show. a scale ornamentation very similar to
that on the back of S. ornatus, but confined chiefly to the front portion of each segment.
The posterior margin of each segment is marked by a row of tubercles, which are particu-
larly conspicuous in the posterior segments. The last segment, and. probably those
preceding it, had epimera.
The Telson (fig. 11) is.not less than. 52 mm. in length, but the point is unfortunately
lost. It is 15 mm. wide at its point of attachment, and rapidly narrows to 5 mm.,
beyond which it tapers very gradually. It is deeply grooved by a pair of longitudinal
furrows, and the median ridge between them is marked by faint oblique denticula-
tions. |
The Metastoma, the outline of which can be made out through the carapace (fig. 10),
is 10 mm. wide at the posterior margin, which is straight, and becomes rapidly narrower
towards the front. The front end of it is not visible.
The limbs are only partly shown, but are very characteristic. On the right. side
(fig. 10) segments of the posterior limb are shown. The limb is: very broad and short in
——
156 MR MALCOLM LAURIE ON SOME EURYPTERID REMAINS FROM THE
proportion to the rest of the animal, and is marked as usual in this genus by a longi-
tudinal ridge. The dimensions, as far as they could be ascertained, are—
9 mm. wide. 10? long.
6°5 F Oh ts
65 5 US irs 55
45-55 as
The 4th segment thus increases in width, while of the last segment only a small
portion is seen. Fragments of a few joints of a second limb on this side can be made
out, and seem about the same width as the posterior one.
On the left side portions of two limbs are also seen. One shown in the cast (fig. 9)
is very similar to the limb described on the right side, though differing slightly in size.
The measure of the segments preserved is—
11 mm. long. 6 mm, wide,
17 ”? 5 ”
9» 5
Of the other limb on this side only the last 32 mm. are seen. It is peculiar in being
very much narrower than those described above, the width being 2°5 mm. A longi-
tudinal ridge can be made out, and the terminal joint, which is seen on both specimens,
tapers to a point. If this limb corresponds to the anterior one on the right side it must
taper very rapidly, and if not, then there is in this species a third limb rivalling the
other two in length. The presence of this narrower limb, together with the size and
position of the eyes and the shape of the metastoma, are sufficient to characterise this
species, though the form of the carapace and the telson are also characteristic.
Kurypterus (Dekay).
This genus is represented by the remains of at least three distinct species.
Eurypterus scorpioides (Woodward).
Portions of four band-like sclerites, measuring when complete about 90 mm. in width
and each 15 mm. in length, probably belong to this species. ‘They are covered with
punctate ornamentation, and each segment bears a pair of subcentral tubercles about
1°5 mm. in diameter and 6 mm. apart, which are rather nearer the posterior than the
anterior margin of the segments. They must have belonged to a specimen somewhat
smaller than that figured by Dr Woopwarp (Monograph, pls. xxix. fig. 1, xxx. fig. 9),
but resemble his figure very closely both in the markings and in the presence of the pair
of tubercles,
The body and tail of a very large Eurypterus may be provisionally referred to this
species, pending the discovery of further remains. It resembles the figure in Dr
Woopwarp’s Monograph (pl. xxix. fig. 1) in general form and in the nature of the
markings, but exceeds it considerably in size, oh
UPPER SILURIAN ROCKS OF THE PENTLAND HILLS. 157
Eurypterus conicus, n. sp. (Pl. IL figs. 12,13; Pl. III. fig. 14.)
This species is represented by a number of more or less complete specimens, the
largest of which is about 150 mm. in length. |
The carapace is semicircular, but differs a good deal in different specimens owing to
distortion. Fig. 14 is probably nearest to the original shape, and in this specimen it
measures 28 mm. in breadth and 19 mm. in length.
The dorsal surface is not seen, but the position of the eyes can be distinctly made
out. They are large, 8 mm. in length, and somewhat oval in form, and about equidistant
from the anterior and posterior margins of the carapace. The anterior ends of the eyes
approach very close to the side of the carapace (1°5 mm.), but the posterior ends are
slightly more distant.
The metastoma is not seen, but the bases of the feet are very well shown. ‘The last
pair (“ectognaths”) are broad and angular, the external angle being truncated parallel
to the axis of the body for the attachment of the limb. The bases of four other pairs of
postoral appendages can be made out, and also the position of the small and as yet
undescribed cheliceree (fig. 14).
The body in fig. 14, which I take to be the more normal form, the other being drawn
out, tapers regularly from its point of attachment to the carapace to the telson, and the
seoments increase slightly in length. In fig. 12 the body is longer and narrower. The
detailed measurements of both are as follows :—
Fic. 14. Fie. 12.
Segment. Length. Width. Length. Width.
1, 238 mm. 2°5 mm. 21 mm.
2, ts a 28 ges 22
3. 45, or a 1 aged DOO
4, halal 25 he 21,
5. A e. 24 ,, 5 es Z2ON ys
6. Ae. 2a. ae 19. 4
(E AD: 55 20, Ady 3 Le BA
8, 65. ico —— 1s bs
9. a 1G, i a
10, BB, ie ae 12 3
aka ay eae 1 & See ce ONS
12. ae Gi lke 0 75,
Telson, 25 17. Bs BO = ie.
Length of body, including carapace and telson—fig. 14, 105 mm. ; figs 12, 121 mm,
The posterior angles of the segments project slightly here and there, but there is no
sign of regular epimera.
The telson tapers regularly to a fine point.
. The genital plate is seen in fig. 12. The lateral plates are a good deal narrower than
158 MR MALCOLM LAURIE ON SOME EURYPTERID REMAINS FROM THE
the segment, and their outer ends are rounded. The median lobe is 7 mm. long and
4 mm. wide at its base, and has a pointed angular form not common in this genus.
Ornamentation of the ordinary kind is not shown on any part of the body, but fine
anastomosing veins run over most of the surface.
Only fragments of the limbs—of no value for descriptive purposes—are preserved.
The form of the metastoma—slightly distorted—is shown in fig. 13.
In the position of the eyes this form approaches most closely to EZ. lanceolatus (Salt.),
(v. WoopwarD, pl. xxviii. figs. 1-3), but they are much larger in proportion. The form
of the telson is somewhat more taper in this than in E. lanceolatus, and resembles most
closely the fragments described by Satter as L. linearis.* EH. linearis, however, is
considered by Scumiptt to be a synonym of H. Fischeri, a species very distinct from
EL. conicus. The form. of the genital plate is also different from that of H. lanceolatus,
but too little is known of the sexual variations of this structure for it to be of much value,
Eurypterus cyclophthalmus, n. sp. (PI. III. fig. 15.)
This species is represented by only one specimen, which shows the greater part of the
carapace and portions of all the body segments. The carapace is semicircular in form,
12 mm. long and 16 mm. wide at the posterior margin. It is bounded all round by a
well marked narrow border (less than 1 mm. in width), and is destitute—as is the whole
body—of scale-markings. The eyes are large (3°5 mm.), subcircular, and somewhat
widely separated from each other (4°5 mm.). They are somewhat nearer the lateral than
the anterior border of the carapace, and rather towards the front. Between the large
eyes are a pair of small central eyes, which were probably placed on a prominence.
The body increases in width to about the 3rd segment, and then decreases rapidly
to the 7th, which is conical in form, and more gradually from the 7th to the end of the
tail. The first six segments are short, the 7th very long, the 8th not so long as the 7th,
and the succeeding ones about the same length as the 8th. The measurements may be
tabulated as follows :—
Ist, ©, , ; 1'8 mm, long.
2nd, \\. : , 2°5 *
Sid, «!. : ; 2'9 es
4h, +% ; ; 3 3
bth; &. : : 3 ‘5
6th, 0+, : , 33 sy : ° 7 mm. wide.
Vth) ; ; 4 3 6 Fs
Sth, @ ; : 4:9 i ; ; 6 if
9th, . ; ‘ 5 ; ; ; 5 ::
10th, . ; ; 4 +
11th as : ; }s 2 7 2 b
12th, ‘ 3 2 dy
The telson is not preserved, and there are only traces of the swimming feet.
* WoopwarD, pl. xxviii. figs, 10-12, + Scumipt, Mem. de V Acad. Imp. d. Sc. de St. Pétersbourg, vol. xxxi. p. 50,
|
UPPER SILURIAN ROCKS OF THE PENTLAND HILLS. 159
This species seems sufficiently well characterised by the proportionate size, shape, and
position of the eyes. Among the British species it approaches L. Brewsteri (WoopwarRb,
p. 151, pl. xvii. fig. 4) most nearly in the form of the carapace, but the eyes of
E. Brewstert are proportionately very small. In fact I know of no species except
E. conicus, described above, in which the eyes are proportionately so large, and the
difference of position of the eyes and the shape of the body render the two forms quite
distinct.
Drepanopterus, n. gen.
Carapace broader than long; widest about 2ths from anterior margin. Body, Ist
seoment wider than posterior margin of carapace ; increases in width to 3rd segment, and
then tapers rapidly. Limb elongated, subcylindrical, terminating in a very slightly
expanded joint, concave on posterior margin.
This genus I have ventured to create for the reception of a single form, viz. :—
Drepanopterus pentlandicus. (PI. III. figs. 16, 17.)
The carapace is horseshoe-shaped, the breadth at the widest part, which is about ?ths
of the length from the anterior margin, being 90 mm., and at the posterior margin only
77mm. The length of the carapace is only about 46 mm., the proportion between it
and the breadth being about 4 to 7. The front margin is bent downwards, and there
does not seem to have been a distinct border. The surface of the carapace, which is
much crumpled, is covered with scale-markings, semicircular in form over the greater
part, but along the sides becoming more angular, with the convexity directed outwards.
The position of the eyes cannot be made out for certain, but they were probably placed
at about 15 mm. from the front of the carapace, and 12 mm. from the side.
The body, of which portions of nine segments are preserved, is broad and conical in
form. The greatest breadth (96 mm.) is about the 3rd segment, and it narrows gradually
in the region of the 4th and 5th segments, and more abruptly in the succeeding ones.
The length and breadth of the segments is as follows :—
ist. : : 8 mm, long. : F 77 mm. wide.
ond... : : 13 ae 94 5
Sid, | ys . a LOS. 96 =
ache : : 10 a = 94 “6
Sth =< : 2 9 ‘; : A 82 <
6th, . : ‘ 9 a é : 64 oA
ttn, é g 10 = Z 3 44, =
Stn 2 3 ‘ 11 a ; 3 36 2
Sthfe «< . 4 Be * : 2 2a :
The 1st segment is very small in proportion, and seems to taper towards the sides, so
| that it does not appear along the margin. The 2nd and succeeding segments have their
outer and posterior margins curved, and overlap from before backwards. Near the centre
VOL. XXXVII. PART I. (NO. 10). 28
sa tes tf
160 MR MALCOLM LAURIE ON SOME EURYPTERID REMAINS FROM THE
of each of the first six segments is a comparatively large protuberance, somewhat
elongated transversely, and the whole surface of the segments appears to, have been
closely covered with a minute, peculiar, and rather irregular marking, which, however, is
only preserved in parts. ,
The four distal joints of a limb (probably the last), measuring 94 mm. in length, are
well shown, and differ from anything hitherto described among the Merostomata. The
first three of these joints differ chiefly from each other in length. The first is 33 mm, _
long, tapering, and slightly hourglass-shaped, the breadth at the proximal end being
11 mm., in the middle 9 mm., and'at the distal extremity 10 mm. The second joint is
27 mm. long, rather more tapering, and slightly concave on the posterior side. The
third joint was much shorter (16 mm.), but is too much broken to allow its shape to be
well made out. The last joint is 23 mm. long, and falcate in shape. The posterior
margin is concave and evenly curved throughout its length, while the anterior margin
runs for a short distance (5 mm.) approximately parallel to the posterior, and then curves
strongly forward and sweeps round to meet the posterior margin at the pointed termi-
nation of the limb. The breadth of this joimt at its articulation with the preceding one
is 7°3 mm., and at its broadest, which is 15 mm. along it, it measures 11 mm.
The surface of the limb is covered with a punctate rather than scale-like marking.
The marks are of two distinct sizes, the larger ones being distributed evenly at some
little distance from each other, the space between them being occupied by the smaller
ones.
Traces of another limb, which must have equalled this one in breadth, are seen
immediately in front of it at the side of the carapace, but they are too indistinct to
admit of description.
A small specimen (fig. 17) showing portions of the 8rd to 8th segments, with the
whole of the 9th to 12th, and the telson, appears from the markings to belong to this
species. The body in this specimen tapers rapidly to the 9th segment, and then more
gradually to the 12th, the last four segments increasing in length as they diminish in
width. The size of the segments, so far as it could be ascertained, is as follows :—
3rd segment.
4th ,, : : 3?mm. long. . ; 2mm, wide.
5th» «4, ‘ ; 3 Be 2 a
6th =, ; : D5: Aes 2 as
7th a 2 4 2 x
Sth % 2 be 2 Py
Sth J, 3 - 9 .
10th. * 3 - 8 a
Tith 4 s We Pots
12th ; ; Bip Fs. 5
Telson ’ pf ET 3
The 12th segment is a truncated cone, narrowing from 5°5 mm. to 4°5 mm.
UPPER SILURIAN ROCKS OF THE PENTLAND HILLS. 161
The telson tapers regularly to a sharp point. The posterior portion of it is angular,
with a sharp median ridge, but anteriorly this ridge expands into a flat triangular area.
The proportion of this specimen to the one described above is roughly as 1 to 3,
which would make the telson of the latter some 51 mm. in length and 9 mm. in breadth.
If these posterior segments belong to Drepanopterus, they present a very close
resemblance to those of some Eurypterids. The shape of the limb, however, and the
proportions of the carapace, seem to me sufficiently distinctive to justify the formation
of a fresh genus for the reception of this form. This genus would, as Mr Prac first
suggested to me, occupy a position between Eurypterus and Stylonurus. The form it
most nearly approaches in the shape of the appendage is that described by HaLu* as a
sub-genus of Hurypterus, under the name of Dolichopterus. Some specimens in Mr
Harpy’s collection will, I think, throw further light on the structure of this form.
DESCRIPTION OF FIGURES.
Puate I.
Fig. 1. Portions of the carapace and anterior body segments of Stylonurus ornatus, x 4.
Fig. 2. Posterior segments of the same species. x d..
Fig. 3. Portions of the ventral surface of the carapace, natural size, to show the sculpture.
Fig. 4. Portion of the sculpture on the ventral surface, probably of the abdominal appendages, nat. size.
Fig. 5. Outline of central lobe of genital plate. nat. size.
Fig. 6. One of the elongated limbs. nat. size,
Fig. 6a. Two joints of the same limb from the other half of the slab, to show the crenulated margin.
Fig. 7. Outline of the metastoma and ectognath. nat. size.
Fig. 8. Detached telson probably belonging to this species. x 1.
Puate II.
Fig. 9. Cast of the most perfect specimen of Stylonurus macrophthalmus. n. sp., nat. size.
Fig. 10. Carapace of the same specimen from the other half of the slab. nat. size.
Fig. 11. Telson of St. macrophthalmus. nat. size.
Fig. 12. Hurypterus conicus. nat. size.
Fig, 13. Outline of metastoma of Z. conicus.
Prats III.
Fig. 14. Hurypterus conicus. nat. size.
Fig. 15. £. cyclophthalmus. nat. size,
Fig. 16. Drepanopterus pentlandicus, carapace and greater part of body, with one limb. nat. size.
Fig. 17. Posterior segments and telson of a smaller specimen of D. pentlandicus. nat. size,
* Paleontology of New York, vol. iii. p. 414.
—
Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin’, Vol. XXXVII.
MS MALCOLM LAURIE ON EURIPTERIDS OF PENTLANDS.—— Prate 1.
M‘Farlane & Erskine, Lith"* Edin™
‘Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin®, Vol. AXXVIL.
M2 MALCOLM LAURIE ON EURIPTERIDS OF PENTLANDS.— Prare II.
2
Fig. 13.
i ‘
} rie, delt M‘Farlane & Erskine Lith"? Edin
ve
Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin? Vol. XXXVIL.
MS MALCOLM LAURIE ON EURIPTERIDS OF FENRIS ===" Pisa III.
Pee ieee
5 nt
M'Farlane & Erskine, Lith™® Edint
renee 3)
XI.—On Borolamte—an Igneous Rock intrusive in the Cambrian Limestone of Assynt,
Sutherlandshire, and the Torridon Sandstone of Ross-shire. By J. Horns, F.R.S.E.,
Sigeded H.. Harn, HR.S., of the Geological Survey. (Communicated by
permission of the Director-General of the Geological Survey.) (With a Plate.)
(Read 21st May 1892.)
: CONTENTS.
| PAGE PAGE
I. Previous References to the Igneous Rocks 1. Physical relations of this intrusive mass,
associated with the Torridon Sandstone and and area of distribution, . : 167
Cambrian Strata in Assynt, . : 163 2, Summary of the evidence regarding the
II. Physical Relations of the Igneous Rocks “ite geological relations of the mass, . 170
sive in the Torridon Sandstone and Cambrian 3. Area of the prevalent granitic type of
Strata, . : : : ; : . 166 Cnoc-na-Sroine, ; 170
1. Evidence in favour of their being intru- 4, Area of the group of rocks included
sive sheets, . : < é . 166 under Borolanite, . : : . 170
2. Horizons, . . ! 4 . 167 | LV. Petrological Description of Borolanite, . 5 W7al
3. Area of disorihations’ ‘ : ‘ aL Gi 1. Macroscopic characters of the rocks, . 171
4, Date of intrusion, : 167 2. Description of the minerals, . : a Le
| IIL. Intrusive Mass of Cnoe-na-Srdine, Tech Bigrolant } 43, Microscopic characters of the rocks, , 175
and Ruighe Cnoc, . : : : : ~ L167 4, Affinities of Borolanite, . : : ee liig
The remarkable development of igneous rocks associated with the Torridon
sandstone and Cambrian strata in Assynt, Sutherlandshire, forms one of the striking
geological features of that region. In the various papers descriptive of the ancient
| sedimentary formations of the North-West Highlands by former observers, references are
‘made to the lithological characters of these crystalline rocks and to their mode of
occurrence.
I. Previous References to the Igneous Rocks associated with the Torridon Sandstone and
Cambrian Strata in Assynt.
In 1856, Professor Nicou, in his paper ‘‘ On the Red Sandstone and Conglomerate,
and the Superposed Quartz-rocks, Limestones and Gneiss of the North-West Coast of
Scotland,” notes the occurrence of a bed of greenstone in the cliff of limestone to the
south of the Inn at Inchnadamff.* He further states that in the area to the east of
Ledmore, the relation of the quartzite to the gneiss bounding it on its eastern side was
jnot visible on the line followed by him, as a mass of red felspar porphyry intervenes
near Loch Borolan.
In 1858, Sir RopERrtck Murcuison, in his paper “On the Succession of the Older
Rocks of the Northernmost Counties of Scotland, with some observations on the Orkney
and Shetland Islands,” refers to the band of red porphyry with large crystals of felspar,
detected by Mr C. W. Prac and traced by him round the flank of Canisp, which is
there interposed between the gneiss and the Torridon sandstone.t
* Q. J. G. Soc., vol. xiii. p. 25. + Q. J. G. Soc., vol. xv. p. 365.
VOL. XXXVII. PART I. (NO. 11): 2C
164 MR J. HORNE AND MR J. J. H. TEALL ON BOROLANITE.
Again, in 1859, Murcuison called attention to a band of syenitic greenstone,
intercalated in the grey limestones at the bend of the road about a mile west from
Inchnadamff. He states that it is from 40 to 50 feet thick, and as regularly bedded as
the limestone both above and below it, though on examination it is seen to be a true
igneous rock, containing crystals of hornblende with felspar and quartz. The indica-
tions of contact alteration produced by this igneous mass had evidently attracted his
attention, for he notes that the limestone above the igneous rock is more altered than
that which lies beneath it, being in parts a crystalline marble.*
In his brief summary of the igneous rocks of Sutherland, in the same communication,
Morcuison refers to an igneous rock of felspathic character, with some varieties, which,
though termed porphyries, are rather syenites, breaking through the quartz-rocks far
above the limestone of Assynt. These rocks spread out into large masses in the tract
to the east of Assynt, which is traversed by the road to Oykel Bridge.t
In 1860, Professor Nico announced that, in the course of the previous year, he had
observed that the Canisp porphyry not only breaks through the quartzite overlying the
Torridon sandstone, but forms a mass more than a mile in diameter in the quartzite
within a few hundred yards of the Inn at Inchnadamff. From these facts he inferred
that the igneous intrusions must have been later than either the red sandstone (Torridon)
or quartzite.t
In 1882, Mr Hupp.exston referred to some of these igneous rocks in the Cambrian
strata of Assynt, describing them as “a kind of diorite.”
In his various papers published in the Mineralogical Magazine from 1881 to 1884,
Professor HrppLE gave the results of his detailed examination of these rocks. He
indicates the distribution of the Canisp porphyry, and speaks of it as one of the
most striking porphyries of Scotland. He describes it as a structureless paste of a buff
or dull brown colour, studded with crystals of a bright brick-red colour, commingled with
others of a pale yellow ochre tint and with minuter ones of a dark green. He notes the
occurrence of porphyritic crystals of orthoclase with albite and augite in the rock.§
Regarding the igneous rocks in the quartzites and dolomite in the neighbourhood of
Inchnadamff, he refers to their distribution, and points out some of the lithological
varieties, from the Canisp porphyry to the more basic types found in the limestone, in
which hornblende is more abundant. Special reference is made to the remarkable
“red porphyry” of Loch Borolan, and to the large area which it occupies from Ledbeg
eastwards towards Kinlochailsh.** He takes exception to the name given to the rock of
this hilly region, because no true porphyritic structure can be seen in it; it has two
ingredients, felspar and quartz, the former showing traces of crystalline form while the
latter is frequently altogether absent. He defines the rock as a mass of agglutinated
granules of a more or less brilliant red felspar. While indicating the localities of the
* Q. J. G. Soc., vol. xvi. p. 221. § Min. Mag., vol. iv. p. 233 et seq.
+ Q. J. G. Soc., vol. xvi. p, 232. | Min. Mag., vol. v. pp. 136 to 144.
t Q. J. G. Soc., vol. xvii. p. 99. ** Min. Mag., vol. v. p. 144 and p. 295 et seq.
MR J. HORNE AND MR J. J. H. TEALL ON BOROLANITE. 165
marbles, he noted the important fact that they were all more or less adjacent to the
mass of red felspar rock on Cnoc-na-Srdine or its branches, and he further made the im-
portant deduction that the marble is merely a portion of the limestone series of
Assynt.* But while giving weight to these observations, he was inclined to the opinion
that the red rock of Cnoc-na-Srdine is a mere variety of the ‘“‘ Logan Rock.”
Near the south-western limit of the Cnoc-na-Srdine mass Professor HepDLE observed a
rock on the east bank of the Ledbeg River, at the bridge on the road leading to Elphin,
about which he makes the following statement. The rock ‘‘is highly characteristic,
though its characteristic features are possibly due to a modification of pseudomorphic
alteration. In structure it resembles the westerly dull-red bed of ‘Logan,’ but it
has a brown colour blotched with dull greenish-grey. It has a waxy lustre, is trans-
lucent, and the greater part of it cuts easily with the knife. It consists of a muddy dull
red felspar, in rude crystals, embedded in a substance which is identical in appearance
with the pseudophite from Plaben Budweis.” t
Again, to the east of Aultivullin and Loch Am Meallan, he was impressed with the
peculiar features of the rocks forming the main mass of borolanite. He observes that they
are “in appearance intermediate between that of Cnoc-na-Srdine and the ‘ Logan Rock,’
with here and there a great resemblance to the rock seen at the Bridge of Ledbeg; at
other points there is some slight resemblance to an igneous rock, ‘The rock of the east
end of the hill is again like ‘ Logan,’ of a red hue, and a grey-brown labradorite-like
bed is the last seen.” {
In 1883, Dr CaLtnaway made brief allusion to some of the igneous rocks in the
Assynt series, referring more particularly to the Loch Ailsh group, extending from
Ledmore to the gap south of Loch Ailsh. While noting the granitoid texture which is
characteristic of this mass, he called attention to an exceptional garnetiferous variety
occurring to the east of Loch Borolan, on the slope north of the road.§ In the appendix
to this paper, Professor Bonney describes the microscopic characters of a few specimens
of these igneous rocks, collected by Dr Catuaway.{! Regarding the exceptional garneti-
ferous variety, he states that it is ‘a most perplexing rock. In theslide a fair quantity
of black mica is at once recognised, and a number of subtranslucent sap brown garnets,
the larger (being the less regularly formed), including flakes of mica, &..... The
ground of the slide appears to consist partly of a felspar, in patches of a most irregular
form (with perhaps a little quartz), and a mineral which occurs in rather wavy bunches,
like tufts of long thread or rootlets, or a kind of ‘canal system.’ It seems to have re-
placed the felspar, and may be one of the fibrolite group.”
One of the dykes in the Traligill Burn near Inchnadamff is described by Professor
Bonney as a hornblende porphyrite.
In 1886, one of the authors of this paper published notes on some hornblende-bearing
rocks from Inchnadamff, containing a description of the rocks and the characters of the
* Min. Maq., vol. v. p. 274. + Mineralog. Mag., vol. v. p. 294. t Mineralog. Mag., vol. v. p. 295.
§ Q. J. G. Soc., vol. xxxix. p. 409. WT Q. J. G. Soc., vol. xxxix. p. 420.
166 MR J. HORNE AND MR J. J. H. TEALL ON BOROLANITE.
rock-forming minerals.* He indicated some of the remarkable lithological varieties of
these intrusive rocks, and gave analyses of three specimens, viz. :—1. Hornblende porphy-
rite, intrusive in quartzite ; 2. Porphyritic diorite ; 3. Plagioclase—pyroxene—hornblende
rock near Inchnadamff, intrusive in limestone. The last, which is the most basic, differs
from the others in containing a large amount of colourless pyroxene. The author suggested
that “in all probability the pyroxene is a nearly pure lime-magnesia bisilicate, and one is
tempted, therefore, to ask whether it may not be due to the absorption by the igneous magma
of a certain amount of the dolomitic limestone into which the rock has been intruded.”
In 1888, in the report on the recent work of the Geological Survey in the North- —
West Highlands of Scotland, special reference was made to the intrusive igneous rocks
associated with the Torridon sandstone and Cambrian strata in Assynt, brief descriptions
being given of the geological features which they present in the field. t
II. Physical Relations of the Igneous Rocks intrusive in the Torridon Sandstone and
Cambrian Strata.
1. Before proceeding to the description of the particular group of rocks that form the
subject of this communication, it may be desirable to refer generally to the physical
relations which the igneous materials, as a whole, present in the field. Perhaps their
most characteristic feature is their occurrence in the form of intrusive sheets injected
along the planes of bedding of the sedimentary strata. The remarkable parallelism of
the igneous bands, varying in thickness as a rule from 10 to 50 feet, and the manner in
which they cling to the same horizon for considerable distances, have led one or two
observers to the conclusion that they are contemporaneous lava flows. But acareful exam-
ination of the physical relations of these igneous rocks reveals certain phenomena which
are characteristic of intrusive sheets. First, when the igneous bands are traced along
the line of outcrop, they pass transgressively from lower to higher members of the same
group, and occasionally plunge downwards into a lower platform. A striking example of
these phenomena is to be found on the western face of Canisp, where a mass of porphy-
ritic felsite rises from the old platform of Archean gneiss, passing upwards into the
overlying Torridon sandstone and eventually spreading along the bedding planes. Second,
where the sheets reach a considerable thickness, both the overlying and underlying
strata are altered by contact metamorphism. ‘The zone of marble surrounding the great
igneous mass to the east of Ledbeg admirably illustrates this local metamorphism, and
even in the case of the thinner sheets, the quartzites are hardened and welded to the
igneous rock. Third, there isa marked absence of cellular structure in the various types
of igneous materials. Fourth, they occasionally contain fragments of the sedimentary
rocks which they traverse.
* Notes on some hornblende-bearing rocks from Inchnadamff. J. J. H. Teall, Geol. Mag., 1886, p. 346.
+ “Report on the Recent Work of the Geological Survey in the North-West Highlands of Scotland, based on the
Field Notes and Maps of Messrs B. N. Peacu ; J. Horne ; W. Gunn; C. T. Crover ; L. Hinxmanand H. M, Cavett,”
Q. J. G. Soc., xliv. p. 378.
MR J. HORNE AND MR J. J. H. TEALL ON BOROLANITE. 167
2. The detailed mapping of the region has also shown that these igneous intercala-
tions are more or less confined to certain definite horizons in the sedimentary strata.
Several sheets are interleaved in the Torridon sandstone, which rests unconformably on
the eroded platform of Archean gneiss, while in the overlying Cambrian strata, two
occur in the basal quartzites, two in the “ Pipe-Rock,” one in the “ Fucoid Beds,” two in
the lowest group of limestone, and one in the succeeding group of Hilean Dubh limestone.
These intrusive masses are not always traceable, some of the bands being much more con-
stant than others, but in the area surrounding Inchnadamff they are typically developed.
3. It is rather remarkable that this outbreak of volcanic activity in these ancient
sedimentary systems is comparativelylocal, for though the Torridon sandstone and the
overlying Cambrian strata can be traced continuously for a distance of 90 miles across the
counties of Sutherland and Ross, the igneous rocks are confined to a limited portion of
this belt. In the area lying to the west of the post-Cambrian terrestrial movements,
they extend from Loch Assynt to near Elphin—a distance of about nine miles, but in the
region affected by these movements they stretch from Glencoul to Ullapool—a distance
of 24 miles. Originally they must have penetrated far to the east, for they are
carried westwards with the associated sedimentary strata along the higher thrust-planes.
4, From the fact that the intrusive sheets are truncated by the numerous thrusts or
lines of displacement traversing the region, it is obvious that the period of volcanic activity
to which they belong is later than the Cambrian limestone of Durness and older than
the post-Cambrian movements.
Ill. Intrusive Mass of Cnoc-na-Srdine, Loch Borolan, and Ruighe Cnoc.
1. In the southern portion of Assynt, there is a remarkable development of these in-
trusive igneous rocks, covering an extensive area from Ledbeg eastwards to a point near
the road leading to Loch Ailsh—a distance of 5 miles. They can also be traced from
the peat-clad moor south-east of Loch Borolan northwards to the slopes of Sgonnan
Mor. The particular group of rocks which are specially described in this paper are
associated with this great intrusive mass.*
The relations of this extensive series of igneous rocks to the surrounding strata are of
special interest and in the neighbourhood of Ledbeg and Ledmore are rather complicated.
_ In the latter region there are various outliers of materials lying above the Ben More
thrust-plane, originally continuous but now occurring in isolated patches, which cover
alike portions of the igneous rocks and the adjacent marble. Notwithstanding these
complications, there are several sections defining the limits of the intrusive rocks and
their relations to the altered Cambrian limestone.
Between Ledbeg and the road leading to Loch Ailsh the eruptive rocks form a range
of hilly ground rising to a height of 1305 feet in Cnoc-na-Srdine. From Loch Borolan to
* The description of the physical relations of this intrusive mass may be more readily followed by referring to Sheet
101 (one-inch) of the Geological Survey Map of Scotland.
168 MR J. HORNE AND MR J. J. H. TEALL ON BOROLANITE,
Ledbeg they have been so denuded as to present a prominent escarpment skirting the
road leading to Inchnadamff. But this conspicuous crag is by no means the western
limit of the mass.
Ascending the Ledbeg River from the point where it joins the Ledmore River,
8 of a mile east of Cama Loch, the coarse granitic rock is exposed at various points
in the stream section. About 70 yards to the south of Ledbeg Cottage the marble is
visible, and further up the stream, at the ford leading to the cottage, the basal bands of
the Durness limestone are met with in a highly altered form. A few yards to the west
of the river, and immediately to the north of the cottage, one of the bands of serpulite
limestone at the base of the Grudaidh group is clearly recognisable, though considerably
metamorphosed. Returning to the river, and following the section to a point about 200
yards above the footbridge, there are several excellent exposures of the granitic rock
penetrating the marble on both banks of the stream. Indeed the site of the old quarry
where the marble was formerly wrought is close by this locality, being situated a few yards
to the east of the river and near the road to Inchnadamff. The evidence that the marble
is merely an altered portion of the Durness limestone is still further strengthened by the
occurrence of recognisable bands of the basal limestone in an altered form, in a tributary
of the Ledbeg River, about 500 yards to the north of Ledbeg Cottage. Our colleague,
Mr Peacz, who mapped this portion of the Ledbeg River, has traced the marble at
intervals from Ledbeg westwards to a point high up on the slope of Cnoc-an-Leathaid-
Beg, where it is associated with the pink granitic rock. At the latter locality the
marble and the intrusive granitoid rock are alike buried underneath the basal quartzites
and the “ Pipe-Rock,” resting unconformably on a slice of Lewisian gneiss. These
materials form an outlier separated by denudation from the displaced masses lying
above the Ben More thrust-plane.
On the south side of the Ledbeg River, due south of the shepherd’s house at Loyne, there
is another small outlier of shattered basal quartzite, separated by a powerful thrust-plane
from the underlying materials. Measuring about 700 yards in length and about 400
yards in breadth, these displaced quartzites rest partly on thrust “ Fucoid Beds,”
serpulite grit and basal limestone, and partly on the marble. Along the eastern limit of
this outlier a line of swallow holes can be traced, and the marble is visible in a
conspicuous grassy patch of ground adjoining the basal quartzites about 500 yards to the
south of the river. Crossing the flat peat-covered ground to the south of this exposure,
the marble is again seen in a small rocky knoll within 50 yards of the boundary line of
the granitic mass of Cnoc-na-Srdine. From the latter point the boundary line of the
igneous rocks sweeps eastwards along the southern slope of the valley to the base of
Ruighe Cnoc, where there is a fine escarpment of the pink granitic rock. For most
of this distance the junction of the intrusive mass with the thrust Cambrian strata is
buried under peat and drift.
But on the north side of the valley, about 150 yards to the north-east of the Loyne
shepherd’s house, there is a detached mass of the pink orthoclase rock of Cnoc-na-Srdine in
MR J. HORNE AND MR J. J. H.. TEALL ON BOROLANITE. 169
immediate contact with the marble. ‘An excellent section of the igneous rock is exposed
in a small tributary of the Ledbeg River, showing the intrusive mass penetrating the
marble. The altered limestone can be traced from the northern limit of this igneous rock
for a distance of about 150 yards to the base of Ben Fuarain, where it is covered by
crushed Torridon sandstone. Here again a gradual passage is observable from the white
crystalline marble into the white limestone of the Eilean Dubh group. The crushed and
shattered Torridon sandstone, overlying the marble and unaltered Durness limestone,
rests unconformably on Lewisian gneiss, and both are covered in turn by the basal
quartzites and a small portion of the “ Pipe-Rock.” All these materials, viz., the gneiss,
the Torridon sandstone and Cambrian quartzites, are separated from the underlying
limestone by a complete discordance. They form one of the most interesting of the
numerous outliers of displaced materials resting above the Ben More thrust-plane.
Proceeding to the south-west slope of Sgonnan Mor, several sections of special interest
are met with, revealing the relations of the igneous mass to the surrounding strata. On
this declivity four small streams unite to form an important tributary of the Ledbeg
River at Luban Croma. In each of these burns the intrusive rock is visible, and in the
two most northerly there are excellent sections showing peculiar types of the igneous
mass penetrating the marble between the 1000 feet and 1250 feet contour lines. Not far
above this level, both the marble and the intrusive rock are abruptly truncated by the
Ben More thrust-plane bringing forward a slice of Archzean rocks covered unconformably
by the Torridon sandstone and Cambrian strata. On the south-west slope of this
mountain, the Torridon flags, shales and grits overlie in inverted order the igneous rock
and the marble, for as we ascend the slope the strata have a persistent easterly dip till
we reach the coarse conglomerate at the base of the Torridon sandstone, in contact with
the overlying Lewisian gneiss and its basic dykes.
The ground between Sgonnan Mor and Kinloch Ailsh has not been surveyed in
detail, but from certain traverses across the area it seems apparent that the intrusive
igneous rocks reappear at certain localities with the displaced materials overlying the Ben
More thrust-plane.
In the neighbourhood of Strathsheaskich near Loch Ailsh the eastern limit of the
intrusive mass can be approximately defined by means of rocky knolls projecting through
the peat and drift. It is bounded by massive white marble, apparently resting on the
igneous rock, and dipping towards the east at angles varying from 30° to 70°. This
junction line can be traced through the gap, close by the Kinloch Ailsh road to the
high road leading to Inchnadamff.
The southern limit of this great intrusive mass is to a large extent obscured by the
extensive covering of peat stretching continuously from the Kinloch Ailsh road westwards
| to Loch Urigill and Ledmore. But occasional exposures of rock are to be found in the
streams cutting through the peat and drift. It extends far to the south of the road
_ between Loch Borolan and Aultivullin, for it is visible in small burn sections about three-
quarters of a mile due south of Aultivullin. Here again it is overlapped by the Cambrian
_<-——<— —- .. oo
lt aan ae
170 MR J. HORNE AND MR J. J. .H.. TEALL ON BOROLANITE.
quartzites and Lewisian gneiss lying above the Ben More thrust-plane. The marble is
found along the north-east shore of Loch Urigill, about a mile to the south of Loch
Borolan, and it is therefore probable that the igneous mass extends for some distance
southwards from the latter loch.
Exeellent sections are visible along the banks of the Ledmore River from Loch
Borolan to the point where it is joined by the Ledbeg tributary. Immediately to the
south of the junction of these two streams there are small exposures of those peculiar
types of the igneous rocks, which are specially described in this paper, laid bare by the
denudation of the adjacent quartzites and gneiss overlying the Ben More thrust-plane.
2. Summarising the foregoing evidence regarding the physical relations of the
great Loch Borolan igneous mass, it is evident (1) that a zone of crystalline marble can
be traced for long distances in immediate contact with or close to the eruptive rock, (2)
that a gradual passage can be followed at certain localities from the marble into
recognisable bands of the Durness limestone, (3) that on the slopes of Sgonnan Mor and
again at Cnoc-na-Glas-Choille the intrusive mass is truncated by the main outcrop of
the Ben More thrust-plane, (4) that in the neighbourhood of Ledmore, Ledbeg and Loyne,
outliers of the materials overlying the Ben More thrust-plane cover portions of the
intrusive rock and the altered Cambrian strata, (5) that from the apparent superposition
of the marble along the eastern limit of the igneous mass, it is not improbable that the
latter may resemble the other intrusive sills in Assynt, and may have been originally —
injected as a great sheet along the bedding planes.
3. Throughout this extensive area, there are striking lithological differences in the |
character of the eruptive rocks. The prevalent type in the western portion of the mass
along the ridge extending from Cnoc-na-Srdine eastwards to Lochan Sgeirach is a coarse
granitic rock consisting mainly of orthoclase with a little quartz. Occasionally large
porphyritic crystals of orthoclase are developed and mica is sometimes present,
4, But immediately to the east of Loch Borolan, and about three-quarters of a mile
to the east of Aultnacallagach Inn, the rock assumes a different phase. Dark brown and
black garnets are associated with the orthoclase and a peculiar blue mineral to be
referred to presently. The rock is massive, of a greyish or pink tint, unfoliated, and
effervesces freely with acid. This type is well developed on the rocky knolls to the
north of the road on the slope named Am Meallan on the 6-inch Ordnance Map.
Not far to the east of this locality there is a small stream (Aultivullin) draining
Loch-a-Mheallain and flowing southwards into the Allt Lon Dubh, situated about a mile
and a half to the east of Aultnacallagach Inn. Another striking variety is exposed in
this burn section above the waterfall. This type is distinctly foliated, with white knots
and abundant black garnets set in a dark grey matrix. The dip of the foliation planes
is towards the east at an angle of 15°. On the hill slope to the east of this stream and
Loch-a-Mheallain this foliated variety of borolanite is conspicuously developed, but the
foliation disappears as we pass eastwards towards the limit of the mass. Following the
high road from Aultivullin for about half a mile to the east of that locality, the unfoliated
— ee hc
MR J. HORNE AND MR J. J. H. TEALL ON BOROLANITE. 171
type of this rock is exposed in knolls by the side of a small stream. ‘The rock is dark
erey, with abundant white knots and black garnets, effervescing very freely with acid.
The foliated and unfoliated varieties just referred to are traceable at intervals in the
_ stream sections to the south of Aultivullin as far as the slope of Cnoc-na-Glas-Choille.
:
}
These exceptional varieties to which special attention is called in this paper have been
traced across an area upwards of two miles in length from Loch-a-Mheallain to Cnoc-na-
Glas-Choille, and about a mile in breadth from east to west.
But, in addition to these localities, abnormal types which will be referred to on a
subsequent page occur not far to the south of the junction of the Ledmore and Ledbeg
Rivers, and also at the base of the north-west slope of Cnoc-na-Sroine. At the latter
locality it forms the margin of the igneous mass, and the marble occurs not far distant
on the south bank of the Ledbeg River, about half a mile to the east of the Loyne
shepherd’s house.
But perhaps the most interesting sections showing the relation of this peculiar
type of rock with the pink and white knots to the marble, occur in the small streams on
the south-west slope of Sgonnan Mor.
-
IV. Petrological Description of Borolanite.
1. The prevailing type is a medium-grained rock of a dark grey colour. It frequently
contains whitish or pinkish patches, usually more or less spherical or ellipsoidal in form,
but occasionally showing polyhedral boun-
daries. These patches vary considerably in
size. The smallest are only just distinctly
visible to the naked eye ; the largest measure
an inch or more across. They also vary con-
siderably in relative abundance. -Sometimes
they are absent altogether, whereas at other
times the main mass of the rock is composed
of them. The general appearance of a
polished surface is represented in fig. 1.
Where the rock has been subjected to
deformation during or subsequent to consoli-
dation, the white patches take the form of lenticles or streaks, as may be seen in fig. 2.
2. The principal interest of these rocks centres in their peculiar mineralogical
composition. The dominant constituents are orthoclase, plagioclase, a substance which
gelatinises with hydrochloric acid, melanite, pyroxene and biotite. The small black
spots seen in fig. 1 are due to the garnet. Apatite, sphene and iron ores occur as
accessory constituents. The secondary products include a peculiar blue substance which
is probably an alteration product after a mineral of the sodalite group, white mica and
possibly calcite. Many of the specimens effervesce freely with acid, but this is probably
VOL. XXXVII. PART I, (NO. 11). 2D
Fic. 1.—About Two-thirds Natural Size.
|
j
SS
172 MR J. HORNE AND MR J. J. H. TEALL ON BOROLANITE.
due rather to the introduction of carbonates from the surrounding limestone than to their
development by the decomposition of the rock.
Nepheline almost certainly occurred as an original constituent of some varieties, but
is now only represented by decomposition products. Wollastonite is present as the
principal constituent of certain inclusions occurring in a specimen from the south side
of Sgonnan Mor.
Orthoclase enters largely into the composition of all the rocks, and is found also in
certain veins. Tested by Szazo’s method, the felspar of the rock appears to be identical
with that of the ves. The flame-reaction is that of an orthoclase fairly rich in soda,
Fic. 2,—About Half Natural Size.
The specific gravity is about 2°52. The felspar of the veins is of a purplish-brown colour,
and the individuals often measure an inch across. The two cleavages are easily
recognisable, but the basal cleavage is much the more perfect of the two. The reflections
from the basal cleavages are bright, those from the clino-pinacoid dull. The individuals
are tabular, with conspicuous development of the clino-pinacoid. Flakes parallel to
M {010} give extinction angles of 6° or 7° referred to the trace of the P {001} cleavage.
Those parallel to P sometimes give straight extinction and sometimes an indefinite
extinction due to different portions extinguishing in slightly different positions. In the
M-flakes the emergence of a positive bisectrix is seen in convergent light, and the
position of the optic axial plane can be proved to be that of normal orthoclase. The
twinning, when it occurs, is on the Carlsbad plan. In the massive varieties the
orthoclase occurs, as a rule, in large, allotriomorphic grains, forming, as it were, the
groundmass of the rock, the other minerals being present in it as inclusions. In the
foliated varieties it forms granulitic aggregates. Orthoclase forms a large portion of the
white spots, where it is often micro-pegmatitically intergrown with a substance which is
probably an alteration product after nepheline.
Striated or plagioclase felspar is comparatively scarce and is entirely absent from
many varieties. It occurs as small irregular grains between large individuals of
orthoclase, as grains in association with similar grains of orthoclase, and also as a
MR J. HORNE AND MR J. J. H..TEALL ON BOROLANITE, 173
constituent of microperthite. In one specimen fairly large individuals without any
very definite crystallographic boundaries were observed in a fine-grained groundmass of
biotite and orthoclase.
Next to orthoclase, melanite is the most important constituent of these singular rocks.
It is black, and possesses, when broken, a somewhat resinous lustre. Good crystalline
form is absent, as a rule, but perfect little crystals may occasionally be observed. The
dominant form is the rhombic dodecahedron {110}. The edges of this form are
sometimes truncated by those of the icosi-tetrahedron {211}, exactly as is the case in the
well-known melanite from Frascati. The mineral fuses in the flame of the blow-pipe
to a black glass which is slightly magnetic. In thin sections the colour of the
melanite is seen to vary from a pale to a deep brown (see fig. 1, Pl. XXXVII.). The central
parts of an individual are sometimes more deeply coloured than the marginal parts,
and sometimes the reverse relation may be observed. The borders of the differently
tinted portions may correspond to the crystallographic outline of the individual, thus
producing true zonal structure, or they may be irregular.
The individuals vary in size from very small grains, only (05 mm. in diameter, to
large crystals or irregular masses measuring 1 or 2 mm. across. Melanite is both
idiomorphic and allotriomorphic with respect to felspar. Iron-ores, sphene and biotite
occur as inclusions.
The biotite appears black when viewed macroscopically. Cleavage flakes, examined
with the microscope, appear a dull dark green by transmitted light, and are nearly
uniaxial. Thin sections at right angles to the principal cleavage change from dark green
to yellowish brown as the stage is rotated over the polariser. The individuals vary
considerably in size and are generally irregular in form. The larger flakes are often
corrugated. Pyroxene, iron-ores, garnet and occasionally felspar, occur as inclusions.
The pyroxene is green both by reflected and transmitted light. It is quite
subordinate in quantity, as a rule, to the orthoclase and melanite. In one specimen from
the north-west slopes of Cnoc-na-Srdine and in another from the burn close to the marble
at Ledbeg it occurs abundantly, and makes with felspar the bulk of the rock. Melanite
is absent from these specimens. As a rule, the mineral is without any very definite
erystalline form, but sometimes the individuals are elongated in the direction of the
vertical axis and more or less idiomorphic in the prismatic zone. The forms recognisable
are {110}, {010} and {100}. The prismatic faces {110} are not uniformly developed in
the different crystals ; sometimes they appear only as slight truncations and sometimes they
are developed almost to the exclusion of the clino-pinacoid. The ortho-pinacoid is always
conspicuous when any trace of form is present. As already stated, the mineral appears
green in thin sections, but the tint is not uniform—the marginal portions being often
more deeply coloured than the central parts.’ There is also a faint pleochroism. The
least axis of elasticity makes an angle of about 40° with the vertical axis of the crystal.
All the above characters agree with those of pyroxenes known to occur in nepheline-
bearing rocks. Magnetite and apatite are present as inclusions.
174 MR J. HORNE AND MR J. J. H. TEALL ON BOROLANITE.
Sphene is by no means uniformly distributed in the different varieties. In the,
specimen from the north-west slopes of Cnoc-na-Srdine, to which reference has already
been made, it occurs in large ophitie plates which are allotriomorphic with respect to
felspar and pyroxene. In the melanite-bearing rocks sphene is frequently present in
the form of minute (‘03 x ‘07 mm.) and often spindle-shaped granules. These granules
are found only in the garnet. They sometimes occur so abundantly as to leave scarcely
any of the isotropic garnet-substance between them in the thin sections. At other times
they are entirely absent. That they are sphene is proved by the fact that they possess
the refraction, double-refraction, colour, pleochroism and dispersion of this mineral.
Apatite is present in the form of stout hexagonal prisms. It is always perfectly
fresh, and may occur as inclusions in any of the other constituents. In one exceptional
specimen from the burn at Ledmore it is present in great abundance. This specimen is
a black, coarsely crystalline rock composed of pyroxene, melanite and apatite, with a
little biotite and pyrite.
Magnetite is sparingly present in many of the rocks. It occurs as grains which may
be readily extracted from the powder of the rock by means of a weak magnet.
The felspar of these rocks is frequently associated with a turbid substance giving
indefinite optical characters. In one or two instances this substance shows hexagonal (see
fig. 5, Pl. XX XVII.) and rectangular sections. As arule, it either forms micro-pegmatitic
aggregates with felspar, or occurs in patches with no suggestion of crystalline form. On
treating a slide or a cut surface of the rock with hydrochloric acid, little protuberances of
gelatinous silica mark the distribution of this substance. The acid solution contains
soda in abundance.*
It seems impossible, therefore, to avoid the conclusion that nepheline occurred as an
original constituent of these rocks. This conclusion is strengthened by the fact that
melanite and green pyroxenes are well-known associates of nepheline and leucite.
A peculiar blue substance occurs wedged in between the large individuals of
orthoclase in certain veins, and is found also as a constituent of some of the white spots.
It shows aggregate polarisation, and is decomposed by hydrochloric and sulphuric acids,
with the separation of gelatinous silica and the evolution of bubbles.
After adding water to the hydrochloric acid solution and evaporating slowly, salt and
gypsum crystals are developed—the former in great abundance. A partial analysis was
made on about half a gramme of this substance, with the following result :—
Silica, ’ : . : , ; 36'1
Alumina, ; ; ; 5 ; ; 28°4
Lime, é ; : : i 3°2
Potash, F F ; ; ; ; 18
Soda, i ‘ A ; : 16°2
Sulphuric anhydride, . ; , : 5'9
Sp. Gr., . 2°41-2°43, | 91°6
* Proved by the uranium-acetate test,
MR J. HORNE AND MR J. J. H. TEALL ON BOROLANITE. 175
Water and carbonic acid are present, but were not determined. ‘The reaction of this
substance with acid is suggestive of cancrinite, but the occurrence of sulphuric acid
points to the conclusion that it is an alteration product after a mineral of the sodalite
group.
Wollastonite was found only as a constituent of certain inclusions in a specimen col-
lected on the south side of Sgonnan Mor. These inclusions are of a greenish white colour.
When examined with a lens they are seen to consist mainly of a colourless mineral
having a pearly lustre and a fibrous structure. This mineral is decomposed by hot
hydrochloric acid, and the solution, after the addition of dilute sulphuric acid, yields
gypsum crystals in abundance. Its specific gravity is 2°895. By detaching a small
fragment and crushing it upon a slide, numerous long flat laths are obtained. These
invariably give straight extinction. When examined in convergent polarised light they
fall into two groups :—(a) Those which show the emergence of an optic axis near one
margin of the field of view and that of a bisectrix on the opposite margin; (b) those
which show the emergence of an optic axis nearly in the centre of the field of view.
Observations on flakes of the first group prove that the optie axial plane is at right angles
to the length of the flakes, and that the mimor axis of depolarisation is parallel to the
length. We may, therefore, infer that the acute bisectrix is the least axis of elasticity
and that the double-refraction is positive. All these facts point to the conclusion that
the mineral is wollastonite. The flakes above referred to are determined by the two
dominant cleavages. The straight extinction is a consequence of the fact that the edge
formed by the meeting of the two principal cleavage planes is at right angles to the plane
of symmetry of the monoclinic mineral, and coincident, therefore, with the mean axis of
elasticity. *
The greenish tinge of the aggregates of wollastonite is due to the presence of a large
number of extremely minute granules of green pyroxene. It is interesting to note that
the ageregates of wollastonite from Willsburg, N.Y., U.S.A., also contain grains of a
similar pyroxene.
3. One of the most striking features of these remarkable rocks is the pseudo-porphyritic
aspect due to the white or more rarely pink patches. Under the microscope these
patches are seen to be in all cases aggregates, Orthoelase in the form of allotriomorphic
grains is the principal constituent, but there is generally more or less of the substance or
substances which gelatinise with hydrochloric acid and possess other characters indicating
the former presence of nepheline and sodalite. Muicro-pegmatitic intergrowths of felspar
and the indefinite substance are not uncommon. We are indebted to Professor DeRBy
of Sio Paulo for an interesting suggestion as to the nature of these patches. A
specimen of the rock containing the white patches was given to him, and in writing to
* Particulars as to the means by which wollastonite was identified are given because they do not appear to be
generally employed by petrologists. It is often much easier to identify a mineral by studying the form and optical
characters of the small fragments obtained by crushing than by examining thin sections. A description of the:
ordinary rock-forming minerals from this point of view would be of great service, and anyone who will undertake
the work will confer a benefit on petrologists, ue
176 MR J. HORNE AND MR J. J. H. TEALL ON BOROLANITE.
one of us he says :—“ In preparing a specimen of your melanite rock, I cut through some
of the white aggregates and was struck by the tendency to polyhedral outlines, which is
not apparent on a broken surface but is quite distinct on the plane saw-cut face... ...
This to me is very suggestive of the pseudo-crystals of leucite in some of the related
Brazilian rocks,* and suggests an interesting subject for investigation.” In the same
letter he says that he has found a micro-pegmatitic intergrowth of orthoclase and
nepheline in some of the pseudo-leucites. We have re-examined the whole of the material
at our disposal, but are not able to add anything to what has been stated above. In
addition to the constituents already mentioned as occurring in the white patches, we find
also melanite, calcite and white mica. The melanite, however, is rare. It is always
much less abundant in the patches than in the main mass of the rock.
The matrix in which the white patches are embedded, and the entire rock-mass
when these are absent, are composed of two or more of the constituents already enumerated.
The type rock is essentially composed of orthoclase and melanite. A good idea of its
microscopic character may be obtained from a glance at fig. 1, Plate XX XVII.
As frequently happens when any extensive:mass of plutonic rock is examined there
is considerable variation in the relative proportions of the different constituents, but this
is not sufficient to take away from the orthoclase-melanite combination its dominant
character. As illustrating the extremes of variation which have come under our notice,
we may mention a rock from a point about one mile east of Aultnacallagach which is
mainly composed of large individuals of orthoclase with a small quantity of the peculiar blue
substance wedged in between the more or less idiomorphic crystals of the former mineral;
and one from the burn near Ledmore which consists of pyroxene, melanite, biotite,
apatite and pyrite. One of these varieties consists, therefore, entirely of alumino-alkaline
silicates ; the other almost entirely of ferro-magnesian minerals. The former occurs as a
pegmatitic vein in typical borolanite.
Another exceptional type was obtained on the north-west slopes of Cnoc-na-Srdine.
It is essentially composed of orthoclase and pyroxene ; with biotite, sphene, apatite and the
doubtful substance which gelatinises with hydrochloric acid as subordinate or accessory
constituents.
In the majority of cases the rocks are massive, but in some instances a well-marked
foliation may be observed. {In the foliated varieties the white patches have been
orientated or even pulled out into lenticles and streaks. The movement probably took
place during the final stages of consolidation.
We have, then, a group of rocks especially characterised by the association of
orthoclase and melanite. They are extensively developed in the neighbourhood of Loch
Borolan, and as a new name appears to be required, we propose to call them borolanites,
The typical rock is a crystalline granular aggregate of orthoclase and melanite. Biotite,
pyroxene, alteration products after nepheline and sodalite, sphene and apatite, occur as.
subordinate and variable constituents,
* See “On Nepheline Rocks in Brazil,” Quart. Jour. Geol. Soc., vol. xlvii. (1891), p. 251,
MR J. HORNE AND MR J. J. H. TEALL ON BOROLANITE, 177
4, The affinities of borolanite are unmistakable. It is a member of the foyaite (eleeolite-
syenite) family. The occurrence of melanite as an important accessory in certain rocks
belonging to the nepheline-leucite group has long been recognised. In our rock we have
melanite raised to the rank of an essential constituent. Borolanite, as we have already
shown, is intrusive in the Cambrian rocks of Sutherlandshire. The nearest rocks in any
way allied to it are the elzolite-syenites of the Christiania district, which are also intrusive
in Lower Paleeozoic strata.
APPENDIX.
So far as our own observations go, we have met with borolanite only in the neighbour-
hood of the granitic mass of Cnoc-na-Srdine. Our colleague, Mr Hinxmay, has observed
a patch of borolanite intercalated in the thrust Hilean Dhu limestone at Elphin (Group
II., Durness series, Cambrian). The rock is well exposed at the back of the Weaver's
Cottage, south of the Elphin Schoolhouse ; it is in places highly decomposed, grey, with
white knots and abundant melanite. Our colleague, Mr Gunn, has found dykes of the
same type of rock in the area he has surveyed in West Ross-shire. He has kindly
furnished us with the following note :—“ In the Coigach district of West Ross-shire, about
five miles to the north-west of Achiltibuie, there are found at Camas Hilean Ghlais two
vertical dykes of borolanite intruded into the Torridon sandstone. They run in a general
W.N.W. and E.S.E. direction, and vary considerably in width—the widest one east of
the house being nearly thirty feet across, but further west only about six feet. This,
which is the most southerly of the two, is also the longest, and can be traced for a length
of half a mile or so.”
A hand specimen of the rock is medium-grained, brownish-grey and massive, Lath-
shaped cleavage faces of felspar may be seen with the naked eye. Numerous minute
black specks (melanite), uniformly scattered through the rock, are visible with a pocket
lens.
Under the microscope the rock is seen to be composed of orthoclase, nepheline
(partly fresh and partly altered to a substance giving aggregate polarisation), melanite,
eegirine and biotite. The main mass is an ageregate of orthoclase and nepheline or its
alteration product. Traces of idiomorphism may occasionally be seen in both constituents,
but, as a rule, the outlines of the individuals are not crystallographic faces. Melanite is
scattered through the orthoclase-nepheline aggregate in small crystals of the usual form.
In thin sections the crystals are either pale yellow or very deep brown. Not unfrequently
a pale external zone surrounds a deeply coloured nucleus.
Aigirine occurs in long prisms idiomorphic in the prismatic zone. The prisms are
crowded together in certain portions of the slide, not uniformly scattered through it. This
is the only rock in which we have detected typical egirine. In the other rocks the
corresponding mineral is a green pyroxene with high extinction angles. The biotite
occurs in the form of six-sided tablets. It is nearly opaque in thin sections when
178 MR J. HORNE AND MR J. J. H. TEALL ON BOROLANITE.
viewed by rays vibrating at right angles to the principal axis, and appears a fiery
reddish-brown when viewed by rays vibrating parallel with this axis.
To remove all doubt as to the identification of nepheline, the following analyses were
made :—
Silica, . , : . : : a, : 47°8 47°9 69°3t
Titanic acid, : i n.e.*
Sulphuric acid, A 5 5 : é : 4 n.e.
Alumina, : : : : F ‘ ; 20°1 21°8 ,
Ferric oxide, . i : 3 ; : : 6°7 76+ \ wee
Ferrous oxide, ; ; i ‘ : 3 8 n.e.
Manganic oxide, . ; é F . 5 2) n.e,
Baryta, . ; : d : : : ‘ 8 n.e.
Lime, . : 2 : ; : : : 54 51 39
Magnesia, : : : : : : * At 1:0 3
Soda, . ‘ : ; : : , ‘ 55 56 4°6
Potash, . ‘ é F : ‘ : ; ol 72 17
Loss on Ignition, . : - : 5 . 2°4 2°4 24
99°3 98°6 99°0
I. Bulk analysis of the rock. or this analysis we are indebted to Mr J.
Hort PLAYER.
II. Bulk analysis of another sample, by TEALL.
II]. Analysis of the part soluble in hydrochloric acid from the same sample as No, IL.,
by TEALL.
DESCRIPTION OF THE PLATE.
Fig. 1. Typical borolanite from the north-west slope of Cnoc-na-Sroine. Magnified 33 diameters. Ordinary
light. The minerals represented are melanite, biotite (4) and orthoclase (6), The melanite is seen
to be idiomorphic with respect to orthoclase and biotite. The felspar breaks up, under crossed nicols,
into an aggregate of large irregular grains.
Fig. 2. A rock essentially composed of orthoclase, pyroxene (3) and biotite, from the base of Cnoc-na-Srbine,
Magnified 28 diameters. Ordinary light. This figure illustrates the general character of the pyroxene
which occurs in the borolanite. The other minerals represented are orthoclase and magnetite (1).
Under crossed nicols the individuals of felspar give more or less lath-shaped sections, and are in
almost all cases twinned on the Carlsbad plan,
Fig. 3. Another portion of the same rock, also magnified 28 diameters. Sphene (2), pyroxene, biotite and
felspar are represented. The sphene forms a large ophitic plate, all parts of which belong to one
crystalline individual.
Fig. 4. Portion of one of the white patches occurring in typical borolanite, One mile east of Aultnacallagach.
This figure illustrates the peculiar micro-pegmatitic structure (8) referred to in the text.
Fig. 5. The rock is similar to the one represented in figs. 2 and 3. It does not contain melanite. A portion
of a large crystal of sphene is represented at the top of the figure. The other minerals are green
pyroxene, felspar and pseudomorphs after idiomorphic nepheline (7) ? )
* Not estimated. + Total iron reckoned as ferric oxide. { Silica and insoluble residue.
Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin? Vol. XXXVII.
MSFarlane & Erskine, Lith™’ Edin®™
Mess*? J. HORNE & d.d.H.TEALL ON BOROLANITE.
y
, del M‘Farlane & Erskine, Lith"? Edin”
le Sy) Py ane a e al coe ae yy (y \/T]
Trans. Roy DOCe lncuinnt= Vol. XX Vil.
Mess*? J. HORNE & J.d.H.TEALL ON BOROLANITE.
eoare 13
XIL.—On the Action of the Valves of the Mammalian Heart. By D. Nott Parton,
M.D., F.R.C.P.E., Superintendent of the Research Laboratory of the Royal
College of Physicians. (With Two Plates.)
From the Research Laboratory of the Royal College of Physicians.
(Read 4th January 1892.)
Few subjects are of greater practical importance than the mode of action of the
valves of the heart, inasmuch as these structures are so frequently the seat of patho-
logical changes which produce serious disturbances throughout the whole circulatory
system.
On the general principles of the mode of action of the aortic and pulmonary valves
all investigators seem to be agreed. When we turn to the auriculo-ventricular valves
we find that, while in some of the best known text-books their action is considered as
so thoroughly investigated and completely understood as to merit no discussion, and to
require only the briefest description, in others the mechanism is admitted to be
imperfectly comprehended, and is described in the most obscure and indefinite manner.
In all, however, it is stated that the valves are raised at the commencement of
ventricular systole to form a horizontal membranous septum between auricle and
ventricle, and to prevent the regurgitation of blood from the latter cavity.
Foster alone alludes to the possibility of the valves acting without being raised in
this manner.
This view was originated by Dr RicHarp Lower (Tractatus de Corde) in 1669.
Its general acceptance seems to be due to the following causes :—
First. The anatomy of the heart has almost universally been studied in the relaxed
condition and by the ordinary methods of dissection. The sectional method has been
employed only by one or two investigators, and in each case with a special purpose
unconnected with the mode of action of the valves.
Second. Various experiments on the dead heart have been accepted as illustrating
the action of the valves in the living condition. Lower describes the now well-known
experiment of cutting away the auricles and filling the ventricles with water through
tubes placed in the aorta and pulmonary artery, and in this way causing the cusps of
-the auriculo-ventricular valves to be raised and applied to one another, so as to form a
horizontal membranous partition between the auricles and ventricles—the chorde
tendineze and papillary muscles playing a purely passive part in preventing the
forcing of the valves into the auricles.
An experiment which in so many important points fails to imitate the actual
‘ventricular systole of the living heart cannot be deemed of much value. Yet probably
no experiment has had so powerful an influence in establishing the present conception
VOL. XXXVII. PART I. (NO. 12). : Qe
180 DR D. NOEL PATON ON THE
of the action of the valves. The same objection applies to the more recent experiments
of Sanpgore and Worm-Mu.ier. (Priiicer’s Arch., Bd. 22, 8. 108.)
Third. The experimental observations of CHauveau and Fatvre (G'az. Med., 1856)
on the heart of the horse during life have by many been accepted as strongly supporting
this view. These investigators state that if the finger be introduced into the right
auricle so as to palpate the valve, one feels at the moment of ventricular systole “les
valvules triglochines se redresser, s’affronter par leurs bords, et se tendre au point de
devenir convexes par en haut, de maniére & former un dédme multiconcave audessus de
la cavité ventriculaire.” They made no experiments on the mitral valve.
When, however, we come to examine this generally accepted view, several serious
objections at once present themselves.
First. The value of CHauveau and Farvre’s observation is considerably diminished
by the fact that subsequent observers have not confirmed it.
Kuss (Cours de Physiologie, 1872, p. 149) says, after giving the usual description
of the closure of the valves, ‘‘ Mais le fonctionnement est tout autre, car en introduisant
le doigt vers le region auriculo-ventriculaire, au moment de la systole ventriculaire, on
voit que l’espece d’entonnoir qui pend de Toreillette dans le ventricule continue 4
exister.”
Second. It is impossible that the valves should be closed in the manner described.
When the ventricle is fully distended, the chordee tendinez are stretched between the
valves and the papillary muscles, as was clearly described in 1880 by Hesse (Arch. f.
Anat. u. Phys., 1880, p. 346); and unless the first change in ventricular systole is a
very marked shortening of the ventricular cavity, it would be impossible for the cusps of
the valves to be raised into the horizontal position described, even if the papillary
muscles did not, from the first, participate in the contraction of the walls of the chamber.
Now Hesse has clearly shown that even in the third stage of ventricular systole the
apices of the papillary muscles are only very slightly approximated to the auriculo-
ventricular orifice.
Third. If the valves are closed as usually described, a large part of the mass of blood
which is lying between the cusps must be forced back into the auricles, and thus a
considerable regurgitation must occur.
Fourth. The horizontal septum between auricle and ventricle formed by the elevated
valves is composed of a comparatively thin membrane. When the auricle relaxes, as
ventricular contraction goes on, this membrane must be subjected to a sudden and
enormous pressure, amounting in the left ventricle to about 3450 grms., and in the
right to 1664 grms. (Ontmus, Journal de l Anatomie, 1865, p. 351), which its structure
is not specially adapted to withstand, and which certainly one must, a prior, anticipate
would tell prejudicially upon such living membranes. In short, the mechanism as usually
described is a bad one.
Fifth. It appears strange that such well-developed structures as the papillary muscles
should play so small a part in the action of the structures into which they are inserted.
ACTION OF THE VALVES OF THE MAMMALIAN HEART. 181
Finally, if the valves act as described in Lanpots and Sriruine (8rd ed., p. 59) and
many other text-books, the ventricles can never be even approximately completely
emptied. A large supra-papillary space must always remain filled with blood.
These considerations have led me to reinvestigate the question of how the auriculo-
ventricular valves are closed, and how they prevent the regurgitation of blood into the
auricles.
It is at once obvious that these valves might fulfil their function of preventing
regurgitation in just as perfect a manner and without the severe strain, which, according
to the presently accepted theory, they have to bear with each systole, if, instead of being
raised to form a horizontal septum, their cusps were simply applied face to face to one
another. In this way all passage of blood between the cusps would be prevented,
while at the same time the segments would afford one another mutual support.
MeErHopD.
My object was, if possible, to fix the heart in the various stages of the cardiac cycle,
to harden it, and by sections and dissection to determine the position of the valves in
the various phases, so that an actual demonstration of the true condition might be
afforded.
Rabbits were chiefly used, on account of their being of convenient size and easy to
procure, but many observations were also made upon the hearts of cats, dogs, sheep, and
men.
The Rabbit was killed by a blow behind the head. The thorax was then rapidly
opened, the larger vessels being carefully avoided to prevent loss of blood, and the peri-
eardium was slit up. The method of procedure then varied according to the condition
in which it was desired to fix the heart. To imitate the third stage of ventricular systole,
during which the ventricle remains contracted after the expulsion of the blood, clamps
were applied on the large vessels and the organ was excised and plunged momentarily
into boiling water, the clamps being taken off at once. This procedure produced a gush
of blood from the great arteries and a smaller flow from the great veins, and fixed both
auricles and ventricles in a firmly contracted condition.
To imitate the first stage of ventricular systole—the contraction of the ventricles
before blood is expelled into the arteries—is more difficult; because when respiration
stops the right heart becomes engorged with blood.
The method of procedure was to expose the heart as above described, and then to
ligature or clamp the great vessels, and to plunge the ventricles for a second or two into
boiling water or hot perchloride of mercury solution, care being taken to prevent such
overheating as would distort the valves and chorde. This at once caused a contraction
of the ventricles;.but this was frequently accompanied by a regurgitation into the
182 ; DR D. NOEL PATON ON THE
auricles. This was probably due to the fact that the papillary muscles were not
directly stimulated, and that therefore the closure of the valves was not complete. Indeed;
on account of the indirect stimulation of the papillary muscles as compared with the
ventricular wall, this method would specially favour the assumption of a horizontal posi-
tion of the cusps of the valves. |
To fix the heart in diastole the vessels were ligatured, and the organ was suspended
in water until rigor-mortis had passed off, and was then hardened first in Muller’s solution
and then in alcohol.
With dogs and cats the animal was killed with chloroform, and the heart rapidly
excised and treated as above described.
For the human hearts I have examined, I have to thank Dr Barrert, who was good
enough to let me have a number of unopened hearts from the post-mortem room of the
Royal Infirmary. Most of these were lax, post-mortem rigidity having passed off. By
removing the clots, filling the cavities with spirit and hardening, one was able by making
sections to study the relationship of parts in diastole. Some specimens were obtained in
the condition of rigor-mortis, and these, after hardening in spirit, showed to-some extent
the relationship of parts in the third stage of ventricular systole. But inasmuch as
the factor of blood- -pressure had not had full play, the valves were never found in oe
the same position as in the heart prepared as described above.
I am also indebted to Dr Gipson for a number of specimens of hearts from young
subjects, which had been hardened in the condition of more or less firm rigor-mortis, and
from which some of the figures were prepared.
Sections were made in different planes, but chiefly in those indicated in fig. 4. The
sections were photographed, either before or after removal of the coagulated blood, and
then preserved in spirit. |
In this way a very complete picture was obtained of the position of the valves during
the various phases of the cardiac cycle, while the mechanism by which the various
changes are produced was also rendered clear. |
ANATOMICAL CONSIDERATIONS.
It will be necessary, in the first place, merely to allude to certain points in regard to
the position of the orifices, valves, papillary muscles, and chord tendinese. Although
these matters are dealt with in anatomical works, the descriptions given are far from
complete or satisfactory.
The chordze tendinez are not, as is usually described, entirely inserted into the margins
and ventricular surfaces of the valves, but are to a large extent continued upwards along
the surface of the valves, to be inserted into the auriculo-ventricular rings (fig. 6). Dr
Symineton has shown me a specimen in which the muscular fibres of the papillary muscle
are continued upwards and inserted into the auriculo-ventricular ring. When the papil-
ACTION OF THE VALVES OF THE MAMMALIAN HEART. 183
lary muscles contract, they will therefore tend to pull the rings downwards and inwards
and thus to diminish the auriculo-ventricular opening and the ventricular cavity, and to
assist in the expulsion of the blood.
The left ventricle forms a central cylindrical core to the heart; and to one side of
this the right ventricle is attached along the anterior and posterior sulci (figs. 1, 2, 3).
The right ventricle is formed of an outer and an inner wall—the latter, the so-called
septum, being really part of the wall of the left ventricle, and bulging into the cavity
of the right ventricle as a surface that is convex, not only from before backwards, but
also from above downwards (figs. 1, 2, 3, 7, 10).
It is triangular in shape. At the anterior and upper angle is the orifice of the pul-
monary artery. The inferior angle is at the apex. The anterior and posterior sides of
the triangle correspond to the anterior and posterior sulci. The superior side is com-
posed in front of the pulmonary orifice ; behind this, of the upper and right wall of
the conus arteriosus ; and still further back, at the posterior and upper angle is the
auriculo-ventricular orifice (fig. 3).
This opening, in the normal position of the heart of Man, faces to the left forwards
and downwards. It is surrounded by muscular fibres. In diastole it is elliptical, but in
the fully contracted condition it is reduced to little more than a slit.
The distribution of the papillary muscles varies im different animals; but in all, an
anterior group of small muscular processes is present, situated just behind and below the
pulmonary orifice, having a somewhat horizontal direction, and connected by chord
tendineze with the anterior borders of the infundibular and septal cusps of the tricuspid
valve (figs. 3, 6). The arrangement of the anterior and posterior sets of papillary
muscles varies considerably. In the Rabbit (fig. 4), where there is only a small amount
of trabecular tissue towards the apex of the ventricle, these muscles arise from the
septum. In Man (fig. 6), where the lower or apical third of the ventricle is composed of
a network of muscular trabecule, the papillary muscles take origin most usually from
fibres of that network running between the septum and the outer wall—sometimes in
close relationship to the septum, sometimes more intimately connected with the external
wall. In the latter case the governor band is well developed.
They may be described as four innumber—if we include the anterior muscle situated
under the pulmonary artery (fig. 6).
1st. Superior, situated just under the pulmonary orifice, directed backwards and to
the right, and sending chorde to the anterior margins of the septal and infundibular
cusps of the tricuspid. These chorde have a transverse direction.
2nd. Anterior takes origin from the trabecular tissue at the apex towards its anterior
part, and is directed upwards. It gives off chorde to the posterior margin of the
infundibular cusp, and to the anterior margin of the posterior cusp.
3rd. Posterior takes origin from the trabecular tissue near the apex posteriorly,
is directed upwards, and gives off chords to the posterior margins of the posterior and
septal cusps of the tricuspid.
184 DR D. NOEL PATON ON THE
4th. A number of small prominences arising from the septum give chorde to the
inferior margin of the septal cusp, and bind it down to the septum.
Contraction of the superior and anterior of these muscles, through their direction and
from the curvature of the septum, will stretch the infundibular cusp against that wall of
the ventricle. At the same time the various papillary muscles will pull the different
cusps together, while the posterior papillary muscle will pull the posterior cusps against
the curved septum.
5th. Left Ventricle—The left auriculo-ventricular orifice is situated posteriorly,
facing downwards, forwards, and to the left (in the normal position of the heart in Man).
In diastole, it is nearly circular (fig. 5). In systole, it is reduced to a transverse slit.
In front and to the right of this is the aortic orifice, separated from it only by a mem-
branous wall.
The anatomical position and characters of the two cusps of the mitral valve, and the
separation of the papillary muscles into two sets, an anterior or left (figs. 1 and 2), the
chordze of which are connected with the left edges of the anterior and posterior cusps,
and a posterior or right (figs, 1 and 2), with cords attached to the right edges of the
cusps, are so well known as merely to require mention. The chordze connected with the
posterior cusp are largely inserted into the auriculo-ventricular ring.
ACTION OF THE VALVES.
Position of Valves in Ventricular Diastole.
When an attempt is made to study this question in the usual way by dissection of
the heart, the results are rendered fallacious by the fact that rigor-mortis is frequently
present, or that the organ is so limp that the relations of the various parts 2 are not
preserved.
It may be best investigated in hearts prepared as described on p. 182.
In order to demonstrate the position of the parts of the tricuspid valve, sections are
best prepared in a vertical transverse plane (fig. 5, A). For the mitral valve, on the
other hand, the sections should run in a plane (fig. 5, B), passing through the orifice of
the aorta and the left auriculo-ventricular orifice.
Tricuspid Valve.—The septal cusp is applied to the wall of the septum (fig. 7).
The two outer cusps extend downwards and somewhat inwards, so that a flattened
funnel-shaped orifice, narrow in front and broad behind, between auricle and ventricle i is
formed (figs. 3 and 7).
Mitral Valve.—The posterior cusp lies against the posterior wall of the ventricle.
The anterior cusp extends downwards, and somewhat to the left (figs. 8 and 9). —
ACTION OF THE VALVES OF THE MAMMALIAN HEART. 185
Position of Valves in Ventricular Systole.
In studying the position of the valves during this period, its division into three
phases, more or less distinctly marked, must be remembered.
1st. Latent Period,—before the opening of the aortic and pulmonary valves, during
which the pressure in the ventricle is being got up.
2nd. Hxpulsion Period,—-during which the great mass of blood is being expelled
through the arterial orifices,
3rd. Period of Residual Contraction,—during which the ventricles remain con-
tracted, and may expel any blood not driven out during the last period. According to
HbrTuLE this period is simply the terminal stage of the second period.
lst—LaTENT PERIOD.
Right Ventricle.
The heart having been fixed as deseribed on p. 181, the following condition of the
various parts was observed :—
a. Tricuspid Valve-—On making sections, the septal cusp is found more or less
closely applied to the septum, while the two external cusps are pulled towards the septum
(fig. 10), and the infundibular cusp is pressed closely against it from the action of the
superior and anterior sets of papillary muscles. At the same time the outer part of the
auriculo-ventricular ring is pulled downwards and inwards, by the combined action of
the papillary muscles and chord inserted into the ring and the muscular fibres
surrounding the orifice.
b. Ventiicular Cavity.—The external wall of the ventricle is pulled nearer to the
septum ; and the anterior wall, under and in the region of the conus, bulges forward.
This is due to the greater thickness and power of the muscular fibres at the apex and
right side of the ventricle, and to the comparative thinness of the wall in the region of
the conus. This I believe to be a matter of some importance in explaining the increase
in the antero-posterior diameter of the heart, and the diminution in the transverse
diameter described by various investigators.
The change in the antero-posterior and transverse diameters of the heart may be shown
not only by tracings taken from the living organ, but can also be demonstrated by fixing
the heart in the various phases of the cardiac cycle.
This has already been done by Lupwie and Husse (Arch. f’ Anat. u. Phys., Bd. 18),
but their observations refer merely to the state of diastole and to the thurd stage of systole
when the ventricles have already expelled their contents. |
By adopting the method already described I have been able to fix the heart in the
first stage of ventricular systole, and by careful measurement to show that a distinct
increase in the antero-posterior and a diminution in the transverse diameter of the organ,
occurs. This is clearly shown in the accompanying tables and set of figures.
186
DR D. NOEL PATON ON THE
Exp. I, Heart or Cat.
Diastole. Systole.
Transverse | oes Transverse
Distance Transverse aes Diameter, Distance Transverse | renee 7 Diameter.
from Apex Diameter seas Antero- from Apex Diameter 5 ainaren Antero-
in mm. in mm. Rat nari posterior in mm. in mm. Si Ween posterior
a Diameter. Diameter.
10 25 18 1°4 12 24 20 © 1°2
i 30 21 1°4 18 27 28 09
25 30 25 12 20 | dl 27 1:0
Distance from Distance from
Apex in mm. Heart of Cat. Apex in mm.
Abs, 1D) = 30 mm. '
A. P. D. = 25 mm.
17
T. D. = 30 mm ‘
A. P. 5
10
T.D. = 25mm. 24 mm.
A. P. D. = 18 mm. 20 mm.
Diastole. Systole.
(First Stage. )
Exp. II. Heart or Cat.
Greatest Diameter. Diastole. Systole.
Longitudinal, eae 33°1 mm, 33-1 mm.
Antero-posterior, . . : ° é : 20°4 mm. 25°5 mm.
TPANSVETZe,, £0 1/1) f alle ee a 264mm... 25°5 mm.
Transverse 7 ’
Antero-posterior, : s 13
Tv
ACTION OF THE VALVES OF THE MAMMALIAN HEART. 187
In the human heart the drawing towards the septum of the external wall of the
ventricle is favoured by the muscular trabeculz in the lower part of the ventricle. The
auriculo-ventricular ring is drawn downwards and inwards by the chorde tendinez
passing to it, while the infundibular cusp of the tricuspid from the lines of traction of its
chord tendinez must be flattened against the bulging septum. Its posterior margin is
approximated to the anterior edge of the posterior cusp, which with its posterior edge in
contact with the posterior margin of the septal cusp is pulled downwards into the
posterior angle of the ventricle against the curve of the septum.
Left Ventricle.
The Cavity of the Ventricle becomes narrower from side to side, and wider from before
backwards. At the same time the posterior cusp of the Mitral Valves is raised from the
ventricular wall and pulled forward by the chord tendineze towards the anterior cusp,
which is at the same time pulled backwards so that the two are applied face to face (fig. 11).
And now, one function of the papillary muscles and anterior cusp of the valve becomes
very apparent. By their action on the membranous part of the auriculo-ventricular ring
forming the posterior wall of the aorta, from which the cusp takes origin, they help to
keep open the aortic orifice, which would tend to be pressed upon and closed by the con-
traction of the muscular fibres extending round the aortic and mitral orifices. The
direction obliquely backwards taken by the membrane between the aorta and the
auriculo-ventricular orifice is well seen in figs. 8 and 11.
Onimus partly appreciated this action of the large segment of the mitral valve
(Journal de l’ Anatomie, t. 2, p. 876).
IND—PErERIOD OF EXPULSION.
It is, of course, impossible to fix the ventricle in this phase. But from a study
of the first and third period we can form a clear picture of what occurs during this
period. On the right side, the blood collected in front and to the right of the tricuspid
valve and accumulated in the conus is shot into the pulmonary artery, the outer wall
approaching the septum and the auriculo-ventricular orifice being narrowed.
On the left side, the posterior-ventricular wall contracts on the posterior cusp of the
mitral, forcing the blood round the valve, to be expelled along with the mass of blood
accumulated in front of the anterior cusp.
3RD—PERIOD OF RESIDUAL CONTRACTION.
Raght Ventricle.
The auriculo-ventricular opening is reduced to crescentic slit. The cavity of the
ventricle is flattened from side to side and obliterated ; except just under the pulmonary
artery, where a small cavity, resembling a flattened and inverted cone, is left filled with
VOL. XXXVII. PART I. (NO. 12). 2F
188 DR D. NOEL PATON ON THE
blood. The septal cusp of the valve is applied flat against the septum; the infundibular
and posterior lie flat against it,—only a small wedge-shaped mass of blood continuous
with the auricular contents lying between the valves at their upper part (fig. 12).
Occasionally extremely instructive casts of the inter-valvular space may be seen in
post-mortem examination of the human heart in which a blood clot has formed. This clot
shows a thin flattened anterior part where the anterior cusp has been pulled against the
septum, and a thicker, more conical posterior portion. Such a cast is figured by
Perricrew (Proc. of the Royal Soc., vol. xxiii. part iii., 1864).
Left Ventricle.
The auriculo-ventricular orifice is reduced to a transverse slit. The cavity of the
ventricle is entirely obliterated, except for a cylindrical part filled with blood im-
mediately under the aortic orifice. The posterior cusp of the mitral is applied against
the posterior wall of the ventricle ; and the anterior lies in front of it, and applied to it
throughout the lower part of its extent. A wedge of blood from the auricles extends
down between the upper part of the valves. No strain is put on the membranes, which
mutually support one another (fig. 13).
Such a series of observations seem to demonstrate beyond a doubt that the mechanism
of the auriculo-ventricular valves is very different from that so universally described.
Instead of the cusps of the valves being floated into a horizontal position to form a
septum between auricles and ventricles, they are simply applied face to face, and thus
prevent all regurgitation without being subjected to any strain. At the same time,
their depressed position gives the ventricles a core upon which they can contract to
completely empty themselves into the arteries.
It may be objected to this view that it does not account for the valves being closed
before the ventricular systole begins, so as to prevent regurgitation at the commencement
of the systole. But such a closure, before ventricular systole, is not necessary, for it has
been shown that the auricles do not relax until after the commencement of ventricular
systole, and of course, until these chambers pass into diastole, no reflux flow is possible.
Hence a closure at the commencement of the systole is all that is required.
It may perhaps also be urged that, although in these preparations the valves are
found closed as above described, they may have become occluded in the manner usually
described, and subsequently pulled downwards, as described by Ktirscuner (WAGNER'S
Handwéorterbuch, Bd. ii. 8. 60, 1844), Lupwia (Lehrbuch du Physiologie, Bd. i. 8. 61,
1856), and Perrigrew (Trans. of the Royal Soc. of Edin., vol. 28, part iii., 1864). A
moment’s consideration will show that this is impossible. For, once closed in the hori-
zontal position, it would be impossible to have them pulled downwards until blood had
left the ventricles, since the fluid blood is incompressible.
Again, the recent researches of Roy and Apami (Practitioner, 1890) on the action of
the papillary muscles, independently of and later than the general heart muscle, might
ACTION OF THE VALVES OF THE MAMMALIAN HEART. 189
indicate an objection to this theory. Unless the papillary muscles act almost synchro-
nously with the rest of the muscle substance, it is not easy to conceive that the valves
could be closed in the manner described.
While fully recognising the value of their work, I do not think that they have con-
clusively proved their contention that the contraction of the papillary muscles is later
than that of the ventricular wall.
The papillary muscles are nothing more or less than special developments of the
trabecular tissue of the foetal heart from which the columne carnez also spring. They
are, in fact, simply columnz carnez; and all gradations may be traced from the large
papillary muscles through the small muscular
prominences giving origin to a single cord, to
SS
=
~
the proper muscular substance of the heart.
In the left ventricle of the rat the two papillary
eullllins
EZ
)
muscles are replaced by two column carnee,
from the sides of which the chord tendinez
spring. Which of these papillary muscles
contracts after the heart substance, and which
contract with it? It would indeed be curious
to find a delay in the contraction of certain of
these muscles and not in others.
But a careful study of their work by no
means bears out their conclusions as to the
late contraction of these muscles. Undoubtedly
these structures shorten greatly and still further
pull down the valves at a period later than the commencement of the contraction of the
ventricles, just at the time when the blood is expelled into the arteries. Roy and ADami
look upon this as the cause of the expulsion of blood ; but it is much more probably the
result. Until the semilunar valves are opened, and the blood begins to leave the ven-
tricles, the papillary muscles may enter into a state of contraction ; they may approxi-
mate the cusps of the valves, but they cannot pull these down upon the ventricular con-
tents. As the blood, however, passes out, these structures can shorten; and their
shortening may influence the long and transverse diameter of the ventricles, as described
by these authors.
Farther, as a result of their researches, FENwIcK and OVEREND (Brit. Med. Journal,
vol. i. p. 1118, 1891) conclude that it is “extremely probable that the shortening of the
two muscles (7.e., the wall muscles and papillary muscles) under normal circumstances is
practically simultaneous.”
A review of the older work upon this subject—which undoubtedly points to the
simultaneous action of papillary muscles and ventricular wall—will be found in a paper
by Six (see p. 191).
So far as our evidence at present goes, we must conclude that the papillary muscles
\ .
\\ \ \ Ze
|
& ie Set
190 DR D. NOEL PATON ON THE
contract along with the rest of the ventricular wall, and close the valves as above
described.
It may be asked, “If this is the mode of action of the tricuspid valve, what is the
meaning of the small internal cusp?” Possibly, with a small amount of blood behind it,
it may act as a cushion against which the external cusps may rest. It is, however, more
probably simply to be regarded as a developmental remnant of the ‘‘ Ohrkanal” described
by His, from the walls of which the auriculo-ventricular valves are developed.
Many of the older physiologists have fully appreciated the difficulties in the acceptance
of the commonly taught theory, and, from a consideration of the anatomy of the heart,
have been led to advocate the view, the correctness of which, I believe, I have succeeded
in demonstrating.
Mecket (Handbuch der mensechlichen Anatomie, Bd. iii. 8. 28, 1817) appears to
have been the first to suggest that the valves were closed as above described.
After describing the papillary muscles, he says,—‘‘Indem diese sich bei den
Zusammenziehungen des Herzens verkiirzen, werden die verschiednen Abschnitte der
Klappen in die Héhle des Herzens einander gegen gezogen, und so die Mundung
kriftig geschlossen.”
Mayo, in 1829, gave a very clear description of the action of the valves. The
following is taken from his Outlines of Physiology, 4th edition, 1837, p. 42.
“The action of these fleshy columns, and of the tendinous cords in closing the valve,
may be easily understood from the adjoining figures.
“Fig. 1 represents the mitral valve during the diastole of the ventricle, the fleshy
columns relaxed, the chords tendinez loose, the passage
: through the auricular valve patulous.
bs ~ “Fig. 2 represents the condition of the valve during the
ventricular systole : its edges are then drawn into contact, so
as to form a kind of flattened conical projection into the
ventricle.”
Y Gy ‘ He considers that the action of the tricuspid valve takes
YZ A place on the same principle as that of the mitral, and that it
a \ is never properly closed.
Rep, in his article on the heart in Topp’s Cyclopedia of
Anatomy and Physiology, 1836, says, ‘That the lips of the
valves are approximated in this manner” (described by Mayo) “ appears to me to be the
much more probable opinion.”
Hors (Diseases of the Heart, 1839) gives a very similar description of the action of
the valves, and states that the credit of originating the theory belongs to Mayo.
Burpacu (Traité de Physiologie, tradwit de VAllemand sur la deuaieme édition, par
A. J. L. Jourdon, 1827, t. vi. p. 239) develops precisely the same theory.
In an admirable treatise, “ Du Coeur, de sa structure et de ses mouvements, ou Traité
ACTION OF THE VALVES OF THE MAMMALIAN HEART. 191
anatomique, physiologique et pathologique des mouvements du cceur de l’homme,” pub-
lished in 1848, M. ParcuappE, Professeur de Physiologie & VEeole de Médecine et de
Pharmacie de Rouen, after describing most fully the structure of the various cavities and
valves of the heart, describes the auriculo-ventricular valves as closing the orifices by
being applied face to face.
M. Bérarp, in his Cowrs de Physiologie, puts this theory of ParcHappr’s even
more clearly.
Professor Kuss of Strasbourg (Manual of Physiology, being a course of Lectures
delivered by Professor Kiiss at the Medical School of the University of Strasbourg, edited
by M. Duvat, and translated by Rosperr Amory, M.D., 1875, pp. 134, et seq.) elaborates
this theory at great length.
He considers that the auriculo-ventricular valves, with the space between them, are
“ only movable continuations of the auricle acted on by certain muscular powers. ... . .
The first result of the contraction of the papillary muscles is the lengthening of the
auricular cone, the edges of which are afterwards brought near each other. While this
hollow cone descends into the ventricles, the sides of the latter contract, and approach
the cone in such a manner that the auriculo-ventricular apparatus acts as a sort of hollow
piston, which penetrates the ventricle and comes into close contact with its wall; and
thus the ventricle empties itself completely, the
contact becoming perfect between its sides and the
auricular prolongation.”
As already mentioned, he distinctly states that
=|
by the finger inserted into the auriculo-ventricular
opening, we can detect that the space is not oc-
cluded as described by CHauveat and Fatvre.
To a certain extent he is right; but it is impos- S.iouio vevtteulee dle jontio ee eae
system during the re- during the contraction of
sible that the small auricular pressure could main- morcuanomonceclok | Mile sonttinlcs
tain the valves in the condition shown in his figure,
convex towards the ventricular cavity, against the enormously greater ventricular
pressure. What really occurs is, that the valves are pressed face to face throughout
the greater part of their extent; and that only between their upper parts is auricular
blood to be found—the space for it being maintained by the tension of the valves. In
the mitral valve, when the large anterior cusp forms what Onimvs described as the
central septum of the ventricular cavity, this space is specially well marked.
In a long and exhaustive paper (Archives de Physiologic, 2nd series, t. i., 1874, pp.
552 and 848), M. Marc Séx, after giving a very full historical account of the work already
accomplished on the subject, from a careful consideration of this work and of the anato-
matical relationship of the valves, comes to the following conclusions in regard to their
mode of action :—
“3°. Les muscles papillaires des valvules se contractent en méme temps que l'ensemble
des parois ventriculaires.
192 DR D. NOEL PATON ON THE
“4°, La contraction des muscles papillaires a pour effet la tension des cordages
tendineux et l’abaissement des valvules. Cet effet se produit maleré le raccourcissement
systolique du diamétre longitudinal des ventricules, admis par la plupart des auteurs.
“5°, Les muscles papillaires du ventricule gauche sont disposés de fagon 4 s’emboiter
Yun dans l’autre et & combler la portion gauche de la cavité ventriculaire. En se
contractant, ils attirent 4 gauche les deux valves de la mitrale, qu’ils appliquent l’une sur
Yautre et contre la paroi du ventricule. La valve droite joue le rdle essentiel dans
l’oeclusion de l orifice auriculo-ventriculaire ; mais la valve gauche n’est pas inutile, non
plus que les deux languettes valvulaires accessoires.
‘6°. Le mode de resserrement du ventricule droit differe notablement de celui du
ventricule gauche, ce qui a nécessité des dispositions particuli¢res dans la valvule
tricuspide.
“7°, Les muscles papillaires du ventricule droit, en se contractant, appliquent et étalent
les valves de la tricuspide & la surface de la cloison. La forme convexe de cette derniére
rend compte de l’existence de trois valves dans le cceur droit.
“8°, Il y a dans la paroi ventriculaire droite un gros faisceau musculaire dont l’action
supplée celle de la pression sanguine, si considerable dans le ventricule gauche. Ce
faisceau musculaire est lanalogue du demi-sphiucter qui remplace la valvule tricuspide
dans le coeur des oiseaux.”
These conclusions have been arrived at by reasoning from the anatomy of the heart
as demonstrated in the ordinary methods of dissection, and from experiments on the dead
and flaccid heart, but not from any direct observations.
The adoption of this view as to the mode of action of the auriculo-ventricular valves
will modify our conception of the mechanism of regurgitation.
It has always been difficult to understand how, with even a small degree of dilatation
in cardiac debility, regurgitant murmurs are produced.
The valves are so large in relationship to the orifices (HERMaNN’s Handbuch der
Physiologie, Bd. vi. S. 161) that one should expect that even though the dilatation
were very considerable, if the valves assumed the horizontal position usually described,
the occlusion would be complete.
When, however, we consider the importance of the action of the papillary muscles
in the closure of the valves, and when we remember that their vascular supply is a
terminal one, and that they are therefore early the seat of degenerative changes (FENWICK
and OVEREND, loc. cit.), and when we recall the fact that in abnormal conditions of the
heart these muscles do not act so promptly as they should do, we can readily see that
the valves will frequently not be closed before auricular dilatation commences, and that
thus a back flow of blood will occur. This will be specially apt to happen on the right
side of the heart.
Again, to close the orifices in the manner we have described requires valves of con-
siderably greater size than would be necessary to occlude the orifice in the horizontal
ACTION OF THE VALVES OF THE MAMMALIAN HEART. 193
position. Hence, when even a slight engorgement of one side of the heart occurs, we may
have an incomplete occlusion and regurgitation. This state of things is well seen in
the heart of a rabbit which is much engorged. Marked regurgitation into the right
auricle occurred when the ventricles were dipped in the boiling solution. In all my
experiments with engorged hearts, this regurgitation occurred very much more readily
on the right side. The safety-valve action of the tricuspid is to be explained in this
way.
Again, it is often difficult to explain on the usual theory of occlusion how organic
lesions so modify the action of the auriculo-ventricular valves as to allow of regurgita-
tion. In these cases, if water be injected from the aorta, the mitral is floated up and
seems to act satisfactorily. And yet during life, regurgitation occurred. A roughening
or crumpling which would not be sufficient to prevent the adaptation of the segments
to one another in the horizontal position, might be sufficient to prevent their close
adaptation, face to face, and might thus allow of a back flow through the valve.
Aortic AND PULMONARY VALVES.
Support of Valves.
In connection with these valves, an extremely interesting mechanism is to be observed,
whereby the cusps are protected from and supported against the great strain of the
arterial pressure.
Aortic Valve-—An examination of antero-posterior sections (figs. 8 and 9), and
of preparations of the base of the heart (fig. 4), shows that the anterior cusp of the
aortic valve is placed upon the top of a muscular cushion formed by the upper part
of the septum ventriculi. Upon this cushion the blood filling the Sinus of Valsalva
will rest. Now Prrricrew (Zransactions of the Royal Society, 1864) has shown by a
series of casts in plaster of Paris that this cusp closes before the other two, which, to use
his expression, are twisted down upon it. Thus the muscular cushion supporting
the pressure in the anterior sinus will also support the pressure in the sinuses of
the two posterior cusps, and will thus diminish the strain put upon the cusp of the
valve.
Pulmonary Valve.—Though not so well marked, a similar cushion arrangement is to
be found in connection with the pulmonary valve when the postero-sinistral cusp of the
valve is set upon the upper part of the septum ventriculi, which forms a cushion
underneath it. ‘The two other cusps are at a somewhat higher level and will rest upon
the first, thus participating in the support of the septum.
I was for long unable to find any reference to this mechanism, but Sir Wiii1am
Turner referred me to a paper by Savory, Lancet, vol. ii, 1854, in which this
muscular cushion is clearly described and figured.
194
ACTION OF THE VALVES OF THE MAMMALIAN HEART.
Prevention of Occlusron of Aortic Orifice.
The manner in which the anterior cusp of the mitral valve, from its obliquity and
connection with the membranous septum between the aorta and the auriculo-ventricular
opening on the one hand, and the papillary muscles on the other, assists in preventing
the occlusion of the aortic orifice, has been described on p. 187.
Fig.
Fig
EXPLANATION OF PLATES.
Puate I,
1. Transverse section through middle third of ventricles of human heart (rigor-mortis) to show relation-
ship of cavities, and bulging of septum into right ventricle. 0, anterior papillary muscle of right
ventricle ; c, posterior papillary muscle of right ventricle; d, anterior papillary muscle of left
ventricle ; ¢, posterior papillary muscle of left ventricle. Natural size.
. Transverse section through lower third of ventricles of human heart (relaxed) to show trabecular
structure at apex of right ventricle, with origin of papillary muscles, 6 anterior, and ¢ posterior ;
a anterior, and e posterior, papillary muscles of left ventricle. 14 natural size.
3. Transverse section through upper third of ventricles of human heart (relaxed), looking upwards, to
show relationship of pulmonary orifice, conus, and right auriculo-ventricular orifice with tricuspid
valve. a@ superior, > anterior, and ¢ posterior papillary muscles; d infundibular, e posterior,
and f internal cusps of valve. Note greater thickness of ventricular wall laterally than in front.
On left side mitral valve x situated behind and to the left. 14 natural size.
4, Right ventricle of rabbit’s heart to show papillary muscles taking origin from septum. Natural szze.
5. View of ventricles from above (heart of child), auricles removed. Shows planes of section to de-
monstrate mitral (B) and tricuspid (A) valves. Natural size.
6. Right ventricle of heart of adult man, to show stretching of infundibular cusp of valve, between
superior and anterior papillary muscles. Letters as in 3. About 4 natural size.
Puate II.
7. Vertical transverse section of adult human heart in diastole (looking backwards), to show position
of tricuspid valve. ¢, trabecular structure at apex of ventricle from which papillary muscles
rise ; 6, anterior muscle ; d, infundibular cusp of valve; h, internal cusp; v, posterior wall of
left ventricle. 4 natural size.
8. Vertical antero-posterior section of left ventricle of adult human heart in diastole (in line B, fig.
4), looking to left. 0, anterior cusp of mitral valve; a, posterior cusp somewhat displaced from
its position against the posterior wall of the ventricle; d, anterior papillary muscle; aw, left
auricle ; as, aorta; 7v, conus of right ventricle; c, muscular cushion under right anterior cusp
of aortic valve 4 natural size.
9. Vertical antero-posterior section of heart of sheep (somewhat more antero-posterior than 8), Heart
in semi-rigor—letters as in 8. 7, posterior papillary muscle. # natural size.
. 10. Vertical transverse section of heart of rabbit fixed in the first stege of ventricular systole, to show
mode of closure of tricuspid valve. jf, internal cusp applied to septum ; d, external cusp drawn
in upon septum ; p, papillary muscle. (From a drawing.) Natural size.
11. Vertical antero-posterior section of heart of rabbit in first stage of ventricular systole, blood removed
from left ventricle. Shows application of anterior and posterior cusps of mitral valve to occlude
auriculo-ventricular orifice. «ao, aorta; au, left auricle; ac, anterior mitral cusp; pe, posterior
mitral cusp ; p, posterior papillary muscle. Twice natural size.
. 12. Vertical transverse section of heart of dog in third stage of ventricular systole, to show ocelusion of
tricuspid valve—letters as in 8. (From a drawing.) Matural size,
Fig. 13. Vertical antero-posterior section of heart of rabbit in third stage of ventricular systole, to show con-
dition of left ventricle and mitral valve—letters as in fig. 11. Slightly enlarged.
Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin? Vol. XXXVI.
f D’ NoEL PATON ON THE VALVES OF THE HEART —— Puare |.
Fig. 6.
M‘Farlane &Ershine, Lith™® Edin™
Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin’, Vol. XXXVII.
D’ NOEL PATON ON THE VALVES OF THE HEART —— Puare II.
M‘Farlane & Erskine, Lith"? Edin”
XHL—A Contribution to the Anatomy of Sutroa. By Frank E. Bepparp, M.A.,
Prosector to the Zoological Society of London. (With a Plate.)
(Read 4th April 1892. )
Our knowledge of this remarkable genus of freshwater Oligocheta is at present
entirely due to Dr Gustav E1sEn. Within a year or two of discovering the type species,
Sutroa rostrata,* Dr Eisen found a second species, evidently referable to the same genus,
which has been named Sutroa alpestris.t Examples of both of these species have been
most kindly forwarded to me by Dr Etsen; and I therefore take the opportunity of
offering a few observations upon the structure of the genus, and upon its relations to
other Oligocheta, as I am able, in a few matters, to supplement Dr E1sEn’s papers.
The account given by Eisen of Sutroa alpestris is evidently based upon a study of
the living worm ; it is therefore very full as regards the vascular system, but not quite
so detailed where it concerns the generative organs, which are more conveniently studied
by the section method. It is more especially to these organs that I desire to again
draw attention.
It is, however, perfectly clear from EtsEn’s description that the genus is correctly
referred to the family Lumbriculide. The contractile vascular caeca are alone sufficient
to show this. So far as we know at present, no other family of Oligochzeta possesses
these peculiar appendages of the dorsal vessel. The reproductive organs also conform
generally to the type met with in that family, although there are some differences in
detail from the remaining genera of the family.
One rather important point in the external structure of the worm is not mentioned
by Etsen: I refer to the clitellum. Several of the specimens kindly sent to me by my
distinguished colleague were sexually mature, and in these the clitellum was fully
developed. J found it to extend over nine segments, beginning with the VIIth, and
ending with the X Vth. In longitudinal sections it was not easy to fix with accuracy the
commencement and ending of the clitellum ; it did not either commence or end abruptly.
As in all other aquatic Oligocheeta, the clitellum consisted of a single layer of cells only.
Those upon the clitellum differed from those upon other parts of the body by being more
granular and by their greater depth.
The clitellar cells were perhaps twice the depth of the epidermic cells elsewhere ;
looking at a portion of the clitellum near to the middle, and comparing it with a
fragment of epidermis from, say, the second segment of the body, it was quite impossible
to confuse the characters of the epidermis of the two regions ; but the ordinary epidermis
*On the Anatomy of Sutrow rostrata, a new Annelid of the family Lumbriculina, Mem. Calif. Acad. Sci., vol. 2, No.1.
+ Anatomical Notes on Sutroa alpestris, a new Lumbriculide Oligochete from Sierra Nevada, California, Zoe, vol.
ii. No. 4.
VOL. XXXVII. PART I, (NO, 13). 2G
196 MR FRANK E. BEDDARD ON
passes so gradually into the clitellar epidermis that it is quite impossible to say where
one leaves off and the other begins. In any case, the nine segments mentioned un-
questionably belong to the clitellum.
The male reproductive wpparatus is very peculiar in several points—notably in the
‘prostate glands.” ErsEn’s figure (Zoe, vol. ii., Pl. xiv. fig. 1) gives the general appear-
ance of the entire reproductive system as seen when the worm is viewed as a transparent
object. I find, however, on checking that figure by longitudinal sections, that one or two
points are not fully shown.
There are, as is there shown, two pairs of funnels by which the vasa deferentia
communicate with the body cavity. They are represented by ErtsEn as all lying in one
seoment—the ninth. Dr Ersen reckons the prostomium as a segment; therefore, in accord-
ance with the majority of naturalists, we may consider this segment to be the tenth. I
find that the arrangement is not precisely as figured by Eisen. There are a pair of vasa
deferentia funnels in the tenth segment, one on each side of the body of course. But
the second pair, instead of lying in the same segment, are a segment further forward, 2.e.
in the ninth segment. This arrangement is more like that met with in other Lumbri-
culidee, where one pair of funnels is in the segment which contains the atrial pores, and
the other pair a segment in front of this. A very remarkable fact about these two pairs
of funnels was the marked difference in size. The posterior pair were much larger than
the anterior pair. Not only was this the case, but the tube arising from the posterior
funnel was stouter than that arising from the anterior funnel. Concerning the opening
of the vasa differentia into the atrium, His—N remarks, ‘The exact place where the
efferent ducts enter the atrium I have not been able to ascertain, but most probably
this takes place in the extreme posterior part, possibly in somite XVIII.”
As will be seen from the accompanying figure (fig. 2) one vas deferens does join the
atrium at the extreme posterior end, running alongside it up to that point; but the
other enters the atrium just at the point where it (the atrium) becomes invested by the
prostates. This latter vas deferens is the stouter one, which is connected with the
posterior funnel. The atrium itself is a long narrow tube, ciliated throughout the whole
extent. It communicates with the exterior by a muscular penis which has been described
by Etsen ; I have nothing to add to his description of this copulatory apparatus, except
to say that I did not observe the glands at the external orifice. When the atrium
leaves the penis it is coiled upon itself once or twice; it is lined by a columnar
epithelium, and is invested by muscular walls, the fibres of which run for the most part
in a longitudinal direction; from the eleventh segment onwards the atrium is loosely
covered by a thin membrane which lies at some distance from it, and later on comes to
be outside the prostates and the sperm-sacs. This membrane looks like the peritoneal
investment of the atrium which has got detached. ‘That region of the atrium which is
surrounded by the prostates is not ciliated; the prostates are globular masses, of which
there were five in the individual which I examined. Lisen figures seven; no doubt
there is some variation in individuals. Besides, the membrane, which has already been
THE ANATOMY OF SUTROA. 197
spoken of as loosely surrounding the commencement of the atrium, allows plenty of room
for the subsequent development of additional prostates. The prostates, as HIsEN says,
are composed of masses of pear-shaped cells; the ducts of which (a prolongation of each
cell forms its duct) open into the lumen of the atrium.
The efferent apparatus of this worm is evidently very interesting ; it 1s constituted
upon the plan of the Lumbriculide ; but there are differences from the typical Lumbri-
eulide. ‘The chief difference is in the structure of the atria. In all the Lumbriculide
hitherto known the atria are globular sacs with a specially thickened peritoneal layer—
occasionally termed “prostate.” The same kind of prostate occurs in a genus of
Tubificide recently described by myself under the name of Branchiwra,* and also in
the genus Moniligaster.t In both these genera the large pear-shaped cells which clothe
the atrium externally do not communicate with the lumen of the atrium; the prolonga-
tions of the cells do not perforate the muscular layer which separates them from the
epithelial lining of the atrium. Nor do they, according to VEspovsKy’s figures, in
Rhynchelmas.{ On the other hand, in the Tubificide the ‘“‘ Cement-driisen” are masses
of cells which look at first sight very much like the glandular investing cells of the
Lumbriculide, but are really outgrowths of the epithelium of the atrium. This has been
proved developmentally.
The origin of the prostates of Sutroa has yet to be studied; but in the meantime
they suggest those of the Tubificidee more than those of other Lumbriculide.
The next question is, What is the nature of the membranous sac surrounding the
atria and the prostates? It should be mentioned as a preliminary that this sac also
surrounds the sperm-sacs. | think that in all probability this delicate membranous sac
is the proper wall of the sperm-sac. The other organs only happen to lie within it, just
as the testes lie within the sperm-sacs among earthworms.
A year ago I communicated to this Society a paper upon a remarkable new genus
of Oligocheta, which I named Phreodrilus; in this worm the atria and the vasa
deferentia were surrounded by a membranous sac§$ which appeared to be merely the
peritoneal layer of the atrium and the vas deferens separated from the subjacent layer.
The sac thus formed contained spermatozoa; I compared this arrangement to something
of the same kind described by Etsen in Eelzpidrilus. It may be that here too we have
&@ Sperm-sac surrounding the atrium and the vas deferens; but while in Phreodrilus the
sac in question is nothing more nor less than the peritoneum stripped off from the atrium,
in Sutroa a layer of peritoneum remains behind.
The study of the development can alone tell us whether there is in Sutroa an
actual splitting of the peritoneum, or whether there is a formation of a separate sac
comparable to the sperm-sac of other Oligocheta.
* On the Anatomy of a new Branchiate Oligochete (Branchiura Sowerbii), Quart. Journ. Mier. Sev., vol. xxxiii.
t On-some Earthworms from the Philippine Islands, Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist., Feb. 1886.
{ Anatomische Studien an Rhynchelmis limosella, Zeitschr. f. wiss. Zool., bd. xxvii.
§ Anatomical Description of two new Genera of Aquatic Oligocheta, Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin., vol. xxxvi. part ii.
Ne. 2.
198 MR FRANK E. BEDDARD ON
Apart from this matter, the efferent ducts of this worm have an interest. The
reduction of the anterior pair of funnels and vasa deferentia suggest a commencing dis-
appearance of these ; were they absent, the structure of the reproductive organs would be
that of the Tubificidee; and more especially of my genus Branchiura. In that worm.
it will be remembered that the atrium is divisible into two regions—apart from the
terminal copulatory apparatus. The distal section of the atrium is invested by the
prostate ; at the junction of this with the proximal half opens the vas deferens ; this is
precisely what we should find in Sutrow; if, that is to say, the anterior pair of vasa
deferentia were to disappear. If, on the other hand, the posterior pair of vasa deferentia
were to vanish—of which, however, there is no indication—we should get a state of affairs
much as is found in the more typical Tubificidee.
I have suggested that the anterior pair of vas deferens funnels are on the road to
disappearance; the tube itself is very much thinner than the vas deferens connected
with the posterior funnel; the funnel also is in the same way much reduced. The
comparatively large funnels which open into segment X, though spread along the
septum, are a good deal folded. On the other hand, the funnels which depend into
seoment IX are perhaps one quarter the size of the following pair, and are not folded.
Moreover, these anterior funnels are so far purposeless that there are no testes corre-
sponding to them. I searched most carefully for the missing testes of segment IX, but
to no purpose. I can therefore at the very least say that the testes if present are very
inconspicuous ; indeed, I think that there is very little doubt as to their total absence.
The testes are fixed by Eisen as occurring im somite X—z.e, in somite XI, according to
the more usual enumeration of the segments in Sutroa rostrata; in S. alpestris they are
figured (loc. cit. Pl. xiv. fig. 1, tes.) as lying in the same segment as that which contains
the penis, z.e. the Xth; they are spoken of as being “large, and deeply and repeatedly
lobed.”
I found, on the other hand, that the testes are not lobed in a distinct manner; they
are solid, almost square-shaped organs. But close to them are a pair of peculiar bodies,
which are also found in the preceding segment. In the figure referred to as illustrating
the reproductive system of the worm the correspondence is clearly shown: I think, there-
fore, that Dr Ersen has overlooked the testes, and has confounded with them the peculiar
structures already referred to as existing in the Xth as well as in the XIth seoment.
These structures are called ‘‘albumen glands,” and the duct leading to the exterior is
ficured. I am myself of opinion that these bodies (fig. 6) cannot be regarded as of a
glandular nature; I could find no trace of a duct, and the tissue of which they are com-
posed is not suggestive of the glandular tissues met with elsewhere in these Annelids.
They spring from the septa, and are, as Hisen has pointed out, of a racemose form ;
their walls are delicate and muscular; the contents are loosely packed cells, which are
like the coelomic corpuscles. They are not at all like gland cells. I should be disposed
to compare them with the “ septal sacs” so often met with in the Perichetide and in
Acanthodrilus.
THE ANATOMY OF SUTROA. 199
The probability that these sacs are coelomic spaces, and not glandular structures at
all, is rendered very great by the fact that on one side of the body a single diverticulum
of the spermatotheca lay within the sac.*
The cvaries are figured by HIsen as occurring in the XXXIInd segment. ‘The true
ovaries, however, lie in a more normal position; I found them in segment XI, cor-
responding exactly in position to the testes. They appear to be attached not only to the
septum of that segment, but also to the cells of the vas deferens funnel. It is true that
these supposed ovaries contained no ripe ova, so that I cannot be absolutely certain
about the identification. Ripe ova occurred in two of the posterior segments enclosed
within the sperm-sacs. The ova, as in all the aquatic genera, are very large, and are filled
with spherical yolk corpuscles.
The oviducts open on to the intersegmental groove XI-XII. In sections through
the organ a deep cleft is seen to separate the oviduct anteriorly into two halves.
In this has collected a quantity of débris, evidently on its way to the exterior.
The single median spermatotheca is, as will be gathered from an inspection of
Eisen’s figure (loc. cat., Pl. xiv. fig. 7), very remarkable in shape. It consists of a large
median pouch, from which arise a number of narrow tubular diverticula. Of the
homologies of the organ, Eisen writes as follows :—“ Considering this central spermatheca
in Sutrow in connection with the two spermathece in Rhynchelimis, two theories are
admissible. One is, that in Sutroa one of the spermathece has failed to develop, and
that the remaining one has become central by being moved towards the central ganglion,
which latter it considerably displaces. The other theory is, that in Sutroa the two
spermathecee are represented by, or homologous with, the pairs of branched spermathecal
sacs opening into the spermathecal atrium. The latter, then, is only an unfolding of the
body-wall deep enough to cause the spermathecee to become merely appendices to the
central spermathecal sac or atrium. I believe this latter theory to be the correct one.”
It seems to me that there is no need for the existence of a ‘“ spermathecal atrium.”
What has happened is, that there has been a fusion between the originally paired sacs,
resulting in a single median sac; in Cryptodrilus wnicus we have another example of a
similar fusion of the spermatothece in the middle line. The spermatotheca (see fig. 5) is
divided into two parts; distally it is a large, comparatively thin walled sac; the proximal
part is a duct, with more muscular walls, opening on to the exterior. At the junction of
the two are given off the diverticula. The existence of diverticula in an aquatic genus is
a remarkable fact, particularly in the Lumbriculide. They agree, moreover, with the
diverticula of earthworms in being of a different structure from the main pouch. The
epithelium is lower and more darkly staining ; the muscular walls are thicker. Further-
more, the diverticula contain nearly all the sperm. This, again, is a point in which they
resemble the diverticula of earthworms. Er1seN mentions that he found in one instance
“an interior porus in the free end of the spermatheca similar to the one described by
* Compare the enclosure of the spermatotheca of Hyperiodrilus and Heliodrilus within a coelomic sac (Quart. Journ.
Mier. Sct., vol. xxxii. p. 235).
200 MR FRANK E. BEDDARD ON
Verspovsky in the receptacula seminis of Rhynchelmis limosella. The object of such an
opening is not at present understood.” In the fully mature worm the reason for the
existence of this pore is evident ; there is in fact a direct communication with the lumen
of the gut, quite obvious in sections (see fig. 5). The aperture of communication was very
wide, and I could observe the spermatozoa in the gut itself, some bundles being partly in
the spermatotheca and partly in the intestine. Those who are acquainted with the
anatomy of this group of worms will recollect that this fact is by no means new. Dr
MIcHAELSEN was the first to show that in certain Enchytrzeide the spermatotheca has a
similar connection with the intestine. He also was able to put the existence of this com-
munication beyond a doubt by observing spermatozoa within the lumen of the gut; the
method of staining used made the matter perfectly clear. I have myself had the
opportunity of confirming Dr MicHaELseEn’s observations upon the Enchytreids. More
recently still, something of the same kind has been noted in the Eudrilide ; of Paradrilus
Rosx Dr Rosat speaks as follows :-——“‘ Die beiden terminalen Schlaiiche der Samentasche
setzen sich frei fort, bilden einen unregelmassigen Ring um den Magendarm und kommen
mit letzterem ungefiihr im 19, Segment in Verbindung. Es ist sehr merkwiirdig, dass
diese Schlaiiche wirklich mit dem Lumen des Magendarmes communiciren, doch ist daran
nicht linger zu zweifeln. Michaelsen sagte darueber: ‘ Wahrscheinlich schliessen sie
sich (jene Schatiche) oberhalb des Darmes zusammen ; bei dem untersuchten Hxemplare
erscheinen die beiden Enden zerfasert, wie durch einen Missgriff auseinandergerissen.’
Bei dem mir vorliegenden Exemplare hatten die beiden Enden der Schlaiiche ganz
dasselbe von Michaelsen beschriebene Aussehen. In Verbindung mit ihnen waren noch
einzelne Stiicke des leider sehr schlecht erhaltenen Magendarmes, und man hatte den
Eindriick als ob jene Réhren wirklich mit dem Lumen communicirten. Diesen
Sachverhalt theilte ich meinem freunde Dr Michaelsen brieflich mit, worauf ich folgende
bemerkenswerthe Antwort erhielt (10 Februar 1891): ‘Ich habe neuerdings noch zwei
interessante Paradiilus—Arten untersuchen kénnen. An den einen habe ich, angeregt
durch Ihre briefliche Mittheilung, die Einmiindung der Samentasche in den Darm mit
Sicherheit nachweisen k6nnen.’ Ein golches Verhiiltniss ist tibrigens nicht ganz neu.
Michaelsen selbst hatte schon 1886 eine Communicirung zwischen Samentaschen und
Darm bei mehreren Enchytreeiden entdeckt. Bemerken will ich noch, dass Michaelsen
bei dieser Gelegenheit erwiihnte, dass eine Communicirung zwischen Verdauungs—und
Geschlechtsapparat (und zwar zwischen Darm und Hileiter) schon von Ijima bei einigen
Trematoden (Polystomum, Diplozoon, Octobothrium) beschrieben wurde. Da Zeller
seitdem diese Angaben [jima’s fur unrichtig erkliirte, ist es hier nicht tiberfliissig zu
erwihnen, dass dieselben von Anderen Seiten wieder bestitigt worden sind, so von
Wright und Macallum fiir Sphyranura und in neuester Zeit von Goto (in Tokio) fiir
Axine, Microcotyle, Octobothrium und Diplozoon.”
It must be, however, remembered that the so-called ‘“‘spermatothecee” of the
Eudrilidee are not the homologues of the spermatothecee of other Oligocheeta ; they are,
“Die Exotischen Terricolen des k. k. naturh. Hofm.,” Ann. k. k. naturh. Hofm., 1891, p. 391.
THE ANATOMY OF SUTROA. 201
as I myself was the first to point out,* and as Rosa also showed subsequently in time of
publication, though independently, ccelomic pouches. It has been suggested that this
opening of the spermatothecz into the gut serves to get rid of the superfluous spermatozoa.
It is rather remarkable that those who are on the look-out for vertebrate affinities
among the lower animals have not fixed upon these pouches as gill-slits; they would
make much more respectable gill-slits than many structures which have been pressed
into the service.
The Nephridia, as E1sEN has pointed out, have a peculiar brown body in the course of
the tube just behind the funnel. This appears (fig. 7) to be made up of a mass of round
cells, the borders of which are indefinable. Their nuclei are, however, quite obvious, as is
shown in my figure. ‘The cells are filled with round spherules of different sizes, which
are very closely pressed together. These spherules look exactly like yolk granules. I
could not find any lumen running continuously through this mass; at one end a few fine
canaliculi were visible, but they seemed to be soon lost. Among the Naidomorpha, in
the genus I/yodrilus, and in some other forms this glandular tract following the funnel is
met with. In those worms, as Dr Srotc first pointed out, the swelling is permeated by
a network of tubes. I think it very possible that the same state of affairs exists in
Sutroa; but I have at present no certain evidence upon the point. The spongy mass of
cells intervening between the funnel and the tube may act as a filter keeping out the
grosser particles from choking the lumen of the nephridium. ‘The first pair of nephridia
lie in segment VII. There are then a number of segments without any nephridia; they
recommence in the XIIIth segment.
EXPLANATION OF PLATE.
Fig. 1. Semi-diagrammatic longitudinal section through the efferent apparatus of the male organs of
Sutroa alpestris, At., atrium; Pr., prostate; v.djf., funnel of vas deferens; T7., testis; Ov.,
ovary ; s.. muscular sac surrounding the atrium and prostates, and also enclosing the developing
sperm; p., penis; beyond the end of the prostates ar2 a series of sacs, one to each segment,
filled with developing sperm and ova; Vd., vasa deferentiu.
Fig. 2. Longitudinal section through the atrium and sperm-sacs. Af¢., distal part of the atrium, enclosed
within a delicate sac (S) ; Ad’., proximal part of the atrium, surrounded by the prostates (pr.), and also
lying within a continuation forwards of the same sac; at the upper end of the figure the peri-atrial
sac is seen to contain developing sperm ; further forwards still (not shown in the figure) the sac
contains only developing sperm and ova; v.d., posterior of the two vasa deferentia, which opens
into the atrium at the junction of the prostatic with the non-prostatic portion ; v.d’., anterior vas
deferens, opening into the atrium at its extreme end.
Fig. 3. A more highly magnified section through the epithelium of the prostatic portion of the atrium. p.,
epithelium of the atrium ; pr., a few cells of the prostate ; d., ducts of the prostates ; m., muscular
Fig. 4. Cross section through the distal part of the atrium. p., lining epithelium (ciliated) ; m., muscular
coating ; p., peritoneal covering.
—
* On the Structure of an Earthworm allied to Nemertodrilus, &c., Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci., vol. xxxii. p. 539.
202 MR FRANK E. BEDDARD ON THE ANATOMY OF SUTROA.
Fig. 5. Longitudinal eae through the spermatotheca, Sp., spermatotheca opening at a into the lumen of the
esophagus (ws.) ; div. diverticula of the spermatotheca, filled with spermatozoa; these are also
shown in the main pouch and in the lumen of the gut; O., orifice of the spermatotheca, leading
into the distal muscular part of the organ.
Fig. 6. One of the branched ccelomic sacs attached to the septum of segment X. c., cells within the a
Sp., septum.
Fig. 7. Funnel and proximal part of a nephridium. /, funnel ; g/., glandular mass immediately followang ‘ie
funnel ; ., nephridial tube.
Fig. 8. Region of atrium illustrated in fig. 3, cut longitudinally to show muscular layer (m.) perforated by ducts
of prostate (pr.); the ducts (being prolongations of the individual cells) appear as dots, ao
which are occasional nuclei.
KS Te EE ISIE IOIOVAURID) (OING SOI Wie@vere
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Vol. XXXV
Mintern Bros . imp .
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(520315)
XIV.—A Comparison of the Minute Structure of Plant Hybrids with that of their
Parents, and its Bearing on Biological Problems. By J. MurzHeaD MacFaRLANE,
D.Sc., F.R.S.E, (Plates L—VIIL)
. (Read dth May and 15th June 1891.)
PAGE PAGE
I. IytrRopvuction, . d c 5 : . 203 VIL. Tue BEARING oF HyBripity oN BIOLOGICAL
PROBLEMS—
_ ain ae ad Ee (a) Relative Potency of the Male and
(a) Philageria Veitchit 207 Female Sex Elements in the Forma-
fy . ° ‘ : :
(6) Dianthus Griever, . 4 6 5 | PAD) — of an Organism, ‘ + 272
(c) Gewm intermediwm, . ; : 925 (b) Unisexual Heredity, . : : = Aye
(Bikes Culverwelli, . . . . 229 Co) RIL UE EGS aie
(e) Sawifraga Andrewsi, . ot OURS (d) On the Divergence of some leeds ;
Ceiica Woteont . 937 or Parts of Hybrids, towards one
(g) Bryanthus erectus, 238 Farent, « 275
(e) Mechanical or Piyclosiedl Obstacles
(h) Masdevallia Chelsoni, . - : . 242
(), Cypripedium Leeanum, ho oaK to Fertilisation as an Explanation
() General Observations : 249 of Infertility in some Hybrids, . 276
Arey ; {f) The Relative Fertility of Hybrids in
III, Comparison oF THE CoLOUR, CHEMICAL Relation to Heredity 277
rt
Bee garnet ODOnE, PLOWEHING EEkIOD, (g) Vegetable Cell Structure in Relation
AND CoNSTITUTIONAL VIGOUR OF HYBRIDS, to Hybridity. 278
pall ac
an ECS Or THE PARENTS, - eg. oO (h) Value of Microscopic Shomaes in
IV. History nD STRUCTURE OF Cytisus the Hutare Verification of Doubttul
Adami, . ° . - ° . . 259 Hybrids, : 981
V. GeneraL Summary oF RESULTS ON SEED (2) A Consideration af the Possible
HYBRIDS, . 5 : : A ile - 270 Origin of Species from Hybrids, . 282
J. INTRODUCTION.
With the advance of the present century an increasing amount of attention has
been given to the origin and relationship of plant hybrids. About 1719 Farrcniip
raised a hybrid pink from two well-known parents, but hybrids seem first to have been
definitely recognised in the wild state, and artificially produced afterwards by Linnaus,
whose work induced KOLREUTER to carry out those laborious and careful investigations
and experiments which proved of the utmost value to his successors in the same field of
inquiry. GARTNER still further confirmed and extended his results, while HeErsert,
Wicuura, Navupin, Narcert, Darwin, Focxs, and others have carried through detailed
observations on groups, which are of great scientific import.
Many gardeners and nurserymen also early realised that new forms, often of great
beauty or striking habit, might be obtained by hybridisation, and thus a stimulus
was given to the artificial production of hybrids.
In 1881 Focke published his Pflanzen-mischlinge, in which I reckon that at least
two thousand good hybrids are recorded. Many of these are of natural production,
and their parentage may be to some degree doubtful, but a large proportion has been
artificially produced, and the parentage is accordingly better vouched for in most cases.
Hitherto, it may be said, observers have confined themselves almost entirely to noting
VOL. XXXVII. PART I. (NO. 14). 2H
204 DR J. M. MACFARLANE ON THE
the occurrence, artificial production, relative fertility, variability, and external appear-
ance of hybrids. The special aim:in this paper will be to compare their tissues and cell-
elements minutely. Short synopses of my earlier results were given in the Gardeners’
Chronicle for April and July 1890. Until after the publication of these I was not aware
that some advance had already been made in the direction indicated, and my best thanks
are due to Dr Masters for calling my attention to one or two publications on the subject.
In 1831 Professor J. S. Henstow compared* a hybrid Digitalis with its parents in
a wonderfully minute way, when we consider the degree to which histology had advanced
in his time. He demonstrated that in the size and shape of the hairs and other structures,
the hybrid was intermediate between its parents. WicHuratand KErner{ have proved
that the same is true of Willows and Pulmonarias respectively.
But to Wertstetn § belongs the credit of having compared the leaves of four coniferous
hybrids with those of the parents in general tissue arrangement. His descriptions and
illustrations are all that could be desired, and had he carried out the comparison more
minutely, much that is included in the present paper would have been superfluous. He
showed from transverse sections of the leaf that each hybrid is exactly intermediate between
its parents in the number of stomata exposed on section, the depth of the epidermal cells,
and the number and arrangement of the sclerenchyma elements of the bundles.
Since the publication of the preliminary account of my results in the Gardeners’
Chronicle, a series of communications from Monsieur Marzet Branza has appeared || which
deal, like those previously referred to, with the tissue masses only. I have not had access
to any of the seed hybrids he describes, but one plant, Cytisus Adami, which we have both
been able to examine, is either wrongly described by him, or its tissue and cell arrange-
ments differ remarkably in the examples that we have each obtained. As my results
have been drawn from detailed study of the parts of thirteen specimens, which agree —
exactly with each other, I am compelled to accept the former explanation.
While carrying out a minute comparison of upwards of sixty hybrids with their
parents, I have been led to adopt certain precautionary measures which must be kept
constantly in view if one is to arrive at safe results. These are as follows :—
(a) Average Organismal Development and Deviations from it.—It is now recognised
by botanists that every species exhibits a sum-total of naked-eye characters which dis-
tinguish it with greater or less precision from allied species. These are duly given in every
local Flora. But further, specific features—alike macroscopic and microscopic—which are
of great importance, are passed over. RapiKoFER 1 has already insisted that the anatomi-
cal method must be applied to the study of species, and I have pointed out that this is
equally true of sub-species or varieties.** But it is the sum-total or accumulation of
minute peculiarities which gives specific identity to any organism, and it is to be expected
that evident or naked-eye variations will often have their commencement in trivial struc-
* Camb. Phil. Trams., vol. iv., 1833. + Bastardbefruchtung, 1865.
t Monographia Pulmonar., 1878. § Sitz. der Kaiser. Akad. der Wissen., vol. xcvi., 1888.
|| Comptes Rendus, tome cxi. No. 6, 1890 ; Revue Générale de Botanique, tome i. Nos. 19, 22, 23.
“| Akad. de Wissenschaften, Munich, 1883. ** Trans. Bot. Soc. Edin., vol. xix., 1891.
MINUTE STRUCTURE OF PLANT HYBRIDS. 205
tural deviations, which, being perpetuated and exaggerated it may be im size, will ulti-
mately appeal to the naked eye. It was this, well illustrated in the group Cirripedia,
which forced Darwin slowly but surely to frame and enunciate his evolution hypothesis.
As plant after plant has passed under my observation, I have been greatly impressed,
not only with the average similarity in development that each shows, but even more
with the constant tendency there is for individuals to vary from that average either in
under or over development, it may be only of some small part or area, or of some large
organ, As illustrations on a somewhat large scale, I may refer to the number, position
on the stem, and size of leaves, a line of inquiry which has been entirely overlooked by
systematists, but which can afford characters of considerable value. Thus Hedychiuwm
Gardnerianum, when well grown and not overcrowded in a hot-house, sends up flowering
shoots which bear on the average thirteen lamina-producing leaves, beside one or two basal
scales. HH. coronarvum bears twenty-one, while the hybrid, H. Sadlerranum, bears seven-
teen. But not unfrequently from overcrowding, lack of light and nourishment, or other un-
favourable surroundings, the number in eachmay be considerably reduced. Conversely, when
very favourable vegetative conditions occur, these are accompanied with greater luxuriance.
A shoot of Saaifraga Arzoon, with freedom for growth, produces annually twenty-
three to twenty-six leaves; S. Gewm, forty to forty-five; and their hybrid, S. Andrewsv,
thirty to thirty-two.
During the autumn of 1890 I happened to go over a large bed of sunflowers, and in
by far the greater number twenty-seven to twenty-eight leaves were formed between the
cotyledons and terminal capitulum. A few instructive cases of variability from the
average were noted. The bed was one which sloped to the sun, and some plants at the
back that were slightly overshadowed by trees had been starved in their light and moisture
supply. ‘Their leaves were reduced to twenty or twenty-one. On the other hand, one
in a favourable situation produced thirty-one leaves.
But minute changes are correlated with these grosser variations, such as an increase or
decrease in the stomata over a given area, or in the length and number of hairs, &e. In
the choice of material, therefore, for hybrid investigation one should either be acquainted
with the parent individuals and the conditions under which they were grown, or try to
choose an average specimen of each for study.
(b) Limit of Variability.—A wide field for patient and laborious work is open in the
direction of ascertaining how far the individuals of a species may differ microscopically
without losing specific identity. As yet this field may be said to be untrodden,* but if we
are to get an exact estimate alike of species and hybrid production the knowledge must
be forthcoming. Thus Lapageria rosea is a parent form which I have chosen for pretty
exhaustive description, and though I have tried to select material from what I regard as
an average strain, this may still differ from the parent plant used, as several varieties
are known to be in cultivation. This may partially explain why it is that hybrids at
* The contributions that have recently been made (Bot. Central., Bd., xlv. xlvi.) by Schumann are exactly on the
lines desiderated, and form a valuable study in tissue variability.
206 DR J. M. MACFARLANE ON THE
times exhibit a slight divergence toward one parent. Again, I shall have to refer at
some length to the remarkable change of colour exhibited by the flowers of Dianthus
Grievei, from white on first opening to rich erimson or crimson-purple on fading. The
one parent, D. alpinus, shows scarcely any trace of such floral change, but among
the numerous varieties of D. barbatus in cultivation one exhibits the above peeuliarity
in an equally or even more striking manner.
Now, every varietal form inherits certain common specific peculiarities, and also the
points that stamp it as a variety, so that one would err in comparing the ordinary species
with the hybrid. But the very fact that varieties are often inconstant in their varietal
details, and do not hand these down in all cases so steadily as a marked species, are
reasons for our giving a certain latitude in comparison with the hybrid, but equally are
reasons for our desiring an exact knowledge of how far a specific form may vary.
(c) Comparison of Similar Parts.—In my earlier investigations it was sometimes
found that a certain part or organ of a hybrid did not exhibit intermediate blending of
the structure of both parents, but a decided leaning to one. This was at first regarded
as an instance of variation from average hybridity. But more careful and exhaustive com-
parison showed that the apparently exceptional conditions arose from choice of material
that did not agree in age, position, or opportunities for growth. Thus I stated in the
Gardeners’ Chronicle (April 1890) that while Saxifraga Aizoon had many stomata on its
upper leaf surface, and S. Gewm had none, S. Andrews resembled the latter in this
respect. Now, I had expected to find some on the leaf chosen from the hybrid, which
was one of the lowest of an annual shoot, those of the parents being from the upper parts
of shoots. On returning to the matter more recently, it was found that the closely inter-
mediate character of the hybrid was established when leaves of the same relative position and
age were chosen. Thus,since S. Aizoon produces on theaverage twenty-five leaves annually,
the hybrid thirty-two, and S. Gewm forty, if the tenth leaf from the base be chosen in the
first, we should select the fourteenth in the hybrid and the eighteenth in the other parent.
The same principle of judicious selection of material must be applied not only in dealing
with large organs but also in minuter details, such as bundle elements, matrix cells, and
sclerenchyma, as well as starch grains, chloroplasts, and other cell products.
(d) Available Limit for comparisonof Parents with their Hybrid Progeny.—During the
last decade problems bearing on the relative potency of the male and female elements in
the development of an organism have been greatly discussed. The present investiga-
tion not only throws great light on these, but will enable us to compare more accurately
than hitherto the eapabilities of each sex element. It is manifest, however, that when a
hybrid is the product of parents that are widely divergent in histological details the eom-
parison will be easy, but when we attempt to compare a hybrid with two parents which
are regarded as species, but whose chief specific differences are those of colouring and size,
it is almost or quite impossible to detect microscopically any blending of parent characters,
even though these may occur. Some may demur to accepting conclusions drawn from
comparison of the hybrids of two parents that are even moderately removed from each
MINUTE STRUCTURE OF PLANT HYBRIDS. 207
other in affinity, particularly since we know that such are frequently less fertile than the
pure product of either parents, or are entirely sterile. The objection will afterwards be
considered, but here I may premise that, as a rule, whether the parents are remotely or
closely related their evenly blended peculiarities appear, if comparison is at all possible.
To the above general conclusion, however, we must make an important exception.
In not a few cases, which will afterwards be cited, a separation or prepotency of the
sexual molecules of each parent seems clearly to be indicated.
(e) Relative Stability of Parent Forms.—Some species show both in the wild state and
under cultivation a greater degree of stability, or want of variation tendencies, than do
others. This is probably to be explained by an average structure having been slowly but
steadily evolved through crossing and recrossing of an aggregate of like individuals with
survival of those best fitted for a set of environmental conditions that remained constant
through long periods of time. These, therefore, even when removed to rather dis-
advantageous surroundings do not readily exhibit change. As examples, I may name
Erica Tetralix, E. cinerea, and Philesia buaxifolia.
One finds that the opposite is equally true of not a few species. Thus, if a series of
individuals of Geum rivale or Dianthus barbatus (cultivated) be compared microscopically,
considerable variation is traceable.
But even species which are considered to vary little, if compared from wide areas,
may present unexpected changes. An interesting illustration is furnished by a plant just
cited as one of the most invariable, viz., Hrica Tetralix. I have shown elsewhere* that
this species resolves itself into four sub-species, three of which are found in Connemara,
and these, so far as they have been experimented on, remain true under cultivation. It
is necessary, therefore, in the selection of a hybrid to know the exact type of each parent,
if not the actual parent, and to examine such alongside the hybrid offspring.
II. Comparison oF Hysrip STRUCTURE WITH THAT OF THE PARENTS.
(a) Philageria Veitchi, x .
I have chosen this hybrid—in many respects the most remarkable yet produced—
as the first type for detailed examination, so that anyone who has not the histological
sympathy necessary to the task of wading through the details of other types may
acquaint himself to some degree with the relation of a hybrid to its parents. My
choice has been made chiefly because the walls of its elements are so evidently in-
termediate throughout between those of its parents. It should be stated, how-
ever, that it does not readily furnish us with illustrations of protoplasmic and allied
modifications which less striking hybrids present. It was raised in the nurseries of
Messrs Verrcu at Exeter, by the crossing of Lapageria rosea with pollen of Philesva
buaifolia. A very good description, with figure, was given by Dr M. T. Masters in
the Gardeners’ Chronicle,t who successfully epitomised its history in its name. For
2 * Trans. Bot. Soc. Edin., vol. xix., 1891. + Gard. Chron., p. 358, 1872.
i. Lapageria
rosea.
2. Philageria
Veitchii.
3. Philesi
folia.
208 DR J. M. MACFARLANE ON THE
specimens of it and parents I am greatly indebted to the Curator of Glasnevin Gardens,
Dublin ; to the Director and Curator of the Edinburgh Botanic Garden ; to Mr Dunn of
buxi- Dalkeith Palace Gardens; and to Mr Lairp. SBoth parents are indigenous to the
western part of South America, but equally in habit, in structure, in climatic and soil
requirements they differ strikingly.
Lapageria rosea* grows in the forests which stretch along the lower levels of the
Andes from Valdivia to Conception, and produces long, wiry, whip-like stems in tufted
fashion ; these, by circumnutating movement, twine round shrubs and trees, and may attain
a length of at least twenty-five to thirty feet. Their surface is roughly striated and
warted, and is of a glaucous hue. The leaves when mature are about three inches long, flat,
and leathery, exposing an ample elaborating surface to the sunlight, while the brilliant large
flowers are produced singly or in clusters of from two to five along the upper parts. It
delights in a clear sparkling atmosphere, and in Britain must be grown in acool hothouse.
An extremely fine variety has been brought from Southern Brazil,t and is now common
in conservatories. It bears white flowers, but our knowledge of the flora indigenous to the
intervening stretch of country is still too imperfect to enable us to say whether plants with
connecting tints of flower exist there, or whether the variety is a perpetuated sport.
Philesia buaifolia.{—This is a low-growing, dense, tufted shrub attaining a height of
from ten to fifteen inches, and throwing up hard, smooth stems of reddish-green colour
bearing a few minute warts. The leaves are 14 inches long by 2 inch wide, of a leathery
consistence, and strongly reflexed ; their under surface also is of a dull white hue. The
flowers at largest are about one-third to one-half those of the other parent, and the
sepals instead of being petaloid, and nearly or quite equal to the petals in size, are of
a dull pink-green hue and one-third the length. It inhabits the swampy, unproductive,
wind and rain swept region extending from Chiloe southwards to Terra del Fuego. It
eminently belies its surroundings.
Various botanists, from Sir W. Hooxsr’s time, have accepted these parent plants as
types of two distinct genera; but after minute comparison of them one is forced to the
conclusion that they are nearly related plants which have diverged from a common type
owing to great change in surroundings.
Philageria Veitchiw.—I cannot do better than reproduce Dr Masters’ observations; for,
apart from descriptive value, they have an interest as showing the author’s views on the
affinities of the hybrid, a matter of considerable moment when we sum up its histological
minutize :—
“Messrs Vertcn’s plant is a scrambling shrub, with slender, cylindrical, flexuose, rigid,
wiry, smooth, greenish branches. ‘The leaves are alternate petiolate, about 14 inch long
by 4 inch broad, leathery, smooth, dark shining green above, paler and marked by three
prominent converging ribs below, oblong-lanceolate, pointed at the apex, and with a
* Kontu, Enum. Plant., v. 283 ; Adans., i. 44; Bot. Mag., vol. Ixxv. tome 4447 ; vol. lxxxii. tome 4892; Ball,
Jour. Linn. Soc., vol. xxii. po. 162-166. + Bot. Mag., vol. 1xxxii. tome 4892.
{t Darwin, Voyage of the Beagle; Kuntu, Enum. Plant., v. 284; Hooxur, Flora Antartica, vol. ii. p. 355 ; Bot.
Mag., vol. lxxix. tome 4738,
MINUTE STRUCTURE OF PLANT. HYBRIDS. 209
cartilaginous, very finely serrulate edge. The leaf-stalk is about } inch long, convex
below, flattened above, transversely jointed in the middle. The flower-stalks are axillary,
about the length of the petiole, and bear numerous overlapping glabrous bracts, ovate-
concave in shape, and increasing in size from below upwards. The flower is solitary,
pendulous, with a calyx of three fleshy, glaucous, pale rosy-purple, oblong-lanceolate,
boat-shaped sepals, and a corolla of an equal number of fleshy, bright rose-coloured
petals, which are slightly unequal in size, overlapping, broadly ovate-acute, with a
circular honey pore on the inner surface at the base. The stamens are six in number, free,
hypogynous or attached at the very base of the segments of the perianth, and a little
shorter than the petals. The filaments are fleshy, subulate, pink-spotted. The anthers
are about 4 inch long, yellow, linear-oblong, two-celled, dehiscing by a longitudinal
chink at the side, tubular at the base, so that the extremity of the filament is concealed
at its point of insertion by a kind of sheath ; pollen scanty. The ovary is about 4 inch long,
elliptic, glaucous, one-celled, with three parietal placentze, and surmounted by a columnar
style, which slightly exceeds the petals in length, and is terminated by a triangular
capitate stigma. The ovules are numerous and anatropal.”
“Such is the description of this hybrid production. Hybrids between two genera are,
to say the least, uncommon, and it may be that some will consider this hybrid as a proof
that Lapageria and Philesia constitute not two, but one genus. To us, however, it
seems, with a due appreciation of the arbitrary character of many of the so-called dis-
tinctions between genera, that the two genera in question are as distinct as two such allied
groups can well be. Lapageria has a regularly six-parted perianth, and free stamens :
Philesia has a distinct calyx and corolla, and partially inseparate or monadelphous
stamens. Lapageria is a climber: Philesia an erect shrub.”
“Tn habit our plant is, of the two, more akin to the female parent (Lapageria) than to
the male. Its foliage is singularly intermediate, but at the same time nearest like that
of the pollen parent (Philesia). In the characters of the flower-stalk, calyx, and corolla,
it is more like Philesia than Lapageria, but in the stamens it approximates to the
mother-plant, and diverges from the characters of the male. In colour it is also more
like the mother-plant than it is like Philesiw. The fruit we have not seen.”
“The characteristics of both parents are so curiously blended that we fear this plant
will not lend much aid to those investigators who are striving to determine what is the
effect on the offspring of pollen or seed parent respectively. On the whole, it would seem
as though the organs of vegetation, including the calyx and corolla, were more like those
of the male (Philesia), while in the stamens and pistil the progeny ‘ favour the mother.’”
I have chosen for description the largest, oldest, and most mature material available ;
and, unless otherwise stated in the text, it is from this that preparations have been made
throughout.*
* In all succeeding descriptions the names of parents and hybrids are printed at the top of each page, and numbered
in italics. The seed parent, if determined, is in all cases 1, the hybrid 2, and pollen parent 3. For brevity these
numbers are used in the text.
1, Lapageria
rosea.
2. Philageria
Veitchii.
8 Philesia buxi-
folia,
!, Lapageria
rosea.
2, Philageria
Veitchii.
3. Philesia buxi-
folia.
210 DR J. M. MACFARLANE ON THE
Root.—Transverse sections of the root of Z (Plate I. fig. 3) show that the epidermis
soon ruptures, and is destroyed by abrasion or is shed in patches. Where tracts of it
are left like the one seen in the figure, the cells are equilateral or columnar in outline with
more or less rounded angles, and measure 40 w across. A considerable degree of variability
is shown in the outline of these, and this is in striking contrast with corresponding cells
of 3, which are very uniform. As might be expected from its duration, and as is proved
when soft young roots are examined, the cuticular layer is always thin. The epidermis of
3 is strongly persistent (Plate I. fig. 1), and is made up of cells which are one and a half
to two and a half times broader than deep, measuring 80 by 60 mw on the average. Hach
has a very thick cuticle on its outer face, which is continued as a thinner layer inwards
between adjoining cells, and the cuticular lamellz are very evident. Large unthickened
areas, with pore apertures, occur over the transverse partitions. In 2 the epidermis (Plate
I. fig. 2) persists well on the whole, though here and there one finds areas over which
rupture and decay of cells has begun. Lach cell is from equilateral to columnar, but
considerable variability is shown, thus the cells in the figure are slightly columuar, but
others in my possession are decidedly more like those of 3. But a very constant feature
is the amount and disposition of cuticular substance. As shown by comparison of
figs. 6, 5, and 4, the amount is about half of the parent extremes, and is thickest externally,
thinning out round the sides. On the transverse partitions are unthickened areas
that show smaller and more minute pores than in 2.
The outer cortex of 7 (fig. 6), to the extent of eight to ten layers, is greatly thickened
in its elements, by sclerenchyma deposits, of which the external three or four zones are
smaller in size and more thickened in their walls than those internal. The latter pass,
by a pretty gradual transition, into the large-celled parenchyma of the inner cortex.
The average size of the sclerenchyma elements is 20 w. In 3 the outer cortex (fig. 4)
is strongly thickened only in the sub-epidermal cell layer, each element of which has a
greater amount of thickening over its outer than over its lateral faces, and measures 60
across. Beneath this are one or two layers very feebly thickened and smaller than the
last (40 to 50 «), which are demarcated abruptly from the thin-walled large-celled paren-
chyma. In 2 (fig. 5) four to five layers are thickened, and of these the external one is
made up of rather larger cells which show a greater thickening of their outer than of their
lateral walls. The cells measure 32 to 35 mw across, and are continuous, by a row of transi-
tion cells, with the inner large-celled parenchyma.
The inner cortex of / is a cylinder of twenty to twenty-five cell layers, the average size
of the elements being 45 to 50 yw. ‘The two or three innermost layers next to the bundle-
sheath are shallow and flattened. That of 31s a cylinder of eight to nine open loose-
looking cell layers, the cells of which are 100 to 120 p across, Only the innermost layer
may be slightly smaller but not flattened. In 2 the cylinder consists of fifteen to seven-
teen layers whose elements are 70 to 75 w; the innermost layers are flattened, and the
ove external to it smaller in its cells than those of the general cortex.
The bundle-sheath is of considerable interest. In (Plate I. fig. 9) it consists of small
MINUTE STRUCTURE OF PLANT HYBRIDS. 211
isodiametric cells 18 to 20 pw across; their walls are thickened by five to six lamelle,
which enclose a circular or oval lumen (fig. 10c). In 2 (fig. 7) the cells are radially
elongated, measuring 48 to 50 pw in radial direction, and 35 to 40 mw tangentially, so that
each cell is barely one and a half times deeper than wide; there are eleven to twelve
highly refractive lamelle, while the almost obliterated lumen of the cell is an elongated
slit (fig. 10a). In 2 (fig. 8) the cells are mostly elongated radially, though rarely one
finds a nearly isodiametric cell; they measure 35 mw in depth and 20 to 22 p» in width.
Hach has eight or nine lamellze, which are less refractive than in 3 (fig. 100).
_ The pericambium in all is very much alike, and its constituents soon undergo
thickening and conversion into permanent tissue. '
The phloem patches of J (fig. 9ph) vary from twenty-three to twenty-eight in all
mature roots examined ; those of 3 are eight to ten in number; while in the hybrid there
may be seventeen to twenty patches.
The xylem of 7 has its wood tracheids most strongly thickened in a circular area
which extends round internal to the phloem, while the radiating xylem spokes show pretty
large spiral tracheids. The centre consists of cells that are slightly thickened, and which
form a root pith. The pitted vasa are large, numerous, often disposed in groups of
two to three, and average 60 » across. The xylem of 3 shows thickest tracheids in the
middle, with narrow, irregular radiating spokes passing out between the phloem patches.
One pitted vas, or rarely two, occurs in the angle between each pair of phloem patches,
and measures 37 to 40 w across. The xylem of 2 is made up of tracheids pretty uniformly
thickened, or rather less so internally than externally ; the pitted vasa are more numerous
than the phloem tracts, and are occasionally grouped in pairs, very rarely in triplets.
Hach measures 48 to 50 p.
The root, therefore, is very exactly intermediate in the tissues outside the bundle cylinder,
but the cylinder itself slightly diverges towards the seed parent in some of its features.
[I do not refer in detail here to longitudinal views of the root elements, as they
fundamentally resemble those of the stem, which will now be examined. |
Stem.—The descriptions of this have been taken from preparations made at a level of
one inch above ground. As already stated briefly, the glaucous stem of 7 is roughened
both by longitudinal ridges and by a close-set series of wart-like papille, that are often
cut through in transverse sections. The stem of 3 is quite smooth, except that here and
there minute warts similar to those of 1, but greatly reduced in size, are sparingly pre-
sent. In the hybrid, as we shall see, there is a very exact blending of the two conditions.
Transverse and longitudinal sections of 7 show epidermal cells whose free surfaces are
traversed by four to six of the ridges above mentioned, each measuring 5 p in depth
(Plate IT. figs. 3,6). The cells have grown out in a part of the figure cited, so as to form
one of the papillz which are distinguished with the naked eye. Lach cell is isodia-
metric or slightly columnar, and while the outer surface is strongly cuticularised the lateral
faces are little altered. The average size of each is 60 » long by 35 p wide and 40 p
deep. In 3 the free faces of the cells are quite smooth (figs. 1, 4), and the thick cuticle is
VOL. XXXVII. PART I. (NO. 14). 21
i, Lapageria
rosea.
2, Philageria
Veitchii.
8, Philesia buxi-
folia.
J. Lapageria
9
~
3
rosea,
. Philageria
Veitchii,
. Philesia buxi-
folia.
2129 DR J. M. MACFARLANE ON THE
proportionately in depth as 4 to 3 in Lapageria. ach cell is tangentially fattened,
and the cuticular layer is continued inwards in wedge fashion along the lateral walls.
Its average size is 100 w long by 30 w wide and 25 w deep. In 2 the free epidermal cell
faces have ridges 24 to 3 mw deep (figs. 2, 5). Hach cell is intermediate in shape, and
measures 80 » long by 30 w wide and 35 pw deep. It should be said, however, that while
this is the average of many measurements, the cells are variable in size. ‘The cuticle
dips in along the lateral walls in wedge-like fashion as in 3.
The outer cortex in 7 is made up (fig. 3) of twenty to twenty-five layers of large,
moderately thickened cells, which pass abruptly into an inner cortex of fifteen to twenty
layers of dense sclerenchymatous cells nearly or quite uniform in thickening and trans-
lucency. ach cell wall of the latter elements shows four to five thickening lamelle.
In 3 (fig. 1) the outer cortex consists of nine to ten layers, the cells of which are larger and less
thickened than in the last. The inner cortex shows three to four indurated layers, of which
one or two external are greatly thickened and brown pigmented, the internal ones having
clear and less thickened walls. The former exhibit eleven or twelve thickening lamelle. In
2 (fig. 2) there are fifteen to seventeen layers in the outer cortex, and in the inner nine to
eleven. The outermost cells of the latter are slightly pigmented brown if mature stems
are chosen near the level of the ground. Hach wall has seven to nine thickening lamelle.
Longitudinal views of the three demonstrate that there is a very pretty intermediate
condition in the hybrid between the numerous and distinct wall pits of the outer cortex
in 7, and the few and faintly-marked pits in 3.
The central parenchyma of the stem is small-celled, thick-walled, and pretty uniform
in 7; that of 3 is large-celled, thin-walled, except for a few isolated and more strongly
indurated elements scattered irregularly. The hybrid is very closely between these
conditions. In longitudinal view the relative amount of thickening and distribution of
the wall pits is equally noticeable here as in the outer cortex.
Vascular Bundle System.—The stem bundles appear in all cases to be greatly larger
in Z than in the other parent or hybrid, the average diameters being as 400 w in 7 to
250 » in 2, and 180 to 200 w in 3. If, therefore, the hybrid material was sufhciently
matured, it approaches here to the pollen parent.
In Z the phloem patches (fig. 9) are 85 to 90 » deep, and are made up of large sieve-
tubes, each 40 to 45 p across, along with others that are smaller but of varying size; also
of companion cells 8 to 10 p across. The xylem has a flat or slightly convex face next the
stem centre, and its main mass is made up of two large scalariform vasa.* Hach vas is 100
to 120 p across, and between each pair are smaller radially-elongated scalariform or pitted
vasa (or tracheids), and in line with the front of the vasa is a small protoxylem patch.
In 2 the phloem patches (fig. 7) are 45 to 50 p deep, the sieve-tubes are nearly uniform
in size, unlike those of 7, and measure 20 to 25 » across, while the companion cells are 5 to
8p. The xylem is typically wedge-shaped, the back part next the phloem being occupied
* In compound or branching bundles several of these, usually of smaller size, may represent the above, and the same
is true regarding the others treated of.
MINUTE STRUCTURE OF PLANT HYBRIDS. 213
on each side by two scalariform vasa 50 to 70 p across, and dense, thick-walled tissue unites
them. Jn front are scalariform or pitted tracheids, which project inwards to form the
greater extent of the xylem wedge. The innermost part of the wedge consists of a
transversely elongated mass of protoxylem tissue.
In 2 the phloem patches (fig. 8) are 50 to 60 p deep, the sieve-tubes are 25 to 28 yu across,
and the inner are rather larger than the outer, while the companion cells measure 7 to 9 p.
The xylem is not so deeply wedge-shaped asin 3; the scalariform vasa are 75 to 85 «across,
and are united by slightly indurated cells, in front of which are radially-elongated scalari-
form and pitted tracheids, while a small oval protoxylem patch completes the bundle.
Leaf.—The petiole in parents and hybrid is divisible into a lower, flattened-out, and
concave region, in whose axil a cone-shaped bud develops. This is very closely protected in
Philesia by the concave petiole base bending up in knee-like manner round it; in Lapageria,
however, and to a less extent in Philageria, the bud is well exposed. The upper petiolar
region, which extends beyond the level of the bud apex, is usually plano-convex, or a
groove may traverse the flat face of it.
These two regions are characterised by marked histological differences; the matrix
cells of the lower part are only moderately thickened, but many of the upper are so
thickened as to become hard stone cells.
The epidermis of the three agrees with that of the stem, except that in Philesia the
cuticular surface shows ridge-like striz 1 » or less in height, as compared with those of
Loapageria, which are 3 to 4 pw, and of Philageria, which are 14 to 2p. That this structural
feature should be general in Lapageria, and only traceable over the leaf of Philesia,
affords strong evidence of their near relationship.
Considerable variety exists in the distribution of the stone cells in the upper petiolar
region, but on the average few occur just beneath the epidermis in 7, though they are
massed as an indurated matrix round the central bundles. In 32 the entire circum-
vascular matrix is dotted over by stone cells, which, after staining and decolorising, are
very sharply differentiated from the unthickened cells. In 2 the distribution is evenly
intermediate, in some leaves examined, in others a massing towards the centre, as in 7,
predominates.
Seven bundles, or rarely five, run through the petiole in 1; five bundles are usual in
2; three, with at times two smaller ones, occur in 3. The size and number of sieve-tubes,
vasa, and tracheids are closely intermediate in the hybrid.
The lamina may fairly be regarded as the most instructive part of the plant, for one can
scarcely desire to encounter greater diversity in two parents than is here shown in size,
form, consistence, and structure, while a more exact blending of these in the hybrid could
hardly be expected.
On surface view * the upper epidermis of 7 shows cells of varying size (Plate III. fig. 6),
but with white wavy refractive walls. Though the majority are of a radiate type, it is
* For preparations of the epidermis and other parts, as also for similar preparations of other species, the potash method
of maceration has proved invaluable (Proc. Brit. Assoc., Aberdeen, 1885), since it enables one to get clean and large areas
for examination. ;
1, Lapageria
rosea,
2, Philageria
Veitchii.
8, Philesia buxi-
folia,
/, Lapageria
rosea,
2. Philageria
Veitchii.
3. Philesia buxi-
folia,
214 DR J. M. MACFARLANE ON THE
not uncommon to find elongated cells over the veins. The lower epidermal cells (fig. 9).
are more sinuous in outline, thinner in their walls, and of smaller size. The stomata
which lie amongst these are irregularly disposed and freely exposed on the surface. Under
Zeiss’ D objective with 4 eyepiece, ten to eleven are seen over the field. The upper epidermis
of 3 shows cells of varying size, but with straight, yellowish, and thick walls, abundantly
traversed by pore canals. The lower epidermis has to the naked eye a whitish waxen
appearance, and this is found from microscopic study to be due to extremely minute
wart-like papille that are deepest over the outer area of each convex cell surface.
The presence of these breaks up and diffuses the light. They are not wax excretions
since they are unaltered by all wax tests; neither do they appear to be pure
cuticle, though their persistence in an unaltered state after many chemical tests suggests
a peculiar modification of cuticle. I have at times noticed on surface view what seemed
to be the homologue of them in Lapageria, though of extreme fineness, but vertical
sections have as yet failed to reveal their undoubted presence.
It occurred to me that this peculiar formation in Philesia might be a development
suiting it to climatic surroundings, and that other genera from the same region might agree
with it. The first plant selected for comparison was Astelia racemosa, which is very
different in its general features though included in the same natural order. Its lower
leaf epidermis showed exactly similar surface formations, so that a further examination
of plants from the same region is highly desirable.
The lower epidermal cells of 3 (fig. 7) have strongly convex surfaces, are straight
walled, and, as pointed out by Ds Bary,* the stomata are in rows, while “ the slits run
perpendicular to the axis” of the organ. ‘They are so deeply sunk, however, that the
guard cells are entirely hid, and the stomatic orifice is seen as a faint slit in the
depression between adjoining epidermal cells. Commonly one stoma alternates with
each epidermal cell, so that thirty-two to thirty-four are visible under Zeiss’ D with
4 ocular.
The outline of the upper epidermal cells of 2 in some specimens examined were
decidedly more like those of 3 than 7 (Plate III. fig. 5), the waviness of the walls bemg
very slight, and the thickening considerable; but even in such, one could readily trace
the effect of Lapageria parentage if preparations of the three were placed side by side.
In other material, however, the outline was as exactly intermediate as if one had
attempted carefully to draw it so. This is one of the many examples which one constantly
encounters of variability in a hybrid, as in species, and demonstrates the need of exact
comparison as to age, position on the stem, food supply, &c., for I believe that consideration
of such points probably explains the apparent discrepancy.
Apart from this, however, it is generally to be noticed that both upper and lower
epidermal cells of the hybrid are equal to, if not larger than, the largest of either parent.
Those of 7 are on the average larger than those of 2, but in the hybrid they may be larger
than in either parent. Now, from K6LReuTEr’s time onward, the increased luxuriance of
* Comp. Anat. Phan. and Ferns, Eng. ed., 1884, p. 45.
MINUTE STRUCTURE OF PLANT HYBRIDS. 215
some hybrids over either parent has arrested attention, and it has been accounted for by
supposing that the strength which is not spent in fruit production passes into the vegetative
parts. For many reasons this can scarcely be accepted as a true explanation, and the case
now adduced leads us rather to believe that its cause is to be sought for in some deep-seated
cell condition which exists before the reproductive organs have appeared. Evidence
could easily be adduced to prove that it as often exists in fertile as in sterile hybrids ;
probably even more so in the former, if my data give a true index to the entire range
of hybrids, while Focks shares the same opinion.* I would suggest that an explanation
is to be had rather from the standpoint of exaggerated cross-fertilisation effects, and
that increase of the hybrid over the parents is due to increase in size of cells rather
than to increased multiplication of them.
The lower epidermis (Plate III. fig. 8) is very neatly intermediate in shape of the
cells and disposition of stomata. The former have a waviness derived from 7, but also
a transverse extension usually which is derived from & ‘The stomata, though
partaking somewhat of the irregularity of 7, can readily be followed in undulating
les asin 3. But under the same area as above there are only eighteen to twenty
stomata, which would be explained if we take imto account the increased size of the
epidermal cells. At the same time such a distribution suggests points of great com-
plexity relating to transpiration, &c., which we cannot here enter into.
I would draw attention, however, to the cuticular warting, which is, as nearly as one
can measure, half as strongly developed as in Philesia, and, like that parent, is most
strongly formed on the slightly arching sides of the epidermal cells.
Several authors assert that there are fundamental differences in the leaf venation of the
parents. Reference to Plate III. figs. 3, 2, and 1, will show that both are modifications
of a common fundamental type, and that the hybrid exactly connects them in distribution
of the large and small veins alike. The leaf venation, in truth, coincides with other parts
in teaching us that Lapageria is a form specialised for living under mild environmental
conditions, while Philesia is equally specialised for rigorous atmospheric surroundings.
The reduction in the number of longitudinal vascular bundles in Phzlesia, their greater
size and strength, their firm union at the apex, the strong nature of the transverse or
oblique girders, and their reduction in number, all point to derivation from a type
nearly like the hybrid, and that alteration has occurred to suit the ‘peculiar climatic
surroundings which Darwin, Acassiz, and others have depicted as existing on the
West Fuegian coast.
Transverse sections of 7, taken at equal distances from apex and base of the leaf,
show that the epidermal cells just over the median vascular bundle, though narrower than
the average of those over the leaf surface, are quite as deep. They are separated from the
indurated sheath of the bundle by one or two layers of rounded cells continuous with those
of the palisade parenchyma. In 2 the epidermis over the median bundle is depressed, and
its cells are greatly reduced in width and depth, so that they form a median line very
* Pflanzen-mischlinge, p. 475.
J. Lapageria
rosea,
2. Philageria
Veitchii.
3, Philesia buxi-
folia,
~
. Philesia buxi-
folia.
216 DR J. M. MACFARLANE ON THE
different from the epidermis over the lamina. These small cells abut directly against the
indurated elements round the bundle, so that the palisade parenchyma of the leaf is sharply
interrupted in its continuity along this line. In 2 the female parent is more nearly
approached, but a slight flattening of its epidermal cells occurs, and the cells con-
tinuous with the palisade layer become shallower above the indurated sheath.
In 1 the parenchyma beneath the sheath and next to the lower epidermis is largely
developed, there being four to five layers of rounded, loose-looking, and often thick-walled
cells. In 3asingle layer only occurs beneath the bundle, and its cells are thin walled,
while in 2 there are two to three layers, and some of the cells in these are slightly
indurated after the type of 7.
The upper mesophyll of 7 is made up of three to four palisade cell layers, which,
however, scarcely deserve the name in its ordinary application, as the cell elements
are quadrangular or isodiametric. They measure on the average 35 mw in depth and
width. The intercellular spaces between these are of considerable size. The spongy
mesophyll is one and a quarter to one and a half times as deep as the upper, and is
composed of rounded or branching cells separated by cavernous intercellular spaces. In
old leaves the walls may be strengthened by reticulate or hoop-like secondary deposits.
The mesophyll of 3 is made up of two palisade cell layers, which pass by abrupt transition
into a dense spongy lower zone. ‘The cells in the uppermost of the two palisade layers
are closely packed, and are three and a half times deeper than broad, those of the lower
are two to two and a half times deeper than broad, the former measuring 110 by 30 p, the
latter 75 by 35 w. The cells of the spongy zone are very irregular in shape, usually
closely pressed against each other, but may have small cavernous spaces. In 2 the two
uppermost layers are clearly defined as a palisade tissue, and traces of a third may
be distinguished. The cells of the top layer are 70 to 80 » deep by 35 mw wide, and those
of the subjacent one 50 to 60 w deep by 35 w wide. Though fewer and smaller than in
the parent, intercellular spaces like those in 7 occur between the walls of the palisade cells.
The median vascular bundle with its indurated sheath is in the proportion of 10 in 7
to 9 in the hybrid and 8 to 84 in 3, but the relative size and amount of tissue components
differ strikingly. In 7 the masses of sheath tissue and of bundle tissue are nearly equal in
amount; in 2 the sheath tissue is considerably in excess of the bundle tissue, the propor-
tion being as 24 or 3:1; while in 2 the sheath is strongly developed, and is in proportion
to the bundle as 5:1. The indurated cells in 7 are thick walled, isodiametric, and uniform
with each other, measuring on the average 20 » across. The vascular bundle tissue is oval
or circular in outline, and its main mass is made up of wood vasa and tracheids, the largest
of the former being 20 wacross. The indurated cells of 3 are mostly large round the periphery,
and measure 37 to 40 mw across, the inner are densely-packed, small, thick-walled cells,
irregular in shape, and dissimilar with each other, but the average measurement is
20 to 25 w across. The small bundle is lanceolate in outline, with wood scarcely larger
than bast, and the largest vasa measure 10 to 12 w across. In 2 the indurated cells are
larger externally, where they measure 30 to 32 »; internally they are denser and average
MINUTE STRUCTURE OF PLANT HYBRIDS. 217
20 to 22 w. The wood approaches more nearly in outline and disposition that of 7, while
the largest vasa are 15 to 16 mw across.
The lateral bundles, which run along the leaf margin in the three, exhibit the above
peculiarities in an even more accentuated manner.
Equally interesting, as in the petiole, is the occurrence along the leaf margins alike
in parents and hybrid of cuticular ridges, each of which is 4 in 7,3 in 3, and 3 to 384 p
in 2. It will thus be seen that along the leaf margin in Philesia the ridges are more
developed than on the petiole, and approach very closely to what one finds in Lapageria.
Sepals.—The large crimson fleshy sepals of 7 are nearly or quite the length of the
petals in most cases, but I have gathered blossoms on three occasions in which they were only
about two-thirds as long. This is of some little importance as showing that there is consider-
able tendency to reduction in the leneth of the sepals compared with the petals. At the base
of each, and between their lateral attachments to the receptacle, is a large, deeply-excavated
nectar-cavity shown in median longitudinal section in Plate III. fig. 12. On transverse
section it is shaped like the letter U, except that the arms are more diverging, and from
the vascular bundles which run up into the sepal many branches pass inwards and are
richly distributed beneath the gland tissue. The gland, which is a convex pad-like
cushion, consists of a surface epidermal layer, the cells of which are greatly smaller and more
richly protoplasmic than ordinary epidermal cells, while beneath are twelve to thirteen
layers that are more irregular and variable in outline. I have counted several carefully
selected gland sections, and find that these show 170 cells in length, 50 in’ width, and 13
deep on the average, or a total of about 115,000 cells. In 3 the green or reddish-green sepals
are at most one-third the length of the reddish-pink petals ; each is thin, slightly membran-
ous and inserted by a narrowed base into the receptacle. As shown in Plate III. fig. 10,
there is no trace of gland tissue, while the simple vascular bundles form no inferior plexus.
On transverse section it is convex externally. In? the sepals are greenish red, about one-
half to five-eighths the length of the petals, and rather fleshy in consistence. Each has at
‘its base a honey-gland (fig, 11), which is a raised cushion-like mass as in 7, and on trans- -
verse section is semilunar, or nearly sickle-shaped. A rich plexus of vascular bundles
ramifies beneath it. The gland shows, as nearly as can be estimated, 90 to 95 cells in long
direction, 50 across, and 10 deep, or a total of about 45,000 to 48,000 cells. When one
thinks of the extreme difficulty of exact estimation here, too great stress can scarcely be
laid on numbers, but that the bulk of the gland is almost or exactly half that of Lapa-
geria one recognises when each is isolated. It may be safely inferred here, therefore,
since many other cases confirm it, that the reduction of the hybrid gland by half is due
to actual reduction in number of cells.
On surface view the upper epidermal cells in Z are as broad as, or broader than, long,
while the walls are very thin and delicate. In 3 the cells are irregularly elongate, and
have thickened walls penetrated by evident pore canals. In 2 the cell shape and wall
thickening incline rather to Lapageria, but the effects of Philesia action are quite pro-
nounced.
i. Lapageria
rosea,
2, Philageria
Veitchii.
3, Philesia buxi-
folia.
. Lapageria
rosea.
. Philageria
Veitchii.
. Philesia buxi-
folia.
218 DR J. M. MACFARLANE ON THE
The mesophyll substance agrees with that of root, stem, and vegetative leaf in that
its cells are smallest in 7, largest in 3, and intermediate in 2; but, further, Philesva has
brown pigment cells of varying size, which are well shown in fig. 10. I have failed to
find traces of these in the hybrid, though we shall see that they appear in the petals,
being inherited from those of Philesia.
Petals.—In 1 the honey-gland is developed at the bottom of a rather deep pouch, the
opening of which is seen between the bases of the stamens, and these cover the gland cavity
over two-thirds of its area. In longitudinal section its upper part protrudes suddenly from
the petal surface, and forms a thick pad which gradually tapers out below. At its upper
thickest portion it consists of nineteen to twenty-one cell layers deep. The vascular bundles
distributed to the gland are arranged ina rather loose and open manner, one set of bundles
—the gland bundles proper—lying immediately beneath the gland tissue, the remainder,
from which the former are given off, lying external to, and in most cases alternate with
them. In 3 the gland is a nearly circular pad of tissue lying exposed at the base of the
petal, and though on longitudinal section it swells out rather abruptly above, it retains a
very uniform depth throughout till near its base. The greater mass of the gland is
composed of ten to eleven cell layers, and beneath the whole the vascular bundles are
densely arranged side by side, or obliquely beside each other. In 2 the gland is in every
respect intermediate, for I have failed to find any feature in which it specially sways to
either parent.
The external epidermal cells in the three greatly resemble each other, but when one
turns to the inner surface those over the upper part and down the middle towards the
base of the petal in 7 are mostly broader than long, though at the edges they are
equilateral, or longer than broad. In 3 the cells at the top are mostly twice as long as
broad, while below they become even more elongated proportionately. The hybrid cells
are intermediate. One does not find cells in Lapageria with brown granular contents
such as occur on the sepals and petals of Philesia: but though absent on the sepals so far
as I can trace, they are present in the petals of the hybrid, though the contents are paler.
Stamens.—I have not attempted to compare minutely either stamens or carpels, but
the pollen grains have been examined with care. In both parents the pollen cells are
spherical, echinated, and well formed in good flowers, those of Philesia being slightly larger
than those of Lapageria. The cells of the hybrid, however, are to all appearances bad
to the extent of at least 95 to98 per cent. They are very irregular, small, shrivelled, and
starved-looking shells ; a few approach in size and form to those of the parents, but only
two or three in a hundred are at all well formed. I should consider, therefore, that
attempts to recross this hybrid would be attended with great difficulty. No com-
parison is made of the more vital parts in Philageria or its parents, since the very
pronounced character of their cell walls militate against convenient examination of the cell-
contents; but the careful manner in which molecule has been added to molecule in these
walls, proves that the building substance or protoplasm which has accomplished this work
in the hybrid must be an intimately blended product of that of the parents—ze., that
MINUTE STRUCTURE OF PLANT HYBRIDS. 219
the male element or fertilising cell of the pollen grain and the female element or egg-cell
of the ovule have equally contributed to the rearing of the hybrid organism.
But ‘to quit now our consideration of Philageria as a hybrid, it may possibly
possess an interest in the future from the standpoint of species evolution. That Philesia
and Lapageria are closely-related forms cannot well be doubted from what we have
already seen of their histological details. The older botanists, guided only by naked-eye
characters, considered that the parents well deserved to be ranked as genera. The latest
advocate of this view was Sir Witit1am Hooker, but his distinguished son, Sir JosEPH
Hooker, thus expresses himself in his Flora Antarctica :—‘‘ With regard to the genus
Lapageria, it is so closely allied to Philesia that I doubt its validity, the chief differences
being the nearly equally-divided perianth of Lapageria, its more distinctly three-lobed
stigma, oblong berry, twining branches, and differently nerved leaves, in all which respects
it is more evidently a genus of Smlacee than either Callixene or Philesia.” Now, in
all of these features, except the twining nature of the stems, I have noticed examples of
Lapageria which tend to break down the generic distinctions.
Thus the nearly equally-divided perianth in Lapageria is not invariable nor is the
fusion of stamens, while the figures of leaf-venation prove that both are fundamentally the
same. ‘Therefore we believe that the differences in the parents may largely be explained
as modifications on some original common type brought about to suit the greatly altered
environmental conditions. Here I may be allowed to quote the opinion of the late Joun
Batt, F.R.S.:*—“ The true explanation, in my opinion, of the exceptional poverty of the
Patagonian flora is to be sought in the direction long ago indicated by CHarLes Darwin,
when, in discussing the absence of tree-vegetation from the Pampas, he remarks that in
that region, recently raised from the sea, trees are absent, not because they cannot grow
and thrive, but hecause the only country from which they could have been derived—
tropical and subtropical South America—could not supply species organised to suit the
soil and climate. So it happened in Patagonia—raised from the sea during the latest
geological period, and bounded to the west by a great mountain range mainly clothed
with an Alpine flora requiring the protection of snow in winter, and to the north by a
warm temperate region whose flora is mainly of modified subtropical origin—the only
plants that could occupy the newly-formed region were the comparatively few species,
which, though developed under very different conditions, were sufliciently tolerant of
change to adapt themselves to the new environment. The flora is poor, not because the
land cannot support a richer one, but because the only regions from which a large popu-
lation could be derived are inhabited by races unfit for emigration. The rapidity with
which many introduced species have spread in this part of South America is, perhaps, to
be accounted for less by any special fitness of the immigrant species than by the fact that
the ground is to a great extent unoccupied. Doubtless, if no such interference had taken
place, and the operation were left to the slow action of natural causes, a gradual increase
‘in the vegetable population would come about. Fresh species of Andean plants would
* Jour. Linn. Soc., vol. xxi. p. 207.
VOL. XXXVII. PART I. (NO, 14). » 2K
1, Lapageria
rosea.
2. Philageria
Veitchii.
8, Philesia buxi-
folia.
7, Lapageria
rosea.
2 Philageria
Veitchii.
3 Philesia buxi-
folia.
220 DR J. M. MACFARLANE ON THE
gradually become modified to suit the climate of the plain (perhaps one such recent
instance is supplied in Boopis laciniata of the following list); still more slowly new
varieties would have been developed among the indigenous plants, from which, by natural
selection, new species would have been formed. No doubt these causes have been in
action during the short time that has elapsed since Patagonia has existed as part of the
continent ; but the time has been far too short to allow of the development of a rich and
varied flora. We are apt, I think, to underrate the extreme slowness of the operation of
the agencies that modify the forms of vegetation, and the fact that change in arboreal
vegetation must, other things being the same, proceed much more slowly than with
herbaceous, especially annual plants. How many of the plants found in fossil miocene
deposits, enormously more ancient than the commencement of the Patagonian flora, are
more than slightly modified forms of existing species?” We may either consider the
ancestral type to have been nearly related to Philesia, and by suitable surroundings to
have evolved the finer Lapageria; or, conversely, a type allied to the latter may by degrada-
tion have resulted in Philesia ; or some nearly intermediate type, whose home may have
been on the Andes of South Chili, may have branched off, one on the developmental, one on
the degradation line. In this intermediate type we should practically recognise our
hybrid Philageria. It is perfectly within the limits of possibility that on some of the
Southern Cordilleras of the Andes, about whose flora we know as yet extremely little, a
natural product may be encountered in which we have very nearly reproduced the
artificial form Philageria. I can scarcely doubt that some of our hybrids are artificial
pictures of what once flourished as the progenitors of our present-day species.
The descriptions which follow pertain to eight hybrid plants and their parents, and these
have been selected as typical examples of groups of flowering plants, or as presenting us
in many cases with interesting features in the relation of hybrid to parent, while most of
them are well known and easily procurable by any who wish to verify details of structure,
These are the following, w indicating wild or natural hybrids :—
1. Dianthus Griever =D. alpinus x D. barbatus.
2.wGeum intermedium =G. rivale co G. urbanum.
3. Ribes Culverwellii = Rh. Grossularia x BR. nigrum.
4. wSaxifraga Andrewsiz =S. Aizoon co S. Geum.
5.wErica Watsoni =F. ciliaris ce H. Tetralix.
6. Bryanthus erectus = Menziesia empetriformis, var. Drummondii, x Rhododendron Chameey yi
7. Masdevallia Chelsoni =M. amabitis x M. Veitchiana.
8. Cypripedium Leeanum = C. insigne x C. Spicerianum.
In addition, about sixty-five hybrids and their parents have been examined in some
of their parts, and reference will be made at a later stage to evidence of special value
which some of these yield.
(b) Dianthus Grievei, x.
This hybrid was raised by Mr Liypsay of the Royal Botanic Garden, Edinburgh,
The seed parent is a low-growing, narrow-leaved, one-(rarely two-) flowered pink, attaining
a height when in blossom of from two to three inches. D. barbatus—the Sweet William—
MINUTE STRUCTURE OF PLANT HYBRIDS. 221
is too common to need description. As every one is aware, many varieties of the latter are
in cultivation, and the strain which furnished pollen is not definitely known. Equally from
naked-eye and microscopic examination I regard it as one which had bright green vegetative
parts, and a corolla white on first opening but gradually becoming crimson with maturity.
Such a strain existed in the Edinburgh Garden, and flowered during the past summer.
Accepting this as probable, it may be noted that in D. alpinus the flowering shoot
produces four to five pairs of vegetative leaves beneath the inflorescence; that of D. barbatus,
nine to ten; and that of the hybrid, six to seven. The calyx is claret-coloured in the first,
and one, or it may be all, of the sepals show ared tip. That of D. barbatus is green, while
the hybrid shows an intermediate tint with red tip to one or all of the sepals.
I need not describe the naked-eye appearances further than to point out a peculiar
periodic colouring of the corolla referred to above. When the petals of D. alpinus first
push out from the calyx their outer surface is white, and the inner is pale pink. On
full expansion they are rose pink with crimson eye, while before withering they assume a
deep purple-crimson hue, this happening about nine days after expansion. In the strain of
D. barbatus noted above, each flower from the bud state till two days after expansion is
white, then it assumes a gradually increasing pink tinge till the sixth day, when it is rose
pink, it then deepens till the twelfth day, and before withering is of a crimson colour. In
the hybrid an intermediate series of changes are passed through, the final colour being
paler than that of the seed parent.
Stem Structure.—The mature stems of the second year from which the leaves have
withered are inproportion of 1: 14 or 2:3. The stem epidermis of 7 (Plate IV. fig. 7) persists
as a layer round an outer cortex of 3 to 4 zones of cells, of which the most external are largest:
within this is a cork cambium, on either side of which six to eight layers of cork and
phelloderm have formed, the latter adding to the depth of the internal four-zoned cortex
which surrounds the phloem. In D. barbatus (fig. 9), the epidermis and three to four
external layers of outer cortex cells easily separate from one to three internal layers, which
persist and surround a sclerenchyma sheath four to five cell-rows deep, within which a faint
line of cork cambium can be traced. The internal cortex consists of seven to eight zones,
whose elements are largest in the middle. In the hybrid (fig. 8) there is a distinct separation
tendency in the epidermis, and there are one to two cortical cell layers ; internal to these are
two to three layers lying against a sclerenchyma sheath that is two to three zones deep,
and the elements of which are half as much thickened as those of the last. ‘The cork
cambium is evident, and three to four derived layers lie external and internal to it. The
inner cortex consists of five to six cell-rows whose units are on the average intermediate
between those of the parent.
The phloem of the three closely agrees in size of the elements, though it differs greatly
in total amount in the three forms.
In 7 the xylem vasa are few in number, but sharply isolated ; in3 they are numerous,
and often in groups of two or three ; in the hybrid they are intermediate in number, but
seldom grouped.
1, Dianthus
alpinus.
2, Dianthus
Grievei.
3. Dianthus
barbatus,
bo
i)
Ww
DR J. M. MACFARLANE ON THE
Bee When the middle part of the aerial flowering stem is examined, ze. the part towards
Bi vn the base of the third internode in /, of the fifth in 2, and of the seventh in 2, the cuticle
rievel, . . :
——— of the epidermis is in proportion of 1} to 24 to 3. The outer cortex in 7 is made up of nine
arbatus,
to ten chlorophyll layers; in 2 of seven to eight; in 3 of six. ‘The innermost layer is
largest in all, but the cells in the three are in the proportion of 5:4:3. The inner cortex
is a strengthening sclerenchyma, which in 7 consists of four to five specially thickened
external bands merging gradually into an inner series of five to six, which become less
and less thickened. In 3 the two outer layers are greatly thickened, dense, and of small
size, and abruptly pass into an inner zone, which has thin-walled elements grouped into
eleven or twelve layers. A condition nearly between these exists in the hybrid.
When the inner cells are minutely examined under a power of 600°, those of 1 show
extremely little thickening, with at times one pore-canal along a wall side ; in 3 the thicken-
ing is very pronounced, and three or more pore-canals can be observed along the side ; while
2 has an intermediate amount of thickening and number of pore-canals. The phloem
does not call for special attention.
The xylem of 7 consists of a cylinder of spiral trachez, the number of which in a
section such as we now describe amounts to 370; in 2 to 720; and in 3 to 1260. The
diameters of the tracheze are in proportion as 3:4 or 4°5:6. In longitudinal view the
stem epidermis of the three shows a considerable abundance of stomata in line with the
halves of the leaf lamina, but an absence in line with the leaf midrib, and the areas between
the leaves. On the average, in / there are nine under Zeiss’ high power with 4 eyepiece ; in
2 there are seven ; and in 3 there are five. The epidermal cells of the first are 120 pw long,
slightly wavy in outline, and contain leucoplasts 2 » in diameter, which, with the nucleus,
stain a deep pink hue in eosin solution. Those of 3 are 50 p long, have straight,
thickened walls, and the leucoplasts are 4 w across. In 2 the cells are about 90 p long,
straight or slightly sinuous—not wavy—in outline, and the leucoplasts are in most cases
about 3 » across. It may further be noted that, as the result probably of mechanical
rather than vital conditions, the cell nucleus in 7 is lenticular, due, I should suppose, to
elongation by movement in the streaming protoplasm of the long cells. In 3 the nucleus
is spherical or slightly oval, while that of the hybrid decidedly leans to the first.
The green subepidermal cortex cells in all have conglomerate crystals. But it may
here be stated that I have found crystals to be the most unsatisfactory and unreliable of
any cell content. In these, however, a rather striking and very constant condition can
be traced. In 7 they are few but large, each being 50 p across ; in 3 they are very abund-
ant but only 30 p across; in the hybrid they are more abundant than in 7, less.so than
in 3, while their size is 35 to 38 p.
The outer cortex is an interesting study, but I shall only compare the two external
layers of it. In 7 the cells are twice to three times as long as deep, are columnar in
shape, and have on the average a length of 80 pw, while a few small intercellular spaces
occur between the common walls. The chloroplasts are 3 mw across, and, though rather
more abundant in the two layers now described, are pretty uniformly distributed through-
MINUTE STRUCTURE OF PLANT HYBRIDS. 223
out all the cells of the cortex. In ? the cells are nearly all shorter than deep, their
length is 15 to 25 w, and they are irregularly rounded in outline ; between them many
irregular intercellular spaces occur. The chloroplasts measure 5 m, and are densely
agerevated in the outer zone, giving to it a dark green aspect. In 2 the cells are distinctly
elongated, and measure 40 to 45 w in length; irregular intercellular spaces are pretty fre-
quent, and a marked massing of chloroplasts takes place in the outer zone, while each
chloroplast measures about 4. The parents therefore differ, not only in the size, shape,
and relation of these cells, but in the amount of elaborative work which they perform,
while the hybrid progeny blends these peculiarities.
A reverse case is presented by the inner cortex, for in 7 the elements are one- third
the size of those in 3.
The elements of phloem and xylem differ greatly in size, the small elements of 1
contrasting with the large elements of 3, while the hybrid is a mean of the two. But
even the amount of secondary deposit on the spiral tracheal wall can be readily traced
to stand in the relation of 7 : 8 : 9 in the three.
Leaf.—The leaf structure of 3 varies considerably at different levels in the same strain
or variety, and very greatly in the numerous varieties now cultivated in our gardens.
The description which follows applies to the variety already selected. I regard the upper
two-thirds of the leaf as the more typical part, and shall refer to it throughout. The
average depth of the leaf in the three on transverse section through the midrib is as
2:8:15; the thickness a little to one side of the midrib is as 360 p : 400 w: 440 pw.
On transverse section the upper epidermal cells in 7 are 35 to 40 w in depth; in 2 they
are 55 to60 » ; in 3 they are 70 to 80 pw. The palisade parenchyma in 7 consists of three
layers of round, columnar cells with small vertical intercellular spaces, and the loose
parenchyma is divisible into a lower dense and an upper loose zone, the chloroplasts in the
lower being nearly as abundant as in the palisade layer. But the loose parenchyma
throughout consists of isodiametric cells with small intercellular spaces. In 3 the palisade
parenchyma forms two rather loosely united layers, which thin out at times into one, or
enlarge into three ; the loose parenchyma is uniform throughout, and its cells are elongated
at right angles to the leaf surface and strung together in “ confervoid” fashion with large
intercellular spaces between. In 2 the palisade parenchyma shows two to three rather
loosely aggregated cell layers ; the loose parenchyma is distinctly divisible into a lower and
upper area, the former with greater abundance of chloroplasts, but the cells, though often
uearly isodiametric, form “ confervoid” strings.
In 7, four to six large conglomerate crystals may be exposed in section; in 2 from
twenty to twenty-five; and in 3 from seventy to eighty.
In Plate IV. figs. 1-6, the surface appearances of the upper and lower epidermis are
given. These speak for themselves, but the stomatic distribution may be summed up in
figures. Within a limited area, repeatedly verified from different leaves, seventy-three
stomata occurred in /, thirty-eight in 2, and two occurred in 3. The number is reversed,
however, over the lower epidermis, which gave under a high power at one-quarter from
1. Dianthus
alpinus.
2, Dianthus
Grievei.
3. Dianthus
barbatus.
7. Dianthus
alpinus.
2. Dianthus
Grievei.
3. Dianthus
barbatus,
224 DR J. M. MACFARLANE ON THE
the base ten in 7, thirteen in 2, and sixteen in 3; at the leaf middle fourteen in 1, seventeen
in 2, twenty in 3; and near the apex forty-eight in 7, fifty-two in 2, and fifty-five in 3.
The epidermal leucoplasts figured in Plate LV. figs. 10-12, are as striking in the leaf as
in the stem, but in the hybrid they vary from 2°5 to 3°5 though inclining to the seed
parent.
When leaves are macerated, and examined on surface view, it is seen that in Z the
erystals are disposed very irregularly in the leaf, are not specially massed round the
vascular bundles, are nearly uniform in size, and are large in comparison with the size of
the leaf. In 2 many occur in the mesophyll, but a decidedly greater aggregation occurs
round the vascular bundles, which in places may seem almost coated with them; they
also vary greatly in size. In 3 the vascular bundles are closely encircled in many places
by them, but large forms are frequent in the mesophyll. I counted the numbers in several
corresponding areas of the three, and found 40 in 7, 83 in 2, and 135 in 2,
Sepals.—The gamosepalous calyx in 7 is obconate, dark purple-red in the upper part
of the tube, but green beneath the bracts, with broad sepaline teeth. In 2 it is tubular
obconate, pale crimson-red shading below into dark green and then into light green, and
with pointed sepaline teeth. In 3 it is tubular, and rich green above shading into light
green below, and this again into membranous white, while the sepaline teeth are acuminate-
ciliate. In 7 the outer calyx surface shows faint irregular ridges ; in 3 the ridges are
very evident, and there are nine to each sepal; in 2 the development is intermediate.
On transverse section Z shows a series of nearly or quite equal fibro-vascular bundles
beneath and opposite each sepaline groove, the fibre or stereome part of each being very
large. In 3, three to four shallow grooves intervene between each pair of deep grooves, and
bundles of corresponding size lie opposite these. In the hybrid the grooves and bundles
are slightly nearer to the seed parent in type than exactly mtermediate. The mesophyll
of the sepals agrees in fundamental arrangement with that of the vegetative leaf, as do
the crystals found in it.
Petals.—The comparative naked-eye appearances of these are set forth in Plate IV. figs.
13, a, b,c. A little above the junction of claw with blade in Z there are long unicellular
hairs, the longest bemg 2 mm.; in 3 the hairs are absent, while in 2 the longest is 14 mm.
I have frequently measured these from different flowers, and the hybrid appears always to
have a preponderating bias towards the seed parent. Above these hairs every epidermal
cell is enlarged into a little up-directed papilla, which is smallest in 7, largest and thickest
in 3, intermediate in 2.
Stamens.—As compared with the parents, these are short and feeble in the hybrid.
The anthers are small, and have not a plump look. The good pollen grains of / are 10 p
across; but as grown in the Edinburgh Garden many are small, shrivelled, and manifestly
impotent, this being probably due to change of habitat. The plants, however, from which
these were taken annually produce abundance of good seed, so that sufficient good pollen
must be formed to fertilise the ovules. The pollen grains of 3 are 14 « in diameter, and
there is seldom an abortive one amongst them. Those of the hybrid are bad in all
ret
MINUTE STRUCTURE OF PLANT HYBRIDS. 225
examples looked at, since they are 8 to 9 m» in diameter, and have each a thick wall
with shrivelled-looking contents. I regard the pollen, therefore, as being entirely impotent,
and pollination experiments which have been conducted repeatedly, verify this by their
negative results.
Nectary.—There is an extremely neat nectar-secreting arrangement worthy of study.
The pollen parent (?)—a less specialised form in every way to my mind— shows this in
its simplest state as a small saucer-shaped receptacular girdle (Plate IV. fig. 14, c) between
the stamens and pistil. The entire depth of the gland tissue is about 180 ». In the seed
parent a special contrivance has been devised to protect and economise the nectar, for in it
the bases of the petals have fused with the receptacle, and this. has got deeply excavated
round the ovary to form a nectar ditch the walls of which are lined by gland tissue
supplied by a special set of subjacent bundles. The depth of gland tissue is 400 to
420 m (fig. 14, a). In the hybrid there is an exactly intermediate state of things, in the
fusion of the petals, shape and size of the gland, and depth of its tissue (fig. 14, D.)
(c) Geum intermedium, x.
This hybrid has been regarded by eminent systematists as a true species. Probable
reasons for this are its extreme frequency of occurrence, the large number of good pollen
grains, and the usual production of abundant seed. Many suspected its hybrid nature,
which has been experimentally verified by GArtNER and Bett Satter. To speak only of
the Edinburgh neighbourhood, it is frequent where both parents are found, and is usually
mixed with these. Thus, in Colinton Glen, Mr Rutuerrorp Hitt has gathered quantities ;
in Carriber Glen, near Manuel, it is very abundant, and has been carefully watched by me
on repeated visits; in the valley of the Esk it also appears frequently ; but by far the
finest locality was pointed out tome by Mr Hitz. The woods along the shore in the Dal-
meny policies beyond Cramond have large areas covered by it alone, or shared also by one or
both parents. It is easily distinguished by naked eye from the size of the stipules
developed by the upper cauline leaves ; by the size, position, and colour of the flowers,
while—as GopRron * and others have pointed out—the hybrid is commonly more luxuriant
than either parent.
Diverse in naked-eye appearance though the parents are, I have found more difficulty
in seizing on minute histological differences than in any other set. Marked changes in
some parts, however, have been effected, which appear in blended manner in the hybrid.t
Root.—The mature root in all three exhibits a broad annual cork formation, and a
very rare feature in plants is the formation in all of intercellular spaces between the cork
cells, In 7{ the growth of each annual cork ring proceeds so that the oldest brown layer
yi
* Mem. Acad. Stanisl., 1865, p. 347. ;
+ Throughout the description I have assumed Gewm rivale to be the seed parent, and G. wrbanwm the pollen parent:
To select two plants, however, to protect these, and to raise offspring from reverse crosses for comparison, is most désir-
able, and our knowledge cannot be exact till this is done.
$ The growth formation of these requires further study.
oN
. Geum rivale.
Geum inter-
medium,
Geum urbanum,
7. Geum rivale
2. Geum inter.
medium,
3, Geumurbanum.
226 DR J. M. MACFARLANE ON THE
consists of two to three rings of large decayed brown cells; the layer inside, which
“is still persistent, consists of rather smaller but neatly quadrangular cells; that more
internal is paler in colour, smaller in its cells, but similar in shape to the last; the inner-
most layer consists of small transparent quadrangular cells developing from the cork
cambium. Mr Percy Nicor has accurately illustrated this in Plate V, fig. la, In 3 (fig. 1 ¢)
all the cells of the cork layer are very nearly of the same size, no matter what their age
may be, aud they are 14 to 2 times as broad as deep on transverse section. In 2 there
is an evident radial enlargement of the cells as in 7, but the shape of the cells takes
more after 3, though rows of cells may be nearly quadrangular.
The cortex is similar in the three, except that its cell walls are slightly collenchymatous
in 1, very strongly so in 3, and most nearly like the latter in 2. The phloem does not
call for description.
The xylem of 71s made up of three to five radiating spokes, which are at first separated
from each other by the intervention of broad medullary rays. Rarely, owing to a slight for-
mation of interfascicular cambium, secondary xylem patches appear. Hach spoke consists
of xylem cells, spiral tracheids, and many large pitted vasa, the largest measuring 40 p across.
As secondary growth proceeds, interfascicular xylem is laid down, which narrows the
medullary rays to one or two lines of cells. This secondary growth is of spindle-shaped cells
and pitted vasa. The xylem of 3 consists primarily, as in the last, of three to five (commonly
four) radiating masses which are made up of elements like those of 7 during the first year
or two, except that the diameter of the largest vas is 24 #. In time, however (the precise
period has not yet been ascertained, but from the position of the roots on the rhizome, as
well as their size, [should judge them to be from five to eight yearsold),a ring of dense pitted
fibroid tracheids mixed with a few small vasa, is laid down outside the softer and earlier-
formed xylem. It may fairly be suggested as a hypothesis to explain this striking differ-
ence in the two species that, since G. rivale grows in moist, damp, shaded, and often
sheltered situations, it does not need a special strengthening sheath in its roots to resist
pulling strains ; while G. wrbanum, growing often in the open on dry, exposed, and wind-
swept ground, requires such a sheath for mechanical resistance. In the hybrid the xylem
decidedly inclines to 7, though the pitted vasa are from 32 to 36 p» in diameter. The
very characteristic thickened zone of 3 is at most represented by occasional isolated patches
of fibroid tracheids, which never, so far as I have seen, attain a great size or fuse into a
ring. We have here a hybrid tissue taking strongly after one parent, and like that parent
the hybrid almost always grows in sheltered places.
Stem.—The rhizome and flowering stem are very variable in parents and hybrid alike,
and will require more detailed attention than I have yet been able to give. The following,
however, are broad, constant features in the flowering stem. That of Z has a scleren-
chyma sheath of soft open tissue, has tracheids and vasa in size like those of the root, and
large fibroid tracheids. In 3 the sclerenchyma sheath is composed of strongly
indurated elements, has small tracheids and vasa like those of the root, along with small
indurated tracheids. The hybrid while intermediate inclines rather to 3, and this
MINUTE STRUCTURE OF PLANT HYBRIDS. 227
is particularly instructive when we bear in mind that it is tall-growing, and needs
considerable mechanical support.
Leaf.—On surface view the upper epidermis in 7 consists of cells which are nearly or
quite straight walled; about sixty of them cover an area 300 p in diameter, and among
these are seven stomata. Long tapered hairs or short four to five celled glandular hairs,
spring from some of these, and are pretty uniformly distributed over the lamina, though
more abundant along the veins. The cells of the lower epidermis show zigzag walls, are
slightly smaller than those above, about sixty-five cells, besides stomatic cells, being within
the same area, while both simple and glandular hairs are more abundant particularly along
the veins. From thirty-five to forty stomata occur in the field of view. In 2 the walls
of the upper epidermal cells are wavy in outline, and of the same size as in /, but stomata
are quite absent. Simple and glandular hairs like those of 7 are less frequent. The
lower epidermal cells are in size and shape like those of 7, but the hairs are very scanty,
while eighteen to twenty stomata are included in the field of view. In 2 the upper
epidermal cells are neatly between those of the parents in shape, and though areas occur
with few, if any, stomata, adjacent ones may present four to six, giving an average
therefore of three to three and a half. Hairs develop like those of the parents. When
the relative number of these is compared, it is found that there are twenty-five simple
hairs scattered over the field of view of Zeiss’ objective A and 2 ocular, and five to six
in 3. The hybrid presents fifteen to sixteen on the average, though in size they rather
approach those of 3. As regards the number and distribution of the gland hairs, it may
be noted that while these are seen on a strong vein of 7 in abundance, they equally
persist along the fine veins, eleven to twelve being visible under l.p. Zeiss’ obj. The
same applies to the hybrid, except that the gland hairs are less numerous. In 3 they
are entirely confined to the stronger veins where seven to eight may be counted. The
cells of the lower epidermis resemble those of the parents, but the stomata in number are
a mean of the extremes in them.
In a macerated leaf of / under one field of view four to six conglomerate crystals
were counted ; in that of 3 there were ten to twelve; and in the hybrid seven to eight.
As already stated, however, I do not place much value on these.
- It need only be mentioned in regard to the sepals that these take up a position in the
open flower intermediate between the reflexed position of 3 and the upright position of J.
Petals.—As illustrated in Plate V. figs. 5 a, b, c, the petals of the hybrid are, on the
average, very neatly intermediate between those of the parents in shape and size. In 7
the outer epidermal cells have zigzag walls and deep infoldings of the walls at the angles,
their contour is irregularly elliptical, and they average 65 w across. In 2 the cells resemble
Somewhat those of the last, though the infoldings are more pronounced but thinner,
their contour is rectangular, and width 45 w. In 7 the inner epidermal cells are greatly
elongate at the base of the petal, straight walled, and 70 mw long, but upwards they
become broader and shorter till they are 45 » long, and have sinuous walls with knob-
like infoldings. The cuticle is elevated into ridges, giving a finely striate aspect to the
VOL. XXXVII. PART I. (NO. 14). 2 1
1, Geum rivale.
2, Geum inter-
medium,
3. Geumurbanum.
228 DR J. M. MACFARLANE ON THE
i. Geum rivale. surface. In 3 the elongated basal cells are 26 w long, but they become shorter upwards
2. Geum inter- 5 5 ?
5 Guedinm. um tll they are 15 p by 12. Their walls are sharply zigzag with fine infoldings. In the
hybrid all of these features are intermediate, while the cuticular striz of one parent just
described are more finely reproduced in the hybrid.
Stamens.—The outer anther coat of 7 consists of cells of very irregular outline.
The walls form knob-like infoldings, while the cuticle is raised into prominent wavy ridges
so strongly developed as almost to obscure the cell outlines beneath. In 3 the cells are
roughly quadrangular, and their walls have only minute infoldings at the angles. By
careful focussing one can detect a very delicate ridging of the cuticle. In all of these
points the hybrid is as exactly intermediate as one can detect.
The pollen grains of / are 26 to 28 », across ; those of 3 are 18 to 20 u; and those of the
hybrid 26 to 28 4. Illustrations of these are given in Plate V. figs. 6 a, b,c. A noteworthy
feature is the very large percentage of good, sound-looking grains produced by the hybrid.
The percentage, in blossoms examined from various localities, has fallen as low as 45 to 50
per cent., but in the majority of cases it averages from 85 to 95 per cent., which is as high
as one usually finds in either parent.
Pistil.—F rom the opening of the flower onwards the pistil is an interesting study, but
I shall only draw attention to the figures on Plate V. figs. 2, 3, 4, which illustrate well their
external characters. An explanation of the peculiar relationship of the style to the style-
arm must be possible, but it has not occurred to me yet, nor can I get any account of it.
That the style-arm must be functional at the time of pollination, or between then and full
ripening of the fruit, appears almost certain since each falls off previous to fruit dis-
semination. The formation of a projecting knob on the style-arm of 7, of a similar knob
on the style-tip of 3, and of one reduced in size on both style-tip and style-arm of the
hybrid is interesting, but their use is still a puzzle.
The embryos differ in their shape as do the outlines of their fruit walls. In the
cells of the three embryos proteids and oil are the reserve materials. In 1 the
amount of oil is relatively small; in 3 it is extremely abundant, and exudes from the
cells as large refractive globules. In 2? the amount is considerably less than in 3, but more
abundant than in 1.
The number of achenes that mature their seeds is very great, and this agrees with the
high quality of the pollen. The Rev, C. WottEy Dop, however, has stated that with him
G. intermedium rarely seeds, though other hybrids of Gewm do. But the bulk of evidence
goes to show that the hybrid has a favourable combination of circumstances for its perpetua-
tion. Growing in shady places frequented by insects, it attains there a high stature, com-
bining the strong rank growth of 7 with the elongated branching inflorescence of 3. It
begins to blossom at a time exactly intermediate between the parents, and therefore has
a great advantage over 3, which has often to struggle with tall-growing summer weeds
that rush up later than does the hybrid. The half-erect position of the flowers, with open
spreading sepals and large yellowish-red petals, give it a decided advantage over either
parent. It is not at all surprising, therefore, that it is so abundant, and, as at Cramond,
MINUTE STRUCTURE OF PLANT HYBRIDS. 229
is fully able to dispute with both parents for occupation of territory. If species evolution
from forms of hybrid origin does occur, this is one of the most likely to illustrate it.
(d) Ribes Culverwellu, x.
This remarkable cross of two very distinct species, the gooseberry and black currant,
was effected by Mr CuLvERWELL of Thorpe Perrow, Yorkshire. He forwarded specimens
to Dr Masters, who duly described them in the Gardeners’ Chronicle,* and then kindly
forwarded me the material. This proved so instructive that I applied to Mr CuLVERWELL
for further supplies, and he has furnished these at different seasons of the year. He
distinguishes two or three varieties, which differ from each other in leaf form, time of
defoliation, and habit. I selected for examination that which appeared to be most nearly
intermediate between the parents, but the others which inclined to the black currant
parent will be treated of at another time.
Stem.—On transverse section of a stem of 7 in Spring of the second year’s growth
(Plate V. fig. 7), the epidermal cells are rather broader than deep, of a whitish colour,
and covered by a thick cuticle.
The outer part of the cortex consists of cells which are small, densely packed, and
colloid just beneath the epidermis ; but by degrees they become larger, looser, and assume a
brown colour internally till in the seventh to ninth layers they break down into large
irregular reticulations loosely attached to the outer cork. The cork, already showing a
second year’s growth, varies greatly in amount according to the size and vigour of the
shoot. The speeimen figured was from a small shoot, and had produced four to five zones
of cells each year. This explains the apparent anomaly of the hybrid in having eight to
ten corresponding zones. The old cork cells are 3 to 34 times as broad as deep. The
inner cortex (phelloderm) is a relatively narrow band of tissue seven to eight zones
deep, and made up of elements differing greatly in size.
Sections of 3 (fig. 9) show epidermal cells that are deeper than wide, of a brown
colour, and which have a thin cuticular layer.
The outer part of the cortex consists of a mass of loose, shrivelled-looking brown cells
that are considerably flattened. The cork of each year’s growth is made up of cells that
are 14 to 2 times as broad asdeep. The inner cortex is a deep band of tissue made up of
fifteen to sixteen cell layers.
Sections of 2 (fig. 9) show an intermediate state, not only in the size and shape of the
cells, but also in colour distribution to the epidermis and inner cortex region.
The phloem in 7 is in depth as 7 to 10 in2 and 13to14in3. The sieve tubes in J are
rather sparse, 12 » across, and are embedded among companion cells with thick refractive
walls. In 3 the sieve tubes are abundant, 20 to 21 yp across, and are surrounded by a
moderate number of companion cells with thin walls. In 2 the sieve tubes are pretty
abundant, and the companion cells have slight thickening in their walls. Though the
* Gardeners’ Chronicle, vol. xix., 0.8, 1883, p. 635.
1. Ribes Grossu-
laria.
2, Ribes Culver-
wellii.
8, Ribes nigrum.
7. Ribes Grossu-
laria.
2. Ribes Culver-
wellii.
3. Ribes nigrum.
230 ‘ DR J. M. MACFARLANE ON. THE
amount. and constituents of the protoxylem are of interest, I may pass to the tracheids
and pitted vasa after drawing attention to the figures. The secondary xylem of the first
year is mainly built up of tracheids that are strongly indurated and mostly quadrangular
in outline ; the vasa are scant, and 18 to 20 w across. That of 3 has tracheids that are
_ moderately thickened, and show a large cell cavity, each is 24 to 3 times as broad as
deep ; the vasa are very numerous, giving an open porous appearance to the wood, and
they are 25 to 28 w across. The elements of 2 are very evenly intermediate.
The amount of pith relatively is as 3 in 7 to 5 in 2and6 to6$in3. The pith-cells
in 7 are circular in outline, the majority of them store starch, and they develop consider-
able secondary thickening. The pith of 3 appears loose, not only from the large size of the
intercellular spaces, but because many large cells are devoid of starch contents. All of
them are polygonal in outline, and the amount of secondary thickening is small.
While the condition is an intermediate one in 2, there is a decided leaning toward the
latter. The starch grains of the three are very variable in size, but in 7 the largest are 7
and the average 4. In 3 the largest are 3 and the average 15». In 2 the largest are
5 and the average 3 p.
Leaf-Stalk.—In 1 the margins of each leaf-base show short, club-shaped gland hairs,
which higher up become elongated, and some of these may have secondary hair processes
branching out from them. In 3 there may be three to eight of the branched hairs, but
devoid of the club-shaped glandular top ; also an abundance of slender, simple hairs. But
specially noteworthy are sessile, multicellular, button-shaped gland hairs of a greenish
colour, which are also abundant over the lamina, and secrete the characteristic scent of the
black currant. In 2 the short basal hairs and elongated club-shaped upper hairs are both
present ; the latter at times resembling the currant parent, in being without terminal knob
though provided with lateral branch hairs. Dispersed over the surface also are greenish
gland hairs, reproduced from the currant parent, though about half the size. The size and
shape of the leaf-stalk epidermal cells in 2 are exactly intermediate between those of the
parents, and the same applies to the base and upper part of the petiole when these are
examined in section.
Leaf:—tThe lower leaf-epidermis of 7 (Plate V. fig. 11) shows irregular cells, with wavy
walls, that are tolerably thickened, and from some of these arise strong thick-walled, simple
hairs. Over a given area an average of twenty-seven stomata was recorded. In 3 (fig. 13)
the cells are straight or flexuous in their walls, which are very thin, and the size of each cell
averages half the size of one in the former. While delicate hairs are plentiful along the
veins, they are absent over the areas between, which, however, show many large greenish
gland hairs. An average of forty-two stomata occurs over a like area as in the last.
Here, as in the leaf-stalk, the hybrid reproduces the diffuse hairs of the first parent and
gland hairs of the last, though reduced by half according to careful measurement.
In the leaf-bundle of 7 the external bundle elements are filled with a dense brown-
yellow substance, which is absent in the other parent, but comes up in the hybrid as a,
pale yellowish pigment.
MINUTE STRUCTURE OF PLANT HYBRIDS. -931
Petals.—The external surface of the petals in 7 shows relatively large, straight-
walled, or slightly sinuous cells; the surface of 3 shows small cells with zigzag walls, though
towards the base they become nearly straight-walled ; in 2 the cells are nearer the latter
in shape, but nearer the former in size, though it is extremely hard to determine with
accuracy how far these may not be intermediate. Long delicate hairs grow out from the
epidermis in Z, none occur in 3, while a few are encountered in the hybrid. The inner
surfaces resemble the outer except that-all the cells are prolonged into tubercular
outgrowths.
Stamens.—The pollen cells (Plate V. figs. 10, a, b, c) in both parents are, as a rule,
extremely good, but those of 3 exhibit considerable diversity in size. This I regard as a
matter of extrenie importance in the discussion of sexual potency, and some attention will
be given to it later on. ‘The pollen cells of 7 are 27 pw across, and those of 3, 32 w, while
those of the hybrid are very bad, consisting largely of small, irregular, shrivelled cells con-
taining little protoplasm. Here and there, however, one encounters a normal-looking cell,
filled with finely granular protoplasm as in the parents, and one of these is illustrated in
fi. 10 b.. Another figured beside it would probably prove inferior in pollinating action.
Pistil:—MUuxEr has pointed out that R. mgrum is almost habitually self-pollinated,
that R. Grossularia is not only greatly frequented by appropriate insects, but that
arrangements in the flower itself favour cross pollination. There are one or two pretty
contrivances which favour the latter view.
In 7 the style is deeply split to a point, from which downwards a dense coating of long
hairs grow out so arranged that they form an insect guard to prevent ingress of small insect
thieves. In 3 the style is simple, and ends in a bifid stigmatic knob ; its surface also is
glabrous. The style of the hybrid is split to half the extent, and the style hairs are, as
nearly as one can estimate, half in size and number those of the first parent.
The receptacular surface above the ovary in Z has each cell elevated into a fine papil-
lary hair, and these aid the style hairs in excluding small insects. The corresponding pro-
cesses in 3 are very minute papille, which one inclines to regard as functionless, though
caution is needed in assuming even this. The hybrid has papille of half the
length.
The ovarian surface of Z is rather sparsely covered with long narrow hairs mixed with
elub-shaped hairs; that of 3 is densely covered by fine, short, curved hairs, with here and
there a sessile gland hair; that of 2 exhibits all the four types just noticed.
Large loose cells filled with brown contents are found in the mesophyll of the ovarian
wall in 7; the corresponding cells of 3 are all small, nearly uniform in size, and quite so:
in colour; in the hybrid numbers of the brown cells derived from the former parent are:
readily traced.
As with other hybrids, I have not yet attempted to examine the ovules minutely, but.
while working at other parts opportunities for observing these occurred, and they seemed
to be well grown and to contain an egg-cell. Against perpetuation of the plant, however,
as a pure hybrid is to be reckoned the bad quality of the pollen, while Mr CuLvERWELL, |
J. Ribes Grossu-
laria.
2. Ribes Culver-
wellii.
3. Ribes nigrum.
232 DR J. M. MACFARLANE ON THE
i ri informs me that he has failed to find fruit on it. The form, however, is one which yields
as valuable results from the standpoint of hybrid histology.
3. Saxifraga
Aizoon.
(e) Saxifraga Andrews, x.
This plant has given rise to some discussion, having been regarded by certain botanists
as a true species, though by most as a hybrid. It was first brought under the notice of
botanists and cultivators by the late Mr AnpREws, who asserted that he had gathered it in
a wild state at the head of Glen Carragh, Co. Kerry. Most botanical experts to whom
the plant was submitted viewed it as a hybrid between S. Azzoon and S. Grewm, or some
nearly related species, and that it had probably originated in Mr ANpREws’ garden, and
was confounded by him with some finds from Kerry. It is on this ground well suited as a
plant to test the accuracy of the present inquiry. My earlier examination soon convinced
me of its hybrid nature, as well as its relation to S. Geum on the one hand, and a
crusted species on the other; but on the “ Aizoon” side I had to work very carefully
over, and compare with each other such nearly related species as S. niteda, S. mutata,
S. Hostu, &c. Several of these are probably rightly regarded as sub-species or varieties
of S. Azzoon, though I found them constantly to differ in several fine structural details,
S. Azzoon entirely satisfied the histological requirements of the other parent, and we
shall now see how the hybrid blends the features of both.
Stem.—The structure of this is considerably complicated by the leaf traces which are
constantly passing out to the crowded leaves, and also by similar root traces. I may,
therefore, begin with the pith tissue, which is large in amount in 7, and surrounded by a
ring of bundles. The pith-cells are pretty uniform and large, 50 to 60 mu in diameter,
and starch granules are abundantly stored up in them. These granules vary greatly in
size, but the largest are 6 to 7 yw across. In 2 the pith has a triarch or tetrarch outline
from its relation to the surrounding bundles ; it is small in amount, its cells are of very
varying size, the largest being 35 w across. The largest starch granules are 2 mw across.
The hybrid rather approaches to S. Gewm in having the pith and pith-cells large, though
not equal to the parent, while the largest starch granules are 4 p across. Outside the
pith is a colloid layer traversed by canals, and this is largely developed in S, Geum,
narrow in S. Azzoon, and intermediate in the hybrid.
Leaf:—The colour and shape of the hybrid leaf are between those of the parents. A
special difference in S. Azzoon and all the crusted Saxifrages, as compared with S. Gewm
and its section, is in the excretion from the former of lime salts by the water stomata
situated at the tips of the serrations on the upper leaf surface. These salts on precipita-
tion form a crust-like mass over each stomatic area, and give a variegated appearance to
the leaf. In the “Geum” section salts never precipitate. Though the hybrid often gives
little indication of a lime crust when grown in one position, or under one set of condi-
tions, I have repeatedly got specimens in which it was very pronounced to the eye, and
gave characteristic efflorescence when acted on by acids.
MINUTE STRUCTURE OF PLANT HYBRIDS. 239
The bundle distribution to the water stomata is well illustrated in Plate VI. figs. 1-3,
and is as follows :—In 7 two lateral bundles run up the leaf-stalk on either side of the
median bundle, and terminate in the one to two lowest pairs of water stomata, though at
times a slender branch passes up which partly supplies the third. In 2 the first to the
seventh pairs in an average-sized leaf are wholly, and the eighth to the ninth pairs
partly, supplied by the lateral veins. In 3 the first to the thirteenth are thus supplied.
The upper epidermis of 7 on surface view consists of large, straight, and uniformly
thick-walled cells, the walls being traversed by pore canals at pretty wide distances.
There are twenty to twenty-two cells in field of view under Zeiss’ D with 4 ocular. No
transpiration stomata exist above, but towards the top of each serration one to two water
stomata (Plate VI. fig. 4) are set on the surface of a slight mamilla of epithem tissue.
In 3 the upper epidermal cells vary in size, some which surround stomatic clusters being
rather smaller than those of 1, others which lie between the stomata being greatly smaller.
They all show close-set pore canals, with knob-like thickening of the walls between these.
There are fifty to sixty, exclusive of stomatic cells, in the field of view. Though Encimr,
in his Monograph on Saxifrages (p. 13), says—“ Die Spaltéffnungen treten sowohl auf der
Oberseite als auf der Unterseite der Blatter bei allen Arten auf, in der Regel auf der
Unterseite zahlreicher,” they are entirely absent on the upper surface in the “Geum”
section, though present on both surfaces in all the crusted Saxifrages already studied.
They are disposed in little island groups of from three to twelve, each group surrounded by
small epidermal cells. Surrounding the whole are the large cells already referred to, whose
contents are less dense than those just described. Hach serration in 3 has one to two
water stomata set in a pocket-like depression of the epidermis, which may rise over them
in flap-like fashion on one side (fig. 6). Further, in all leaves of true S. Azzoon, a few of
the surrounding epidermal cells swell out into clear button-shaped knobs. In 2 the
epidermal cells are nearly the size of those in 7, twenty to twenty-five occurring under the
field of view ; but this is to be expected, if we bear in mind the relative size of cell and
leaf in each parent. The thickening of the walls is very evenly intermediate.
Though a few of the earlier and smaller leaves of an annual rosette have no stomata,
they can readily be distinguished in most with a hand lens, running up-on either side of
the midrib. I have not counted the actual number on any leaf, but though there are
several hundred they are not nearly so abundant as in the “ Aizoon” parent, while their
disposition in islands and their relation to surrounding cells are the same as init. The
water stomata are very slightly sunk, or set on a flat surface, and a wave-like ridge of
the epidermis, rather than a pocket, exists on one side. It is specially interesting, how-
ever, to find that the epidermal knobs of 3 are reproduced, though in reduced degree, both
as to number and size (fig. 5). The gradually changing shape of the epidermal cells which
make up the serration tips in the three is a study in hybrid history which will well repay
careful tracing out, but without elaborate figures a description would be poor,
The lower epidermis of 7 has two distinct kinds and sizes of cell somewhat as in the
upper epidermis of 3. Thus, there are large, wavy-walled, clear cells which collectively
1
QD
4
. Saxifraga
Geum.
, Saxifraga
Andrewsii.
3, Saxifraga
Aizoon.
1. Saxifraga
Geum.
2, Saxifraga
Andrewsii.
3. Saxifraga
Aizoon.
234 DR J. M. MACFARLANE ON THE
form enclosing masses round the island-like stomatic clusters. Further, there are small
cells with dense contents which connect the stomata in each island. In 2 all the cells
are nearly uniform, and are straight or faintly sinuous in their walls ; the stomata also are
pretty uniformly distributed, so that they cannot be said to fall into island masses. In
2 the isolation is eyident, as is also the separation into two kinds of cell, though in shape
and size they are quite intermediate. The cells along the midrib region are note-
worthy, for one can readily trace in these how evenly the hybrid is between the parents.
Equally instructive are the under cells of the serrations.
On transverse section the leaf of 7 exhibits a thin cuticle above and rather thicker
one below; that of 3 has a thick upper and thin lower cuticle ; and in 2 they are equal in
thickness. In Z there is one deep columnar and a second shallower and more irregular
palisade layer, passing into loose parenchyma. In 3 there are four to five closely-packed
palisade layers, of which the uppermost is deeply columnar ; the lower are more rounded,
and pass sharply into the loose parenchyma. In 2 there are three to four layers, of which
the uppermost is columnar and the others rounded-elongate. The chloroplasts in 7 are
large, numerous, and give a dense red aspect to the cells when stained by eosin; in 3 they
are small and scattered, so that when stained the cells appear pale, with red spots. In 2
some of the cells incline to the one condition, and some to the other. The spongy
mesophyll of 7 consists of about seven layers, whose cells are large, loose, and stellate or
branching in character; in 3 they are densely packed and rounded, so that the inter-
cellular spaces are small, while they average one-half to three-fourths the size of the former.
The size, mode of packing, and contents of the hybrid cells are quite intermediate.
Flowering Stem.—In large mature stems of /, near the radical rosette of leaves, the
cortex cells are seven to eight layers deep, and pass abruptly into a well-formed scleren-
chyma sheath of six to eight layers. The largest elements of this sheath are 25 mu across,
and the walls are so thickened in most as to reduce the lumen to one-third its original
size. The internal matrix tissue consists of large and tolerably uniform cells. In 3 the
cortex consists of twelve to thirteen cell layers, which also pass abruptly into a scleren-
chyma sheath though of narrower proportion than in the last, since the elements are
smaller, though the layers are as numerous. The largest elements are 20 to 22 mw across.
The amount of secondary thickening in these is much less, the lumen bearing a ratio to
the original cavity of seven-eighths. The internal matrix tissue is made up of small
cells externally, and of larger central ones, none of which, however, equal those of J.
The hybrid in all of these points is intermediate, the thickening of the sclerenchyma cells
being specially noteworthy. |
The bundle system in 7 consists of satin to ten wedge-shaped strands, whose, eae
are set against the sclerenchyma sheath. The phloem part has a mass of stereome fused
with, and scarcely distinguishable from, the sheath, the largest stereid being 20 m across.
Internal to this is the phloem proper, made up of large sieve tubes—the largest measuring
about 30 » across—and companion cells. The xylem tracheids are very uniform in size,
aggregated as a wedge-like cluster, and are 18 to 20 across. In 2 the bundles are of
MINUTE STRUCTURE OF PLANT HYBRIDS. 235
two sizes; one set of seven to eight are early differentiated, remain distinct from
the sheath, and are oval in shape. Another set of smaller size, and numbering eight
to twelve, are intercalated between these, and are nearly wedge-shaped. The first set
show small external stereome patches, whose elements are little thickened, and the
largest element is 14 across. The phloem is a dense patch of sieve tubes and cells
differing little in size, the largest tube measuring 10m across; the xylem is a narrow
band of spiral tracheids and xylem cells, the largest averaging 15 pw. The intercalated
bundles consist only of a small patch of phloem and xylem lying against the sheath. In
2the bundles number fourteen to sixteen, and exhibit less disparity than do those of 3.
They are all more or less united with the sheath, though, as in the latter parent, the
larger ones tend almost to separate, and in such cases a distinct stereome patch is
developed, the largest elements of which measure 16 to 17 » across. Curiously enough,
while the phloem in appearance and size of its constituent elements rather approaches
to that of 7, the xylem equally leans to that of 3.
Sepals.—In S. Geum, as in other members of its section, the sepals are inferior, and
after expansion of the flower curve backwards, and become adpressed to the flowering stem
(Plate VI. fig. 8). The apex is rounded, and carries a single water stoma with associated
epithem tissue that terminates the bundle. In S. Azzoon the sepals are superior,
and in expansion grow outwards and upwards, so as to make an angle of 25° to 30°,
with the ideal prolongation upwards of the axis (Plate VI. fig. 10). The apex is acute,
often terminated by a knobbed hair, and usually three water stomata, one terminal and
two lateral, are at the ends of the vascular bundle. In S. Andrewsw the sepals are
recurved, so that they make an angle of 125° to 130° with the ideal axis (Plate VI.
fix. 9). The apex is obtuse, and there is one water stoma; very rarely two or three.
One could scarcely choose a better series of naked-eye objects on which to demonstrate
the comparative position assumed by parent and hybrid parts than those now referred to.
On flower-stalk, bracts, and sepals alike there are glandular hairs, which in 7 have a
delicate stalk of four to five cell rows and a small rounded glandular head ; in 3 the stalks
are stout, usually short, and consist of seven to eight cell rows, while the heads are fully
a half larger than those of 7. Both types of hair are reproduced in the hybrid,
though less abundantly. The upper epidermal cells in Z are straight-walled, in 3 they
are wavy, and in the hybrid sinuous.
Petals.—In 1, which is the least specialised form, the epidermal cells of the upper
surface are prolonged into slight papille, in ? they grow out as hair processes, and in 2
they are intermediate in leneth. A peculiarity in colour distribution is that the petals
of 7 are marked with little crimson and yellow spots towards their base, those of 3 have
only large deep crimson spots, while in the hybrid the crimson spots alone appear, no
flowers hitherto examined having shown traces of yellow.
Stamens.—The anthers of Z are of a pale pink colour, those of 3 are of a greenish-
yellow colour, and both contain abundance of good pollen. The anthers of 2 are of a
pale pink-green or pink-yellow colour, but the pollen is bad, the grains being variable in
VOL. XXXVII. PART I. (NO, 14). 2M
1. Saxifraga
Geum.
2. Saxifraga
Andrewsii.
3, Saxifraga
Aizoon.
236 DR J. M. MACFARLANE ON THE
t Seeteae size, smaller than in either parent, shrunken and irregular in shape, and with a few
. Sexifraga isolated food granules in their cavities. As might be expected, therefore, the
— capsules examined were loose and soft to the touch, and contained brown ovules, none of
which had matured into seeds equal to those of either parent.
Pistil.—This, like the pistil of Ribes Culverwellu, demonstrates how exactly the
position of flower parts in relation to the receptacle is an inherited combination from the
parents, and here also the hybrid gives us transition stages from the perigynous to the
epigynous insertion, In Plate VI. figs. 8, 9, 10, micro-photographic illustrations are
given of longitudinal flower sections. Fig. 8, illustrative of 7, shows sepals, petals, and
stamens all inserted into a slightly saucer-shaped expansion of the receptacle, on the top
of which the carpels are inserted. The vascular bundles of the flower-stalk split; some
of the branches run outwards beneath the floor of the ovary, give off diverticula into the
carpellary walls, and then by repeated branchings terminate in the perigynously-inserted
sepals, petals, and stamens. Other branches are continued upwards, to end in the
placental tissue and ovules. Fig. 10 is that of 3, in which, by upgrowth of the receptacle
and fusion of the carpels with it, a completely inferior ovary has resulted. Branches
from the vascular bundles of the flower-stalk run directly upwards, as in the last, to
supply the placenta and ovules, while the lateral bundles, after curving upwards and
traversing the receptacular wall, split up to supply the epigynously-placed sepals, petals,
and stamens, while prolongations pass transversely across the top of the ovary to the
epigynously-placed nectary. A glance at fig. 9 proves how exactly the hybrid blends
the characteristics of the two parents in position of parts, shape of the ovarian cavity,
position and shape of the styles, &c.
The styles in the mature but still perfect bloom of 7 diverge at an angle of 40°, the
stigmatic hairs are columnar and 100 » long. The styles of 3 form an angle of 90°, the
stigmatic hairs are linear or conical, and 60 long. The styles of 2 form an angle of
60° to 65°, the stigmatic hairs are linear or slightly columnar, and 85 to 90. long.
Shortly after fall of the petals the styles in all diverge further, so that those of J
form an angle of 80° to 90° divergence ; those of 2, 100° to 110°; those of 3, 120° to
130°.
The nectaries in 7 are little patches placed round the base of the ovary, above the
region of staminal insertion. Hach patch shows one to three surface stomata, exactly like
the water stomata of the leaf, but reduced in size, and seated above a quantity of epithem
tissue, below which fine vascular endings occur. The patches are isolated from each
other by a large-celled, thin-walled tissue. In 3 the larger part of the epigynous area
between the bases of the styles and insertion of the stamens is a nectar girdle, studded
over its surface with numerous stomata, set among small epidermal cells, and beneath
these is a dense ring of epithem tissue lying above vascular bundle endings. The nectaries
in 2 are patches which are nearly fused into a girdle in the deeper tissue layers, but
are distinctly broken up on the surface by the intervention of larger cells, after the type
of 7, I have throughout used the term nectary for these, as do ENGLER and MULLER, but
MINUTE STRUCTURE OF PLANT HYBRIDS. 237
I cannot as yet say whether they merely excrete a cool, watery juice, or, in addition, some
sweet excretion. The morphology of these nectaries, in any case, is highly instructive.
(f) Erica Watson, x.
This hybrid between H. Tetralix and LE. ciliaris was first found in a wild state by
Mr H. Wartson* at Truro, Cornwall, where both parents occur. Considerable quantities
of it have been gathered, and from these supplies have been obtained for the Edinburgh
Botanic Garden.
Stem.—The structure in the three is very similar throughout, except that the pitted
vasa in the xylem of 7 are few in number, and 12 to 15m across in the largest
examples; those of 3 are pretty abundant, and 20 to 22m across; in 2 the number
is intermediate, and the diameter varies from 16 to 20 uw, the majority inclining
towards 3.
Leaf.—On surface view, the upper epidermis shows straight walled, pentagonal,
or hexagonal cells, which are 30 m» across. Many of these develop long, delicately-
striated hairs from the upper end of the cell. In 3 the cells are slightly elongated,
with wavy walls, are 50 to 60 » across, and only towards the leaf apex are a few striated
hairs encountered. In 2 the cells are sinuous-angular, and nearly isodiametric, 40
to 45 m across, and hairs are irregularly and sparingly scattered over the lower leaf
portion, becoming more abundant towards the apex.
Transverse leaf-sections of J give a thickness of 200 to 250; of 2, 270 to 3304; of
3, 350 to 400 w. The revolute leaf margins of 7 leave about one-third of the leaf
epidermis exposed ; the margins of 3 are slightly turned back, but at least five-sixths of
the lower epidermis is exposed ; in 2 a full half is exposed. The proportion of palisade
to loose parenchyma in the three is as 1:13:13. The vascular bundle of the leaf
in 7 is strengthened below by a sclerenchyma mass of eighteen to twenty-two elements,
and above of ten to fourteen ; in 3 the lower mass is absent, but the upper is developed,
and consists of fourteen to eighteen elements; in 2 there is a lower mass of from
nine to thirteen elements, and an upper of from twelve to sixteen.
Petals.—The corolla of 1 is regular and ovate-urceolate ; that of 2? is very slightly
irregular, ovate-constricted, and slightly gibbous towards the base; that of 3 very
irregular, oval below, contracted above, and with pronounced enlargement of the upper
part of the corolla. The average colour of J is a waxen whitish pink, of 2 crimson-pink,
of 3 a dull purple-crimson. The outer epidermal cells of 7 all grow out into pronounced
surface papillze, in 2 the papillae merge gradually into the basal part of the cells, in 3 the
free cell-surfaces are only slightly elevated.
Stamens.—The anthers of 7 develop tails that are 9 to 10 mm. long, and the cells of the
outer anther wall are papillose, like those of the petals ; the anthers of 3 are devoid of tails,
* Hooker and Arnott’s British Flora, 6th edit.
1. Erica Tetralix.
2. Erica Watsoni.
3. Erica ciliaris.
!. Menziesia
empetriformis,
var,
’. Bryanthus
erectus.
’, Rhododendron
Chamecistus.
238 DR J. M. MACFARLANE ON THE
and the cells of the anther wall are produced into long papillae, most of which are con-
stricted above their point of origin. In 2 the anther tails are 3 to 5 mm. long, and the
cells of the anther wall are beautifully intermediate in length of the papillae. A com-
parative study of these stamens is highly instructive.
Pistil.—In 1 the ovary is finely hirsute, and at its base there are pouch-like nectaries,
joined at their orifices by secreting cells. In 3 the ovary is glabrous, and round its base
occur deep, isolated pouches, with large apertures. In 2 a few hairs occur over the ovary,
but greatly less than half as many as those in 7.* The nectar pouches are smaller than
in 3, and, so far as I have observed, they agree with 3 in being isolated.
(g) Bryanthus erectus, x.
For several reasons I was induced to undertake the examination of this beautiful form.
First introduced to the notice of botanists by Mr Cunnincuam, of Messrs Cunningham
& Fraser’s nurseries, it was handed by him to the late Professor GRAHAM for examina-
tion, though nothing was said as to its origin. As it differed entirely from any known
species, GRAHAM, ignorant of its true nature, described it as a new species. The
hybridiser, at that time a youth, stated positively that he had obtained it by crossing
Menziesia empetriformis, var. Drummondi, with pollen of Rhododendron Chamecistus.
Great doubt has been expressed by competent authorities as to the accuracy of this
statement, and these doubts may have been strengthened, I believe, by the statement
having been circulated that Menzesia cerulea—not empetriformis—was one parent,
and it has even been asserted that the plant has been found in a truly wild state.
Careful and continued observation of the three plants, hybrid and parents above given,
would furnish strong reasons for believing in the hybrid origin of Bryanthus, since the
stature, habit of growth, leaf form, flower numbers, and colour, as well as its failure in
my experience to produce any quantity of seed, while both reputed parents do, are all
in favour of CunNINcHAM’s statement. I shall first describe the stem shortly, though
the foliar parts are of greatest importance.
Stem.—Selecting young first year’s shoots of each, we find on longitudinal view of 3
that the epidermal cells are very irregular in outline, have secondary wall thickenings
with rather close-set pore canals, and the free surface exhibits fine ridges as in Lapageria.
Stomata are abundant, as many as seven to eight being the average under the Zeiss’ D,
and still more abundant are short, curved, thick-walled hairs. Long-stalked glandular
hairs, each ending in a small terminal knob, occur sparingly. In 7 the cells are elongate
in outline, the pore canals of the walls are unevenly and often distantly placed, and the
free surface is quite smooth. Stomata are rarely if ever developed, and only a moderate
number of curved hairs are distributed over the surface. Glandular hairs, composed of a
* Tt is possible that an explanation of this is got in lines of variability which 7 sometimes shows. I have pointed
out (Trans. Bot. Soc. Hdin., 1891) that varieties of the species may be nearly glabrous.
MINUTE STRUCTURE OF PLANT HYBRIDS. 239
short thick stalk and greatly enlarged oval head, are about as frequent as are the long-stalked
ones on the other parent. Bryanthus is quite intermediate in cell size, shape, wall thicken-
ing, and pore distribution. Four stomata is the average in an area corresponding to that
cited above. The curved hairs are reproduced in the hybrid, and glandular hairs, reduced
in size but similar to those on both parents, are found on adjoining parts of the same tissue.
On transverse section the cortex in the three shows an outer and inner cellular layer,
with sclerenchyma ring separating them. In 7 the sclerenchyma elements are thick-
walled and small, the largest being 12 w across; in 3 the elements are slightly thickened,
but measure 18 to 20 w; in 2 the moderately thickened elements are 15 to 16 mp across.
The tissues of phloem and xylem closely agree in all, except that the pitted vasa of 3 are
in cross section and relative number half those of Z, while the hybrid is a mean between
them.
The amount of pith tissue is as 5:4:3. The pith is made up of large clear cells, and
of others which are starch storers, with slightly-thickened pore-marked walls. The latter
predominate in 3, and they form a reticulate mass which surrounds the longer rounded
cells. In Z the former type predominates, the clear cells enclosing patches of starch-
storing cells. In 2 both types are very uniformly distributed, though at times there is
a morphological bias towards 3.
Longitudinal sections of the stem add little to the above, except as to pith tissue.
The starch-storing cells of 3 are equilateral, or, more commonly, slightly broader than
long ; each is on the average 20 w, and a large amount of starch is stored. ‘The starch
erains are 4 across at their largest, though most are from 2 to 3 y. The clear cells
are 70 to 80 long, and never store crystals. In 7 the starch-storing cells may be
quadrangular, but on the average they are 14 times broader than long, and a small
amount relatively of starch is stored. The largest starch granules are 6 mu across, and in
all cases they are larger than in 3. The clear cells are 150 to 200 u long, and occasion-
ally contains conglomerate crystals, 16 « across. In 2 the starch-storing cells may incline
towards one parent or the other in size, though the amount of starch stored and the size
of the granules fall rather towards 5. The same is true of the clear cells, but a marked
peculiarity, observed, however, by me in two other hybrids, is that the power of con-
glomerate crystal formation is not only inherited from the male parent, but appears on
a more exaggerated scale, there being at least 50 per cent. more crystals in a given area
of the hybrid pith than in that of the parent. This may point to a greater formation of
waste products in the hybrid, but better and wider evidence must be forthcoming before
a final conclusion can be reached.
Leaf:—In the three the upper epidermal cells are wavy in outline ; in 3 they are twice
the size of those in 7, and intermediate in the hybrid. On the lower epidermis the cells,
though smaller throughout, are in the ratioof 9:7:5. In 4, thirty to thirty-three stomata
are visible under Zeiss’ D with 4 eyepiece. In 7 there are seventy to seventy-five, and in 2,
fifty to fifty-five. In 3, hairs are entirely absent from the under epidermis. In 1, recurved
hairs like those of the stem grow out abundantly from the lower epidermis, interspersed
. Menziesia
empetriformis,
var.
. Bryanthus
erectus.
. Rhododendron
Chamecistus.
i. Menziesia
empetriformis,
var.
2. Bryanthus
erectus.
3. Rhododendron
Chamecistus.
240 DR J. M. MACFARLANE ON THE
with glandular hairs composed of a delicate stalk and large globular head, while in 2? the
glandular hairs are wanting, but the curved hairs are present, though shorter and about
one-third as abundant as on the first. Along the line of leaf revolution in 3 there are
elongated compound pointed hairs, exactly resembling others which are marginal in position
and terminate the leaf serrations, except that a few of the latter may terminate in a small
knob. In Z the line of leaf revolution develops shortly-stalked greenish gland hairs. In
2 there are short glandular hairs similar in position and appearance to those in 3, though
slightly longer in the stalk, and the latter peculiarity, 1 take it, is derived from 3. The
compound marginal hairs of 3 are absent. We have here, therefore, the curious condition
on the lower epidermis of gland hairs belonging to one parent, and marginal hairs
belonging to another, being alike undeveloped in the crossed offspring.
Transverse leaf sections are very striking in their relative outlines and depth of
tissue.
Flower Parts.—A series of measurements were made of the flower-stalks, and other
parts in the three, and the average results are given below. In 3 the length of the
flower-stalk is 3 to2 in.; in 2, $ to 1 in.; andin Zitis14in. The number of flowers in
a cluster are 2 to 3 in 3, 4 to 7 in 2, and 8 to 14 in 7.
Sepals.—These in 3 are short, broadly ovate, red or rarely red-green in colour, and
overlap each other considerably at their bases. In 2? they are ovate-acuminate, overlap
less than in the last, and are greenish-red, while in 7 they are lanceolate-acuminate,
scarcely touch at the base when expanded, and are reddish-green in colour.
The average size of the epidermal cells in the sepals of the hybrid are very exactly
intermediate, though at times they may vary over small areas. The strueture and
distribution of hairs is again worthy of special note. In 3 each sepal shows externally
over its base simple curved hairs, with slightly warted surface markings, and over the
general surface a few glandular hairs whose stalk is long and made up of cells which are
unevenly placed and taper into each other by oblique ends, while the terminal knob is
elliptic in shape. In 7 each sepal shows a very few simple hairs at its apex only;
glandular hairs, whose stalk-cells are short and arranged in transverse rows, and whose
apex is oval or nearly spherical in outline, occur sparingly over the outer surface. The
hybrid (2) possesses a few simple though shorter hairs round the apex of the sepal,
as in 7, while both types of glandular hair occur promiscuously, though in no ease
abundantly.
On transverse section the sepal of 3? shows an extremely fine cuticular ridging, that of
7 has it much more developed, while the most careful measurement gives an intermediate
amount in the hybrid. The mesophyll of 2 consists of three thinning out into two
layers of chlorophyll cells, that of 7 shows four, while the hybrid shows three which
become rather small and irregularly packed at their edges.
Corolla.—The corolla of 3 is salver-shaped, the petals are deeply divided, and each is
slightly concave internally. The colour is pale pink below, shading into a more delicate
hue above. The corolla of 2 is tubular below, becoming slightly salver- or cup-shaped
MINUTE STRUCTURE OF PLANT HYBRIDS. 241
above, and exhibits slight transverse foldings, particularly on first opening of the flowers.
The teeth of the corolla are flat or very slightly recurved, while the colour is a very
delicate rose-pink, so that the plant has become a great favourite in gardens. The
corolla of 7 is tubular, slightly urceolate, transversely plicate round the contracted throat,
and has strong recurved teeth. The colour is a bright purple-pink.
Microscopically the outer surfaces of the three are almost alike, but distinct differences
are observable internally. The epidermal cells of 3 are glabrous over their base and
upper parts, but about one-third up a zone of long, beautiful hairs grow out, which
correspond in position with similar ones on the bases of the filaments, and are evidently
formed as nectar covers. The cells of the base are greatly elongated, five to six times as
long as broad, but upwards they gradually widen, assume an irregular aspect, and have
wall infoldings. The epidermal cells of 7 are glabrous throughout, those at the base
about three times as long as wide, but higher up they widen out, have a sinuous outline,
and infoldings of the walls. In 2 the cells throughout are intermediate between those of
the parents, and, further, the hairs of 3 are prettily reproduced, of smaller size, reduced
number, and in the exact position.
Stamens.—These are on the average ;', to 38; in. long, of a brown-black colour,
and the filaments have a dense circlet of long fine hairs like those on the corolla in 3.
In 2 they are 55, in. long, the anthers are of a black-red colour, and a circlet of hairs like
those of the last, though reduced in number and size, covers the bases of the filaments. In
1 the stamens are 33; in. long, the anthers are of a deep red colour, and the filaments
have a very few short hairs at their bases. The pollen grains of 3 are 40 pw across, of 1
they are 30 p, and in both cases mature well. Those of 2 are 30 p at most, but they are
almost entirely bad, not more than one in twenty appearing as if capable of effecting
fertilisation.
Pistil.—The pistil of 3 is at first short, but eventually, by continued elongation of
the style, it becomes ;%; in. long, and is straight throughout. That of 7 is +5; in. long,
the upper part of the style is curiously curved in knee-like fashion, first downwards and
then upwards. That of 2 is ;7; in. long, and in most cases on first opening of the flower,
or during the whole blossoming period, is obliquely bent upwards, and then becomes
straight. The ovary of 3 is richly covered with long gland hairs like those of the sepals
and sparingly also with simple hairs ; the stigma is deeply five-cleft and 200 w across. In 7
the grooves between the carpels have short-stalked gland hairs, and a few short simple
hairs; the stigma is entire, slightly depressed in the middle, and 150 pw across. In 2 the
ovarian surface shows the two types of gland hair derived from the parents, along with a
few simple hairs; the stigma is deeply depressed or almost lobed, and measures 170 p
across.
The above description of Bryanthus erectus, and of its reputed parents, proves that
equally in naked-eye and histological characters the parents differ considerably from each
other, and that the hybrid inherits unblended peculiarities of both in hair appendages,
and general blending to an intermediate extent in the cells of the organism as a whole.
1. Menziesia
empetriformis,
var,
2, Bryanthus
erectus,
3, Rhododendron
Chamezcistus.
7. Masdevallia
amabilis,
2 Masdevallia
Chelsoni.
3. Masdevallia
Veitchiana.
242 DR J. M. MACFARLANE ON THE
We thus have overwhelming evidence in favour of the hybrid nature of Bryanthus, and
a true index of its parentage. As already stated, the report very early gained currency
that Menziesia cerulea—not empetriformis—was one parent, and this statement has been
perpetuated in standard works on the subject. The hybridiser clearly stated and has
reasserted to me that M. empetriformis, var. Drummond, was that used by him. What
evidence, then, it may be asked, can be adduced in favour of the latter over the former ?
As Mr Linpsay has well pointed out, the hybrid has a growth-vigour which would
scarcely be expected from union of the dwarf Rhododendron Chamecistus with the
equally low-growing MM. cwrulea, even if we allow for that luxuriance which hybrids
occasionally show. But additional evidence is needed, and this, I think, is furnished by
the calyx and corolla. The external surface of the calyx of M. cerulea is densely
studded with glandular hairs, which are scarce in M. empetriformis. The corolla is
ovate-urceolate in the former, and has a coating of gland hairs over its outer surface.
The corolla of the latter is tubular, constricted above, and has transverse plications ; its
outer surface is also quite glabrous. At least two considerations militate in favour of the
variety “ Drummond” having been used. These are the colour of the flower, which has
given to the hybrid its clear delicate pink hue; also the time of flowering, for
records of the yearly flowering periods at the Royal Botanic Garden place M. empetri-
formis earliest, Rhododendron a few days later, and Bryanthus later still. But the
variety Drummondi was this year later in flowering by sixteen days than the ordinary
species. This, however, would accord well with the flowering period of the hybrid and
of the other parent. Our evidence, therefore, is — favourable to the accuracy of
Mr CunnincHam’s statement.
I would further venture to assert, with considerable confidence, that when a cross is
effected between Rhododendron and Menzesia cerulea the progeny will be low-growing
plants, with dull pink flowers; that the calyx externally will be more glandular than in
Bryanthus, that the corolla will be tubular and non-plicate, and that a considerable
number of glandular hairs will be found over its outer surface.
(h) Masdevallia Chelsom, x
This hybrid was raised by Mr Srepen, a well-known hybridiser on Mr Verren’s staff.
It was described in the Gardeners’ Chronicle for 1880 (pp. 501, 554). M. amabilis,
the seed parent, is figured and described in Bonplandia and Illustrations Horticole,
and occurs wild in Northern South America, The pollen parent is found on the Cor-
dilleras of Peru, was first discovered by PEarcs, flowered by Messrs Verron, and figured
by Sir Josrpn Hooker in the Botanical Magazine, No. 5739.
I regard the parents as closely related species, on account of their naked-eye appearanes
and microscopic structure. We shall see, however, that there are several important points
of difference, especially in histological details. Like other Masdevallias, they have a tufted
habit, form a dense mass of roots whose upper parts are green, have short cylindric
——————
-~©
5
Tr s
MINUTE STRUCTURE OF PLANT HYBRIDS. 243
stems, slightly, if at all, thicker than the leaf base, which rise above the root tufts. Hach
is really a small pseudo-bulb, as has been correctly represented in the drawing of the
Botanical Magazne cited above. Miss Wootwarp is therefore wrong in attempting to
criticise the drawing adversely and to deny the existence of such a growth.*- Both
parents exhibit, in the size and colouring of the flower parts, considerable variability, as
was demonstrated by specimens kindly sent me from Glasnevin Gardens, from Mr
Vetrcu of Chelsea, and Mr BucHanan of Oswald Road. It is not surprising, therefore,
that the published figures and descriptions do not all agree with each other. The
microscopic details which give rise to these macroscopic differences are chiefly variations
in the number and distribution of coloured hair-cells.
Root.—On transverse section an external velamen of four layers shows cells in Z greatly
widened out tangentially, each being three and a half to four times broader than deep.
In 3 the cells are one and a half to two times broader, and in 2 they are two and a half to
three times broader. The cells of the epidermis in 7 have their external and lateral walls
strongly cuticularised in U-shaped manner, those of 3 are only slightly cuticularised exter-
nally, while 2 shows an intermediate amount both of lateral and external cuticularisation.
In 7 the root cortex cells have clear colloid walls, specially thickened at the angles,
as in typical collenchyma, and small intercellular spaces are enclosed by the thickened
portions. In 3 the cortex cells are large and loose, with rather large intercellular spaces
enclosed ; the walls throughout are thin, and even at the angles there is little colloid
thickening. The cells of 2 are intermediate in size, amount of colloid thickening, and
development of intercellular spaces.
In 7 the cells of the bundle sheath and of the xylem are strongly thickened, so that
the lumen—specially of the xylem elements—is greatly reduced. In 3 these elements
are of large size and are slightly thickened, while in 2 all the roots that I have yet
examined approach nearer to 3 than to 7. In 7 the pitted vasa are 18 m across, in 3
they are 35 pw, and in 2 they are 28 yp.
Longitudinal root sections of 7 show cortex cells from the third layer inwards, which
are greatly elongated and have thick, white, colloid walls. In 3 these are loose, thin-
walled, slightly irregular in shape, and are, on the average, rather broader than long.
In 2 the cells are considerably longer than broad, and show a moderate degree of
colloid thickening.
Stem.—Only a few details need be referred to here. On transverse and longitudinal
section of the cortex of 7, the cells are greatly elongated ; their walls are thickened so
that slit-lke deficiencies with pore apertures are left, and between the cells are small
intercellular spaces. In 3 the cells are slightly longer than broad, many have no
thickening deposits, but a few show a very pretty secondary spiral thickening. Many
of the cells surround large intercellular spaces. In 2 the shape and size of cells, as also
the size of the intercellular spaces, are not only intermediate, but spiral cells like those
of 3, though with less thickening deposit, are distributed among the unthickened ones.
; * “The genus Masdevallia.”
VOL, XXXVII. PART I. (NO. 14). 2N
1. Masdevallia
amabilis.
2. Masdevallia
Chelsoni.
3. Masdevallia
Veitchiana.
1, Masdevallia
amabilis.
2. Masdevallia
Chelsoni.
3, Masdevallia
Veitchiana.
244 DR J. M. MACFARLANE ON THE
The elements of the bundle sheath, the sieve tubes and pitted vasa, all conform in the
hybrid to what one might expect.
Leaf:—Each leaf is divisible into a terminal laminar portion and basal persistent
petiole. Between the pseudo-bulb and petiole, also between the petiole and lamina,
layers of cork cells develop, which first cause shedding of the lamina, and at a much later
period of the petiole.
The epidermal cells of 7 are variable in size, rounded in outline, and have thick,
white, refractive walls; the cells of 3 are elongated and have thin walls; the hybrid
shows a condition between the extremes. The number of stomata over the leaf area are
as 8: 12:18, but they vary in number in any leaf over given parts of it, being sparse
towards the base and apex, abundant over the middle two-thirds. A careful comparison,
therefore, of the whole area requires to be made to obtain this result.
The mesophyll tissue that surrounds the bundles alike of petiole and lamina in J consists
partly of quadrangular cells, whose thickened walls show slit-like deficiencies with pore
apertures. One can readily trace that the slits follow an oblique, almost spiral course
round the wall, but the thickened areas between are too broad to give even the semblance
of a spiral marking to it (Plate VII. fig. 1). In 3 the mesophyll throughout, but specially
that towards the base of the lamina, is crowded with oval or quadrangular cells, larger
by half than the slit cells of the last, while the walls exhibit beautiful spiral thickening
(Plate VII. fig. 2). The secondary spiral thickening bands are of considerable thickness,
as one can learn from sections. ‘The hybrid shows fewer spiral cells; in truth, towards
the leaf apex they become very rare, and the spiral deposit is less in amount, but these
peculiarities demonstrate the moulding action of the other parent. From careful com-
parison of the parent and hybrid cells, I incline to view the spiral cell as a modification
of the slit-marked or pitted one through great elongation in oblique or spiral direction
of the slits. Examples can be got in the hybrid where greatly elongated and oblique
slits alternate with thickened bands.
Apart from the question of hybrid production, it is worthy of note that the
parents could be easily distinguished from each other histologically by the presence or
absence of spiral cells in the leaf tissue, though the leaves are strikingly alike to the
naked eye.
Perianth Segments.—The three sepals which form the most attractive part of the
flower are of a uniform purple-red tint in 1; in 3 the inferior halves of the two lower
sepals are of a yellow-red colour, flushed with purple, while the upper halves and superior
sepal are either bright red or may have a faint purple flush; the hybrid has a pretty
wide distribution of the purple flush over the inferior sepals and the ground colour is
more subdued than in the last, but richer than in the first. This colour distribution is
proved on microscopic examination to be due to bladder-like hairs filled with a purple
cell-sap. These spring from the epidermal tissue, the cells of which contain yellow
chromoplasts. In 7 the epidermal cells are irregularly rounded in outline, and they,
as well as subjacent cells, have a small number of minute pale yellow chromoplasts,
MINUTE STRUCTURE OF PLANT HYBRIDS. 245
each averaging 14 to 2 yw across. The hair cells are very numerous, uniformly distributed,
variable in size, and of conical shape, with rounded apex (Plate VII. fig. 3). In 3 the
epidermal cells are as a rule elongated and sharply angular, their chromoplasts are very
abundant, of a bright yellow colour, and partly distributed through the peripheral proto-
plasmic layer, partly aggregated in many cases round the nucleus. The presence of these
gives the yellowish-red colour to those areas of the sepals from which hairs are absent.
The hairs are globular or broadly obovate in shape, and though they vary a little in size,
the degree of variability is not nearly so pronounced as in 7 (Plate VII. fig. 5). In 2 the
number, size, and tint of the chromoplasts, as also the shape and size of the cells which
contain them, is a very fair mean between those of the parents, while the pigment hairs
are of extreme interest as showing that the variability in size inherited from one parent
is reproduced, though on a less exaggerated scale, in the hybrid progeny (Plate VII, fig. 4).
Occasionally in the hybrid, as in M. Veztchaana, compound hairs, formed of a short
columnar stalk and enlarged head, are observed.
Stamens.—The cells of the anther sacs in 7 are small and rounded; of 3 they are
elongated and angular; and of 2 rounded-angular. The pollen grains of 2 are quite
equal in quality to either parent, so far as microscopic examination can decide. I,
therefore, the ovules are correspondingly good, this hybrid should be epee of per-
petuation.
The suggestions already made as to the evolutionary origin of Lapageria and
Phuilesia might equally be urged here. Both parents are inhabitants of the mountains
of South America, and their close histological affinity leads one to look for some common
ancestral form. We are now acquainted with several species that are nearly related, and
which frequent the same regions, and it is possible that a comparative study of their
tissues might aid us in determining the lines of development on which these have
advanced, and the possible relation of the artificially produced hybrid to some type which
once existed or still exists.
() Cypripedium Leeanum, x.
This hybrid orchid was raised in Messrs Verrcn’s Chelsea Garden Nurseries by cross-
ing of C. Spicerranum with pollen of C. insigne. It is a very evenly-balanced cross on
first appearance, but, as we shall show, some parts of it oe a pronounced one-sided-
ness of development.
Root.—I have carefully examined roots of the three, but find them fundamentally
alike, so far as my supply of material has enabled me to make an exact age
comparison.
Leaves.—Comparative surface views of the upper and lower epidermis show con-
siderable differences in the number of epidermal cells and of stomata over a given area.
The following results illustrate this. In C. Spicerianwm the lower half of the upper
epidermis showed, under Zeiss’ D with 4 eyepiece, five to six cells, over the upper half
1 Cypripedium
Spicerianum.
2. Cypripedium
Leeanum.
3, Cypripedium
insigne.
2
246 DR J. M. MACFARLANE ON THE
ee six to seven and a half cells. In C. Leeanum the lower half showed eleven to fourteen,
pi ;
Cypripedium the upper half ten to twelve. In C. ensigne the lower half showed fifteen to seventeen,
Leeanum.
3. Cypripedium over the upper half thirteen to fifteen. This gives an average of 64:12:15.
insigne. 2 : ; ee
In C. Spicerianum the lower epidermal cells and the stomata were distributed as
follows :— 7
+
Base, . . 5 stomata and 21 epidermal cells. 7
Between base aha pando: . 4-5 53 23 bs Es :
Middle, . : : . 6-7 ‘ 27 3 -
Above middle, . : ~ 1 o Pe 25 a % 7
Near apex, : scam 5 25 95 :
Apex, . i ‘ . 6-7 Fe 25-26 3 sy ;
In C. Leeanum as follows :—
Base, : : . 5-6 stomata and 27 epidermal cells, ‘
Between base and peidalles ot XO ts 30 3 -e i
Middle, . t ; «ah i 32 as - "
Above middle, . 8 x 35 *, -
Near apex, f 5 . 8-9 i 37 , A i
Apex, 9 3 38-40 ” ”
In C. ensigne as follows :—
Base, 4 . 7 stomata and 40-43 epidermal cells.
Between base and mideiie! eae PA 45 5 s
Middle, . : i aa ae 45-48 i 55
Above middle, . A er) 9 45-46 x .
Near apex, . ; tO $5 45-46 A
Apex, |). 5 : salO A 45-48 3 of
Thus the average number of stomata in the first is five, and of epidermal cells
twenty-four to twenty-four and a half; in the second, of stomata seven to seven and a
quarter, and of epidermal cells thirty-three ; in the third, of stomata eight and three-
quarters, and of epidermal cells forty-five.
On transverse section at one-fourth length from the leaf apex the upper
epidermis in C. Spicerianum shows deep columnar cells, varying from 440 to 460m
in depth, and continued from midrib region to about the middle of each laminar
half; they then become shallower, passing from 350m to 240m, and near the margin
are reduced to 60 in depth In Ci Leeanuwm those on either side of the
midrib are 400 to 430. in depth, they then fall to 350-380 pw, again to 280 u,
then to 200-220 m, and near the margin they are 60» in depth. In C. insigne
those on either side of the midrib are 380-400 » in depth, they then fall to
360-380 p, then to 320-350 mu, then to 280-300 mu at the middle of each laminar
half; they then decrease rather suddenly to 140-160 uw, then to 100-120, and near the
margin they are 60 «in depth. If the variability in the hybrid about the middle of
tbe inner half of the lamina be constant, it might indicate an unstable and wavering?
MINUTE STRUCTURE OF PLANT HYBRIDS. 247
tendency towards one or other parent. The relative depths of leaf sections and of the
spongy parenchyma in these may merely be referred to as conforming in general effect
with what we have given above.
Flowering Stem.—The surface appearance of most of the epidermal cells agrees in the
three. In C. Spicervanwm a few four-celled hairs are found just beneath the flower
bract, otherwise the stem is glabrous. In C. insigne rounded cells are present over
the whole length of the stem, and from these five- or six-celled pointed hairs. spring.
Glandular hairs are about equally abundant. Lach is made up of a stalk of four cells,
and a terminal club-shaped part of three cells. In the hybrid both kinds are present,
but more sparingly and of smaller size than in the latter parent.
In C. Spicerranum five to six layers of rounded and neatly arranged cells with
thickened walls lie beneath the epidermis. They surround small sharply defined and
nearly triangular intercellular spaces. In C. insigne there are ten to twelve layers of
larger and looser cells than in the last, the walls of which are feebly thickened. They
surround irregular and rather large intercellular spaces. In the hybrid there are eight
to nine layers with moderately thickened walls, and the intercellular spaces are between
those of the parents in size and form. The sclerenchyma sheath is alike in the three.
In the bundle system the spiral tracheids are 18 in the one parent, 30 in the
other, and 25 in the hybrid.
Sepals.—The large superior (in position) sepal is a specially instructive study from
the standpoint of hair formation. That of C. Spicerranum has the halves strongly re-
flexed so as in many cases nearly to meet behind; it is of a dull stone-white colour
except along the midrib, where is a slight amount of purple-red pigment. That of
C. insigne is flat or slightly arched inwards, of a pure white colour at the sides, but
the middle area is varied by numerous large purple-black spots distributed over a
greenish-white background. The hybrid exhibits a slight reflexion of the halves, has
the white lateral parts of each parent, and the spots of the latter, but these are lighter
in tint and usually smaller in size.
Except where otherwise mentioned, the size and outline of the cells agree in the three.
In C. Spicerianum the margin is fringed by many glandular hairs like those described
above, but very few are found over the outer surface, where simple multicellular hairs
are most abundant. In C. msigne simple hairs of five to six cells not only fringe the
margin, but are copiously distributed over the outer surface, along with a few glandular
hairs. In the hybrid simple and glandular hairs are equally abundant round the
margin, and the first also occur over the exterior along with a few of the latter. The
inner sepal surface of C. Spicertanum is copiously and uniformly beset with gland-
tipped hairs, which in all cases spring from colourless cells of the epidermis, but have
some or all of their cells often filled with a rich ruby pigment, the presence of which in
the hairs gives the dull stone colour to the sepal. In C. insigne there is a rather scant
distribution of simple hairs, except over the dark purple spots which are quite glabrous.
In the hybrid a few simple hairs are inherited from the latter parent, but there is an
1. Cypripedium
Spicerianum.
2. Cypripedium
Leeanum.
3. Cypripedium
insigne.
t. Cypripedium
Spicerianum.
2. Cypripedium
Leeanum.
3. Cypripedium
insigne.
248 DR J. M. MACFARLANE ON THE
abundance of gland-tipped ones derived from the first parent. They are, however, less
abundant, for over equal areas under Zeiss’ A objective, there were sixteen to eighteen
in C. Spicervanum as compared with nine to eleven in the hybrid. The spotted areas
in the hybrid are quite glabrous, as in the other parent. This mode of hair distribution,
alike as to position and relation to epidermal colour distribution, is all the more remark-
able when we remember that the gland hairs of C. Spicerianum and the hybrid spring
from colourless cells, but are nevertheless filled, in at least the three to four lowest,
with a pigment like that filling the epidermal cells, which form the areas that are invari-
ably glabrous in C. mmsigne and in the hybrid. Further, while along the dark purple
line that traverses the middle of the sepal in C. Spicerianum, both types of hair of a
ruby colour spring from similarly coloured cells, and while the middle of the sepal in C
mmsigne is glabrous and colourless, the purple line is reproduced in the hybrid though in
a rather diffused state, and both kinds of hair spring from ruby cells of it.
The median inferior (in position) sepal shows in C. Spicervanum a moderate number
of simple multicellular hairs externally, and great wealth of glandular hairs internally,
C. insigne shows the converse condition, viz., abundant glandular hairs externally, and
fewer simple hairs internally, though the relative numbers are more nearly equal than in
the former. In the hybrid there is a pretty uniform distribution of both types alike
on the outer and inner sides.
Petals.—The lateral petals are mainly of interest from their hair distribution, hut
they may be passed over as they do not share the striking peculiarities of the sepals.
The outer surface of the labellum has wavy-walled cells, which, for shape, size, &c., are
quite alike, though the colour contents vary. Internally they agree, except in colour and
hair distribution. C. Spicerianum has hairs spread uniformly along the bottom of the
slipper ; C. insigne shows two types, one simple and multicellular, the other short and
club-shaped, being composed of three small stalk cells, and a terminal knob cell. In the
hybrid both kinds of hair are encountered though reduced in size and number.
Stamens.—We may neglect the abortive stamens except the crescentic one which
represents the third of the outer whorl, and which merits detailed study. In C
Spicerianum, both outer (anterior) and inner (posterior) surfaces of it are quite smooth,
and only a very few hairs exist towards the top. It measures from 3 m. at its thinnest
to 6°5 m. at its thickest part. In C. imsigne, the outer surface is covered by yellowish
glassy warts, which appear under the low power of the microscope as magnificent greenish
yellow papille, each ending ina hair. The inuer surface is also hair-covered over its
upper region. ‘The microscopic resemblances of the hybrid seem all to be towards the
latter parent till sections are made and examined, when the size of the papillz and of the
cells forming them, as also the hair distribution, are found to be a reduction by half of
the conditions of the latter parent.
The pollen of C. Spicercanum is slightly smaller than that of C. msigne, and is pale
yellow, while in the latter it is greenish yellow, and in the hybrid dull yellow. The
pollen of the hybrid has a round but rather granular and hard look.
MINUTE STRUCTURE OF PLANT HYBRIDS. 249
Gynostenmum.—I need only refer here to the position of the bundles and their
relation to the stigmatic lobes. In C. Spicerianum the three stigmatic bundles run
so that lines joining the corners of the stigmatic lobes would pass through their middle ;
in C. insigne the bundles would be considerably outside these lines, while in the hybrid the
inner margins of the bundles would be touched, or they would lie just without the bundles.
The stigmatic lobes of C. Spicerianum are equal in size and deep depressions separate
them ; in C. insigne two of the lobes are short and one is long (one-half longer than
the other two), and except between the short lobes the depressions are shallow; in C.
Leeanum one lobe is rather larger than the other two, and the depressions are inter-
mediate in character betweew those of the parents.
Pistil.—The ovary of C. Spicerianum is glabrous; that of C. insigne is densely
covered with a short belt of glandular and pointed hairs, which show great diversity in
size. In the hybrid the latter description suffices, except that the hairs.are reduced in
number by about one half.
(k) Some General Observations on Hybrids.
Instead of recording all that has been observed regarding the histology of other
hybrids, I shall now select some special features which seem to deserve consideration.
Stomatic Distribution in Hedychium Sadlerranum and its Parents.—The number of
stomata over a given area has been found in most eases to be intermediate in a hybrid
between that of its parents. But on overhauling the hybrid named above, I was greatly
puzzled to account for apparent discrepancies in relative distribution, and at first ascribed
these to the choosing of leaves that did not exactly correspond in time of development.
After exercising every care, however, in this and other respects, the results were
discouraging. It should here be stated that the upper epidermis of H. Gardnerianum
has few stomata, and is glaucous owing to a rather thick wax layer covering the cells;
the upper epidermis of H. coronarium is bright green, devoid of wax covering, and pro-
duces a few rather long hairs. The stomata of the latter are ten to twelve times more
abundant than those of the former. The upper epidermis of H. Gardnerianum gave an
average over equal areas of two stomata; that of H. coronarvum, thirty-two ; that of the
hybrid, twelve. Over the lower epidermis the numbers, as taken from a large series of
observations made over the entire leaf surface of several leaves, were 10:20:22. That
this exceptional result was not to be explained in the same way that we, in a later part of
this paper, attempt to explain the tendency which a hybrid often has to sway towards
one or other parent seemed evident, particularly since other parts of the hybrid are eey
exactly between those of the parent.
It appears possible that we may have here a morphological adaptation in the hybrid
for physiological work, or, in the truest sense, a case of physiological selection. We are
dealing with two parents, one of which develops a thick wax covering to a thick and
somewhat leathery epidermis, the other a thin cuticle and scant hair growth from a com-
250 DR J. M. MACFARLANE ON THE
paratively delicate epidermis. Is it possible, one may ask, to obtain an equally balanced
morphological and physiological blending of such leaf peculiarities? In other words, were
the hybrid exactly intermediate morphologically, would it be able to carry on efficiently
its physiological work? To be in a position to answer this we would require—what is
still a desideratum—accurate statistics as to (a) the amount of transpiration from
stomata on the upper as compared with those on the under leaf surface ; (b) the effect on
elaboration and transpiration activity of a wax covering; (c) the relation to transpiration
of leaf thickness, specially in the chlorophyll layers. On all of these points we are still
largely ignorant ; but everywhere in Nature we see form suiting itself to function to a
degree that often effects remarkable alteration in structure, and we may therefore suggest
hypothetically that the apparently anomalous details of the above hybrid may receive a
true interpretation on the line indicated.
Starches of Hedychiwm Species and of ther Hybrids.—In two cases already
described it has been stated that appreciable differences exist in the starch granules of
parents and hybrids, those of the latter being between those of the parents. But as
these were very small and variable in size, the discovery of forms in which size was com-
bined with tolerable uniformity was very welcome. Such were obtained from a series of
Hedychium hybrids, one of which has already been named.
H. Gardnerianum, the one parent of H. Sadlerianum, forms strong rhizomes, whose
storing cells are large, but scantily filled with starch in all that I have examined. Each
starch grain is a small flat triangular plate, measuring 10 to 12m from hilum to base
(Plate VII. fig. 13), and the lamination is not very distinct. H. coronarium, the other
parent, forms smaller and fewer rhizomes, and the starch-storing cells are from half to
three-fourths the size of the last, but these are densely filled, particularly in the central
parenchyma, with large starch granules. Each is ovate, or in some cases is tapered
rather finely to a point at the hilum. They are from 32 to 60m long, measuring as
before, and the lamination is very marked (Plate VII. fig. 15). The cells of the hybrid
are on the average between those of the parents; but if one may judge by opacity of cells,
the amount of stored starch approaches more closely to that of the latter parent, The
grains may best be described if we suppose a rather reduced one of the first parent to be
set on the reduced basal half of one of the latter. The lamination also is more pronounced
than in the first, less so than in the second (fig. 14). |
A second cross was effected by Mr Linpsay with H. coronarvum, and examination of
the rhizome starches proves that the second hybrid approaches very closely to the
species parent. But the grains of H. Lindsay: illustrate microscopically a phenomenon
which has been repeatedly referred to, viz., the greater variability and instability of a
second over a first hybrid, for many of the grains (in some specimens the majority)
have fantastic shapes, appearing as if undergoing rapid disintegration by leucoplasts, or
perhaps more truly as if the latter were incapable of building up the shells of starch in
a regular and uniform manner.
A set of crosses has been effected between H. elatwm and H. coronarium. The
i ee Ce ee ee er ae
Peel y b> = {ftp ye
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MINUTE STRUCTURE OF PLANT HYBRIDS. 251
grains of the first (fig. 16) are like those of H. Gardnerianuwm, except that they are larger
(18 to 24), and that the lamination is coarse. The grains of the hybrid are larger than
those of H. Sadlerianum, and exhibit even more evident lamelle (fig. 17). They measure
on the average 40, but vary from 30 to 50 u.
But not unfrequently all of the above hybrids have mixed up with the more
typically intermediate ones some which can scarcely, if at all, be distinguished from
the small grains peculiar to one parent, while very rarely I have observed grains
that were so large and rounded as to pass for those of H. coronarium. Now, when
describing the epidermal leucoplasts of Dianthus Griever (p. 22), it was stated that
though the average was nearly 3“, some measured 2°5 u or slightly less, others as much
as 3°5u. The occurrence of these, and similar minute differences in protoplasmic masses,
or in formed materials like starch grains which are due to manufacture by these masses,
induced me to prepare a set of micro-photographs, and to project lantern transparencies
of these on a 7-ft. screen. Thus it was possible to study their dimensions more exactly
than under the microscope. It was then found that while the shape, appearance, and
size of most starch grains of Hedychiwm, of Dianthus leucoplasts, of Gewm and Mas-
devallia chromoplasts, were intermediate, examples might be got which reverted power-
fully to one parent, and, so far as they have yet been studied, the reversion was most
frequently towards the parent with the more minute cell-contents.
Hairs of Rhododendron Species.
In the hybrids that have been fully described one or two cases presented themselves
of parent plants being provided with hairs different from each other in structure, and one
only or both of these being inherited by the hybrid. This did not involve a pronounced,
if at all discernible, leaning of the hybrid to either parent in naked-eye appearance.
Many striking illustrations of this nature are afforded by species of Rhododendron, which
further furnish remarkable verifications in the epidermal papille of the exactness with
which microscopic details are handed down from parent to offspring on reduced or enlarged
seale, according to the interacting effect of the other parent.
Many of the Himalayan Rhododendrons, including such well-known species as R.
cihatum, glaucum, formosum, Dalhousie, Veitchiana, &c., have on their under leaf
epidermis brown, brown-red, reddish-green, or green scale hairs, with intramural glands,
the structure and development of which have been traced by Dr Bary.* But most of them
further show a fine leaden-white tint, due to the outgrowth of epidermal papille from many
or all of the cells. Others again, such as R. Hdgeworthi, have in addition long twisted
unicellular hairs, which soon after their first formation get filled with air, and their walls
assume a brown colour. I will not now deal with the scale hairs further than to say
that in size, colour, and outline they may vary greatly in two parents, and that those of
one parent only may be inherited by the hybrid offspring.
* Comp. Anat. Phan. and Ferns, Eng. ed., 1884, pp. 96-97.
VOL. XXXVII. PART I. (NO. 14). 20
252 DR J. M. MACFARLANE ON THE
The epidermal papillz are absent as such in FR. coliatum, but the free surface of each
epidermal cell is slightly convex (Plate VII. fig. 6); and as incident light rays are not
greatly interfered with, the surface has a dull green aspect. In &. glaucum each epidermal
cell grows out asa little wart or papilla, measuring 7 p (fig. 8), and light rays falling on the
sides of these and on the epidermal surface from which they spring interfere with each
other, so that a leaden-white colour results. In the hybrid R. Grievei,* each epidermal
papilla is 4 to 5 pw in height (fig. 7), since the convex cell surfaces of the first-named parent
aid in making each slightly longer than half that of the other parent.
A cross of FR. ciliatum with R. Edgeworthu was effected by Mr Linpsay. The leaves
of the hybrid have a good deal of the wrinkled character of the latter parent, but are
entirely destitute of the dense woolly covering to the under epidermis, which is so con-
spicuous a feature of that parent. Transverse leaf sections of R. Kdgeworthu expose
the scale hairs cut across; also each epidermal cell grows out into a straight papilla
slightly constricted in its middle, and measuring 14 to 16 pw in height (fig. 12). Depres-
sions in the epidermis are occupied by knob-like outgrowths of it, from each of which a long
twisted hair arises. The hybrid shows, in addition to scale hairs, papille 9 to 10 w in
height, but though there are depressions in the epidermis that appear to correspond to
those of &. Hdgeworthi, the long hairs are never produced. .
The well-known hybrid between 2. formosum and R. Dalhousie may now be taken.
Leaf sections of the former (fig. 9) show short epidermal papille, which may be straight,
but mostly are slightly inclined, so as collectively to form a broken circle round each stoma,
and, therefore, the rudiment of a wind chamber. They measure 12 to 14 p in height.
Leaf sections of R. Dalhousie (fig. 11) present papille that are 16 to 18 win height, and
are curved inwards in groups round the stomata, so as to form very efficient wind
chambers. The hybrid exactly blends the extremes of the parents in the size and angle
of bending of the papille (fig. 10).
In the above set of Rhododendron parents and hybrids, therefore, a complete grada-
tion in size and position of epidermal papille is established. If an equally gradual
transition could be traced among existing species, not only in the size and position of
the papille, but in other structural minutie, a key to specific relationship would
undoubtedly be obtained.
Colour of Hybrids and of ther Parents.
Reference may now be made to certain features which are better treated of as a
whole, though isolated references have been made to most of them in the foregoing
descriptions. First we may deal with hybrid colour distribution, and in doing so we
must keep in view the surface area over which any pigment is to be distributed, specially
in the case of dissolved pigments like red and blue, or their combinations. Since these
depend in most cases on relative acidity (for the red) or alkalinity (for the blue) of the
* I am greatly indebted to Mr Grieve of Messrs Dickson’s nurseries for a liberal supply of this hybrid that
was raised by him.
T#ieese
pe
|
MINUTE STRUCTURE OF PLANT HYBRIDS. 253
cell sap, slight chemical change may produce marked colour effect. Yellow, on the other
hand, being a pigment intimately united with and formed in protoplasmic masses, is less
liable to rapid change. White we naturally consider to be due to refraction of light from
cell surfaces, from walls which bound intercellular spaces, &c. If, therefore, a cross is
effected between two parents, one of which has large richly-coloured petals or other parts,
the other parent smaller and pale-coloured parts, the hybrid may appear to have a greater
resemblance to the first, though exactly intermediate, for half of the large amount of rich
pigment from the one parent which will be diffused throughout its cells, will apparently
give an exceptional richness of effect. A good example of this is furnished by Rhodo-
dendron Nobleanum, which was raised from the scarlet, rather large-flowered R. arborewm
and the greenish or pinkish white, smaller-flowered R. Caucasicwm. To acasual observer
the hybrid seems to take wholly after the first. An arrangement of the three blossoms
side by side effectually demonstrates how nearly the hybrid ranks between the parents. To
take another illustration from vegetative parts, the fine hybrid Nepenthes Mastersiana is a
cross of NV. sanguinea, the pitchers of which when mature are of large size and vary in colour
from greenish-scarlet to crimson, and of N. Khasiana, which bears long narrow pitchers,
varying from yellowish-green to dull red-green, The hybrid accordingly presents a
corresponding latitude in colour effect, though on the average it is greenish-crimson.
The opposite relation equally holds true, as proved by the dark purplish crimson
Rhododendron atrovirens, when crossed by R. ciliatum, giving the bright crimson-
pink &. precox, and similarly the small-flowered dull pmk &. glauwewm, when crossed
by &. caliatwm, gives the pale pink R. Griever.
Though cases have been recorded of peculiar and apparently inexplicable colour blend-
ing, there are few, I am persuaded, which will not yield to ordinary methods of analysis.
A very interesting series of crosses and recrosses of Hast Indian Rhododendrons has been
studied by Professor GrorcE HENsLow,* and some of the colour combinations described
are such as one would scarcely have expected, but it is quite possible that the evolution
of some new chemical product through hybrid combination may simplify or quite explain
the apparent anomalies.
If we are to put any trust in colour statistics as hitherto given, we are bound to con-
clude that the balance of evidence is in favour of a hybrid inheriting half the amount of
colour effect from each parent, whether due to union of the same or another colour series.
Even when colours belong to opposite ends of the spectrum, evenly balanced fusion seems
to result, though the day is not long past when this was regarded as almost or quite im-
possible. Thus the brilliant scarlet-flowered Delphinium nudicaule has been crossed in
the Edinburgh Botanic Garden with the dark blue-flowered D. cashmirianum, the hybrid
product being of a lurid purple-red hue, which, when set between the parents, is the per-
fection of blending. Though GArryer failed to cross the blue and red varieties of
Anagallis, this has since been effected. It is also true that few if any allied species,
even though very different in colour, resist steady and repeated attempts to cross.
* Gardeners Chronicle, vol. ix. p. 618, 1891 ; Trans. Roy. Hort. Soc., 1891.
254 DR J. M. MACFARLANE ON 'THE
But that the crossing of species which have diverse colouring, even though nearly
related, often produces profound molecular disturbance and instability in the offspring, was
early recognised by Darwin, and has repeatedly been insisted on since. Thus Darwin
obtained from a cross of the red and blue Anagallis mongrel progeny, some of which were
red, some blue, and some intermediate in colour. This may be accounted for by
supposing that a state of instability had been brought about by an overstraining of
that characteristic elasticity of the protoplasm, which in most cases of species-crossing
gives an evenly blended product.
That there may be morphological peculiarities associated or correlated with colour
production, and entirely confined to one parent, is clearly shown by the account given of the
large sepal of Cypripedium Leeanum. With a copious production of a deep crimson
pigment in C. msigne, aggregated into large sharply-defined spots, there is an absence
of the simple hairs that are abundantly present over the rest of the inner sepal surface.
The other parent has many gland-tipped hairs over the areas, which are uniformly white
in it, but spotted in C. imsigne. Now in C. Leeanum, while the pigment spots are
undoubtedly much paler in colour, their presence always points to an entire absence of
hairs. This, along with other facts shortly to be reviewed, points not only to a molecular
instability in the hybrid tissues, but to an ultimate predominance of one sexual element
over the other, alike in the formation of chemical products and in the upbuilding of
permanent tissues.
We shall see later on that the petals of the remarkable graft hybrid Cytisus Adami
are usually exactly intermediate in colour between those of the yellow and purple species
with which they are associated on the same tree, even though many of the tissues take
entirely after one or other parent in a mixed manner; but instances appear to be not
unfrequent * where half or some part of a petal is like one parent, the remainder like the
other. Here again is one-sided sexual predominance in colour formation.
The evidence at present to hand warrants the assumption that the majority of plant
hybrids are exactly intermediate between the parents in colour production if the colours
readily blend, but that some show a greater or less degree of instability, which passes
by transition cases to complete resemblance to one parent.
Bille
CoMPARATIVE CHEMICAL CONSTITUTION OF HYBRIDS AND OF THEIR PARENTS.
This subject might appropriately enough have been dealt with under the last
head, while my observations are very fragmentary. I give them as they are, in the
hope that thereby attention may be drawn to what is a wide and important though
difficult field for research.
On placing twigs of Cytisus Laburnum, C. purpureus, and the intermediate graft
hybrid, or C., Adami, in separate bottles of alcohol for preservation, I was surprised soon
* Darwin, Animals and Plants, vol. i. p. 414.
" 2 ee >
MINUTE STRUCTURE OF PLANT HYBRIDS. 255
after to notice that while the young stems and leaves of the first had bleached completely,
those of the second had taken on a deep, dull, brown-grey colour, and those of the third a
tint inclining to the second, but greatly lighter. The colour suggested the probable presence
of tannin, and on application of the iron test this was verified. Sections of fresh leaves of
C.. Laburnum gave a faint but undoubted tannin reaction, those of C. purpureus turned
to black-brown, while the hybrid assumed a hue considerably darker than in C. Laburnum.
That the hybrid inherits about half the amount of tannin supply, compared with the
sum-total of the parents, is evidenced if we take into consideration the large leaf surface
which it forms and through which the tannin has to be diffused.
As yet only a few seminal hybrids have been noticed, which from their behaviour
suggest similar results. These are—(a) Geum intermediwm and its parents; G. rivale,
discolouring to a brown hue, and G. uwrbanum, to a white or whitish-yellow. (0)
Saxfraga Andrews and its parents. (c) Ribes Culverwellw and its parents; but none
of these have been chemically tested.
Opour oF HYBRIDS AND OF THEIR PARENTS.
This resolves itself also into a chemical inquiry, but practically no attention has been
given to it hitherto. A few notes may be recorded. The common Sweet William
(Dianthus barbatus) is strongly and agreeably scented; D. alpinus has no odour; D.
Griever has an odour like that of the first, but decidedly reduced in strength.
Rhododendron Edgeworthu is an agreeably and powerfully scented species, with large
blooms; R. ciliatwm has small blooms, and is scentless or nearly so; the hybrid has a
pleasant odour, that entirely agrees with the first physiologically.
The large white blossoms of Hedychiwm coronarvum give off a powerful and agreeable
odour, greatly reminding one of that from the butterfly orchid; the smaller yellow
flowers of H. Gardnerianum give off a heavy odour, which in the opinion of most is
not particularly pleasant ; the hybrid gives off an odour which physiologically strikes
one as quite different from either parent, but unless by chemical analysis one could not
tell whether it results from commingling of the other two or is an entirely new chemical
combination. A wide series of observations on this subject is greatly to be desired.
FLOWERING PERIOD oF HYBRIDS AND OF THEIR PARENTS.
It is a matter for regret that our information on phenological phenomena is extremely
meagre. ‘Till within the last ten years the only continuous observations that have been
made and recorded, so far as I know, are those from the Edinburgh Botanic Garden ; but
they covered a very limited field, and have only been extended widely within the period
just named. Professor Horrman’s valuable tables and notes have not helped me, as
they refer to a limited number of true species only.
The behaviour of some well-known hybrids and parents led me to watch the flowering
256 DR J. M. MACFARLANE ON THE
periods, and to search available literature on the subject. This was confined to Mr
Lrypsay’s record* of 1408 plants flowered on the Rock Garden, to a few others given
in the same publication over a period of twenty years or more, and largely to unpublished
lists of plants flowered on the Rock Garden during the last ten years. During two
seasons also (1890 and 1891) several wild hybrids and parent forms have been watched.
Naturally, for exact comparison of the flowering period of hybrids and of their parents,
specimens of the three should be planted in such positions near each other as to ensure
that all shall have similar conditions of soil, exposure to sun, wind, and rain, drainage,
&c., if the two parents agree in habitat. But in the case of parents which flourish, as a
rule, under different environmental surroundings, an imitation of these should be carried
out as perfectly as possible under cultivation, or, better still, frequently repeated observa-
tions of the wild plants are to be preferred. As proving the necessity for this, the
behaviour of Geum intermedium and its parents might be described. G. rivale
affects watery places and shady moist copses, always attaining best average growth and
ripening the greatest number of fruit clusters when these requirements are fulfilled.
G. urbanum grows in “borders of copses, hedgebanks,” &c. (Hooker), and thrives best
in such circumstances. When grown in a damp place, its vegetative luxuriance checks
its reproductive capacity. But this latter situation, if a sheltered one and well exposed
to sunlight, hastens its flowering period by a week to a fortnight. For an accurate
estimation, therefore, parents growing under normal surroundings must be watched, and
the average date of first opening of a blossom on several plants should be taken, while
for the hybrid an even wider and more careful record is requisite.
Geum intermedium.—tThe first blossoms of G. rivale opened in several places
visited this year (1891) on 7th to 9th May ; those of G. intermediwm on 20th May in the
open, and on the 26th in shady places; G. wrbanwm was gathered on 6th June in an
exceptionally sheltered spot, but the first flowers opened, in four other localities, from
12th to 18th June.
Carduus Carolorum.—tThe one parent, C. palustris opened its first capitular florets
in several localities from 20th to 22nd June, C. Carolorum on 25th June, and C. hetero-
phyllus on 2nd July.
Erica Watson.—. Tetralix was gathered wild in three places, with first flowers
opened, on 24th June; H. Watsone flowered in the open beds on the 15th July, and on
the Rock Garden at Edinburgh on the 20th July; . caluaris opened in the beds on
28th July, and on the Rock Garden on the 14th August.
During 1887, when the later flowering plants suffered from severe droughts, L. Tetrala
blossomed on 30th July, £. Watsoni on 1st August, and LF. ciliaris on 14th September
at the Rock Garden, but the first named was gathered that year by us in a wild state on
the first Saturday of July.
Rhododendron precox.—R. atrovirens opened this year (1891) on 21st January,
and from an average of twenty years’ observations blossoms on 2nd February ; R. precox
* Trans. Bot. Soc. Hdin., vol. xvii., 1888.
NE
|e et RY ee a eee
MINUTE STRUCTURE OF PLANT HYBRIDS. 257
was in full bud in two positions, and had just opened in a third when cut by frost on
Ist March ; FR. ciliatum opened on 23rd April.
In 1887 I find that the first flowered on 3rd February, the second on 26th February,
and the third on 9th April.
For additional information regarding other hybrid Rhododendrons I would refer to a
short article in the Gardeners’ Chronicle, vol. ix., 3rd ser., p. 753.
Many of our hothouse orchid crosses promise, if carefully studied, to give excep-
tionally fine results. Hybrids must in not a few cases have been obtained by pollinating
an early blossom of an early flowering species with a late blossom of a late flowering
species, or at least, if this method has not been adopted, different degrees of temperature
have been employed to check or rush forward the flowering period of the plant. Thus
Cypripedium Ashbourtone and C. Harrisianum are examples from a genus.
Montbretia crocosmeflora.—During 1890 M. Potts opened on 28th July, the
hybrid on 20th August, and Tritonia aurea in a cool house on 1st September.
LIntium Powellir.—Lily hybrids have been rather rare hitherto. The present one was
reared and flowered by C. 8. Powett, Esq. of Old Hall, Southborough, to whom I am
indebted for a magnificent example. It reached me in full flower at a time when
L. Hanson had shed its parts by a week, and fourteen days previous to the opening of
L.dalmaticum. In reply to a query from me, Mr PowEt. wrote :—‘“ Your observation of
the blooming period of the hybrid being intermediate is correct. ‘ Hansoni’ bloomed
before any hybrid expanded, and the other parent, ‘dalmaticum,’ is now in bloom—ten
days after the others (hybrids) were over.”
While the examples now given show the hybrid to be very evenly between its
parents, there still are cases which pass to the extremes; my information, however,
about these is in every instance imperfect. But it may be observed here that Dianthus
Tindsayi appears to bloom nearly or quite as early as D. alpinus, while D. barbatus,
grown from young plants, opens from a fortnight to three weeks after. The relative
age of the specimens here may have something to do with the results. Again, Bryanthus
erectus opens shortly after (one to four days) Rhododendron Chamecistus, according to
present statistics, while Menziesia empetriformis, var. Drummondt, opens from fifteen to
twenty days later.
We cannot as yet attempt to formulate definite conclusions, for a large accumulation
of statistics from different localities is needed, but the evidence points strongly, and in
some cases positively, to the flowering period of hybrids being more or less exactly
between that of the parents, while some vary to a greater or less degree towards one
or other parent.
CONSTITUTIONAL V1GoUR OF HYBRIDS.
This subject brings us face to face with a very complex and deep-seated chain of
phenomena which are the sum-total of the action and reaction of the living protoplasm
in relation to its surroundings. The complexity of the subject, and difficulty of judging
258: DR J. M. MACFARLANE ON THE
how to gauge results accurately, need not deter us from attempting in the future to
grapple with it. My attention was drawn to it by observing the resisting power of
Montbretias during the past winter (1890-91). In the note above referred to in the
Gardeners’ Chronicle I shortly drew attention to it, and the sequel will best be understood
by quotation of the passage :—
“The behaviour of Montbretia Potts, Tritonia aurea, and M. crocosmeflora in the
Edinburgh Garden during the past winter seems suggestive. The corms of the first
appear scarcely to have been injured. Those of the hybrid have been largely killed off,
at least to the extent of 60 per cent., while Ziitonta—never hardy in exposed ‘ground—
has survived only where it is planted against, and can creep along, the outer side of a hot-
house wall.”
Confirmatory evidence appeared, curiously enough, in the same Number. A corre-
spondent, after a visit to Van Hourte’s nurseries at Gend-Brugge, wrote :—‘‘ The
Montbretias, about 6 inches below ground, were mostly frozen; the most hardy variety,
Potts, was unharmed.” Another correspondent wrote :—‘‘ Montbretia Potts has sur-
vived, though JM. crocosmeflora has almost if not altogether died out.”
Philesia buxifolia is a hardy plant, and resists well our winter colds. Lapageria
rosea requires the temperature of a cool hothouse to flourish, while the hybrid succeeds
if kept protected from frost and the more cutting winds. In the southern counties of
Britain it lives and flowers out of doors.
An extremely important line of investigation, alike on theoretical and practical
grounds, is suggested by these relations to climatic surroundings, and a solution of the
problems involved can only be successfully attained by utilisation of our botanic gardens,
and the establishment in these, or in some special institute, of experimental biological
departments.
As somewhat akin to the above may be mentioned the growth-forms and growth-
periods of Carduus Carolorum and its parents. C. palustris is a biennial which forms
during the first season a short root and stem system with a close-set rosette of leaves.
In the succeeding season the stem elongates greatly, develops a branched mass of capitula,
and when these have shed their fruits the whole plant dies away. In C. heterophyllus an
extensive system of creeping perennating rhizomes is formed which annually send up leaf-
and flower-stalks. From the axil of a hypogeal scale a bud grows out, or several may arise
in a season, which run horizontally underground, often to a length of twelve to thirty inches,
from the flowering shoot. These, as well as the old rhizome portion, persist after the
aerial stem has died away. In C. Carolorwm there is a curious combination of both growth
forms, with the practical outcome that the plant is perennial like the latter parent, though
in a weaker and less perfect manner, At the base of many flowering shoots a bud or buds
arise in the axil of a hypogeal leaf, and these grow outwards and upwards, sometimes
attaining a length of from three to ten inches. The parent part in most cases dies away,
but the lateral shoots continue the growth. A very similar state of things is encountered
in Montbretia crocosmeflora and its parents.
MINUTE STRUCTURE OF PLANT HYBRIDS, 259
IV. Cytrisus ADAMI.
Before attempting to generalise on the facts gathered from investigation of sexual
or seed hybrids, we may first examine minutely a plant which has excited universal
attention and interest since its first production in 1825. I refer to Cytisus Adami, now
regarded by most as a graft hybrid. Darwin* summed up the generally received ideas
regarding it, and added additional valuable observations. A list of leading papers on
the subject is appended, which may guide those who wish to trace the literature of it.t It
may suffice here to say that M. Anam, a nurseryman near Paris, budded, according to his
own account, a shield of the small tufted species C. purpureus on the common laburnum
(C. Laburnum), hoping only thereby to get a stronger and more free-flowering variety
of the former. The bud seemed for the time to die back, but from the region of its
insertion a strong shoot developed later, which he considered to be the desired bud sport
of C. purpureus. As such he sold it, and we may judge of the surprise excited when
it was found a few years later that this assumed an arborescent habit, and broke out
into yellow and purple portions similar to branches of the parents, as also into strong
twigs, bearing flowers exactly intermediate in form and colour.
Some have attempted to assert that we have to deal here with an ordinary seminal
hybrid, but not only have we the unvarnished account given by its producer, the striking
mixture and at the same time sharp distinctness of the three growths which make up the
composite organism and are simultaneously produced on it, leave little doubt in my
mind of its graft-hybrid origin. I know of no seminal hybrid which imitates it, though
one or two approach it, as, for example, Nosie’s Clematis and Berberis Neuberti.t I
wish further to show that the microscopic characters agree with such a conclusion.
No account of its histology had appeared when I published my preliminary note in
the Gardeners’ Chronicle; but shortly after MarzeLL Branza referred § to it in a few
sentences thus :—
“ Medicago falcata-sativa.—This plant presents in its different parts (trunk, stalk,
floral axis, petiole), and in all the tissues of its organs a kind of medium between the
same parts of the two parents. Thus, for example, the stem by the disposition of the
bark, of the liber, of the wood, of the pith, establishes the transition between the stem of
Medicago falcata and that of MW. sativa. It 1s the same in the hybrids Cytisus Adami
and Sorbus hybrida.”
* Animals and Plants wnder Domestication, 2nd edit., 1890, vol. . pp. 413-417.
+ Annales de la Soc. de ? Hort. de Paris, tom. vii., 1830, p. 93; Loupon’s Gard. Mag., vol. vi., 1831, p. 335; viii., 1832,
pp. 473-474 ; The Phytologist, vol. i. pp. 652, 908 ; Gard. Chron., 1841, pp. 265, 325, 336 ; 1842, p. 397 ; 1857, pp. 382,
400, 454 ; 1864, p. 244 ; 1865, p. 509; 1866, pp. 565, 733 ; 1868, p. 575; 1870, pp. 767, 831 ; 1884, pp. 772, 810, 811;
Braon, “ Rejuvenescence,” Ray Soc. Bot. Mem., 1853; Bot. Zeitung, 1873; Fock, Pflanzen-Mischlinge, pp. 519-522 ;
Darwin, Animals and Plants under Domestication, 2nd edit., 1890, vol. i., pp. 413-417; Morren, E., Belgique Horticole,
- vol. xxi., 1871; Caspary, Bullet. du Oongrés Internat. de Botanique, Amsterdam, 1865, p. 72; Masters, “ Grafting, its
Consequences and Effects,” Popular Science Review, April, 1871 ; Macraruane, Gard. Chron., July 26, 1890.
} Masters, Gard. Chron., “ Bud Variations,” 1891 ; Fockr, Pflanzen-Mischlinge, p. 21.
§ Comptes Rendus, August 1890.
VOL. XXXVII. PART I. (NO. 14). 2P
260 DR J. M. MACFARLANE ON THE
The italics are mine, and my observations, repeatedly and carefully verified on a great
variety of material, are the opposite of his.
Alike to acknowledge my indebtedness, and to help any who may wish in future to
compare the growths for themselves, I would mention the following sources from
which material has been drawn :—
From the gardens of Hopetoun House, Mr Smirx has kindly furnished repeated
supplies from three fine specimens growing in the shrubbery of the flower-garden close
to the brook. Mr Sir has watched the behaviour of these for me, and states that the
yellow and purple parts blossom nearly simultaneously, or the former has slightly the
advantage, while the mixed part opens several days later. Both parent branches pro-
duce abundant fruit, but he has never noticed a pod on the third.
From Cowden Gardens, Dollar, Mr Niconson has sent me two fine branches showing
the three types in bloom; and similarly I am indebted to Mr Dow, gardener at New-
byth, Prestonkirk, and to Mr Fortune, Blairadam. The last-named informs me that
a very fine and large tree was blown down three years ago; the young plant,
however, promises well. Dr Scorr informs me that two good trees grow in his grounds
near Melrose, one also is in the garden of Mr Lyaiu at Newburgh, and another in
Dr G. Carnacwan’s garden at Clynder, Roseneath.
I have further received specimens of the yellow and intermediate types from Mr
CHapMAN, gardener to C. JENNER, Esq., Duddingstone Lodge, from Mr Hunter, gardener
at Lauriston Castle, and from Mr Farrerieve, of Dunkeld Palace Gardens. The trees
at Duddingstone Lodge have not as yet developed the purple form, if the germs of it
exist in the plants. The two specimens at Lauriston are specially noteworthy, since Mr
SmirH informs me that he remembers having seen the three growing on adjoining branches.
The trees appear to have reached or passed their maximum of growth, and the purple
bunches have entirely disappeared now. Mr Fortune informs me that the purple tufts
frequently die away on one part of the tree and burst out in fresh regions; and I have
noticed a less marked tendency in the intermediate or “ Adami” part, so that the purple
portion is shortest lived, the intermediate longer, and the yellow is the most persistent.
A tree in the Edinburgh Botanic Garden produced the three so recently as seven years
ago, but no traces of the purple and red have appeared during 1890 and 1891.
The Dunkeld tree is interesting, for the “ Adami” flowers on it are completely double,
which is a rare occurrence among leguminous species. Mr Fatr@risve has watched for
me the flowering period of the yellow and intermediate parts, and he finds that the first
precedes the second by five days.
Beside the above, many other trees appear to be scattered over the country, if we
may judge from gardening literature. The oldest that I have examined appears to be
from fifty to sixty years, if we may judge from specimens of the common Laburnum of
known age and size.
In the following description, unless expressly stated otherwise, reference to C. Labur-
num and C. purpureus may apply either to the isolated parents, or to the parts of these
MINUTE STRUCTURE OF PLANT HYBRIDS. 261
as found growing on the “Adami” organism, for I have found the yellow and purple
parts of the composite tree to agree exactly with those of the parents, except that the
“purpureus” part occasionally shows slight deviations which will afterwards be
referred to.
Stem.—When young twigs of the first year from C. Laburnum and C. purpureus,
or shoots of these as found on the composite tree, are examined with the naked eye, they
show asmooth green surface, and such is also the case even in four- or five-year-old branches.
But while the twigs of “ Adami” may remain smooth and shining during the first year,
they almost invariably begin to develop a rough, ruptured, and freckled surface in
the second year. A simple explanation is got when sections are compared. In C
Laburnum a cork is formed beneath the epidermis towards the close of the first year,
and ere long the epidermis peels off as a delicate film. The cork layer is composed of
clear, thick-walled refractive cells of a yellowish colour, three to five layers of these being
formed each year from the phellogen (Plate VIII. fig. 3). No rupture or peeling off of
these may take place for from thirty to fifty years. In C. purpureus a phellogen is not
developed till the third or fourth year, and even after that the amount of cork produced
is very small, so that the stem is quite encircled by the persistent epidermis, since it
attains to no great size (Plate VIIL fig. 1). The strong shoots of C. Adami inherit to
a certain degree the vigour of cork formation from C. Laburnum but in a reduced,
localised, and retarded manner, while the epidermis has a thick cuticle and shows great
persistence as in C. purpureus. We find, therefore, that broad but isolated lines
or patches of cork develop which eventually rupture the epidermis outside them, and
give the rough aspect to the shoots, since they have neither the even uniformity of
formation nor of persistence that the cork of C. Laburnum has. Plate VIII. figs. 2 and
2 willustrate stages in the process from a second year’s twig, where the irregularity which
usually characterises the cork development of C. Adamz has been well delineated by
my former student, Mr Percy Nicot, to whom I am indebted for several careful
drawings.
In C. purpureus the cortex consists of seven to ten thin-walled cell layers, while
in the other two it consists of thirteen to fifteen layers, the cell walls of which are colloid
and refractive. But one feature of the cortex calls for special mention. In C. purpureus
five longitudinal strands of indurated fibroid elements are imbedded in it at rather
irregular intervals (fig. 1s.s.), These are entirely unrepresented in the other parent
and in ‘“‘ Adami.”
The phloem stereoid masses are of large size, and pretty uniformly disposed in C.
Laburnum and C. Adami, but in C. purpureus they vary greatly in size, though they
are in all cases smaller than in the first two. The amount and size of the elements of
the phloem proper in the first two agree very closely, the zone being relatively broad, and
the sieve tubes of large size, as compared with the narrow zone and small sieve tubes of
the last.
As regards xylem, when the average of a series of preparations from different
262 DR J. M. MACFARLANE ON THE
trees is taken, the amount of wood formed by C. purpureus in the first year is small,
while that of the second year is nearly twice as deep. As shown by the figures (Plate VIII.
figs. 2, 3), the opposite is true of C. Laburnum, and C. Adami is tolerably intermediate,
though it decidedly approaches nearer to C. Laburnum. ‘The fibre elements of the
xylem in CL purpureus are open and moderately thick walled; dense, and with
indurated shining walls in the others. From the figures it will be seen that the vasa
of C. Adami essentially agree with those of C. Laburnum.
The pith-cells of C. purpureus are very slightly thickened im their walls, with few
pore areas, and accordingly show very delicate markings of shallow pits, while their
outline is sharply polygonal. The cells of the other two are rounded and thick walled,
so that they show correspondingly deep and well-marked pore canals.
The above description proves that the hybrid part is most nearly like C. Laburnum —
in its stem configuration and upbuilding, but a very remarkable feature is revealed
when careful preparations are made from the young epidermis of the three. We
have already indicated that the epidermal cells of the hybrid approach most nearly
to C. purpureus in size and amount of cuticular thickening, but the manner in which the
cell-nuclei of the two agree is quite striking, when we compare them with the nuclei of
C. Laburnum. Plate VIII. figs. 10, 11, 12 illustrate these as perfectly as figures can.
Alike after staining in aqueous eosin solution from the fresh living state, as after careful
hardening in picric alcohol, the large spherical nuclei of the two former stain deeply, while
they havea finely granular and spongy aspect. Those of C. Laburnum are small, shining,
and pretty homogeneous in texture, even under very high powers, as if the chromatic .
substance of the nuclear membrane were specially abundant. The above description
applies equally to the nuclei of the leaf epidermis.
After satisfying myself that this held true of the epidermis, the idea occurred of com-
paring the nuclei of internal elements, such as those of cortex, phloem, &c. So far this
has been without result, as the nuclei vary greatly even in adjoining elements. But still
it is very significant and suggestive that we should have tissues of one plant—no matter
what its origim—with at least two very distinct types of nuclei in cells which work
harmoniously together, so far as vegetative growth is concerned. ‘This fact alone com-
pletely demonstrates the extremely elastic adaptability of protoplasm and its modifications
in the formation of vegetative structures.
Leaf:—The three leaflets of the compound leaf of C. purpureus are small, elliptic-
lanceolate, glabrous, and somewhat fleshy. Darwin (op. cit., p. 414) states that a twig
of the purple form from a composite tree has ‘“ the leaflets a little broader, and the
flowers slightly shorter, with the corolla and calyx less brightly purple” as compared
with the ordinary species. There is a strong probability that this is a variation condition
of some of the plants, just as the Dunkeld specimen has varied by becoming double in its
“Adami” flowers, for while most that I have studied agree with Darwin’s account, a
branch bearing all three forms which was brought to me during the past summer by
Dr Scorr of Melrose agreed in the above, as in other features, with specimens of C. pur-
ie
MINUTE STRUCTURE OF PLANT HYBRIDS. 2638
pureus. The leaflets of C. Laburnum are large, elliptic-ovate, silvery-hairy beneath,
and thin in texture, while those of C. Adami are elliptic, glabrous, less fleshy than in
C. purpureus but inclining towards C. Laburnum in size.
Leaf:—(a) Petiole base.
In C. purpureus the epidermis is devoid of hairs. The cortex underneath is a tolerably
uniform cylinder of cells. A single crescentic bundle mass lies across the middle of the
petiole; beneath and above it are broken, irregular masses of sclerenchyma, whose elements
are small, measuring on the average 10 ». Twosmall lateral bundles are also present.
The phloem is 30 w broad, and, in alcoholic material, of a very dark colour, due to the
amount of tannin material in its elements; its sieve tubes are 3 to 4p across. The
xylem is a single sickle-shaped band, whose main constituents are radially arranged rows
of spiral tracheids, each on the average 8 p across, while single radial rows of small dense
cells lie between.
In C. Laburnum the epidermis is abundantly clothed with the spindle-shaped hairs
already referred to. The subjacent cortex has its outer cells modified in colloid manner,
there being a single cell layer above which passes into two or three below ; internal to this
is a pretty broad zone of uniform cells, succeeded by one to three layers of larger, looser,
thin-walled cells, and this again passes into a broken sclerenchyma cylinder, made up of
a deeply concave, inferior mass, and of smaller isolated patches external to the smaller
bundles, The sclerenchyma elements average 15 p across, though not a few may be 18
to 20 ». The bundle system consists of one large inferior concave mass and of two to
three circular bundles, which almost touch each other. The entire bundle system, there-
fore, forms a broken ring and encloses a quantity of what we may term pith tissue.
The phloem is 55 to 65 p deep, and is of a pale reddish hue in alcoholic material from
the relatively small amount of tannin; its sieve tubes are 6 u across. The xylem is an
almost continuous cylinder whose spiral tracheids are 20 u across, and between these are
radial rows or irregular patches of cells.
In C. Adami the epidermis has no hairs, as in the first, but otherwise the tissues
take largely after the latter parent. The subjacent cortex has one layer of colloid cells
above and two to three layers beneath ; these pass into large-celled, thin-walled tissue, and
that again into sclerenchyma disposed on the whole as in C. Laburnum, though more
sharply broken up into patches, thus inheriting the limited development seen in C. pur-
pureus. Hach element averages about 12 » across. The vascular system is arranged as
a broken cylinder, but the inferior part is deeper and stronger than the upper.
The phloem in depth is about the same as in C. Laburnum, and the tint of it in
alcoholic material is brownish-red ; its largest sieve tubes are 4 to 4°5 m across. The
xylem has spiral tracheids 14 to 15 « in diameter, which alternate with single or rarely
double rows or patches of cells.
In C. Laburnum, along the sides of the petiole base are isolated patches of stone
cells, some being as much as 45 m across; these are reproduced in C. Adami but are
wanting in CL purpureus.
264 DR J. M, MACFARLANE ON THE
Leaf:—(b) Petiole one-third beneath insertion of leaflets.
In C. purpureus the petiole at this region is greatly flattened out, so as to be
crescent-shaped. Three to four layers of the cortex cells beneath the epidermis contain
chloroplasts ; the sclerenchyma is principally produced as a crescentic band beneath the
main bundle, and consists of one to two layers. Above the bundle it is feebly developed.
The phloem is slightly concave, but the main mass of xylem is nearly flat. Two lateral
bundles, which in position might be said to form the horns of the crescentic main bundle
mass, repeat in miniature the arrangement of it.
In C. Laburnum the outline of the petiole is circular, except that it is traversed on
its upper face by a deep groove. Beneath the epidermis is a collenchyma layer and
internal to it are one to two layers with chloroplasts, succeeded by four to five layers of
pale large cells, The sclerenchyma and bundle masses are arranged as in the petiole
base, but the two lateral bundles which have been given off from the cylinder le superior
to the sides of the cylinder, and repeat the arrangement of the deeply concave bundle in
miniature.
In C. Adami the outline of the petiole is most nearly as in C. Laburnum, though it
is slightly flattened above and has only a shallow groove. A broken zone of collenchyma
cells lies beneath the epidermis, and is succeeded by two or three layers of cells with
chloroplasts, while three to four subjacent layers are large-celled. The sclerenchyma and
bundle masses resemble those of C. Laburnum, though the elements are smaller and more
feebly thickened.
Altogether the entire petiole of C. Adam is very pronounced in its leaning towards
C. Laburnum, particularly in the massing of tissue elements, so much so that one might
on cursory examination conclude that the resemblance is complete. But many minor
points throughout prove the modifying action which C. purpureus has had; thus the
difference in naked-eye outline, the incompleteness of the collenchyma layer, the reduced
width of the large-celled layers, and the smaller size of the elements, are all to be
explained as modified by it.
Microscopically examined, the upper leaf epidermis of C. purpureus is almost identical
with the lower (Plate VIII. figs. 4,5) as to cell shape, number of stomata in a given area,
and absence of hairs, though a very few of the last may be detected along the ribs. }
In C. Adami numerous stomata occur on the upper surface (Plate VIII. figs. 6, 7),
though less abundantly than on the lower, being in the proportion of 4:5. In C. Labur-
num the stomata are entirely confined to the lower surface, if we except a narrow patch
on the upper epidermis, towards the base of the midrib and on either side of it. The
hairs which spring from the lower epidermis (Plate VIII. fig. 9) are short, blunt,
spindle-shaped, and minutely tuberculate, their presence giving a silvery sheen to the
surface. I regard it as a point in favour of its exceptional origin that the “ Adami”
leaves should not have these in tolerable abundance.
As regards relative distribution the stomata are as follows, under field of Zeiss’ D
with No. 2 eyepiece :—
MINUTE STRUCTURE OF PLANT HYBRIDS. 265
C. purpureus, upper epidermis 27 to 30 stomata.
8 lower _ = 30 a
C. Adami, upper epidermis =e LOMAS tues
ys lower 5, = 17 to20 ,,
C. Laburnum, upper epidermis = 0 (except a few along base of midrib).
lower “ = 40
”
The above gives us an average on upper and lower areas collectively of 58 to 60 in
C. purpureus, of 31 to 33 in C. Adami, and 41 to 42 in C. Laburnum.
The epidermal cell-nuclei of fresh or carefully hardened leaves agree as above noted
with those of the stem.
Cytisus Adami is probably unique, therefore, among plants in the possession of three
totally distinct types of leaf, each of which can readily and certainly be distinguished by the
naked eye, and in the possession of at least two distinct types of epidermal cell-nuclei.
How far the hybrid part is a morphological adaptation as a mean between the two
parent types for physiological work it would be no easy matter to verify, but whether
we can obtain indications of this in the epidermis or not, some countenance is given to
the view when we study sections.
Transverse leaf sections of C. Laburnum and C. Adami are thicker than those of
C. purpureus in the proportion of 5:4. The palisade tissue of C. purpureus is quite
continuous over the vascular bundle of the midrib, and beneath this is a very dense
round-celled spongy parenchyma, so dense, however, that it scarcely merits the designa-
tion “spongy.” In Ci Adam: and C. Laburnum the palisade tissue is interrupted in
continuity by a wedge-shaped mass of colourless cells which lie in the concavity of the
leaf bundle; the spongy parenchyma is loose in the last, but in C. Adamz it very closely
approaches C. purpureus in density. The vascular bundle of C. purpwreus is small,
flat or slightly concave upwards, and surrounded by loose round-celled tissue the upper
layers of which lie below the continuous palisade parenchyma. ‘The largest spiral
tracheids of the xylem measure 7 » and the average are 5 u. ‘The vascular bundle of
C. Laburnum is large, semicircular, and demarcated from the surrounding laminar tissue
by one layer of large, clear, rounded cells. The uppermost of these, along with the
wedge-shaped mass of cells above mentioned, lie against the upper epidermis, and thus
break the continuity of the palisade parenchyma. The largest spiral tracheids are 12
across and the average are 9 p.
The bundle of C. Adam in shape, size, and relation to the surrounding tissue is like that
of C. Laburnum, but the modifying action of C. purpureus is traceable in various ways.
Thus the wedge-shaped cells that fill the concavity of the bundle show no thickening of
their walls, while the zone of rounded cells that bound the bundle is only faintly indicated.
Sepals.—The calyx of C. purpureus is entirely green; that of C. Adam is largely
green, but the tips of the sepals are semi-membranous; that of C. Laburnum is green
below, but by degrees becomes membranous above, the upper third of the calyx being
entirely membranous.
The inner (upper) surfaces of the sepals in C. purpureus and C. Adama resemble each
266 DR J. M. MACFARLANE ON THE
other in the development of many long unicellular hairs, alike along the veins and
regions between. Those of C. Laburnum show a few hairs scattered near the apex of
the teeth only. In C. purpureus and C. Adam there is a considerable number of
stomata over the upper half of the calyx, three to four occurring under the D Zeiss
objective, while in C. Laburnum stomata are quite absent. The epidermal cells of
C. purpureus and C. Adami are chiefly quadrangular and straight walled below, but
become very sinuous above, and are larger than in C. Laburnum, which has polygonal
cells below that merge into elongated and slightly wavy cells above.
The outer (lower) surfaces of the sepals in C! purpureus and C. Adam are glabrous ;
in the first one to three stomata may be traced under Zeiss’ D, in the second five to
seven. The outer surface in C. Laburnum is densely covered with spindle-shaped hairs as
over the vegetative leaves, and eleven to twelve stomata may occur over the above-
mentioned area.
The sepaline mesophyll tissue of C! purpureus shows in alcohol material a few dark-
brown, sharply-defined chloroplasts; in C. Adanw they are more abundant, of a paler
colour, and less sharply defined ; in C. Laburnum they are most plentiful, of a delicate
neutral-tint colour, and have a soft, rather ill-defined aspect. The colour and relative
sharpness of definition appears to be entirely due to tannin, which, existing probably as a
tannate of albumen, is precipitated by alcohol.
It may further be mentioned that along the margins of the sepals of C. purpwreus
and C. Adami there are not only long simple hairs but short spindle-shaped ones, with
wart-like thickenings, such as we meet with in great quantity in C. Laburnum.
Petals—(a) Standard,—The comparative shape and venation of the three standards
is well represented in Plate VIII. figs. 13a, b,c. The petals of C. Laburnum are glabrous
throughout, but the hair distribution of the other two is specially worthy of note. At
the junction of claw and blade in C. purpureus a line of hairs, about 125 to 130 in
number, fringe the margin and are inclined outward and downward ; in C. Adami there
are 60 to 65 similarly placed. These hairs, along with others placed on the same level,
are evidently intended to guard the nectary entrances.
The lower half of the standard in C. purpureus is traversed on its inner side by a
median groove, the bounding ridges of which are fringed by long, simple, intercrossing
hairs. The epidermal cells of the claw are elongate and narrow, but gradually widen out
upwards till above the middle of the petal they are quadrangular or polygonal. Their
walls are wavy in outline and are infolded ; their free surface also is slightly convex.
The lower half of the standard in C. Laburnuwm is likewise traversed by a groove, but
its ridges are glabrous, the epidermal cells are like those of C. purpureus below, but
higher up they are not only zigzag and infolded, each cell swells out into a cone-shaped
papilla, and its surface is finely striate. In C. Adami the ridges which bound the groove
of the standard are beset by simple hairs ; the epidermal hairs most closely resemble those
of C. purpureus, but faint striz occur over the walls of the upper cells of the standard,
as in C. Laburnum.
MINUTE STRUCTURE OF PLANT HYBRIDS. 267
Petals—(b) Wings.—Illustrations are given in Plate VIII. figs 13a’, 0’, c’. From these
it will be seen that the claw in C. purpureus is slightly shorter than the blade, in C. Adami
it is half as long as the blade, and in C. Laburnwm rather less than one-third the length.
Each wing in C. purpureus shows a twisted ridge on the claw which fits into a cor-
responding groove on the claw of each keel-petal to form a locking spring arrangement.
Along the upper edge, and to a less extent along the lower, there is a marginal fringe of
long simple hairs, the number of the former being 160 to 170, and of the latter 30 to 35.
The outer and inner epidermal cells are quadrangular-sinuous below, but gradually become
more elongated and angular-sinuous above, where they develop infoldings of the walls.
Their free surfaces are slightly convex. Hach wing in C. Laburnum has a straight claw,
and the only connection with the keel-petal is by a bulging depression in each, which fits
the one into the other. The entire wing is destitute of hairs. The outer and inner
epidermal cells are quadrangular or polygonal below, but they become very slightly wavy
above, and their walls exhibit infoldings. The free surfaces of the cells along the upper
half of each wing grow out into papille. Hach wing in C. Adamz has a decided twist on
its claw, though it is not nearly so pronounced as in C. purpureus. Fringes of hairs
occupy exactly the positions that they do in C. purpureus, but in all cases these are less
abundant—thus one specimen had 130 along the upper margin and 14 below, another 76
above and 17 below, a third had 83 above and 15 below, and a fourth had 73 above
and 18 below. ‘The epidermal cells are nearly polygonal below, but are almost exactly
like those of C. purpwreus above. They are further like the last, and quite unlike those
of C. Laburnum in that they never form epidermal papillee, the free surfaces of the cells
being merely convex.
Petals—(c) Keel.—As shown by figs. 13 a”, b”, c” of Plate VIIL, the relation in length
the claw to the blade in the keel-petals is nearly in the same proportion as those of the
wings. In C. purpureus a fringe of long hairs, 100 to 110 in number, grow out along
the upper edge at the junction of claw and blade, and a long fringe of shorter feebler
hairs, 300 to 330 in number, line the lower edge. The inferior epidermal cells are poly-
gonal or rectangular and straight walled, but higher up they become elongate-sinuous.
In C. Laburnum each keel-petal is destitute of hairs. The inferior epidermal cells are
elongate and straight wailed below, but higher up they become equiradial and sharply
angular, with infoldings of the walls. In C. Adami fringes of hairs in the same position
as those of C. purpureus line the margins of the keel-petals, but are half as abundant—
thus one specimen had 48 to 50 along the upper edge, and 152 to 155 along the lower,
another had 57 above and 148 below.
Stamens.—The staminal tube of C. purpureus has two luxuriant lateral rows of hairs,
and less abundant median masses. These hairs, like many of those on the petals, are.
partly thin walled and uniform, partly provided with wart-like thickenings. The pollen-
cells of alcoholic material are of a yellow-brown colour, and each is 25 to 26 uw. The
staminal tube of C. Laburnwm is entirely devoid of hairs. The pollen-cells are yellow in
colour, and each is 21 to 23 pw. In C. Adami the staminal tube has two luxuriant lateral
VOL. XXXVII. PART I. (NO. 14). 2Q
268 DR J. M. MACFARLANE ON THE
rows of hairs, and also median ones, as in C. purpureus ; but both sets are less numerous
than in the parent. The pollen-cells are of a pale reddish-brown colour, and each is 238
to 25 p.
It has repeatedly been pointed out as a rather peculiar fact in connection with the
high sterility of the hybrid parts, that the pollen-cells of it are mostly well formed. On
Plate VIII. figs. 14 a, 14 b, and 14, illustrations are given of the three, and though two
bad cells are figured from the hybrid, such are decidedly rare.
Pistil.—In CL purpureus the receptacular stalk and ovarian wall are quite glabrous.
The circumstigmatic hairs when fully grown are very densely set, and the longest are 100
to 120 pw. In C. Laburnum the receptacular stalk is glabrous, but the ovarian wall is
densely covered with spindle-shaped hairs. The circumstigmatic hairs are rather loosely —
set, and are 160 to 180 » long. In C. Adami the stalk and ovarian wall are glabrous,
The circumstigmatic hairs are more closely set than in the last, and the longest measure
120 to 140 p.
The above results prove C. Adami to be even more unique in its minute anatomy
than in its naked-eye characters, remarkable though these are. The promiscuous mixing —
up of tissue masses in the vegetative organs, such as stem, petiole, and lamina, and the
union of these, so as to give a tolerably intermediate physiological result in cork formation,
strengthening stays, sap conduction, and transpiration, is as curious as is the distribution
of the secretions of a tannin nature throughout the composite organism, or of histological
details in the floral organs. But the very striking resemblance which the epidermis of ©
the hybrid portion has to that of C. purpureus, not only in the general structure of the
cells, but in the size and structure of the cell nucleus, the distribution of the stomata, and
specially of hairs, would seem at first sight to prove that the hybrid portion was wrapped
round, so to speak, by an epidermis of C. purpureus. Other considerations, however,
show that the effect of the Laburnum parent has been to swamp or reduce by half as
exactly as we can estimate many of the “ purpureus ” peculiarities. Thus the number of
stomata over one side of the leaf; the reduction, as a rule, by half in the number of the
hairs over the floral parts; also the reduction in size of the cells that form the floral parts,
all give countenance to this. It is, nevertheless, remarkable that where hairs grow out
from any epidermal surface in C. Laburnum, these should never be inherited by C. Adam,
and conversely where hairs grow out from C. purpureus, these are always inherited by @.
Adami, though reduced in number by about half. Still in Bryanthus erectus we have
shown that an approach to this condition is observable.
If, however, we select cither stem or leaf, and go over seriatim the structural resem-
blances or differences as compared with the parents, it will be found that, with the exception
of the epidermis, the tissues have greatest affinity with C. Laburnum. But some seed
hybrids, which we have described, may share in a similar one-sidedness of growth, though
not to so exaggerated an extent, so that the gap separating graft from seed hybrids is
not so wide as some have supposed. So far as the floral parts of C. Adami are concerned,
these might quite pass for products of a well-balanced seed hybrid, and it is only in the
in
MINUTE STRUCTURE OF PLANT HYBRIDS. 269
more truly vegetative regions that that strikingly diversified intermixture of tissues is
found, which causes it to differ from all seed hybrids that I have studied.
But the parents that were used for the production of the graft hybrid in the present
instance are very unlike in habit, colour, &c., so that even a seed hybrid from them would
be more than worthy to rank alongside Philageria; and if the latter is sterile, need we
wonder that this graft hybrid is also? Were two species chosen, however, of close
affinity, we suspect that a graft fusion as intimate as that just examined might bear
perfect fruit in the hybrid part, and that such might reproduce a progeny as perfectly as
do some of the seed hybrids. Thus a graft cross of Ulmus campestris and U. montana,
of Fagus sylvatica and F. ferruginea, or of Betula alba and B. ngra, would probably
give the desired result. This view is greatly strengthened when we recall the fact,
already alluded to, that nearly all the pollen cells of C. Adami are good in appearance,
though the ovules, according to Professor Caspary, are mostly monstrous.
The flowers on the parent branches of the composite organism normally bear fruit
almost or quite as abundantly as if each had grown independently, and the seeds give
rise to plants like the parents, but the flowers on the hybrid branches never produce ripe
fruit. This, we think, is a strong argument in favour of the hypothesis advanced in the
latter part of this paper to account for relative sterility, if in the present instance we
further suppose that the original plant resulted as a graft shoot from accidental union of
the halves of a bud of each parent. Thus, if the grafter, in preparing the stock and
shield, cut in half a vegetative bud along the margin of each where future union was to
be effected, not only would the shield graft produce pure shoots from pure buds over its
surface, but if union of the cellular tissue of each half bud of stock and graft respectively
was accomplished, the product would be a composite bud, one side of which would ulti-
mately form branches of C. Laburnwm, the other of C. purpureus; but along the
junction surfaces union of protoplasm, of nuclear threads, and of chromatic substance
might be effected so intimately that a hybrid tissue growth would ensue, showing admix-
ture of structures characteristic of both parents.
We are compelled to assume that a union of nuclei has taken place in view of the
important rdle played by the nucleus in cell life, and also by the close resemblance which
the flowers of C. Adami have to those of a seed hybrid which have thus resulted.
Now, if such a composite growth were isolated and propagated, as was actually done
according to M. Apam’s account, the more copious and complex the branching and new
bud formation became the more perfectly would admixture of the segregated cells of
yellow, purple, and red parts become, without the necessity of their losing individuality.
But just such an intergrowth and admixture would explain the histological peculiarities
which we have met with in the vegetative parts of C. Adam. Though actual experiment
and observation alone will decide the point, it seems to me essential for the production
of such graft hybrids that halves of two buds should be united. Some have supposed
that the formation of adventitious buds from the cambial layer in the region of graft
union would best explain the requirements of the case. In view of observations such as
270 DR J. M. MACFARLANE ON THE
those of Hansen* on adventitious bud formation from previously permanent tissue, the
above hypothesis is worthy of careful consideration, and it may even be that the contact
of the two sets of cells of stock and graft causes a physiological stimulus analogous to
that of fertilisation. But in all the experiments on graft hybridisation summarised by
Darwint the strong balance of evidence is in favour of fusion of half buds, except
perhaps with Poynrer’s Rose, where a nearer approach to an ordinary seminal hybrid
rather than to a composite plant, such as C. Adami, was obtained by what appears from
description like adventitious bud formation.
For the following reasons, then, we would regard C. Adam as a graft hybrid of
pronounced type :—(1) Apam’s account of its origin is perfectly natural; (2) experiments
on potatoes and hyacinths have in several cases produced organisms quite comparable to
C. Adanw; (3) while a few seed hybrids, such as Nosue’s Clematis and Berberis Neuberti,
show an inclination to reversion in some of their parts to the parent type, we have none
which present the pure parents growing side by side with the hybrid as an organism; —
(4) the production of good and abundant seeds by the pure parts of the composite
organism which yield offspring like those parts, is totally different from anything that we
know of seed hybrids, though these do at times give rise to offspring some of which
resemble one parent pretty strongly and some the other; (5) that the segregation of —
mixed characters along with blending to an intermediate degree of others is unlike what
we usually find in seed hybrids, though some of these show a tendency at times in this —
direction.
In that case, we must admit, as pretty surely established, that cell unions may be —
effected without intervention of sexual elements, and that such unions can give rise to an
organism, the flowers of which are not materially different from those of a sexual hybrid.
V. GENERAL SUMMARY OF RESULTS ON SEED Hyprips.
We may now briefly recapitulate some of the more evident or naked-eye characters of
hybrids, and gradually pass to finer details. It has been demonstrated that in hair
production, if the parents possess one or more kinds that are fundamentally similar, but
which differ in size, number, and position, the hybrid reproduces these in an intermediate
way. Illustrations of this were presented by Geum intermedium, Erica Watsona,
Cypripedium Leeanum, and Masdevallia Chelsoni. But if only one parent possess hairs
over a given region the hybrid usually inherits these to half the extent, as in the petals
of Dianthus barbatus and some floral parts of Bryanthus erectus. If the hairs of two
parents are pretty dissimilar, instead of blending of these in one, the hybrid reproduces
each, though reduced in size and number by half. The gland hairs of Saafraga
Andrewsii, the simple and gland hairs of Aibes Culverwelli, and those on the vegetative
organs of Bryanthus erectus are examples. The peculiar case of hair distribution in —
* Abhand. d. Senckenb. nat. Gesell., Bd. xii.
+t Animals and Plants under Domestication, 2nd edit., vol. i. pp. 419-422.
MINUTE STRUCTURE OF PLANT HYBRIDS. 271
relation to colour formation noticed in the sepal of Cypripedium Leeanum may also be
noted here. .
In the formation of nectaries as traced in Philageria, Dianthus, Saxifiraga, Rubes,
&c., the above principles also hold.
The distribution of stomata over any epidermal area has been proved to be a mean
between the extremes of the parents, if the stomata of the parents occur over one surface
or both, and if the leaves are similar in consistence, but, as in Hedychium Sadlerianum,
and to a less degree in Saxifraga Andrewsw, if the stomatic distribution and leaf con-
sistence differ in the parents, this may give rise to correspondingly different results in
the hybrid.
In amount of cuticular deposit, and arrangement of it into ridges or other localized
growths, hybrids have been proved intermediate between the parents. We may merely
recall here the case of Philageria stem, which inherited cuticular ridges from Lapageria,
though reduced to half the size, since the Philesoa parent was devoid of them.
As Wicuura has already proved for the vegetative leaves of hybrid willows, the
venation of hybrid leaves is very uniformly intermediate between those of the
parents. Figures are given with this paper of the vegetative leaves of Philageria and
Saxifraga, and of the petals of Dianthus and Geum. The relation of the bundles to
special terminations, as in the water stomata of Saaifraga, is in conformity with the
venation.
But the growth of tissue in a hybrid which is to determine the outline or angular
position which any organ or part of one will assume is intermediate between those of the
parents when the latter show traceable differences. Thus the sepals and petals, as also
the styles and style-arms, of Gewm intermedium, the floral parts as a whole of Saaifraga
Andrewsii and Ribes Culverwellii, the frilling of some of the floral parts of Bryanthus
and Cypripedium Leeanum are pronounced cases, while minor ones have been referred to.
Turning to minuter anatomical details, every hybrid has yielded a large series of
examples which prove that the size, outline, amount of thickening, and localization of
srowth of cell walls, is, as a rule, intermediate between those of the parents. We have
repeatedly stated that as the outcome of growth localization, intercellular spaces of a
hybrid are modified in size and shape as are the cells which surround them. Now this
clearly demonstrates that the living protoplasm which has formed the cells is so organized
in its molecular cr micellar constitution that in every cell and oyer every infinitesimally
minute area on its surface where cellulose is to be laid down the balanced effect of both
parents is felt.
Equally in the laying down of secondary wall thickenings, whether of a cuticularized,
lignified, or colloid nature, numerous citations have been made where the amount and
mode of deposition is evenly between the extremes of the parents. Perhaps the most
striking case is that of the bundle-sheath cells of Philageria and its parents, where
usually five lignified lamellee are traceable in each cell of Lapageria, eleven or twelve in
Philesia, and eight or nine in Philageria.
272 DR J. M. MACFARLANE ON THE
In summarizing as to protoplasm and its modifications. as plastids, where con-
siderable differences can be traced in the plastids of two parents the hybrid gives
excellent results. Only in a few parent plants have these differences been sufficiently
marked to allow of comparison with the hybrid. The leucoplasts in the epidermal
cells of the parents of Dianthus Lindsayi are very different in size, while most of
the leucoplasts in the hybrid are exactly intermediate, but from careful measurement of
lantern projection images of these it has been found that some very nearly resemble those
of the female parent. The chromoplasts of the petal cells in Gewm intermedium and of
the sepal cells in Masdevallia Chelsoni are additional illustrations. Those of the former
are very variable in size and number, but this is probably to be explained from its
inheriting half of its hereditary features from Gewm rivale, which is equally variable as a
species. Leaves of corresponding age and position from Saxifraga Andrews and its
parents have furnished chloroplasts of small size and dark green colour in one parent, of
large size and soft emerald green colour in the other, and an intermediate type in the
hybrid, though some diverge towards the “ Gewm” parent in having large chloroplasts.
But the average size, shape, and lamellar deposition in starches of Hedychiwm
hybrids are perhaps the most interesting cases adduced. When we remember that these
are bodies formed temporarily as reserve food, and that they are built up by addition of
successive micelle through the agency of minute protoplasmic masses or leucoplasts, we
have a direct proof that these leucoplasts are themselves fundamentally modified. Their
activity in the cells of the hybrid is evinced by the building up of starch grains which,
though only of temporary duration in the history of the plant, are so accurately constructed _
as to be an exact combination in appearance of a half corpuscle of each parent.
Finally, we may recall the facts advanced as to colour, flowering period, chemical
combinations, and growth vigour, which, though scanty and fragmentary in their nature,
all point to the conclusion that hybrids are intermediate between their parents in general
life phenomena.
VI. Tue Bearine or Hypripiry oN BIoLoGIcCAL PROBLEMS.
2
A wide and attractive field for the biologist is still open in the investigation of plant
and animal hybrids. Though much work of a laborious kind has been expended on
the plant side, we must regard it merely as the small beginning to an inquiry that will
yield results of great value. On the animal side it may truly be said that all the results
are in the future. Such being the case, we can scarcely hope to do more at this stage of
the inquiry than indicate shortly what seem to be lights cast on certain hitherto
doubtful or intricate problems, from a minute study of plant hybrids.
(a) Relative Potency of the Male and Female Sea Elements in the Formation of an
Organism.—This problem has greatly occupied the minds of biologists during the last
decade, and a solution has only been attempted hitherto from consideration of the
MINUTE STRUCTURE OF PLANT HYBRIDS. 273
behaviour of the sex elements at, and immediately subsequent to, the period of
fertilisation. The tissues of hybrids shed a very exact light on the subject. No matter
what tissue or set of tissues are chosen, if the cells composing such are tolerably diverse
in the parents, one can trace with ease the modifying action which both sex elements
have had on them, while these clearly prove to us that each sex element, after union
with its complementary sex element, represents potentially half its former individuality,
or retains half its former hereditary properties. If one select, for example, a few
adjoining cells from the leaf epidermis of Dianthus Grievei and its parents, as figured in
Plate IV. figs. 1-3, and compare these, one sees that the average cell of the hybrid is an
exact mean between the cells of the parents. On comparing further the epidermal tissue
of a dozen hybrids, if one were to be guided alone by the number of epidermal cells and
of stomata over a given area, a like conclusion would be reached. In such special cases
as the sepaline gland of Philageria and Lapageria, we deal with cells resulting from
repeated division of a set of mother cells. To effect upbuilding of the hybrid
gland, therefore, proliferation of a set of cells takes place, each of which has a Philesva
heredity towards arrest of growth and a Lapageria heredity towards luxuriant cell
proliferation, the resultant being a gland built up of half as many cells as that of the
one parent.
But Van BeNnEDEN * went further than most of his zoological co-workers were prepared
to go when he asserted that each cell in an organism is a hermaphrodite structure. To
this thesis many subsequently took exception, and with some show of reason perhaps,
seeing that no direct proof in individual cell life was forthcoming. But one is forced to
accept its absolute correctness from study even of one hybrid. It is this hermaphroditism
of the entire hybrid organism which not only impresses on it the structure that the
naked eye and microscope reveal, but which causes it to have a life cycle whose successive
steps are intermediate between the parent extremes. Thus sufficient facts are in our
_ possession, and will, we hope, be greatly supplemented ere long, to prove that the period
of bud-bursting, of leaf-expansion, of flower production, fruit ripening, and other vital
phenomena in hybrids are all dependent to a wonderfully exact degree on hereditary
inheritance. Naturally, when we make this statement, we wish it to be clearly understood
that secondary causes may modify or obscure the exactness of phenomena. Thus every
one who is practically conversant with plant life knows the powerful influence which soil,
moisture, situation, &c., have in altering the even tenor of a plant’s way. It is on this
account that we would earnestly desire to have continuous and exhaustive experiments
carried out, where every possible care might be taken to eliminate disturbing factors.
(b) Unisexual Heredity.—By this term we would designate the outcome of those
observations now recorded which prove that structures found only in one parent, and with
no corresponding counterpart in the other, are handed down, though reduced by half.
The sepaline honey-gland of Philageria, the small circumstomatic cellular knobs of
Saaifraga Andrewsw, the colour patches on the sepal of Cypripediwm Leeanwm, and the
* Recherches sur la maturation de Veuf, 1883.
274 DR J. M. MACFARLANE ON THE
spiral or spiro-reticulate thickenings on cells of Masdevallia Chelsoni, are observed
cases,
For the evolutionist these have some value. Whether one adopt the view that
environmental surroundings are the main agents in conferring acquired characters, or
that these wholly arise by accidental variation, we have strong grounds for believing that
these acquired characters are handed down, though weakened in intensity by half.
Nevertheless, if these are of advantage, sexual union of the progeny, coupled with possible
further variation along the same line, may retain or even intensify the new character.
But the case of Cypripedium Leeanum is of more than ordinary interest, for not only
are the colour spots that are present in C. imsigne and absent in C. Spicervanum inherited
though in less intensity of tint, by the hybrid, but we find a complete absence of hairs
where, under ordinary heredity transmission from C. Spicervanwm, they should have been
formed. Now it has been repeatedly noticed that when a species varies from the normal
it seldom does so in one point or structural detail, but a certain variation-wave, so to
speak, travels through the entire organism, giving it that combined set of characters
which make it rank as a sub-species. The relation between colour production and hair
distribution already described not only shows how new characters may be imported into
a line of organisms, but how these may even be powerful enough to minimize the normal —
action of the other parent. A somewhat similar case is that of Saaifraga Andrewsi, in
which the circumstomatic knobs inherited from the “ Aizoon ” parent are to all appearance —
correlated as a morphological character, with lime secretion by the stomata as a —
physiological one.
(c) Bisexual Heredity.—The cases of such that have been noticed are few, and do not
probably possess great interest apart from hybrid study. We include under this head such
an example as Libes Culverwelliz, in which the simple hairs of R. G'rossularia and
the oil-secreting peltate hairs of A. nigrum are both separately reproduced, though about
half as large * as those of the parents. Saaxifraga Andrewsw and Carduus Carolorumt
likewise have distinct types of hair inherited from both parents. No cases are known to
me where internal elements or tissue masses are thus separately reproduced. All the
hybrids in which the above has been observed are derived from parents considerably
removed in systematic relationship, and the incompatibility of blending the diverse types
of hair probably explains their appearance as separate growths.
But the general principle here illustrated on an exaggerated scale is that the offspring
of two parents may inherit from each diverse peculiarities which, instead of blending
evenly, retain their separate individuality. Future experiment and observation alone
will decide for us whether these can be passed down through two, three, or more
generations, and till we have the evidence it would be impossible to generalize.
* I should state here that the gland hair figured from R. nigrum (Plate V. fig. 13) is slightly larger than the average,
and that from the bybrid smaller, but for microphotographic work one has sometimes to choose material that shows the
objects, even though these are not of average size. The cell details also are lost in the figure.
+ This is a very instructive hybrid that was gathered in Inverness-shire by Messrs Jenner and Howrn, and of
which abundant material has been secured for future description.
MINUTE STRUCTURE OF PLANT HYBRIDS. 275
(d) On the Divergence of some Hybrids, or Parts of Hybrids, towards One Parent.
—It is undoubted that not a few hybrids show a decided leaning towards one parent,
though I consider from examination of several that have thus been described that the
number has been considerably over-estimated. With undoubted cases we will now
concern ourselves. Regarding these many have asserted that the male parent or male
element predominates, and sets up one-sided variation changes. We would readily grant
both from perusal of Fockr’s “ Pflanzen-mischlinge” and from direct observation that
this is frequently true. But no one can deny that there are many artificial hybrids
which do take more after the female parent. Professor Brooxxs,* recognising the
strength of the former position, has formulated a theory of variation and heredity alike
ingenious and plausible. In the present state of our knowledge we would not reject it,
but we may still inquire whether some other and simpler explanation cannot be given.
If we view the male and female sex elements of any plant as agoreeations of a
purely physical but very complex set of substances, it must necessarily follow that if the
relative amount, or weight, or combination proportions, in each male or female element
varies, variation will result after conjugation, and it will only be where the amount in
each conjugating cell is an exact average of the producing organism that a new
organism will develop which will show throughout an average combination of the
characters of both parents. Now in the struggle for existence which holds among pollen
cells and egg cells it will seldom happen that exactly the same amount of sex substance
will be formed in exactly similar combinations in each. But of the two, which, we may
ask, will vary most? Direct observation proves that it is the male or pollen cell, and
the reason for this is obvious. The great majority of flowering plants mature their
ovules with the contained egg cells inside cavities where space for growth, and elaborate
means for nutrition and protection up to the time of fertilization exists. But the
opposite is the case with pollen cells, which are crowded together in the anther cavity,
and often obtain nourishment by approximate sustenance through each other. Those
therefore nearest the sustentative source will have the advantage, unless of course they
are strongly pressed against by some firm bounding wall.
I have been greatly surprised both with the average constancy in size of the
ege cell and with the greater variability of the pollen cells in such plants as Laliwm,
Sella, and Digitalis. But we now know that the nuclear substance is specially con-
cerned in fertilization, and SrraspurceR has formulated a hypothesis+t to account for
diversities in hybrids by supposing that the two parents have a different average amount
of chromatin substance in their sperm and egg nuclei. We would extend the hypothesis
further, and regard the amount as a varying one even in the same parent. Hitherto I
have not been able to measure the nuclei of sex cells, but in many vegetative cells there is
clear evidence that the variability in size of the nucleus is very great, and further that
there are considerable differences in the size of the nuclei and nucleoli even in adjoining
cells. So much is this the case that I have felt quite safe only in comparing the
* The Law of Heredity, Baltimore, 1885. + Neue Untersuchungen, p. 163.
VOL. XXXVII. PART I. (NO. 14). 2k
276 DR J. M. MACFARLANE ON THE
nuclei of Cytisus Adami with those of its parents. Now if this be true of vegetative
cell nuclei, there is strong probability that it will equally hold with reproductive nuclei,
and accordingly the greater resemblance of any resultant embryo to one parent over
another would be satisfactorily explained on a physical basis.
But this does not on first look enable us to explain those cases where local
divergences toward either parent occur in a hybrid which otherwise is very evenly
balanced. Many examples of this have cropped up in the course of investigation and
description. But an application of the same hypothesis in its minuter bearings will clear
away most difficulties. If we view a fertilized ege of any plant which is about to
segment to form an embryo as being not merely a chemically complex nucleated mass of
protoplasm, but as a microcosm in which the orderly-arranged molecules of the conjugated
male element have so exactly fitted into and become united with corresponding molecules
of the female element that after conjugation co-ordinated groups of molecules are set
apart as stem-producers, root-producers, leaf-producers, and hair-producers, we will have
done much to clear away obstacles. But physically there is no reason why we may not
assume that each cell of the future plant has representative molecules in the apparently
simple egg. Now if such be the case it may not unfrequently happen that corresponding
groups of molecules from male and female cells do not unite exactly owing to incomplete
nutrition or other defect in the maturing of one group. Thus one of the two may in
part break down or become weakened and the complemental sexual part thereby give to
the resulting tissue a one-sided character. Since the nuclear substance of the male or
pollen cell is the one most lable to variable development through over- or under-
nutrition, or through advantageous or disadvantageous position, it follows that variation
will oftenest have its expression from the male side.
(e) Mechanical or Physiological Obstacles to Fertilization as an Explanation of
Infertility in some Hybrids.—Great importance has been attached by many to the fact
that some parent species which appear even to be nearly related refuse to cross, or only
do so on one side, reciprocal crosses being apparently impossible. But as STRASBURGER
has well emphasized * a very simple mechanical explanation like that advanced on the
animal side by PrLUGer in the case of Amphibians may explain the difficulty. Thus it
is possible that the sperm nucleus, or pollen tube containing such, of some plant
species may be too large for the receptive area of the egg cell or ovular surface, though
the opposite application might prove quite fertile. Similarly the relative length and
shape of style, size of pollen grain, strength of pollen coat, amount of mucilage secreted
by the stigma, time of ripening of stamens and stigma, must all be studied before we
pronounce any attempted hybrid union impossible. Equally simple physiological
obstacles connected with colour or some special chemical production may help in
explaining partial or entire sterility. When treating of Cytisus Adami we noted a great
abundance of tannin material in the “ purpureus” parent, a relatively small quantity in
the “laburnum” parent, and an intermediate amount in the hybrid. This extended even
* Neue Untersuchungen, p. 194.
i
MINUTE STRUCTURE OF PLANT HYBRIDS. 277
to the pollen grains, and gave to each a certain and recognizable tint. Now we know that
repeated attempts to cross C. purpureus and C. Laburnum have failed, and it is quite
possible that the action of the abundant tannin material on the stigma or egg cell of C.
Laburnum, and vice versa the small amount of it for C. purpureus, may largely explain
the failures. Many of the negative hybridization experiments of the past therefore may
have less depth of significance than one is inclined on first view to attach to them.
(f) On the Relative Fertility of Hybrids in Relation to Heredity.—The concensus of
opinion among the older hybridizers was that very few hybrids were fertile, and that
those which were, gradually returned to one of the parent types. During the last
twenty or twenty-five years the opinion has been freely criticised, and rightly so, since
horticulturists in that period have carried forward experimental hybridization by leaps
and bounds, and have imported through intelligent collectors not a few wild plants which
they regarded as, and in some instances have proved to be, natural hybrids.
But even though the subject of pollination, with all the marvellous floral adaptations
for it, were unknown to such experimenters as K6LREUTER, KnicHtT, GARTNER, WICHURA,
and others, the main outcome of their researches can scarcely be set aside, though we
may have to give a more liberal interpretation to it in the future. To sum up present-
day experiences, it may be said that crosses between species that are nearly related in
structure and habit can readily be effected, and the offspring may be largely fertile, at
least among certain genera. Crosses between species that differ considerably in form,
flower-colour, and habit are more difficult to perform, and the hybrids are largely sterile,
while crosses between such divergent species or genera as Dianthus alpinus and
barbatus, Saxifraga Geum and Arzoon, Lapageria aud Philesia are almost or wholly
sterile.
Now when the pollen and egg cells from each of these three roughly classified groups
are examined one finds that a few of those from the first are shrivelled-looking and badly
formed ; from the second a considerable percentage are thus affected ; while from the
third it is difficult to get one good pollen grain, and rather difficult to get one well-formed
ege-cell, though these do not appear to be so much affected as the pollen grains.
We have repeatedly referred to, and in Plate V. fig. 10 b have illustrated a bad pollen
sample. The cells are always smaller, often greatly smaller, than in either parent ; the
protoplasm is devoid of rich nutritive granules and is scanty in quantity, so that it does
not fill the cell cavity, the wall is irregular in outline and imperfectly formed. Shortly,
therefore, it may be said that while the vegetative cells of a hybrid can develop gradually
into organs that are a blended reproduction of those of the parents, the generative cells
fail to receive or to form appropriate protoplasmic material.
Consideration of this causes us to look at the theories that have been advanced to
account for heredity. Darwuin’s theory of pangenesis has been put aside as cumbrous
and difficult to conceive of in practice, though it explained phenomena of heredity all
along the line better than any previously existing view. More applicable, however, docs
NAGELI’s idioplasmatic theory appear, in spite of gratuitous assumptions that have been
278 DR J. M. MACFARLANE ON THE
urged against it. The fundamental idea animating the pangenetic theory is that the sex-
cells are the cumulative expression of all the actions and reactions, the integrations and.
disintegrations which have been associated with the protoplasms up to the time when
these sex-cells have been fully formed. NAGELI in expressing the same fundamental idea
brought it more into line with modern cell discovery by assuming that the nucleoplasm
was a continuous network. WEISMANN has objected to NAGELI’s hypothesis * as follows :—
“The idioplasm does not form a directly continuous network throughout the entire
body,” and “it is perfectly certain that the idioplasm cannot form a continuous network
throughout the whole organism if it is seated in the nucleus and not in the cell-body.”
But it may well be asked, How do we know that idioplasm, nuclear substance, nucleolar
substance, or chromatic substance, is not connected into one network? A dozen years
have not passed since the majority of biologists would have rejected the idea of an
intercellular network. Our minds should be open to receive fairly any hypothesis,
or facts favouring a hypothesis, that may be presented without dogmatising that such
cannot be.
We repeat it, then, as an observed fact, that the reproductive cells of hybrids are to a
greater or less extent small, imperfect, and badly formed, and that the more divergent
the parent types the more numerous do the imperfect cells become. If with WEismann
we view each of these as descendants from the germ-plasm of the hybrid egg, why do
these fail to mature and continue the hybrid progeny? It may be replied that the
susceptible germ-plasms refuse to blend, or blend so imperfectly, that while the blended
somatoplasms develop the vegetative part of the hybrid, the germ-plasms break down.
But this compels us to assume a greatly more cumbrous state of matters than does the
pangenesis theory, for we must suppose that these imperfectly blended masses of germ-
plasms are carried up with the growth of the stem, and finally appear at the floral
extremities in an aborted state, and that this continues year after year in a hybrid shrub
or tree; and we must further assume in the case of Cytisus Adami, that the same is
effected by vegetative union of the parts of two parents, without the intervention of
sex-cells. It may be urged in the latter case that some germ-plasm cells were mixed up
amongst the apparently pure vegetative or somatoplasmie cells, but even if this be
granted, it still proves that a hybrid growth can develop apart from sexual union. We
believe that a simple and more natural explanation can be given, a short summary of
which has already appeared in Natwre(vol. 44, 1891).
(g) Vegetable Cell Structure in Relation to Hybridity.—Observations made by me,
alike on resting and dividing cells, during the last few years, and preparations which Mr
Mann made and kindly showed me, caused me to adhere to my already published views on
cell-life, viz., that in the ordinary resting state of an active cell, z.e., one capable of, and
at times showing, division, a nucleus with nucleolus and endo-nucleolus are integral parts,
and that after division of the cell has ceased proliferation of the inner parts may still go on
leading to a multi-endonucleolar, then to a multi-nucleolar, and finally to a multi-nuclear
* Biological Memoirs, first English ed., pp. 180, 181.
MINUTE STRUCTURE OF PLANT HYBRIDS. 279.
state.* In certain rare cases, ¢.g., endosperm cells, proliferation of the nucleolus may-
produce a temporary multi-nucleolar state, while the nucleus and cell can divide at a later
period. Behaviour of the endo-nucleolus and nucleolus during division causes me to regard
these as the special cell-centres, and this is well illustrated in species of Spirogyra, where
the whole role of nuclear division is subsidiary to the nucleolus, and is only initiated subse-
quent to indications of commencing division in it.t We regard this as the true explanation
of division processes in other plant cells. Now in Spirogyra one can readily see that the
nucleolar material not only forms the main mass of chromatic substance, but that it is
connected by an extremely fine network system with the nuclear membrane, which is also
chromatic, and during division breaks down to fuse with the radiating threads from the
nucleolus. In re-formation of the daughter nuclei also round the daughter nucleoli, the
nuclear membrane gradually reappears, first on the outer poles or nuclear faces, but some
of the nucleolar threads can be traced to radiate out through and beyond the nuclear
membrane and across the cell-cavity to the pyrenoid centres. Now, in my earlier studies of
Spirogyrat Iwas puzzled to understand how these radiating threads that were originally
continuous in the nuclear spindle seemed to separate as deposition of the cell-septum took
place between. Recent careful study with high powers reveals that from the pyrenoid
centres of some bands extremely fine chromatic threads stretch across to, and connect,
the pyrenoid centres of other bands. A connection of these from one cell to another has
not as yet been traced, but, apart from observations on other plant-cells which favour
it, the strong probability is that such exists, for this network is quite continuous
during division up to time of deposition of the cell-partition, and as the latter is
laid down by union of micelle from the peripheral protoplasm and from the spindle
threads, these may retain delicate continuations of their substance through the formed
partition.
We would consider, then, that the nucleolus is the special chromatic and cell centre ;
that it sends out fine radiating processes—the intranuclear network—which partially
fuse externally to constitute the nuclear membrane, the interspaces of the network being
occupied by nucleoplasm concerned in metabolic change; that radiating continuations of
the chromatic substance pass out beyond the nuclear membrane, and form a network in
the protoplasm, while we would suggest for future proof or disproof that they further
may be continued through wall pores to form an intercellular chromatic connection,
Not only in Spirogyra but in leaf cells of Dionewa and of Masdevallia radiating
chromatic threads have been traced.
The question now arises as to the nature and origin of the chromatic substance.
This is pretty generally viewed now by biologists as sexual substance par-excellence, and
as being the bearer of hereditary characters. To explain its distribution in each cell, we
may consider with most biologists that the simplest plant and animal cells have no
* Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin., vol. xxx., 1881-82.
+ Confirmatory observations on two species of Spirogyra will shortly be published, giving details.
t Trans. Bot. Soc. Edin., vol. xiv., 1882.
280 DR J. M. MACFARLANE ON THE
nuclear differentiation, and consist of an apparently simple protoplasmic mass. But the
power of movement, of digesting and assimilating food-particles, of retreating from
centres of disturbance or irritation, &c., would cause us to inquire whether the apparently
undifferentiated mass is not traversed by a fine protoplasmic reticulum of a neuromuscular
kind. Such is the view that many have held and still hold.
But unicellular forms that show sexuality show also a nucleus, nucleolus, and
endonucleolus, the two last being often and carefully figured by Butscui1, Huxiey, and
others, while we consider their occurrence as universal in all cells of sexual plants and
animals. We have, however, already asserted our conviction that the nucleolus is the
important cell centre, and we have further proved by hybrid investigation that every
cell of an organism is hermaphrodite. Let us suppose, for attempted explanation, that
the nucleolus with its radiating chromatic threads is purely sexual, and is made up of the
fused chromatic constituents of male and female cells. Let us suppose further that the
nucleolar or sexual substance is gathered round a central differentiation or aggregation of
the protoplasmic reticulum, which might be the endonucleolus, and that it sends out
radiating chromatic processes along these threads which in part anastomuse into a fine
chromatic layer—the nuclear membrane—+so as to enclose in the interstices of the meshwork
system a quantity of nutritive protoplasm which is at once a bed for the nucleolus and a
feeder of it. Other radiating chromatic threads continued from the nucleolus and passing
beyond the nuclear membrane would ramify minutely through the protoplasm along the
threads of the reticulum, giving such appearances as we have traced in Spirogyra,
Masdevallia Veitchiana, Ornithogalum pyramidale, and Dionea.
The hypothesis would enable us to explain much that is at present involved and
obscure, while it would also enable us to dispense with the need for germ plasms. It
would permit us to entertain the possibility of a comparatively rapid intercommunication
of particles, and an even more rapid propagation of external stimuli, from cell to cell,
accompanied by change in every molecule reached by these stimuli. The sum-total of
these would be expressed in the sex-cells, which are the slowest to mature.
We would thus view a plant as a group of connected hermaphrodite cells,
descended from a fertilized egg-cell, and bound together by a fine chromatic
ramification, the centre of which in each cell is the nucleolus. This chromatic system,
intimately in contact with the general protoplasm, would receive stimuli and nourishment
from it, while the combined action of these and other agents would tell not on one cell
or cell-group, but be shared to a greater or less extent by all.
The above view does not compel us to suppose that the older cells in which the
nuclei are carried round in the protoplasmic current are thus connected, for these have
passed the stage of active division, and have their permanent life functions already
expressed,
If we apply the above views to explain the frequent sterility of hybrids, a possible, or
we may venture to say, a probable hypothesis can be framed. If each reproductive cell
of an organism is specialised as an epitome of the individual which produces it (and in
,*
eee
—— ie
MINUTE STRUCTURE OF PLANT HYBRIDS. 281
spite of arguments advanced by WEISMANN and his school, we adhere to Darwin’s widely
collected facts and reasonings on them as entirely favouring this), and gathers up the
features of that individual in its development and maturation owing to the constant
action and reaction between its chromatic substance and that of co-organismal cells,
it follows that for the accomplishment of this there must be a certain co-ordination or
rhythmic harmony in the motion of the molecules, and an appropriate attraction—
chemical or otherwise—in the combining molecules. If otherwise, then instead of
integration of molecule to molecule, disintegration or at least an incapacity for union will
hold.
But it should here be emphasized that reproductive cells are greatly more concentrated
in their history than ordinary vegetative cells, and only attain their full maturity after
the active stage has been passed in the last, or, as Professor RyDER has well put it in
his suggestive paper on the subject, “Sexuality begins when growth ends.”* This
does not, however, interfere with the fact that sex-cells are often cut off at a very early
period from the vegetative ones, for the former may then undergo, as we know them in
many cases to do, a slow maturing process, and be greatly acted on or modified by the
latter. Now we know that the most impressionable time in the history both of plants and
animals is that of growth—not of maturity—and therefore the experiments which may
have been instituted on animals, and such arguments as those bearing on exercierknochen,
&e., are practically worthless, because the individuals practised on have not in most cases
been treated from the earliest impressionable period, when the substance of the sexual cells
is in process of formation. It should be noted also that in the human subject and other
mammals the eggs are observable in the Graffian follicles at birth, and yet are not
matured and shed till years of slow upbuilding and moulding action have affected them.
If we return now to hybrid production of the more extreme types, though in virtue
of the attraction which exists between sexual elements, the original male and female
cells from parents of different species—in the absence of cells from the same species—
may be capable of uniting, and, in the process, of overcoming the repulsion due to -
dissimilar co-relative molecules in each, when the attempt is made by all the hermaphrodite
cells of the resulting hybrid organism to concentrate representative hermaphrodite groups
of molecules, many cases will occur in which these will blend imperfectly, owing to
differences in the composition and amount of chemical substances present, or interference
and cancelling effects due to unequal propagation of waves of motion between the
molecules. Thus many groups of molecules will break down or fail to reach their
destination, so that gaps or vacancies will occur in the organic completeness of the pollen
or ege cell. It will then have the shrivelled half-empty look so characteristic of
hybrid sex-cells that are sterile. In hybrids from more nearly related species the
interfering or cancelling effects will be reduced in proportion, and a larger number of
sex-cells will have a chance to mature.
(h) Value of Microscopic Characters in the Future Verificationof Doubtful Hybrids.—
* “The Origin of Sex,” Proc. Amer. Phil. Soc., vol. xxviii.
282 DR J. M. MACFARLANE ON THE
We have advanced reasons, drawn from microscopic study as well as from other points of
view, that Bryanthus erectus is a true hybrid, and that its reputed parentage is correct.
In the progress of horticulture, forms are continually appearing which are asserted to
be hybrids, and similarly as reputed wild species or varieties are being more carefully
scrutinised their hybrid nature is at times suggested. The great difficulty in safely
determining whether this is so has been the absence of sufficiently marked naked-eye
characters in the parents and hybrid. In a valuable contribution to hybridity by Mr
MsEHAN * many plants are mentioned which Linnavs looked upon as hybrids between
species, but which he nevertheless described as species since they freely reproduced
themselves. From a rather hasty study of some of these we should be inclined to —
question Lrynaxvus’ verdict in their case, but such forms as Zrifoliwm hybridum, present
an apparently strong case for the systematist. Armed now with an increased range
of characters for comparison, it should be possible to decide whether some at least have
not an undoubted relation to the supposed original parents. In such cases, nevertheless, —
it must be kept in mind that if their origin dates back over a long period such changes may
subsequently have been effected in them by variation and selection that the comparison —
can only be approximate, unless indeed one were to produce the hybrid artificially, and —
find close microscopic resemblances between the natural and artificial types. In any case
we consider it as undoubted that recognition of hybrids from careful microscopic study
should now be possible in the great majority of cases.
(i) Lhe Possible Origin of Species from Hybrids.—When the literature of byte
perused from the historical standpoint one cannot fail to be impressed with the more
liberal spirit in which the subject is treated, and with the increasing belief in hybrids that
are tolerably, or even very fertile. Specially is this so on the botanical side, but a paper by
the late Francis Day,t from the zoologists’ standpoint, proves that great interest will
centre round the subject at no digtant date. Hitherto it may be said that authorities,
with few exceptions, have declared wholly against the view that hybrids may be
sufficiently fertile, and their progeny sufficiently strong and adaptable to be fitted for
survival, not to say increase, in the struggle for existence. The admirable experiments
conducted by WicHura on willows go far to prove, one would think, that by the fourth
or fifth generation enfeeblement and decay become so marked that continued production —
fails. But against this is to be placed the fact that many of our horticulturists are
ardent believers in the continued fertility of hybrids, as witness the article by Professor
MEEHAN already cited, though we believe that an over-sanguine expectation is some-
times entertained under this head.
When one finds the undoubted hybrid between Geum rivale and G. wrbanum —
frequently described by systematists as a species, and that in many places the hybrid is —
nearly or quite as abundant as either parent, that it freely produces good seeds, and further —
that it has, as we have already indicated, many points of superiority as a combined —
* The Independent, No. 1068, New York.
+ Proceedings of the Cotteswold Club, 1888-89.
MINUTE STRUCTURE OF PLANT. HYBRIDS. 283
organism which neither parent possesses separately, we have good reason for the exercise
of caution before pronouncing decisively against species production from hybrids. Still
it must be confessed that our experimental statistics are so meagre and unsatisfactory that
no final opinion can be given. In saying this we do not in the least under-estimate the
conclusions arrived at by KOLREUTER, GARTNER, and their successors, but the wonderful
effects of altered conditions of soil, climate, and situation in giving relative fertility to
hybrids that were formerly regarded as sterile were not fully recognized in their day, and
are only now being to some degree appreciated.
Strong reasons can be urged for the prosecution of careful and prolonged investiga-
tions on the subject in our botanic gardens, experimental stations, and private gardens.
Though a partial investigation has already been made, no account has been taken in
this paper of second or third hybrids, or of hybrids in which, by reciprocal crossing,
different results are got. These will be treated of in a subsequent paper.
The author gladly acknowledges the help received from various quarters since
commencement of this investigation. Valuable supplies of material have been received
through the kindness of the Directors and Curators of Kew, Glasnevin, Edinburgh
and Glasgow Botanic Gardens, and from many private sources. The constant aid
extended by Professor BaLrour and Mr Linpsay deserve special mention, while Mr
RicHarpson and Mr Forean have given valuable help and advice on micro-photographic
details. Through the generosity of the Botanical Committee of the Royal Society,
a grant was given for purchase of material and illustration of the paper.
October 1891.
EXPLANATION OF PLATES.
VOL. XXXVII. PART I. (NO. 14). 28
284
Fig. 1.
Fig, 2
Fig. 3.
Fig. 4
Fig. 5.
Fig. 6
Fig. 7
Fig. 8.
Fig. 9.
Figs. 10
Fig. 1
Fig. 2
Fig. 3
Fig. 4
Fig. 5
Fig. 6
Fig. 7
Fig. 8
Fig. 9
Figs. 1,
Fig. 4
Fig. 5
Fig. 6
Fig. 7
Fig. 8
Fig. 9
Fig. 10.
Fig. 11.
Fig. 12.
DR J. M. MACFARLANE ON THE
DESCRIPTION OF PLATES I.-VIII.,
Illustrating Dr J. M. Macrarnane’s Paper on “ Plant Hybrids.”
Puate I.
Transverse section, root of Phélesia buxifolia, x 50°. ., epidermis; e.c., external cortex ; 7.c., internal
cortex ; 0.s., bundle sheath.
. Transverse section, root of Philageria Veitchit, x 50°, Letters as above,
Transverse section, root of Zapageria rosea, x 50°, Letters as above.
. Transverse section, external root-region of Philesta buxifolia, x 450°.
Transverse section, external root-region of Philageria Veitchii, x 450°.
. Transverse section, external root-region of Lapageria rosea, x 450°.
. Transverse section, central root-region of Philesia buaxifolia, x 450.° 1.c., cells of the inner cortex ;
b.s., indurated cells of the bundle sheath ; ph., phloem patch ; v.a., pitted vessel of the xylem.
Transverse section, central root-region of Philageria Veitchit, x 450°. Letters as above.
Transverse section, central root-region of Lapageria rosea, x 450°. Letters as above.
a, 106, 10c. Highly magnified views of bundle-sheath cells from Philesia, Philageria, and Lapageria
respectively.
Prats II,
. Transverse section, stem of Philesia buaxifolia, x 50°. e., epidermis; co., cortex; s., sclerenchyma sheath.
. Transverse section, stem of Philageria Veitchii, x 50°. Letters as above.
. Transverse section, stem of Lapageria rosea, x 50°, Letters as above.
. Transverse section, external stem-region of Philesia buwifolia, x 450°. cu., cuticle of the epidermis.
. Transverse section, external stem-region of Philageria Veitchii, x 450°.
. Transverse section, external stem-region of Zapageria rosea, x 450°.
. Transverse section, bundle and matrix parenchyma of Philesia buxifolia, x 550°, ph., sieve tubes of
phloem ; pz., protoxylem.
. Transverse section, bundle and matrix parenchyma of Philageria Veitchit, x 550°. Letters as above.
. Transverse section, bundle and matrix parenchyma of Lapageria rosea, x 550°.
Puate III.
2, 3. Illustrations of skeleton leaves of Philesia, Philageria, and Lapageria ; nat. size.
. Upper leaf epidermis of Philesia buxifolia, x 150°. The cells here shown are less thickened in
their walls and slightly more sinuous than in the mature tissues ; but difficulty of photographing
successfully mature epidermal tissue compelled the use of this.
. Upper leaf epidermis of Philageria Veitchii, x 150°. Though closely resembling fig. 4, the average
condition approaches more towards fig. 6.
. Upper leaf epidermis of Lapageria rosea, x 150°.
. Lower leaf epidermis of Philesia buxifolia, x 150°.
. Lower leaf epidermis of Philageria Veitchit, x 150°.
. Lower leaf epidermis of Lapageria rosea, x 150°.
Longitudinal median section through base of outer perianth segment (sepal) of Philesia buaifolia, x 25°.
Longitudinal median section through base of outer perianth segment of Philageria Veitchii, x 25°.
gl., gland tissue.
Longitudinal median section through base of outer perianth segment of Lapageria rosea, x 25°.
gl., gland tissue.
é
mig. 1
Fig. 2
Fig. 3
Fig. 4
Fig. 5
Fig. 6
Fig. 7
Fig. 8
Fig. 9
Fig. 10.
Fig. 11.
Fig. 12.
Figs
MINUTE STRUCTURE OF PLANT HYBRIDS. 285
Puate LV,
. Upper leaf epidermis of Dianthus alpinus, x 120°,
. Upper leaf epidermis of Dianthus Grievei, x 120°.
. Upper leaf epidermis of Dianthus barbatus, x 120°,
. Lower leaf epidermis of Dianthus alpinus, x 120°.
. Lower leaf epidermis of Dianthus Grievei, x 120°.
. Lower leaf epidermis of Dianthus barbatus, x 120°.
. Transverse section, stem of Dianthus alpinus, x 85°. e., epidermis; co., cortex; ¢., cork ; @.¢., inner
cortex ; ph., phloem; ca., cambium ; x., xylem.
. Transverse section, stem of Dianthus Girievet, x 85°. Letters as above. s., sclerenchyma, absent in last.
. Transverse section, stem of Dianthus barbatus, x 85°. Letters as above.
Surface view of leaf epidermis from Dianthus alpinus, stained in watery eosin, x 450°. J., leucoplast.
Surface view of leaf epidermis from Dianthus Grievei, x 450°.
Surface view of leaf epidermis from Dianthus barbatus, x 450°.
. 13a, 130, 13c. Petals of Dianthus alpinus, D. Grievet, and D. barbatus ; nat. size.
. 14a, 146, 14c. Outlines of nectar glands from above plants, exposed in longitudinal section.
Puate V.
. la, 10, le. Transverse sections, roots of Geum rivale, G. intermedium, and G. urbanum, showing cork
layers formed during successive years.
2. Maturing achene of Gewm rivale, x 8°. The style-arm (s.a.) projects as a rounded knob (s.a..) at its
attachment to the tip of the style (s.).
3. Maturing achene of Gewm intermedium, x 8°. The style-arm (s.a.) has a slightly projecting knob, as
has also the style at the point of attachment of the two.
4, Maturing achene of Gewm urbanum, x 8°. The style (s.) projects as a rounded knob (s./.) at its attach-
ment to the style-arm (s.a.), which is devoid of any projection.
. 5a, 5b, 5c. Petals of above three plants; nat. size.
. 6a, 6b, 6c. Pollen grains of above three plants, x 400°. Two small bad grains are shown from the
hybrid (66), though these compared with the good grains are greatly in the minority. A bad one
from Geum rivale is seen in fig. 6a.
. 7. Transverse section, stem of Ribes Grossularia, x 75°. e., epidermis; co., outer cortex; c., cork; %.c.,
inner cortex ; ph., phloem; x., xylem.
. 8. Transverse section, stem of Ribes Culverwellii, x'75°. Letters as above. The specimen figured was
from a thick twig, and the cork development has been excessive.
9. Transverse section, stem of Ribes nigrum, x 75°.
. 10a, 106, 10c. Pollen grains of above three plants, x 350°.
. 11, 12, 13. Surface views of under leaf epidermis of above plants. Fig. 11 x 150°; Fig. 12 x 150°; Fig.
13 x 200°.
Puate VI.
. 1, 2, 3. Leaves of Sawifraga Geum, 8. Andrewsii, and S, Aizoon, clarified to show disposition of vascular
bundles to water stomata ; nat. size.
. 4, 5, 6. Surface views of water stomata and surrounding tissue from above three plants, x 450°. Sazi-
Jraga Gewm is devoid of circumstomatic knobs, the hybrid has sixteen of these in the figure, and
S. Aizoon has thirty.
. Ta, 7b, 7c. Petals of above three plants, slightly enlarged from nat. size.
. 8, 9, 10. Longitudinal sections of flowers of Sawifraga Geum, S. Andrewsii, and S. Arzoon, x 50°.
s., sepals, These sepals are strongly reflexed in fig. 8, form an angle of 120° with continuation of
the main axis in fig. 9, and an angle of 30°-35° in fig. 10.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
+
Fig.
amr wr
2.
2a. Shows developing masses of cork (c.c.), forming beneath the epidermis.
3.
Figs. 4 and 5. Upper and lower leaf epidermis of Cytisus purpureus, x 400°.
Figs. 6 and 7. Upper and lower leaf epidermis of Cytisws Adami, x 400°.
Figs. 8 and 9. Upper and lower leaf epidermis of Cytisus Laburnum, x 400°.
1h
12.
13;
13,
13, ¢, c’, c’. Standard, wing, and keel petal of Cytisus Laburnum ,; nat. size. f
14a. Pollen grains of Cytisus purpwreus, x 350°. — oa
14b. Pollen grains of Cytisus Adami, x 350°. Two of these are abortive.
14c. Pollen grains of Cytisus Laburnum, x 350°.
. Longitudinal section from petiole of Masdevallia amabilis, x 450°.
. Longitudinal section from petiole of Masdevallia Veitchiana, x 450°.
. Epidermis bearing cone-shaped hairs from lateral sepals of Masdevallia amabilis, x 450°.
. Epidermis bearing club-shaped hairs from lateral sepals of Masdevallia Chelsoni, x 450°.
. Epidermis bearing spheroidal hairs from lateral sepals of Masdevallia Veitchiana, x 450°. >
. Vertical section of lower leaf surface from Rhododendron ciliatum, x 450°. The surface of each epi-
. Similar section from Rhododendron Grievei, x 450°. The surface of each epidermal cell is enlarged
. Similar section from Rhododendron glauewm, x 450°. The surface of each epidermal cell forms ar
. Vertical section of lower leaf surface from Rhododendron formosum, x 450°.
. Similar section from Rhododendron formosum x R. Dalhousie, x 450°.
. Similar section from Rhododendron Dalhousie, x 450°.
. Vertical section of lower leaf surface from Rhododendron Edgeworthii, x 450°.
. Starch grains from rhizome cells of Hedychiwm Gardnerianum, x 500°.
. Grains from Hedychium Sadlerianum, x 500°.
. Grains from Hedychium coronarium, x 500°.
. Grains from Hedychium elatum, x 500°.
. Grains from Hedychium elatum x H. coronarium, x 500°.
. Transverse section, stem of Cytisus purpureus in second year of growth, x 150°. ¢., epidermis; ¢¢
MINUTE STRUCTURE OF PLANT HYBRIDS.
Puate VII.
dermal cell is slightly convex.
into a conical process.
evident papilla.
Puate VIII.
cortex ; s.s., sclerenchyma strand; ph.f., phloem fibres; ph., phloem proper; «xy.%, xylem of
second year; «y.1, xylem of first year; p., pith.
Transverse section, stem of Cytisus Adami, x 150°. Letters asabove. c., cork, formed as an elliptic |
mass beneath the epidermis.
Transverse section, stem of Cytisus Laburnum, x 150°. Letters as above.
size of the cell nuclei. In one cell the protoplasm is represented.
Similar cells of Cytisus Adami, x 1500°.
Similar cells of Cytisus Laburnum, x 1500°. .
a, a’, a’, Standard, wing, and keel petal of Cytisus purpureus ; nat. size.
b, b, 6”. Standard, wing, and keel petal of Cytisus Adami ; nat. size.
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Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin®, Vol. XXXVII
D’J.M.MACFARLANE ON PLANT HYBRIDS” — Puare VIII.
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* Vol. XXXV., and those which follow, may be had in Numbers, each Number containi
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TRANSACTIONS
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VOL. XXXVIL PART I[.—(Nos. 15 10 24)—FOR THE SESSION 1892-93.
CONTENTS.
et» f i PAGE
V. Lhe Skull and Visceral Skeleton of the Greenland Shark, Leemargus microcephalus. By
Paiute J. Wurre, M.b., Demonstrator of Zoology, University of Edinburgh. Communi-
cated by Professor Ewarr. (With Two Plates), . —. ; : : se.) 287
. On the Fossil Plants of the Kilmarnock, Galston, and Kilwinning Coal Fields, Ayrshire.
By Roserr Kipsron, F.R.8.E., F.G.S, (Plates -IV.), . Pay Be ge : aren Ue
Electrolytic Synthesis of Dibasie Acids. By Professor A. Crus Brown and Dr Jamus
Wanker. II. On the Electrolysis of the Ethyl-Polassium Salts of Saturated Dibasic
; — Acids: with Side Chains, and on Secondary Reactions accompanying the Electrol, ytic
x - Synthesis of Dibasic Acids, ae Tae : ; : ; + 7 "361
, Fmpact, Il. By Professor Tarr, 381
New Algebra, by means of which Permutations can be transformed in a vurielyof ways,
and their properties investigated. By T. B. Spracun, M.A., F.R.S.E 399
On the Particles in Fogs and Clouds. By Joan Arrxen, Esq., F.R.S., F.R.S.E 413
n the Path of a Rotating Spherical Projectile. By Professor Tarr. (With a Plate), » ~y 427
On the Present State of Knowledge and Opinion in regard to Colour-Blindness. By Wiiaiam
Porn, F.R.S., F.R.S.E., Mus, Doc. Oxon., pionorasy Secretary of the Institution of Civil
Engineers. (With a Plate), ; ; : ; , ; : . 441
the Chemical Changes which take place in the Comp osition of theSea-Water associated.
with Blue Muds on the Floor of the Ocean. By Joun Murray, LL.D., Ph.D., and,
Roserr Tnving, B.GSs 4 Be cWie ak os ; 2 ; Mo 9 ay
The een and Relations of the Eurypteride. By Matcorm Laurin, B.Sc, B.A., F.LS.
- Communicated by R. H. Traquair, M.D., F.R.S., FLR.S-E, Appt Two Plates), «£809
MDCCCXCIII.
(Issued Ne ovember 1, 1893.)
( 287 )
XV.—The Skull and Visceral Skeleton of the Greenland Shark, Lemargus micro-
cephalus. By Pup J. Wuitz, M.B., Demonstrator of Zoology, University of
Edinburgh. Communicated by Professor Ewart. (With Two Plates.)
(Read 15th July 1889.)
Some time ago, at the request of Professor Ewart, I undertook an examination of
the skull and visceral skeleton of the Greenland shark, Lemargus microcephalus. This
I readily consented to do, not only because no attempt had yet been made to describe
these structures in this shark, but because they claim careful consideration in view of
the recent work by Professor Ewart on the cranial nerves of Elasmobranchs.
In this paper I shall endeavour, without entering into too much detail, to point out
some of the more salient features of the skull and visceral skeleton of Leemargus, and to
compare them with those of other Hlasmobranchs where that seems necessary.
I have made preparations of the above-named structures from the heads of several
specimens of Lemargus. The sharks from which the heads were taken were of various
sizes, the smallest being about six feet in length, and the largest twelve, As might have
been expected, the skeletal parts of these heads are very similar to each other, but I have
noticed among the few specimens I have examined points of difference, which make me
wish I had a larger number of preparations at my disposal, to enable me to decide the
more usual conditions.
THe SKuLt (Plate [.).
Following the example of GrucEnsaur, | shall, for purposes of description, speak of
the skull as consisting of four regions, viz., the occipital, the auditory,* the orbital, and
| the ethmoidal regions. The occipital region, which is in part continuous with the
vertebral column, lies behind the canals for the pneumogastric nerves; the auditory
extends from these canals forwards as far as the wide canals for the transmission of the
trigeminal and other nerves; the orbital region, situated in front of the auditory, may
be said to lie between the post-orbital and pre-orbital processes ; the part of the skull in
front of the orbital region forms the ethmoidal region.
The Occipital Region.
This region, which is small compared with the other cranial regions, is in part con-
tinuous with the vertebral column, and lies, as above stated, behind the canals for the
* GEGENBAUR terms this—Labyrinth-Region.
VOL, XXXVII. PART II. (NO. 15). 27
288 MR PHILIP J. WHITE ON THE
pneumogastrie nerves. Owing to the oblique direction of these canals from within
outwards and backwards, the region is marked out somewhat in the form of a V. The
apex of this V is directed forwards, and its short backwardly-directed limbs receive the
anterior portion of the first vertebra between them. The fore part of this vertebra, save
at a point (Fig. 5, $3) on either side of its arch, is in contact with the occipital region,
Mesially, its centrum (Figs. 3 and 5, V”) is continuous with the skull, but the lateral
portions of its centrum (Fig. 3, Vp), which present considerable expansions, are distinct
therefrom, although firmly bound to it by connective tissue. These lateral vertebral —
expansions abut against the occipital processes (Op), which are thrown outwards
and backwards from the occipital region. The surfaces of the vertebral expansions and
occipital processes where they meet each other are smooth. Again, the anterior portion -
of the arch of the first vertebra (Fig. 5, V’) lies within the occipital foramen, and is in
contact with its upper and lateral margins. A canal (Fig. 5, 83) for the transmission of
the third spinal nerve lies on either side between the skull and the middle portion of the
vertebral arch. The part of the arch below these canals rests on slanting surfaces on
the lower lateral edge of the foramen magnum, and the part above them enters more
freely within the foramen, and is overlapped by its dorso-lateral margin. In the smaller —
skulls of Leemargus examined I find that the neural arch, although bound to the
margin of the foramen magnum by connective tissue, is distinct from it, and this con-
nection permits of a little movement in a vertical direction; but in the largest skull
at my disposal I noticed a much more intimate connection between the arch of the first
vertebra and the skull. Especially is this the case with the portion of the arch below the —
canals for the third spinal nerves, where the arch and skull are continuous with each other.
In its cranio-vertebral connection Lamargus presents affinities to Hexanchus and. as
such forms as Acanthias and Scymnus. In having the lower mesial portion of the first
vertebra continuous with the cranium, and in having an intimate relation between the
arch of this vertebra and the margin of the foramen magnum, Lemargus ranks with
Hexanchus ; in the connection of the expanded portions of the first vertebral centrum
with the occipital processes it agrees with Acanthias, Scymnus, &c. I find no joint —
cavities existing between the lateral vertebral expansions and the occipital processes.
It appears that GrGENBAUR finds such in Scymnus.
The dorsal portion of the occipital region slopes backwards towards the vertebral
column, and at its hinder part is somewhat vertical. In a line with the spinous processes
of the vertebree, and extending from the back of the parietal fossa (Figs. 1 and 5, P) on
the roof of the skull to the foramen magnum, is a crest, the occipital crest (Co), which
is most prominent about the middle of its extent. Its development in Lamargus
resembles that found in Acanthias and Centrophorus calceus, rather than that of
Hexanchus or Heptanchus, in the latter of which the crest attains its greatest develop-
ment among Selachians.
The ventral portion of the occipital region is continuous with, and assists in forming
the hinder part of the large basilar plate (Fig. 3, Bp) of cartilage which constitutes
SKULL AND VISCERAL SKELETON OF THE GREENLAND SHARK. 289
the greater portion of the basal area for the posterior half of the skull. Sometimes the
occipital part of this plate is irregular, and has processes standing out from it.
Pneumogastric Canals.—The outer opening of each canal (Fig. 1, Vg’) is large
and funnel-shaped, and is placed at the back of the skull, external to an occipital
process. Hach canal pursues a course from within backwards and outwards. Beside
each pneumogastric canal are two canals, with a similar direction, for the first and second
spinal nerves, and their outer orifices are placed near each other, internal to the pneumo-
gastric foramina. In the skulls in which I followed up these canals I noticed that in
part of their course they communicated with the pneumogastric passage.
GEGENBAUR describes in Hexanchus and in other Selachians a canal, the orifice of
which is situated on each postero-lateral edge of the auditory region, near the foramen of
exit for the glosso-pharyngeal and pneumogastric nerves. These canals he describes
with the occipital region, since each opens into a pneumogastric canal. A vein which
| he considers to be the primitive jugular vein passes along each of these canals. In
| Lemargus I do not find this canal, but I notice that a vein which opens into the anterior
cardinal sinus issues from the pneumogastric canal in company with the nerve. If this
vein corresponds to that described by GEGENBAUR as passing along a separate canal for
part of its extent, it may be concluded that in Lemargus this canal has blended with
that for the pneumogastric nerve.
The Auditory Region.
This region is continuous with the occipital region behind, and with the orbital in
front. The pneumogastric canals mark its limit behind, and at its fore part are the wide
passages for transmitting the trigeminal and other nerves. The external configuration
of this region is little affected by the organ of hearing which it contains, the semicircular
eanals and vestibules giving rise to no such elevations as are so characteristic of some
Selachian skulls.
The dorsal aspect of this region presents on either side a crest, internal to which is a
shallow groove on which are several foramina. These lateral crests, which project
outwards and upwards, commence in front in a small eminence, and are continued from
this point backwards to the hinder part of the auditory region. The central part of
the dorsal surface is slightly raised, and the parietal fossa (Figs. 1 and 5, P) is situated
here. This fossa is deepest posteriorly, and in this position the vestibular aqueducts
open. The floor of the fossa slopes gently upwards towards the surface of the skull, and
its lateral edges becoming more prominent as they pass backwards, meet at its hinder
part in a small elevation (Pm).
The ventral portion of the auditory region forms a considerable portion of the
basilar plate (Fig. 3, Bp) of the skull. A groove (Cq), for a carotid artery, beginning
on each side about the anterior third of the lateral edge of this plate, runs forwards
290 MR PHILIP J. WHITE ON THE
and inwards to a carotid canal (Ca’). The grooves may be bridged over with cartilage -
in part of their extent. '
On the lateral surface of the auditory region, at its lower and hinder part, is the
depression (Fig. 4, 7 7’) which forms an articular surface for the two heads of the
hyomandibular cartilage. The long axis of this depression is directed from above down-
wards and backwards, and for the most part it is distinctly demarcated from the
surrounding parts. It exhibits two surfaces, an upper and a lower, incompletely
separated from each other. The upper joint surface (7) is smaller than the lower (j’),
and a small process, from which a distinct rim runs upwards and gradually fades away,
is situated at its lower and anterior part. The larger articular surface is deep compared
with the upper, and the basilar portion of the skull juts outwards under its lower part,
while at its upper and hinder part a stout process stands out from the skull, and over-
hangs it. ¥
In possessing a cranio-hyoid joint with two surfaces, the ekull of Lamargus agrees
with Zygeena.
A pyramidal process (Figs. 1, 3, and 4, Ap) projects backwards from the auditory 9
region behind the cranio-hyoid joint. The lower surface of this process (Fig. 3) is
flattened, but its upper (Fig. 1) presents two grooved surfaces, an internal and an ex-
ternal, separated from each other by a ridge. The former of these leads up to the exit
foramen (Vq’) for the vagus, and the latter (Gp’) to that for the glosso-pharyngeal nerve, —
A groove, the post-orbital groove (Fig. 4, Pg), begins above the smaller articular
surface of the cranio-hyoid joint, and is continued forwards and downwards to —
terminate at the inter-orbital foramen (Io’), which lies a short distance below
the foramen (Tr’), for the trigeminal and other nerves, About the middle’ of its
course, the groove is bridged over by a band of cartilage (x). The space beneath this
band, towards its fore part, is separated by a cartilaginous shelf into an upper and a
lower chamber, the former of which lodges, in the recent state, part of the orbital -
sinus, while the latter contains part of the facial nerve, the palatine branch of which
escapes in front (P/), while another portion of the nerve passes from beneath the’
band posteriorly. The lower part of the band may be perforated at several points for
the passage of nerves. A ridge extends from about the middle of this band at its
anterior part and forms the anterior and lower boundary of the post-orbital groove, and
the upper border of a groove which lies below it. This second groove leads to a deep
depression (y), at the bottom of which are two foramina. The hyoid artery rests in
this groove, and the foramina, which are the orifices of canals opening internally on the —
lateral wall of the pituitary fossa, are for the branches of this artery. The band-like —
arrangement covering the exit foramen of part of the facial is interesting, as Mm
Rhynchobatis, Trygon, Pristis, and Squatina a similar band covers the outer open om
the facial canal.
Glosso-pharyngeal Canal.—The inner opening (Fig, 5, Gp) of this canal is placed
at the lower and lateral part of the cranial cavity, in front of the pneumogastric —
SKULL AND VISCERAL SKELETON OF THE GREENLAND SHARK. 291
foramen (Vg). From this point to its external orifice it pursues a course from within
outwards and backwards, and passes through the cranial wall external to and at a lower
level than the vagus canal. The canal in question is not continuous throughout, its
continuity being broken a short distance after its commencement, as it here opens into
the lower part of the vestibule of the ear. After a short interval, the canal is continued,
and passes to its outer opening (Figs. 1 and 4, Gp’). The first part of the canal is
narrow, the second is wide. In communicating with the vestibular part of the auditory
capsule, and consisting of a narrow and a wide part, the glosso-pharyngeal canal of
Lemargus is similar to that of Centrophorus calceus, Acanthias, and the Rays,
The Facial Canal.—This canal, which is short, commences just inside a depression
(Fig. 5, Af), which is common to part of the facial and the auditory nerve, and passes
transversely outwards, to open in the space under the band of cartilage, already men-
tioned, on the lateral aspect of the auditory region,
The Orbital Region.
This region lies between the auditory region behind, and the ethmoidal in front,
The post-orbital processes (Figs. 1, 3, and 4, Po), and the canals (T7’) for the trigeminal
and other nerves mark its posterior boundary, while the pre-orbital processes (P7) and
ridges running downwards from them serve as its anterior limitation. A capacious
orbital cavity lies on either side of this region, and the supra-orbital crests, with their
post- and pre-orbital processes, stand boldly out from the skull.
The dorsal portion of the orbital region (Fig. 1) forms the broadest part of the
skull, and presents on each side a concavity between the pre- and post-orbital processes,
Between the post-orbital processes there is a considerable median depression, in front
of which are two smaller depressions also occupying the mid-dorsal line. Internal
to each supra-orbital ridge there is a groove, the supra-orbital groove, continued for-
wards from a groove occupying a similar position in the auditory region, and on
the floor of this the supra-orbital foramina (Sr) are situated. There are six or
seven of these foramina on each side, and one of the hindermost of them is always
larger than the others. In this respect Lemargus agrees with Centrophorus calceus,
Galeus, and Mustelus. The supra-orbital grooves are deepest anteriorly, and in this
position each receives the upper opening of the pre-orbital canal (P7”). Two
grooves, one of which runs along the inner and dorsal part of the nasal capsule,
while the other turns outwards and leads to the hinder part (em) of the ethmoidal canal,
commence at the point where the pre-orbital canal opens.
The ventral aspect (Fig. 3) of this region of the skull presents a conmbaresnTels
narrow anterior and a broad posterior portion. The broad part forms the anterior
portion of the basilar plate (Bp) of the skull, and in front, on each side, it throws out a
Shoulder-like process. In front of each shoulder is a concavity, the palato-basal
depression (Pd), for lodging the palato-basal process (Pl. II. Fig. 1, Pp) of the palato-
292 MR PHILIP J. WHITE ON THE
quadrate cartilage (ppt). The basal angle (Fig. 4, A) is not so marked in Leemargus as
in the Notidanide or in Scymnus, but seems rather to resemble that of Acanthias.
The narrower anterior basal portion of this region projects in the middle line, and forms
the hinder part of a keel: (K) which runs under the ethmoidal region. The outer
openings (Ca’) of the carotid canals, which will subsequently be described, are placed
towards the anterior part of the basilar plate. A small mesial aperture (Hc), which is
the lower opening of a canal, evidently the hypophysis canal, is also found at the anterior
part of the basilar plate.
The orbital cavity (Fig. 4).—EHach cavity is overhung by a supra-orbital ridge with
its pre- and post-orbital processes. Its anterior boundary is formed by a cartilaginous
ridge, which, curving downwards from the pre-orbital process, gives rise to an
antorbital process (An) at the fore part of the orbit, and then curving backwards
from this point fades away as it approaches the palato-basal depression (Pd). Behind,
the orbital cavity has no distinct boundary as the auditory region merely slopes
forwards and inwards towards the orbital basin. A sort of floor is formed to the
orbital cavity behind by an outward projection of the basilar plate, but in front of this
the orbit is devoid of a floor.
The post-orbital process.—This process (Figs. 1, 8, and 4, Po), which is of con- —
siderable strength and size, is pyramidal in form, and has its apex directed outwards,
downwards, and backwards. One surface is directed upwards, a second downwards
and forwards, and a third downwards and backwards. The process resembles that found
in Acanthias.
The pre-orbital process (Figs. 1, 8, and 4, Pr).—This process, which is not so pro-
minent as the post-orbital, is connected in front with the roof of the nasal capsule by a band
of cartilage (b) which roofs in the ethmoidal canal. The base of the process is pierced
by two canals, the upper and larger of which is the pre-orbital. The lower canal, which
is also found in Scyllium and Galeus, opens on the roof of the skull just in front of the
pre-orbital opening (Pr”).
The palato-basal depressions (Figs. 3 and 4, Pd), the position of which has already
been indicated, are distinctly seen, one on each side of the inter-orbital septum. They have
a direction upwards and backwards, and a prominent ridge runs upwards from: the
shoulders of the basilar plate and forms a hinder boundary for them. In front of the
depressions there is a less pronounced ridge.
Canal for the trigeminal and abducens nerves and the ophthalmic and buccal
branches of the facial.—This is a large canal, and its external orifice (Fig. 4, T7’) is
situated at the back of the orbital cavity, considerably below the post-orbital process,
and its position in Lemargus corresponds with that in Scymnus. The canal is short and
wide, and has a direction from within outwards and forwards. Its anterior wall is
less extensive than its posterior.
Canal for the oculi-motor nerve.—This canal passes almost directly outward through
the cranial wall, and its outer opening (Fig. 4, Om’) is placed a short distance in
“~~
SKULL AND VISCERAL SKELETON OF THE GREENLAND SHARK. 293
front of that for the trigeminal and other nerves. The part of the skull through which
this canal runs is thick.
Canal for the optic nerve.—This is a wide canal, and like the former passes almost
directly outwards through the skull wall. In a side view of the skull its outer orifice
(Fig. 4, O’) is seen lying considerably in front of that of the canal for the trigeminal and
other nerves.
Canal for the patheticus.—This is a narrow canal, having from within a direction
outwards, downwards, and slightly forwards. Its outer opening (Fig. 4, Pa’) is placed
at the upper part of the orbital cavity, and lies either directly above the optic foramen
or a little behind that point.
Pre-orbital canal.—The hinder opening (Fig. 3, Pr’) of this canal is situated at the
anterior and upper part of the orbit. The canal pierces the base of the pre-orbital process,
and runs from the orbital cavity to open (Fig. 1, Ps’) on the roof of the cranium. A
second canal, which has already been noted, lies below it.
Orbito-nasal canal_—This canal, which has its hinder orifice (Fig. 3, On) some
distance below that for the pre-orbital, passes forwards and slightly.inwards, to open
(On’) on the surface of the skull at the hinder and inner part of the nasal capsule.
Inter-orbital canal.—The outer aperture (Fig. 4, Io’) of this canal, the course of
which will be followed later, lies a little below the foramen of exit for the trigeminal
and other nerves.
The Eye-stalk (Pl. I. Fig. 3, E.; Pl. IL. Fig. 5).—This is an elongated rod, con-
tinuous at its proximal end (m) with the skull, and articulating at its distal extremity
(m’) with the cartilaginous sclerotic of the eye-ball (Pl. II. Fig. 6), The stalk is slender
at its proximal part, but increases in thickness towards its distal extremity, where it
presents a somewhat triangular cupped surface on which, in the recent state, the eye-ball
rests. The cartilage of which it is composed is similar to that composing the skull.
The Ethmoidal Region.
This region, which lies in front of the orbital, exhibits on either side the somewhat
flattened nasal capsules (Figs. 1 and 2, N) which form its lateral expansions. These
are separated from each other above by the deep pre-frontal fossa (Fig. 1, Pf), and below
by the inter-nasal septum. In front of the pre-frontal fossa the fore part of the region
is produced forwards as a truncated rostrum (Figs. 1-5, R). The long axes of the
nasal capsules have a direction forwards and slightly inwards. The ventro-lateral opening
of each capsule is situated anteriorly, and its margin, which is very irregular, supports a
ring-like nasal cartilage (Figs. 2, 3, and 4, Na). The ethmoidal canal (Fig. 4, em’) is
found at the outer and lateral part of the dorsal surface of the capsule. A series of
longitudinal ridges, with narrow grooves between them, pass forwards and gently out-
wards on the upper aspect of the capsule. These ridges and grooves are especially
marked on the outer half of the roof of the capsule, and the latter lead to small canals
which open anteriorly near the free margin of the structure.
294. MR PHILIP J. WHITE ON THE
Nasal-ring-cartilage (Figs. 2, 8, and 4, Na).—This is an incomplete ring of carti-
lage which surrounds the greater part of the nasal orifice. Externally it is in contact
with the free margin of the nasal capsule, and the two ununited ends of the ring are
directed inwards, the lower of these being very slender. Processes approach each other
from opposite points of the ring and thus divide the nasal orifice into an inner and outer
part, an arrangement which is not uncommon among Selachians.
The pre-frontal fossa (Figs. 1 and 5, Pf).—This is an elongated deep fossa
which lies between the nasal capsules, and assists in separating them from each other.
The opening of the fossa on the roof of the cranium is somewhat elliptical, and its
margins, which are irregular and sometimes perforated at parts, curve downwards and
outwards to the upper surface of the nasal capsules, and terminate in front at the rostrum.
The inter-nasal septum.—This septum separates the nasal capsules from each other
below. It is produced in front as a short truncated rostrum (Figs. 1-5, R), which
is broader in front than behind. The ventral portion of the septum is laterally
compressed and forms a keel (K), which runs forwards towards the rostrum. This keel
is especially prominent at its hinder part, and in this respect Leemargus agrees with
Scymnus and Acanthias.
The nasal fossa (Fig. 3, Nf).—This is a deep fossa on the ventral surface, and lies
between the inner border of the posterior half of each nasal capsule and the inter-nasal
septum. These fossee also occur in some other Elasmobranchs. A canal which com-
municates with the cranial cavity opens at the bottom of each fossa at its hinder part.
A similar canal occurs in Heptanchus and some other forms, but not in Hexanchus. The
presence of this canal, together with other evidence, gives a clue to the origin of the three-
shanked rostrum found in some Selachians. A cartilaginous process (Fig. 3, P’), which may
be loosely connected with the nasal capsule, projects inwards and backwards under each
nasal fossa, and near the hinder part of the base of the process is the orifice (On”) of a
canal which runs upwards and forwards to open into the hinder part of the nasal cavity.
The anterior opening of the orbito-nasal passage (On’) lies a short distance behind the
posterior opening of the canal just noted, and a short groove leads from one to the other.
Vertical longitudinal Section of the Skull in the mesial plane (Fig. 5).
This section shows,—the continuation of the cartilage of the first vertebral centrum
with the skull, the thickness of the cranial roof and floor, the extent of the cranial
cavity, as well as that of the parietal and pre-frontal fosse.
The cranial cavity.—This cavity, which is considerably larger than the brain which it
encloses, is open behind towards the neural canal, and is incompletely shut off from
the pre-frontal fossa (Pf) by a cartilaginous partition (D) in front. On each side
this partition the cavity communicates with the nasal cavities through an olfactory. -
passage.
SKULL AND VISCERAL SKELETON OF THE GREENLAND SHARK. 295
For descriptive purposes the cranial cavity may be described as consisting of a posterior,
middle, and anterior division. The posterior portion extends from the foramen magnum
to the hinder wall (Ds) of the pituitary fossa; the middle from this point forwards to the
optic foramina (O); and the anterior division lies in front of these openings,
The posterior division.—This extends, as just stated, from the foramen magnum to the
hinder wall or dorsum selle (Ds) of the pituitary fossa. In some sharks, e.g. Hex-
~anchus, the dorsum sellz forms a considerable elevation on the cranial floor. Between
this elevation and the foramen magnum there is a hollow, but in Leemargus, as the dorsum
_ sellze rises very slightly on the floor of the cavity, the hollow between it and the foramen
magnum is very shallow. A distinct elevation passes from the dorsum sellze for a short
distance up the cranial wall, and behind it the large foramen (Tr) for the trigeminal,
abducens, and part of the facial nerve is situated, while the foramen (Om) for the oculi-
motor, which belongs, however, to the middle cranial region, is placed in front of it.
There is a depression (Af) a short distance behind the foramen for the trigeminal and
other nerves, at the bottom of which are two foramina, an anterior for the portion of the
facial nerve which does not pass through the trigeminal canal, and a posterior for the
auditory nerve. The foramen (Gp) for the glosso-pharyngeal nerve is situated some
distance behind the depression common to the two nerves just mentioned. The pneumo-
gastric foramen (Vg), which has a funnel-shaped depression leading up to it, is situated
behind that for the glosso-pharyngeal, but ata higher level. A small foramen (81) for
the first spinal nerve lies below the pneumogastric opening, that for the second spinal
(82), which is larger, is placed behind it, while the third spinal nerve passes through a
canal (S3) situated between the skull and the arch of the first vertebra. In having
apertures and canals for the first and second spinal nerves in the cranial wall, Lemargus
agrees with Scymnus, Acanthias, and some other sharks.
_ A downward projection from the roof of the cavity, caused by the sinking of the floor
of the parietal fossa (P), presents itself in this part of the cranium. From this projection
the roof passes forwards and upwards to its highest elevation.
The middle division.—This extends from the dorsum selle (Ds) as far as the optic
foramina (O), and its vertical diameter is greater than that of the division behind
or before it.
The pituitary fossa.—This fossa occupies the floor of the division, and extends from
the dorsum sellze (Ds) to (M) its interior limit. The hinder part of the fossa is deep,
and its anterior wall slopes upwards and forwards and terminates in the slight sinking
(M) on the cranial floor. The hinder and postero-lateral walls of the fossa are especially
steep. Several canals open at various points on the walls of the fossa.
Lhe carotid canals.—These two canals begin (Fig. 3, Ca’), as already seen, at the
inner ends of the grooves (Cg) on the under surface of the basilar plate of the skull, and
| pass through the cranial floor, and meet each other a short distance behind the pituitary
fossa. From their point of union a short wide canal passes forwards and slightly upwards
to open (Fig. 5, Ca) on the hinder wall of the fossa at its lower part.
VOL. XXXVII. PART Il. (NO. 15). 2U
296 MR PHILIP J. WHITE ON THE
A small shelf of cartilage (lo), with a transverse groove on its upper surface, lies
over the carotid opening, and at either end of the groove the inner opening of the —
inter-orbital canal is placed. In the position of the shelf, the continuity of the
inter-orbital canal as a cartilaginous tube is broken above, a condition which is found —
in Hexanchus and some other sharks. The portion of the canal on each side of the
pituitary fossa, in Leemargus, pursues from without, a curved course inwards and
slightly forwards.
The Hypophysis canal.—The internal opening a this canal (Hc), already alluded
to, and which is presumably the persistent hypophysis canal, is seen on the anterior —
wall of the pituitary fossa. The canal has an oblique course passing upwards and back-
wards from below. In one skull which I examined the canal had a vertical direction, and —
passed directly upwards to open at the lowest part of the fossa. Hexanchus and Hep-
tanchus seem to have a canal which, while not so complete as in Leemargus, apparently
represents it in these forms.
Two openings, a dorsal and a ventral, for the branches of the hyoid artery, are placed —
some distance apart on the postero-lateral walls of the fossa.
The foramen (Om) for the oculi-motor nerve, as already indicated, lies at the fore part —
of an elevation which passes outwards and upwards from the dorsum sellee.
The optic foramen (QO) is situated in a line with, but considerably in front of, that
for the oculi-motor nerve.
The patheticus foramen (Pa).—This is placed on the dorso-lateral wall of the cranial
cavity, some distance above the optic foramen, and slightly posterior to it.
The anterior division.—This division of the cranial cavity lies in front of the ontil
foramina. It is incompletely shut off from the pre-frontal fossa (P/) by the cartilaginous
partition (D), and on either side of this partition the cavity is produced as a wide
olfactory passage. Hach olfactory passage, although it is wide throughout, becomes
uarrower as it passes forwards and outwards to open at the hinder part of the nasal.
cavity. A foramen (z) for a blood-vessel is placed at the dorso-lateral part of “
cranial division, near the commencement of the olfactory passage.
The partition (D), which incompletely separates the cranial cavity from the pre =
frontal fossa (P/), rises vertically from the cranial floor. In the skull figured, the partition —
is only connected at its lower part with the cranium by means of a narrow neck of
cartilage, and as it does not touch the cranium at any other part, a space exists between —
it and the cranial wall, by means of which the cranial cavity and pre-frontal fossa
communicate freely with each other. In another skull, the partition had three connec-—
tions with the cranium. There was a broad connection at its base with the cranial floor, —
and its upper part was connected with the cranial roof by two narrow bands of
cartilage, one on either side. In this case, therefore, instead of a single space existing a
between the cranial cavity and pre-frontal fossa, there were three,—one dorsal, and one
on either side. In a third skull, the largest cranium which I examined, not only
was there an extensive basal continuation of the partition with the cranial floor, but
SKULL AND VISCERAL SKELETON OF THE GREENLAND SHARK. 297
the dorso-lateral connections were also extensive, and they largely encroached on the
dorsal and lateral spaces, reducing them to wide canals.
In other Elasmobranchs, a membranous partition stretches across the space between
the cranial cavity and the pre-frontal fossa.
The pre-frontal fossa (Pf).—This is an elongated deep fossa, which, as already
mentioned, is open above (Fig. 1), and communicates with the cranial cavity posteriorly.
It is deeper behind than in front, its floor slopes upwards to the rostrum, and towards
its upper part its margins curve inwards towards each other.
The parietal fossa (P).—This fossa has already been noticed (Figs. 1 and 5). Ina
longitudinal section of the skull, the opening of a vestibular aqueduct is seen posteriorly
at the side of the floor of the fossa.
The Notochord (C).—In Lemargus, as in some other sharks, the notochord is
persistent in the cranial floor. It passes forwards from the vertebral column to the
vicinity of the pituitary fossa, and approaching the dorsum sellee, curves rather abruptly
upwards. Its anterior extremity in some cases is directed forwards, in others it
eurves backwards, but in all cases it terminates just below the perichondrium of the
eranial floor. The direction of the cranial notochord of Lemargus bears a greater
resemblance to that of Hexanchus or Heptanchus, than to that of such forms as
Acanthias or Centrophorus calceus.
THE VISCERAL SKELETON (Plates I. and IL).
The visceral skeleton consists (1) of the usual segmented hoops or arches, placed in
succession one behind the other, and (2) of cartilages standing in relation to these. Of
these arches there are seven. The first is the mandibular, the second the hyoid, and
the remaining five are the branchial arches.
The Branchial Arches (Pl. I. Figs. 1 and 2, Pl. II. Figs. 2 and 8).—These arches
gradually decrease in size from before backwards. A typical arch, eg. the third
(Pl. Il. Fig. 2), consists on each side of the four segments which are usually
found in Selachians. From above downwards, they are as follows,—(1) pharyngo-
branchial (P03), (2) epi-branchial (E83), (3) cerato-branchial (Kr3), and (4) hypo-
branchial (H3). A series of cartilages, the basi-branchials (Pl. II. Fig. 8, B1—B8),
occupy a mid-ventral position between the lower ends of the lateral portions of the
arches.
In several preparations of the visceral skeleton of Leemargus which I have examined,
I found the typical number of segments in the first four arches, while in other preparations
I noticed that only the first, third, and fourth arches possess the typical number, the
hypo-branchials of the second arch having fused together to form a single transversely
placed plate of cartilage (Pl. IL. Fig. 3, H2). In some cases there is an intermediate
condition in which this cartilaginous plate is incompletely divided.
In all my dissections I found that the fifth arch possessed only two segments on each
298 MR PHILIP J. WHITE ON THE
side, namely, an epi- and a cerato-branchial segment, the former of which has its upper
extremity fused with the pharyngo-branchial of the fourth arch.
The pharyngo-branchials.—These are somewhat flattened rods, having their imner
extremities free, and directed backwards and inwards (PI. I. Fig. 1, Pb1—4), while their
outer extremities are thickened, and are connected with the upper ends of the epi-
branchials (H1-E5). The upper surfaces of the pharyngo-branchials present grooves
(Pl. Il. Fig. 2, Bg3) on which, in the recent state, the efferent branchial vessels rest.
In the first three arches the grooves have a direction from before, backwards and inwards,
while the grooves on the fourth pair of pharyngo-branchials have an almost transverse
direction from without inwards. The position of these grooves varies in the different
pairs of pharyngo-branchials. On the first pair the grooves lie over the outer extremities
of the cartilages, but in the case of the other arches they become more internal in position
and gradually deeper from before backwards. In Squatina there is a farther modification,
because here, instead of grooves, we find canals perforating the pharyngo-branchials of the
second, third, and fourth arches.
Each pharyngo-branchial of the fourth arch possesses a process (PI. II. Fig. 3, P5)
which, springing from about the middle of its hinder border, and having a direction
outwards and slightly downwards, is continuous with the epi-branchial of the fifth
arch. This process is regarded by some as the pharyngo-branchial of the fifth
branchial arch. This process is absent in Hexanchus, and in Heptanchus it is only
slightly developed. GEGENBAUR concludes from this that the process is developed from the
pharyngo-branchial of the fourth arch, in order that a point of attachment may be given
to the epi-branchial of the last arch, and that, therefore, it is not the representative of a
pharyngo-branchial. In Leemargus, as I have already mentioned, this process and —
the epi-branchial of the fifth arch are fused together, a condition which occurs in other
Elasmobranchs. :
The epi-branchials (Pl. Il. Figs. 2 and 8, H1-E5).—There are five pairs of these,
and from the first to the fourth they diminish in size. ‘The fifth epi-branchial of either
side (5), together with the pharyngo-branchial processes (P5) of the fourth arch, forms
an elongated rod. The upper extremities of the four anterior epi-branchials are movably
connected with the outer extremities of the pharyngo-branchials, while the fifth, as
already seen, forms a cartilaginous union with the fifth pharyngo-branchial. The lower
extremities of all are movably connected with the upper ends of the cerato-branchials.
Processes jut forwards from the upper extremities of the epi-branchials, and fossee, which
increase in depth from behind forwards, are found on the inner surfaces of the four
anterior cartilages.
The cerato-branchials (Pl. IL. Figs. 2 and 3, Kr1-Kr5).—These are the longest seg-
ments in the branchial arches, and have their upper ends connected with the epi-
branchials, but their lower extremities have various connections. The lower extremity of
the cerato-branchial of the first gill arch, has lying in front of it, the small hypo-branchial
(Fig. 3, H1) belonging to this arch, and it also touches the basal portion of the
SKULL AND VISCERAL SKELETON OF THE GREENLAND SHARK. 299
hyoid arch, to which it is bound by connective tissue. The lower extremities of the
ecerato-branchials of the second, third, and fourth arches are connected with hypo-
branchials (H2, H3, H4) respectively, while those of the fifth pair (K75), which differ
considerably from those of the other arches, are bound, one on either side, to a large basi-
branchial plate (B5).
Processes project forwards from the lower ends of all the cerato-branchials, but those
of the first arch are very feebly developed. Hach process on the second, third, fourth,
and fifth arches overlaps the portion of the cerato-branchial lying in front of it. Fosse,
for muscular attachments, similar to those on the inner faces of the epi-branchials, are
also found in corresponding positions on the first four cerato-branchials, close to their
upper extremities.
Hypo-hranchials (Pl. I. Figs. 2 and 3, H1-H4).—There are four pairs of these
cartilages, and they stand in relation to the first four branchial arches. The first pair
(H1) are very small cartilages, lying, as is already mentioned, at the fore part of the
lower extremities of the cerato-branchials of the first gill arch, to which, in the recent
state, they are bound on the one hand, and on the other to the hyoid arch, by connective
tissue. In some sharks, e.g. Hexanchus, these pair of hypo-branchials are absent. The
second pair of hypo-branchials (H2) may be fused together, as in Scymnus, and form a
transversely placed plate of cartilage which lies between the lower ends of the cerato-
branchials of the second gill-arch. A process projects backwards from this plate, and in
some cases a small process projects forwards from the middle of its anterior border. In
other cases the anterior border of this plate presents astraight edge, as is shown in Plate
II. Fig. 3. In several preparations I found this plate consisting of two symmetrical pieces.
The third and fourth pairs of hypo-branchials (H3, H4), which have a slightly back-
ward direction, much resemble each other. ‘Their outer extremities are connected with
cerato-branchials and their inner with basi-branchial cartilages.
Basi-branchial cartilages (Pl. 1. Fig. 2, Pl. II. Figs. 2 and 3, B1-8).—These are a series
of cartilages differing from each other in shape and size, varying slightly in number, and
forming a broken line in the mid-ventral position. I found in most of the specimens of
Lemareus which I examined a larger number of these cartilages than have been described
in any other Hlasmobranch. Heptanchus has five of these, but Lemargus has a number
ranging from six to eight. The first basi-branchial (B1), when present, is a small nodule
of cartilage which lies in the interval between the basi-hyal cartilage (Bh) and the hypo-
branchial plate (H2) of the first gill arch. Cestracion, so far as I am aware, is the only
other Elasmobranch yet described which has a basi-branchial in this position. In two
cases in which this cartilage was absent in Lemargus, I noticed that the hypo-branchial
plate (12) of the first gill arch had a process projecting forwards from the centre of its
anterior border. This is interesting, as there may be a possibility that in these cases,
the first basi-branchial is fused with the hypo-branchial plate. In some cases, however,
I found that the first basi-branchial was altogether absent, and the hypo-branchial plate
presented a straight anterior edge. The second basi-branchial cartilage (B2) is placed
300 MR PHILIP J. WHITE ON THE
behind the hypo-branchial plate of the second gill arch, and is fastened to it in this posi- :
tion. The third basi-branchial (B3), which is followed by the fourth basi-branchial (B4),
lies immediately behind the second. The fourth is larger than the two which precede it. —
The second and third basi-branchials lie between the inner extremities of the third pair
of hypo-branchials, and the fourth basi-branchial assists in separating the inner ends of
the fourth pair. Behind the fourth basi-branchial, but separated from it by a short
interval, is the large expanded breast-plate-shaped basi-branchial cartilage (B5), which is
the fifth of the basi-branchial series. It is broad anteriorly, but becomes narrower as it
passes backwards. The fourth pair of hypo-branchials (H4) are, on the one hand, con-
nected with the fourth basi-branchial (B4), and on the other, with the anterior edge of
the fifth, and their inner ends, as they pass from one basi-branchial to the other, close
in a space which exists between them, ‘The cerato-branchials (Kr5) of the fifth gill —
arch are bound to the lateral edges of the fifth basi-branchial by connective tissue. The —
fifth basi-branchial is followed by three, it may be by two pieces of cartilage (B6, B7, B8),
which are the sixth, seventh, and eighth basi-branchials. Narrow cartilages placed
superficially are generally seen lying across the lines of contact of the fifth and sixth and
the sixth and seventh basi-branchials.
The Gill rays (Pl. Il. Figs. 2 and 4, Ry, Ry’, Ry”, Ry'”).—These are found in connec-
tion with all the branchial arches, and are for the most part elongated rods, but in some
places are represented by mere nodules of cartilage. In the four anterior branchial
arches the rays are connected with the epi-branchial and cerato-branchial segments, but —
most of the rays belong to the latter. The number of the rays in the various arches
is small as compared with that of some other Elasmobranchs. In Lemargus [
found eight rays to be the average number for either side of the first gill arch, and
five to be that for either side of the fourth. One of the rays at or near the middle
of each series is larger than the others, and may be known as the central ray (Ry). a
The gill rays of the fifth gill arch are much modified (Fig. 4). On the under surface
of each cerato-branchial (K75) of this arch there is an elongated piece of cartilage (Ry’) —
which is firmly bound to it, and at the outer end of this elongated cartilage I have —
found in several cases, but not all, small nodules of cartilage (Ry'”), which, as GEGENBAUR
has pointed out, occur in some other Elasmobranchs, and are to be regarded as modified
branchial rays.
Extra-branchial cartilages (P\. I. Figs. 1 and 2, Pl. IL. Fig. 2, Hv’, Hv’”).—From
their position GEGENBAUR calls these the outer gill arches. There are, counting those
belonging to the hyoid arch, five pairs on each side of the middle line, forming a dorsal
and ventral series. They belong to the hyoid arch and first four branchial arches. —
The extra-branchials are elongated rods of cartilage, expanded at their inner ends and
with their outer extremities pointed. Most of the gill rays are directed towards them
(Pl. II. Fig. 2), and each of the upper extra-branchials is generally touched by one or
more of them, but it is seldom that any ray reaches a lower extra-branchial. The outer —
end of each central branchial ray (Ry’) lies midway between the outer extremities ofa
e
SKULL AND VISCERAL SKELETON OF THE GREENLAND SHARK. 301
dorsal and a ventral extra-branchial. The extra-branchials le for the most part posterior
to the arches to which they belong.
The gill rakers.—These, for the most part, are pointed or blunt processes of cartilage,
lying chiefly on the inner surfaces of the cerato-branchials. Their bases rest on, and in
some cases are continuous in this position with the cartilage of the arch to which they
belong. Their free extremities project into the buccal cavity.
The Hyoid Arch (Pl. I. Figs. 1 and 2, Pl. II. Fig. 3).
This is a massive arch, and consists of a mesial and two lateral portions. Hach of
the lateral portions of the arch consists of the usual cartilaginous segments—an upper
or hyo-mandibular (Hm), and a lower or cerato-hyal (Kh). The hyo-mandibular cartilage
is short and broad, and when the parts are in apposition, stands out horizontally
from the skull. The inner extremity of the cartilage presents an oblique surface with
two heads (g,g’) which are separated from each other by a shallow groove. The
heads, of which the posterior is the larger, articulate with the two surfaces which
exist in the cranio-hyoid depression of the skull (Pl. I. Fig. 4, 7,7’). At the outer
extremity of the hyo-mandibular, a strong process, which may be called the suspensorial
process, projects forwards towards a similar process arising from the hinder part of the
lower jaw. The two processes are connected by a lgament, in which a cartilage
corresponding to an interarticular cartilage is imbedded. Some other sharks also possess
a cartilage in this position. There is a depression on the lower surface of the suspensorial
process, for articulating with the upper extremity of the cerato-hyal.
Cerato-hyal (Kh).—This is an elongated curved bar of cartilage, and has a direction
from without downwards, forwards, andinwards, A rounded prominence, which articulates
with the depression on the under surface of the suspensorial process of the hyo-mandib-
ular, rises from its upper extremity. The lower extremity of the cerato-hyal passes below
the outer part of the basi-hyal (Bh), and rests in a depression which is there situated.
Basi-hyal (Bh).—This is a block-like cartilage which lies between the lower ends of the
cerato-hyals. Its anterior border is convex and its posterior is concave ; its dorsal surface
is flattened, while its ventral presents a concavity. Postero-laterally, it is produced into
two cornua, to which the lower extremities of the cerato-branchial cartilages of the first
gill arch are bound by connective tissue. The first pair of hypo-branchials (H1) lie at
the hinder part of the cerato-basi-hyal joints, and they are also bound by connective
tissue to the cartilages forming these joints.
Hypo-hyal (Hh).—A nodule of cartilage is situated at the fore and upper part of
each cerato-basi-hyal joint.* The cartilage occupies a position similar to that which the
hypo-branchial (H1) of the first gill arch does in front of the first cerato-branchial
cartilage. It does not appear that these nodules have been noticed before in any other
shark. They are evidently hypo-hyal cartilages.
* These cartilages were absent in two of the sharks.
302 MR PHILIP J. WHITE ON THE
Hyoid gill rays.—These are either simple or branching rods of cartilage which project
backwards and outwards from the hinder parts of the hyo-mandibular and cerato-hyal
cartilages. As a rule, there are about eleven rays on each side, the majority of the rays
springing from the cerato-hyal. The ray on either side of the joint, formed by the hyo-
mandibular and cerato-hyal cartilages, is stouter than the others.
Extra-branchials.—There are two of these on each side, an upper and a lower, and
they form the first of the series of extra-branchial cartilages (Pl. I. Figs. 1 and 2, Hv, Fv’).
None of the hyoid gill rays touch the upper extra-branchials of this arch, but several are
in contact with each of the lower extra-branchials.
The Mandibular Arch.
This consists of the palato-pterygoid and mandibular cartilages which constitute the -
upper and lower jaws (PI. I. Figs. 1 and 2, Pl. Il. Fig. 1).
The Upper Jaw—tThis is formed by the two palato-pterygoid cartilages (Ppt), one
on each side of the middle line. The anterior extremities of these cartilages are bound
together by ligament, but they do not touch one another, while their posterior ends are
widely separated. Each cartilage has a direction from before backwards and outwards.
Immediately external to the maxillary symphysis there is a slight elevation of the carti-
lage, to the outer side of which lies the narrowest portion of the palato-quadrate, —
The elevation just noted is much more marked in Scymnus. Beyond its narrowest
portion the palato-pterygoid becomes suddenly wide, and continues so to its posterior
extremity. At the commencement of the wide portion a large somewhat conical process,
the palato-basal process (Pp), is placed on the upper part of the jaw. In the recent state
this process rests on the palato-basal depression (PI. I. Fig. 4, Pd) of the skull. At the
inner part of the base of the process there is a deep hollow, above which there is a con-
siderable projection. Each palato-basal process is surmounted by a nodule of cartilage (n).
The upper edge of the palato-pterygoid behind the palato-basal process becomes much
everted, and the upper part of the inner surface of the cartilage, especially towards its
hinder part, looks upwards and backwards. The outer surface of the palato-pterygoid
in its posterior two-thirds presents a concavity. At the posterior extremity of the cartilage
there is a faceted surface internally and an articular process externally, both of which
are for articulating with the lower jaw.
Teeth are found on the lower and inner part of the anterior two-thirds of the palato-
pterygoid cartilage. The younger teeth lie in a depression which is bounded above by a
ridge.
The Pre-spiracular Cartilages (Pl. I. Fig. 1, Ps)—These are two small flattened
cartilages which rest on the surfaces of the palato-pterygoid cartilages, which are directed
upwards and backwards. The cartilages are longer than they are broad, and have a direc-
tion upwards, forwards, and outwards.
The Lower Jaw.—The lower, like the upper, jaw consists of two cartilages, the man-
dibular cartilages (Mn), one on either side of the mesial plane, and are bound together in
SKULL AND VISCERAL SKELETON OF THE GREENLAND SHARK. 303
front, but widely separated behind. ‘The anterior ends of the cartilages are only in con-
tact with each other for a short distance, and below this point of contact an elliptical
piece of cartilage, the basi-mandibular (Pl. I. Fig. 2, Bm), lies between them. The
mandibular cartilages, which are wide at the symphysis, increase in width as they pass out-
wards and backwards. Internally, at the hinder part of each cartilage, a rounded process
projects backwards and inwards. In the recent state, a ligament, in which an interarti-
cular cartilage lies imbedded, connects this with the suspensorial process of the cerato-
hyal cartilage. On the upper surface of the rounded process just described there is an
articular process which abuts against a similar surface on the upper jaw. External to
the process there is a concavity on which the articular process at the posterior end of
the palato-pterygoid rests.
Teeth are found along the upper edge and inner surface of each mandibular cartilage
in its anterior two-thirds. A narrow shelf of cartilage les along the lower part of the
dentigerous surface, and above this shelf the youngest teeth are situated.
Labial Cartilages (Pl. I. Fig. 2, Pl. I. Fig. 1, L L’ L”).—These stand in relation to
the upper and lower jaws. There are three cartilages on each side, and of the three, two
(L L’) stand in relation to a palato-pterygoid cartilage, while the third (L”) lies in relation
to a mandibular cartilage. The two upper cartilages lie across the palato-quadrate cartilage
about the middle of its extent. One of them (L’) is an elongated, curved, cylindrical rod,
which has a direction from above downwards and backwards, and its lower extremity is
connected with a similar rod of cartilage (L’”) which is connected with the mandibular
cartilage. The other upper labial cartilage (L), which is flattened, is shorter than the
one just described, and lies across its upper extremity, and is superficial to it. The labial
(L”) of the lower mandibular cartilage resembles the rod-like cartilage of the palato-
pterygoid. It has a direction from below upwards and backwards. Its upper extremity
is bound to the upper rod-like cartilage by connective tissue, and the two meet each other
at the angle of the mouth.
The Cartilage of the Skull and Visceral Skeleton.
The cartilage of which these are composed is soft as in Hexanchus, and yields readily
to the scalpel. Only in a few parts does it show any indication of becoming calcified.
Points of Special Interest.
The points which I consider of special interest in the skull and visceral skeleton are
the following :—(1) the cranio-vertebral connection ; (2) the presence of an hypophysis
canal; (3) the presence of a basi-mandibular cartilage; (4) the presence of a hypo-hyal
cartilage at the fore and upper part of each cerato-basi-hyal joint; (5) the large
number of basi-branchial cartilages, Lemargus possessing more of these than are found
in any other Elasmobranch yet described; (6) the soft nature of the cartilage of the
cranium and visceral skeleton.
VOL, XXXVII.. PART II. (NO. 15). am
304 MR PHILIP J. WHITE ON THE
LITERATURE CONSULTED.
Dr Cart Grcensaur. Untersuchungen zur Vergleichenden Anatomie der Wirbelthiere. Das Kopfskelet der
Selachier, als Grundlage zur Beurtheilung der Genese des Kopfskeletes der Wirbelthiere, 1872. =
Dr H. G. Bronn’s Klassen und Ordnungen des Thier-reichs. ‘ Der Schadel.”—* Das Visceralskelet.” 1876,
W. K. Parker, F.R.S. On the Structure and Development of the Skull in Sharks and Skates, Transactions
of the Zoological Society of London, 1879.
T. Jerrery Parker. <A Course of Instruction in Zootomy. ‘The Skate.” 1884,
MarsHatt and Hurst, Practical Zoology. ‘The Dog-fish.” 1888,
INDEX TO PLATES.
Prats I. ~
Fig. 1. Dorsal view of the skull and visceral skeleton.
Fig. 2. Ventral view of the skull and visceral skeleton.
Fig. 3. Ventral view of the skull.
Fig. 4. Side view of the skull.
Fig. 5. Vertical longitudinal section of the skull in the mesial plane. A
Puate II.
Fig. 1. Upper and lower jaws.
1
Fig. 2. Portion of the third branchial arch.
Fig. 3. Hyoid and branchial arches laid out.
Fig. 4. Cerato-branchial of the fifth branchial arch and rudimentary gill rays.
Fig. 5. Eye-stalk.
Fig. 6. Cartilaginous sclerotic.
Nors.—All the figures, with the exception of Figs. 4, 5, and 6, Pl. II., which are natural size, are one-
third of the natural size.
Figs. 5 and 6, Pl. II., are from a shark twelve feet long, and all the other figures are taken from specimens
from six to seven feet in length.
A. Basal angle. pas ; ; rs eek
Af. Foramen common to facial and auditory nerves.
An. Antorbital process.
Ap. Auditory process,
B1-8. Basi-branchial cartilages,
b. Strap of cartilage covering ethmoidal canal.
By3, Bg4. Grooves on third and fourth pharyngo-branchial cartilages.
Bh. Basi-hyal cartilage.
Bm. Basi-mandibular cartilage.
Bp. Basilar plate.
C. Notochord.
Ca. Inner opening of carotid canal.
Ca’. Outer opening of carotid canal.
Cy. Carotid groove.
Co. Occipital crest.
SKULL AND VISCERAL SKELETON OF THE GREENLAND SHARK.
. Cartilaginous partition (incomplete) between cranial cavity and pre-frontal fossa.
. Dorsum sellz.
. Eye-stalk.
. Epi-branchial cartilages.
e. Cut extremity of eye-stalk on skull.
em.
’
em.
Ev, Ev’, Ev’, Ev”.
Ethmoidal foramen (upper).
Ethmoidal foramen (lower).
Extra-branchial cartilages.
. Prominence at hinder part of sclerotic for articulating with cup of eye-stalk.
. Heads of hyo-mandibular cartilage.
. Glosso-pharyngeal foramen (inner).
. Glosso-pharyngeal foramen (outer).
. Hypo-branchial cartilages.
+. Hypophysis canal.
. Hypo-hyal cartilage.
. Hyomandibular cartilage.
. Inner opening of inter-orbital canal.
. Outer opening of inter-orbital canal.
. Point of articulation of upper and lower jaws.
. Cranio-hyoid depression.
Keel at lower part of internasal septum.
. Cerato-hyal cartilage.
Krl-5.
ee.
. Anterior limit of pituitary fossa.
. Proximal (cut) extremity of eye-stalk.
. Distal extremity of eye-stalk.
. Lower jaw.
. Nasal capsule.
Cerato-branchial cartilages.
Labial cartilages.
. Nodule of cartilage surmounting palato-basal process.
. Nasal-ring cartilage.
Nasal fossa.
. Optic foramen (inner).
. Optic foramen (outer).
. Optic foramen in sclerotic.
. Oculi-motor foramen (inner).
. Oculi-motor foramen (outer).
. Posterior opening of orbito-nasal canal.
. Anterior opening of orbito-nasal canal.
Orifice of canal in front of orbito-nasal canal.
. Occipital process.
. Parietal fossa.
. Cartilaginous process underlying nasal fossa.
. Patheticus foramen (inner).
. Patheticus foramen (outer).
. Pharyngo-branchial cartilages.
. Palato-basal depression.
. Pre-frontal fossa.
. Post-orbital groove.
. Foramen of exit for palatine branch of facial nerve.
. Parietal eminence.
. Post-orbital process.
. Palato-basal process.
305
306
Sr.
er.
. Foramen (outer) for trigeminal and abducens nerves and part of facial complex.
. Vertebral column.
. Arch of first vertebra.
. Centrum of first vertebra.
. Pneumogastric foramen (inner).
. Pneumogastric foramen (outer).
. Lateral expansion of centrum of first vertebra.
. Strap of cartilage covering facial canal.
. Foramen for hyoid artery.
. Foramen for blood-vessel.
MR PHILIP J. WHITE ON THE GREENLAND SHARK.
. Palato-pterygoid cartilage.
‘. Pre-orbital process.
. Pre-orbital foramen (upper).
“. Pre-orbital foramen (lower).
. Pre-spiracular cartilage.
. Rostrum.
Ry, Ry’, Ry”, Ry”.
$1, $2, 83.
Branchial rays.
Foramina for 1st, 2nd, and 3rd spinal nerves.
Supra-orbital foramina.
Foramen (inner) for trigeminal and abducens nerves and part of facial eons
Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin? Vol. XXXVIL
M’ P J.WHITE ON THE GREENLAND SHARK ——Prarce |.
M‘Farlane & Erskine, Lith®® Edin®
i Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin? Vol. XXXVII.
M? P. J. WHITE ON THE GREENLAND SHARK ——Prare Il.
it),
M‘Farlane & Erskine, Lith"® Edin?
307
XVI.—On the Fossil Plants of the Kilmarnock, Galston, and Kilwinning Coal Fields,
Ayrshire. By Rosert Kinston, F.R.S.E., F.G.S. (Plates I-IV.)
(Read 1st June 1891.)
INTRODUCTION.
The tract of land embraced in the area from which the fossils have been derived, that
form the subject of the present Memoir, extends in an easterly direction from Saltcoats
to Newmilns, a distance of about 19 miles. At both extremities, the Coal Measures
narrow down to under half a mile wide at Saltcoats, and about a mile broad at New-
milns. The greatest width is found towards the centre of the field, where in a north-
east and south-west direction it is over 12 miles broad.
The whole of the Coal Measures occurring in Ayrshire are referable to the Lower
Coal Measures. The Lower Coal Measures contain, however, two well-marked groups :—
I. An Upper Series of red and purple sandstones and clays, barren of coals,
II. A Lower Series consisting of grey, white, and yellow sandstones, dark shales,
fireclays, coal seams and ironstones.
These two series of the Lower Coal Measures of Scotland are almost invariably
referred to by local geologists as the Upper and Lower Coal Measures, The terms
so used are not only misleading, but are inaccurate when applied to the Coal Measures
as developed in Britain. If we regard the British Coal Measures as a whole, and
in no other way can they be considered, if any satisfactory classification is to be
adopted, then the whole of the Scotch Coal Measures must be termed Lower Coal
Measures.*
The Upper, Middle, and Lower Coal Measures are well developed in different parts
of England, and as typical localities where these may be seen, the following may be
mentioned :—
Upper Coal Measures,—Radstock Coal Field, Somerset.
Middle Coal Measures.—South Staffordshire Coal Field (Dudley), and part of the
Yorkshire Coal Field.
Lower Coal Measures.—Part of the Yorkshire and Northumberland Coal Fields.
In the Coal Field of the Potteries, North Staffordshire, the three divisions of the
Coal Measures are present.
One cannot insist too strongly on the absolute necessity of using definite and the
* Perhaps certain beds in Fife may form an exception to this general statement, but that district requires further
investigation,
VOL, XXXVII. PART II. (NO. 16). DY:
308 MR ROBERT KIDSTON ON THE FOSSIL PLANTS OF THE
same terms, for the same rocks, whether occurring in England or Scotland; and the —
loose manner in which the terms Upper and Lower Coal Measures are used by some
geologists has led to needless confusion in the correlation of the British Coal Measures,
On the other hand, it is most desirable that the two series. of the Lower Coal Measures _
should be clearly distinguished, but this is easily done by adopting the terms Upper
and Lower Series to the two groups composing our Lower Coal Measures, and I hope —
that local geologists will adopt these or similar terms, and entirely give up the misleading
designations of Upper and Lower Coal Measures when speaking of the two series of the
Scotch Lower Coal Measures.
All the species recorded in this paper (with the exception of Sikjmmad stellata) are
from the Lower Series of the Lower Coal Measures.
There are two chief centres of mining operations in this portion of the Ayrshire Coal
Measures, generally known as the Kilmarnock and Galston and the Kilwinning Coal Fields
These two districts form part of the same coal field, and many of the seams are common
to both areas, though frequently going under different names, the names having been
given before the seams were correlated.
As usually found in all coal fields, and even in those of limited extent, certain seams
workable at one point split up and become too thin to work, or entirely die out, in another
part of the same coal field, and such cases are seen here.
I give five vertical sections from different parts of the coal field, which show the —
position of the principal coal seams, and from which can also be learnt the general
structure of the district, and the principal names that have been applied to the various
coal seams (see Table). a
The section of No. 1 pit, Windyedge, Kilmarnock, has been given me by Mr Hoom: 7
S. Dunn, jr., Kilmarnock.
The general section of the Kilwinning Coal Field has been prepared by Mr J. Sua
Kilwinning.
The Annandale Colliery section has been communicated by Mr J. Rorrison, Springhill.
The section of strata in No. 6 pit, Bonnyton Colliery, near Kilmarnock, was procneal
for me by Mr A. Sincrair, Riccarton. a
The section of No. 1 pit, Grange, was kindly supplied to me by Mr Yartzs, andi in
the letter from Mr Gro. H. GeppEs which accompanied it, it is stated that no regula
journal was kept during the sinking of the pit, which explains the term used, “ niall
strata.”
The great thickness of boulder clay and of sand and gravel are a peculiar feature in
this pit, as well as the red sandstone above the coals. Mr Geppxs further states, that
he is not sure that it is correct to say that the whole of the 300 feet of red sandstone
and faikes, lying between the sand and gravel, is one bed of sandstone with faikes in the
lower part of it; but in any case, the sandstone bed is of great thickness. oe
The sand Mi gravel and this red sandstone were the cause of much expense in sinking
through them on account of the water they gave off. =)
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KILMARNOCK, GALSTON, AND KILWINNING COAL FIELDS, AYRSHIRE. 309
In looking over the horizons from which the fossils contained in the following list
have been collected, one cannot fail to be struck with the absence of all records of fossil
plants from some of the coal seams. The explanation is, that the shales overlying some
of the coals are very barren, and though I have no doubt that more careful observations
would have revealed some plant remains, still fossils are, in the cases referred to, very rare,
and when they do occur, are probably so imperfect and fragmentary that specimens have
not been collected. Mr Smrrn informed me that the only specimen of fossil plant that
he ever saw from the turf coal at Kilwinning, was the single example of Sigillaria
Wadlchu, Sauveur, which forms our only record for the species.
The Whistler Seam, Kilmarnock, appears to be the most fossiliferous, and from it have
been collected the greater portion of the species known to occur in the district. Future
investigations may show that some of the species are more common than we at present
suspect, and I hope that no opportunity will be lost in increasing our knowledge of the
fossil flora of this coal field.
The Kilmarnock and Kilwinning Coal Fields afford many fine sections for studying
the strata. The sandstone quarries of Stevenston, Dean Quarry, near Kilmarnock, and
Woodhill Quarry, Kilmaurs, gave interesting sections, where, in addition to good exposures
of the bedded sandstones, one or more coal seams were seen. The two former are not
worked at present, and being partially filled with water, some of their interest is lost ;
but that at Woodhill, Kilmaurs, which is still worked, exhibits the following section :—-
Boulder clay (not shown in woodeut)—
a. Grey sandy shale with nodules of impure clay ironstone. (This is
the bed which has yielded many good fossil remains), ; 5 feet.
b. White sandstone, ; : ; ! , 15. or 16 feet.
ce. Soft grey shale, : ! : ! : 3 feet.
d. Durroch coal, ; 3 : ; : : 2 feet.
e. Dark shale with Stagmaria and spores,* ’ 2 inches.
Curious balls of coal occur in some of the seams. They vary in size from very small
to larger than a man’s head. In composition they do not differ
from the rest of the seam, and the ordinary bedding of the
coal passes through them. It is difficult to explain how they
have been formed. Mr Surru, who has sent me a small specimen
from the lower part of the Parrot Coal of Kilwinning, is of
Opinion, that in that case at all events, it is the result of heat,
and this may possibly be the explanation. I have also speci-
mens from the Tourha’ Coal, Bonnyton Pit, Kilmarnock. The
site Secti d at Woodhill
coal forming the balls at Bonnyton Pit is equal in quality to the ian hoes irae
test of the seam. As the result of burning, some of the coal at Muirkirk has assumed
a columnar structure.
*T am indebted to Mr A. Sinclair for this section.
310 MR ROBERT KIDSTON ON THE FOSSIL PLANTS OF THE
The material on which the present communication is founded, is the result of fully
ten years collecting on the part of many local geologists, who have given special atten-
tion to the subject, and to these gentlemen I take this opportunity of offering them my
best thanks for all the assistance they have so willingly and kindly given me, whilst
working up the Fossil Flora of the district, and I specially wish to mention Mr J. Smrra,
Kilwinning ; Mr J. Rorrison, Springhill; Mr D. Beverpice, Annandale Colliery, near
Kilmarnock; Mr A. Srnczarr, Riccarton; Messrs J. Stevenson, T. Steer, J. GIncurist,
W. Hitiuovse, and J. M‘Mrrren, Kilmarnock; and Mr R. Linton, Kilmaurs; but
above all am I indebted to the Rev. D. LanpsBoroveu, Kilmarnock, who has taken
the deepest interest in the matter, and kept up a constant communication amongst the
workers on my behalf.*
I have given a full list of references, and the synonymy of the species included in the -
following pages. } :
SYNOPSIS OF SPECIES.
(From the Lower Srrizs of the Lower Coat MzasuREs.)
Calamariez.
Calamites, Suckow.
Group l—Calamitina, Weiss.
Calamitina varians, Sternb., var. insignis, Weiss.
Calamites (Calamitina) varians, var. insignis, Weiss, Steinkohlen Calamarien, part ii. pp. 62, 63, pl. i,
and pl. xxviii. fig. 1.
Calamites varians, Germar, Vers. von Wettin u. Lobejun, Heft iv. p. 47, pl. xx.
Calamites varians, Schenk., Richthofen’s China, vol. iv. p. 234, pl. xxxv. fig. 5 (? pl. xxxiv. fig. 1), 1883,
Remarks.—A single specimen of this plant has been collected, and, though it only
shows a small portion of a stem, I have no hesitation in referring it to Weiss’ Calamitina
varians, Var. insignis.
Locality.—W oodhill Quarry, Kilmaurs.
Horizon.—Shale over Sandstone.t
Calamitina Gépperti, Ett., sp.
Calamites Gopperti, Ett., Steinkf. v. Radnitz, p. 27, pl. i. figs. 3, 4.
Calamitina Gopperti, Weiss, Steinkohlen Calamarien, part i. p. 127, pl. xvii. figs. 1, 2.
Calamitina (Calamites) Gopperti, Kidston, Trans. York. Nat. Union, part xiv. p. 16, 1890.
Calamophyllites Goepperti, Zeiller, Flore foss. d. bassin houil. d. Valenciennes, p. 363, pl. Iviii. fig. 1.
Calamites (Calamitina) varians abbreviatus, Weiss, Steinkohlen Calamarien, part ii. pp. 62 and 73, ph
xvia. figs. 10, 11.
* Publications of the Geological Survey of Scotland relating to the Galston, Kilmarnock, and Kilwinning Coal
Fields :—Geological Map, sheet 22. Memoirs, Ayrshire (north part), with parts of Renfrewshire and Lanarkshire,
Explanation of sheet 22, 1872. Horizontal Sections, sheet 5. Vertical Sections, sheet 3. ;
+ This is about 18 feet above the Durroch Coal.
KILMARNOCK, GALSTON, AND KILWINNING COAL FIELDS, AYRSHIRE. 311]
Calamites (Calamitina) varians inconstans, Weiss, ibid., vol. ii. pp. 62 and 69, pl. xvia. figs. 7, 8; pl. xxv. fig. 2.
Calamites (Calamitina) varians inconstans, Kidston, Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin., vol. xxxv. part ii. p. 398,
pl. i. fig. 1.
(!) Calamites verticillatus, Williamson (not L. and H.), Phil. Trans., 1874, p. 66, pl. vil. fig. 45.
| Cyclocladia major, Feistmantel (in part), Vers. d. bohm. Ablager, part i. p. 96, pl. i. fig. 8.
Locality.—No. 3 Pit, Springhill, Crosshouse, near Kilmarnock.
Horizon.—Shale over Major Coal.
(Plate IV. fig. 18.)
Calamites verticillatus, L. and H., Fossil Flora, vol. 1. p. 159, pl. exxxix.
Calamitina verticillata, Kidston, Trans. York. Nat. Union, part xiv., 1890, p. 17.
Calamophyllites verticillatus, Zeiller, Flore foss. d. bassin houil. d. Valenciennes, p. 360, pl. lvii. fig. 2.
Description.—Branch scars periodic, oblong-quadrate, approximate laterally, cicatrice
of scar slightly below the middle, outer surface of bark feebly ribbed ; the ribs almost
flat, with a very slight dividing furrow ; leaf-scars rounded-quadrate, catenulate.
Remarks.—This species, described by LinpLEyY and Hurron from Hound Hill, near
Pontefract, Yorkshire (Middle Coal Measures), is very rare in Britain, the example figured
being the only specimen I have yet seen. The branch-scars are oblong-quadrate, and
from the point of attachment of the appendicular organ there extend a few radiating
ridges. Although I use the term “ branch-scars” to these discs, it is quite possible that
they bore cones; but on this point there is no data. The flat ribs do not alternate
regularly. At the nodes many of them continue straight on, to the opposite side of the
leaf-scar, and they are seen to continue over the large discs where the pressure of the
base of the attached organ has not been sufficient to obliterate them. The bark is still
preserved on the specimen. The discs are formed by the pressure of the base of the
appendicular branch or organ on the back, which was attached to the almost central cicatrice.
ZEILLER notes this species from Anzin in the north of France.
Ido not think that the plant figured by ErrinesHausen as Calamites verticillatus
ean possibly be referred to this species.*
The Kilmarnock specimen was communicated to me by Mr Rorrison.
Locality.—No. 3 Pit, Springhill, Crosshouse.
Horizon.—Shale over Major Coal.
Calamitina verticillata, L. and H., sp.
Calamitina approximata, Brongt., sp. (i part).
(Plate II. figs. 5, 6.)
Calamites approximatus, Brongt. (in part), Hist. d. végét. foss., p. 133, pl. xxiv. figs. 2, 3 (? figs. 4, 5).
Calamites approximatus, Geinitz (in part), Vers. d. Steinkf. in Sachsen, p. 7, pl. xi. fig. 5; pl. xii. fig. 3.
Calanuitina approximata, Weiss, Steinkohlen Calamarien, part ii. p. 81, pl. xxv. fig 1.
* Haidinger’s Naturwissensch., vol. iv. Abth, i., 1851, p. 68, pl. viii. fig. 1.
312 MR ROBERT KIDSTON ON THE FOSSIL PLANTS OF THE
Description.—Internodes very short, arched; large scars periodic, distant; ribs
prominent, with deep dividing furrows, generally continuous, much more rarely alter-
nating at the nodes, and running together at the branch-scars. Envelope surrounding
pit cavity of considerable thickness.
Remarks.—Under this name have frequently been figured plants belonging to more
than one species. Bronenrart himself seems to have included two species under it.
His figures 7, 8, pl. xv., and fig. 1, pl. xxiv., appear to be specifically distinct from the
plants figured on pl. xxiv. figs. 2,3. These latter I regard as the true Calamites
approwimata, and the former are probably to be referred to the Calamites Schiitzei,
Stur.* The Calamites approximatus, L. and H.,t is to be referred to Calamites
cruciatus, var. senarius, Weiss,f and their Calamites approximatus, vol. i. pl. lxxvii.,
probably to C. Schiitzer, Stur. To this last species should, perhaps, also be referred the
Calamites approximatus, Artis.§
Very little is known about the true characters of this species, the only specimens yet
discovered being merely casts of the pith cavity, from which the above imperfect deserip-
tion is drawn up. Of the two specimens figured, that on Plate II. fig. 5, at the point —
marked with the a, indicates the position of one of the verticils of branch-scars; below
it are fifteen internodes without any trace of another verticil of branch-scars. In the
fine specimen figured by Weiss (loc. cit.) the internodes between the verticils of large scars
are seven to eight. On the other specimen, figured on Plate II. fig. 6, there are nineteen
very short internodes, on none of which are any traces of branch-scars. On fig. 5,
between the line indicated at b, is a carbonaceous staining on the stone, which indicates
the thickness of the vascular elements, or of both vascular tissues and bark, the
distinction of the parts not being possible in the present condition of the fossil. The
fossil shows, however, that the pith cavity, represented by its cast (which has often
erroneously been supposed to represent the complete stem), was surrounded by a thick
envelope. The two specimens of Calamitina approximata which I figure, and which
are two of only a small number of specimens seen from Ayrshire, show, as has
already been observed in the case of Calamitina verticillata, that, as a rule, the ribs ;
do not alternate at the nodes. This is also seen on the figure given by Weiss, to —
which I have already referred. In this character they show some approach to the
genus Asterocalamites. I do not give any measurements in the descriptions, as
the specimens are photographed natural size, and in minor details measurements
vary on different specimens, though the characters given in the description seem to
be constant.
The two specimens figured have been communicated to me by the Rev. D.
LANDSBOROUGH.
* Sitzungsb. der k. Akad. der Wiss., 1 Abth. vol. lxxxiii., 1881, p. 416, pl. i. fig. 1.
+ Fossil Flora, vol. ii. pl. eexvi.
{ See Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin., vol. xxxiii. p. 340, fig. 1.
§ Antediluvian Phytology, pl. iv:
Localty.— Woodhill Quarry, Kilmaurs.
KILMARNOCK, GALSTON, AND KILWINNING COAL FIELDS, AYRSHIRE. 313
»
Horizon.—Shale over Sandstone.
Locality.—Stevenston.
Horizon.—Roof of ‘* £ Coal.”
Group IlL—EHucalamites, Weiss.
Calamites ramosus, Artis.
Calamites ramosus, Artis, Antedil. Phyt., pl. ii.
Calamites ramosus, Brongt., Hist. d. végét. foss., p. 127, pl. xvii. figs. 5, 6.
Calamites ramosus, Weiss, Aus. d. Steinkohl., p. 10, pl. viii. fig. 44, 1882.
Calamites ramosus, Kidston, Trans. Geol. Soc. Glasgow, vol. viii. p. 51, pl. iii. fig. 1.
Calamites ramosus, Stur (in part), Calamarien d. Carb. Flora d. Schatz. Schichten, p. 96, pl. xii. figs.
1-4 (not 5, 6); pl. xiid. figs. 1-4 (5%), 6; pl. xiii. figs. 1-9; pl. xiv. figs. 3-5. Text figures—
1, p. 4; 2 (2), p. 8; 31, p. 104; 32, p. 105.
Calamites (Eucalamites) ramosus, Weiss, Steinkohlen Calamarien, part ii. p. 98, pl. ii. fig. 3; pl. v. figs.
leche pl Wiel wi. figs 1, Ze pl. yi tes 1 2 £2 pl ix. fies, I, 25 pl. x. fig, [5 pl. xx.
figs. 1,2. (Includes Annularia ramosa and Calamostachys ramosa.)
Calamites ramosus, Sauveur, Végét. foss. d. terr, houil. Belgique, pl. ix. figs. 2, 3.
Calamites ramosus, Zeiller, Flore foss. d. bassin howil. d. Valen., p. 345, pl. lv. fig. 3; pl. lvi. fig. 3.
Calamites nodosus, L. and H. (in part ; not Schlotheim), vol. i. pl. xv. (pars).
Calamites nodosus, Sternb. (not Schlotheim), Ess. fl. monde prim., i. fasc. 2, pp. 30 and 36, pl. xvii. fig. 2 ;
fase. 4, p. XXVil.
Calamites carinatus, Sternb., zbid., 1. fasc. 3, pp. 40 and 44, pl. xxxii. fig. 1; fase. 4, p. xxvii.
Calamites communis, Ett. (in part), Steinkf. v. Radnitz, p. 24, pl. iii. fig. 2; pl. iv. fig. 4.
Foliage :—
Asterophyllites radiatus, Brongt., Class. d. végét. foss., p. 35, pl. vi. figs. Ta, 70.
Annularia radiata, Brongt., Prod., p. 156.
Annularia radiata, Feistmantel, Vers. d. bohm. Kohlenab., p. 130, pl. xvii. figs. 2-4.
Annularia radiata, Renault, Cours d. botan. foss., vol. ii. p. 133, pl. xx. fig. 4, 1882.
Annularia radiata, Roehl, Foss. Flora d. Steink. Form. Westph., p. 28, pl. iv. fig. 3 (24).
Annularia radiata, Sauveur, Végét. foss. d. terr. houil. Belgique., pl. lxvii. tig. 2.
Annularia radiata, Zeiller., Végét. foss. du terr. houil., p. 24, pl. elx. fig. 1.
Annuluria radiata, Zeiller., Flore foss. d. bassin houil. d. Valen., p. 394, pl. lix. fig. 8; pl. Ixi. figs. 1, 2.
Asterophyllites foliosa, Feistmantel, Vers. d. bohm. Kohlenab., p. 121 (2 pl. xiv. figs. 2, 3, 4).
Asterophyllites foliosa, Geinitz (in part), Vers. d. Steinkf. in Sachsen, p. 10, pl. xvi. figs. 2, 3 (not figs. 1
and 4).
Asterophyllites foliosa, L. and H., Fossil Flora, vol. i. pl. xxv.
Annularia minuta, Ettingshausen, Haidinger’s Naturwiss. Abhandl., vol. iv. Abth. i. p. 83, pl. x. figs. 1, 2.
Annularia asterophylloides, Sauveur, Végét. foss. d. terr. houil. de la Belgique, pl. \xvii. fig. 1.
Asterophyllites patens, Sauveur, ibid., pl. lxix. fig. 4.
Annularia patens, Kidston, Trans. Geol. Soc. Glasgow, vol. viii. p. 53, pl. iii. fig. 2.
Remarks.—Calamites ramosus is a common coal-measure fossil, occurring in the
Upper, Middle, and Lower Coal Measures, though most plentifully in the two last
divisions.
314 MR ROBERT KIDSTON ON THE FOSSIL PLANTS OF THE
The right-hand branch on LinpiEy and Hurroy’s plate xv., as well as their plate |
xvi., does not belong to Calamites ramosus, Artis (=Calamites nodosus, L, and H.).
These figures, which have so long done duty as the foliage of this Calamite, have been
found on more careful examination to be spikes of cones, whose position in regard to the
stem on plate xv. is merely accidental. This supposed foliage of Calamites ramosus is
really a spike of cones referable to the genus Palwostachya, whereas the cones of Cala-
mites ramosus, which have been described by Weiss (Joc. cit.), belong to the Calamostachys
type of cone.
Locality.—No. 8, Springhill Pit, Crosshouse.
Horizon.—Shale above Major Coal.
Localities—Bed of Irvine Water, near Kilmarnock, and Bonnyton Pit, Kilmarnock.
Horizon.—Shale above Whistler Coal.
Locality. — Woodhill Quarry, Kilmaurs,
Horizon,—Shale over Sandstone.
Locality.—No. 3 Pit, Springhill, near Dreghorn.
Horizon.—Near “ Lin Bed.”
Locality.—Galston.
Horizon.—(?)
Group IIL—Stylocalamites, Weiss.
Calamites Suckowii, Bronet.
Calamites Suckowit, Brongt., Hist. d. végét. foss., p. 124 (pl. xiv. fig. 62), pl. xv. figs. 1-6; pl. xvi. (fig. 1%)
figs. 2, 3, 4.
Calamites Suckowit, Weiss, Foss. Flora d. jiingst. Stk. u. Roth., p. 117, pl. xiii. fig. 5. ;
Calamites Suckowtt, Weiss, Steinkohlen Calamarien, part i. p. 123, pl. xix. fig. 1, ere part ii, p, 129,
pl. ii. fig. 1; pl. iii. figs. 2, 3; pl. iv. fig. 1; pl. xxvii. fig. 3, 1884. >
Calamites Suckowit, eistinantel (in par); Vers. d. bohm. Kohlenab., Abth. i. p. 102, pl. ii. figs. 3, 45 pl.
ili. figs. 1, 2; pl. iv. figs. 1,2; pl. v.; pl. vi. fig. 1. (Hacl. as fruit H. carinata.)
Calamites Suckowit, Roehl, Foss. Flora a. Stetnts -Furm. Westph., p. 9, pl. i. fig. 6; pl. ii. fig. 2.
Calamites Suckowit, Zeiller, Végét. foss. d. terr. houil., p. 12, pl. clix. fig. 1.
cia aes Zeiller, Flore foss. d. bassin. houil. d. Valen., p. 333, pl. liv. figs. 2, 3; pl. lv.
(alle
Calamites Suckowit, Geinitz, Vers. d. Steinkf. in Sachsen, p. 6, pl. xiii. figs. 1, 3, 5, 6 (42).
Calamites Suckowti, Gutbier, Vers. d. Zwick. Schwarzkohl, p. 17, pl. ii. fig. 1 (mot fig. 2).
Calamites Suckowii, Sauveur, Végét. foss. d. terr. houil. Belgique, pl. iii., pl. iv. figs. 1, 2; pl. xi. fig. 3.
Calamites Suckowti, Grand’ Eury, Flore Carbon. d. Départ. de la Loire, p. 14, pl. i. figs. 18 6. Pi:
Calamites Suckowii, Stur (in part), Calamarien d. Carbon. Flora d. Schatz. Schicht., p. 145, pl. iii. figs.
3,4; pl. v. figs. 5, 6 (not pls. i. fig. 3, ix. fig. 2, xiv. fig. 1).
Calamites decoratus, Artis, Antedil. Phyt., pl. xxiv.
Calamites decoratus, Brongt. (in part), Hist. d. végét. foss., p. 123, pl. xiv. figs. 1, 2 (not figs. 3, 4).
Calamites Steinhaueri, Brongt., ibid., p. 135, pl. xviii. fig. 4.
Phytolithus sulcatus, Steinhauer, Trans. Amer, Phil. Soc., 1818, p. 277, pl. v. figs. 1, 2.
Calamites Artisti, Sauveur, Végét. foss, d. terr. houil. Belgique, pl. vii. figs. 1, 2. —
KILMARNOCK, GALSTON, AND KILWINNING COAL FIELDS, AYRSHIRE. 315
- Calamites nodosus, Sauveur (not Schloth.), zbid., pl. xii. fig. 3.
Calamites—Base of a stem, L. and H., Fossil Flora, vol. ii. pl. xevi.
Calamites approximatus, Feistmantel (not Brongt.), Vers. d. bohm. Kohlenab., Abth. i. pl. vii. fig. 1.
Calamites canneformis, Lebour (not Schloth.), pl. i.
Calamites canneformis, L. and H. (not Schloth.), vol. i. pl. Ixxix.
Calamites irregularis, Achepohl, Niederrhein. Westfal. Steinkohlen, p. 89, pl. xxviii. fig. 2.
Remarks.—A very common and widely distributed species, which. occurs in all the
divisions of the Coal Measures.
I believe that Calamites Steinhaueri, Brongt. (=Phytolithus sulcatus, Steinhauer),
is only founded on a large basal portion of Calamites Suckowuw. Except in size, there is
nothing to distinguish it.
Locality.—No. 3 Pit, Springhill, Crosshouse.
Horizon. —Shale over Major Coal.
Localities.—Bonnyton Pit, Kilmarnock, and Dean, Kilmarnock Water.
Horizon.—Shale above Whistler Coal.
Locality. No. 10 Pit, Annandale Colliery, Kilmarnock.
Horizon.—Roof of Splint Coal.
Locality.—W oodhill Quarry, Kilmaurs.
Horizon.—Shale over Sandstone.
Locality.—Hurlford, near Kilmarnock.
Horizon.— ?
Locality.— Windyedge, near Crosshouse.
Horizon.—Shale near Annandale Main Coal.
Calamites undulatus, Sternb.
Calanutes undulatus, Sternb., Ess. fl. monde prim., i. fase. 4, p. xxvi.; ii. fase. 5, 6, p. 47, pl. i. fig. 2
(pl. xx. fig. 8).
Calamites undulatus, Brongt., Hist. d. végét. foss., p. 127, pl. xvii. figs. 1-4.
Calamites undulatus, Zeiller, Flore foss. d. bassin houil. d. Valenciennes, p. 338, pl. liv. figs. 1, 4.
Calamites undulatus, Sauveur, Végét. foss. d. terr. houil. de la Belgique, pl. v. figs. 1-3; pl. viii. fig. 1.
Calamites undulatus, Seward, G'eol. Mag., Dec. iii. vol. v. p. 289, pl. ix. 1888.
Calamites undulatus, Kidston, Trans. York. Nat. Union, part xiv. p. 21, 1889.
Calamites undulatus, Dawson, Fossil Plants Low. Carb. and Millstone Grit Form. Canada, p. 30, pl. viii.
figs. 66-68 (? figs. 69-73).
Calamites (Stylocalamites) Suckowit, var. undulatus, Weiss, Steinkohlen Calamarien, part ii. pp. 129, 134,
135, pl. xvii. fig. 4.
Calamites decoratus, Brongt., Class. d. végét. foss., pp. 17, 89, pl. i. fig. 1.
Calamites decoratus, Brongt. (in part), Hist. d. végét. foss., p. 123, pl. xiv. figs. 3, 4 (not figs. 1, 2),
Calamites canneformis, Roehl (not Schlotheim), Floss. Fora d. Steink.-Form. Westphiilens, p. 12, pl. ii.
fig. 3,
Calamites incequus, Achepohl, Neiderrhein. Westfil. Steinkohl., p. 114, pl. xxxiv. fig. 15, 1883.
Calamites duplex, Achepohl, ibid., p. 135, pl. xli. fig. 11.
VOL, XXXVII. PART II. (NO. 16). Jaz,
316 MR ROBERT KIDSTON ON THE FOSSIL PLANTS OF THE
Remarks.—This species is much less common in the Lower Coal Measures than Cala-
mites Suckowii, Brongt., or Calamites ramosus, Artis.
Locality.—Bonnyton Pit, Kilmarnock.
Horizon,—Shale over Whistler Seam.
Locality. —Grange Pit, Kilmarnock.
Horizon.—Shale over “ Stranger” Seam.
Locality.—No. 16 Pit, Woodhill Colliery, Kilmaurs. |
Horizon.——Roof of Splint Coal.
Calamites Cistii, Brongt.
Calamites Cistii, Brongt., Hist. d. végét. foss., p. 129, pl. xx.
Calamuites Cistit, Zeiller, Flore foss. d. bassin houil. d. Valen., p. 342, pl. lvi. figs. 1, 2.
Calamites Cistii, Grand’ Eury, Flore Carb. d. Départ. de la Loire, p. 19, pl. ii. figs. 2, 3 (? fig. 1).
Calamites Cistit, Geinitz, Vers. d. Steinkf. in Sachsen, p. 7 (? pl. xi. figs. 7, 8; pl. xii. figs. 4, 5; pl. xiii,
fig. 7). :
Calamites Cistii, Heer, Flora foss. Helv., Lief i. p. 47, pl. xx. fig. 3 (t figs. 1, 2, 4).
Calamites Cistiz, Renault, Cours. de botan. foss., vol. ii. p. 162, pl. xxiv. fig. 7, 1882.
Remarks.—Not common, but extending throughout the whole of the Coal Measures.
Locality._Streethead Pit, Galston.
Horizon.—?
Calamocladus, Schimper. :
Calamocladus equisetiformis, Schloth., sp.
Calamocladus equisetiformis, Schimper, Traité d. paléont. végét., vol. i. p. 324, pl. xxii. figs. 1, 2.
Asterophyllites equisetiformis, Germar, Vers. v. Wettin u. Lobejun, p. 21, pl. viii.
Asterophyllites equisetiformis, Zeiller, Flore foss. d. bassin houil. d. Valen., p. 368, pl. lviii. figs. 1-7.
Asterophyllites equisetifornis, Zeiller, Végét. foss. d. terr. houil., p. 19, pl. clix. fig. 3.
Asterophyllites equisetiformis, Geinitz, Vers. d. Steinkf. in Sachsen, p. 8, pl. xvii. fig. 1 (@ figs. 2, 3).
Asterophyllites equisetiformis, Goppert, Foss. Flora d. Perm. Form., p. 36, pl. i. fig. 5.
Asterophyllites equisetiformis, Roehl, Foss. Flora d. Steink.-Form. Westph., p. 22, pl. iii. fig. 5.
Asterophyllites equisetiformis, Weiss, Foss. Flora d. jiingst. Stk. u. Rothl., p. 126, pl. xii. fig. 2.
Asterophyllites equisetiformis, Schenk in Richthofen’s China, vol. iv. p. 233, pl. xxxvii. fig. 3.
Casuarinites equisetiformis, Schloth., Petrefactenk., p. 397.
Annularia calamitoides, Schimper, Traité d. paléont. végét., vol. i. p. 349, pl. xxvi. fig. 1.
Hippurites longifolia, L. and H., Fossil Flora, vol. iii. pls. exe. exci.
Calamocladus binervis, Boulay, Terr. houil. du nord de la France et ses végé. foss., p. 22, pl. ii. fig. 1.
Phytolithus (stellatus), Martin, Petrificata Derbiensia, pl. xx. figs. 4 and 6 (not fig. 5), 1809.
Schlotheim, Flora der Vorwelt, p. 30, pl. i. figs. 1, 2; pl. ii. fig. 3, 1804.
Scheuchzer, Herb. diluw., pl. i. fig. 5; pl. ii. fig. 1, 1709.
Ure, Rutherglen and East Kilbride, pl. xii. fig. 4, 1793.
Fruit :—
Calamostachys, Boulay, ibid., p. 24, pl. i. figs. 2, 2 bis.
Calamostachys Germanica, Weiss, Steinkohlen Calam., part i. p. 47, pl. xvi. figs. 3, 4.
Calamostachys Germanica, Schenk in Richthofen’s China, vol. iv. p. 233, pl. xxxvi. fig. 5.
Calamocladus equisetiformis (Fructification), Crépin. Fragments paléontologique. Premier Fragment, —
Bull. Acad. Roy. Belgique, 2 sér., vol. xxxviii. pl. ii. figs. 1-3.
KILMARNOCK, GALSTON, AND KILWINNING COAL FIELDS, AYRSHIRE. 317
Remarks.—This species is common throughout all the divisions of the British Coal
Measures.
Locality.— Woodhill Quarry, Kilmaurs,
Horizon.—Shale over Sandstone.
Locality.—No. 3 Pit, Springhill, Crosshouse.
Horizon.—Shale above Major Coal, and shale above M‘Naught Coal.
Locality.—Busbie, near Kilmarnock.
Horizon.—Two fathoms below Ell Coal.
Locality.—Cauldhame Pit, Springhill Colliery, near Dreghorn.
Horizon.—Near Lin Bed.
Locality.—Dean, Kilmarnock Water.
Horizon.—Shale above Whistler Coal.
Annularia, Sternberg.
Annularia galioides, L. and H., sp.
(Plate IT. figs. 4 and 4a.)
Asterophyllites galioides, L. and H., Fossil Flora, vol. i. pl. xxv. fig. 2.
Annularia microphylla, Sauveur, Végét. foss. d. terr. houil. Belgique, pl. lxix. fig. 6.
Annularia microphylla, Stur, Calamarien d. Carb. Flora d. Schatz. Schichten, p. 211, pl. xiv. figs. 8, 9 ;
pl. xvod. fig. 2.
Annularia microphylla, Zeiller, Végét. foss. d. bassin houil. d. Valen., p. 392, pl. lx. fig. 34.
Annularia minuta, Wood, Trans. Amer. Phil. Soc., vol xiii. p. 348, pl. viii. fig. 2.
Description.—Primary branches calamitoid, large, giving off opposite distichous
branches at each node; secondary branches given off in same manner. Leaves whorled,
lanceolate, free, with acute points, single nerved, whorls on ultimate branchlets distant
from each other about the length of the leaves, and diminishing in size from the base of
the branch upwards.
Remarks.—This species has the same mode of growth as Annularia radiata (= foliage
of Calamites ramosus) and Annularia sphenophylloides, where the branches are given
off in two opposite vertical series. Annularia galioides is distinguished from the latter
by its sharp-pointed leaves, which are not spathulate, and from Annularia radiata by
its shorter and broader leaves, and has altogether a denser mode of growth. The number
of leaves in each branchlet-whorl varies from six to twelve. A whorl of leaves also
surrounds the nodes that give off the branchlets. At fig. 4, Plate Il., is shown a
small specimen, natural size, which was sent me by the Rev. D. LanpsBporoven. At
fic. 4a a few of the leaves are drawn x 3.
I have no doubt the plant described by SauveuR as Annularia microphylla is
Synonymous with LinpLey and Hurron’s Asterophyllites galioides, which, however, must
be placed in the genus Annularia.
318 MR ROBERT KIDSTON ON THE FOSSIL PLANTS OF THE
I am doubtful if the plant figured by Lesquereux * as Annularia minuta (2), Bronegt.,
should be referred to Annularia galioides. On the other hand, the Annularia cuspidata,
Lesqx.,t does not appear to differ from LinpLey and Hurron’s species.
On only one occasion has Annularia galiordes been found in the Ayrshire Coal Field.
Locality.—No. 3 Pit, Springhill, Crosshouse.
Horizon.—Above the Major Coal.
Calamostachys, Schimper.
Calamostachys typica, Schimper.
Calamostachys typica, Schimper (in part), Traité d. paléont.végé., vol. i. p. 328, pl. xxiii. fig. 1 (? figs. 2,
3, 4; ref. in part) ; vol. iii. p. 457.
Calamostachys typica, Kidston, Trans. York. Nat. Union, part xiv., 1890, p. 23.
Calanuites communis, Ett. (in part), Steinkf. v. Radnitz, p. 24, pl. viii. figs. 1 and 4.
Volkmannia elongata, Roehl (not Presl.), Foss. Flora Steink.-Form. Westph., p. 19, pl. vii. fig. 1.
Calamostachys Ludwigi, Weiss (not Carruthers ; in part), Steinkohlen Calamarien, vol. ii. p. 163, pl. xviii.
fig. 2 (not pl. xxii. figs. 1-8, and pls. xxiii. xxiv.).
Remarks.—This species is not common. The specimens included here are similar to —
ETTINGSHAUSEN’S figures given in Stemkf. v. Radntz, pl. vii. figs. 1 and 4. Additional
notes will be found in my first ‘‘ Report on the Yorkshire Carboniferous Flora” (loc. cit.).
Locality.—Grange Colliery, Kilmarnock.
Horizon.—Shale over Stranger Coal.
Stachannularia, Weiss.
Stachannularia (?) Northumbriana, Kidston.
(Plate IV. figs. 15 and 15a.)
Stachannularia (?) Northumbriana, Kidston, Proc. Roy. Phys. Soc. Edin., vol. x. p. 354.
Asterophyllites tuberculata, L. and H. (not Sternb.), Fossil Flora, vol. i. pl. xiv. ; vol. iii, pl. clxxx,
Stachannularia tuberculata, Kidston (not Sternb. ; ref. in part), Catal. Paleoz. Plants, p. 55.
Description.—Cone long, narrow, with numerous short internodes ; bracts numerous
(twenty to thirty in a whorl), short, thick, broadly lanceolate, striated, free above,
apparently united at the base, and forming a cup-like whorl; axis thick; joints very
short, ribbed.
Remarks.—Four specimens of this cone have been communicated to me by the Rev.
D. LanpsporovaH, all of which, however, belong to two individuals. The most perfect
one is shown at Plate IV. fig. 15. This shows nineteen whorls of bracts. The bracts are
broadly lanceolate, somewhat blunt-pointed, and their outer surface is distinctly striated
* Coal Flora, vol. iii. p. 725, pl. xcii. figs. 8, 8a.
t Ibid., vol. i. p. 50; vol. iii. p. 725, pl. xcii. figs. 7, Ta.
KILMARNOCK, GALSTON, AND KILWINNING COAL FIELDS, AYRSHIRE. 319
longitudinally. There is no trace of a central vein. On the specimen figured, the whorls
are 1°5 centimetres broad, and from ‘5 to 6 centimetres long. The bracts are as long as
the internodes, but do not overlap. Their upper portion is free, but they seem to be
united to each other in their lower part. In the other specimen, which is slightly
broader, the whorls are nearly 2 centimetres broad, but scarcely ‘6 centimetres long. The
axis, which is partially seen in this example, is nearly 1 centimetre broad; the internodes
are therefore broader than long. None of these fossils show in what way the sporangia were
attached to the axis. The cones now described are similar to those figured in error by
Linptey and Horton under the name of Asterophyllites tuberculatus. It is essentially
distinct from Stachannularia tuberculata, Sternb., sp., which I have never seen in
Britain except in the Upper Coal Measures, where it occurs with Annularia stellata, of
which it is the fruit.
In the collection of the British Museum there is a fine example from Felling Colliery,
Northumberland (Lower Coal Measures), which, though its apex is wanting, measures
94 inches in length and shows thirty-seven whorls of bracts, which on an everage are
4 inch long. The bracts on this example are not individually well shown, but there
must be about thirty in a whorl.
Stachannularia(?) Northumbriana has a superficial resemblance to Macrostachya
Hauckecornei, Weiss,* but is easily distinguished by its short bracts, which do not end
in long lanceolate points. The Kilmarnock specimens are well preserved, so the absence
on them of the long setaceous point cannot result from imperfect preservation.
Not knowing the arrangement of the sporangia, one cannot be certain of the genus
to which the cone I now describe should be referred, but from its general appearances I
refer it provisionally to Stachannularia, Weiss.
Localhty.—Bonnyton Pit, Kilmarnock.
Horizon.—Above Whistler Coal.
Filicaceee.
Urnatopteris, Kidston.
Urnatopteris tenella, Brongt., sp.
Sphenopteris tenella, Brongt., Hist. d. végét. foss., p. 186, pl. xlix. fig. 1.
Eusphenopteris tenella, Kidston, Proc. Roy. Phys. Soc. Edin., vol. vii. p. 129, pl. i. figs. 1-6.
Husphenopteris tenella, Kidston, Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist., ser. 5, vol. x. p. 7, pl. i. figs. 1-6.
Urnatopteris tenella, Kidston, Trans. Geol. Soc. Lond., vol. xl. p. 594, 1884.
Sphenopteris, Lebour, Illustr. of Fossil Plants, pl. xxxix.
Note.—Rare in the Coal Field.
Locality.—Grange Colliery, Kilmarnock.
Horizon.—Shale above Stranger Coal.
* Steinkohlen Calamarien, vol. ii. p. 196, pl. xix. fig. 4.
320 MR ROBERT KIDSTON ON THE FOSSIL PLANTS OF THE
Eremopteris, Schimper.
Eremopteris artemisizfolia, Sternb., sp.
Evremopteris artemistefolia, Schimper, Traité d. paléont. végét., vol. i. p. 416.
Eremopteris artemisiefolia, Lesqx., Coal Flora, p. 293, pl. liii. figs. 5, 6.
Sphenopteris artemisiefolia, Sternb., Ess. fl. monde prim., vol. i. fase. 4, p. xv. pl. liv. fig. 1.
Sphenopteris artemisiefolia, Brongt., Hist. d. végét. foss., p. 176, pl. xlvi. and pl. xlvii. figs. 1, 2. _
Sphenopteris artemisiefolia, Sauveur (in part), Végét. foss, d. terr. houil. Belgique, pl. xx. fig. 3 & wt
figs 1, 2).
Sphenopteris (Eremopteris) artemisicefolia (2), var., Lebour, Illustr. of Fossil Plants, pl. xxxiii,
Sphenopteris crithmifolia, L. and H., Fossil Flora, vol, i. pl. xlvi.
Sphenopteris stricta, Brongt., Hist. d. végét. foss., p. 208, pl. xlviii. fig. 2.
Sphenopteris stricta, Sternb., ibid., i. fase. 4, p. xv. pl. lvi. fig. 3; ii p. 57.
(?) Sphenopteris lawa, Sternb., zbid., i. fase. 2, p. 40; fasc. 4, p. xv. pl xxxi, fig. 3,
Sphenopteris, sp., Lebour, Jllustr. of Fossil Plants, pls. xxxiv, XXXV. XXXVI.
Note.—Very rare.
Locality.—Grange Colliery, Kilmarnock.
Horizon.—Shale over Stranger Coal.
Sphenopteris, Brongt. ; -
Sphenopteris furcata, Brongt. tthe
Sphenopteris furcata, Brongt., Hist. d. végét. foss., p. 179, pl. xlix. figs. 4, 5.
Sphenopteris furcata, L. and H., Fossil Flora, vol. iii. pl. clxxxi.
Sphenopteris furcata, Sauveur, Végét foss. d. terr. houil. Belgique, pl. xviii. figs. 1, 2.
Hymenophyllites furcatus, Geinitz, Vers. d. Steinkf. in Sachsen, p. 17, pl. xxiv. fig. 10 (? figs. 8, 9,
12, 13).
Diplothmema furcatum, Stur, Carb. Flora d. Schatz. Schich., vol. i. p. 299, pl. xxviii. figs. 2, 3.
Diplothmema Surcatum, Zeiller, Véget. as d. terr. houtl. DP. 45, e elxii. fig. 3.
fig. 4.
Sphenopteris, sp., Lebour, Illustr. of Fossil Plants, pl. xli.
Note.—Not very common.
Locality.—W oodhill Quarry, Kilmaurs.
Horizon.—Shale above Sandstone.
Locality.—No. 3 Pit, Springhill, Crosshouse.
Horizon.—Shale over Major Coal.
Locality.—Bonnyton Pit, Kilmarnock.
Horizon,—Shale over Whistler Coal.
eS a A SO SS A: IE: a SG RT GT i i
KILMARNOCK, GALSTON, AND KILWINNING COAL FIELDS, AYRSHIRE. 321
Sphenopteris obtusiloba, Brongt.
(Plate I. fig. 1.)
Sphenopteris obtusiloba, Brongt., Hist. d. végét. foss., p. 204, pl. lili. fig. 2*.
Sphenopteris obtusiloba, Ettingshausen, Steinkf. v. Radnitz, p. 37, pl. xxi. fig. 2.
Sphenopteris obtusiloba, Renault, Cours d, botan, foss., vol. iii. p. 190, pl. xxxiii. figs. 5, 6.
Sphenopteris obtusiloba, Roehl, Foss. Flora d. Steink.-Form. Westph., p. 55, pl. xvi. figs. 10, 11 (2 pl. xxi.
fig. 9).
Sphenopteris obtusiloba, Sauveur (in part), Végé. foss. d. terr. houil. Belgique, pl. xv. fig. 2 (not pl. xvi.
fig. 3).
Sphenopteris obtusiloba, Schimper, Traité d. paléont. végét., vol. i. p. 399, pl. xxx. fig. 1.
Sphenopteris obtusiloba, Weiss, Aus. d. Steink., p. 13, pl. xi. fig. 67, 1882.
Sphenopteris obtusiloba, Zeiller, Végét. foss. du terr. houil., p. 39, pl. elxii. figs. 1, 2.
Sphenopteris obtusiloba, Zeiller, Flore foss. d. bassin houil. d. Valen., p. 65, pl. iii. figs. 1-4; pl. iv. fig. 1;
pl. v. figs. 1, 2.
Sphenopteris irregularis, Sternb., Ess. fl. monde prim., vol. ii. fase. 5, 6, p. 63; pl. xvii. fig. 4.
Sphenopteris irregularis, Andre, Vorwelt Pflanzen, p. 24, pl. viii. and pl. ix. fig. 1.
Sphenopteris irregularis, Roehl, Flora d. Steink. Form. Westph., p. 56, pl. xvi. fig. 2; pl. xxxi. figs. 5, 6.
Sphenopteris irregularis, Roemer, Paleont., vol. ix. p. 24, pl. v. fig. 5.
Pseudopecopteris irregularis, Lesqx., Coal Flora, vol. i. p. 211 (? pl. lii. figs. 1-3, 8).
Sphenopteris latifolia, L., and H. (not Brongt.), Fossil Flora, vol. ii. pl. elvi. ; vol. iii, pl. elxxviii.
Sphenopteris trifoliolata, Brongt. (not Artis), Hist. d. végét. foss., p. 202, pl. liii. fig. 3.
Sphenopteris trifoliolata, Sauveur (not Artis), ibid., pl. xix., fig. 2; pl. xxi.
Sphenopteris trifoliolata, Andre (not Artis), zbid., p. 29, pl. ix. figs. 2-4.
-Sphenopteris trifoliolata, Renault (not Artis), ibid., vol. iii. p. 192, pl. xxxiii. figs. 7, 8.
Diplothmema obtusilobum, Stur, Carb. Flora, vol. i. p. 354; pl. xxv. fig. 8; pl. xxv. fig. 1.
Sphenopteris latifolia, var., Lebour (not Brongt.), Illustr. of Fossil Plants, p. 61, pl. xxx.
Description.—Frond large and much divided. Primary pinnz opposite or sub-
opposite ; penultimate pinne broadly linear, lanceolate, touching each other or slightly
overlapping; ultimate pinne placed close together, oblong or oblong lanceolate, and
bearing simple or more or less divided pinnules; pinnules coriaceous, alternate on the
lower part of the basal ultimate pinne, and divided into from three to seven rounded
lobes or lappets. The lowest basal pinnule on posterior side of the rachis is generally
more divided than any of the others. Pinnules on the uppermost part of the pinne entire
or slightly lobed. Veins numerous, radiating from the base of the pinnule and dividing
at an acute angle, bifurcating several times before reaching the margin.
Remarks.—The pinnules vary considerably in the number of their lobes and the
extent to which the lobes are cut in, according to the position they hold on the pinne.
The lowest basal pinnule may possess seven lobes, and the lowest lobes are sometimes
separated almost to the rachis, On the upper pinnz the lowest basal pinnule is not so
much divided, being usually composed of three well-defined lobes; the succeeding
pinnules are generally three lobed, but towards the apex of the pinne the pinnules are
less distinctly lobed, and the uppermost ones are almost entire or obovate entire, the
terminal pinnule having one or two slight notches.
322 MR ROBERT KIDSTON ON THE FOSSIL PLANTS OF THE
In the specimen given (Plate I. fig. 1) the pinnules are slightly larger than usual, and
this character I noticed on several of the Kilmarnock specimens. ‘They differ, however,
in no other respect from the typical form of the species.
Sphenopteris obtusiloba is not uncommon in the Lower Coal Measures, and also
occurs in the Middle Coal Measures of England. The small specimens usually found give
no idea of the beauty or size attained by this species. Some excellent examples ¥ were
secured by Mons. ZEILLeR from the coal field of Valenciennes.
The specimen figured was received from the Rev. D. LanpsBorouGH.
Locality.—Grange Colliery, Kilmarnock. |
Horizon.—Shale over Stranger Coal.
Locality.—No. 3 Pit, Springhill, Crosshouse.
Horizon.—Shale over Major Coal.
Sphenopteris latifolia, Brongt. —
- Sphenopteris ay Bronet., Hist. d. végét. foss., p. 205, pl. lvii. figs. 1- 4. (Excl. syn. Filicites mu
catus.)
Sphenopteris latifolia, Gopp, Gatt. d. foss. Pflanzen, Lief 3, 4, p. 74, pl. xiv. figs. 5, 6.
Sphenopteris latifolia, Weiss, Aus. d. Steink., p. 14, pl. xii. figs. 80, 80a, 1882,
Diplothmema latifolium, Stur, Carbon. Flora, i. p. 361 (? pl. xxvi. figs. 1, 2).
Mariopteris latifolia, Zeiller, Bull. Soc. Géol. d. France, 3° sér., vol. vii. pp. 92, 99, pl. vi. ‘
Mariopteris latifolia, Renault, Cours d. botan. foss., vol. iii. p. 195, pl. xxi. figs. 16, 17. 7-
Mariopteris latifolia, Zeiller, Flore foss. d. bassin houil. d. Valen., p. 161, pl. xvii. figs. 1, 2; ~— L
fig. 1.
Diplothmema Belgicum, Stur, Zur. Morph. u. Syst. d. Culm u. Carb. Farne, pp. 195, 199, fig. 42a. —
Diplothmema Belgicum, Stur, Carbon. Flora, vol. i. p. 406, pl. xviii. figs. 1, 2, 7, 8.
Note.—Not common.
Locality.— Grange Colliery, Kilmarnock.
Horizon.—Shale over Stranger Coal.
Locality.—Galston.
Horizon —(‘)
(?) Sphenopteris spinosa, Gépp. | Ta a
Sphenopteris spinosa, Gopp., Genre d. plant. foss., parts iii. iv. p. 70, pl. xii.
Sphenopteris spinosa, Zeiller, Flore foss. d. bassin houil. d. Valen., p. 135, pl. xv. figs. 1-3.
Diplothmema spinosum, Stur, Carb. Flora, vol. i. p. 312, pl. xxviii. figs. 7, 8. +a
Sphenopteris palmata, Schimper, Traité d. paléont. végét., vol. i. p. 388, pl. xxviii. fig. 1. ;
Diplothmema palmatum, Stur, ibid., vol. i. p. 310, pl. xxvii. fig. 3.
record of it for Scotland. vl
Locality.—Grange Colliery, Kilmarnock. | : : ‘
Horizon.—Shale over Stranger Coal. . ae
KILMARNOCK, GALSTON, AND KILWINNING COAL FIELDS, AYRSHIRE, 323
Sphenopteris Footneri, Marrat.
Sphenopteris Footneri, Marrat, Proc. Liverpool Geol. Soc., Session 1871-72, p. 101, pl. viii. figs. 2, 3,
1872.
Sphenopteris Fovtnert, Kidston, Trans, Roy. Soc. Edin., vol. xxxv. p. 406, pl. ii. fig. 3.
Locality. No. 3 Pit, Springhill, Crosshouse,
Horizons.—Shale over Major Coal. Pavement under Tourha’ Coal.
Sphenopteris Sternbergii, Ett., sp.
Sphenopteris Sternbergit, Weiss, Aus. d. Steink., p. 13, pl. xii. fig. 75, 1882.
Sphenopteris Sternbergit, Zeiller, Flore foss. d. bassin houil. d. Valen., p. 128, pl. ix. fig. 5; pl. xxxviil.
fig. 6.
Pecopteris Sternbergui, Boulay, Terr. houil. du nord de la France, p. 32, pl. ii. fig. 4.
Asplenites Sternbergit, Ett., Steinkf. v. Radnitz, p. 42, pl. xx. figs. 2, 3, (and part of) 4.
Remarks.—Very rare, only one small specimen having been found. This species |
have not seen from the Lower Coal Measures before. It is not a common plant in Britain,
but occurs in the Middle Coal Measures of Yorkshire, Derbyshire, and Lancashire, and in
the Forest of Wyre, on the borders of Shropshire and Worcestershire, but is in all these
localities a rare plant.
Locality.—Busbie Pit, Kilmaurs.
Horizon.—Two fathoms below Ell Coal.
Mariopteris, Zeiller.
Mariopteris muricata, Schloth., sp.
Mariopteris muricata, Zeiller, Bull. Soc. Géol. d. France, 3° sér., vol. vii. p. 92.
Mariopteris muricata, Zeiller, Végét foss, d. terr. houil., p. 71, pl. elxvii. fig. 5.
Mariopteris muricata, Zeiller, Flore foss. d. bassin houil. d. Valen., p. 173, pl. xx. figs. 1-4; pl. xxi. fig. 1;
pl xxi. figs, I, 2)5: pl: xxiii. fig, 1.
Pecopteris muricata, Brongt., Hist. d. végét foss., p. 352, pl. xev. figs. 3, 4; pl xevii.
Pecopteris muricata, Heer, Flora foss. Helv., Lief i. p. 33, pl. xv. fig. 3.
Pecopteris muricata, Sauveur, Végeét. foss. d. terr. houil. Belgique, pl. xliii. fig. 1; pl. xliv. fig. 2.
Alethopteris muricata, Ett., Steinkohlf. v. Radnitz, p. 43, pl. xiv. fig. 1.
Alethopteris muricata, Roehl, Foss. Flora d. Steink.-Form. Westph., p. 78, pl. xi. fig. 1.
Sphenopteris muricata, Feistmantel, Vers. d. béhm. Kohlenab., p. 281, pl. Ixv. fig. 3. (Huacl. syn. Sph.
acutifolia. )
Diplothmema muricatum, Stur, Carb. Flora, vol. i. p. 393, pl. xxi. figs. 1-5; pl. xxii. figs. 1-5; pl. xxiii.
figs. 1-6.
Filicites muricatus, Schloth., Petrefactenkunde, p. 409.
(Pilicites muricatus), Schloth., Flora d. Vorwelt, pp. 54, 55, pl. xii. figs. 21 and 23.
Pseudopecopteris muricata, Lesqx., Coal Flora, vol. i. p. 203, pl. xxxvii. fig. 2.
Pecopteris lacimata, L. and H., Fossil Flora, vol. ii. pl. exxii.
VOL. XXXVII. PART II. (NO. 16). oA
324 MR ROBERT KIDSTON ON THE FOSSIL PLANTS OF THE
Pecopteris laciniata, Lebour, Illustr. of Fossil Plants, p. 59, pl. xxix.
Pecopteris incisa, Sternb., Lss. fl. monde prim., vol. i. fasc 4, p. xx.; ii. p. 156, pl. xxii.
Sphenopteris macilenta, var., Lebour (not L. and H.), dbid., p. 39, pl. xix.
Neuropteris heterophylla, Lebour (not Brongt.), ibid., p. 29, pl. xiv.
Neuropteroid Frond, Lebour, zbid., p. 31, pl. xv.
Pecopteris (Alethopteris) aquilina, Lebour (not Schloth.), 7bid., p. 33, pl. xvi.
Pecopteris (Alethopteris) marginata, Lebour (not Brongt.), ibid., p. 35, pl. xvii.
Mariopteris nervosa, Zeiller, Bull. Soc. Géol. d. France, 3° sér., vol. vii. p. 91, pl. v. figs. 1,
Mariopteris nervosa, Zeiller, Végét. foss. du terr. houil., p. 69, pl. clxvii. figs. 1-4.
Pecopteris nervosa, Brongt., Hist. d. Végét. foss, p. 297, pl. Xeiv.; pl. xev.<figs. 1,--2.
Pecopteris nervosa, Heer, Flora foss. Helv., Lief i. p. 33, pl. xv. figs. 1, 2.
Pecopteris nervosa, Lindley and Hutton, fossil Flora, vol. ii. pl. xciv.
Pecopteris nervosa, Schimper, Traité d. paléont. végét., vol. i. p. 5138, pl. xxx. figs, 6, 7.
Pecopteris nervosa, Sauveur, Végét. foss. d. terr. houil. Belgique, pl. xliv. fig. 1.
Pecopteris nervosa, Weiss, Aus. d. Steink., p. 16, pl. xvi. fig. 98, 1882.
Pecopteris nervosa, Achepohl, Niederrh. Westfil. Steink., pp. 74, 76, 90, pl. xx. fig. 6; pl. xxiii, fig. 14;
pl. xxviii. figs. 10-14.
Alethopteris nervosa, Geinitz, Vers. d. Steinkf. in Sachsen, p. 30, pl. xxxiii. figs. 2, 3.
Alethopteris nervosa, Roehl, Foss. Flora d. Steink.-Form. Westph., p. 77, pl. xxxi. fig. 7.
Alethopteris nervosa, Achepohl, Wiederrh. Westfdl. Steink., pp. 57, 64, pl. xvi. fig. 1; pl. xviii. figs.
15, 16,
Pseudopecopteris nervosa, Lesqx., Coal Flora, vol. i. p. 197, pl. xxxiv. fig. 1 (2 figs. 2, 3).
Pecopteris subnervosa, Roemer, Palcont., vol. ix. p. 36, pl. viii. fig. 11.
Pecopteris subnervosa, Roehl, ibid., p. 90, pl. xiii. fig. 5.
Diplothmema nervosum, Stur, Carb, Flora, vol. i. p. 384, pl. xxiv. fig. 1; pl. xxv. fig. 2..
Pecopteris Sawveurt, Brongt., Hist. d. végét. foss., p. 299, pl. xev. fig. 5.
Diplothmema Sauveuri, Stur, tbid., p. 380, pl. xxiv. figs. 2-4.
Pecopteris heterophylla, Sauveur (not Brongt.), ¢bed., pl. xlvil.
Sphenopteris acutifolia, Ett. (not Brongt.), Steinkf. v. Radnitz, p..39, pl. xiv. fig. 2. .
Pecopteris serra, Lebour (not L. and H.), zbid., pl. xxii.
Diplothmema hirtum, Stur, tbid., p. 372, pl. xxxiv. fig. 1.
Odontopteris, Achepohl, Miederrh. Westfal. Steink., pp. 93, 95, pl. xxx. fig. 2; pl. xxxii. figs. 4, 5.
Odontopteris dentiformis, Achepohl, ibid., p. 93, pl. xxxi. fig. 6.
Odontopteris Reichiana, Achepohl (not Gutbier), zbid., p. 95, pl. xxxii. figs, 6-9.
Alethopteris conferta, Achepohl (not Sternb., sp.), ib¢d., p. 117, pl. xxxv. fig. 10.
Alethopteris acuta, Achepohl, zbid., p. 118, pl. xxxvi. fig. 6.
Remarks.—This is one of the most polymorphic and widely distributed of coal-
measure ferns. The fronds were of large size, and the pinnules varied much in form
according to their position on the frond. This led to the creation of many species, which
have now been shown to belong to Mariopteris muricata; of these, the two best marked
are forma nervosa and forma Sauveurt. They cannot, however, be regarded as varieties
in the true sense of the term, as their differences appear to depend on their position on
the frond, not on an inherent difference of growth.
Mariopteris muricata occurs sparingly in the Upper Coal Measures, very plentifully
in the Middle Coal Measures, and though very frequent in the Lower Coal Measures, it
is scarcely so plentiful there as in the Middle Coal Measures.
Locality.—Grange Colliery, Kilmarnock.
forizon.—Shale over Stranger Coal.
KILMARNOCK, GALSTON, AND KILWINNING COAL FIELDS, AYRSHIRE.
Locality.—No. 3 Pit, Springhill, Crosshouse,
Horizon.—Shale over Major Coal.
Locality.—W oodhill Quarry, Kilmaurs,
Horizon.—Shale over Sandstone.
Locality.—Bonnyton Pit, Kilmarnock.
Horizon.—Shale over Whistler Coal,
Locality.—Borough Pit, Irvine.
Horizon.—Shale over Kilwinning Main.
Locality. Hillhead Pit, Kilmarnock.
Horizon.—(?) Kilwinning Main Coal.
Locality.—No. 10 Pit, Springside Colliery, Dreghorn.
Horizon.—Shale above Main Coal.
Locality. Gauchallan Pit, Galston.
Horizon.—(?)
Locality.— Windyedge Pit, near Crosshouse.
Horizon.—Shale near Annandale Main Coal.
forma nervosa.
Locality.—W oodhill Quarry, Kilmaurs.
Horizon.—Shale over Sandstone.
Locality.—Grange Pit, Kilmarnock.
Horizon. Shale near Stranger Coal.
Neuropteris, Bronet.
Neuropteris heterophylla, Brongt.
Filicites (Neuropteris) heterophyllus, Brongt., Class. d. végét. foss., p. 33, pl. ii. fig. 6.
Neuropteris heterophylla, Brongt., Prod., p. 53.
Neuropteris heterophylla, Brongt., Hist. d. végét. foss., p. 243, pl. Ixxi.; pl. lxxii. fig. 2.
325
Neuropteris heterophylia, Heer, Flora foss. Helv., Lief i. p. 23, pl. iv. figs. 1, 2 (? fig. 3, pl. v. fig. 4;
not pl. xii. fig. 10D).
Neuropteris heterophylla, L. and H., Fossil Flora, vol. iii. pl. ec. (not pl. clxxxiii.).
Neuropteris heterophylla, Renault, Cours d. botan. foss., vol. iii. p. 170, pl. xxix. figs. 6, 7.
Neuropteris heterophylla, Roehl, Foss. Flora d. Steink.-Form. Westph., p. 37, pl. xvi. figs. 5, 7.
Neuropteris heterophylla, Sauveur, Végét. foss. d. terr. houil. Belgique, pl. xxix. figs. 3,4; pl. xxx. figs. 1, 2.
Neuropteris heterophylla, Zeiller, Végét. foss. d. terr. houil., p. 49, pl. clxiv. fig. 1 (not fig. 2).
Neuropteris heterophylla, Zeiller, Flore foss. d. bassin howil. d. Valen., p. 261, pl. xliii. figs. 1, 2; pl. xliv.
fig. 1.
Neuropteris heterophylla, Weiss, Aus. d. Steink., p. 15, pl. xiv. fig. 88, 1882.
Neuropteris Loshit, Brongt., Hist. d. végét. foss., p. 242, pl. Ixxii. fig. 1; pl. Ixxiii.
Newropteris Loshii, Feistmantel, Vers. d. bihm. Kohlenab., Abth. iii. p. 64, pl. xvii. fig. 3.
Neuropteris Loshii, Gutbier, Vers. d. Zwick. Schwarz., p. 55, pl. viii. fig. 6.
Neuropteris Loshit, Gutbier, Vers. d. Rothl. in Sachsen, p. 12, pl. iv. figs. 2, 3.
Neuropteris Loshii, Kidston, Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin., vol. xxxiii. p. 150, pl. viii. fig. 7.
326 MR ROBERT KIDSTON ON THE FOSSIL PLANTS OF THE
Neuropteris Loshii, Kidston, Trans. Geol. Soc, Glas., vol. ix. p. 34, pl. iii. fig. 36.
Neuropteris Loshii, Lesqx., Coal Flora, vol. i. p. 98 (2 pl. xi. figs. 1-4).
Neuropteris Loshii, L. and H., Fossil Flora, vol. i. pl. xlix. (figure of specimen inaccurate).
Neuropteris Loshii, Roehl, Flora d. Steink.-Form. Westph., p. 37, pl. xvii.
Neuropteris Loshii, Sandberger, Flora d. ober Steink. im Badischen Schwarz., p. 6, pl. iv. fig. 1.
Neuropteris Loshii, Sauveur, Végét. foss. d. terr. houil. Belgique, pl. xxxi. figs. 1, 2.
Pecopteris adiantioides, L. and H., tbid., vol. i. pl. xxxvii.
Gleichenites neuropteroides, Gopp., Syst. fil. foss., p. 186, pls. iv. v.
Cyclopteris trichomanoides, Brongt., Hist. d. végét. foss., p. 217, pl. Ixibis. fig. 4.
Cyclopteris trichomanoides, Geinitz, Vers. d. Steinkf. in Sachsen, p. 23, pl. xxviii. figs. 2, 3.
Cyclopteris trichomanoides, Gutbier, Vers. d. Zwick. Schwarzk., p. 45, pl. vi. fig. 1.
Cyclopteris trichomanoides, Renault, Cows d. botan. foss., vol. iii. p. 184, pl. xxx. fig. 5.
Cyclopteris trichomanoides, Roehl, Foss. Flora d. Steink.-Form. Westph., p. 44, pl. xviii.; pl. xxix, fig. 10.
Cyclopteris trichomanoides, Zeiller, Flore foss. terr. houil. d. Comentry., part i. p. 265, pl. xxxiii. fig. 3.
Cyclopteris semiflabelliformis, Morris, Trans. Geol. Soc. London, 2nd ser., vol. v. p. 488, pl. xxxviii,
figeT
Cyclopteris obliqua, Brongt., Hist. d. végét. foss., p. 221, pl. 1x1. fig. 3.
Remarks.—This species is very common in the Lower and Middle Coal Measures.
It is plentiful in the Ayrshire Coal Field, but usually occurring in a fragmentary condi-
tion, it is often passed over by collectors without note. The cyclopteroid pinnules are
placed upon the main rachis ; a fine example showing this condition is figured by Roehl.*
I have seen a similar occurrence of cyclopteroid pinnules on other species of Newropteris.
Grand’ Euryt regards Cyclopteris trichomanoides as leaves or foliar stipules of Odon-
topteris minor and Odontopteris Reichiana. In the Lower and Middle Coal Measures of
Britain, cyclopteroid pinnules, which I cannot distinguish from Cyclopteris tricho-
manoides, Brongt., are always associated with Newropteris heterophylla, and in some
cases are extremely plentiful, and from their mode of occurrence, I have no doubt that the
specimens to which I refer belong to that fern. My specimens clearly do not belong to
any of the Odontopteris to which Grand’ Eury refers them, as I have found neither of
these species in the beds in which the cyclopteroid pinnules and Neuropteris hetero-
phylla occur ; in fact, Odontopteris Reichiana is very rare in Britain, and Odontopteris
minor has not yet been discovered in our Coal Measures. The explanation may be that
several species of Odontopteris, as well as Neuropteris, may have borne cyclopteroid
pinnules, which, when separated from their parent stems, cannot be specifically dis-
tinguished.
Locality.—No. 3 Pit, Springhill, Crosshouse.
Horivzons.—Shale over M‘Naught Coal. Shale above Major Coal.
Locality.—No. 10 Pit, Springside, Dreghorn.
Horizon.—Bed between Major and Main Coals.
Locality.—Stevenston.
Horizon.—Roof of % Coal.
Locality.—No. 16 Pit, Woodhill Colliery, Kilmaurs.
Horizon.—Roof of Splint Coal.
* Loe. cit., pl. xvii. + Flore Carb. d. Départ. de la Loire, p. 113.
KILMARNOCK, GALSTON, AND KILWINNING COAL FIELDS, AYRSHIRE. 327
Locality.— Woodhill Quarry, Kilmaurs.
Horizon.—Shale above Sandstone.
Locality.—Bonnyton Pit, Kilmarnock.
Horizon.—Shale above Whistler Coal.
Locality.—No. 9 Pit, Annandale Colliery.
Horvzon.—“ Lin Bed.”
Locality.—Goatfoot Pit, Galston.
Horizon.—(?)
Neuropteris gigantea, Sternb.
Neuropteris gigantea, Sternb., Ess. flore monde prim., i. fase. 4, p. Xvi.
Neuropteris gigantea, Brongt., Hist. d. végét. foss., p. 240, pl. lxix.
Neuropteris gigantea, L. and H., Fossil Flora, vol. i. pl. lii.
Neuropteris gigantea, Sauveur, Végét. foss. d. terr. houil. Belgique, pl. xxxiii. fig. 1 (? pl. xxxi. figs. 3, 4).
Neuropteris gigantea, Zeiller, Flore foss. d. bassin howil. d. Valen., p. 258, pl. xlii. fig. 1.
Osmunda gigantea, Sternb., Ess. fl. monde prim., vol. i. fase. 2, pp. 32, 37, pl. xxii.
Neuropteris flecuosa, Sauveur (not Sternb.), ibid., pl. xxxii. figs. 1, 2 (? pl. xxx. fig. 2).
Remarks.—Occurring frequently in the Middle and Lower Coal Measures, but usually
as isolated pinnules.
Locahty.—Bonnyton Pit, Kilmarnock.
Horizon.—Shale above Whistler Coal.
Locality.—W ellington Pit, Hurlford.
Horizon.—Above Main Coal.
Locality.— Hillhead Pit, Kilmarnock.
Horizon.—(?) Main Coal.
Locality.—No, 9 Pit, Annandale Colliery.
Horizon.—“ Lin Bed.”
Locality.—W oodhill Quarry, Kilmaurs.
Horizon.—Shale over Sandstone.
Locality—No. 10 Pit, Springhill Colliery, Dreghorn.
Horizon.—Shale above Main Coal.
Locality.—Goatfoot Pit, Galston.
Horizon.—(?)
Neuropteris crenulata, Brongt.
(Plate I. figs. 2 and 2a.)
Neuropteris crenulata, Brongt., Hist. d. végét. foss., p. 234, pl. xiv. fig. 2 (ewel. syn.).
Neuropteris crenulata, Sternb., Ess. fl. monde prim., vol. ii. fase. 5, 6, p. 70.
Neuropteris crenulata, Lesquereux, Coal Flora, vol. ii. p. 116, pl. xvi. figs. 9-11.
Neuropteris crenulata, Feistmantel, Der Hangendjlitzzug im Schlan-Rakonitzer Steinkohlenbecken, p. 72,
pl. i. fig. 2 (in Archiv d. naturwis. Landesdurchforschung v. Bohmen, iv. Band, No. 6, Geol. Abth.
Prag., 1881).
328 MR ROBERT KIDSTON ON THE FOSSIL PLANTS OF THE
Neuropteris crenulata, Renault, Cowrs d. botan. foss., vol, iii. p. 174, pl. xxix. fig. 14.
Neuropteris crenulata, Zeiller, Flore foss. terr. houil. d. Comentry, part i. p, 233, pl. xxvi. fig. 1; pl.
xxvii. figs. 1-5.
Description.—Frond very large, and much divided; pinnules cyclopteroid, oval,
subcordate to narrow-oblong (according to the position they hold on the frond), with
blunt apices, subopposite or alternate. The uppermost pinnules more or less united by
their base to the rachis. Medial nerve of pinnule slightly flexuous, and giving off
upward-directed dichotomous veinlets, of which there are at the margin of the pinnule
about twenty ultimate divisions in 1 centimetre. Margin of pinnule dentate-serrate,
the ultimate divisions of the veins extending into the teeth,
Remarks.—This species apparently attained to great size, as shown by the excellent
figures given by ZEILLER (loc. cit.), but whether the fern was tripinnate or decompound in
its ramifications, cannot at present be determined, It was at all events much divided. The
pinnules vary greatly in form according to their position on the rachis. The cyclopteroid
pinnules were evidently borne on the main rachis or on the raches of the chief divisions
of the frond. The fronds of many species of Newropteris attained, 1 believe, to very
large dimensions.
The pinnules at the base of the pinnez of Neuwropteris crenulata are ovate or sub-
cordate, from the base of the pinnee upwards the pinnules gradually increase in length,
and diminish slightly in width till they are narrow-oblong towards the apex of the pinne ;
they again decrease in size, and the pinna ends in an oblong terminal pinnule. It is
almost impossible to describe in language the various forms of the pinnules of this species
their shape depending on their position on the frond; but they can be easily learnt by
studying the figures given by ZEILLER in his Flora of the Comentry Coal Field. The
nervation is somewhat lax, though fine. In the small specimen figured on Plate I. fig. 2,
which shows the upper portion of a pinna, the pinnules are united by their bases to the
rachis, a character usually observed on the apical portions of the pinne of Neuwropteris.
The central vein is slightly flexuous, and the secondary veins which spring from it run
upwards and slightly outwards, and thus have a long course before reaching the margin
of the pinnule. In the specimen figured there are about twenty ultimate divisions of the
veins at the margin of the pinnule in 1 centimetre. According to ZEILLER there are from
seven to ten in the same space. This difference may arise from the different position on
the frond of the pinnules in which the veins were measured, or the ultimate and finer
divisions may not have been preserved in the specimens measured by ZEILuER, though
this does not appear to be probable from the figures of enlargements given by him. ‘The
whole of the margins of the pinnules of the Kilmaurs specimen are dentate-serrate, and
this character at once distinguishes the species from all other Newropteris, as far as I
know them. In Zrriiyr’s specimens, some of them had pinnules with entire margins,
and in others the crenatures appear to be only on the upper part of the pinnules. The
Kilmaurs specimen appears to be identical with the small specimen figured by
BRONGNIART.
KILMARNOCK, GALSTON, AND KILWINNING COAL FIELDS, AYRSHIRE. 329
Although I have said that this is the only ‘species of Neuropteris with serrate-
margined pinnules, still there are others, as Newropteris fimbriata, Lesqx.,* and Neurop-
teris lacerata, Heer,t where the margin of the pinnule is fimbriated, but these fimbria-
tions are very distinct from the serrations of Newropteris crenulata, Brongt.
ZEILLER’S specimens came from the Comentry Coal Field, which holds a high position
in the Upper Coal Measures, while our fossil is from the Lower Coal Measures.
The only British specimen I have seen is that figured here, which was collected by
Mr BeveripcE.
Locality.—W oodhill Quarry, Kilmaurs.
Horizon.—Shale over Sandstone.
Neuropteris Blissii, Lesqx.
(Plate I. figs. 3 and 3a.)
Neuropteris Blissii, Lesqx., Coal Flora, vol. iii. p. 737, pl. xev. fig. i.
Neuropteris Blissw, Zeiller, Flore foss. terr. houil. d. Comentry, part i. p. 243, pl. xxviii. figs, 3-6.
- Deseription.—Frond much divided. Ultimate pinne lanceolate. Pinnules alternate,
oblong, narrowing gradually to a blunt point, slightly inzequilateral at base, separated
from each other by a small space, midrib straight, vanishing before reaching the apex,
lateral veinlets springing from the central vein at an acute angle, and bending gently
towards the margin of the pinnule, fine, not flexuous, and ultimately dividing into about
eight veinlets ; twenty to twenty-four ultimate divisions of the veins at the margin of
the pinnule in 1 centimetre. Terminal pinnule oblong triangular.
Remarks.—Of this species the only specimen found is that figured. It shows portions
of two ultimate pinne. The pinnules are narrow, oblong, tapering slightly from the
middle to the apex, which is blunt. They are generally separated from each other by
about half their width, and are usually straight, though some of the pinnules have a
tendency to become slightly faleate. The veins are very thin, but distinct, and spring
from the midvein at a very acute angle. At first the veins run almost parallel with the
midrib, then bend gently outwards, and again make an acute angle where they meet the
margin of the pinnule. The terminal pinnules are not very perfect, either on the
Kilmarnock or other specimens figured; but from what is seen on my figure, they were
evidently oblong sub-triangular. This species also possessed cyclopteroid pinnules.
I know of no British carboniferous fern with which Newropteris Blissiz could be
mistaken, being distinguished both by the nervation and the form of the pinnules. Its
nearest ally is probably Newropteris cordata, Brongt., which differs from it by its larger
and broader cordate pinnules, with more distant nervation. Newropteris cordata should
“Coal Flora, vol. i. p. 81, pl. v. figs. 1-6. Geol. Rept. of Illin., vol. ii. p. 480; ibid. vol. iv. p. 384, pl. vi.
fig. 4, + Flora foss. Helv., p. 17, pl. vi. fig. 7.
330 MR ROBERT KIDSTON ON THE FOSSIL PLANTS OF THE
be carefully looked for in Britain, as all the British specimens which have previously
been referred to this last-mentioned species are referable to Newropteris Scheuchzeri,
Hoffm. \
The specimen of Newropteris Blissii, Lesqx., is figured natural size, and was com- —
municated to me by the Rev. D, LanpsBorovueH.
Locality.—Bonnyton Pit, Kilmarnock.
Horizon.—Shale over Whistler Seam.
Odontopteris, Brongt.
(?) Odontopteris Britannica, Gutbier.
Odontopteris Britannica, Gutbier, Vers. d. Zwick. Schwarzk., p. 68, pl. ix. figs. 8-11.
Odontopteris Britannica, Geinitz, Vers. d. Steinkf. in Sachsen, p. 21, pl. xxvi. figs. 8-11.
Odontopteris Britannica, Weiss, Foss. Flora d. jiingst. Stk. u. Rothl., p. 45, pl. i. fig, 2.
Callipteris Britannica, Weiss, Zettsch. d. Deut. geol. Gessell., vol. xxii. p. 875.
Odontopteris connata, Roemer, Palcont., vol. ix. p. 31, pl. viii. fig. 7.
Remarks.—Very rare. ZEILLER* expresses some doubt as to Odontopteris Britan-
nica being distinct from Newropteris obliqua, Brongt., but as I understand these two
species, they cannot be united. | .
Locality.— Woodhill Quarry, Kilmaurs.
Horizon.—Shale over Sandstone.
Alethopteris, Sternberg.
Alethopteris lonchitica, Schl., sp.
Alethopteris lonchitica, Schimper, Traité d. paléont. végét., vol. i. p. 554 (ref. in part).
Alethopteris lonchitica, Lesqx., Coal Flora, vol. i. p. 177, pl. xxviii. fig. 7.
Alethopteris lonchitica, Renault, Cowrs d. botan. foss., vol. iii. p. 156, pl. xxvii. figs. 5, 6.
Alethopteris lonchitica, Zeiller, Flore foss. d. bassin houil. d. Valen., p. 225, pl. xxxi. fig. 1.
Pecopteris lonchitica, Brongt., Prod., p. 57.
Pecopteris lonchitica, Brongt., Hist. d. végét. foss., p. 275, pl. Ixxxiv.
Pecopteris lonchitica, L. and H., Fossil Flora, vol. ii. pl. cliii. oo
Pecopteris lonchiticu, Sauveur (in part), Végét. foss. d. terr. houil. Belgique, pl. xli. figs. 1, 2; pl. ii
fig. 5. 1
Filicites lonchiticus, Schlotheim, Petrefactenkunde, p. 411. id om
Filicites lonchiticus, Schlotheim, Flora d. Vorwelt, p. 55, pl. xi. fig. 22. > > an
Alethopteris lonchitica, var. heterophylla, Dawson, Plants of Lower Carb., &c., of Canada, p. 34 (pl. 4
fig. 901). i
Alethopteris lonchitidis, Geinitz, Flora d. Hainich.-Ebersdorfer, p. 43, pl. xiv. figs. 1, 2.
Alethopteris lonchitidis, Kichwald, Lethwa Rossica, vol. i. p. 85, pl. ii. fig. 3. ;
Alethopteris lonchitidis, Roehl, Foss. Flora d. Steink.-Form. Westph., p. 72, pl. xiv. fig. 2 (¢ figs. 1, 3, 4 4
1 pl. xxi. fig, 9); pl. xxxi. fig. 4,
* Flora foss, d. bassin howl. d. Valenciennes, p. 284.
KILMARNOCK, GALSTON, AND KILWINNING COAL FIELDS, AYRSHIRE. 331
Alethopteris lonchitidis, Achepohl, Niederrh. Westfal. Steinkohl., p. 33, pl. viii. figs. 1, 11.
Alethopteris Sternbergui, Ett., Steinkf. v. Radnitz, p. 42, pl. xviii. fig. 4.
Pecopteris urophylia, Brongt., Hist. d. végét. foss., p. 290, pl. Ixxxvi.
Alethopteris urophylla, Roehl, ibid., p. 75, pl. xxii. fig. 7.
Alethopteris vulgatior, Sternb,, Ess, fl. monde prim., vol. i. fase. 4, p. xxxi. pl. liu. fig. 2.
Remarks.—In my earlier papers I treated Alethopteris decurrens, Artis, sp., as a
variety of Alethopteris lonchitica, This I now believe to have been an error. The two
plants are easily distinguished by their nervation, and, when once understood, cannot
easily be mistaken with each other. Alethopteris lonchitica is extremely common in the
Lower and Middle Coal Measures, but very rare in the Upper Coal Measures, The
plant is so common in the Ayrshire Coal Measures, that care has not been taken
to record its occurrence at the various localities where it has been found, hence the
small list of definite records.
Locality.— Woodhill Quarry, Kilmaurs.
Horizon.—Shale above Sandstone.
Locality.—Bonnyton Pit, Kilmarnock.
Horizon.—Shale over Whistler Seam.
Locality.—Busbie Pits, near Kilmarnock,
Horizon.—Two fathoms below Ell Coal.
Locality—No. 16 Pit, Woodhill Colliery, Kilmaurs.
Horizon.—Roof of Splint Coal.
Alethopteris decurrens, Artis, sp.
Alethopteris decurrens, Zeiller, Flore foss. d. bassin howl. d. Valen., p. 221, pl. xxxiv. fig. 2, 3; pl. xxxv.
fig. 1; pl. xxxvi. figs. 3, 4.
Filicites decurrens, Artis, Antedil. Phyt., pl. xxi.
Pecopteris Manteili, Brongt., Hist. d. végét. foss., p. 278, pl. 1xxxiii. figs, 3, 4.
_ Pecopteris Mantelli, L, and H., Fossil Flora, vol. ii. exlv.
Pecopteris Mantelli, Sauveur, Végét. foss. d. terr. houil. Belgique, pl. xl. figs. 1, 2.
Pecopteris Mantelli, Achepohl, Niederrh. Westfil. Steink., p. 77, pl. xxiv. figs. 1-4.
Alethopteris Mantelli, Roehl, Foss. Flora d. Steink.-Form. Westph., p. 74, pl. xiii. fig. 4.
Alethopteris Mantelli, Zeiller, Végét. foss. d. terr. houil., p. 74, pl. elxiii. fig. 3, 4.
Alethopteris Mantelli, Weiss, Aus. d. Steink., p. 16, pl. xiv. fig. 96, 1882.
Alethopteris Mantelli, Achepohl, ibid., pp. 89, 114, pl. xxvii. figs. 20-22; pl. xxxiv. fig. 20.
Pecopteris (Alethopteris) lonchitidis, Lebour, Illustr. of Fossil Plants, p. 49, pl. xxiv.
Pecopteris lonchitica, Sauveur (not Schl. ; in part), Végét. foss. d. terr. houil. d. Belgique, pl. xl. tig. 3;
pl. xlii. fig. 4.
Pecopteris heterophylla, Hooker, Mem. Geol. Survey Gt. Brit., vol. ii. part ii. p. 400, fig. 1.
Pecopteris heterophylla, L. and H., Fossil Flora, vol. i. pl. xxxviii.
Alethopteris gracillima, Boulay, Terr. howil. du nord de la France, p. 33, pl. ii. fig. 5.
Pecopteris Rantelli (= Mantelli 1), Sauveur, ibid., pl. xlii. fig. 1.
Pecopteris multiformis, Sauveur, ibid., pl. xxxvi. fig. 1.
Pteris (2) dubia, Konig., Icones fossilium sectiles, pl. xv. fig. 180.
VOL. XXXVII. PART II. (NO. 16). 3B
332 MR ROBERT KIDSTON ON THE FOSSIL PLANTS OF THE
Remarks.—Frequent in the Lower and Middle Coal Measures, but not yet recorded
from the Upper Coal Measures of Britain.
Locality.—No, 10, Springside Colliery, Dreghorn.
Horizons.—Bed between Major and Main Coals and Shale over Annandale Main
Coal. ss
Locality.—Springhill Colliery, near Dreghorn,
Horizon.—“ Lin Bed.”
Locality.—Woodhill Quarry, Kilmaurs.
_ Horizon.—Shale over Sandstone.
Pecopteris, Brongt.
Pecopteris, sp. (allied to Pecopteris Miltoni, Artis, sp.).
Remarks.—The Pecopteris placed here is very rare, and has only been met with once
in the Kilmarnock Coal Field. The specimens are too imperfect for a satisfactory
determination. I have also seen the same fern from the Lanarkshire Coal Field, ba
there also it occurred in a very fragmentary condition.
Locality.—No. 3 Pit, Springhill, Crosshouse.
Horizon.—Above Major Coal.
Sphenophyllee.
Sphenophyllum, Brongniart.
Sphenophyllum cuneifolium, Sternb., sp.
Sphenophyllum cuneifolium, Renault, Cours d. botan. foss., vol. ii. p. 87, pl. xiii. fig. 10, 1882.
Sphenophyllum cuneifolium, Zeiller, Végét. foss. du terr. houil., p. 30, pl. clxi. figs. 1, 2.
Sphenophyllum cuneifolium, Zeiller, Flore foss. d. bassin houil. d. Valen., p. 413, pl. Ixii. fig. 1; pl. Lxiit.
figs. 1-10.
Rotularia cuneifolia, Sternb., Lss. fl. monde prim., i. fase. 2, p. 33, pl. xxvi. figs. 4a, 40.
Sphenophyllum pusillum, Sauveur, Végét. foss. d. terr. houil. de la Belgique, pl. Ixiv. fig. 4.
Rotularia pusilla, Bischoff, Die kryptogam. Gewdchse, p. 90, pl. xiii. fig. 3.
Sphenophyllum erosum, L. and H., Fossil Flora, vol. i. pl. xiii.
Sphenophyllum erosum, Bunbury, Quart. Jour. Geol. Soc., vol. iii. p. 430, pl. xxiii. fig. 3, 1847.
Sphenophyllum erosum, Coemans and Kickx., Bull. VAcad. Roy. Belgique, vol. xviii. p. 149, pl. i. fig. 5.
Sphenophyllum erosum, Heer, Flora foss. Helv., i. Lief, p. 53, pl. xix. figs. 11-13 (not fig. 14).
Sphenophyllum erosum, Roehl, Foss. Flora d. Steink.-Form. Westphilens, p. 30, pl. iv. fig. 19.
Sphenophyllum erosum, Schimper, Traité d. paléont. végét., vol. i. p. 341, pl. xxv. figs, 10-14.
Sphenophyllum erosum, Weiss, Aus. d. Steink., p. 12, pl. x. fig. 57, 1882.
Sphenophyllum Schlotheimii, Ett. (not Brongt.), Steinkf. v. Stradonitz, p. 6, pl. vi. fig. 6.
Sphenophyllum Schlotheimii, Ett. (in part), Steinkf. v. Radnitz, p. 30, pl. xi. figs. 1-3. |
Calamites Sachsei, Stur (in part), Die Calamarien d. Schatzlarer Schichten, pp. 187, 191 (? pl. xi
figs, 2, 4).
YG
=
KILMARNOCK, GALSTON, AND KILWINNING COAL FIELDS, AYRSHIRE. 333
Sphenophyllum multifidum, Sauveur, Végét. foss. d. terr. houil. de la Belgique, pl. Ixiv. figs. 1, 2.
Rotularia polyphylla, Sternb., Essai fl. monde prim., i. fase. 4, pp. xxxii. 47, pl. 1. fig. 4.
Rotularia saxifragexfolium, Sternb., tbid., i. fase. 4, p. xxxii. pl. lv. fig. 4.
Sphenophyllum saxifragefolium, Geinitz, Flora d. Hainschen-Ebersdorfer, p. 37, pl. xiv. figs. 7-10.
Sphenophyllum saxifragxfolium, Geinitz, Vers. d. Steinkf. in Sachsen, p. 13, pl. xx. fig. 8 (@ figs. 9, 10).
Sphenophyllum saxifragefolium, Renault, Cours d. botan. foss., vol. ii. p. 87, pl. xiii. figs. 11-14, 1882.
Sphenophyllum saxifragefolium, Roehl, Foss. Flora d. Steink.-Form. Westph., p. 31, pl. iv. fig. 17
(2 pl. iii. fig. 2c).
Sphenophyllum saxifragefolium, Weiss, Aus. d. Steink., p. 12, pl. x. fig. 62, 1882.
Sphenophyllites saxifragefolius, Germar, Vers. v. Wettin u. Lobejun, fase. 4, p. 17, pl. xvii. fig. 1.
Sphenophyllum dichotomum, Stur, Die Calamarien der Schatzlurer Schichten, p. 233, pl. xv. figs.
5a, 6, c,d; (pl. xiiid. fig. 2—in lower right angle of figure 2).
Rotularia dichotoma, Germar and Kaulfuss, Act. Acad. Nat. Curios., vol. xv. p. 226, pl. Ixvi. fig. 4.
Sphenophyllum erosum, var. saxifragefolium, Coemans and Kickx., Bull. Acad. Roy. Belgique, vol. xviii.
p. 151, pl. i. fig. 6.
Sphenophyllum emarginatum, Geinitz (not Brongt.; in part), Vers. d. Steinkf. in Sachsen, p. 12, pl. xx. fig. 6.
Sphenophyllum emarginatum, Sterzel (not Brongt.), Flora d. Rothl. im Nordw. Sachsen, in Dames and
Kayser. Palxont. Abhand., vol. iii. Heft iv., Berlin, 1886, p. 23, fig. 9 (? fig. 16).
Remarks.—Not uncommon, but generally occurring in a very fragmentary state.
The form saxifragxfolium does not, I believe, represent a true variety, the divided
form of leaf appearing to be that which is always associated with the cones of the species.
Mons. Zrt~LeR figures beautiful fruiting specimens which show the cones and their
accompanying saxifragefoliwm foliage ; and on some fruiting specimens from Yorkshire,
communicated to me by Mr W. Hemineway, the same conditions were observable. It
seems, therefore, probable that the divided leaves are characteristic of the fruiting
branches, but between the typical cuneifoliwm form of leaf and the deeply-divided form
of saxifragezfoliwm there is every intermediate gradation.
The systematic position of Sphenophyllum has not yet been clearly determined.
Some authors have referred it to the Hquwisetacex, others to the Lycopodiacex or
Rhizocar pez.
From the Hquisetacex, or more properly the Calamarex, Sphenophyllum differs in their
ribs not alternating at the nodes, and in their stems possessing a solid axvs, not hollow as
in Calamates ; and though in their solid axis they show some points in common with the
fossil Lycopodiacex, they differ in possessing ribbed stems with well-marked nodes. The
structure of their cone is also peculiar, the sporangia being placed on the bracts a short
distance from the axis of the cone, in the elbow formed by the sudden upward bending
of the distal portion of the bract, and, according to Renautt,* the cones are hetero-
sporous. This author places Sphenophyllum among the Rhizocarps, but taking the
whole peculiar structural differences of the genus into consideration, I do not know that
we are warranted in referring Sphenophyllum to any existing order, and therefore the
genus is placed here under a separate group—Sphenophyllex, whose systematic position
probably stands near to the Lycopodiacee.t
* Cours d. botan. foss., vol. ii., 1882, p. 102.
t Consult further, Zeiller, “Sur la constitution des épis de fructification du Sphenophyllwm cuneifolium,” Comptes
Rendus, 11th July 1892, which has appeared since this paper was written.
304 MR ROBERT KIDSTON ON THE FOSSIL PLANTS OF THE
I am aware that Dr Stur* and Mr A. Sewarpt have described specimens of Spheno-
phyllum, which they believed showed the organic union of Asterophyllites (Calamocladus)
and Sphenophyllum, but the specimens on which this opinion is based appear to me to
represent much more probably merely examples of Sphenophyllum showing the dimorphic
condition of the foliage—specimens on which the divisions of the leaves extend almost
to the base. The preservation of the specimens figured by Srur and S—warp does not
warrant any other conclusion. I possess specimens of a Sphenophyllum—probably
Sphenophyllum myriophyllum, Crépin—which, were it not for their good state of pre-
servation, would certainly be mistaken for Calamocladus.{
The opinion has been expressed that the Sphenophyllex were aquatic plants, a view
which originated from the occurrence of entire or only dentate leaves with other leaves
very much divided on the same specimen. In support of this opinion, there really seems
to be no proof, and in the case of Sphenophyllum cuneifolium, the divided saxifrage-
folium form of leaf is associated with the fructification (though it might also occur on
barren branches), which I believe no one doubts was aerial, and the structure of the
stem does not favour the idea that the plants were aquatic.
Locality.—W oodhill Quarry, Kilmaurs.
Horizon.—Shale over Sandstone.
Locality.x—Bonnyton Pit, Kilmarnock.
Horizon.—Shale above Whistler Seam.
Locality.—No. 3 Pit, Springhill, Crosshouse.
Horizons.—Shale above Major Coal and M‘Naught Coal.
Locality—No. 3 Pit, Springhill, near Dreghorn.
Horizon.—* Lin Bed.”
Lycopodiacez.
Lepidodendron, Sternberg.
Lepidodendron ophiurus, Brongt.
Lepidodendron ophiurus, Brongt., Prodrome, p. 85.
Lepidodendron ophiurus, Sauveur, Végét. foss. d. terr. houil. d. Belgique, pl. lix. fig, 2.
Lepidodendron ophiurus, Zeiller, Flore. foss. d. bassin houil. d. Valen., p. 458, pl. Ixviii. figs. 1-6.
Sagenaria ophiurus, Brongt., Class. d. végét. foss., p. 27, pl. vi. fig. 1.
Sagenaria Martini, Konig., Icones foss. sectiles, pl. xiii. fig. 162.
Phytolithus plantites (imbricatus), Martin, Petrificata Derbiensia, pl. xiv. fig. 4.
* Die Carbon. Flora d. Schatzlarer Schichten, Abth. ii. ; “Die Calamarien der Carbon Flora,” Abhandl. d. k. k. geol.
Reichsanstalt, Band xi. Abth. ii. p. 191, pl. xi. fig. 2.
+ Mem. and Proc. Manchester Lit. and Phil. Soc., Session 1889-90, vol. iii. series 4. :
t See Kidston “On the Fructification of Sphenqphyllum trichomatoswm, Stur, from the Yorkshire Coal Field,”
Proc. Roy. Phys. Soc. Edin., vol. xi. p. 56, pl. i., 1892.
KILMARNOCK, GALSTON, AND KILWINNING COAL FIELDS, AYRSHIRE. 335
Lepidodendron Sternbergii, L. and H. (not Brongt.), Fossel Flora, vol. i. pl. iv. ; vol. ii. pl. exil.
Lepidodendron dilatatum, L. and H., zbid., vol. i. pl. vii. fig. 2.
Lepidodendron gracile, Brongt., Hist. d. végét. foss., vol. ii. pl. xv.
Lepidodendron gracile, L. and H., ibid., vol. i. pl. ix.
Lepidodendron gracile, Zeiller, Végét. foss. d. terr. houil., p. 112, pl. clxxii. fig. 2.
(2) Lycopodites longibracteatus, Morris, Trans. Geol. Soc. Lond., 2nd ser., vol. v. p. 488, pl. xxxviil. figs. 9-11.
in the Lower and Middle Coal Measures, but it has generally been identified as L.
Sternbergu.*
Locality.—Bonnyton Pit, Kilmarnock.
Horizon.—Shale above Whistler Seam.
Locality. —New Mill Pit, Kilmarnock.
Horizon.—Hurlford Main Coal.
Locality.—Busbie Pits, near Kilmarnock.
Horizon.—Two fathoms below Ell Coal.
Locality.— Annick Lodge, near Irvine.
Horizon.—Shale between Splint Coal and Blackband Ironstone.
Locality.— Woodhill Quarry, Kilmaurs.
Horizon.—Shale over Sandstone,
Locality.— Kilmarnock Water.
Horvzon.—?
Locality.—Bruntwood Main, Galston.
Horizon.—?
Remarks.—Lepidodendron ophiurus is the Lepidodendron most frequently found
|
Lepidodendron obovatum, Sternb.
Lepidodendron obovatum, Sternb., Ess. jl. monde prim., vol. i. fasc. 1, pp. 21, 25, pl. vi. fig. 1; pl. viii.
fig. la; fasc. 4, p. x.
Lepidodendron obovatum, Lesqx., Atlas to Coal Flora, p. 12, pl. Ixiv. fig. 3.
Lepidodendron obovatum, L. and H., Fossil Flora, vol. i. pl. xixbis. (figures bad). ©
Lepidodendron obovatum, Renault, Cours d. botan. foss., vol. ii. p. 13, pl. vi. fig. 5.
Lepidodendron obovatum, Roehl (in part), Foss. Flora d. Steink.-Form. Westph., p. 129, pl. viii. fig. 82,
Lepidodendron obovatum, Zeiller, Flore foss. d. bassin howil. de Valen., p. 442, pl. Ixvi. figs. 1-8.
Sagenaria obovata, Feistmantel (in part), Vers. d. bohm. Kohlenab., Abth. ii. p. 30, pl. ix. figs. 1 and 3
(not figs. 2 and 4).
Sagenaria obovata, Presl. in Sternb., Vers., ii. p. 178, pl. Ixviii. fig. 6.
Sagenaria aculeata, Feistm. (in part), ibid., p. 34, pl. xi. figs. 3, 4.
Sagenaria rugosa, Presl. in Sternb., ibid., ii. p. 178, pl. Ixviii. fig. 4.
Lepidodendron Rhodianum, Sauveur (not Sternb.), Végét. foss. d. terr. howil. Belgique, pl. xiii. fig. 1.
Lepidodendron clypeatum, Lesqx., Coal Flora, p. 380, pl. lxiv. fig. 16 (not figs. 17, 18).
Lepidodendron venustum, Wood, Proc. Amer. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phil., 1860, p. 239, pl. v. fig. 2.
. Lepidodendron venustum, Wood, Trans. Amer. Phil. Soc., 1866, vol. xiii. p. 346, pl. ix. fig. 1.
* For fuller notes on this species, see Kipston, Proc. Roy. Phys. Soc., vol. x., 1889-90, p. 350.
336 MR ROBERT KIDSTON ON THE FOSSIL PLANTS OF THE
Lepidodendron dichotomum, Lesqx., Coal Flora, vol. ii. p. 384, pl. lxiv. fig. 3.
Lepidodendron dichotomum, Achepohl, Niederrh. Westfal. Steink., pp. 39 and 54, pl. x. fig. 3; aia XV r.
figs. 1, 2.
Remarks.—A series of specimens of Lepidodendron clypeatum, Lesqx., has kindly
been sent me by Mr Lacog, Pittston, from which it is seen that this species cannot be
separated from Lepidodendron obovatum. The specimen figured by LesquEREvx in his
Coal Flora (of which I possess a similar example) has suffered from pressure, and does
not represent the true aspect of the fossil. Lepidodendron obovatum is frequent in
the Lower and Middle Coal Measures, but I have not yet met with it in the Upper Coal
Measures,
Locality—Bonnyton Pit, Kilmarnock.
Horizon.—Shale above Whistler Seam.
Locality.— Annandale Colliery, near Kilmarnock.
Horizon.—Over Splint Coal (= Hurlford Main).
Locality.—Cauldhame Pit, Kilmaurs.
Horizon.—Shale over Tourha’ Coal.
Lepidodendron aculeatum, Sternb.
Lepidodendron aculeatum, Sternb., Ess. fl. monde prim., vol. i. fase. 1, pp. 21 and 25, pl. vi. fig. 2; pl. v iii.
fig. 1b; fasc. 2, p. 25, pl. xiv. figs. 1-4; fase. 4, p. x. i
Lepidodendron aculeatum, Lesqx., Coal Ficra, vol. ii. p. 371, pl. Ixiv. fig. 1.
Lepidodendron aculeatum, Renault, Cours d. botan. foss., vol. ii. p. 12, pl. i. fig. 7; pl. vi. fig. 4.
Lepidodendron aculeatum, Sauveur, Végét. foss. d. houil. terr. Belgique, pl. \xiii. fig. 4.
Lepidodendron aculeatum, Schimper, Traité d. paléont. végét., vol. ii. p. 20, pl. lix. fig. 3; pl. lx, figs. 1,
(? fig. 6).
Lepidodendron aculeatum, Fairchild, Ann. New York Acad. Sc., vol. i. No. 3, p. 77, pl. v. figs. 1 A;
pl. vi. figs. 1-4 (? fig. 5; ?not fig. 6); pl. vii. figs. 1-4 (? figs. 5, 6); pl. viii. figs. 1, 2 (?figs. 3-t
pl. ix. (? fig. 6 ; not figs. 1-5, 7).
Lepidodendron aculeatum, Zeiller, Végét. foss. d. bassin houil. d. Valen., p. 435, pl. Ixv. figs. 1-7.
Sagenaria aculeata, Feistmantel (in part), Vers. d. bihm. Kohlenab., Abth. ii. p. 34, pl. xii. fig. 1 (not pl. xi.
figs. 3, 4). Pe
Sagenaria aculeata, Presl. in Sternb., Vers., ii. p. 177, pl. Ixviii. fig. 3.
Lepidodendron dichotomum, Weiss, Aus. d. Steink., p. 7, pl. iv. fig. 27, 1882. ;
Lepidodendron dichotomum, Schimper (in part), Traité d. paléont. véyét., vol. ii. p. 19, pl. Ix. figs. 3 and 5 b.
Lepidodendron obovatum, Sauveur (not Sternb.), zbid., pl. xiii. fig. 3. a
Lepidodendron crenatum, Gopp., Syst. fil. foss., p. 465, pl. xlii. figs. 4-6. .
Lepidodendron crenatum, Sauveur, ibid., pl. |xiii. fig. 2.
Sagenaria celata, Brongt., Class. d. végét. foss., p. 24, pl. i. fig. 6.
Lepidodendron celatum, Sauveur, ibid., pl. 1xi. fig. 5.
Lepidodendron ureum, Wood, Trans. Amer, Phil. Soc., vol. xiii. p. 3438, pl. ix. fig. 5.
Lepidodendron modulatum, Lesqx., Geol. of Pennsyl., vol. ii. p. 874, pl. xv. fig. 1.
Lepidodendron modulatum, Lesqx., Coal Flora, vol. ii. p. 385, pl. lxiv. figs. 18, 14.
Sagenaria distans, Feistmantel, Vers. d. bohm. Kohlenab., Abth. ii. p. 38, pl. xix. fig. 3.
(?) Lepidodendron conicum, Lesqx., Geol. of Pennsyl., vol. ii. p. 874, pl. xv. fig. 3.
(2) Lepidodendron caudatum, var., Roehl, Foss. Flora d. Steink.-Form. Westph., p. 130, pl. vi. fig. 7 an
fig. 7.
KILMARNOCK, GALSTON, AND KILWINNING COAL FIELDS, AYRSHIRE. 337
Lepidodendron Mekiston, Wood, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sc. Phila., p. 239, pl. v. fig. 3, 1860.
Lepidodendron Lesquereuxi, Wood, zbid., p. 240, pl. v. fig. 4.
Lepidodendron Borde, Wood, tbid., p. 240, pl. vi. fig. 3.
Lepidodendron dichotomum rhombiforme, Achepohl, Niederrh. West fal. Steink., p. 67, pl. xx. fig. 3.
Lepidodendron dichotomum transiens, Achepohl, ibid., p. 92, pl. xxx. fig. 4.
Lepidodendron lamellosum, Achepohl, zbid., p. 134, pl. xl. fig. 15.
Rhode, Beitr. z. Pflanzen d, Vorwelt, pp. 8, 9, pl. 1 figs. 5, 6.
King, Edin. New Phil. Jour., vol. xxxvi. p. 273, pl. iv. figs. 2 and 4, 1843-44.
Decorticated and Imperfectly preserved Examples :-—
Aspidiaria undulata, Feistm., Vers. d. béhm. Kohlenab., Abth. ii. p. 30, pl. x. figs. 1-4; pl. xi. fig. 1 (not
fig. 2).
Sagenaria undulata, Kichwald, Lethxa Rossica, vol. i. p. 126, pl. viii. fig. 8 (? pl. ix. fig. 1).
Lepidodendron confluens, Sauveur, Végét. foss. d. terr. howl. Belgique, pl. xii. fig. 3.
Lepidodendron appendiculatum, Sternb., Ess. fl. monde prim., vol. i. fasc. 3, p. 43, pl. xxviii. ; fase. 4, p. xi.
Sigillaria appendiculata, Brongt., Hist. d. végét. foss., p. 420, pl. exli. fig. 2.
Aphyllum cristatum, Artis, Antedil. Phyt., pl. xvi.
Remarks.—This species occurs in the three divisions of the Coal Measures, but is not
nearly so common as Lepid. ophiurus. Lepidodendron aculeatum is subject to con-
siderable variation in the distance apart of the leaf scars, but is nevertheless a well-
’ marked species.
Locality. —Bonnyton Pit, Kilmarnock.
Horizon.—Shale over Whistler Coal.
| Locality.—Grange Colliery, Kilmarnock.
Horizon.—Shale over Stranger Coal.
Locality.—Wellington Pit, Hurlford.
Horizon.—Shale over Hurlford Main Coal.
Locality — Burntwood Mains, Galston.
- Horizon.—(?)
forma modulatum, Lesqx., sp.
Locality.—Bonnyton Pit, Kilmarnock.
Horizon. —Shale over Whistler Seam.
Lepidodendron serpentigerum, Konig.
Lepidodendron serpentigerum, Kénig., Icones foss. sectiles, pl. xvi. fig. 195.
Lepidodendron cheilallzum, Wood, Trans. Amer. Phil. Soc., vol. xiii. p. 346, pl. ix. fig. 4.
Lepidodendron distans, Lesqx., Coal Flora, vol. ii. p. 387, pl. xliv. fig. 10.
| Lepidodendron distans, Lesqx., Geol. of Pennsyl., vol. ii. p. 874, pl. xvi. fig. 5.
Lepidodendron oculatum, Lesqx., Geol. of Pennsyl., vol. ii. p. 874, pl. xvi. fig. 4.
Remarks.—This species is very rare, only three specimens have come under my
338 MR ROBERT KIDSTON ON THE FOSSIL PLANTS OF THE
notice from the Kilmarnock Coal Field, but I have seen another Scotch example from —
Stanrigg Pit, near Airdrie, Lanarkshire, from the basement beds of the Lower Coal
Measures, immediately above the Millstone Grit, which was collected by Mr R. Duntor.
It also occurs in the Lower Coal Measures of Northumberland.
Locality.—Grange Colliery, Kilmarnock. (A. Sinclair.)
Horizon.—Shale over Stranger Coal.
j
Lepidodendron Landsburgii, n.sp.
(Plate III. figs. 9, 9a, 10, 10a, 100.)
Description.—Stem attaining large dimensions, and bearing two opposite vertical rows
of distant, large oval discs (=ulodendroid scars), whose umbilicus is situated very slightly
below the centre. Leaf-cushions, from almost touching to more or less distant, quadrate-
rhomboidal to narrow elongate-rhomboidal, apices twisted in opposite directions and
prolonged into a keel which connects the preceding and succeeding leaf-cushion in the
same spiral series. Leaf-scar large, placed above the centre, rhomboidal, upper margin
rounded triangular, lateral angles prominent and produced into two ridges, which meet
the sides of the cushion about its centre, lower boundary of leaf-scar rounded with concave —
sides, from the upper and lower rounded angles of the leaf-scar extends a ridge which
joins the keels connecting the leaf-cushions. Vascular cicatrices not shown, The bark
between the leaf-cushions is ornamented with oblique irregular flexuous striz.
Remarks.—Several specimens of this fine species have been sent me by the Rey, D,
LanpsporoucH. A small portion of the largest is shown on Plate III. fig, 9, and is there
represented about half natural size. This example is 28°5 centimetres long and 25
centimetres wide, but its complete width is not. shown, as the specimen is broken on one
side. The large discs are very far apart, their distance from each other on this example,
measured from their margins, is 18°5 centimetres. Neither of the discs is complete, but
this is the only fossil I have seen which shows their distance apart—all the other examples
bearing the large scars, only show one. The leaf-cushions on the left hand of this speci-
men are closer than those on the right hand, and are only separated from each other by
the caudate keels which connect the various members of a spiral series with each other,
On the right hand they are slightly more distant and separated by a slight interval, in
the centre of which the connecting caudz run, the bark between being ornamented with
flexuous irregular oblique strie. A portion of this specimen is enlarged on Plate ILL. fig. —
9a to show these characters. The cushions are longer, in proportion to their breadth, in
this example than in that shown at fig. 10, their length to their breadth here being as
25 to 11. On this specimen the leaf-scar is not shown.
At Plate III. fig. 10 is given another figure of the same species, Here the leaf-
cushions are more rhomboidal than on that last described, their length to their breadth
being about 9 to 5, but these proportions are not constant, the measurements given are
KILMARNOCK, GALSTON, AND KILWINNING COAL FIELDS, AYRSHIRE. 339
only an average. On all specimens the leaf-cushions vary a little in their relative length
to their breadth. On a few of the leaf-cushions of this example, the leaf-scar is pre-
served. In form it is rhomboidal with its upper and lower angles rounded, the lower
margin on each side of the lobe is concave (Plate III. fig. 100). On none of my specimens
are the vascular cicatricules preserved. An enlarged figure of a portion of this specimen
is given on Plate III. fig. 10a, where the caudz are seen connecting the various leaf-
cushions of the same spiral series. This character is also seen in Plate III. fig. 9a.
The large oval disc is well seen in Plate III. fig. 10, its length being 6°5 centimetres
and its breadth 4°6 centimetres, measured across the almost central umbilicus. All the
bark has fallen off the large scar, except at a small part at its upper margin. On
another specimen, which is not figured, the large oval disc is 9 centimetres long and rather
over 6 centimetres broad. On another specimen, not figured, the leaf-cushions are more
distant than on any of the other examples, and they are also more elongated. The bark
intervening between them is ornamented in the manner already described.
Fig. 10 is given natural size.
Several specimens of this species have been found, but all were derived from the shale
over the “ Whistler Seam,” Bonnyton Colliery, Kilmarnock.
Several years ago I received from Dr J. M. Macrarang, late of Edinburgh, a specimen
of a large ulodendroid Lepidedendron, collected at Rosewell Colliery, Midlothian (Lower
Coal Measures). It is, however, not very well preserved, but I believe is referable to the
Kilmarnock species. The discs on the Rosewell example are very large, being about 13
centimetres long and 8°5 centimetres broad. Their distance apart, measured from the
outer limit of the discs, was 19°5 centimetres...
_ There is no coal-measure Lepidodendron with which this species can be mistaken, its
nearest ally being Lepidodendron Velthermianum, Sternb., from the Lower Carboniferous
Rocks (=Carboniferous Limestone and Calciferous Sandstone Series), but from this species
the characters I have already pointed out clearly separate it.
I take this opportunity of acknowledging my great indebtedness to the Rev. D.
Lanpsporovucu, Kilmarnock, for the assistance he has given me in working up the fossil
flora of the Kilmarnock Coal Field, by applying the specific name of Landsburgii to this
Lepidodendron.
Locahity.—Bonnyton Pit, Kilmarnock.
Horizon.—Shale over Whistler Seam.
oe Lepidodendron fusiforme, Corda.
Sagenaria fusiformis, Corda, Flora d. Vorwelt, p. 20, pl. vi. figs. 1-7.
Sagenaria fusiformis, Feistmantel, Vers. d. bohm. Kohlenab., Abth. ii. p. 38, pl. xix. fig. 2.
Sagenaria rimosa, Geinitz (in part), Vers. d. Steinkf. in Sachsen, p. 35, pl. iii. fig. 15.
Sagenaria rimosa, Feistmantel (in part), ibid., p. 36, pl. xx. fig. 1.
VOL, XXXVII. PART II. (NO. 16). 3 C
340 MR ROBERT KIDSTON ON THE FOSSIL PLANTS OF THE
Sagenaria dichotoma, Geinitz (in part), “bid., p. 34, pl. iii. fig. 2.
Phytolithus (cancellatus), Petreficata Derbiensia, pl. xiii. fig. 3, 1809.
(?) Lepidodendron simplex, Lesqx., Rept. Geol. Survey of Illin., vol. ii. p. 454, pl. xlv. fig. 5.
Remarks.—Only one specimen of this species has come before me from the Kil-
marnock district. I originally regarded this species as a variety of Lepidodendron
remosum, Sternb., to which it is certainly closely related. Frtstmante. thinks it should
be united to Lepidodendron rimosum, though he treats it as a distinct species. I have,
however, seen so few specimens of Lepidodendron fusiforme and Lepidodendron rimosum,
that in the meantime, till there is an opportunity of comparing the two species, it is safer
to regard them as distinct.
The plants differ in the leaf-cushions being contiguous in Lepidodendron fusiforme
and distant in Lepidodendron rimosum, but in certain other species both these characters
occur on the same plant, and unless some other character exists the closeness or distance
of the leaf-cushions is not sufficient for specific distinction.
Locality.—W oodhill Old Pit, Kilmaurs.
Horizon.—Shale over roof of Durroch Coal.
Lepidostrobus, Brongt.
Lepidostrobus variabilis, L. and H.
Lepidostrobus variabilis, L. and H., Fossil Flora, vol. i. pls. x. xi.
Remarks.—The cones of several species are probably included under this name.
Some specimens of Lepidostrobi from the Busbie Pits showed the macrospores very
distinctly.
Locality.—W oodhill Quarry, Kilmaurs.
Horizon.—Shale over Sandstone.
Locality.—Bonnyton Pit, Kilmarnock.
Horizon.—Shale over Whistler Seam.
Locality.—No. 3 Pit, Springhill, Crosshouse.
Horizon.—Shale over Major Coal.
Locality.—Busbie Pits, Kilmaurs.
Horizon.—Two fathoms below Ell Coal.
Lepidostrobus lanceolatus, L. and H., sp.
Lepidostrobus lanceolatus, Lesqx., Coal Flora, p. 436.
Lepidostrobus lanceolatus, Kidston, Trans. York. Nat. Union, part xiv., 1890, p. 50.
Lepidophyllum lanceolatum, L. and H., Fossil Flora, vol. i. pl. vii. figs. 3, 4.
Lepidophyllum lanceolatum, Zeiller, Flore foss. d. bassin houil. d. Valen., p. 505, pl. Ixxvii. figs. 7, 8.
Lepidophyllum lanceolatum, Roehl, Foss. Flora d. Steink -Form Westph., p. 141, pl. xxviii. fig. 10.
KILMARNOCK, GALSTON, AND KILWINNING COAL FIELDS, AYRSHIRE. 341
Lepidophyllum lanceolatum, Lesqx., Atlas to Coal Flora, p. 14, pl. 1xix. fig. 38.
Lepidophyllum lanceolatum, Geinitz, Vers. d. Steinkf. in Sachsen, p. 50, pl. ii. fig. 8.
Sayenaria dichotoma, Geinitz (in part), ibid., p. 50, pl. ii. figs. 6-8.
Lepidostrobus lepidophyllaceus, Geinitz, ibid., p. 50, pl. ii. figs. 6, 7.
Remarks.—Not uncommon, but generally occurring as isolated bracts.
Locality.—W oodhill Quarry, Kilmaurs.
Horizon.—Shale over Sandstone.
Lepidostrobus (?) spinosus, Kidston.
(Plate II. fig. 7; Plate III. figs. 11,12.)
Lepidostrobus spinosus, Kidston, Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin., vol. xxxiii. p. 396.
Lepidostrobus, Brongt., Hist. d. végét. foss., vol. ii. pl. xxii. figs. 2, 3, 8.
Description.—Cone oblong, and tapering to its blunt apex; bracts lanceolate, acute,
single veined, adpressed, rigid ; external extremities of sporangia rhomboidal.
Remarks.—This cone was figured by Brongniart in the second volume of his Hist. d.
vegét. foss., pl. xxii. figs. 2, 3, and 8, to which, however, he gave no distinctive name.
Cones which I believe to be referable to the species to which I originally applied the
specific name of spnosus are not uncommon in the Kilmarnock Coal Field, and examples are
given-on Plates II. fig. 7, and III. figs. 11,12. That figured on Plate II. fig. 7 is the most
interesting, as showing its attachment to the parent stem, which is longitudinally striated,
and has apparently been unprovided with leaves; but it is partially veiled by some
vegetable matter lying across it. From its smooth striated stem it is comparable to
some Sigillarian cones, but in other points it agrees more with Lepidostrobus, and before
seeing this stalked example I referred these fossils to Lepidostrobus ; now, however, I am
not certain on that point. In the fossil state the bracts are always adpressed to the cone ;
that given on Plate III. fig. 11 is photographed with the light striking it at right angles to
the axis, and the striated appearance of its surface is produced by the edges of the
adpressed bracts. The same cone is shown at fig. 12, but is here photographed with the
light falling on it parallel with the axis, when the rhomboidal extremities of the sporangia
are seen shining through the adpressed bracts. One might, therefore, judge that the
bracts, though apparently upright and rigid, had been thin.
Dawson, in his Geological History of Plants,* described a Lepidodendron under the
name of Lepidodendron Cliftonense, in regard to the fructification of which, he says :—
“Cones large, cylindrical, or long oval, with large scales of triangular form, and not
elongated, but lying close to the surface. Borne on lateral slender branchlets, with short
leaves.” From a small sketch, with which he has favoured me in a letter,t the cones are
seen to depend from the ends of slender branches ; but in Lepidostrobus (?) spinosus the
* Page 14. - 2 + December 10, 1890.
342 MR ROBERT KIDSTON ON THE FOSSIL PLANTS OF THE
stem of the cone is straight and rigid, and evidently did not depend from the branch to |
which it was attached, and the bracts are also of a quite different form from those described
by Dawson. Also, from the nature of the stalk of my specimen, it does not appear to have
been a cone terminating a branch. I am therefore inclined to regard it as having been
produced from the side of a stem. ‘Taking all these points into consideration, it has
suggested itself to me that perhaps in Lepidostrobus (?) spinosus we may have the cone
of Sigiularia and not the cone of a Lepidodendron, and therefore I have inserted an (?)
after the genus in which I provisionally place it, for Lepidostrobus is generally
supposed to include only cones of Lepidodendron, though it is by no means certain
that all the members enrolled in it are really the fructifications of that genus.
Locality. —Bonnyton Pit, Kilmarnock.
Horizon.—Shale over Whistler Coal.
Lepidostrobus Geinitzii, Schimper.
Lepidostrobus Geimitzi, Schimper, Traité d. paléont, végét., vol. ii, p. 62 (tpl. xi. figs. 6, 7). (Hael. syn.
L. comosus, L. and H.)
Lepidostrobus Geinitzt, Zeiller, Flore foss. d. bassin houil..d. Valen., p. 501, pl. Ixxvi. fig. 2.
Lepidostrobus variabilis, Geinitz (not L. and H.), Vers. d. Steinkf. in Sachsen, p. 50, pl. ii. figs. 1, 3, 4.
Lepidostrobus variabilis, Roehl (not L. and H.; in part), Foss, Flora d. Steink-Form. Westph., p. 142,
pl. vii. fig. 2,
Lepidostrobus variabilis, a cai L. and H. ; im part), Vers d. bohm. Kohlenab., part i ii. ra 44,
pl. xiv., pl. xv. figs. 1,
Note.—This cone is rare.
Locality.—Busbie Pit, Kilmaurs.
Horizon.—Two fathoms below Ell Coal.
Lepidostrobus squarrosus, Kidston, n.sp.
(Plate IV. figs. 18, 13a, and 14.)
Lepidostrobus variabilis, Schimper (not L. and H.), Z'raité d. paléont. végét., vol. ii. p. 61, pl. Ixi.
figs. 1, 2.
Lepidostrobus variabilis, Zeiller (not L. and H.), Flore foss. d. bassin houil. d. Valen., p. 499, pl. 1xxvi.
fig. 3 (7 fig. 4).
Remarks.—The cone I here name Lepidostrobus squarrosus is similar to that placed
under the name of Lepidostrobus variabilis by ScuimpeR and ZeriEr. While recog-
nising that very wide limits must be given to cones included under Lepidostrobus
variabilis, I do not think it possible to include that figured by Scuimper and ZEILLER,
and the one given on my Plate IV. fig. 13, under that species.
KILMARNOCK, GALSTON, AND KILWINNING COAL FIELDS, AYRSHIRE, 343
ZEILLER, in the same work (Joe. cit.), treats Lepidostrobus ornatus as a distinct species.
My own opinion is, that Lepidostrobus ornatus, L. and H. (I do not say ornatus of
other authors), cannot be separated by any definite characters from their Lepidostrobus
variabils. The specific point upon which ZELLER lays great importance in the
distinction of these two species—the swelling on the “knee” of the bract on which the
sporangia sits—is not shown on any of LinpLey and Hurron’s figures of Lepzdostrobus
ornatus; and further, the Lepidostrobus ornatus, var. didyma, L. and H. (vol. iii.
pl. elxiii.), does not belong to the species: figured in their vol. i. pl. xxvi. I arrive at
this conclusion from the fact that the cone occurring at Newhaven* (var. dedyma)
I have found attached to a species of Lycopod that does not occur in the Coal
Measures at all, from which horizon the types of Lepidostrobus ornatus originate.
The chief character by which I separate my Lepidostrobus squarrosus from Lepido-
strobus variabilis is its larger size, and the much more lax spreading nature of the bracts.
The individual bracts are not very clearly seen, but they seem to be identical with the
figure given by ZeruuER. Their free portion is lanceolate, acute, and single veined.
The specimen shown on Plate IV. fig. 13, which occurs on the slab alongside of
another example, was communicated to me by the Rev. D. LanpsBorouGH.
Locality.—Bonnyton Pit, Kilmarnock.
Horizon.—Shale over Whistler Coal.
Lepidophloios, Sternberg.
Lepidophloios acerosus, L. and H., sp.
Lepidophlowos acerosus, Kidston, Trans. York. Nat. Union, No. 14, 1890, p. 49.
Lepidophloios acerosus, Kidston, Proc. Roy. Phys. Soc., vol. x. p. 351, 1891.
Lepidodendron acerosum, L. and H., Fossil Flora, vol. i. pl. vii. fig..1; pl. viii.
Lepidodendron brevifolium, Ett., Steinkf. v. Radnitz, p. 53, pl. xxiv. figs. 4,5; pl xxv.; pl. xxvi.
fig. 3.
Lepidostrobus pinaster, L. and H., ibid., vol. ili. pl. exeviii.
Lepidophloios larvcinus, Goldenberg (in part), Flora Sarcepont. foss., Heft iii. p. 45, pl. xv. fig. 9 (named
on plate Lepidophloios macrolepidotus).
Lepidodendion dichotomum, Feistm. (not Sternb.; im part), Vers. d. bihm. Kohlenab., Abth. ii, p. 14, pl. iii.
figs. 3 and 5.
Lepidophloios carinatus, Weiss, Foss Flora d. jing. Stk. u. d. Rothl., p. 155.
(2) Lepidodendron dichotomum, Roehl (not Sternb.; in part), Foss. Flora d. Steink.-Form. Westph., p. 125,
pl. xi. fig. 2.
_ Remarks.—This species is frequent, but the specimens are usually fragmentary. Mr
Lomax showed me a specimen of Lepidodendron fuliginosum, Will., with the bark
attached, from which it was seen that WiLLIaMson’s plant is a Lepidophlovos,
* Calciferous Sandstone Series.
344. MR ROBERT KIDSTON ON THE FOSSIL PLANTS OF THE
Locality.—Bonnyton Pit, Kilmarnock.
Horizon.—Shale over Whistler Coal.
Locality.—Woodhill Old Pit, Kilmaurs.
Horizon.—Shale over roof of Durroch Coal.
| Halonia, L. and H.
Halonia tortuosa, L. and H., Fossil Flora, vol. ii. pl. xxxv.
Halonia tortuosa, Zeiller, Flore foss. d. bassin houil. d. Valen., p. 476, pl. Ixxii. figs. 4, 5.
Halonia regularis, L. and H., zbed., vol. iii. pl. eexxviil. )
Halonia regularis, Feistiiantél, pers d. béhm. Kohlenab., Abth. ii. p. 19, pl. v. fig. 6; pl. vi. ; plage
figs. 1, 2; pl. viii. figs. 1,
Halonia tuberculosa, Denny, Geol. we Polytech. Soc. of W. Riding of Yorkshire, 1849, p. 37, pl. i.
Remarks,—Haloniz are the decorticated fruiting branches of Lepidophloios, not.
Lepidodendron, as has been stated. This has been shown by Feistmantel (Joc. cit.), and 1
possess specimens corroborative of this view. — Haloniz are of frequent occurrence in the
Middle and Lower Coal Measures.
Locality.—Bonnyton Pit, Kilmarnock.
Horizon.—Shale over Whistler Coal.
Locaiity.—W oodhill Quarry, Kilmaurs.
Horizon.—Shale over Sandstone.
Bothrodendron, L. and H.
Bothrodendron punctatum, L. and H.
Bothrodendron punctatum, L. and H., Fossil Flora, vol. ii. pls. Ixxx., Ixxxi. :
Bothrodendron punctatum, Zeiller, Ann. d. Sc. Nat., 6° sér., BEL, vol. xiii. p. 224, pl. ix. figs. ia
pl. x. figs. 1-14.
Bothrodendron punctatum, Zeiller, Bull. Soc. Géol. d. France, 3° sér., vol. xiv. p. 178, pl. viii. figs. 1-3.
Bothrodendron punctatum, Zeiller, Végét. foss. d. terr. houil., p. 116.
Bothrodendron punctatum, Zeiller, Flore foss. d. bassin houil. d. Valen., p. 487, pl. lxxv. figs. 1, 2;
Ixxvi. fig. 1
Bothrodendron punctatum, Renault, Cours d. botan. foss., vol. ii. p. 52, pl. xi. fig. 4.
Bothrodendron punctatum, Kidston, Proc. Roy. Phys. Soc. Edin., vol. x. p. 364.
Ulodendron Lindleyanum, Presl. in Sternb., Vers., vol. ii. p. 185, pl. xlv. fig. 4.
Ulodendron punctatum, Schimper, 7'raité d. paléont. végét., vol. ii. p. 42.
Halonia punctata, Feistmantel, Vers. d. bihm. Kohlenab., Abth. ii. p. 20 (tpl. xviii. Exel. explanation
on Plate).
Rhytidodendron punctatum, Kidston, Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist., val xvi. p. 174.
Ulodendron Schlegelit, Kichwald, Urw. Russl., vol. i. p. 81, pl. iii. fig 4.
Arthrocladion Rhodi, Sauveur, Végét. foss. d. terr. houil. ce - avi.
xiii. pp. 40 and 45, sh iii. figs. 1-3. ‘
Ulodendron transversum, Carr. (not Eichwald), Monthly Mic. Journ., vol. iii. pl. xliv. fig. 2 (not ia it oi m
p. 153).
(?) Ulodendron Conybeart, Buckland, Geol. and Miner., vol. ii. p. 94, pl. lvi. fig. 6’.
KILMARNOCK, GALSTON, AND KILWINNING COAL FIELDS, AYRSHIRE. 345
Remarks.—This species is very rare, and very few examples have been met with in
the Kilmarnock area. Bothrodendron punctatum was long regarded as a decorticated
condition of Ulodendron, L. and H., but Zeiller has clearly shown that Bothrodendron is
a well-founded genus and synonymous with Rhytidodendron, Boulay.*
Locality.—Bonnyton Pit, Kilmarnock.
Horizon.—Shale over Whistler Coal.
Locality.—No. 3 Pit, Springhill, Crosshouse.
Horizon.—Shale over Major Coal.
Bothrodendron minutifolium, Boulay, sp.
Bothrodendron minutifolium, Zeiller, Bull. Soc. Géol. d. France, 3° sér., vol. xiv. p. 180, pl. ix. figs. 1, 2.
Bothrodendron minutifolium, Zeiller, Véyét. foss. d. terr. houil., p. 117.
Bothrodendron minutifolium, Zeiller, Flore foss. d. bassin houil. d. Valen., p. 491, pl. Ixxiv. figs, 2-4.
Bothrodendron minutifolium, Kidston, Proc. Roy. Phys. Soc. Edin., vol. x. p. 92, pl. iv. figs. 5, 6.
Bothrodendron minutifolium, Kidston, Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist., 6° séx., vol. iv. p. 64, pl iv. figs. 5, 6.
Bothrodendron minutifolium, Kidston, Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin., vol. xxxv. p. 412, pl. ii. fig. 6, 1889.
Rhytidodendron minutifolium, Boulay, Terr. houil. du nord de la France, p. 39, pl. iii. figs. 1, 1bds,
Lhytidodendron minutifolium, Renault, Cowrs d. botan. foss., vol. ii. p. 52, pl. xii. figs. 1, 2.
Lepidostrobus olryi, Zeiller, Flore foss. d. bassin houil. d. Valen., p. 502, pl. Ixxvii. fig. 1.
Remarks.—Bothrodendron mimutifolum is frequent in the Lower and Middle Coal
Measures. Some excellent examples have been collected at Kilmarnock.
Locality.—Bonnyton Pit, Kilmarnock.
Horvzon.—Shale over Whistler Coal.
Sigillaria, Brongt.
Sigillaria discophora, Konig., sp.
Sigillaria discophora, Kidston, Catal. Paleoz. Plants, p. 174. (Ref. and syn. in part.)
Sigiliaria discophora, Kidston, Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist., 5th ser., vol. xvi. p. 251, pl. iv. fig. 5; pl. v. fig.
8; pl. vil. figs. 12, 13.
Sigillaria discophora, Kidston, Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist., 6th ser., vol. iv. p. 61, pl. vi. fig. 1.
Sigillaria discophora, Kidston, Trans. York. Nat. Union, part xiv., 1890, p. 53.
Sigillaria discophora, Kidston, Proc. Roy. Phys. Soc. Edin., vol. x. p. 351.
Lepidodendron qdiscophorum, Konig., Icones foss. sectiles, pl. xvi. fig. 194.
Ulodendron majus, L. and H.,, Fossil Flora, vol. i. pl. v., 1831.
- Ulodendron majus, Carruthers, Monthly Mic. Journ., vol. iii. p. 153, pl. xliii. fig. 4, 1870.
Ulodendron majus, Renault, Cours d. botan. foss., vol. ii. p. 50, pl. xi. fig. 3.
Ulodendron majus, Presl. in Sternb., Vers., ii. p. 185, pl. xlv. fig. 3.
Ulodendron majus, Zeiller, Flore foss. d. bassin howil. d. Valen., p. 481 (? pl. Ixxiii. fig. 1).
Ulodendron majus, Feistmantel, Vers. d. bshm. Kohlenab., Abth. ii. pl. xvii. (acl. remark on Plate.)
Ulodendron minus, L. and H., zbid., vol. i. pl. vi.
Ulodendron minus, Renault, ibid., vol. ii. p. 50, pl. xi. fig. 2.
Ulodendron minus, Presl. in Sternb., ibid., ii. p. 185, pl. xlv. fig. 5.
* Zeiller, Bull. Soc, Géol. d. France, 3, sér., vol. xiv. p. 168.
346 MR ROBERT KIDSTON ON THE FOSSIL PLANTS OF THE
Ulodendron minus, Zeiller, Véyét. foss. d. terr, houil., p. 115.
Ulodendron minus, Zeiller, Bull. Soc. Géol. d. France, 3° sér., vol. xiv. pl. ix. fig. 3
Ulodendron minus, Zeiller, Flore foss. d. bassin houil. d. Valen., p. 483, pl. Ixxiii. he 2.3 le ie fig. ‘5
Ulodendron minus, Schimper (in part), Traité d. paléont. végét., vol. ii. p. 42, pl. Ixiv. fies. 1-3. 2
Ulodendron minus, Lesqx., Coal Flora, p. 403 (? pl. Ixvi. fig. 1).
Ulodendron ellipticum, Roehl (not Presl.), Foss. Flora d. Steink.-Form. Westph., p. 139, pl. Xxiil. sa
3, 4. (Heel. refs.)
Ulodendron pumilum, Carr., Monthly Mic. Journ., vol. iii. p. 152, pl. xliii. fig. 2.
Lepidophlotos parvus, Dawson, Acad. Geol., 2nd ed., p. 490, fig. 170g (p. 455).
Lepidophloios tetragonus, Dawson, tbid., p. 490, fig. 170d (p. 455). .
Lepidophloios tetragonus, Dawson, Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., vol. xxii. p. 164, pl. x. fig. 49.
Halonia disticha, Morris, Trans. Geol. Soc., 2nd ser., vol. v. p. 489, pl. xxxvili. fig. 1.
Sigillaria Menardi, Lesqx. (not Brongt.), Geol. Surv. of Illin., vol. ii. p. 450, pl. xliii.
Lepidodendron, Brongt., Hist. d. végét. foss., vol. ii. pl. xix. figs. 1-4.
(2) Ulodendron Lucasti, Buckland, Geol. and Miner., vol. ii. p. 93, pl. lvi. fig. 4.
(?) Stgillaria perplexa, Wood, Trans. Amer. Phil. Soc., vol. xiii. p. 345, pl. viii. fig. 7.
Remarks.—Sigillaria discophora is of frequent occurrence in the Lower and Middle
Coal Measures, but is rare in the Upper Coal Measures. I saw a specimen lately, which
is preserved at No. 10 Pit, Springside Colliery, Dreghorn, that measures 1 foot 4 in. in
width, and is 6 feet 9 in. long; the large scars were 6 in. in length and 33 in. in breadth.
and were distant from each other (measured from centre to centre) 1 foot 4 in. This
was from the shale over the ‘ Parrot Coal.”
Localities.—Bonnyton Pit, Kilmarnock. Borland chee Dean Castle, near + Kilmar
nock.
Horizon.—Shale over Whistler Coal.
Locality.—Busbie Pits, near Kilmarnock.
Horizon.—Two fathoms below Ell Coal.
Locality.—No. 10 Pit, Springside Colliery, Dreghorn
Horizon.—Shale over Parrot Coal.
Sigillaria scutellata, Brongt.
Sigillaria scutellata, Brongt., Prodrome, p. 65.
Sigillaria scutellata, Brongt., Class. d. végét. foss., p. 22, pl. i. fig. 4.
Sigillaria scutellata, Brongt., Hist. d. végét. foss., p. 455, pl. el. figs. 2, 3; pl. elxiii. fig. 3.
Sigillaria scutellata, Goldenberg, Flora Sarxpont. foss., Heft ii. p. 30, pl. viii. fig. 10.
Sigillaria scutelluta, Roehl, Foss. Flora d. Steink.-Form. Westph., p. 99, pl. xxviii. figs. 15, 16 weed 14)
Sigillaria scutellata, Zeiller, Ann. d. Sc. Nat., 6° sér., Bot., vol. xix. p.-263, pl. xi. fig. 3.
Sigillaria scutellata, Zeiller, Flore foss. d. bataih houil. d. vad p. 533, pl. Ixxxii. figs. 1-6, 9.
Rhytidolepis scutellata, Sternb., Ess. jl. monde prim., fase. 4, p. xxiii.
Sigillaria notata, Brongt., Hist, d. végét. foss., p. 449, pl. eliii. fig. 1.
Sigillaria notata, Goldenberg, zbid., Heft ii. p. 38, pl. viii. fig. 1.
Sigillaria elliptica, var. y, Brongt., Hist. d. végét. foss., p. 447, pl. elxiii. fig, 4.
Sigillaria elliptica, Zeiller, Végét. foss. d. terr. houil., p. 130, pl. elxxiii. fig. 1.
Sigillaria tessellata, Sauveur (not Brongt.), Végét. foss. d. terr. howil. Belgique, pl. liii. fig. 3. ’
Sigillaria duacensis, Boulay, Terr. houwil. du nord dela France, p. 438, pl. ii. fig. 3.
Sigillaria rotunda, Achepohl, Niederrh. Westfal. Steink., p. 119, pl. xxxvii. fig. 1.
KILMARNOCK, GALSTON, AND KILWINNING COAL FIELDS, AYRSHIRE. 347
Remarks.—This species is rare. Sigillaria pachyderma, Brongt.,* is very closely
related to Sigillaria scutellata, if really distinct from it.
Locality.—Bonnyton Pit, Kilmarnock.
Horizon.—Shale over Whistler Coal.
Sigillaria Walchii, Sauveur.
Sigillarta Walchu, Sauveur, Végét. foss. d. terr. houil. d. Belgique, pl. xlvii. fig. 3.
Sigillaria Walch, Kidston, Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist., ser. 5, vol. xv. p. 361, pl. xi. fig. 1.
Sigillaria Walchii, Kidston, Proc. Roy. Phys. Soc. Hdin., vol, viii. p. 420, pl. xxi. fig. 1.
Sigillaria Walchit, Zeiller, Flore foss. d. bassin houil. d. Valen., p. 527, pl. Ixxxviii. fig. 3.
Note.—Only one specimen of this species has been met with.
Locality.— Kilwinning.
Horizon.—Roof of Turf Coal.
Sigillaria orbicularis, Brongt.
Sigillaria orbicularis, Brongt., Prodrome, p. 65.
Sigillaria orbicularis, Brongt., Hist. d. végét. foss., p. 465, pl. clii. fig. 5.
Sigillaria orbicularis, Unger, Genera et Species, p. 244.
Sigillaria orbicularis, Goldenberg, Flora Sarxpont. foss., Heft ii. p. 42, pl. viii. fig. 20, fig. 21, var. B.
Sigillaria orbicularis, Schimper, Traité d. paléont. végét., vol. ii. p. 87.
Remarks.—Only two specimens of this plant have been found. It is closely related
to the following species.
Locality.—Bonnyton Pit, Kilmarnock.
Horwzon.—Shale over Whistler Coal.
Sigillaria Arzinensis, Corda.
Sigillaria Arzimensis, Corda, Flora d. Vorwelt, p. 29, pl. lix. fig. 12 (fig. inverted).
Sigillaria Arzinensis, Unger, Genera et Species, p. 247,
Sigillaria Arzimensis, Goldenberg, Flora Sarexpont. foss., Heft ii. p. 44, pl. x. fig. 14.
Sigularia Arzinensis, Kimball, Flora from the Apalacian Coal Field, p. 16, pl. i. fig. 5.
Sigillaria Arzinensis, Schimper, Traité d. paléont. végét., vol. ii. p. 93.
Sigillaria Arzinensis, Kidston, Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin., vol. xxxv. p. 413, pl. fig. 2.
Remarks.—Only met with sparingly at one locality in the Coal Field. The Sigillaria
ovalis, Lesqx., should perhaps be united with this species.t
Locality.—No. 9 Pit, Annandale Colliery, near Kilmarnock.
Horizon.—Shale over Main Coal.
* Hist. d. végét. foss., p. 452, pl. cl. fig. 1. + Coal Flora, vol. ii. p. 495, pl. Ixxi. figs. 7, 8.
VOL. XXXVII. PART II. (NO. 16). 3 D
348
(?) Sigillaria Lorwayana, Dawson, Foss. Plants Low. Carb. and Millst. Grit, Canada, p. 43, woodcut,
nock Coal Field ; it is, however, a fine example, and shows a verticil of cone scars. Sigil-
larva, tessellata* is always rare in the Lower Coal Measures. i
to this species, and although it is dimers certain that Brongniart was correct in identifying his specimens as the .
MR ROBERT KIDSTON ON THE FOSSIL PLANTS OF THE
Sigillaria tessellata, Brongt. (Steinhauer ?).
Sigillaria tessellata, Brongt., Prod., p. 65.
Sigillaria tessellata, Brongt., Hist. a végét. foss., p. 436, pl. clvi. fig. 1; pl. elxii. fips. 1-4.
Sigillaria tessellata, Feistmantel, Vers. d. bohm. Kohlenab., Abth, iii. p. 7, pl. i. fig. 2 (not fig. 1),
Sigillaria tessellata, Geinitz, Vers. d. Steinkf. in Sachsen, p. 44, pl. v. figs. 6-9.
Sigillaria tessellata, Goldenberg, Flora Sarepont. foss., Heft ii. p. 29, pl. vii. figs. 14, 15.
Sigillaria tessellata, Zeiller, Végét. foss. d. terr. houil., p. 132, pl. elxxiii. fig. 2.
Sigilaria tessellata, Zeiller, Flore foss. d. bassin houil. d. Valen., p. 561, pl. Ixxxv. figs. 1-9; pl. Ixxxvi.
figs. 1-6. .
Sigillaria tessellata, Weiss, Aus. d. Steink., p. 5, pl. i. fig. 4, 1882.
Sigillaria tessellata, Kidston, Trans. York. Nat. Union, part xiv., 1890, pp. 8 and 57.
Sigillaria Knorrii, Brongt., Hist. d. végét. foss., p. 444, pl. elvi. figs. 2, 3 (? pl. clxii. fig. 6).
Sigillaria Knorrii, Feistmantel, zbid., Abth. iii. p. 9, pl. i. figs. 7, 8.
Sigillaria Knorrii, Goldenberg, zbid., Heft i. p. 28, pl. vii. fig. 18.
Sigillaria Knorrii, Roehl, Foss. Flora d. Steink.-Form. Westph., p. 98 (? pl. xxviii. fig. 12).
Sigillaria alveolaris, Brongt. (not Sternb.), Hist. d. végét. foss., p. 443, pl. elxii. fig. 5.
Sigilaria alveolaris, Feistmantel, zbid., Abth. iii. p. 10, pl. ii. fig. 2; pl. x. fig. 1.
Sigillaria contigua, Sauveur, Végét. foss. d. terr. howil. Belgique, pl. lii. fig. 1.
Sigillaria sevangula, Sauveur, ibid., pl. liii. fig, 1.
Sigillaria Morandii, Sauveur, zbid., pl. lvii. fig. 4.
Sigillaria lalayana, Schimper, Traité d. paléont. végét., vol. ii. p. 84, pl. Ixvii. fig. 2. ,
Sigillaria mamullaris, Lesqx. (not Brongt.), Coal Flora Atlas, p. 14, pl. Ixxii. figs. 5, 6 (2 vol. iii. p. 799,
pl. eviii. fig. 6).
Remarks.—Only one specimen of this species has yet been met with in the Kilmar-
Locality.—Bonnyton Pit, Kilmarnock.
Hovizon.—Shale over Tourha’ Coal.
Sigillaria camptotzenia, Wood, sp.
Sigillaria camptotenia, Wood, Trans. Amer, Phil. Soc., vol. xiii, p. 342, pl. ix. fig. 3.
Sigillaria camptotxnia, Zeiller, Flore foss. d. bassin houil. d. Valen., p. 588, pl. xxxviii. figs. 4-6.
Asolanus caumptotenia, Wood, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sc. Phila., 1860, p. 238, pl. iv. fig. 1.
Sigillaria monostigma, Lesqx., Coal Flora, p. 468, pl. xxiii. figs. 3-6.
Sigillaria monostigma, Lesqx., Rept. Geol. Survey of Illin., vol. ii. p. 449, pl. xlii. figs. 1-5.
Pseudosigillaria monostigma, Grand’ Eury, Flore Carb. d. Départ. de la Loire, p. 144.
Sigillaria rimosa, Goldenberg (not Sauveur), Flora Sarxpont. foss., Heft ii. pp. 22 and 56, pl. vi. figs. 1-4;
Heft iii. p. 42, pl. xii. figs. 7, 8.
Sigillaria rimosa, Roehl, Foss. Flora d. Steink.-Form. Westph., p. 93, pl. xxx. fig. 5. ‘ud
Lepidodendron barlatum, Roemer, Palxont., vol. ix. p. 40, pl. viii. fig. 12. =
* Fovularia tessellata, L. and H., Fossil Flora, vol. i. pls. 1xxxiii—Ixxxv., are too imperfect to refer with ce
lithus tessellatus, Steinhauer (Trans. Amer. Phil. Soc., vol. i. p. 295, pl. vii. fig. 2), Brongniart must be regarded as #l
founder of the species if we wish to clear ourselves of all doubt as to the true characters of the plant.
KILMARNOCK, GALSTON, AND KILWINNING COAL FIELDS, AYRSHIRE. 349
Remarks.—This plant, though rare in Britain, is met with in the Upper, Middle, and
Lower Coal Measures.
On one of the specimens from Crosshouse is a small fragment of a Sigillarian cone.
It is very fragmentary, but the bracts at the base of the fossil (though not at the true
base of the cone) show the macrospores very clearly, but the upper bracts only show a
very fine, slightly roughened surface. The specimen is so preserved that it only exhibits
the upper surface of some of the basal portions of the bracts, which appear as if they had
been torn from the axis, which must have adhered to the counterpart of the rock, which
has unfortunately not been secured.
Locality.—No. 3 Pit, Springhill, Crosshouse.
Horizon.—Shale over Major Coal.
Lycopod Macrospores.
Remarks.—Few of the shales and underclays have been examined for Macrospores.
Some collections have been made by Mr James Bennie from Burnanne and Woodhill
Quarry. Mr Berveripce has also examined shales from Woodhill and the Main Coal of
Annandale Colliery.*
Locality 38+t.—Burnanne, 1 mile south-east of Galston, from a plant bed above
4-inch coal in the bed of the stream, about 100 yards above Burn House.
Horizon.—About the position of the Tourha’ Coal.
Contents—
Triletes II.
Ss VII.
The gathering also contained sac-like bodies, which are probably sporangia, fragments
of stems, and scorpion remains.
Locality 39.—Burnanne, 1 mile south of Galston, from outcrop of ‘“ Major Coal,”
about 100 yards above Lodge at Burn House.
Horizon.—Splint portion of Major Coal.
Contents—
Triletes XIV.
The spores in this gathering were not numerous, and imperfect from the matrix
adhering to them.
* See Proc. Roy. Phys. Soc. vol. ix. pp. 82-117, pls. ili—vi., and Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin. vol. xxxv. pp.
86-94,
+ These numbers refer to the list of localities from which these small fossils have been obtained, irrespective of
district.
350 MR ROBERT KIDSTON ON THE FOSSIL PLANTS OF THE
Locality 40.—Woodhill Quarry, Kilmaurs, 2 miles west of Kilmarnock.
Horizon.—Fireclay adhering to Durroch Coal.
Contents—
Triletes VII.
Pe ae) 3 ’
Lagenicula LI.
Also contained vegetable remains, and some of the curious small tube-like structures,
which are common in many shales.
Locality 41.—Woodhill Quarry, Kilmaurs.
Horizon.—Faikes in Sandstone roof of Durroch Coal.
Contents—
Triletes VII.
ATY.
‘sion Ree:
Lagenicula I.
”
This also contained vegetable remains and the curious tube-like structures.
Locality 55.—No. 9 Pit, Annandale Colliery, near Kilmarnock.
Horizon.—Shale in Main Coal. :
Contents—
Triletes I.
I.
Stigmaria, Brongniart.
Stigmaria ficoides, Sternb., sp.
Stigmaria ficoides, Brongt., Class. d. végét. foss., pp. 9 and 28, pl. i. fig. 7.
Variolaria ficoides, Sternb., Ess, fl. monde prim., vol. i. fase. 1, pp. 23 and 26, pl. xii. figs. 1-3.
Remarks.—This fossil is extremely common throughout the whole of the carboniferous
formation.
Locality.—Bonnyton Pit, Kilmarnock.
Horizon.—Shale over Whistler Coal.
Locality.—W oodhill Quarry, Kilmaurs.
Horizon.—Shale over Sandstone.
Locality.—Busbie Pits, Crosshouse.
Horizon.—Two fathoms below Ell Coal.
Locality.—No. 9 Pit, Annandale Colliery, near Kilmarnock.
Horizon.—Splint Coal.
Localities. —Burnanne, Galston, &c.
KILMARNOCK, GALSTON, AND KILWINNING COAL FIELDS, AYRSHIRE. 351
Stigmaria ficoides, Sternb., sp., var. reticulata, Gopp.
Stigmaria ficoides, var. reticulata, Gopp., Gatt. d. foss. Pflanzen, Lief 1, 2, p. 30, pl. ix. fig. 11.
| Stigmaria ficoides, var. reticulata, Zeiller, Flore foss. de bassin houil. d. Valen., p. 612, pl. xci. fig. 5.
| Stigmaria anabathra, Goldenberg (in part), Flora Sarzxpont. foss., Heft iii. p. 19, pl. xiii. fig. 15.
| Note.—This variety is not so common as the type.
| Locality.— Annandale Colliery, Kilmarnock.
| Horizon.—Shale over Splint Coal.
Locality.—No. 3 Pit, Springhill, Crosshouse.
Horizon.—Shale over Major Coal.
Locality.—No. 4 Pit, Springhill, Crosshouse.
Horizon.—Shale over M‘Naught Coal.
|
Stigmaria stellata, Gépp.
Stigmaria stellata, Williamson, Palzont. Soc., 1887, p. 40, pl. xiii. fig. 78.
Stigmaria stellata, Kichwald, Lethza Rossica, vol. i. p. 206, pl. xv. fig. 2, 1860.
Stigmaria ficoides, var. stellata, Gopp., Gatt. d. foss. Pflanzen, Lief 1, 2, p. 13, pl. x. fig. 12, 1841.
Stigmaria ficoides, var. stellata, Lesqx., Coal Flora, p. 515, pl. Ixxiv. fig. 4.
Stigmaria anabathra, var. stellata, Goldenberg, Flora Sarepont. foss., Heft iii. p. 19, pl. xiii. fig. 14.
Remarks.—This species does not belong to the flora of the Coal Measures, though
several specimens have been found in the district under consideration. ‘The specimens
have, however, all been discovered in the drift, and I have no doubt have been derived
from the Lower Carboniferous Rocks of the neighbourhood, for only on that horizon
have I ever seen the species in situ.
Localities—Burntwood Mains and Bent, Galston. Collected by Mr P. Wricur,
Galston. All from the drift.
Lo Cordaites.
The Cordaites were divided by Granv’ Evry into the three following groups : *—
I. Corpairss (or Eucordaites).
Il. DorycorDaITEs.
Ill. PoacorpaltEs.
To these, Renavutr and Zettier t have added a fourth group—
IV. ScurocorDalvTEs.
These groups are characterised by the form and nervation of the leaves.
* Flore Carbon. d. Départ. de lu Loire, &e., pp. 208, 214, 222, 1877.
+ Comptes Rendus, March 28, 1885.
352 MR ROBERT KIDSTON ON THE FOSSIL PLANTS OF THE
I. Cordaites.—Leaves simple, sessile, entire, lanceolate, rounded at the summit, spathu-
late, obovate or elliptical, generally very large, 20 to 90 centimetres long, coriaceous;
veins parallel, fine, equal or unequal, and running throughout the whole length of the
leaf. ’
II. Dorycordaites —Leaves lanceolate, very slender, 40 to 50 centimetres long ; veins
equal, very numerous and distinct, and running throughout the whole length of the les
apex of leaf always terminating in a point (not rounded as in Group I.).
III. Poacordaites.—Leaves narrow, linear, entire, long—as much as 40 centimetres
obtuse at the summit; veins almost equal, and running the whole length of the leaf.
IV. Scutocordaites.—Leaves inserted on semicircular cushions, rounded and con-
tracted at base, and finally dividing into numerous narrow, rigid, erect, thong-like
segments; veins strong, prominent, and separated by fine parallel strize.
The Cordaites attained arborescent dimensions. Their trunks were erect and bore
much-branched heads. The centre of the stem was occupied by a chambered pith, the fossil
casts of which form the well-known fossils named Artisia, Sternberg (= Sternbergia,
Artis). The wood of one species at least was described as Pinites—the Pimites
Brandlingi of Witham.* The supposed coniferous stems of the carboniferous formation
are probably all referable to the Cordaitex. Though these plants possess some characters
comparable to recent Conifers, and others comparable to the Cycadacex, the distinctive
characters possessed by themselves preclude their being classed with either of these
groups. 4
Cordaites, Unger.
Cordaites principalis, Germar, sp.
(Plate II. figs. 8 and 8a; Plate IV. figs. 16 and 17.)
Cordaites principalis, Geinitz (in part), Vers. d. Steinkf. in Sachsen, p. 41, pl. xxi. figs. 1, 2.
Cordaites principalis, Gopp., Foss. Fl. d. Perm. Form., p. 159, pl. xxii. figs. 6-9.
Cordaites principalis, Heer, Flora foss. Helv., Lief i. p. 55, pl. i. figs. 1, 12-16. ;
Cordaites principalis, Weiss, Aus. d. Steink., p. 19, pl. xx. fig. 114. _;
Cordaites principalis, Schenk. in Richthofen’s China, vol. iv. pp. 213, 228, pl. xxx. figs. 11, 12; pl. xliv.
figs. 3, 3a. a
Cordaites principalis, Sterzel, Flora d. Rothl. in Nordw. Sachsen, p. 32, pl. iii. figs. 6-9 ; (pl. iv. figs. 1-34)
Cordaites principalis, Zeiller, Flore foss. d. bassin houil. d. Valen., p. 629, pl. xciii. fig. 8; pl. xciv. fig. 1.
Flabellaria principalis, Germar, Vers. v. Wettin u. Lobejun, p. 55, pl. xxiii.
Flabellaria princtpalis, Roehl, Foss. Flora d. Steink.-Form. Westph., p. 163, pl. xx. figs. 1, 2
Pycnophyllum principale, Schimper, Traité d. paléont. végét., vol. ii. p. 191.
Knorria taxina, lL. and H. (stem), Fossil Flora, vol. ii. pl. xev.
Description.—Ramification of branches lateral and irregular (?); leaves spirally de-
veloped, close together on the upper part of the branches, more distant below, very long,
* See Granv’ Evry, Flore Carbon. d. Départ. de la Loire, p. 261, and Kinston, Proc. Roy. Phys. Soc. Edin. vol. ¢
p. 248, 1891.
KILMARNOCK, GALSTON, AND KILWINNING COAL FIELDS, AYRSHIRE. 353
narrow lanceolate with blunt apices, which usually become slit into ribbon-like thongs,
basal portion of leaf gradually narrowing, but immediately at its point of attachment to
the stem it slightly expands. Nervation strong, parallel, and between each vein are a
few fine parallel striz. Leaves attached to slightly-elevated cushions, which slope gently
downwards till they merge with the bark; leaf-scar transversely elongated and situated
at apex of cushion. Outer surface of stem and leaf-cushions strongly striated longi-
tudinally. Pith chambered with very close septe. Wood similar in structure to that of
Dadoxylen.
Remarks.—It is very seldom that perfect leaves of Cordaites are met with. At
Plate II. fig. 8 a specimen showing the upper part of the leaf is figured ; in this example
the apex is cleft in two, but generally the apex of the leaf is split into several thong-like
seements when its true form cannot be distinguished. The base of a leaf is shown on
Plate IV. fig. 16. The slight expansion, immediately above the basal extremity of the
—————————
leaf, is well seen here, as well as the part by which it was attached to the leaf-cushion.
At the point marked a in this figure is a transverse band of small cicatricules, which are
the cicatricules of the parallel vascular bundles of the leaf. It appears to be most
probable that the fine strzz between the strong veins are only formed
by rows of cells, and not finer veins lying between the coarser ones.
Portion of a branch is shown on Plate IV. fig. 17. One specimen, from
Yorkshire, not illustrated, and though not so well preserved as the
others, is interesting as showing the bases of the leaves still attached
to the stem, from which I was enabled to determine with certainty
that the stems I had long suspected to belong to Cordaites principalis
were in reality the branches of that plant. The leaves are very closely
placed together in this example. Fig. 17, which shows the outer
surface, illustrates well the upward springing of the cushion and the
ci¢atrice left by the fallen leaf. A little furrow extends downwards
from the leaf cicatrice, and limits laterally its elevation. The whole
surface of the stem is strongly striated longitudinally. I have seen
fragments of stems much larger than that figured, and the leaf scars
vary considerably in their distance apart from each other—a character
depending greatly on the age of the specimen.
The Knorria taxina, L. and H., is founded on a similar fossil to “™ beagle
cipalis, Germ., sp.,
5 ; 3 howing b hing.
my fig. 17. Their figure is not a very accurate representation of the From Coseley, Dud.
type, which is preserved in the Natural History Museum, Newcastle-on- Leys Haire Negulvia
Tyne. In the same collection are other specimens, some of which are Coal" Middle Coal
parts of what must have been very large stems.
The only specimen of a stem showing branching, which I have seen, is one that I
received from Mr C. Brats, from shale over the ‘“ Thick Coal,” Coseley, near Dudley.
This is shown in the woodcut annexed. It is in impression in an ironstone nodule
* See GEIniTZz, loc. cit., pl. xxi. fig. 2b.
354 MR ROBERT KIDSTON ON THE FOSSIL PLANTS OF THE
which has suffered little from pressure. At the parts indicated a’, a’, a® branchlets are
given off. All of them spring from the stem at different angles, and almost appear as if - |
they followed a definite spiral arrangement, but one cannot speak of this point with |
certainty. Another very interesting character exhibited by this specimen is the small —
portion of the “ Sternbergia” cast of the pith cavity, which, being held in position by —
the matrix, projects into the cavity once occupied by the stem. This is seen at 8,
The leaf cicatrices are also very clearly seen. In addition to the longitudinal striex
on the surface of the stem to which reference has already been made while describing the
other specimens, there are a number of elevated longitudinal ridges. These have prob-
ably been produced by shrinkage of the bark before mineralisation took place, which
now, of course, in the impression appear as ridges.
GEINITZ unites Carpolithes Cordar, Geinitz, with Cordates principalis as its fruit;
but this I think an error, for though Cordaites principalis is one of our commonest British
Lower and Middle Coal Measure fossils, I have not yet met with a single specimen of —
Carpolithes Cordai in Britain.* On the other hand, one almost invariably finds the little
Cardiocarpus acutus, L. and H. (= Cordaanthus Pitcarmex, post p. 355), associated
with Cordaites principalis,—so much is this the case that I am strongly of opinion that
it is the fruit of Cordaites principalis, though their mere association is not sufficient
evidence for conclusively adopting this opinion.
Locality.—Bonnyton Pit, Kilmarnock.
Horizon.—Shale over Whistler Coal.
Locality.— Grange Colliery, Kilmarnock.
Horizon.—Shale over Stranger Coal.
Locality.—No. 3 Pit, Springhill, Crosshouse.
Horizon.—Shale over Major Coal.
Localities.—Irvine, &c.
Artisia, Sternberg.
Artisia approximata, Brongt., sp.
Artisia approximata, Corda in Sternb., Vers., ii. fase. 7, 8, p. 205, pl. liii. figs. 1-6.
Artisia approximata, Zeiller, Flore foss. d. bassin houil. d. Valen., p. 634, pl. xciv. figs. 2, 3.
Sternbergia approximata, Brongt., Prodrome, p. 137.
Sternbergia approximata, L. and H., Fossil Flora, vol. iii. pls. exxiv. exxv.
Artisia transversa, Presl. (not Artis) in Sternb., ibid., ii. p. 192, pl. liii. figs. 7-9.
Artisia transversa, Roehl (not Artis), Foss. Flora d. Steink.-Form. Westph., p. 148, pl. iv. fig. 8.
Artisia transversa, Roemer (not Artis), Lethea geog., vol. i. p. 242, pl. lv. fig. 3.
Sternbergia transversa, Sauveur (not Artis), Végét. foss, d. terr. houil. Belgique, pl. 1xix. fig. 1.
Sternbergia minor, Sauveur, zbid., pl. xix. fig. 2.
Note.—These fossils are the casts of the pith cavity of stems of Cordaites.
Locality.—Bonnyton Pit, Kilmarnock.
*“ Since the above was written, I have seen a few specimens of Carpolithus Cordai from Yorkshire.
° KILMARNOCK, GALSTON, AND KILWINNING COAL FIELDS, AYRSHIRE. 355
Horizon.—Shale over Whistler Coal.
Locality.—Stevenston.
Horizon.—Conglomerate roof of = Coal.
Cordaianthus, Grand’ Eury.
Cordaianthus Pitcairnie, L. and H., sp.
Cordaianthus Pitcairniz, Renault, Cows d. botan. foss., vol. i. p. 94, pl. xiii. fig. 7.
Cordaianthus Pitcairniz, Zeiller, Flore foss. d. bassin houil. d. Valen., p. 639, pl. xciv. figs. 4, 5.
Antholithus Pitcairniz, L. and H., Fossil Flora, vol. ii. pl. Ixxxii.
Cardiocarpon Lindleyi, Carr., Geol. Mag., vol. ix. p. 55, figs. 1, 2.
Cardiocarpum acutum, L. and H., zbid., vol. 1. pl. Ixxvi.
Botryoconus Pitcairniz, Grand’ Eury, Flore Carb. d. Départ. de la Loire, p. 280.
Cordaianthus Lindleyi, Renault, ibid., vol. i. p. 95, pl. xiii. fig. 9.
Oordaispermum Lindleyi, Renault, ibid., p. 103, pl. xiv. fig. 8.
Antholithus Lindley, Schimper, Traité d. paléont. végét., vol. iii. p. 566, pl. ex. figs. 10, 11.
Remarks.—The Antholithus Pitcairnie, L. and H., is the axis and bracts of the
inflorescence which bore the little seeds long known as Cardiocarpum acutum, L. and
H.* These are now both included under the name of Cordaanthus Pitcawme.
There can be no doubt that Cordazanthus Pitcairn is the inflorescence of Cordattes ;
but in the absence of certain knowledge, it is unsafe to refer it definitely to any given
species, though there is evidence to indicate that it may belong to Cordaites principalis.
Cordaianthus Pitcairne is of frequent occurrence in the Middle and Lower Coal
Measures, but is more commonly only represented by its seeds.
Locality.—Bonnyton Pit, Kilmarnock.
Horizon.—Shale over Whistler Coal.
Locality.—Grange Colliery, Kilmarnock.
Horizon.—Shale over Stranger Coal.
Locality.—No. 3 Pit, Springhill, Crosshouse.
Horizon.—Shale over Major Coal.
Locality.—Borough Pit, Irvine.
Horizon.—(?)
Seeds.
Rhabdocarpus, Gopp. and Berger.
Rhabdocarpus elongatus, Kidston.
Ehabdocarpus elongatus, Kidston, Trans. Geol. Soc. Glasgow, vol. viii. p. 70, pl. iii. fig. 6.
Rhabdocarpus elongatus, Kidston, Trans. York. Nat. Union, p. 14, 1890, p. 63.
* See Carruthers, Geol. Mag., loc cit.
VOL. XXXVII. PART II, (NO. 16). / 35
356 MR ROBERT KIDSTON ON THE FOSSIL PLANTS OF THE
Remarks.—This seed is not common in the Kilmarnock Coal Field. It also occurs in
the Lower Coal Measures of Lanarkshire and the Middle Coal Measures of Yorkshire and
Dudley.
Locality.—No. 3 Pit, Springhill, Crosshouse.
Horizon.—Shale over Major Coal.
Cardiocarpus, Brongniart.
Cardiocarpus orbicularis, Ettingshausen.
Cardiocarpum orbiculare, Ett., Steinkf. v. Stradonitz, p. 16, pl. vi. fig. 4 (in Abhandl. d. ke k. geol.
Reichsanst, i. Band, 3 Abth,, No. 4, 1852).
Cardiocarpus orbicularis, Schimper, Traité d. paléont. végét., vol. ii, p. 224.
Remarks.—Very rare. Only one specimen has been met with, which is the first
British example I have seen.
Locality.—No. 3 Pit, Springhill, Crosshouse.
Horizon.—Shale over Major Coal.
Trigonocarpus, Brongniart.
Trigonocarpus Parkinsoni, Bronet.
Trigonocarpum Parkinsoni, Brongt., Prodrome, p. 137.
Trigonocarpus Parkinsoni, Kidston, Trans. York. Nat. Union, part xiv., 1890, p. 61.
Trigonocarpum Noeggerathi, L. and H. (not Sternb.), Fossil Flora, vol. ii. pl. exliic. figs. 1- oh “ai iii,
pl. exciiid. figs. 1-4; pl. ecxxii. figs. 2--4.
Trigonocarpum Noeggeratht, Fiedler (not Sternb. ; in part), Die foss. Fruchte, p. 277, pl. xxi. figs. 5a, 3b;
pl. xxvii. figs. 30, 31 (in Acad. Cesar-Leop.-Carol. Nat, Cur., Band xxvi., Breslau, 1858).
Carpolithes alatus, L. and H., Foss. Flora, vol. ii. pl. Ixxxvii. ; vol. iii., pl. ecxd.
Rhabdocarpos Naumanni, Geinitz, Flora d. Hainichen-Ebersdorfer u. Flin er Kohlenb., p. 65, pl. xii. ‘a
17-20 (refs.?).
Trigonocarpum olivieforme, L. and H., zbed., vol. iii. pl. ecxxil. figs. 1-3.
Trigonocarpum olivixforme, Fiedler, ibid., p. 271, pl. xxvii. fig, 28.
Carpolithes amygdaleformis, Berger, De fruct. et semin., p. 15, pl. i. fig. 12.
Rhabdocarpos amygdalxformis, Berger, tbid., p. 21, pl. i. fig. 12.
Rhabdocarpos amygdaleformis, Geinitz, Vers. d. Steinkf. in Sachsen, p. 42, pl. xxii. figs, 10, 11.
Rhabdocarpus Bockschianus, Berger, ibid., p. 21, pl. i. figs. 13, 14.
Trigonocarpon, Hooker and Binney, Phil. Trans., vol. exlv. p. 149, pl. iv., 1855.
Parkinson, Organic Remains, vol. i. pl. vii. figs. 6-8, 1804.
Martin, Petrificata Derbiensia, pl. xxi. figs. 1, 2, 3 (24), 5, 1809.
Remarks.—The Carpolithes alatus, L. and H., is merely the Trigonocarpus
Parkinsoni, Brongt., enclosed in its pericarp.
Locality.—Bonnyton Pit, Kilmarnock. ;
Horizon.—Shale over Whistler Seam.
Locality. —Stevenston.
Horizon.—In Sandstone conglomerate roof of $ Coal.
KILMARNOCK, GALSTON, AND KILWINNING COAL FIELDS, AYRSHIRE. 357
Carpolithus, Sternberg.
Carpolithus bivalvis, Gépp.
Carpolithes bivalvis, Berger, De fruct. et semin., p. 26, pl. ii. figs. 30, 31, 1848.
Carpolithus bivalvis, Kidston, Trans. Geol. Soc. Glas., vol. viii. p. 71, pl. iii. fig. 7.
Carpolithus bivalvis, Kidston, Trans. York. Nat. Union, part xiv., 1890, p. 64.
Carpolithus perpusillus, Lesqx., Coal Flora, vol. iii. p. 825, pl. exi. figs. 22-24, 1884.
Carpolithus perpusillus, Zeiller, Flore foss. d. bassin houil. d. Valen., p. 654, pl. xciv. fig. 18.
Locality.—Bonnyton Pit, Kilmarnock.
Horizon.—Shale over Whistler Coal.
Locality.—Grange Colliery, Kilmarnock.
Horizon.—Shale over Stranger Coal.
Rootlets.
Pinnularia, L. and H.
Pinnularia capillacea, L. and H.
Pinnularia capillacea, L. and H., Fossil Flora, vol. ii. pl. exi.
Pinnularia capillacea, Roehl, Foss. Flora d. Steink.-Form Westph., p. 27, pl. ii. fig. 5a; pl. iv. figs.
la and 11.
Root and Rootlets, Lebour, Illustr. of Fossil Plants, p. 21, pl. x.
Rootlets, Lebour, zbid., pp. 113 and 115, pls, lix. lx.
Remarks.—Several species of Pinnularia have been described, but the majority of
these so-called species are very badly defined. I almost think that Pinnularia capil-
lacez might well be included under Pinnularia (Hydatica) prostrata, Artis.* Pinnularie
are common coal-measure fossils.
Locality.—Bonnyton Pit, Kilmarnock.
Horizon.—Shale over Whistler Seam.
Locality.—No. 3 Pit, Springhill, Crosshouse.
Horizons.—Shale over Major Coal, and bed between Major and Main Coals.
Locality.—Grange Colliery, Kilmarnock.
Horiwon.—Shale above Stranger Coal.
* See Kidston, Trans. York. Nat. Union, part xiv., 1890, p. 9.
358 MR ROBERT KIDSTON ON THE FOSSIL PLANTS OF THE
IND ax,
PAGE
Alethopteris. Lepidostrobus,
decurrens, : 0 : : . del squarrosus,
lonchitica, : : ; : . 330 variabilis,
Artisia. Macrospores, .
approximata, . : 3 : . 3854] Mariopteris.
Annularia. . muricata,
galioides, : : : : . d38h7 forma nervosa, .
Bothrodendron. Neuropteris.
minutifolium, . : : : . 845 Blissii, . :
punctatum, : : 5 : . 844 crenulata, J
Calamites. gigantea,
approximata, . : é : oul heterophylla,
Cistii, . é < ¢ : . 316 | Odontopteris.
Gépperti, F 3 ° : . 310 Britannica,
ramosus, : , : : . 313 | Pecopteris.
Suckowii, : c : : . 314 Sp.)
undulatus, 5 - : é . 315} Pinnularia.
varians, var. Insignis, . F ; . 310 capillacea,
verticillata, 5 : A : . 311 | Rhabdocarpus.
Calamocladus. elongatus,
equisetiformis, . . 7 : . 316 | Sigillaria.
Calamostachys. Arzinensis,
typica, . : 5 . ; . 318 camptoteenia,
Cardiocarpus. discophora,
orbicularis, : . é : . 356 orbicularis,
Carpolithus. scutellata,
bivalvis, : . ¢ : med tessellata,
Cordaianthus. Walchii,
Pitcairnie, é 9 : : . 355 | Sphenophyllum.
Cordaites. cuneifolium,
principalis, 4 4 : ; . 352 | Sphenopteris.
Eremopteris. Footneri,
artemisicefolia, . : : : . 820 furcata,
Halonia, A 3 ; ; ; . 344 latifolia,
Lepidodendron. obtusiloba,
aculeatum, : ¢ é é . 336 spinosa (?),
forma modulatum, E : , . 337 Sternbergii,
fusiforme, ; ; : ‘ . 3839 | Stachannularia.
Landsburgii, . : : : . 338 Northumbriana,
obovatum, : c : ; . 3835 | Stigmaria.
ophiurus, : c : : . 384 ficoides,
serpentigerum, . t é : . 337 var. reticulata, .
Lepidophloios. stellata, .
acerosus, : : S ; . 343 | Trigonocarpus.
Lepidostrobus. Parkinsoni,
Geinitzii, : : C : . 342 | Urnatopteris.
lanceolatus, 5 2 ; E . 340 tenella, .
spinosus, : . : . . 341
KILMARNOCK, GALSTON, AND KILWINNING COAL FIELDS, AYRSHIRE. 359
EXPLANATION OF PLATES.
Puate I.
Fig. 1. Sphenopteris obtusiloba, Brongt. Grange Colliery, Kilmarnock. Horizon—Stranger Seam. Nat.
size (Registration No. 1560). 1a, Pinnules x 4 to show nervation.
| Fig. 2. Neuropteris crenulata, Brongt. Woodhill Quarry, Kilmaws. Hor.—Shale over roof of Durroch
Qoal. Nat. size. 2a, Portion of pinnule x 4 to show serratures and nervation.
| Fig. 3. Weuropteris Blissit, Lesqx. Bonnyton Pit, Kilmarnock. Mor.—Shale over Whistler Seam. Nat.
size (Reg. No. 1558). 3a, Pinnule x 3 to show nervation.
Puate IT.
Fig. 4. Annularia galioides, L. and H., sp. No. 3 Pit, Springhill, Crosshouse. Hor.—Shale over Major
Coal. Nat. size (Reg. No. 1559). 4a, A few of the leaflets x 3.
Fig. 5. Calamitina (Calamites) approximata, Brongt., sp. Woodhill Quarry, Kilmaurs. Hor.—Above
Durroch Coal. Nat. size (Reg. No. 1551). At @ is seen the position of a whorl of branches; at 0b the thick-
ness of the surrounding vascular (?) sheath,
Fig. 6. Calamitina (Calamites) approximata, Brongt., sp. Stevenston, Ayrshire. Hor.—Roof of “ $” Coal.
Nat. size (Reg. No. 1552).
Fig. 7. Lepidostrobus (1) spinosus, Kidston. Bonnyton Pit, Kilmarnock. Hor.—Shale over Whistler
Seam. Nat. size (Reg. No. 1548).
Fig. 8. Cordaites principalis, Germar, sp. Monckton Main Colliery, near Barnsley, Yorkshire. Hor.—
Barnsley Thick Coal, Middle Coal Measures. Specimen showing upper portion of leaf with split apex. Nat.
size. W. Hemingway, collector. (Reg. No. 1478). 8a, Nervation x 8.
Puate IIT.
Fig. 9. Lepidodendron Landsburgii, Kidston. Portion of specimen from Bonnyton Pit, Kilmarnock.
Hor.—Whistler Seam. About 4 nat. size (Reg. No. 1545). 9a, Portion of bark showing leaf-cushions and
ornamentation. Enlarged.
Fig. 10. Lepidodendron Landsburgu, Kidston. Bonnyton Pit, Kilmarnock. Hor.—Shale over Whistler
| Seam. Nat. size (Reg. No. 1546). Portion of specimen showing one of the large discs. 10a, Portion of bark
enlarged. 100, Leaf-cushion x 2. a, Cushion; 0, leaf-scar; c, cauda; d, keel. Vascular cicatrice not
shown on specimen.
Fig. 11. Lepidostrobus (?) spinosus, Kidston. Bonnyton Pit, Kilmarnock. Hor.—Shale over Whistler
Seam. Nat. size (Reg. No. 712). The specimen is photographed with the light falling on it at right angles to
the axis, to show the striated appearance produced by the adpressed bracts.
Fig. 12. Lepidostrobus (2) spinosus, Kidston. The same specimen as fig. 11, but photographed with the
light falling on it parallel to the axis, to show the transversely rhomboidal extremities of the sporangia. Nat.
size.
Prats IV.
Fig. 13. Lepidostrobus squarrosus, Kidston. Bonnyton Pit, Kilmarnock, Hov.—Shale over Whistler
Seam. Nat. size (Reg. No. 1550). 13a, Sporangium and bract enlarged.
Fig. 14. Lepidostrobus squarrosus, Kidston. Bract from another specimen on the same slab as last. Enlarged.
Fig. 15. Stachannularia(?) Northumbriana, Kidston. Bonnyton Pit, Kilmarnock. Hor.—Whistler Seam.
Nat. size (Reg. No. 1553). 15a, Verticil of bracts x 2.
Fig. 16. Cordaites principalis, Germar, sp. Monckton Main Colliery, near Barnsley, Yorkshire. Hor.—
Thick Coal, Middle Coal Measures. Nat. size (Reg. No. 1479). Base of a leaf showing at a the cicatrices of
the vascular bundles. W. Hemingway, collector.
Fig. 17. Cordaites principalis, Germar, sp. Bonnyton Pit, Kilmarnock. Hor.—Shale over Whistler Seam.
Nat. size (Reg. No. 1561). Stem showing striated outer surface and the leaf-scars.
Fig. 18. Calamitina (Calamitis) verticillatus, L. and H., sp. No. 3 Pit, Springhill, Crosshouse. Hor.—
Shale over Major Coal. Nat. size (Reg. No. 1557). The specimen shows a verticil of quadrate cone (?or
branch) scars.
VOL. XXXVII. PART II. (NO. 16). 3 F
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Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin®, Vol. XXAVII
KIDSTON ON FOSSIL PLANTS OF THE KILMARNOCK COAL FIELD.— Peare Il.
1B. Kidston,
» photo. M¢Farlane & Erskine, Lith’? Edin®
Pig. 4. ANNULARIA GALIOIDES, L.&H sp. 5-6, CALAMITINA APPROXIMATA, Brongt, sp.
an 7, LEPIDOSTROBUS(?) SPINOSUS. Kidston. 8. CORDAITES PRINCIPALIS, Germar, sp.
SUPT Wavy euysagy ewepse 7
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woIspty SNSONIdS (2)SQAOULSOCIdx] cl-1l ds u‘uojspty ‘TINYNESGNV]
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Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin*
Puate IV.
KIDSTON ON FOSSIL PLANTS OF THE KILMARNOCK COAL FIELD.
Wee ere
a8 i; sy ff
LOS
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Us
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Ps)
wy
2
M‘Farlane & Erskine, Lith™$ Edin*
‘Ston. photo.
15, OTACHANNULARIA (?) NORTHUMBRIANA, Kidston.
18, CALAMITINA VERTIGILLATA, L.&H. sp.
Kige'13-14, LEPIDOSTROBUS SQUARROSUS, Kidston, ». sp.
16-17, CORDAITES PRINCIPALIS, Germar. Sp.
( 361 )
XVI.—FHlectrolytic Synthesis of Dibasic Acids. By Professor A. CRum Brown and
Dr James Waker. II. On the Electrolysis of the Ethyl-Potassium Salts of
Saturated Dibasic Acids with Side Chains, and on Secondary Reactions
accompanying the Electrolytic Synthesis of Dibasic Acids.
(Read 6th April 1891 and 10th January 1893.)
In our former paper * we described the results obtained by electrolysing concentrated
aqueous solutions of the ethyl-potassium salts of normal saturated dibasic acids. The chief
products were shown to be diethyl compound ethers of the same homologous series, and
the formation of these compound ethers was shown to occur in accordance with the
equation: 2C,H,-O'CO-R”-CO-O- =C,H;'0'CO-R”R”CO-0'C_.H; + 2CO,. We now find
that precisely similar results are obtained by electrolysing the corresponding compounds
derived from saturated dibasic acids with side chains. We have thus been able to effect
the synthesis of acids of the succinic acid series, in which hydrogen is symmetrically
replaced by alcohol radicals of the form C,H43.
SYNTHESIS OF THE SYMMETRICAL DIMETHYL-SUCCINIC ACIDS.
Ethyl-potassium methylmalonate can be easily prepared by the general method detailed
in our former paper, and closely resembles the ethyl-potassium salts there described.
150 grammes of this salt were dissolved in 100 grammes of water, and subjected to
electrolysis in the manner described in our former paper. When the reaction was com-
pleted, the ethereal layer was separated from the aqueous solution, the latter was shaken
up with ether, and the ethereal extract added to the ethereal layer. The combined ethereal
solution was dried, and the ether distilled off on the water bath. The oily substance
remaining in the flask weighed 60 grammes and was nearly colourless. On fractionating
it, the greater part, 34 grammes, distilled between 200° and 220° at atmospheric pressure.
This portion was collected by itself, and saponified by boiling it for two hours with
excess of alcoholic potash. The alcohol was removed by heating the solution on the
water bath, water being added from time to time, and the aqueous solution was then
decomposed by the addition of acid, when a white flocculent mass separated. The acid
thus obtained contained a small quantity of a syrupy substance, which was easily removed
by spreading the acid on a porous earthenware plate.
Assuming that the electrolysis took a course similar to that observed in the cases
described in our former paper, the acid thus obtained ought to consist mainly of sym-
* Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin., vol. xxxvi. p. 211.
VOL, XXXVII. PART II. (NO. 17). 3
fp)
362 PROFESSOR A. CRUM BROWN AND DR JAMES WALKER ON THE
metrical dimethylsuccinic acid. Now this acid contains in its molecule two similar and
similarly situated asymmetric carbon atoms. It should therefore occur in two isomeric,
optically inactive forms, corresponding to racemic acid and inactive tartaric acid respec-
tively. These two forms have already been obtained and described by Zetinsky, Hany
and RorHBerG and others, and have been distinguished by BiscHorr by the names para-
s-dimethylsuccinic acid and anti-s-dimethylsuccinic acid.* The former is less soluble in
water than the latter, so that it is possible to separate them by fractional crystallisation
of their aqueous solution. We therefore subjected the acid which we had obtained to a
careful fractionation of this kind, because, as the substance from which we started was
optically inactive, theory led us to suppose that our product was a mixture of the two
possible optically inactive isomers. Experiment proved that this is the case. The less
soluble acid, after four recrystallisations, fused (with decomposition) at 193°, which
agrees with the fusing-point of para-s-dimethylsuccinie acid. A combustion gave the
following results, agreeing with the formula C,H,O0,: 0°1350 gramme gave 02432
gramme CO, and 0°0855 gramme H,0.
Calculated for C,H,,0,. Found,
C ; : : 49°31 49°13
H ; : ; 6°85 7:04
We determined the dissociation constant with the following result :—
Para-s-dimethylsuccinic acid, prepared by electrolytic synthesis.
COOH -CH(CH,)CH(CH,):COOH.
Me =354.
Vv ue 100m K
100 47°68 13°47 0:0210
200 65°5 18°50 0:0210
400 88'3 24°95 0:0207
800 1175 30°12 0:0206
1600 1532 43°28 0:0207
K=0:0208.
Biscnorr and Watprnt found the value K = 0°0190, while BerHmany { from a speci-
men prepared by ZELINSky found K=0°0204. The agreement may be regarded as
satisfactory.
The more soluble acid crystallised from water in beautiful groups of needles fusing at
120°-121°. The fusing-point of anti-s-dimethylsuccinic acid was found by Brscaorr
and Vorr to be 120°. A combustion gave the following results agreeing with the formula
C;H,,O, 0°1166 gramme gave 0°2100 gramme CO, and 0:0737 gramme H,0.
Calculated for C,H,,0,. Found.
C 5 ; : 49°31 49°12
H : : ‘ 6°85 7:02
* Berichte der deutschen chemischen Gesellschaft 21, 2096 and 22, 389.
+ Ibid., 22, 1821.
t Zeitschrift fiir physikalische Chemie 5, 404.
ELECTROLYTIC SYNTHESIS OF DIBASIC ACIDS. 363
The dissociation constant was determined with the following result:—
Anti-s-dimethylsuccinic acid prepared by electrolytic synthesis.
COOH-CH(CH,)-CH(CH,)‘COOH.
Mop = 354.
v bu 100m K
56°55 30-02 SE 0:0139
1131 41°66 11-74 00138
226-2 57-18 . 16-15 0:0138
452A 77°69 21-95 00137
904°8 104°4 29:49 00137
K =0:0138.
The number found by BiscHorr and WaLpEN* was K=0:0122. A control deter-
mination gave the value K = 0°0133.
We determined the basicity of the two acids by titration with baryta water, using
phenolphthalein as indicator, with the following results :—
I. 01020 gramme of the anti-acid required, for neutralisation, 13:12 cc. 1/9°45 normal baryta
water.
Il. 00793 gramme of the para-acid required, for neutralisation, 10°20 cc. 1/9°45 normal baryta
water.
Calculated for C,H,(COOH),. Found.
ie TL:
Carboxyl-hydrogen : : 1370 1361 1361
SYNTHESIS OF THE SYMMETRICAL DigTHYLSUCCINIC ACIDS.
: The ethyl-potassium ethylmalonate was subjected to electrolysis in exactly the same
way as has just been described in the case of the methylmalonate. From 150 grammes
of the salt prepared by the general method already described, we obtained, after electro-
lysis, 63 grammes of an ethereal product, which on fractionation gave 40 grammes of an
oil boiling above 200°. This was saponified by boiling with 30 grammes of caustic
potash dissolved in alcohol. The mixed acids, obtained in the usual way from the
potassium salts, contained a considerable quantity of a tarry substance, which could,
however, be to a great extent removed by dissolving the acids in water, and shaking the
- Solution with a little ether in which the impurity is comparatively easily soluble. The
aqueous solution was then completely extracted with ether. The oily acids left on
evaporating the ether solidified in the course of a few hours. A small quantity of a
syrupy substance was removed by spreading the mixture on a porous earthenware plate,
_ and the acids were separated, as in the previous case, by fractional crystallisation from
aqueous solution. We also found benzene a useful solvent for effecting complete
Separation of the two isomeric acids.
* Berichte der deutschen chemischen Gesellschaft 22, 1821.
»
364 PROFESSOR A. CRUM BROWN AND DR JAMES WALKER ON THE
*
The less soluble acid fused, when rapidly heated, with decomposition, at 192°,
ZELINSKY and BirscHICcHIN * give 191° as the fusing-point of ‘‘ fumaroid ” diethylsuccinic
acid, Biscorr and HsEeLr 189°-190° for that of para-s-diethylsuccinic acid.
Combustion gave the following results :—
01252 gramme gave 0:2530 gramme CO, and 0:0915 H,0.
Calculated for C,H,,0,. Found.
Cs . . , 55:17 55°11
H wa : : ; 8:05 8:12
The acid had thus the expected composition. The basicity was determined by titration
with baryta water. 0°0846 gramme acid required for neutralisation 9°10 cc. of 1/9°45
normal baryta water.
Calculated for C,H,,(COOH),, Found. :
Carboxyl-hydrogen . 1150 1:138
The dissociation constant was determined with the following result :—
Para-s-diethylsuccinic acid prepared by electrolytic synthesis.
COOH:‘CH(C,H,)'CH(C,H,)'COOH.
io ool
Vv uM 100m K
65°85 41°2 11°74 0:0237
ie ala" 56°6 1612 0°02385
263°4 tee 22°00 00235
527 103°5 29°5 0:0234
1054 136°6 389 0:0235
K=0°0235.
BiscHorr and WaLDENt found the value K = 0:0245.
The more soluble acid, after repeated recrystallisation from water and from benzene,
fused at 130°. Biscnorr and HJEtr give 129° as the fusing-point of anti-s-diethylsuccinic
acid. ZELINSKY and BirscHicHin{ give 126°-127° as that of “ malenoid ” diethylsuccinic
acid.
The following results of analysis agree with the formula C,H,,(COOH), :—
01224 gramme gave 0:2465 gramme CO, and 0:0894 gramme H,O.
Calculated for C,H,,0,. Found.
Cis 2 : : 55:17 54:93
H , . , 8°05 8:12
0'0822 gramme required for neutralisation 8:90 cc. 1/9°45 normal baryta water.
Calculated for C,H,.(COOH),. Found.
Carboxyl-hydrogen, 1150 1146
* Berichte der deutschen chemischen Gesellschaft 21, 3399.
+ Ibid., 22, 1821. + Ibid., 21, 3399.
ELECTROLYTIC SYNTHESIS OF DIBASIC ACIDS. 36
Qu
The dissociation constant was determined with the following result :—
Anti-s-diethylsuccinic acid prepared by electrolytic synthesis.
COOH-CH(C,H,)'CH(C,H,)COOH.
Mop = B51.
v 103 100m K
93°7 58:0 16°52 00349
187°4 79:0 22°50 00349
3748 105°3 30°0 0:0343
749-6 139:0 39°6 0:0347
1499 1772 50°5 00347
K=0:0347.
BiscHorF and WaLpEN * found K = 0:0343.
SYNTHESIS OF TETRAMETHYLSUCCINIC ACID.
Ethyl-potassium dimethylmalonate, the substance from which we started in the
synthesis of tetramethylsuccinic acid, cannot be prepared from diethyl dimethylmalonate
by the method which we used in previous cases. When alcoholic caustic potash, in the
calculated quantity, is added to an alcoholic solution of the diethyl ether, either all at
once, or slowly, half of the ether is completely saponified, and half of it left quite
unattacked, the ethyl-potassium salt being formed only in very small quantity. By
modifying the conditions, however, we were able to effect the half-saponification satis-
factorily. The points to be attended to are great dilution and low temperature.
100 grammes of diethyl dimethylmalonate were dissolved in a litre and a half of
95 per cent. alcohol, and cooled to 0°. To this was added at once, while the liquid was
stirred, 8 grammes of caustic potash (one quarter of the quantity required for half-saponi-
fication) dissolved in 200 ce. of alcohol, and also cooled down to 0°. The caustic potash is
thus greatly diluted, and the saponification takes place very slowly. The solution was
allowed to stand overnight and then boiled, when no separation of the dipotassium salt
took place. The alcohol was distilled off on the water-bath, and the residue treated with
about 200 ce. of water. The excess of diethyl ether separated as an oily layer, while the
ethyl-potassium salt dissolved in the water. The aqueous solution was extracted with ether,
the ethereal extract added to the ethereal layer, and, after removal of the ether, the residual
diethyl dimethylmalonate subjected to the processes just described. In this way, practi-
cally the whole of the diethyl dimethylmalonate was converted into the ethyl-potassium
salt. The final aqueous solution contained only traces of the dipotassium salt, and was
subjected to electrolysis after evaporation to a suitable strength.
* Berichte der deutsche chemische Gesellschaft 22, 1821.
366 PROFESSOR A. CRUM BROWN AND DR JAMES WALKER ON THE
From 200 grammes of diethyl dimethylmalonate, after half-saponification and electro-
lysis, we obtained about 60 grammes of an ethereal product. On fractionation this gave
nearly 40 grammes of an oil boiling above 200°, of which the greater part went over
between 240° and 250°. This fraction was heated for twenty hours to 110° with its own
volume of fuming hydrobromic acid (sp. gr. 17), following the method of Auwmrs and
V. MEYER.
The product was then neutralised with caustic soda solution and distilled with steam,
when bromide of ethyl and unattacked ether distilled over. The solution remaining in
the flask was acidified and again distilled with steam. Part of the distillate solidified in
the condenser in white crystals. When nothing more passed over with the steam, the
whole distillate was dissolved in caustic potash, evaporated to a small volume, and pre-
cipitated with hydrochloric acid. The acid was separated by filtration, and several times
recrystallised from water. The acid is pretty readily soluble in hot, very slightly in cold
water. It dissolves readily in alcohol and in benzene, less easily in ether, and is nearly
insoluble in cold ligroin. Combustion gave results agreeing with the formula C,H,,0,
(tetramethylsuccinic acid) :—
0:1323 gramme substance gave 0°2669 gramme CO, and 0:0947 H,0.
Calculated for C,H,,0,. Found.
Cr 5 : : : 55°17 55°02
1 aes : b ; : 8°05 7:96
A basicity determination gave results agreeing with the formula C,H,,.(COOH), :—
01102 gramme acid required for neutralisation 12°13 cc. 1/9°45 normal baryta water.
Calculated for C5H,.(COOH),. Found.
Carboxyl-hydrogen . ; 1150 1:165
When quickly heated, the acid fused, with decomposition, at 195°. Auvwers and
Meyer (loc. cit.) obtained for the fusing-point of tetramethylsuccinie acid temperatures
varying from 190° to nearly 200°, according to the rate at which the acid was heated. A
small portion of the acid was converted by boiling into the anhydride, which, after re-
crystallisation from hot ligroin, formed fine needles, fusing at 147°-148".
Tetramethylsuccinic anhydride fuses at 147°.
The dissociation constant was determined with the following result :—
Tetramethylsuccinic acid prepared by electrolytic synthesis.
COOH-C(CH,),-C(CH,),,COOH.
be = 848.
Vv Mo 100m K
86 52°6 15:1 00313
172 71°6 20°6 00510
344 96°8 27°8 00311
688 127°7 36°7 00310
K=0-0311.
* Berichte der deutsche chemische Gesellschaft 23, 298.
ELECTROLYTIC SYNTHESIS OF DIBASIC ACIDS. 367
This value agrees well with that obtained by BerHmMann* for AuwerRs and MEyEr’s
acid, viz, K =0°0314.
ELECTROLYSIS OF ETHYL-POTASSIUM DIETHYLMALONATE.
Ethyl-potassium diethylmalonate behaves, when treated with alcoholic caustic potash,
exactly like the corresponding dimethylmalonate.
From 230 grammes of the ethyl-potassium diethylmalonate we obtained, by electro-
lysis, 120 grammes of an ethereal product, which we fractionated under atmospheric
pressure. In this case the chief part distilled at a comparatively low temperature.
There remained in the flask about 40 grammes of a residue with a boiling-point above
230°. We distilled this residue under reduced pressure. After repeated fractiona-
tion we obtained 18 grammes boiling at about 170° under a pressure of 12 mm. of
mereury. The colourless and somewhat viscid oil thus obtained was presumably diethyl
tetraethylsuccinate, and we therefore attempted to saponify it. But it remained prac-
tically unchanged after prolonged boiling with strong alcoholic potash. This was, how-
ever, not altogether surprising considering the difiiculty with which tetramethylsuccinic
ether is attacked by caustic potash. We therefore tried to saponify it by heating it in
sealed tubes with fuming hydrobromic acid, but here also we obtained only traces of an
organic acid, but considerable quantities of a neutral substance which will be described
later. Attempts with other saponifying agents did not lead to the expected result.
It was plain that the substance could no longer be supposed to be tetraethylsuccinic
ether, and we attempted to purify it by distillation under reduced pressure in order to
determine its composition. We obtained a product with constant boiling-point, and
analysed it with the following results :—
I. 0:1194 gramme substance gave 0:2845 gramme CO, and 01076 gramme H,0.
II. 02193 gramme substance gave 0°5230 gramme OO, and 01965 gramme H,O.
Calculated for C,,H.,0,. Found.
IL i,
C : : : Gp ba 64:98 65:03
H : : c 10:08 10°01 9-97
The substance was therefore not diethyl tetraethylsuccinate C,,H)0,, which contains
67°13 per cent. carbon and 10°48 per cent. hydrogen, but a compound containing two
atoms of carbon and four atoms of hydrogen less than this, namely, CyH,,O, We are
unable as yet to give any satisfactory explanation of the constitution of the substance or
of how it is produced. It is perfectly neutral, is insoluble in water, mixes with alcohol
and ether, and has a specific gravity of 1:0082 at 13°°5 compared with water at 4°.
Diethyl tetramethylmalonate is miscible at ordinary temperatures with fuming hydro-
bromic acid (sp. gr. 1°7); the substance C,,H,,O, is insoluble at ordinary temperatures in
* Zeitschrift fiir Physikalische Chenue 5, 404.
368 PROFESSOR A. CRUM BROWN AND DR JAMES WALKER ON THE
fuming hydrobromic acid, but is attacked by it at higher temperatures, with the produc-
tion of ethyl bromide and another neutral substance. Ten grammes of the substance
C,,H,,O0, were heated in a sealed tube, with an equal volume of hydrobromic acid (sp. gr.
17), for ten hours to 110° C. On cooling, two layers were observed in the tube: the
lower aqueous layer was of a light brown colour, the upper ethereal layer was dark brown
and was filled with crystals. The contents of the tube were neutralised with solid
caustic soda and distilled with steam. Bromide of ethyl] distilled over first, and then an
oil which solidified in the condenser and in the receiver to an aggregate of crystals.
These crystals were collected, freed from some unattacked C,,H,,O,, and recrystallised
from various solvents. The residue in the flask, after everything that could be volatilised
with steam had been removed, was acidulated with hydrochloric acid, and again subjected
to distillation with steam. We thus obtained a trace of a volatile organic acid in the
distillate, and ascertained that no considerable quantity of acid, not volatile with steam,
remained in the residue.
The crystalline substance which formed the main part of the product is insoluble in
water, moderately soluble in ether, in cold alcohol, and in cold benzene, very soluble in
hot benzene, sparingly soluble in cold ligroin, pretty soluble in hot ligroin. It was
recrystallised from benzene, and, finally, several times from boiling ligroin. The sub-
stance is neutral, when cold it is odourless, when warmed has an odour exactly like that
of camphor. It fuses sharply at 84°°5 C., and solidifies on cooling to a brilliant, snow-
white mass of crystals. Analysis led to the formula C,,H,,03.
I. 01342 gramme gave 0°3341 gramme CO, and 01146 gramme H,O.
II. 01683 gramme gave 0'4180 gramme CO, and 0:1486 gramme H,O.
ITI. 01528 gramme gave 0°3796 gramme CO, and 0:1307 gramme H,O.
Calculated for C,.H,,03. Found.
if LN Til.
C : 5 ; 67°92 67:90 67°75 67°76
H : ; : 9°43 9°49 9°48 9°51
Determinations of the molecular weight by the Raouvtt-BeckMaNN method confirmed
the formula C,,.H,,0;, which corresponds to a molecular weight of 212.
0542 gramme substance, dissolved in 7°90 grammes alcohol, raised the boiling-point
0°:360, which gives a molecular weight of 219.
0540 gramme substance, dissolved in 18°16 grammes of glacial acetic acid, lowered
the freezing-point of the latter 0°'530, giving a molecular weight of 214.
The substance has therefore been derived from the body ©,,H,,0, by the loss of the
elements of alcohol, and the action of hydrobromic acid may be represented by the equa-
tion: C,,H,,O,+ HBr =C,.H,,0,+ C,H;Br+H,O. The substance C,.H,,O; is not at all,
or only to the slightest extent, attacked by bases. Boiled for a long time with moderately
strong sulphuric acid, it was partially charred, but not otherwise changed. This indiffer-
ence to powerful reagents is inconsistent with the otherwise not unlikely formula—
ELECTROLYTIC SYNTHESIS OF DIBASIC ACIDS. 369
CH. CH,
Gp aCe Sei 2Gir
|
0=C—O—C=0
which represents the anhydride of tetraethylsuccinic acid. The character of the substance
rather points to the furfuran formula
Bes al ee
0,H,-0_b_0—_C_o_c.n,
in which the replacement of all the hydrogen of the furfuran may perhaps account for the
ereat stability of the ring.
Dr Hue Marsuatt kindly made a crystallographic examination of the substance,
and has given us the following report :—
System.
Monosymmetric, a : b : e=0°8811 : 1 : 0°9084. B= 84° 27’.
Forms observed.
p= {110}, o= {111}, e= {001}.
we
TABLE OF ANGLES.
Angle. Found, Calculated.
p:p’ (110: 110) *82° 30’
p:o (110:111) *34° 38’
p:e (110:001) *85° 50’
oro Gils) G2? 62° 12’
oO: p (L110) 81° 48’ 81° 45)’
The crystals are generally in the form of longish prisms, or slightly tabular on a face
of p. They are colourless and transparent, and as a rule the faces are well formed and
smooth, giving good reflections. In almost every case the three forms above noted were
present, though occasionally ¢ was practically absent, owing to the development of o.
There was no well-marked cleavage observable.
VOL, XXXVII. PART II. (NO. 17). 3H
“J
0 PROFESSOR A. CRUM BROWN AND DR JAMES WALKER ON THE
SECONDARY REACTIONS ACCOMPANYING THE ELECTROLYTIG SYNTHESIS OF
Dreasic AcIps.
In our former paper we showed that besides the synthesis of compound ethers of
dibasic acids, other reactions might be expected to result from the electrolysis of ethyl-
potassium salts of dicarboxyl-acids. Oxidation occurs, which we endeavoured to limit
by operating on concentrated solutions, at a low temperature, and with great current
density at the anode.* The products of oxidation are chiefly carbonic acid and water, so
that no complication arises from this source. The same is the case with the reaction by
which, in the electrolysis of potassium acetate, small quantities of methyl acetate are
produced. The corresponding products from the ethyl-potassium salts of the dibasic
acids would have the general formula C,H;'0-(CO)-R”(CO):O-'R’(CO)-O'C.H;, and
would be complicated compound ethers. It is possible that such substances are con-
tained in small quantity in the high boiling residues of the ethereal products, but as these
residues cannot be distilled without decomposition, we did not attempt to isolate them.
In most cases there are formed non-saturated compound ethers, the formation of which
may be represented by the following equation, corresponding to equation III. of our
former paper, 2C,H,-0(CO)-R”-CH,'CH,°(CO)‘O- =C,H,; 0(CO):R”-CH : CH,+C0,+
C,H;'0:(CO)-R”-CH,°CH,(CO),"OH. This general equation applies to the normal dibasic
acids, and similar schemes can easily be constructed for acids with side chains. The
compound ethers of non-saturated monobasic acids thus formed have a much lower
boiling-point than the compound ethers of the dibasic acids formed by electrolysis at the
same time, so that there is no difficulty in separating them from the latter. These
non-saturated ethers first make their appearance in quantity in the case of the higher
members of the normal oxalic acid series, and seem to be formed in greater proportion
in the case of acids with side chains than in that of normal acids. Thus from dimethyl-
malonic acid we have obtained quite considerable quantities of methylacrylic acid, and
a large yield of ethylcrotonic acid from diethylmalonic acid.
Methylacrylic Acid.—About a quarter of the ethereal product obtained by the
electrolysis of 200 grammes of ethyl-potassium dimethylmalonate distilled between 115°
and 125°. This fraction was boiled for an hour and a half with 10 grammes of caustic
potash in alcoholic solution, and the acid was obtained in the usual way from the potas-
sium salt. The acid, in aqueous solution, was then neutralised by boiling with caletum
carbonate, the excess of the latter removed by filtration, and the solution concentrated.
After remaining for some time in an exhausted desiccator, the solution solidified to a
felt-like mass of brilliant flattish needles. The calcium. salt is very soluble in water,
more soluble in cold than in hot water. The solution of the purified salt was decomposed
with hydrochloric acid and extracted with ether. The ethereal layer was separated and
washed with a little water to remove hydrochloric acid.
* See Murray, Journal of the Chemical Society 61, 10.
ELECTROLYTIC SYNTHESIS OF DIBASIC ACIDS. 371
The acid remaining after distilling off the ether had, when warmed, a pungent odour,
and its solution in bisulphide of carbon at once, at ordinary temperature, decolorised a
solution of bromine in the same solvent. An attempt was made to distil some of the
acid under atmospheric pressure, but when the temperature had risen to a little over
130°, the acid suddenly changed, with evolution of heat, into a white amorphous solid.
This substance agrees in all respects with the description given by Firric and ENGEL-
HORN * of the polymeric form of methylacrylic acid. It swells up in water, and appears
to dissolve gradually. This is, however, not the case, as what looks like a perfectly clear
solution cannot be filtered. On adding mineral acid to the apparent solution, the acid
separates as a white flocculent precipitate. The substance dissolves in ammonia, and the
solution gives precipitates with the chlorides of barium and calcium.
A combustion of the polymeric acid, dried at 130°-135°, gave the following numbers :—
0:1396 gramme gave 0:2846 gramme CO,, and 0:0881 gramme H,0.
Calculated for (C,H,0.),.. Found.
C : : : 55°81 55°60
H : ‘ ‘ 6:97 701
The composition is therefore that of methylacrylic acid.
Another portion of the original acid was converted into the potassium salt. This
was recrystallised from hot alcohol, from which it separates in fine scales.
0:2895 gramme of the potassium salt gave 0:2024 gramme of K,SO,.
Caleulated for C,H,0,K. Found.
K : c c 315 314
The free acid solidified when cooled to 0°, and fused again at 14°.
The fusing-point of methylacrylic acid is 16°.
It is worthy of note, that the smell of the methylacrylic ether produced by electro-
lytic synthesis is not unpleasant, but rather resembles that of the ethers of the saturated
monobasic acids. The ether prepared by FraNKLAND and Dvppa’s method has been
described by all observers as having a disagreeable smell.
Kthylerotonice Acid.—Of about 80 grammes of ethereal product distilling below 230°,
obtained by electrolysing ethyl-potassium diethylmalonate, 45 grammes boiled between
150° and 170°. This fraction was saponified by means of 20 grammes of caustic potash
in alcoholic solution, and the acid was separated in the usual way. The liquid acid thus
obtained boiled without decomposition at 204°-206° C. (uncorrected). The boiling-point
of ethylerotonic acid is 209°. In order to purify it, it was distilled with steam and then
converted into the calcium salt by boiling with water and calcium carbonate. The
calcium salt crystallised from water in beautiful shining needles.
03133 gramme of the air-dried salt lost 00797 gramme at 120°, and gave 0:1178 gramme of CaSO,.
Calculated for Ca(C,H,O,),,5H,0. Found.
Ca 5 : ‘ 11:24 11:06
ERO © : 2 25:29 25°43
* Inebig’s Annalen 200, 70.
J
Ale
372 PROFESSOR A. CRUM BROWN AND DR JAMES WALKER ON THE
The acid obtained from the pure calcium salt was solid and crystalline. It fused at
41°-42°. The fusing-point of ethylerotonic acid is 41°.*
Combustion gave the following results, agreeing with the formula C,H,,O, :—
0:1285 gramme of the acid gave 0:2969 gramme CO, and 0°1027gramme H,0.
Calculated for CgH,)0.. Found.
Cr : : 63°16 63:02
EL is : 5 877 8°88
For further identification of the acid we prepared the dibromide, using the method
described by Frrrie and Hows.t At first the bromine in carbon disulphide solution was
immediately decolorised, afterwards more slowly. A mere trace of hydrobromic acid
was produced. A pale yellow crystalline mass remained after the carbon disulphide was
all evaporated. On recrystallisation from carbon disulphide the dibromide was obtained
in perfectly clear transparent crystals, fusing at 80°. Firrig and Hower give 80°'5 as
the fusing-point.
The formation of ethylcrotonic acid from diethylmalonic acid may be represented by
the following equation :—
ie ‘al a
ka = CH, -C:C-CO0C,H, + CH, CH,C-COOC,H, + C0,
Coo- COOH
The yield of low-boiling compound ethers is much smaller in the case of methyl-
malonic acid and of ethylmalonic acid than in that of the dialkylmalonic acids. From
the former we should expect to obtain ethyl acrylate, and from the latter an ethyl
crotonate. We have, however, not been able with certainty to isolate the corresponding
acids from these ethers. It would seem that these acids occur in the products mixed
with other acids, and that it would be necessary to work with very large quantities of
material in order to obtain them in a state of purity. :
By the electrolysis of ethyl-potassium methylmalonate we obtained 5 grammes of a
compound ether boiling between 100° and 105°. This we saponified with caustic potash,
and recrystallised the potassium salt from alcohol. The salt, which was very deliquescent,
contained, after drying over sulphuric acid, 31°9 per cent. potassium. Potassium acrylate
contains 35°4 per cent. potassium. The compound ether decolorised bromine solution
somewhat slowly, the acid even more slowly. The acid had a very penetrating odour.
From ethylmalonic acid we obtained about 8 grammes of a compound ether boiling
between 130° and 150°. It was saponified with caustic potash, and the acid was separated
in the usual way. This acid was liquid and miscible with water in all proportions. We
tried to purify it by converting it into the barium and the calcium salts. The barium
salt crystallised in small scales from water, in which it is easily soluble. The calcium
salt is more soluble in cold than in hot water. The barium salt dried at 130°, contained
43°8 per cent. barium. Barium crotonate contains 44°6 per cent. barium. The calcium
* Firria and Howsn, Liebig’s Annalen 200, 23. + Liebig’s Annalen 200, 35,
ELECTROLYTIC SYNTHESIS OF DIBASIC ACIDS. 373
salt crystallised with one molecule of water for each atom of calcium. The acid prepared
from the barium salt was a clear colourless liquid with a penetrating odour. It solidified
in a freezing mixture, and fused again about 0°, but gave no sharp fusing-point.
Prolonged heating to 190° did not convert it into solid crotonic acid. Its specific
gravity at 13°°5, compared with water at 4°, was 1:010. Combustion of the ethyl ether
(boiling at 132°-134°) gave numbers lying between those calculated for ethyl crotonate
and those for ethyl butyrate, viz., 62°54 per cent. carbon and 9°71 per cent. hydrogen.
The ether was probably a mixture of these two substances.
We shall have occasion again to refer to the production of the compound ether of
the saturated monobasic acid. The ether and also the acid prepared from it slowly
decolorised bromine in carbon disulphide solution at ordinary temperature.
Propucts FRoM Sepacic ACID.
By careful working it is possible to raise the yield of diethyl dicarbodecahexanate
prepared by electrolysis, which was stated in our former paper as 20 per cent., to about
40 per cent. of the theoretical amount. The solid product of the electrolysis was spread
on porous earthenware plates, which absorbed about two-thirds of it. The remaining
mass was nearly pure dicarbodecahexanic ether. The plates were then broken down and
extracted with ether in a fat-extracting apparatus. The ethereal extract was dried and
distilled at atmospheric pressure. ‘The chief fractions were—one between 240° and 270°
(boiling-point about 250°), and one between 280° and 310° (boiling-point about 300°),
the two together forming about one-third of the liquid ethereal product.
These fractions were separately saponified with caustic potash. The portion boiling
above 310° was distilled under diminished pressure, and was found to consist essentially
of dicarbodecahexanic ether, which solidified in the condenser.
The acid from the fraction 240°-270° was a yellowish oil, which partly solidified on
standing for a considerable time. The semi-solid mass was separated by means of porous
plates into a white solid acid, and a yellowish viscid acid. The solid acid, after two
recrystallisations from water, in which it was sparingly soluble, gave a fusing-point of
127°. It was therefore apparently sebacic acid. The same acid was precipitated in white
flocks sparingly soluble in cold water, on acidifying the solution of the potassium salt
obtained by saponifying the fraction boiling between 280° and 310°. It gave the fusing-
point 127°-128", and gave the following numbers on combustion :—
01748 gramme substance gave 03809 gramme CO, and 0°1440 gramme H,0.
Calculated for C,)H,,0,. Found.
C c : . 59°41 59°43
EL ; F . 8:91 9:16
The acid was therefore sebacic acid.
Acid CyH,,0,.—The oily acid from the fraction of the ether boiling between 240
374 PROFESSOR A. CRUM BROWN AND DR JAMES WALKER ON THE
and 270°, was converted into the calcium salt in order to purify it. Its quantity was
small, and the acid reobtained from the calcium salt was still yellowish and probably not
quite pure. On combustion the acid gave the following numbers :—
0'1881 gramme substance gave 0°4755 gramme CO,, and 01785 gramme H,0O.
Calculated for CyH,,0.. Found.
C : : ; 69:23 68:94
H 5 ; : 10:26 10°54
These numbers do not, indeed, agree very accurately with the formula C,H,,0., but
this is not surprising, as the acid was obviously not quite pure. The acid united slowly
with bromine at the ordinary temperature.
The formation of the ether of the acid may be represented by the following equa-
tion :—
2C,H,00C(CH,),CH,CH,,COO- =C,H,00C(CH,),CH: CH,
+(C,H,O0C(CH,),CH,CH,-COOH + CO,,
The acid is certainly unsaturated, and is a normal product of the electrolysis. Its
specific gravity at 15°°5 is 0°9240 compared with water at 4°. It is very sparingly
soluble in water, readily soluble in alcohol and in ether.
The alkali salts of the acid are soluble in water. When the aqueous solution of the
ammonia salt is evaporated, it gradually loses ammonia, until a viscid salt is left, sparingly
soluble in water. A strong aqueous solution of the neutral ammonia salt gives the
following reactions, with various metallic salts :—
Magnesium sulphate, ; No precipitate.
Calcium chloride, . : Flocculent precipitate soluble in boiling water.
Strontium chloride, . a 4 a -
Barium chloride, . : 5 BA s a
Zinc sulphate, ‘ : Gelatinous precipitate insoluble.
Mercuric chloride, = 5 5
Lead chloride, . Crystalline (?) precipitate insoluble.
Copper acetate, ; : Green flocculent precipitate insoluble.
Ferrous sulphate, . : Red-brown precipitate insoluble.
Ferric chloride, 5 : Light-brown precipitate insoluble.
Silver nitrate, : ‘ Flocculent precipitate insoluble, does not blacken on boiling.
The barium in the barium salt was determined with the following result :—
02106 gramme of the salt dried at 130° gave 0:1085 gramme BaSO,.
Calculated for Ba (CyH,,0,),. Found.
Ba : 5 : 30°6 30°3
The chief product of the electrolysis of ethyl-potassium sebate, working at the lowest
possible temperature (40°), and with concentrated solutions, is n-dicarbodecahexanic ether,
the ether of sebacic acid itself, and in quite subordinate quantity the ether of the
unsaturated acid CH, : CH(CH,),;COOH. The proportions in which these ethers occurred
varied with the concentration, &c., but we always found the order the same. The forma-
tion of dicarbodecahexanic ether and that of the ether of the unsaturated acid take place
ELECTROLYTIC SYNTHESIS OF DIBASIC ACIDS. 375
quite normally, in accordance with the equations I. and II. given in our former paper.
We are not as yet able to give an altogether satisfactory explanation of the formation of
the sebacic ether. It is almost certain that the ether occurs ready formed in the crude
product of the electrolysis, for no appearance of decomposition was observed during the
distillation, and the thermometer rose regularly to the boiling-point of the ether. It
might be supposed that a substance C,H;O0C-(CH,),;COO‘(CH,)s;COOC,H; was formed,
in accordance with equation II., and was converted by the action of alcohol into sebacic
ether and the ether of a hydroxy-acid. It is not, however, easy to see how such an
action should take place. ‘The possibility of a direct decomposition of the ethyl-potassium
sebate into sebacic ether and potassium sebate seems to be excluded, for although this
decomposition does take place slowly at 100° in the presence of water, the very char-
acteristic smell of sebacic ether was scarcely perceptible in an aqueous solution of ethyl-
potassium sebate, after standing for hours at 40°.
Similar products were observed in some other cases. They do not occur in any
notable quantity in the case of the alkylmalonic acids, where we find another secondary
product, the ether of the saturated monobasic acid differing from the alkylmalonic acid
by CO, Thus we obtained from ethylmalonic acid what seems to be a mixture of
erotonic acid and normal butyric acid, perhaps in accordance with the equation—
2CH, CH, CH-COOC,H, = CH, CH : CH‘COOC,H,+ CH, CH,CH,COOC,H,+2C0,
Coo-
Limits oF APPLICABILITY OF THE METHOD.
We have made a number of experiments in order to determine to what classes of
acids, besides the acids of the malonic acid series, the electrolytic method of synthesis is
applicable.
The first series to which we directed our attention was that of the unsaturated
dibasic acids. At our request, Dr JoHN SHIELDS prepared ethyl-hydrogen fumarate and
ethyl-hydrogen maleate, and examined their properties. His results have been published
in the Journal of the Chemical Society 59, 737.
When a colourless, concentrated solution of ethyl-potassium fumarate was electro-
lysed it gradually became yellow, but even after an hour no ethereal layer formed. The
electrolysed solution was extracted with ether and the ether evaporated, when there
remained a small quantity of a viscid liquid which united slowly with bromine. The
bromine compound gave off hydrobromic acid at ordinary temperatures. Ethyl-
potassium maleate behaved in exactly the same way. When the anode and the
cathode were separated from each other by a small porous cell placed in the crucible, the
liquid remained colourless, but no ethereal layer was produced. An approximate
analysis of the escaping gas showed that it consisted essentially of hydrogen (52 per
cent.), carbonic acid (40 per cent.), and oxygen (4 per cent.), and unsaturated hydro-
376 PROFESSOR A. CRUM BROWN AND DR JAMES WALKER ON THE
carbons. Of course, the greater part of the carbonic acid remained in solution.
Another experiment gave about 10 per cent. of oxygen.
The electrolysed solution was acidified and extracted with ether. After the ether
had been distilled off there remained a yellowish syrup. ‘This was distilled under
diminished pressure, when it separated into a solid and a liquid part, which could be
almost perfectly separated from each other by treatment with chloroform, in which the
solid part was very slightly soluble.
Solid part.—The acid was converted into the barium salt, and this purified by
recrystallisation. A barium determination gave the following results :—
01919 gramme of the salt (dried at 130°) gave 0:1773 gramme of Ba SOQ,.
Calculated for BaC,H,O,. Found.
Ba. ; : 54°59 54°35
The acid prepared from this salt fused at 136°, and on combustion gave numbers
agreeing with the formula of maleic acid :—
0:1235 gramme of the acid gave 01882 gramme CO, and 0:0400 gramme H,0.
Calculated for C,H,0,. Found.
C : ; 3 41°39 41°55
nm. : ‘ 3°46 3°60
The solid portion, therefore, consisted of maleic acid.
LInquid part.—The acid was neutralised with ammonia, and the ammonia salt pre-
cipitated with silver nitrate. The silver salt was white, and was soluble in boiling water,
from which it crystallised on cooling.
01730 gramme of the dried salt gave 0:0793 gramme Ag.
Calculated for AgC,H,0,. Found.
eee ye eh) 45°84
The quantity of silver found is too high for ethyl-silver maleate, which is explained
by the fact that the liquid part, consisting essentially of ethyl-hydrogen maleate, still
contained some maleic acid, which crystallised out after prolonged standing.
From ethyl-potassium citraconate we likewise obtained no synthetic product. The
solution became gradually dark brown, but no ethereal layer separated.
It would therefore appear that from unsaturated acids with the ethylene union
between two atoms of carbon, one of which is combined with that carboxyl the hydrogen
of which is, in the ethyl-potassium salt, replaced by potassium, no synthetic products are
formed by electrolysis, but only simpler substances which may be regarded as oxidation
products of the anion.
In order to ascertain whether unsaturated acids, in which the ethylene union is further
removed from carboxyl, are better able to resist the oxidising attack taking place at the
anode, we examined the ethyl-potassium allylmalonate. This salt, CH;-CH : CH'COOC,H;,
|
COOK
ELECTROLYTIC SYNTHESIS OF DIBASIC ACIDS. 377
is easily prepared by half-saponifying the corresponding ether. The concentrated solu-
tion at once began to colour, when the electrolysis was started, and only traces of a
substance soluble in ether were formed.
We may therefore conclude that unsaturated acids do not, by the electrolysis of their
alkyl-potassium salts, yield synthetic products. The hydrocarbons of the acetylene and
ethylene series which are formed by the electrolysis of the normal salts of unsaturated
acids are, of course, not synthetic products, but decomposition products of the anion,
which owe their escape from oxidation to their volatility.
In this connection it seemed of interest to examine the behaviour of the dibasic
aromatic acids.
Ethyl-hydrogen phthalate can be easily prepared by boiling phthalic anhydride with
alcohol. The crude product was neutralised with baryta, and the pretty soluble barium
salt purified by recrystallisation from water. From the barium salt we prepared the pure
ethyl-hydrogen phthalate, and neutralised it with potash. On subjecting a colourless
concentrated solution to electrolysis it at once became yellow, then red, and ultimately
dark brown. Scarcely perceptible traces of a black viscid substance were extracted by
ether from the aqueous solution. An experiment was made with ethyl-potassium benzy]l-
malonate, a substance in which the phenyl is not directly united to carboxyl. Here also
the result was the same. The solution rapidly darkened, and no ethereal substance was
produced. The aromatic acids thus behave like unsaturated acids, in undergoing practi-
cally complete oxidation at the anode.
The solution of ethyl-potassium tartrate remains colourless and clear when electro-
lysed, but thorough oxidation takes place at the anode, and no ethereal products are
formed. The same is the case with the corresponding salt of dibromosuccinic acid. Here
free bromine makes its appearance in large quantity at the anode.*
Behaviour of Oxalic Acid—Cuaisent has recently observed that oxalic ether,
oxalacetic ether, and acetoneoxalic ether, are half-saponified by boiling with an aqueous
solution of potassium acetate, so that, for instance, ethyl-potassium oxalate is formed from
oxalic ether, C,H,OCO-COOUC,H, + CH;'COOK = C,H,OCO-COOK = CH,;°COOC,H;. This
reaction is, in fact, a very satisfactory method for preparing ethyl-potassium oxalate, and
CiaIsEN has suggested that it might be also applicable for the preparation of other ethy]-
potassium salts of dibasic acids. We have therefore tried this method on succinic acid
and on some of the aikylmalonic acids.
We added to the ether to be experimented on, potassium acetate dissolved
in its own weight of water, in molecular proportion, that is, in the proportion
R” (COOC.H;), to CH;-COOK, and boiled the mixture, with vigorous shaking, on an
inverted condenser. But the ether did not permanently mix with the aqueous solution,
and after several hours’ boiling the ether was scarcely at all attacked. On heating the
two liquids at higher temperatures—up to 180°—1in sealed tubes, decomposition indeed
occurred, but with the formation of dipotassium salts, and, in the case of the malonic
* MicuaEn, American Chemical Journal 1, 413.
+ Berichte der deutschen chemischen Gesellschaft 24, 127.
VOL. XXXVII. PART II. (NO. 17).
31
378 PROFESSOR A. CRUM BROWN AND DR JAMES WALKER ON THE
ethers, potassium-hydrogen carbonate. We were thus led to suspect that the success of
the method in the case of oxalic ether depended on its well-known decomposability by
water. We were inclined to suppose that this was what took place: The water attacked
the ether forming alcohol and oxalovinic acid C,H,O0°CO’'COOH, and this, being a stronger
acid than acetic acid, decomposed the potassium acetate, giving ethyl-potassium oxalate
and acetic acid. A simple experiment showed that this explanation is unsound, for
CLAISEN’S reaction takes place as well in the absence as in the presence of water. 80
grammes of oxalic ether were mixed with the calculated quantity (53 grammes) of
potassium acetate and 160 grammes of alcohol, and boiled, with an inverted condenser,
on the water-bath. After half an hour a white precipitate began to form. ‘The boiling
was then continued for another half hour, when the liquid was cooled and filtered. The
weight of the precipitate, after drying im vacuo, was 60 grammes. The filtrate on being
boiled for a further half hour on the water-bath, deposited 5 grammes of precipitate.
The filtrate was then evaporated, when an additional quantity of salt crystallised out.
The salt was pure ethyl-potassium oxalate.
03024 gramme of the salt gave 0:2014 gramme of potassium sulphate.
Calculated for KC,H,O,. Found.
K : ‘ c 25°0 24°9
A perfectly satisfactory yield can therefore be obtained by working with alcoholic
solution.
In order to see if the reaction would go further, we heated ethyl-potassium oxalate
and potassium acetate, in molecular proportion, with enough alcohol to keep everything
in solution at the boiling-point. After two hours’ boiling, the liquid was cooled, and the
salt which had crystallised out separated by filtration. A potassium determination of
the dried salt gave 26°9 per cent. potassium. Potassium oxalate contains 47 per cent.
potassium. ‘The ethyl-potassium oxalate is therefore scarcely at all attacked by potassium
acetate in alcoholic solution.
As oxalic acid is usually regarded as the first term in the malonic acid series, it
seemed of interest to see how its ethyl-potassium salt would behave on electrolysis, because,
as In this case R” =0, the ether produced should be oxalic ether itself.
We subjected a solution of 25 grammes of ethyl-potassium oxalate in 15 grammes of
water to electrolysis. ‘The solution remained colourless, but no ether was formed.
Analysis of gas given off at the electrodes showed that the anion was oxidised to carbonic
acid, water, and ethylene. No other products were contained in the gas given off at the
anode. The presence of ethylene was confirmed by the formation of ethylene bromide.
2C,H,OCO'COO- +0=20,H,+H,0+4CO,, or perhaps
2C,H,OCO'COO- =C,H,+2C0,+C,H,OCO'COOH.
Experiments were also made with methyl-potassium oxalate. This salt can be easily
prepared by the same method as was used for the preparation of the corresponding ethyl
compound. Potassium acetate, dissolved in methyl alcohol, and methyl oxalate were
ELECTROLYTIC SYNTHESIS OF DIBASIC ACIDS. 379
mixed in molecular proportion and heated on the water-bath with inverted condenser.
The methyl-potassium salt quickly separated. After cooling, it was collected on a filter
and washed with methyl alcohol.
08005 gramme of the salt gave 0-4880 gramme of K,SO,.
Calculated for KC,H,0,. Found.
K : : : 27-51 27°38
Here, too, we obtained no ethereal product on electrolysis, and analysis showed that
the gas given off at the anode was nearly pure carbonic acid.
Oxalic acid, therefore, does not, in this respect, resemble the other saturated dibasic
acids, but behaves more like an oxy-acid.
Behaviour of Camphoric Acid.—This acid has usually been regarded as a true dibasic
(dicarboxyl) acid. Quite lately, however, FrrepEL * has expressed the view that it con-
tains only one carboxyl group. We have found that the electrolysis of the ethyl-potas-
sium salt takes place in the same way as that of the corresponding salts of the saturated
dicarboxyl acids of the fatty series, large quantities of ethereal products being formed.
These are at present under examination.
* Comptes rendus 113, 825.
AS Y: leF oi) eee ee ee
b q iS
. r 7
44 4 ays i ei ‘~ enhag ad
Guests)
XVIIL—On Impact, Il. By Professor Tarr.
(Read 18th January 1892.)
[Since this second instalment of my paper was read to the Society my attention has been
called to a remarkable investigation by Herrz;* in which the circumstances of collision
of two elastic spheres are fully worked out, under the special limitations that both are
smooth, and that their deformations are exceedingly small. This forms a mere episode
in the paper, which is devoted mainly to the statical form of the problem of deformation ;
as, for instance, the case of the ordinary apparatus for the production of Newron’s rings.
But it contains a definite numerical result; giving for the duration of impact between
two iron spheres of 50™" diameter, which encounter one another directly with a relative
speed of 10™ per second, the value 0°:00038. ‘This seems to be the earliest reckoning
of the time of collision. The experimental verification of Hertz’ formule was under-
taken with success by ScHNEEBELI,t who obtained results in close accordance with them.
His mode of measuring the duration of impact was defective, though ingenious. But
the speeds employed by him, though for the most part considerably greater than those
contemplated in Hertz’ work, were far inferior to the lowest of which I have availed
myself :—and thus no comparison can be instituted between my results and the
theoretical formule ; first, because I have necessarily dealt with deformations so large as
to be directly measurable ; secondly, because the formule, being originally obtained for
the statical problem, have left aside thermodynamical considerations, and thus assume
equal duration for compression and for restitution, which is certainly incorrect ; finally,
because one of my colliding bodies was fixed, and thus virtually struck on both sides,
besides being notably deformed throughout the greater part of its substance ; while, except
in the case of very hard bodies, the surface of contact was nearly equal to the whole section
of the cylinder. I regret, however, that I had not seen Hertz’ paper before I made my
apparatus, as a study of it might have led to improvements in my arrangements ; especially
in the choice of the form of the elastic substance to be operated on. But my results have
the advantage of being applicable to many practical questions (besides those of Golf, to
which they owe their birth), such as the driving of a nail by a hammer, or of a pile by a
ram, &c. One of Hertz’ results is specially interesting, viz. that the duration of impact
between two balls is infinite if the relative speed be indefinitely small. This may easily
be seen to depend upon the fact that (in consequence of their form) the total force between
them, at any instant, varies as a power of the deformation higher than the first. ]
* Journal fiir die reine wnd angewandte Mathematik, xcii., 1882. Uber die Beriihrung fester elastischer Korper.
t Archives des Sciences physiques, &c., Geneve, xv., 1885. Recherches expérimentales sur le Choc des Corps
élastiques.
VOL. XXXVII. PART II. (NO. 18). 3K
382 PROFESSOR TAIT ON IMPACT, II.
The experiments, whose results are tabulated at the end of the paper, were (with the
exception of the first, presently to be noticed) made with a new set of specimens of
various elastic substances, considerably larger in all their dimensions than those pre-
viously employed. They were, as before, cylinders very slightly rounded at their upper
ends; but their lengths, as well as their diameters, were 56™" instead of 32™" as
formerly. As I could not procure a piece of good cork of the requisite dimensions, the
cylinder of that substance employed was built up of two semi-cylinders, gently kept
together by two india-rubber bands. The glass cylinder turned out to be somewhat
difficult of manufacture, and the experiments with it are altogether defective. But, after
the third, and most considerable, impact to which it was subjected it presented a very
interesting appearance. There was formed inside it a fissure somewhat in the shape of a
portion of a bell; meeting the upper surface in a nearly circular boundary 12™ in
diameter. This fissure showed the colours of thin plates in a magnificent manner. It
gave the impression that the portion of the glass contained within it had, by the shock,
been forced downwards relatively to the rest. Its lower, and wider, extremity did not
come within 4™ of the sides of the cylinder, and this was at a depth of about 6™" below
the upper surface.
One result of the new experiments is obvious at the first glance. The duration of
impact is notably longer than before ; in consequence of the increased dimensions of the
elastic bodies operated on. But the coefficient of restitution is only slightly affected.
As the old block had been split during some experiments in which it was allowed to
fall on vulcanite from heights of 3" and upwards, a new one (also of plane tree) was
obtained. The mass of this new block was 3°75 Ibs., and (except where it is otherwise
specially noted in the tables of experimental results) had its lower end shod with a flat
plate of hard steel 6™ in thickness, and 1lb. mass. The main object of this was to
prevent the “wriggles” formerly noticed. Another plate of the same material, with a
blunted wedge-shaped ridge projecting from its lower surface, was occasionally substi-
tuted for this (as noted) in some of the experiments on vulcanized india-rubber. It was
tried on cork also, but the result was disastrous.
The object of this ridge was to test the effect, on the coefficient of restitution and on
the duration of impact, produced by applying a given momentum of the falling body in
a more concentrated form, by restricting the surface-region of its application to the elastic
solid. The results obtained by this process, though unfortunately limited to one elastic _
substance, are very interesting. The duration of impact is notably increased, in spite of
the increased distortion ; but the coefficient of restitution is practically unaltered.
The first set of experiments given below (7/4/91) were made with the old cylinder of
Vulcanized India Rubber. They were designed to form a link between the present
experiments (with the steel plate) and the former set (in which the impinging surface was
hard wood).
Mr Suanp has again made the measurements of the traces, and reduced the observa-
tions, precisely in the same manner as before :—and it will be seen, from the numbers in
PROFESSOR TAIT ON IMPACT, II. 383.
the columns headed N, that the new series of results is at least as trustworthy as the old
one. But I was not satisfied with the numbers in the columns A,, A,; nor, of course,
with those in e, which are their respective ratios. These data are derived from the very
difficult and uncertain process of drawing tangents at the extremities of portions of
curves. I therefore calculated (to two places only) the values of the square-root of the
quotient of each pair of successive numbers in the column H. If there were no friction,
the results thus obtained should be the successive values of the coefficient of restitution.
And, even taking friction into account, if we suppose the acceleration it produces to be
m-fold that of gravity (m being, as shown in the first part of the paper, nearly constant
and somewhere about 0°03) the values in the table so formed should be those of
l—m
1+m
=e(1—m) nearly.
This (though at a first glance it might not be suspected) is the result to which we should
be led by calculating from the equations of the various parts of the trace the tangents of
the inclination of the curve to the radius-vector at the points where it meets the datum
circle. For
= R
dr) x
tan g=( = 2. /B(R—A) >
so that
_ tan py _ =,/% (R—-A,)_ /B,H, |
~ tan p> B(R—A,) V BH,
Unfortunately, it is in general difficult to get a trustworthy value of B for the (first)
incomplete branch of the curve. But, by various modes of calculation and measurement,
I have made sure that the friction is practically the same whatever be the mass of the
block, so that its effects are the less sensible the greater is that mass. The numbers
thus obtained fluctuated through very narrow limits, at least for such bodies as native
and vulcanized india-rubber, and therefore give for very extensive ranges of speed of
impact a thorough verification of Newton’s experimental law; viz. the constancy of the
coefficient of restitution for any given impinging bodies. This had, however, been long
ago carefully tested by the elaborate experiments of Hopaxrnson.* There was, it is
true, a slight falling off for the very high speeds, and likewise for the very low: as
will be seen from the table (p. 397) which follows the experimental results. The first
may be due in part to a defect in the apparatus, the second will be accounted for below.
The approximate constancy of e, for all relative speeds, proves merely that the force
of restitution is, at every stage, proportional to that required for compression. We must
therefore look to the values of the total distortion, or to those of the duration of impact,
for information as to the relation between the distortion and the force producing it. The
equation of motion during the compression is, say,
Nice IMG (ain 0 «ol leniy eget ween)
* British Association Report, 1834.
384 PROFESSOR TAIT ON IMPACT, II.
Hence, as F may be considered to be nil while the datum circle is being traced, we have
for the correction, ® suppose, to be applied to the tabulated values of D, that positive
root of
Mg =F) =p stay anon ws teal iceey”
which vanishes with M.
Integrating the equation of motion, we have
Ma#?/2=MV2/2+(Mg-Fye—f(z), . . . . . @Q)
where V is the speed at impact, and f(x) vanishes with x. Thus, at the turning point,
0=MV?/2+(Mg—F)(D+2)—f(D+2).
Now, by (2), we see that (Mg—F) is of the order f’(@) only, so that, when V (and
therefore D) is considerable, we may write this in the approximate form
0=MV?/2—/(D).
This equation enables us to get an approximate estimate of the form of the function f.
A graphical representation of D in terms of MH, based on the various data of the experi-
ments of 22/6/91, below, on vulcanized india-rubber, gave three nearly parallel, but
closely coinciding curves, whose common equation (when the different values of ® for the
different masses were approximately taken account of) was of the form
MH « D?;
for the subtangents were 2°5-fold the abscissee. Hence we are entitled to write (3) in
the tentative form
Ma2/2=MV2/24+(Mg—F)z—-Aw?. . . . . . @
Equation (2) now becomes.
whence 3 may be found, A being determined from one of the larger values of D (and the
corresponding kinetic energy) by the relation
MgH=ADF, Sg 2 Se
These give the approximate value
Thus I found that the values of D, for the experiment of 22/6/91 on vulcanized india-
rubber, must be augmented by 07°75, 1™™°2, and 1™"°9 respectively :—according as
the mass was single, double, or quadruple. These agree remarkably well with the
relative positions of the parallel curves already spoken of: and also with direct measure-
PROFESSOR TAIT ON IMPACT, II. 385
ments of d which have been recently made for me, by a statical process, by Mr SHAnp.
In what follows, I shall assume that the values of D have had this (positive) correction
applied.
By the help of (4) we now have, for the time of compression, the expression
NM 2AY, JDi-2?—(Mg—F\(D—a)/A
Except for the very small values of D, we may neglect the last term under the radical,
and the expression, slightly diminished in value, becomes
M * a2
SAID SJ, Vi-2
The numerical value of the integral is approximately 1°5. or any one substance the
time of compression is therefore inversely as the fourth root of D; and, of course,
directly as the square root of M. But we may also write the expression, by means of
equation (5) above, in a form which applies to all substances for which the elastic force
is in the sesquiplicate ratio of the distortion, viz.
29H
This result lies just half-way between the limits, D/V and 2D/V, assigned (from general
considerations) in the first part of this paper.
With the data for the first fall of the quadruple mass in the experiment last referred
to, this expression becomes almost exactly 0°01. The value of e is about 0°77, so that the
whole time of impact should be (1 + oo) 0°01, or 0°°023; while the experimental
value of T is 0°0211. But, im consequence of the quantity 0, above spoken of, all the
measurements of arcs from which T is calculated are necessarily too small. Add to C,
as measured, the product of 0 by. the sum of the two tangents, as given in the table;
and diminish R by the amount 0; the observed time becomes 0°0224; so that the
formula gives a tolerably close approximation.
If we bear in mind that the values of D ought to be increased by the quantity 2; we
see at once the reason, already referred to, for the apparent falling off of the values of e at
low speeds, when they are calculated from the values of H given in the tables.
Among the practical applications of the results above, we see that when a nail is
driven, say by a 4-lb. hammer moving at the rate of 10 feet per second, the time of
impact being taken as 0°-0004, the time-average force is some 300 lbs. weight. If the
head be one-tenth inch square, this corresponds to a pressure of more than 2000
atmospheres.
386 PROFESSOR TAIT ON IMPACT, II.
Finally, to finish as I began, with an application to golf, although, from the nature of
the case, the experimental data are not very directly applicable :—we see that, as the
coeflicient of restitution from wood is about 0°66, and the mass of the ball about 0:1 lb.,
the club must be moving at some 300 feet per second to produce an initial speed of
500 feet per second :—and the time-average of the force during collision must be
reckoned in tons’ weight. The experiments on hammered, and on unhammered balls,
all made at the same time and of the same material, show clearly how very small is the
gain in coefficient of restitution, and therefore in initial speed, which is due to the
hammering :—and thus force us to look in another direction for an explanation of the
unquestionable superiority of hammered over unhammered balls.
[It is very curious that the law of force in terms of the distortion (as given above) is
the same as that which results from Herrz’ investigations. For, what is called D above
is the diminution, in length, of the whole cylinder operated on ; while, in Hertz’ work,
the quantity which he calls «, and to whose 3/2th power the force is proportional, is the
advance towards one another (since the first contact) made by points chosen in the two
bodies, whose distance from the (infinitesimal) surface of contact is finite, yet very
small in comparison with the dimensions of the bodies themselves. In my experiments
the vertical shortening extends throughout the whole of at least the protruding part of the
cylinder, and in extreme cases the distortion is so great that the diameter at the middle
becomes more than double that at the ends ; in Hrrrz’ investigations it is assumed to be
mainly confined to the immediate neighbourhood of the surface of contact.
It is even more curious to find that the same law holds, at least in a closely approxi-
mate manner, for the very. large and unsymmetrical distortions produced by the ridged
base, as shown by the data of 7/11/91.
Some additional details connected with this investigation, including a sketch of the
apparatus and of the trace of 13/7/92, will be found in an article Sur la Durée du Choc,
which appeared in the Revue des Sciences pures et appliquées, 30/11/92. |
PROFESSOR TAIT ON IMPACT, II. 387
[In the following experiments, unless some contrary statement is made, the falling block ter-
minated in a horizontal plate of steel. |
7/4/91. Vuncantsep Inpia RusBer. (OLD SMALL CYLINDER.)
ie SmncLeE Mass. JOG SINGLE Mass.
N R H CSD ot A, AG 6 N R H Ca oD a Ay AGI Le
21:7 337:0 1219 15°5 11:0 -0075 4396 6200 -709 21°7 326°7 1219°2 15°0 10°8 ‘0074 4330 5639 -768
B 20'8 510°6 181 8°5 ‘0087 ‘6903 8693 ‘794| 620°9 548°0 17:6 8:7 “0087 6403 -7766 ‘824
y 21°6 283°5 193 67 ‘0093 ‘9163 1°1165 ‘821| 21:4 303°0 19:0 7:0 -0094 8606 1:0289 -837
5 21°6 163°6 197 5:3 ‘0095 1'1875 1:4496 -819) 3821°5 177°6 191 5:6 *0095 1°1054 1°3581 -814
96°7 215 4:4 -01038 106°6 19°9 4°5 -0099
586 222 3:6 0107 64°5 21:0 3-7 0104
35°5 22°9 2:8 0110 40°A 223 3:0 -0110
21°8 23°5 2:3 +0118 O51 Bom 2-5 “Olle
136 2271 1:8 0116 15°7 230, 20 “0114
84 25:0 1°6 ‘0120 10°71 933 5 “O15
50-271 1:3 -0130
Soe i “0180
is 2730, » 0-9 “0180
B,[ 0 J]-174°0 B, [0 ]—221°8 Ouenne
[20]-158'4 r= -—1744+120°16(6+ 01133)? [30]-184°1 r= -221°8+128°14(6+°01918)? [117] 326°7 322°6
[100] 212°5 [100] 177°3
Bo[ 0 ]-174 B [ 0 ]—221°8
[— 20]-157°6 r= -174+116-22(0+ 02754)? [-—380]-188°5 r= —221°84+121°7(6 -- 0005)? [121-1] 326-7 322-0
[-100] 207°6 [—110] 226-6
[0] 53:4 7) ¢ [9] 23°8
[30] 94:5 1=53°44+137'89(0+‘02266)2 [80°75] 337 336°1 [40] 97°5 r=23°7 +137°89(8+ 03365)? [83] 826°7 326°6
[60] 211°3 [80] 305°5
2 [0] 53-4 y2[0] 23°8
[-—30] 85°3 7=53:4+117°20(@—-00174)? [-89°15] 337 3365] [-40] 79°0 7=23°8+112°94(0+-°00105)? [-98°4] 326°7 324°3
[-60] 181-7 [—80] 244:2
8, [0] 173°3 8,[ 0] 148-9
[80] 209°7 +=173'3+133-29(@- 00105)? [63°17] 337°0 335°0 [30] 185°1 7=148-9+131°32(6+-00140)? [66°4] 326°7 325°7
[60] 319-2 [60] 293-3
8, [0] 173°3 5,[0] 148°9
[-30] 208°3 +=173'3+122°13(6+ :01186)? [-65°7] 337°0 337°2| [-30]184°0 r=148'9+122-78(6+ 01116)? [ — 68°15] 326°7 325-9
[-60] 310-2 [—60] 286°5
It. Quap. Mass. | IV. Quap. Mass.
N R H Cae) mt Ay KG N R H ©” Dp ui A, Wis 36
213 320°6 1219°2 21°6 14°6 ‘0107 4883 7818 ‘561| 21°45 307°0 1219°2 20-0 15°3 ‘0104 -4142 -7050 588
B21'1 359°5 29°38 12°7 -0146 ‘7669 1:0052 -763|) 6 21:2 394°6 27°3° 13°0 ‘0142 7076 -9088 -779
y 211 197°8 34:7 10°9 ‘0172 1:0241 1:2305 -832| +21°3 212°8 34:0 11:3 ‘0177 9725 11813 -823
5 21°4 121°5 38°3 9-1 -0190 1°3206 1°5911 °830} 821°5 128°0 36:9 9:6 -0192 1:2052 1°5409 -782
79:0 40% 7:8 -0201 80°3 40°0 81 +0209
530 41°7 6:5 -0207 54:0 40°83 7:0 °0213
35-4 41°7 5:3 +0207 36°5 42:0 5°6 0219
2471 39°7 4:1 0198 24:7 42:0 4:6 -0219
161 41:0 3:6 :0203 164 45°0 4:0 +0235
10°8 43:2 3:1 -0214 12450) 3°83) -0285
47°9 2°8 -0250
50°3 «2°1 «70262
54:0 1°7 -0282
54°4 1:2 +0284
B,[ 0 ]-38°7 0 c B, [0 ]—88°3 7) c
[60] 78:0 r= -39°6+127°38(@— 08595)? [1017] 320°6 323°7 [80] 150°0 += —88:4+126°72(@ — 0246)? [102°33] 307 304-7
[90] 241°1 [100] 286°8
B,[ 0 ]- 38-7 B,[0]-88°3
[-60] 106-6 r= -—39°5+114'58(6+ 08194)? [—96°5] 320°6 317°9 [—80] 157°0 r= --88°5+119°17(0+°0389)? [101°63] 307 303
[-90] 273°5 [-100] 290-9
% [0] 122°8 7,[0] 93:8
——-(80]) 157°6 =r =122-84+123-11(8+ 00819)? [71°83] 320°6 318-8 [30] 127°0 r=93°8+126:07(9--01046)2 [75:1] 307 306-9
[60] 259-9 [60] 229-5
2 [0] 122°8 yo 0] 93'8
[-30] 156°8 r=122°84119°83(6+ -00907)? [—72°75] 320°6 318-7 [—30] 127°9 r=93'8+122°13(6+ -00488)? [— 75°15] 307-0 305°4
[-60] 256-6 [-—60] 229°0
8, [0] 199°5 5, [0] 179°3
[20] 214-7 7r=199:5+126°72(@—-00279)? —- [55-9] 320°6 319°4 *[20] 194°9 r=179°34+125-08(0+°00401)? [57°1] 307 304°5
[40] 260-8 [40] 241:0
[0] 199°5 8, [0] 179°3
[-20] 214-2 7r=199°5+125-08(6— 00610)? [- 56°95] 320°6 321°5 [—20] 194:0 r=179°3 +126°40(@ - 00802)? [- 57°93] 307 306°5
[-40] 259-4 [—40] 239°5
388 PROFESSOR TAIT ON IMPACT, II.
12/6/91. New Native Inpia Russer.
ir SinGLE Mass. II. Since Mass.
N. & 0 CG. Ape ere. the e et Hesse ¢ Ge AMD) Ay ne e
22°7 265°5 750°0 28°4 21°3 :018 ‘4317 ‘4866 ‘8872 21°8 274°5 750°0 29°9 21°6 :018 *4581 5131 +8928
€ 22°7 5012. 29-5 181s “019 "5441 6017 «19042 e 21°8 508°0 31°8 18°3 :019 ‘5860 ‘6473 9052
343°8 30°6 15°9 °0195 "6358 ‘7167 =*8871 847°8 33°0 15°8 ‘0195 *6873° °7646 ‘8989
240°7 31°7 138°7 ‘020 ‘7550 °8627 ‘8751 244°6 34°2 13°5 +020 "8064 9163 +8800
N6b"7 3335) Liss, 021 9004 1:0514 °8563 167°3 36°0 11°8 *021 ‘9833 1'1086 ‘8870
110°5 35°4 10°0 ‘023 114038 1'2892 °*8845 112°2 37°9 10°71 ‘023
74:2 36°0 8:3 ‘023 75°3 39°5 8:5 ‘024
49*5 e393 ofl "025 50°2 41:3 7:5 '025
33°2 40°8 6:0 °026 83°5 43°11 6°4 '026
22°1 42°3 5:2 “027 22°1 45°38 54 +027
147 4571 4:5 :029 14:5 481 4:6 ‘029
92 46:0 3:7 :029 970 49:5 3°7 0295
57 486 3°0 ‘031 5'7 50°99 2:9 -:030
3°4 51:0 2:3 ‘033 3°7 50°9 2°38 :0380
22 486 16 ‘0381 2°77 50°99 1°9 :030
ese oron wits ecOSiL 17 509 1°38 :0380
1°70 48°6 9 -031 1:2 =50°9 ‘9 +030
7 48:6 6 “031
6 [0] 99:2 de [0] 108°0 0 c
[30] 140°1 7=99°2+148°39 (6+°0014)2 [40] 171°8 171°8 [30] 145°5 r=108+136'24(0+°0010)2 [40] 175°0 175-0
[60] 262°3 [60] 257°8
6 [0] 99-2 €,[0] 108°0
[-30] 135°2 7=99'2+1381°98 (6- 0014)? [-40] 163 163°3 [-30] 148°5 7r=108+122°46(@- 0005)? [-20] 123°7 122-9
[-60] 243°5 [-60] 246°2
ITI. Dovste Mass. |_ IV. Dovuste Mass.
Web alEs pC. Deer ue, peta e Noes peel CeO aan Ay) tee e
21:2 292°1 750°0 37°6 26°71 020 ‘4956 °5528 897 21°8 3138 750°0 39°5 26°4 ‘021 ‘5165 ‘5879 +879
€21°8 5386°8 40°9 23:1 °022 *B715 6590 ‘867 e2ile9) 589°2 41°7 23°3 022 6120 ‘6681 916
899°3 41°0 20°4 :022 6590 7220 ‘913 401°7 44:1 20°8 °023 "6997 ‘7879 = °888
3803°8 42°9 18:3 °023 7632 °8337 ‘915 305'9 46:2 18°7 :024 8012 «= °8795 = ‘911
232°9 44:0 16°3 °024 *8561 "9270 923 237°9 47:4 16°7 °025 "9244 1:000 "924
W773 445°5 14°7 +025 "9556 1:0831 882 | 180°8 49°0 15°0 ‘026 1:0441 1'1504 +908
133°7 46°6 13:2 ‘025 1387'2 51°0 13°6 ‘027
100°0 481 11°38 :*026 103°4 52°7 12:0 ‘028
fo DOL 1O%5) 027) , 777 ~=538°8 = 10°6 +028
54°7 52°76 9:2 :0286 58'1 56°0 9°5 '029
40°2 52°76 8'°0 ‘0286 43°5 58°0 86 ‘030
29°3 52°6 6:9 ‘0286 82°38 59° 7:5 ‘0381
22°2 52°6 6:0 ‘0286 23°99 61°33. 6°5 032
16:2 526 5:2 :0286 173) G10) 58) :082
115 526 4:4 -0286 130 61:0 4:8 -032
St2Zi bless S30) 028 9°5 61°70 39 +0382
5°77 65270. «= 30'—*028 6°99 61°8 3°5 ‘032
4:0 511 2:1 +028 4:9 62:6 2°8 :033
D9 502s Pb) 2027 3°4 63°1 2:2 °033
2:0 48°3 11 '026 2°3 638:°0 17 :033
UG a4e7e SOF6) “024 16 62°99 12 ‘038
1:0 37°6 74 “020 1°2 60°9 7 032
"8 34°2 018 "8 50°8 "4 *026
. “5 AS: 2 3 °025
€[0] 595 0 c [0] 780 0 c
[80] 99°71 7=59°6+183°95(0+°0209)? [74:4] 292°1 292°5 (80] 1161 r=78+185°59(@+ 0066)? (75°2] 313 314
[60] 212°1 [60] 228°5
e,[0] 59°5 6[0] 78:0
[-30] 94:0 r=59°5+125°74(0)? [-77°6] 2921 290-1 [-30] 1145 r=78+127'38(+°01185)? [-77] 3813 312
[-60] 197°5 [- 60] 220°9
22/6/91. New Vuncanisep Inpia Russer.
: Since Mass. | II. Sieve Mass.
WW WsR ol Gh 9 aS TE A, A, e No (Q9Bs4an | (aCe ue A, 7 e
22°0 269°2 9144 25°3 184 ‘0155 °4262 5325 800 21:2 2832 914°4 261 18°5 °0146 4484 5488 ‘815
5 22°4 459'4 26°7 13°38 ‘0163 5844 ‘7150 ‘817| 8 22:4 464°5 27°2 18°9 *0152 +5961 7400 ‘805
252°7 27:0 10°8 ‘0165 *7627 9331 817 260°3 28°5 11°0 ‘0160 ‘7921 ‘9675 ‘819
161°3 27°7 85 :0170 "98388 1°1918 ‘825 155°3 29:0 87 ‘0163 1:0082 1:2349 ‘816
PROFESSOR TAIT ON IMPACT, II.
389:
New Vuucanisep Inp1a Rusper—continued.
T.—continued. SINGLE Mass,
N R H C D T Ay A, e
90°38 284 6:7 ‘0174
537 29°1 5:2 °0178
3171 291 4:0 ‘0178
180 30°00 311 ‘0184
10°'4 30°9° 2°5 :0189
61 311 2°0 ‘0190
36 31:1 174 0190
2:0 3111 1°70 -:0190
5, [0] 117°6 0 c
[20] 183° v=117°6+141°17(8-°0174)? [60°5] 269°2 269°8
[40] 183-0
5, [0] 117°6
[-20] 134°5 r=117°6 + 132°63(9-+ 00645)? [- 61°15] 2692 270°9
[-40] 183°7
iHOR Dovusie Mass.
mon F Cc D A, Ihe e
92:0 299'7 914°4 33°9 23°6 ‘0186 "4455 5704 781
§21‘7 5051 37:4 18°8 ‘0206 “6009 7655 785
3059 38°8 15°3 ‘0212 ‘7790 "9523 *818
193'7 39°8 12:4 0219 9573 1°1875 *806
1241 40°7 10:1 -0224:
79°38 42:2 8:0 °0232
50°0 42°2 66 ‘0232
3814 43°6 5:0 +0240
195 444 4:1 :0244
12°22. 44°6 ~ 3°3 -"0246
76 446 2°5 +0246
4:6 44:6 1°8 -0246
27 “44:6. 1:3 0246
1°6
8, [0] 106-4 0.6
(20] 122°0 vr=106°4+182'96(06 — 00645) [70] 299°7 302°7
[40] 170-0
5, [0] 106-4
[-20] 122°5 r=106'4+126°40(0+ 00785)? [-70°4] 299°7 299-7
[-40] 169°4
= 16/6/91.
i, Sinete Mass.
im 6. Dp. -T A, Ay *'e
22°5 272°3 1219'2 14:4 9:9 ‘00892 +3640 6732 *541
B 22°0 250'0 14:1 5:2 +0087 ‘7664 1°32380 579
714 14:1 3:0 ‘0087
24°5 14°7 1°7 ‘0091
8°9 15°4 1:2 -0095
8,[0] 23°0 0 c
[80] 78:2 7r=21°7 +148°72(6 + 0924)? (69°1] 272°3 272°4
[69] 214°9
B[0] 23°0
{[-—30] 50:2 7 = 22'8 + 116°22(0 — 03836)? [-— 85:25] 272°3 267:0
[-60] 1411
The Dovusie Mass.
mR 4H Oe, Die ak A, es 6
21°15 296°5 1219:°2 29°1 15°7 ‘0156 4032 9884 408
B 21°4 179°8 27°74 6°7 :0147 ‘9977 1°9458 +513
44:5 26:1 3°6 ‘0140
14:0 25°6 2:2 :0137
49 283 1°4 °0151
Oo ne 0 ¢
51°5 =7=116'1+1380°66(6 — 00732)? [67°5] 296°5 296°3
[60] 258°6 ie
C os 116'1
- 148°9 r=116°1+119°50(6)? ~ 70°33] 296°5 296:
[-60] 247°3 @ : - a ee
VOL. XXXVII. PART II. (NO, 18).
Il.—continued. SINGLE Mass.
Hie Rs eh Cs Dn ete A, ween
93°4 29°99 69 °0168
566 31:0 55 :0174
Sore olD Old
18'9 32:1 3°4 0180
107 3835 2:5 :0188
59 344 2°0 °0193
3°55 35°2 1°5 °0198
2:0 368 11 -:0207
3, [0] 1284 0 c
[20] 146-1 7+=128'4+142'81(@+ °00296)? [59:55] 283°2 283-4
[40] 198°6
5,[ 0] 128-4
[-20] 144°1 7=128:4+131°65(0 — 00401)? [—62°2] 283°2 284°6
[-40] 191°9
1A Quap. Mass.
Net He CL DT A, i e
22°3 317°7 914°4 40°2 28:2 ‘0211 4621 °6840 729
OZone a 486°3 47°0 23°77 0248 6290 8021 °784
293°3 51:0 19°5 . '0268 7974 1:0085 °795
1838°4 541° 16:0 ‘0285 1°0855 1:2527 °827
117°5 55°5 12°9 0292 1°27838 1°5587 820
75°2 56-9 10°5 ‘0300
48°7 57°38 | 87 +0304
31°5 59°5 386967 «0318
19°9 59°5 5:2- *0313
12°3 605 4:0 ‘0318
74 61°9 3°0 0326
46 62°0 2°2 '0326
27 62:0 . 1°5 . :0326
7 62'0) 1-1 0826
5,[ 0] 134°8 0 (i
[20] 151°1 7=134°8+140°51(6@— 00837)? [66°5] 317°7 321:°2
[40] 201°6
5,[ 0] 134°8
[-20] 152°0 7=184'8+134°60(6 + '00854)? [- 66°25] 317°7 317°2
[-40] 202°0
Cork.
II. Since Mass.
Nee eRe oy Cee Oye LE i SAG Ne
22°15 286°8 1219°2 16:0 10°3 ‘00938 3959 °7341 ‘539
B 21°9 252°9 15°6 5:4 ‘0090 *8156 1°4176 ‘575
71:5 1b 7) =63"2 0091
25°1 16:3 1:9 0094
9-4 16°55 1:3 :0096
on LEG *8 0102
B,[0] 34:3 y) Cc
[380] 76:9 7=84'3+148°06(0+ 0129)? [74:4] 286°8 288°6
[60] 200°7
B.[0] 34:3
[-30] 65°0 r=34'3+113°59(0- '00884)? [- 84°83] 286'8 282°0
[—60] 158°0 }
IV. Quap. Mass.
Ne H Sin De. ee AGl uh SAR deene
21°45 321°7 1219°2 52:1 247 ‘0261 "4245 1'2218 347
B 21°83 185'1 54:2 10:0 °0271 1:2550 2°7450 °457
26°4 46-2 4:4 -0231
68 46°9 2°56 °0235
B, [0] 18674 0 c
[20] 202-0 7=186'04+128'°4(0)2 [58°75] 321°7 321-0
[40] 248°8
Bo [0] 186°4
[—20] 201°5 r=186-4+120°65(9 — 00663)? [-60°6] 321°7 319°6
[-40] 246-0
ou
390
N R
22°3 273°1
¥y 22°3
[0] 184-2
[20] 202°1
[40] 254°7
yo [0] 184'2
[—20] 199-4
[-40] 246-0
Li,
N R
21°8 306°0
¥ 21°8
1 [0] 242°4
[20] 257°5
[40] 3804-7
yo [0] 242°4
[—20] 258-0
[-40] 304°7
N R
22°5 310°8 2438°4 26:4
dH Us
N R H Cc
22°05 285°7 2438°4 26°0
N
22°35 ort 4
B 22°3
B,[0] 124
[30] 59:8
[60] 188°7
Ba[0] 124
[-30] 440 r=12-4+122-13(6--01464)2 [-83'4] 271-4 265°9 [-
[-60] 142°6
PROFESSOR TAIT ON IMPACT, II.
24/6/91. Cork.
SineLe Mass. II. SrincLe Mass.
H Gis Dy? aE 1 eS e N H Gr De. 2 A, A, ie
22860 241 20°5 ‘0148 "2568 °5844 "439 22°23 289'2 2286°0 26°1 21°1 ‘0151 2754 -6200 +444
373°6 197 7°5 +0121 °6322 1'2009 526 | y 22°1 390'0 22°3 8:0 ‘0129 “6590 1°3079 °504
88°6 17:2 3°7 +0105 91°5 188 3°8 -:0108
29'7 16°99 21 +0104 30°3 18°5 2:3 +0107
114 17°4 #1°4 +0107 115 191 16 ‘0110
456 2758 | 12020109 47 20° 1:0 ‘0118
7) c [0] 1981 i) c
*=184'2+142°15(0+°00610)? [45-1] 273°1 273°9 [20] 214°8 r=198-1+138+87(0— 00209)? [46-7] 289-2 289-7
[40] 265°3
v2 [0] 198*1
7r=184'2-+129°02(6 - 00558)? [-30] 218-7 218°8 [-20] 214-2 r=198+1+130°66(0+ 00192)? [-30] 234-0 234:3
[-40] 262:1
DovsiE Mass. IV. Quap. Mass.
H Guy Did A, NK, Fe Ny 0tGR: Slee oY Fer A, * -Ay e
2286'0 386 29°2 -0206 “2908 ‘7463 390 22'1 323°8 2286:0 45°5 33°9 :0233 3102 §=:9163 °8385
312°0 41°6 12:2 ‘0222 ‘7776 + 1°6697 *466| g 22:0 232°6 72:1 17°8 ‘0369 9244 2°1283 4743
64°3 383°5 3=694:9 +0179 42:0 62°3 6°8 °0319
E830 Sle8= 257)" -0170 84 571 3:0 ‘0292
5‘9 31°83 1°6 ‘0170
1°8 36:1? 11 ‘01932
0 c B, [90] 91:0 0 c=
7 =242°4 +131°65(6 — 01011)?» [80] 277°1 277-1 [80] 1265 7r=91'0+134'938(@-*01064)? [75'5] 323°8 321°6
[60] 2360
B,[0] 91:0
7 =242°4 +128°04(6)? [-10] 246°3 2463 [-—380] 128°0 r=91+1382°30(0 + °0052) [-40] 1561 156°4
[-60] 237-6
H C D My
29°8 *0143
D T
311 ‘0151
H Ce -DICyLE
1219°2 1°6 1°2 0010
259°3 1°9 11 ‘0012
727 22 “5 :0014
31°2 26 °5 *0016
16°8 2°9 ‘3 ‘0018
9°38 3°2 °3 +0020
5°9 2°8 °2 -0017
35 3'2 2 0020
2°0
r=12'1+148'72(0 + 04254)?
26/6/91.
VULCANISED INDIA RUBBER.
Since Mass. II.
He 5 hy, apie MOL RK. 2 20 Sp er
‘2836 3578 °793| 21°9 300°0 2438°4 26-0 29-7 -0142
Dovusie Mass. IV.
, Boog, Ose NR HC! DY PE
2586 3457 °748 22°05 270°1 2488°4 25°6 35°4 °0157
3/7/91. WuULCANITE.
SINGLE Mass. 1B,
A, POAT = Yo a oR HB) ‘Hqerpseee
*3620 °7002 ‘517 22°4 279°1 1219°2 21 23 :0018
7265 1°3668 5382) vy 22°5 492°3 2°4 1°6 :0014
151°7 2°8 1:0 +0017
48°2 31 ‘6 0019
23°0 36 ‘4 °0022
115 4:72 °3 +0025
0 ¢ [0] 1275
[73°4] 271°4 272°6 [20] 144:0 r=127°5+141°50(0 — 0075)"
[40] 195°0
y. [0] 127°5
20) 144:7
[-40] 195°1
7r=127°5+136°24(6 - 00401)?
Ay
3561
‘5372
SineLe Mass.
A, Ay )
‘2733 °38518 °777
Quap. Mass.
e
by fst/
Ay) Ay
"2348 3275
Dovus.e Mass.
@
678
570
Ay
"5250
9424
7) c
[59°7] 27971 278°9
(60°0] 279°1 2758
PROFESSOR TAIT ON IMPACT, II. 391
VuULCANITE—continued.
ag Dousie Mass. ; IV. Quap. Mass.
N R H Cee dl Ay A, e N R H Cc OD T A, Ay e
93:35 2993 24384 1°9 1°8 ‘0011 2586 4986 519] 22°85 308°7 12192 3:4 2:7 0019 3805 ‘7673 496
y 23°2 5428 2:1 1:4 ‘0012 +5486 8601 ‘638 | B22°5 291:0 3:3 1:1 +0018 7841 1°7090 459
172°3 24 1:0 :0014 58:0 5:2 9 0029
570 33 °5 ‘0019 14:7 96 <9 +0053
25°3 3°7 +4 +0022 4:8 96 ‘5 ‘0053
114 4:0 3 ‘0023 Ii Ore oes 0008
[0] 127°7 BiL0] 17°6 Mie 86
[30] 167°5 r=127°7 +150°36(@ - 009070)? [61°75] 299° 3 299° 9 [30] 66°0 7=17'34151'35(0+ 0486) (77°5] 308-7 312°3
[60] 289°7 [60] 197°4
yo [0] 127°7 BL 0] 17°6
ia 30] 168°0 r=127°7+ 143°14(0+ 0136)? [-62°4] 299°3 301°7 [-30] 47°3 r=17-4+125'41(@ — 03487)2 [-88-2] 308°7 301°2
[- 60] 286°8 [-60] 145-7
V. Quap. Mass. V.—continued.
N R H Gar Det As A, e B,[0] 49:0 : 0 ¢
22°75 321'1 24384 2°3 1:5 ‘0012 2867 *8878 = :328 [80] 90°3 v=49+142°81(6+ °0143)° [78°7] 3211 324
B22°5 2721 2°6 O°8 ‘0014 8466 1:8040 -469 [60] 210°0
53°99 5:0 0°8 ‘0027 B[0] 49-0
13°3 85 0°8 0045 [-30] 83°6 7r=49+132°63(@- 01255)? [-- 82°6] 321°1 319°8
4°5 8:4 04 -0045 [ - 60] 191°0
10/7/91. Leap.
he SINGLE Mass. II. SrvcLe Mass.
N R H Co De As Ay e N R H Cee Dar A Iie e
92°55 279'0 12192 2:521:42 00152 +3640 °82302 -4422?| 23:35 295-0 1219-2
120°5 18 08 ‘0011
21:1 2:0 0:4 +0012
IV. Quap. Mass.
N R H Che Dirt T A, A, e
23:0 325°3 12192 3:0 1:4 ‘0016 4265 1°7461 ‘244
Il. Dovusie Mass. 84:7
9:4
N R H Gl 10) T A A e
22°55 3042 1219°2 1:7 1:3 ‘0009 9899 11-0385 -3765| V- Quan. Mass.
1586 26 ‘7 ‘0014 N R H GD 7 A, Ay e
170 26 “4 ‘0014 23°0 817°8 2438°4 4:5 2:0 -0024 2773 -1:9875 +148
29/6/91. Puane TREE.
N, SinGLE Mass. II. SrneLte Mass.
im, OR H co oD T A, A, e N R H Cc D 7 A, AS e
211 2696 1219°2 2:0 1°7 ‘0012 3719 7590 +490 22°3 277°6 1219:2 1:1 ‘0007 3640 ‘7618 ‘478
B 21:0 215°3 2:8 1:1 -0016 8785 16977 ‘517! B21°7 229'9 2:6 1:3 0016 "8273 1:5340 +439
45:0 26 ‘6 ‘0015 54-1 23 7 -0014
154 2% 3 ‘0015 170 3-0 ‘4 -0018
73°33 +2 +0019 79 31 2 0019
B,[0] 54°6 0 @ B,[0] 47°7 0 c
[30] 89°3 r=54:6+130'66(6—‘00802)? [73°9] 269°6 269°2 [80] 85°3 7=47°7+134:93(0+ 00436)? [74°25] 277°6 275°8
[60] 195°6 [60] 1969
B[0] 54°6 B.[0] 47°7
[-380] 84:7 r=54:6+110°64(@- 00209)? [-80] 269°6 269°6 [-30] 82:0 r=47'7+123°77(0+ ‘00296)? [-78] 277°6 2781
[-60] 175°5 [-60] 184:2
NOE Dovuste Mass. IV. Srnete Mass.
Maer Hi C D Ff Ajo ER 6 Ngee Rk. Ho 1c) Pps So ye) a aes
22°5 288°7 1219:2 2:2 1:9 0013 3679 8754 +420 22°2 299'9 24384 ... 10... 2830 +6494 +436
B 22°5 1986 2°9 1:2 -0017 9004 1°7251 +522) y 211 408°8 2:5 1:4 0014 6720 1:2846 +528
48°38 3:4 °8 +0020 90°77 21 9 -0012
152 51 ‘6 ‘0030 25:0 2:9 +5 0016
55 85 °5 +0050 111 3 +3 0019
52 4:3 +2 +0024
392 PROFESSOR TAIT ON IMPACT, II.
PLANE TREE—continued.
ITI.—continued. Dovusie Mass, | IV.—continued. SineGLeE Mass.
B, [0] 90°6 0 c 7, [9] 210°0 0) c
[30] 128°0 r=90°6+141°83(@-°00994)? [68°4] 288°7 289°3 [20] 225:2 r=210'0+138°21(6-°00174)? [47°1] 299°9 303°0
[60] 243°2 [40] 274°1
B,[0] 90°6 [0] 210°0
[-30] 128°0 7=90°6+184°60(0+ 00349)? [-69°4] 288°7 289:2 (ies a 227°4 = =r=210+128'37(0+°00174)? [- 80] 247°9 245+4
[-60] 239°3 [-40] 27671
aVE Dovusie Mass. VI. Quap. Mass.
Neck H Co. Dy et A, Aye te N R H <pi@e Da redt Ay. Meee e
22°4 316°4 2438°4 2943 +9067 «= °324 219 313'4 2488°4 5:22 3°32 +00272 +2867 1°1268 255
B 214 255°4 3:6 1:4 -0019 ‘9181 1°7747 °515| B 22°4 1261 3°2 ‘9 ‘0017 1'2864 8°3122 374
58°6 4:0 1:0 ‘0021 174 90 °8 +0047
156 5:7 ‘7 -0030 32 95 °4 +0050
50 11:0 “6 ‘0058
B,[9] 61:2 : 0 c B,[ 0] 187°0 0) ¢c
[30] 95°38 r=61:2+129°02(@- -00575)? [80-75] 316-4 314°3 [20] 203°8 r= 187 +138°21(6)? [54°6] 313-4 312'5
[60] 201-2 [40] 254°3
Bo[0] 61°2 B.[0] 187°0
[—30] 95°2 r=61'2+119°83(8+°00907)? [-83] 316°4 315'8 [-20] 203°8 r=187+1384:27(6+°00453)? [-55:2] 313°4 312:8
— 60] 195°0 [-40] 253°3
6/7/91. Sree.
I. SincLE Mass. IV. SINGLE Mass.
N R H emp ver A As e N R qo Ce Dower A, A, @
ap3 “2750 1210-2 Il 16 70007 ~ “8502 , 7202 “+343 . 208 20RD 2B 09 TE eee a
252°5 1:5 1:0 +0009 7590 1°6709 454 a RaEtOt Sai
; bose dS byl VP 4 :0012
504 2:0 5 -0012 11°3 35-2 0019
145 27 3 0016
Vi Dovusie Mass.
NE Hw . Oadby 2 A, Ay e
II. SineLe Mass. 21:55 297°5 24884 1:8 1:6 -0010 2726 «=°7490 «= “864
09°0 15 -8 0008 ‘7813 1° 466
ok OT eo ans ih aagiae ela ‘O25 25 4-014
21:0 2786 12192 -9 1°5 -0005 3939 8012 += -492 10°2 46 3 0025
253°9 16 ‘9 0009 8079 17113 472) yy M
516 1:9 3 +0011 6 QuaD. ASS.
15°70 22 ‘1 ‘0012 N R H Cc OD T A As e
22°25 308°5 1219°2 38°1 2°1 -:0017 *8799 1°1145 ‘341
118°7
49
i Dovusie Mass, | VII. Quap, Mass,
N R oe. Gipp cin Ay Ne e N <8 oH Ch py) <a7 Ay ee e
21°75 284°3 1219°2 1°7 2:0 ‘0010 3620 "7028 °515 21°55 324°7 2438°4
2866 1°99 ‘9 ‘0011 7346 1°4229 +516 83°5
68°3 2:4 °6 ‘0014 67
192 3°3 ‘5 -0019
8/7/91. Guass. Sinete Mass.
iL II. III.
N R H Cc D na Ay Ay e R H H
22°56 279°7 68°0 2°0 “5 ‘0012 1°4882 5°0504 ‘294 282°8 609°6 1219°2
6'1 73°8 124°6
11°6 19°1
PROFESSOR TAIT ON IMPACT, II.
7/11/91. Vuneanisep Inpia Rupper. (Since Mass.)
if Frat Bass, | II.
Mone r. C DOT A AN tte Mik Ss Oye Gk See
21°'4 277 1066 22 Se O27 *3899 ‘4791 °814 21°65 283 1066 222. Weg Ol
624°2 22°8 14:3 °0132 ‘4986 ‘6168 ‘808 Sls 23°9 14:7 °0136
871'2 24 11°6 0138 ‘6581 °8040 °818 384°6 24:7 12°0 °0141
2213) 25 91 °0144 230°0 26°55 9:4 :0151
180°5 25°99 7:2 :0149 186°3) 271 4-3) 70055
Seco 262 58-0157 81°5 28°2 6:0 ‘0161
45°5 28°1 4:4 :0162 48:0 29:0 4:9 ‘0166
26°71 29°0 3°5 -0167 OF 0s 420) ec OllriiD
15:0 30°0 29 :0173 16°0 32:0 3:0 ‘0183
80 31°2 21 +0180 9:0 32°55 21 °0186
100 Ripcep BasE. | TV,
mR 4H Ce pe T Oe el ae WeoeR H Go. Dp Wr
218 283 1066 34:9 26:2 ‘0201 4122 +5195 *798 21°6 2965 1066 35°5 27:0 0193
559°6 37°9 21:2 *0218 5430 6681 813 604°5 39°9 22°2 +0217
338°5 39°0 17°3 +0224 6916 °8481 ‘815 363°0 41°5 18°0 °0226
207°8 + 40°8 14:3 :0235 221°3 43°8 14°5 °0238
128°0 41°7 11°2 -0240 135°5 44:9 11°9 ‘0244
78°8 41:7 89 +0240 81:°9 46°7 9:1 °0254
48°0 43:0 7:0 0247 50°3 46:7 7°3 0254
29:0 44:0 5:6 ‘0253 8081 472) 5-7-0257
170 44:3 4:1 :0255 17°2 486 46 ‘0264
13/7/92. Vuncanisep Inp1a RUBBER.
N R H CAD T Ay A, e
7) G 0 c yil0]- 21°9 ; on
19783 333°3 1000 27°8 16-5 +0123 +5206 °5098 °6556 6488 -794| [60]+113°0 r= -21°9+118°34(0 + 0208)
592°8 29°1 13°3 ‘0129 6728 -6617 -8069 ‘8138 834) [90] 277°8
B00 oe a0 a ‘0184 “8511 ae 1-0680 1:0540 97 wef 0]—- 21°9
20° ‘2 31°6 8:9 -0140 1:0756 1:0776 1°3151 *818 | Vol UI— : :
20°58 129'1 328 7-2 -0145 1-4097 1-7205 1819 | [—-60]+ 94°0 r= —21°9+111°81(0 — 0288)?
€ 20°78 749 34:1 5:6 0151 1:8040 2:3314 774 \[—90] 243°9
‘3 87°7 3:5 0167 32540 4:337 ‘750 | °1 i : ; 2
12°6 39°3 2:5 0174 4:3433 61066 711 [30] 153°0 7r=120°54117°62(6+ 0021)?
a 40:3 1-7 :0178 [60] 250°0
2°8 42°1 1:3 -0186 3,[ 0] 120°5
ge ee “LO [-30] 1525 r= 120-5 +112°33(9 + °0101)?
5 és [-60] 246°1
B,[ 0 ]-259°7 3 oy | €, [ O]) 208°9
[30]-228-0 r= ~ 259°7 +112'33(0-+°0077)% ahr 574 Perera *F20] 219°2 r=203°9+120°64(0+ -0072)?
[60] - 134-7 ] [40] 263-9
Bo[ 0]— 259°7 ; -g | € [0] 203°9
[-30]-230°5 r= — 259-7 -+106-88(@ — +0009)? aes 3088 | [20] 217-8 r= 203-94 114-89(0 - “00877
[-60]-142°7 [- 40] 259°7
[This was a single experiment, specially designed for the Niirnberg Exhibition. ]
26/5/91. Unsnammerep Gotr Batt. (Woop Brock UnsHop.)
I. SineLeE Mass. | II,
N R H C D T A, A, e N R H C D Av
22°7 = 240'7 1219°2 66 6:0 *00465 *8272 «#°5902 °555 21°9 257°3 12192 7:3 63 ‘00464
306°0 86 4:0 ‘00605 6371 19325 -683 337°4 95 4:3 00603
1089 9:9 2-7 -00697 1:0110 1:5608 -648 1186 10°38 2:8 ‘00686
43°0 10°71 1°9 :00711 47°3 1171 1°9 :00705
18°3 10°71 1°4 ‘00711 20°5 11°2 1°3 *:00711
8110 9 06739 9° 11:4 ‘9 00724
3°8 11°6 *8 =-00817 4°6 11°8 “6 °00750
7 2°3 11:8 . :4 *00750
393
Fuat Base.
Ay A, e
39389 °4942 °797
"4986 °6358 ‘784
"6519 °8391 ‘777
RipGED Base.
Ay A, e
4142 +5250 -789
5480 °6873 ‘790
‘7062 °8770 °805
Since Mass.
[70] 161:0 160°8
[97°95] 333°3 3324
[-70] 137°6 137°1
[-103°85] 333°3 333°7
[76-9] 383°3 333
[—45] 191°5 191°6
[—78°3] 333°3 333-4
[58°9] 383°3 333°2
[-50] 291°6 290°7
[- 60°5] 333°3 331°1
A, Ag e
3504 °6050 579
"6140 ‘9896 621
1°1039 1°6022 ‘689
394 PROFESSOR TAIT ON IMPACT, II.
UNHAMMERED Gotr Batt—continued.
ITI. Dovusie Mass. | IV. Quap. Mass.
N R; BP” G0) een Nore o hes, Re N ny sD T A e
21°9 2735 1219'2 10°9 7°6 ‘00651 8689 °7360 ‘501 21°9 ose 7 1219°2 15°6 10°1 ‘00883 3819 at 453
272°0 14:7 -5*5 00878 “7536 1°2916 583 233°0 22°6 7°7 ‘01279 ‘8891 1°4154 ‘593
98°8 1770 40 :01016 1:2758 1:9774 645 82°1 26°55 5°3 01500 1:'4200 2:2198 ‘640
401177 26 :01058 82°6 281 3°5 ‘01591
L779 Lor Ss 00070 14:3 28:5 =92°4 01613
A ib ie 01070 64 28:5 1:6 ‘01613
3 6 ‘9 ‘O1111 . : ‘
Se es ae 2:8 295 11 01670
28/5/91. Hammerep Gor Batu. (Biock UnsuHop.)
I. Sines Mass. | II.
N RA HH. #¢ a 7 EE A, As H 7% Ne, oF fH BeC ED GT Ay As See
21°8 245°3 1219°2 21°6 2543 1219 63 57 ‘00499 ‘3581 °5384 ‘665
378'°0 78 4:1 :00517 5902, +9163 ‘644 3886'°3 8:2 4:0 ‘00520 6285 ‘9490 662
144:33 90 2:7 :00597 "9358 1:3814 ‘677 149°2 9:0 2:9 ‘00571 ‘9725 1:4888 ‘676
6155 9:3 2:0 ‘00617 63'4 101 2°2 00640
27:5 10°5 1°5 00696 29°99 10°2 1:5 +00647
12°411°9 1:1 ‘00789 14°2 11:0 1'°2 00697
6°2 12°4 “9 00822 67 117 8 00742
2:9 3°0
III. Dousie Mass. IV. Quav. Mass.
N Batch, Co <p uy Aya =A e Ni) OR H Gel) ah A, A, e
21°6 27275 1219°2 9:°2 6:7 °00544 3679 6745 °545 92°6 2881 1219°2 13°4 9°4 :00784 +3640 ‘7646 +476
821°3 12°38 5°6 :00728 “6835 1:0486 652 279°9 176 6°9 01030 °7308 1:2505 584
132°6 13°3. 3°9 ‘00787 1:0432 1°6085 °648 ‘ 1081 20°71 46 ‘01177 1:1771 1°9596 601
59°8 14:7 2°7 :00870 44:0 22:0 3°2 ‘01288
28°0 156 21 00923 18°9 23°8 2°6 01393
137 16°3 16 00964 9:0 23:0 1°6 ‘01346
69 17°5 = 12 “011035 4°3
35 182 1:0 01077 2°0
1°6
1/3/92. Hammerep Gour Baty, (AuL Sinete Mass.)
£ (Steen Prats). | II. (Steet Prats).
N R H Ce) T A, Ay e N R H Cc D T Ay Ay e
21°75 263 1219'2 5°9 5:0 °00364 8410 ‘5820 ‘586 93°2 273°0 1219°2 6:9 5:9? :00438 3551 6009 591
297'2 7:8 3°5 ‘0048 “6330 1:0176 ‘622 354°2 86 3°7 *00545 6627 «1:0247 647
1050 970 2°5 :0056 1:0913 1'6865 ‘647 1231 9°3 2°56 ‘00590 1°1132 1°6842 -661
39°2 9°5 1°6 ‘00586 45°99 96 17 ‘00609
15°38 10°9 1:2 :00617 19°0 10°6 1:2 ‘00672
6°9 11:1 0°9 00685 84 111 ‘9 ‘00704
27 11:4 ‘7 :00703 37
Ii. (Woop). | IV. (Woop). |
NR H Vals b saa Ne Tok Sats Meio ak Cow DIT Se A... Asa
21:0 279'5 12192 5°8 4°3 ‘00325 3463 5774 ‘600 223 293°6 1219°2 6:4 4:72 00363 4040 +7028 “575
383°0 7:7 3°5 '00432 6208 ‘9691 ‘641 384°7 8:2 3°6? 00465 6644 1°0538 *630
131°9 83 21 ‘00465 1:0283 1°5911 ‘646 184°0 95 2°4 °00539 1:'1028 1°6643 ‘663
494 89 16 ‘00499 50°9 10°71 1°8 ‘00573
201 95 11 *00533 21:0 10°9 11 ‘00618
86 98 ‘8 00549 9:0 109 ‘9 :00618
4°0 41 109 ‘5 ‘00618
Vv (Woop). | VI. (Steen Puars).
22°6 306°5 1219°2 61442 ‘00336 "3939 6656 °593 21°35 810°8 1219°2 80 55 ‘0041 “4204 6681 ‘629
390°7 84% 3°02 *00462 *6758 1'2685 533 881°8 10°8 4°0% 00554 ‘7178 =1:2572 + ‘b71
1060 10°0 2°2 :00550° 1°2647 1:9500 ‘649 102°'7 123 2:5 00631 1°3968 2°1742 “642
41:0 10°7 1°7 ‘00589 87'0 12°77 1:7 00652
16°9 11°6 1°2 ‘00638 156 18:7 1:1 ‘00703
7°4 1275 ‘9 °00688 66 14:8 ‘9 00759
32 14:4 75 *00792
PROFESSOR TAIT ON IMPACT, II. 395
16/3/92. UnHamMmerepD Gotr Batt. (ALL SinetE Mass.)
(STEEL Prate).
1 II.
NR H CoD. ft IM Ae Se N Bae el © 9D ae Ay A, e
22°45 275°4 12192 55 4:7 00335 *3581 °6009 ‘596 21°15 283°6 1219°2 5:7 4:8 :00817 *8819 °5914 -645
373°9 6°8 3:0 ‘00414 6334 1:0000 633 420'2 7:3 3° -00406 "6249 1:0053 °622
128°0 86°21 :00523 1:0724 1°7217 ‘623 144°3. 87 2°3 °00484 1:0488 1°7532 598
45°5 86 1°3 *00523 52:0) 99 she “00d ai
1774 9:0 0°99 -00548 19°4 10°3 11 ‘00573
6°8 10° 7 ‘00608 7°5 10°6 8 *00590
Til. IV.
ak 8 © Dp “ft Ay Ae N R H Cf Di vn Ay Re 6
22°2 291°3 1219°2 6°0 4:9? :00341 3726 «=6'5716 «°652 20°83 299°0 1219°2 66 4:7 '00343 3959 6108 648
4838°4 7°8 38°5 00444 “6192 1°0247 604 438°8 8:0 3°6 °00415 6594 1:0649 -°619
148°5 «=68°6 2°5 *00489 1:0428 1°6764 ‘622 153°8 95 26 ‘00493 1'0637 1°7603 -604
53°9 96 1°8 -00546 552 10:3 1°7 00585
20°2 12°2 1°4 ‘00694 20°7 11°6 1°4 ‘00602
77 =#13°8 1:0 *00785 8:5 12°9° <9 -:0067
(Woop).
We WI.
N R H ie Dia HE A ete age NAR H Go Di. cE Ay eae
21°55 305'6 1219°2 6:6 5:0 :00347 *3919 '6469 -606 21°25 315'2 1219°2 6°6 4°42 :00332 “4227 6494 °651
426°2 &2 3:3 °00431 “6586 1°0963 °601 438°3 84 3°5 ‘00423 *6937 1°1048 -628
W447 99 25 “00521 1370 1°7898 “635 153°0 96 2°5 004838 1°1599 1°8572 °625
52°3 10°8 1°7 ‘00568 56°1 10°4 1°6 *00523
19°9 12°5 1°3 ‘00658 21°5 10°38 1.1 ‘00543
80 133 °9 -00700 87 12:0 07 00604
VII. VIII.
N R H Gp. Ds 71 A ho. ee N R H Cir Det Ny Ae Gee
21°6 324°8 1219°2 6°62 4°32 :00328 "4327 °7220 “599 21°35 331'2 1219°2 6°72 4:0? °003822 "4418 7063 °626
447°3. 8'8 «3°8 =*00437 6958 1°1048 630 445°2 89 3°6 *00428 7225 =1°09383 °661
158'°6 10°2 2°5 ‘00506 1°1566 1°8807 ‘615 158:0 10°0 2°6 ‘00481 1°1785 1°8867 642
58°38 11-1 1°7 -00551 59°5 11°0 1°7 -:00529
22°5 12°38 1°4 -00635
93 138°6 1°0 *00675
5/4/92. HamMERED GoLF Batt oN HamMMERED GOLF Batu.
ig Srnete Mass. Il. Since Mass.
ok 86 Go: Dy vf Ay Asie N R H on Dl on ay Ae ue
21°37 260°9 1219°2 83 7:0 ‘00507 *8620 °5774 °627 22°2 2686 1219°2 80 7°74 ‘00494 "3310 5200 °636
400°3 10°0 5:0 ‘00611 6092 9072 °672 458°2 97 5:4 00598 53862 °8332 644
150°4 10°9 3°3 *00666 “9896 1°4550 °681 173'2 11:3 4:0 :00697 8894 1°3151 °676
Disp 12°93.) 2" “00752 68°5 1271 2:9 :00747
24°1 13°4 1°7 +00819 28°8 13°6 2°0 :00839
105 12°2 ‘9 +:00746 12°8 14°3 1°4 +00882
48 12°38 ‘6 ‘00782 56 15°4 1:0 -00950
2°33. 174 #°7 *01074
‘nT, Sinete Mass. | IV. DovusiE Mass.
N R H Ce ae. ch A, Bi Caegs N R H Ce Dian Ay hoon he
22°. 277°0 1219°2 89 7:5 00530 *3696 5543 ‘667 92°6 285°2 i1219°2 11°38 9:2 -00698 "3682 5695 °646
467°8 10°3 5:3 ‘00613 5766 °8682 *664 373°9 14°71 6°9 *00834 6273 8926 -702
1780 12°0 3:8 :00714 9358 1°3900 ‘673 143°3 17°3 5°1 ‘01023 1°:0064 1:4804 -680
71°3 18:1 2°8 :00780 59°8 18:2 3:4 :01076
30°7 141 2:0 °00840 25°9 19°7 2°4 °01165
13°7 14:6 1°74 *00869 11°52 20°2 1:7 :01196
61 12°8 -8 -:00762 5:0 21°6 1:2) :01277
¥, Dovusie Mass. | VI. Quap. Mass.
mm ER 4H C De Ir 1 Wie ce N R 4H (ie Oe ay A, Aeney 6
23°12 297°1 1219°2 12*1 9:92 :00703 *3705 «=°5670 =*653 21°5 312'2 1219°2 19°5 12°52 01002 “4215 °7248 «= 582
408°2 16°0 7°3 ‘00929 6350 °9025 °704 286°6 26°5 9°3 ‘01362 *8069 171840 682
161°3 18:0 5:2 01045 "9896 1°4770 *670 115'°3° 29°0 66 °01490 1:2746 1°9170 ‘665
68:0 19°5 3°6 01132 47°7 31°4 4:6 °01614
29°9 20°8 2°6 -:01208 20°0 31°5 3:0 ‘01619
13°38 21°4 1°8 °01243 9:0 85°6 2°2 01829
59 20°5 1:2 :01190 3°77 35'°6 1°5 °01829
2°9 22°2 09 01289
396 PROFESSOR TAIT ON IMPACT, II.
24/3/92. Unuammerep Gotr Batt on UNHAMMERED GoLF BALt.
I. SrneLte Mass. ne SINGLE Mass.
N R H 6" Ds WE A AS ies Hg N R H Coy Dry a AS AS woke
22°35 262°3 1219°2 83 71 ‘00528 +3424 ‘5206 -658| 22°05 270°3 12192 81 7:0 ‘00498 +3488 ‘5392 -647
419°5 96 5:0 ‘00610 ‘5774 ‘8214 +7038 461'9 9°8 51 ‘00597 ‘5693 ‘8243 ‘691
161'6 11:0 3°6 ‘00699 ‘8988 1'3556 ‘663 176°5 11:2 36 ‘00682 +9099 1'3352 ‘681
64:1 114 2:4 00725 69°1 12°33 2:6 00749 -
26°6 13°2 1:9 ‘00839 30°5 13:0 1:9 00791
122 13°6 1:4 ‘00865 13°5 13°3 1:3 00810
55 15:1 11 ‘00960 61 13°6 0°9 00828
III. Sincie Mass. IV. Dovusie Mass.
N R H O-- Dag A, Avaaoe N R H Cy Di i Ay i alg
214 278'2 1219°2 87 71 00499 3819 ‘5658 ‘675| 21:12 286°5 1219°2 12:7 9:2 -00699 +3819 +6342 -602
473'2 10°62? 5:42 00608 +5758 ‘8391 ‘686 381°2 15°83 6:8 ‘00869 6745 ‘9657 ‘698
184°6 11'°8 3:9 ‘00677 9244 1°3238 ‘698 1561 181 5:2 00996 1:0538 1°5014 :702
73°6 125 25 :00718 66'7 19°5 3:6 01073
31:7 14:1 2°0 00809 19°7 2:4 01084
14:3 13°8 1:3 00792 12°6 21:0 1°7 ‘01155
6°3 15°12 +8? ‘00867 Eyer¢ Pale) al} cola ltsy53
nv Dousie Mass. VI. Quap. Mass.
N R H Cu DE & iN Be hae N R H Of DY! as A, Aa. (48
22:0 297:1 1219°2 13:0 9:8 ‘00718 3809 +5957 639 21:9 3186 1219°2 19:0 12:0 ‘00990 4156 ‘7400 ‘562
423'9 164 7:5 00906 6494 ‘9083 ‘715 321°0 25°6 96 01334 — ‘7988 1°1263 :709
169°5 189 5:4 -01044 1:0088 1:4578 +692 136°3 28°38 71 ‘01501 1°1988 1°7321 692
71:0 20°1 3°7 ‘01111 589 31:0 4:9 01615
31:4 20°9 2:5 01155 25°9 31:9 32 -01662
13°5 22°2 1°7 01227 11'6 34°8 2:3 01813
59 23:3 1:3 01288 51 352 15 :01834
27 24:0 1:0 ‘01326
2/6/92. Ecripse Bant—Sreen Puate.
IE Sinewe Mass. | II. SrneLte Mass.
iN H C.D Fr A, A, e NUR H @ =D, 8 A, Ay a8
22:25 273°8 1219°2 9:°5°7°3 ‘00576 +3541 ‘6346 ‘558 22'4 281:7 1219°%2 98 7:3 00582 3696 6656 ‘555
11'2 46 ‘00679 ‘6669 11504 +580 333°8 11:5 4:7 00682 ‘7107 1°1648 ‘610
107°0 12:2 3:0 ‘00740 1060 12:°8 3:0 -00766
381 14:0 2:0 ‘00850 ‘ 39°3 14:0 2:0 00831
13°9 14:0 1:3 ‘00850 146 14:6 1:3 -00866
e, [0] 267°7 0 tL
[6] 269°0 7=267:7+°04444(0 — 5625)? [18°48] 282 282
[12] 273°5
& (0)] 267-7
[—6] 269°4 7=267°7+ '04028(0+°517)? [18°38] 282 282°1
[-12] 274-0
III. Dousie Mass. IV. Dovusie Mass.
Nock og + Ge Den 2 SAC fk EIR Ba) Yee Dean A, pee
22°2 290°8 1219°2 14:0 9°9 00798 +3676 ‘7146 ‘51 21:55 300 1219°2 151102 :00809 +4061 ‘7391 ‘549
291'9 17'°8 6°4 ‘01014 +7590 1:3148 °577 297'0 19°38 6:4 ‘01035 8142 1'3865 ‘587
87'4 19°9 4:0 -01134 88°8 20:9 4:0 01120
29°6 20:6 2:3 01174 30°4 22°8 25 01222
10'5 20°4 1:4 :01162 10°7 242 °1°7 01297
35 26:0 1:0 01394
¥. Quap. Mass. | VI. Quap. Mass.
N R H Chay 1 Ay A, e N R H C D oe Ay Ay: Ame
22°22 314°5 1219°2 19:7 12°2 ‘01089 4115 8746 °471 22°6 324°3 1219°2 201125 01045 4149 °8889 “467
241'2 27°4 8:0 :01445 ‘9179 1°6577 °554 245'0 27°0 7°8 +01404 9163 1°8094 ‘506
66°62 30°6 4°5 01613 63°6 382°0 4°5 01664
20°5 34°3 29 01808 19°7 35°5 2°8 01846
62 36°38 1°5 :01940 58 36°82? 1:3? :01913
PROFESSOR TAIT ON IMPACT, IT.
APPROXIMATE COEFFICIENTS OF RESTITUTION
Successive Values of ¢ (1 - m), calculated by the First Formula in the Paper. (The suffix to the numbe
experiment indicates the mass, and the height of the first fall is quoted.)
397
r of the
7/4/91. Oup V. I. R. 12/6/91. New N. I. R. 22/6/91. New V. I. R. 13/7/92
1219. 750. 914°4, 1000
i Il, III, IV, i II, IWS UI i 1M, Ill, IV, I,
64 67 54 “57 Ly 84°85 — “fil il 74 — “73 77
“74 ‘74 74 73 83 82 *86 *86 “74 BZD, ‘78 ‘78 Cr f7/
‘76 ‘76 78 78 — “84 *85 87 87 citi 77 TO + 79 Mil
wad: 78 - 80 79 83 *82 87 87 77 igi 80 *80 77
78 ‘78 "82 *82 *82 82 87 ‘87 75+ 77 *80 *86 “76
78 79 82 -- "82+ *82 82 86 87 “76 Cees 79 “80+ “75
78 + ‘79 83 *82 81 *82 *86 87 76 76 —- ‘79 80 ‘74
79 ‘79 83 81 "82 “81 *86 87+ ‘76 7/3) 79 ‘79 rie!
78 80 82 83 *81 “81 86 “87+ SHE 75 - ‘79 “78 ‘70
it “81 "81 85 86 T6+ CH q9 id) 68
79 79 79 85 = *86 “74 Th+ 78 “79 68
‘78 - 79 = 80 - 87. = °86 Hil “Ui
77 80+ 85 0°85
"80°85 84.87
74-79 "84 *85
‘88°83 84 “85
"82 "84 “84
84°88
84 “82
"89 “84
16/6/91. Cork. 24/6/91. Cork. 3/7/91. VULCANITE.
1219. 2286. 1219. 2438. 1219. 2488.
L, Il, INTL INA L Wt, TN, IV, 1 i Lil LV VG
“46 "45 -— 38 "33 ‘40 “41 *32 “81+ 46 63 “47 49 33
"53 "53 “49 "44 “49 “49 “45 "42 53 ays) 56 "45 "44
"59 - 59 56 “BO D8 bs 53 — “45 “65 56 58 *bO “49
“60 ‘61 “59 63 ‘61 ‘7 + ora 69 67 DT 58
‘61 638 4 4«3'64 «6°55 On fle “64 -Fs b9
‘78
‘78
76
29/6/91. PLANE. 6/7/91. STEEL.
1219, 2438. 1219. 2438. 1219. 2438.
I, 106 NT La Vor Wily i i III, IV, Vy VI, VII,
"42 43 “40 “41 32 23 *A5 “AD “49 39 *36 31 19
"46 "49 “49 "47 “48 °37 “42 “45 “49 39- °45 "20 29
58 "56 b6— 52 “Bl *43 ‘53 ys) "52 44 *40
“69 “69 ‘60 66 "56
‘68
Gplel/ Sie Va) LR Gou¥ BALL, Woop Bass.
1066. 26/5/91. UNHAMMERED. 28/5/91. HAMMERED.
Fiat Base. RipGED Base. 1219. 1219.
L II, HM NG, Ve WL, eli, L, Il, III, IV,
76 — 2 74 “50 52 47 “44 BD "D6 “Bl “48
He — “78 “hl “59 "D9 60 ays) 63 “62 “64 “60 -
iit Hel ‘78 78 63 63 63 63 65 65 67 “64
77 idl “78 “78 65 66 67 “66 67 69- 68 65
‘76 Ah 78 78 — 66 68 ‘69-66 "67 *69 ‘70 ‘69
74 CTH ‘78 ‘78 68 TO-— ‘69 *66 “70 69- “71 69
7/3) 76 78- ‘78- “66 “70 ‘70 69 67 ori “68
“75 ‘76 iil “75
“73 “75
VOL. XXXVITI. PART II. (NO. 18). 3M
( 399 )
XIX.—A new Algebra, by means of which Permutations can be transformed im a
variety of ways, and their properties mvestigated. By T. B. Spracus, M.A.,
F.R.S.E.
(Read 6th March 1893.)
Tn the course of investigations that I have lately been making into the transformation
of permutations, I have found it convenient to employ several new symbols of operation,
which combine with each other according to laws that differ materially from the ordinary
aleebraical laws ; and it is my object in this paper to explain those laws, and give a few
examples of the manner in which various propositions relating to permutations may be
demonstrated by means of my symbols,
Taking any permutation of the first natural numbers, which we may denote by P,
let ¢ denote the operation of taking the first number in the permutation, and putting it
last, thus forming a new permutation ; for instance, if n=5, and the permutation is
13452, so that P = (13452); then P =(34521). Also##P =P =(45213); #P =(52134) ;
PP—(21345); ¢@P=(13452)=P. This result shows that in this case ??=1; and, in
general, it is obvious that, if the operation ¢ is performed n times on a permutation, we
get the original permutation again, so that t= 1.
Let s denote the operation of forming a new permutation by subtracting 1 from each
of the constituents of P, but substituting » for 0 where it occurs; so that, taking the
Same example as before, sP =(52341); s°P=(41235); s*P=(35124); s*P=(24513);
s°P =(13452). Here we see that s°P is the same.as P, or in this case s*=1; and, in
general, it is obvious that, if the operation s be performed times on a permutation, the
original one is reproduced, so that s"= 1.
A little consideration shows us that powers of s and ¢ may be combined according to
the laws of algebraical multiplication ; so that, for instance, s’s‘=s'**; ¢t't*=t* ; s't/=
ts’; &c. It is obvious how we must interpret s-’ and t-': the effect of the former is to
add 1 to each constituent of P, replacing (n+1) by 1; and the effect of the latter is to
transpose the last constituent in P to the first place. Thus :—s~(13452) = (24513),
t-(13452) = (21345).
If now we form all possible permutations of the form s't'P, by giving / and £ all the
values 0, 1, 2,....”—1, we shall get n? permutations, which I call a
“set”. Thus, taking our former example, we get from 13452 a set contain- er
ing 25 permutations. These are all contained in the annext scheme, where 412354123
any five consecutive figures form one of the permutations, and there are Brie
thus 5 permutations in each line. Any desired permutation can at once be
read off from it; for instance,
| 3P = (35412); s82P =(12435).
VOL. XXXVII. PART II. (NO. 19). 3 N
400 MR IT. B. SPRAGUE ON A NEW ALGEBRA.
Any permutation of the » numbers may be represented geometrically by means of a
square, divided by parallel lines so as to contain x? equal square cells ;
and this representation I call the “graph” of the permutation. The
graph of 13452 is given in fig. 1.
We now see that s and ¢ are operations of precisely the same
kind; s operating on the rows of cells in the graph, and ¢ on the
columns.
If now we form a square containing 81 cells, by placing together
four squares similar to fig. 1, and then removing the outermost row and
column, we see that any square containing 25 of the cells is the graph of one of the
permutations in the set, and that there are 25
such squares, corresponding to the 25 permutations
mentioned above.
This representation of the permutation renders
evident certain properties of the graphs, and suggests
corresponding properties of the permutations. For
instance, in the present case, any graph which has
a diagonal in either of the lines ab or cd or ef, &e.,
is symmetrical with regard to that diagonal: the
corresponding permutations are
sP=(52341), s¢P = (12354), s3#?P, &e.
— sP=(52341), s%t-1P = (54123), st-2P, &e.
Also the graph which has the line ae for its side, is symmetrical with regard to both its
diagonals: the permutation in this case is sP =(52341), where it is to be noticed that
the sums of the constituents equidistant from the central one, 3, are each double of that
central one.
Permutations can, of course, not be added, the one to the other ; but we may interpret
such an expression as (s+¢)P or sP+¢P, as denoting the aggregate of the two permu-
tations sP and ¢P. Consistently with this, we may represent the aggregate of the n’
permutations, which belong to the same set as P, by the symbol (l+s+s’+ ...
+" )(L+t++ .... +¢")P, or by STP, if we put S=i+s+s’+ ... . sy
T=14+t+?+ ... +#"7; also by (14+¢t4+?@+... 40 ")(l+s+s?+ ... +8"-7)P,
or TSP.
It is often convenient to represent the permutation P by (a,a.0;. . . d,); then
sP=(a,—1,4,—1,.. . d,—1),
where Gauss’s symbol, =, is used to indicate that n is to be written instead of 0 where
it would occur. More generally, it indicates in this paper that ”, or any multiple of it,
MR T. B. SPRAGUE ON A NEW ALGEBRA. 401
may be added or subtracted, so as to make each constituent or its place, or both,
positive, and not greater than n.
Also, TP =(@0, .¥. 10-@,)5
and st! P=(de41—h, Meze—h,. . .Gn—h,a,—h. . .a,—h).
In many investigations it is desirable to confine our attention to a single one of the
constituents of the permutation; which we will take to be a standing in the b™ place ;
and this constituent I denote by (a, b). Then it is easy to see that
s(a,b)=(a—-1,b); t(a,b)=(a,b—-1);
and s't(a,b)=(a—h,b—k).
I have now to describe three other kinds of transformation, which I denote by 7, 7, p,
and speak of as inversion, reversion, and perversion.
The first, 2, inverts the order of the constituents; thus,
4(13452) = (25431) ;
NOs »«. » On) —=(Agrtarn Gna) =
The second, 7, gives a new permutation, in which each constituent is got by sub-
tracting the corresponding constituent of the original permutation from (n+ 1); thus,
1(18452) = (53214);
P(A.» » AnJ=(N+1—a,n+1—a,.. n+1—a,)
=(l—a, =a, 73 = 1 —a,).
We see that 7, like s, affects the constituents ; and 7, like ¢, affects their places.
Combining these operations, 7 and 2, we have
ir(18452) =4(53214) = (41235) ;
ri( 18452) = 7(25431) = (41235) = ir(13452) .
If we confine our attention to a single constituent (a, b), we have
r(ab)=(1—a, b); 1(ab)=(a, 1-5);
wr(ab)=i(1 - a, b)=(1—a,1—b);
ri(ab)=r(a, 1 —b)=(—a,1—b):
so that, generally, w(ab) =ri(ab), or w=71. ’
Also 7(ab)=r(1 —a, b)=(ab);
(ab)=1(a, 1—b)=(ab) ;
whence 7?=1, #=1. These equations express the obvious property of the operations,
that the repetition of each leaves the original permutation unaltered.
If, now, P being (13452), we represent P, rP, 2P, arP, by their graphs, we see that r
and 7 are operations of precisely similar character, one of which affects the rows of the
graph, and the other affects the columns.
402 MR T. B. SPRAGUE ON A NEW ALGEBRA.
The effect of + upon P’s graph may be described as a rotation of it through two right
angles, about the line GH bisecting the square ABCD; while the effect of 7 may be
described as a similar rotation round the line EF, which also bisects the square. When
the two operations are combined in either order, the effect is equivalent to a rotation
through two right angles, in either a positive or negative direction, about an axis per-
pendicular to the plane of the paper.
The aggregate of the four permutations may be represented by
(1+7)(1+r)P, or (1+7)(1+7)P.
The operation p, when performed on a permutation, has the effect of transforming it
(generally) into another, such that any constituent (a, b) in the first corresponds to a
constituent (b,a) in the second; so that p(a,b)=(b,a). For instance, p(13452)=
(15234). From this it appears that p*(ab) = pp(ab) = p(ba) = (ab) ; whence p?=1.
The two permutations, P and pP, are said to be conjugate to each other; and if it
happens that, as in the case of 15432, the operation leaves the permutation altered, it is
said to be self-conjugate.
Now performing the operations, 7, 2, v7", on pP, we have
rpP =1(15234) = (51482); ipP = i(15234) = (43251); inpP =4(51482) = (23415).
The graphs of these permutations are as follows :—
pr rpP ipP
Comparing the graph of pP with that of P, we sce that the effect of p on the latter is a
rotation through two right angles about the line AC; and similarly we see that the
effect of wp on the graph of P is a similar rotation about BD.
The aggregate of these four permutations may be denoted by
(1+72)(1+7r)pP, or (1+7)(1+7)pP ;
and the aggregate of all the eight permutations by
(1+2)(1+7r)(1+p)P, or (L+r\1+i)1+p)P.
MR T. B. SPRAGUE ON A NEW ALGEBRA. 405
We have next to investigate the laws according to which 7 and 2 combine with p.
Confining our attention to a single constituent, we have
rp(ab) = r(ba)=(1 - 8, a) ;
up(ab) = u(ba)=(b, 1—a);
urp(ab)=uU1 —b, a)=(1—-5b, 1 -«);
pr(ab)=p(1 —a, b)=(b, 1—a);
pi(ab)=p(a, 1—b)=—4, a);
pir(ab)=p—a,1—b)=——-b,1-a).
Comparing these, we see that y=pr; rp=pi; irp=prr.
The last of these follows from the two first: thus irp=7.rp=1.pi=ip.t=prr=pir.
It is seen in the same way that rpr =ipi =irp =1ip = pir = priv.
Also prp=p.pt=pr=1; Pip=p.pr=pr=r.
Again year .i7r=t.47 .r="r=1;
(Grp =irp.wp=w.wp.p=(iryp?=1.
These last relations also follow at once from the equations
ir(ab)=(1—a, 1—b); arp(ab)=(1—b, 1—a).
Although 7?=1, 7?=1, p?=1, (rp)? and (wp)? are not=1; but
(rp =rp .rp=rp.pi=Tp%=Ti=ir ;
(ipP=ip.ip=ip.pr=ipr=ir,
Hence (rp) = {(rpPP=(tP=1; (tp) = {(pypPrayal.
We have seen that, by combinations of the three operations 7, 2, p, we are able to
obtain from any permutation, 7 others, making 8 in all; and the relations we have just
established show that we cannot get more than these 8 permutations, in whatever way
we combine the operations. Thus, taking them two at a time, we have
w=, Tp=pt, W=pr;
so that the 6 pairs of operations give us only 3 different permutations.
Again, taking them 3 at a time,
inp =Tip =rpr=ipt=pir= pri;
Tpi=ipr=p; prp=t; pip=r;
so that the compound operations in the upper line give us only one new permutation
and those in the lower line give us only permutations which we already have. We
saw that the 8 permutations are given by the development of (1+7)(1+7)(1+p)P; and
it will be found that they are also given by the development of (1+)(1+7)(1+7)P; in
other words,
404 MR T. B. SPRAGUE ON A NEW ALGEBRA.
(+py1+)1+r)=1+)0 +r) +p).
But (1+a1+p)\14+r7)=(14004+7+p+pr)
=1l+r+pt+prt+it+irt+ ptr
=1+7+i+2p+ir+2ip;
and (1+7)(1+p)\d+i=14+r+i+2p+irt+2rp,
(142)(1+p)\14+2)=24+21+p+tipt+rpt+ip,
(_+r)\1+p)\1l+r)=2+4+2r+p+ipt+rpt+ip.
Looking now at the graphs in figures 3 and 4, we see that the effect of the operation
yp on a graph, is a rotation through a right angle in a positive direction ; and the effect
of rp, is a similar rotation in the negative direction ; so that the effect of the repetition of
ip, is precisely the same as that of a repetition of rp; and the performance of either
operation four times in succession, gives us the original graph, and the original permuta-
tion ; this being exactly what is indicated by the various equations we have obtained.
It is useful for some purposes to have a single symbol to denote the operation zp, and I
therefore put 7p =7; so that 7? =77r, 7? =rp, 7*=1; also 7(ab)=(b, 1 —a).
Now it will be noticed that each of the operations 7, 7, p, has the effect of rotating
the graph to which it is applied, through two right angles about an axis in the plane of
the paper, so as to place the back of the graph upwards: hence any two of these opera-
tions will place the front upwards again; and a combination of all three, will place the
back upwards again. We may therefore group the 8 permutations according to the side
of the graph which is upwards: thus
P, uP, rpP, wpP, show the front of the graph ;
TP, aP, pP, urpP, be back
We may conveniently speak of the operations and graphs relating to the upper four
permutations as being “ obverse” ; and those relating to the lower four may, for want of
a better name, be called ‘converse’. We cannot, as in the case of a coin, call them
“reverse”, as we have given a different meaning to that word. Using the symbol y, and
bearing in mind that ir=j?, ip=j, rp=j®, the permutations P, 7P, 77P, 7°P, are
obverse, or show the front of the graph; and the aggregate of these four permutations
may be denoted by (1+7+j?2+7°)P ; or by JP, if we put J=1+j+j?+7°. But, from
the nature of the operations, the same aggregate may be denoted by
JirP, or JrpP, or JipP.
Hence J=Jw=Jrp=Jip; and similarly J =irJ =rpJ =p) .
According to the ordinary rules of algebra we should be entitled to conclude from these
equations that 7=1, 7p=1, ~=1; but such a conclusion is not legitimate in the pre-
sent case. Putting for v7 its equivalent, 77, we have
Jir=(1 HjHP+pP) PH=PLP+P+Pa=P+P+1 +j=J
since 7=1; and similarly for the others.
MR T. B. SPRAGUE ON A NEW ALGEBRA. 405
Since Day ad es
and Ja14P+P+jP=O4 047),
we have J=(1+ip)\(1+wm)=(1+iw)1+rp).
These relations are easily verified by actual multiplication ; each product being equal to
1+¢+7p+zp; and it will be found that the order of the two factors on either side may
be reverst.
Similarly it may be shown that the aggregate of the four converse permutations may
be represented by JrP, or JiP, or JpP, or JerpP; and also by rJP, or WP, or pJP, or
wpJP, and therefore the aggregate of all 8 permutations by (1+7)JP, or (1+2)JP, or
(1+p)JP, or (1+7rp)JP.
I now pass on to investigate the laws according to which the symbols 7, 7, », combine
with s and t.
We saw that s(ab)==(a-1,b), t(ab)=(a, b—1).
Hence rs(ab)=7r(a—1, b)=(2 —a, b) ;
sr(ab)=s(1—a, b)=(—a, b);
rs-\(ab)=r(a+1, b)=(- a4, d);
so that sr=7s~!; and it may similarly be proved that s-1r=7s.
Also rt(ab)=r(a, b—1)=(1—a, b—1);
tr(ab)=t(1—a, b)=(1—a, b—-1);
so that rt=tr.
Again, is(ab)=uU(a—1, b)=(a—1, 1—));
su(ab)=s(a, 1 — b)=(a—1,1-—b);
so that si=is.
And it(ab)=1(a, b—1)=(a, 2—b);
tu(ab)=t(a, 1—b)=(a, —));
a-Yabj=Ua,b+1) (a, —b);
so that #0 =7t-1; and similarly ¢-4%=7t.
Lastly, ps(ab)=p(a—1, b)=(b, a—1);
sp(ab)= s(b,a) =(b—1,a);
pt(ab)=p(a, b—1)=(b—1, a):
tp(ab)= t(b,a) =(b,a—1).
Hence, ps=tp; pt=sp.
If, instead of P, we take the permutation s’t‘P, we can obtain from it a group of 8 per-
mutations by means of the operations 7,7, p; and we thus have altogether 8n? permuta-
tions, including P itself, derived from P. The ageregate of these 8" permutations may
be represented by (1+2)(1+7r)(1+p)STP; where the factors (1+7)(1+7),1+p, ST
may be permuted in any way. Also TS may be substituted for ST, and (1+7r)(1+7)
406 MR T. B. SPRAGUE ON A NEW ALGEBRA.
for (1+2)(1+7). This follows so easily from the principles we have establisht, that it
seems unnecessary to give the demonstration.
When we say that 8x’ permutations can be derived from P, it is not to be understood
that these are all necessarily different from each other; in fact, for values of n less than
6, the number of possible permutations, 1!, is less than 87”. For larger values of 1, all
the 8x” permutations may be different, or some of them may be identical.
Permutations may be transformed in various other ways, of which I will only
mention two, If is odd, and each constituent in the permutation is multiplied by 2,
and the resulting number (diminished by x if necessary) substituted as a new constituent,
we shall get a new permutation. This operation I denote by J, so that l(ab)=(2a, b),
For instance (13452) = (213854).
Again, if the constituent, a, remain unchanged, but be transferred from the place b,
to 2b, we get a new permutation which I denote by mP ; and we have m(a, b)=(a, 2b).
Thus m(13452) = (41532).
These operations, like all the others we have considered, are periodic; and it is obvious
that they have the same period. If this is uw, then /’=1, m*=1.
The following table shows, for odd values of m not greater than 25, the period,
and the sequence in which one constituent is substituted for another in a permuta-
tion which is operated on by 1.
n Period. Sequences.
y sow
y We wp
Oe a es
onnyw
Cc Uw me W*
i
.
~T
or .
=
wo
hor)
3, DO ONG, OM > eae
(0; 9,10, 12; TIONS, LOT.
tA Aer
— mt
ow
=a
Pwo 7
leat deo AN
bo to Do & P9
Fe ewe oR ee
se)
ae
KH orp
OMe ete oe
m Oe ays ¢&
m. ct of
oat at *
Co et OO NT
NOenNee Ss
— pipe pe
CO
— et.
S& :
—"
ot
font
we
&
—
e
OAT; Bots hs
-
ah
— — = S vw
OP O*
oy
Broa, oe
4S ediGpw Sud: 3, OP 12 4 case:
20, dyad 22-91, 19,415,714, bye
4, 8, 16, 7, 14, 8, 6G, 12, 24, 29, 21, 17, 9, 18, 11, 22,19, 18 1) ee
Os bo
c ~TC
.
or et OU
mH poe pv
on (O35
bo ~
.
>
MR T. B. SPRAGUE ON A NEW ALGEBRA, 407
When 2 is prime, the period is n—1, or a factor of it. When n is composite,
the period is the “ totient” of n, or a factor of it. (As the word totzent has not yet come
into general use, it may be useful to explain that the totient of a number is the very con-
venient name given by Sylvester to the number of numbers less than it and prime to it.)
The / operation leaves the constituent ” in a permutation, unaltered ; or l(n, b) = (n, 6).
The m operation always leaves the last constituent in the permutation unaltered; or
ma, n) = (a, 7).
When 1 = 5, the period is 4, and we have
1 (13452) = (21354) ; m(13452) = (41532) ;
213452) = 1(21354) = (42153) ; m(13452) = (41532) = (54312) ;
(13452) =1(421538) = (34251); (13452) = (54312) = (85142) ;
1413452) = (34251) =(13452); —- m#(18452) = m(35142) = (13452).
We have now to investigate the laws according to which the symbols / and m com-
bine with the others. We have dealt with 2 pairs of operations; 7,7; and s,¢; and in
each pair one changes the constituent and leaves its place unaltered, while the other
leaves the constituent unaltered, but changes its place : thus
r(ab)=(1—a, b); u(ab)=(a,1—b);
s(ab)=(a—1, b); t(ab)=(a, b—1).
And we have seen that ri=ir, rt=tr ; 505) 56 8..
If now we consider any two operations, one of which affects the constituent only and the
other its place only, we see that it is immaterial in which order the operations are
performed.
But s, 7, l, affect the constituent, a ,
t,4,™, ,, its place, b,
Hence, if any one of the three, s, 7, J, is combined with any one of the three, ¢, 2, m, it is
immaterial in which order they come. But when two operations both affect the
constituent, or both affect its place, their combined effect is different when their
order is changed.
Thus lr(ab)=l(1 —a,b)=(2 — 24,0)
rl(ab)= 1(2a,b)=(1 — 2a,b)==slr(ab)
so that rl=slr; lr=s—71.
Again Is(ab)=Ua—1,b)=(2a — 2,b)
sl(ab)==s(2a,b)=(2a — 1,b)==s—Us(ab).
so that sl=s-Us; Geersele
Also mi(ab)=n(a,1 —b)=(a,2 — 2b)
im(ab)=(a,26)=(a,1 — 2b)=tini
so that im=tmi; mi=t-um.
VOL. XXXVIT. PART II. (NO. 19). 30
408 MR T. B. SPRAGUE ON A NEW ALGEBRA.
And mt(ab)=m(a,b — 1)=(a,2b — 2)
tnr(a,b)=t(a,2b)=(4,2b — 1)==t-1mt(ab)
so that tm=t_,mt; mt=t-m.
Since p affects both the constituents and their places, the order in which it is combined
with another of the operations, is never immaterial.
We have pl(ab)=p(24,b)=(0,2a)
Up(ab)=l(b,a)=(2b,a)
pr ab)=p(a,2b)=(2b,a)
nyp( ab)=m(b,a)=(0, 2a) ;
so that pl= mp; pm=lp.
The relations we have establisht may be conveniently tabulated as follows :—
§
7 a p s t y m
i 1 ir pr sol tr sly mr
| a v0 1 pr St t-% li tina
}
p up rp 1 tp sp mp lp 4
s Tse is pt ss ts Ss ms 5
>
e
t rt Paget ps st ? it t-lint s
l s—1¢l al pin sl il 2 ml
m rm tom pl sm Pm lm m?
We have
ll-\(ab)=(ab); and if we suppose /-(ab)=(A,b), then ll-1(ab) =1(A,b)=(2A,)) ; or (ab)=(2A, b) ;
so that 2A—a; that is to say, 2A=a or (a+n); and therefore A =a/2 or (a+n)/2; and
we have to take the former value if a is even, and the latter if a is odd; 1 being, as
already stated, always odd when we deal with the / and m operations. We may say,
then, that /~(ab)=(a/2, 6). Similarly m-"(ab)=(a, 6/2).
The permutations that can be formed from P by means of / and m, may be symbolized
by
” (14+/4+2?+ .. 40" )1+m+m?+ ... +m"-))P, or by LMP,
if we put 14/4+2?+...407=L, and 1+m+m?4+...4m"-1=M.
ad
MR T. B. SPRAGUE ON A NEW ALGEBRA. 409
The number of such permutations is wu”; and, combining this with our former results, we
see that the total number of permutations that can be derived from a single one, by
means of the operations 7,2,p,8,t,l,m, 18 8n°u"; and they may be symbolized by
(1+%)(1+7)1+p)STLMP.
Of course in many cases these will not all be different permutations.
It is clear that all our symbols are subject to the associative law ; for instance,
(ir)p=i rp) ; for each of these simply denotes that the three operations, p, 7, 2, are to be
successively performed.
Let us next consider how we are to interpret such inverse operations as (77)~’.
Let (¢r)-1P=Q; then P=77Q, and operating with zr on both sides, wP=(irYQ=Q, whence
opie —arl, or (ir) t=.
Next let (y)-1P=Q .. P=2pQ, whence 1P=pQ, and piP=Q; or (tp)-1P=ypiP, and, (ap)-1=pi.
Again, let (ips)1P=Q .. P=ipsQ. Then aP=psQ; prP=sQ; s-1p1P=Q;; so that (ips)-1P=
gepeP, or (ips)-1=s— pv. ;
These examples show clearly the process by which the interpretation of similar, but more
complicated inverse operations, is to be arrived at; for instance, we see that
(stirp)*=prea4ts--¥,
I will conclude by giving a few examples of the uses that may be made of these
symbols.
Any permutation in the same set as P, may be denoted by s"t‘P, where / and k may
each have any value from 0 to (n—1). Is it possible for s’‘P to be the same as P? or,
im other words, is it possible for the same permutation to occur twice ina set? If so,
memnave P= s'{'P = s't'(s't*P) =s"t"P; and similarly
ee eas ihe ee (6)
Smee s”=1, t” = 1, we have to reject any multiples of n that occur in the indices, or, in
other words, to retain only the residues of the indices to modulus n. Confining our
attention on the present occasion to the case where n is prime, we know from the theory
of numbers that the residues of h,2h, 3h, . . . (m—1)h consist of the numbers 1, 2, 3
... (n—1), arranged in a different order; and the same is true of the residues of hk, 2h,
3k, . . . (n—1)k. Hence the series of operators contains two which may be denoted by
st’ and s%; and it follows that P= stP,
so that (Gd, .. . &)J=(G.-9,0g,-9 «© . G"—G, 4-9);
whence H=0,—9, 1=A,—-9, ... d=a,-9;
410 MR T, B. SPRAGUE ON A NEW ALGEBRA.
or each constituent in P is got by adding g to the preceding one. For instance, if n=7,
g =8, and we take 4 as the first constituent in P, we have
$84(4736251) = s3(7362514) = (4736251).
I have treated of the case where 7 is a composite number, in a paper which has been
printed in the Proceedings of the Edinburgh Mathematical Society, vol. ix.
As another example, I will enquire whether the inverse of a permutation can be
contained in the same set as the permutation itself. If possible, let P =s"t‘P ; then
Peis Pes ease ie)
= isit*s'tkP
= esl hep
= s"Pp,
This equation cannot subsist unless 2h=0; that is, unless 24=0 orn. The former
of these values gives us iP =¢'P, or
ns
(GjGby 1 » - - Uathy) = (Agar - » + Aylly . - - My);
ae
whence 4, = 4,1, &¢., which are impossible.
Taking 2h =n, we have h =n/2, so that n must be even. If n=2N, we have zP =s%¢‘P, or
(GjOy 1 ++ + Aly )==(41-N...a,—-N,a—-N...a,—N).
Hence On =O,.,—-N
by 1==% 4.9 — N
Sean. , 7 in ~.
a Pi, ae a ig ee
— v
4 j—=a, —N
a, =, —N
Oy ——7, —N
If i is odd, these conditions give us 41). = 442 —N, which is impossible. Hence i
must be even.
Suppose, for example, that »=6, k=4; then
a=a,—8 =a,-3 A,=A,—3
1,=A,—38 a,=A,—3 a,=a,—3
We may give the constituents any values that are not inconsistent with these
conditions. |
MR T. B. SPRAGUE ON A NEW ALGEBRA.
Let Lo ie 2
M=1 .. d,=4
a,=6 Aa} a,=3
The permutation is therefore 514263; and we see that
59(514263) = (241536) ;
whence t4s3(514263) = (362415) =1(514263).
411
As a final example I will prove that, if a permutation is self-conjugate, there are (n — 1)
other self-conjugate permutations in the same set; and every other permutation in the
set 1s conjugate to some other permutation in the set.
If P is self-conjugate, we have P=pP. Hence s’t*P=s"t*pP=>ps't’P ; or the per-
mutation s“t*P, which may represent any permutation in the same set as P, is conjugate
nose P.
When h=k, we see that s’t’P is conjugate to s’t’P ; or, in
conjugate ; and since we may give / any of the values 1, 2, .
self-conjugate permutations in the set besides P.
For instance, the permutation P = (1756342) is self-conjugate ;
stP = (6452317)
s°f2P = (3412765)
s8#3P = (3716542)
stt#P = (6754312)
s°f°P = (6432715)
SP = (3216745)
and we have
other words, is self-
. . n—1, there are n—1
and we see that each of these is self-conjugate. Taking any other permutation in the
same set, say s*t’P =(2765341), we see that this is conjugate to s’?P = (7156432).
VOL. XXXVII. PART II. (No. 19).
3 P
Be j
thd
‘otal
Ee lay | ¥
wor ia
ar 7. ¥
. t
ia
*
mo 1
wAten 8)
XX.—On the Particles in Fogs and Clouds. By Joun ArrKen, Esq., F.R.S.
(Read 6th February 1893.)
CLoup PARTICLES.
In May 1891 I communicated a paper to this Society “On a Method of Observing
and Counting the Number of Water Particles in a Fog,” and in July of the same year
a paper “On the Solid and Liquid Particles in Clouds.” One conclusion to which the
observations contained in these papers pointed was, that there existed a relation between
the thickness or density in clouds and fogs and the number of water particles present.
Though the figures did not show that this relation was very close, yet in all the fogs and
clouds tested there was a rough relation between the thickness of the air and the number
of water particles observed.
In May 1892 I again had an opportunity of making observations on cloud particles
on the Rigi Kulm. The morning of the 21st of that month opened cloudy, and the top
of the mountain was in cloud. There was slight rain, and a strong wind from W.N.W.
The observations on the water particles in the clouds drifting over the hill-top were begun
at 8 a.M., but counting was very difficult, owing to the drifting action of the wind
making the rate of fall very irregular. The result of the most reliable of the observations
was, that when the limit of visibility was 50 yards, the water particles fell at the rate of
from 60 to 100 per square millimetre per minute, the number, however, varied more
rapidly than usual; and when the limit of visibility extended, the number of particles
falling was less. Though these observations were very unsatisfactory, owing to the
high wind blowing at the time, yet they gave a result not very different from that
previously obtained.
By 10 a.m. the lower limit of the clouds had evidently risen to near the level of the
top of the mountain, as occasional glimpses were obtained of the valleys and lakes ; but
when the hill-top was in cloud the air was fairly thick, the limit of visibility being
about 100 yards. When the observations on the cloud particles were begun under the
changed conditions, I was astonished to find that I could not see a single water particle
falling on the micrometer, though from the thickness of the air I had expected to see not
afew. The number of dust particles was very high and very variable at the time, yet
the thickness of the air seemed far too great to be due to dust alone. The observations
on the water particles were therefore continued, but they were now made with the
utmost care. The micrometer was cooled with snow, and the focussing of the lens was
most carefully done. When these precautions were taken, a new condition of matters
VOL. XXXVII. PART II. (NO. 20.) 3 Q
414 MR JOHN AITKEN ON THE
revealed itself. On watching the micrometer, as its temperature was gradually lowered
by the snow, there was seen, just a moment before the surface became dewed, a vast
number of drops, so small that they were only just visible, and so numerous that it was
quite impossible to count the number falling on one square millimetre. The reason the
drops were not seen at first was their very small size; and either the focussing was not
good enough, or the very small particles evaporated in the slightly heated air over the
micrometer, or they evaporated so quickly on touching it, that the eye was incapable of
detecting them. But by cooling the micrometer to its dew-point they touched the glass,
and remained long enough to be seen before they vanished. If the micrometer had been
kept at the correct temperature, they might have been observed for some time; but owing
to the cooling produced by the snow, the micrometer was cooled below the dew-point,
after which the drops were again invisible, as they fell on a wet surface. It was only
when the micrometer was a fraction of a degree above the dew-point that these very
small particles were seen, and they were observed to fall very irregularly owing to the
amount of wind. At one moment none were seen; the next they were so numerous that
they seemed to cover the whole surface. The number of drops falling on this occasion
would therefore seem to have been very much greater than previous observations would
have led us to expect.
One naturally asks, why this difference in the number and size of the drops on this
occasion? In all the clouds previously observed, the drops were of a fair size and
easily seen with the power used in the fog-particle counter, and the size did not seem to
vary much on the different occasions. During the previous winter I had been engaged
in some experiments on cloudy condensation. The results of these experiments were
communicated to the Royal Society.* In that communication it is shown that the
number of dust particles which become active centres of condensation—that is, the
uumber of water particles in cloudy condensation—depends on the rate at which the
condensation is made to take place. The quicker the condensation the greater the
number of dust particles forced to become centres of condensation, and the slower the
rate the fewer the drops produced. It is further shown, that after the rate of con-
densation becomes slower, or after it has ceased altogether, a process of differentiation
amongst the drops begins. Some of the drops increase in size, whilst others decrease
and get dried up, so that a cloudy condensation, which, when first formed, was dense
and full of water particles, soon loses its denseness by the diminution in the number
of its drops.
When I had the peculiar experience on the Rigi Kulm, on the morning of the 21st
of May, | was therefore in a manner prepared with an explanation of the exceptionally
large number of very small drops. The same thing had been seen in another form,
over and over again, in the laboratory, but this was my first experience of it in nature.
In all the clouds previously tested the condensation would seem to have been formed
slowly, or the observations were made in old clouds, after the particles had undergone
* Roy. Soc. Proc., vol. li. p. 408.
PARTICLES IN FOGS AND CLOUDS. 415
the process of differentiation, whereas on this occasion it seemed probable that the
observations were made in a new cloud not only in the process of condensation, but
also in the process of very rapid formation, as the wind was blowing with considerable
force, and the air in the cloud was rapidly expanded, owing to the great velocity with
which it was forced up the mountain slopes. Further, the air was coming from the
direction of Lucerne, and was very impure, some of the tests showing as many as 7000
dust particles per cubic centimetre. Now, these are the very conditions which, we know
from experiment, give rise to a large number of small drops in cloudy condensation.
At the time, however, I was not quite satisfied with the above explanation, as when
these very small drops were observed there was also a slight fine rain. Now, if the cloud
were new, and in the very process of formation, and if no differentiation had taken place,
how were we to explain the presence of the fine rain? As, however, we know so little about
what determines the formation of rain-drops, it might be as easy for us to suppose it may
take place in newly-formed as well as in old clouds. It was not, however, necessary to
assume this, as time, patience, and observation got over the difficulty. - Breaks occurred
from time to time in the clouds on the mountain, and at last they ceased forming
altogether. But though these clouds were gone, the fine rain continued, and a higher
stratum of cloud became visible. It therefore seemed extremely probable that it was from
this higher stratum that the rain had been falling which was observed in the cloud on
the mountain, and that it had not been formed in the newly-made lower cloud.
It would therefore appear from these observations on the Rigi Kulm, that we must
modify our conclusions regarding the relation between the density or thickness of a
eloud and the number of water particles in it. This relation would appear to exist only
when the clouds compared are at a corresponding stage of their development. But from
the fact that differentiation takes place very slowly after the cloud has been in exist-
ence for some time, owing to the drops having become fewer and further apart, thus
greatly decreasing the rate at which the vapour exchanges can take place, and to the
slight difference in condensing power in the different drops when they have grown to
some size, it seems probable that the relation referred to may exist in all clouds which
have been formed for some time. These thoughts point to the conclusion that cloud
particles, like most things in this world, have a birth, development, and decay, and that
on these the life of the cloud greatly depends.
Fog ParrTIcues.
In the former papers on this subject I have dealt principally with the formation of
fogs. On the present occasion attention will be principally directed to the persistence
of fogs after they have been formed, to what might be called the duration of their life.
The remarks to be made are not in themselves of much value; but as the subject is one
of very general interest, and of great importance from a sanitary point of view, every
little addition to our knowledge may be valuable by reason of the assistance it may give
to others working in the same field.
416 MR JOHN AITKEN ON THE
A country fog is nothing more than a cloud at low level, but in the case of town fogs
the case is complicated by the condensation taking place in impure air. The conditions
giving rise to clouds are, however, more numerous than those causing fogs, the latter
being principally caused by radiation, and in some cases by hot moist air rising from the
ground. After a fog has been formed, there are at least four influences which affect its
density and duration or persistence :—1st, the rate and constancy of direction of the air
circulation ; 2nd, the rise or fall of temperature ; 37d, the rate at which the condensation
is taking place; 4th, the affinity of the condensing nuclei for water vapour. It is to the
last of these influences that I wish at present to call attention, as there are some points
connected with it which have not been previously considered, and which are of importance,
as they determine the persistence or duration of the life of the fog.
The affinity of the nuclei for water vapour acts in two ways—lst, by causing a
thickening of the air before it is cooled to the dew-point, and, 2nd, by preventing the
differentiation which would take place if there were no affinity. The first of these points
has been considered in a previous paper:* we shall therefore confine our remarks to the
second. When condensation takes place in air containing ordinary dust, as in a cloud,
the thickness of clouding is affected by the rate at which the condensation takes place ;
the quicker the rate the denser the clouding. After the rate of condensation becomes
slower or ceases, the smaller drops tend to evaporate, while the larger ones tend to con-
dense more vapour, but where there is an affinity between the nucleus and water vapour
this differentiation is checked.
As rouch of what is to be said here depends on the tendency of cloud-drops to
differentiate, it may be as well that this part of the subject be considered in detail. The
first step in the proof was laid by Lord KELvIN in a communication to this Society in 1870.
He showed that the vapour pressure at the concave surface of water in a capillary tube
must be less than at a plane surface; and CLerK-MAxweELL, in his Theory of Heat,
extended Lord Krtvin’s reasoning to convex surfaces, and showed that the vapour pressure
at a convex surface is greater than at a flat one, and that small drops will evaporate in
air containing so much moisture that condensation will take place at a flat surface ; and
as the vapour pressure at a convex surface will be the greater the smaller the drop, it
follows that small drops suspended in air will tend to differ in size unless they are all
exactly the same diameter, which is an impossibility.
From the above it will be seen that, after a country fog has been formed, some of the
particles will tend to dry up and others to increase in size. The result of this is that the
density or thickness of the fog tends to diminish—1st, by the reduction in the number
of the particles, and, 2nd, by the increase in the size of the others, causing them to fall
to the ground quicker than smaller ones. Several fogs have been seen which seemed to
clear away in this manner. The fog-drops were seen by the fog-particle counter to be of
some size and to be falling rapidly, and the upper limit of the fog was also seen to get
* Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin., vol. xxx. part i.
SO” ~~ ee
PARTICLES IN FOGS AND CLOUDS. 417
lower after a time. Probably part of this effect was due to evaporation, but no doubt
very much was caused by the fog, so to speak, raining itself out of existence.
The above results take place only when the nuclei have no affinity for water vapour,
or when there are only a few particles having an affinity amidst a number of neutral
ones. If the nuclei have an affinity for water, the differentiating process is interfered
with, and the tendency for the condensed water to accumulate on a few drops is checked,
and if the supply of moisture is not great it is stopped. Let us suppose that all the dust
particles have an affinity for water vapour, produced, say, by burning sulphur,—then, in
this case also, the smaller drops will tend to evaporate ; but after they have lost a certain
amount of water, the impurities in the reduced drop become more concentrated, and the
increasing affinity of the sulphur compound becomes at a certain stage great enough to
counterbalance the increased tendency to evaporate due to smallness—that is, the
‘Increasing affinity due to concentration becomes at last as strong as the condensing
power of the larger drops, the affinity of which has been greatly weakened by the water
added to them. The affinity of the nucleus checks the thinning of the fog by differen-
tiation and the subsequent falling which would take place if there was no affinity. The
affinity of the nucleus thus not only causes condensation to take place before the air is
saturated, and causes more centres of condensation to be formed, but it also makes the
drops more persistent, and so increases the duration of the fog.
There are thus, so to speak, both persisting and vanishing fog particles. The former
clings the more tenaciously to its vapour the smaller it is; the latter parts with it the
freer the smaller it is. The former tends to produce a maximum number of water
particles, with but slight tendency to fall; the latter a minimum number, with a greater
tendency to fall. In the one case there is a struggle for water vapour, while in the
other there is a tendency to part with it. The one forms a fog which has a tendency to
persist for a long time, while the other forms.a fog having a tendency to rain itself away.
The following experiment may be made in illustration of the contrast between fogs
formed in pure country air and those formed in the air of towns, which contains dust
particles having an affinity for water vapour. Take two large glass receivers of any
form—large flasks have generally been used in such experiments. Provide each flask
with a tight-fitting india-rubber stopper, through each of which pass two metal tubes
fitted with stopcocks. One of the tubes in each receiver is for introducing the air to
be experimented on, whilst the other two tubes are connected together, and they are
also connected with another pipe leading to a large metal vacuum receiver, which is also
provided with a stopcock. By this arrangement we can introduce into the two receivers
airs containing the different kinds of nuclei we wish to experiment upon, and when the
stopcocks connecting the receivers with the metal vacuum receiver, are opened, the
contents of the two glass receivers are subjected to the same expansion and cooling. The
two volumes of air are thus under the same conditions, except as regards the difference
in nuclei which we have introduced for the experiment.
At the beginning of the experiment the pressure in the metal vacuum receiver is
418 MR JOHN AITKEN ON THE
reduced to about half an atmosphere, or less, by means of an air-pump. Communication
is then opened between it and the glass receivers, which at present we will suppose to be
full of pure air, or, at least, ordinary unpolluted air, and also that the insides of the
receivers are wet. When the communication is made between the vacuum receiver and
the glass receivers, condensation takes place as usual in the air in the flasks on what dust
particles may be present. The stopcocks between the glass receivers, and between them
and the metal vacuum receiver, are now closed, and the airs containing the nuclei we
wish to experiment on are allowed to rush in and fill different glass flasks. This is done
by connecting the other pipe of the glass receiver with a metal pipe which terminates in
an inverted funnel for collecting the products from the different flames we wish to test.
Suppose we admit the products of combustion from a paraffin-lamp to one of the
receivers, while we fill up the other with the products from a gas-flame in which a little
sulphur is being burned. This being done, the stopcocks for admitting the different airs
are now closed, and the stopcocks on the pipe connecting the two receivers are opened.
The metal vacuum receiver having been pumped down, its stopcock is slowly opened and
the contents of the two glass receivers are slowly and simultaneously expanded. When
this is done, fogging takes place in both receivers, but the air containing the sulphur
products is much denser than the other. It might be thought that the less denseness of
the paraffin products was due to a want of nuclei. That this is not the case is now shown
by again filling this receiver with more air from the lamp, but this is not necessary,
as ordinary air will do quite well, there being plenty of nuclei to stand dilution. After
the receiver is filled, the stopcock by which the air entered is closed, and the stopcock
connecting it with the metal vacuum receiver is quickly turned full on, and the air very
rapidly expanded. When this is done the products from the lamp give a very dense
fogging, which, for a very short time, looks as dense as that given by the sulphur
products in the other receiver. But note the difference in the behaviour of the two fogs.
The lamp products will clear rapidly. In a few seconds a visible decrease will take place
in its density, and on examining the upper part of the receiver it will be seen that the
particles are falling and leaving a clear space at the top. A little later this fogless space
will be found to have increased in depth, and the fog low down will at the same time
have greatly decreased in density. In a short time the fog is all gone, having rained
itself to the bottom of the receiver. Not so the other fog: it still persists, and is
nearly as dense as it was at first, and will remain dense for an hour afterwards ; and not
only so, but even after that time it shows no signs of clearing at the top, the fog still
persisting all through the air in the receiver, where it may still be detected hours after-
wards. The fog in this receiver illustrates the characteristics of a town fog; that in
the other the characteristics of a country fog.
The above experiment requires to be interpreted with caution. All the effects are
not what they at first appear to be. It will, therefore, be as well that we point out the
different influences in action helping to produce the appearances observed. We said that
slow cooling and condensation give a thin form of clouding, and quick condensation a
PARTICLES IN FOGS AND CLOUDS. 419
thick form ; and in the experiment above described, the lamp products, when expanded
quickly, were many times thicker than when they were expanded slowly. All this
greater density when the expansion was quick was not, however, due to the greater rate
of condensation. When the air is expanded slowly, there is time for it to receive heat
from the walls of the receiver and by radiation ; the air is therefore not cooled so much
when expanded slowly as when quickly. But if we vary the experiment in the following
way, we shall find, that for the same amount of cooling, quick expansion does really give
the densest condensation. Connect one of the glass receivers with the metal vacuum
receiver, and also provide the glass receiver with a vacuum gauge—a long glass tube with
its lower end dipped in water will do. Now make a slow expansion of the air in the glass
receiver, which can easily be done by opening the stopcock of the metal receiver very slowly
and regulating the opening by observing the rate of the rise of the water in the vacuum
gauge. Note the maximum density of the clouding in the receiver, and note also the highest
point to which the water rose in the tube when the expanding was stopped. Now ob-
serve the amount the water falls in the vacuum gauge after the expansion is stopped, due
to the air in the receiver recovering its original temperature. The amount of this fall gives
the cooling effect of the slow expansion. Now arrange matters so as to give a quick
expansion which will have the same cooling effect. The amount of expansion will now
be very much less than when the expansion was slow, but it will be noticed that the
density of the condensation is much greater. It is, therefore, evident that the greater
thickness obtained when the lamp products were expanded quickly, was greatly due to
the rate at which the condensation was made to take place.
Further evidence on this point has already been given in the paper referred to “ On
some Phenomena connected with Cloudy Condensation.” It is there shown that when
steam is made to issue under pressure from small nozzles, or from rough nozzles, or in any
way made to mix quickly with the cold air, the condensation is far denser than when
allowed to mix slowly.
There are some further precautions necessary in interpreting the experiment with the
products of combustion from the lamp and from the gas flame in which a little sulphur
was burned. Both fogs cleared away, but the fog made in the lamp products cleared
very much quicker than the other. Now, in both cases, only part of this clearing was
due to differentiation and falling ; part was due to rise of temperature. The air tended
to regain its original temperature after the expansion ; the drops were therefore partly
evaporated. It is, however, found that though the air is prevented from regaining its
original temperature, all the phenomena are much the same. If, for instance, we cool
the walls of the receiver with snow just a moment before the expansion is made, though
the air cannot under these conditions regain its original temperature, yet the condensa-
tion rapidly clears very much as it did when the receiver was not cooled. Again, if we
use a jacketed receiver, and keep the jacket at, say, 32°, and rapidly admit air at 60°,
and expand it before it has time to be cooled by the receiver, so as to have it surrounded
420 MR JOHN AITKEN ON THE
by a cold surface, and prevent any possibility of it getting heat after it is expanded, we
shall find that all the changes take place very much as if the cold jacket were not there.
We can further satisfy ourselves in another way, that the clearing is not due mainly
to rise of temperature, by varying the experiment in the following way :—Blow steam into
the receiver and note the after-effects. In this case, the fog is undoubtedly surrounded by
surfaces colder than itself; and, therefore, any action of these surfaces, either by contact
or radiation, is to intensify the fogging. Yet the fogging, as in the previous experiments,
rapidly clears. This experiment succeeds best if we use steam under high pressure,
issuing from a fine jet, so as to produce a large number of very small drops.
That the clearing is due to differentiation and falling, is not only proved by the
theory already referred to, and by the above experiments, but further confirmation of
it may be obtained by examining the cloudy condensation by means of light. We
shall see that the colouring produced by means of the small drops, on the light trans-
mitted directly through the cloudy air, and also the diffraction colours, are only fine just
at the moment of the completion of very rapid expansion. In a few moments the
colours begin to fade, showing that the particles are beginning to he of different sizes. If
the expansion be made slowly, the colours are never fine, owing to there being time for
differentiation to act, and the uniformity produced by quick expansion is never obtained,
Differentiation takes place very quickly in the air in these receivers, owing to the particles
being very close to each other, and to the very small size of the drops making any slight
difference in their size produce a considerable difference in the tension of the water
vapour at their surfaces. In clouds, and in all forms of condensation, differentiation goes
on much more slowly after the process has been in action for a time. This is due to the
drops being now much further apart, owing to the evaporation of the intermediate ones,
and also to the fact that when the drops grow to some size any advantage due to differ-
ence in curvature falls rapidly. It will be seen from what has been said that fog
particles formed on nuclei, which allow the differentiation to take place quickly, do not
form thick fogs when the rate of condensation is slow ; and, further, they do not produce
fogging unless the air tends to be supersaturated.
These considerations enable us better to understand the difference between a town and
a country fog, and show us why the one is clear compared with the other, setting
aside the question of smoke. The country fog, though there may be plenty of nuclei
present, is a coarse-erained form of condensation—all the condensing vapour is collected
on comparatively few centres ; while in a town fog, the vapour being distributed over an
almost infinite number of centres, gives rise to a fine-grained structure, with great light-
obstructing powers, and remarkable persistence in duration and elevation. It is thus
evidently not so much the number of the dust particles as their composition that we have to
fear. Numerous particles of dust, which have no affinity for water vapour, give a dense
fogging only when the rate of condensation is very rapid, much more rapid than ever
happens in nature; while particles having an affinity for vapour cause dense fogging
under all rates of condensation.
PARTICLES IN FOGS AND CLOUDS. 421
Having diagnosed the disease a little closer, we seem to be in a better position for, if
not prescribing a remedy, at least suggesting a direction in which a mitigation of the
discomforts of our town fogs may be looked for. The object to be aimed at would appear
to be to alter the composition of the products of combustion in sucha way that they shall
_haye no affinity for water vapour—so to change their composition that their present power
of condensing water may be destroyed, and they be converted into some kind of matter
indifferent to it. So far as we see at present, it is on this field that the battle must be
fought. It seems possible that the present water-attracting products of combustion
might be changed, and their evil influence destroyed, by the addition to the coal of
something which, when burned along with it, will produce this result. This is a question
to which we wish to direct the attention of chemists, and it is to be hoped some sub-
stance may be found which will produce this effect, and admit of being burned along
with the coal, or of being added to the air of our towns, and the persisting nature of
town fogs destroyed.
As is well known, the products of combustion of different substances have very
different fogging effects. Any experiments which I have been able to make in this
direction are, however, on too small a scale to be of value. In a question of this kind,
laboratory experiments are apt to be misleading. To be of value, they ought to be con-
ducted on as large a scale as possible. I may, however, mention here the result obtained
in laboratory experiments with a few substances, as illustrative of the effects of the
different kinds of nuclei produced by the combustion of different substances. The method
of testing the fogging powers of the nuclei was the same as that described in this paper
to illustrate the difference between town and country fogs. The air of the room was
admitted to one receiver, and the products of the combustion we wished to test to the
other. The contents of the two receivers were then quickly and simultaneously
expanded. Any difference in the density of the condensations in the two receivers gave
the effect of the products of combustion on the air of the room. If it were desired to
get the comparative effect of different products, they were admitted to different receivers,
the products being collected from flames of as nearly as possible the same size. As the
receivers were both reduced to the same pressure, the same proportion of products was
admitted to each. The density of the condensation by this method of testing gives a
rough indication of the comparative crease in the number of nuclei produced by the
combustion of the different substances.
To test the persistence of the fogs formed by the products of combustion of different
substances, two methods were employed :—1st, by observing the fogs produced by rapid
expansion, and noting the comparative rates at which the fogs in the different receivers
fell, the degree of clearness in the air over them, and the rate at which the air cleared in
the lower part of the fog; 2nd, by examining the amount of fog formed in the different
products after being admitted to the receiver, and time given for them to become
saturated with water vapour, but without being expanded. This examination was made
by means of a beam of light from a dark lantern, the light being brought to a focus by
VOL. XXXVII. PART II. (NO. 20). Byae
422 MR JOHN AITKEN ON THE
means of a condensing lens. The amount of the fog so formed by the products in moist
air indicated the tendency of the nuclei to form dense and persisting fogs. All these
tests are comparative, either between the fogging of two products of combustion or
between one of them and the air of the room, which has always to be considered in such
experiments.
Tested in the manner above described, alcohol gave very different results according
to the way it was burned. If the products of combustion from alcohol burned at a
platinum burner, or in an open vessel and without a wick, were admitted to one receiver,
and the air of the room to the other, and then rapidly expanded, there was scarcely
any difference in the density of the fogging in the two receivers. This result is interest-
ing from the fact that it is the only form of combustion yet observed which does not
ereatly increase the number of nuclei. A very different result is obtained if we repeat
the experiment, and if in place of using a platinum burner, we use an ordinary wick, or
burn the alcohol in any way in which it shows the usual yellow sodium colouring. Com-
paring the products from such a flame with the air of the room, it will be found to give
a fogging many times more dense, showing that the slight difference in the flame makes
avery great difference in the number of nuclei produced by the combustion, due probably
to the presence of extremely minute particles of some sodium salt. But though the
ordinary alcohol flame gives rise to a great increase in the number of nuclei, yet the
particles produced by that form of combustion have but little affinity for water vapour,
and fogs formed of them clear rapidly ; they do not, therefore, form persisting fogs.
An ordinary wax-candle gives only a slight increase in the number of nuclei, and
they have no condensing power. Matches, both wax and wooden ones, gave a great
increase in the number of particles. It seems strange that a wax-vesta should
give more nuclei than a candle,—that is, of course, using equal flames for equal times.
This difference probably results, as in the case of alcohol, from the impurities in
the wick, much of which is burned in a wax-match compared with a candle. Another
possible source of the great number of nuclei given by the match may be the chemicals
used for igniting them, as I find that if a match be ignited in a receiver, wetted inside,
the products of the combustion of the head of the match give rise to a very dense and
persisting form of fog without cooling by expansion, while if burned in dry air there is
only a very thin smoke. It therefore seems possible that some of these impurities may
continue to be given off while the match is burning.
Gas, whether burned as a luminous or non-luminous flame, gives rise to a great
increase in the number of nuclei. An ordinary paraffin-lamp gives an increase similar to
that of gas. But in these cases there is but little affinity between the nuclei and water
vapour; and fogs formed of them rapidly differentiate, and they have but little
tendency to cause fogging unless the air tends to be supersaturated.
Many proposals have of late been made to prevent town fogs by the more perfect com-
bustion of the coal in household fires, furnaces, &c. There can be no doubt that perfect
combustion would do much to diminish the smoke element in town fogs, but it cannot
PARTICLES IN FOGS AND CLOUDS. 425
tend to diminish the density of the fogs as fogs. To effect this something more that
perfect combustion is necessary. If we were to burn alcohol, paraffin, or purified gas
in our fires, we would get products which would have no tendency to produce persisting
fog particles ; but whenever we use coal in which there is the least sulphur, perfect com-
bustion will not prevent the products forming persisting fog particles.
The following experiments may be made to illustrate this point : Prepare a good fire
and let it burn till it is perfectly bright and clear to the top, every indication of smoke
gone, and nothing rising from it but the pale blue flame of a clear fire; or use a stove
burning char and also red to the top. Let us now draw some of the products of
combustion into a large dry flask and examine them to be sure there is no smoke. Being
satisfied that the products are clear, some of the same products are drawn into another
flask, but in this case wetted inside, or we may add water to the contents of the flask we
tested dry. If we examine the products tested in either of these ways, we shall find the
air in the interior of the flask to be thickly fogged. The path of a beam of light directed
through the flask will shine out brightly. As this condensation takes place without the air
being expanded, it indicates the presence of a number of nuclei having an affinity for
water vapour. It may be mentioned that in some cases, owing to the large proportion of
products compared with air in the receiver, dense fogs have been formed ; fogs which, if
they had been on a large scale, would have far exceeded the density of any town fog.
These fogs have also been seen to persist for hours, showing the presence of a large number
of particles having an affinity for water vapour. It was noticed that the products from
different parts of the fire gave fogs of very different densities. In all cases, if the airs
containing these products were expanded, they gave very dense fogs, showing a great
increase in the number of the particles due to the combustion of charcoal.
In making these experiments one must be careful as to the manner of collecting the
gases. Precautions should be taken that the collecting pipe does not become highly
heated, or the products of combustion might be contaminated by impurities thrown off
by the metal. The simplest plan is first to heat the collecting pipe to a much higher
temperature than it will be exposed to while collecting the gases. In this way any
impurities that may be attached to the pipe are driven off. In using the pipe it should
be first cooled, then placed at a distance from the hot coals, but in the current of hot
gases, and removed before it has time to become highly heated.
It should be remembered that there is always some ammonia in the atmosphere, and
it has been shown in a previous paper*™ that the presence of that substance in the air
greatly increases the fogging power of the products of combustion of sulphur. Dr W. J.
RussELt has shown in a paper “ On the Impurities of London Air” +t that there is more
ammonia in town than in country air, and also that in towns there is more during fogey
weather than at other times. If we repeat the experiments above described with the
products from a clear fire, and add a little vapour of ammonia to the air in the flask, we
* Trans. Roy. Soc. Hdin., vol. xxx. part i.
+ The Monthly Weather Report of the Meteorological Office for August 1885.
424 MR JOHN AITKEN ON THE
shall find that the fogeing will be very greatly increased. It almost looks as if this
might be a good test for sulphur products in our atmosphere, as the density of the
fogging given by any sample of air seems to depend very much on the proportion of
products of combustion from coal present. But as I have not yet found any sample of
unpurified air which, when saturated with vapour and a little ammonia added, did not
give without being expanded a few fog particles when carefully examined, I must wait
for opportunities of testing air purer than can be obtained in this district. We see
from these experiments with products from fires in which the combustion is perfect, that
something more is necessary to diminish the density and persistence of town fogs. To
effect this, as already indicated, we must change even the products of perfect combustion
of coal, and make them as harmless as the products from a paraffin-lamp. After that is,
done we may look for some alleviation of the miseries and discomforts of town fogs.
Fog ParricLes AT TEMPERATURES BELOW FREEZING.
Before concluding this paper I wish to refer shortly to some observations made on
fog particles when the temperature was below the freezing-point. In a paper read before
this Society in March 1887, “On Hoar-Frost,” I attempted to explain why it is that
erystals of hoar-frost grow quickest in the direction from which the wind is blowing, if
one may use that term for the gentle air that moves on nights when hoar-frost is
deposited. The explanation offered was founded on the observations of Prof, Ramsay
and Dr Younc.* Their experiments show that the vapour pressure of ice is less than
that of water at the same temperature. From this I concluded that, if the atmosphere
be saturated with vapour to the tension corresponding to the presence of water-drops at
temperatures below the freezing-point, that it will be supersaturated to ice surfaces. The
explanation of the ice crystals growing in the direction from which the air was coming
was, therefore, founded on the assumption that the fog particles in the air were in a
liquid condition though the temperature was below the freezing-point, that the air was
therefore supersaturated to ice surfaces, and that it unburdened itself of its superfluous
moisture on the first ice surface with which it came in contact. The hoar-frost crystals
thus grow quickest on the side first touched by the supersaturated air. It should be
here noticed that heavy deposits of hoar-frost always take place on foggy nights.
At that time I had to assume that, when the hoar-frost crystals grew in the peculiar
way referred to, that the fog particles were liquid, but since then I have had oppor-
tunities of observing these particles on a number of occasions when the temperature was
below 32° Fahr., by means of the fog-particle counter, and on all occasions. yet observed
the particles were liquid. The lowest temperature at which as yet observations have
been made is 27°, or five degrees below freezing. The night minimum was 24°, with a
temperature on the grass of 14°. Under these conditions the drops seen falling on the
micrometer were liquid. Every precaution was taken to ensure that they were not
* Pll. Trans., part ii., 1884.
PARTICLES IN FOGS AND CLOUDS. 425
melted at the time of observation. The instrument for observing them was not held in
the hand as usual, but was fitted to a support in the open air, and left for a considerable
time to cool, its condition being tested by placing a drop of water on the mounting of
the micrometer. As this rapidly froze, and remained frozen, there does not seem to be
any probability that the particles were thawed by their approach to the instrument or to
the observer.
There are theoretical considerations pointing to the conclusion that fog particles will
not freeze till cooled far below the freezing-point, and | have shown in previous papers
that with artificially-made fog particles, even though cooled to 6° Fahr. before being further
cooled by expansion, there was not the slightest indication of freezing. But though both
theory and experiment pointed to this conclusion, yet I thought it as well to give the
result of observations made on the particles under the conditions existing in nature.
This liquid condition of the condensed particles in our atmosphere, at temperatures
below the freezing-point, suggests the conditions under which the large and beautifully
formed crystals of snow are grown. ‘These beautiful flakes, with their regular angles
and perfect uniformity, are evidently not aggregations of small frozen particles in the
way we may suppose a rain-drop to be built up of unfrozen drops. From their
extreme recularity and perfection, one would naturally expect they were formed under
conditions free from restraint, and with an abundant supply of nourishing vaporous
material on which to grow. Now, a cloudy condensation of liquid particles below
the freezing-point would give the conditions which seem most favourable for the growth
of large and regular crystals. Suppose some particles in the cloud, from some so-called
accident of size or other cause, to freeze before the others. At once these solid
particles are in a position to rob the liquid ones of their moisture, and becoming heavy
they begin to fall in what is to them a supersaturated atmosphere, and they soon grow in
perfect form to some size.
If the above supposition be correct, it is possible, when the snow-flakes are small and
irregular, that they are formed by the aggregation of very small frozen particles due to
a very low temperature. From this some might conclude that large regular snow- flakes
could be formed only when the temperature was not very low. Any conclusion, how-
ever, on this point is evidently premature—1st, because we do not know to how low a
temperature extremely small cloud particles may be cooled without freezing ; and, 2nd,
any observations, at present at our disposal, that have been made on snow-flakes observed
to fall at different temperatures, are of little value, as the temperatures were taken at
the surface of the earth, and not in the cloud itself, which in all probability would be at
a very different temperature from that of the air low down.
VOL. XXXVII. PART II. (NO. 20). 38
( 427.)
XXI.—On the Path of a Rotating Spherical Projectile. By Prof. Tarr.
(With a Plate.)
(Read 5th June and 38rd July 1893.)
The curious effects of rotation upon the path of a sphericai projectile have been in-
vestigated experimentally by Roprns and many others, of whom Maewnvs is one of the
more recent. They have also been the subject of elaborate mathematical investiga-
tion, especially by Poisson, who has published a large treatise on the question.* For all
that, we know as yet very little more about them than Newron did in 1666, when
he made his famous experiments on what we now call dispersion. Writing to OLDEN-
BURG an account of these experiments in 1671—2,t he says :—
“Then I began to suspect whether the rays, in their trajection through the prism,
did not move in curve lines, and according to their more or less curvity, tend to divers
parts of the wall. And it increased my suspicion, when I remembered that I had often
seen a tennis-ball, struck with an oblique racket, describe such a curve line. For, a
circular as well as a progressive motion being communicated to it by that stroke, its parts,
on that side where the motions conspire, must press and beat the contiguous air more
violently than on the other ; and there excite a reluctancy and re-action of the air pro-
portionably greater. And for the same reason, if the rays of light should possibly be
globular bodies, and by their oblique passage out of one medium into another acquire a
circulating motion, they ought to feel the greater resistance from the ambient ether, on
that side where the motions conspire, and thence be continually bowed to the other.”
From this remarkable passage it is clear that NEwron was fully aware of the effect of
rotation in producing curvature of the path of a ball, also that it could be of sufficient
amount to be easily noticed in the short flight of a tennis-ball; that he correctly described
the direction of the deviation, and that he ascribed the effect to difference of air-pressure
for which he assigned a cause. All that has since been done experimentally seems merely
to have given various more or less striking illustrations of these facts, without any attempt
to find how the deflecting force depends upon the velocities of translation and rotation :
and I am not aware of any successful attempt to extend or improve NEwrTon’s suggestion
of a theoretical explanation. It seems in fact to have been altogether unnoticed, perhaps
even ignored,
Thus Ropiys,{ writing some seventy years later than the date of Newron’s letter,
speaks of
“the hitherto unheeded effects produced by this resistance ; for its action is not
* Recherches sur le Mouvement des Projectiles dans? Air. Paris, 1839.
+ Isaacr Newtont Opera que exstant Omnia (Horsley), vol. iv. p. 297.
_ { New Principles of Gunnery (new edit.), 1805, p. 206. The paper referred to is stated to have been read to the
Royal Society in 1747.
VOL. XXXVII. PART II. (NO. 21). 3T
428 PROFESSOR TAIT ON
solely employed in retarding the motions of projectiles, but some part of it exerted in
deflecting them from their course, and in twisting them in all kinds of directions from
their regular track ; this is a doctrine, which, notwithstanding its prodigious import to
the present subject, hath been hitherto entirely unknown, or unattended to; and there-
fore the experiments, by which I have confirmed it, merit, I conceive, a particular
description ; as they are themselves too of a very singular kind.”
Rosrns measured accurately, by means of thin screens placed across his range, the
deviation (to right or left) of successive shots fired from a gun which could be exactly
replaced in its normal position, after each discharge; and found that it increased much
more rapidly than in simple proportion to the distance. Then he experimented success-
fully with a gun whose barrel was bent a little to the left near the muzzle, with the view
of forcing a loose-fitting bullet to rotate by making it roll on one side of the bore. ‘The
bullet, of course, at first deviated a little to the left ; but this was soon got over, and it
then persistently curved away to the right. And he showed the effect of rotation very
excellently by suspending a ball by two strings twisted together, so as to give rotation
to it when it was made to vibrate as a pendulum. The plane of vibration rotated in the
same sense as did the ball.
I have not had an opportunity of consulting, in the original, EuLER’s remarks on this
question. The following quotations are taken from a retranslation* of his German
version of Roxrns’ work, but the statements they contain are so definite that the trans-
lator cannot be supposed to have misrepresented their meaning :—
“The cause which Mr Rosrns assigns for the uncertainty of the shot cannot be the
true one, since we have indisputably proved, that it arises from the figure of the ball
only.” vp. 313.
‘if the ball has a progressive motion, we may, as has been already shewn, consider it
at rest, and the air flowing against it with the velocity of the ball’s motion ; for the force
with which the particles of air act on the body will be the same in both cases.” [Then
follows an investigation.}| . . . . . “hence this proposition appears indisputably
true; that a perfectly spherical body which, besides its progressive motion, revolves
round its centre, will suffer the same resistance as if it had no such rotation. If, there-
fore, such a ball should receive two such motions in the cannon, yet its progressive
motion in the air would be the very same as if it had no rotation.” pp. 315-7.
Porsson’s treatment of the subject is altogether unnecessarily prolix, and in consequence
not very easily understood. It is sufficient to say that, like EuLER, he rejects t RoBins’
explanation; and that his basis of investigation of the effects of rotation on the path of
* “The true Principles of Gunnery investigated and explained, comprehending translations of Professor EULER’s
Observations, &. &c.” By Hugh Brown. London, 1277 (sic).
+ Porssoy, in fact, says of his own results :—“ Néanmoins, d’aprés la composition de la formule qui exprime la
déviation horizontale 4 la distance du canon ot le boulet retombe sur le terrain, on reconnait facilement que cette
déviation ne peut jamais étre qwune tres petite fraction de la longeur de la portée; en sorte que ce n’est pas au frottement
de la surface du boulet contre la couche d’air adjacente et d’inégale densité, que sont dues principalement les déviations
observées, ainsi que Robins et Lombard Vavait pensé.” Mémoire sur le Mouvement des Projectiles, &c. Conyptes Rendus,
5 Mars, 1838, p. 288.
THE PATH OF A ROTATING SPHERICAL PROJECTILE. 429
a homogeneous sphere really amounts to no more than this:—that, since friction is
greater where the density of the air is greater, the front of the ball suffers greater friction
than does the back. Thus there is a lateral force, which he shows to be very small,
tending to deflect the ball as if it were rolling upon the air in front of it. As this is
exactly the opposite of the effect described by Rostns, I feared at first that I must have
misunderstood Poisson’s mathematics. But this feeling gave way to one of astonishment
when | read further; for there can be no doubt of the meaning of the following passage
which occurs in his comments on the investigation :—
“Cest ce que l’on peut aussi regarder comme évident @ prior, si Yon considere que
cette déviation est due & l’exces de la densité de l’air en avant du projectile, sur sa densité
en arriere ; exces qui donne lieu a un plus grand frottement du fluide, contre l’hémisphére
antérieur, et & un moindre contre lhémisphere postérieur . . . . . ilen résultera
une force horizontale qui poussera ce point [the centre of inertia] dans le sens du plus
erand frottement ou en sens contraire de la rotation & laquelle il répond, c’est-a-dire vers
la gauche, quand les points de la partie antérieure du projectile tourneront de gauche
& droite, et vers la droite, lorsqwils tourneront de droite & gauche.” Recherches, &c.,
pr i 19.
In fact, Porsson’s elaborate investigation leads to no term, in the expression for
the normal component of the force, which can have different values at corresponding
points of the two front semihemispheres of the projectile :—and it is to a force of this
nature that NewrTon’s remarks and Rosins’ experiments alike point.
The paper of Macnus* commences with a historical sketch of the question, but it
contains no reference to Newton. The author obviously cannot have read Rosins’
papers, for he mentions his work only once, and in the following altogether inadequate
and unappreciative fashion :—
“Robins, der zuerst eine Erkliirung dieser Abweichung in seinen Principles of
Gunnery versucht hat, glaubte, dass die ablenkende Kraft durch die Umdrehung des
Geschosses erzeugt werde, und gegenwirtig nimmt man dies allgemein an.”
Had Maenus known of the experiments with the crooked gun-barrel and the rotating
pendulum, he would surely have employed a stronger expression than “ glaubte”! For
Rosins says (p. 208) of his own pendulum experiment :—
“it was always easy to predict, before the ball was let go, which way it would
deflect, only by considering on which side the whirl would be combined with the progres-
Sive motion ; for on that side always the deflecting power acted; as the resistance was
greater here, than on the side where the whirl and progressive motion were opposed to
each other.”
This passage strongly resembles part of the extract already made from NEwron’s
letter. But Roxtns justly adds (two words have been italicized) —
“This experiment is an incontestible proof, that, if any bullet, besides its progressive
motion, hath a whirl round its axis, it will be deflected in the manner here described.”
* Uber die Abweichung der Geschosse, Berlin Trans., 1852.
430 PROFESSOR TAIT ON
‘The one novelty in the experiments of Macnus (so far as spherical projectiles are
concerned) consisted in blowing a stream of air against the rotating body, instead of
giving it a progressive as well as a rotatory motion; thus, in fact, realizing the idea
suggested by EuLER in one of the quotations made above. He was thus enabled, by means
of little vanes, to trace out in a very interesting and instructive manner the character
of the relative motion of the air and the rotating body. This was a cylinder instead
of a sphere, so the effects were greater and of a simpler character, but not so directly appli-
cable to bullets. Otherwise, his experiments are merely corroborative of those of Rosrns.
But neither Roprys nor Maenus gives any hint as to the form of the expression for
the deflecting force, in terms of the magnitudes of the translatory and the rotatory speed.
That it depends upon both is obvious from the fact that it does not exist when either
of them is absent, however great the other may be.
1. For some time my attention has been directed to this subject by the singularly in-
consistent results which I obtained when endeavouring to determine the resistance which
the air offers to a golf-ball.* The coefficient of resistance which I calculated from Ropins’
data for iron balls, by introducing the mass and diameter of a golf-ball, was very soon
found to be too small :—and I had grounds for belief that even the considerably greater
value, calculated in a similar way from BasHrortx’s data, was also too small. Hence the
reason for my attempts to determine its value, however indirectly. The roughness of the
ball has probably considerable influence ; and, as will be seen later, so possibly has its
rotation. I collected, with the efficient assistance of Mr T. Hopcx (whose authority on
such matters, alike from the practical and the observational point of view, no one in
St Andrews will question) a fairly complete set of data for the average characteristics of
a really fine drive :—elevation at starting, range, time of flight, position of vertex, &e,
Assuming, as the definite result of all sound experiment from Rosrns to Basurortu,t that
the resistance to a spherical projectile (whose speed is less than that of sound) varies
nearly as the square of the speed, I tried to determine from my data the initial speed
and the coefficient of resistance, treating the question as one of ordinary Kinetics of a
Particle. We easily obtain, for a low trajectory, simple but sufficiently approximate
expressions for the range, the time of flight, and the position of the vertex, in terms of
the data of projection and the coefficient of resistance. If, then, we assume once for all
an initial elevation of 1 in 4, the only disposable initial element is the speed of projection.
Making various more or less probable assumptions as to its value, I found for each the
corresponding coefficient of resistance which would give the datum range. ‘Thus I
obtained the means of calculating the time of flight and the position of the vertex of the
path. The greater the assumed initial speed (short, of course, of that of sound) the
larger is the coefficient of resistance required to give the datum range, and the more
* “The Unwritten Chapter on Golf,” Narurn, 22/9/87 ; and “Some Points in the Physics of Golf,” Inrp., 28/8/90,
24/9/91, 29/6/93. Also a popular article “Hammering and Driving,” Gour, 19/2/92 ; where the importance of under-
spin is considered, mainly from the point of view of stability of motion of a projectile which is always somewhat imperfect
as regards both sphericity and homogeneity.
+ “On the Motion of Projectiles,” 2nd edn., London, 1890.
THE PATH OF A. ROTATING SPHERICAL PROJECTILE, 431
closely does the position of the vertex agree with observation ; though it seems always
considerably too near the middle of the path. But the calculated time of flight,
which is greatest (for a given range) when there is no resistance, is always less
than two-thirds of that observed :—while, for high speeds, and correspondingly high
resistances, it is diminished to less than half the observed value. To make certain that
this discrepancy was not due to the want of approximation in my equations, yet without
the slightest hope of success in reconciling the various conflicting data, I made several
calculations by the help of BasHrortu’s very complete tables, which carry the approxima-
tion as far as could be wished ; but the state of matters seemed worse rather than better.
It then became clear to me that it is impossible for a projectile to pursue, for so long a
period as szx seconds, a path of only 180 yards, no part of which is so much as 100 feet
above the ground :—unless there be some cause at work upon it which can, at least parti-
ally, counteract the effect of gravity. The only possible cause, in the circumstances, is
underspin :—and it must, therefore, necessarily characterise, to a greater or less degree,
every fine drive. (And I saw at once that I had not been mistaken in the opinion, which
Thad long ago formed from observation and had frequently expressed, that the very longest
drives almost invariably go off at a comparatively slight elevation, and are. concave
upwards for nearly half the range.) In Nature (24/9/91) I said :—
Paithus appears that. .... the rotation of the ball must play at least as essential
a part in the grandest feature of the game, as it has long been known to do in those most
distressing peculiarities called heeling, toeing, slicing, &c.”
This conclusion, obvious as it seemed to myself, was vigorously contested by nearly
all of the more prominent golfers to whom I mentioned it :—being generally regarded as
a sort of accusation, implying that the best players were habitually guilty of. something
quite as diseraceful as heeling or toeing, even though its effects might be beneficial
imstead of disastrous. The physical cause of the underspin appears at once when we
consider that a good player usually tries to make the motion of the club-head as nearly
as possible horizontal when it strikes the ball from the tee, and that he stands a little
behind the tee. Thus the club-head is moving at impact in a direction not perpendicular
to the striking face; and, unless the ball be at once perfectly spherical and perfectly
smooth, such treatment must give it underspin :—the more rapid the rougher are the
ball and the face of the club, This is, simply, NEwrton’s ‘oblique racket.”
In fact, if the ball be treated as hard, and if the friction be sufficient to prevent
slipping, there is necessarily a maxvmum elevation (about 34°) producible by a club
moying horizontally at impact, however much ‘“‘spooned” the face may be. This
maximum is produced when the face of the club makes, with the sole, an angle of about
28° :—which is less than that of the most exaggerated “ baffy” I have seen. This, taken
along with the remark above (viz. that the longest drives usually go off at very small
elevations) is another independent proof that there is considerable underspin.
Hence the practical conclusion, that the face of a spoon, if it is to do its proper work
efficiently, ought to be as smooth as possible.
432 PROFESSOR TAIT ON
2. I next considered how to take account, in my equations, of the effects of the
rotation; and it appeared to me most probable that this could be done, with quite
sufficient approximation, by introducing a new force whose direction is perpendicular at
once to the line of flight and to the axis of rotation of the ball :—concurrent in fact with
the direction of rotatory motion of the foremost point of the surface. Various considera-
tions tended to show that its magnitude must be at least nearly proportional to the speed
of rotation and that of translation conjointly. Among these there is the simple one that
its direction is reversed when either of these motions is reversed. This may be general-
ised ; for if the vector axis, e, be anyhow inclined to the vector of translation, a, the
direction (why not then the magnitude also, to a constant multiplier prés) of the deflect-
ing force is given by Vea. Another is that, as the resistance (v.e. the pressure) on the
non-rotating ball is proportional to the square of the speed, the pressures on the two
front semihemispheres of the rotating ball must be (on the average) proportional to
(v + ew)” and (v — ew)” respectively :—where v is the speed of translation, » that of
rotation, and e a linear constant. The resultant of these, perpendicular to the line of
flight, will obviously be perpendicular also to the axis of rotation, and its magnitude will
be as ve. But I need not enumerate more arguments of this kind. In the absence of
anything approaching to a complete theory of the phenomenon we must make some
assumption, and the true test of the assumption is the comparison of its consequences with
the results of observation or experiment. This I have attempted, with some success, as
will be seen below.
3. Another associated question, of greater scientific difficulty but of less apparent
importance to my work, was the expression for the rate of loss of energy of rotation
by the ball. Is it, or is it not, seriously modified by the translation? But here I had
what seemed strong experimental evidence to go on, afforded by the fact that 1 had often
seen a sliced or heeled ball rotating rapidly when it reached the ground at the end of its
devious course. This is, of course, what would be expected if the deflecting force were
the only, or at least the principal, result of the rotation :—for, being always perpendicular
to the direction of translation, it does no work. But, on the other hand, if the friction
on a rotating ball depends upon its rate of translation, the ball while flying should
lose its spin faster than if its centre were at rest. This is a kind of information which
might have been obtained at once from Magnus’ experiments, but unfortunately
was not.
4. As I felt that there was a good deal of uncertainty about the whole of these
speculations, I resolved to consult Sir G. G. Sroxes. I therefore, without stating any
arguments, asked him whether my assumptions appeared to him to be sufficiently
well-founded to warrant the expenditure of some time and labour in developing their
consequences :—and I was much encouraged by his reply. For he wrote :—
“if the linear velocity at the surface, due to the rotation, is small compared with
the velocity of translation, I think your suggestion of the law of resistance a reasonable
one, and likely to be approximately true. This would make the deflecting force vary as
THE PATH OF A. ROTATING SPHERICAL PROJECTILE. 433
vo, I think too that the resistance in the line of flight will vary nearly as v, irrespec-
tive of the velocity of rotation of the ball.
As to the decrement of the energy of rotation, | think the second law which you
suggested is likely to be approximately true. The linear velocity due to rotation, even
at the surface where it is greatest, being supposed small, or at least tolerably small,
compared with the velocity of translation, I think you are right in saying that the
force acting laterally upon the ball will vary, at least approximately, as ve. If this
acted through the centre, it would have no moment. But I think it will not act through
the centre, though probably not far from it, so that it would have a moment varying as vo.
Hence the decrement of angular velocity would vary as vw, and the decrement of energy
of rotation as w (—dw/dt), or as . vw, or as vw", according to your second formula.
However, I think the force at any point of the surface, of the nature of that which we
have been considering, would act very approximately towards the centre, and therefore
would have little moment, so that after all the moment of the force tending to check the
rotation may depend rather on the spin directly than on its combination with the velocity
of translation. But, if this be so, I doubt whether the diminution of rotation during the
short time that the ball is flyimg is sufficient to make it worth while to take it into
account.”
5. For a first enquiry, and one of great consequence as enabling us to get at least
general notions of the magnitude of the deflecting force, let us take the simple case of
a ball, projected in a direction perpendicular to its axis of rotation, in still air, and not
acted on by gravity. [This would be the case of a top or “ pearie,” with its axis vertical,
travelling on a smooth horizontal plane.| Suppose, further, that the rate of rotation is
constant. ‘Then, in intrinsic cdordinates, the equations of tangential and normal accelera-
tion given by our assumptions are
$= —S/a, and s?/p = oct = kos,
respectively. The second may be put in either of the forms
Whey, Oem! eas.
ds
The first shows that the direction of motion revolves uniformly; the second, that the
curvature is inversely as the speed of translation. And, as the first equation gives
SS ie,
the intrinsic equation of the path is evidently
g= GD)
if p be measured from the initial direction of projection, and V be the initial speed.
This is an endless spiral, which has an asymptote, but no multiple points, and whose
curvature is
ka sla
==
af
454 PROFESSOR TAIT ON
It therefore varies continuously from nil, at negative infinite values of s, to infinity at
positive infinite values. Any are of the spiral has therefore precisely the character
of the horizontal projection of the path of a sliced, toed, or heeled, golf-ball ; for it is
obvious at once that the curvature steadily increases with the diminishing speed of the
ball, thus far justifying the assumptions made in forming the equations of motion. We
have only to trace this spiral, once for all, to get the path for any circumstances of
projection. For the asymptote is obviously parallel to
¢=-— ae = — a suppose.
Measure ¢ from this direction, and the equation becomes
o= ae’. é
a gives the length corresponding to unit in the figure ; and a (which determines the point
of it from which the ball starts) depends only upon a and the ratio of the spin to the
initial speed. This, with ¢/a and s/a interchanged, is the equation of the equiangular
spiral, which would be the path if the resistance were directly as the speed.
6. This enables us to get an approximate idea of the possible value of kw in the flight
of a golf-ball. For if it be well sliced, its direction of motion when it reaches the ground
is often at right angles to the initial direction, although the whole deviation from a
straight path may not be more than 20 or 30 yards. Assume for a moment, what will
be fully justified later, that in such a case we may have (say) s= 480 feet, a= 240 feet,
and V = 350 foot-seconds. We see that
7 24, on
9 = kw X an X 6°4;
so that &
Tv .
kw = a= 0:357, nearly,
gives a sort of average value, which may safely be used in future calculations. In the
case just considered, the acceleration (at starting) due to the rotation, is 0°357 x 350 or nearly
four-fold that of gravity: i.e., the initial deflecting force is four times the weight of
the ball.
7. In trying to find the positions of the asymptote, and of the pole, of the spiral of §5,
I spent a good deal of time on integrals like |
ee sing dp ,
0 at®¢d’
with the hope of adapting them to easy numerical calculation by transformation to others
with finite limits, such as 0—7/2. Happily, I learned from Professor Curystau that they
had been tabulated by Mr J. W. L. Guaisuer;—and from his splendid paper (Phil. Trans.,
1870) I obtained at once all that I sought. In fact his Sip and Cig are simply the x,y
codrdinates of this spiral (each divided by a); the axes being respectively the perpen-
dicular from the pole on the asymptote, and the asymptote itself. Thus I traced at once,
as shown in Fig. 1, the first three-quarters of a turn:—and the transformations I had
THE PATH OF A ROTATING SPHERICAL PROJECTILE, 435
already obtained enabled me to interpolate points when (after 6=5) those given in the
tables were too distant from one another for sure drawing. Another help in completing
the curve graphically is given by the fact that the tangent, at any point, makes with the
asymptote the angle @ which belongs to the point. This spiral does not, perhaps, exhibit
the courses of the two functions so clearly as do the separate curves given by GLAISHER ;
but it certainly shows their mutual relation, and their maximum and minimum values, in
a very striking manner.
The numbers, affixed to various points of the figured spiral are (in circular measure) the
corresponding values of ¢, or (by the equations of §5) they may be taken as proportional
to the times of reaching these points by the moving ball, starting with infinite speed from
an infinite distance.
8. Even in the plane problem of §5, the introduction of the effects of a steady current
of wind in the plane of motion complicates the equations in a formidable manner. Suppose
¢ be measured from the reversed direction of the wind, and let the speed of the wind be
W. Then if U, with direction , be the relative velocity of the ball with regard to the
wind, (for it is upon this that the resistance, and the deflecting force, depend), we have
Ucosp=W+8 cos ¢,
Usiny= ssin ¢ ;
and the equations of motion are
s= =e cos(@—W)+kU sin (P—wW),
2 Uw.
a= Gq SIB(P—W) +AU cos (p—W) ;
where, once for all, we have written k& for ko.
Putting v for s, and eliminating ¢, these become
v= = — 7 Ww cos é6+v)+kW sing,
UG CW sing +1(W cos +v);
where, of course,
U?= W?+02+2Wv cos ¢.
These equations reduce themselves at once to the simpler ones above treated, when we
put W=0, and therefore U=v. As they stand they appear intractable, in general, except
by laborious processes of quadrature. But while ¢ is small, 7.e., while the ball is advancing
nearly in the wind’s eye, they may be written approximately as
ye = . Wee)?
ds a TEW 9,
yt WH Wp Eu W +2).
From the first of these we see not only that the space-rate of diminution of speed is
Increased in the ratio (W + v)/v?, which was otherwise obvious ; but also that the rotation
tends, in a feeble manner, to counteract this effect. From the second we see that the
VOL. XXXVII. PART II. (NO. 21). 3 U
436 PROFESSOR TAIT ON
space-rate of change of direction is increased, not only by the factor (W + )/v in the term
due to spin, but by a direct contribution from the resistance itself. The effect of a head-
wind in producing upward curvature, even in a “skimmer,” is well known; and we now
see that it is, at first, almost entirely due to the underspin which, without being aware
of it, long drivers necessarily give to the ball. As soon as sind has, by the agency of
the underspin, acquired a finite value, the direct resistance comes in to aid the underspin
in further increasing it. We now see the true nature of the important service which (in
the hands of a powerful player) the nearly vertical face of a driving putter renders
against a strong wind. It enables him to give great translatory speed, with little
elevation, and with just spin enough to neutralize, for the earlier part of the path, the
effect of gravity.
9. Before I met with Rosrns’ paper, I had tried his pendulum experiment in a form which
gives the operator much greater command over the circumstances of rotation than does
his twisting of two strings together. Some years ago, with a view to measuring the
coefficient of resistance of air, even for high speeds, in the necessarily moderate range
atforded by a large room, I had procured a number of spherical wooden shells, turned very
thin. My object, at that time, was to make the mass as small as possible, while the
diameter was considerable :—but, of course, the moment of inertia was also very small.
So, when I fixed in one of them the end of a thin iron wire, the other end of which was
fastened to the lower extremity of a vertical spindle which could be driven at any desired
speed by means of multiplying gear, the wire suffered very little torsion except at the
moments of reversal of the spin. The pendulum vibrations of this ball showed almost
perfect elliptic orbits, rotating about the centre in the same sense as did the shell :—
and with angular velocity approximately proportional to that of the shell. These two
experimental results are in full accordance with the assumed law for the deflecting force
due to rotation. For, the ordinary vector equation of elliptic motion about the centre is
e= —mMe.
If the orbit rotate, with angular velocity Q, about the vertical unit vector a, perpendicular
to its plane, ~ becomes
p =a Mn go,
Eliminate ~ from these equations, and we have at once
p= —(m?—0?)p+20ap.
The part of the acceleration which depends upon the motion of translation of the
bob :—viz. |
20ap ;
is proportional to the speed, and also to Q, that is (by the results of observation) propor-
tional to the rate of spin ; and it is perpendicular alike to a and to the direction of trans-
lation. These statements involve the complete assumption above. The other part of the
acceleration depends upon position alone, and must therefore be—7n’p, that of the non-
rotating ball. Hence we see that
m = +02,
THE PATH OF A ROTATING SPHERICAL PROJECTILE. 437
or the period in the rotating ellipse is always shortened :—whether the ball move round
it in the sense of the spin or not. This test cannot be applied with any certainty in the
experiment described above, for in general Q is much less than n, so that m exceeds n
by a very small fraction only of its value.
A very beautiful modification of this experiment consists in making the path of the
pendulum bob circular, before it is set in rotation. Then rotation, in the same sense as
the revolution, makes the orbit shrink and notably diminishes the period. Reverse the
rotation ; the orbit swells out, and the period becomes longer.
10. The equations of motion of a golf-ball, which is rotating about an axis perpendicular
to its plane of flight, and moving in still air, are now easily seen to be
%, 3 .
s = el gsing ,
d= k—F cos p.
The most interesting case of this motion is a “long drive,” as it is called, where ¢ is
always small, so long at least as it is positive; its utmost average value for the first two-
thirds of the range being somewhere about 0°25. This applies up to, and about as much
beyond, the point of contrary flexure. A little after passing that point, ¢ begins to
diminish at a considerably greater rate than that at which it had previously increased.
A first approximation gives, as above,
$=Ve",
if we omit the term gsin@ in the first equation. With this, the second equation gives
at once, on integration
p = oe euegaes ya ka G tse gh
2V?
We might substitute this for sin¢ in the first equation, and so obtain a second, and now
very close, approximation to the value of s. But the result is far too cumbrous for con-
venient use in calculation. We will, therefore, be content for the present with the
rudely approximate value of $ written above.
Integrating again with respect to s, we have
fve- See 7 1—*)- gr (s Es =.
Now, for rectangular céordinates (x horizontal) and the same origin,
s 8 ¢? s s 3
x = feos ods =fa =F +&c.)ds , y=fain pds =f — & +&e.)ds;
0 0 0 0
so that, to the order of approximation we have adopted, the equation of the path is
ko? ala @\ ga? >xIa 2a
y = ace =148)\- Ee
The only really serious defect in this approximation is the omission of gsin¢ in the first
equation. ‘This renders the value of § too large for the greater part of the path, and thus
438 PROFESSOR TAIT ON
the value of yw will be slightly too small up to the point of inflection, and somewhat too
large up to (and some way beyond) the vertex of the path.
11. When this paper was first read to the Society, it contained a considerable number of
details and sketches of the paths of golf-balls, based on three very different estimates of
the constant of resistance :—respectively much less than, nearly equal to, and considerably
ereater than, that suggested by Basnrorrn’s results. These details have just been printed
in Nature (June 29), and I therefore suppress them here, replacing them by calculations
based on experiments made between the two dates at the head of the paper. One
important remark, suggested by the appearance of these curves must, however, be made
now. Whatever, from 180 to 360 feet, be assumed as the value of a, the paths required
to give a range of 180 yards and a time of 6°'5, have a striking family resemblance. So
much do they agree in general form, that I do not think anything like an approximation
to the true value of a could be obtained from eye-observations alone. We must, therefore,
find a or V directly. Only the possession of a really trustworthy value of a, found by
such means, would justify the labour of attempting a closer approximation than that
given above. I have not as yet obtained the means of making any direct determinations
of a, but I have tried to find its value indirectly ; first, from experimental measures of V
made some years ago by means of a ballistic pendulum; secondly, a few days ago, by
(what comes nearly to the same thing) measuring directly the speed of the club-head at
impact, and thus determining the speed from the known coefficient of restitution of the
ball. All of these experiments have been imperfect, mainly in consequence of the novelty
of the circumstances and the feeling of insecurity, or even of danger, which prevented the
player from doing his best. The results, however, seem to agree in showing that V is
somewhat over 300 foot-seconds (say, for trial, 350) for a really fine drive. ‘Taking the
carry as 180 yards, and the time as 6°, the value of a given by the formule above is
somewhere about 240 feet. With these assumed data, the initial (direct) resistance to
the ball’s motion is sixteen-fold its weight. Basurortu’s results for iron spheres, when
we take account of the diameter and mass of a golf-ball, give about 280 feet as the value
of a. The difference (if it really exist) may possibly arise from the roughness of the
golf-ball, which we now see to be essential to long carry and to steady flight, inasmuch
as the ball is enabled by it to take readily a great amount of spin, and to avail itself of
that spin to the utmost. One of the arguments in §2 above would give the resistance
as proportional to v*+e7w*, instead of to v’ simply.
12. We have thus all the data, except values of a and of k, required for the working out
of the details of the path by means of the approximate w, y equation just given. The
best course seems to be to assume values of a from 0°24 (according to Mr Hopez) down
to zero; and to find for each the corresponding value of & which will make y=0 for
«=540. This process gives the following values with a = 240, V = 350, as above :—
a k kV /g alog. kV /g
(024, 0'182 2°00 166°3
0°12 0246 2°69 237°5
0:0 0'309 3:37 291°6
:
‘
}
j
-
{
:
- '
’
rw
x
,
7
‘
¥
— ns ;
7 ®
_ a
a 4
Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin. Vol.
PROF. TAIT ON PATH OF A ROTATING SPHERICAL PROJHCGRS
etsy
2 |
|
|
2°5 ;
Fig. 1.
O'75 s = |
s |
9
6
O'5
0°4.
Fig. 4.
o's
o'2
Bigs.
Oo 40 80 120
Figs Ss:
THE PATH OF A ROTATING SPHERICAL PROJECTILE. 439
It will be seen that the values of k are of the order pointed to by the behaviour of a
sliced ball, though they are considerably less than that given in the example of §6.
This, of course, is a strong argument in favour of the present theory ; for, even in
the wildest of (unintentional) heeling, the face of the club is scarcely so much inelined to
its direction of motion as it is in good, ordinary, driving with a grassed club. (Slicing is
very much less susceptible of accurate quantitative estimation by means of eye-observa-
tions.) The third column gives the ratio of the initial deflecting force to the weight of
the ball. As this is more than unit in each of the three cases, all these paths are at first
concave upwards. The numbers in the fourth column indicate (in feet) the distance
along the range from the origin to the point of inflexion.
The approximate equation of the first of these paths is
y = 576 — +3005 (s«_1_2) 3-76 #21 — 25)
The abscissa of the maximum ordinate is given by
0 = 57°6+30:05(¢#!—1)—7-52(e22/" — 1)
which leads to
¢”/4— 4°93, whence «= 384 nearly.
The vertex is therefore at 0°71 of the range.
13. Under exactly the same circumstances, had there been no rotation, the equation
of the path would have been
2x
y = 576" —376(e%" — 1 — =)
This gives for y= 0,
x = 171 a = 410 feet only.
The position of the vertex is given by
0 = 576—7-52 (e2/@—1);
so that
xe = 258 feet, nearly.
In this case the vertex is at 0°63 of the range, only, and the time of flight is 3*'1.
We have here, in consequence of a very moderate spin only, (in fact about half of
that given by a good slice), all other initial circumstances being the same, an exceedingly
well-marked difference in character between the two paths, as well as notable differences
in range, and time of flight. Thus, while a player who gives no spin has (say)-a carry of
136 yards only ; another, who gives the same initial speed and inclination of path but
also a very moderate amount of spin, accomplishes 180 yards with ease; his ball, in fact,
remaining twice as long in the air.
14. For the sake of further illustration, let us consider the course by which the ball, sent
off at the same inclination, but without rotation, may be forced by mere initial speed to
have a range of 540 feet. Here the condition for V is
0 = 1296- 8(20) 845 ;
VOL. XXXVII. PART II. (NO. 21). 3 Xx
440 PROF. TAIT ON THE PATH OF A ROTATING SPHERICAL PROJECTILE.
so that the requisite speed is 548 foot-seconds; an increase of 56 per cent., involving
about 2°5 fold energy of translation, which I take to be entirely beyond the power of
any player. And the time of flight is reduced to 3°°7 only, a rapidity of execution never
witnessed in so long a carry. ‘The initial resistance in this case rises to nearly forty-fold
the weight of the ball. The equation of the path is
y = 5T6= — 154 ("-1-*")
and the vertex is at 355, or about two-thirds of the range, only.
15. Fig. 2 shows the three paths just described, which start initially in the same direc-
tion ; the uppermost is that with speed 350 and moderate spin. The lowest has the same
speed, but no spin. The intermediate course, also, has no spin, but the initial speed is
548 to enable it to have a range of 540 feet. Thus the two upper paths in this figure
are-characteristic of the two modes of achieving a long carry :—viz. skill, and brute force,
respectively. In fig. 3 the first of these paths is repeated, and along with it are given
the corresponding trajectories with the same initial speed 350, but with inclinations of
0°12 and 0°0 respectively, and with the values of k, given above, which are required to
secure the same common range. [To increase this range from 180 to 250 yards, even in
the lowest and thus least advantageous path where there is no initial elevation, all that
is required is to raise the value of kV (the initial acceleration due to rotation) from 108
to 219; we. practically to double it. V might, perhaps, be increased by from 25 to 30
per cent. by a greatly increased effort in driving :—but k/ is much more easily increased.
A carry of 250 yards, in still air, is therefore quite compatible with our data, even if
there be no initial elevation. It can be achieved, for instance, if V is 400 foot-seconds,
and & about 50 per cent. greater than that which we have seen is given by a good slice.
Of course it will be easier of attainment if the true value of a is greater than 240 feet.
When there is no rotation there must be initial elevation ; and, even if we make it as
great as 1 in 4, the requisite speed of projection for a carry of 250 yards would be 1120
feet per second, or about that of sound.| Each of the curves has its vertex marked,
and also its point of inflexion, when it happens to possess one. Fig. 4 gives a rough,
conjectural, sketch of the probable form of the path if, other things being the same, the
spin could be very greatly increased. As I do not see an easy way to a moderately
approximate solution of this problem, either by calculation or by a graphic process, I
intend to attempt it experimentally. I am encouraged to persevere in this by the fact
that in one of the few trials which I have yet made, with a very weak bow, I managed to
make a golf-ball move pout blank to a mark 30 yards off. When the string was adjusted
round the middle of the ball, instead of catching it lower, the droop in that distance was
usually about 8 feet. With a more powerful bow, and with one of the thin wooden shells
I have mentioned above, the circumstances will be very favourable for a path with a
kink in it.
( 441 )
XXII.—On the Present State of Knowledge and Opinion in regard to Colour-Blindness.
By Wriu1am Pots, F.R.S., F.R.S.E., Mus. Doc. Oxon., Honorary Secretary of
the Institution of Civil Engineers. (With a Plate.)
(Read January 16, 1893.)
At the meeting of the British Association in Edinburgh, in August 1892, the President
of the Biological Section, Professor W. RutHERForD, M.D., F.R.S., F.R.S.E., gave an able
opening address on “ The Colour-Sense,” in which he took occasion to speak at some
length on that remarkable defect of vision called Colour-Blindness. After alluding to the
large share of public attention it had lately attracted, both on scientific and popular
grounds, he pointed out the unsatisfactory nature of certain statements lately put for-
ward, and gave good reasons why the views still largely held on it in this country required
revision.
There can be no doubt that the unfavourable comparison made between the state of
knowledge here and that prevailing in foreign scientific circles is well founded. The views
held in England seem to be essentially the same as they were a quarter of a century ago,
after CLERK Maxwe tt had so energetically revived Youne’s Theory of Colours. But
since that time the knowledge of facts, and the views of their explanation, have much
advanced. The subject of colour-blindness has been industriously studied and discussed
‘by some of the most powerful minds in Europe; it has been illustrated by elaborate
investigations and able reasonings ; and a great mass of matter has been written upon it
by eminent authorities—physicists, physiologists, and specialists—well qualified to deal
with the matter. Hence it would certainly seem that if the knowledge thus gained were
duly taken advantage of, much of the obscurity in which the facts appear to be veiled
might be cleared away.
I have therefore thought that the indications given at the British Association meeting
might with advantage be expanded, and carried out further ; and since this is a matter to
which I have devoted much attention, I venture to offer an attempt in that direction.
_ It will be perceived that I only touch on a small fraction of Professor RUTHERFORD’S
learned address. That comprehended profound remarks on our sensory impressions gene-
rally, followed by a still more elaborate discussion of the sense of colour. I do not venture
into these regions ; it would be presumptuous for me to discuss or argue upon the theories
of colour-vision generally, which I leave to those better qualified. I confine myself to
the phenomena of colowr-blindness; and in speaking of them, though I cannot exclude
the mention of theories (which have, indeed, become inseparable from the subject), I need
only meddle with them so far as they interfere immediately with the understanding of
these phenomena.
VOL. XXXVII. PART II. (NO. 22), 3Y¥
442 DR WILLIAM POLE ON THE PRESENT SIATE OF
~
I propose—I. To give a brief explanation of the scope of the inquiry.
II. and III. To investigate at some length two questions, in regard to which there
has been much controversy and there is still some difference of opinion.
IV. To collect some further facts, statements, and opinions of a more general kind
from authoritative sources. And
V. To attempt to draw some useful inferences from the whole.
It will frequently be necessary, in order to prove or explain the statements made, to call
special attention to writings quoted as authoritative ; and as many of these, particularly
when of foreign origin, are difficult of access, I have arranged the necessary extracts,
for facility of reference, in a collection of “ Data,” which, with a bibliography of works
referred to, will be found in the Proceedings of this Society for 1893, vol. xx. page 103.
In the present paper these extracts will be quoted as “‘ Data,” with a distinguishing letter,
SCOPE OF THE INQUIRY.
It is desirable to state at the outset that the present inquiry does not extend to
colour-blindness generally. This term is used to include several kinds of defective vision
of colours. For example, patients have been found who, although they appreciate light
and shade, have no perception of colour proper, 7.¢., as distinguished from light generally ;
this defect may be called Achromic Vision,* but it is very rare. Then there are persons
who see two colours; this defect is called Dichromic Vision, and is the most common of
all. But even in this there are some rare varieties, in which, if they were well sub-
stantiated, the colours would be so irregular as to demand special classification. We need
not consider them now; it must suffice to say that, according to general experience, by
far the great majority of cases of dichromic vision (and, therefore, the great majority of
cases of colour-blindness) are of a peculiar kind, which is characterised by great mistakes
in regard to the colours red and green, often confounding them with one another. This
is called Red-green Blindness, and it is the only kind that will be treated of in this
paper.
My own vision is allowed on all hands to be a perfect typical example of this defect,
and as Professor RurHERFORD has paid me the compliment of mentioning my connexion
with the subject, I may be pardoned for saying a few words on its early history.
* 1 take this term from DonpErs ; the defect has sometimes been called “ Monochromic” vision, but this is inap-
plicable if we assume that colour is something distinct from the sensation of ordinary light, as we do when we use the
now well-established term “Dichromic.” On this view it is difficult to understand how there can be any monochromi¢
vision, as, if the light is at all varied by refraction, it must be broken up into at least two colours. No doubt white
has often to be treated as a colour-sensation ; but the popular use of the term “coloured,” as distinguished from the
simple sensation of light, justifies the above nomenclature,
KNOWLEDGE AND OPINION IN REGARD TO COLOUR-BLINDNESS. 443
The first scientific notice of the existence of an abnormal vision of colours in certain
individuals appears to have been Hupparv’s letter to Dr PRixsriey, printed in the Philo-
sophical Transactions for 1777, after which several accounts of such cases were published
from time to time, including Datron’s description of his own vision in 1794, and Sex-
BECK’s detailed analyses of several cases in 1837. But the first step of real scientific
importance was the discovery by Sir Jonn Herscuen of the dichromic explanation of the
phenomenon. This was conveyed by him in a letter to Daron, dated 30th May 1833 ;*
but as Datron did not agree with the view (having a pet theory of his own), he made no
use of the letter. In 1845 Sir Jonn wrote his well-known article on “ Light,” for the
Encyclopedia Metropolitana, in which (Art. 507-8) he spoke of “ the curious affection of
vision occasionally met with in certain individuals who distinguish only two colours, which
are generally found to be yellow and blue,” and he illustrated this by a set of very in-
teresting and instructive observations on “a celebrated optician” (Mr Troueuton), which
explained the theory. ‘This was the first publication of the idea of dichromic vision ;
but it seems to have attracted no notice till the celebrated letter to DaLTon was found,
and published after his death in 1854.
In 1855 appeared the first important book on the subject, namely, Researches on
Colour-Blindness, by Professor GEorcrE Witson, M.D., of Edinburgh, an excellent and
elaborate work, treating of the subject very fully in all its bearings, so far as it was then
known. Among other things the author described a practical system of testing colour-
vision by samples of coloured wool—a mode which, as subsequently extended by Houm-
GREN, has become most popular and useful. Dr Wiuson had taken much interest in
Dauron’s case, and had published a special essay upon it. He, however, doubted the
application to it of Herscuet’s dichromic principle ; he believed that Daron was not,
under favourable circumstances, insensible to red ; and he inclined strongly to the opinion
that the number of instances where the vision was perfectly dichromic, 7.e., where the
true sensation of red was altogether wanting, were very few.
In the same year Mr CLerk MaxweLt communicated to the Royal Society of Edin-
burgh his valuable paper (now become classical), “ Experiments on Colour as perceived by
the Eye, with Remarks on Colour-Blindness,” in which he made known his novel mode
of experimenting on colour mixtures by the elegant device of revolving circular discs,
In this paper he appeared to concur with Dr Witson that the dichromic theory was not
strictly applicable to the more definite cases of colour-blindness, for he said (page 284),—
“Tn experiments made with the pure spectrum, it appears that though the red appears
much more obscure than other colours, it is not wholly invisible.”
My own work immediately followed. I had long known that I was one of the unfor-
tunate sufferers from the abnormal vision of colours, and it occurred to me that it would
* Sir Jonn HurscuHet, being interested in Datton’s description of his vision of colours, had sent him some
“Optical Queries,” accompanied by test-glasses and by samples of coloured silks, to which Daron sent replies, as
mentioned in the letter, which was in fact HmrscHEt’s judgment upon them. At a later time Sir Jonn put these
data in my possession, and I was enabled thereby to discover the exact particulars of the nature of Datton’s vision,—
See Phil. Mag., July 1892.
444 DR WILLIAM POLE ON THE PRESENT STATE OF
be worth while for me to examine carefully my own colour-sensations, and to see whether
or not they corresponded strictly with the dichromic explanation. I found that they did
so, and I wrote a paper “ On Colour-Blindness,” endeavouring, by the description of my
own case, not only to prove this fact, but to account for its previous obscurity. The
communication was read before the Royal Society of London on the 19th June 1856, and
was referred to Sir Joun Herscuer, whose favourable report on it was (contrary to the
usual custom) partly published in the Proceedings. 1 was recommended to amplify it by
some experiments on MAxwELL’s new system, after which it was printed in the Phil.
Trans. for 1859. My verification of the dichromic theory was fully adopted and reasoned
on in a second communication, by CLERK MaxweE tt, to the Royal Society of London in
1860, and since that, HerscHeL’s most happy simplification of Colour-Blindness has been
universally received.
There were certain points of my paper left obscure and unfinished, and to clear them
up I have published some supplementary remarks in the Philosophical Magazine ot
July 1892.
The general features of dichromic vision have been determined by a large number of
observations, and may be summed up as follows :—
The solar spectrum shows, to a dichromic eye, only two hues-—a warm and a cold one—
separated from each other at a rather uncertain colourless point, called the Neutral Point,
lying in the normal blue-green, between FRauNHorER’s lines 6 and F. The warm hue
occupies the whole of the less refrangible part to the left of the dividing place ; the cold
hue occupies the whole of the more refrangible part to the right hand. These two colours
will be complementary with respect to the patient’s white.
The two colours are modified throughout the length of the spectrum by variations in
their saturation, or their luminosity, or both. I may quote a description of the appear-
ances to me, according to various observations at different times, some notes of which I
have given in the “ Data,” AG.
My neutral point, or division between the colours, lies at a somewhat uncertain wave-length not
far from 500, and appears a dull, colourless hue, not white, but a sort of grey. Starting from this,
and proceeding to the left hand towards b, the sensation of the yellow immediately enters, at
first very faint and pale, being much diluted with white; but as I go further the saturation
gradually increases until, beyond E, the colour becomes a beautiful, resplendent, fully-saturated
yellow. The place of maximum strength is difficult to determine, but it is probably shortly before
reaching the line D. Soon after passing D the colour begins to fall off, but the change now is of
a nature different from that above described in coming from the neutral point. There is here
no dilution with white; the saturation remains full and constant, the change being a diminution of
luminosity only. This diminution goes on gradually, giving an appearance like that of the shading
of a round column in an engraving, and it increases in darkness till the visible spectrum ends. But
the saturation of the colour is fully maintained the whole way, and some good authorities contend
that it even increases towards the end.
The disposition of the colour-impressions in the more refrangible division of the spectrum is
precisely similar. Starting from the neutral point, and proceeding towards the right hand, the blue
aa
KNOWLEDGE AND OPINION IN REGARD TO COLOUR-BLINDNESS. 445
colour enters, at first much diluted with white, but gradually strengthening till it becomes brilliant
and fully saturated between F and G. Beyond this it is gradually darkened, but still preserving its
saturation till it disappears.
In order to afford some illustration of these appearances, I have attempted to give, in
the Plate, fig. 2, a chromo-lithographic imitation of the drawing which I prepared, with
Dr Hueerns’s aid, in 1879; adding in fig. 1 a corresponding indication of the places
of the normal spectral colours. But it must be understood that such sketches are
necessarily very imperfect representations either of the colours, or the luminosity.
The extra spectral hues, which were conceived by NEwron to connect the red end of
the normal spectrum with the violet end, and are now called “ purples,” are also visible
to the dichromic eye ; those near the red have the warm colour; those near the violet
have the cold colour ;—the place of separation being a second Neutral or colourless Point
near the red end, which is to the normal eye a deep crimson or red violet.
I add a diagram, fig. 3, containing three coloured squares. These all appear alike (or
very nearly so) to me, and I should describe the hue of each as a colourless grey of
moderate intensity. The middle one corresponds, I am told, fairly well with the normal
neutral ; the right-hand one represents my neutral hue in the green ; and the left-hand
one represents my second neutral hue among the extra-spectral purples.*
According to many trials with different persons, I see the full length of the spectrum
ordinarily visible at both ends, the red end being perfectly distinct, as far as it is visible
to any normal-eyed person who has tried it with me. The violet end seems often to vary
with normal eyes.
As to the luminosity in different parts of the spectrum, Dr Huaeins made some trials
with me in 1879, and we found that my impressions of the gradations, throughout, seemed
to agree fairly well with the normal ones, as originally determined by FRAUNHOFER in
1815; the maximum being, as he expressed it, at about “4 or + DE, from D towards
H,” a place which he expressly marked as yellow. How far the actual intensity of the
luminous impression on my eyes may compare with the normal one (which may probably
itself vary), I know no means of determining ; all I can say is that my two colours appear
to me exceedingly vivid and brilliant, and that I find by experience I am more sensitive
than many normal-eyed people to slight variations in them.
It must be further explained that although the dichromic patient, as his name implies,
sees only two varieties of hue, yet the colowr-vmpressions he derives from them are very
numerous and diversified in character, and this is the reason why his defect so often escapes
notice. He hears of the variety in colour presented by nature, and he knows that nature
also offers great variety to him; but he does not know, till he is taught, that the variety
is of a different kind in the two cases. In normal vision there is an immense variety
of hues; in dichromic vision, though the colours are fewer, they are still subject to
* The exact matching of these three colour-impressions will vary slightly in different dichromic eyes, for reasons
hereafter given ; with some patients the external squares in the figure will appear slightly coloured, and varying in
intensity. Indeed the appearances may vary slightly, even in the same individual, with variations of the illumination.
446 DR WILLIAM POLE ON THE PRESENT STATE OF
infinite varieties of light and shade. And the consequence of this is that the*dichromic
patient, having his attention naturally directed to this kind of variation, becomes
exceedingly sensitive to it; so that differences of luminosity, or of saturation, or of both,
become as strongly marked to him, and as easily discriminated by him, as differences of
hue are by the normal-eyed.*
I think I ought to add a few remarks on a peculiar feature of red-green blindness,
which Datron laid great stress on, though it has seldom been noticed—I mean the re-
markable difference, much greater than normal, produced in the appearance of the colours
by artificial ight. It was, indeed, this peculiarity which first called Datton’s attention
to his own defect. He says :—
I was never convinced of a peculiarity in my own vision till I accidentally observed the colour
of the flower of the Geranium zonale by candle-light in the autumn of 1792 [he being then twenty-
six years old]. The flower was pink, but it appeared to me almost an exact sky-blue by day; in
candle-light, however, it was astonishingly changed, not having then any blue in it, but being what I
called red—a colour which forms astriking contrast to blue. Not then doubting but that the change
of colour would be equal to all, I requested some of my friends to observe the phenomenon, when I
was surprised to find they all agreed that the colour was not materially different from what it was by
daylight. This clearly proved that my vision was not like that of other persons, and at the same time
that the difference between daylight and candle-light on some colours was indefinitely more perceptible
to me than to others.
He afterwards gives many examples of the peculiarity, but as my own experience is
precisely similar, I may describe the changes which I myself see in candle or gas light.t
Yellows appear much paler. I believe this is a normal change. The characteristic of
candle or gas light is the greater predominance in it of the long-waved warm colours,
which imparts a considerable tinge of them to all surrounding objects capable of reflecting
them, and by contrast with which the original yellow colour seems to lose in tone,
Primrose or straw-coloured gloves pass for white in the evening.
On the other hand, blues appear darker in shade, partly by contrast, and partly from
the light supplying a less proportion of blue rays. Every lady knows that blue is not a
“ good lighting-up ” colour.
Greens also appear darker, as their rays (except, perhaps, for the very yellow varieties)
are also deficient in artificial light. But they also appear, both normally and to us, to
change to a bluer hue ; so much so that the normal-eyed often confuse the two colours.
Da.Ton was surprised at this, as he says :—‘‘ I do not understand why the greens should
assume a bluish appearance to us and to everybody else by candle-light, when it should
seem that candle-light is deficient in blue.” I suppose it must be from what is called
* See further explanations on this point in the Phil. Mag., July 1892.
+ These particulars were given in my original paper of 1856 (sent to the Royal Society of London), but were
omitted in printing. I made a postscript in 1859 that I had discovered that the colour-top equations varied to some
extent, even in the same individual, at different times, This was afterwards explained by the variations of the light
which illumined them.
KNOWLEDGE AND OPINION IN REGARD TO COLOUR-BLINDNESS. 447
“ simultaneous contrast” with the artificial reds and yellows prevailing around. At any
rate the effect is to remove my neutral point in the green, or the junction of the blue and
yellow colours in the spectrum, to a considerably longer wave-length.
But the most important change is in the reds, gas or candle light increasing their
brilliancy and force in a very remarkable degree. Daron was much struck by this, and
describes it strongly again and again. He says, speaking of the full red :—“‘ The red
extremity of the image with a candle appears much more vivid than that of the solar
Mages... .. Red and scarlet appear much more vivid and flaming than by day, form-
ing asuperb colour...... Crimson loses its dark blue or dark brown appearance, and
becomes yellowish-red.” The change in the lighter shades of pink impressed him
still more, as in the case of the geranium flower ; and he adds :—‘ Pink is by far the
most changed ; indeed it forms an excellent contrast to what it is by day. No blue now
appears, yellow has taken its place; it seems a reddish-yellow.” I can fully confirm all
this. The change in the lighter reds is very astonishing ; and the full red by gas-light
is to me a most “superb” colour. Daron could never bring himself to believe it was
really a yellow sensation. I have heard other colour-blind persons declare it to be a red
which only appears in that way; and although I myself cannot detect any new colour-
sensation in it, I am obliged to admit that, as yellow, it is extraordinarily saturated and
powerful.* There seems something about this change that deserves further inquiry.
The change of the red also considerably alters the position of our extra-spectral red
neutral, driving it further towards the violet end of the spectrum.
A practical result of these changes is to check the confusion between red and green.
For if two objects of these colours appear alike by daylight (say the two outside figures
on the diagram, fig. 3), I have only to take them into candle-light, and they will become
well contrasted as yellow and blue.
Another method of distinction, somewhat analogous, was contrived by Professor CLERK
MaxweE.., by a pair of spectacles, one glass being red, excluding green rays, the other
green, excluding red rays, by using which the difference between red and green can be
instantly perceived. An account of this is given in Maxwett’s Edinburgh paper of
1855, and an interesting letter which he wrote to me, when he was kind enough to give
me the spectacles, will be found in “ Data,” AE.
Having now described the general colour-impressions of dichromic vision, it is necessary
to explain that there are some variations in different cases in matters of detail,—such, for
example, as in the length of spectrum visible; the exact position of the two dividing points
between the two colours ; the nature and arrangement of the various modifications of the
colours along the line of the spectrum ; and, probably to some extent, in the exact sensa-
tions corresponding to the colours themselves. This leads us to consider the difficulties
of the subject, and there are two questions in regard to which there has been great con-
troversy. They are—
* Herine has noticed this, and has offered an explanation of it. See Phil. Mag., August 1893.
448 DR WILLIAM POLE ON THE PRESENT STATE OF
1. What relations have the two colours seen, and their “equilibrium” (ze., the
patient’s white), to the colours and the white of normal vision ?
2. What is the exact nature of the variations which are found to occur in different
individuals ?
It is somewhat humiliating to have to say that, in England, these questions are often
answered merely by reference to assumed theories; but we will rather, here, act on
Bacon’s principle, so aptly quoted by our President in his Opening Address of this
Session, “ Non fingendum, nec excogitandum, sed inveniendum quod Natura faciat.”
Lal
THE RELATIONS BETWEEN THE DICHROMIC COLOUR-SENSATIONS AND
THOSE OF NORMAL VISION.
This is a question which has been mooted ever since the nature of dichromatism has
been established, and it has given rise to much controversy. Its treatment is not easy,
because colour is a subjective sensation, which does not admit of any direct and
independent description. Evidence must be obtained indirectly, and this is generally
done by comparisons made in various ways.
One of the simplest modes is by what are called matches of colours, which are now
used very commonly for the detection of colour-blindness. A colour-blind person will
sometimes select two skeins of wool which he says “ match,” z.e., look alike, to him,
while to a normal-eyed person they appear glaringly different. This comparison furnishes
at once the important evidence that the person’s vision is abnormal; and by following up
the plan, carefully and systematically, much information may be obtained as to the
general nature of his vision.
Now it happens that, although matches made by the colour-blind person may seem
absurdly unlike to the normal-eyed; when the experiment is reversed we get a
different result; for it is found by experience that, as a general rule, matches made by
the normal-eyed will also be matches to the colour-blind.* And this furnishes useful
evidence of a more positive kind ; for it is understood to prove that the colour-sensations
of the colour-blind are generally of the same nature, and derived from the same sources,
as those of the normal-eyed; or, in other words, the two colours of the dichromic eye
must be two of the hues known in ordinary vision.
Having this guide, we may proceed to inquire what hues they are? and we may look
for two kinds of evidence on the point.
A. We may first inquire what is the testimony of the dichromic patients as to their
own sensations? How is it conveyed? And what is its value ?
* That is, subject to exceptions caused by personal variations,—which, according to recent researches, may
sometimes be considerable.
KNOWLEDGE AND OPINION IN REGARD TO COLOUR-BLINDNESS. 449
B. We may then see whether this testimony can be checked or controlled by any
more direct evidence, drawn from other sources ?
A. Testimony of the Colour-Blind.
It is a matter of notoriety that the intercourse of the colour-blind with the world in
general leads them to speak of yellow and blue as the two colours about which they have
least doubt ; and when any intelligent person of this class is made aware of the general
nature of his defect, he holds a strong opinion that these are the two colours he sees.
This was the case with myself, as I stated in my paper of 1859; adding that
“the pigments ultramarine and chrome yellow, or the parts of the solar spectrum near
the lines D and F, excite the colour-sensations I am capable of, most fully and com-
pletely.”
But this idea was called in question on theoretical grounds. Professor CLERK
Maxwe 1 had interested himself to publish and explain what is now called the Youne-
HELMHOLTZ theory of colour-vision, which assumed that there were three elementary
colour-sensations, usually taken as red, green, and blue or violet, by the excitement and
mixture of which all normal colours might be produced. It was natural to apply this to
colour-blindness by assuming that dichromic vision was caused simply by the absence of
one of the three sensations, the two others remaining intact. Professor MaxwELL was good
enough to try many experiments on my vision, which he regarded as confirming these
theroretical views ; and, on the 24th March 1871, he delivered, at the Royal Institution,
a lecture on Colour-Vision, in which he made the following remarks :—
The defect consists in the absence of one of the three primary sensations of colour. Colour-
blind vision depends on the variable intensities of two sensations instead of three. The best descrip-
tion of colour-blind vision is that given by Mr Pots in his account of his own case in the Phil. Trans.,
1859.
In all cases which have been examined with sufficient care, the absent sensation appears to
resemble that which we call red...... We have great reason, therefore, to conclude that the
colour-sensations which Mr Potz sees are what we call green and blue.
This is the result of my calculation, but Mr Pot agrees with every other colour-blind person
whom I know in denying that green is one of his sensations. The colour-blind are always making
mistakes about green things, and confounding them withred. The colours they have no doubt about
are certainly blue and yellow.
Professor MaxwsLL, however, went on to explain what he meant. He did not intend
to deny that, from a practical point of view, our sensation of the warm colour was the
Same as was given us by the normal yellow,—for he had said expressly (Paper of 1855,
p. 287), as the result of his mathematical investigation, “ Hence all colours appear to
the colour-blind as if composed of blue and yellow.” He believed that, according to his
_ theory, our warm hue was due to the green primary sensation,—but he admitted that, by
VOL. XXXVII. PART II. (NO. 22) 3 Z
450 DR WILLIAM POLE ON THE PRESENT STATE OF
the absence of the red, this sensation had, in its brightest example, been transferred to the
wave-length usually called yellow, and therefore we naturally called it by that name.
But, as time went on, the theoretical views changed. Adhering still to Youne’s
theory, it was found advisable not to insist on the general prevalence of red as the
absent sensation. It might be either of the three, and there seemed reason to believe
that the absence of green was also common. HELMHOLTZ adopted this idea in his work
of 1867, distinguishing the two classes of defect as ‘‘ Red-blindness” and “ Green-blind-
ness” respectively, with a possibility of ‘‘ Violet-blindness ” also.
The same classification was adopted by Professor HoLMGREN in his well-known book of
1877, in which he gave means, by his wool tests, of distinguishing the red-blindness and
ereen-blindness from each other. When this came to my knowledge, I entered into
communication with him, and sent him my wool matches, arranged according to his
directions. He courteously examined them, and gave me a positive answer that I was
“ oreen-blind,” and not “ red-blind ” as MAXWELL and all others had supposed.* _
According to this, therefore, my warm sensation would be produced by the red
fundamental ; but as I suppose MAXwELL’s explanation of the shifting of the maximum
intensity would also apply here, I should still be justified in calling it yellow.
It will be well now to explain how the testimony of the colour-blind patient is given.
IT have alluded to the difficulty of describing what the subjective sensation of colour is;
but it must be recollected that this difficulty is not peculiar to the colour-blind ; it applies
alike to the normal-eyed in their communications with each other. How is a normal-
eyed person A to know that his neighbour B has the same kind of vision as his own?
It can only be by verbal comparisons of impressions. A will exhibit to B some samples
of colours, and will ask his impressions about them; and if B’s answers show that his
ideas about redness, greenness, blueness, and so on, accord with those of A, he will be pro-
nounced normal-eyed. Bnt if he were to examine me in the same way, he would find
my answers show ideas so different from his, that he must consider my vision defective
and abnormal.
Now, let us carry this a little farther. Suppose I tell my examiner that I am aware
I have only two colour-sensations, a warm and a cold one, but that I am not sure what
sensations of his they correspond to, and I wish him to aid me in finding this out, that I
may know what to call them.
He might probably begin by showing me the most common colour in nature—green.
He would point to fresh grass or young leaves of plants, and ask me what I thought
of them? I should say they came within my warm colour, but were only dull and dingy
specimens of it. An emerald-green paper I should characterise similarly, and a Bruns-
wick green I should pronounce still darker, with scarcely any colour at all. He would
show me some powerful green signal-glasses, which I should say belonged to my opposite
or cold colour. He might ask me to look at the middle of the spectrum, containing what
* See, however, further explanations of HoLMGREN’s general views on pp. 453, 454, 455, and 461.
iy
KNOWLEDGE AND OPINION IN REGARD TO COLOUR-BLINDNESS, 451
he would call the most brilliant greens, and I should say that b and E were my warm
colour, but so pale that I could see hardly any colour there at all, and between b and F it
vanished altogether. He might point to some ladies’ dresses which he would say were dark,
powerful green, but I should say they appeared quite black to me. He might then ask me
whether I could detect any idea of a colour-sensation which was recognised as running
through the whole of the specimens, and which he called greenness? I should reply that
I certainly could not see anything of the kind; they had no feature of connexion or
similarity, nothing whatever in common; and-that consequently his greenness was an
idea to which I was an utter stranger.
He might then probably show me samples of red; and I should tell him that a
soldier’s coat, and vermilion, belonged to my warm colour, more strongly coloured than
the green, but still darkened. Crimson-lake was darker still, and with less colour, and
in a light tint became grey. Pink ribbons appeared pale varieties of my cold colour. I
might add that I sometimes wrote accidentally with red ink, thinking it was ordinary ink
a little pale. He would soon infer that the idea of redness, to him pervading all the
samples, was, like greenness, quite unknown to me.
I might then ask him if he could produce me a sample of either of these colours, green
or red, which would give me the maximum sensation of my warm colour. He might try,
but I know he could produce nothing which, compared with my brilliant colour, was not
defective, to my vision, either in saturation or in luminosity.
It might then probably occur to him that there was another warm colour which he
had not yet tried, namely, yellow, and he would produce some samples of it. The case
then would be altogether changed. The moment he produced a buttercup or calceolaria,
or the pigment chrome-yellow, or a portion of the spectrum near D, I should instantly
identify them with the maximum sensation of my warm colour. I would then
ask him to show me a number of different samples, either saturated or pale, or darkened
into brown, in any variety, provided only that he himself would call them yellow. I
could then tell him that I myself now saw the consistent feature of one colour-sensation
running through all the varieties ; and I think we should both agree in the probability
that my warm sensation was identical with his sensation of yellow.
By a similar process, my cold colour would easily be proved to correspond with his
blue.
This is the kind of evidence procurable from the dichromic patient ; indirect and
inferential, it is true ; but of precisely the same practical character and weight as that which
determines the general similarity of vision of normal-eyed people. And it must be
observed that, in spite of the individual differences found in dichromic patients, whether
they be called red-blind or green-blind, their testimony as to the yellow and blue is always
the same.
-Tcannot help thinking that, in spite of his defect, the testimony of a colour-blind
person, if he has taken due pains to investigate his impressions, and has embraced the
Opportunities open to him for learning the ordinary facts and opinions about colour
452 DR WILLIAM POLE ON THE PRESENT STATE OF
generally, should carry much weight, as he is in a far better position to know what his
own impressions are than any normal-eyed person can be. In my own case it is hardly
presumptuous to say that I must have acquired some notion how to compare the sources
of information. And when I say that my long experience and observation have fully
convinced me that I have no idea whatever of the colour-sensations which the world call
red and green, but that my two ideas of colour correspond to what the world call yellow
and blue, I think my assertion is worthy of attention.
B. Evidence furnished by Direct Comparison with Normal Vision.
But Professor MAXwELu might say, “I admit the truth of your testimony, that your
warm-colour sensation is the same as that given you by objects called yellow; but my
theory says that, owing to the defect of your vision, these objects give you the sensation
of green or red.” To answer this we must turn to the second part of our argument, which
is, that the evidence in favour of yellow and blue, as the true dichromic sensations, does
not rest solely on the testimony of the colour-blind.
When the collision between the testimony and the theory became more known, foreign
physiologists bestirred themselves to get further light thrown on the matter, and, by
industrious research, at length discovered means by which a direct comparison could be
made between the normal and the dichromic sensations. Colour-blind persons could not,
indeed, be made to see normally, but there did seem a possibility that the converse
process might be made available. Could any cases be found where a person, having
experienced normal vision, might assume the vision of a dichromic patient, and so be
able directly to compare the sensations with each other? By industry and perseverance
it was found that this could be effected in several ways.
Dichromic Vision acquired by Disease.
In the practice of oculists, it was found that certain affections of the eye were
attended by irregularities in the vision of colours; and, in 1862, Dr Benepict of Vienna
remarked that many of these cases resembled congenital dichromic vision.
SCHELSKE, in 1865, noted a similar case, which he tested with MaxweE t's colour
discs, proving a perfect dichromatism with the colours yellow and blue, which, of course,
the patient knew well in his healthy state. See further particulars in the “ Data,”
published in vol. xx. of the Proceedings of this Society ; letter A.
It was afterwards found that such cases were often brought on by undue indulgence
in alcoholic stimulants, and by the use of tobacco. In 1878 Professor Nuit of Liége
published a paper called “L’Amblyopie Alcodlique et le Daltonisme,” in which he
described a “ scotome centrale” produced in this way. It showed a temporary change of
the action of a portion of the retina, producing a state corresponding to colour-blindness ;
KNOWLEDGE AND OPINION IN REGARD TO COLOUR-BLINDNESS. 453
in which the red and green sensations had disappeared, while the yellow and blue
sensations remained. ‘Two cases were given, and the conclusions were summed up in the
very positive terms quoted in “ Data,” letter B.
Leper, in 1869, wrote a long article on Anomalies of Colour-Vision by Disease, and
in 1873 a further article, in which he fully recognised their connexion with colour-
blindness, and pointed out the positive sensations of yellow and blue as opposed to the
theoretical assumptions.
Dr Berry also, in his Paper of 1880, on Central Amblyopia, speaks of many cases
where the diseased part imitates congenital colour-blindness.
Von Krigs, 1882, gave a general account of this kind of affection ;—see “ Data,”
letter C. In this green became yellow or grey; red could not be distinguished from
yellow ; all was blue, yellow, or grey. Whenever red failed, green failed also.
UuntHorr, 1887, investigated many cases more elaborately, one of them being
examined by Dr Konic with spectral colours. The results were the same. See “ Data,”
letter D.
All these numerous cases showed an almost perfect analogy with the congenital
dichromic vision ; and in none of them was there any doubt as to the true correspondence
of the two colours with the normal yellow and blue.
Colour-Blindness of One Eye only.
Another mode of checking the testimony of the colour-blind was the discovery that
there were some rare cases of individuals who had normal colour-vision with one eye, and
abnormal with the other. The earliest were mentioned by NreMETscHEK in 1868, and
Wornow in 1871; but these were open to doubt. BrcKkeR substantiated a case in 1879,
butin this the abnormal eye saw only light and shade. See “ Data,” letter E.
At length, in 1880, Von Hippst discovered the case of a young man whose left eye
was perfectly normal, while his right eye had dichromic vision. On comparing the vision
of the two eyes, positive evidence was obtained that the dichromic sensations accurately
corresponded with the normal yellow and blue. Some critical remarks made on it
prompted Von Hipprn to repeat his observations with the greatest care: he showed the
patient the pure spectral yellow and blue, and they, as well as the white, appeared
absolutely alike with both eyes. The neutral line for the dichromic eye was between b
and F, For further details, see ‘‘ Data,” letter F.
Professor HotmeREN also examined this case, and was so impressed with it that he
wrote a Paper on it for the Royal Society of London, which he did me the honour to
ask me to present. It was read at the Society on 13th January 1881, and is published
in their Proceedings, vol. xxxi. p. 302. It was entitled, “ How do the Colour-Blind see
454 DR WILLIAM POLE ON THE PRESENT STATE OF
the different Colours?” and the extracts in “ Data,” letter G, will show how conclusive
the author considered the case.
Another great authority on Colour-Vision, Professor Von Kriss, also thought so
much of this case that he published some remarks on it, noticed in “ Data,” letter H.
It is worthy of mention that both the last-named authorities have been, and still
are, staunch supporters of the Younc-HELMHOLTz theory of colour-vision, and do not
admit that these facts affect its validity ; but they agree that the application of it to
explain dichromatism by the loss of one of the fundamental sensations is no longer
tenable.
Other similar cases were afterwards found and examined by Hotmeren, who gave
a full description of them at the International Medical Congress at Copenhagen in 1884,
when he produced diagrams of the colour-sensations.
In 1890 Professor HERING investigated thoroughly a case of the kind with apparatus
specially prepared for the purpose. The result was precisely similar; the yellow, blue,
and white suffering, in the dichromic eye, no change of hue. See “ Data,” letter. I.
In the same year Dr Hess of Leipsic found a singular case of a young man who
was affected with congenital dichromatism in one-half of the retina of one eye, the effect
being the same. See “ Data,” letter J.
These accumulated proofs furnish, perhaps, the most direct and the strongest evidence
in favour of the yellow and blue.
The Dichromic Zone of the Normal Retina.
But the most remarkable fact regarding the comparison of Dichromic with Normal
vision is, that the opportunity for observing it exists in all normal eyes.
The normal vision does not extend over the whole retina; it is confined to a central
portion of it; round this there is an annular zone, in which the vision is dichromic.
Here, as Hetmuoirz describes it, “the distinction between yellow and blue stands
prominently out, but saturated red appears nearly black, or dark yellow-brown ;—and
leaf-green is a yellowish-white.” (This, it will be at once seen, corresponds perfectly
with dichromic vision.) Round this dichromic zone there is a third space occupying:
the periphery of the retina, where no colours are visible, objects appearing grey,
with only variations of light and shade. (This corresponds with absolute or total
colour-blindness.)
The general fact of this peculiarity has been long known. In 1828 PURKINJE
remarked that certain colours appeared changed in parts of the retina away from the
centre. AUBERT investigated the matter in 1857, and established the general facts
above stated, at the same time noticing the analogy between them and congenitally
defective colour-vision.
ScHELSKE, in 1863, went more into detail, testing the colours with the aid of
KNOWLEDGE AND OPINION IN REGARD TO COLOUR-BLINDNESS. 455
MaxweE v's colour-top; by which he obtained equations precisely corresponding to those
of dichromatism. I have given these in “ Data,” letter K, and reduced them to a
diagram, which may be compared with that of my own vision, in the Phal. Mag.
In 1874 Professor Fick of Wiirzburg treated fully of this subject ; and again, in 1879,
more positively asserted the identity of this portion of the retina with that of the colour-
blind. See “ Data,” letter L.
Professor HoLMGREN remarks, in 1878 (German translation, page 4), on this subject as
follows; and, as he is always quoted as a strong supporter of Youne’s theory, his
opinion is weighty :—
The intermediate zone of the normal field of vision is of very special interest, because it gives
us the opportunity of seeing, with our own eyes, how the red-blind see, and thus of becoming, in the
most direct way, acquainted with their abnormal impressions. We see in this band only yellow and
blue, and convince ourselves that the red-blind not only designate yellow and blue as principal
colours, but also see them in the same way as the normal eye.
He states that he considers this may be accounted for theoretically, and adds :—
The theory drives us to the assumption that the excitation of the green and violet elements
gives rise, under certain circumstances, as with the red-blind, to white, and not to green-blue ;—and
that the excitation of the red and violet elements in certain cases, as with the green-blind, produces
not purple but white. And, according to this, we must also concede that the excitement of the
green element causes the sensation of yellow when the complementary of yellow, «ce. blue, is present.
The excitement of the green organ only calls up the sensation of green on a retina which possesses
the red-sensitive element.
In 1888 Von Krixs devoted a section of his work of that date to a full investigation
of this point. See “ Data,” letter M.
A still more thorough investigation of the same matter has been made within the last
year or two by Dr Huss of Leipsic, a notice of which will be found in “ Data,” letter
N. It will be seen that it amply confirms and establishes the two relevant points in this
section of our inquiry, namely,
1. That in the dichromic zone the only colours which remain permanent and retain
their normal character are two definite and complementary hues of yellow and blue.
All other normal colours change and merge into these.
2. That the normal white remains unchanged in all the zones of the retina.
On the White of Dichromic Vision.
We have now seen that there are three modes by which the dichromic sensations can
be actually and directly compared with the normal ones. In all these the dichromatism
gives every sign of exact correspondence with the congenital form; and in all it is
proved that the two colour-sensations correspond with the normal yellow and blue,
thereby confirming the natural practical testimony of the dichromic patients.
456 DR WILLIAM POLE ON THE PRESENT STATE OF
But there is one point in which the comparison is particularly useful, as the dichromic
patient is unable to formulate any opinion thereon ; that is, the nature of the white that
he sees. He can speak of his two colours as distinguished from white, and he knows
that his white will result from their equilibrated combination ; but how far his white
sensation may resemble or may differ from the normal one, he has no means of
judging.
Here, therefore, the comparisons we have just gone through are most valuable, as they
prove, beyond a doubt, that the white sensation of dichromic vision is essentially the
same as that of the normal-eyed. And this vastly simplifies the consideration of the
dichromic phenomena ; for it shows that the two dichromic colours must be complemen-
tary, not only to the dichromic, but also to the normal eye. This fact is sufficient of
itself to disprove the explanation that one of three fundamental colours is absent, for
the other two cannot be complementary.
That yellows and blues may be complementary within a considerable range is shown
by the following numbers.
Complementary Colours according to Helmholtz.
Wave Length. Wave Length.
Orange, . P : 607'7 and Blue, 5 : . 489:°7
Gold-yellow, . : 585°3 and Blue, 5 : ; 485°4
Gold-yellow, . : : 573°9 and Blue, : : ‘ 4821
Yellow, . ‘ : ‘ 5671 and Indigo-blue,_. : 464°5
Yellow, . : : : 5644 and Indigo-blue,_. : 461°8
Green-yellow, : “ and Violet.
Here is plenty of room for slight variations in both the colours; for although they
may be broadly described as yellow and blue, there is reason to think that their exact
hues vary in different individuals, as will be mentioned hereafter.
Conclusions and Opimons.
Let us now consider the conclusions to be drawn from the whole evidence on this part
of the subject.
In the first place, we have seen that the universal concurrent testimony of the colour-
blind, interpreted by the same rules that would guide normal-eyed people in judging of
each other, is that their two colour-sensations correspond, in every practical sense, with
those which the normal-eyed call yellow and blue.
And secondly, in answer to the suggestion that their real subjective impressions may
be something different from what they take them to be, their testimony is confirmed by a
large accumulation of evidence obtained by direct comparison with the normal phenomena.
sa
KNOWLEDGE AND OPINION IN REGARD TO COLOUR-BLINDNESS. 457
Then, what is there to oppose to all this? What is there to lead to the belief that
the subjective warm sensation is not yellow, but red or green? Absolutely not a fact of
any kind! Nothing but a peculiar inference drawn empirically from a certain theory,
which, though commanding the greatest respect in regard to colour-vision generally, does
not in the least necessitate the form of application to colour-blindness under which this
inference has been drawn.
While the evidence was confined to the statements of the colour-blind, it made but
little impression ; but since it has been so strikingly confirmed by the normal compari-
sons, it has become so cogent that the old explanation may be said to be, on the Continent
at least, generally abandoned. And even the staunch adherents of Youne’s theory
now fully admit the yellow and blue colours, urging that they may be consistently
explained in other ways. In proof of this, the opimions of several authorities, such
as Houmeren, Fick, and Von Krigs, have been already quoted, and a few more may
be added here.
Kuster and Kriss, 1879, said, “It is in nowise proved that the two components
of the colour-blind correspond exactly, or even approximately, to those of the normal-
eyed.
Professor DonpERS, 1881, distinctly and strongly supported the yellow and blue
colours.*
In 1883 Dr Konic, a pupil of HELtmHottrz, published a distinct repudiation of the
old explanation, which he repeated in 1886 in a Paper to the British Association at
Birmingham. See “ Data,” AC.
Other examples might be found, but, as a fit climax to them, it may be mentioned
that Von Hetmuourz himself has, apparently in deference to the overwhelming mass of
evidence, now modified his views, and no longer insists on the applicability of the
original explanation of colour-blindness, which has caused all the difficulty. Further
explanations of his views will be given hereafter.
In the face, therefore, of this general concurrence of opinion on the Continent, where
the subject has been chiefly studied and argued, the occasional adherence, in England,
to the older doctrine, must be considered exceptional, and will doubtless soon give place
to the better established views.
And it must be a great satisfaction to the colour-blind patient to find that, after so
many years of struggling against the refusal of the theorists to receive his testimony, the
simple evidence of his senses has at last been allowed to prevail.
* See abstract of his views given by myself in the Phil. Mag. for November 1892.
VOL. XXXVII, PART II. (NO. 22). 4A
458 DR WILLIAM POLE ON THE PRESENT STATE OF
Jidhik,
THE VARIATIONS IN DICHROMIC VISION.
We now come to consider another point which has been subject to much dispute,
namely, the nature of the variations which are found in yellow and blue dichromic
vision.
SEEBECK was probably the first to point out, in 1837, that the mistakes made by
several persons, all suffering from the malady, presented differences of character. He
tried to reduce them to some general order, and he arranged them, though not very
definitely, in two classes. The first class, he said, had a very defective feeling for red,
and for what necessarily depended thereon, its complementary, green, inasmuch as they
scarcely distinguished these two from grey; but their sense of yellow appeared to be
highly educated. His second class was not much dissimilar from the first ; they also
recognised yellow the best, and distinguished red somewhat better; but they had
generally a weakened sensation for the less refrangible rays. SEEBECK knew nothing
of the dichromic theory, which only arose long afterwards, but he brought out some
points of permanent interest. In the first place, he observed the general recognition of
yellow ; secondly, he noticed variations in the perception of red; and thirdly, he con-
nected these with variations in the green; all peculiarities showing at that time careful
observation.
Some later writers improved on SEEBECK’S ideas by imagining that there were almost
as many varieties of defects as there were individuals affected, so that no classification
was possible ; but the discovery of dichromatism put an end to this notion, and gave a
true scientific basis to the inquiry.
I was, I believe, the first to start on this basis, but I soon found that although the
new principle had swept away the great diversity of symptoms, yet it still admitted of
some minor variations in different individuals. I made some experiments to ascertain
the nature of these, and shall have occasion to discuss them in due course. Meantime, I
may return to the work of others.
The explanation of colour-blindness by the Youne-Hetmuonrz theory of vision
introduced, as already stated on p. 450, the division of dichromic patients into two
classes, called “red-blind” and “ green-blind” respectively, by the assumed absence of
the red or the green fundamental sensation. This classification is sometimes attributed
to SreBeck, but there is no evidence that he had any such idea. His observations, how-
ever, on the variable sensitiveness to red encouraged the distinction, and subsequently
those who showed a diminished sensitiveness to red were called “red-blind,” those who
did not show it were called “ green-blind.”
Now, as we have seen that the old explanation of colour-blindness, on which this
KNOWLEDGE AND OPINION IN REGARD TO COLOUR-BLINDNESS. 459
nomenclature is founded, is abandoned, the classification falls with it, at least so far as
its assigned cause is concerned. But as it is certain that the variability which prompted
the division does actually exist, it is necessary to devote attention to it, and to show how
it has been treated by various writers.
In the first place, it may be useful to inquire how, under the supposed classification,
the difference between red and green blindness was tested and defined? One mode was
suggested by PREyER, 1868, who said, “‘ If anyone who confounds red with green sees the
spectrum clearly shortened at the red end, he is red-blind; if not, he is green-blind.”
But Preyer (p. 322) seems to have decided from my symptoms, as MaxweE.t and
Herscuet did, that I was red-blind, although I see the red end of the spectrum perfectly.
Another kind of test is to ask the patient to select matches to a skein of moderately
bright red wool; and if he is really colour-blind, some of these will probably be green
or brown, or both. ‘Then, if these appear dark to the normal eye, he is said to be red-
blind; if brighter, green-blind. Hetmuourz said “both classes confuse the red hue
with green, but the green-blind choose a yellower green than the red-blind. Konic, 1883,
defined that the so-called “‘ red-blind matched a bright red (Helles Roth) with a dark green
(dunkles Griin), while the so-called green-blind matched a dark red with a bright
green.
But there is nothing in these tests to show blindness to red, or blindness to
green, unless theory had suggested the idea beforehand. What they do show, by
independent interpretation, is a much simpler thing, namely, the existence of variable
degrees of impressibility by rays of certain wave-lengths, as will be fully explained and
illustrated further on.
Professor MaxweLi gave a much more scientific method of determining the
missing colour by means of NewTon’s diagrams. In his Paper of 1860 he drew
(fig. 11) a diagram applicable to a case of dichromic vision examined by him, from which
he inferred that the point D represented “that colour, the absence of which constitutes
the defect of the dichromic eye,” and he said “it agrees pretty well with the colour
which Mr Pots describes as neutral to him, though crimson to others.” I have drawn a
corresponding diagram for my own vision, and find it gives a precisely analogous red
point, D, only rather more tending to purple. According to this, therefore, Mr Maxwett’s
friend and I were both classed as “ red-blind.”
But how is this to be reconciled with the later opinion, a very positive one, not only
of Professor Hotmeren, but of other authorities, that I am “ green-blind”? Am I
to commit the irreverence of saying that Professor MaxwELL was wrong? Far from it.
He appealed to me as giving practical testimony to the correctness of his reasoning, and I
cheerfully renew it now. His diagram does undoubtedly prove that I am red-blind,
exactly as he says. Neither, on the other hand, do I question the correctness of HoLMGREN
and others who pronounced me green-blind: they were right too. The true solution is
that I am blind to both colours.
460 DR WILLIAM POLE ON THE PRESENT STATE OF
MAXwWELL’s diagram proves this, by the very same reasoning that convinced
him I was red-blind. The lne from black to white, representing a streak of
colourless grey, passes not only through the crimson point on the line VU, but also
through a blue-green point on the line UG, and both those points are colourless
to me.
We may now turn to the investigations by other parties on the subject of variations
in dichromic vision, and the opinions they have formed thereon.
Rose, in 1860 and 1865, published somewhat elaborate observations on what he called
Farbenrrsinn, describing it as the “ vision of only one pair of colours complementary to
each other.” He examined carefully 59 patients and found that no two of them
exhibited precisely the same sense of colour, so that no theoretical classification appeared
possible.
Professor HERRMANN CoHN, in 1877, examined 3490 young persons in Government
schools; and 100 of these, being found with defective eyesight, were subjected to
rigorous further tests. A summary of his results is given in “ Data,” letter O, the most
important conclusion being that blindness to red and blindness to green always went
together.
In 1879 Messrs Von Krigs and Kuster published a remarkable series of observations
with the spectrum on the variations in colour-blindness. They noted the quantity of
indigo (F $ G) which had to be mixed with a given quantity of red (C) to neutralise it,
and then determined the quantity of green-neutral (501°5) sufficient to match the
mixture. The results showed variations very wide and irregular.
In 1880 the Ophthalmological Society of Great Britain appointed a Committee to
investigate the subject of colour-blindness. Some extracts from this Report are given in
“Data,” letter P, from which it will be seen that they did not favour the distinction
between red and green blindness.
Professor DonDERS gave much attention to the variations of colour-blindness in his
publications of 1881 and 1884; and some particulars of his results are given in “ Data,”
letter Q. The general result was that the variations tended to form two marked classes,
which he called red-blind and green-blind for convenience, without however giving the
names the theoretical meaning they implied. He considered the difference between
them not one of kind, but only one of degree.
In 1882 M. Van per WeyDg, a pupil and assistant of Donprrs, undertook to investi-
gate the “intensity curves” of colour-blind vision. This mode of expressing the nature
of the vision had been first adopted by Professor MaxwELt in his paper of 1860; his
fig. 9 showing the intensity curves of the warm and cold sensations of one patient whose
vision he investigated. M. Van per WryprE’s object was to do this for two persons
classed as red-blind and green-blind respectively (he himself being one), so that
they might be. compared together. The result was that the curves were very
similar in form, but that the curve for the red-blind was simply transferred a
KNOWLEDGE AND OPINION IN REGARD TO COLOUR-BLINDNESS. 461
little to the right, ze, to wave-lengths about 35 millionths of a millimetre
shorter.
Among the important investigations of Dr Konic was one in 1883 to ascertain
whether there was any real distinction between the two classes, as he considered their
names were no longer justifiable. He had an idea that the position of their neutral
point, separating the two colours, might throw light on this, and examined 13 persons,
6 red- and 7 ereen-blind. Their neutral points varied from w.]. 491°7 to 504°75, but were
so mixed up as to show no sharp division. He afterwards, however, came to the conclusion
that this point was too indistinct and uncertain to form a test, and in 1886 he explained
why it could give no certain indications of the two types.
Professor StrLLine’s work of 1883 is largely devoted to the variations which he
admits abound in dichromic vision, and which he explains simply by variations in
sensitiveness to the red and green rays. See “ Data,” letter R. The book is illustrated
with coloured plates, intended to give an approximate idea of how the spectrum appears
to the colour-blind.
The judgment of Professor HonmmMGREN on the variations in dichromic vision is very
valuable, as he is a strong supporter of Youna’s theory, and particularly as he has devised
the means most frequently adopted for distinguishing the two classes. But, as already
stated on page 455, he does not admit the old application of the théory, and conse-
quently does not consider the ordinary names of “red-blind” and “ green-blind” to have
the meaning that would seem to be attached to them. A clear statement of his views on
this point will be found in “ Data,” letter 8.
The investigations of Konic and Dierericr, in 1886, comprehended a repetition,
‘somewhat more elaborate, of the comparison undertaken by M. Van pER WEyDE on the
intensity curves of the red-blind and green-blind respectively. Some particulars of their
results will be found in “ Data,’ AC. The various determinations of these curves
agree fairly well. The blue curve appears to be the same in both classes; but the yellow
eurve has two positions, which I have represented, in a simplified shape, in a diagram
given in “ Data,” letter T. The left-hand or longer-waved curve is that for the “ green-
blind,” the right-hand or shorter-waved one is that for the “ red-blind;”—and it will
be seen there is a difference of about 30 millionths of a millimetre wave-length in
their positions. That means that the red-blind warm sensation would be excited to a
given degree by waves a little shorter than those required for the green-blind. This
difference of position has an important bearing on the explanation of the phenomena.
I may now say something of my own observations on this point, made in 1858-59,
but first published in the Phil. Mag., July 1892. They consist of several sets of experi-
ments by MaxweE 1's colour-top on cases of colour-blindness, all dichromic, but presenting
a wide extent of variation, the exact nature of which is well exhibited by the admirable
test employed. The actual equations are given; a summary of results is collected in a
table, and diagrams of the two extreme cases are drawn. I have given in “ Data,”
462 DR WILLIAM POLE ON THE PRESENT STATE OF
letter T, a full discussion of the experiments, and it will suffice to present here a sum-
mary of the inferences which may be drawn from them.
1. They present a series of variations exactly of the kind met with in the observations
of dichromic cases, namely, variations of the colour-strength of the impressions made by
the rays belonging to the normal red and green, when compared with the maximum warm
sensation.
2. The two extremes correspond to the two varieties formerly called “ green-blindness ”
and ‘“ red-blindness ;”—my own case being a typical one of the former, Mr Parry’s of
the latter.
3. The others form intermediate gradations between these; and the nature of the
series gives every reason to believe that the different cases vary merely in degree, not in
kind.
4. The variations in the chromic strength of the red rays are accompanied by cor-
responding variations in the chromic strength of the green rays, but in opposite direc-
tions ;—.e., as the strength of the red increases, that of the green decreases, and vice
versa. And the variations of both are only in the luminosity, not in the saturation.
5. These facts are perfectly illustrated by slight variations in the position of the
intensity-curve of the yellow sensation along the line of wave-lengths. It will be seen
that the variations of the red and green ray impressions may be represented by the vary-
ing lengths of the ordinates due to the variable position of the curves. And it is thus
shown that a given sensation may be excited by waves slightly differmg in length for
different individuals ;—or, in other words, that the same wave-length may produce a —
different degree of excitation in different persons.
6. Although the more important and systematic variations occur in the red and the _
ereen rays, the other elements generally show some tendency to irregularity in different
persons.
7. There is no evidence tending to suggest different growps in classification, or any
fundamental differences in the cause.
There is some reason to believe that the difference of position of the yellow curve
may make some change in its colour-sensation. It is generally assumed that the sen-
sation given by a retina-element excitable over a long range, corresponds with that
in the spectrum due to the place of its maximum intensity; but whether there is
sufficient ground for this supposition I do not know. [If this is so, the sensation for the
extreme left, or ‘ green-blind ” (according to Ként@), should be about 575, or pure yellow;
while that of the extreme right, or “ red-blind,” should be 550, or a yellow green.
Then it is possible, and it is generally assumed, that the shifting of the “red-blind”
curve to the right will cause the neutral point, where the yellow curve intersects the
blue one, to be removed nearer to the blue. On this question, also, there is a scarcity of
information, owing to the well-known difficulty of determining exactly where the neutral
point lies. .
M. Van per Weype and Messrs K6nrG and Drererict make the blue curve identical
-_
»
KNOWLEDGE AND OPINION IN REGARD TO COLOUR-BLINDNESS. 463
for all variations of position of the yellow one; and if this is so, another curious question
arises. If the white is normal, and the yellow colour varies, the blue colour, being
complementary, ought to vary also. Possibly a small change in the blue may have been
overlooked, as its extremely low luminosity often interferes with its accurate observation,
and HetmHotrz has shown (p. 318) that considerable variations in the appreciation of
complementaries occur in different individuals. See also “ Data,” W, for similar variability.
At any rate, this matter, though only a slight one, requires further investigation.
Possible Explanation of the Dichromic Variability.
Accepting, therefore, the facts that these variations exist in dichromic vision,
and that the old hypothesis of alternative blindness to red or green is no longer
tenable, we must now consider whether there is any other and better explanation to be
found ?
The most likely place to search for it is in the phenomena of normal vision. Is any-
thing to be found there analogous to these variations,—anything which, mutatis
mutandis, will explain and account for them? I believe that there is, but that the fact
has escaped due attention, in consequence of the ever-depressing influence of pre-
conceived theory.
It is nothing new, generally, that variations occur in normal vision. I had occasion
to say in 1859, on the authority of eminent artists (my old friend THomas Creswick
being one), that there are few people who have a perfect appreciation of colour. And
Professor CLERK MaxwELL, in his Paper of 1860, noticed in several places real differences
in the normal eyes of different individuals, producing constant and measurable differences
in the apparent colour of objects.
But the first person, so far as I know, who has brought this fact out in due pro-
minence is Lord Ray eicu, as he, in 1881, mentions some striking facts in regard to
the visible effects of the red and green rays on different normal-eyed persons. The
extracts from his Paper given in “Data,” letter V, will show the magnitude of the
variations, the difference between the chromic strength of the impressions of red on two
individuals being as much as 2°6 to 1.
In the same year Von Krizs and Frey published a notice of experiments in the same
direction, finding the difference 20 to 50 per cent.
These results were so surprising that the experiments were repeated by one of the
most able observers, Professor Donpsrs, who published the particulars in 1884, confirm-
ing Lord Ray eten’s assertions. See “ Data,” letter X.
The matter was also inquired into by Konte and Drererict, who found variations
having the ratio of 3°25 to 0:71. See “Data,” Y. They plotted the varying intensity
curves, and their results were incorporated in HeLMHoLtTz’s work.
Tn 1885 Herine wrote a long and able article “On Individual Variations in the
Colour-Sense,” in which he produced similar examples. See “ Data,” letter Z.
464 DR WILLIAM POLE ON THE PRESENT STATE OF
In 1890 Professor ScHustER experimented on 72 persons, 67 of whom required (in
converting a unit of a certain green into yellow) proportions of red varying from about
078 to 1°3; but four of the others used only proportions varying from about 0°1 to 0°36,
while the fifth required 2°80.
Some of the observers have tried to explain the physiological cause of these varia-
tions. Von Krirs and Frey, for example, say that the most obvious assumption is,
varying degrees of excitability of the sensitive element, whatever it may be; but they
consider it more probable, that the cause is to be sought for in an absorption by the
pigment of the yellow spot of the retina. HerinG supports the latter view, and has
devoted a large portion of his brochure to an explanation of its action. HELMHOLTZ
doubts the sufficiency of this, but admits that further mvestigation is advisable.
It is beyond my province to discuss these physiological details; but since it is now
established that the human eye, in ordinary normal vision, is subject to such remarkable
variations of impressibility by the red and green rays, it is certainly reasonable to assume
that, although they produce different colour-sensations in the colour-blind, these same rays
should still produce variable intensities of impressions upon them. We have seen how
slight variations in the relations between the wave-leneths, and the excitation, will pro-
duce the dichromic variations ; and as we now know that large variations of precisely the
same kind are common in normal vision, the special difficulty of accounting for them, m
colour-blindness, disappears.
rye
FURTHER GENERAL STATEMENTS AND OPINIONS.
I have now endeavoured to elucidate the most important specific questions connected
with the Phenomena of Dichromic Vision ; but there are other matters of a more general
character, which have formed, from time to time, subjects of discussion, and which
it is desirable to mention, in order to show the views held by competent authorities
thereon.
It is not to be expected that, considering the difficult and controverted nature of the
subject, we should find entire unanimity in the existing views ; but we shall be able to
trace that there has been a gradual progress towards agreement, as knowledge of the
facts has extended ; we can form an intelligent comparison between differing opinions ;
and we may discover cases where the advance of knowledge has set aside hypotheses
or assumptions which formerly appeared reasonable and attractive.
For the matters treated of here, it will be convenient to take the various writers im
chronological order,
KNOWLEDGE AND OPINION IN REGARD TO COLOUR-BLINDNESS. 465
Rose, 1860 and 1865.
The dissatisfaction with the explanation of colour-blindness on Youne’s plan began
early. The first to express it prominently was Epmunp Ross, who, after the careful
examination of a large number of patients, pronounced the theory irreconcilable with the
facts observed.
HELMHOLTZ, in an Appendix to the first edition of his work (1867), noticed Rosr’s
experiments, which, however, he considered ‘“ altogether insufficient to shake the validity
of Younc’s theory,” but he admitted (p. 848) that, “in the case of congenital colour-
blindness, it might well be imagined that the activity of the nerve fibres might not be
removed, but that the intensity curves of the three kinds of light-sensitive elements
might change, whereby a much greater variability in the effect of objective colours on the
eye might arise.”
This was clearly a new idea; but the first person to give it a practical form was
Mr Joun Airxen, F.R.S., of Falkirk, who in a paper on Colour Sensation, read before
the Scottish Society of Arts, 9th July 1872, suggested that “the nerves might be so
constructed that the red nerves might be sensitive to all the rays to which the green
nerves are sensitive, and the green nerves sensitive to all the rays to which the red
herves are sensitive ;’—so that, both nerves being excited by either red or green rays,
“the sensation produced would be what we call yellow.”
Leber, 18738.
A reproduction of this suggestion was (probably quite independently) published
immediately afterwards in an article by Dr Tu. Luser, “On the Theory of Colour-
Blindness, and on the manner in which certain objections to the Younc-HELMHoLTz
theory, which have arisen from the examination of colour-blind persons, may be
reconciled with it.”
He noticed the difficulty raised by Rosz and others, that the warm colour seen by
the colour-blind was not green but yellow; and he suggested that this difficulty was
merely due to a misapplication of Youne’s theory. It was a mistake, he said, to suppose
that one of the three sets of sensitive fibres had fallen out of use; he preferred to assume
that they were all three still active, but that their degrees of excitability for certain
wave-leneths had become changed. He remarked that the sense of yellow arises from
the equal excitement of the red and the green; and the simpler explanation was, that
the appearance of yellow in the dichromic spectrum might be caused by the excitement
of the red and green fibres being equally strong.
Although Leper was not the originator of this explanation, he was the first to give it
_ prominence in the discussion of colour-blindness, and it usually bears his name.
VOL. XXXVII. PART II. (NO. 22). 4B
466 DR WILLIAM POLE ON THE PRESENT STATE OF
Fick, 1874 and 1879.
This new explanation was taken up by Professor A. Fick of Wiirzburg, who
brought further arguments to show the inapplicability of the ordinary theory, and the
preferable nature of the new one. See “ Data,” AA.
Hering, 1880.
But this solution of the difficulty was not universally approved ; and in 1880 Professor
Ewap Herine of Prague brought out a new explanation of colour-blindness in an article
entitled ‘‘ Zur Erklirung der Farbenblindheit aus der Theorie der Gegenfarben.” He had,
in 1878, published a new theory of colour-vision generally, and he now showed how this
might be applied to dichromic vision.* His general colour-theory involved physiological
points of considerable novelty, but the part applicable to the present matter is exceed-
ingly simple.
Hertine retains certain hues of red, green, and blue as fundamental colour-sensations,
but he adds a fourth—yellow. In adopting this combination, he lays the chief stress
on the fact that, in the hues he chooses, the four colours mentioned form two comple-
mentary pairs, yellow with blue, and red with green; and he interprets this feature as
giving the two colours of each pair a kind of antagonism to each other. His yellow and
blue, for example, cannot both be seen in the same mixture, one destroying the other;
and the same with his red and green. For this reason he names the two colours of
either pair “‘ Gegenfarben,” or antagonistic colours.
The application of this to the explanation of dichromic vision is obvious at once,—
in normal vision both pairs are in action ; in dichromic vision there is only one pair, gene-
rally the yellow and blue.
Herine adds another pair of special sensations, namely, white and black, which he
considers play a necessary part in both normal and dichromic vision. He has believed
from the first that all the spectral colours contain a large mixture of white, an opinion
now supported by recent investigations.
The hues of Herine’s four fundamental colours have been fixed since he wrote his
Paper, the yellow about w.1. 575, and the blue its complement, about 483. The red and
green are the hues invisible to the colour-blind, z.e., the green between b and F, and a
non-spectral crimson or purple complementary to it.
Krenchel, 1880.
Dr W. Krencuet of Copenhagen wrote an able article arguing that, the theories
of colour-blindness were unnecessary: they were no help to the understanding of the
* I have published an account of Herrne’s General Colour-Theory in Nature for 1879; and an abstract of his
subsequent Colour-Blindness Essay in the Phil. Mag. for August 1893. See also Note on page 477 of this article,
KNOWLEDGE AND OPINION IN REGARD TO COLOUR-BLINDNESS. 467
facts, but rather stumbling-blocks in the way. Some of his remarks are quoted in
“Data,” AB.
Dr Berry.
KRENCHEL’S view has been adopted and amplified by Dr G. A. Berry of Edinburgh,
who published, in 1879 and 1891, some remarks showing intimate personal acquaintance
with both the literature and the facts of the subject. In regard to the facts, his testimony
entirely corresponds with those deduced in this paper. In regard to the application of
theories, the following extracts will give his chief opinions.
It must be admitted, I think, that the idea of fundamental colours has rather impeded than
advanced our knowledge of the phenomena and nature of colour-blindness. The numerous and
laborious examinations that have been made, with the object of detecting and classifying cases of
colour-blindness, have been conducted mainly by those who have tried to reconcile the results
obtained with one or other of the current hypotheses.
The author shows why the Hrrine theory, as a mode of explaining the facts, is much
preferable to that of the three fundamental colours ; but he says—
The question rather which suggests itself is—Is there any good reason for assuming that there
are any fundamental colour-sensations at all? .... One can readily understand that the fact
that it is possible to obtain all colours from three or more colours variously combined, taken along with
the doctrine of specific nerve energies of JOHANNES MULLER, should create a strong leaning towards
the fundamental hypotheses. Apart, however, from this, there does not appear to be any reason for
making such an assumption ; there is, in fact, no evidence of the existence of primary colours, either
in the physical bases or final consciousness of colours; in other words, in all we know anything
about.
I forbear to do more than just indicate Dr Brerry’s views, hoping he may himself
publish, further, his detailed opinions.
Von Kvries.
This author may be mentioned here as having stated a new theory which endeavoured
to unite the chief points of the two rival hypotheses, and which raised a lively discussion.
It assumed, as a sine qua non, yellow and blue for the dichromie colours.
Donders, 1879 to 1884.
I have already had occasion to mention several special observations of this eminent
authority, but I have endeavoured to give an account of his more general views in the
Philosophical Magazine of November 1892.* From this we may gather the following
inferences.
* In DonpeErs’s writings he laid some stress on my case ; and I hope I may be pardoned for quoting the following
passage from one of his letters to me, dated 15th March 1881 :—“I was very happy to mention your case as the model
case; I mean, your description as the model description, even for the present time. It is indeed admirable, and I
understand now perfectly why it was appreciated so highly by Sir Joan Hurscuet.”
468 DR WILLIAM POLE ON THE PRESENT STATE OF
Donvers, though a strong adherent of the Younc-HELMHOLTZ three-sensation theory,
did not admit that the vision of the colour-blind was formed by the simple absence of one
of the three colours. He held their white to be the same as the normal white, and their
two visible hues to be yellow, inclining to red or green, and the complementary modifica-
tions of blue.
He considered dichromic vision an independent phenomenon, being a step in the
evolution of the colour-sense, antecedent to the present system. He was led to this by
the remarkable variations in the colour-perception of the normal retina. He suggested —
that, formerly, the whole retina had colourless vision as its anterior zone has now; that
afterwards an improved state was developed, with two colour-sensations, which gradually
extended throughout its greater part; then came a still further improvement by the
addition of other colour-sensations, extending to a smaller area in the pole or centre,
and forming normal vision. Then, according to the well-known phenomena of atavism,
we find some individuals reverting to the second stage,—the dichromic patients ; and a still
smaller number to the first stage,—the totally colour-blind.
DonveErs considered he could trace, in the retina, vestiges of several evolutionary
steps, somewhat as follows :—
1. Sensations of light and shade only.
2. Dichromic imperfect vision (called red-blindness, with short spectrum and low
sensitiveness to the long-waved rays).
3. Dichromic perfect vision (called green-blindness, with full length of spectrum and
full sensitiveness to the long-waved rays). |
4. Imperfect normal vision (as mentioned by Lord RayLeicH), with low sensitiveness |
to certain colours. > |
5. Perfect normal vision.
Whether there may be any arguments from history, or philology, in support of this
evolution-idea, is a curious question. Many years earlier Professor CLERK MAXWELL
(Letter to Monro, 15th March 1871) made the following significant remark— I am not
up in ancient colours, but my recollection of the interpretations of the lexicographers is
of considerable confusion of hues between red and yellow. Q. If this is true, has the
red sensation become better developed since those days?”
Mr GLapstonk, some seven years afterwards, called attention to the peculiar colour-
terms used by the Greeks, which I found gave a distinct idea of colour-blindness.* The
matter is worthy of further attention.
Kong and Deterier.
A brief account of some important investigations undertaken about 1886 by these
physicists, under the patronage of Hrnmuoirz, is given in “Data,” AC. Dr
* See my remarks on the subject in Nature, 1878.
KNOWLEDGE AND OPINION IN REGARD TO COLOUR-BLINDNESS. 469
K6n1e opposed the ancient trichromic explanation of colour-blindness, preferring the
newer hypothesis of LeBer; but he joined Dr DieTerici in an endeavour to test the
applicability of the older system to various modifications of colour-vision, including
the dichromic. They analysed the various spectra, and drew the corresponding sensation-
eurves. They then endeavoured, by laborious and complicated calculations, to discover
the fundamental colour-sensations applicable to them, and they decided on three, viz.:—
A red, inclining more to purple than the extreme end of the spectrum ;
A green, of w. 1. about 505; and
A blue, of w.1. about 470.
All these corresponded nearly with three of HErine’s fundamental colours, his fourth
one being the yellow complementary to the blue.
There were, however, some difficulties in this choice of the fundamentals, and a few
years later HetmHoutz himself took the question in hand by elaborate calculations, and
showed that the problem, as they had put it, was insoluble.
Groller, 1888.
In later years, investigators have turned attention to the argument of KRENCHEL,
that there is no indication of any natural peculiarity which gives any preference to
one or more colours over others, so as to point to them as specially distinguished. There
is certainly the extreme predominant brightness and luminosity of yellow, and the fact
that, under increasing heat, other warm colours tend towards it; but this does not seem
to be considered important by the advocates of Youne’s theory, who have so long ignored
it altogether, except as a subsidiary compound of red and green.
Professor GOLLER, admitting without hesitation the yellow and blue dichromic
colours, has remarked that a certain degree of what he calls Urspriinglichkeit, 1.¢., a
character of originality, seems to attach to them, as their sensations seem more permanent
and more delicately constituted for the appreciation of their finer nuances. He finds,
for example, the sensitiveness of the eye for them, as expressed by the smallness of the
fraction of appreciation of differences of hue, quite remarkable. The eye can, he says,
distineuish in yellow a difference of ‘ Helligkeit” of -4,, and for blue 4, ; whereas for
red the fraction is ;4,;, for green 45, and for violet ;1,. He thinks he finds evidence
in favour of Donpmrs’s idea that yellow and blue were the original colours of the
spectrum, and have been extended by later evolution in both directions. The element
of distinctness of nuance has since been used with great ability by HELMHOLTz in another
way.
Hillebrand, 1889.
An elaborate essay by this author on the difficult subject of the connexion between
colour and luminosity, is also briefly noticed in “Data,” AD.
470 DR WILLIAM POLE ON THE PRESENT STATE OF
Professor Rutherford, 1892.
I need only allude to the address by Professor RurHERFoRD ;—it will be fresh in the
recollection of all interested in this subject, and it is to be hoped he will supplement it
by some further communications.
Professor Von Helmholtz, 1892.
I have reserved to the last a most important part of my work, 7.e., a notice of the
latest published views of the philosopher who must, I suppose, be considered the highest
living authority on this matter.
The part of HeLMHoxtz’s great work, Handbuch der Physiologischen Optik, containing
the subject of colour-vision, originally appeared in 1860, but a new and revised edition is
now publishing ; and it is a matter of great interest to see what alteration the march of
scientific investigation has led him to make in his views. I have endeavoured to institute,
in the Phil. Mag. of Jan. 1893, a careful comparison between the two editions, and, as
the alterations are material, I will give a summary here of how they affect our know-
ledge.
I do not find that HELMHOoLTz, even in his first edition, has given any countenance to
the vexatious and pertinacious opposition offered by his followers to the assertions of the
colour-blind, that their warm colour appeared to correspond with the normal yellow, for
in the very outset of his descriptions he mentions this fact in several ways, and accom-
panies it with a demonstration that ‘for an eye which confuses red with green, all hues
seen may be compounded of yellow and blue.” I believe his objection was strictly of _
the same nature as that of Maxwet1, described in page 449. At the same time, as he
undoubtedly promulgated the popular idea that dichromic vision was, according to YOuNG’Ss
theory, due to the inaction of one of the three colour-perceiving elements, and the
activity of the two others; and as this is the point which has been so much contested, it
becomes most important to inquire what attitude the great philosopher has taken in regard
to it in his latest publication.
The first thing we notice is a short but very significant new passage in which we find
he speaks of the above-mentioned theory as an “old attempt to explain colour-blindness,”
contrasting it with a more recent one; he speaks of the explanation of colour-blindness
as an “enigma,” and adds that it has lately become probable that its solution is to be
sought in another direction. From this we are bound to infer that he no longer insists
on his former mode of explanation; and this inference is confirmed by many subsequent
passages in the same strain.
The new method of explanation, we may say at once, is pointed out to be that —
originated by himself, and afterwards expounded by Lepur, Fick, and Konra, as de-
scribed ante, pages 465, 466, and 469, namely, the combination of the two fundamental
sensations, red and green, to form yellow.
KNOWLEDGE AND OPINION IN REGARD TO COLOUR-BLINDNESS. 471
The most important feature in the second edition is an entirely new determination of
the three fundamental colour-sensations, by a method never adopted before, dependent on
complicated relations of colour and luminosity. He takes advantage of the elaborate
series of experiments on vision made shortly before by Konig and Dretericr; and by high
mathematical processes of calculation, he determines not only the hue, but also the
intensity of these sensations, which, according to the principles he follows, he believes to
be fundamental. In hue they are— |
1. A Red, rather more purple than the red end of the spectrum.
2. A Yellow-Green, about w. 1. 560, something like the green of vegetation.
3. A Blue, about 482, like ultramarine.
The red and the blue are stated to correspond with those chosen by Herine, the former
also being the colour that I in 1856 had pointed out as the variety of red invisible to me.
The strength of the fundamental colours is stated to be very much greater than any
in the spectrum, the latter bemg not only much mixed, but very largely diluted with |
white. It has often been suspected, and indeed confidently asserted by HeErine, that
the spectral colours had peculiarities of this kind.
The fundamental colours thus determined by HeLmuotrz differ materially from those
previously found by Konie and Diererici, who had used the same observations as their
foundation. They had arrived at pretty nearly the same hues of red and blue, but their
third fundamental, green, was nothing like that of Hetmuouirz; and the intensities were
very different in all. Hetmnoitz takes some pains to explain and comment on this
discrepancy, and in doing so he discloses most unequivocally his change of view in regard
to the “older” explanation of dichromatism. He finds that the discrepant results of his
predecessors are due entirely to their attempt to apply the old assumption, and to make
their fundamentals conform thereto. And, though he gives a good excuse for their
attempt, he leaves no doubt that it has vitiated their labours, leading, indeed, to conse-
quences which are irrational and inapplicable. This statement completes and emphasizes
the abandonment, by Hetmuotrz, of the older explanation of dichromatism, which he in
so many other places now speaks of as antiquated and superseded.
Students of colour-vision must be heartily grateful to Professor Von HeLmuHo.rz for
this decision. When the original explanation of the defect was first proposed, knowledge
was scanty, and the ingenious hypothesis, originating with YounG and advocated by such
men as HELMHOLTZ and CLERK MaxweELL, was freely received; but, as observations
became multiplied, the accumulation of adverse facts gradually changed the opinion,
and the explanation may be said now to have been long generally discredited on the
Continent. The continued adherence to it, by a small minority, has undoubtedly been an
evil, as it has often blocked up the way to reasonable and useful inquiry, and has tended
to bring into disrepute the admirable theory it was intended to support. But its present
renunciation by HELMHOLTZ cannot, one would hope, fail to give it its death-blow.
Requescat in pace !
HeELmxo.rz, wishing to do his work thoroughly, goes on to show that a new rationale
472 DR WILLIAM POLE ON THE PRESENT STATE OF
of the existence of dichromatism may be found, in which it is no longer necessary that
one of the fundamental colours should be missing. He argues that it is consistent with
Youna’s theory that the three colour-sensations may still remain in force, but that the
two dichromic colours may be formed from them, 7.c., may be compound colours. This
would be quite consistent with the union of the red and green forming one of the sensa-
tions, while the blue remained alone for the other. And it would also account for the
light being normal white, and for the two colours bemg complementary.
In the course of Von HetmuHottz’s description of his new theory, he takes occasion to
point out that it does not admit of the former division of the colour-blind into two
sharply-defined classes, which indeed, he says, does not seem to be entirely confirmed by
observation. This decision strengthens his former verdict on the “ old” explanation, by
removing another troublesome theoretical stumbling-block out of the way.
Putting together the whole of the new views that are to be traced in HELMHOLTZz’s
second edition, we may, [ think, fairly formulate his present opinions as follows :—
1. That the original mode of explanation of colour-blindness by Youne’s theory is
essentially withdrawn, as no longer consistent with modern knowledge. The universally
concurrent testimony that the ordinary colour impressions of dichromic vision correspond
generally with the normal yellow, blue, and white, is no longer disputed. And although
there are variations of sensation in regard to red and green, the old ideas of blindness to
red and to green, as separate and contrasting defects, are abandoned.
2. That Youne’s general theory of three fundamental colour-sensations is still
adhered to, but that the colours are now believed to differ considerably from those im
the spectrum.
3. That dichromic vision may exist consistently with the retention of all three
fundamentals.
That these views of an authority so eminent must exert a great and_ beneficial
influence on the general state of opinion regarding colour-blindness is, I should think,
indisputable.
Vi:
SUMMARY OF CONCLUSIONS.
Let us now try to sum up the present state of our knowledge of the phenomena of
red-green blindness, according to the facts proved by the best investigations, and the
interpretation of them by the best authorities.
1, In the first place, we are happily freed from the long-standing incubus of the
“old” explanation that dichromic vision is due to the absence of one of Youne’s three
fundamental colour-sensations, and the active presence of the other two.
KNOWLEDGE AND OPINION IN REGARD TO COLOUR-BLINDNESS. 473
2. The great body of evidence (now uncontradicted by any theoretical considerations)
leads to the belief that the white sensation of dichromic vision corresponds to that of
normal vision ;—from which it must follow that the two dichromic colours are comple-
mentary, not only to the dichromic, but also to the normal eye.
3, The same evidence also tells us that the two colour-sensations correspond generally
with those of the normal yellow and blue.
4, The dichromic solar spectrum consists of four divisions, which may be thus
described, beginning from the left hand, or long-waved end :—
(a) Consists of the yellow colour in its full saturation, but beginning very obscure,
and gradually increasing to a maximum luminosity near the line D.
(b) The yellow colour then diminishes both in luminosity and saturation to a point
between b and F, called the neutral point, where the sensation becomes
colourless,
(c) To the right of this point the blue colour begins, and increases gradually in
saturation and luminosity to a maximum of both, between F and G.
(d) From this point the blue colour, still retaining its maximum saturation,
diminishes gradually in luminosity till it vanishes at the right-hand extremity
of the spectrum. |
These appearances may be explained either by intersecting yellow and blue sensation
curves (see Phil. Mag., July 1892), or by HErine’s system of a single sensation element,
with plus and minus action, and with a separate addition of white light near the neutral.
5. The neutral point, which divides the two colours, is at a place which to the normal
eye is a powerful blue-green. The complement to this, to the normal eye, is a strong
purple-red hue, which is not in the spectrum, but lies among the hues necessary to connect
the two ends, and so complete the colour-circle. These two colours, being to the normal
eye complementary varieties of red and green, are invisible as colours to dichromic
vision.
6. Dichromic patients were formerly divided into two classes,—one class assumed to
be blind to the normal sensation called red; the other, blind to the normal sensation
called green. This distinction is now disproved; the patients being blind to both
sensations.
7. There are, however, some considerable variations, in different patients, of the kind
described in Part III. But as it is now abundantly proved that variations of precisely
the same nature, and even to a larger extent, prevail in normal vision, their occurrence
also in dichromie vision becomes a natural sequel, requiring no special consideration.
8. The only phenomena of dichromic vision undetermined are some points of detail
in regard to these variations. One would like to know, for example, the exact nature of
the connexion between the variations of the red and the green impressions; and how
these variations influence the exact hues of the warm and cold colours, and the exact
positions of the two neutral points in the green and the red. These doubtful matters may
VOL, XXXVII. PART II. (No. 22). 4c
474 DR WILLIAM POLE ON THE PRESENT STATE OF
probably be soon settled by observation, now that the depressing influence of erroneous
theory is removed.
9. Although the dichromic patient sees only two hues, he receives a great variety of
colour-impressions therefrom, arising from differences in their saturation or luminosity, or
both; and these, under the special sensitiveness derived from constant experience, largely
counteract his defect in regard to colour, in judging of the different appearances of objects
around him.
10. Although it is no part of the object of this paper to discuss colour-vision
generally, or the theories proposed to explain it, yet I may briefly mention some
aspects which the phenomena, as now understood, would seem to bear towards points
connected with these theories.
The most salient fact in dichromic vision is its remarkably simple and symmetrical
character, consisting of one pair of complementary colours, with gradations of nuance
perfectly symmetrically disposed. This is shown to some extent in the picture of the
spectrum, but it becomes more evident in the circular diagram designed by Newton,
and explained in Hertmuoutz’s work, page 825. Donprrs perfected this in a
beautiful picture which he showed at Cambridge in 1881. He completed the
naturally re-entering circle, and so arranged the colours (giving about 100 inter- |
mediate varieties of hue) that the complementaries should be diametrically opposite each —
other. The sketch in the Plate, fig. 4, may give a faint idea of the arrangement, without
pretending to accuracy, which even DonprErs himself found it very difficult to attain. s.
Fig. 5 is similarly constructed, but adapted to the dichromic spectrum. In this the pair 5
of visible colours are shown with their maxima diametrically opposite ; and from these :
two points they become modified, in one direction by darkening only, in the other ‘by -
darkening combined with dilution, till, at the top and bottom, the colours meet, an
become lost in neutral points. And these two neutral points, also diametrically opposit
each other, correspond to the other pair of complementary colours, the purple-red
blue-green, which, though most prominent colours to the normal-eyed, are invisible as
colours to the colour-blind. It will be at once seen what a remarkable symmetry this
structure presents, and how greatly the regular arrangement of the dichromic series of
colour impressions differs from the irregular structure of the normal series in the e adja
figure.
And, as having some connexion with this greater simplicity of the dichromic arrange-
ment, it would seem that Donpers’s idea of the evolution of colour-vision, is worthy of
more attention than it has yet received. -
In the interior of fig. 4 are shown the approximate hues of the “fundamental sensa-
tions,” as determined by the three authorities who have devoted most attention to
them—Herine, Konic, and Hetmuotrz. It will be seen that Herine’s are symmetrically
placed on the diameters crossing at right angles ; Kénte’s coincided with three of these;
but Hetmuortz found fault with K6nia’s green, and removed it nearer the yellow
keeping the other two as they were.
a
.
KNOWLEDGE AND OPINION IN REGARD TO COLOUR-BLINDNESS, 475
Comparing the fundamentals determined scientifically with the natural impressions of
simple colour, we find that the yellow and blue correspond fairly well. FRavuNHOFER, in
1814, placed the yellow at about w.1. 570. Donpers, after obtaining the impressions of
111 eyes, belonging to 76 persons, arrived at a mean, for pure yellow, of w.l. 582.
CHEVREUL placed it at D4 EH, about 581°5; and he placed the blue on F=486. These
agree fairly with the fundamentals of Herine and Hetmuoirz. But the greens are all
discordant ; the natural idea of green is, I believe, about 520 to 530; CHEVREUL puts it
as 522; while Herine and Konia make their fundamentals a blue-green near 500, and
Hetmaoitz makes his a very yellow-green about 560. Red also does not agree; the
natural idea of red is at or near the end of the spectrum, CHEVREUL putting it at the
lithium line=670. But Herinc, Konic, and Hetmuottz all now choose the extra-
spectral purple-red, which I, from my own vision, first suspected to have some peculiar
significance. As for violet, in spite of the strong early feeling in its favour, no one ever
thinks of putting a fundamental there now.
The new theory of dichromic vision lately brought out by HEtmuoxrz admits that
any arrangement of colours, properly derived from his fundamentals, may consistently form
the two dichromic hues; but it does not help us to understand why, with trichromic
fundamentals, the particular selection of yellow and blue should be almost exclusively
found. To get this, we are apparently driven to the Leper hypothesis of the amalgama-
tion of the red and green elements into one; but this does not much advance the matter,
for no reason has yet been offered for the prevalence of this amalgamation. In
fact, notwithstanding the attractiveness of Youna’s idea of the minimum number of
possible elements, the number three does not seem easy to harmonise with the natural
binary or quaternary arrangement which makes itself so prominent in dichromic vision.
There can be no doubt that the tetrachromic hypothesis of the two complementary
pairs seems to correspond most nearly with the actual phenomena; and the peculiar
natural prominence of these two pairs which has been found to exist in the normal retina
(see “ Data,” N), is very suggestive in this connexion. It is curious, also, that in the
latest investigations, the trichromic authorities have made their fundamentals so much
like the hues of the tetrachromic. Surely this looks like a prospect of approximation.
It must be recollected that the tetrachromic theory has been bound up with peculiar
physiological views, which, though highly ingenious, have not found so wide an assent as
the simple explanation of Dichromatism connected with them. Cannot the latter be
accepted as a “working hypothesis” till further investigation shall reveal the deeper
secrets of the colour-sense ?
_ But these are theoretical speculations, which I must not further enlarge upon. The
Jacis are clear enough, and so I must return to my original object; and I cannot avoid
drawing from the whole of the evidence the conclusion that the general phenomena of
- dichromic vision are now, according to the best knowledge we can obtain, no longer sub-
ject to any mystery or obscurity other than what attends those of colour-vision generally.
476 DR WILLIAM POLE ON THE PRESENT STATE OF
NOTES.
On the alleged Danger with Coloured Railway-Signals.
I have hitherto avoided mentioning this much agitated question, because it is really a
consideration more for common-sense than for science. If colours must be used as signals,
surely it should not require elaborate treatises or extensive investigations to convince us
that the men who have to distinguish them should be able to judge of colours properly.
At the same time, there are a few points on which light may be thrown by a know-
ledge of the true phenomena. One is the explanation of the remarkable fact, that
although there must have been multitudes of colour-blind railway-servants, yet, during
the whole time railways have been in existence, no accident has ever been shown to arise
from mistaking the signal-lamp colours. We know now that although these men may
have had no idea whatever of the two normal sensations called red and green, yet the
two signal-lights may have presented to them other features of contrast, sufficiently
obvious to guide them in the distinction.
I had once a striking illustration of this fact when attending an examination of
engine-drivers. Noticing one man who had shown himself, by the ordinary tests, hope-
lessly colour-blind, but who seemed otherwise intelligent and capable, I asked leave to
put a few questions to him; and, taking samples of actual red and green signal-glasses, I
said—
Q. (Holding the glasses to a light in the dark room) Here are two coloured glasses,—we won't
trouble ourselves about their names. Do they appear to you alike or different ?
A. Quite different.
Q. Can you distinguish one from the other, and can you recollect them ?
A. Yes.
Q. I will call this A, and the other Z. Can you remember this distinction ?
A, Yes.
I then tried him, by exhibiting them many times singly or together, and asking
which they were? He always answered correctly and promptly except once—as he
explained, by an accidental inadvertence, and not from any doubt. Indeed, he seemed to
consider (as I myself should have done) that the idea of their appearing similar was a
very foolish one.
But as there is no certainty that such a distinction should always exist, the fact ougll
not to militate against the systematic exclusion of colour-blind men, as a matter of
reasonable precaution.
There are many effectual ways of doing all that is essential in testing the vision ; fot
where red-green blindness really exists, it is so patent that it must show itself on the
simplest intelligent examination. But, unfortunately, the old theoretical obstinacy has
intruded itself here to make the process difficult and troublesome; for HoLMGREN has much
KNOWLEDGE AND OPINION IN REGARD TO COLOUR-BLINDNESS. 477.
complicated his excellent wool-testing arrangements by introducing devices for dis-
covering whether the patient is “red-blind” or “ green-blind,”—a distinction which he
himself now candidly repudiates.
I therefore agree with the opinion of the Ophthalmological Society of Great Britain
(see “ Data,” letter P) that, for practical purposes, the testing should be limited to simply
ascertaining the existence of the defect ;—if any further special investigation of its nature
is desired, it should be undertaken by scientific experts, who will know, or at least ought
to know, the proper mode of conducting the inquiry.
On the Law of Heredity of Colour-Blindness.
An authoritative statement has lately been published in England, that colour-
blindness descends from father to son; but this is at variance with the recorded facts
and opinions. The true law of heredity, as settled chiefly by continental investigations,
is, with occasional exceptions, that the affection is transmitted by a male sufferer not to
or through his sons, but to his grandsons through a daughter, who, however, is free from
it herself ; so skipping over one generation. DoNnpDERS mentions this as ‘“‘ the unanimous
testimony of experts.”
In my own case I can testify that neither my father nor my mother had any such
defect, nor have any of my children, or my sons’ children. In a case examined by me
(see Phil, Mag., July 1892, p. 102), similar partial corroboration is given.
But I am able to add a full and striking confirmation of the law from English experi-
ence. Some years ago I was favoured by a voluntary communication from a gentleman,
who, although he knew nothing of the law in question, had nevertheless deduced it
quite independently from the records of five generations of his family, And as this isa
most circumstantial and interesting statement, I have obtaimed the permission of the
writer to publish his letter in the “ Data,” AF, There are objections to giving the
names, but the family stand high in reputation ; and my informant has evidently taken
much pains in the collection of the facts.
Tt will be seen that they fully bear out the established rule.
Early Indications of the Tetrachromic Theory.
Although Professor Hrrine, as stated on p. 466, has undoubtedly the merit of
originating the present interest in the tetrachromic explanation of colour-blindness, it is
worth mentioning that the idea of four fundamental colours, as contrasting with the
trichromic combination, adopted by Youne, had existed previously.
The four colours, red, green, blue, and yellow, were selected, with white and black,
as “simple colours” by Leonarpo pa Viner. In his Trattato di Pittwra, written about
A.D. 1500, he not only carefully describes how objects should be coloured, but he gives
478 DR WILLIAM POLE ON THE PRESENT STATE OF
elaborate directions about mixing the colours, which he says may be done in an infinity
of ways. And in chap. clxi. he states clearly what he considers the ‘‘ simple colours” to
be. His words are :—
Dei semplici colori il primo é il bianco, benché i filosofi non amettano ne il bianco ne il nero nel
numero de’ colori, perché uno é causa de’ colori, altro é privatione. Ma perche il pittore non pud
far senza questi, noi li metteremo nel numero degl’altri; e diremo il bianco in questo ordine essere il
primo ne’ semplici;—il giallo il secundo ; il verde il terzo; V’azzurro il quarto; il rosso il quinto; il
nero il sesto (Paris edition, 1651).
It is also curious, that in the earliest investigation of my own case, the idea of four
primary colours spontaneously occurred to me as suggested by my colour impressions.
In my original paper, presented to the Royal Society in 1856, I inserted a note as
follows :—
It occurs to me that if HELMHOLTz’s new doctrine is correct, that blue and yellow combined
properly make white (their production of green being only accidental), it would be possible to
explain colour-blindness on the hypothesis that normal light was composed of fowr primary colours,
arranged in two complementary pairs, namely, blue and yellow, red and green, the last pair being
both invisible to the colour-blind. On this view, our light would be white, the same as to the normal-
eyed. I do not pretend to judge, however, whether such a theory would bear investigation.
At the end of the Report on this Paper made to the Royal Society by Sir Joun
HerscHet, he wrote the following remarks on the above passage :—
On reperusing Mr Poue’s paper, a note on p. 79, which had escaped my attention on the first
reading, attracted my notice. It appears that the composition of white by blue and yellow, together
with the idea of a tetrachromatism in the formation of our colour-scale,* has been suggested by M.
HELMHOLTZ. I have not met with any other account of his researches, and am consequently unable
to say on what grounds this speculation rests; but I presume that they must be of a nature similar
to those adduced above.
Prismatic red and green do not make white, however, but yellow; so that Mr Poxz’s explana-
tion of colour-blindness, in this note, which proceeds on the supposition that they make white, is
inapplicable.
In deference to this opinion, not feeling emboldened to assert (as I now know I might —
have done) that the hues of red and green invisible to me did make white, I altered the
statement, when the paper was printed in 1859, to the form that will be found there,
paragraph 17. ‘
I think the fact of the tetrachromic idea having suggested itself to a colour-blind
person, as a necessity for explaining his own case, ought to count for something in its
favour.
And it must be added that Sir Jonn did not exclude the possibility of this explana-
tion; for in another part of the same document (see Proc. Roy. Soc., vol. x. p. 79), after
* This appears to have been an oversight, as the idea of tetrachromatism was not, to my knowledge, included in
Helmholtz’s suggestions,
“
KNOWLEDGE AND OPINION IN REGARD TO COLOUR-BLINDNESS. 479
pointing out that “neither red nor green as sensations are in the remotest degree
suggested by the prismatic yellow in its action on the eye,” he added, ‘‘ Whether, under
these circumstances, the vision of normal-eyed persons should be termed trichromic or
tetrachromic, seems an open question.”
I need hardly say that it would have been impossible for me to undertake this
investigation without the aid of other persons, who were able and willing to explain to
me the facts of normal vision, so far as it was possible for me to understand them. This
help has been afforded me in the most liberal manner, not only generally, but specially
by some of the most distinguished experts in this particular subject. In preparing my
Paper of 1859 I had the assistance of Sir Jonn HerscuEn and Professor (now Sir)
GroRGE GABRIEL STOKES ; and during subsequent years I have had the benefit of frequent
communications, either personally or by correspondence, with many other eminent philo-
sophers, among whom may be named Dr Grorce Wi1son, Professor CLERK MAxweELL, Sir
Wiii1am Bowman, Professor DonpERs and his successor Professor ENGELMANN, Professor
Ewatp Herine, Professor Hotmeren, Professor Fick, Professor Srituinc, Dr Car
Hess, Dr Joy Jerrrizs, Lord Rayietcu, Professor MicnarL Foster, Dr Brattry, Dr
Huecins, Professor Lockyer, Dr Epripcgk Green, Professor P. G. Tarr, and Dr G. A.
Berry. I must make a special mention of Professor RuTHERFORD, who has aided me in
the preparation of this paper, and who did me the honour to read it at the Society’s
meeting. ‘To express my deep and grateful sense of all this generous and most necessary
help, will be the fittest conclusion of my labours.
Dre EOL ON COLOURSBLINDNESS,
Trans. Roy. Soc. Edinr. Vol. XXXVII.
Figure 1,
THE NORMAL SOLAR SPECTRUM.
SS —_—--:
F
Paicure 2:
THE SOLAR SPECTRUM AS IT APPEARS TO DICHROMIC VISION.
ae aaa
ms ¢ D i ae F G H
i= Figure 3.
7 COLOURS WHICH APPEAR ALL SIMILAR AND NEUTRAL TO DICHROMIC VISION.
(The exact matching of these will vary with different Patients).
A 4 (Maia ate a & ah ieee. ]
‘ SUPPOSED DIAMETRICALLY OPPOSITE EACH OTHER.
Fioure: 5:
DlIChROMIC “CIRC EE.
| DONDERS’S ARRANGEMENTS OF NEWTON’S COLOUR CIRCLE, THE COMPLEMENTARY COLOURS BEING
4
<-
Neutral
Green
(
of Maximum Maximum
Brilliancy Brillianey
PSS SetesS >
The small circles indicate the approximate hues of the “Fundamental Colour Sensations”
as determined by Hering, Helmholtz, and Kénig respectively.
W. GRIGGS & SONS, CHROMO-LITH.
( 481 )
XXIII.—On the Chemical Changes which take place in the Composition of the Sea-
Water associated with Blue Muds on the Floor of the Ocean. By JoHn Murray,
LL.D., Ph.D., and Ropert Irvine, F.C.S.
(Read March 7, 1892; Revised June 1893.)
The numerous analyses of sea-water by ForcHHAMMER previous to 1865, and the later
analyses by Dirrmar, from samples collected during the ‘“ Challenger” Expedition, show
that while the salinity—.e., the amount of dissolved salts contained in 100 parts of sea-
water—varies greatly in different regions of the ocean, still the composition of these
dissolved salts—z.e., the ratio of the constituents of sea-salts—remains practically the
same in all the superficial waters of the ocean. Consequently, it is only necessary to
determine the chlorine in a definite weight of water to ascertain at once the respective
quantities of the other salts present in the sample. Dirrmar’s examination of the
“Challenger” waters has, however, shown that lime is slightly, although distinctly, more
abundant in samples of sea-water collected in greater depths than in those samples
collected nearer the surface of the ocean, and Dirrmar’s tables showing the difference
between the chlorine calculated from the specific gravity and the chlorine found by
analysis* point to differences in the composition of the sea-salts, but the observations
are relatively so few, these differences so slight, so mixed up with observational errors,
and so irregular in their geographical and bathymetrical distribution, that they cannot be
said to indicate any general law other than a greater quantity of lime in deep water.
The variations in the composition of sea-water salts, here alluded to, cannot in any
appreciable degree be referred either to precipitation or to fresh water poured into the
ocean from the land by rivers, nor, except the case of the lime in the deep waters, can they
be regarded as constant, for just as in the air any chance deviations from the normal com-
position are soon rectified through aerial circulation, so in the ocean any deviation from
the normal composition of sea-salts is soon, though more slowly, set right by oceanic
circulation. It is, however, important to investigate the causes of these variations.
There is abundant evidence that great changes in chemical composition take place in
the substances deposited on the floor of the ocean, and, with the view of throwing some
light on the manner in which these changes are brought about, it has occurred to us to
examine the composition of the sea-water associated or mixed up with marine deposits
on the floor of the ocean, and especially with that variety of marine deposits known as
Blue Mud.
The marine deposits, which everywhere cover the floor of the ocean, are divided into
* Dirrmar, “Challenger Report on the Composition of Ocean Water,” Phys. Chem. Chall. Exp., pt. i. p. 43.
VOL. XXXVII. PART II. (NO. 23). aD
482 DR JOHN MURRAY AND MR ROBERT IRVINE ON THE
two great classes, viz., those laid down in the deep water towards the central parts of
the great ocean basins, which are called pelagic deposits, and those laid down in shallow or
deep water in more or less close proximity to the land masses, which are called terrigenous
deposits. The terrigenous deposits * are estimated to cover about 28,000,000 square miles
of the sea-bed, or about one-seventh of the earth’s surface. They extend from the shore
seawards to an average distance of 200 miles, and may be met with at a depth of over
2 or 3 miles. These terrigenous deposits are chiefly made up of materials derived from
the disintegration of the land masses. In shallow depths, where the bottom is swept by
waves and currents, these deposits consist chiefly of sands, gravels, and boulders ; but in
all hollow or cup-shaped basins within the 100-fathom line, and in all the greater depths
beyond 100 fathoms, the deposit is rarely disturbed by the motion of the water, and
generally consists of a fine plastic Blue Mud or Clay. The depth at which a fine mud
may form in the sea depends entirely on the depth of water and the extent of the basin ;
or, in other words, on the height and length of the waves.t In harbours it may be
deposited not deeper than 1 or 2 fathoms, while along the western coasts of Scotland
and Ireland, which are exposed to the waves of the wide and deep Atlantic, the true mud-
line may be situated at a depth of about 150 or 200 fathoms.
The variety of terrigenous deposit to which the name of Blue Mud has been given
covers about 15,000,000 square miles of the sea-bed, and is chiefly found in estuaries,
harbours, enclosed seas, and along continental coasts where rivers pour their detrital
matter into the ocean. The Blue Muds collected by the “Challenger” ranged beyond
the 100-fathom line down to a depth of 2900 fathoms, the average depth being 1411
fathoms. The average percentage composition of the dried muds is as follows :—
Cele ee ( Pelagic Foraminifera, it elle 752
Carbonate of lime, { Me eesiaihevnt Bottom-living Foraminifera, . : 175
Other organisms, . . : 321
12°48
Réciduchstich tuoi . The remains Me siliceous organisms, 3°27
. \ Estimated to consist of < Mineral particles, . ‘ ; . 22°48
of carbonate of lime, ; ;
Fine washings, . . ; . Cle
87°52
In the Blue Muds of harbours, bays, estuaries, and generally in all positions within
the 100-fathom line, there is usually less carbonate of lime than in similar deposits in
deep water beyond 100 fathoms, and the mineral particles derived from the neighbouring
* See Murray and RENARD, Challenger Report on Deep-Sea Deposits, London, 1891, p. 229.
+ See Murray and RENARD, op. cit., p. 185.
CHEMICAL CHANGES IN THE COMPOSITION OF SEA-WATER. 483
land are larger and make up a greater part of the deposit. The fine washings noted in
the above table usually make up the principal part of the deposit, and consist largely of
hydrated silicate of alumina, oxides of iron, and minute particles of quartz, along with
highly-altered fragments of felspars and other silicates and rock fragments. The deeper
layers of the deposit are very stiff and compact, blue or black in colour owing to: the
presence of organic matter and of sulphide of iron, while the immediate surface of the
deposit in contact with the superincumbent water is thin, watery, and usually of a light
brown or red colour from the higher oxidation of the iron. In the “Challenger”
trawlings the bag of the net would frequently be filled with a soft red coloured mud
from the surface layers, while the iron frame supporting the beam was covered with
patches of a stiff Blue Mud or Clay from the deeper layers.
In this paper we propose, in the first place, to point out the steps that were taken to
obtain samples of the sea-water associated with the Blue Mud at several places on the
coast of Scotland, and then to state the results of our investigation into the composition
of the sea-salts in these samples, and the changes in composition which take place with
varying conditions.
Methods of procuring Mud-Waters.—In order to procure samples of the water associ-
ated with the Blue Mud, we converted a pail into a sort of dredge, and by this means
obtained mud from Granton Harbour (in 1 to 2 fathoms), from the Old Quarry connected
with the laboratory of the Granton Marine Station (in 3 to 5 fathoms), and from the east
side of the Inchgarvie bank below the Forth Bridge (in 16 fathoms). In this way we
were able to procure characteristic specimens of the muds at these points. The muds so
obtained were all of a deep blue-black colour, which colour they retained so long as
protected from oxidation, but on exposure to the air they rapidly took up oxygen, and
the colour changed to a rusty brown.
The mud was at once transferred to a large canvas bag, which was hung up to the
rigeing of the yacht and allowed to drip. The water thus obtained at definite intervals
was collected in stoppered bottles, and subsequently carefully examined in the laboratory.
In taking off the filtrates, the Ist portion, consisting of about a litre, was bottled after
the bag had dripped nearly an hour ; the 2nd portion was taken about six hours there-
after, the quantity being about 14 litres; the 3rd, 4th, and 5th portions after
intervals of twenty-four hours each, and consisted of about 4 litres, 3 litres, and 1 litre
respectively, the quantity decreasing gradually. At each place the total amount of water
so obtained was generally about 9 litres from about 100 kilogrammes of mud. As will be
presently explained, the 3rd and 4th portions obtained in this manner may be taken
as truly representing the water associated with the mud when at the bottom.*
* During the winter of 1891-92, water was collected in a similar way from the deep basins in the Clyde Sea-Area,
The great distance through which the mud had to be hauled to the surface (50 to 70 fathoms) rendered the operation
much more difficult than when dealing with harbour mud lying in 1 or 2 fathoms, it being too much washed and mixed
with the superincumbent water to give satisfactory results. In order to conduct this work successfully, it would be
necessary to construct a special apparatus to bring up the soft mud with the water directly associated with it. The results
So far agree with those obtained on the Forth.
484 DR JOHN MURRAY AND MR ROBERT IRVINE ON THE
Specific Gravity of the Mud-Waters.—The specific gravity of the water from the mud
in Granton Harbour ranged from 1024°3 to 1025°7, that of the superincumbent water
averaging 1024°57. In the Ist portions of the water from Granton Harbour and
Queensferry muds a higher density was observed, owing, as we shall show, to an increase
of sulphates formed by the oxidation—during the dripping process—of the sulphide of
iron (FeS) present in the outer portions of mud resting on the inner surface of the bag,
and therefore more or less exposed to the air. The subsequent portions were lower in
density, till towards the end of the dripping there was again a slight increase of density
caused by the evaporation of the water which then drips very slowly (see tables).*
Sulphuric Acid in Mud-Waters.—A reference to the tables that follow will show that
in the case of the waters obtained from the Granton Harbour and Queensferry muds, the
1st portion which came through the filter-bag contained more sulphuric acid (SO,) than
normal sea-water. This was evidently due to the oxidation of the sulphide of iron after
the mud was removed from the sea and while dripping through the bag, as stated above.
In the 2nd portion obtained from the dripping bag there was a marked decrease in the
sulphuric acid (SO), and this decrease was maintained in the following and later portions
obtained in the same way.
It will also be seen by reference to the tables that the 1st portions of the mud
waters from the two samples taken in the-Granton Quarry differ from the 1st portions
above mentioned, in containing less sulphuric acid than normal sea-water, the oxidation
of the sulphide on the internal surface of the bag not sufficing in these, as in the other
1st portions, to raise the sulphuric acid above the normal. The portions marked 3rd, 4th,
5th, 6th, 7th, and 8th in the tables may in all the samples be taken to fairly represent
the water associated with the mud, and all these samples contain less sulphuric acid than
is found in normal sea-water.
Albuminoid and Saline Nitrogen in Mud-Waters.—In all the mud-waters the saline
ammonia was enormously in excess of that usually present in normal sea-water, varying
from 4 to 80 parts per million, while ordinary sea-water from the open ocean contains,
as a rule, about 0°02 part per million. In the sea-water lying directly above and in —
contact with the Blue Muds of Granton Harbour and Granton Quarry, the saline ammonia
averaged about 2 parts per million,t thus showing that the sea-water immediately above
a Blue Mud differed much in this respect from ordinary sea-water from the open ocean.
Albuminoid or Fixed Nitrogen was found in solution in the mud-waters to range from
1°17 to 5°63 parts per million, presumably due to the less or greater abundance of
animal life or dead organic matters present in the deposit. The mud itself was found
* From a quantity of mud taken from the bed of the Clyde opposite the Gareloch, mud-waters were obtained having
a mean density of 1035 ; these waters were not chemically changed, and should this observation be verified it may point
to a process of concentration in sea-water muds, even when covered by water of normal density.
+ The method adopted for the determination of the saline ammonia was as follows :—Pure potash solution was
added to the sea-water, and the precipitate formed removed by filtration through filter-paper, from which any trace of
ammonia (generally present in filter-paper) had been removed by washing with pure potash solution, the clear filtrate
being nesslerised in the usual manner. The saline ammonia is more abundant in tropical oceanic waters than in water
of temperate zones (see Murray and Irvine on Coral-Reefs, &c., Proc. Roy. Soc. Edin., 1889-90, p. 89).
CHEMICAL CHANGES IN THE COMPOSITION OF SEA-WATER. 485
on examination to contain albuminoid or fixed nitrogen ranging from 590 to 800 parts
per million expressed or calculated as ammonia (present evidently in proportion to the
quantity of undecomposed organic structures).
Alkalinity of Mud-Waters.—The alkalinity of the mud-waters (evidently due to the
presence of carbonates) was increased in a most striking manner when compared with
the water immediately overlying the mud, and depended directly upon the chemical
changes that had taken place in the sea-water salts in the water associated with the Blue
Mud.* The highest alkalinities (calculated as carbonate of lime) obtained from the mud-
waters were :—
Queensferry mud-water . : : . =03395 gramme per kilogramme.
Granton Harbour mud-water . é . =0°6804 a )
Granton Quarry mud-water (winter time) . =0°6880 Fr 2,
Granton Quarry mud-water (summer time) =1:3737 i 4
The alkalinity of the water overlying these muds varied from 0°1072 to 0°1200
gramme per kilogramme. ‘The difference between the summer and winter values for the
quarry mud-water leads one to suspect that there may be a deposition of carbonate of
lime in these muds during summer. Dr Grsson divides the density of sea-water, minus
1000, at zero, by the amount of carbonic acid present, and obtains a constant which he
designates D,, the usual value of which is 0°54.t By following the same rule we get
a very low value for D, with the mud-waters, viz., 0°05.
At first we were inclined to refer the great increase of alkalinity to the excess of
carbonate of lime derived from the solution of the dead shells of calcareous organisms by
carbonic acid, the latter beimg much increased in sea-water through the deoxidation of
the sulphates by organic matter, but the total lime present in the water filtered from the
muds was found on determination not to have been increased in any notable degree
above that present in normal sea-water;{ indeed, the later filtrates show a slight
decrease of lime, which points, it may be, to the precipitation of carbonate of lime in the
mud. This is most noticeable in the case of the Granton Quarry mud-water, where the
alkalinity is very high (see Tables IJ. and IV.). It was also observed that the increase of
alkalinity was approximately proportionate to the diminution of the sulphuric acid (SO3).
From these results it is evident that the principal increase of alkalinity is due to
the deoxidation of sulphates by the organic matters in the mud, and the subsequent
decomposition of alkaline or earthy sulphides by the carbonic acid thus produced, and
* We have seen that the accidental mixture with the overlying water, and also the increased amount of sulphates
produced by oxidation of sulphide of iron (FeS) in the mud, caused variations which tended to conceal the true nature
of the mud-water, and to alter the density of the various portions. If the mud had been thoroughly mixed up and
filtered in an atmosphere free from oxygen (¢.g., nitrogen), the water in all the portions obtained by dripping would
probably have been alike in composition.
t See Scottish Fishery Board Report, 1887.
{ In the Ist, and perhaps also in the 2nd, portions of the filtrates, where, as we have seen, the oxidation of the
sulphide of iron had increased both the sulphuric acid and the lime, the lime was evidently derived from the carbonate
of lime shells, or precipitated carbonate of lime, present in the deposit.
486 DR JOHN MURRAY AND MR ROBERT IRVINE ON THE
not to solution of calcareous organisms. So that the sulphur (S)—of the sulphuric acid
(SO,) present as sulphate of lime in sea-water—is abstracted and fixed, in a mud deposit
containing iron, as sulphide of iron (FeS),* while the carbonic acid takes the place of
the sulphuric acid, and an amount of carbonate of lime (CaCO;) is formed in proportion
to the sulphur thus removed. ‘The presence of iron is not, of course, necessary for the
reaction, and there may be carbonates formed other than carbonate of lime, as this
reaction applies as well to the sulphur salts of magnesia and the alkalies. The figures in
Tables II. and IV. show that the waters there referred to exhibit the changes here
indicated, but we seldom find the gain of alkalinity (or carbonate) exactly equivalent to
the decrease of sulphuric acid. For instance, in Table IIL, 4th portion, the decrease of
sulphuric acid would only account for 0°432 gramme excess of carbonate of lime instead
of 0°6057, which was found; in Table VII. only 0°1205 gramme excess would be accounted
for instead of the 0°2281 gramme found.
The increase of alkaline ammoniacal salts points, however, to a further reaction, by
which carbonate of lime is increased in a slight degree, for as ammonium carbonate
[(NH,),CO,] is formed by the decomposition of the albuminoids present, the sulphates in
the sea-water by this means are decomposed, sulphate of ammonia [(NH,),SO,] and
earthy carbonates being the result. This, while not accounting for the total increase of
alkalinity in the mud-waters, accounts for some of the deficiency noted above, as we shall
see presently.
Table IV. shows the decrease of sulphur, as sulphuric acid, and the consequent
increase of alkalinity, calculated as carbonate of lime, to be very marked. The decrease
of the former will be seen to range from 0°9757 to 1:0849, while the increase of the
latter ranges from 1°:0145 to 1°3566. Indeed, the waters referred to in Tables II. and
IV. may be taken as typical, and show the changes from the normal effected in the sea-
water associated with marine muds.
The following table (A) has been constructed to show that these two reactions, viz.,
the deoxidation of sulphates by organic matter, and the decomposition of albuminoids
into ammonia, are sufficient to produce the high alkalinity observed in the waters in
Tables IT. and IV.
Column «@ shows the decrease of sulphuric acid from that present in normal sea-water.
Column b shows the calculated equivalent, as carbonate of lime, of the decrease of
sulphuric acid in column a.
Column ce shows the calculated equivalent, as carbonate of lime, of the ammonia found
by analysis in the mud-water.
As any precipitation of carbonate of lime out of the mud-water necessarily takes away
from the resulting alkalinity, column d gives the difference between the total lime found
in normal sea-water (calculated into carbonate of lime) and that in mud-water.
By adding the figures in column b and ¢, we get the increase of alkalinity due to the
deoxidation of sulphates and to the presence of ammonia; and subtracting the figures in
* Reaction shown on page 496.
CHEMICAL CHANGES IN THE COMPOSITION OF SEA-WATER. 487
column d (the precipitated carbonate of lime) we get the theoretical alkalinity due to
these reactions, the result being shown in column e.
Column f gives the alkalinity of the mud-water above the normal as found by actual
determination.
Column g shows the difference between the theoretical values of alkalinity as
calculated (e) and the values found on determination (/f). The two values (e and /)
are thus seen to be very much alike, and go to prove that the reactions noted above
are really those which take place in the mud. They are shortly stated in the
formula—
b+c—d=e
using the same letters as given over each column in the table.
TABLE A.—Showing the Alkalinity in Grammes per Kilogramme of the Mud-Water as determined,
and calculated from the various reactions (1st portion omitted).
a. b. C; d. é. oe q:
- A ae Theoretical ae
ms ; SO. last Ammonia Precipitated mens Alkalinit :
3 Bere renee of d deleai changed changed into its Caipoate of rasa ‘ig above the Poiteren He be
B 30. a “a to its equivalent | equivalent of Lime, taken 2 ad pee ddeq | Normal found a Foal =e Fl th ea
Ay ( a a 1€ | of Carbonate of | Carbonate of | from decrease of acs ae a Fy q|o determina- 7 1a av 1 1¢
oan Lime. Lime. lime in Table IV. ee ree iad tion. SuTias ares
2nd —1:0849 1:3561 0:0965 — 0:0271 1°4255 1:3478 —0:0777
3rd. —1:0742 1:3427 0:0784 — 0:0696 1:3515 1:2993 — 0:0522
4th — 1:0309 1:2886 0:0228 — 0:0764 1:2350 11954 | -—0-0396
5th — 1:0238 1:2797 0:0620 —0:1709 1:1708 1:1033 — 0:0675
6th — 1:0683 1:3354 0:0408 — 0°3752 1:0010 1:0145 +0:0135
When a portion of the clear water filtered from the harbour muds was boiled for a
short time, a precipitate was thrown down in a crystalline form, which on analysis proved
to be carbonates of lime and magnesia in the following proportions :—
CaCO, - 1330
MgCO, ; : 26°70
100-00
Before boiling, the water had an alkalinity of 0°7760 grms. per litre, while after
boiling it showed an alkalinity of only 0°2200 grms., thus proving that the alkalinity
was mainly due to the formation and presence of these carbonates rendered soluble by
free carbonic acid.
488 DR JOHN MURRAY AND MR ROBERT IRVINE ON THE
In the water filtered from various sandy muds, exposed to the scouring action of tides,
little chemical change was noticeable, and we did not find any notable difference between
the composition of the water associated with them and normal sea-water, unless it were
a slight increase in the alkalinity.
Composition of Sea- Water Salts in Mud-Waters.—At the outset of this paper, it was
stated that the result of ForcHHAMMER’sS and Drirrmar’s numerous analyses of sea-water
was to show that the composition of the sea-salts is practically constant. Hence it
follows that the quantity of chlorine in an ocean water, at a given temperature, is
proportional to the excess of its specific gravity over that of pure water at the same
S:—,We
4 4
temperature. This is expressed by the formula = D, where ,8, denotes the specific
gravity of sea-water and ,W, that of pure water, both referred to pure water at
+4° C.=1000. y represents the chlorine, and D a constant.
Dirrmar found the D constant in ocean water to be almost uniformly 1°4606 at zero
temperature.* As an example, taking water of density ,Sj;., 1026, which is equal at
oS to 1028°31, and the chlorine value of which is 19°382, we have
1028°31—1000
S,—1000 . ee
Ferree D or in figures 19-389 =1:4600.
In the mud-water of Table IV., the D values, when calculated as above, are as
follows :—
Ist portion, : : 5 ‘ : : 1:4600
Qnd ; : . : : : 4 1:4390
SIG. | 3 ; ; : : : ‘ 1:4340
Ath : : : . : ; 1:43.40
5th PA 3 A 5 ; , : 1:4320
6th | ; : , ; ; t 1:4230
It will be observed that these values are by no means constant, and are all below the
normal value, thus clearly indicating a change in the composition of the sea-water salts.
In looking at Table IV., where all the data are for convenience reduced to density
1026,—which may be taken as the average specific gravity of sea-water,—the halogen
(chlorine found) in the first column is seen to increase regularly in the several portions
above what is found in normal sea-water of density 1026, the difference ranging from
0009 to 0:509 gramme. In another column of the same table, the total bases (as sul-
phates) are also seen to increase from 0°334 to 0°703 gramme. Here, therefore, we cannot
take, as is usual, the density, the chlorine, nor the total bases (as sulphates) as standards
to calculate from, so as to arrive at the true chemical composition of the sea-water salts,
for not one of these three is constant in amount, nor bears any definite relation to the
other components. It follows from this that any mixture of such a mud-water with
ordinary sea-water would entirely alter the relation generally found to exist between the
* See Dirrmar, op. cit., part 1. p. 56.
CHEMICAL CHANGES IN THE COMPOSITION OF SEA-WATER. 489
ehlorine (halogen), the bases, and the density. For instance, if we take the water repre-
sented in the 6th portion of Table IV. we find—
The chlorine calculated from the density . : 2) horse
The chlorine calculated from the total bases . 17 T1078
But the chlorine actually found by analysis ‘ . =19°391
all the results being different.
Let us first take the difference between the chlorine found by analysis, and the chlorine
calculated from the total bases found by analysis in the water of Table [V. The analyses
of the water (except the first portions drawn off) show less lime than is present in normal
sea-water of density 1026; this deficiency of lime is evidently due to precipitation of
carbonate of lime in the mud. If, however, this deficiency of lime be added to the bases
found, and the chlorine then calculated in the usual way, the result will correspond very
closely with the chlorine found by analysis, as illustrated in the following table where :
Column a gives the total bases found in the mud-water on analysis.
Column b gives the quantity of lime lost by precipitation in the mud (in the first
portion there is excess owing to the oxidation of the sulphide of iron before referred to).
Column ¢ gives this lime in 0 as sulphate of lime.
Column d gives a and ¢ added, and the result should give the total bases as sulphates
in a normal sea-water.
Column e gives the chlorine calculated in the ordinary way from column d as a basis.
Column f gives the chlorine as determined by actual analysis, and column g shows
the difference between the chlorine found and that calculated from the bases found, after
taking the precipitated lime into consideration, and it will be seen that these differences
are very small.
TABLE B.—Showing that when the Lime precipitated from the Mud-Water (Table IV.) is added on to the
Total Bases found, the Chlorine as calculated therefrom practically agrees with that found in the Mud-
Water.
a. b. ¢. d. é. di. g-
a and c added
4 or subtracted
‘3 Total Bases as é Column 6 (as sign 18. |-Chlorine caleu- | Chlorine as -
5 Sulphates found ee a changed into hooey: ve lated from d as | determined by eens
a in the Mud- ® | Sulphate of 8 for a Normal | Analysis of the y
Water. Normal. Total Bases as
Lime. Sulpbatesina | Sea-Water. | Mud-Water. GRE Eee.
Normal Sea-
Water,
Ist 42-195 +:0875 +°212 41:982 19°438 19°391 — ‘047
2nd 42°399 — 0152 — 037 49°436 19-648 19-666 +:018
3rd 49430 — ‘0390 — 095 42°525 19-690 19°737 +°047
4th 42-396 — ‘0428 — 104 42500 19°678 19:740 +062
5th 42°378 — 0957 — 232 49°610 19:729 19°775 +046
6th 42564 — ‘2101 — 510 43-074 19:944 19°891 — ‘053
VOL. XXXVII. PART. II. (NO. 23). a
) —a
490 DR JOHN MURRAY AND MR ROBERT IRVINE ON THE
The discordance between the chlorine found and the chlorine calculated from the
total bases as sulphates is thus shown to be an effect due to the precipitation of carbonate
of lime (CaCO,) in the mud. The chlorine in the mud-water as found by analysis is the
same in amount as that present in normal sea-water of density 1026, and we may suppose
that this was the kind of sea-water mixed up with the mud before any chemical change _
took place, but now it has been so changed as to be unrecognisable either by its density —
or the amount of its total bases, while the halogen values are the same if determined
directly but not if calculated from the density or total bases. aie
The apparent diminution of chlorine, in the 1st portions of the waters, is caused by —
the oxidation of the sulphide of iron increasing to a large extent above the normal
the amount of sulphates and carbonic acid in these portions,* which has the effect of
increasing its density by an increase of total salts relatively to the chlorine, but apparently _
correspondingly diminishing the chlorine. “4
If we take the mean of 3rd, 4th, and 5th portions in Tables II. and IV., the change
that has taken place in the water associated with the mud, compared with normal sea-
water, will be observed, and indicates in what, direction to look for changes produced in
other less typical waters. The following table shows the salts in normal ocean-water
and the salts found in the mud-waters :—
with their relation to hae
Per 100 of Halogen (calculate z)
Per 100 of Total Salts. as Chlorine),
Average Sea- Average Sea-
Water.t Mud; Water. Water.f
ChisinetCl stat Laat > 55-299 56-239 99:848
Bromine, Br, . ; , J 0:188 0191 0340
Sulphuric Acid, SO., . ‘ : 6°410 3°424 11:576
Carbonic Acid, CO,, . : : 0152 1656 0-274
Lime, CaO, : ; : ‘ 1:676 1504 3026
Magnesia, MgO, . : ' ‘ 6:209 6°315 11-212
Potash, K,O, F ; : 1332 1:355 © 2405
Soda, Na,O, : r 41-234 41°941 74462
Ammonium Oxide, (N H,),0, : ve 0-081 eae
Less Basic Oxygen, (-O) . ; — 12-493 — 12-706 — 22°559
100-000 100-000 180-584 177542
* This reaction may be stated thus :—The sulphide of iron in the mud is oxidised by the atmosphere into s
which reacts on carbonate of lime in the mud or in solution, forming sulphate of lime and momentarily carbon
changing to oxide of iron, liberates carbonic acid, which, lack with the sulphate of lime, remains in solution and incl
the density of these lst po tions.
+ See Dirrmar, op. cit., part i. pp. 137-138 and 203,
ee EE
CHEMICAL CHANGES IN THE COMPOSITION OF SEA-WATER. 491
Combining acids and bases :—
da, hates Mud-Water.
Sodium Chloride, NaCl, ; ; 77-758 79-019
Magnesium ,, MgCl, . 5 10°878 11°222
Magnesium Bromide, MgBr,, ‘ 0°217 0°220
Magnesium Sulphate, MgSO,,_. 4°737 3°232
Potassium if oO, F 2°465 2°506
Ammonium _,, (NH,),SO,, aie 0:206
Magnesium Carbonate, MgCO,, . aye 0:909
Calcium 4 CaCO,, . 0:345 2°686
Calcium Sulphate, CaSO,, . : 3°600 sai
100-000 100-000
The difference between the chlorine calculated from the total salts as sulphates found
by analysis, and the chlorine calculated from the density, is in the case of the mud-water
(6th portion, Table IV.) 0°326.* When we apply the correction for lime lost by pre-
cipitation in the mud shown in Table B, and raise the chlorine calculated from total
salts to 19°944, there is a difference of 0°562 between the values of chlorine calculated
from total salts and the chlorine calculated from the density in the 6th portion. Again,
the difference between the chlorine found by analysis and that calculated from the density
is 0°509 in the 6th portion. In a normal sea-water there would be no such difference,
or it would be inappreciable.
On page 488 the values for D in the various portions of the mud-water are seen to
range from 1°4600 to 1°4230. The normal value for D in sea-water is nearly 1°4600.
This variation is to be accounted for by a difference in composition between the mud-
water and normal sea-water. We find that there has been a precipitation of carbonate
of lime from the mud-water, and this is presumably due to a loss of carbonic acid which
held the lime in solution as bicarbonate. This loss would lower the density, and raise
the chlorine relatively to the other constituents ; decrease of salinity will also be propor-
tionate to the weight of carbonate of lime so precipitated. The converse would take
place in sea-water containing excess of sulphate or bicarbonate of lime, or even carbonic
acid or other gases, as the following experiment shows. Sea-water was allowed to stand
in contact with mussel-flesh and sufficient ferric oxide to combine with all the sulphur as
FeS. After a time the carbon and hydrogen of the organic matter had completely
reduced the sulphates, and the whole of the sulphur was found in combination with the
iron as sulphide of iron (FeS), and the carbonic acid and ammonia formed by decay and
deoxidation had increased the alkalinity, which over all was equivalent to 4 grammes of
carbonate of lime per litre, normal sea-water having an alkalinity of only 0°12 gramme.
The chlorine had in this case fallen 0°9 gramme in relative value, calculated from the
density, the difference being wholly accounted for by the increase of akalinity.
* See top of page 489.
492 , DR JOHN MURRAY AND MR ROBERT IRVINE ON THE
Another cause of loss of lime in the mud-waters may be the decomposition of
alkaline or earthy sulphides by bicarbonate of lime, the result beg two molecules of
carbonate of lime in place of one, which will with difficulty be held in solution even in
sea-water, and will most probably be slowly deposited in the mud. In Table IL, 4th
portion of filtrate, the carbonic acid (CO,) was hardly above that of normal carbonate.
If we add the loss of carbonic acid to the salinity found, and also the carbonate of lime
precipitated, we find the salinity of the original water to have been 3°4054, which would
give a chlorine value equal to 18°859 germs. per kilo.—not far from 18°901, as found.
All these reactions or changes are, however, very complex and not easily disentangled.
During the past year or two samples of sea-water have been collected for us from
various parts of the ocean.* The density, the chlorine, and the alkalinity have been
determined in each of these, and the values of D and D, have been calculated. The
results are exhibited in the following table, where
Column a gives the locality from which the sample came.
Column b, the density at zero temperature (So.
Column ec, the density at 17°°5 C. 17.5875
Column d, the chlorine x in grammes per kilocramme.
Column e, the carbonic acid in milligrammes per kilogramme.
Column f gives the D value (5) which was found from the density at 0° C. by the
»—10000_
formula ae Di
Column g gives the D, values, which is the density of sea-water minus 1000, divided
by the carbonic acid expressed in milligrammes per kilogramme, not per litre.
In several instances the densities were determined at the temperature of 0° C., or that
of melting ice, and also at 17°°5 C. It was found that for ordinary sea-waters at any rate,
these two density values had a constant ratio, and the remainder of the waters were taken
at 17°°5 C., as being more convenient, and reduced by calculation to 0° C. It was found —
that 222Si5—1000
x
when the D at 0° Cis 1:4566. The formula applicable for reduction, after subtracting
sSir5X 14566 g
ase. GOOD vile aaste
The mean D value at 0° C. of twenty-eight waters in the foregoing table, after strik-
ing out the abnormal waters (Nos. 2, 19, 20, 23, 24, 25, and 27) is 14566 (1°3800 at
17°°5 C.); which is probably not far from the mean value for the whole ocean.
Dr Gipson from an examination of 122 waters from the Moray and Pentland Firths,
North Sea, and Arctic Ocean, obtained a mean D value of 1°4563, the maximum being
=1:3800 (which agrees with Dirrmar’s results of D at 17°°5 C.),
1000 from the densities, is
* We are especially indebted to Dr W. S. Brucs, surgeon of the Antarctic whaler “ Balzna,” who brought us samples
in the spring of 1893, and to Captains Taomas S. Knox and Gore Rew of the Anchor Line for samples from the
Mediterranean, Red Sea, Indian Ocean, and Atlantic. Mr Murray had still in his possession several samples collected
by the “ Challenger.”
493
CHEMICAL CHANGES IN THE COMPOSITION OF SEA-WATER.
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ON
CHEMICAL CHANGES IN THE COMPOSITION OF SEA-WATER. 495
1°4585, the minimum 1°4535. Mr Dickson from an examination of 42 waters in the
English Channel obtained a mean D value of 1°4550, the maximum being 1°4580, the
minimum 1°4490,*
Dr Konrapd NatTERER, in his papers on the chemistry of the Mediterranean water,t
gives the mean D value at a temperature of 17°°5 C. of forty-two Mediterranean waters
(after striking out the abnormal values) as equal to 1°3814, which is slightly higher than
that obtained by us for the waters examined ; the D at 0° C. is not given,
The mean D, for the “Challenger” waters was 0°533, that for the above table
(D, page 493), excluding abnormal waters, 0°558, but the D, value is much more subject
to variation than the D value. The D, of the mud-water in Table IV. is as low as 0°05.
In the Mediterranean, Dr Narrerer found values for D, ranging from 0°5622 to 0°6915,
with a mean of 0°59231.+
In some of those waters in Table D, which have been preserved for several years, it
will be noticed that the alkalinity is decreased, in some increased, while in others, where
the bottles were quite full and the stopper tied round with parchment, there is no change.
In the waters with decreased alkalinity the bottles were half empty, or the waters had
partly evaporated, and there was a slight deposit of carbonates. In the waters with
increased alkalinity, small carbonate of lime organisms may have been bottled accidentally
alone with the water, or a slight decomposition of sulphates may have taken place.
The water ought always to be strained through fine silk to remove the organic matter.
The waters which contained the remains of chitinous or calcareous organisms were high
in alkalinity, especially No. 25, in which we detected the remains of numerous organisms.
The Reactions that take place in Blue Muds, and the adnuxture of Mud- Waters with
the normal overlying Sea- Water.—Should the water associated with the deposits at the
bottom of the sea pass, with its altered composition, into the water above, not only will
the overlying sea-water be greatly increased in alkalinity, but the carbonic acid will
likewise be increased in quantity above that found in normal sea-water. This may in
* See Grsson, Proc. Roy. Soc. Edin., 1893, and Dicxson, Journal Scottish Geographical Magazine, Jan. 1893, p. 17.
+ Chemische Untersuchungen im ostlichen Mittelmeer, Wien, 1892.
t Various constants are used by authors in expressing the relations which occur in sea-water analyses.
1, The D value may be taken at any temperature, and may be expressed by D, The D, (on the assumption that
there is no appreciable difference in the chemical composition of sea-water in different regions) is a constant for any
temperature at which the observations are made as well as at 0° C.; but when the temperature is not mentioned, it is
‘Se— 1000
understood to be D at 0° C. It may be represented by rae
2. The Dx value, as stated in the text, is the density at 0° ©. minus 1000, divided by the alkalinity (in milli-
grammes of carbonic acid per kilogramme of water), and expresses the relation of alkalinity to density, in the same way
as D expresses the relation of chlorine to density, and, like D, is unchanged by dilution or concentration of the water.
3. The relation of chlorine per kilogramme to total salts per kilogramme is also expressed by a constant which
Drrrmar gives as 18058. The chlorine (x), multiplied by this figure and divided by 10, gives the percentage salinity
of the sea-water. As has been pointed out by various writers, such as PerreRsson, Exman, Kriimmet, and Gipson,
and confirmed by ourselves, this constant may rise much higher in brackish water, such as the Baltic, varying from 1:801
to 2:15. (See Perrersson, Grunddragen af Skageracks och Kattegats Hydrografi, Stockholm, 1891, and Kriimuet, Geo-
physikalische Beobachtungen der Plankton Expedition, Keil, Leipzig, 1893.)
4, A constant used by Kriimaen is that of the density to the total salts, Its value is given as 1312, and is found
by dividing the total salts per kilogramme by the density at 1775 (, after deducting 1 (pure water at 17°5 C.=1).
496 DR JOHN MURRAY AND MR ROBERT IRVINE ON THE
some degree account for the bottom waters being more alkaline than the surface waters,
as DirrMar*™ found to be the case from his analyses of the ‘‘ Challenger” waters, as well as
for the variations noted in his table of the differences between the chlorine found and
that calculated from the destiny.t
The ‘‘ Challenger” researches have shown that there is an abundant fauna on these Blue
Muds, which feeds chiefly on the organic remains that fall from surface waters. If the
oxidation of these dead organisms were merely carried on at the expense of the oxygen
dissolved in sea-water immediately overlying the mud, the deeper waters might become
so overcharged with free carbonic acid that animal life could not exist. In such a
case there would be no formation of carbonates from the sulphates in the water, and no
formation of sulphide of iron and consequent abstraction of sulphur; the carbonic acid
would simply exist in a free state. But in the changes indicated above, the sulphates are
being continually changed, so that in the water associated with the Blue Mud the
carbonates may exceed the sulphates in amount.
DirrmaR in his “ Challenger” Report states the average alkalinity of
Bottom water as 0°152 grms. CO, per 100 of total salts.
Surface water ,, 0°146 orms. 5 bs .
showing a difference of 0°006. This increase of alkalinity in the deeper waters may be
accounted for, as suggested by Murray, by the fact that the carbonate of lime shells of
surface organisms (Foraminifera and Pteropods) are wholly or partially dissolved as they
fall from the surface towards the bottom. There can be no doubt that this solution takes
place in the waters through which the shells fall and also in the water at that point where
they reach the bottom, but the above investigation seems to show that the increased
alkalinity may to some extent be due to the interchange of water from the muds to the
waters immediately above. It may be here remarked that when a large quantity of
carbonic acid was found in oceanic waters it was at the bottom over Blue Muds, and
that in some instances some of the Blue Mud was present in the bottle with the water,
for instance at Station 169.
The principal reactions which occur in mud-waters may be explained by the following
formulee :—
(1) RSO,+2C=2CO,+Rs ,
where R is an earthy alkaline metal.§
(2) RS+2C0,+H,O=H,S+RCO,CO, .
(3) RS+RCO,CO,+H,0=2RC0,+H,8.
On the hydrosulphuric acid meeting with ferric oxide (Fe,O;) present in the surface layer
of these Blue Muds the following reaction occurs :—
(4) Fe,O,+3H,S=2FeS+S+3H,0.
* DitrMaR, op. cit., p. 136. + Dirrmar, op. cit., p. 43. t Dirrmar, op. cit., pp. 126 and 129.
§ Of course, the same reaction happens when sulphates of alkalies are reduced,
CHEMICAL CHANGES IN THE COMPOSITION OF SEA-WATER. 497
Part of the sulphur is thus fixed in the mud, and part, if there be not sufficient iron in
the mud, may escape into the water above, where, meeting oxygen, it will be converted
into sulphuric acid (H,SO,), and return into RSO, The products RCO,CO, in (2), and
RCO, in (3), or the bicarbonate and carbonate of the metal are found in the water
strained from the mud as above described.
From these considerations it appears that the greater part of the oxygen for the
oxidation of the carbon and hydrogen of the organic substances in the Blue Muds is
derived from the sulphur salts of the alkaline and earthy alkaline metals in sea-water,
which, in the first instance, are reduced to the form of sulphides. These sulphides, owing
to their instability, especially in the presence of free or loosely-combined carbonic acid,
are decomposed as formed. The sulphur thus reduced from the sulphates may in part,
on passing as hydrosulphuric acid into the water immediately above the mud, become
oxidised back again into sulphuric acid, which in turn, decomposing the carbonate of lime
always present in the water (or in the deposit), would reform sulphates.
This oxidation is effected but slowly, as the following laboratory experiments show :—
Hap. I. A solution of hydrosulphuric acid (H,S8) in pure water, which at first gave no
precipitate with barium chloride, after standing a month gave a distinct precipitate of
barium sulphate, showing that the hydrosulphuric acid had been oxidised into sulphuric
acid (SO,).
Kap. II. A solution of hydrosulphuric acid in sea-water was exposed to the air till
complete oxidation had taken place. On titration the sea-water had lost its alkalinity,
the sulphuric acid being proportionately increased.
Exp. II, Hydrosulphuric acid was passed into water holding carbonates of calcium
and magnesium in suspension, and resulted in a yellowish solution of the sulphides of cal-
cum and magnesium, carbonic acid being expelled. The sulphides in turn were decom-
posed by excess of carbonic acid, with evolution of hydrosulphuric acid, bicarbonates
being formed, the reaction apparently depending on which acid is in excess.*
A certain part of the sulphides, or it may be of hydrosulphuric acid, derived from the
soluble sulphides by the action of the free carbonic acid present in the mud, reduces the
ferric oxides of the deposit, forming sulphide of iron, which so long as it is not exposed
to the action of oxygen, remains stable, being in this respect unlike sulphide of manganese.t
The sulphide of iron gives the characteristic blue-black colour to the great majority of the
Blue Muds, especially where there is abundance of organic matter. It is by this process
that sulphur is continually being abstracted from sea-water and locked up in marine
deposits, which may finally be converted into blue-coloured shales, schists, and marls.t In
* See also Comptes Rendus, tom. lxxxiii. pp. 58 and 345 (1876). Note by Naupin and MonruHoton; also SAINTE
Cratre Devitie, Lecons sur la Dissociation, 1864. + IRVINE and Greson, Proc. Roy. Soc. Hdin., p. 37, 1891.
t The black or dark blue colour of many shales and schists is due principally to the presence of iron, either
combined with silica as silicate, or more rarely in the condition of carbonate or oxide. These shales, schists, &c., contain
organic matter in a state of decomposition. In the older rocks its condition nearly approaches that of graphitic carbon ;
in a dark schist from Argyllshire only 0:91 per cent. of graphitic organic matter was found. In the more recent forma-
tions the organic matter, if in sufficient quantity, may give rise to the formation of petroleum. See paper by Dr J. J.
Jann, Jahrbuch der K. K. Geolog. Reichsanstalt, 1892, Bd. 42, Heft 2.
VOL. XXXVII. PART II. (NO. 23). a
498 DR JOHN MURRAY AND MR ROBERT IRVINE ON THE
these rocks the crystalline pyrites (FeS,) has evidently its origin in the processes of death
and decay going on at the time of their deposition at the sea-bottom,* the sulphur of the
sulphide of iron being derived from the sulphates of the sea-water and not from the
sulphur of the organisms, as generally supposed. This decomposition seems to be
wholly due to the action of bacteria in causing putrefactive changes in dead organic
matter. We have found that if sea-water containing putrescible organic matter be
sterilised by boiling, and thereafter care be taken to prevent the ingress of bacteria to
this cooled liquid, the changes above indicated do not take place. Apparently the
organic matter must be broken down by bacteria into its component elements, which in
the nascent condition are capable of reducing the sulphates to a lower form of combina-
tion. The bisulphide of iron in the coal measures has without doubt a similar origin.
In the water filtered from the Blue Muds we have found (see tables) the sulphur
present as sulphuric acid reduced from 25 to 50 per cent. of that originally present, the
quantity thus abstracted having been removed from the soluble condition of sulphates of
the alkalies or alkaline earths to the insoluble condition of sulphide of iron, and thus
permanently removed from the sea.
It may be well here to take notice of the occurrence of Red Muds or Clays which bulk
so largely in marine deposits. We have shown that the characteristic dark colour of
Blue Muds is due to the action of organic matter upon the sulphates in the sea-water and
the ultimate production of sulphide of iron with the iron of the deposit. In the Red
Muds and Clays, either from the abundance of oxygen in the superincumbent waters, from
the ochreous matter present in the mud or clay, or from the organic matter being small
in quantity, the sulphide of iron is either not formed or is after formation soon oxidised
into ferric hydrate, which then gives its characteristic red colour to these deposits. A
parallel action to this may be observed in arable land, rich in peroxide of iron, the
organic matter in the soil and manure being rapidly oxidised at the expense of the per-
oxide of iron, which by this means is temporarily reduced to the condition of protoxide,
the iron acting as a carrier of oxygen from the air until the organic matter has been
oxidised into carbonic acid. It may be accepted as the rule that muds containing a
large amount of organic matter relatively to the iron present invariably partake of the
characteristic blue-black colour, whilst if organic matter be low in amount, or altogether
absent, the black sulphide is either not formed at all, or is oxidised into peroxide of iron.
An example of the latter condition is shown in the mud deposited by the Amazon and
other Brazilian rivers, and also by the rivers that pour their waters into the Yellow Sea.
These contain a large quantity of ferruginous matter, in amount far exceeding the organi¢
matter present, the consequence being that the mud when deposited on the sea-floor
retains the characteristic brown-red colour of deep-sea Red Clays even near the shore.
* Ferrous sulphide, to which Blue Muds mainly owe their deep black colour, gradually becomes converted into
ferric sulphide as these muds harden into shales and schists. During this action or change of condition part of the iron
of the ferrous sulphide probably is oxidised, the sulphur set free either combining with the ferrous sulphide to form
ferric sulphide, or a portion of the ferrous sulphide in the Blue Muds may be changed by oxidation into ferric sulphate,
which, in the presence of organic matter, may become reduced to ferrous sulphide and free sulphur, thus providing
material for the formation of the iron pyrites (FeS,) so commonly associated with shales, schists, slates, &c.
—_
CHEMICAL CHANGES IN THE COMPOSITION OF SEA-WATER. 499
Our attention has been recently drawn to a most interesting paper, read before
the British Association, Edinburgh (1892) Meeting, by N. Anprussow, on the Russian
Exploration of the Black Sea.*
The condition of the water in the Black Sea below the 100-fathom line, in which
hydrosulphuric acid and sulphides exist in great abundance, is due to the same action as
that now being carried on so widely in the formation of the Blue Muds on the ocean
floor, viz., the deoxidation of the sulphates in the water by organic matter, and not, »
as stated in ANDRUSSOW’S paper, as simply the decomposition-products after death of a
great number of organisms. But a compound or double reaction appears in this instance
to be taking place, viz.—
Firstly, on those portions of the bottom within a moderate distance from the shore
ordinary Blue Mud containing sulphide of iron (in large amount) is being deposited.
Secondly, in the deep water, especially far from the shore, below 100 fathoms where
the oxygen has been used up, the hydrosulphuric acid, not having enough iron in the
form of floating mud to combine with, or to fix it as sulphide of iron (FeS) is found in
the free condition. At the same time there must lhe a large quantity of free or loosely-
combined carbonic acid in the water, the result of the deoxidation of the sulphates by
organic matter, which naturally would decompose the sulphides at their inception (or as
these are formed). That this is probably the case appears from the fact that im the
greater depths of the Black Sea, far from land, there exists a large deposit of mud con-
sisting principally of carbonate of lime, precipitated from its waters, which hold in solu-
tion lime and other salts as well as hydrosulphuric and carbonic acids. In the laboratory
experiments noted above we have the rationale of these conditions.
Dr Anprussow has been so good as to send us samples of the Black Sea muds for
examination, but it would be of great interest could we have a complete analysis of the
light-coloured mud as it is 2m situ or before exposure to the air, for we are led to suspect
that it contains free sulphur, one of the products of the oxidation of hydrosulphuric acid.
Of course, this oxidation can only occur above the 100-fathom line, where the free oxygen
in the water has not all disappeared.
We would recall attention to the somewhat curious reaction, referred to at page 497,
in which carbonic and hydrosulphuric acids displace one another from their combinations
whenever one or other is in excess, so that actually the condition of the deep water in
the Black Sea may be thus in a state of continual change, the alkalinity in this case
being due either to sulphides or carbonates in so far as carbonic acid or hydrosulphuric
acid predominates, and not wholly to carbonic acid as in the open ocean, where sulphides
cannot remain permanent owing to the constant excess of oxygen present ; but it is evident
that, since the light grey mud consists principally of carbonate of lime, the carbonic acid
* “On Deep-Sea Research in the Black Sea,” giving the results of an expedition (under the superintendence of Colonel
J. B. SPInDLER) sent out by the Russian Government in 1890 and 1891. These results have already been partly pub-
lished in the preliminary transactions of the Russian Geographical Society (in Russian), the physical results in German
by Prof. WorcsKorr in Petermann’s Mitteilungen. An abstract of ANDRUSSOW’s paper has been published in the
Royal Geographical Society’s Journal, January 1893, giving a very fair epitome of the various points dealt with.
500 CHEMICAL CHANGES IN THE COMPOSITION OF SEA-WATER.
must, it may be on account of the pressure or temperature, have had the advantage over
the hydrosulphuric acid.
Dr ANpRussow does not make any reference to the alkalinity of the deeper waters of
the Black Sea. This is a point of much interest, on account of the somewhat complex
reactions which must take place when free carbonic acid or free hydrosulphuric acid is
present side by side with sulphides and carbonate of calcium. We should expect to find
the alkalinity very high, as in the waters drained from the Blue Muds examined by us,
though the excess of alkalinity would at the same time be continually reduced, owing to
the precipitation of carbonate of lime, as shown on page 485.
Conclusions.—From the foregoing investigations it appears :—
1st. That the sea-water associated with the deposits at the sea-bottom is often of
a different chemical composition from the normal sea-water overlying the
deposit, and especially so in the deposits known as Blue Muds.
2nd. That when this water, associated with mud at the bottom of the ocean,
passes by circulation into the overlying water, this may be so altered that
the practice of inferrimg, from the amount of chlorine found by analysis,
all the other salts in sea-water, does not hold good, as has been hitherto
generally accepted.
3rd. That wherever organic matter is in process of decomposition in sea-water, a —
reduction of the sulphur salts of the alkalies and alkaline earths contained
therein takes place, with the result that the alkalinity of the water is
increased.
4th. That when the above reaction takes place in the water at the bottom, or
associated with the deposit on the bottom, a portion, and sometimes all, —
of the sulphur in the sea-water salts is removed and deposited as sulphide
of iron, thus giving the characteristic blue-black colour to the terrigenous
deposits known as Blue Muds.
5th. That not only does this deoxidation of the sulphates and abstraction of
sulphur from sea-water take place in the muds, but it may in exceptional
circumstances take place in the sea-water itself, and then cause the
accumulation of hydro-sulphuric acid and sulphides in solution, as in the
Black Sea, there being insufficient ferruginous matter in such instances —
to combine with the sulphur, and also a deficiency of oxygen. i
=
6th. That the chemical action which takes place between sea-water, decomposing
organic matter, and the iron of marine deposits gives important indications :
as to the mode of formation of sulphide of iron and glauconitic matter,)
in very many geological formations, and in some instances accounts for
the blue colour of many shales and other rocks. Where dead organi
matter, from any source, accumulates in great abundance on the seafloon
it may give rise of phosphatic rocks, oil-producing shales, and petroleum.” £ |
* See Murray, “The Maltese Islands with reference to their Geological Structure, Jowr. Scott. Geog. Mag., vol. vi. p. 461. }
[TION OF SEA-WATER. 501
Total Bases as Sulphates.
| RS ag :
5 33 3 23 8
3 ie SE B 3¢ B
5 5 BA 3 28 3
5 i ce = Ee =
a os A 28 A
| So ee)
0491
0345
D244} 40-233 40-018 +°215 39°988 +245
poos | so-cs1 | 39-642 | +-039 | 39604 | 4-077
|
0704 | 39-916 39°798 +118 39-932 —-016
|
jonate).
|
| Total Bases as Sulphates. Seen
a Ang
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} Lala = Oo as Oo to “a
Pes ee |) oe | ee a | & | Se
ee ga 3 25 s 2 :
beat Siew)! ie BS | & 2 | 3
& 86 aie
———— ——EEEeEE— ————————EE
36678 | 36°388 | +-290 | 36-388 | +-290 | 28°00 | 2-00
39-660 | 39°157 | +503 | 39°781 | --071 | 30°70 | 2:25
the Marine Station, Granton.
303
CHEMICAL CHANGES IN THE COMPOSITION OF SEA-WATER.
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<a
DR JOHN MURRAY AND MR ROBERT IRVINE ON THE CHEMICAL CHANGES IN THE COMPOSITION OF SEA-WATER. 501
TABLE I.*
Water associated with Mud in Granton Quarry [collected February 9, 1892].
Results in Grammes per Kilogramme.
Density.] Halogen (as Chlorine). Alkalinity as Carbonate of Lime (CaCO,). Sulphurie Acid (SOs). Lime (CaO). Total Bases as Sulphates.
g S| 3 3 , heel 2 |e] ¢ EE 3 | =e |g EE 8 32 g a 5
| z Ba | [ea] 8 | a a A 66) 4 aa A é8 A a 35 A Ee a
Ist | 1025-24 | 18-699 | 18-843] —144] -4231 | 1175] +3056 1167 | +3064 | 2:0832 | 2°1811}| — 0979 | 271645 | —-0813 “6149 “5708 +0446 “5658 +0491
2nd| 1026-24 | 18°698 | 18°843 | — 150} -4739 | 1175) + 3564 1167) +-3572 | 2-0394 | 2°1811) —-1417 | 21638 | — 1244 6001 | “5703 +0298 “5656 + 0345 As .
3rd | 1024-80 | 18°515 | 18-529 | —-014] -5913 | 1156] +4757 | 1155] + “4758 | 1:9025 | 2°1447] 2422 | 2°1432 | —-2407 “5847, | “5608 + °0239 5603 +0244 40°233 40°018 +°215 39988 +7245
4th} 1024:56 | 18-337 | 18°355| --018] 6880 | 1145) +°5735 | 1144) +5736 [17975 21247 | —°3272 | 271226 | — 8251 5555 *5555 o00 +5549 + 0006 39°681 39°642 +039 397604 +°077
5th] 1024-66 | 18-489 | 18-427 | +062] -6879 | 1150) +5726 | 1154 | +°5722 11-7095 | 2°1330| — 4285 | 2:1402 | — 4307 “4891 | "5576 — 0685 5595 — 0704 39°916 39°798 +118 39932 —*016
Note.—In one of the waters from the quarry mud, the total carbonic acid found in 1 litre = 0°6500 grammes.
> Carbonic acid calculated from the alkalinity = 0:3414
Difference = 0°3086 (which is nearly bicarbonate).
TABLE II.
Water associated with Mud in Granton Quarry [collected August 13, 1892].
Results in Grammes per Kilogramme.
Density.] Halogen (as Chlorine). | Alkalinity as Carbonate of Lime (CaCO,). Sulphuric Acid (SO,). Lime (CaO). Total Bases as Sulphates. ee
A 3 : 5 , ae 3 ag 5 ag B 5 A aq : &
3 Ba| 3 gal € |eei ¢ ; | 23 8 as 3 Ba 3 Ee a Ra S 8 8 | Sih
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Ist | 1022747 | 16°856 | 16°848 | + -008 | 1:2842 | 1050) +1°1792 | -1050 | +1°1792 | 1:1022| 1-9503) — -8481| 1:9513 | — ‘5859 5098 +0761 5101 +°0758 | 36°678 36°388 +290 36°388 +290 28°00 2700
2nd} 1024:25 | 18-396 | 18°180) + -266 | 1:3787 | -1130 | +1-2607 | *1146 | +1-2591 | 1-0889 | 2:0987 | -1-0148| 21295 | -1:0456] 5344 +5486 — 0142 “5567, — 0223 | 39°660 39°157 +503 39°731 - 071 30°70 2725
8rd | 1024°56 | 18°691 | 18°355 | + 886 | 1-3449 | 1144 | +1-2805 | "1165 | +1-2284] 1°1075 | 2-1248 | -1-0178| 2-1687 | —1:0562] -5185 “5554 — 03869 “5656 = ‘0471 | 40-182 397643 +7539 40°368 — 186 25°26 1°66
4th | 1024°84 | 18-901 | 18°558 | + 843 | 1-2603 | 1157 | +1°1446 | -1178 | +1-1425 | 1-1612 | 21483 | — -9871] 21880 | -1:0268] -5206 “5616 — ‘0410 5719 = 0513 | 40:594 40°081 +513 40°822 — 228 741 1°66
5th | 1025-96 | 19-755 | 19-362] + -393] 1-2998 | 1207 | +1-1021 | +1231 +1:0997 | 1°2186 | 2-2414 | —1-0228 | 2:2868 | -1-:0682] 4908 “5859 — 0956 5978 — 1075 | 42°384 41-817 +517 42666 — "332 21-05 1°66
6th | 1025°94 | 19°856 | 19-348 | + 508] 1°1833 | 1206 | +1:0127 | -1287 | +1-0096 | 11733 | 2-2897 | —1-0664| 2:2985 | —1-1252| -3757 “5855 — "2098 “6022 — "2265 | 42-489 41-787 +°702 | 427884 — "395 13°84 1°36
Note.—In the 4th portion, the total carbonic acid found = 0°5954 grammes.
Carbonic acid calculated from the alkalinity = 05545
Difference = 0:0409 extra carbonic acid.
* All the analyses in connection with this paper have been conducted, under our supervision, by Mr W.S. Anprrson, F.C.S., Chemist at the Marine Station, Granton.
507
CHEMICAL CHANGES IN THE COMPOSITION OF SEA-WATER.
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( 509 )
XXIV.—The Anatomy and Relations of the Eurypteride. By Matcotm Laurin,
B.Sc., B.A., F.L.S. Communicated by R. H. Traquair, M.D., F.R.S., F.R.S.E.
(With Two Plates.)
(Read February 20, 1893.)
Though a great deal has been written on the Eurypteride, and many points of their
anatomy elucidated in the brilliant memoirs of Huxtry and Satter, Hatt, Woopwarp,
Scumivt,* &c., nevertheless many points of morphological importance remain obscure.
This is perhaps to be attributed to the fact that nearly all the writers on this group have
treated them rather from the systematic than the morphological standpoint. In dealing
with remains so fragmentary and obscure as the majority of these fossils are, the value
of some theory as to their relations among recent forms is enormous, both as suggesting
points to be looked for and aiding in the interpretation of structures observed. The
greater part of the work on this group was done before the arachnid relationship of
Limulus was fully appreciated, and it isin the light of a possible relationship to this form,
and also to the lower orders of terrestrial Arachnida, that it seemed to me to be worth
while to revise the anatomy of the group. It has been necessary to include a certain
amount of what is already well known in the description of the different genera, and I
have taken special care to confirm, as far as possible, points which seemed to me to rest
on insufficient grounds.
The result of my researches has been to confirm me in the idea that these forms, as
well as Limulus, must be included in the Arachnida, and also to suggest a new view of
the relation of the different orders of Arachnida to each other. The anatomy and de-
velopment of the recent forms has been studied in this connection, but the detailed results
of that investigation are not included in this paper, as it seemed more fitting to publish
them elsewhere.
The chief public collections of these fossils which I have examined are those in the
British Museum, the Geological Museum Jermyn Street, the Woodwardian Museum in
Cambridge, and the Edinburgh Museum, including the recent valuable acquisition of Mr
Power's collection. I have also had the privilege of examining the large private col-
lection of Dr Hunter of Braidwood. I am glad to have this opportunity of expressing
my thanks to all those with whom I have come in contact in the course of this work
for the invariable courtesy and assistance which I have met with.
* Houxiey and Satrer, Mem. Geol. Surv., Mon. i. ; Hatt, Nat. Hist. of New York, vol. iii.; WoopwaRp, Monograph
of Merostomata, Palzontograph. Soc., 1866-1878 ; Scumipt, Mem. Acad. Imp. St Petersb., vol. xxxi.
VOL. XXXVII. PART II. (NO. 24). 4H
510 MR MALCOLM LAURIE ON THE
I, SLIMontra.
It has seemed to me advisable to commence with this form, because I have been able,
owing to its greater robustness and large size, to make out its anatomy in greater detail
than that of the other members of this group. The principal locality for this genus is
Lesmahagow, where it occurs at times in considerable abundance. A metastoma, figured
by Saurer,* from the Ludlow rocks of Leintwardine, as part of Hurypterus punctatus,
is much like that of Slimonia in form, and Henperson ft refers some fragments from the
Pentland Hills to this genus, but in neither locality have good specimens been found, ;
Though the general anatomy is well enough known, a short recapitulation of the main
facts may not be out of place here. Viewed from the dorsal aspect, the body is seen to
consist of a large carapace, followed by twelve free segments, and terminated by a pointed
telson. The carapace is sub-rectangular in this form, with a curved anterior and straight
posterior margin, and bears two pairs of eyes. The lateral eyes, placed at the front
corners of the carapace, are large, ovoid, and indistinctly facetted. The marginal position
is common to this genus, and Pterygotus ; Kurypterus, Stylonurus, &c., having the lateral _
eyes on the dorsal surface of the carapace. The central eyes, or ocelli, which are very small |
and not facetted, are placed close together near the centre of the carapace. The anterior
margin of the carapace is bent over on to the under surface, and the same was probably
the case with the lateral margins.
The first seven free segments of the body are represented by more or less band-like |
tergites, united by a soft membrane with the corresponding sternites, The last five
segments, however, have no, distinct tergite, but are cylindrical sclerites, considerably
longer and narrower than those of the anterior segments. The body terminates in a telson,
which is moderately broad at the base, expands slightly about a quarter of the way down,
and then contracting rapidly, ends in a long pointed spine. This spine is triangular in
section, and has far more the appearance of a weapon of offence or defence than merely an
ornamental termination to the body.
Turning now to the ventral surface (fig. 9), the anatomy becomes less simple. In_
the region of the carapace we find a number of appendages and the sub-cordate meta-
stoma. The metastoma appears to have been attached in the middle line, and to have
extended in front and at the sides over the jaw-like bases of the posterior limbs, which
thus worked in a more or less closed chamber. This arrangement has a functional
parallel in Thelyphonus among recent arachnids, in which the cheliceree and the mouth
are shut in behind, and on the ventral side by the fused bases of the large second pair of
appendages. The metastoma is always more or less heart-shaped, the anterior margin
being deeply notched. The shape varies in different genera and species of Eurypterids,
y
* Mem. Geol. Surv., Mon. i. pl. xi. fig. iv. + Tr. Ed. Geol. Soc., iii.
ANATOMY AND RELATIONS OF THE EURYPTERIDA. 511
but it seems always present, and is one of the most characteristic structures of the group.
The basal joints (coxze) of the last pair of legs—the ‘‘ ectognaths” or “ swimming feet,”—
which lie immediately under the margins of the metastoma, are retort-shaped, and armed
with teeth along what would be the broken-off neck of the retort. They constitute the
most powerful members of the five pairs of biting organs with which the animal was
furnished. To the postero-external angle of the coxa is attached the leg, which consists,
as far as I could ascertain, of six joints, the first four of which are short, and articulate
somewhat obliquely with each other. The penultimate joint is long and rectangular, and
bears at its distal end the oval terminal joint, and also, towards the inner margin, a small
sub-triangular piece, which is probably a modified spine.
This appendage is always described as a swimming organ, but I am inclined to doubt
the correctness of this interpretation of its function. The Eurypteride appear to me,
from their general build, more fitted for crawling than swimming; and I am inclined to
explain this appendage as having been used by the animal to get a firm hold on the
bottom, and probably also for digging out sand and covering itself, in much the same
way that Portunus uses its very similar pair of appendages.
The three legs next in front of the ectognaths resemble each other very closely, and
need not be described separately. Fig. 1 may be taken as typical of them. Here we
have again the basal joint with teeth along its inner margin and a six-jointed appendage,
the joints of which bear spines attached to the anterior margin. The only hitherto unde-
scribed point is the presence of a small process, articulated at the posterior end of the
tooth-bearing edge (fig. 1, epc). Whether this structure, which corresponds to the
epicoxite of Limulus (fig. 12, epc) and Scorpio, existed on all the appendages I am unable
to say, as it is only visible in exceptionally well preserved detached appendages.
Anterior to these three pairs of crawling legs or ‘‘ endognaths” comes a pair which appear
to be specially modified for a tactile function (fig. 2). This pair of appendages, first
described by Dr Woopwarp, and termed by him “ antenne,” are undoubtedly post-oral
in position, as the basal joint is armed with teeth. To the basal joint is attached an
elongate sub-triangular second joint, which is succeeded by four sub-cylindrical joints,
which gradually diminish in width. This makes the appendage consist of six joints in
all. Dr Woopwarp describes and figures it as consisting of eight joints, but I think he
has been misled by crumplings of the surface. In its normal position this appendage lies
directed backwards across the others (fig. 9), and is on this account not easily seen in
situ. It resembles very closely the corresponding pair of appendages in Phalangium, and
probably had the same tactile function. In other recent forms, e.g. Thelyphonus, a similar
function is performed by the third pair of appendages, and it is possible that these
appendages in Slimonia may prove to be also the third pair.
The most anterior pair of appendages, corresponding to the pincers of Pterygotus, has
hitherto not been described. It is preoral in position, and consists of a small pair of
chelicerze (Pl. I. fig. 3). This pair of appendages is indistinctly shown in a specimen in
the British Museum, and in one specimen in the collection of Dr Hunrsr of Braidwood
512 MR MALCOLM LAURIE ON THE
a detached chelicera may be seen at some distance from the animal, but in neither of these
specimens is the structure sufficiently distinct to place their existence beyond doubt ; and
it was not until I procured a specimen which I could ‘‘ develop,” that I was able to
demonstrate their existence and position to my own satisfaction. This specimen |
procured from Mr J. Grecory, the well-known dealer in minerals and fossils. It
probably came from TENNaANT’s collection, but of this I cannot be sure, and I found after-
wards that the other side of the same slab is in the Geological Museum, Jermyn Street.
The specimen shows the appendages from the dorsal aspect, the carapace having been
shoved off and lying a little distance in front and upside down. The walking legs are not
distinctly shown, being much crushed together, and the position of the tactile appendages,
lying as they do below the walking legs, can only just be made out. The position of the
coxee of the legs, however, is sufficiently distinct, and judicious excavation in front of
them, and a little to one side of the middle line, exposed one of the cheliceree (fig. 3).
The first joint cannot be distinctly made out, but the second and third joints forming the
pincers are quite clear. The pincers are broad at the base, and the two halves are strongly
curved, so that they do not meet along their whole length, but only at the points, and
there are traces of what may have been teeth along the inner margin of the two rami.
They would seem to have lain outside the coxee of the other appendages, as the excavation
reached a depth of nearly 4 mm. at their apex. The dimensions of the appendage
in my specimen are as follows :—
Length of second joint of chelicera, . : : ‘ 22 mm.
Length of pincers, ‘ ; : ‘ : ; 1Or 2
Breadth at base of pincers, ; ; ; : j i epee
The discovery of this appendage makes the thoracic appendages agree in number with
those of other EKurypterids, and also with those of Arachnids in general.
The edges of the carapace were bent round on to the ventral surface along the anterior
margin, and probably also at the sides. Fig. 4 shows a structure which is found asso-
ciated with Slimonia, and probably represents the central part of the epistoma, a structure
which is best shown in Pterygotus (v. p. 515). It appears not to have been very strong,
as it is somewhat deformed and wrinkled. Whether any ventral sclerites existed between
the bases of the legs is not known, but is rendered probable by the form of the coxe of
the legs, which would leave a certain space vacant between their attachments to the body,
and would seem to need some fulcrum on which to turn.
When we come to the ventral surface of the free segments of the body, the most
conspicuous point at first is that the number of segments appears less by one than when
counted on the dorsal side. ‘This is due to the absence of ventral sclerites on the first
two segments, their place being taken by the large genital plate or operculum. This
operculum consists of a pair of plates and a median lobe (PI. I. fig. 5). These plates
are attached by their straight anterior margins so close behind the metastoma that they
were originally described as part of it. A triangular area is marked off from the main
portion of each plate by a furrow which runs obliquely outwards and forwards from near
ANATOMY AND RELATIONS OF THE EURYPTERID. 513
the base of the median lobe to the anterior margin of the operculum. The other two
sides of this triangular area are bounded respectively by the anterior margin and the
suture which runs down the middle line. These two triangular areas may represent the
paired sternite of the first abdominal segment, the remaining portions of the plates
representing the appendages. If this is a correct interpretation, the appendages must
have been very firmly attached to this sternite, as I do not remember to have ever seen
a fracture along this line. ‘The outer and posterior margins of the plates are strengthened
by a thickened border. The median lobe is undoubtedly genital in function, and appears
in two distinct forms. In the first of these (fig. 5) the organ terminates at its free end in
three sharp points. This form is considered by Dr Woopwarp to belong to the female,
as he has found it associated with the eggs (Parka decipiens). This association appears not
very conclusive, as the remains of these organisms are often crowded together very closely.
The other form of median lobe (PI. II. fig. 8) terminates in a more or less truncated cone
which is marked by two or three deep furrows, which appear to me due to its having
been eversible. The difference in the number of furrows and in the form of the end
would in this case be due to the different extent to which it was protruded in different
eases. Dr Woopwarp’s interpretation of this structure, however, is different.* He thinks
that there are three similar plates, each with a median lobe lying one on the top of
another, the end of each projecting a little beyond that of the one above it. His further
arguments for the existence of more than one genital operculum are based on the
presence on one slab of two opercula of the first type lying close beside one another along
with what may be a portion of a third. Further, some of the specimens show scale
markings on the surface of the plates, while others do not, and he suggests that these
markings were only present on the uppermost plate. My reasons for dissenting from his
views are as follows :—In the first place, the structure is almost certainly connected with
_ reproduction, and it does not seem to me probable that a reproductive organ would be
repeated two or three times in forms so highly organised as the Eurypterids. Secondly,
if there were three plates, as Dr Woopwarp suggests, two of them must have
been attached to the same segment, as only two segments are present in the portion
of the body covered by the operculum. ‘Thirdly, it seems to me very unlikely that
the three plates and median lobes should fit so accurately as to show no sign of their
existence, except at the apex of the lobe, even in obliquely crushed specimens. If my
view that the genital operculum is single is correct, it follows that the presence of two
specimens of it on the same slab is purely a coincidence. This is not so improbable as
might appear at first sight, for Slimonia seems to have been gregarious, one slab in
Dr Honrer’s collection showing six or seven large specimens lying inextricably mixed
within a space of less than four feet square. The preservation of markings on the remains
of these animals seems to me to depend so much on the details of fossilization, and
perhaps also on the condition of the animal at death, that their presence on some
Specimens, and absence on others, is not of much weight as an argument.
* Loe. cit., p. 116.
514 MR MALCOLM LAURIE ON THE
If, then, as I have tried to show, the genital operculum was a single structure, the
second free segment has still to be accounted for. Fig. 5 shows a portion of a specimen
in the Woodwardian Museum, in which a structure closely resembling the branchial
leaflets figured by Dr Woopwarp (pl. xix. figs. 3 and 4) can be seen through the
genital operculum at one side, I have never found any trace of such a structure on
detached genital plates, and am therefore inclined to consider that it was attached to the
soft skin of the body. Fig. 6 is a specimen from Dr Hunter’s collection, which, I believe,
represents this portion of the body. One branchial leaflet is seen on the left and portions
of four on the right side of the figure. The structure connecting the two sets had to me
the appearance of a membrane, somewhat wrinkled and stretched. I ought perhaps to
state, that Professor Youna, to whose kindness I am indebted for permission to describe
and figure this interesting specimen, differs entirely from me in his interpretation of it,
and considers it to be the inner surface of a limb, with the marks of muscle attachments.
These branchial leaflets are unsymmetrically cordate in form, being deeply cleft at what
was apparently their point of attachment. The margin is strengthened by a cord-
like thickening, and the surface covered by branching ridges, which radiate out from the
base of the cleft, and probably represent the course taken by the blood-vessels.
The succeeding segments have well-developed sternites extending across the whole
width of the body, the posterior margin of each being strengthened by a broad border
exactly like that of the genital operculum. In the majority of specimens there is no
trace of appendages on these segments, but one or two specimens have yielded evidence
enough to make the structure and arrangement of these appendages fairly clear. The
specimen in the Woodwardian Museum (PI. I. fig. 5), which has been cited above as show-
ing branchial lamellee underlying the genital operculum, shows also the appendage of the
segment next behind the operculum, 7.e., the third free segment. This is seen to consist
of a pair of plates resembling those of the genital operculum in general structure, but _
differmg from the genital operculum in the absence of a median lobe, and in the fact
that the plates overlap.each other in the middle line. A branchial lamella can be seen
apparently underlying the plate on the left side of the figure. In a specimen in the
British Museum (PI. II. fig. 8)the plate-like appendages are not shown, but traces of branchial
lamelle are visible on the fourth and sixth free segments. Finally, a specimen in the
Jermyn Street Museum (PI. II. fig. 7) shows, lying alongside the fifth free segment, the
remains of a plate-like appendage which shows traces of a branchial lamella attached to it.
The appendage shown in this last specimen agrees with the one shown in fig. 5 in
having a broad, thickened border. From its size it would have extended about one-third
across the segment, and from its unsymmetrical shape must have been one of a pair.
From a careful comparison of these specimens, and from slight traces on many others, I
have come to the conclusion that the abdominal appendages of Slimonia consisted of a
series of plate-like structures (Pl. II. fig. 9), probably four in number, which were attached
to the anterior margins of their respective segments, and each of which bore on the side
next the body at least one, and probably more, branchial lamellae. These plates decreased
ANATOMY AND RELATIONS OF THE EURYPTERIDA. 515
in width from’ those on the third segment, which overlap each other in the middle line,
to those on the sixth, each of which only occupied one-third of the breadth of the
segment, and which were probably placed at the outer sides. The evidence against there
having been similar appendages on the seventh free segment is purely negative, and,
therefore, with forms like this, not very conclusive. Comparison, however, with the
recent forms (Limulus and Scorpio) which seem to be nearly related to these fossils,
makes it, @ prior, probable that only six of the free segments bore appendages. The
cylindrical form and reduced width of the last five segments renders it highly improbable
that they bore appendages.
In fig. 9 I have attempted a restoration of Slimonia from the ventral side, showing
the position and form of the various appendages.
PTERYGOTUS.
The resemblances in most respects among the Eurypterids are so great that it will only
be necessary, in the treating of the succeeding forms, to mention the points in which
they differ from the normal type.
The carapace in Pterygotus is semicircular, and the compound eyes are marginal, a
small pair of ocelli being also present near the middle of the carapace. The body is less
differentiated into two regions than in Shmonia or Hurypterus, the abdomen passing into
the tail with very little constriction.
The sclerites call for no special description, being simple and band-like, but the telson,
occurring, as it does, in various forms, demands a few words. The type most like that of
Slimonia, and probably the more primitive, is that found in Pt. anglicus and others.
In these the telson is somewhat spatulate, ending in a short spine. ‘This form of telson is
usually strengthened by a longitudinal ridge down the middle line. The other extreme
in form is found in Pt. bilobus, &c., in which the telson is oval in form, and deeply
cleft at the posterior end. Some curious forms have been described from the Waterlime
Group in America. Pt. globicaudatus* has a simple round telson, while Pt. quadratr-
cdudatus has, as its name implies, a more or less square one, slightly cleft in the
middle of its almost straight posterior margin. Personally I do not feel quite sure that
these peculiar forms may not be due to fracture or folding, and this especially with Pt.
globicaudatus. The forms with bilobed telson—which might be fairly separated from the
rest as a sub-genus, were it not that the frequent absence of the tail would make such an
arrangement highly inconvenient—are entirely confined to the Upper Silurian, and
include almost all the forms from that horizon, the acute-tailed ones being, with the
exception of Pt. acuticaudatust and Pt. Cummingsu,t which may prove to be one
Species, confined to the Old Red and Devonian.
* PoHLMANN, Bull. Buff. Soc. Nat. Sci., vol. iv. + PoHLMANN, loc. cit.
~ Grote, Bull. Buff. Soc. Nat. Sez., vol. iii.
516 MR MALCOLM LAURIE ON THE
When we come to the under surface, the first point to note is the much better develop-
ment of the epistoma. This structure (PI. IT. fig. 10) was figured and described by HuxtEy
and Saurer,* but they were probably misled by the direction of the sculpture on it, and
thought that it lay with the straight margin towards the front—a mistake which was
corrected by Scumipr.t The scale markings on it having their convex side directed for-
wards, contrary to the almost universal rule among Eurypterids, would seem to indicate
that we have here what is morphologically a portion of the carapace bent over. ScHMIDT
describes this structure as consisting of three pieces; and in consideration of the beauti-
fully preserved and abundant material he has had the opportunity of examining, one is
almost bound to accept his description as correct. On the other hand, though some of
the specimens I have seen have appeared to support his description, others have been
fractured along quite different lines.
The first pair of appendages, the cheliceree or claws, are well known in Pterygotus.
They have been described as consisting of a large number of joints ; but though there are
often markings resembling articulations on the proximal portion, yet these show such a
complete absence of similarity in different specimens that I believe them to be due to
crumplings of the undoubtedly somewhat thin cuticle. These appendages are constantly
found detached, and I think they were very likely retractile to a certain extent within
the carapace, as are the cheliceree of Thelyphonus among recent forms. If this was the
case, there would, of course, be no properly-developed articulation between them and the —
epistoma, and they would easily become detached. I believe them to have consisted of
three joints—a long, straight, proximal one, and the two distal ones, which form the
toothed pincers. These appendages, unlike those of Slimonia, were probably prehensile — |
rather than masticatory, and this function may account for the absence of spines on the —
other limbs, which are purely ambulatory.
The next four pairs of appendages (PI. IT. fig. 11) are far simpler and—in proportion to —
the size of the animal—smaller than in Slimonia, and the first pair seems not in any way
different from those following. The basal joint or coxa is, as usual, provided with a row
of teeth along its median edge, and these teeth are stronger than in Slimonia. At the
posterior angle of the tooth-bearing margin there is a well-developed epicoxite, which
may be compared with that of Limulus (Pl. Il. fig. 12). The rest of the appendage
consists of apparently six cylindrical joints, tapering towards the end, and destitute of
anything in the way of spines.
The last pair of feet or ectognaths do not differ in any important respects from those
of Slimonia. An exception to the usual simple type of appendage in this genus occurs m
Pt. osiliensis,t in which the joints of the limb are flattened and almost foliaceous, with a
single series of spines along one margin. The last pair of limbs in this form also
differ from the usual type,§ the terminal joint being smaller and less expanded. This
* Mem. Geol. Surv., Mon. i. pl. i. fig. i. + Mem. Acad. St Petersb., vol. xxxi. p. 71.
+ Ibid., i. pl. vii. fig. 9. § Ibid., pl. iv. fig. 7.
ANATOMY AND RELATIONS OF THE EURYPTERID. 517
may very likely be a more primitive form than the ordinary one; and if it be so, it
would point to the bilobate telson as the original type.
The metastoma has the same position and relations as in Slimonia, but is broader in
proportion to its length, agreeing in this respect with the broader form of the earapace.
The genital operculum has fundamentally the same structure as in Slimonia, but the
median lobe never shows such elaboration. It appears in two chief forms ; but as most
of the specimens in which it can be made out are too fragmentary to be specifically
determined, it is impossible to say whether the difference is merely sexual or not. The
short form of the central lobe is shown in fig. 13, which probably belongs to Pt. bilobus.
It is very short and broad, and the plates are also broad in proportion to their length.
The other type (fig. 14) is long and narrow, with a ridge down the middle and ending in
a triangular point. This form is found with P#. bilobus, and in one case (fig. 14) is
associated with an unusually large second abdominal tergite, which suggests that it apper-
tained to a female.
The series of branchial lamellee underlying the genital operculum has been figured by
Woopwarp,* and I have been unable to add anything of importanee to his description.
Fig. 14 is part of the specimen which he figures, and shows these lamelle. Whether
there was a plate-like appendage behind the genital operculum, as in Slimonia, is not
quite certain. Poui~mMannt figures what appears to be one in Pt. Buffaloensis, and the
specimen, which shows the branchial lamelle (fig. 14), appears to have a second plate
lying partly over the genital operculum (ix). The presence or absence of appendages
on the succeeding segments is even more obscure. Scumipr figures a whole series in Pt.
osiliensis similar to those in Hurypterus Fischert, but his figures do not seem to me quite
conclusive. He further denies the existence of abdominal sclerites ; a statement in which
Tam unable to agree with him.
I have not been able to fit in the appendages figured by Dr Woopwarp on p. 91, and
doubtfully referred by SaLreR to Pterygotus. They certainly appear to belong to some
member of the order, but do not resemble what is known of the abdominal appendages of
this or other forms.
EURYPTERUS.
There is less to be added to what is already known of Eurypterus than was the case
in the two preceding genera, partly because the specimens are as a rule less well preserved,
but chiefly because its anatomy has been so well described by Scumipt.{ My observa-
tions, therefore, will necessarily take the form of a criticism of some of the points
described by Scumipt, though, as I have not had an opportunity of examining the
magnificent collection in the Reval Museum, I feel that considerable caution is necessary
in this.
The most conspicuous points in which Eurypterus differs from the two preceding
* Loc. cit., pl. xii. fig, 1, d. + Bull. Buff. Soc. Nat. Sci., vol. v. pl. ii. { Loc. cit., p. 73.
VOL. XXXVII. PART II. (NO. 24). AI
518 MR MALCOLM LAURIE ON THE
genera are, the position of the eyes, which are placed on the dorsal surface of the cara-
pace, and the long spine-like telson. The appendages are much the same in general form
as those of Pterygotus, but have certain well marked points of difference. The last pair
have their proximal joints narrower and more cylindrical, while the last two joints are
proportionally more expanded in the majority of cases. Of the four pairs of walking
legs, the first three resemble one another closely, being simple, somewhat short sub-cylin-
drical limbs, bearing spines on the last four joints. The fourth pair differ from the others
in being considerably longer and having no spines except at the end of the limb, which
terminates in three spines. This differentiation of the fourth walking leg (fifth appen-
dage) seems characteristic of the genus, and constitutes a step towards such forms as
Stylonurus.
The first pair of appendages has in this genus, as in Slimonia, long remained obscure.
Ha.u* says, ‘In two instances I have seen some indication of a small appendage in this
position, but a further examination does not offer any confirmation of this view.”
Scumiptt was the first to describe it as actually existing, and he makes it out as a pair of
jointed filiform appendages lying between the basis of the first pair of walking legs. He /
has apparently only found them in one specimen, but judging from his figure
(pl. iii. fig. 1a) they seem clearly enough shown. Not having seen the specimen in
question, I am unable to offer any criticism on his interpretation of this structure, but if
he is correct in his description it differs very markedly from anything I have been able to
find in other specimens. The first example of what I believe to be the preoral appendages
was pointed out to me by Mr B. N. Pracu, and is the specimen of Hurypterus scorpioides
ficured in Dr Woopwarp’s monograph (pl. xxx. fig. 9), and now in the Geological
Museum, Jermyn Street,—not, as stated in the explanation of the plate, in the British
Museum. In the figure, and more clearly in the original specimen, may be seen what
appear to me a pair of small chelate structures, lying with their apices close behind the
front margin of the metastoma. The one on the right-hand side of the middle line is
most distinct, and measures 17 mm. in length, the pincers occupying 10 mm. of this.
The only other specimen in which I have been fortunate enough to see these appendages
is the specimen of FZ. conicus which I have figured (pl. iii. fig. 14) in my paper on ‘ Some
Eurypterids from the Pentlands.”{ In this specimen the bases of the five pairs of limbs
can be made out, and lying between the most anterior pair is a pair of conical depressions,
the apices of the cones being directed backward. ‘These structures, which measure some —
3 mm. in length, are not sufticiently well preserved for one to say definitely that they
are chelate, but their general form, taken together with the structures described above
in EL. scorpioides, and the presence of chelate preoral appendages in both Pterygotus and
Slimonia, justify one, I think, in assuming that such was the case.
If my interpretation of these structures is correct, it would seem to be necessary to
separate #. Fischeri from E. scorpioides and E. conicus as at least a distinct genus. —
* Loc. cit., p. 396, footnote. + Loc. cit., pl. iii. figs. 1 and la.
t Trans. Roy. Soc, din, vol. xxxvi.
ANATOMY AND RELATIONS OF THE EURYPTERIDA. 519
Such a change in classification, however, based upon structures so seldom preserved,
would, even if logically correct, be practically a great disadvantage, as it would be
impossible to say to which section any Kurypteri, other than the above three, should
be relegated. Altogether it seems more advisable to wait until one is compelled by
a large mass of evidence before making a change which would certainly be trouble-
some, and may prove to be unnecessary.
The ventral surface of the abdomen is described by Scumint as being covered by five
pairs of plate-like appendages, each pair being united in the middle line. He further
states that there are no ventral hard parts except these plates, and the ends of the dorsal
sclerites, which are bent round on to the ventral surface. I have unfortunately not been
able to confirm his observations, and am inclined to doubt the absence of ventral sclerites,
as many comparatively well preserved specimens show no sign of a line down the centre
of the ventral plates. I do not, however, feel at all confident of the correctness of my
nterpretation of these structures, as it is evident from his figures that Scumipt had very
auch better material on which to make his observations than has fallen to my lot.
STYLONURUS.
I have been unable to make out any new details of the structure of this form. The
form of the body is simple, and more like that of Pterygotus than Eurypterus, though
the dorsal position of the eyes ally it to the latter. The inturned portion on the under
side of the carapace is remarkably broad, and, owing to the chronic absence of the limbs,
is not unfrequently well shown. The presence of well-marked epimera on the posterior
seoments in some forms, reminds one of some of the Hemiaspide, but the resemblance is
only a superficial one. The form of the two last pairs of legs, which are long and pointed
at the end, and are among the most characteristic structures of the genus, is possibly
derived from Eurypterus through some form like Drepanopterus, though it is also
possible that Stylonurus is descended from an ancestral type in which the last pair of
legs were less modified than in Eurypterus. Of the other appendages comparatively
little is known. Woopwarp in his restoration of this form* figures five pairs of
appendages, the most anterior of which areantenniform. This pair has not, I believe, been
seen, and whether it was distinctly modified for a tactile function, as in Slimonia, or more
closely resembled the other walking limbs, as in Eurypterus, is a matter for conjecture.
A chelate appendage has recently been figured by Hatt and CLARKE? in St. Excelsior,
which they describe as follows (p. 222) :—‘‘ Directly behind the base of the right
member of this pair lies a single joint terminating in a chela, the whole measuring
60mm. in length. ‘The other joints of this appendage do not appear on this specimen,
and it is impossible to determine positively whether this is, as it seems, the terminal
portion of a third gnathopod or is analogous to the chelate antennules of Limulus.”
* Loe. cit., p. 131. + Hawt and Crarks, Geol. Surv. New York, Paleontology, vol. vii.
520 MR MALCOLM LAURIE ON THE
Considering the presence of preoral chelicerze in Slimonia, Pterygotus, and Eurypterus,
I have little hesitation in supporting the latter view and regarding this chela as a preoral
appendage.
I have been unable to ascertain anything new with regard to the other important
genera of Eurypterids :—Dolichopterus,* Drepanopterus,t and Gilyptoscorpius.{ With
regard to the last of these, I can add nothing to Mr PrEacu’s admirable description,
and am happy to find myself in agreement with him on almost every point. I think
it is quite certain that many carboniferous forms are true Eurypteri;§ but that
Glyptoscorpius is a good genus, and perfectly distinct from Eurypterus, admits of
no doubt. Mr Pracu suggests that it had eyes like those of Ewrypterus Scouleri ; but,
if this be so, it is against its having any very near relationship with Scorpio, since
the lateral eyes in Scorpio are marginal in position. The combs and appendages seem to
relate it closely to Scorpio, and therefore, according to my view, to separate it from the
Eurypteridze.
RELATIONS OF THE EURYPTERIDS AMONG THEMSELVES.
The geological record is manifestly so incomplete as regards these forms—all the —
important genera appearing practically simultaneously in the Upper Silurian, while frag-
ments of undetermined relationship occur as low down as the Moffat Shales—that no
deductions as to the phylogenetic relations of the various forms can be made from their
order of appearance. From a morphological standpoint, the family seems to fall into two
sections, determined chiefly by the position of the compound eyes. ‘The first section, in
which the eyes are marginal, contains Pterygotus and Slimonia; the rest of the genera —
falling into the other section, with the eyes on the dorsal surface of the carapace. This
position of the eyes, however, while useful as a classificatory character, is not decisive as to
morphological grade. If, as seems probable, the Eurypterids are to be derived from such
forms as Olenellus, it would seem, at first sight, natural to take those forms which have
the eyes on the dorsal surface of the carapace as the more primitive, and to make
Eurypterus the starting-point for the whole series. It is quite possible, however, that
the free cheeks of the Trilobite correspond to the inturned portion of the carapace in
Eurypterids—the facial suture corresponding to the margin. In this case, the forms with
marginal eyes, such as Pterygotus, are the more primitive. A further argument in
favour of this point of view is that the lateral eyes in the Scorpionidee and Thely-
phonide are marginal in position, and these forms must be derived from some way down
the Eurypterid stem. Other considerations appear to me to give greater probability to
the view that Pterygotus is the more primitive form.
In the first place, the form of the body, with markedly differentiated tail segments,
* Hatt, loc. cit., 414. + Lauvrts, loc. cit. t Pracn, Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin., vol. xxx.
§ Such forms as E. mansfieldi, E. mazonensis, and E. stylus, from the carboniferous rocks of Pennsylvania (HALL,
Second Geol. Surv., Pennslyvania, vol. ppp), are undoubtedly true Eurypterids. E. Scabrosus (WoopwarD, Geol. Mag.,
Dec. 3, vol. iv. p. 481) seems less certain, as the limbs are very different from the normal Eurypterid type.
—
ANATOMY AND RELATIONS OF THE EURYPTERIDA. 521
which is characteristic of Eurypterus, seems to be more advanced and further removed
from the Trilobite type than forms like Pterygotus, in which the distinction between
body and tail segments is not distinctly marked. ‘The only Silurian Eurypterus known
to me in which the distinction between body and tail is not well marked is the little
Z. conicus ;* and this form, which furthermore has the eyes remarkably near the margin
of the carapace, may very probably prove to be the young of some of the larger forms
from the same locality. On the other hand, it may be said that Stylonurus, which is
almost certainly derived from the Eurypterid stem through forms related to Dolichopterus,
or more likely Drepanopterus, has much the same generalised form of body as Pterygotus.
The limbs of Stylonurus, however, are highly specialised.
Another argument which has influenced me in favour of Pterygotus, as representing
the form most nearly related to the primitive Eurypterid, is drawn from the appendages.
The first pair is, it is true, remarkably different from the common type in the family, as
shown in Slimonia and Eurypterus, and has probably been independently modified, while
‘four pairs of appendages, however, which lie between these extremes seem to me to yield
very strong argument in favour of my view, inasmuch as they are all alike, and all
simple in construction, without any elaborate development of spines. In Slimonia the
ve last pair have no claim to being primitive over those of the same two genera. The
second pair of appendages are highly modified, apparently for a tactile function ; while in
Eurypterus, and still more in Stylonurus, the fifth pair differ markedly from the second,
third, and fourth pairs. A further point is the apparently much greater development of
the epicoxite—a structure common to the Eurypterids, Limulus and Scorpio, and there-
fore probably primitive—in Pterygotus than in the other genera. A further argument
for placing Pterygotus below Slimonia and Eurypterus is the lesser degree of develop-
ment of the median lobe of the genital operculum, though, perhaps, the details of
this structure are hardly sufficiently well known to admit of our attaching very much
morphological value to it. '
Whether the bilobed telson, which characterises the majority of Silurian Pterygoti, is
to be regarded as more primitive than the pointed form or not, must remain for the pre-
Sent an open question. I think, however, that the balance of evidence is against so
regarding it, especially if one considers how characteristic of the earlier Trilobites a
poimted telson appears to be. Geological succession gives us no clue to this question,
because, while the bilobed forms are certainly the most numerous in the Silurian, never-
theless we have, in America at all events, contemporaneous forms with pointed telsons.t
It might be argued that, while the advantage of having a weapon at the end of the tail
is manifest, it is difficult to see what is to be gained by substituting a bilobed telson for
the pointed form; but we know far too little of the conditions under which these
creatures lived for such an argument to have much weight. The only advantage which
occurs to one as possibly appertaining to the bilobed form of telson is its greater
efficiency as a swimming organ.
* Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin., vol. xxxyi. + Pontmann, Bull. Buff. Soc. Nat. Sct., vol. iv. ; and Grote, ibid., vol. iii.
522 MR MALCOLM LAURIE ON THE
The genealogical tree which I would suggest for this group is, then, as follows :—
Slimonia, Eurypterus,
Pterygotus,
Drepanopterus.
Stylonurus.
? Trilobite.
Slimonia has differentiated itself from Pterygotus chiefly by the greater development
of its genital organ and by the specialisation of the second pair of appendages for a
tactile function. Along with this it has also acquired, or, more probably, retained, the
short chelicerze, masticatory rather than prehensile in function, which are characteristic of 7
the other forms.
Eurypterus specialises in the position of the eyes, which is common to all the forms
above a, and further, in the form of the tail segments and telson and in the specialisation o
the fifth appendage, which, however, is comparatively slight.
Stylonurus develops from Eurypterus via forms probably most nearly represented
by Drepanopterus, by the greater specialisation of the fifth appendage, and the reduction :
of the sixth appendage from the typical digging foot to a purely crawling one. This may —
indicate more purely littoral habits, or a more active predatory existence, demanding q
rapid locomotion rather than firm anchorage.
RELATIONS OF EURYPTERIDA TO OTHER GROUPS.
In attempting to arrive at some conclusion as to the place in classification of the
Eurypterids, the Geological Record again gives us but little help. The contemporaneous
Arthropoda are for the most part very obscure, and in many cases appear to belong to
well-defined types. Some of these, such as the Scorpions and Pedipalpi, have persisted
almost unchanged till the present day; while those which have died out, such as the
Trilobites and Anthracomarti, afford little information of morphological value, owing
chiefly to their imperfect state of preservation. I have not thought it necessary in the |
following speculations to recapitulate at length the arguments adduced for and against the |
relationship of Limulus to the Arachnida and Eurypterida, as these are well known and
easily accessible.* > |
* LANKBESTER; PACKARD; WoopwARD, &c.
ANATOMY AND RELATIONS OF THE EURYPTERIDA. 523
RELATION TO TRILOBITA.
In our present state of comparative ignorance as to the details of the different
appendages of Trilobites, any attempt at comparing them with Eurypterids must be more
or less superficial. The form of the body presents certain points of resemblance, inasmuch
as it consists of a carapace followed by a number of free segments, and ending in a telson,
The carapace probably corresponds to that of Eurypterus, &c., and shows in some forms
indications in the glabellar furrows of five segments,” or, if one counts the frontal lobe,
of six. The lateral eyes are situated on the dorsal surface ; and unless we consider the
margin of the carapace to be the facial suture, this is, as mentioned above, an argument
for considering EKurypterus as a more primitive form than Pterygotus. If the facial
suture be taken as representing the margin of the carapace, then the free cheeks probably
correspond with the inturned portion. ‘The presence of central eyes must be held as not
yet proven, though | think Woopwarp’st interpretation of the small openings in the
glabella as central eyes is probably correct.
The number of free segments in the lower Trilobites is usually greater than in
Kurypterids, but one sees within the group itself how easily the number of segments in
such comparatively unspecialised forms can be increased or diminished. The structure of
the segments is more important, and here there seems to be very little resemblance
between Trilobites and Eurypterids, as the latter show no trace of pleuree, unless indeed
the epimera of some species of Stylonurus may be regarded as much reduced pleuree,
What is known of the appendages affords little ground for comparison. The maxilla
and palp, described by Woopwarp in Asaphus platycephalus,t are not unlike the first
postoral appendage of Hurypterids. If they correspond to this last, there ought to be a
preoral pair which are probably concealed beneath the hypostoma, which would corre-
spond to the epistoma of Eurypterids. The traces of appendages in Asaphus platy-
cephalus § and Asaphus megistos || show little of importance for comparison. Far more
suggestive is WALCorT’s restoration of Calymene senaria{ with the last larger pair of
thoracic appendages. His restoration of a transverse section of a body segment, however,
shows nothing comparable to what is found in Eurypterids.
It must be remembered, that what little is known as to the anatomy of the Trilobites
is almost entirely based on the more highly specialised forms. If we could get reliable
‘information as to the appendages of such forms as Olenellus or Paradoxides, there would
be some fair chance of comparing them successfully with Eurypterids.
RELATION TO CRUSTACEA.
That the Eurypterids are usually classed with Crustacea, must be ascribed to their
aquatic habit and branchial respiration. It is difficult to free one’s mind of the idea that
* Olenellus Callavei, Lapworth, Geol. Mag., ILI. viii., pl. xv. + Geol. Mag., 1883.
{f Quart. Jour. Geol. Soc., vol. xxvi., 1870. § Biniines, Paleozoic Fossils of Canada,
|| Waxtcorr, Bul. Mus. Comp. Zool., Harvard, 1881. q Ibid.
524 MR MALCOLM LAURIE ON THE
an arthropod which breathes by gills must be a crustacean, but as LANKESTER * and
Cavs have pointed out in the case of Limulus, the morphological value of this fact has —
been greatly overestimated. The branchia of Eurypterids, like those of Limulus, are
constructed on a type unknown among the Crustacea, and further, structures such as
these, which are the product of a physiological necessity, are not of much value as
indicating close relationship. Against the crustacean relationship must be put the segmen-
tation of the body and position of the genital aperture—which does not agree with that —
of any known crustacean—the absence of anything representing the first antennee, the —
chelate structure of the one pair of preoral appendages, and the fact that there is no trace
of the typical crustacean biramous structure in the appendages. The presence of compound
eyes has been urged as a resemblance, but the eyes were most probably constructed on
the same plan as those of Limulus, which have been shownt to be at all events very —
different in type from those of the Crustacea. Further, the Crustacea have all—with the
exception of a few Ostracods—three pairs of appendages specially modified as mouth
organs, and modified in a more or less definite way as mandible and first and second —
maxille. Even in a low form like Apus, though all the thoracic appendages are to some
extent masticatory in function, nevertheless the first three pairs are very different from __
the rest. Of this specialising of the first three pairs of postoral appendages, there is no
trace in the Eurypteride ; and, indeed, instead of the chief masticatory function being
acquired by the first pair, it is always best developed in the last pair.
On the whole, then, there seems very little reason for considering the Eurypterids as _
related at all closely to the Crustacea. If their relationship to the Arachnida be admitted,
as I think it must, the Eurypterids may be considered as intermediate between Crustacea
and Arachnida, in the sense that they are among the most primitive Arachnids, and
therefore, nearer the junction point of the two stems; but that they show any points of
aftinity to the Crustacea beyond the fact that they are arthropods must be considered as at
all events not proven. That the point of union of the two stems was a very much simpler 4
and less specialised form, is very clearly indicated, especially if we regard the nauplius —
larva of Crustacea as possessing any phylogenetic value, nothing at all comparable to i
having been found among other Arthropoda. ‘
LIMULUS.
wg ery
Whatever doubts there may be as to the relation of Eurypterids to other forms, there _
is an almost universal consensus of opinion that they are closely related to Limulus. The
detailed comparison of the two forms has been so thoroughly worked out, that I need
not enter into it here. The only points of importance which I have been able to add to
the resemblance are the existence of preoral cheliceree and abdominal appendages. The
latter differ in Shmonia at all events from those of Limulus, chiefly in not being united
* Quar. Jour. Micr. Sci., vol. xxi. + LanKesrer and Bourne, Quar. Jour. Micr. Sci., vol. xxiii,
a
ANATOMY AND RELATIONS OF THE EURYPTERIDA. 525
in the middle line. Another point of great morphological importance is the fact that
Limulus has a pair of plate-lke appendages on the second abdominal segment. This
would seem to indicate that Limulus branched off from the Kurypterid stem before the
genital operculum was so highly specialised as it is inthe Eurypterids, and, consequently,
before the appendage of the second abdominal segment had become reduced. ‘This is also
hinted at by the absence in Limulus of anything comparable to the central lobe of the
genital operculum. Probably also the metastoma had not reached the high state of
development it has in Kurypterids, and the last pair of legs was less highly specialised.
Limulus, then, represents a more primitive type in almost every respect except the
fusion of the abdominal segments, and is to be related to the Eurypterids not by direct
descent, but through a comparatively unspecialised ancestor. Whether this ancestor is
one of the Trilobites must remain a matter for speculation, but it seems within the bounds
of possibility.
Scorpio.
The relationship of Scorpio to Limulus has long been maintained, and no one who has
studied the articles by Lanxuster, Ciavs, &c., on the subject will have much doubt that
it exists. The relationship of Scorpio to the Eurypterids, however, has never been so
fully dealt with. LankuxsTER points out certain characters which they have in common,
such as the number of body segments, thoracic appendages, &c., and these seem to show
that the point of divergence of Limulus, Scorpio, and Eurypterids must have been before
the fusion of the body segments which we have in Limulus. On the other hand, the
second abdominal segment in Scorpio is well developed, and shows no signs of having
been suppressed by the genital operculum. ‘This would seem to give us a clue to where-
abouts the Scorpions came off from the Eurypterid stem, namely, before the great
development of the genital operculum. The lung-books on the third to sixth abdominal
segments are probably derived, as I have pointed out elsewhere,* by the fusion of the
margins of the abdominal appendages to the ventral surface of the body, much in the way
suggested by Mactxop.t My reasons for holding this view rather than that of Professor
Lankester,{ who has suggested that lamelligerous appendages became invaginated are,
briefly, (1) that to produce the structure shown in the lung-books of young Scorpions, the
appendage prior to invagination would have had to have the branchial lamelle attached
to its anterior surface—a position in which they are not found either in Limulus or
Kurypterids ; and (2) that one can see how the transformation could take place, step by
step, as the animal became more terrestrial in its habits, instead of having to explain it
by a sudden change in the embryonic development, as Professor LankusTER’s hypothesis
demands.
* Zool. Anz., No. 386, 1892. + Arch. de Biol., vol. v. t QJ. M.S. vol. xxv.
VOL. XXXVII, PART II. (NO. 24), 4K
526 MR MALCOLM LAURIE ON THE
OTHER ARACHNIDS.
It is usually taken for granted that once the ancestry of the Scorpion is settled, the
ancestry of all the terrestrial Arachnids is fixed, but there seem to me to be good grounds
for dissenting from this point of view.* As I hope shortly to publish a paper with full
anatomical details of the recent forms, I will only give here a brief resumé of some of the
poimts which seem to me to show a relationship with the Eurypterids.
In Thelyphonus (Pl. I. fig. 15) and Phrynus we have arachnids as primitive in most _
respects as Scorpio. The body consists of a carapace bearing six pairs of limbs on its
under side, and followed by twelve free segments. One chief difference, however, between
this form and Scorpio is that Thelyphonus has, when examined on the ventral surface, —
apparently only five abdominal segments, the ventral portion corresponding to the first two _
tereites being covered by a single plate, beneath which is the aperture of the generative
organs. Thelyphonus further differs from Scorpio in having only two pair of lung-books,
the more anterior of which le beneath the large genital plate, while the second pair lie
beneath the second ventral sclerite, z.e., that belonging to the third segment. Now, this
suppression of the sclerite of the second abdominal segment—its ventral surface being
covered by the genital plate—is exactly what we find in Eurypterids, and very different
from the condition of thingsin Scorpio. Further, if the two pairs of lung-books of Thely-
phonus correspond to the anterior two pairs of Scorpio, then the first pair is shifted from
its proper position on the third segment, and lies right forward in the second. My
interpretation of this—based upon as complete a study of the anatomy and development of —
these forms as the material at my command would permit of—is that in the first pair of
lung-books of Thelyphonus we have the homologues of the pectines of Scorpions, and of
the branchial lamella, found beneath the genital operculum in Slimonia, &c., while the
second pair of lung-books correspond to the first pair of Scorpio, the second sclerite being,
like the first, an appendage, and not part of the body-wall. If this view be correct it
would mean that the Pedipalpi arose after the great development of the genital plate
which is characteristic of Eurypterids. The chief difficulties which this view involves
seem to me to be (1) the resemblance between the lateral eyes of Scorpio and Thely-
phonus, and (2) the fact that it requires lung-books to have been developed from gills
twice over. These difficulties I hope to meet ina future paper. Itis unfortunate that our
knowledge of the Anthracomarti is too fragmentary to enable any deductions to be safely
drawn as to their position.
If the above views are correct, it would tend to separate Glyptoscorpius from the
Eurypteride along with the Scorpions. I do not see any difficulties in the way of this,
* Since the above was written, Mr R. I. Pocock has published a paper on the “Morphology of the Arachnida”
(Ann. and Mag., vol. xi.), in which he advocates the division of the Arachnida into two sub-classes, one which he terms
Ctenophora containing the Scorpiones, and the other—the Lipoctena—containing the rest of the class. This division
entirely agrees with my views, but it is unfortunate that he should have chosen Ctenophora as the name of a sub-
class, as it is already accepted as the’name for a class of the Coelenterata.
-
ANATOMY AND RELATIONS OF THE EURYPTERID. 527
since the scale markings, the presence of which has caused fragments of Glyptoscorpius to
be referred to Eurypterus, are, as I have mentioned above, widely distributed among the
Arachnida.
I have summarised the main ideas in the following table. A is the intermediate form
between Limulus and Hurypterus suggested above. I derive the Scorpions. from some
little way up the Limulus stem, on account of some peculiarities in the anatomy of their
soft parts, which tend to separate them from the other Arachnids, and ally them to
Limulus. At (a) on the Eurypterus stem, the genital operculum was already well
developed.
Arvaneide.
Phalangium..
Acaride.
Thelyphonus. a
Glypto-
scorplus. g, orpio.
Eurpyterus. Limulus.
Belinurus, &c.
A
Trilobita 2
If the views set forth above prove to be correct, some changes will be necessary in the
classification and terminology of the groups involved. Arachnida, if the name is to have
any scientific meaning, must either be limited so as to exclude the Scorpions, or the
Eurypteride and Xiphosura must be admitted within its bounds. The latter is manifestly
the better course to take ; and the Xiphosura, Scorpionina, Eurypteridee, and Thelyphonina
will form sub-orders of about equal value. Whether the other groups of Arachnids—
Pseudo-Scorpions, Phalangide, &c.—are also to be placed as sub-orders of equal value to
the four mentioned above is a question rather outside the sphere of this paper, and which I
hope to discuss later. Theterm Pacilopoda, used first by M‘Coy,* and used by Watcorr
to include the Trilobites, Xiphosura, and EKurypteride, must, if it be retained, be used for
the Arachnida plus the Trilobita.
“Merostomata” has such a classic position, as including the Eurypteridee and Xiphosura,
* Ann, and Mag., ser. 2, vol. iv., 1849.
528 MR MALCOLM LAURIE ON THE ANATOMY OF THE EURYPTERIDA.
that it would be impossible to abolish it, though it expresses a stage in the evolution of —
the group rather than a relationship of those forms in contradistinction to the rest of the —
Arachnida. Wat.cort’s proposal to use Merostomata for the Eurypterina alone, excluding |
Limulus, seems to be carrying change of meaning rather far, as the name was invented
by Dana for Limulus.
In a tabular form the arrangement would be—
Class Peecilopoda.
Sub-class A, Trilobita.
Sub-class B, Arachnida.
Order i. Xiphosura.
il. Scorpionina.
il. Hurypteridee.
iv. Pedipalpi.
v. Araneze, &e.
EXPLANATION OF PLATES.
Puate I.
Fig. 1. Walking leg of Slimonia, showing general form and epicoxite (epc) on basal joint.
Fig. 2. Second appendage of Slimonia, “ Antenna” of Dr Woopwarp.
. First appendage (chelicera) lying in front of mouth. x 4.
. Epistoma of Slimonia.
Fig. 5. Ventral view of first few abdominal segts. of Slimonia, showing genital operculum (vii) ; branchial —
lamelle of second segment (viii); and plate-like appendages, with underlying branchial lamelle, of third seg-
ment (ix). x +. From a specimen in the Woodwardian Museum.
Fig. 6. Series of branchial lamella, probably belonging to the second abdominal segment. From a speci-
men in the collection of Dr Hunter of Braidwood. x 4.
Fig. 7. Plate-like appendage with branchial lamellz of one of the posterior abdominal segments, probably
the fifth. From a specimen in the Jermyn Street Museum.
ky by
eo
ga’ da’ da’ Gi
me Ow dD
Puate II,
Fig. 8. Ventral body-wall of abdomen seen from inside, and showing branchial lamellz on segments xi.
and xiii x 4}. From a specimen in the British Museum.
Fig. 9. Restoration of Slimonia from the ventral surface.
Fig. 10. Pterygotus. Epistoma, from a specimen in the Woodwardian Museum.
Fig. 11. One of the walking legs of Pterygotus. epe, epicoxite. ;
Fig. 12. A leg of Limulus showing the epicoxite.
Fig. 13. Genital plate (form «) of Pterygotus.
Fig. 14. Pterygotus bilobus, showing genital plate (form f). A second plate-like structure (?ix), some
branchial lamellz, &e. From a specimen in the Jermyn Street Museum. P
Fig. 15. Thelyphonus. Ventral surface, for comparison with fig. 9. Ge.a., genital aperture. LB 1 and
LB 2, first and second lung-books of left side.
Trans. Roy. Soe. Edin™ Vol. XXXVII.
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M‘Farlane & Erskine, Lith’* Edin™
Trans. Koy. Soc. Edin®, Vol. AAXVII.
M& MALCOLM LAURIE ON THE STRUCTURE OF THE EURYPTERIDAS.— Puare II.
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Lepidophloios, and on the British Species of the Genus, By Rosert Kinston, F.R.S.E.,
1.G.S._ (With Two Plates), . s
the Somerset and Bristol Coal Field. By Roserr Kinsron, F.R.S.E., F.G.S. (With
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XXV.—On Lepidophloios, and on the British Species of the Genus. By Rosert
Kinston, F.R.8.E., F.G.S. (With Two Plates.)
(Read July 4, 1892.)
INTRODUCTION.
Though the genus Lepidophioios, in regard to species, is a comparatively small one,
yet it derives considerable importance from its occurring throughout the whole of the
Carboniferous Formation, as well as in the peculiar characteristics of the plants comprised
in it.
The fragmentary condition in which the specimens are usually found has given
rise to the creation of several genera, which can all be shown to merely represent different
conditions of growth and preservation of one generic type. There are, also, other points
in the structure of Lepidophloios which require further investigation, and the object of
the present paper is to attempt to clear up some of these, about which much confusion
still exists.
The genera which must be united with Lepidophloios, Sternberg, are Lomatophioios,
Corda; Haloma, Lindley and Hutton; Pachyphleus, Goppert; and Cyclocladia,
Goldenberg (not L. and H.).
The natural way of treating this subject would have been to deal with each of the
above-mentioned genera separately; but in the literature of the subject, which is very
extensive, such a mode of treatment would lead to a considerable repetition of references,
as most authors mention more than one of the genera under discussion. I have, therefore,
deemed it better to treat this part of my subject chronologically.
REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE OF THE SUBJECT.
1720. Votkmann. Silesia subterranea, p. 129, pl. xxii. fig. 4,
This author gives the earliest known record of the genus Lepidophloios, and figures
asmall fragment of bark, fusiform in shape, which he mistook for a larch cone, with which
he identifies his fossil.
1826. Srernserc. Lssav flore monde prim., vol. 1. fase. 4, p. 13.
STERNBERG here founds his genus Lepidofloyos, which he defined as follows :—
“Caudex arboreus rudimentis petiolorum squamatus, cicatrice triglandulosa sub-
squamis.”
VOL. XXXVII. PART III. (NO. 25). 41
530 MR ROBERT KIDSTON ON
STERNBERG originally placed Lepidophloios in Lepidodendron (Lepidodendron lari-
cinum, ibid., vol. i. fase. 1, p. 28, 1820), but subsequently recognising its important
generic differences, founded for it his genus Lepidophlovos.
1833. LinpLey and Hurron. fossil Flora, vol. ii. pp. 11 and 14.
The authors of the Fossil Flora had very indefinite ideas as to the affinities of their
genus Halonia. Their first described species is Halonia tortuosa (pl. lxxxv.), though
the generic characters are more fully stated in their description of Halonia gracilis *
(pl. Ixxxvi. p. 14), They state, in explanation, “the genus Halonza is proposed to com-
prehend all those fossils, in which to the surface of Lepidodendron, is added the mode
of branching of certain Coniferze, and which, it is therefore to be inferred, were of a nature 2
analogous to the latter.”
It will presently be shown that the leaf-scars and cushions of Halonia are quite —
distinct in structure from those of Lepidodendron, and that its ramification is
dichotomous as in other Lycopods. The genus has, in fact, no affinity with the
Coniferze.
On their Halonia tortuosa the leaf-scars are not shown, and on their Halonia
gracilis (which I much doubt being generically identical with their Halonia tortuosa),
they are also indistinct ; hence their statement in the generic description “ to the surface —
of Lepidodendron,” can only have been an assumption on their part.
1836. PachypHia@us, GoprertT. Die foss. Farrnkriuter, p. 468.
Under this name Gorpsrt places fragments of two distinct genera. His figures 1-4,
pl. xhii., are referable to Lepidophlovos, but his figure 5, though found in the sameblock,
had no organic connection with the examples which form the subjects of his figures 1-4, —
and is a Ulodendroid scar, which may probably belong to a Lepidodendron.
1845. Lomatortoyos, Corpa. Beitr. z. Flora d. Vorwelt, p. 17.
Corpa thus describes his genus :— +
“'Truncus arboreus medullosus, columnaris; ramis tetrastichus spiraliter positis.
Cortex squamosa, squamis spiraliter spositis quaternariis (4+), carnosis, crassis, truncatis,
erecto-patentibus imbricatis, phyllophoris, dein cicatricibus rhomboideis infra appendicu-
latis, fasciculis vasorum ternis centralibus horizontalibus ornatis, obtecta. Corpus cortice e
medullosum, crassum, fasciculis vasorum percursum. Corpus ligneum cylindricum,
cavum, tenuissimum, e vasis scalariformibus simpliciter compositum, radiis medullosis
cellulisque lignosis nullis. Medulla centralis farcta, transversa striata. Folia linearia ;
nervo medio simplici. Fructus simplex (?) nucleiformis, supra acuminatus.”
* This species appears to me to be much more probably a Lepidodendron, with unequally developed dichotomy,
than a Halonia. Pp
+ First proposed by Corpa in SternBere, Flora d. Verwelt, vol. ii. p. 206, 1836. [Not having had access to
Corpa’s addition to SrernpereG, I base my remarks on Lomatofloyos from Corpa’s description and figures in this
work.
LEPIDOPHLOIOS, AND ON THE BRITISH SPECIES OF THE GENUS. 531
Certain parts of Corpa’s generic description—that relating to the structure of the
eylinder which occurred in his specimen and the fructification—may be left out of the
discussion as to the generic relationship of Lomatophloios with Lepidophlows. There is
really no conclusive evidence that the Sternbergia pith, which was inserted in the stem
studied by Corpa, belonged to the bark which enclosed it, and, on the other hand, there
is much evidence that it did not, and this view has been taken by So_ms-LavBacu.* |
Anyone who has examined transverse sections of the large trunks of Lycopods, which
occur in an upright position at Laggan Bay, Arran, and which contain in the infilling
voleanic ash numerous vascular bundles of different plants which had been floated into
them after the original tissue which had composed the stem had disappeared by decay,
ean easily appreciate the unsatisfactory nature of the evidence on which Corba has
associated an axis with a STERNBERGIAN pith with a plant having the known bark of a
Lycopod ; and that a mistake has been made here is, I think, conclusively proved by the
fact that the specimen described by Professor Winuiamson as Lepidodendron fuli-
gimosumt has been shown by an example on which the bark was preserved to be the
Lepidophloios acerosus, L. and H., sp.,{ with which I believe Corpa’s Lomatophloios
crassicaulis is synonymous.
In none of the specimens of Lepidodendron fuliginosum which were described by
Wint1amson was there a SrerNBeRGIAN pith, but in all respects the structure of the stem
conforms to the ordinary type of structure of the Carboniferous Lepidodendree.
Therefore, in comparing the generic characters of Lomatophloios with those of the
older genus Lepidophloios, we must dismiss from our minds all characters derived from
the STERNBERGIA axis, which Corpa found within his specimen.
Leaving out, therefore, those characters adopted by Corpa, but which do not belong
to the outer envelope of his specimen, the generic characters of Lomatophloios would
then be—
an Bark scaly, leaf-bearing scales placed in + spiral series attached below,
fleshy, thick, truncate, erecto-patent, imbricate, with rhomboidal cicatrice provided with
three vascular cicatricules, horizontally placed, central..... . Leaves linear with
single medial nerve.
The whole difference, then, between the genus Lepidophloios and the genus Lomato-
phiowos rests on the position of the leaf cicatrice : in the former it is situated at the base
of the cushion, and in the latter at the top. In other words, to put the matter more
correctly, in Lepidophloios the leaf-cushions are directed downwards, and in Lomato-
phlovos they are directed upwards. Upon this single difference the two genera stand,
and it appears to me to be far too insignificant a character for the separation of allied
Species into different genera, even if the character were constant; but I hope to show
that this supposed difference does not hold, even specifically.
*. Fossil Botany, p. 212, Oxford, 1891.
+ Proc. Roy. Soc., vol. xlii. p. 6.
{ Casn and Lomax Rep. Brit. Assoc, Leeds, 1890, p. 810 (1891).
532 MR ROBERT KIDSTON ON
But irrespectively of the scientific aspect of this subject, from the practical side of the
question a grave difficulty arises, when the great majority of the specimens one has to
deal with only show fragments of the bark. How, under such circumstances, is it to be
determined whether the leaf-cushions were directed upwards or downwards, as this can
only be determined in any given species by the discovery of branching specimens or
examples on which the leaves are still attached to their cushions, for whatever the
position the leaf-cicatrice may hold in relation to its cushion, whether the cushion were
directed upward or downward, the leaf always rises upwards.* In illustration of these
remarks, I may cite the case of Lepidophlowos Dessorti, Zeiller,t the downward direction
of whose leaf-cushions is shown by the upward rising of a still attached leaf. As a
species of which it is impossible to determine whether the leaf-cushions were directed
upwards or downwards, Lepidophloios tumidus, Bunbury, sp.,{ may be mentioned. In
such a case as Lepidophloios twmidus, how are we to decide as to whether the species is
a Lepidophloios or a Lomatophloios? It certainly belongs to one of these two genera,
but to place it in either could only be guess-work, as it does not afford any data for
generic determination if we regard as of generic value the upward or downward direction
of the cushions; and further, it will be shown presently that, in one species at least, the
leaf-cushions on the young branches are directed upwards, while those on the old stems
are directed downwards. I should not have entered so fully into this subject were it not
that some recent writers still treat Lepidophloios and Lomatophloios as distinct genera,
and have, further, included plants under one or other of these genera which the original
generic descriptions could in no case embrace.
1849. Denny, H. “ A Glance at the Fossil Flora of the Carboniferous Epoch, with especial
Reference to the Yorkshire Coal Field,” p. 36, pl. i. (A paper read before the
Geol. and Polytech. Soc. of the West Riding of Yorkshire, at Wakefield, March
8, 1849.)
Mr Denny here figures an excellent specimen of Halona, showing four dichotomies.
In his description of the fossil he says, p. 36—‘‘ Of the genus Halonia, which, like
Lepidodendron, probably holds an intermediate place between the Lycopodiacee and the
Conifere, four well-marked species occur, the gracilis, reqularis, tortosa (? tortuosa), and
tuberculosa, at Low Moor and Dewsbury,—of the last species, one specimen in the
possession of the Philosophical Society, procured from the Sandstone at Potternewton, is
the most perfect example I have ever seen, and possesses peculiar interest, as not only
exhibiting the mode of branching of the genus, a point upon which nothing positive was
known, but also, apparently, combining the characters of the genera Halonia and Knorria;
* When the direction of the leaf-cushions has once been determined in any given species, of course in the case of
fragments which do not themselves give any evidence of the direction of the cushion, if they are of corresponding age,
their direction may safely be inferred from the known direction, determined on more perfect specimens.
+ ZuILuER, Flore foss. bassin howil. et perm. de Brive. p. 77, pl. xiii. fig. 1, and 1 B, 1892.
+ Lepidodendron (?) tumidum, Bunbury, Quart. Jour. Geol. Soc., vol. iii. p. 432, pl. xxiv. fig. 1.
LEPIDOPHLOIOS, AND ON THE BRITISH SPECIES OF THE GENUS. 533:
the extremities of the branches belong to the former, and the base or main stem to the
latter.”
I give this long extract, as I shall have occasion to refer again to this specimen, which
has more recently been refigured by Professor WILLIAMSON.* —
1848. Hatonta, Hooker. ‘On the Vegetation of the Carboniferous Period, as.compared.
with that of the Present Day,’ Mem. Geol. Survey of Great Britain, vol. ii. part 1.
p. 423. .
Sir J. D. Hooxer merely gives the opinion expressed by Mr Dawes, who was
“inclined to regard the species of Halonia as roots of Lepidodendron, on which opinion I
have no remarks to offer.”
1849. LeprpopHtoios, Bronenrart. ‘Tableau des genres de végét. foss., p. 43. (In
Dictionnaire universel dhistoire naturelle, vol. xiii.)
Bronenrart unites Lomatophloios, Corda, and Pachyphleus, Goppert, with Lepido-
phloios, and, while accepting Corpa’s description of the internal structure of Lomato-
phlowos crassicaule, he states his opinion that the SreNBERGIAN-like axis described by
Corpa as the pith-cast of Lomatophlovos, was not a true Sternbergia (= Artisia, Sternb.).
Halon is here treated by BRoNGNIART as a distinct genus.
1852. Hatonta, GoprertT. Joss. Flora d. Ubergangsgebirges, p. 192.
This author considers Halonia an autonomous genus, and describes several species,
founding his specific characters on the scars and the position of the knots, especially in
the number of the series they form on the branches. t
1854. ErrrncsHausen. Stewnkf. von Radnitz, p. 57.
ErTINGsHAUSEN treats Lomatophlovos as a distinct genus, and regards the occurrence
of Sternbergia as sufficient evidence on which to record the genus Lomatophiovos.
1854. Geinirz. Flora d. Haimchen-Ebersdorfer u. d. Floehaer Kohlenbassins,
pp. 47, 48.
In speaking of Lepidophloios laricinus, GEINITZ says “ that we can no longer doubt
that Lepidophloyos is a true Lepidodendron ;” and he further states that the leaf-scar
is placed at the top of the cushion and not at the lower end, as supposed by STERNBERG.
This appears to be an error, as far as Lepidophloios laricinus is concerned.
1855. Cyctoctapia, GOLDENBERG. Flora Sarepontana foss., Lief. i. p. 18.
This genus is synonymous with Halonia, L. and H. Go.pensere’s Cyclocladia
must not be mistaken with the Cyclocladia, L. and H. (1834), Fossil Flora, vol. ii. pl.
exxx., which is a Calamutina.
* Phil. Trans., part ii. pl. xxxiv., 1883.
+ The Lepidodendron sexangulare, Gopp., loc. cit., p. 171, pl. xiii. fig. 4, is'a Lepidophloios, -
534 MR ROBERT KIDSTON ON
1855-1862. GoLpenBERG. Flora Sarepont. foss.
LeprpopHuoros. Lief. i. p. 20, 1855.
Hatonta. Lief. i. p. 20, 1855.
LomatopuLoyos. Lief, i. p. 22, 1855; Lief. iii, p. 25, 1862.
GOLDENBERG regarded these three genera as distinct, believing that the evidence
on which they had been united was not conclusive. He refers Artisia approximata and
Artisia distans to Lomatophlovos crassicaule as its pith-cylinder.
He figures some most interesting specimens, which will be referred to again more fully,
1859. Goppert. oss. Flora d. Silur. Devon. u. unter Kohlenf., p. 105.
Halonia is here treated as a separate genus.
1860. Ercnwatp, Lethaa Rossica, LEPIDOPHLOIOS, vol. i. p. 156; Hatonta, p. 148,
ErcHwa.p regarded Lepidophloios and Halonia as distinct genera. He figures some
interesting specimens of Halonia tuberculata, Brongt., on his pl. xi. figs. 1-4, but of
these his figs. 1,2 are the most instructive. Fig. 1 shows a bifurcation of a Halonian
branch, which shows the usual characters, but the impression on the matrix, a small
portion of which is exhibited by the removal of the stem, shows the Lepidophloios
leaf-scars. Owing to the absence of enlarged details, the species of Lepidophloios to
which this Halonian branch belongs cannot be determined. But the evidence these two
specimens afford is clearly in favour of the opinion that Haloma is the fruiting branch of
Lepidophloios.
1868. Dawson, LeripopHtotios. Acadian Geology, 2nd. ed., p. 454.
It may be best to quote Dawson’s own words here—
“ Lepidophlovos.—Under this generic name, established by SterNBERG, I propose to
include those Lycopodiaceous trees of the Coal Measures which have thick branches,
transversely elongated leaf-scars, each with three vascular points, and placed on elevated
or scale-like protuberances, long one-nerved leaves, and large lateral strobiles in vertical
rows, or spirally disposed. Their structure resembling that of Lepidodendron, consisting
of a Sternbergia pith, a slender axis of long scalariform vessels, giving off from its surface
bundles of smaller vessels to the leaves, a very thick cellular bark, and a thin dense
outer bark, having some elongated cells or bast tissue on its inner side.”
“ Regarding L. laricinwm of STERNBERG as the type of the genus, and taking in
connection with this the species described by GOLDENBERG, and my own observations on
numerous specimens found in Nova Scotia, Ihave no doubt that Lomatophloios
crassicaule of Corpa, and other species of that genus described by GOLDENBERG,
Ulodendron and Bothrodendron of LinpiEy, Lepidodendron ornatissimum of BRONGNIAR®,
and Halonia punctata of Gxrintrz, all belong to this genus, and differ from each other
only in conditions of growth and preservation. Several of the species of Lepidostrobus
and Lepidophyllum also belong to Lepidophloios.”
i. |
LEPIDOPHLOIOS, AND ON THE BRITISH SPECIES OF THE GENUS. 535
From the above, it will be seen that Dawson uses the genus Lepidophlovos in a very
different sense from that proposed by its author, and, in fact, includes in it plants which
are now known to belong to several well-defined genera, for Ulodendron, L. and H..,.
contained individuals referable in part to Lepidodendron and Sigillaria ; and Bothro-
dendron has been conclusively shown by ZEILLER * to be an autonomous genus.
In illustration of my remarks, it may be added that Dawson’s Lepidophloios parvulust
is Sigillaria (Ulodendron) discophora, Koénig., sp., his Lepidophloios tetragonust{. is
probably only an older condition of the same species,§ and his Lepidophloios platystigma
is apparently Sigillaria Brardu,| Brongt.
1869. Hatonta, Rornt. oss. Flora d. Steenk. Form. Westphalens, p. 139.
Rorut favours the view that Halon may form a separate genus of the
“ Lepidodendree.”
Lomaroputoros. Jbid., p. 146,
Leprpoputoros. ILbid., p. 149.
RoEHL also treats these two genera as distinct, figuring as representing the former two
Sternbergia piths.
1871. Weiss. Foss. Flora d. jiingst. Stk. u. Rothl., pp. 150 and 215.
Recognising that the leaf-cushions may be directed upwards or downwards, WEISS
unites Lomatophlovos with Lepidophloios. He enters critically into the various aspects
of the question, and describes very minutely the structure of the ‘“ phyllodes,” the leaf-
sear and its cicatricules. He accepts Corpa’s description of Lomatophloios crassicaule,
im which he ascribes to it a STERNBERGIAN pith, and accepts the evidence afforded by the
occurrence alone of Sternbergia (= Artisia) as a sufficient voucher for recording Lepido-
phlowos crassicaule.1
1872. Scutmper. Trarté d. paléont. végét., vol. ii.
Lomatophloios is here united with Lepidophloios (p. 49), while Halonia (p. 53) and
Cyclocladia, Goldenberg (not L. and H., p. 55), are treated as distinct genera.
1872. Binney. “ Observations on the Structure of Fossil Plants found in the Carboniferous
Strata,” part ii., pp. 82-96, pls. xv.—xvi. (Paleontographical Society).
Mr Bryney describes the internal structure of several specimens of Halonia, which he
believes to be the Stigmarian root of Lepidodendron Harcourti. Subsequent investi-
* Bull. Soc. Géol. de France, 3° sér. vol. xiv. p. 168.
+ Loe. ctt., p. 490, fig. 170. 9.
t Loc. cit., p. 490, fig. 170, d.
§ See fenenons Annals and Mag. Nat. Hist. 1885, vol. xvi. p. 255, pl. vii. fig. 13, a.
|| Loc. cit., p. 490, fig. 170, e and f.
I Loe. cit., p. 156.
536 MR ROBERT KIDSTON ON
gations have shown that the association of Halonia with Lepidodendron as its root, is
utterly untenable. Halonia will be dealt with more fully further on in this com-
munication. . a
1873. CarrutuERS. “On Halonia, Lindley and Hutton, and Cyclocladia,
Goldenberg,” Geol. Mag., April, p. 145.
Mr CarrutTuers here figures and describes some very interesting specimens of —
Halonia, one of which he justly names Lepidophloios laricinus,* but in regard to the ©
fossil given by him at fig. 1, he mentions it as confirming GOLDENBERG’S opinion that a
Haloma branch may grow out of a Lepidodendron. The specimen on which Mr
CARRUTHERS made this remark is in the collection of the British Museum, and I have
frequently examined it. This supposed Lepidodendron branch, which bears a Haloma,
is beyond all doubt a Lepidophloios,t and to this specimen I will refer again more fully.
Mr Carruruers further states (p. 151),—“ It seems to me not improbable that Ui lodendron
may be the main stem of plants of which Lepidophlowos and Halonia were the younger
portions.” ‘TI have no doubt that Halona was a fruit-bearing branch.”
In regard to uniting Ulodendron and Lepidophloios, I have already shown that the
so-called Ulodendron, L. and H., contained plants belonging in part to Sigillaria and |
Lepidodendron, but in no case to Lepidophloios.t
Mr CarrvrHeErs gives a figure (woodcut, p. 151) of “ Halonia gracilis, L. and H.”
This specimen is also in the collection of the British Museum, and is certainly a small
branch of Lepidodendron ophiurus, Brongt., which, in my Catalogue of Paleoz. Plants,
I united with Lepidodendron Sternbergii in error. Such unequally dichotomised —
Lepidodendroid branches as that figured by Mr CarrutHErs as Halonia gracilis,
L. and H., though by no means common, are occasionally met with; but, as I have
already suggested, in all probability the plant figured by LinpLEy and Horton as
H. gracilis is really a Lepidodendron, and quite distinct from the other plants they
placed in their genus Halonia.§
1875. Hatonta, Fetstmantet. Vers. d. bohm. Kohlenab., Abth. ii. pp. 18 and 19. —
This author believes that Halonia regularis, L. and H., and Halonia (Bothrodendren)
punctatum should be referred to Lepidodendron (Lepidophloios) laricinum, and his speci-
mens of Halonia (pls. v. fig. 6; vi.; vii. figs. 1, 2; viii. fig. 1) show the Lepidophloios
leaf-scar. That these specimens belong to Lepidophloios there can be no doubt, and
probably to Lepidophloios laricinus, but the figures do not admit of a satisfactory specific
determination. His figure of Halonia punctata, however (pl. xviii. p. 20), clearly does
not belong to Lepidophloios laricinus, but to one of the Ulodendroid scar-bearing
Lycopods (Sigillaria, Lepidodendron, or Bothrodendron), but his fossil is too imperfectly
preserved to admit of any closer determination. ~
* P. 150, pl. vii. fig. 3. + See Krpston, Catal. Palwoz. Plants, p. 171.
t Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist., vol. xvi., 1885. § Kipston, Proc. Roy. Phys. Soc. vol. x. p: 365, 1891.
ye
t
LEPIDOPHLOIOS, AND ON THE BRITISH SPECIES OF THE GENUS. 537
FEISTMANTEL unites Lomatophloios with Lepidodendron, in which he places
Lepidophloios. He seems, however, to have confused the species, for under the name of
Lepidodendron dichotomum (pl. iii. figs. 8 and 5) he gives two figures which are the
Lepidophloios acerosus, L. and H., sp.*
1877. Granv’ Evry. Flore carbon du Départ. de la Lovre et du centre de la France.
Lepidophloios and Lomatophloios are here united (p. 141), but Halonca is treated as
distinct (p. 145).
1877. Srur. “ Die Culm-Flora d. Ostrauer u. Waldenburger Schichten,” p. (327) 231,
Abhandl. d. k. k. geol. Revchsanst, Band. viii. heft 2.
Stur gives here a long description of the Lepidophloios leaf cushion and scar, the
genus Lepidophloios being regarded by him as a bulbil-bearing condition of a Lepido-
dendron stem.
To understand his description of the Lepidophloios leaf cushion and scar, it is
necessary to vive his views of the structure of the Lepidodendron leaf-scar.
The leaf-scar of Lepidodendron, which is situated somewhat above the centre of the
leaf-cushion, contains, according to Dr Srur, three vascular cicatricules. Immediately
above the leaf-scar is a small cicatrice, which he names the ligule-scar. At the upper-
most angle of the cushion is another small scar, which he names the “insertion-point of
the sporangium.” Immediately beneath the leaf-scar, and on each side of the medial
line, are generally two small oval depressions or points, which he calls the ‘“ vascular
glands of the leaf-cushion.”t (See here Pl. II. fig. 10, and explanation to figure.)
In the Lepidophioios leaf-cushion and leaf-scar, Stur describes all these parts except
the “ msertion-point of the sporangium,” which in Lepidophloios he had not observed,
and Srvr is thus led to unite Lepidophlovos with Lepidodendron as its “ bulbil-bearing ”
portion, quoting such figures as that given by GoLDENBERG{ in support’ of his views.
This view of the relationship of Lepidophloios to Lepidodendron I believe to be thoroughly
erroneous.
In regard to the various parts of the leaf cushion and scar to which he applies the
names of ligule-scar, point of attachment of sporangium, vascular glands of the leaf-
cushion, and the two lateral, as well as the central cicatricule, Stur classes all as
connected with the vascular system. From the increase in our knowledge of the structure
of the leaf-scar of Lepidodendron, knowledge mostly acquired since Stur wrote this work,
it is not necessary to go into the question of the connection of these parts with the
vascular system, as it has been shown from specimens whose structure was preserved that
* The figure of Lepidodendron dichotomum given in SrrrneerG, Vers., vol. ii. pl. Lxviii. fig. 1, appears to me much
more like a Lepidophloios than a Lepidodendron, and it is quite probable that the two figures given by FEISTMANTEL, to
which I have referred above, may be the Lepidodendron dichotomum of Presi in STERNBERG, pl. lxviii. fig. 1; but are
not'the plant of the same name given on STERNBERG’S pls. i., ii.
+ Stur (for figure showing these points), loc. cit., pl. xix. (xxxvi.), fig. 1.
t Flora sarep. foss., pl. xvi. fig. 6.
VOL. XXXVII. PART III. (NO. 25). 4M
538 MR ROBERT KIDSTON ON
the vascular system has only connection with the central of the three cicatricules of the
leaf-scar. i
In regard to the small scar which Srur calls the ligule-scar, and the point of attach-
ment of the sporangium,1do not see on what sound evidence these terms have been
applied to the structures indicated ; and though I am unable to explain their function, the
terms appear to me very Se
In Lepidodendron and Lepidophloios the sporangia are borne on the —
attached to the stem—and there is no ligule associated with the sporangia ; hence such
terms as those adopted by Srur for small scars on the leaf-cushion seem to be quite
misplaced ; and further, sti do not appear to be present on all species of Lepido-
dendron.
1880. LepmpoprHLoros, ScHImPER. “‘ Zittel. Handbuch der Paleeontologie,” Abth. ii.
Paleophytologie, p. 198.
Scuimprr here treats provisionally as distinct genera, Lepidophloios and Lomato-
phloios, and in regard to the latter, owing to the sparseness of material, does not state
any decided opinion as to its relationship with Lepidophloios, leaving the subject an
open question.
1880, LeprpopHuotros, LEsquErEUX. Coal Flora, vol. ii. p. 418.
Lomatophlovos, Corda (ex part), is here united with Lepidophloios. The genus seems
to be very rare in the United States, and the specimens LesquerEux has been able to
examine were fragmentary and imperfect; hence, for his knowledge of the genus, he
was largely dependent on the writings of others. Of the species LesqQuEREUX desonaay |
many of his specimens are very imperfect, and it is doubtful if some of them really belag’ ng
to this genus.
1880. THompson. “ Notes on Ulodendron and Halonia,” Trans. Edin. Geol. Soc.,
vol. i. part i. p. 341. “£
In his concluding remarks, he says—‘‘ That Ulodendron and Halonia were close y
allied Lepidodendroid plants ; that, on presumptive evidence, Professor WILLIAMSON'S
suggestion may still be maintained, viz., that Ulodendron and the biserial ‘Talon
may possibly represent portions of one and the same form; and that, in this case,
the specimens denominated Halonia formed the terminal or young branches of
Ulodendron.”
I have merely to remark that I have never yet seen a “ biserial” Halonia, nor am
I aware where such a specimen is described. It is true that Morris described a fossi
Halonia disticha, but his fossil is in reality a specimen of Sigillaria discophora, Koni
sp., and not a Halona, as he supposed.*
* Trans. Geol. Soc. Lond., 2nd ser. vol. v. pl. xxxviii. fig. 1, 1840.
LEPIDOPHLOIOS, AND ON THE BRITISH SPECIES OF THE GENUS. 539
1882. LeprpopHtoros, Renavtt. Cours d. botan. foss., deux. année, vol. 11. p. 44.
Lepidophlowos is treated as including Lomatophloios, but in the generic
description, as given by ReENavtt, the leaf-cicatrice is placed at the upper angle of
the cushion, and he therefore places in Lepidophlows the Lomatophloios crassicaule,
Corda.
In dealing with the latter species (p. 48), he accepts some remarkable views in regard
to a dimorphic condition of stem in certain species of Lepidophioios. In addition to the
ordinary form (v.e., the species conforming to Lepidophiloios, Sternb., and Lomatophloios,
Corda), there exists, according to RENAULT, another condition in which the stem bears
large Ulodendroid scars. For this statement there is adduced no evidence except a
“restored” figure (his pl. xi. fig. 1). How such a figure has been produced is difficult
to understand, and the only explanation one can suggest is, that a piece of
Lepidophloios bark must have been superimposed on a Ulodendroid stem; but
it is much to be regretted that the “restored” stem has not been accompanied
by the original evidence, for that there has been an error of observation here
seems unquestionable. Without further evidence than a figure which is said
to have been “restored,” one cannot accept the conclusion to which ReENnavutT has
arrived.
RENAUvLT therefore ascribes to Lepidophloios a condition in which the stems, in some
eases, bear Ulodendroid discs, to which were attached caducous bulbils, the other
condition being the production of cones at the ends of the smaller branches
(p. 48).
He also takes the liberty of altering the position of the leaf-scars on the scales of the
specimen given by GOLDENBERG on his pl. xvi. fig. 6, which, thus altered, RENAULT
gives on his pl. ix. fig. 1. In GoLpDENBERe’s figure the leaf-scars are at the
lower end of the leaf-cushions,* but in Renavtt’s figure they occur at the
top! This figure, which Renautr describes as “ rectified,” is inaccurate and
misleading.
Hatonta. Ibid., p. 53.
The genus Halonia is treated by RENAULT as containing plants of two distinct classes.
Some of these he treats as branches, as Haloma tuberculata, Brongt. Other members
of the genus he regards as rhizomes of Lepidodendron, as Haloma regularis. That all
Halonia are fruiting branches of Lepidophloios is shown by their possessing leaf-scars
equally well formed with those of the branches. There is no data from which to conclude
that the so-called Halonia belong to two classes—whatever one Halonia is, so is the
other.
* Morphologically, I believe, the leaf-scars are always at the top of the cushion, but in certain species of
Lepidophloios (if not in all at a certain stage of development), the leaf-cushions become deflexed, and then the leaf-scar
appears to be at the base—more correctly, is directed downwards.
540 MR ROBERT KIDSTON ON
1883. MacrarLane. “On Lepidophloios, a Genus of Carboniferous Plants,” Trans.
Bot. Soc. Edin., vol. xiv. p. 181.
Dr Macrar.aNeE here points out the true relationship of Halonia to Lepidophloios,
and in support of his views figures several specimens of Lepidophlovos Scoticus, Kidston —
(Lepidophlovos laricinum, Macfarlane, not Sternb.). The general points at issue are
fully brought out, though some of his proposed unions of species and genera e not
appear to be tenable.
1884. Weiss. Aus der Flora der Steinkohlenformation (2nd ed.), p. 8, pl. v. fig. 33.
Wess here reproduces a part of GoLDENBERG’S figure of Lomatophloios macrolepidotum,*
which he names “‘ Lepidostrobus macrolepidotus (hitherto named Lomatophloios macro-
lepidotus, Gold.), which must be regarded as a large cone.” Weiss’ previous mistake in
regarding a small fragment of the stem of Lepidophloios, in which the structure was
partially preserved, as a Lomatophloian cone,t has evidently originated the opinion on on
which he here acts, in placing what is evidently a fragment of a Lepidophloios a in :
the genus Lepidostrobus.
1884. LepmpopHLotos, LesqueREUX. Coal Flora, vol. ii. p. 781.
LEsQUEREUX adds nothing here to his remarks made in vol. i. p. 418.
1886. Kinston. Catalogue of Paleozoic Plants, pp. 171-173.
I here treat Halonca as a fruiting branch of Lepidophloios.
1888. Leprpopnioros and Haxoyta, ScenK. Die fossilen Pflanzenreste, pp. 66, 67.
This author gives a general review of the subject without expressing any conclusive
opinion on the several points in dispute. He, however, unites Lepidophloios and
Lomatophloios, and rejects Corpa’s opinion as to Lomatophlovos having had a TERN
BERGIAN pith.
ScHENK seems to adopt the views promulgated by the late Dr Weiss, who mistoall
portions of the bark of Lepidophloios for cones, which he referred to that genus as its
fructification. Halonia he also treats in the same manner, and does not express all
individual opinion as to its systematic position.
1888. Leprpopuioros, Dawson. Geological History of Plants, p. 157.
Sir Wa. Dawson’s views regarding Lepidophioios are here modified, in so far as he
states, in explanation of the genus, that “species with long and drooping leaf-bases h
been included in Lepidophloios and Lomatophloios, species with short leaf-bases
cone scars in two rows have been called Ulodendron, and some of these have been
* GOLDENBERG, Flora sarep. foss., pl. xiv. fig. 25. + Zeitsch. d. deutsch. geol. Gesell., vol. xxxii. p. 354.
LEPIDOPHLOIOS, AND ON THE BRITISH SPECIES OF THE GENUS. 541
included in Sigillaria (sub-genus Clathraria),” though he still includes all these under his
Lepidophilotos.
1888. LeprpopHiotos, ZEILLER. lore foss. d. bassin howl. d. Valenciennes, p. 470.
ZEILLER describes the genus as having the leaf-cicatrices always placed below the
middle of the cushion, or even at the inferior angle.
With Lepidophiloios he unites Lomatophlows and Halonia—the latter as its fruiting
branch.
He treats Halonia, however, as a provisional genus, simply from the circumstance
that we can seldom identify the Halonan branches with their parent stems, on account
of their bark being so seldom preserved, and consequently, from its absence, the necessary
characters for a specific identification are wanting (loc. cit., p. 475).
1889. Wittiamson. “ On the Organisation of the Fossil Plants of the Coal Measures,”
Part XVI., Phil. Trans., vol. clxxx. p. 200.
Prof. Wiit1aMson here supports the view that Halonie are fruiting branches. The
tubercules on Halonia are the result of arrested plant-growth, and are morphologically
identical with the Ulodendroid scar.
1890. Lomatopnuoios, Renautt. Flore foss. le terr. howl. de Comentry, deux. part,
p: 507.
RENAULT here treats Lomatophlovos as distinct from Lepidophloios, accepting the
upward directed Jeaf-cushions, with leaf-cicatrice at their upper extremity, as the out-
standing point of separation of Lomatophloios from Lepidophiloios, where, in the latter
genus, the leaf-cushions are bent downwards, and the leaf-cicatrice placed at their lower
extremity. According to this author, the leaf-cushion is also less developed in Lepido-
phloios, but this character we shall find does not hold good. He also unites to Lepido-
phlowos the genus Halonia, which he regards as the fruiting condition, the cones having
been attached to the mamelons.
1890. Hanonta, Granp’ Eury. Géol. et paléont. du bassin houil. du Gard., p. 235.
Without expressing any conclusive opinion, GRanp’ Eury seems to favour the opinion
that Halon is a rhizome of Lepidodendron.
1890. Sewarp. “Notes on Lomatophloios macrolepidotus (Gold.),” Proc. Cambridge
; Phil. Soc., vol. vii.
Mr Szwarp here shows that the specimen described by the late Dr Wetss (ante, p.
540), from Langendreer, Westphalia, and which Wetss regarded as a cone of Lomato-
phloios, was in reality a part of the bark of that plant, and not a cone.
542 MR ROBERT KIDSTON ON
1891. LepmopHtoros and Hatonia, Soums-Lavusace. fossil Botany (English
Translation), p. 210.
I should have liked to make some long quotations from this author, but must restrict
myself to a short epitome of his views.
He unites Lomotaphloios with Lepidophloios, and regards the leaf-scar in all the
species as placed at the base of the cushion. He figures Lepidophloios (Lomatophloios)
crassicaulis, Corda (fiz. 21), with the leaf-cicatrices at the base of the cushion, thus
reversing the position given them by Corpa. He also rejects Corpa’s opinion that it had
a Sternbergia pith, believing that he referred this axis to it in error. :
Cyclocladia, Gold. (not L. and H.) (p. 218), he unites to Halonia, and states that it
is closely related to Lepidophloios, but does not definitely accept their union.
I shall again have occasion to refer to this author in regard to the fructification of the
genus.
FRUCTIFICATION.
GoLDENBERG* figures on his plate xvi. figs. 7, 9, and 10, certain cones which he refers
to Lepidophloios laricinus, but not being attached to their parent stems, their identity
with Lepidophloios is very uncertain.
The same objection may be raised in regard to the cones which LEsQuUEREUX sate
to Lepidophlovos.t
That the fructification of Lepidophlovos consisted of a cone is shown by the figure of
Lepidophloios Scoticus, Kidston (Lepidophloios laricinus, Macfarlane, not Sternb.), given
by Dr Macraruane,{ for there the cone is still attached to its parent stem, which bears
all the characters of the species. ¥
The small specimen with partially preserved structure from Langendreer, West t-
phalia, which Weiss supposed to be the cone of Lomatophloios,§ has been shown
by Sewarp|| to be a small fragment of a branch of Lepidophloios macrolepidotus, -
Gold. 1 |
It probably arises from the mistake that Wrrss has made in the interpretation of this
specimen that he includes, in his Aus d. Steink (2nd ed., pl. v. fig. 33), a copy of
portion of GoLpensere’s figure of Lepidophloios macrolepidotum, under the name of
Lepidostrobus macrolepidotus. :
Sotms-Lavusacu,** referring to fossil Lycopodiaceous cones, says :—‘‘ Remains of cones
* Flora swrep. foss.
+ Coal Flora, vol. ii. p. 427, pl. xviii. figs. 6, 7; vol. iii. p. 782, pl. ev. fig. 1.
t Trans. Bot. Soc. Edin., vol. xv. pl. viii. fig. 1.
2 Wuiss, Zeitsch, d. deut. geol. Gesell., vol. xxxiii. p. 354, 1881.
|| Sewarp, Proc. Cambridge Phil. Foc, vol. vii., “ Notes om Lomatophloios macrolepidotus, Gold.” ‘
‘| The specimens figured by Mr Suwaxp, loc. cit., pl. iii., are probably the a acerosus, L. and H., 7
** Fossil Botany, p. 235, 1891.
<
LEPIDOPHLOIOS, AND ON THE BRITISH SPECIES OF THE GENUS. 543
of very great size, remarkable for the immense thickness of the axis, are classed by
LEsQUuEREUX with Lepidophloios. Weiss also has described a similarly colossal cone
of Lomatophlovos macrolepidotus, but unfortunately there is no detailed account of it.
The enormous size of the axis in these specimens gives rise to the suspicion that the
fructification was not confined to special fertile shoots, but might occasionally appear on
the leaves even of the main stem, which then increased in thickness, much as we see in
the present day in the female flower of Cycas, and mutatis mutandis in Lycopodium
selago. We naturally ask, on what sort of scars could such cones be seated as lateral
organs ?”
I have quoted in full the above passage from So~ms-LauBacu, as it shows how a
mistake may become more deeply imbedded in the literature of a subject. Though
admitting the difficulties that lie in the way of accepting as the cones of Lepidophloios
the specimens described by WeErss and LEsQuEREUX, he tries to explain them away
without any satisfactory data to support the suggested escape from the improbabilities of
the case.
Firstly, we must remember here that the specimen with a very thick axis which
WEIss originally classed as the cone of Lomatophloios has been conclusively shown by
Mr Sewarp to be a stem, and apparently upon the mistaken support derived from this
specimen (for he states none other), Werss places a large piece of the bark of Lomato-
phloios macrolepidotus into the genus Lepidostrobus.* When the evidence on which
Weiss acted has been shown to be utterly erroneous, the whole theory falls to the ground.
There is then no evidence whatever that the cones of Lepidophlovos had a very thick axis ;
on the contrary, the only ones which have been attached to their parent stems, and
consequently the only specimens that can be referred with certainty to Lepidcphlovos,
have a comparatively slender axis.t Soutms-LavuBacu, apparently accepting the erroneous
conclusion arrived at by WEIss, remarks, “that the enormous size of the axis in these
specimens gives rise to a suspicion that the fructification was not confined to special
fertile shoots, but might occasionally appear on the leaves even of the main stem, which
then increased in thickness.”
When it has been shown that these supposed enormous cones are actually stems, and
have no direct connection whatever with the fructification, the difficulty as to the “sort
of scars” that could bear cones of such size—with the disappearance of the cones them-
selves—melts away.
Grand’ Hury gives a most interesting specimen of Lepidophloios, which he refers to
Lepidophloios laricinus.t This example shows a portion of a stem from which are seen
to spring four small branch-like structures. One of these is flattened on the surface of
the stem, and does not show well its structure, but the other three project past the
margin of the fossil and are clearly exhibited. These are regarded by GRaNnpD’ EKury as
* Weiss, Aus d. Steink , 2nd ed., 1881, p. 8, pl. v. fig. 33.
+ Macrarane, Trans. Bot. Soc. Edin., vol. xiv. pl. viii. fig. 1.
t Geol. et paleont. d. bassin howl. du Gard., p. 234, pl. vi. fig. 17, 1890.
544 MR ROBERT KIDSTON ON
pendicles to cones, and are covered with obovate scales, apparently different from those
occurring on the branches. id
The number of rows of tubercles on Halonia vary considerably. Four rows have
frequently been stated as the number, but on many examples the number is greater.
Some authors refer to the scars on Halonia as being cup-shaped. On decorticated
specimens of Halonia I have never seen them assume this form—as far as my experience
goes, they are always in the form of tubercles, and any figures that I have seen with
cup-shaped scars, which have been referred to Halonia, have belonged to one or other of
the Ulodendroid Lycopods, never to Halonia. * iy
LEAF-CUSHION AND PosiTIoN oF THE LEAF-CICATRICE.
GOLDENBERG figures (loc. cit.) two specimens of Lepidophloios laricinus from which the
position of the leaf-cicatrice can be discovered. That given on his pl. ii1. fig. 14, shows
a bifurcation, and the leaf-cushion is seen to bear the leaf-scar at its lower extremity.
The two large scars on this stem—one on each fork—may indicate the position of branches
which have been broken off. The other figure given by GOLDENBERG, which shows the.
natural position of the branch, is that on his pl. xvi. fig. 6, which clearly shows the leaf-
cicatrice at the lower end of the cushion, or what might perhaps be more correctly
described as the leaf-scar situated at the top of the downward directed cushion. This
specimen is a most interesting one, and seems to represent the Halonia condition of the
plant.
In the figure of Lepidophloios Scoticus given by Dr Macrariane,t the leaf-cushions
are also directed downwards. His specimen likewise shows the Halonia condition. I
shall have occasion presently to refer to the arrangement of the leaf-cushions on the con
pedicels of this species, whose leaf-scar is situated at that end of the cushion which is
directed upwards towards the cone. }
Among other characters, Corpa distinguished his genus Lomatophiloios from Lepido-
phloios by the upward directed leaf-cushions, whose leaf-cicatrice is situated at the upper
extremity. We shall also find that this position of the leaf-scar is found on Lepidophloios
acerosus L. and H., sp., with which Corpa’s Lomatophloios crassicaule appears to me
to be identical.
The direction of growth of the leaf-cushion I cannot accept as of generic importance,
especially as it will be shown presently that the direction of the leaf-cushion differs on
the younger and older branches of Lepidophloios Scoticus.
In GoLpENBERG’s figure, however,{ the smaller branches which spring from the main
stem of Lepidophloios laricinus have the leaf-cushions and cicatrices placed in the same
position as that which they are found to occupy on the main stem. :
* Halonia disticha, Morris, Trans. Geol. Soc., 2nd ser., vol. v. pl. xxxviii. fig. 1, is Sigillaria discophora.
+ Trans. Bot, Soc. Edin., vol. xiv. pl. vii.
{ Loc. cit., pl. xvi. fig. vi.
4
On
Or
LEPIDOPHLOIOS, AND ON THE BRITISH SPECIES OF THE GENUS.
INTERNAL STRUCTURE OF LEPIDOPHLOIOS.
1848. Dawes.
Mr Dawes while describing the internal structure of Halonia, as observed in some
specimens in his possession, remarks :—“ These few observations will be able to show
that the fossil in question belonged to the vascular Cryptogamie, and that when compared
with the other plants of the coal measures, the nearest affinity is with the Lepidodendron.”
1872. Binney (loc. cit.). Paleontographical Soc.
The structure of Halonia is fully gone into by Mr Bryney in this Memoir, and
illustrated by several plates.
1872. Witiramson. “ On the Organisation of the Fossil Plants of the Coal Measures.”
Part Il. Lycopodiacee, Lepidodendron, and Sigillaria, Phil. Trans., p. 222.
Professor WILLIAMSON here states—‘“‘I have little doubt but that the Haloma was
a fruit-bearing branch of a Lepidodendron, and that from each of the tubercles there
was suspended a cone.” In a footnote, p. 222, after mentioning that the usual form of
Halonia regulars represented a semi-decorticated condition, he says, on p. 223,—“ It
thus appears that these outer layers of the bark, having an ageregate thickness of from
three-eighths to half-an-inch, filled up the deep valleys separating the conical hillocks of
Halonia, and almost reduced the entire surface of the plant, when living, to a uniform
leyel.* ‘These determinations bring the minute and geometrically arranged punctations
covering the surface of the Halonia into homological relations with similar markings
seen on other semi-decorticated Lepidodendroid plants.”
The first. part of this footnote expresses exactly what is seen on specimens of Haloma
whose outer bark is preserved, but such specimens show that Halon is the fruiting
branch of Lepidophiloios, not of Lepidodendron.
A considerable space is occupied in this Memoir with a description of the internal
structure of Halonia, and from the structure of the vascular bundle which passes to the
tubercles, Professor WILLIAMSON infers “‘that the vascular bundle, thus originated, proceeded
to some modification of a branch, but which modification was of smaller dimensions than
branches usually attained to, and which, consequently, requires a less abundant supply
of vascular tissue than ordinary bundles need. Such a modification would, I imagine,
only be found in a Strobilus, which must be regarded as a branch that has undergone an
arrested development at a very early stage of its growth.”
* See the figure given in this communication, Pl. II. fig. 5, which confirms this statement.
VOL. XXXVII. PART III. (NO. 25). 4N
546 MR ROBERT KIDSTON ON
1883. Wixuiamson. ‘“‘ On the Organisation of the Fossil Plants of the Coal Measures,”
Part XII., Phil. Trans., p. 466.
The chief poimt of interest in this communication in regard to the subject under
discussion, is the figure of the specimen of Haloniw in the Leeds Museum, of which a—
figure had previously been given by Mr Denny.* Professor WILLIAMSON referring to
this specimen says—“ It is yet more perfect than Mr CarRuTHERs’ specimen,t since its
lower extremity exhibits much more markedly than his corresponding ones do, the
elongated foliar cicatrices characteristic of Lepidodendron.” .... . “At the lower
part of the branch (A on Professor Writramson’s plate xxxiv.) these leaf-scars have
exactly the same form as those of L. selaginoides and L. elegans of LINDLEY and Hutton.”
“* After its first bifurcation, the two branches still contain much of the Lepidodendroid
features, though the leaf-scars gradually become less elongated vertically.” After further
description of this specimen in the Museum of the Leeds Phil. Soc., he sums up as”
follows—“ In my second Memoir (Phil. Trans., 1872, p. 222), read in June 1871, I said,
‘T have little doubt but that Halonza belongs to the upper branches of a Lepidodendroid
tree, consequently it cannot be a root; secondly, we learn that Halonia is a specialised
branch of a Lepidodendroid tree that is not itself a Haloma.” These conclusions are
very similar to those arrived at by Mr CarruTHERS in 1878 (loc. cit.), where, in speaking
of one of the specimens he described, he says—“ With Bergeria must go Haloma as a
separate genus, seeing that it is only a condition of Lepidophlovos and it may be of other
Lepidodendroid plants.” “The specimen now described is unquestionably not a Loma-
tophloios but a true Lepidodendron.” Iam sorry I must entirely dissent from the inter-
pretation of the affinities of the two specimens described and figured by Professor —
WILLIAMSON (loc. cit., pl. xxxiv.) and Mr Carruruers (Joe. cit., pl. vii. fig. 1).
Firstly, in regard to that figured and described by Professor Wituiamson. This
specimen I most carefully examined in 1886, while studying the fossil plants in the
Museum of the Leeds Phil. Soc., and it is correctly described by Denny as “ apparently
combining the characters of the genera Haloma and Knorria” (loc. cit., p. 37). |
Now Knorria may arise from Lepidophloios, Lepidodendron, and Bothrodendron,
or even the Clathrate Sigillarie ; it is only a condition of imperfect preservation—a state
in which the outer surface of the stem has been removed, and hence such specimens as
that described by Denny, and more lately by Professor W1LLiamson, do not and can ot
possess the characters necessary for a generic determination. Professor WILLIAMSON has
himself pointed out that Halonia is a semi-decorticated condition (ante, p. 545). Hence
this specimen, on which Professor Witttamson places so much importance, proves
absolutely nothing, either for or against his opinion on the relationship of Haloma to
Lepidodendron. The relationship of Halonia to its parent stem can only be determined —
from specimens, on which is preserved, not only the Halonia tubercle, but the form and
* See J. c. ante, p. 582.
t+ This specimen is refigured on my PI. II. fig. 8. It isa Lepidophloios, not a Lepidodendron.
LEPIDOPHLOIOS, AND ON THE BRITISH SPECIES OF THE GENUS. 547
structure of the leaf-scars, for the characters derived from the latter afford some of the
most important points by which Lepidophloios is separated from Lepidodendron.
Secondly, in reference to the specimen described by Mr CarruruHERs, as supporting a
similar view, viz., that Halonia was a branch of a true Lepidodendron, the whole evidence
afforded by that specimen shows that Mr CarrutnHeErs has been mistaken in his observa-
tions. This example (PI. II. fig. 8), which is an impression, is in the collection of the
British Museum, and while preparing my Catalogue of the Paleozoic Plants in the
Geological Collection, I had every opportunity of carefully examining it, and to enable me
to confirm the opinions I then formed of its true relationship, at my request, Dr HENRY
Woopwarp, F.R.S., kindly sent me a cast taken from the impression of the specimen.
An examination of this cast confirms the description which I gave of the fossil in my
Catalogue.* . The leaf-scars on the specimen are characteristically those of Lepidophloios
(Pl. Il. fig. 8a, 8B), and show conclusively that Halonia is a fruiting branch of Lepido-
phlowos. Of the two specimens, then, which by British authors have been brought forward
to prove that Haloma was the fruiting branch of Lepidodendron, one, owing to its
imperfect preservation, gives no evidence in favour of any particular view, while the
other is a typical Lepidophloios.
1891. Cas and Lomax. “On Lepidophioios and Lepidodendron,” Report Brit.
Assoc. for 1890, p. 810.
Mr Lomax kindly showed me the specimen which was subsequently the subject of
this paper. The specimen is a small stem of Lepidophloios—Lepidophloios acerosus,
L. and H., sp., 1 believe—whose internal organisation was preserved, and whose structure
was identical with the specimens described by W1LLtaMson as Lepidodendron fuliginosum,
which therefore must be classed as Lepidophloios.
1892. Witutamson. “On the Organisation of the Fossil Plants of the Coal Measures ”
(Abstract), Proc. Roy. Soc., London, vol. 50, p. 469.
This paper, of which only an abstract has as yet been published, deals with many
important points on the structure of Halonia and Ulodendron cone-scars, also on the
structure of the leaf-cushion and leaf-scar.
Referring to Halonia and Ulodendron, he mentions that their relationship to each
other is ‘still in a state of serious confusion.” He further states that the scars in Ulo-
dendron are usually defined as biserial, being arranged in two longitudinal rows, whereas
in Halonia the rows are more numerous and the scars quincuncially arranged.
It is true that confusion appears to exist in the minds of some botanists, regarding
the distinctions between “ Ulodendron” and “ Halonia,” but not only do the two so-
called genera differ in the arrangement of the cone-scars, but also in the form and structure
of the leaf-scar and cushion. Further, as I have pointed out before, Ulodendion
does not exist as a genus, but as a condition or state of more than one genus. But even
* p. 171.
548 MR ROBERT KIDSTON ON
if it is necessary to define a difference between the Ulodendron condition and the
Halonia condition, even in the absence of the bark they can be separated, the former
having two vertical rows of alternate (usually) cup-shaped scars, and the former having
more than two rows of (usually) conical tubercles, spirally arranged.
I perfectly agree in the conclusion to which Professor WILLIAMSON arrived, and have
always contested for the same issue, viz., “These two names, Halonia and Ulodendron,
have no longer any value, but the terms Halonial and Ulodendroid may be conveniently
retained as adjectives applicable to appropriate specific forms.” These terms are convenient
for distinguishing a condition, though the Halonial condition is always referable to the
genus Lepidophloios and to that genus alone, while the Ulodendron condition may belong
to Bothrodendron,* Sigillaria, or Lepidodendron, and when the leaf-scars are not
preserved in such a state as to admit of a generic identification, the term “ Ulodendroid
condition” is of distinct value.
In the same communication, Professor WILLIAMSON refers to the structure of the three-
leaf cicatricules, and for the two lateral, which are not connected with the vascular system,
but which are probably glandular, adopts the name of parichnos, which has been applied
tothem by M. Hovetacquz.t The central cicatricule only belongs to the vascular system.
Professor WILIAMSON rejects the term “ ligule ”-scar, first applied by Srur to the cicatrice
on the leaf-cushion immediately above the leaf-scar, ‘on the ground that he cannot
identify the fossil structure with the organ bearing the same name in Isoetes and
Selaginella,” a conclusion with which I concur.
I have not made any remarks on the internal structure of Lepidophlovos, as I have
nothing to add to that given by Dawes, BINNEY, and WILLIAMSON, in their Memoirs,
I would only remark that the internal structure of Lepidophlovos is of the same type
as Lepidodendron, and unless the stems show the Halonial tubercles or leaf-scars, they
cannot be distinguished from Lepidodendron, which is seen from the circumstance that the
plant originally described by Professor WILLIAMSON as Lepidodendron fuliginosum, has been
proved by the occurrence of a specimen showing the leaf-scars to be a Lepidophlovs.
Of course there are specific differences in the structure of the stem, but nothing
amounting to what could be regarded as of generic importance, and this is quite what
might be expected in two genera which hold such close affinity to each other.
From what has now been stated, it is seen that some writers regard Lepidophlovos,
Lomatophloios, and Halonia as distinct genera. Cyclocladia, Goldenberg (not L, and H.),
has been accepted generally as synonymous with Halonia. Others unite Lepidophlovs
and Lomatophloios, while they keep Halonia separate, and some have united all these
genera under Lepidophlovos.
It has also been proposed to unite Halonia with Lepidodendron.
It has, further, been supposed by some that the leaf-scars in all species of Lepi-
dophloios were situated at the lower end of the cushion; by others, that they oceupied
* In Bothrodendron, the umbilicus is eccentric, in the others, it is almost or quite central.
+ Comptes rendus, vol. cxiii., 18th July 1891 ; also zbid., 15th Aug. 1891.
LEPIDOPHLOIOS, AND ON THE BRITISH SPECIES OF THE GENUS. 549
the upper end of the cushion ; and by a few, that in some species the leaf-scar was at the
upper end, and in other species that it was at the lower end of the cushion.
These remarks show that, up to the present, much confusion exists as to the relation-
ship of these genera to one another, and this has induced me to go fully into the subject,
and to give the evidence which has led me for some years to believe that Lomatophlovos,
Haloma, and Cyclocladia, Goldenberg (not L. and H.), must be united to Lepido-
phlovos.
The differences of opinion on the affinities of these fossils, to which reference has
already been made, arises, in great measure, from the imperfection of the material
examined, and I hope to show, from the specimens I now describe,—
I. That Lomatophloios, Corda, Haloma, L. and H., and Cyclocladia, Goldenberg
(not L. and H.), belong to Lepdophloios, Sternberg.
II. That the fruit was in the form of cones, borne on the Halonia branches.
III. That, in some species (as far as at present demonstrable), the leaf-cicatrices
were situated at the upper end of the leaf-cushions ; and, in other species,
at the lower end of the leaf-cushions ; and that, in one species at least, the
direction of the cushion (and consequently of the leaf-scar) alters with the
age of the plant.*
DESCRIPTION OF SPECIMENS bearing on the relationship of Halonia to Lepidophlotos.
Reference has already been made, when reviewing the literature of this subject, to the
specimens described by Ercowap, FEISTMANTEL, GOLDENBERG, WILLIAMSON, MAcFaRLANE,
and others. I shall now describe some examples which have come under my personal
observation.
Specimen figured and described by Mr Carruthers.t (Pl. II. figs. 8, 84, 8B.)
I have already shortly referred to this specimen,{ but as it has been regarded as
proving that Halona was the fruiting branch of Lepidodendron, | must describe it here
more fully.
I am indebted to Dr Henry Woopwarp, F.R.S., for a plaster cast of this fossil,
which consists of a portion of a stem about 12 inches long that bifurcates about 5 inches
above its base. The fork on the right, which is almost in a line with the undivided
portion, is somewhat thicker than the fork to the left. Immediately below the fork the
stem is about 23 inches wide ; the right-hand fork of the dichotomy is about 2 inches
thick, while that on the left increases slightly in width upwards, and at its thickest part
is rather over 12 inches. The stems are little compressed, having, in section, a rounded
* This alteration of the direction of the scales or cushions may occur in all the species, but we do not at present
possess the proof that such is the universal rule in this genus.
+ Geol. Mag., 1873, p. 145. t Catal. Palzoz. Plants, p. 171, 1886.
550 MR ROBERT KIDSTON ON
contour, but the leaf-cushions in the line of the axis, on the most raised part of the larger
branch, have suffered more from pressure than the leaf-cushions on the lateral portions of
the stem, or those on the smaller branch. The smaller branch shows only a few Haloma
scars as it is broken-over a short distance above the point at which they begin to
appear,—the lower half of the arm showing no such scars.*
Both on the Halonial branch, and the other parts of the fossil, the characteristic
leaf-cushions of Lepidophloios are shown. Those on the Halonial branch hold their
normal position to the stem, the leaf-scar being at the lower end of the downward
directed cushion. PI. II. fig. 84, a, 6, show two cushions, x 2, drawn in their actual
position to the axis of the stem.t Those on the main stem, and on the other fork,
from some cause which I cannot fully explain, are so twisted round from their normal
position that the two lateral angles of the leaf-cushion lie parallel with the axis of growth,
and consequently the leaf-cicatrice also holds an abnormal position, and thus appears to
occupy one of the lateral angles of the leaf-cushion. (Pl. II. fig. 8a, ¢; 8B, d, e.) |
These points are illustrated in the figure, 2 natural size, given on PI. II. fig. 8. A is
the stronger and larger branch, which has suffered more from pressure than B, on whi h
the Halonial scars occur. On the arm B the leaf-cushions are directed downwards, as in
typical Lepidophloios laricinus. Figs. 8a, a, b, show some of the leaf-cushions as they
occur on the stem, and the arrows on fig. 8 show their position on the fossil. On the
stem A, fig. 8, at c, the leaf-cushions are swung round, and the leaf-cicatrices poimt
outwards. I think this has been brought about by pressure acting in the direction of the
axis, which has twisted the leaf-cushions outwards on each side. It must also be
observed, in connection with this, that the cushions lying on the central and more
elevated part of the stem form a flattened band along its axis. This curious alteration
in the natural direction of the cushions has caused their longer axes to lie parallel with
the axis of growth, and thus in their general outline they simulate the leaf-cushions of
Lepidodendron. The leaf-cushions are also swung from their natural position on part of
the lower portion of the branch B, and are directed outward in a similar manner to that
already described, as at fig. 8, B, c. From the characters possessed by this fossil, the e
cannot remain any doubt as to its being a Lepidophloios bearing a Halonial branch.
I have already referred to the specimen of Lepidophloios Scoticus, Kidston (Lepi-
dophlovos laricinus, Macfarlane (not Sternberg), given by Dr MacrarLane in the
Trans. Bot. Soc. Edin., vol. xiv. pl. vii., and I have a similar specimen in my
possession, from the Midlothian Oil Shales, which shows the union of Halonia and
Lepidophloios. Of this specimen I give a figure, reduced to about 4 natural size, a
Pl. Il. fig. 6. At fig. 6a are shown the leaf-cushions, x 2.
At Pl. Il. fig. 5 is given, natural size, a portion of a Halonial branch of anot per
*Tt might be argued from this specimen that, as only one row is seen, the branch had not more than twe
rows of Halonial scars in all, but it must be remembered that they commence irregularly and are spirally
arranged.
+ All the other figures of leaf-cushions, x 2, figs. 8A, c ; 88, d, e, are also drawn in their present position im egar re
to the axis of the specimen. '
5
LEPIDOPHLOIOS, AND ON THE BRITISH SPECIES OF THE GENUS. 551
specimen of Lepidophloios Scoticus. At the points where the stalked cones were
attached, the leaf-cushions are bent back, and form a rosette of scales, at the centre of
which is seen the point of attachment of the branch. Similar “rosettes” are seen
on Pl. Il. fig. 6.
Dr Macrar.anE shows a cone of this species attached to its stem, but the base of the
stem is broken off.* The basal portion of a similar cone-stem is shown, natural size,
on my PI, Il. fig. 7, where it is seen to terminate in a funnel-like expansion which
fitted into the “rosette” on the parent stem. When in life, these “rosettes” would
not be so flat as shown on the fossils—always more or less compressed—but would
form shallow cup-like depressions, caused by the upward rising of the leaf-cushions,
into which would fit the base of the stem shown at fig. 7.
Associated with these specimens from the Midlothian Oil Shales, the ordinary Halonial
condition is found, and one is shown in the accompanying woodcut, about half natural size.
Lepidophioios Scoticus, Kidston. Halonial condition. From Straiton, near Edinburgh. About half natural size.
This example shows a portion of a stem (a) which dichotomises, but from the stronger
growth of the left fork (b) the right fork (b’) is thrown to the side; the left fork (b)
again dichotomises, and the left fork (c) is thrown to the side; this fork (c) again divides,
* Trans. Bot. Soc, Edin., vol, xiv. pl. viii. fig. 1.
552 MR ROBERT KIDSTON ON
and on its two arms (d and d’) the Halonial condition occurs, as well as on the branch e.
On the other portions of the fossil, as also on the Halonial branch, are seen the small
dots, which indicate the points at which the vascular bundles passed to the leaves. Of
course there is no character on this specimen to prove that it belongs to Lepidophloios
Scoticus other than the presence of the Halonial branch, and the fact that it occurred in
the same beds as those specimens on which the Lepidophlovos leaf-cushions were associ-—
ated with the Halonial condition in organic union; and as Lepidophloios Scoticus is the
only species of Lepidophloios known to occur in these beds, we are justified in referring this
specimen to that species. We further know that Halonia, when semi-decorticated, has
prominent tubercles, the hollows between which, when corticated, were filled up with the
bark, which raised the whole surface of the stem to a common level, as shown at Pl. IL.
figs. 5 and 6.
SPECIMENS ILLUSTRATING THE DIRECTION OF THE LEAF-CUSHIONS.
The specimen of Lepidophloios figured by GotpEnBerG,* and of Lepidophlovo
Scoticus given by Dr Macrar.ang, as well as the specimens of Leprdophloios laricinus
and Lepidophloios Scotucus described by myself here, prove beyond doubt that the stems
of some species of Lepidophlovos, under certain conditions at all events, were clothed with
downward directed leaf-cushions. Some authors believe that this was the position of the
leaf-cushion in all species; others think that in some species the leaf-cushions were
directed upwards, and by those who still retain Corpa’s genus, Lomatophloios, this is
the chief or only point by which it is separated from Lepidophlovos.
From the description of the following specimens it will be seen that the direction of
the leaf-cushion is not constant, and, in one case at least, varies even in the same species.
To refer again to the figures of Lepidophloios Scoticus given by Dr MacraRLaNe
(Joc. cit.) on his pl. viii. fig. 1, he shows a cone attached to its stem. If this figure be
carefully examined, it will be seen that the leaf-scars are at the summit of the upward
directed cushions, and consequently that the enlargement (fig. 4) of the same plate is
shown in reversed position. As the fig. 1 was drawn by myself, I can vouch for its”
accuracy ; but the specimen is not an isolated case, for I possess several cones of
Lejyidophloios Scoticus attached to their stems, which show the same character.
In every respect the structure of the leaf-cushion and scar is identical with those
occurring on the larger stems, but in the Jatter case they are always directed downwards.
At PL. II. fig. 7, I show the base of the stalk of one of these cones, which had very long
stalks in Lepidophloios Scoticus; and I have a specimen from Grange Quarry, Burnt-
island, with the base of the cone attached, whose stem is rather under 4 of an inch thick
and about 74 inches long, but its full length is not preserved. I have another specimen —
whose stem is about 4 inch thick, but still they can scarcely have grown upright. the
stems are always more or less bent, and their small size precludes the idea that they y
* Loc. cit., pl. xvi. fig. 6.
LEPIDOPHLOIOS, AND ON THE BRITISH SPECIES OF THE GENUS. 553
could have supported the weight of the terminal cone in an upright position. I there-
fore presume that the cones were pendent.
_. The chief point to which I now wish to direct attention in connection with fig; 7 is
the upward directed leaf-cushions. That they are directed upward is shown by the
truncate funnel-shaped base of the stem, which corresponds to its Halonial attachment on
the parent branch. If it were possible to have any doubt about the direction of the leaf-
cushions on this example, the stems with cones attached conclusively settle the point in
showing the same character.
But not only on the cone-branches of Lepidophloios Scoticus were the leaf-cushions
directed upwards. At Pl. I. fig. 3 is given a figure of a small specimen, 4th natural
size, which was collected by the late Mr C. W. PEacu at West Hermand, West Calder.
This shows a small bifurcated stem by which the direction of the growth is easily deter-
mined. As seen here and in the enlarged drawing, fig. 3a, x 4, the leaf-cushions are
directed upwards.
On a small fragment of stem in my collection, about 4 inch thick, the leaf-cicatrices
appear as if directed outwards ;* but on no single specimen have I ever seen any transi-
tion from the upward to the downward directed leaf-cushion, On the smaller branches
they are always directed upwards, and on the larger branches they are always directed
downwards, while on the intermediate-sized branches, as that mentioned above, the leaf-
scars appear to be directed outwards. Most probably, then, the change in the direction
of the leaf-cushion took place gradually, and could only be traced on much larger and
more perfect specimens than those usually met with.
These are the facts, as supported by specimens in my possession ; and from their
study one can only conclude that in Lepidophloios Scoticus in the young condition the
leaf-cushions are directed upwards, but as the plant increases in age and size they
gradually become deflexed; but it must be borne in mind that, whatever was the
position of the leaf-cushion, the leaf was always directed upwards. t
The downward directed position of the leaf-cushions on the other branches of Lepido-
phlovos Scoticus is seen at Pl. II. fig. 6. Another portion of a branch, which shows the
whole width of the stem, is shown, natural size, at Pl. I. fig. 2. The same position of the
leaf-cushion of Lepidophloios laricinus is seen at Pl. II. fig. 8.
Of Lepidophloios acerosus, L. and H., sp., [ have only seen a single specimen from which
the direction of the leaf-cushions could be determined. This example is shown, natural
size, on Pl. I. fig. 1. In this case the leaf-cushions are certainly directed upwards, as in
Lomatophloios crassicaule, Corda, which, however, I regard as synonymous with
Lepidophloios acerosus, L. and H., sp. It may also be noted that the attached foliage
seems to correspond to the Lepidophyllum majus, Brongt.
* Reg. No. 1805.
+ See ZerntER, Lepidophloios Dessorti, Bassin houil. et perm. de Brive, Flore foss., 1892, p. 77, pl. xiii. fig. 1.
VOL, XXXVII. PART III. (NO. 25). 40
554 MR ROBERT KIDSTON ON
h
STRUCTURE OF THE LEArF-CUSHION.
I reproduce on Pl. I. fig. 11 a leaf-cushion of Lepidophloios crassicaule, as given by
Srur.,* on which he shows the ligule-scar (a) and the vascular glands (c) on each side
of the medial line, similarly to what occurs in Lepidodendron. In respect to this figure,
which, he says, is a cushion on a specimen of Lepidophlovos crassicaule, Corda, in the —
Prague Museum, I can only say that I have never seen these structures, as represen
by Dr Srur, on any of the very many specimens of Lepidophloios which I have examined,
nor am I aware that any other writer on Lepidophloios has been more fortunate than —
myself, I am, therefore, forced to conclude that there is some error in Dr Srur’s
observation, for, were it otherwise, surely it would have met with corroboration. It is
on this evidence that Srur treats Lepidophloios as a condition of Lepidodendron.t
At Pl. Il. fig. 9, I give a leaf-cushion of Lepidophloios acerosus, L. and H., sp., from
the Lower Coal Measures, Tullygarth, Clackmannanshire. This specimen shoe imme-
diately beneath the leaf-scar, and terminating the medial keel, a small tubercle,{ in
which is placed a small sub-triangular pit. I have never observed any other scar or
cicatrice (other than this and the leaf-scar) on the cushions of Lepidophlovos, and I have
no doubt that, morphologically, this small tubercle corresponds to the two small oval pi Ss
seen on the cheeks of the leaf-cushion of many species of Lepidodendron. They are
situated one on each side of the medial line, immediately beneath the Jeaf-scar, but from
some species of Lepidodendron these two small pits beneath the leaf-scar are constantly
absent. In Lepidophloios Scoticus no tubercle beneath the leaf-scar has yet been
observed on any of the many specimens I have examined.
From what has now been stated, I think it must be conceded that Lepidophloios
forms a well-marked genus, essentially distinct from Lepidodendron, but with wil h
Lomatophloios must be united, and whose fruit-bearmg branches are the well known
Haloma L. and H.
British SPECIES OF THE GENUS LEPIDOPHLOIOS.
Lepidophloios, Sternberg, 1826.
1826. Lepidophloios, Sternb. Ess. flore monde prim., vol. i. fase. 4, p. Xili.
1833. Halonia, L. and H. Jossil Flora, vol. ii. p. 14.
* Culm. Flora d. Ostrauer u. Waldenburger Schichten, pl. xix. (xxxvi.) fig. 2b.
+ For the purpose of comparison, I give a figure of a Lepidodendroid cushion and leaf-scar copied from Srur (le.
cit.), pl. xix. fig. 1. Srur describes it as follows :—1b, rhomboidal leaf-scar ; b.g., the three points of the leaf vaseula
bundles ; /, the ligule-scar (“ Ligulagrube”) ; s, point if insertion of the sporangium ; m, medial line of leaf-cushion ;
the line of the field (“ Wangenlinie” of Srur) ; b.p.g., vascular pits of the cushion (‘ Gefassedrasen des Blattpolsters”). —
The reasons have already been given for the rejection of the terms “ligule-scar” and “point of attachment of the —
sporangium.” Of the three cicatricules within the leaf-scar, the two lateral—the parichnos of HovELACQUE
probably glandular; the two little pits beneath the leaf-scar, one on each side of the medial line, are also appa:
glandular in function, and have no connection with the vascular system.
{ This tubercle is not always present, but the majority of specimens possess it.
LEPIDOPHLOIOS, AND ON THE BRITISH SPECIES OF THE GENUS. 555
1836. Pachyphloeus, Gopp. (in part). Die fossilen Farrnkrauter, p. 468.
1838. Zamites, Presl. in Sternb. (in part). Vers., ii. fase. 7, 8, p. 195.
1855. Cyclocladia, Goldenberg (not L. and H.). Flora Sarep. foss., heft. i. p. 19.
1867. Lomatophloios, Corda. Flora d. Vorwelt, p. 17.
Generic Characters.—Arborescent lycopods, with dichotomous ramification. Stems
and branches bearing much developed scale-like leaf-cushions, at or near whose summit
is placed the leaf-cicatrice. Leaf-cushions imbricated, pedicel-like, upright or deflexed,
exposed portion with straight sides or rhomboidal in outline, smooth or carinate ; some-
times provided with a small tubercle immediately beneath the leaf-cicatrice. Leaf-
cicatrices transversely oval, rhomboidal or rhomboidal-elongate, lateral angles rounded or
acute, upper and lower angles generally rounded, sometimes pointed ; within leaf-cicatrice
are three punctiform cicatricules, of which the central is largest and sometimes sub-
triangular in form. Fructification consisting of cones, stalked (?or sessile), borne on
specialised branches which show when decorticated, spirally arranged protuberances
(Halonia) ; in corticated condition the Halonial scars rise little above, or are on a level
with the bark, and are represented by a rosette of deflected leaf-cushions. Medulla of
delicate cells surrounded by a primary vascular axis composed of scalariform vessels which
diminish in size from within outwards, exogenous vascular zone only developed in speci-
mens advanced in age, bark consisting of three zones—the innermost of small cells, the
middle of larger and irregular dense cells, and the outer composed of narrow, dense,
prosenchymatous tissue (= Lepidodendron fuliginosum, Williamson).
In Britain—in the Upper Carbonferous—Lepidophloios is very rare in the Upper
Coal Measures, but common in the Middle and Lower Coal Measures; of the two
divisions of the Lower Carboniferous, Lepidophlovos is extremely rare in the Carboni-
ferous Limestone Series, but frequent in the Oil Shales and associated rocks of the
Calciferous Sandstone Series.
The following species occur in Britain :—
Lepidophloios lwricinus, Sternberg.
Leyidophioios acerosus, L. and H., sp.
Lepidophlovos, cf. macrolepidotus, Goldenberg.
Lepidophlovos Scoticus, Kidston.
Lepidophloios laricinus, Sternberg.
Pl. I. fig, 4, 44; Ph IL fie. 8, 84, and 8s.
1820. Lepidodendron laricinum, Sternb. Esse flore monde prim., vol. i. fasc. 1, pp. 23 and 25, pl. xi.
figs. 2-4.
1854. Lepidodendron laricinum, Geinitz. Darst. d. Flora d. Hain.-Ebersd. u. d. Floehar-Kohlenbassins,
p. 47, pl. xi. figs. 4-8.
1875. Lepidodendron laricinum, Feistmantel. Vers. d. bihm. Kohlenab., Abth. ii, p. 17, pl. iv. figs. 1-3
(fig. 42); pl. v. figs, 1-4 (fig. 5%) (mot pl. xviii.) (including var.
insigne, Feistm.).
556 MR ROBERT KIDSTON ON
1826. Lepidofloyos laricinum, Sternb. Ess. flore monde prim., vol. i. fase. 4, p. xiii. -
1855 and 1862. Lepidophloios laricinum, Goldenberg (in part). Flora Sarep. foss., Lief. i. p. 22, pl. iii.
figs. 14, 14a (1855); Lief. iii p. 30 (pl. xv. fig. 112), pl. xvi. figs.
(12) 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 (1862). :
1870. Lepidophloios laricinus, Schimper. Traité d. paléont. végét., vol. ii. p. 51, pl. x, fig. 4; pl. lxiv.
fig. 4 (51), 6, 8 (mot pl. lx. figs. 11, 12).
1871. Lepidophloios laricinus, Weiss. oss. Flora d. jiingst. Stk. u. Rothl., p. 154, pl. xv. figs. 6, 7, and 9.
1873. Lepidophloios laricinus, Carruthers. Geol. Mayg., vol. x. p. 150, pl. vii. fig. 3.
1880. Lepidophloios laricinus, Zeiller. Végét. foss. d. terr. houil. dela France, p. 113, pl. clxxii. figs. 5, 6.
1882. Lepidophloios laricinus, Renault (in part). Cows d. botan. foss., vol. ii. p. 44, pl. ix. figs. 5 and 7, —
1886. Lepidophlotos laricinus, Zeiller. Atlas Flore foss. d. bassin howil. d. Valen., pl. 1xxii. figs, 1, a
(1886) ; Text, p. 471 (1888).
1890. Lepidophloios laricinus, Renault. Flore foss. terr. howil d. Comentry, part ii. p. 514 (ph Ii.
fig. 1).
1866. Lepidophloios Acadianus, Dawson. Quart. Jowr. Geol. Soc., vol. xxii. p. 163, pl. x. fig. 54 (ot ’
xi. fig. 51). 2
1868. Lepidophloios Acadianus, Dawson. Acad. Geol., 2nd ed., p. 489, fig. 171 (p. 457).
1888. Lepidophloios Acadianus. Dawson. Geol. Hist. of Fossil Plants, p. 166, fig. 44 (p. 121).
1871. Lepidophloios acuminatus, Weiss. oss. Flora d. jiingst. Stk. u. Rothl., p. 155, pl. xv. fig. 8.
1874. Lepidophloios acuminatus, Schimper. Traité d. paléont., vol. iii. p. 537.
1872. Lepidophloios intermedius, Schimper (not Goldenberg). Traité d. paléont. végét., vol. ii. p. 51, pl.
Ixiv. figs. 4-8. A ¢
1884. ? Lepidophloios dilatatus, Lesqx. (in part). Coal Flora, vol. iii. p. 781, pl. ev. fig 2. ;
1857.4 Sigillaria Menardi, Goldenberg (not Brongt.). Flora Sarep. foss., Lief. iii. p. 24, pl. vii. fig. 1.
1855. Knorria, Goldenberg. Flora Sarep. foss., Lief. i. pp. 17 and 37, pl. ii. fig. 8B.
Specific Characters.—Leaf-cushions elongated, imbricate, scarcely keeled, directed —
downwards ; exposed portion of cushions rhomboidal or elongated transversely ; lateral
and upper angles acute, lower angle generally rounded. Leaf-scar placed at the summit —
of the downward directed leaf-cushion, or only slightly below the summit,* rhomboidal,
or transversely rhomboidal-elongate, lateral angles very sharp and prominent, upper and —
lower angles slightly rounded ; within the leaf-scar are three cicatricules placed centrally,
or slightly above or below the centre, the two lateral punctiform, the central punctiform
or subtriangular. When the leaf-scar is placed slightly below the apex of the deflexed
cushion, two lines run from its lateral angles, which meet the margin of the cushion a —
short distance below the leaf-scar. The leaf-cushion frequently bears, immediately be
Fructification borne on Halonial branches.
Remarks.—There can be no doubt that, morphologically, the leaf-scar is placed at
the apex of the cushion, whether the cushions remain upright, as in Lepidophlows
acerosus, L. and H., sp., or become deflexed, as in Lepidophloios Scoticus. In Lepi-
dophiovos loricinus, though I have not seen 1 any specimens showing the leaf-oua
* These leaf-scars are usually described as being at the base of the cushion, and they certainly on impressions
appear to be at the base, but in reality they are at the swmmit of a deflexed cushion. I am led to this conclusion from re
what has been said when describing specimens of L. Scoticus, ante, p. 552. The deflection of the leaf-cushions may
take place at a very early stage of development. ‘
a
PAD Gg
LEPIDOPHLOIOS, AND ON THE BRITISH SPECIES OF THE GENUS. 557
still one cannot resist the conclusion that, as in Lepidophloios Scoticus, so in Lepi-
dophlovos laricinus, the cushions become deflexed, and their true apex becomes directed
downwards.
The Jeaf-cushions, in all the species, increase in size with the growth of the stem,
and hence the relative proportions of their width to their length varies with the varying
age of the plant.
Probably the cones of Lepidophloios laricinus were stalked, but absolute proof is
wanting on this point, though the example figured by GoLDENBERG on his pl. xvi. seems
to represent the fruiting condition (Halonia) of the species with the cone-stems still
attached.
The Sigillaria Menard: given by GoLDENBERG on his pl. vii. fig. 1, has a great
resemblance to Lepidophloios laricinus, but when one takes into consideration the
enlarged figure 18, it certainly cannot be the latter plant, though it is difficult to under-
stand how this fig. 1B could be derived from fig. 1. Possibly only a portion of the
Specimen is given at fig. 1, and fig. 1B may be taken from a part not shown in the
portion figured.
Lepidophioios dilatatus, Lesquereux, as far as fig. 2* is concerned, does not appear to
differ in any essential character from Lepidophloios laricinus. There do not seem to be
any reasons given why the figs. 1, 3, and 4 of the same plate are placed under the same
name as fig. 2, from which they appear to differ. It is, in fact, difficult to understand
on what grounds such specimens as fig. 1 could be referred to Lepidophlovos as its cone.
Such relationship appears to me to be purely conjectural.
I believe that the specimen figured by Wess as Lepidophloios laricinust is my
Lepidophioios Scoticus. The figure is scarcely enough to determine the point, but it has
all the characters of this species, and originates from the same horizon.
Lepidophloios laricinus is very rare in Britain, and hitherto I have only seen it in
the Middle Coal Measures.
Middle Coal Measures.
Yorkshire.—Low Moor, near Bradford. Davis.
Horizon.— White Rake Bed and Black Bed Coal.
Derbyshire.—Claycross. Dr Pegler.
Horizon (?).
South Wales Coal Field.—Locality (?). Carruthers. (Geol. Mag., vol. x. p. 150,
pl. vu. fig. 3, 1873.)
Horizon (?).
* Coal Flora, pl. cv. fig. 2.
t Aus. d. Steink., pl. v. fig. 31.
558 MR ROBERT KIDSTON ON
Lepidophloios acerosus, L. and H., sp.
PUL fess, tae Pe ie, Oo:
1831. Lepidodendron, acerosum, L. and H. Fossil Flora, vol. i. pl. vii. fig. 1; pl. viii.
1890. Lepidophloios acerosus, Kidston. Trans. York. Nat. Union, No. 14, p. 49.
1891. Lepidophlotos acerosus, Kidston. Proc. Roy. Phys. Soc. Edin., vol. x. p. 351. a
1854, Lepidodendron brevifolium, Ett. Steinkf. v. Radnitz, p. 53, pl. xxiv. figs. 4, 5 ; pl. xxv.; pl. xxvi. fig. 3.
1870. Lepidodendron brevifolium, Schimper. Traité d. paléont. végét., vol. ii. p. 22.
1845. Lomatophloyos crassicaule, Corda (in part). Flora d. Vorwelt., p. 17, pl. i. figs. 1, 2, 3,
pl. ii. fig. 2 (exclude central core); pl. iv. figs. 1, 2, 3,
pl. v. fig. 1.
1855 and 1862, Lomatophloyos crassicaule, Goldenberg (in part). Flora Sarep. foss., heft i. p. 23,
1855; heft iii. p. 26, pl. xiv. figs. 7, 12, 13, 14, 1b, 16) 0m
1862. a
1870. Lepidophloios crassicaulis, Schimper. Traité d. paléont. végét., vol. ii. p. 50, pl. Ix. figs. 13, 14.
1871. Lepidophlotos crassicaulis, Weiss. oss. Flora d. jiingst. Stk. u. d. Rothl., p. 156.
1891. Lepidophloios (Lomatophloios crassicaulis), Solms-Laubach, Fossil eteaks p- 212, fig. 21.
1871. Lepidophioios carinatus, Weiss. Foss. Flora d. jiingst. Stk. u. Rothl., p. 155.
1886. Lepidophloios carinatus, Kidston. Catal. Palwoz. Plants, p. 172.
1869.(?) Lepidodendron dichotomum, Roehl (in part) (not Sternb.). Foss. Flora d. Steink. Form. Westph.,
p. 125, pl. xi. fig. 2.
1875. Lepidodendron dichotomum, Feistm. (in part) (rot Sternb.). Vers. d. bohm. Kohlenab., Abth. iii,
p. 14, pl. iii. figs. 3 and 5. ,
1862. Lepidophloios laricinus, Goldenberg (in part). Flora Sarep. foss., heft. iii. p. 45, pl. xv. igs 9,
(Named on plate Lepidophloios macrolepidotus.) 5
1869. Lepidophloios laricinus, Roehl (in part). Foss. Flora d. Steink. Form. Westph., p. 150,
pl. xxviii. fig. 9. "
1870. Lepidophloios laricinus, Schimper (in part). Tvraité d. paléont. végét., vol. ii. p. 51, pl Ix
figs. 11, 12.
1862. Lepidophloyos macrolepidotum, Goldenberg (in part). Flora Sarep. foss., heft. iii. pl. xv..fig. PY ee,
1882. Lepidophloios macrolepidotus, Renault (in part). Cours. d. botan. foss., vol. ii. p. 45, pl. ix. fig. 4.
1890.(?) Lepidophioios macrolepidotum, Seward. Proc. Phil. Soc. Cambridge., vol. vii. pl. iii.
1837. Lepidostrobus pinaster, L. and H. Fossil Flora, vol. iii. pl. exeviii.
1838. Cycadites Cordai, Sternb. Flora d. Vorwelt., vol. ii. Lief. 7, 8, p. 196, pl. lv.
1854.(?) Lepidodendron crassifolium, Ett. Steinkf. v. Radnitz, p. 55, pl. xxi. figs. 4, 5.
7,8 9,5
4, 5, 63
~
7a
Specific Characters.—Leaf-cushions directed upwards, rhomboidal, elevated, strongly
and prominently keeled; keel generally terminating immediately beneath the leaf-sear in
a small tubercle, in which is situated a small circular or sub-triangular depression,
Leaf-scar situated at the summit of the cushion, rhomboidal, lateral angles acute, upper
and lower angles rounded ; inner cicatricules three, placed in the centre of the leaf-scar,
or slightly above or below the centre, ae the central slightly larger than
the others.
Remarks.—The only specimen I have seen, on which the direction of the |
cushions could be determined, is that shown on PI. I. fig. 1, but whether, in age,
leaf-cushions become deflexed, as in Lepidophloios Scoticus, cannot at present be
determined. |
The types of Lepidophloios (Lepidodendron) acerosus, L. and H., cannot be
LEPIDOPHLOIOS, AND ON THE BRITISH SPECIES OF THE GENUS. 559
discovered, but, from the examination of the figures given by Linpiey and Horton, and
other specimens of the species in the “ Hutton Collection,” their plant is clearly shown
to be a Lepidophiovos. )
The type of Lepidostrobus pinaster, L. and H.,* is preserved in the “ Hutton
Collection,” Newcastle-on-Tyne. The leaf-scars are well preserved on this example, and
the two lateral and central cicatricules are well seen. The supposed bracts that spring
from the Lepidostrobus pinaster (which is drawn upside down, as shown by my fig. 1) are
not organic, but splinters in the matrix. The original is quite unlike a cone, and
it is difficult to conceive how such a figure of the fossil could have been produced.
I do not see any point by which Lepidophloios crassicaulis, Corda, can be separated
from Lepidophloios acerosus. A comparison of the figures given by STERNBERG under
the name of Cycadites Corda, in his vol. ii. pl. lv., especially his fig. 3, and that given
by Corpa on his pl. i. fig. 2, with the Lepidophloios acerosus, L. and H., sp., prove the
identity of the species. )
The Lepidodendron dichotomum, Roehl (not Sternb.), perhaps belongs to Lepido-
phloios acerosus ; it differs in the leaf-scar having four cicatricules, which, however, is
most probably an error of the draughtsman, and should have no importance attached to
it. The leaves, however, are very long and narrow, whereas on the specimen which I
give on Pl. I. fig. 1, which shows the termination of a branch, they are much broader and
shorter, and in fact seem very similar to the Lepidophyllum majus, Brongt.
Several specimens which I believe to be referable to Lepidophloios acerosus have
been figured under the names of Lepidophloios laricmus and Lepidophloios macrolepi-
dotus.
Lepidophloios acerosus, L. and H., sp., is widely distributed in the Middle and Lower
Coal Measures.
Middle Coal Measures.
England :—
Lancashire.—St. Helens. Hor. Ravenhead Coals.
Shropshire.—Highley Colliery, 64 miles south of Bridgenorth. Hor. Above
Brooch Coal. (J. Rhodes.)
Yorkshire.—Parkhill Col., near Wakefield. Hor. Stanley Main Coal.
Woolley Col., Darton, near Barnsley. Hor. Barnsley Thick Coal.
Monckton Main Col., near Barnsley. Hor. Barnsley Thick Coal.
East Gawber Col., near Barnsley. Hor. Barnsley Thick Coal.
Cooper’s Col., Worsborough Dale, near Barnsley. Hor. Barnsley
Thick Coal.
5 South Kirby Col., near Pontefract. Hor. Barnsley Thick Coal.
(W. Hermingway.)
South Wales Coal Field.—Abersychan, near Pontypool. Hor. Soap Vein (Lower
Pennant Series).
* Vol. ili. pl. exeviii.
560 MR ROBERT KIDSTON ON
Lower Coal Measures.
Scotland :—
Clackmannanshire—Furnace Bank Col., Old Sauchie. Hor. (?)
59 Devonside, Tillicoultry. Hor. (?)
B Tullygarth Pit, Clackmannan. Hor. (?)
Lanarkshire.—Foxley, near Glasgow. Hor. Kiltongue Coal. (R. Dunlop.)
3 Pit near Coatbridge. Hor. Lower Drumgray Coal.
. Calderbank. Hor. Kiltongue Coal.
Fife-—Dysart. Hor. (?)
Ayrshire—Bonnyton Pit, Kilmarnock. Hor. Whistler Seam. (A. Sinclaintil
a Woodhill Pit, Kilmaurs. Hor. Durroch Coal.
England :—
Durham.—Bensham Col. Hor. Bensham Seam.
55 South Shields. Hor. (2)
Lancashire——Old Meadows Pit, Bacup. Hor. Gannister Mine.
Yorkshire——Bradshaw, Halifax. Hor. Hard Bed Coal. (J. Spencer.)
(?) Lepidophloios macrolepidotus, Goldenberg.
1855. Lomatophloios macrolepidotum, Goldenberg. Flora Sarep. foss., heft. i. p. 22.
1862. Lepidophloios macrolepidotum, Goldenberg. Jbid., heft. iii. p. 37, pl. xiv. fig. 25.
1870. Lepidophloios macrolepidotus, Schimper. Traité d. paléont. végét., vol. ii. p. 52.
1882. Lepidophloios macrolepidotus, Renault (in part). Cowrs d. botan. foss., vol. ii. p. 45, pl. ix. fig. 2.
Specific Characters—Leaf-cushions rhomboidal, broader than long, very slightly
keeled ; leaf-scar (according to GoLDENBERG) at the summit of the downward directe ed
cushion, transversely rhomboidal, lateral angles acute, upper aan rounded, ‘long angle
rounded or acute, cicatricules three, punctiform.
Remarks.—Of this species I have very little experience. The only eck I have
seen which I could refer to Lepidophloios macrolepidotus was communicated to me by
Mr H. M. Capet. It agrees tolerably well with GoxpEnser’s figure, which, however,
possesses little character, except in size, to distinguish it from Lepidophloios laricimus.
GoLpENBERG believed his plant was similar to the Ulodendron majus, L. and H., but
this view I cannot accept.
In regard to the specimen I place under GotpENBERG’s name, I am not absolutely
certain that it should be referred to his species, still there is no point by which I can
separate it. My specimen is unfortunately not very well preserved ; but it is evident tly
neither of the three species already mentioned in this paper; until, therefore, betta er
examples are secured, the occurrence of Lepidophloios macrolepidotus in Britain 1 must
remain doubtful. P.
LEPIDOPHLOIOS, AND ON THE BRITISH SPECIES OF THE GENUS. 561
RENAULT figures some specimens which he refers to Lepidophloios macrolepidotus in
Flore foss. le terr. howl. d. Comentry, deux. part, p. 507, pl. lviii. fig. 1; pl. lx. fig.
3, 4; but his fossils do not appear to me to be GoLDENBERG’s species—their leaf-cushions
are much more prominently keeled, and his specimens have, in fact, more of the character
of Lepidophloios acerosus, L. and H., sp., though possibly they may not be referable to
this species.
LxsQuEREUX also figures a specimen which he refers to Lepidophloios macrolepidotus,*
but I am also doubtful about the identification of this specimen.
The specific value of GoLtpENBERG’s Lepidophloios macrolepidotus has yet to be
determined. It seems quite possible that it may be only an aged example of
Lepidophloios acerosus, L. and H., sp.
Carboniferous Limestone Series (Lower Carboniferous).—JLoc. Ironstone Ball above
Craw Coal, No. 4 Mine, Grange, Bo'ness, Linlithgowshire.
Lepidophloios Scoticus, Kidston.
Pl 1. figs. 2, 2a, 3, 80; Pl. Il. figs. 5, 5a, 6, 6a, 7, 7a.
1885. Lepidophloios Scoticus, Kidston. Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist., vol. xvi. p. 137, pl. vii. fig. 14.
1886. Lepidophloios Scoticus, Kidson. Catal. Palcoz. Plants, p. 173.
1883. Lepidophloios laricinus, Macfarlane (not Sternb.). Trans. Bot. Soc. Edin., vol. xiv. p. 181. Pls.
vii., viii. figs. 1 (? 2), 3, 4, 5b, 5e (not fig. 5a).
1882.(?) Lepidophloios laricinus, Weiss (? not Sternb.) Aus d. Steink., 2nd ed., p. 8, pl. v. fig. 31.
Specific Characters.—Leaf-cushions on young branches directed upwards, on the
older stems directed downwards, rounded, not keeled, exposed portion on older stems
with straight or slightly convex sides, basal portion pointed, distal margin rounded.
Leaf-scar placed at the apex of the cushion, transversely elongated, oval on young stems,
lateral angles pointed or acute on older branches. Cicatricules three, punctiform, and
placed a little below the centre of the scar. On young stems the leaf-cushion is much
elongated, rounded and truncate, terminating in a transversely oval leaf-scar, cicatricules
seldom preserved. Fruit a stalked elongate oval cone with leaf-cushions directed
upwards, and borne on Halonial branches with downward directed leaf-cushions. At the
point of attachment of the cone-stalks with the parent branch, the leaf-cushions are
bent back on all sides, and thus form a rosette, in the centre of which is a small circular
vascular scar.
Remarks.—Fig. 2, Pl. IL. shows portion of a branch removed from its matrix, and
illustrates the form of the leaf-cushion on the fully-developed plant. PI. II. fig. 6 gives
a reduced figure of the Halonial condition, and shows the rosettes formed by the back-
ward turned scales, in the centre of which are the little points of attachment of the cone-
Stalks. Another specimen showing these characters more clearly is reproduced, natural
* Coal Flora, vol. ii. p. 424, pl. Ixviii. fig. 2.
VOL. XXXVII. PART III. (NO. 25) 4p
562 MR ROBERT KIDSTON ON
size, at fig. 5, Pl. IJ. On fig. 6, and all similar large specimens which permit of the true
direction of the-leaf cushions to be determined, and of which I have seen several, i
leaf-cushions are invariably directed downwards. |
Fig. 7, Pl. II., shows the base of a cone-stalk, natural size, with the funnel- like .
expansion which fitted into the little rosette on the Halonial branch, and to which refer- —
ence has already been made. On this little stem the leaf-cushions are clearly directed
upwards, and if it were possible to question the direction of growth of this specimen, it
is determined by many cones, in my collection, with their stems still attached (similar
to that figured by Dr Macraruane), on which invariably the leaf-cushions are directed
upwards. At fig. 3, Pl. I, is givena small branch, collected by the late Mr C. W. Pracn, —
about whose direction of growth there can be no doubt, and here it is seen also that the
leaf-cushions are directed upwards. ‘This specimen is evidently an ordinary branch, and —
not acone-stem. When, then, we find on the young branches that the leaf-cushions are
invariably directed upwards, and that on the older stems they are always directed down-
wards, one is forced to the conclusion that the leaf-cushions become deflexed as the —
plant increases in age, and this view is strengthened by occasionally finding specimens”
on which the leaf-scar seems to be directed outwards.
Lepidophloios Scoticus is easily distinguished from the other members of the genus,
by its smooth rounded elongated leaf-cushions.
Calciferous Sandstone Series (Lower Carboniferous).
Scotland :—
Midlothian.—Raw Camps, East Calder; Oakbank, Midcalder; Burdiehouse ;
Railway Cutting, Slateford; Hailes Quarry, near Edinburgh ; West Calder;
Straiton ; West Hermand ; Water of Leith, Slateford.
pila aineee —Shore, near Long Craig’s Pier, yarn ; Shore, ae
Limestone Suike, Buitntialaind.
Berwickshire.—Shore, Cockburnspath.*
to a given species, it is a stalked cone, which, if separated from its parent stem, would be
placed in the genus Lepidostrobus.
* For examination of specimens from some of these localities, I am indebted to Mr BrnniE, the late Mr C, Ws
Peacu, and Mr J. Gavt.
LEPIDOPHLOIOS, AND ON THE BRITISH SPECIES OF THE GENUS. 563
EXPLANATION OF PLATES.
Puate LI.
Fig. 1. Lepidophloios acerosus, L. and H., sp. Loc. Abersychan, near Pontypool, South Wales. Hor.
Middle Coal Measures (Lower Pennant Series). Specimen presented to the Bristol Museum, by Mr W. Woop.
Natural size.*
Fig. la. Leaf-cushion and scar, x 14, showing the cicatricules. From the counterpart of Fig. 1.
Fig. 2. Lepidophloios Scoticus, Kidston. Loc. West Calder, Midlothian. Natural size. Hor. Calciferous
Sandstone Series. Reg. No. 529.
Fig. 2a. Cushions, x 2.
Fig. 3. Lepidophloios Scoticus, Kidston. Loc. West Hermand, West Calder, Midlothian. Four-fifth
natural size, Hor, Calciferous Sandstone Series. Reg. No. 1801. Specimen collected by the late Mr C. W.
Pracu.
Fig. 3a. Cushions, x 4.
Fig. 4. Lepidophloios laricinus, Sternb. Loc. Low Moor, Yorkshire. Natural size. Hor. “ Black Bed
Coal,” Middle Coal Measures. Specimen communicated by Mr J. W. Davis. Reg. No. 1404.
Fig. 11. Lepidophioios. Copied from Stur, Culm. Flora, vol. ii. pl. xix. (xxxvi.) fig. 20.
Puate Ii.
Fig. 5. Lepidophloios Scoticus, Kidston. Loc. West Calder, Midlothian. Natural size. Halonia condi-
tion. Hor. Calciferous Sandstone Series. Reg. No. 1810.
Fig. 5a. Cushion, x 3.
Fig. 6. Lepidophloios Scoticus, Kidston. Loc. West Calder, Midlothian. About } natural size. Halonia
condition. Hor. Calciferous Sandstone Series. Reg. No. 1798.
Fig. 6a. Cushions, x 2.
Fig. 7. Lepidophloios Scoticus, Kidston. Loc. Hailes Quarry, near Edinburgh, Midlothian. Natural size.
Hor. Calciferous Sandstone Series. Reg. No. 1814.
Fig. 7a. Cushions, x 4,
Fig. 8. Lepidophloios laricinus, Sternberg. Two-fifth natural size. Cast of specimen figured by Mr
CARRUTHERS in Geol. Mag., vol. x. pl. vii., 1873. Reg. No, 1832.
Fig. 8a and 88. Cushions, x 2.
Fig. 9. Lepidophloios acerosus, L. and H., sp. Loc. Tullygarth, Clackmannan. Lower Coal Measures.
Cushion, x 2, showing the tubercle immediately beneath the leaf-scar.
Fig. 10. Lepidodendron. Scar copied from Stur, Culm. Flora, vol. ii. pl. xix. (xxxvi.) fig. 1.
* My thanks are due to the Council of the Bristol Museum for permission to figure and describe this specimen.
Note.—The Registration Numbers refer to specimens in the writer’s collection.
ATEEENS SAOUNIFOURS OSA SOIOTHAOCIda] 7 'Std
mOIsPYd SNOLLOOS SOIOTHdOdIda] ¢-e s8ty ds yy ‘SNSOUSOV SOIOTHdO Ida 1 3td
SUIDA SiUANT SUN{SAg Y orepes iy
THE 19 ~oqeyd ‘uogspryy - yy
‘azts yeu &
Vie
ene
=
about 3 nat. size ee
M‘Farlane &Erskine, Lith"S Edin®
RKidston, photo. et dil.
, voternb ers.
Fig. 8. LEPIDOPHLOIOS LARICGINUS
Higs.5-7 LEPIDOPHLGIOS SCOTIGUS, Kidston.
Fig. 10. LEPIDODENDRON.
H sp.
Fig. 9. LEPIDOPHLOIOS ACEROSUS. L &
( 565 )
XXVI.—On the Fossil Flora of the South Wales Coal Field, and the Relationship of its
Strata to the Somerset and Bristol Coal Field. By Ropert Kinston, F.R.S.E.,
E.G.S. (With a Plate.)
(Read July 18, 1892.)
The Coal Measures of the South Wales Coal Field fall into three well-marked
divisions :—
I. The Upper Pennant or Upper Penllergare Series.
II. The Lower Pennant Series.
III. The White Ash Series.
In 1885 I paid a visit to this Coal Field, with the object of studying its Fossil Flora,
hoping by this means to ascertain the relative position of the Welsh Coal Measures to
those of the other Coal Fields of Britain.
During my visit I examined the collection of fossi] plants in the Free Museum,
Cardiff, and from the Curator, Mr Jonn Storris, I received much kindness and assistance
as to the localities and horizons from which the specimens had been derived. I also
examined the collection in the Museum of the Royal Institution of South Wales, Swansea,
and from Mr H. Huxnam, the President of the Association, and Mr EK. Lewis, the
Assistant Curator, I received every help. Iam also further indebted to Mr Lewis for
allowing me to examine the fossil plants in his private collection.
In addition to examining these collections, I visited several parts of the Coal Field
with the purpose of collecting the fossil plants, and secured several species which I had
not seen in any of the museums visited, and my thanks are especially due in this respect
_ to Mr CotquHoun, manager of the Tredegar Iron Works, who, in his absence, had kindly
instructed Mr Srrarron to give me any assistance that might be necessary, and to Mr
StRATToN’s thoughtful help I am indebted for some interesting specimens. In the same
way I am indebted to Mr Hoop, manager of the Glamorgan Coal Co., and to Mr
STEWART, manager of the Penrhiwfer Colliery, near Pontypridd.
Little addition was made to my notes of 1885 till last year, when Mr W. O'Connor,
then at Aberdare, but now at Ystrad-Rhondda, Glamorganshire, submitted to me for
examination a good collection of fossil plants, the information gained from which, when
added to that derived from the collections I originally examined, has yielded, I believe,
sufficient data for the correlation of the Welsh Coal Measures with those of other parts
of Britain. To Mr O’Connor, for his assistance in this matter, I have to express my great
indebtedness. To Sir ARcHIBALD GxrIKiE I also am indebted for permission to examine
VOL. XXXVII. PART III. (NO. 26). 4Q
566 MR ROBERT KIDSTON ON
the specimens from the South Wales Coal Field in the Jermyn Street Museum, and t 0
figure the specimens of Lepidodendron longifoluum shown on the Plate which accompanies
this communication.
Owing to the extent of faulting and other causes, it has hitherto been found impos-
sible to correlate with certainty many of the seams worked at different parts of the Coal
Field ; hence it is very difficult to construct a general Section, showing the eu
position of the seams to each other.
The following four Sections, which have kindly been prepared for me by Mr Ww.
O’Connor, will, however, show the position of the Coal Seams from which the fossil
plants have mostly been derived.
af .
I. Section of Strata in the extreme Western Portion of the Coalfield.
(Pembrokeshire.)
Feet, Ft. in.
Bright Vein, : ie : : a 3 0
Strata, ‘ ; . } t 80 Jia
Rock Vein, : . ; : F Boe 4 0
Strata, : : : 50 é aa
Low Level or Small Vein, ; j 4 as
Strata, : . ; ' . s 130 or,
Timber Vein, : ; ; : ae 7 0
Strata, : : é ¢ ‘ 24 i”
Little Vein, ; , 3 ; : eS? L, 6
Strata, ; : ; ; : : 36 wae
Lower Vein, : ; ’ : : hy 1 6
Norr.—The position of these seams in the series is undetermined.
II. Section of Seams at Llanelly. Upper Pennant Series.
(Upper Coal Measures.)
Feet. Ft. in,
Strata, : ; : : : 280 ot
Rosy Vein, A ; : : : sib 2 0
Strata, : ; ; : : 56 wae
Fiery Vein, : ; ; : f pad 2 9
Strata, / ; : ; : qb bes
Golden Vein, 4 : ‘ : : ee i 1
Strata, 2 : : : : 115 nat
Bushy Vein, ; ; : ; ; se 1 10
THE FOSSIL FLORA OF THE SOUTH WALES COAL FIELD. 567
III. General Section of Seams in the thackest portion of the South Wales Coal Field,
compiled from various sections in the neighbourhood of Loughor.
Upper Pennant Series (Upper Coal Measures). About 2500 feet thick.
Feet. Jahr shay
Strata, ; : , , 126 ast
Upper Coalbrook Seam, : : : abe 3 0
Strata, ! . : 24, a
Middle Coalbrook Seam, . j : : . ass 3. (0
Strata, : : ’ : 42 Bird
Lower @oalbrook Seam, ; : : A Fey 2 10
Strata, ; : ‘ . ; 286 bie
Benseallon Vein, . ; : 5 Be Dy (0)
Strata, 5 ; ; ; 59 Ee
Little Loughor Vein, : ; Tine 1)
Strata, : ; : 123 bs
Broad Oak or Loughor Vein, : : : wide 5 0
Strata, : : (about) 100 tay
Rosy Vein, ; : : : : oe 2 0
Strata, ; , : , 1 56 Be
Fiery Vein, : : ; : ‘ - Z 9
Strata, : : : : : 112 ae
Golden Vein, : ; : ; : Age 1 10
Strata, F : , , ’ 112 at
Bushy Vein, ; ; : : ACE LO
Strata, : 3 : : , 216 te
Vaith Seam, , : : : aie 4 0
Strata, : 3 , : : ; 258 ae
Goal. : ' ‘ ; ; : se m6
Strata, : ; : : : : 174 ee
Great Vein, : F : 3 4 9 0
Strata, : : k : 360 aa
Six Feet or Graigola, : : : ‘ ae 4 6
Strata (with a small seam), . ; : 54 iz
Llansamlet 3 Feet, ‘ : ; : ay mG
Strata, : ; : ; 132 BAS
Iilansamlet 2 Feet, . : ; oa 2 0
Lower Pennant Serves. (Transition Serres.) (About 5000 feet thick.)
Feet. Ft. in.
Strata, : : , : : 588 ,
Slatog Vein, : : ; ‘ : sae 2 0
Strata, : ; : (about) 200 J
Rotten Vein, ; : : : 4 hop 2 0
Strata, : P ; 208 Be.
Sluice Pill or Hughes Seam, : : wid 4 0
Strata, ; : ; 978 bis
Hendy Seam, : ; : F : ae 2 6
Strata, t ; : 250 #e
Penian or ‘Levisfach Seam, ‘ ; ' noe 4 0
568 MR ROBERT KIDSTON ON
Lower Pennant Series—continued.
Feet,
by
St
=]
Strata, : j . : 360 beh)
Penclawdd Vein, . : : ‘ : 3 see 6 0
Strata, , ; f ) 198 de
Wernpistill Vein, : ; : ois 3 <6
Strata, ‘ : ; , ; 98 Bt
Wernddu Vein, : F : : Bes 2 9
Strata, of ps ee : ' ' 64 wks
Rock Vein, : , : : bse 5e 10
Strata, ‘ : 3 : x 54 wie
Clements Vein, ; ' ' $ ae 3
Strata, , ; : é 90 Be
Cly lid or White Seam, ‘ ’ ° ae, 4 6
Strata (vith two small veins), : 5 ‘ 552 ahi
Brass vein, : Bn) See ; Bat 2 0
Strata, : \ : pe / 282 ie
Slate Vein, . q k : one 2 0
Strata, ; : : . 3 é 780 fe
Coal, . see 4 0
White Ash Serres. (Middle Coal Measwres.) (About 3000 feet thick.)
‘ Feet. Ft. in.
Strata, : : 5 ; : ; 216 an
Fiery Vein, : : , ; “oa 4 0
Strata, ; ; : c z 78 Ae
Coal, : ; , ; : aA 2.20
Strata, ‘ : ? : ‘ 26 Lie
Froglane Seam, : : : ‘ ay 3 0
Strata, ; : ; ; 61 oa
New 6 Feet Seam, E 3 ; p ee 6° 0
Strata (with 2 small veins), : : : : 282 =
Big Vein, ; : F , sae 6 0
Strata (with 1 small vein), . : ; : 96 na
Blackstone Vein, : : : : ee 4 0
Strata, F , : ; ' 84 wa
Hard Coal Vein, . : . : 4 a 4 0
Strata, : ’ : ’ : 30 ate
Good Coal, ; , . ; ay 2 0
Strata, : : : : 105 fae
Brick Kiln iin. : F ; ; ats 3 0
Strata, : ( ‘ s 150 sce
Small Coal Vein, ; 3 ; 2 eae 3 a0
Strata, ' é F : 180 0
Wyth Vein, : ; ; : aes Sug
Strata, : ‘ : : 30 his
Curving Cam Vein, é : : : ae 2 0
Strata, ‘ ; ‘ ‘ ; ; 144 ree
Farm Vein, f : é : ie 38 6
Strata with ironstones, &. . ‘ (about) 1500 Fhe
Millstone Grit, , : 400
Carboniferous Limestone, : " 600
Old Red Sandstone,
THE FOSSIL FLORA OF THE SOUTH WALES COAL FIELD. 569
IV. General Section of the Eastern portion of the Coalfield.
Depth
in Name of Seam, Name of Seam. Thickness,
Yards
Upper Pennant Series. White Ash Series—contd. Ft. in.
Riel” Wlantwit. 4 Soap Vein Ironstone, 0 84
170 | No? do. x 2 Hoe ones aie
208 | Llantwit Four Feet, or cae or Bute, ; 3
M isl rigioin,
aecelisliry 2 Yard Coal, 4 6
—— 7 Feet, By i)
ii P t Seri No. 3 Yard, 3. (OO
ete Pree Gellideg, Lower 4ft.orOldCoal,| 4 0
263 | Pencoedcae or Stinking Vein, 4 0 Alternations of Shales and Seams
492 | No. 1 Rhondda,... Pe 3.6 0 of Ironstone for 30 to 40
543 | Fforest Vach, 2 10 yards. About 4 Feet of iron-
552 | No. 2 Rhondda,... 4 0 stone in all.
613 | No.3 — do. 4 0 | 1013 | Garw Seam, or Bottom Vein, as
654 | Havod Vein, . 2 10
714 | Abergorchy Vein, re ap (ee
752 | Pentre Vein, A Farewell Rock.
*
757 | Gorllwyn Vach, 210 BeMtalietone Cait:
Whate Ash Series. Carboniferous or Mountain Lime-
784 | Gorllwyn, 2 O stone.
Cockshot Rocks chow 60 yards re
846 | Three Coals, xu 3) 6
859 | 2 Ft. 9 In. Coal, PEG Lower Limestone Shale
869 | Rider Coal, lL 8&8 RS |
881 | 4 Feet Seam, 4 9
890 | No. 1 Yard, peel Old Red Sandstone.
902 | 6 Feet Seam, : 8 6 -
908 | Red Coal, or Engine Vein, 4% 9 Silurian.
* The strata above this are almost exclusively hard sandstone, locally called ‘‘ Pennant Sandstone.”
Little has previously been done in working up the Fossil Flora of the South Wales
Coal Field. The only papers dealing with this subject, as far as I am aware, are by Sir
Wittiam Logan “ On the characters of the Beds of Clay immediately beneath the Coal
Seams of South Wales, and on the occurrence of Boulders of Coal in the Pennant Grit of
that District,” * in which some now well recognised facts respecting the occurrence of
Stigmaria in the Underclays and their relation to the overlying Coal Seams were first
pointed out.
In the “ Iron Ores of South Wales,” t a few species of fossil plants are noted, but some
of the identifications are open to doubt.
In 1884 Dr Strur contributed “Some notes on a small collection of Fossil Plants from the
neighbourhood of Llanelly and Swansea.” { His fossils came from certain beds, the lowest
of which was the “ Bushy Vein,” which is situated in the Upper Pennant Series. A collec-
tion from the Cwmbach Pit, near Swansea, contained the following species :—
* Trans. Geol. Soc. London, 2nd ser., vol. vi., 1842, p. 491.
+ Mem. Geol. Survey Gt. Brit., “ Iron Ores of Great Britain,” part iii, 1861.
+ Verhandl. d. K. K. Geol. Reichsanstalt, 1884, No. 7, p. 135.
MR ROBERT KIDSTON ON
or
~I
—_
Pecopteris Serlii, Bet.
Hawlea abbremata, L. & H. (not Brongt.) *
Cordaites, sp.
Lepidodendron, cf. Haidingeri, Ett.
From Nevill’s Colhery, near Llanelly, he recorded the following plants :—
Calanutes, cf. ramosus, Artis.
. ef. gigas, Brongt.
Annularia sphenophylloides, Zenker, sp.
Asterophyllites equisetiformis, Schl., sp.
Newropteris, cf. Loshu, Bet., with
Cyclopteris (separated pinnules).
Lepidodendron (showing Ulodendroid condition).
Sigillaria (2), cf. denudata, Gépp.
In regard to the plant he identifies in great doubt as Srgilaria (2), ct. denudata,
Gépp, from the description Dr Srur gives of his specimen, there cannot be much doubt
that his plant is Sigidlaria camptotania, Wood, sp.
From the occurrence of Pecopteris Serli, Brongt., in the collection, Dr Srur refers the
rocks from which the specimens were derived to the Upper Coal Measures, correlating
them with the Rossitz beds near Briinn, Moravia. I am, however, doubtful if the latter
correlation is correct.
On the evidence of the oceurrence of Alethopteris (Pecopteris) Serlii, Dr Stur also
refers the Bristol Coal Field, the Forest of Dean Coal Field, and the Forest of Wyre to
the Upper Coal Measures. In regard to the Bristol Coal Field, the two uppermost series
are referable to the Upper Coal Measures, though its lower beds cannot be referred to
so high a horizon. The Forest of Dean is true Upper Coal Measures, but the Forest
of Wyre is Middle Coal Measures. All these localities he regards as the representatives
of the Rossitz beds, but this is certainly incorrect in regard to the Forest of Wyre.
Although Alethopteris Serlw is a most characteristic fern of the Upper Coal Measures,
where it occurs in great profusion, it is not restricted to the Upper Coal Measures, but
first appears in the Middle Coal Measures, where, however, it is extremely rare. It is
quite unsafe, in almost all cases, to fix a horizon on the occurrence of a single species,
and this want of due precaution has done much to bring the evidence derived from
palzeontology in the correlation of strata, into disrepute. Equally important is it to
note the frequency in occurrence of a species, a point almost as important in determining
horizons as the mere occurrence of any given individual. Alethopteris lonchitica is
quite as characteristic of the Lower and Middle Coal Measures as Alethopteris Serlu
is of the Upper Coal Measures, but Alethopteris lonchitica has also been found, though
very rarely, in the Upper Coal Measures of Somerset where A. Serlii is so extremely
* According to STurR.
THE FOSSIL FLORA OF THE SOUTH WALES COAL FIELD. 571
abundant, but no one would be justified in ignoring all other evidence, and to declare
that these rocks were Lower Coal Measures, simply because an isolated example of
Alethopteris lonchitica had been found in them. ‘This unfortunately is practically what
in some cases has been done.
GENERAL REMARKS ON THE TABLES OF DISTRIBUTION.
Before giving a synopsis of the species occurring in the South Wales Coal Field,
with the object of showing the relationship of the Upper Pennant Series, the Lower
Pennant Series, and the White Ash Series (the beds from which the fossils were
derived) to the generally recognised Upper, Middle, and Lower Coal Measures of
Britain, I append three tables, Nos. I.—III., devoting one to each of the three divisions
of the South Wales Coal Field; and, in connection with this subject, I add two other
tables, Nos. IV., V., showing the fossil plants of the New Rock Series and the Vobster
Series of the Somerset Coal Field, to indicate their probable position in regard to the
South Wales Coal Field.
In the comparative tables I deal entirely with data derived from the British Coal
Fields : the wider question of their relation to the European Coal Fields must be deferred
till a future time.
It is well, however, to take note here that although such strata as the Radstock and
Farrington Series of the Somerset Coal Field and the Forest of Dean Coal Field are
true members of the Upper Coal Measures as developed in Europe, they belong to
the lower part of the series: the upper beds, such as occur in certain parts of France,
being entirely absent from Britain.
In the tables here given, there is one very important point which they do not bring
out, and one which cannot be ignored in correlating strata by the aid of their organic
remains, viz., the rarity or frequency of occurrence of the species. In the form in
which the tables are drawn up, all the records appear of equal value, it having been
found difficult to introduce a form of tabulation which would indicate the frequency or
rarity of the recorded species.
_ Asa case in point, we may again take Alethopteris lonchitica and Alethopteris Serlii
as two good examples to illustrate this. Aleth. lonchitica is found in the Upper,
Middle, and Lower Coal Measures: in the Upper Coal Measures it is a very rare
fossil, being one of the rarest in that series; whereas in the Middle and Lower Coal
Measures it is one of the most common species.
In the Upper Coal Measures of the Somerset Coal Field (the Radstock and
Farrington Series) and the Forest of Dean Coal Field, Aleth. Serliz occurs in extra-
ordinary abundance ; whereas in the Middle Coal Measures it is extremely rare, only a
very small number of specimens from this horizon having come under my notice; and
from the Lower Coal Measures it appears to be entirely absent. Therefore, in reading
the tables, these remarks must be kept in view.
572 MR ROBERT KIDSTON ON
Diagrammatically, the rarity or frequency of a species might be represented thus :—
Coal Measures.
Alethopteris lonchitica, Schl., sp.,
Alethopteris Serlii, Bgt., sp.,
Pecopteris arborescens, Schl., sp.,
Stigmaria ficoides, Sternb., sp., .
TABLE i.
Comparative Table of the Fossil Plants of the Upper Pennant, South Wales Coal
Field, with those of the Upper, Middle, and Lower Coal Measures.
Upper Upper Middle Lower
Pennant. Coal Meas. Coal Meas. Coal Meas,
Sphenopteri ts neuropteroides, Boulay, - 5
Neuropteris flecuosa, Bgt.,
x x
x x
% ‘Scheuchzeré, Hoffm., | x x x
Pecopteris Miltoni, Artis, Sp.; x x x x
Alethopteris lonchitica, Schl., sp., x x x x
5 Serlii, Bat., x x x
Sigillaria tessellata, Bgt., x x x x
x x x x
Stigmaria ficoides, Stbg., sp.,
ANALYSIS OF TABLE I.
Of the 8 species of fossil plants collected from the Upper Pennant of the South
Wales Coal Field, all occur in the Upper Coal Measures: of these, 2 are characteristic
of that horizon, as far as at present known, viz., Sphenopteris newropteroides and
Neuropteris flexuosa.
Six of the Upper Pennant species occur in the Middle Coal Measures, all of which
have previously been met with in the Upper Coal Measures, as mentioned above.
Four of the Upper Pennant species occur in the Lower Coal Measures, but all of
these occur also in the Upper Coal Measures.
All the species found in the Upper Pennant of South Wales occur at other localities
in Britain.
This analysis of the Upper Pennant species shows very evidently that these rocks
must be referred to the Upper Coal Measures as developed in Britain, though represent-
ing their basement beds.
The absence of Pecopteris arborescens, Pecopteris oreopteridia, and allied forms,
with the exception of Pecopteris Miltoni, is very remarkable. I saw a fragment which
1 | have seen a somewhat similar mode of tabulation adopted by a recent paleontological writer, but T cannot
remember by whom.
Or
bad |
THE FOSSIL FLORA OF THE SOUTH WALES COAL FIELD.
perhaps might belong to Pecopteris oreopteridia, but its state of preservation did not
admit of a satisfactory determination. Further collecting may reveal the existence of
these species in the Upper Pennant Series, but in any case they are rare.
TaBieE II.
Comparative Table of the Fossil Plants of the Lower Pennant, South Wales Coal
Field, with those of the Upper, Middle, and Lower Coal Measures.
43 = g = g = 2
S&§ | 83 | se '| Ss
Seer) || Se
Wo iS) S) fe)
Ay S 'e) o)
Calanutina approximata, Brongt., sp., x * x
Gopperti, Ett. 5 BID 2 x
Calamites Cistii, Brongt., x x x x
Calamocladus chareformis, Sternb., sp., x x x
equisetiformis, Schl., sp., x x x x
Annularia sphenophylloides, Zenker, Sp., x x
5 stellata, Schl., sp., * x
Sphenopteris newropteroides, Boulay, sp., ™ x
Neuropteris rarinervis, Bunbury, . x x x
a tenuifolia, Schl., sp., . x x
+ flexuosa, Brongt., x x
* macrophylla, Brongt., x x
5 Scheuchzert, Hoffm., x x se
Odontopteris Lindleyana, Sternb., x x
Pecopteris Miltoni, Artis, sp., x x x x
Alethopteris lonchitica, Schl., sp., . x BG se x
Serlit, Brongt., : x x “
Sphenophyllum cunerfolium, Sternb,, SDives * x
emarginatum, Brongt., : x x
Lepidodendron dichotomum, Zeiller (? not Stbg. ee x x
" Wortheni, Lesqx., x x x
Hoidingeri, Ktt., x x
Lepidophloios laricinus, Sternb., x a
Sigillaria camptotcnia, Wood, sp., x x x x
a mamillaris, Brongt., x x x
3 scutellata, Brongt., x x x
a polyploca, Boulay, x Ss
- elongata, Brongt., x x
Bs Schlotheimiana, Brongt., x
7 alternans, Sternb., sp., . x x x x
55 catenulata, L. and H.., x 2 q x
tessellata, Brongt., x x x x
_ Stig mi er Jicoides, Sternb. ee 7 x x x x
5 rimosa, Gold., x x
Hf Evan, Lesqx., * x
| Cordaites angulosostriatus, Grand E., x
_ Trigonocarpus Neeggerathi, Sternb. 8p. x x x
ANALYSIS OF TaBLE II.
The plants from the Lower Pennant Series contain a very remarkable admixture
of Upper and Middle Coal Measure species.
Leaving out a doubtful record for this series,—Calanutina Géppert, Ett., sp., of
whose horizon there is some uncertainty,—of the 36 species from these rocks, 22 occur
VOL. XXXVII. PART III. (NO. 26). ea f AR
574 MR ROBERT KIDSTON ON
in the Upper Coal Measures: of these, 8 are characteristic of that horizon; 24 are met
with in the Middle Coal Measures, of which 5 are characteristic of that horizon; 15
are found in the Lower Coal Measures, 8 of these being common to all the divisions of
the Coal Measures.
There is, therefore, in the Lower Pennant Series an admixture of plants, some
of which may be regarded as Upper Coal Measure forms, while there is a number
of species which may be looked upon as Middle Coal Measure plants. The Lower —
Pennant Series can therefore only be regarded as a Transition Series, connecting the —
Upper Pennant (= Upper Coal Measures) with the White Ash Series, which will
presently be seen to be of Middle Coal Measure age. -
Such Transition Series are very rare in the Carboniferous of Britain and in other
Coal Fields (with the exception of the Somerset Coal Field, which will be referred to
presently), where more than one of the divisions of the Coal Measures occur, the different
divisions are more sharply marked off,—showing that in these areas the Transition Beds
had either never existed, or if formed, removed before the deposition of the > Slee ae
series.
TABLE III.
Comparative Table of the Fossil Plants of the White Ash Series, South Wales Coal 4
Field, with those of the Upper, Middle, and Lower Coal Measures.
White Ash
Series
Upper
Coal Meas,
Middle
Coal Meas.
Calamitina Gopperti, Ett., sp.,
aA varians, Stbg., sp.,
. undulatus, Stbg., sp.,
Calamites ramosus, Artis, sp.,
. Suckowii, Bet., ;
Calamocladus chareformis, Stbg., sp.,
7 equisetiformis, Schl., sp.,
4 longifolius, Stbg., sp., :
Calamostachys typica, Schimper (in part),
Sphenopteris obtusiloba, Bgt., ;
a trifoliolata, Artis, sp.,
e dilatata, L. and H.,
Conway, L. and ie ‘
Corynepteri is (Sph.) coralloides, Gutb., sp.,
Eremopteris artemisicfolia, Stbg., sp.,
Neuropteris heterophylla, Bgt.,
rarinervis, Bunbury, .
7. tenuifolia, Schl., sp., .
Fr gigantea, Stbg., }
* osmunde, Artis, sp. .
Mariopteris muricata, Schl., sp...
Pecopteris Miltoni, Artis, sp.,
Alethopteris lonchitica, Schl., sp., .
decurrens, Artis, sp., .
. Dawreuxi, Bgt., .
Lonchopteris rugosa, Bet.,
Sphenophyllum cuncifolium, Stbe., sp.,
rh myriophyllum, Crépin,
x x xX
Mi REI OK KK KEK
MK MK MK Ride KK
x
x
KK KK KK KK KKK MK KKK KK KK KK KX K KX XK Ki
x XXX
x
HK Ke KM RK LK eK OK
THE FOSSIL FLORA OF THE SOUTH WALES COAL FIELD. 575
TABLE II].—continued.
pias 23s H
ee | Be | sa | es
Ber (<5) ea TA peed on
eee huts ali
Lepidodendron longifolium, Bet., x
af ophiurus, Bet., x x x
> obovatum, Stbe., x x x
aculeatum, Stbg., . x x x x
Lepidostr obus lanceolatus, L. and H., sp., x x
triangularis, Zeiller, sp., x *
Lepidophloios laricinus, Stbe. Bs x x
acerosus, L, and H., sp., x x x
Bothrodendron punctatum, L. and lak, x x x
Sigillaria camptotenia, Wood, sp., x x x x
A mamillaris, Bgt., ; x x x
i levigata, Bet., x x x
°; elongata, Egt., x x
- tessellata, Bgt., x x x x
discophora, Bgt., x x x x
Stigmari ia ficoides, Stbg., sp., x x x x
Cordaites principalis, Germar, sp., x x x
Pinnularia capillacea, L. and H., . x x x
ANALYSIS OF TABLE III.
A much larger collection of fossil plants has been made from the White Ash Series
than from either of the preceding Series. This probably results more from the greater
prevalence of sandstone beds in the two upper series ; but when shale beds are met with,
fossil plants are generally found. In the White Ash Series, on the other hand, shales
much predominate over sandstone beds.
In all, omitting one record of which the horizon is doubtful, 45 species are recorded
from the White Ash Series, of which 2 have as yet only been found in these rocks in
Brita. Of these 45 species, 15 are found in the Upper Coal Measures, but all of
these are also common to the Middle Coal Measures. Forty-four are found in the
Middle Coal Measures, and 32 occur in the Lower Coal Measures, but all these are
also found in the Middle Coal Measures. It is therefore seen, if we except the two
species hitherto only found in Britain in the White Ash Series, that all the others are
known Middle Coal Measure plants, and therefore the White Ash Series must be
regarded as of typical Middle Coal Measure Age.
To sum up, the correlation of the three divisions of the South Wales Coal Field is
shown in the following table.
I. Upper Pennant Series = Upper Coal Measures of Britain.
II. Lower Pennant Series = Transition Series—intermediate in character, between
the Upper and Middle Coal Measures.
Ill. White Ash Series = Middle Coal Measures.
576 MR ROBERT KIDSTON ON
GENERAL REMARKS ON TABLES [V. anv V.
In. my paper “On the Fossil Flora of the Radstock Series of the Somerset and
Bristol Coal Field (Upper Coal Measures),” * I gave in an Appendix the fossil plants
observed in the Farrington Series, the Pennant Rock, the New Rock Series, and the
Vobster Series. Of these the Farrington Series belongs to the Upper Coal Measures,
but of the other three series I expressed no opinion on their relative age when studied |
as a part of the Coal Measures of Britain, deeming it safer to leave that an open question, _
until I had more fully examined the fossil plants of the South Wales Coal Field, and
those of the Middle Coal Measures generally.
For the last few years my time has been largely devoted to the study of the lant
of the Middle Coal Measures, and I am thus in a better position to consider the relative
horizon of the New Rock Series and the Vobster Series of the Somerset Coal Field,
The Pennant Rocks of the Somerset Coal Field have yielded so few fossil plants, their
probable horizon can only be learnt from their relation to the Farrington Series, under
which they lie, and the New Rock Serves, on which they rest.
The two following tables give the fossils of the New Rock Series (Table IY.), and of
the Vobster Series (Table V.), of the Somerset Coal Field. |
TaB_E LV.
Fossil Plants of the New Rock Series, Somerset Coal Field,—compared with
those of the South Wales Coal Field.
im é = 3 m g ‘3 A ao as 3 8
B= | ge | 5s ai | 2: | Be | as
3 Cod lod vo oo n
eee at rg p/P | ane
x x x Calamites Suckowii, Bgt., x x
x x _ | Alethopteris Serlit, Bet., "3 x x
x x. Sphenopteris tréfoliolata, Artis, sp. by x x
x Neuropteris macrophylla, Bgt., x x
ye x x Mariopteris muricata, Schl., sp., . x x
x Pecopteris arborescens, Schl., sp., . x
os x os re Miltoni, Artis, sp., x Be x x
x Sphenophyllum emarginatum, Bgt., x x
x x os Sigillaria camptoteenia, Wood, sp., x x x x
es x x * tessellata, Bgt., x x x x
x x sf scutellata, Bgt., x x
x fe elongata, Bat. (8. gt ‘Kidst. not Bet. ) x x
x fs tenuis, Achep. (= 8. Sellotheimi, Kid- x
ston, not Bet.),
x x x Stigmaria ficoides, Stbg., P- x
x x x Cordaites, sp., x x x x
* Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin., vol, xxxiii. part ii. pp. 835-417.
THE FOSSIL FLORA OF THE SOUTH WALES COAL FIELD. 577
ANALYSIS OF TABLE IV.
Of the 14 species identified from the New Rock Series, 10 occur in the Upper Coal
Measures, of which 3 are characteristic of that horizon. Eleven are found in the Middle
Coal Measures, of which 2 are characteristic. Hight are found in the Lower Coal
Measures, all of which are, however, found in the Middle Coal Measures. We have
here, therefore, only to consider the value of the Middle and Upper Coal Measure species
occurring in the Vobster Series. In comparing these with each other it is seen that
there is about an equal admixture of Upper and Middle Coal Measure forms found in the
Vobster Series, which can therefore only be regarded as a Transition Series connecting
the Upper and Middle Coal Measures.
Again, if the fossil plants of the New Rock Series are compared with those of the
Upper and Lower Pennant and White Ash Series of the South Wales Coal Field, it will
be observed that of the New Rock Series plants, 6 occur in the Upper Pennant of South
Wales, 6 in the Lower Pennant, and 6 in the White Ash Series. Of these, 3 are common
to all the divisions, 2 only occur in the Upper Pennant, and 2 only are found in the
Lower Pennant, and 3 are only met with in the White Ash Series. The 2 met with in
the Upper Pennant are characteristic of the Upper Coal Measures, but the 2 only seen
in the Lower Pennant, and those found likewise in the White Ash Series, are Middle
Coal Measure forms : it is therefore tolerably certain that the New Rock Series is the
homotaxial equivalent of the Lower Pennant of the South Wales Coal Field, and that
both are Transition Series between the Upper and Middle Coal Measures.
TABLE VY.
Fossil Plants of the Vobster Series, Somerset Coal Field,—compared with
those of the South Wales Coal Field.
ps | a= | Ee ge |i | 28 | 3!
— Lari) Lot ie! a) laa) ‘sa oO
"8 |78 | "8 ca | he ea |e
x x x Calamitina varians, Stbg., sp., x x
x x x Calamites (2 Suckowit, Bgt.), é x x
x x Calamocladus equisetiformis, Schl., sp., x x x
x Pecopteris oreopteridia, Schl., sp., x
x x Alethopteris decurrens, Artis, sp., x x
x Sphenophyllum emarginatum, Bet., x x
x aK x Lepidodendron aculeatum, Stbg., . x x
2 (2) remosum, Stbg., x
x Sigillaria rugosa, Bet. (= Sig. Sillimani, Kidst., not x x
Bet. ),
x x 5 manillaris, ‘Bet., x x x
578 MR ROBERT KIDSTON ON
ANALYSIS OF TABLE V.
I have had little opportunity of examining the fossil plants from the Vobster Series, —
where specimens are more difficult to procure than in any of the other divisions of the —
Somerset Coal Field, with the exception of the Pennant Grit.
Of the 8 species satisfactorily determined, 5 are found in the Upper Coal Measures,
of which 2 are characteristic of that horizon, 6 occur in the Middle Coal Measures, to
which 1 seems to be characteristic and 5 are got in the Lower Coal Measures, all of
which occur in the Middle Coal Measures. There is therefore a mixture of Upper and
Middle Coal Measure species in the Vobster Series, which shows they must be treated |
as Transition Beds, and which cannot be referred to either typical Upper or Middle
Coal Measures. The Vobster Series are also therefore probably about the horizon of
the Lower Pennant Series of the South Wales Coal Field.
THE PENNANT Rocks oF SOMERSET.
There still remains to be determined the relationship of the Pennant Rocks of the
Somerset Coal Field with the measures occurring in the South Wales Coal Field.
The few fossils I have been able to identify from the Pennant Rocks represent so few
species that there is no palzeontological evidence available for deciding this point. If, —
however, we examine the fossil plants of the Upper Coal Measures which overlie the —
Pennant, and compare them with those of the New Rock Series on which the Pennant
Rock rests, and which is clearly transitionary between the Upper and Middle Coal
Measures, the Pennant Rock of Somerset must obviously be either the basement beds of
the Upper Coal Measures or the upper portion of the Transition Series. Their position
would then, when compared with the rocks of the South Wales Coal Field, be between
the Upper and Lower Pennant Series of the South Wales Coal Field, or even perhaps —
be of similar age to the Lower Pennant Series of that area, though, in the absence of any —
definite palzeontological evidence, one cannot positively determine their true position.
The following table will show what I believe to be the relation of the Rocks of the
South Wales Coal Field to those of the Somerset Coal Field, and their position in the
general classification of the British Coal Measures.
British Coal Measures. Somerset Coal Field. South Wales Coal Field.
Upper Coal Measures .
\ ec ag tare Upper Pennant Series.
Farrington Series.
? Pennant Rock.
New Rock Series. Lower Pennant Series.
Vobster Series.
Transition Series—between Upper
and Middle Coal Measures
Middle Coal Measures : ? Absent. White Ash Series.
Lower Coal Measures . : : Absent. Absent.
anes epi vane
THE FOSSIL FLORA OF THE SOUTH WALES COAL FIELD. 579
SYNOPSIS OF SPECIES.
Calamariese.
Calamites, Suckow.
Group L—Calamitina, Weiss.
Calamitina Gopperti, Ett., sp.
Calamites Gopperti, Ett., Steinkf. v. Radnitz, p. 27, pl. i. figs. 3-4.
Calamitina Gopperti, Weiss, Steinkohlen Calamarien, part i. p. 127, pl. xvii. figs 1-2, 1876.
*Calamitina Gopperti, Kidston, Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin., vol. xxxvii. p. 310, 1893.
Locality.—Tondu Junction, Llynvi Valley.
Horizon.—(?).
As both the Lower Pennant (Transition Series) and the White Ash Series (Middle
Coal Measures) crop out here, and as the exact locality of the specimen is unknown, the
horizon from which it was derived cannot be determined.
Calamitina varians, Sternb., sp.
Calamitina varians, Kidston, Trans. York. Nat. Union, part xiv., 1890, p. 16.
Calamites varians, Sternb., Ver's., ii. p. 50, pl. xii.
Calamites varians, Germar, Vers. v. Wettin u. Lobejun, p. 47, pl. xx.
Calamites varians, Weiss, Foss. Flora, d. jing. Stk. u. Rothl., p. 113, pl. xiii. fig. 1 (2); figs. 2 and 7.
Middle Coal Measures (= White Ash Series).
Locality.—Treaman Colliery, Aberdare.
Horizon.—2 feet 9 inch Coal.
Calamitina approximata, Bronst., sp.
Calamitina approximata, Weiss, Steinkohlen Calamarien, part ii. p. 81, pl. xxv. fig. 1.
*Calamitina approximata, Kidston, Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin., vol. xxxvii. p. 311.
Calamites approximatus, Brongt. (in part), Hist. d. végét. foss., p. 133, pl. xxiv. figs. 2, 3 (? figs. 4-5),
Transition Series (Lower Pennant Series).
Locality.— Bute Quarry, Pwllypant, near Caerphilly.
Horizon.—Pennant Sandstones (under Mynyddislwyn Seam).
Locality.—Victoria ron Works, Monmouthshire.
Horizon.—Troedyrhywelawdd Coal (No. 2 Rhondda).
* A more complete synonymy will be found at the references marked *.
580 MR ROBERT KIDSTON ON
Calamitina undulata, Sternb., sp.
Calamitina undulata, Kidston, Trans. York. Nat. Union, part 18, p. 100, 1893.
Calamites undulatus, Sternb., Ess. flore monde prim. i., fase. 4, p. xxvi; iL, fase. 5-6, p. 47, pl. i. fig. 2,
(1 pl. xx. fig. 8).
*Calamites undulatus, Kidston, Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin., vol. xxxvii. p. 315.
Remarks.—Mons. Zeiller has already suggested that Calamites wndulatus, Sternb.,
might perhaps belong to Weiss’ genus Calamitina, and specimens received from Mr
Hemingway, from the Yorkshire Coal Field, have confirmed this opinion, both in their
possessing a periodic occurrence of branch scars and in their outer bark being smooth.
Middle Coal Measures (White Ash Series).
Locality.—Tynybedw, Ystrad-Rhondda.
Horizon.—9 Feet Seam.
Locality. Ebbw Vale.
Horizon.—Darren Pins Ground (under 9 Feet Seam).
Group II—Kucalamites, Weiss.
Calamites ramosus, Artis.
Calamites ramosus, Artis, Antedil. Phyt., pl. ii.
*Calamites ramosus, Kidston, Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin., vol. xxxvii. p. 313.
Middle Coal Measures (White Ash Series).
Locality.—Bwllfa Dare Colliery, Aberdare (Annularia radiata, Bet.).
Horizon.—A4 Foot Seam.
Group Il—Stylocalamites, Weiss.
Calamites Suckowii, Brongt.
Calamites Suckowti, Brongt., Hist. d. végét. foss., p. 124, pl. xv. (? pl. xiv.) fig. 6.
*Calamites Suckowii, Kidston, Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin., vol. xxxvii. p. 314.
Calamites Suckowit, Renault, Flore foss. terr. houil. de Comentry, part ii., 1889, p. 385, pl. xliii. figs. 1-3,
pl. xliv. figs. 4-5.
Middle Coal Measures (White Ash Series).
Locality. —Bwllfa Dare Colliery, Aberdare.
Horizon.—4 Foot Seam.
Locality.—Aberaman Colliery, Aberdare.
Horizon.—7 Foot Seam.
THE FOSSIL FLORA OF THE SOUTH WALES COAL FIELD. 581
Locality.-—Ebbw Vale.
Horizon.—Black Pins (above 2 Feet 9 Seam).
Locality—Gadlys Colliery, Aberdare.
Horizon.—(*).
Calamites Cistii, Bronegt.
Calamites Cistit, Brongt., Hist. d. végét. foss., p. 129, pl. xx.
*Calamites Cistit, Kidston, Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin., vol. xxxvii. p. 316.
Calamites Cistui, Grand’ Eury (? in part), Bassin howil. du. Gard., p. 217, pl. xv. fig. 1 (2 2, 3, 4, 5, 6).
Calanutes Cistii, Renault, Flore foss. terr. howil, de Comentry, part ii. p. 389, pl. xliii. fig. 4, pl. xliv.
fig. 2 (? fig. 1), pl. vii. fig. 4.
Transition Series (Lower Pennant Series).
Locality.—Bwllfa Dare Colliery, Aberdare.
Horizon.—Graig Seam (Abergorchy).
Calamocladus, Schimper.
Calamocladus chareeformis, Sternb., sp.
Bechera chareformis, Sternb., Ess. flore monde prim., i., fase. 4, p. xxx., pl. lv. figs. 3 and 5.
Bechera charceformis, Morris, in Prestwick Geol. Trans.,
to plate, fig. 2.
Asterophyllites chareformis, Unger, Synopsis plant. foss., p. 33.
Asterophyllites Roehli, Stur., Calamarien d. Carbon Flora d. Schatzlarer Schichten, p. 209, pl. xiv.
figs, (0) 11; 12, ida, 5; ¢, pl. xv. 6. fig: 3.
Calamocladus Roehli, Kidston, Trans. York. Nat. Union, part 14, 1890, p. 22.
Bechera delicatula (Roehl, not Sternb.), Foss. Flora d. Steinkohif. Westphalens, p. 26, pl. ii. fig. 6, pl. iii.
figs. la, b, ¢, 2a, b, 3, pl. iv. fig. le, d.
2nd Ser., vol. v., pl. xxxviii. fig. 2, and explan.
Remarks.—An examination of a number of specimens of this species from different
Coal Fields has shown me that the Asterophyllites Roehl, Stur., is aera identical
with the Bechera chareforms, Sternb.
Transition Series (Lower Pennant Series).
Locality.—Bwllfa Dare Colliery, Aberdare.
Horizon.—Graig Seam (Abergorchy).
Middle Coal Measures (White Ash Series).
Locality.—Y sguborwen Colliery.
Horizon.—No. 2 Brass (No. 2 Yard Seam).
Locality. Bwllfa Dare Colliery, Aberdare.
Horizon.—4 Foot Seam.
VOL. XXXVII. PART III. (NO. 26), AS
582 MR ROBERT KIDSTON ON
Calamocladus equisetiformis, Schl., sp.
Calamocladus equisetiformis, Schimper, Traité d. paléont. végét., vol. i. p. 324, pl. xxii. tigs. 1-2.
* Calamocladus equisetiformis, Kidston, Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin., vol..xxxvii. p. 316.
Casuarinites equisetiformis, Schloth., Petrefactenk., p. 397.
Annularia stellata, Renault (not Schl.), lore foss. terr. houil. de Comentry, part ii., 1889, pl. xlvii.
figs. 1-2. 4
Asterophyllites equisetiformis, Renault, Flore foss. bassin houil. de Comentry, part ii., 1889, p. 409,
pl. xlviii. figs. 3, 4, 5, 7.
Schlotheim, Flora d. Vorwelt, p. 30, pl. i. figs. 1-2, pl. ii. fig. 3, 1804.
Transition Serves (Lower Pennant).
Locality.—Abergorchy, Rhondda Valley.
Horizon.—Abergorchy Seam.
Middle Coal Measures (White Ash Series).
Locality.—Risca, Monmouth.
Horizon.—Black Vein (9 Feet Seam).
Locality— Bwllfa Dare Colliery, Aberdare.
Horivzon—No. 1 Yard Seam.
Locality—Ebbw Vale.
Horizon.—(*).
Calamocladus longifolius, Sternb., sp.
Calamocladus longifolius, Schimper, Traité d. paléont. végét., vol. i. p. 323, 1869.
Calamocladus longifolius, Kidston, Trans. York. Nat. Union, 1892, p. 68.
Bruckmannia longifolia, Sternb., Ess. flore monde prim., vol. i., fase. iv., p. Xxix., pl. lviit. fig. 1, 1826.
Asterophyllites longifolia, Brongt., Prodrome, p. 159, 1828.
Asterophyllites longifolia, L. and H., Fossil Flora, vol. i., pl. xviii., 1831.
Asterophyllites longifolia, Geinitz, Vers. d. Steinkf. in Sachsen, p. 9, pl. xviii. figs. 2, 3, 1855.
Asterophyllites longifolia, Zeiller, Flore foss. d. bassin houil. d. Valen., p. 374, pl. lix. fig. 3, 1886 and 1888,
Asterophyllites longifolia, Feistmantel, Vers. d. bohm. Ablager. Abth., i. p. 123, pl. xiv. fig. 6, pl. xvi.
fig. 1, 1874.
Asterophyllites longifolia, Weiss, Aus. d. Steink., 2nd. Ed., p. 10, pl. ix. fig. 46, 1882.
Asterophyllites elegans, Sauveur, Végét. foss. d. terr. howil. de la Belgique, pl. \xviii. fig. 1, 1848.
Asterophyllites tenuifolius, Zeiller (not Sternb.), Végét. foss. du terr. houil., p. 20, 1880.
(?) Asterophyllites jubata, L. and H., Fossil Flora, vol. ii., pl. exxxiii., 1834.
Calamostachys typica, Schimper (in part), Traité d. paléont. végét., vol. i. p. 328, pl. xxiii. fig, 1,
(? figs. 2, 3, 4) (ref. im part) ; vol. iii. p. 457, 1869. 3
Calamostachys typica, Kidston, Trans. York. Nat. Union, part 14, 1890, p. 23.
Calamostachys typica, Kidston, Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin., vol. xxxvii. p. 218.
Calamites communis, Ett. (in part), Steinkf. v. Radnitz., p. 24, pl. viii. figs. 1 and 4, 1854.
Volkmannia elongata, Roehl (not Presl), Foss. Flora Steink. Form. Westph., p. 19, pl. vii. fig. 1, 1869.
Calamostachys Ludwigi, Weiss (not Carruthers) (in part), Steinkohlen Calamarien, vol. ii. p. 163, pl. xviii,
fig. 2 (not pl. xxii. figs. 1-8, and pls. xxiii. and xxiv.), 1884. ‘
THE FOSSIL FLORA OF THE SOUTH WALES COAL FIELD. 583
Remarks.—Schimper thought that Calamostachys typica might possibly be the
cone of Calamocladus longifolius, and the foliage attached to the stem of the specimen
of C. typica, in the Collection of the Geological Survey of Great Britain, Jermyn St.,
London, is similar to the foliage of Calamocladus longifolius, which proves that
Schimper’s surmise was correct. On the back of the slab which shows the cones, is also
a branch of Calamocladus longifolius.
The specimen of Calamostachys typica from Ebbw Vale is 6 inches long, and
shows 4 nodes, as indicated by the position of the cones, only 2 of which are shown to
rise from each node, but it is impossible to determine the original number borne at each
node. The cones are short stalked, linear lanceolate, and 3 which show their complete
length are 2,'5 inch long. There are generally 5 bracts shown on the exposed half of the
whorl: these stand at first almost at right angles to the axis, but their distal portions
bend somewhat suddenly upwards. The only two stem nodes which are exposed show
the foliage: this is best seen at the lowest node, and it is indistinguishable from the
foliage of Calamocladus longifolius, of which Calamostachys typica is evidently its
fruit.
Middle Coal Measures (White Ash Series).
Locality.—Ebbw Vale (cones and branches).
Horizon.—(?).
Annularia, Sternb.
Annularia sphenophylloides, Zenker, sp.
Annularia sphenophylloides, Geinitz, Vers. d. Steinkf. in Sachsen, p. 11, pl. xviii. fig. 10.
Annularia sphenophylloides, Schimper, Traité d. paléont. végét., vol. i. p. 347, pl. xvii. figs. 12, 13.
Annularia sphenophylloides, Sterzel, Zeitsch. d. deut. Geol. Gesell., vol. xxxiv. p. 685, pl. xxviii.
Annularia sphenophylloides, Zeiller, Végét. foss. du terr, houwil., p. 25, pl. elx. fig. 4.
Annularia sphenophylloides, Lesqx., in Rogers’ Geol. of Pennsyl., part ii. p. 852, pl. i. fig. 5.
Annularia sphenophylloides, Lesqx., Coal Flora, p. 48, pl. ii. figs. 8-9.
Annularia sphenophylloides, Roemer, Paleont., vol. ix. p. 21, pl. xi. fig. 1.
Annularia sphenophylloides, Weiss, Aus. d. Steink, p. 47, pl. ix. fig. 47 (2nd Ed.).
Annularia sphenophylloides, Renault, Cours d. botan. foss., vol. ii. p. 133, pl. xx. fig. 3.
Annularia sphenophylloides, Zeiller, Flore foss. d. bassin houil. d. Valen., p. 388, pl. lx. figs. 5-6.
Annularia sphenophylloides, Renault, Flore foss. terr. howil. de Comentry, part ii., 1889, p. 406, pl. xlvi.
figs. 7-9.
Annularia brevifolia, Brougt., Prodrome, p. 156.
Annularia brevifolia, Heer, Urwelt d. Schaweiz, p. 9, fig. 10.
Annularia brevifolia, Heer, Flora foss. Helv., p. 51, pl. xix. figs. 6-9 (? fig. 10).
Annularia brevifolia, Schenk, in Richthofen’s China, vol. iv. p. 233, pl. xl.
Annularia brevifolia, Schimper, in Zittel, Handb. d. Paleont., vol. ii. p. 167, fig. 127.
Galium sphenophylloides, Zenker, Neues Jahrb., 1833, pl. v. fig. 6.
Parkinson, Organic Remains, vol. i. pl. v. fig. 3.
Luid, Lith. Brit. Ichnographia, p. 12, pl. v. fig. 202, 1760.
Fruit :-—
Stachannularia calathifera, Weiss, Steinkohlen Calamarien, vol. i. p. 27, pl. iil. fig. 11.
584
~ Annularia longifolia, var. stellata, Sterzel, Flora d. Rothl. im nordw. Sachs., p. 58, pl. viii. fig. 3.
Fru
MR ROBERT KIDSTON ON
Transition Series (Lower Pennant Series).
Locality.—Peurhiwfer Colliery, near Pontypridd.
Horizon.—No. 2 Rhondda Seam.
Annularia stellata, Schl., sp.
Annularia stellata, Wood, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sciences Phila., 1860, p. 236.
Annularia stellata, Zeiller, Végét. foss. d. terr. houil., p. 26, pl. clx. figs. 2-3.
Annularia stellata, Zeiller, Flore foss. d. bassin howil. Valen., p. 398, pl. 1xi. figs. 3-6.
Annularia stellata, Renault, Flore foss. terr. houil. de Cimetrn, part i1., 1889, p. 398, pl. xlv. figs, (?1) 2-7,
pl. xlvi. figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 (not pl. xlvii. figs. 1-2).
Annularia longifolia, Brongt., Prodrome, p. 156.
Annularia longifolia, Ett., Steinkf. v. Stradonitz. (Abhandl. h. k. Geol. Reichs. Wien, vol. i. Abth. 3, No. 4),
p. 8, pl. i. fig. 4.
Annularia longifolia, Feistmantel, Vers. d. bohm. Kohlenab., p. 127, pl. xv. figs. 3-4, pl. xvi. fig. 1.
Annularia longifolia, Geinitz, Vers. d. Steinkf. in Sachsen, p. 10, pl. xviii. figs. 8-9, pl. xix. 3-4
(? figs. 1-2).
Annularia longifolia, Germar, Vers. v. Wettin u. Lobejun, p. 25, pl. ix. figs. 1-4.
Annularia longifolia, Heer, Urwelt d. Schweiz, p. 9, fig. 7.
Annularia longifolia, Heer, Flora foss. Helv., p. 51, pl. xix. figs. 4-5.
Annularia longifolia, Lesqx., Coal Flora, p. 45, pl. ii. fig. 2 (excel. fig. 1), pl. iii. fig. 10 (? 12).
Annularia longifolia, Schimper, Traité d. paléont. végét., vol. i. p. 348, pl. xxii. fig. 10 (not ? 5-6),
pl. xxvi. figs. 2-4.
Annularia longifolia, Schimper, in Zittel, Handbuch d. Paleont., vol. ii. p. 167, p. 166, fig. 126.
Annularia longifolia, Renault, Cours d. botan. foss., vol. ii., 1882, p. 126, pl. xx. fig. 1, pl. xxi. figs. 1-6.
Annularia longifolia, Roehl, Foss. Flora d. Steink.-Form. Westph., p. 28, pl. iv. fig. 6 (? 15).
Annularia longifolia, Unger, Anthracit. Ablager. in Kérnthen., p. 783, pl. i. fig. 9 (Sttzb. d. k. Akad. d.
Wissensch. Math. Naturw. cl., vol. lx. 1 Abth., Vienna, 1869).
Annularia longifolia, White, State of Indiana, 2nd Ann. Rep., 1880, p. 521, pl. ix. figs. 1-2.
Annularia longifolia, Weiss, Aus. d. Steink., p. 11, pl. ix. fig. 49 (2nd Ed.), 1882.
Annularia longifolia, Schenk, in Richthofen’s China, p. 231-233, pl. xxxiv. figs. 4, 6, 7 (not fig. 5),
pl. xxxv. figs. 7 and 7a, pl. xxxvi. figs. 1-4, pl. xxxix., pl. xli. fig. 6.
Asterophyllites equisetiformis, L. and H. (not Schloth.), Fossil Flora, vol. ii. pl. exxiv.
Casuarinites stellatus, Schloth., Petrefactenk, p. 397.
Bornia stellata, Sternb., Ess. flore monde prim., vol. i. fase. 4, p. xxviii.
Annularia spinulosa, Sternb., Ess. flore monde prim., vol. i. fase. 2, p. xxxvi. pl. xix. fig. 4; fase. 4,
p. XXxl.
Annularia fertilis, Sternb., Ess. flore monde prim., vol. i. fase. 4, p. xxxi. pl. li. fig. 2.
Annularia fertilis, Bronn, Lethea Geog., vol. i. part ii. p. 105, pl. viii. fig. 8.
Annularia mucronata, Schenk, in Richthofen’s China, vol. iv. p. 226, fig. 10, pl. xxx. fig. 10.
Scheuchzer, Herb. dilw., pl. xiii. fig. 3, 1723.
Luid, Lith. Brit. Ichnographia, p. 12, pl. v. fig. 201, 1760.
Schlotheim, Flora d. Vorwelt, p. 32, pl. i. fig. 4, 1804.
i
Bruckmannia tuberculata, Sternb., Ess. flore monde prim., vol. i. fase. 4, - xxix. pl. xly. agree
Bruckmannia tuberculata, Feistmantel, Vers. d. bihm. Ablag., Abth. i. p. 128 (? pl. xvi. figs. 2, 3) a
(? pl. xvii. fig. 1).
Bruckmannia tuberculata, Renault, Cours. d. botan. foss., vol. ii. p. 129, pl. xxi. figs. 1-6.
Asterophyllites tuberculata, Brongt., Prodrome, p. 159.
THE FOSSIL FLORA OF THE SOUTH WALES COAL FIELD. 585
Stachannularia tuberculata, Weiss, Steinkohlen Calamarien, vol. i. p. 17, pl. i. figs. 2-4, pl. ii. figs. 1-3, 5
(left-hand fig.), pl. iii. figs, 3-10, 12.
Stachannularia tuberculata, Weiss, Aus. d. Steink., p. 11, pl. ix. fig. 50 (2nd Ed.), 1882.
Calamostachys tuberculata, Weiss, Steinkohl. Calamar, vol. ii. p. 178.
Scheuchzer, Herb. diluv., pl. ii. fig. 6, 1709 (1st Ed.), 1723 (2nd Ed.).
Transition Series (Lower Pennant Series).
Locality.—Cwmbwrla, Swansea.
Horizon.—Hugches’ Vein.
Locality.—Penrhiwfer Colliery, Pontypridd.
Horizon.—No. 2 Rhondda Seam.
Filicacee.
Sphenopteris, Bronet.
Sphenopteris obtusiloba, Brongt.
Sphenopteris obtusiloba, Brongt., Hist. d. végét. foss., p. 204, pl, liii. fig. 2*,
*Sphenopteris obtusiloba, Kidston, Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin., vol. xxxvii. p. 321, pl. i. fig. 1.
Middle Coal Measures (White Ash Series).
Locality.—Bwllfa Dare Colliery, Aberdare.
Horizon.—2 Foot 9 Inch Coal.
Sphenopteris trifoliolata, Artis, sp.
Filicites trifoliolata, Artis, Antedil. Phyt., pl. xi.
Sphenopteris trifoliolata, Brongt., Prodrome, p. 51.
Sphenopteris trifoliolata, Kidston, Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin., vol. xxxv. pp. 403-5.
Middle Coal Measures (White Ash Series).
Locality.— Beaufort.
Horizon.—Above 2 Feet 9 Inch Coal.
Sphenopteris dilatata, L. and H.
Sphenopteris dilatata, L. and H., Fossil Flora, vol. i. pl. xlvii.
Sphenopteris Hoéninghausit, Salter (not Brongt.), Mem. Geol. Survey Gt. Brit. and Mus. Practical Geol.
Tron Ores of Gt. Brit., part iii. Iron Ores of South Wales, 1861, p. 232, fig. 2.
Remarks.—I have lately met with several specimens of what appears to me to be
the true Sphenopteris dilatata, L. and H. The British Museum possesses one from
Coseley, near Dudley (Johnson Collection). Mr Sharman, Museum of Practical
Geology, London, has shown me another, labelled as coming from Wrexham, which
586 MR ROBERT KIDSTON ON
belongs to the Grosvenor Museum, Chester, and Mr W. Hemingway has forwarded me
a few small specimens from Yorkshire. The only example of Sphenopteris dilatata,
from the South Wales Coal Field, of which I know, is that figured in the Geol. Survey
Memoir (l.c.) as Sphenopteris Honmnghausu.
From the examination of these various specimens, I believe that the Sphenopteris
dilatata, L. and H., is a good species.
Middle Coal Measures (White Ash Series).
Locality.—Beaufort.
Horizon.—Hll balls above Elled Coal (above 2 Feet 9 Coal).
Sphenopteris Conwayi, L. and H.
Sphenopteris Conwayt, L. and H., Fossil Flora, vol. ii. pl. exlvi.
Note.—The only specimens of this species which I have seen are 2 good examples
in the Collection of the Bristol Museum.
Middle Coal Measures (White Ash Series).
Locality.—Risca, Monmouth.
Horizon.—(?).
Sphenopteris neuropteroides, Boulay, sp.
Sphenopteris neuropteroides, Zeiller, Bull. soc. géol. d. France, 3° sér., vol. xii. p. 191, 1883.
Sphenopteris neuropteroides, Kidston, Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin., vol. xxxiii. p. 349.
Sphenopteris neuropteroides, Zeiller, Flore foss. d. bassin houil. d. Valen., p. 71, pl. ii. figs. 1-2.
Pecopteris neuropteroides, Boulay, Le terr. howil. du nord de la France, p. 32, pl. ii. figs. 6 and 6 bis., 1876.
Pseudopecopteris anceps, Lesqx., Coal Flora of Pennsyl., vol. i. p. 207, pl. xxxviii. figs. 1-4, 1880
(? Excl. ref.).
Upper Coal Measures (Upper Pennant Series).
Locality.—Neath Abbey.
Horvzon.—(?).
Transition Series (Lower Pennant Series).
Locality.—Cwmbwrla, Swansea.
Horizon.—Hughes’ Vein.
Locality.—Great Western Colliery, near Pontypridd, Rhondda Valley.
Horizon.—No. 2 Rhondda Seam.
Renaultia, Zeiller.
(2) Renaultia cheerophylloides, Bronst., sp.
Renaultia cherophylloides, Zeiller, Ann a. se. nat. 6° sér, Botan., vol. xvi. pp. 185, 208, pl. ix. figs. 16, 1a
Sphenopteris (Renaultia) cherophylloides, Zeiller, Flore foss. bassin houtl. d. Valen., p. 90, pl. xi. figs. 1-2.
THE FOSSIL FLORA OF THE SOUTH WALES COAL FIELD. 587
Pecopteris cherophylloides, Brongt., Hist. d. végét. foss., p. 357, pl. exxv. figs. 1-2.
Pecopteris cherophylloides, Renault, Cowrs d. botan. foss., iti. p. 124, pl. xxi. figs. 10-11.
Hapalopteris typica, Stur, Zur Morph. u. Syst. d. Culm. u. Carbon Farne., p. 29, fig. 8.
Hapalopteris typica, Stur, Farne d. Carbon Flora, 1885, p. 27, fig. 8; p. 46, pl. xlii. figs. 3-4.
Note.—Though almost certain that the species I place here is Sphenopteris
cherophylloides, until better specimens are secured I have indicated its occurrence in
the Coal Field with a (2).
Middle Coal Measures (White Ash Series).
Locality.—Bwllfa Dare Colliery, Aberdare.
Horizon.—9 Foot Seam.
Corynepteris, Baily, 1860.
Corynepteris coralloides, Gutbier, sp.
Corynepteris coralloides, Kidston, Trans. Geol. Soc. Glas., vol. ix. p. 16, pl. i. fig. 17.
Sphenopteris (Corynepteris) coralloides, Zeiller, Flore foss. d. bassin houil. d. Valen., p. 117, pl. x. figs. 1-5.
Sphenopteris coralloides, Gutbier, Vers. d. Zwick. Schwarzkohl, p. 40, pl. v. fig. 8, 1835.
Sphenopteris coralloides, Geinitz, Vers. d. Steinkf. in Sachsen, p. 16, pl. xxiii. fig. 17 (named on Plate
Sphen. nicroloba).
Oligocarpia coralloides, Stur, Culm. Flora, vol. ii. pp. 293, 306.
Grand’ Eurya coralloides, Zeiller, Ann. d. sc. nat. 6° sér. Bot., vol. xvi. pp. 206, 209, pl. xii.
figs. 1-8, 1883.
Saccopteris coralloides, Stur, Zur. Morph. u. Syst. d. Culm. u. Carbon Farne, p. 68.
Saccopteris coralloides, Stur, Die Farne d. Carbon Flora, p. 164.
Saccopteris Crepini, Stur, Die Farne d. Carbon Flora, p. 174, pl. liii. figs. 1-2.
Sphenopteris microloba, Weiss, Aus. d. Steink., p. 14, pl. xii. fig. 79 (2nd Ed.).
Middle Coal Measures (White Ash Series).
Locality.—Risca, Monmouth.
Horizon.—Black Vein (9 Feet Seam).
Eremopteris, Schimper.
Eremopteris artemisizefolia, Sternb., sp.
Eremopteris artemisicefolia, Schimper, Traité d. paléont. végét., vol. i. p. 416.
* Hremopteris artemisicefolia, Kidston, Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin., vol. xxxvii. p. 320.
Sphenopteris artemisiefolia, Sternb., Ess. fl. monde prim., vol. i. fase. 4, p. xv. pl. liv. fig. 1.
Middle Coal, Measures (White Ash Series).
Localities.—Beaufort and Prince of Wales Pit, Abercarn.
Horizon.—(?).
588 MR ROBERT KIDSTON ON
Neuropteris, Bronet.
Neuropteris heterophylla, Bronet.
Filicites (Neuropteris) heterophylla, Brongt., Class. d. végét. foss. p. 33, pl. ii. fig. 6.
Neuropteris heterophylla, Brongt., Hist. d. végét. foss., p. 243, pl. Ixxi., pl. lxxii. fig. 2.
* Neuropteris heterophylla, Kidston, Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin., vol. xxxvii. p. 325.
Neuropteris heterophylla, Zeiller, Flore foss. terr. howil. de. Comentry, part i., 1888, p. 257, pl. xxix. fig. 4.
Neuropteris heterophylla, Zeiller, Bassin houil. et perm. d Autun. et dEpinac., p. 142, pl. xii. fig. 1, 1890.
Neuropteris Loshit, Brongt., Hist. d. végét. foss., p. 242, pl. Ixxii. fig. 1, pl. Ixxiii.
Odontopteris obtusiloba, Roehl (not Naum.), Foss. Flora d. Steink. Form. Westph., p. 42, pl. xvi
figs, 12-15, 1869.
Middle Coal Measures (White Ash Series).
Locality.—Sirhowy Furnace.
Horizon.—Over Engine Vein (Red Coal).
Locality.—Ysguborwen Colliery.
Horizon.—No. 2 Brass Seam (No. 2 Yard Coal).
Locality. Bwllfa Dare Colliery, Aberdare.
Horizons.—4 Foot Seam, 6 Foot Seam, and 2 Feet 9 Inch Coal.
Neuropteris rarinervis, Bunbury.
Neuropteris rarinervis, Bunbury, Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., vol. iii. p. 425, pl. xxii., 1847.
Neuropteris rarinervis, Lesqx., Coal Flora, p. 109, pl. xv. figs. 2-5. }
Neuropteris rarinervis, Lesqx., Rept. Geol. Survey of Iilin., vol. ii. p. 428, pl. xxxiii, figs, 1-5 —
pl. xxxiv. fig. 1.
Neuropteris rarinervis, Lesqx., Rept. Geol. Survey of Illin., vol. iv. p. 386, pl. viii. figs. 1-6.
Neuropteris rarinervis, White, State of Indiana, 2nd Ann. Rep., 1880, p. 520, pl. x. figs. 1-3.
Neuropteris rarinervis, Zeiller, Flore foss. d. bassin houil. d. Valen., p. 268, pl. xlv. figs. 1-4.
Neuropteris coriacea, Lesqx., Rept. Geol. Survey of Illin., vol. iv. p. 387, pl. viii. figs. 7-8.
Neuropteris coriacea, Lesqx., Coal Flora, p. 111, pl. xviii. fig. 6.
Neuropteris heterophylla, Zeiller (not Brongt., in part), Végét. foss. du terr. houil., pl. elxiv. fig. 2.
Neuropteris attenuata, Boulay (not L. and H.), Terr. howil. du nord de la France, pp. 30, 74, pl. iv. fig. l
Transition Series (Lower Pennant Series).
Locality.—Pochin Pit, near Tredegar.
Horizon.—Pontygwaith Seam (No. 2 Rhondda).
Locality.—Abergorchy, Rhondda Valley.
Horizon.—Abergorchy Seam.
Locality.—Gyfeillion (Great Western Colliery), Pontypridd.
Horvzon.—(?).
Middle Coal Measures (White Ash Series).
Locality.—Bwllfa Dare Colliery, Aberdare.
Horizon.—6 Foot Seam.
THE FOSSIL FLORA OF THE SOUTH WALES COAL FIELD. 589
Locality.—Rhymuey.
Horiwzon.—Big Coal Vein (6 Foot Seam).
Locality.—Beaufort.
Horizon.—(*).
Neuropteris tenuifolia, Schl., sp.
Neuropteris tenuifolia, Brongt., Prodrome, p. 53.
Neuropteris tenuifolia, Brongt., Hist. de. végét. foss., p. 241, pl. lxxii. fig. 3.
Newropteris tenuifolia, Sternb., Ess. flore monde prim., vol. 1., fase. 4, p. Xvil.
Neuropteris tenuifolia, Bronn., Lethaa. Geol., vol. 1. part 2, p. 110, pl. vii. fig. 4 a, 0.
Neuropteris tenuifolia, Zeiller, Flore foss. d. bassin houil. d. Valen., p. 273, pl. xvi. fig. 1.
Neuropteris gigantea, Sauveur (not Sternb.), Végét foss. terr. howil. Belgique, pl. xxxi. figs. 3-4.
Filicites tenuifolius, Schloth., Petrefactenk, p. 405, pl. xxii. fig. 1.
Transition Series (Lower Pennant Series).
Locality.—Penrhiwfer Colliery, near Pontypridd.
Horizon.—No. 2 Rhondda Seam.
Middle Coal Measures (White Ash Series).
Locality.—Abersychan, near Pontypool.
Horizon.—Soap Vein.
Locality.—Bwllfa Dare Colliery, Aberdare.
Horizon.—9 Feet Seam.
Neuropteris gigantea, Sternb.
Neuropteris gigantea, Sternb., Hss. flore monde prim., i. fasc. 4, p. xvi.
Neuropteris gigantea, Brongt., Hist. d. végét. foss. p. 240, pl. Ixix.
*Neuropteris gigantea, Kidston, Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin., vol. xxxvii. p. 327.
Neuropteris gigantea, Potomie (in part’), Ueber einige Carbonfarne, iii. Theil, p. 22, text figs. 3
(not 1, 2, 47), pl. lii. figs. 1-2, p. iii, pl. iv., 1892 (Jahrb. d. k. preuss. geol. Landesanstalt
for 1891).
Osmunda gigantea, Sternb., Ess. flore monde prim., vol. i. fase. 2, pp. 32 and 37, pl. xxii.
Neuropteris Zeilleri, Potomie, Ueber einige Carbonfarne, iii Theil, pp. 22, 32, fig. 5, 1892.
Middle Coal Measures (White Ash Series).
Locality:— Beaufort.
Horizon.—Elied Coal (2 Feet 9 Coal).
Locality.— Rhymney.
Horizon.—Big Coal Vein (6 Feet Seam).
Locality.—Gadlys Colliery, Aberdare.
Horiwzon.—(?).
Locality.—Cwm Avon, near Port Talbot.
Horizon.—(?).
VOL, XXXVII. PART III. (NO. 26). 4T
590
(?)
MR ROBERT KIDSTON ON
Neuropteris flexuosa, Sternb.
Osmunda gigantea, var. Sternb., Ess. flore monde prim., vol. i. fasc. 3, p. 44, pl. xxxii. fig. 3, 1824.
Neuropteris flexuosa, Sternb., Ess. flore monde prim., vol. i. fase. 4, p. xvi; vol. ii. p. 71.
Neuropteris flexuosa, Brongt., Prodrome, p. 53.
Neuropteris flecuosa, Brongt., Hist. d. végét. foss., p. 239, pl. Ixv. figs. 2-3, pl. Ixviii. fig. 2.
Neuropteris flecuosa, Feistmantel, Vers. d. bohm. Kohlenab., part 3, p. 64, pl. xvi. figs. 5, 6.
Neuropteris flexuosa, Gutbier, Vers. d. Zwick. Schwarzk., p. 56, pl. vii. figs. 1, 2, 5, 7 (? pl. vi. fig. 12,
pl. vii. figs. 10, 11, 12, 13).
Neuropteris flecuosa, Heer, Flora Foss. Helv. Lief,i. p. 20.(? pl. ii. figs. 1-7 ; pl. iii. figs. 1-5 ; pl. iv.
figs. 7-13; pl. v. figs. 2-3. Figures evidently include more than one species, and none satisfactory
of the sp. named).
Neuropteris flecuosa, Renault, Cours d. botan. foss., p. 169, pl. xxix. figs. 10-11, 1883.
Neuropteris flecuosa, Roehl, Foss. Flora d. Steink. Form. Westph., p. 35, pl. xii. fig. 3a, pl. xv. figs. 3 and 10
(? pl. iv. fig. 10). a
Neuropteris flecuosa, Schimper, Traité d. paléont. végét., vol. i. p. 434, pl. xxx. figs. 12-13.
Neuropteris flexuosa, Zeiller, Flore foss. d. bassin houil. d. Valen., p. 277 (? pl. xlvi. fig. 2).
Neuropteris flecuosa, Weiss, Aus. d. Steink., p. 15, pl. xv. fig. 90.
Upper Coal Measures (Upper Pennant Series).
Locality.—Gilfach Bargoed, Gellygaer Parish.
Horizon.—Mynyddislwyn Seam.
Transition Series (Lower Pennant).
Locality.—Cwmbwrla, Swansea.
Horizon.—Hughes’ Vein.
Locality.—Brithdir Pit, Rhymney Valley, Gelligaer Parish.
Horizon.—Brithdir Seam (No. 2 Rhondda).
Locality.—Abergorchy, Rhondda Valley.
Horizon.—Abergorchy Seam.
Locality.—Pochin Pit, near Tredegar.
Horizon.—Pontygwaith Seam (No. 2 Rhondda).
Neuropteris macrophylla, Brongt.
Neuropteris macrophylla, Brongt., Hist. d. végét. foss., p. 235, pl. Ixv. fig. 1.
Neuropteris macrophylla, Schimper, Traité d. paléont. végét., vol. i. p. 434.
Neuropteris macrophylla, Kidston, Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin., vol. xxxiii. p. 354, pl. xxi. fig. 2, pl. x sii
figs. 2, 3. :
Neuropteris Clarksoni, Lesqx., in Roger's Geol. of Pennsyl., vol. ii. p. 857, pl. vi. figs. 1-4.
Neuropteris Clarksoni, Lesqx., Coal Ilora, p. 94, pl. ix. figs. 1-6.
Neuropteris Scheuchzeri, Kidston (not Hoffm.), Catal. of Palwoz. Plants, p. 95.
Osmunda, Scheuchzer, Herbarium diluvianum, p. 48, pl. x. fig. 3 (Edition 1709).
Transition Series (Lower Pennant Series).
Locality.—Cwmbwrla, Swansea.
Horizon.—Hughes’ Seam.
THE FOSSIL FLORA OF THE SOUTH WALES COAL FIELD. 591
Neuropteris Osmunde, Artis, sp.
Filicites osmundx, Artis, Antedil. Phyt., p. 7, pl. vii. 1824.
Neuropteris osmundee, Kidston, Trans. York. Nat. Union, 1890, p. 42.
Middle Coal Measures (White Ash Series).
Locality. Bwllfa Dare Colliery, Aberdare.
Horizon.—6 Feet Seam.
Neuropteris Scheuchzeri, Hoffm.
Neuropteris Scheuchzert, Hoffm., Keferstein’s Teuchland geognostisch geologisch dargestellt, vol. iv. p. 156,
pl. 1.0. figs. 1-4, 1826.
Neuropteris Scheuchzert, Zeiller, Flore howil. d. Asturies, p. 6 (Mem. Soe. Géol. du Nord, 1882).
Neuropteris Scheuchzeri, Zeiller, Flore foss. d. bassin houil. d. Valen., p. 251, pl. xli. figs. 1-3.
Neuropteris Scheuchzert, Kidston, Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin., vol. xxxiii. p. 356, pl. xxiii. figs. 1-2.
Neuropteris angustifolia, Brongt., Hist. d. végét. foss., p. 231, pl. Ixiv. figs. 3-4.
Neuropteris acutifolia, Brongt., Hist. d. végét. foss., p. 231, pl. Ixiv. figs. 6-7.
Neuropteris acutifolia, Ett., Foss. Flora v. Radnitz., p. 32, pl. xviii. fig. 5.
Neuropteris acutifolia, Geinitz, Vers. d. Steinkf. in Sachsen, p. 22 (? pl. xxvii. fig. 8).
Neuropteris acutifolia, Gutbier, Vers. d. Zwick. Schwarzk., p. 52 (? pl. vii. fig. 6).
Neuropteris cordata var. angustifolia, Bunbury, Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., vol. iii. p. 424, pl. xxi. fig. 1B.
Neuropteris cordata, Bunbury, (not Brongt.), Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., vol. iii. p. 423, pl. xxi.
hos Le, 1D, TE, LE.
Neuropteris cordata, Dawson (not Brongt.), Acad. Geol., pp. 482 and 466, fig. 1660.
Neuropteris cordata, L. and H. (not Brongt.), Foss. Flora, vol. i. pl. xli.
Neuropteris cordata, Kidston (not Brongt.), Catal. Palaoz. Plants, p. 98.
Neuropteris hirsuta, Lesqx., in Roger’s Geol. of Pennsyl., vol. ii. p. 857, pl. iii. fig. 6, pl. iv. figs. 1-16.
Neuropteris hirsuta, Lesqx., Rep. Geol. Survey of Illin., vol. ii. p. 427, pl. xxxv. figs. 6-10.
Neuropteris hirsuta, Lesqx., Coal Flora of Pennsyl, p. 88, pl. viii. figs. 1, 4, 5, 7, 9, 12.
Dietyopteris cordata, Romer, Palcont., vol. ix. p. 30, pl. vi. fig. 4, 1862.
Dictyopteris Scheuchzeri, Romer, Palewont., vol. ix. p. 30, pl. ix. fig. 1, 1862.
Upper Coal Measwres (Upper Pennant Series).
Locality.—Count Herbert Colliery, Neath Abbey.
Horizon.—(Equivalent of Mynyddislwyn).
Locality.—Coalbrook Colliery, Lougher.
Horizon.—({Highest Seams in the Series).
Transition Series (Lower Pennant Series).
Locality.—Cwmbwrla, Swansea.
Horizon.—Hughes’ Vein.
Locality.—Abergorchy, Rhondda Valley.
Horizon.—Abergorchy Seam.
Locality.—Pochin Pit, near Tredegar.
Horizon.—Pontygwaith Seam (No. 2 Rhondda).
592 MR ROBERT KIDSTON ON
Odontopteris, Bronet.
Odontopteris Lindleyana, Sternb.
Odontopteris Lindleyana, Sternb., Ess. flore monde prim., vol. ii. p. 77.
Odontopteris Lindleyana, Kidston, Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin., vol. xxxiii. p. 363.
Odontopteris obtusa, L. and H. (not Brongt.), Fossil Flora, pl. xl.
(?) Odontopteris heterophylla, Lesqx., Rep. Geol. Survey of Illin., vol. ii. p. 433, pl. xxxviii. figs. 2-5.
(?) Odontopteris heterophylla, Lesqx., Coal Flora, vol. i. p. 129, pl. xxii. fig. 6.
Transition Series (Lower Pennant Rocks).
Locality.—Pochin Pits, near Tredegar.
Horizon.—Pontygwaith Seam.
Note.—This species was tolerably plentiful in the shale I examined at Pochin Pitsl
Lindley Hutton’s specimen came from Leebotwood, and it also occurs in the Upper Coal
Measures, Radstock, Somerset.
Mariopteris, Zeiller.
Mariopteris muricata, Schl., sp.
Mariopteris muricata, Zeiller, Bull. Soc. géol. d. France, 3° sér., vol. vii. p. 92.
Mariopteris muricata, Zeiller, Végét. foss. d. terr. howil., p. 71, pl. elxvii. fig. 5.
* Mariopteris muricata, Kidston, Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin., vol. xxxvii. p. 323.
Pecopteris muricata, Brongt., Hist. d. végét. foss., p. 352, pl. xev. figs. 3-4, pl. xevii.
Pecopteris nervosa, Brongt., Hist. d. végét. foss., p. 297, pls. xciv., xev., figs. 1-2.
Middle Coal Measures (White Ash Series).
Locality.—Bwllta Dare Colliery, Aberdare.
Horizon.—9 feet Seam.
Locality.—Ysguborwen Colliery.
Horizon.—No. 2 Bass (No. 2 Yard Coal).
Locality.—Risca, Monmoutb.
Horizon.—Black Vein (9 Feet).
Locality.—Gadlys Colliery, Aberdare.
Horizon.—(?).
Locality.—Cribbwr Brick Works, near Aberkenfig, Llynvi Valley.
Horizon.—Fireclay Bed (Below 9 Feet Seam).
Locality.—Beaufort. ‘
Horizon.—{°).
THE FOSSIL FLORA OF THE SOUTH WALES COAL FIELD. 593
Pecopteris, Bronet.
Pecopteris Miltoni, Artis, sp.
Filicites Miltoni, Artis, Antedil. Phyt., pl. xiv., 1825.
Pecopteris Milton, Brongt., Prodrome, p. 58, 1828.
Pecopteris Miltoni, Germar, Vers. d. Steink. v. Wettin u. Lobejun., p. 63, pl. xxvii. (Excl. syn. Pee.
polymorpha and P. Miltoni, Brongt. (not Artis).
Pecopteris Miltoni, Sterzel., Die Flora d. Rothl. in nordwest. Sachsen, p. 6, pl. i. (xxi.) figs. 1-7
(in Dames and Kayser’s Palzont. Abhandl., Band iii. Heft. ii. p. 240 (Huel. syn. Pee.
polymorpha).
Pecopteris Miltoni, Kidston, Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin., vol. xxxiii. pp. 374, 376, figs. 2-4.
Pecopteris Miltont, Grand’ Eury, Bassin howil. du Gard., p. 273.
Cyatheites Miltont, Geinitz, Vers. d. Steinkf. in Sachsen, p. 27, pl. xxx. fig. 5 (? fig. 6), var. abbreviata.,
pl. xxx. figs. 7-8, pl. xxxi. figs. 1 (? 2, 3), 4 (refs. in part).
Hawlea Milton, Stur, Culm Flora, p. 293.
Hawlea Miltoni, Stur, Farne d. Carbon Flora, p. 108, pl. lix. figs. 1-4, pl. Ix. figs. 1-2 (Zvel. figs. 3-4.
Syn. in part).
Pecopteris crenata, Sternb., Ess. flore monde prim., vol. i. fasc. 4, p. xx.; vol. ii. p. 154, pl. x. fig. 7.
Hawlea pulcherrima, Corda., Flora d. Vorwelt., p. 90, pl. lvii. figs. 7-8.
(2) Goniopteris brevifolia, Schimper, Traité d. paléont. végét., vol. i. p. 546.
Pecopteris abbreviata, Brongt., Prodrome, p..56, 1828.
Pecopteris abbreviata, Brongt., Hist. d. végét. foss., p. 337, pl. exv. figs. 1-4.
Pecopteris abbreviata, L. and H., Fossil Flora, vol. iii. pl. elxxxiv.
Pecopteris abbreviata, Zeiller, Notes sur la flore houillére des Asturies, p. 12 (Mem. Géol. Soc.
du Nord, 1882).
Pecopteris (Asterotheca) abbreviata, Zeiller, Flore foss. d. bassin. howil. d. Valen., p. 186, pl. xxiv.
figs. 1-4.
Pecopteris abbreviata, Grand’ Eury, Bassin houil. du Gard., p. 272, pl. xx. fig. 4, 1890.
Hawlea abbreviata, Stur, Culm Flora, p. 293.
Cyatheites villosus, Geinitz, Vers. d. Steinkf. in Sachsen, p. 25, pl. xxix. figs. 6-8.
Note.—This species is frequent in the Coal Field.
Upper Coal Measures (Upper Pennant Series).
Locality.—Cwmbwrla, Swansea.
Horizon.—Hughes’ Vein.
Locality.—Count Herbert Colliery, Neath Abbey.
Horizon.—({ — Equivalent of Mynyddislwyn).
Transition Series (Lower Pennant Series).
Locality.—Pochin Pits, near Tredegar.
Horizon.—Pontygwaith Seam (No. 2 Rhondda).
Middle Coal Measures (White Ash Series).
Locality. —Bwllfa Dare Colliery, Aberdare.
Horizon.—4 Foot Seam.
594 MR ROBERT KIDSTON ON
Locality Ysguborwen Colliery, Aberdare.
Horizon.—7 Foot Seam.
Locality.— Beaufort.
Horizon.—2 Feet 9 Inch Seam.
Alethopteris, Sternb.
Alethopteris lonchitica, Schl., sp.
Alethopteris lonchitica, Schimper, Traité d. paléont. végét., vol. i. p. 554 (Ref. in part).
* Alethopteris lonchitica, Kidston, Trans. Roy. Soc. Hdin., vol. xxxvii. p. 330.
Pecopteris lonchitica, Brongt., Hist. d. végét. foss. p. 275, pl. Ixxxiv.
Filicites lonchiticus, Schloth., Petrefactenk., p. 411.
Pecopteris urophylla, Brongt., Hist. d. végét. foss., p. 290, pl. Ixxxvi., 1833.
Schlotheim, Flora d. Vorwelt., p. 55, pl. xi. fig. 22.
Remarks.—The type of Brongniart’s Pecopteris wrophylla from Merthyr Tydvil, —
which is preserved in the Collection of the Geological Society of London, has kindly been
lent me for examination, and I find that it differs in no point from Alethopteris (Pecop-
teris) lonchitica,—as Brongniart’s own figures show,—except in its possessing a narrow
flattened border to all the pinnules; even the long simple terminal (“ heterophyllous”)
pinnules show this same character. .
Brongniart supposed that this flattening of the margins of the pinnules indicated the
position of a marginal fructification, as in the recent Pteris. But even granting that
this flattened marginal band does arise from the presence of marginal fructification, the
most that can be said of the fossil is that it is a specimen of Alethopteris lonchitica in
fruit,—the presence of the fructification, all other characters being the same, cannot be
taken as a distinctive point by which to separate it from another species with which it
otherwise agrees in all respects. | q
Proceeding further, it is open to doubt if this flattened band-like border is really —
produced by the presence of a marginal fructification, There is no evidence of any
sporangia—only the upper surface of the frond being shown. On the other hand, it is
difficult to explain how pressure could have produced this marginal flattened band, which —
is really on a lower level than the convex well preserved pinnules. What may be its”
morphological importance I do not know, but I may add that I have observed the same —
flattening of the margins of the pinnules on Alethopteris decwrrens and Alethopteris —
aquilina.
Upper Coal Measures (Upper Pennant Series).
Locality—Mynydd Newydd, near Swansea.
Horizon.—Big Vein (next above Mynyddislwyn).
Transition Series (Lower Pennant Series).
Locality.— Bute Quarry, Pwllypant, near Caerphilly.
Horizon.—Under Mynyddislwyn Seam.
THE FOSSIL FLORA OF THE SOUTH WALES COAL FIELD. 595
Middle Coal Measures (White Ash Series).
Locality.—Risca, Monmouth.
Horizon.—Black Vein (9 Feet).
Locality.—Cwm Avon, near Port Talbot.
Horizon.—(*).
Locality.—Beaufort.
Horizon.—(?).
Locality.—Merthyr Tydvil.
Horizon.—(?) (Type of A. urophylla).
Alethopteris decurrens, Artis, sp.
Pilicites decurrens, Artis, Antedil. Phyt., pl. xxi., 1825.
Alethopteris decurrens, Zeiller, Flore foss. d. bassin howil. d. Valen., p. 221, pl. xxxiv., figs. 2-3, pl. xxxv.
fig. 1, pl. xxxvi. figs. 3-4.
*Alethopteris decurrens, Kidston, Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin., vol. xxxvii. p. 331.
Middle Coal Measures (White Ash Series).
Locality.—Bwllfa Dare Colliery, Aberdare.
Horizon.—9 Foot Seam.
Locality.—British Iron Company, Abersychan.
Horizon.—(?).
Locality.—Beaufort.
Horizon.—(?).
Alethopteris Davreuxi, Bronet., sp.
Pecopteris Davreuxi, Brongt., Prodrome, p. 57 (Excl. syn.), 1828.
Pecopteris Davreuxt, Brongt., Hist. d. végét. foss., p. 279, pl. Ixxxvili. figs. 1-2.
Pecopteris Davreuxt, Sauveur, Végét. foss. terr. houwil. Belgique, pl. xii. figs. 2-3.
Alethopteris Davreuxi, Gopp., Syst. fil. foss., p. 295 (Huel. syn.).
Alethopteris Davreuai, Zeiller, Flore foss. d. bassin howil. d. Valen., p. 228, pl. xxxii. fig. 1.
Alethopteris Davreuai, Kidston, Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin., vol. xxxiii. p. 386, pl. xxiv. fig. 1.
Pecopteris Dournaisti, Brongt., Hist. d. végét. foss., p. 282, pl. lxxxix. fig, 1 (? not fig. 2).
Alethopteris Dournaisii, Gopp., Syst. fil. foss., p. 298 (Exel. syn.),
Pecopteris Hoffmanni, Sauveur, Végét. foss. terr. houil. Belgique, pl. xxxvii. fig. 1.
(2) Pecopteris rugosa, Sauveur, Végét. foss. terr. howl. Belgique, pl. xxxvii. fig. 2.
Alethopteris Rungi, Achepohl, Niederrh. Westfdl. Steink., p. 135, pl. xli, fig. 10.
(?) Alethopteris interrupta, Achepohl, Niederrh. Westfal. Steink , p. 136, pl. xli. fig. 13.
Middle Coal Measures (White Ash Series).
Locality.—Bwllfa Dare Colliery, Aberdare.
Horizon.—9 Foot Seam.
596 MR ROBERT KIDSTON ON
Alethopteris Serlii, Brongt., sp.
Alethopteris Serlit, Gopp., Syst. fil. foss., p. 301, pl. xxi. figs. 6-7.
Alethopteris Serlit, Lesqx., Coal Flora, p. 176, pl. xxix. figs. 1-5.
Alethopteris Seriii, Romer, Palewont., vol. ix. p. 32, pl. viii. fig. 9, 1862.
Alethopteris Serlit, Zeiller, Végét. foss. du terr. houil., p. 75, pl. elxiii. figs. 1-2.
Alethopteris Serlit, Zeiller, Flore foss. d. bassin howl. d. Valen. p. 234, pls. xxxvi. figs. 1-2, —
xxxvil. figs. 1-2.
Alethopteris Serlii, Weiss, Aus. d. Steink., p. 16, pl. xvi. fig. 97, Ed. 1882.
Alethopteris Serlit, Renault, Cowrs d. botan. foss., vol. iii. p. 157, pl. xxvii. fig. 7.
Pecopteris Serlii, Brongt., Prodrome, p. 57.
Pecopteris Serlii, Brongt., Hist. d. végét., p. 292, pl. Ixxxv.
Pecopteris Serlit, L. and H., Fossil Flora, vol. iii. pl. ecii.
Pecopteris Hannonica, Sauveur, Végét. foss. de la Belgique, pl. xxxviii.
Neuropteris obliqua, Sternb., Ess. flore monde prim., vol. i. fasc. iv. p. xvii; vol. ii. p. 74, pl. xxii.
figs. la, 10.
Alethopteris Sternbergit, Ettingshausen, Steink. v. Radnitz., p. 42, pl. xviii. fig. 4.
Alethopteris lonchitica, Schimper, in Zittel. Handb. d. Palcont., vol. ii. p. 118, fig. 93.
(?) Alethopteris irregularis, Roehl, Foss. Flora d. Steink. Form. Westph., p. 81, pl. xv. figs. 2, 14, and 15.
Parkinson, Organic Remains, vol. i. pl. iv. fig. 6.
Upper Coal Measures (Upper Pennant Series)
Locality.—Caerphilly. .
Horizon.—Rhos Llantwit Vein (Mynyddislwyn Seam).
Locality.—Neath Abbey.
Horvzon.—(?).
Locality.—Mynydd Newydd, near Swansea.
Horizon.—Big Vein (next above Mynyddislwyn).
Transition Series (Lower Pennant Series).
Locality.—Bute Quarry, Pwllypant, near Caerphilly.
Horizon.—Under Mynyddislwyn Seam.
Locality.—Abergorchy, Rhondda Valley.
Horvon.—Abergorchy Seam.
Lonchopteris, Brongt.
Lonchopteris rugosa, Brongt.
Lonchopteris rugosa, Brongt., Prodrome, p. 60.
Lonchopteris rugosa, Brongt., Hist. d. végét. foss., p. 368, pl. exxxi. fig. 1.
Lonchopteris rugosa, Roehl, Flora d. Steink. Form. Westph., p. 68, pl. xvi. fig. 4, pl. xxix. figs. 1-7.
Lonchopteris rugosa, Feistmantel, Vers. d. bohm. Kohlenab., iti Abth. p. 74, pl. xviii. fig. 7 (? fig. 8).
Lonchopteris rugosa, Schimper, in Zittel. Handb. d. paléont., vol. ii. p. 118, fig. 93?.
Lonchopteris rugosa, Achepohl, Niederrh. Westfal. Steinkohl, p. 71, pl. xxi. fig. 4; Supp., pl. iii. fig. 435
Supp., pl. iv. figs. 51, 52, 53.
THE FOSSIL FLORA OF THE SOUTH WALES COAL FIELD. 597
Lonchopteris rugosa, Zeiller, Flore foss. d. bassin howil. d.
pl. 1. figs. 3-4.
Lonchopteris rugosa, Weiss, Aus. d. Steinkf., p. 16, pl. xv. fig. 95 (Ed. 1882).
Woodwardites acutilobus, Gopp., Syst. fil. foss., p. 289, pl. xxi. fig. 2.
Lonchopteris Bricii, Zeiller (not Brongt.) (in part), Végét. foss. du terr. houil., p. 79, pl. clxv. figs. 3-4.
Lonchopteris Bricii, Renault (not Brongt.), Cowrs d. botan. foss., vol. iii. p. 166, pl. xxx. figs. 1-2.
(?) Lonchopteris Roehlit, Achepohl (not Andre), Niederrh. Westfal. Steink., Supp., pl. iv. fig. 31.
Valen., p. 244, pl. xxxix. figs. 2-3,
Note.—This species appears to be very rare.
Middle Coal Measures (White Ash Series).
Locality.—Cribbwr Brick Works, near Aberkenfig, Llynvi Valley.
Horizon.—Fireclay Bed (Below 9 Feet Seam).
Sphenophyllee.
Sphenophyllum, Bronet.
Sphenophyllum cuneifolium, Sternb., sp.
Sphenophyllum cuneifolium, Zeiller, Flore foss. d. bassin howl. d.
pl. lxiii. figs. 1-10.
*Sphenophyllum cuneifolium, Kidston, Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin., vol. xxxvii. p. 332.
Rotularia cuneifolia, Sternb., Hss. flore monde prim., 1. fase. 2, p. 33, pl. xxvi. figs. 4a, 40.
Sphenophyllum erosum, L. and H., Fossil Flora, vol, i. pl. xiii.
Valen., p. 413, pl. Ixit fig. 1,
Transition Series (Lower Pennant Series).
Locality —Bwllfa Dare Colliery, Aberdare.
Horizon.—Graig Seam. (Abergorchy.)
Middle Coal Measures (White Ash Series).
Locality.—Bwllfa Dare Colliery, Aberdare.
Horizons.—Balls Mine, above 4 Foot Seam; 4 Foot Seam (var. saxifragefolium).
Locality.—Cribbwr Brick Works, near Aberkenfig, Llynvi Valley.
Horizon.—(var. saxifragefolium). Fireclay Bed (Below 9 Feet).
Sphenophyllum myriophyllum, Crepin.
Sphenophyllum myriophyllum, Crepin, Notes paléophytol. 1*° note, p. 6 (Bull. Soc. roy. d. botan. d.
Belgique, vol. xix. part ii., 1880).
Sphenophyllum myriophyllum, Zeiller, Flore foss. d. bassin houil. Valen., p. 422, pl. Ixi. fig. 7, pl. Lxii.
figs. 2-4.
Volkmannia gracilis, Sternb. (in part), Ess. flore monde prim., vol. ii. p. 53, pl. xv. fig. 1.
Volkmannia gracilis, Roehl, Foss. Flora d. Steink. Form. Westph., p. 20, pl. xii. figs. la, 10.
Volkmannia gracilis, Schenk, in Richthofen’s China, vol. iv. p. 235, pl. xxxvii. fig. 2.
Calamites communis, Ett. (in part), Steinkf. v. Radnitz., p. 24, pls. i. fig. 5, vi. figs. 1-3, vii. fig. 1-4.
VOL. XXXVII. PART III. (NO. 26). 4uU
598 MR ROBERT KIDSTON ON
Middle Coal Measures (White Ash Series)
Locality. —Bwllfa Dare Colliery, Aberdare.
Horizon.—9 Foot Seam.
Sphenophyllum emarginatum, Bronet.
Sphenophyllites emarginatus, Brongt., Class. d. végét. foss., p. 34, pl. ii. fig. 8, 1822.
Sphenophyllum emarginatum, Brongt., Prodrome, p. 68.
Sphenophyllum emarginatum, Geinitz (in part), Vers. d. Steinkf. in Sachsen, p. 12, pl. xx. figs. 1-4.
Sphenophyllum emarginatum, Coemans and Kickx, Bull, Acad. Roy. Belgique, 2° sér., vol. xviii. p, 144, |
pl. i. fig. 2, pl. ii. figs. 1-3.
Sphenophyllum emarginatum, Konig., Icones foss. sectiles., pl. xii. fig. 149.
Sphenophyllum emarginatum, Roehl (in part), Foss. Flora d. Steink. Form. Westph., p. 30, pl. iv.
fig. 13 ? (not fig. 12).
Sphenophyllum emarginatum, Schimper, Traité d. paléont. végét., vol. i. p. 339 (not fig. 18).
Sphenophyllum emarginatum, Schimper, in Zittel. Handb. d. Palcont., vol. ii. p. 179, fig. 135°.
Sphenophyllum emarginatum, Sterzel (in part), Flora d. Rothl. im. nordw. Sachsen, pp. 26 and 27,
figs. la, 1b, le; 2; 3; 4a, 4b; 5a, 5d; 6a, 6b; Ta, 7b; 8; 10a, 100, 10c; 11; 12; 13; 14;
15; 17; 18; 19 (not figs. 9 and 16) (pl. iii. figs. 2-3 2).
Sphenophyllum emarginatum, Weiss, Aus. d. Steink., p. 12, pl. x. fig. 58, Edit. 1882.
Sphenophyllum emarginatum, Bronn, Lethwa Geog., vol. i. p. 106, pl. viii. fig. 10.
Sphenophyllum emarginatum, Zeiller, Flore foss. d. bassin houil. d. Valen., p. 409, pl. Ixiv. figs. 3-5.
Sphenophyllum emarginatum, var. Brongniartianum, Coemans and Kickx, Bull. Acad. Roy. Belgique,
2° ser., vol. xviii. pl. i. fig. 3, 1864.
Sphenophyllum emarginatum, Roehl, Foss. Flora d. Steink. Form. Westph., p. 31, pl. xxvi. fig. 2,
pl. xxxii. fig. 6a.
Sphenophyllum emarginatum, Schimper, Traité d. paléont. végét., vol. i. p. 340, pl. xxv. figs. 15-17.
Sphenophyllum Osnabrugense, Rimer, Beitr. z. Kennt. d. Nordw. Harzgeb. Palwont., vol. ix. p. 21,
pl. v. fig. 2, 1860.
Rotularia marsilecefolia, Bischoff (not Sternb.), Die Kryptogam. Gewdchse, p. 89, pl. xiii. fig. la, 16.
Sphenophyllum emarginatum, var. truncatum, Schenk, in Richthofen’s China, vol. iv. pp. 219, 220, fig. 6
pl. xliii. figs. 25, 26.
Sphenophyllum Schlotheimii, Sauveur (not Brongt.), Végét. foss. terr. howl. Belgique, pl. \xiv. fig, 3.
Sphenophyllum truncatum, Renault, Cowrs d. botan. foss., vol. ii. p. 87, pl. xiii. figs. 8-9, 1882.
Transition Series (Lower Pennant Series).
Locality.—Cwmbwrla, Swansea.
Horizon.—Hughes’ Vein.
Lycopodiacee.
Lepidodendron, Sternb.
Lepidodendron dichotomum, Zeiller (? not Stbg.)
Lepidodendron dichotomum, Zeiller (1 not Sternb.), Végét. foss. du terr, houtl., p. 107, pl. clxxii. fig. 1.
Lepidodendron dichotomum, Zeiller (? not Sternb.), Flore foss, d. bassin. howil. d. Valen., p. 446,
pl. Ixvii. fig. 1.
THE FOSSIL FLORA OF THE SOUTH WALES COAL FIELD. 599
Remarks.—It seems to me very doubtful if the Lepidodendron that Zeiller identifies
as Lepidodendron dichotomum is really Sternberg’s plant, and I do not think that the
figure given by Presl* at all settles the point, or makes up for the imperfect figures
of Sternberg’s original description. Nor am I aware on what grounds Presl identifies
his example as the Lepidodendron dichotomum, Sternb. Judging from Presl’s fig. 1,
it appears to me much more like a Lepidophlows than a Lepidodendron, and it is
difficult to understand how this figure, presuming it is correctly drawn, could afford
data for the enlarged figures given by Presl at fig. 1a.
Transition Serves (Lower Pennant Series).
Locality. Cwmbwrla, Swansea.
Horizon.—Hughes’ Vein.
Lepidodendron longifolium, Bronet.
Plate, figs. 1-3.
Lepidodendron longifolium, Brongt., Prodrome, p. 85, 1828.
Lepidodendron longifolium, Unger, Syn. plant. foss. (under Species dubie), p. 132, 1845.
Lepidodendron longifolium, Unger, Genera et species plant. fos. (ander Species dubic), p. 260, 1850.
Lepidodendron longifolium, Schimper, Traité. d. paléont. végét., vol. ii. p. 22 (Ref. in part ?), 1870.
Lepidodendron dichotomum, Sternh. (in part), Ess. flore monde prim., vol. i. fase. i. p. 23, pl. iii., 1820.
Lepidodendron Sternbergit, Ett. (not Brongt.), Steinkf. v. Radnitz., p. 54, pl. xxvi. figs. 1-2, pl. xxvii.
pl. xxvii, 1854.
(2) Lepidodendron longifolium, L. and H., Fossil Flora, vol. iii. pl. clxi., 1836.
(2) Lepidodendron dichotomum, Geinitz (in part), Vers. d. Steinkf. in Sachsen, p. 34, pl. iii. fig. 1.
Remarks.—Unger in 1845 classed Lepidodendron longifolium among his Species
dulie ; and though nearly fifty years have elapsed since then, I am afraid we must still
regard it as an imperfectly known fossil.
It may be well to give here a short historical outline of the species.
Sternberg (/.c.) in 1820 described a Lepidodendron under the name of Lepidoden-
dron dichotommum, of which he gave three plates. The plants figured by him on his plates
1.-ll., owing to their very different foliage from that on the specimen figured on his
plate iii, were named Lepidodendron Sternbergu by Brongniart in his Prodrome in
1828. The plant figured by Sternberg on his plate ii1., on account of the great length
of its narrow leaves, was named by Broneniart Lepidodendron longifolum. That
Lepidodendron Sternbergu, Brongt., and Lepidodendron longifolium, Brongt., form two
distinct species, and are not different conditions of a single species, is, I think, generally
accepted, and no other conclusion, I believe, could be arrived at by any one who has
had the opportunity of examining specimens with the long narrow foliage of the plant
figured by Sternberg on his plate ii. With these remarks, I shall pass from Sternberg’s
* In Sternb., Vers. ii. p. 177, pl. lxviii. fig. 1.
600 MR ROBERT KIDSTON ON
plates i.-ii., and restrict my observations to the plant figured on his plate i., and to »
which Brongniart gave the name of Lepidodendron longifoliwm.
In any discussion of the claims of Lepidodendron longifolium to rank as a distinel |
species, it must be at once conceded that neither the original figure nor description afford
sufficient data on which to found a satisfactorily characterised species. Of the several
characters necessary for the satisfactory foundation of a species, we have in the present
case little more than that the leaves are very long and extremely narrow. The form of
the leaves do, however, afford a valuable character ; and though other species of Lepido-
dendron, such as Lepidodendron obovatum,* have long narrow leaves, still the leaves of
these species appear to be broader than those of the plant I regard as the Lepido-
dendron longifolium, Brongniart.
Notes on Figured Specimens.
Lepidodendron longifolium, L. and H., pl. elxi. (l.c.).
I have carefully examined this specimen, which is preserved in the Hutton Collection,
Newcastle-on-Tyne, but it is so imperfectly preserved that it is impossible to determine
whether this fossil should be referred to a Lepidodendron or a long-leaved Sigillaria.t
Sagenaria dichotoma, Geinitz, pl. ii. fig. 1. (/.c.).
‘This, though probably embraced by Sternberg’s Lepidodendron dichotomum (pls.
ii.), cannot be placed with certainty in Brongniart’s Lepidodendron Sternbergu
(Sternberg’s pls. 1.11, and it is only these two plates that Geinitz includes in his reference).
It may be similar to the plant on Sternberg’s pl. ii., but without expressing any definite
opinion, it appears to me, as far as one can judge from the figure, that it is equally
possible that the specimen may be a portion of a long-leaved Sigillaria. |
Lepidodendron Sternbergu, Ett. (not Brongt.) l.c., pls. xxvi. figs. 1-2, pl. xxvii,
and pl. xxviii.
Schimper (/.c.) places these, and I believe with probable justice, under Lepidodendron
longifolium, Brongt.; but it is an error on Ettingshausen’s part to refer his specimens to
Lepidodendron Sternbergu “L. and H.,” from which they are certainly distinct. It is
much to be regretted that Ettingshausen has not given enlarged drawings of the leaf
cushion and/scar, for it seems to me quite possible that Zeiller’s Lepidodendron dicho-
tomum (not Sternb. ?){ may be referable to this species,—but this point can only be
determined by an examination of Ettingshausen’s original specimens. |
* Zeiller, Flore foss. d. bassin howil. d. Valen., p. 442, pl. lxvi. fig. 1. I have had the pleasure of seeing this specimen,
of which the figure only shows a small portion, and the nature of its foliage is very different from that of the South
Wales Lepidodendron which I here place under L. longifolium. y
t Proc. Roy. Phys. Soc., vol. x. p. 875, 1891.
t See ante, p. 598.
THE FOSSIL FLORA OF THE SOUTH WALES COAL FIELD. 601
Description of Specomens from Ebbw Vale, Monmouthshire, wm the Collection
of the Geological Survey of Great Britain, Jermyn St., London.
The Collection of the Geological Survey, London, contains four specimens of the
Lepidodendron from Ebbw Vale, which I identify as Lepidodendron longifolium,
Brongt., and for permission to describe these specimens I am indebted to the kindness
of Sir Archibald Geikie.
Specumen, Registration No. xxi. }5.
This example shows a terminal portion of a branch. It is about 15 em. long, and
bears the long, narrow linear foliage of Lepid. longifolium. The stem is about 1 cm.
broad, but the form of the leaf scars is not discernible. None of the single nerved
leaves show their complete length, but the most perfect portions exhibited are 8 cm.
long, and their breadth is rather under 1 mm. At the apex of the stem the leaves
are bent more to one side, and form a dense mass of foliage which entirely conceals
the underlying matrix.
Specimen, Registration No. xxiv. », (fig. 1).
This specimen also shows the upper portion of a small leafy branch, whose length
is about 9°5 cm., and breadth about 3 mm. The leaf scars are not shown, being entirely
enveloped in foliage, which, like that last mentioned, is very long, and extremely narrow.
Some of the leaves which appear to be perfect are 4°5 cm. long, and about 1 mm. broad.
The central vein is very thin.
Specimen, Registration No. xaiv. 7% (fig. 2).
This fossil shows a small branch with a terminal tuft of leaves. Beside it are the
remains of another small branch having a similar bunch of terminal leaves. The
Specimens are otherwise devoid of foliage, but the leaf scars are very small and indistinct.
The leaves are about 2°3 cm. long, and about °75 mm. broad.
Specimen, Registration No. xaurv.4'5 (fig. 3).
This example shows two cones, terminating the extremities of a dichotomised branch.
The forks of the dichotomy are 2 em. long, each bearing a fusiform cone 5°5 cm. long
and 1°5 cm. wide at the centre. This fossil is unfortunately not well preserved, but
the bracts appear to be lanceolate, and are so arranged that when the light falls on
the specimen at right angles to the axis of the cone, that on the right fork shows four
longitudinal furrows, while that on the left shows a few oblique furrows. I unite this
cone to Lepidodendron longifolium, from the remains of the foliage which are still attached
to the stem. The form of this cone is much more truly fusiform than that of the
Lepidostrobus variabilis, L. and H. type.
602 MR ROBERT KIDSTON ON
Middle Coal Measures (White Ash Series).
Locality.—Ebbw Vale, Monmouth.
Horizon —(?).
Lepidodendron ophiurus, Bronet.
Lepidodendron ophiurus, Brongt., Prodrome, p. 85.
* Lepidodendron ophiurus, Kidston, Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin., vol. xxxvii. p. 334.
Sagenaria ophiurus, Brongt., Class. d. végét. foss., p. 27, pl. vi. fig. 1.
Middle Coal Measures (White Ash Series).
Locality.—Bwllfa Dare Colliery, Aberdare.
Horizon.—4 Foot Seam.
Lepidodendron obovatum, Sternb.
Lepidodendron obovatum, Sternb., Ess. flore monde prim., vol. i. fase. 1, pp. 21 and 25, pl. vi. fig. 1,
pl. viii. fig. la ; fase. 4, p. x.
* Lepidodendron obovatum, Kidston, Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin., vol. xxxvii. p. 335.
Middle Coal Measures (White Ash Series).
Locality.—Ebbw Vale, Monmouth.
Horizon.—(?).
Lepidodendron aculeatum, Sternb.
Lepidodendron aculeatum, Sternb., Ess. flore monde prim., vol. i. fase. 1, pp. 21 and 25, pl. vi. fig. 2,
pl. viii. fig. 16; fase. 2, p. 28, pl. xiv. figs. 1-4 ; fasc. 4, p. x.
* Lepidodendron aculeatum, Kidston, Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin., vol. xxxvii. p. 336.
Middle Coal Measures (White Ash Series).
Locality.—Ebbw Vale, Monmouth.
Horizon.—(*).
Locality.—Cwm Avon, near Port Talbot.
Horizon.—(?).
forma modulatum..
Lepidodendron modulatum, Lesqx., Geol. of Pennysl., vol. ii. p. 874, pl. xv. fig. 1.
Lepidodendron modulatum, Lesqx., Coal Flora, ii. p. 385, pl. Ixiv. figs. 13-14.
Middle Coal Measures (White Ash Series).
Locality.—Bwllfa Dare Colliery, Aberdare.
Horvon.—9 Foot Seam.
THE FOSSIL FLORA OF THE SOUTH WALES COAL FIELD. 603
Lepidodendron Haidingeri, Ett.
Lepidodendron Haidingert, Ett., Steinkf. von Radnitz., p. 55, pls. xxil., xxiii.
Lepidodendron Haidingert, Zeiller, Flore foss. d. bassin howil. d. Valen., p. 461, pl. lxix. fig. 1.
Sagenaria elegans, Feistm. (neither Sternb. nor L. and H.), Vers. d. béhm. Ablager., ii Abth., 1875,
p. 29, pl. vili. fig. 3.
Transition Serves (Lower Pennant Series).
Locality.—Cwmbwrla, near Swansea.
Horizon.—Hughes’ Vein.
Lepidodendron Wortheni, Lx.
Lepidodendron Wortheni, Lesqx., Geol. Survey of Lilin., vol. ii. p. 452, pl. xliv. figs. 4-5, 1866.
Lepidodendron Wortheni, Lesqx., Coal Flora, p. 388, pl. Ixiv. figs. 8-9.
Lepidodendron Worthent, Zeiller, Flore foss. d. bassin houil. d. Valen., p. 467, pl. lxxi. figs. 1-3.
Lepidodendron Worthent, Kidston, Trans. Roy. Soc. Hdin., vol. xxxii. p, 394,
Lepidodendron Worthent, Kidston, Trans. York Nat, Union, part 14, 1890, p. 48.
Transition Series (Lower Pennant Series).
Locality.—Cwmbwrla, Swansea.
Horizon.—Hughes’ Vein.
Lepidostrobus, Bronet.
Lepidostrobus lanceolatus, L. and H., sp.
*Lepidostrobus lanceolatus, Kidston, Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin., vol. xxxvii. p. 340.
Lepidophyllum lanceolatum, L. and H., Fossil Flora, vol. i. pl. vii. figs. 3-4,
Middle Coal Measures (White Ash Series).
Locality.—Bwllfa Dare Colliery, Aberdare.
Horizon.—No. 1 Yard Seam.
Lepidostrobus, sp.
Middle Coal Measures (White Ash Series).
Locality.— Beaufort.
Horizon.—(?). sth bs
Lepidophyllum, Brongt.
Lepidophyllum triangulare, Zeiller.
Lepidophyllum triangulare, Zeiller,, Flore foss. d. bassin howl. d. Valen, p. 508, pl. Ixxvii,
figs, 4-6, 1886. ;
Lepidophyllum triangulare, Kidston, Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin., vol. xxxv. p. 83.
Note.—The examples of this plant were very typical of the species. .
604 MR ROBERT KIDSTON ON
Middle Coal Measures (White Ash Series).
Locality.—Bwllfa Dare Colliery, Aberdare.
Horizon.—9 Foot Seam.
Lepidophloios, Sternb.
Lepidophloios laricinus, Sternb.
Lepidophloios laricinum, Sternb., Ess. jlore monde prim., vol. i. fase. 4, p. xiii, 1826.
Lepidodendron laricinum, Sternb., ibid., fase. 1, pp. 23 and 25, pl. xi. figs. 2-4, 1820.
Remarks.—Full synonymy of this and the following species will be found in my
paper on the “ British species of the genus Lepidophlovos.” *
I have not seen any specimens of Lepidophlovos laricinus from the South Wales Coal
Field, but base my record of the plant on the figure given by Mr Carruthers in the Geol.
Mag., vol. x. (1873) p. 150, plate vii. fig. 1.
Middle Coal Measures (White Ash Series).
Locality.—Ebbw Vale.
Horizon.—(?).
Lepidophloios acerosus, L. and H., sp.
Lepidophloios acerosus, Kidston, Trans. York Nat. Union, No. 14, 1890, p. 49.
Lepidophloios acerosus, Kidston, Proc. Roy. Phys. Soc. Edin., vol. x. p. 351, 1891.
Lepidophloios acerosus, Kidston, Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin., vol. xxxvii. p. 558.
Lepidodendron acerosum, L. and H., Fossil Flora, vol. i., pl. vii. fig. 1, pl. viii., 1831.
Lepidodendron brevifolium, Ett., Steinkf. v. Radnitz., p. 53, pl. xxiv. figs. 4-5, pl. xxv., pl. xxvi.
fig. 3, 1854.
Lepidostrobus pinaster, L. and H., ibid., vol. iii., pl. exeviii., 1837.
Lepidophloios laricinus, Goldenberg (in part), Flora Sarepont. foss., heft iii. p. 45, pl. xv. fig. 9 (named
on pl. Lepidophloios macrolepidotus), 1862.
Lepidophloios laricinus, Schimper (in part), Traité d. paléont. végét., vol. ii. p. 51, pl. Ix. figs.
11-12, 1870.
Lepidodendron dichotomum, Feistm, (not Sternb. in part), Vers. d. bohm. Ablag., Abth. ii. p. 14, pl. iii.
figs. 3 and 5, 1875.
Lepidophloios carinatus, Weiss, Foss. Flora d. jiingst. Stk. u. d. Rothl., p. 155, 1871.
(2) Lepidodendron dichotomum, Roehl (not Sternb. im part), Foss. flora d. Steink. Form. Westph., p. 125,
pl. xi. fig. 2, 1869.
Middle Coal Measures (White Ash Series).
Locality.—Abersychan, near Pontypool.
Horizon.—Soap Vein.
* See On Lepidophloios, and on the British species of the genus, ante, p. 555.
THE FOSSIL FLORA OF THE SOUTH WALES COAL FIELD. 605
Bothrodendron, L. and H.
Bothrodendron punctatum, L. and H.
Bothrodendron punctatum, L. and H., Fossil Flora, vol. ii., pls. Ixxx., Ixxxi.
Bothrodendron punctatum, Zeiller, Ann. d. sc. nat. 6° sér. Bot., vol. xiii. p. 224, pl. ix. figs. 1-3,
pl. x. figs. 1-14.
Bothrodendron punctatum, Zeiller, Bull. Soc. Géol. d. France, 3° sér., vol. xiv. p. 178, pl. viii. figs. 1-3.
* Bothrodendron punctatum, Kidston, Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin., vol. xxxvii. p, 344.
Ulodendron transversum, Carr. (not Eichwald), Monthly Micros. Jowrn., vol. iii, pl. xliv. fig. 2 (not
description, p. 153).
Remarks.—The only specimen of Bothrodendron punctatum that I have seen from
the Welsh Coal Field is the type of Ulodendron transversum, Carr. (not Eichwald), which
differs in no point from the Bothrodendron punctatum, L. and H.
Middle Coal Measures (White Ash Series).
Locality.—Nantmelyn Colliery, Aberdare.
Horizon.—(?).
Sigillaria, Bronet.
Sigillaria camptotcenia, Wood, sp.
Sigillaria camptotenia, Wood, Trans. Amer. Phil. Soc., vol. xiii. p. 342, pl. ix. fig, 3.
*Sigillaria camptoteenia, Kidston, Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin., vol. xxxvii. p. 348.
Asolanus camptotenia, Wood, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sc. Phila., 1860, p. 238, pl. iv. fig. 1.
Pseudosigillaria monostigma, Grand’ EKury, Bassin houil. du Gard., pl. ix. figs. 4, 5, 6, 1890.
Pseudosigillaria dimorpha, Grand’ Eury, Bassin howil. du Gard., pl. ix. figs. 7-8, pl. xxii. fig. 1.
Sigillaria-Camp. monostigma, Grand’ Eury, ibid., p. 262, pl. ix. figs. 4 and 7.
Sigillaria-Camp. gracilenta, Grand’ Eury, ibid., p. 262, pl. ix. fig. 6, pl. xxii. fig. 1.
Sigillaria-Camp. Lepidodendroides, Grand’ Eury, ibid., p. 262, pl. ix. fig. 10.
Transition Series (Lower Pennant Series).
Locality. Cwmbwrla, Swansea.
Horizon.—Hughes’ Vein.
Localities. —Gelli, Ystrad-Rhondda; Penrhiwfer Colliery, near Pontypridd.
Horizon.—No. 2 Rhondda Seam.
Middle Coal Measures (White Ash Series).
Locality.—Nantyeglo Pit, Nantyglo.
Horizon.—Old Coal.
Locality.—Cwm Avon, near Port Talbot.
Horizon.—(?).
VOL. XXXVII. PART III. (NO. 26) AX
606 MR ROBERT KIDSTON ON
Sigillaria mamillaris, Brongt.
Sigillarta mamillaris, Brongt., Ann. d. Sc. Nat., vol. iv. p. 33, pl. ii. fig. 5, 1822.
Sigillaria mamillaris, Brongt., Prodrome, p. 65.
Sigillaria mamillaris, Brongt., Hist. d. végét. foss., p. 451, pl. exlix. fig. 1 (? pl. elxiii. fig. 1, var).
Sigillaria mamillaris, Boulay, Terr. howil. du Nord de la France, p. 44, pl. iii. fig. 5.
Sigillaria mamillaris, Goldenberg, Flora Sarep. foss., heft ii. p. 32, pl. viii. figs. 6-7 (7 fig. 8).
Sigillaria mamillaris, Lesqx., Coal Flora, p. 483 (? pl. lxxii. figs. 5-6),
Sigillaria mamillaris, Weiss, Foss. Flora d. jung. Stk. u. Rothl., p. 164, pl. xv. figs. 1, 2, 4 (not fig. 3)
Sigillaria mamillaris, Weiss, Aus. d. Steink., p. 5, pl. i. fig. 5 (Ed. 1882).
Sigillaria mamillaris, Sauveur, Végét. foss. d. terr. houil. Belgique, pl. lvi. fig. 1.
Sigillaria mamillaris, Zeiller, Flore foss. d. bassin houil. Valen., p. 577, pl. Ixxxvii. figs. 5-10.
Sigillaria Dournaisii, Brongt., Prodrome, p. 65, 1828.
Sigillaria Dournaisti, Brongt., Hist. d. végét. foss., p. 441, pl. cliii. fig. 5.
Sigillaria Dournaisii, Goldenberg, Flora Sarep. foss., heft ii. p. 28, pl. vii. figs. 22-24.
Sigillaria Dournaisii, Roehl, Foss. Flora d. Steink. Form. Westph., p. 98, pl. vii. fig. 4.
Sigillaria Dournaisti, Weiss, Aus. d. Steink., p. 5, pl. i. fig. 3 (Ed. 1882).
Sigillaria conferta, Boulay, Terr. houil. du Nord de la France, p. 44, pl. iii. fig. 3, 1876.
Transition Series (Lower Pennant Series).
Locality.—Abergorchy, Rhondda Valley.
Horizon.—Abergorchy Seam.
Middle Coal Measures (White Ash Series).
Locality.—Cwm Avon, near Port Talbot.
Horizon.—(?).
Sigillaria scutellata, Bronet.
Sigillaria scutellata, Brongt., Class. d. végét. foss., p. 22, pl. i. fig. 4, 1822.
Sigillaria scutellata, Brongt., Hist. d. végét. foss., p. 455, pl. cl. figs. 2, 3, pl. elxiii. fig. 3.
*Sigillaria scutellata, Kidston, Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin., vol. xxxvii. p. 346.
Transition Series (Lower Pennant Series).
Locality.— Bwllfa Dare Colliery, Aberdare.
Horizon.—Graig Seam (Abergorchy).
Sigillaria polyploca, Boulay.
Sigillaria polyploca, Boulay, Terr. houil. du Nord de la France, p. 47, pl. ii. fig. 8, 1876.
Sigillaria polyploca, Zeiller, Ann. d. sc. Nat. 6° sér. Botan., vol. xix. p. 264, pl. xi. fig. 2.
Sigillaria polyploca, Zeiller, Flore foss. d. bassin houil. d. Valen., p. 450, pl. Ixxxii. figs. 7-8.
Transition Serves (Lower Pennant Series).
Locality.—Bwllfa Dare Colliery, Aberdare.
Horizon.—Graig Seam (Abergorchy).
THE FOSSIL FLORA OF THE SOUTH WALES COAL FIELD. 607
Sigillaria leevigata, Brongt.
Sigillaria levigata, Brongt., Prodrome, p. 64, 1828.
Sigillaria levigata, Brongt., Hist. d. végét. foss., p. 471, pl. exliii.
Sigillaria levigata, Goldenberg, Flora Sarep. foss., heft ii. p. 51, pl. viii. fig. 32.
Sigillaria levigata, Kidston, Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin., vol. xxxiii. p. 398, pl. xxviii. fig. 5.
Sigillaria levigata, Zeiller, Flore foss. d. bassin howil. d. Valen., p. 519, pl. lxxviii. figs. 1-4.
Sigillaria levigata, Achepohl, Niederrh. Westfal. Steink., p. 91, pl. xxx. fig. 5.
Sigilaria levis, Sauveur, Végét. foss. d.terr. howil. Belgique, pl. 1. fig. 2.
Sigillaria distans, Sauveur, ibid., pl. lv. fig. 1.
Sigillaria cycloidea, Boulay, Terr. howil. du Nord de la France, p. 41, pl. iv. fig. 5.
Middle Coal Measures (White Ash Series).
Locality.—Beaufort.
Horizon.—(?).
Sigillaria Schlotheimiana, Brongt.
Sigillaria Schlotheimiana, Brongt., Hist. d. végét. foss., p. 469, pl. clii. fig. 4.
Sigillaria Schlotheimiana, Goldenberg, Flora Sarep. foss., heft ii. p. 45, woodcut, p. 46, and pl. ix. fig. 1.
Note.—Only a single specimen of this species has been found.
Transition Series (Lower Pennant Series).
Locality.—Cwmbwrla, near Swansea.
Horizon.—Hughes’ Vein.
Sigillaria elongata, Brongt.
Sigillaria elongata, Brongt., Ann. d. Science. Nat., vol. iv. p. 33, pl. ii. figs. 3-4, 1824.
Sigillaria elongata, Brongt., Prodrome, p. 64, 1828.
Sigilluria elongata, Brongt., Hist. d. végét. foss., p. 473, pl. exlv., pl. exlvi. fig. 2.
Sigillaria elongata, Sauveur, Végét. foss. terr. houil. de la Belgique, pl. lvi. figs. 2-3.
Sigillaria clongata, Goldenberg, Flora Sareep. foss., heft ii. p. 46, pl. viii. fig. 23-25.
Sigillaria elongata, Roehl, Foss. Flora d. Steink. Form. Westph., p. 108, pl. xxx. fig. 1 (figure not good).
Sigillaria elongata, Schimper, Traité d. paléont. végét., vol. ii. p. 91, pl. Ixviii. fig. 8.
Sigillaria elongata, Schimper (in Zittel), Handb. d. Palcont., vol. ii. p. 200, fig. 147.
Sigillaria elongata, Weiss, Aus. d. Steink., p. 6, pl. ii. figs. 13-14 (2nd Ed., 1882).
Sigillaria elongata, Zeiller, Ann. d. Scienc. Nat. 6° sér. Bot., vol. xix. p. 269, pl. xii. fig. 7.
Sigillaria elongata, Zeiller, Flore foss. d. bassin. howl. d. Valen., p. 545, pl. Ixxxi. figs. 1-9.
Sigillaria Cortez, Brongt., Hist. d. végét. foss., vol. i. p. 467, pl. cxlvii. figs. 3-4, 1836.
Sigillaria Corte’, Geinitz. (in part), Vers. d. Steink. in Sachsen, p. 45, pl. vi. figs. 1-2 (not fig. 3,
nor pl. ix. fig. 7).
Sigillaria Cortei, Goldenberg, Flora Sarep. foss., heft i. p. 47, pl. viii. fig. 12.
Sigillaria Cortei, Roehl, Foss. Flora d. Steink. Form. Westph., p. 109, pl. xxx. fig. 2.
Sigillaria Cortei, Zeiller, Végét. foss. d. terr. howil., p. 128, pl. clxxiv. fig. 4.
Sigillaria Cortei, Renault, Cours d. botan. foss., vol. i. p. 133 (2 pl. xvii. fig. 6).
608 MR ROBERT KIDSTON ON
Sigillaria Cortet, Grand’ Eury, Bassin houil. du Gard., p. 254 (1? pl. x. fig. 6).
Sigillaria intermedia, Brongt., Hist. d. végét. foss., p. 474, pl. elxv. fig. 1, 1836.
Sigillaria intermedia, Goldenberg, Flora Sarep. foss., heft ii. p. 45, pl. viii. fig. 18.
Sigillaria intermedia, Helmhacker, Berg. u. Hiittenménn. Jahrbd., vol. xxii. p. 43, figs. 9-10 (? fig, 8,
p- 44, figs. 11-13), 1874.
Sigillaria intermedia, Geinitz, Vers. d. Steinkf. in Sachsen, p. 46, pl. vii. figs. 1-2.
Sigillaria Greseri, Brongt., Hist. d. végét. foss., p. 454, pl. elxiv. fig. 1, 1836.
Sigillaria Gresert, Goldenberg, Flora Sarep. foss., heft ii. p. 33, pl. viii. fig. 14.
Sigillaria Greseri, Weiss, Aus. d. Steink., p. 6, pl. iii. fig. 18 (2nd Ed., 1882).
Sigillaria gracilis, Brongt., Hist. d. végét. foss., p. 462, pl. elxiv. fig. 2, 1836.
Sigillaria gracilis, Goldenberg, Flora Sarep. foss., heft ii. p. 40, pl. viii. fig. 15.
Sigillaria gracilis, Helmhacker, Berg. u. Hiittenmdnn. Jahrb., vol. xxii. p. 42, pl. iii. figs. 1-2, 1874.
Sigillaria minuta, Sauveur, Végét. foss. terr. houil. de la Belgique, pl. lv. fig. 2, 1848.
Sigillaria Davreuxi, Sauveur (not Brongt.), Végét. foss. terr. houil. de la Belgique, pl. lvi. fig. 4, 1848.
Remarks.—Zeiller has shown* that Srgillaria Cortes, Brongt., was founded on a
badly preserved specimen of Sigillaria elongata, and that Sigillaria Greseri, Brongt., —
and Sigillaria gracilis, Brongt., are only younger states of the same species. He has also —
examined the type of Sigillaria intermedia, Brongt., which likewise proves to be only a_
badly preserved example of Sigillaria elongata. }
The Sigillaria minuta, Sauveur, is similar to the Sigillaria Greseri, Brongt., and the
Sigillaria Davreuxi, Sauveur (not Brongt.), is the Srgidllaria elongata, var. minor,
Brongt., which in turn is only a different stage of development of the typical form of the
species.
Sigilaria elongata, Brongt., is one of a group including Sig. rugosa, Brongt.,t Sig.
Deutschiana, Brongt.,t and Sig. Polleriana, Brongt.,§ of which the various species are
closely allied. All these occur in Britain except Sig. Pollervana, which however seems
to be very closely related to Sig. Deutschiana, but whether it is specifically distinct or
not would be very difficult to determine without comparing the type or examining
specimens from the original localities.|| ;
Transition Series (Lower Pennant Series).
Locality.—Abergorchy, Rhondda Valley.
Horizon.—Abergorchy Seam.
Middle Coal Measures (White Ash Series).
Locality.—Cwmdare Colliery, Aberdare.
Horizon.—2 Foot 9 Inch Coal.
* Flore foss. d. bassin houil, d. Valen., pp. 548-549.
+ Hist. d. vegét. foss., p. 476, pl. exliv. fig. 2.
{ Ibid., p. 474, pl. clxiv. fig. 5. § Ibid., p. 472, pl. elxv. fig. 2.
| While studying this group, I have to express my deepest obligation to Mons. Zeiller for sending me for
examination specimens from the French Coal Field, including some he has figured in his Flore foss. d. bassin howl.
Valenciennes.
THE FOSSIL FLORA OF THE SOUTH WALES COAL FIELD. 609
Sigillarie, sp.
Upper Coal Measures (Upper Pennant Series).
Locality.—Coalbrook Colliery, Lougher.
Horizon.—Highest Seam in the Series.
Transition Series (Lower Pennant Series).
Locality.—Abergorchy, Rhondda Valley.
Horizon.—Abergorcby Seam.
Sigillaria tessellata, Bronet.
Sigillaria tessellata, Brongt., Hist. d. végét. foss., p. 436, pl. clvi. fig. 1, pl. clxii. figs. 1-4.
*Sigillaria tessellata, Kidston, Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin., vol. xxxvii. p. 348.
Upper Coal Measures (Upper Pennant Series).
Locality.—Coalbrook Colliery, Lougher.
Horizon.—Highest Seam in the Series.
Transition Serres (Lower Pennant Series).
Locality.—Cwmbwrla, Swansea.
Horizon.—Hughes’ Vein.
Locality.—Bwllfa Dare Colliery, Aberdare.
Horizon.—Graig Seam (Abergorchy).
Middle Coal Measures (White Ash Series).
Locality.—Bwllfa Dare Colliery, Aberdare.
Horizons.—No. 1 Yard Seam and 4 Foot Seam.
Locality.—Merthyr Tydvil.
Horizon.—(?).
Sigillaria discophora, Konig., sp.
*Sigillaria discophora, Kidston, Trans. Roy. Soc. Hdin., vol. xxxvii. p. 345.
Lepidodendron discophorum, Konig., Icones foss. sectiles, pl. xvi. fig. 194.
Ulodendron majus, L. and H., Fossil Flora, vol. i., pl. v.
Ulodendron minus, L. and H., zbid., vol. i., pl. vi.
Middle Coal Measures (White Ash Series).
Locality.—Beaufort.
Horizon.—(?).
610 MR ROBERT KIDSTON ON
Decorticated Conditions of Sigillaria.
Sigillaria alternans, Sternb., sp.
Sigillaria alternans, L. and H., Fossil Flora, vol. i. pl. lvi.
Syringodendron alternans, Sternb., Ess. flore monde prim., vol. i. fase. 4, pp. 50 and xxiv., pl. lvii
fig. 2, 1826.
Transition Series (Lower Pennant Series).
Locality. —Bwllfa Dare Colliery, Aberdare.
Horizon.—Graig Seam (Abergorchy).
Sigillaria catenulata, L. and H.
Sigillaria catenulata, L. and H., Fossil Flora, vol. i., pl. lviii., 1832.
Transition Series (Lower Pennant Series).
Locality.—Bwllfa Dare Colliery, Aberdare.
Horizon.—Graig Seam (Abergorchy).
Stigmaria, Bronet.
Stigmaria ficoides, Sternb., sp.
Stigmaria ficoides, Brongt., Class. d. végét. foss., pp. 9 and 28, pl. i. fig. 7, 1828.
Variolaria ficoides, Sternb., Ess. flore monde prim., fasc. i. pp. 23, 26, pl. xii. figs. 1-3, 1820.
Upper Coal Measures (Upper Pennant Series).
Localities. —Cockett, near Swansea, and Count Herbert Colliery, Neath Abbey, &c.
Horizons.—Generally distributed throughout the series.
Transition Series (Lower Pennant Series).
Localities. —Bwllfa Dare Colliery ; Nantmelyn Col., Aberdare, &c.
Horizons.—Generally distributed throughout the series.
Middle Coal Measures (White Ash Series).
Localities.—Cwm Avon, near Port Talbot ; Bwllfa Dare Colliery, Aberdare; &c.
Horizons.—Generally distributed throughout the series.
Var. minor, Geinitz.
Stigmaria ficoides, vax. minor, Geinitz, Vers. d. Steinkf. in Sachsen, p. 49, pl. iv. fig. 6, pl. x. fig. 1.
Middle Coal Measures (White Ash Series).
Locality.—Bwllfa Dare Colliery, Aberdare.
Horizon.—9 Foot Seam.
THE FOSSIL FLORA OF THE SOUTH WALES COAL FIELD. 611
Stigmaria rimosa, Goldenberg.
Stigmaria rimosa, Goldenberg, Flora Sarcep. foss., heft iii. p. 15, pl. xii. figs. 3-6 (named on plate
Stigmaria abbreviata).
Transition Series (Lower Pennant Series).
Locality.—Penrhiwfer Colliery, Pontypridd.
Horizon.—No. 2 Rhondda Seam.
Stigmaria Evani, Lesqx.
Stigmaria Evanii, Lesqx., Geol. Survey of Illin., vol. ii. p. 448, pl. xxxix. fig. 9, 1866.
Stigmaria Evanii, Lesqx., Atlas to the Coal Flora, p. 16, pl. Ixxv. fig. 1.
Stigmaria Evant, Zeiller, Hore foss. d. bassin. houil. d. Valen., p. 618, pl. xci. fig. 7.
Stigmarioides Evanii, Lesqx., Coal Flora, p. 333.
Stigmaria Evani, Grand’ Eury, Bassin. houil. du Gard., pl. xiii. fig. 13, 1890.
Stigmariopsis Evant, Grand’ Eury, Bassin. houil. du Gard, p. 243.
Transition Series (Lower Pennant Series).
Locality.—Bwllfa Dare Colliery, Aberdare.
Horizon.—Graig Seam (Abergorchy).
Cordaitee.
Cordaites, Unger.
Cordaites principalis, Germar, sp.
*Cordaites principalis, Kidston, Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin., vol. xxxvii. p. 352.
Flabellaria principalis, Germar, Vers. v. Wettin. u. Lébejun, p. 35, pl. xxiii.
Middle Coal Measures (White Ash Series).
Locality.—Cwm Avon, near Port Talbot.
Horvzon.—(?).
Cordaites angulosostriatus, Grand’ Eury.
Cordaites angulosostriatus, Grand’ Eury, Flore carbon. du. Dép. de la Loire, p. 217, pl. xix.
Cordaites angulosostriatus, Renault, Cours d. botan. foss., vol. i. p. 90, pl. xii. fig. 3, 1881.
Cordaites angulosostriatus, Zeiller, Végét. foss. du. terr. houil., p. 144, pl. elxxv. figs. 2-3.
Transition Series (Lower Pennant Series).
Locality.—Penrhiwfer Colliery, near Pontypridd.
Horizon.—No. 2 Rhondda Seam.
Locality.—Rhymney.
Horizon.—Brithdir Vein (No. 2 Rhondda).
612 MR ROBERT KIDSTON ON
Antholithus, Brongt.
Antholithus, sp.
Transition Series (Lower Pennant Series).
Locality.—Penrhiwfer Colliery, near Pontypridd.
Horizon.—No. 2 Rhondda Seam.
Trigonocarpus, Brongt.
Trigonocarpus Noeggerathi, Sternb., sp.
Trigonocarpus Noeggerathi, Brongt., Prodrome, p. 137, 1828.
Trigonocarpus Noeggerathi, Bronn, Lethea Geog., vol. i. part ii. p. 147, pl. vi. fig. 16 xl ref,
L. and H.).
Trigonocarpus Noeggerathi, Fiedler. (in part), Die foss. Friichte, p. 277, pl. xxi. figs. al A 8 (not
figs. 2-7), pl. xxii., pl. xxiii. fig. 10 (not fig. 11) (mot pl. xxvii. figs. 30-31).
Trigonocarpus Noeggerathi, Berger, De fruct. et. semin., p. 18, pl. i. figs. 1-2 (Exel. ref. L. and H.).
Trigonocarpus Noeggerathi, Weiss, Aus. d. Steink., p. 19, pl. xx. figs. 117, 117a, 1176 (Ed. 1882). .
Trigonocarpus Noeggerathi, Zeiller, Flore foss. d. bassin. houil. Valen., p. 649, pl. xciv. oe 8-11
(Excl. ref. L. and H.).
Trigonocarpus Noeggerathi, Kidston, Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin., vol. xxxiii. p. 403, pl. xxiii. fig. 3.
Trigonocarpus Noeggerathi, Kidston, Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin., vol. xxxv. p. 414, pl. ii. fig. 4.
Trigonocarpus Noeggerathi, Renault (in part), Flore foss. terr houil. d. Comentry, part ii., 1889, p. 645,
pl. Ixxii. figs. 46, 47, 49, 50, 51, 52 (mot fig. 48).
Palmacites Noeggerathi, Sternb., Ess. flore monde prim. vol. i. fase. 4, p. xxxv. p. 49, pl. ly
figs. 6-7, 1826. ;
Palmacites dubius, Sternb., Ess. jflore monde eee, vol. i. fasc. 4, p. xxxv., p. 50, pl. viii
figs. 3a, b, c, d, 1826.
Trigonocarpum dubium, Brongt., Prodrome, p. 137, 1828.
Transition Series (Lower Pennant Series).
Locality.—Cwmbwrla, Swansea.
Horizon.—Hughes’ Vein.
Locality.—Pwllypant, near Caerphilly.
Horizon.—Below Mynyddislwyn Seam.
Cardiocarpus, Bronet.
Cardiocarpus, sp.
Transition Series (Lower Pennant Series).
Locality.—Penrhiwfer Colliery, near Pontypridd.
Horizon.—No. 2 Rhondda Seam.
THE FOSSIL FLORA OF THE SOUTH WALES COAL FIELD. 6138
Rootlets.
Pinnularia, L. and H.
Pinnularia capillacea, L. and H.
Pinnularia capillacea, L. and H., Fossil Flora, vol. ii. pl. exi.
Middle Coal Measures (White Ash Series).
Locality.—Bwllfa Dare Colliery, Aberdare.
Horizon.—2 Foot 9 Inch Coal.
Locality.—Beaufort, Monmouth.
Horizon.—(?).
Sigillaria contracta, Brongt.
Sigillaria contracta, Brongt., Hist. d. végét. foss., p. 459, pl. exlvii. fig. 2.
The omission of this species from its proper place was only observed after the
paper was in type, hence the necessity of placing it here.
I have not met with any specimens of this plant, but the type, according to
BRONGNIART, is in the Collection of the Geological Society of London.
Middle Coal Measures (White Ash Series).
Locality.—Merthyr-Tydvil.
» Horizon.—(?).
INDEX.
PAGE PAGE
Alethopteris. Calamutes (Calamitina).
Davreuxi, : : 5 . 595 approximata, . 5 : 5 HY)
decurrens, j : : . 595 Gopperti, 3 : : . 579
lonchitica, : 3 : . 994 undulata, 5 ‘ : . 580
Serlii, . F ; : . 596 VAarLans, ‘ : : . wf)
Annularia. Calamites (Eucalamites).
sphenophylloides, 583 TAMOSUS, : 580
stellata, . 584 |- Calamites (Stylocalamites).
Antholithus. Cistii, : 581
Sp. : 612 Suckowitt, 580
Bothrodendron. Calamocladus.
punctatum, 605 chareeformis, 581
VOL. XXXVII. PART III. (NO. 26).
614 THE FOSSIL FLORA OF THE SOUTH WALES
COAL FIELD.
PAGE
Calamocladus. Odontopteris.
equisetiformis, 582 Lindleyana,
longifolius, 582 | Pecopteris.
Cardiocarpus. Miltoni,
Sp-, 612 | Pinnularia.
Cordaites. capillacea,
angulosostriatus, ° 611 | Renaultia.
principalis, 611 cherophylloides,
Corynepteris, Sigillaria.
coralloides, 587 alternans,
Evemopteris. camptotenia,
artemisiefolia, 587 - catenulata,
Lepidodendron. contracta,
aculeatum, 602 discophora,
dichotomum, 598 elongata,
Haidingeri, 603 levigata,
longifolium, 599 mamillaris,
obovatum, 602 polyploca,
ophiurus, 602 Schlotheimit,
Worthent, 603 scutellata,
Lepidophioios. tessellata,
acerosus, 604 Sp., :
laricinus, 604 | Sphenophyllum.
Lepidophyllum. cunetfolium,
triangulare, 603 emarginatum,
Lepidostrobus. myrtophyllum,
lanceolatus, 603 | Sphenopteris.
SP. ; 603 Conway,
Lonchopteris. dilatata,
TUYOSA, . 596 neuropterotdes,
Mariopteris. obtusiloba,
muricata, 592 trifoliolata,
Neuropteris. Stigmaria.
flexuosa, 590 Evani,
gigantea, 589 ficotdes, :
heterophylla, 588 Jicoides, var. minor,
macrophylla, 590 rimosa, .
osmunde, 591 | Trigonocarpus.
rarinervis, 588 Noeggerathi,
Scheuchzert, 591
tenuifolia, 589
EXPLANATION OF PLATE.
Lepidodendron longifolium.
Figs. 1-2. Branches showing foliage.
Fig. 3. Cones.—AlIl natural size.
Fig. la. Portion of leaf enlarged to show central vein.
Locality.—Ebbw Vale. Horizon.—Middle Coal Measures. .
The figured specimens are in the Collection of the Geological Survey of Great Britain,—Mus
Jermyn Street, London. aS
M*Parlane é& Erskine, Litht® Edin?
R. Widston, del.
LEPIDODENDRON LONGIFOLIUM. Bronégniart.
( 615 )
XXVIL—On Bistratification in the Growth of Languages, with Special Reference
to Greek. By Emeritus Professor BLackIE.
(Read 4th December 1893.)
I. In all languages where there exists a certain amount of intellectual culture,
manifesting itself in the oral or written form of what is called Literature, there must
always coexist with it an inferior stratum or platform of speech ; the platform of common
colloquial intercourse of the mass of the people, and specially of the peasantry and
lower classes. The necessity of this bistratification arises from the diverse class of ideas,
and the diverse style of intercourse, pervading the two platforms. Language is a growth
that flows from the intercommunion of associated persons working out, within a certain
bounded circle, the vocal expression which their ideas, their energies, and their circum-
stances demand for the purpose of common action.
II. Though these two platforms are naturally as distinct and separate as two geological
formations, they are, by the very conditions of social life, forced into an interplay of vocal
action, which necessarily produces an approximation of the one to the other, gradu-
ally passing into an assimilation, and, to a certain extent, a fusion and identification.
In this process of interchange, assimilation, and identification, in the normal state of a
healthy society, it is always the higher platform that modifies and absorbs the lower ; for
it hes in the very nature of things, in the moral as in the physical world, that the lower
should look up to the higher, both as a pattern and a stimulus; and in this way, with the
progress of education and the expansion of culture, the gap between the cultured and
the uncultured classes will become less and less; and the superiority will, of course,
remain with the upper. Absolute extinction, however, of the lower platform, as
human society is constituted, is not possible, nor indeed desirable. The lower orders of
the people, independent altogether of literary culture, have their own range of feeling
and observation, which not seldom keeps them closer to Nature than the cultivated
classes, with all their brilliant cleverness and rich variety of many-sided culture, can
Manage to maintain.
III. The normal action of the higher on the lower stratum of national speech of course
depends on the continued existence of an independent government, and the influence of ©
governmental, ecclesiastical, and legal personalities on the inferior classes of the com-
munity. But when government decays or becomes paralysed, and the inferior platform
1s left to act on its own untutored instincts, a complete reversal of the linguistic situation
takes place. The artificial garden of the literary classes becomes a waste, and, like all
wastes, is fruitful not only in noxious weeds, but in beautiful bloom and fragrant fruits in
VOL. XXXVII. PART Im. (No. 27). AZ
616 PROFESSOR BLACKIE ON
rich variety, ready to be formed into a new ordered garden of vocal expression, as soon as
the God-sent gardener shall appear. This was the case of Latin from the fall of the West
Roman Empire under Romulus Augustulus in 475, to the apparition of Dante at the start
of the 14th century, who, by the magic of genius, elevated the lower platform of the
Roman speech into the dignity of a classical dialect. Italian thus took the place of Latin,
commonly talked of as a new language, but more accurately a native graceful modification
of the old.
IV. Here the victory of the transforming force was decidedly on the side of the lower
platform, and quite naturally, of course, as within the native bounds of the speech of
Romulus and Julius Ceesar ; but outside these bounds, the action was different ; and where,
as in Gaul, the native Celtic element was weak, and the foreign element, the Latin, strong
in the triple range of political, military, and ecclesiastical superiority, there an entirely new
language was formed, not indeed altogether of pure Latin elements, but of a preponderance
of Latin, which partly from the Celtic blood, it may be, partly from the distance of Gaul
from the centre of formative linguistic force, south of the Appenines, became so daintily
corrupted, and neatly transformed, as to present the type of a language which, whatever
might be its virtues, certainly was altogether shaken loose both from the manly majesty
of the parent Latin and the musical sweetness of the sistered Italian.
V. But the fates of Latin, as modifying or re-creating our modern European languages,
were not to end here. With the Normans, about 600 years after the departure of the
Romans from Britain, in its French dress it invaded England and conquered both
England and Scotland, and stamped a Roman type on our Teutonic speech in a very
notable fashion. The product, however, was of a very different character; for the
Saxons and Danes, who had formed the stamina of the British nation for 500 years
before the Normans appeared, had a culture of their own, far superior to anything that
Gaul with its Druids could boast : with this the Norman was obliged to make a compro-
mise, and a mixed language, half and half alike, so to speak, was the result. But, though
the compromise looked fair enough when counted on the fingers, the result could not but
bear the striking features of a foreign conquest. Court and culture and fashion all acted
with their usual potency over the unlabelled rustic speech of the subordinate multitude ;
and the English language came into view not as a pure Teutonic language, like Dutch or
Danish, or Swedish or German, but a mixed language of scraps and patches, like a motley
carpet pieced together, of two patterns, by two adverse fingers that had no common
counsel to control them ; or, with a different figure, we may say, like a sign-post on one
road with two faces, one face looking backward to rude Saxon ancestors, and the other
forward to the gentlemanly French of the Norman conquerors in the 11th century, and
the scholarly Latin of Oxford, Paris, and St Andrews in the 16th.
VI. On these precedents and analogies we are now prepared to deal discriminately
BISTRATIFICATION IN THE GROWTH OF LANGUAGES. 617
with modern Greek ; and here the type to which the colloquial language of Greece belongs
is plainly the Italian, neither the Latinised French, nor the Frenchified Saxon, called
English ; for whatever changes took place on the spoken language of Greece during the
2000 years that have elapsed from the conquest of Corinth by Mummius to the present
hour, have been of native growth, and the borrowed element is so small as scarcely to be
taken into account. If Italian is in the main a mere modification of pure Latin, much
more Romaic Greek of classical Greek. And the reason of this more distinct assertion of
the natural rights of the upper platform lies on the surface. The regulative power of
the state and public officials ceased, as we have seen, with Latin in the 5th century ;
after that there was no Roman Empire in Rome, giving an imperial stamp to the currency
| of the language of the Cesars: but the Byzantine Empire, which, though Roman by
descent of blood, was purely Greek in substance and operation, continued, with the short
interruption of the Venetian government in the beginning of the 13th century, for a
thousand years, when Constantinople was taken by the Turks. From that date to the
restoration of the Greek kingdom in 1821, there was only a period of 400 years during
which a Hellenic Dante might have arisen to create a new language out of the unregulated
elements of the unwritten currency of the popular speech. But this could not be; partly
because the time of this loose drifting from the directing power of an upper platform was
too short, but much more because the antagonism and sacred horror with which all good
Greeks regarded their Mohammedan conquerors was so great, that anything like a corrupt-
| ing influence from that quarter was impossible.
VII. The bistratification that belongs to the history of all language thus took in
modern Greek the peculiar form of a double tendency to unification; the tendency of
| the upper platform asserting its natural claim, both literary and ecclesiastical, on the
one hand, and the tendency of the lower from historical and ecclesiastical associations
not to oppose, but to respond to the call of its intellectual superior. The linguistic
position of the lower platform thus presented a perfect analogy to the relation of Scotch
to English in the days of Lady Nairne and the predecessors of Sir Walter Scott, only
the literary and social influences that tended to merge the lower platform in the upper
were much stronger in Greece than in Scotland. Nevertheless, the colloquial dominance
. of the lower platform was so strong that the friends of popular intelligence, under the
leadership of the celebrated Adamantius Coraes, consented to an adoption, for literary
| purposes, of some of its peculiarities in the way of compromise, or, as a distinguished
| Greek writer calls it, cvpBuBacpes; and the few peculiarities which distinguish the Greek
| of the newspapers of the present hour, from the Greek of Demosthenes, or Diodorus, or
| the Church fathers, are the result of this compromise. |
VIII. But the matter could not rest here. To all questions of compromise, however
practically wise, there is sure to be a strong objection from the zealous advocates of the
contrasted elements. Aristotle has set forth the péoov, the golden mean, as the test of
618 PROFESSOR BLACKTE ON
truth in all practical matters ; but men still, and not seldom the best men, are fond of a
strong one-sided assertion of their own point of view, and proudly reject all claims of
approximation to the ground of a proscribed antagonist. So it has fared with modern
Greek ; one party standing aloof on the respectable ground of high classical tradition,
and the other coming valiantly forward in defence of the living rights of a spoken speech,
when brought into conflict with the armed champions of a bookish tradition. Of this
stout championship on the popular side of this notable linguistic controversy, the most
prominent representative is Mr Roides, a man of great learning, and librarian in the
national library, Athens, whose work on the subject, quite recently published, I have now
the honour to lay before the Society (E. A. Powwov e&dwda, Athens, 1893).
IX. The tone of this remarkable volume is decidedly aggressive, and seems to indicate
that the living Greek language should assert itself, in the face of the classical Greek,
pretty much in the same style that Anglo-Saxon did against the Norman French invasion.
But, as already stated, the parallel drawn betwixt English, a mixed language, and modern
Greek, is false, the true parallel lying rather in the relation of the written English of the
present day, to the local dialects of Lancashire, York, or the Scotch of the Borders. I
am willing to suppose, however, that Mr Roides’ sweepingly aggressive tone is directed
chiefly against the extreme section of the classical side, whom he calls Arrucords, or
Atticists, and that in the main he merely proposes to act on the principle of a kindly
compromise, following out the idea of Coraes. If this via media be practically the result
of his advocacy of the popular dialect, [ think every sensible man will agree with him.
As in a well balanced government the aristocratic and the democratic elements of society
have to acknowledge one another by kindly condescension from above and respectful
recognition from below, so, when the course of the centuries has brought with it an upper
and a lower stratum of national speech, it is for the interest of both parties to proceed on
the kindly principle of give and take in brotherly interchange, not that the giving ought
to be all on one side and the taking on the other. How this system of mutual acknow-
ledgment should work in practice, I will now attempt to sketch in a very few sentences.
X. On the one hand, I have no objection that whatever curtailments or insignificant
losses which may, in the course of the 2000 years’ duration of the written language,
have become universally recognised in the currency of social speech, should be accepted
as henceforward to be acknowledged as part of the literary language, as, e.g., (1) ypapypevos
for yeypappévos, (2) the rejection of the superfluous aor med., (3) the dropping of the
optative mood, (4) the dropping of the double form of the aorist, as in €haBa for €daBov,
(5) the loss of the infinitive mood, and the supplying of its place regularly by va for wa
with the subjunctive, (6) the use of the auxiliaries Oa and éya as in English, (7) exour
for €xovor, (8) 6 omovos for dais, (9) Tod for avrod.
Again, whatever new words or new uses of old words have acquired a wide ascend-
ency, whether to express new ideas, or merely to indulge the luxury of a branching
BISTRATIFICATION IN THE GROWTH OF LANGUAGES. 619
erowth, so long as they conform to the radical formative instincts of the tongue, should
be admitted as legitimate variations, as cadre for rovéw, dvtapova for to come together,
for aampos white, wavpos black, kayapdve to play the mighty swell, tpoodpwos provisory,
qoooBoXerds the tramping of horses’ hoofs, &c.
XI. On the other hand, I would not submit to curtailments from pure laziness, as kpaot
for Kpacior, ra.di for wradiov, and cutting off the final s from the adjective or substantival
terminations, as €ypo for Enpos; whether the terminations of the cases should be dropped
with the marked loss of the dative may be doubtful, but I am inclined to think the
terminations of the cases, being both easy and euphonious, should be preserved.
XII. Of course in a language of pure growth, all borrowed words, unless when ab-
solutely necessary, should be ejected, as Bawdps for steamboat and Bapkérra a boat, and
such like.
XIII. But perhaps the most effective way to put this matter before the eye of the
general scholar, will be to take a specimen of the colloquial Greek in the hands of a man
of taste and intelligence ; and for this purpose I could not select a better example than
Polylas’ version of the Odyssey (Athens, 1875) into the popular Greek.
A > A
Tov avdpa, povtoa, A€ye pov, ToAVTpoTOV, ‘Tod eis WEY
TOAAG eTrAaVvHOn, apod éppise THY tepyv Tpwada-
XS) , to > ‘ lal lal , ‘ \ ,
kal avOpwrov ide abttos TOAAGY Tals xwpais Kal THY yYO_NV
> lal
euabe, kat ’s Ta TéAaya TOAAG ‘Table Entdvras
cI
pe TOvs cvvTpopors aBAarTos va POdoy 's THY TaTpida.
GAN opus dev katwpbwce va choy TOYS TvvTpopovs:
¢ a > 3
Ott €xaOnKav povol TOUS ar T avounpaTd Tovs"
A 7 /
pwpot, “rod 7 “Yrepiova "HAwov ta Bodva pdyar,
tal rol ~ A /
kK’ €kelvos THS eriaTpoPpys Tovs THpE THY HLEpa-
a > SS + ln {4 lal / , cal ,
ToUTa eimé KaTTOVOE kK Euas, Ged, Kopy Tod Ala.
>? >
Tor ot aAXAo, doo dev xXAOnKaY, 's TA OTitTLA Tovs ON Hoar,
L 30 ON A , Ni 3.23) A s x £0:
cwopevol ard Tov TOAEMO Kal am TOD TeAGOV TA BAOn:
, ri) ee) a nA) G rN Noe ,
povov avrov, od Tod "eure 4 TaTpida Kal 1) cvpPia,
Kpatovo’ 7 viudy Kadvyw, cerry Ged, weyadn,
> NS a , Sy, > /, \ ‘\ /
s Ta KoiAa oTyAaa Kal avdpa THs érdHe va TOV KajLy.
> na lol
aAdAa ’s Tov KUKAO TOV KaLpOV 6 xpovos OTay 7G,
> a? A > 6a c 0 A ‘ ‘\ > eas:
ov ’s tHv lOaxy Tov ot Geot va yipy eixay dpicoe,
‘\ rn a
Kal TOTE akOUN eoTevace akpav TOV TOONTaYV ToV-
Kat ON’ ot Oeot AuTwvTav Tov, GXN ox 6 Tloceddvas-
K éuio avtos Oavacima. Tov Getov ’Odvacéa
y > 5
apw d0dcy ’s THv TaTpida Tov. GAN’ ciye TOT’ Exetvos
> , > A cal
mepace. s Tovs Aifiorais, Tod Tepa KaTOLKOVOL,
K eis dvd GXLopEVOL EvpioKoVTAL, VoTEpoL TOV aVvOpdrur,
aA na A 23 \ Ane a? A ih =) y
tod ‘HXuod, rod Byat’, 7 pa pepid, Tov HAxod, “Tov repr, 7 GAAy,
dro kpidpia va dexOn Kat tavpous éxarop3n.
In this passage I would absolutely reject as unsuitable for a pure literary style, (1)
mov for ds, (2) the confusion of the accusative plural with the dative in yépaus, (3) the
VOL. XXXVII. PART III. (NO. 27). 5 A
620 BISTRATIFICATION IN THE GROWTH OF LANGUAGES.
participial nominative in (yt@vras for Cyrav, (4) the cutting out of the augment in zade,
and other aorists, (5) pe for werd, (6) tods for twv, i. v.7, (7) the curtailment of the accusa-
tive in }pépa for Huepav, todewo for wodepov, and others, (8) Ata for the gen. Avds, (9) the |
ejection of the y in weddov, (10) Pavdoua adverb for Pavacudas, (11) pepud for pepis, and
(12) répr for mur7e. The other departures from the literary style of bookish tradition I
would tolerate. At the same time, whatever irregularities may have crept into the popular
ballads and the colloquial style of the common people, not to be accepted as part of a
reasonable compromise, let the lower platform still continue to assert itself in its special
province, like Scotch alongside of English ; and as such there is doubtless a peculiar —
appropriateness in its being used as a medium for making the popular ear familiar with
the great work of the greatest popular bard of the ancient world, a bard whose style is,
in fact, as distinct from the classical Greek in the time of Plato and Demosthenes, as the —
Scotch of Robert Burns is distinct from the English of Milton.
( 621 )
XXVIII.—On the Number of Dust Particles in the Atmosphere of certain Places in
Great Britain and on the Continent, with Remarks on the Relation between
the Amount of Dust and Meteorological Phenomena. By Joun ArrKen, F.R.S.
(With Plates.)
Part III.
(Read 19th February 1894.)
In the two papers previously communicated. to this Society under the above title,
Parts I.* and II.,+ I have given the results of my observations on the dust in the atmo-
sphere for the years 1889 and 1890. In this paper will be given the results of similar
observations I have been able to make during the years 1891, 1892 and 1893. The
observations made during these last three years are similar to those made in the two
previous ones ; and were mostly made at the same places and at about the same dates as
those already given. ‘These five sets of observations are therefore comparable with each
other, and give a fair statement of the number of dust particles in the atmosphere at the
different places at the particular dates.
All the dust observations have been made with the same instruments as were used
in the previous observations. Most of the tests were made with the Pocket Dust
Counter, as it is the most easily worked, but the portable form of the instrument has
also been occasionally used; and at times both instruments were used, to check any
defect there might have been in the working of either. During the making of many
hundreds of observations no disagreement has been found between the figures given by
the two instruments, other than the small percentage-differences due to instrumental
errors of observation and the ever-changing conditions they have to deal with. This,
however, is only what might have been expected, as both instruments indicate when
they are not in working order. If all the movements necessary for a test are correctly
made, with neither of the instruments can an observation be taken unless it is in working
order. The principal enemy to be contended with in correct observing is leakage of air
into the receiver, as all air leakage admits dust which would invalidate the readings.
If, however, all the movements are correctly gone through, the presence of these dust
particles makes it impossible to get the air in the receiver perfectly free from conden-
sation when expanded, the necessary condition for it being in before beginning to make
a test.
As in the previous papers, along with this one are given tables for the different years,
in which are entered the different observations (see Tables I., IL, and III, at the end
of this paper). In these tables, as before, are given the place, date and hour of the
* Proc. Roy. Soc., Hdin., vol. xvii., 1890. + Trans. Roy. Soc., Hdin., vol. xxxvii. part i. (No. 3).
VOL. XXXVII. PART III. (NO. 28). 5B
622 MR JOHN AITKEN ON THE NUMBER OF DUST PARTICLES IN THE
observation, the direction and force of the wind at the time, the temperature and
humidity of the air; and as in the previous tables for the humidity, the depression of
the wet-bulb thermometer is given. In the second last column will be found the
transparency of the air at the time, and in the last column the usual remarks on
different points.
Hyeres.
The first place entered in the tables is Hyéres, in the South of France, near the
shores of the Mediterranean. At this place the observations were generally made on the
top of Fenouillet, a hill about 1000 feet high, situated at about two miles from Hyeres.
All the observations were made in the end of March or the beginning of April of the
different years. The lowest number of dust particles observed at this place during the
time observations were made on the five years, was 725 per c.c. on the 31st March 1890.
The lowest number in 1891 was almost the same, being 785 per c.c. In 1893 it was a
little over 1000, whilst in 1889 and 1892 it was about 1800 per c.c. The maximum
number observed at this station over the different years is of little value, as it was always
due to local pollution, brought by the wind to the hill-top from Hyeres or Toulon.
Though the latter town is 8 miles distant, yet whenever the wind blew from the
direction of that town the number of particles was always very great, going up to 30,000
or 40,000 per c.c.
Mentone.
As there is only one observation entered in Tables 1., II. and III. for Cannes, it need not
be further referred to. Coming next to Mentone, where the observations were made in
April, we find that during the five years the lowest number observed was 650 per ¢.c. in
1892. The lowest number for 1890 and 1893 was under 900, whilst in 1891 it was 1125,
and slightly over that in 1889. The highest numbers here, as at Hyeres, are due to local
pollution. Though they never went so high as at Hyeres, yet a maximum of 26,000 was
observed in 1890, but none of the other years shows nearly so high a maximum. ‘This is
probably owing to the possibility of getting at Mentone different places for observing,
according to the direction of the wind, so that a site could generally be selected free from
local pollution, whilst at Hyeres almost all the tests were made on Fenouillet.
Milan.
A few observations were made on the top of Milan Cathedral. As previous experience
on the Eiffel Tower might have led us to expect, the numbers in a situation of this kind
varied greatly at short intervals. In 1891 the lowest observed was 1660 per c.c., and
it rose in a short time as high as 40,000, the wind being east but not strong. In 1892
the minimum number was slightly lower and the maximum a good deal lower. On this
ATMOSPHERE OF GREAT BRITAIN AND ON THE CONTINENT. 625
occasion the wind was much the same as at the time of the previous visit. In 1893
observations were made on two different days: on both of these the wind was south-west
and the numbers very high, varying from 100,000 to 150,000 per «.c.
Bellaguo.
The observations at Bellagio were made in ‘the end of April or beginning of May in
the different years. The minimum number observed was 600 in 1890, rising in 1892
to 1125, in 1891 to 1325, in 1889 to 2900, and as high as 3300 in 1893. The maximum
at Bellagio, as at the other places, is of little value, as the situation is liable to local
pollution.
Baveno.
The Baveno observations were made in the beginning of May of the different years.
The lowest number observed at this station was 775 per cc. im 1891. In 1892 the
lowest was 1075, in 1893 it was 1225, rising to 1750 in 1890, and to 2900 in 1889.
Here, as at the other places, the maximum is greatly due to local pollution and sometimes
went high.
At this place, in addition to the observations made at low level, an excursion was
made on many afternoons up the slopes of Monte Motterone to an elevation generally of
1500 to 2000 feet, observations being made at one or two points on the way up. During
the time these observations at different levels were made in 1891 there was generally
very little wind, and the difference in the readings at high and low level was very
marked. Owing to calms, the local impurities collected at low level, there being no wind
to carry them away, the upper air being thus kept comparatively pure. For instance, on
the 11th May, for an ascent of 800 feet, the number of particles fell to one half of what
it was at low level, the figures being 6400 per c.c. at the lake side and 2900 at 800 feet.
On the 12th the number fell from 3700 at the low level to 2900 at 1000 feet. On the
13th it was 6700 at the lake side and 3800 at 1000 feet, and down to 1900 at 1800 feet.
On the 15th it was 4200 at low level, and the observations at different heights show a
eradual fall to 1350 at 1800 feet. The lowest number observed on Lake Maggiore in
1891 was 300 per c.c. This low number was observed on board the steam-boat on the
way up the lake, immediately after a thunderstorm, and it is much lower than any of
the observations made at Baveno.
The 1892 observations at different levels do not show the air at high level to be very
much purer than at the lake side. On the 9th, for instance, the number at low level was
high, being 7000, and it fell to 2500 at 1200 feet, but this was caused by change of wind ;
and this number was just about the same as was observed on returning to the lake side,
where also the wind had changed to a purer direction. The observations on the 10th
show a somewhat similar result. The number was high at low level on starting, being as
high as 6900, but it only fell to 5200 when it was first tested at 1200 feet; but half an
624 MR JOHN AITKEN ON THE NUMBER OF DUST PARTICLES IN THE
hour later it had fallen to 3900. On return to low level it was found to be still lower,
being 2250. This gradual clearing at high and low level was due to the wind rising and
beginning to blow from a purer direction. In these cases the wind was blowing in such
a direction that the valley air was forced up the mountain slopes and was therefore but
little purified, being only slightly mixed with the higher and purer air. On the 11th the
conditions were different. At low level the number was 3550, and it remained at that
figure up to an elevation of 1200 feet. At this situation the air was coming directly up
from the valley. On ascending the mountain 200 feet higher a current blowing from the
mountains was met. In this mountain air the number suddenly fell from 3500 at 1200
feet to 875 at 1400 feet, and to 840 at 1800 feet. The conditions on the 12th, 13th and
14th were similar to those of the 9th and 10th. Though observations were made up to
an elevation of 1800 feet, no great improvement was observed in the purity of the air,
the numbers being much the same as observed at low level on return. As in the previous
cases, this was due to the direction of the wind being such as to drive the valley air up the
mountain slopes. On the 14th the number at low level was 4700, and fell only to 3750
at 1200 feet, to 3400 at 1500 feet, and to 3150 at 2000 feet, the air at all the different
levels on this day also coming directly up from the valley.
On going up the lake in the steam-boat on my way northwards on the 16th, as on
the previous year a thunderstorm was in progress in the distance and some rain fell.
The numbers were 3400 before and 1950 after the storm.
Coming to the observations at different levels made in 1893, it will be seen that on
the 29th April the number at low level was 3500, and fell to 1850 at 1500 feet. On the
lst May, owing to the wind bringing the valley air up the mountain, the number fell
very little, only from 2800 at the lake side to 2300 at 1500 feet. On the 2nd the air
was still coming up off the lake side, and the numbers fell from 6400 to 4500 at 1500
feet. On the 4th the number was 5100 at low level on starting, and it fell to 1900 at
1500 feet and to 1525 at 2000 feet; and on return to the lake side it was 3350, which
was lower than when tested before starting, due to a rise in the wind. On this occasion
the fall in numbers was very well marked. On the Sth there was no great difference in
the numbers at high and low level; but on this occasion, when the air was tested on
return to low level, it had become greatly purified by a strong wind which had suddenly
sprung up. On the 6th at low level the number was 4800, and fell to 1650 at 2000, but
the number was variable, owing to wind frequently changing its direction. On returning
to low level on this occasion the number was lower than at 2000 feet, owing to a strong
wind having sprung up, which reduced the number to one-fourth of what it was when
tested before going up.
If we put the observations at different levels into tabular form, we shall see more
clearly the purer condition of the atmosphere at the higher levels. For reasons easily
understood the observations have been arranged in two sets (see Tables IV. and V.). In
Table LV. are entered the observations taken when the wind was blowing the lower impure
air up the mountain slopes, and in Table V. those taken when the wind was along the
ATMOSPHERE OF GREAT BRITAIN AND ON THE CONTINENT. 625
slopes or from the mountains. Observations made on two days have been omitted, owing
to no observations having been made at low level before going up the mountain. In
these two tables are entered the year and the day of the month when the observation
was taken; and then in four columns are entered the number of particles at four
different levels—at low level, at 1000 feet, at 1500 feet, and at 2000 feet. When an
observation was not made at exactly any one of these elevations, it is entered under
the nearest figure in the table. The average number of particles at the different eleva-
tions is entered at the foot of the different tables.
In Table IV. the mean number of particles at low level is 4857 per c.c., and falls to
4750 at 1000 feet, to 3430 at 1500 feet, and to 3125 at 2000 feet. In Table V.
the number at low level is almost the same as in Table IV., being 4743, but at 1000 feet
it falls to 3270. At 1500 feet it is only 2195, and falls as low as 1453 at 2000 feet.
The general conclusion pointed to by these two tables is that when the wind blew up the
mountain slopes the air at considerable elevations is not much purer than it is in the
TaBLE 1V.—Showing the Number of Dust Particles in the Atmosphere at Different Elevations
on Monte Mottorone, when the Wind was blowing up the Slopes.
Date. At Low Level.| At 1000 feet. | At 1500 feet. | At 2000 feet.
14th May 1891 . 4 ‘ f 6600 4000 ao
Wh ;, 1892 ; : : : 2500 $n 2150
Oth ,, % : : : : 6900 4550 ae sid
13th ,, 3 : 3 : : 4100 6700 4800 3100
14th ,, ‘5 ; : ! f 4700 3750 3400 3150
stm, 1093 ; : Z : 2800 bate 2300 ae
2nd _,, 4 : 3 : : 6400 Mer 4500
Mean ; ; 4857 4750 3430 3125
TaBLE V.—Showing the Number of Dust Particles in the Atmosphere at Different Elevations
on Monte Mottorone, when the Wind did not blow up the Slopes.
Date. At Low Level.| At 1000 feet. | At 1500 feet. | At 2000 feet.
11th May 1891 : ; ; ; 6400 2950
ith ,, = ; : : : - 3700 290C Age re
3th ,, 2 : : ; : 6700 3800 ait 1900
Lbth ,, 2 : ; ’ ; 4200 3200 2400 1350
ith ,, 1892 : : : : 3550 3500 875 840
29th April 1893 ; f ; . 3500 oe 1850 ne
4th May _,, ‘ ° : 2 5100 ae 2250 1525
6th ,, " ; é ; ‘ 4800 4c 3600 1650
Mean : : 4743 3270 2195 1453
626 MR JOHN AITKEN ON THE NUMBER OF DUST PARTICLES IN THE
valley, as it will be seen that the number of particles only fell at 2000 feet to 64 per
cent. of what it was at low level, and that when the air did not come up the slopes the
upper air was much purer, the number of particles at 2000 feet falling to 30 per cent. |
of what it was at low level. The tables are not complete enough for working out satis-
factory averages, and the figures are only given as rough approximations.
These observations show a decided tendency for the number of dust particles to
decrease as we ascend into the higher atmosphere. They at the same time show that
the decrease takes place very irregularly under different conditions. ‘The air in all these
tests increased but little in purity when the lower air was, owing to the direction of
the wind, forced up the mountain slopes. In these cases the impure air, which was near
the ground at low level, got more or less mixed with the purer air over it as it rose up the
mountain slopes, and in this manner the amount of dust was only reduced at 2000 feet
to 0°64 of the original amount. If, however, the air tested at the higher elevations did
not come from low level, but was true upper air, the number at 2000 feet was only 0°3
of what it was at low level. It is necessary that we keep in mind that this decrease in
dust with elevation refers to an area in which considerable pollution is taking place at
low level, and does not apply to such places as Kingairloch, where the local pollution is
very slight.
Rigi Kulm, 1891.
All the five visits to the Rigi Kulm in the different years were made in the month of
May, in the middle or latter part of the month. In 1891 I arrived there about mid-day
of the 19th, having previously stopped a short time at Vitznau to test the air at low level.
At Vitznau the air was found to be fairly pure; there were only 2100 particles per cc.
The air, however, was thick, owing to it being very damp. Onarriving at the top of the
mountain, the number was found to be 417 per e.c. During this afternoon it snowed a
good deal, but cleared up in the evening. ‘The air continued pure all the afternoon, and
after the snow ceased it was very clear, the most distant Alps being quite distinct.
The sunrise next morning, the 20th, was very fine, the mountains being free from clouds
and the air remarkably clear. These conditions remained all day. The number of
particles during the time was small, being 683 in the morning and fell to 326 in the
evening, the fall being due to an increase in the pure S.W. wind then blowing.
The 21st was also a remarkably fine day with clear air and but few clouds, though
they were beginning to show a tendency to form. The wind continued to blow from the
southwards, and during most of the day the number of particles remained low, varying
from 400 to 800; but in the afternoon, from about 4 p.m. to 6 P.M., the wind showed a
tendency to become very irregular, and the number of particles to increase. This
suggested that the rise in the dust might be due to local pollution, and the site of obser-
vation was changed, across wind, to different points, but no pure air or steady numbers
were observed. On looking down, however, to the lakes and valleys, it was seen that a
strong northerly wind was blowing at low level, while on the Rigi it was southerly. —
ATMOSPHERE OF GREAT BRITAIN AND ON THE CONTINENT. 627
This northerly low-level wind penetrated into the valleys to the south of the Rigi and
was forced up the northern face of the Alps, where, after rising to a certain height, it
was caught by the southerly current and carried northwards again. ‘The sudden rise and
the unsteady numbers observed in the afternoon were probably due to the tests being
then made in impure northerly air, which was imperfectly mixed with the purer air of
the Alps brought by the southerly wind.
The reasons for accepting the above as the explanation of the high afternoon readings
are :—First: That when the numbers went high the humidity increased greatly, the wet-
bulb depression of 9° falling to one of 4° when the air was impure, showing that this air
came from a different source from the purerair. Second: This folding over of the impure
northerly air was well seen on the slopes of Pilatus. As this northerly air rose, it began
to condense to cloud. The lower part of this cloud moved from the north, and after it
ascended the mountain slopes to a considerable height it was seen to be doubled over and
turned back on itself, and to be moving from the south. Third: As the evening advanced
the northern current slackened, and from the movement of the cloud on Pilatus, and of the
smoke on its lower slopes, it became evident that the north wind was dying away and the
southerly one was again descending to lower and lower levels. ‘The dust observations on
the Rigi at 7 p.m. show that the upper air was again pure, and that it had also again
become drier, and this change took place at the time the southerly current had succeeded
im beating back the northerly air. It therefore seems highly probable that the high
numbers observed on this day were due to an intrusion of impure northerly air into the
pure southerly air in the upper atmosphere.
It may be remembered that a marked feature of the air on the Rigi during most of
the time of the 1890 visit was the great amount of haze then observed. ‘This haze at
sunset hung like a veil between the Alps and the observer, the upper limit of the veil
being then distinctly visible far above the height of the highest Alp, suffused with a
reddish glow from the setting sun. From my notes I find that none of this coloured
haze was visible during the first days of the 1891 visit; the veil was removed and the
upper air was uncoloured by the setting sun. If we look at the figures for the dust
particles in 1891 and 1890 we shall find that the year this haze was so marked the
number of particles was very great. During the hazy days in 1890 the number never
fell to 1000, while during the first days in 1891 it was generally under 500.
Returning to the 1891 observations, Table I., the 22nd was ushered in with a change
of weather for the worse. The wind had shifted to the west during the night, and it was
snowing at 9 a.M., and it continued to rain, hail or snow at intervals during the day.
The number of particles in the morning was small, being 300 per cc. By mid-day the
impure north-west wind seems to have arrived at the Kulm and the number rose to 1400.
At 2 p.m. the numbers had become irregular, more irregular even than shown in the table,
these not being the extreme numbers observed. In the evening the wind had fallen, and
the impure air was no longer driven to the mountain top, the number falling to about
400 per c.c.
628 MR JOHN AITKEN ON THE NUMBER OF DUST PARTICLES IN THE
The morning of the 23rd was very fine, cloudless and remarkably clear, but by 7 a.m.
the sky was overcast and snow falling. At 9 A.M. it began to clear up. The mid-day
observations showed a distinct increase in haze in different directions, and the dust
particles, which were low in the morning, rose to 3075, the wind at the time being
northerly at low level. In the afternoon the air again cleared, and the numbers fell to
about 500. It will be seen from the table that, when the air became purer in the after-
noon, it also became drier, showing, as already pointed out for the observations on the
21st, that the pure and impure airs came from different sources.
The sun rose in cloud on the 24th, and by 8 a.m. it was snowing, the hill-top at the
time being in cloud. By mid-day the snow gave place to a drizzling rain. During the
whole of the day the number of particles remained low, but the air was never clear,
owing to the place of observation being in cloud. In the afternoon of this day, while
the clouds were coming and going over the hill-top, it was observed that the number of
particles was very variable, and it was noticed that the change in the numbers took
place at the same time as the change in the condition of the atmosphere. On separating
the observations made in clouds from those made in the clear air between them, it
became evident that the clouded air was the more impure. The observations showed that
there were generally from two to three times more particles in the clouded air than in the
air surrounding them. ‘This indicated that the clouded air had come from low level.
During the night of the 24th the weather continued to improve, and the sun rose on
the morning of the 25th in a cloudless sky and the air was very clear. But by 7 a.m. the
air began to thicken, the air on this occasion having none of the usual bluish tinge, but
was quite white, due probably to the particles being large owing to the high humidity at
the time. By 9 a.m. occasional clouds began to pass over the mountain, and, as under
similar conditions on the previous day, the number of particles again became variable. A
ereat many observations were therefore made on the number of particles in the clouds
and in the clear air outside them. The result, as will be seen from Table I., was the same
as on the previous day. High numbers were observed in the clouds, and lower numbers
in the air surrounding them. It is unnecessary further to refer to these observations
here, as they have been discussed in a paper*™ given to this Society in 1891.
At the time of the mid-day observations on the 25th the hill-top was still in cloud,
but the air was much purer. It, however, seemed to be still of a somewhat mixed
constitution, as the number of particles varied considerably. These were the last
observations made on the Rigi in 1891. On descending to low level, the air in a down
current near Vitznau was found to have nearly the same amount of dust as at high level,
the average figures being at high level 597, while at low level they were 583. It may be
remembered that a similar result was observed when making observations, under similar
conditions, at this place in 1889. The air at low level was afterwards tested in a current
coming off the lake. In this air the number rose to 1300, and when going down the
lake towards Lucerne the number increased to 2860 per c.c.
* Trans. Roy. Soc., Hdin., vol. xxxvi. part ii. (No. 13).
ATMOSPHERE OF GREAT BRITAIN AND ON THE CONTINENT. 629
Rigi Kulm, 1892.
We come now to the observations made on the Rigi Kulm in 1892, Table II. On
leaving Lucerne on the 18th May on my way up, the air was tested at the bow of the
steam-boat and found to have 5000 particles per c.c. At Vitznau the number was very
variable, owing to shifting winds; at 10.30 a.m. it was 3550. On arriving at the Kulm
the number at 1 p.m. was 5100, and it gradually fell to 1920 per cc. at 7 p.m. The air
during the afternoon was fairly dry, but there was a very thick haze, which nearly veiled
the lower slopes of Pilatus.
The early morning of the 19th was cloudless, but there was a good deal of haze. This
haze remained all day, the wind being northerly and the number of particles high, varying
from 1050 to 2050 per c.c.
The air on the 20th remained very hazy, though hardly so thick as on the previous
day ; the number of particles was, however, much higher, which was probably due to
impurities brought to the Kulm from Lucerne, the wind at the time being from that
direction. It will also be noticed that the air was drier on this day than on the 19th,
which would help to make it clearer even though there were more particles.
The wind continued to blow on the 21st from the impure direction, and the number
of particles still remained high. The top of the mountain was in cloud in the morning
but clear in the afternoon; but during the whole day the air was very thick. The
numbers were very irregular, indicating mixed conditions. The high numbers were
probably again partly due to the wind being from the direction of Lucerne.
It will be noticed from Table I]. that on the 21st high and low numbers were not
always associated with cloud and clear air. In the early morning the observations were
made in cloud, but the numbers were low. As the day advanced the numbers rose high
in dense cloud, and then became less in thin cloud, but at 10.45 a.m., after the clouds
had risen above the place of observation, the numbers again rose very high. This last
observation, however, is not at variance with those made the previous year, as the con-
ditions were different, the observation being made below cloud-level. It will be seen
when the high numbers were observed in clear air at 10.45 a.m. that this air was nearly
saturated, and if this impure saturated air had been carried up to cloud-level, condensa-
tion would most probably have taken place. In other words, the air in which the high
numbers were observed at 10.45 a.M. was an undeveloped cloud.
The sky was cloudless on the morning of the 22nd and remained so all day. The
number of particles was high in the morning and continued high all day, and the air was
thickly hazed. This haze was very marked at sunset, the coloured dust-veil having
much the same appearance as was observed in 1890.
The air on the morning of the 23rd was clearer than on any day during this visit.
The wind was from the south, which brought pure and very dry air. By 11 a.m. the
sky was overcast, and half an hour later the clouds descended on the Kulm. Though
VOL. XXXVII. PART III. (NO. 28). 5 C
650 MR JOHN AITKEN ON THE NUMBER OF DUST PARTICLES IN THE
the clouds rose as the day advanced, a close, drifting rain continued all the afternoon.
Under these conditions the number of particles fell to 579 per c.c.
‘The morning of the 24th was cloudy, and though the number of particles was low,
the air was not clear, owing to it being damp. The number of particles varied
greatly from time to time as the day advanced, owing to changing winds, and rose as
high as 6400 when the air was coming from the direction of Zug, but fell again in the
evening.
There was a fine opportunity on the morning of the 24th for observing the manner
in which the air heated on the mountain slopes rises to the upper regions. While the
Rigi was in cloud the sun had been shining brightly on its eastern slopes in the early
morning, and the air heated there was rising straight up to the Kulm. This ascending
air clouded as it rose and completely shut out the view from the Kulm in the morning ;
but as the day advanced this cloud thinned away, and its gradual formation on the
lower slopes and its ascent to the higher levels became visible from the Rigi and formed
a most interesting sight. It looked as if the Lake of Zug was a vast caldron from which
steam was rising. Owing to the entire absence of wind and only a very slow movement
of the upper air from the west, this ascending cloudy air was not interfered with till
it rose above the Kulm, when it was caught by the westerly current and carried east-
wards. Under most conditions these rising currents on mountain slopes are invisible.
In some cases, such as the above, when the condensation begins at a comparatively low
level, the upward movement is easily seen, but it has also been frequently observed
when the ascending air only began to cloud when it was 500 or 1000 feet above the
mountain.
The sunrise on the 25th was cloudless, the number of particies low, and the air very
clear and very dry. As the day advanced the number of particles rose to 1750 at 1 P.M.,
after which observations were stopped on the Rigi. On descending to Vitznau and
testing the air at low level it was found to be not very pure. The number varied at
different places, the lowest being 5950 observed on board the steam-boat, and the
highest near Vitznau, the air coming off the Jake having 7400 particles. The air was,
however, clear, partly owing to its being very dry. The air, however, on this occasion
looked unduly clear for so much dust, even with the great dryness. It will be noticed
from Table II. that the south wind had begun to blow on the Rigi on the 24th and was
still blowing at the time these low-level observations were being made on the 25th.
Next day, the 26th, the south wind had greatly increased in force and blew strong all
day. When the air was tested on the evening of the 26th near Lucerne, it was found to
be very pure. It seems, therefore, very probable that the clearness on the 25th, with so
high a number of particles at low level, was due to this southerly wind having cleared
the upper atmosphere, though at the time the Vitznau observations were taken it had
not descended to low level and swept away the impurities near the surface of the earth.
ATMOSPHERE OF GREAT BRITAIN AND ON THE CONTINENT. 631
Rigi Kulm, 1893.
The visit to the Rigi in 1893 was made earlier in May than any of the previous ones.
This was owing to the much smaller amount of snow on the Alps in the spring of this
year permitting the railway to the Kulm being opened sooner than usual. On the
morning of the 10th of May the wind was southerly, but very slight. On testing the
air on the steam-boat on the way up the lake from Lucerne to Vitznau, the number of
particles was not high, but the air became less pure near Vitznau. On the hillside at
that place it was very impure, owing to the absence of wind, the number being as high
as 10,000 at 11 a.m. On ascending to the Kulm the number at 1 P.M. was very high,
being 8700, due to the direction of the wind being northerly. Towards evening the
number gradually fell to 1500. Clouds closed in on the mountain top at 1.30 P.m., and
remained the whole afternoon. ,
The sun rose on the morning of the 11th in a cloudy sky, and by 7 a.m. clouds began
to pass over the Kulm, and continued to do so all day, accompanied by frequent showers
of rain, sleet and hail. ‘The number of particles was low in the morning, being 525, but
the north-east wind increased in force, and the number rose to 2700, and fell again to
441 when the wind died away in the evening. As the Kulm was in cloud, no trans-
parency observations were possible.
During the 12th the weather was very unsettled from sunrise to sunset. The Kulm
was occasionally clear of clouds, but never for long, and great masses of clouds filled the
valleys in most directions, while snow- and rain-showers passed over the Rigi. In the
afternoon a magnificent thunderstorm was witnessed in the direction of Zurich. As the
wind continued on this day to blow from the impure direction with some force, the
number of particles rose from 690 at 7 a.m. to 5700 at 3 p.m. The number fell in the.
evening under the influence of a change of wind to a purer direction.
On the 13th the sun rose in a cloudless sky. The E.8.E. wind, which had been blow-
ing since the previous evening, seemed to have greatly cleared the upper atmosphere.
The lower air, however, was very thick. It will be seen from Table III. that the number
of particles was very high during most of this day, being as high as 13,250 at 11 a.M.,
16,500 at 1 p.M., and 11,250 at 5 p.m., and at no time was it under 2050. The great
amount of dust on this day seems to have been due to the wind at high and low level
having been from the impure direction during the two previous days, and on this day
also it was from the impure direction at low level, and it changed on the Rigi to an
impure direction before mid-day. Further, it was variable at the different high-level
stations. This day was by far the dustiest observed on the Rigi, and yet it will be
noticed that the transparency given in the table was not aminimum. ‘The transparency
observations refer to the upper air. Under the column headed “‘ Remarks” will be found
some figures giving the transparency of the air when looking in different directions at
high level. These figures represent the limit of visibility in miles. It will be observed
652 MR JOHN AITKEN ON THE NUMBER OF DUST PARTICLES IN THE
that the limit of visibility in the morning when looking east was 70 miles, while, looking
westwards, it was 250 miles. At this time the number of particles was not great.
After mid-day, when the number had become great, the limit of visibility was reduced
to about 50 miles; while in the evening the haze was so thick, looking westwards, that
it entirely obscured the lower slopes of Pilatus, and the earth’s shadow on the haze was
noticed to be particularly well marked at sunset.
The 14th was a remarkably fine day,—cloudless from sunrise to sunset, and almost
too hot in the sunshine for comfort. A southerly wind had sprung up in the night, and
continued to blow all day. Under the influence of the southerly wind the purity of the
air began to increase, and the number of particles, which was 3300 on the previous
evening, fell to 1100 at 7 am. The daily maximum at 3 P.M. was 3325, the wind
having fallen at that time. It will be noticed that the fall in dust from the high num-
bers of the previous day was accompanied by a decrease in the humidity and an increase
in the transparency. Further, it will be noticed that there is not the same difference
in the transparency when looking east and looking west as was observed on the
previous day.
The south wind continuing to blow on the morning of the 15th, the sky remained
cloudless and the number of particles small, bemg only 925. Before mid-day the wind had
changed to an impure direction, and at 1 P.M. it was north, and the number of particles
increased to 4405. ‘The air had also lost its dryness and transparency. During the rest
of the day the number of particles was high, the weather changed, clouds formed on the
Kulm, and rain fell in the evening.
The 16th was the last day of this visit. The morning was cloudy, and an occasional
cloud passed over the Kulm. The wind was from the impure direction, but it was slight.
At 7 am. the number of particles was 1225, and it rose to 2650 at 1 p.m. On descend-
ing the mountain the air was tested at low level at three different places at some dis-
tance from Vitznau. ‘These three tests gave nearly the same result, all of them being a
little over 5000 per c.c.
Sunrise and Sunset Colours on the Rign.
In Part I. I have referred to the colours seen on earth and sky, at sunrise and sunset,
when viewed from high and low level, and have expressed the opinion that the colours
seen at high level have been very much overestimated, and that they are really not so
fine as seen at low level, and further reasons have been given why this should be so. I
may now say that my experience during these last four visits to the Rigi entirely confirms
the opinion formed during the first visit.
Frequently at high level, though the sun was unclouded, there was very little colour
either on clouds or snow. Sometimes there was some, but it was always of short dura-
tion. So soon as the sun was some distance above the horizon all distinct colour
disappeared. The greater beauty of the colouring at low level was forcibly impressed on
ATMOSPHERE OF GREAT BRITAIN AND ON THE CONTINENT. 635
me after descending on my last visit. I happened to be busy in my room at Lucerne
towards sunset and had not been looking at the view nor thinking of sunset effects ; when
at last I looked out of the window it was not the beauty of the scenery that arrested my
attention, but the magnificent display of colour on the mountains and clouds,—a display
far beyond anything I had ever seen from the Rigi Kulm, though I had seen sunsets there
in all conditions of weather.
Dust and Direction of Wind on the Rigi.
It was found in Part IJ. that winds from inhabited areas always brought impure air
to the Kulm, and that when it blew from the south, that is from the Alps, it was pure.
Turning now to the last three years’ observations, aided by an examination of the weather
charts of Switzerland, which, as before, have been kindly supplied by M. BitLwiLuEr, we
find that during the time of the 1891 visit the wind at the high-level stations,—namely,
the St Gothard and Sintis,—was blowing from a pure direction on the 19th, when the
observations were begun, and that it continued to blow from the Alps till the morning
of the 24th. On that day the circulation was somewhat mixed. On the 25th, the last
day of this visit, the circulation again set in from the Alps. As will be seen from the
tables, this year was the second purest of the five, and we see that during most of the
time the observations were being made the wind was from the Alps, thus confirming the
conclusion already arrived at.
Passing on to the 1892 observations, it will be seen from Table II. that the wind blew
from a more or less northerly direction from the 18th, when the observations began, till
the 24th, when the wind began to blow from the south. During that day the southerly
eurrent did little to purify the air, but the following morning the air was pure on the
Rigi; but this pure air had not descended to low level, as the observations at Vitznau
show about 7000 particles perc.c. On the 26th, however, it had blown all the impure air
away at low level, the number of particles having fallen as low as 688. On examining
the weather charts for Switzerland for 1892, we find a change in the Meteorological
Stations from which reports are sent,—the St Gothard, which was found so useful for
giving the air circulation to the south of the Rigi, no longer appears, its place being taken
by the new Observatory on Pilatus. The result, so far as our present purpose is con-
cerned, is far from satisfactory. The new station is too near the Rigi to be of much
use, and there is now no satisfactory evidence of the direction in which the air is moving
over the Alps. I am very glad to hear from M. BILLWILLER that the St Gothard station
will be reopened before long.
On examining the reports from the high-level stations for 1892, it would appear that
the great amount of dust in the air during the days of the visit in this year was due to
an absence of regular air circulation over Switzerland, the wind on most days blowing
in very different directions at the different observatories. The winds were also blowing
in different directions at the different stations at low level. During this period the air seems
634 MR JOHN AITKEN ON THE NUMBER OF DUST PARTICLES IN THE
to have been circulating very much over Switzerland. It will be seen from the table
that during the days when the circulation was mixed, and with wind on the Rigi from
the impure direction, the number of particles was almost always high, though it fell low
on two occasions, when in cloud and rain. On the 25th the wind set in from the south,
and for a time the numbers fell low. It was under the influence of this southerly wind
that Hochgerrach was seen for the only time in 1892.
The air circulation at high and low level during the visit in 1893 was very mixed
and not at all unlike the conditions during the previous visit. During the 10th, 11th
and 12th, the air was coming from a northerly direction and the number of particles was
high, except on the 12th, when the hill-top was in cloud. On the 13th a southerly wind
began to blow, but it soon changed to an impure direction. The number of particles was
exceptionally high during the day, but fell towards evening. The wind returning to a
southerly direction, the numbers were fairly low next day, that is the 14th. The high
numbers on the 13th, as already explained, were due to the very mixed air circulation all
over Switzerland at both high and low levels. On the 15th the wind was still southerly
in the morning and the numbers low, but rose as the day advanced, under the influence of
a northerly wind. On the 16th the wind again went southerly and the dust was less
than on the previous day. It was only on the 13th, 14th, and morning of the 15th, when
the southerly wind had temporarily cleared the air, that Hochgerrach was visible.
To show the effect of the direction of the wind on the number of particles in the
air on the Rigi, Tables VI. and VII. have been prepared. In Table VI. are entered
the observations taken after the wind had blown from a southerly direction for some
time, that is after the pure air had arrived at the Rigi. In Table VII. are entered the
observations taken when the wind was from impure directions, that is from the plains,
and also the observations taken when the direction of the wind was doubtful or was
TaBLe VI.—Showing the Highest and Lowest Number of Dust Particles observed on the Rigi
Kulm when the Wind was from the Alps.
; Highest Lowest State of the
Date. Wind. N Brae Number. Air.
22nd May 1889 : : : 3 S.E. 2350 434 Clear.
DST Aeeeds sn aes ; ; F E 3 1100 515 Very clear.
24th ,, s : : : : 5 685 350 -
25th ,, 3 : ; ; 2 S.S.E. 580 532 J
19th ,, 1890 - : : : S.W. 775 375 3
20th ,, 1891 : : : : , 683 326 B
Dist ees a ; ; : ; , 2000 378 Fe
20rd, Ee P } é . | S.E. to S.W. 3075 467 5
| 24th ,, $ : : ; : W. 494 410 _
Mean : : eA 1305 421
ATMOSPHERE OF GREAT BRITAIN AND ON THE CONTINENT. 635
variable. It will be seen from the tables that during the whole of the time of the 1889
visit the wind was southerly, that is from the Alps. During the 1890 visit it was only
once steady from the pure direction. It was so four times in 1891, but it was never
steady for any length of time from the pure direction in 1892 and 1893. Table VII.
shows that the wind was from the impure direction or variable on two days in 1890
and 1891, and that it was always from the impure direction or variable during the visits
in 1892 and 1893.
At the bottom of Tables VI. and VII. are given the mean of the highest and lowest
number of dust particles in air for the pure and impure directions. From these it
will be seen that when the wind blew from the Alps the mean of all the lowest observa-
tions was 421 and of all the highest 1305 ; while, when the air was from polluted areas,
the mean of the lowest was 1092 or 2°6 times greater than the mean of the lowest in air
from the Alps, and the mean of the highest was 5755 or 4°4 times greater than when the
wind was southerly.
Dust and Transparency on the Rigi Kulm.
The effect of dust on the transparency of the atmosphere is brought out roughly
in Tables VI. and VII. It will be seen from these tables that, when the wind was
from the Alps and the number of particles was small, the air was always either
“clear” or ‘‘ very clear,” whereas, when the wind was from impure directions and the
TaBLE VII.—Showing the Highest and Lowest Number of Dust Particles observed on the Rigi
Kulm when the Wind was from Inhabited Areas.
: Highest Lowest State of the
aus Wie Number, Number. Air.
15th May 1890 ; é : : N.E. 4,200 ah Thickish.
more j, 5, : : : . | E. to N.W. 6,100 1,200 Thick.
wood ,, 1891 : : : . | W. to NeW. 2,025 300 Raining.
Poin 4, sy ; , ; . Seige Wee 3,450 440 In cloud.
Heth 6, 1892 ; F : f W.N.W. 5,100 1,920 Thick haze.
BOG. 4. 55 F : P aialee WeshOmiNe Wie 2,050 1,050 3
Both 5, ly ; : : : 7 13,750 2,500 Thickish.
stor 5, / 55 : : : . |W. to W.N.W. 7,650 900 Thick.
Pend 55 55 : ; : : Variable. 7,400 1,000 Thickish.
Oe 55 55 : ‘ : 2 See News 1,425 579 Raining.
PAG 4 55 : : , . | N.W. to E. 6,400 750 Medium.
10th ,, 1893 : : ; A IN 8,700 1,500 Thick.
th 4, F : , > |) Neto INGE: 2,750 44] In cloud.
PZT a5 6) 55 3 ’ ; . |E.S.E., E.N.E. 5,700 690 Medium.
3 5 é ‘ . | E.S.E., N.E. 16,500 2,050 i
Ath 4, 4 5 : : ; Variable. 3,925 1,100 Clear.
MSGR 4, 5 é 2 ' : Sak 4,400 925 Thickish.
HGth = j, 86, ; : : . | S.W. to N. 2,650 1,225 Medium.
Mean 5,755 1,092
6356 MR JOHN AITKEN ON THE NUMBER OF DUST PARTICLES IN THE
number of particles great, the air was only once clear, and on that occasion the number
of particles was small.
We can, however, show the effect of dust on the transparency in another way, by
selecting the days on which the air was exceptionally clear, and noting the number of
particles at the time. For this purpose we shall take the conditions of the atmosphere
when Hochgerrach was visible. See Tables I., I. and III. ; also Tables in Parts I. and IL.
Hochgerrach is about 70 miles from the Rigi in an easterly direction. It is the most
distant mountain visible from that situation. Its visibility, therefore, may be taken as a
good indication of great clearness of the atmosphere at the time. An examination of the
observations for the five visits shows that this mountain was only visible when the number
of particles was small. From my notes I find it was visible on thirteen occasions : some-
times it was visible for a whole day at a time, but often it was only seen in the morning
or evening. Table VIII. shows in the first column the number of times it was seen, in
the second the amount of haze between the observer and the mountain on these occa-
sions, in the third column the number of particles in the air at the time, and in the fourth
the wet-bulb depression.
TasLeE VIII.
Number of
times Hoch- | Amount of Haze on Number of Particles. Humidity.
gerrach was Hochgerrach.
seen.
8 dtot} 326 to 850 3° to 10°
2 3 1375 to 1375 6°°5 to 8°
3 Just visible. 1825 to 2050 4° to 6°°5
It will be seen from this table that on eight of the occasions when Hochgerrach was
visible the haze was only + to 4, and the number of particles was a minimum for this
station, and that as the haze increased the number of particles also increased, till at last,
with a little over 2000 particles, the mountain became invisible. The humidity of the
air will of course have a considerable effect ; but it will be seen from the table that Hoch-
gerrach was seen when the wet-bulb depression was small, when the number of particles
was also small, and that the haze increased with the amount of dust though the wet-bulb
depression showed the air to be dry.
Of the observations made in these five years, the days in 1889 were by far the clearest
and purest, the wind being steadily from the south during the time. The days in 1891
were also pure, but those in the three other years were all rather impure during most
of the time, owing to the wind being from an impure direction or unsteady. On the
days on which the number of particles was small, the dust-veil was thin and its upper
limit ill-defined, while on the days the number was great, the dusty impurity was easily
seen thickening the air, and colouring the atmosphere at sunset to a height high above
the highest Alp.
ATMOSPHERE OF GREAT BRITAIN AND ON THE CONTINENT. 637
Daily Variation of Dust on the Rigi.
The 1889 observations show very little evidence of a daily maximum of dust. This
is owing to the strong southerly wind which continued to blow during all the days of
the visit in that year. The southerly wind kept the air in the valleys pure, and if the
strong wind permitted any air to ascend, it did not bring much dust with it to the Kulm,
The 1890 observations, however, show that on all the days, except the 19th, when a strong
- southerly wind was blowing, the number of particles was much greater during the
day than in the morning, being from two to four times greater. During the visit in 1891
the daily maximum was not well marked on the first three days, that is the 19th, 20th and
21st. Under the influence of the strong winds from the pure area the day maximum
appears only for a short time on one of the days. The 22nd being cloudy and rainy, it is
again only shghtly marked. On the 23rd the daily maximum was well marked by mid-
day, but a strong southerly wind beginning to blow, it was checked, and the number
again fell, On the 24th, under the influence of cloud and rain, the daily maximum is
entirely checked; but the 25th being fine, with but little wind, the daily maximum
again asserts itself, till checked by cloud at mid-day. The daily maximum in 1891 is
thus only shghtly indicated owing to unfavourable conditions for the lower air rising,
namely, cloudy skies and strong winds.
In 1892 the daily maximum is very well marked on the 18th, 20th, 21st, 22nd and
24th. On the 19th the rise is only slight, owing to clouds. On the 23rd it does not show
at all, owing to the day being cloudy and wet. On the 25th, owing to a southerly wind, it
is only shehtly marked.
Coming now to the 1893 observations, it will be seen that the daily maximum was
well marked on all the days of this visit except on the last, when the observations were
stopped at 1 p.m. On that day the number had risen but slightly.
The amount to which the daily maximum increases varies greatly ; frequently it is
only three or four times the morning number, but it has been observed as high as eight
times the morning number, as, for instance, on 21st May 1892; the morning number on
that day was 925, maximum at 9.40 a.m. 7700, and 4 P.M. 7650. On 12th May 1893
the morning number was 690, and the day maximum at 3 p.m. 5700.
The hour at which the number begins to increase is very irregular—sometimes a rise is
evident by the time of the second morning observation, that is by 9 A.M., and sometimes it
is the afternoon before the impure air comes to the top of the mountain ; but the maximum,
if not checked by clouds, is generally attained sometime in the afternoon. As a consequence
of this, the evening numbers are seldom as low as the morning ones. ‘This irregularity in
the time of the appearance of the impure air at high level might have been expected, as
its ascent is governed by so many variables, such as amount of sunshine on the slopes
of the mountain, the hour at which it begins to heat the lower air, and the force and
direction of the wind.
VOL. XXXVII. PART III. (NO. 28). 5 D
638 MR JOHN AITKEN ON THE NUMBER OF DUST PARTICLES IN THE
We have here, as in Part IT., looked upon the daily maximum on the Rigi as produced
by the rising of the valley air to the Kulm under the influence of winds and sunshine.
When we come to consider the Kingairloch observations we shall find that this conclusion
may require some modification. ‘There seems reason for supposing that the above explana-
tion does not contain the whole truth, and, though it may explain the greater part of
the increase in the numbers, there yet appears to be reason for believing other influences
to be at work in producing the result.
Cloudy Pilatus.
Though the cloudiness of Pilatus does not bear directly on our present investigation,
yet, as it has been constantly under observation during the visits to the Rigi, a few
remarks on the subject may not be entirely out of place here. The tendency of Pilatus
to be shrouded in clouds has for long been a well-recognised feature of the mountain, and
has given rise to its present name (Mons Pileatus, the capped mountain). While observing
on the Rigi, this tendency of Pilatus to cloud over was frequently noticed. On many
days when the Rigi was clear of cloud Pilatus was covered. This we are entitled to expect
to take place to a certain extent, as the mountain is 1000 feet higher than the Rigi. But
the clouds on Pilatus frequently descended its slopes to far below the level of the Rigi,
while there was no tendency for clouds to form on the Rigi. It is this freeness from
clouds on the Rigi which has made me keep to it as an observing station, though it is
lower than Pilatus.
However fascinating the legends may be that are given to account for the seeming
gloomy and morose humours of Pilatus, yet one cannot view the different behaviour of the
two mountains without looking for some physical explanation of it. In many respects the
two mountains look similarly situated. The Rigi is certainly an isolated mountain, and
Pilatus, according to the guide-books, is “almost isolated from the surrounding heights,”
and it must be admitted that this mountain, as generally seen by visitors, looks quite as
isolated as the Rigi. This, however, is very far from being the case. The Rigi is a true
isolated mountain, with valleys on all sides, and none of these valleys rises much above
the level of the Lake of Lucerne ; while Pilatus is only a terminal peak of a long and
mighty wall of mountains. As seen from Lucerne and many other points, Pilatus looks
as if it were isolated, but if we view it from the north, we shall see it is the eastmost
peak of a grand range of mountains, which extends westwards in an unbroken line for
about 25 miles. An examination of a relief chart of Switzerland shows that this range
forms a fairly regular wall, which starts from Pilatus in a westerly direction, and then
turns slightly southwards. The upper ridges of these mountains are in many places fairly
horizontal, and rise to an elevation of over 6000 feet, while about the middle of the range
they are 7000 feet. [tis not now difficult to understand why Pilatus is so much more
cloudy than the Rigi. The Rigi being an isolated mountain, there is but little tendency
for the valley air to be driven up its slopes by the wind; but when the wind blows
against the great wall of which Pilatus is the terminal peak, it is forced to ascend, and on
a
¢
»
«
ATMOSPHERE OF GREAT BRITAIN AND ON THE CONTINENT. 659
its ascent it is cooled, and condensation takes place. It is well known that Pilatus is
cloudy when N. and W. winds blow; now these are the very winds which are more
especially compelled by this range to rise to the upper atmosphere, and hence the
cloudiness of Pilatus with winds from these directions.
English Channel.
A few observations were made when crossing the Channel. They were taken at the
bow of the steamboat and were clear of all local pollution. On June 2nd, 1891, the
number of particles was 4700: it was raining and the air thick. On the 31st May 1892
it was calm and thick, and the number was 7000. On the 20th May 1893 the number
was 8500 while near the French coast, and gradually fell to 3600 on approaching England.
The air where the first observations were made came off the north coast of France, while
that tested near England came directly up the Channel, and was therefore purer.
Garelochhead.
At the beginning of Table Ii. there are a few observations made at Garelochhead
in February 1892. There is nothing in them calling for special remark; the results are
similar to those already given for this place in Parts I. and II. ‘The air was clear
and amount of dust small, with N.W. winds at the beginning of the observations, and it
was thick and the number of particles very high with 8.E. winds at the end of the visit.
Kingairloch.
The next observations entered in Tables I, II. and III. are those made at Kingairloch
in Argyllshire. They were made about the same time of the year as those given for this
place in Parts L. and II. While I was observing at Kingairloch, observations were being
made at about the same hours at the Ben Nevis Observatory. These observations were
generally taken by Mr Rankin, who has given great attention to this part of the Observa-
tory work. On a few occasions, in Mr Ranx1n’s absence, the observations were taken by
other observers. The object of these simultaneous observations at Kingairloch and Ben
Nevis is to get the condition of the air, as regards dust, at high and low level under
different atmospheric conditions. The two stations are rather far apart to be quite
satisfactory, Ben Nevis being about 28 miles distant in a north-east direction from Kin-
gairloch. The great advantage, however, of Kingairloch as an observing station is its
remarkable freedom from local pollution. It is doubtful if there is any place nearer the
high-level station that can compare with it in this respect.
For the purpose of studying the Ben Nevis and Kingairloch observations, three
diagrams are given with this paper, one for each year (see Diagrams L, I. and IIL.) In
these diagrams are entered the dust observations taken at both stations, a copy of the
Ben Nevis observations being supplied by the Scottish Meteorological Office. In the
three diagrams each observation is represented by a black circle, and the successive obser-
640 MR JOHN AITKEN ON THE NUMBER OF DUST PARTICLES IN THE
vations are connected by straight lines. The low-level observations are represented by
large dots connected with thick lines, while the Ben Nevis observations are represented
by smaller dots and connected with finer lines.
As in the diagram given in Part IL, the winds in Diagrams I., II. and ILI. are indicated
by three series of arrows. The arrows at the top of the diagrams show the direction and
force of the wind on Ben Nevis at the hour the dust observations were made, and the
arrows at the bottom represent the winds at Kingairloch. The intermediate series of
arrows represents the general air circulation over the British Isles. The direction of these
arrows has been taken from the weather charts of the Meteorological Office, London,
kindly supphed to me by Mr Scorr. It will be noticed that in this intermediate series
there are frequently two or three arrows placed together, while sometimes there is only
one. The meaning of this is, that if the air circulation over out islands is regular, and
the wind is from one direction at all places, then one arrow represents the conditions.
But when the circulation is mixed, the wind blowing one way at one place and another
way at another, then two or more arrows are required to represent the conditions. The
letters C and A placed alongside these arrows indicate whether the circulation was
cyclonic or anticyclonic.
It has already been pointed out in Part I]. that, when the isobars are close and regu-
lar, and lie in certain directions, so that the winds are strong and blow from certain
quarters over all our area, the number of dust particles is small; and that when the
isobars become open and irregular, the winds becoming slight and irregular, the number
of particles may become great even when the wind blows from a pure direction,—the
reason for this being that, though we are testing air coming from a pure direction, we
may yet be testing polluted air, which has come from inhabited areas to the place of
observation, and has not been swept away for want of a regular circulation. By examining
the intermediate series of arrows in the diagrams we can at once see whether the circula-
tion over our area is regular or confused. This enables us to explain some of the dust
observations which at first sight may appear rather unintelligible.
At pages 29 and 30, Part II., attention has been called to some abnormal dust observa-
tions made in 1890. It is shown that, though the winds from W. to N. bring
exceptionally pure air to Kingairloch, yet on six days when the wind was north-
westerly the number of particles went high at some time of the day, though always low
in the morning. These exceptional readings are difficult to understand, as there is
nothing quite corresponding to them with the wind from other directions. Let us now
turn to the records of the last three years (Tables L., If. and III., Diagrams I., II. and HI.)
and see how far they confirm these abnormal readings. This will be easier studied by
means of the diagrams than by the tables. On looking at Diagram I. for 1891 it will
be seen that when the wind was N.W. the numbers went very high on the 9th, 23rd,
27th, 30th and 31st July and 2nd August; in 1892 the numbers went high with
N.W. winds on the 20th, 23rd and 25th; and in 1893 they went high on the 25th and —
26th June and on the 8rd, 13th, 14th, 15th and 17th July. The most remarkable of
ATMOSPHERE OF GREAT BRITAIN AND ON THE CONTINENT. 641
these observations are those made on the 9th July 1891 and on the 14th and 15th
July 1893.
On the 9th July 1891 the morning reading was 295 per c.c., at mid-day it was 3700,
and at 3.30 P.M. it was as high as 7600. The 1893 observations are still more extra-
ordinary. On the 14th the morning reading was about 90 per c.c., at 1 P.M. it was up
to 12,250, and at 2 P.M. 13,500 pere.c. After 1 P.M., five observations were made, which
showed the number to diminish regularly to 2100 at 7 p.m. and to 378 at 9.30 P.M.
Next morning (the 15th) the number at 9 a.m. was 420; at 1 P.M. it was very irregular
and very high, and went on rising till 4 p.M., when it was as high as 9325, after which it
steadily got less and less, and at 9.30 p.m. the figure was 1412 per c.c.
It will be noticed in all the abnormal cases, when the number went high during the
day, the number was very low in the morning, generally two or three hundred, and in one
case less than one hundred; and also after attaining a maximum number in the after-
noon, the number «always fell fairly regularly to a small figure, but not generally to so
small a number as in the morning. A great many observations were made on the two
days of most abnormal readings, namely, the 14th and 15th July 1893, and, as will be
seen from Diagram III., the rise and fall are quick and fairly regular, the Ime drawn
through the different observations for each day making a fairly regular curve.
Tt will be further noticed from the three diagrams that on many days with N.W.
winds there was no tendency for the numbers to rise in the afternoon ; for instance,
the numbers remained fairly steady with N.W. winds on the following days: in 1891,
on the 7th, 8th, 10th, 20th, 22nd, 24th, 25th, 26th, 28th and 29th July and 1st
August ; in 1892 the numbers were low or steady all day on the Ist, 4th, 5th, 7th,
8th, 19th, 22nd; and in 1893 they were low all day on the 22nd, 23rd, 24th, 29th June
and 20th July. The previous observations of abnormally high readings in N.W. winds
thus receives very ample confirmation by the observations made during the last three
years. From these last observations we see that while on three out of every five days
with N.W. winds the numbers remained low all day, yet in two out of every five the
numbers went high at some time of the day.
A marked peculiarity of all the days of abnormally high readings is that on all of
them the air was “clear” to “very clear,” as will be seen from Tables I., IL. and III.
With so large a number of particles as was frequently observed on the abnormal days
there is always a great amount of haze under ordinary conditions. The only peculiarity
noticed in the haze was that the whitish appearance, which generally accompanies large
numbers, was absent, and the haze had a peculiarly fine blue tint seldom seen.
Though the existence of these abnormal readings is well established by the last
three years’ observations, yet there is great difficulty in offering an explanation of them.
In looking for their cause, the first thing to be done was to see if there was any
relation between the weather conditions and the exceptional readings. Did they come
with all kinds of weather, or were they associated with any particular conditions? For
the purpose of working out this point I have been in the habit of recording the condition
642 MR JOHN AITKEN ON THE NUMBER OF DUST PARTICLES IN THE
of the sky as regards cloud at the hour the dust and other observations were taken,
These cloud observations have been entered in the last column of the Tables I., IJ. and
IIT., the amount of the sky covered with cloud being entered. The cloud observations
have also been entered in Diagrams I[., II. and IIL, the condition of the sky being
indicated in the diagrams by a black lime underneath the base line of the dust curves.
The thickness of this line represents the amount of cloud at the time. When this black
line occupies the whole space up to the base line of the curves, it means that the sky was
entirely clouded; the line is absent when the sky is cloudless ; and its thickness at any
point indicates the proportion of sky clouded.
If we now examine the relation between the amount of cloud and the readings taken
in N.W. winds we shall at once see that on the days the sky was entirely clouded
the numbers showed no tendency to rise as the day advanced, but that whenever
there was clear sky—especially in the morning—the number of particles increased, and
generally increased very much in proportion to the amount of clear sky. On all the
days, with the exception of one, the numbers showed a decided tendency to become
great, and the increase was inversely proportional to the amount of cloud. The evident
conclusion is that these abnormal readings in N.W. winds are directly connected in
some way with the amount of sunshine, and that so long as the sky remains clouded
all over they never appear. The observations made in 1890 are found also to agree on
this point with those of the last three years. On examining the records for that year,
1 find that the days on which abnormal readings were obtained were all days of more
or less sunshine, while the days of steady low numbers were clouded days.
Under the black lines representing the amount of cloud in the diagrams will be
noticed short lines hanging from the cloud line. These lines represent that rain was
falling at the time the observations were being made. So far as can be gathered from an
examination of these lines, rain or the immediate effects of rain do not play any part in
producing the abnormal readings. It will be seen that, though there was rain on the
afternoon preceding the 9th July 1891, and also on the afternoon preceding the 14th
July 1893, both days of very abnormal readings, there was no rain from the 13th to the
15th July 1893, the other day of very abnormal readings.
An investigation has also been made to see if there is any relation between these
abnormal readings and the conditions as represented by the isobars at the time, with the
view of finding out whether these high readings have any relation to cyclonic or
anticyclonic circulation. The observations made on the 26th June and 13th July 1893
have to be rejected, owing to the circulation on those days being doubtful, and it being
impossible to say whether it was cyclonic or anticyclonic. After these are rejected, there
are left in the tables for the last three years 37 observations taken when the wind was
north-westerly, and the result of the examination is :—
On 23 days the numbers remained low all day:
on 19 of these the readings were taken in cyclonic areas,
and on 4 days the readings were taken in anticyclonic areas.
ATMOSPHERE OF GREAT BRITAIN AND ON THE CONTINENT. 645
On 14 days the numbers rose abnormally high :
on 9 of these the readings were taken in anticyclonic areas,
and on 4 days the readings were taken in cyclonic areas.
From the above it will be seen that there is a decided tendency for the readings to
remain low in cyclonic areas and to be abnormally high in anticyclonic areas. But,
unfortunately, this brings us no nearer the explanation of the phenomenon, as these are
the conditions which bring us more or less clouded skies, which we already know are
connected with the variations under discussion.
At present, amidst so much darkness on this point, one is apt to suggest impossible or
at least improbable explanations. As no satisfactory conclusion has been arrived at,
anything said here must be more or less of the nature of a guess in the dark. When I
wrote Part II. I offered the following explanation :—All these abnormal readings come to
us after a certain distribution of pressure and air circulation. When a low-pressure area
appeared near our islands and passed to the south of Scotland, after its centre lay to the
east of our station, high numbers were obtained. When a cyclone passes along that
route it drives the impure Continental air northwards over the North Sea; and when the
centre of the depression has arrived at a point to the east of Scotland the impure air will
have continued to curve round, and in this way come to Kingairloch as a N.W.
wind ; and it was suggested that the high numbers might be due to impure air circling
round and coming with a N.W. wind. We might explain the sunshine always
accompanying the high numbers by supposing that the cloudless air had started with
less moisture in it—it was therefore neither cleansed by rain nor clouded when it came
to ourstation. From the information we now possess, this explanation must be abandoned,
because though it might explain why the high dust should always be accompanied by
sunshine, yet it does not explain why the high dust should only come during the day and
the amount always fall with the setting sun. |
If we examine the Ben Nevis observations we do not find that abnormal readings were
got on all the days when they were obtained at Kingairloch, though they were observed
on some of the days, and it will be noticed that they were obtained either when the air
circulation over our area was mixed or when there was little wind on the Ben. Of
course the conditions on the Ben are different from those at Kingairloch, and while we are
in sunshine they are often in cloud. On trying to work out the effect of sunshine on
Ben Nevis, to see if there was an increase in dust at high level when there was one at low
when the conditions were the same at both stations, I find the Ben Nevis observations
on these days provokingly defective, either from absence of observations, or more generally
from observations marked ‘‘ Doubtful.” Under these circumstances, this point cannot be
pursued till more complete observations are obtained.
Another possible explanation of these very high readings is that they are purely local.
But here again the fact that their appearance depends on sunshine seems at once to
disprove it. It was, however, thought advisable to test this pomt by an examination of
644 MR JOHN AITKEN ON THE NUMBER OF DUST PARTICLES IN THE
the results of any observations that were not made at the usual place. The only possible
source of local pollution in N.W. winds at Kingairloch is a shepherd’s cottage about
three-quarters of a mile up the glen, down which the N.W. winds blow, and there are no
houses to the right or left for many miles. The next house in a north-westerly direction
is another cottage at a distance of 5 miles. On the 14th July 1893, one of the most
abnormal of the days, | went to the windward of the shepherd’s cottage and took some
of the afternoon observations and found the numbers high there also. It will be seen
that these observations fit into the curve the same as if they had all been taken at
Kingairloch. Again, the readings taken on the 23rd July 1892 were taken 4 miles up
the glen, and, as will be seen, they were very high. There are, however, observations
made on two days which must not be lost sight of. One of these days was the 24th June
1893. Mid-day and afternoon observations were taken on that day at a distance of about
9 miles from Kingairloch, and it will be noticed that, though the conditions were favour-
able for high numbers, yet they did not rise. A possible explanation is that the
observations were made in a cyclonic area, which we have seen is not favourable for high
numbers. Again, on the 4th July 1892 the observations were made at a distance of 4
miles from Kingairloch in sunshine and N.W. wind, and the numbers are not abnormally
high. This exception, however, is not so difficult to understand, as | find it was a purely
local N.W. wind due to the high mountains. The general circulation at the time was
S.W. There thus remains only the observations taken on the 24th of June 1893 to
suggest that the abnormal readings may be due to some local cause. Great weight must
not, however, be put on this exceptional case, as it will be seen from the diagrams that
at Kingairloch also readings not much higher were obtained in N.W. winds and sunshine.
If these abnormal readings at Kingairloch are due to local pollution, it is evident they
are of a nature and from a source of which we at present have no knowledge.
A third possible explanation of the abnormal readings is, that sunshine under certain
conditions produces some change in the constituents of our atmosphere which gives rise
to something which forms a nucleus in supersaturated air. In Part II. p. 41, in dis-
cussing the Alford observations, it is pointed out that there was a relation between the
curves of dust, temperature, and sunshine. The longer the hours of sunshine, the higher
the number of particles. But as at Alford the southerly winds brought clear skies and
dusty air, it was difficult to make out whether there was anything of the nature of cause
and effect or not. These latter observations, however, seem to suggest that the sun
may cause an increase in the nuclei under certain conditions. The fact that the air,
on the days on which these abnormally high readings were obtained, was not hazed in
proportion to the number of particles, suggests that the nuclei on these sunny days and
N.W. winds are of molecular dimensions, and it even seems possible they may not be
nuclei at all while the air is dry, and only form nuclei in saturated or supersaturated air.
This consideration rather helps to support the sunshine theory of the origin of these very
high numbers.
It is unnecessary to say anything further about these abnormal readings. It is
ATMOSPHERE OF GREAT BRITAIN AND ON THE CONTINENT. 645
evident they must be studied on the spot by experimental methods, and I hope on some
future occasion to have something more definite to say about them. For the present, in
discussing the general results of the dust observations, we must put them aside, and
take only the morning and evening numbers as the dust readings on these abnormal
days.
Dust and Direction of Wind at Kingairloch.
In Part Il. we have seen that the purest winds at this station are those blowing
from the north-west quadrant; the most impure, those blowing from the south-east
quadrant, that is from the direction of the most densely inhabited parts of Scotland.
An examination of the diagrams for 1891, 1892 and 1898 fully confirm this conclusion.
In 1891, from the 7th to the 13th July, the winds were mostly northerly and the
number of particles small, except on the afternoons of the days of abnormal numbers.
From the 14th to the 21st the winds went south-easterly, but, as during the 14th,
15th and 16th, these S.E. winds were only local, the general circulation being still
northerly, the number of particles did not rise much. On the 17th, 18th and 19th the
general circulation was southerly and the number of particles became great. On the
20th and 21st the general circulation became more westerly and the dust decreased.
From the 22nd to the second last day of this year’s observations the wind remained
northerly, and, except on parts of the days of abnormal readings, the number of particles
was very low. It will be noticed that there was generally rather more dust at low than
at high level, and that, except on a few occasions, the dust readings at high and low
level rose and fell together when there were observations at both levels at the same hour.
It will, however, be noticed that on the 7th and 14th the numbers went very much
higher at high than at low level; this was probably due to the two stations at the time
being in different air currents. The day previous to these high readings on the Ben,
the general circulation, as the arrows show, was very mixed, and at the time the read-
ings were taken the winds were blowing from different directions at the two stations.
Coming to the diagram for 1892, it will be seen that from the 30th June to the 9th
July, the general air circulation was a little confused, with hight winds generally from
the W. to N.W. at low level, and the number of particles was generally low. On
the 9th the wind went easterly and the number began to rise, but though it continued
easterly til] the 16th, the number was never high. This was owing to the general
circulation during the most of the period being north-easterly. From the 16th to the
26th the wind was generally northerly and the number of particles low, except on the
days of abnormal readings. On this year also the observations at high and low level
follow each other remarkably closely—generally the low-level curve is the higher, but on
some days it will be noticed they almost coincide, as on the 16th, 17th and 18th July.
When the observations were begun in 1893 the circulation was northerly and the
numbers low. In this condition matters remained from the 22nd to the 26th June.
At the latter date the wind was blowmeg in all directions over our area. A SE.
rc
VOL. XXXVII. PART III. (NO. 28). Fo 0)
646 MR JOHN AITKEN ON THE NUMBER OF DUST PARTICLES IN THE
wind was blowing at high level, which caused the numbers to rise high at that station.
The impure S.E. wind does not seem to have penetrated the valleys on the 26th and
27th, the air being calm at low level and the dust remaining low on both these days,
On the 28th and 29th the circulation was again northerly and numbers low at both
stations, except for a short time. On the 30th the wind changed at both stations to
S.E. and E., and the numbers at both levels became very high on this and on the
following day. On the 2nd and 3rd, however, the wind at low level was again northerly,
and the numbers fell, but from the 4th to the 12th the wind again went south-easterly
at both stations, and on most of these days very high readings were obtained at high
and low levels. From the 13th to the 17th the wind was northerly and the numbers
low, except the abnormal readings already referred to. The readings for Ben Nevis on
the 14th and 15th are marked ‘“‘ Doubtful” by Mr Rankin, owing to there being a calm
on the Ben. A high reading was got at Ben Nevis on the 16th,—this was probably due
to wind being unsteady and southerly. ‘The number at low level was not so high, but
the number is entered as doubtful, owing to the numbers being very irregular at the
hour of testing. On the 17th the wind was northerly and the numbers again low at both
stations, except the abnormal afternoon readings at low level. From the 18th to the
close of the observations the general circulation was south-westerly to north-westerly,
and the numbers at both stations remained low.
These three years’ observations entirely confirm the conclusions arrived at in Part II.
reoarding the relative purity of the winds from different directions. The impure
condition of the south-easterly winds is best marked in the 1893 observations, because
in that year there were more south-easterly winds than in any of the others. The effect
of the impure winds is well marked by the height of the dust curves on the 30th June,
Ist and 2nd July, on the 6th, 7th and 8th, and again on the 10th and 11th July, the
other high parts of the curve on the 13th, 14th and 15th July being the abnormal
afternoon readings.
If we examine the figures and curves for the different years to see if there are any
indications of high readings in sunshine while the wind blows from other than the N.W.
quarter, it is not easy to get a very definite answer; but if there is any rise with other
winds, it is not well marked and it certainly does not take place on anything like the
same scale as with N.W. winds. The wind never seems to have settled long in any of
the other directions, and the change of numbers is often due to change of wind. On
some days it will be seen there was a tendency to rise on some sunny afternoons, but on
other days, under similar conditions, there was no rise; and again, a rise sometimes took
place with clouded skies, so that on this poimt no very decided answer can be given,
other than, if it does occur, the rise is sight and its presence is not manifest in the
diagrams.
Dust and Transparency at Kingairloch.
In Parts I. and II. we have frequently referred to the relation which this investi-
gation has shown to exist between the number of dust particles in the air and its
weet -
Pe ER Saie
tah hd Oe ge ye
pd al Soe al?) 4 eles
ATMOSPHERE OF GREAT BRITAIN AND ON THE CONTINENT. 647
transparency. It has been pointed out that the amount of haze increases with the
number of particles present ; it has also been shown that the hazing effect of the dust is
affected by the humidity of the air at the time. Further, in a paper on the hazing
effects of atmospheric dust* it is shown that, for a given number of dust particles, the
transparency of the air, or absence of haze, is, roughly speaking, directly proportional to
the wet-bulb depression. The effects of the dust and the humidity are also evident in
the observations for 1891, 1892 and 1893.
Looking at Table I. and Diagram I. for 1891, it will be noticed that during the period
of these observations the number of particles on most days was small, and sometimes
very small. And if we look down the column headed “State of the ai” we shall see that
the air during these pure periods was generally clear, and often very clewr, when the
wet-bulb depression was 2° or more. It may be mentioned that when the wet-bulb
depression is less than 2° it is unreliable, as it is generally obtained either immediately
before rain, when the atmosphere is thickening to rain, or immediately after rain, when
the ground and trees are wet,—humidity observations under these conditions are of no
value. It should also be mentioned that all observations made while it is raining must
be rejected when considering the relation between the dust and transparency. The only
days in the 1891 observations when the number of particles was high were the 18th and
19th; but as on these two days the air was very dry, the wet-bulb depression being
generally over 8°, the amount of haze was never great, and the transparency varied from
thickish to clear.
In Tables II. and III. for the years 1892 and 1893 will be found, in the column
headed ‘“ Remarks,” a series of numbers placed between brackets. These numbers
represent the limit of visibility of the air at the time, calculated from observations made
on the amount of haze between the observer and mountains at known distances. As
explained in previous papers, this is done by estimating the amount to which the moun-
tain appears hazed. Say it looks half-hazed, and it is 20 miles distant, then that gives a
limit of visibility of 40 miles. Beyond that distance no mountain could be seen in that
air. These estimates must necessarily be only rough approximations to the transparency,
because at this station they can only be taken in a 8.H. direction, mountains closing
in the view at all other points. This will cause the morning observations to appear more
hazed than the afternoon ones, with the same amount of haze present, owing to the
morning estimates being made in the direction of the sun, while the afternoon ones are
made in a direction at right angles to it. Further, these estimates have to be made
through much of the upper air to the upper slopes of the mountains, and we do not
know enough about the condition of the air at these elevations. Even the Ben Nevis
observations do not supply all that we require, the mountain being so often in cloud, and
the air of which is frequently of a different character from that below the clouds, through
which the estimates have to be made.
* “ On some Observations made without a Dust-Counter on the Hazing Effect of Atmospheric Dust.” Proc. Roy. Soc.,
Edin., vol. xx. p. 76.
648 MR JOHN AITKEN ON THE NUMBER OF DUST PARTICLES IN THE
The transparency observations for 1892 do not. call for any special remarks. On
most of the days the air was pure, and whenever it was at all dry it was clear or very
clear. There are no well-marked periods of dusty air during these observations either
at high or low level. Most of the high readings at low level were the abnormal readings
in N.W. winds and sunshine, while the high readings on the Ben were generally at
night due to impure air brought up by south-easterly winds.
An examination of Table II]. and Diagram III. shows that during the 1893 observa-
tions there were well-marked periods of low and high numbers. As the observations
made during this period are more characteristic of the effects of dust on transparency
than those of the previous years, we shall enter somewhat fully into an analysis of them,
At the outset we may as well remark that, for reasons already given, we must omit in
this analysis all the observations made when there was sunshine and N.W. winds, and
on these days we shall take the morning and evening readings as representing the number
of dust particles for the day.
In previous communications, when discussing the connection between the number of
dust particles and the amount of haze, attention has been called to the necessity of either
comparing only days when the humidities were the same or of making an allowance for
the differences in humidities. What this allowance is has been roughly indicated in the
paper already referred to, on the hazing effect of atmospheric dust. In the present inves-
tigation, however, as in the previous ones, it will be better to compare only days when
the humidity was the same, and then see if the observations made with a dust-counter
confirm the conclusion regarding the effect of humidity arrived at, in the paper referred
to, from observations made without a dust-counter.
To show the hazing effect of the dust in the 1893 observations, the first thing to be
done was to separate the suitable observations in Table III. and rearrange them in tables
according to the wet-bulb depression at the time, so that the humidities of all the obser-
vations in each table should be nearly the same. In one table, as in the previous
investigation, were entered all the observations taken when the wet-bulb depression
was 2° and under; in another, all the observations when it was between 2° and 4°;
in a third, all the observations when it was between 4° and 7°; and in the fourth, all the
observations when it was 7° and over that amount. As there was only one observa-
tion in the first table, that is with a wet-bulb depression of 2°, it was entered into the
next table. The principal reason for there being so few observations with very high
humidity in the tables is, that the wet bulb seldom remains for any length of time at
or below 2°. No observations taken while it was raining, or while the weather was
showery, are available for our present purpose, as humidity and transparency observa-
tions under these conditions are unreliable.
In selecting the observations for our present purpose, single observations were not
generally used, as it was thought a more correct result would be obtained by using periods
during which the conditions remained fairly settled, that is while the number of particles,
the humidity, and the transparency were fairly steady. Sometimes these periods were
ATMOSPHERE OF GREAT BRITAIN AND ON THE CONTINENT. 649
short and covered the time of only two or three observations, but in some cases they
continued all day, and the highest and lowest numbers of particles are given for the
period during which the conditions remained fairly settled. From these highest and
lowest numbers the mean numbers were calculated. As the humidity varies a little
from time to time, the observations were entered in the table most nearly corresponding
to the average humidity of the observations. After all the observations had been arranged
into tables according to the wet-bulb depression at the time, the observations in each table
were then rearranged and put in the order of the number of particles, the observation
with the lowest number being put at the top of the column, all the others being put in
succession, ending with the highest number at the foot. All the observations as
rearranged will be found in Tables [X., X. and XI. In these tables are given the dates
of the observations, the highest and lowest numbers observed, the mean number and the
maximum limit of visibility of the air in miles. If we now look down the column showing
the limit of visibility we shall see that the numbers in this column have also been put in
order, but the order is the reverse of that in the dust column. The highest limit of
visibility is at the top of the column, and the lowest at the foot. In other words, we see
TABLE I[X.—Showing the Relation between the Number of Dust Particles and the Transparency
of the Atmosphere at Kingairloch when the Wet-Bulb Depression was from 2° to 4°.
. Limit of
Lowest Highest Mean Tee
Date. Number. Number Number. Micibility = C.
Miles.
1893.
22nd June 84 420 252 250 63,000 }
13th July 182 392 287 250 71,750 t Mie |
Mist 5, 329 588 458 200 91,600 | 17,525
Mth ,, 1250 2100 1675 50 83,750 J
TABLE X.—Showing the Relation between the Number of Dust Particles and the Transparency
of the Atmosphere at Kingairloch when the Wet-Bulb Depression was from 4° to 7°.
Wate Lowest Highest Mean ae Woes C
; Number. Number. . Number. Miles ;
1893.
14th July 85 850 467 250 116,750 }
26th June 336 725 530 250 132,500
18th July 483 775 628 130 81,640 Mee
25th June 109 1375 % 742% 200 148,400 + 105.923
4th July 635 1050 842 40 (33,680) 3
27th June 1350 1700 1525 50 76,250
2nd July 1600 2400 2000 40 80,000 |
650 MR JOHN AITKEN ON THE NUMBER OF DUST PARTICLES IN THE
that the highest limit of visibility is always associated with the lowest number of dust
particles.
In Table [X. the decrease in limit with increase in dust is regular and fairly propor-
tional to the increase. In Table X. the decrease in limit is not quite so regular. On the
18th July the limit was rather low, and on the 25th it was considerably too high. The
reason for the limit being low on the 18th is that the air was then thickening before
rain, which began at 1 p.m., shortly after the observations were taken. The reason for
the undue clearness for the amount of dust on the 25th is that the 25th was one of the
abnormal days with high afternoon readings, and when the evening observation was
taken the number had not fallen to its lowest, as was evidenced by the fact that the
lowest reading on this evening was four times greater than the number next morning,
and there was no change in the conditions to cause the fall. It is therefore in the
highest degree probable that the mean number of particles in the table on the 25th is
too high, and that this observation should have come in higher up the table. This
would have made the numbers representing the limit of visibility decrease more regu-
larly from the top to the bottom of the column. Passing on to the observations made
on the 4th July, Table X., it is evident that the limit is much too low—it ought to have
been at least twice what it was for the number of particles. The increase in dust from |
the previous observation in the table is not great, while the decrease in the limit of
visibility is very great, and I am sorry to say I cannot offer any satisfactory explanation
of this exceptional observation. The dust was rapidly increasing at high level, but the
number was not great. The only suggestion I can offer is that while the weather charts
show the general circulation over our area to have been N.E., the wind at low level
was E., and on the Ben 8.E., and it seems possible that the impure 8.E. wind may
have been blowing at a higher level than Kingairloch, but the wind being slight it was
TaBLeE XI.—Showing the Relation between the Number of Dust Particles and the Transparency
of the Atmosphere at Kingairloch when the Wet-Bulb Depression was 7° and above.
: Limit of
Lowest Highest Mean Se Satis Sieg
aa Number. abe Number. ee ss C.
iles.
1893.
12th July 247 530 388 250 97,000
24th June 67 950 508 200 iol 60.
15th July 245 1412 828 200 165,600
3rd_sy, 564 1150 857 150 128,550
5th ,, 511 2450 1480 100 148,000 | yroan
6th ,, 900 2292 1596 80 127,680 C140 698
Tithe iy 1350 2300 1825 100 182,500 <s
30th June 3200 4700 3950 60 237,000
8th July 3200 5000 4100 50 205,000 |
1th 5, 3700 6500 5100 L7 86,700 |
Ist ,, 3450 6900 5175 13 67,275 |
ATMOSPHERE OF GREAT BRITAIN AND ON THE CONTINENT. 651
not till next day that the numbers became high on Ben Nevis. The results obtained
from this day’s observations are so exceptional that they have been omitted from the
calculations to be referred to later.
Coming now to the observations in Table XL, it will be noted that the decrease in the
limit of visibility is not quite regular. For instance, when the observations were made on
the 11th, the limit was much too great for the amount of dust. By reference to Table III.
it will be seen that there is only one observation during the period of the observations on
the 11th when the limit was so wide as 100 miles. The other observations gave only 50
miles. Further, the air was excessively dry, the wet-bulb depression being 10°, which may
in part have accounted for the great clearness. The limit on the 30th June was also too
wide. ‘This seems to have been due to a change of wind taking place that day. It was
northerly the night before, and in the morning the air was pure and the limit of visi-
bility considerable in the forenoon, and it would appear that the impure easterly wind
had only imperfectly displaced the pure air, and the undue clearness on this day was due
to the upper air being still pure. ‘This explanation is supported by the fact that on Ben
Nevis the numbers were low in the morning, rising in the afternoon, and became very
high near midnight. Again, the limit on the 8th of July was too high. This may have
been due to the limit entered in the tables being too high, as it was only so clear as to
give a limit of 50 miles for a short time, when the wet-bulb depression was as much as
10°. Half an hour before and half an hour after the 50-mile limit was taken, it was
only 26 miles. As the maximum limit observed has been generally used in these tables
it was thought better to keep to the rule, though in some cases it is not satisfactory.
On the other hand, on the 7th and 1st of July the air was too thick for the dust and
humidity. The cause of the thickness on the 7th was the heavy and lowering sky, with
little ight; further, the amount of dust at the high-level station was excessive. On the
Ist July there were few clouds, but the amount of dust at high level was very great,
which partly explains the low limit of visibility on this day.
The observations taken in 1892 have also been arranged in tables in a similar manner
to show the relation between the dust and the transparency. During the time observa-
tions were made in 1892 the weather was not very suitable for our present purpose, as
it was frequently raining, and thus fewer suitable observations were obtained than in
1893. The suitable observations for 1892 will be found arranged in Tables XII. and
XIII. There were only two observations taken when the wet-bulb depression was under
4°, and as the conditions did not remain settled for long, the observations have been
omitted. There is thus no table with observations with humidity under 4° in the 1892
observations.
The observations in Table XII. for wet-bulb depression of from 4° to 7°, like the
observations in 1893, show the limit of visibility decreasing with the increase of dust.
Table XIII. also shows the same result. But the value of the limits of visibility are not
quite so satisfactory as they at first appear. For instance, taking Table XII. on the
18th July, with so small a number of particles as 126 per c.c., we are entitled to expect
652 MR JOHN AITKEN ON THE NUMBER OF DUST PARTICLES IN THE
w greater limit of visibility than 250 miles. This, however, may be explained by the fact
that when the air is very clear it is very difficult to estimate the amount of haze, and all
very clear days have simply been put down at 250 miles, so that, though they had been
clearer than the figures indicate, they would still have been entered as only 250 miles.
The observations, however, on the 22nd did not show the air to have its maximum clear-
ness, though the number of particles was very low. ‘The reason for this is that, during
the period of the observations on that day, it was raining on the hills, and as the under-
side of the clouds was ragged, it looked as if raining overhead, and the drops seemed to
evaporate in the lower air before coming to the ground. The upper air would thus be
unduly damp, and therefore thicker than it would have been under ordinary conditions.
The only other number in this table calling for remark is the highest number of particles
on the 23rd. It was too high, owing to the number not having fallen from the abnormal _
sunshine maximum. In Table XIII. the mean number of particles is too high for the
visibility on the 17th, 13th, 25th, 10th and 15th. This was owing to the evening
numbers on the first three of these days not having fallen from the sunshine maximum
to near their lowest number, or to what they were the next morning. ‘The high reading
TABLE XII.—Showing the Relation between the Number of Dust Particles and the Transparency
of the Atmosphere at Kingairloch when the Wet-Bulb Depression was from 4° to 7°.
: Limit of
Lowest Highest Mean Amu eis
Date. Number. N Gapep Number. Lirica ue C.
iles.
1892.
18th July 123 129 126 250 (31,500)
22nd ,, 132 245 188 200 2 (37,600)
20th ,, 308 675 49] 200 98,200
15th ,, 750 975 862 130 112,060 | Mean,
Jord 5. 290 1800 2 1045? 130 135,850 { 116,677
ache 1250 3575 2412 50 120,600
TaBLeE XIII.—Showing the Relation between the Number of Dust Particles and the Transparency
of the Atmosphere at Kingairloch when the Wet-Bulb Depression was T° and over.
7 Limit of
Lowest Highest Mean erect:
Date. Number. N eae Number. ee ae C.
iles.
1892.
16th July 161 359 260 250 65,000 |
LS tee 952 1225 % 738% 250 184,500
13th 5 900 2 1025 2 962 2 250 240,500 Wear
12th ,, 385 1125 (55) 200 151,000 174 832
25th ,, 511 12501 880 2 200 176,000 | ~~
LOth: .,; 925 1500 ? We 150 181,800
15th ,, 462 3000 2 17312 130 225,030 |
ATMOSPHERE OF GREAT BRITAIN AND ON THE CONTINENT. 655
on the 10th was due to the direction of the wind in the early morning. On the
15th the conditions were so very uncertain that observations for that day might have
been omitted with advantage. All the numbers that are too high in the table have a
note of interrogation placed after them. The observations, as entered in Tables [X., X.,
XI., XII. and XIII., show very clearly the relation between the number of dust particles
and the transparency of the air. It is true the figures do not fit exactly into their places,
but it is not a little remarkable that they should fit as close as they do, considering
the ditticulty of making estimates of haze, and also the probability that the particles will
not always be of the same size, which will influence their hazing power. And when we
further consider that most of the readings which do not fit into their places have to a
certain extent been accounted for, I think it will be admitted that the agreement is as
close as we are entitled to expect in an investigation of this kind.
These tables show that the amount of haze depends on the number of dust particles
in the air between the observer and the object looked at, and the limits of visibility for
the different numbers show the different lengths of air required to produce the same
effect, namely, complete haze. From this it follows that the limit of visibility multiplied
by the number of particles ought to be a constant. This will be so, as it seems probable
that the same number of particles will produce the same amount of haze, whether the
particles be distributed through a long or a short length of air; that is, the limit of
visibility will always be stopped by the same number of particles per unit of section
whatever the length of the column may be. In Tables [X., X., XI, XII. and XIII
will be found, under column C, a series of numbers obtained by multiplying the mean
number of particles into the limit of visibility. It will be seen that the value of C in
Tables IX. and X. are fairly constant, considering the conditions and omitting the
exceptional readings obtained on the 4th July. In Table XI. the values of C are
not quite so constant, but if allowance were made for the conditions under which
some of the observations were taken, as already explained, the agreement would be
much better.
In calculating the mean value of Cin Table X. the observations made on the 4th
July have been omitted, and in Table XII. the observations made on the 18th and 22nd
have been omitted for the reasons already given.
If we compare the value of C obtained from the 1892 observations with C in the
1893 observations, we find that for wet-bulb depression of from 4° to 7° the agreement is
fair: the mean for C in 1893 is 105,923, while for 1892 it is 116,677, or 10 per cent.
higher. The agreement between the observations when the air was very dry in the two
years, as given in Tables XI. and XIII., is not at all good. In 1893 C=140,628, while
in 1892 C=174,832. The reason for this much higher number in 1892, as has been
already pointed out, is due to many of the dust observations in the 1892 table being too
high. It is on account of these 1892 observations not being so satisfactory as those
made in 1893 that they have been kept in separate tables, and we shall look on the
values of C as given by the 1893 observations as nearest the truth.
WOL, XXXVII. PART III. (NO. 28). 5 F
654 MR JOHN AITKEN ON THE NUMBER OF DUST PARTICLES IN THE
Hunudity and Transparency.
If we examine the numbers for the mean values of C in the tables for 1893 it will be
seen that it has very different values at the different humidities. When the wet-bulb
depression is from 2° to 4° its value is not much more than half of what it is when
the wet-bulb depression is 7° and over, which being interpreted is that a much smaller
number of particles limits the visibility in damp than in dry air. To find what the actual
number of particles is that produces complete haze at the different humidities we have
only to multiply the value of C at the different humidities by 160,932, the number of
centimetres in a mile. When this is done we get the following numbers of particles
required to produce a complete haze at the different wet-bulb depressions, and it is
independent of the limit of visibility.
TABLE XIV.
Number of Particles of Dust to
MUSES EOS produce Complete Haze.
2° to 4° 12,500,000,000
4° to 7° 17,100,000,000
7° to 10° 22,600,000,000
The figures given in Tables [X. to XIII. bring out, in a much more satisfactory manner
than anything I have been able previously to give, the relation between the haze and the
amount of dust, and the humidity. ‘The effect of the dust is very evident in all these
tables ; the transparency decreases in all of them fairly regularly with the increase in dust.
Take, for instance, Table XI.: with about 400 particles per c.c. the limit of visibility is
250 miles ; with increasing dust the limit gradually diminishes as we descend the column,
and at the foot of the table we find that with a little over 5000 particles per c.c. the
limit is about 15 miles.
To see the effect of humidity we have only to compare Tables [X., X. and XI. It will
be seen from them that as the air increases in dryness the limit of visibility for a given
number of particles increases. The effect of the humidity can also be seen in the different
values of C in the different tables, and its effect is perhaps better seen in Table XIV.
It may be as well to note here that it is not the absolute amount of vapour in the
atmosphere which produces this result,—it is the nearness of the vapour to its dew point.
As has been pointed out in previous papers, the water vapour does not seem to act as a
hazing agent itself; at least we have no evidence of it acting in that way ; but it increases
the hazing effect of the dust by more or less of it being deposited on the particles, so
increasing their size and their hazing effect. If we have a high temperature, and there
ATMOSPHERE OF GREAT BRITAIN AND ON THE CONTINENT. 655
is a large amount of vapour present, the air will be clear, with even a slight wet-bulb
depression if the number of particles be few, but it will be greatly hazed if the number
be great. If now the temperature of the same air be raised so that there is still the
same amount of vapour present, but a considerable wet-bulb depression, the vapour will
have a much less hazing effect. In other words, the hazing effect of the humidity is
proportional to the relative, not to the absolute, humidity. It should be remarked that
from some observations in Part I. it would appear that the absolute humidity has also
a slight effect, and that very hot days are hazed generally more than cold ones. This
may result from two causes: one the higher tension of the vapour enabling the dust
to condense more moisture, the other the irregular mixing of the highly heated air causing
a kind of hazing effect.
We shall now examine the results of this investigation, as shown in these tables, on
the effect of the humidity on the transparency of the air, and compare them with the
conclusions we arrived at on this point, from observations made on the hazing effect of
atmospheric dust, in the paper already referred to. In that paper it is shown that the
clearness of the atmosphere, for each direction of wind, depends on its dryness, becoming
about 3°7 times clearer when the wet-bulb depression was 8° than when it was 2°. That
is, for a given amount of impurity the clearness was nearly proportional to the wet-bulb
depression. If we examine Tables IX., X. and XL, we shall see that this conclusion is con-
firmed by the results of the present investigation. In the previous investigation we had
observations as low as 2° of wet-bulb depression, but in this one we have no tables under 4° ;
we have therefore not such a wide range of humidities to deal with. The mean wet-bulb
depression of all the observations in Table [X. is only about half the mean of those in Table
XI. The value of the hazing effect will be inversely proportional to C. From this number
in the two tables we see that the damper air has a little more than double the hazing effect
of the drier. Perhaps this is more clearly shown in Table XIV., where it is seen that a
complete haze is produced in the damper air by little more than half the number of
particles required to produce the same effect in air dry enough to give twice the wet-bulb
depression. It was impossible to separate the observations in the tables rigorously
to the wet-bulb depressions at the time, as the amounts varied a little during the periods
selected. It may, however, be taken that most of the observations in Table IX. were not
much under 4°, while those in Table XI. were about 8°, so that the observations in the
latter table will have fully twice the wet-bulb depression of those in the former. The
conclusion, therefore, pointed to by these tables is the same as that previously come to,
namely, that the transparency of the air increases with the dryness, and for a given
number of dust particles it is nearly but not quite proportional to the wet-bulb
depression. In the former paper we came to this conclusion from observations made
on the transparency of the air in winds from different directions at different humidities,
and in this investigation the same conclusion is arrived at by finding that when the
air gives twice the wet-bulb depression it requires nearly double the number of particles
to produce the same amount of haze as the damper air. Table XIV. shows the relation
656 MR JOHN AITKEN ON THE NUMBER OF DUST PARTICLES IN THE
between the number of particles, the humidity and the haze, so that, knowing any two
of them, we can calculate the third.
Dust and Transparency on Ben Nevis.
We shall now examine the Ben Nevis observations for the periods shown in Dia-
grams I., I]. and III., and see if we can find in them any information as to the effect
of the dust on the transparency at high level. Passing over the 1891 observations, as
there are in the report for that year very few observations of transparency, we come to
the observations made in 1892, which are more full, and give us some information as to
the effect of the dust at that station. It should be kept in mind that we can only get
information as to the state of the air at this station on a small proportion of the days.
The top of the Ben is so frequently im cloud that for many days in succession
no extended view can be obtained. The scale of transparency used at the Ben Nevis
Observatory is from 0 to 4: 0 when in cloud, and 4 when it is at its maximum clearness,
All days on which the Observatory was free from cloud will be now referred to.
On the 4th July the transparency was a maximum, and dust at high and low level
was very low, as will be seen from Diagram I]. Next day the clouds settled on the
mountain and remained till the 10th; on that day the transparency was 3 to 4, and the
number was low at both levels in the morning. But in the afternoon a bank of haze
was seen to the 8S. and S.E. This bank of haze seems to have arrived at the Ben by
7 p.M., as the numbers were then high and continued to rise. On the 12th the air
attained a transparency of 3, and the dust was low at both stations. On the following
day the air was still as clear, and, as will be seen from the diagram, the number was low
at high and low levels, except the afternoon readings at low level. On the
16th the maximum transparency was again attained, and an examination of the diagram
for this day shows that the dust was very low and continued very low during the whole
of the day. At high level the mean number was about 160 per c.c., and at low level
about 200 per c.c., so that, taking the day as a whole, it was one of the purest observed.
The Ben Nevis report says, ‘Ireland seen, only a thin haze.” As Ireland is 125 miles
distant, the air must have been excessively clear to give only a thin haze at that distance.
The day following, the 17th, was also very clear, while the diagram at first sight seems
to indicate a fair amount of dust. It will, however, be observed that the Ben Nevis high-
dust observation is connected with dotted lines showing it to be doubtful, owing, the Ben
Nevis report says, to “ the presence of tourists on the roof and to a calm,” while the high
numbers at low level on this day were due to a purely local 8.E. wind which did not
blow at high level. The clouds cleared for a short time on the 18th, when the trans-
parency was 3, and the amount of dust slight at both levels. On the 20th and 21st the
transparency was 3. Only the morning and evening readings at low level can, however,
be taken for the 20th, as it was one of the days with abnormal readings. The dust,
however, at high level on the 20th and 21st was low all day. All these observations ies
ATMOSPHERE OF GREAT BRITAIN AND ON THE CONTINENT. 657
1892 show the air to be clear when the amount of dust is small, but they offer no
information as to the effect of a large number of particles. This point is better brought
out in the 1893 observations, to which we shall now refer.
The first day in the 1893 observations when the mountain was free of cloud was the
26th of June ; the transparency was 4, and Diagram III. shows that the amount of dust
at both levels was small. On the 30th the transparency was 3. “Fog and haze were
observed in the valley” in the morning. It will be seen from the diagram that the
amount of dust was small at both stations in the morning, but rapidly rose at low level.
The Ben Nevis report for 7 p.m. says, “ Haze bank to 8.E. and 8.” This haze appears to
have begur to affect the dust readings shortly after mid-day ; the number of particles was
fairly high at 7 p.m. and was very high at 10 p.m., at which hour the transparency was
reduced to 1, there being “a thick haze all round.” On the following day, the 1st July,
observations were fortunately again possible, this being one of the days in the 1893 dusty
periods. On this occasion, though the air was dry, the transparency was never more than
1. The diagram shows that at both stations the amount of dust was great on this day.
On the 2nd the amount of dust was less and the transparency had increased to 2.
On the 3rd the amount of dust was still much the same as on the 2nd, and the
transparency was again 2. The 5th had a transparency of from 2 to 3, and the amount
of dust at both levels was not great. In the Ben Nevis report for this day, “ Haze in
valleys” occurs two or three times. This hazy impurity does not seem to have penetrated
to the Ben or to Kingairloch on this day. Next morning, that is on the 6th, the trans-
parency was still 3, and remained at that figure till mid-day, and during that time the
amount of dust was low at both stations. In the afternoon, however, the transparency
fell to 1, and the number of particles had increased to a high figure at both levels by
that time. The low transparency and great amount of dust observed this afternoon were
probably due to the arrival that day of the haze observed the day previous. On the 7th
the transparency was only 1, and the amount of dust was very great at both stations. It
became clearer on the morning of the 8th, being then from 1 to 2, and the amount of
dust was also less, but clouds came in the afternoon and closed out the view. On the
11th the transparency was 2, and dust at both levels above the mean. ‘The 15th was a
clear day, transparency being 3 to 4, and the diagram shows that the amount of dust
was small, if we omit the doubtful high readings on the Ben, also the abnormal ones in
the afternoon at low level. It was clear in the early morning of the 16th, when the
amount of dust was small, but no transparency observations were possible after 7 a.m.
The early morning of the 18th was also very clear and the amount of dust very low.
After that date mist covered the mountain top till the close of the observations in the
diagram for 1893.
The conclusions arrived at from the 1893 observations are, that on all the days on
which the air attained its maximum clearness the number of particles was low, and on all
the days on which it had a minimum transparency, or maximum of haze, the number of
particles was great, the least transparency being observed from the 30th June to the Ist
658 MR JOHN AITKEN ON THE NUMBER OF DUST PARTICLES IN THE
July, and from the 6th to the 8th July, two well-marked periods of impure air, as shown
by the height of the dust curves in Diagram III.
Alford.
The last set of observations entered in Tables I., II. and III. are those made at
Alford, in Aberdeenshire. They were all made in the month of September of the different
years. It will be seen from these tables that the air at this station is generally very
pure, unless when the wind is southerly. With all but southerly winds the number of
particles is seldom over 500 per c.c., but when the wind goes to that direction and blows
from inhabited areas the number generally rises to some thousands. The relation be-
tween the transparency of the air and the number of dust particles has also been worked
out from these Alford observations, and the results are given in Tables XV., XVI. and
XVII. The observations in these tables are arranged in the same manner as already
explained when treating of the Kingairloch tables.
The Alford observations are not so trustworthy as those made at Kingairloch, very
few estimates of haze having been made in miles, owing to there being no suitable
mountain visible from the former station, and the transparency of the air has generally
been entered in the tables simply as Thick, Medium, Clear, &c.; and in putting these
into miles for Tables XV., XVI. and XVII. I have used as near as possible the equivalent
values adopted in the other sets of observations. The occasions when the air was very
clear are entered as 250 miles limit of visibility, clear as 100 miles, and so on. All the
suitable observations in Tables [., Il. and III. taken at Alford in the different years have
been treated as one set, and not separated into tables for the different years as was done
for the Kingairloch observations.
It will be noticed that the values of the constant C for the different wet-bulb depres-
sions are not quite the same as those given in the Kingairloch tables for 1893. When
the wet-bulb depression was 4° and under, values in the two tables agree fairly well, the
TABLE XV.—Showing the Relation between the Number of Dust Particles and the Transparency
of the Atmosphere at Alford when the Wet-Bulb Depression was from 2° to 4°.
| : Limit of
Lowest Highest Mean seaman e rs
Dare: Number. | Number. Number. baer sy u
| iles.
2nd September 1893 231 | 245 238 250 59,500
lst ‘ - 248 252 250 250 62,500
7th " “i 490 554 522 200 104,400 M
27th fi 1892 580i a 580 100? 58,000 } 75 Piz
8th - 1893 675 800 737 100 73,700 :
23rd a 1892 1150 1675 1412 60 S720 |
| 23rd ; 1891 2850 2850 30 85,500
ATMOSPHERE OF GREAT BRITAIN AND ON THE CONTINENT. 659
Kingairloch number being 77,525 and the Alford one 75,474. But the values of C do
not agree so well for wet-bulb depression of from 4° to 7°. The Kingairloch figure is
105,923, while the Alford one is only 95,153, or about 10 per cent. less. One reason for
this is, that in the Alford observations there are a great many of them made in very pure
air, and it will be seen from the tables for both stations that all the observations made
when there are few particles give a low value for C. In the Alford observations for wet-
bulb depression of from 4° to 7°, half of the observations were made in air with less
than 500 particles per c.c., while in the corresponding observations at Kingairloch there
was only one. The reason of the low value of C in pure air is probably due to the
difficulty of making estimates of haze in very pure air; and as 250 miles has been taken
TABLE XVI.—Showing the Relation between the Number of Dust Particles and the Transparency
of the Atmosphere at Alford when the Wet-Bulb Depression was from 4° to 7°.
. Limit of
Lowest Highest Mean peas oe
ae Number. Number. Number. bees “a C.
iles.
18th September 1891 94 315 204 250 51,000 |
24th ig 1892 196 217 206 250 51,500
17th 43 - 308 322 315 250 78,750
13th a 1893 56 616 jal 250 82,750
29th ey 1892 350 me 350 250 87,500
28th 53 5 294 469 381 250 95,250
3 a 1891 385 392 388 250 97,000 | 47
7th a 1893 455 = 455 250 113,750 } 95 Sie
6th sé, S 485 cs A485 250 121,250 | °”
9th is . 427 To 582 200 116,400
26th 5 1892 530 750 640 100? (64,000)
5th 3 1893 975 Pie 975 100 97,500
25th " 1891 1025 bet 1025 100 102,500
5th 1893 2800 oe 2800 40 112,000
25th 33 1891 4200 wes 4200 30 126,000 J
TaBLE XVII.—Showing the Relation between the Number of Dust Particles and the Transparency
of the Atmosphere at Alford when the Wet-Bulb Depression was 7° and above.
: Limit of
Lowest Highest Mean Speen ran en
Date. Number. Neer Number. ah ” C.
iles.
15th September 1893 238 273 255 250 63,750 }
6th - s 434 NA 434 250 108,500
29th - 1891 497 607 552 250 138,000 M
19th i i" 483 950 716 250 179,000 } 45 ea
3 os 1892 469 524 496 250 124,000 | ~"”
12th a 1893 1025 1400 1212 100 121,200
5th - in 1400 sab 1400 100 140,000 |
660 MR JOHN AITKEN ON THE NUMBER OF DUST PARTICLES IN THE
as the extreme limit, all very pure air has been put at that figure. These tables,
however, suggest that this limit is too low by about one-half for exceptionally pure air.
Coming now to the observations made when the wet-bulb depression was 7° and
over, the values of C in this case are far from being alike. The Kingairloch figure is
140,628, while the Alford one is only 124,921, or 11 per cent. less. In this case the
oreater purity of the air is not responsible for the difference. The probable cause is the
ereater humidity of the Alford observations. In all the Alford observations, with the
exception of those made on the 29th and 19th September 1891, the wet-bulb depression
was scarcely over 7°, and on these days the value of C was high, while in the Kingairloch
table the mean wet-bulb aso of all the observations was greater than in the
Alford table.
Callievar.
When at Alford four ascents were made of Callievar, once in 1889, once in 1890, and
twice in 1892. Callievar is situated at a distance of 5 or 6 miles from Alford, and is
1747 feet high. The state of the air on the occasions of these four visits was very —
different. It will be seen from Parts I. and II. on this subject that on the occasion of
the first visit the number of particles was smal] and the air clear, all the distant
mountains being visible ; and on the occasion of the second visit none of the distant
mountains were visible and there was much dust in the air. As will be seen from Table
II., on the day the first visit was made in 1892 the air was very thick and the
number of particles very great; but when the second visit was made the following day
the air was remarkably clear, all the distant mountains very distinct, and the number of
particles was small. Unfortunately, on the first visit no observations were made of the
temperature or the humidity, so that the dust observations on that day are of little value.
Let us now compare these observations on the hazing effect of the dust made on
Callievar with those made at low level, and see how far they agree. In Table XVIIL. are
arranged the Callievar observations in the same manner as has been done for the
Kingairloch and Alford ones, only in this case, as there are so few observations, they have
been arranged in one table, and the wet-bulb depression is given in a separate column.
TaBLE XVIIIL—Showing the Relation between the Number of Dust Particles and the a,
of the Atmosphere on Callievur at different Wet-Bulb Depressions.
Limit of
Wet-Bulb Mean ERE A
Date: Depression. Number. ete = C.
24th September 1892 6°5 196 250 49,000
| hguee > 1889 ? 387 100 38,700
22nd se 1890 4-9 1184 30 35,520
23rd be 1892 4-9 1283 20 25,660
ATMOSPHERE OF GREAT BRITAIN AND ON THE CONTINENT. 661
In this table, as in the others, the regular decrease in the limit of visibility with
the increase in dust is very evident, and the observations also agree very well with
each other. Tor instance, if we compare the results obtained on 24th September 1892,
the first observation in the table, with those taken on the 22nd September 1890 and
23rd September 1892, the two last observations, we find that the increase in the
thickness of the atmosphere is proportional to the increase in the dust, after allowance is
made for the greater humidity on the two last days. But when we come to calculate C
from these Callievar observations we get a result that does not agree at all with the
observations made at low level. From Table XVIII. it will be seen that C for Callievar
is only about half of what we obtained from the observations made at Kingairloch and
Alford.
The Value of C at High Level.
The much smaller number obtained for the value of C from the Callievar observations
casts a doubt on the value of these haze observations, or on the manner of working them
out. The first thing that suggests itself as the cause of the lower value of C at high level
is, that when we are observing at low level we may be testing locally impure air, which is
confined to a thin layer next the surface of the earth, while, when we are estimating the
haze, we are looking through only a little of this impure lower air and through much of the
purer upper air. Thus the number of particles observed at low level is too great, because
we have assumed that there are the same number through the whole air in which we
estimated the haze. On the other hand, at high level we count the number of particles
in the same air, or at least more nearly the same air, as we estimate the haze. The
value of C at high level ought, therefore, to be less than at low. The question then is,
what allowance ought to be made for this? In fact, what is the difference between the
amount of dust at high and at low level ?
Diagrams I., II. and III. show that there is generally less dust at high than at low
level. C, as obtained from the Kingairloch observations, is therefore too high, but it
would be difficult to say how much too high, as the difference varies from day to day,
and some days it is not too high, and occasionally it is too low. It would, however,
appear that the Kineairloch value is not too high to anything like the amount indicated
by the Callievar observations, because the air at Kingairloch is not lable to local
pollution, and the lower air is not much less pure than the upper, with the wind from
most directions. If, however, we were observing at, say, Baveno, where the air is locally
polluted, the result would be very different. We see from the observations made at
different levels at that station, given in Tables IV. and V., that there is a great difference
in the number of particles at high and low level. At 2000 feet there were on an average
less than half the number at low level. The value of C at Baveno would therefore
be much too great. We must not, however, place great weight on the Callievar
observations, as there are only three of them, the fourth being valueless on account of
the absence of humidity observations.
VOL. XXXVII. PART III. (NO. 28). oG
662
MR JOHN AITKEN ON THE NUMBER OF DUST PARTICLES IN THE
It was thought it might be interesting to see how far the Callievar observations were
supported by other high-level observations.
The Rigi Kulm observations have therefore
been reduced to tables, in the same manner as the other observations, and the results
will be found in Tables XIX., XX. and XXI.
Unfortunately, all the Rigi observations
are not suitable for this purpose, but all of them taken when estimates of haze were
made and the conditions fairly steady have been used. High numbers due to the daily
maximum, calms, &c., were omitted. From these last tables it will be seen that when
TABLE XIX.—Showing the Relation between the Number of Dust Particles and the Transparency
of the Atmosphere on the Rigi Kulm when the Wet-Bulb Depression was between 2° and 4°.
|
Lowest Highest
Date. Number. Number.
19th May 1891 428 690
22nd ,, 1889 434 850
16th ~,, 1893 1225 2600
Mean
Number.
559
642
1912
Limit of
Visibility in
Miles.
150
100
40
83,850
64,200
77,480
| Mean,
f 75,176
TABLE XX.—Showving the Relation between the Number of Dust Particles and the Transparency —
of the Atmosphere on the Rigi Kulm when the Wet-Bulb Depression was between 4° and 7°. -
15th
23rd
|
Date.
| 23rd May 1891.
> 1898.
» 1892.
Lowest
Number.
478
925
1350
Highest
Number.
535
1375
1425
Mean
Number.
Teetoe
Visibility in C.
Miles.
200 101,200
100 115,000 } Mean,
70 97,090
104,430
TABLE XXI.—Showing the Relation between the Number of Dust Particles and the Transparency
of the Atmosphere on the Rigi Kulm when the Wet-Bulb Depression was 7° and over. |
20th
24th
”
19th
23rd
25th
14th
Date.
21st May 1891.
”
” 1889.
; 1890"
,, 1889.
, 1892.
, (1898 .
Lowest
Number.
378
526
350
532
375
515
843
1100
Highest
Number.
458
683
685
580
775
1100
850
1750
Mean
Number.
418
505
517
556
575
807
846
1425
Limit of
Visibility in
Miles.
200
150
250
250
250
200
140
100
pe)
75,750
129,250
139,000 | Mean,
143,750 { 124,211 |
161,400
118,440
142,500
ATMOSPHERE OF GREAT BRITAIN AND ON THE CONTINENT. 663
the air was damp and wet-bulb depression under 4° the value of C is nearly the same as
that obtained from the Kingairloch and Alford observations; and at the other wet-bulb
depressions the differences are not great, as will be seen from the following table, in
which are arranged the different values of C at the different wet-bulb depressions
obtained from the observations taken at the different stations.
TABLE XXII.
Values of C at different wet-bulb
depressions.
Place.
Qe tors A ito) 7° and over.
Kingairloch, 1893. : : : : 17,525 105,923 140,628
a sy : : ; . | No observations 116,677 174,832
Alford : ; ' : ; : 75,474 | 95,153 124,921
Rigi Kulm . : : 3 : . 75,176 104,430 124,211
Mean . 5 76,058 | 105,545 141,148
It will be noticed that the Kingairloch values for 1893 are very near the mean, and
the observations at that station are the most trustworthy.
I must admit that the figures in the table appear to agree far too well. Accident
must have assisted greatly in bringing out so close an agreement as above indicated. I
may, however, state that no efforts have been made, while selecting the observations for
the tables, to bring about this agreement; all the suitable observations were used. The
figures are exactly as they were first entered in their different tables. Only two or three
alterations were made when revising them, and before any calculations were made.
From the great differences in the values of C in the different observations, it is evident
that the close agreement of the final values at the different wet-bulb depressions must be
very much accidental. The conditions, and the small number of observations in each
table, show that this must be so. There are, however, the Callievar observations, which
are far from agreeing with the others, and warn us of probable errors in the value of C.
Dust and Sunshine.
We have seen from the Kingairloch observations that there was an extraordinary
increase in the number of. particles when the sun was shining and N.W. winds blowing,
and we naturally turn to the Alford observations to see if we have in them any
confirmation of this phenomenon. We however look in vain for any such abnormal
Increase under any conditions with sunshine at Alford, all the high numbers there
being due to southerly winds. In Tables L., II. and III. will be found many days on
which the sun shone and the numbers remained low all day. It is possible there may on the
average have been a slight increase with sunshine, but if there was, it was slight, and might
664 MR JOHN AITKEN ON THE NUMBER OF DUST PARTICLES IN THE
possibly have been due to local pollution caused by an increase of household fires during the
day. These Kingairloch abnormal readings, therefore, stand by themselves, and may be a
purely local phenomenon, or due to some cause of which at present we know nothing.
In Part IL. it was shown that there was generally much dust when there was much
sunshine at Alford ; but on the sunny days at Alford the number was high morning, noon,
and evening, whereas at Kingairloch the number was only high after the sun had been
shining some time, and often not till the afternoon. It will, however, be necessary to
keep the abnormal Kingairloch observations in view in the future, as, if the sun have any
such effect, it will modify our views regarding the amount of dust on the shores of the
Mediterranean, where there is so much sunshine, and on the daily maximum on mountains,
which may in part be due to this cause, as it is most marked on sunny days, which heat
the air and cause the rising of the valley air. As, however, the increase in dust is
frequently accompanied by an increase in the humidity, it seems probable the air came
from the valley. Further, there is little or no indication of a daily maximum with winds
from unpolluted areas.
Purifying Areas.
What may be called purifying areas on the earth’s surface are those areas, or districts,
in which the atmosphere loses more impurity than it receives. In all densely inhabited
districts it is losing its purity, and in all uninhabited areas it is regaining it, but all
uninhabited areas are not equally good purifiers. The quantity of solid matter in the
shape of dust and other impurities that are daily thrown into our atmosphere by artificial
causes, by volcanic eruptions, and by the disintegration of meteoric matter attracted by
the earth is so great, that if it were not got rid of it would soon accumulate and produce
conditions very different from those we find at present on the surface of the earth. Part.
of this dust no doubt settles out and falls to the ground, and can be seen on the surface
of snow when it lies a few days, but much of the dust is so fine it will scarcely settle of
itself. The deposition of vapour on these very small particles seems to be the method
adopted by nature for getting rid of them. As cloud particles form on dust particles, and
these in turn form rain drops and fall to the earth, we naturally expect to find that there
will be the least dust in the air where this process of purification is going on to the greatest
extent. This we find is actually the case. Most of the low numbers in the tables were
observed during rainy weather and the very low ones in misty rain, when the clouds were
at, or near, the surface of the earth. This experience is confirmed by the observations
made on Ben Nevis. At that station, also, the abnormally low numbers were got in cloud
and close misty rain ; that is, in the area in which the dust particles are being loaded with
water or washed out by the rain. It, however, must be admitted that the evidence of
the washing power of the rain is at present not very satisfactory. The air may be
purer after the rain, but as we are not then testing the same air we tested before the
rain began, we cannot say what the condition may be of the air which passed us when
we made the first test.
ATMOSPHERE OF GREAT BRITAIN AND ON THE CONTINENT. 665
From the above considerations the probability is, that the principal purifying areas
of our globe are those where most clouds are formed and most rain falls. We shall
now examine the tables to see if we can find any information on this subject. The dust
observations have been made in the neighbourhood of four great purifying areas, namely,
the Mediterranean, the Alps, the Atlantic, and the Highlands of Scotland. If we examine
Tables I., II. and III., as well as the tables in Parts I. and II., we shall see the relation be-
tween the purifying powers of these areas. It will be seen that the air blowing from the
Mediterranean is never very pure. The observations made at Hyeres, Cannes, Mentone,
and St Remo, show that the number of particles was seldom low and never very low.
Much lower numbers have been observed on the Rigi in air coming from the Alps than
were observed on the shores of the Mediterranean. The lowest numbers of all have been
observed in the West Highlands in air coming from the Atlantic, though the air that
comes to Alford from the Highlands of Scotland is also very pure. The following table
shows the lowest numbers observed in the different years in air coming from the Medi-
terranean, from the Alps, from the Scottish Highlands, and from the Atlantic. At the
foot of the table is the mean value of the lowest numbers on the five years for the
different purifying areas.
AW613} NOUN
Lowest number of Particles per c.c. observed in air coming from—
Year.
Mediterranean. Alps. Highlands. Atlantic.
1889 : : : : * 1600 210 262 205
1890 : ‘ : : 725 375 127 16
1891 : : : : 785 300 94 34
1892 : : ‘ : 650 579 | 168 38
| 1893 698 441 56 67
Mean : 5 891 381 141 72
Table XXIII. shows the lowest numbers observed at the different stations in the different
years, and represents the greatest purifying effects yet observed in the air from the
different. areas. A somewhat similar result is shown in Table XXIV., inwhich are
entered the means of all the observations taken in each year when the wind was from
the different areas. The number of observations from which the mean was taken is
entered in a separate column to the left of the column containing the number of particles. ©
The means at the foot of the table, give the mean purity or the air from the different areas.
These Tables are defective in so far as they give no indication, and make no allowance
for the condition of the air before it entered the different purifying areas ; and in Table
XXIV. the time element is not allowed for. Observations taken at short intervals are
given the same value as those made at long intervals.
VOL. XXXVII. PART III. (NO. 28). 5G 2
666 MR JOHN AITKEN ON THE NUMBER OF DUST PARTICLES IN THE
The above tables show clearly the much greater purifyimg power of our northern
areas, the great purifying power of the cloudy and rainy weather on the west coast of
Scotland being very well marked. The purity of the air in the Eastern Highlands, as
represented by the Alford numbers, is no doubt due to the same cause as the purity of the
West Highland air. The tables show it is only slightly polluted in its passage from the
Atlantic across the mountains of Scotland.
It will be observed that the relative purity of the air from the different areas is the same
in both tables, but the contrast is not so great in the mean numbers as in the lowest,
while the mean of the lowest numbers in Atlantic air, Table XXIII., is 75 of the mean of
the lowest in Mediterranean air; the mean of all the observations in Atlantic air, Table
XXIV., is 3 of the mean of the Mediterranean air. The general conclusion from the figures
in the last table, is that the mean ‘purity of the air from the Atlantic is five times
greater than that from the Mediteranean ; the Highland air is three times purer, while
the air from the Alps is twice as pure. It may be well to note here that we are dealing
in these tables only with the observations made by myself, and that lower numbers
have been observed on Ben Nevis, in Atlantic air, than are entered in Table XXIII.
TaBLeE XXIV.
Mean Numbers of Particles per c.c. observed in air coming from—
28 et Phe ou
Year. ys 8 s 8 : s - 8
= S Mediterranean. 3 5 Alps 3 5 Highlands. 2 iS Atlantic.
5g ea Bg 3a
AS AS AS aS
1889. 1 1600 39 698 8 697 8 481
1890. 2 767 21 1030 8 703 65 337
1891 r| 1865 31 575 16 401 74 297
| 1892. 7 2002 22 1341 21 468 53 366
1893. 11 1363 9 1402 33 605 58 347
Mean . : 28 1611 122 892° 86 552° 258 338
Dust and Temperature.
No attempt has as yet been made to work out from the figures in Tables L, II. and
II]. the relation between the amount of dust and the temperature. When treating of
this subject in Part II., it was shown that there is probably a relation between them, but
the conditions are too complicated, and continuous observations on many points are
still wanting before anything satisfactory can be said under this head.
_—
ATMOSPHERE OF GREAT BRITAIN AND ON THE CONTINENT. 667
TABLE I.—The Number of Dust Particles in the Atmosphere for 1891.
(o) R & S i
Place Date Hour £ Zs Wind ee |S Stabe) ck REMARKS
a Pe) Beas Wy estes) Geet Bikadiers a ok
Adel a |e
March |
Hybres .. 28 4 P.M. 41,000 W. 2 52-5) 6:5} Medium Wind direct from Toulon.
35 30 3.00 p.m. | 6,250 | N.W. 2 | 50 12°5]| Clear Number variable; air
probably polluted by
village near.
4.30 p.m. | 4,800 4 5 Rs rh
M 31 3 P.M. 2,600 | N.W. 3 | 50 12 . Fine blue haze.
April
“ 2 3 P.M. 3,000 | S.E. 1 51 9 | Medium Number variable; air
from Hyeres.
A 6 4 P.M. 785 | 8. 0 55 5 | Clear
i if 4 PM. 7,500 W. 2 60 6 ss Air from Toulon.
i 8 4 PM. 1,650 |N.N.W.3)| 58 | 12 a
MENTONE . 11 4 PM 125? SSW Zi eGo) Oi i At Cape Martin ; Esterel
hills visible.
% 14 3 P.M. 8,500 |} S.02 | 54 7 | Hazy On hill 1000 feet; air
from Mentone.
s 17 3 P.M. 1,675 | S.W.2 | 60 7 | Medium At Cape Martin ; Esterel
hills not visible.
4 P.M. 2,800 7, 58 i . Pape .
a 18 | 11.30 a.m. | 3,600 | S.W. 05} 62 8 53 Not so clear as previous
day.
f 20) | 10.30 a.m. | 1,575 | SHE. 1 58 4 | Thickish Taken on the beach;
air from sea.
4.30 p.m. | 1,500 | S.E. 0-2 | 59 5 A, “ .
MiGAN 1.) 23-| Ll am. 1,660 E. 1 ee eeca jel aicle Taken on top of the
11.15 a.m. | 40,000 4 ai aoe i spire of the Cathedral;
highest and lowest
averages.
Brtuacio. .| 24 4 PM. 1 J5}50) ff tS Oe: 47°5| 2:5] Thickish Top of Serbelloni.
A 25 10 a.m. 2,100 Ne 48:5} 3°5| Thick Air coming off lake.
4 P.M. 4,850 | 8.02 | 47 2 5 Number variable.
a 26 1 P.M. 3,100 | ?Calm | 585] 7:5) Clear
2.30 p.m. | 1,500 55 58 7 ,
6 P.M. 2,750 Calm “ ‘s =
i 27 11 aM. 3,200 |) W205 s » | Medium
4 P.M. 325 S. 0:2 | 53 6 ae Taken on hill-side 2000
feet up.
5 P.M. 2,750 a 56 6°5 - Taken on hill-side 1000
feet up.
53 28 10 a.m. 1,900 N. 1 50 3 | Very thick | Raining.
3.30 P.M. | 2,250 Calm 48 15 ss -
. 30 12:30 2,500 | W.0-2 | 62°5| 10 | Clear
3.30 p.m. | 3,000 Py 67 8 A
May
f 1 12.30 7,800 | W. 0-2 | 66 9 Thick haze | Air off lake.
4 PM. 2,550 i, “3 B 33 On shore.
4.15pm. | 3,000 3 65 6 3s In boat on lake.
a 2 |10.30 a.m. | 4,400] S. 0-2 nA 9 5 On the Serbelloni.
Wy 2,150! |) Wa Od 69) | 10 5
5.30 P.M BN) | IS ON) |) (aa 3 At Cadenabbia; been
slight rain.
% 4 9 AM 2,500 | N.05 | 60 3°5| Very thick | Raining.
x 5 | 10.30 3,950 | N. 0:2 se ..- | Lhiekish Observed on steam-boat.
VOL. XXXVII. PART III. (NO. 28). 2)
668 MR JOHN AITKEN ON THE NUMBER OF DUST PARTICLES IN THE
Tas_e 1.—TZhe Number of Dust Particles in the Atmosphere for 1891—continued.
ees gf | =
Place Date Hour a3 3 Wind Buell des Oe REMARKS
‘ : ‘ : E 5 i : & = = the Air. ?
ala < [5
May
BavENo . . 6 9 AM. 3,100 | S.E. 0-2 | 67 | 7 | Medium
2 P.M. 3,050 ” ” ” ”
" 7 8.30 a.m. | 3,000 55 6b | 10 "| Hazy Distant mountain clear ;
hazed low down.
12 4,450 K. 1 63°5| 6:5) Thick Air rapidly thickening.
2 4,100 | E.05 | 62 5 | Very thick | Air still thickening.
4 3,100) | S.E. 0:2 - - 9 Slight rain.
5.30 2,800 | E.02 | 60 ¥ 8 8
+ 8 11 a.m. 800 | N.W. 15 | 56 a q Passing showers.
4 P.M. 775 | N.W.2 | 52°5| 1:5) Extremely | Raining heavy.
thick
+ 9 12 1,300 Calm 52 1 F ‘, Fs
5 P.M. 3,600 | N.W. 0°5 | 54 125 i, ‘ .
si 10 9 A.M. 2,500 | S.E. 0°2 | 56 5 | Hazy Tops of mountains clear; | —
haze low down. 7
ee 11 HD 6,400 Calm 62°5| 8 re Clear high up; hazed
low down. ’
3.30 p.m. | 3,700 8. 0°2 | 58:5) 5 i On hill-side 400 feet up.
4.30 p.m. | 2,950 5 60 5:5 ‘a On hill-side 800 feet up.
95 12 12 3,700 | S.E. 0:2 | 68 11 Medium At lake-side.
3 P.M. 3,900 - 72 10 Fr On hill-side 500 feet up.
3.30 P.M. | 2,900 FS 69°5 | 11°5 Out hei 1000 feet |
<3 13 12 6,700 Calm 68 9 7 Probably too high from
local pollution.
3 P.M. 3,800 55 67 8 ; On hill-side 1000 feet up;
air from mountains. |
4,30 p.m. | 1,900 3 68 | 11 6 On hili-side 1800 feet |
up; passing shower.
* 14 3 P.M. 6,600 | N.W. 0:2 | 76 | 15 0 On hill-side 500 feet up.
4 P.M. 4,000 ‘, 74 | 14 On hill-side 1000 feet |
up; air from lake. | —
4.30 p.m. | 4,000 3 72 | 185 ; On hill-side 1200 feet |
up ; air from lake.
5.30 p.m. | 5,000 | S.E. 0:2\°70 | 10 2 At lake-side.
- 15 | 11.30 am. | 4,200 | S.E. 0°5 | 66°5) 7:5) Thickish At level of lake.
haze
3 P.M. 3,150 Calm 62 3 4 500 feet up; been rain- >
ing. a
3.30 p.m. | 3,200 | S.E. 0:2 | 60°5| 3:5 r 1000 feet up; thunder
and some rain.
4 P.M. 2,400 8.E. 565} 3:5 + 1600 __,, 3
4.30 p.m. | 1,350 Calm 56 3 ‘ 1800 5 7: ae
‘5 16 9 A.M. 1,950 | S.E. 0:2 | 65 5 | Thick At level of lake; |
thunder. 7
1 P.M. 2,500 N. 2 soe Rae ae On steam-boat crossing |
to Laveno. }
3 P.M. 300 N. 4 Bi ... | Clear On lake above Luino; |
raining. |
3 P.M. 450 3 a Se A Snowing on mountains. —
Locarno. .| 16 5.30 550 E. 4 53°5| 8-5] Very clear | On lake-side ; ; snow)
down to within 2000 | ;
feet of lake.
ATMOSPHERE OF GREAT BRITAIN AND ON THE CONTINENT.
669
TaBLE 1—The Number of Dust Particles in the Atmosphere for 1891-—continued.
© one 8 fe
aie : 9g] so State of
Place. Date. Hour. = 2 - Wind. = E a the i
le a:
May
Locarno . 17 4 P.M 975 | N.E.2 | 50°5| 13:5] Very clear
5 P.M. 1,750 5 a ie rs
* 18 9 A.M. Ebita |) B02) 993 12 -
VITZNAU . 19 | 10.30 a.m. | 2,100 W. 1 52 3 Thick
Rier Kuim 19 1 PM. 417 W. 2 38°2| 3°7| Clear
2.30 P.M. 690 W. 3 35 2 | Thick
6 P.M. 600 | Variable | 36 3 | Clear
7 P.M. 498 | 8. to W. = a Very clear
20 9 A.M. 618 | S.W.1 | 445) 6-7 re
9.30 A.M. 683 he 3 3 "
12 471 * 48-2) 7:2 3
4 P.M 357 Ak 46 8 | Clear
6 P.M 326 | S.W. 3 | 44 @ 5
% 21 9 aM 393 50°2| 9 | Extremely
clear
9.30 A.M 378 “4 bs or a
12 Biola) || SEV 2) || Bb | KO a
4 PM 458 | W.S.W. 2| 50 9 .
6 P.M 2,000 | S.E. 2 49 4 5
7 P.M 825 | Variable | 44 6 iy
7.15 pM 440 | Southerly | _,, 4 $5
22 9 aM 300 W. 1 33°5| 0-5) Extremely
thick
9.30 a.m 340 Fe 34 0:3 q
o 12 1,400 | N.W. 0:5] 40%} 2 | Very thick
2 P.M 1,075 35 O | Extremely
thick
2 P.M 2,025 » » 0 2
4 P.M 1,050 a 36 55 }
6 P.M 350 | N.W. 0:2} 35:5) _,, i
7 P.M A485 | W. 0:2 i % 5
5 23 9 aM 467 | S.E. 0°5 | 43:5] 3:7) Clear
12 HON || Ss Us | 44 3°8| Medium
2 P.M 1,975 .) 46 5:9| Clear
3 P.M 850 ” ” ” ”
4 P.M 478 | S.W.2 | 44 7 | Extremely
clear
6 P.M 535 , 40:3} 6:3 53
7 P.M 525 | S.W.1 | 40 6°5 -
REMARKS.
Near Contra; 1500 feet
up.
500 feet up.
On lake-side.
Snow-showers.
Occasional snow-showers.
Snow stopped; Hoch-
gerrach } hazed.
Hochgerrach + hazed.
Fine all day with but
little cloud ; the Jura
Mountains were vis-
ible in the evening.
Hochgerrach just visible.
Hochgerrach 4 hazed ;
the Jura visible all
day.
Between 4 and 6 p.m.
the numbers were un-
steady, rising to 3000.
Hochgerrach } hazed.
Snowing.
Very clear low down.
Raining.
Rain and hail; average
of lowest.
Numbers very variable ;
average of highest.
Fine rain.
Still clouded and fine
rain.
Wet mist.
Hochgerrach 3 hazed ;
thickness _ variable
owing to showers of
snow ; cleared up at
11 a.m.
Hochgerrach and the
Jura + hazed.
” ”
” be)
670
MR JOHN AITKEN ON THE NUMBER OF DUST PARTICLES IN THE
TaBLE I1.—The Number of Dust Particles in the Atmosphere for 1891—continued.
Place.
Rier Kui
VITZNAU .
ENGLISH
CHANNEL
KKINGAIRLOCH
Date.
May
24
Hour.
3 P.M.
6.30 P.M.
10 A.M.
iy
1 P.M.
3.30 P.M.
6 P.M.
10 a.m.
1 P.M.
4 P.M.
6.30 P.M.
10 a.M.
1 P.M.
4 P.M.
Number of
Particles
N.W. 05
§.E. 0°5
S.E. 0:2
Tempera-
ture
38
50
Humidity.
State of
the Air.
Extremely
thick
Thickish
Extremely
thick
Medium
Extremely
thick
”
”
Extremely
thick
22
Thick
Very thick
Very clear
Clear
Very clear
Extremely
clear
Very clear
Medium
Clear
”
Very clear
Clea :
REMARKS,
In cloud ; snowing,
Fine rain.
In cloud.
”
Passing clouds.
Early morning was fine
and cloudless.
In cloud.
Cloud thinning.
In cloud.
In dense cloud.
” ”
Clearing.
Cloud passed.
In cloud.
22
In cloud; lowest average.
Highest average.
Raining; taken in down-
current.
Raining ; air coming
from the lake.
Raining ; taken on
steam-boat.
Raining.
Raining.
Clouds very low.
Clouded all over.
Clouded all over.
Showers ; air very clear
between showers.
Cloud 515.
Thin cirrus clouds.
Thin cirrus clouds.
Clouded all over ; mist
low on hills.
| Slight drizzle.
Clouded all over.
Clouded all
showers.
Numbers very variable.
over ;
ATMOSPHERE OF GREAT BRITAIN AND ON THE CONTINENT. 671
TaBLE I—TZhe Number of Dust Particles in the Atmosphere for 1891—continued.
a3 3 e | =
Place. Date. Hour. |2:2 2°] Wind. a8 | cS Sune Ge REMARKS.
gas ES 5 the Air.
aul Et | i
July
KinearrRLocu 11 7 P.M. 501 S052) 4) 5b 5| Clear Clouded, carry W.;
slight drizzle.
i 12 at re tne ie ba oth Dull day with drizzling
rain.
- 13 10 a.m. 625 | S.E. 1 61 4 | Medium Cloud #.
1 P.M. 659 | N.W. 0°5| 63 8 | Very clear | Cloud 4, carry W.
2.30 P.M. 875 | N.W. 2 | 64 a fa Cloud 4.
4 P.M. L275: |) NEW I na » | Extremely | Cloud 54.
clear
8.30 p.m. | 1,250 | N.W. 0°5| 53 2°5! Very clear | Cloudless.
‘ 14 10 a.m. 1,175 | S.E.0°5 | 66 6°5| Thickish
10.30 a.m. | 1,300 %, a i 3
1 P.M, 1,225 | S.W. 05 | 66:5) ,, ee
4 P.M. 1,400 | S.E. 0:2 | 70°8} 9°8/ Clear Cloud +.
& P.M, 1,475 | N. 02 | 65 5 5 Cloud #, carry N.E.
5 15 9 A.M. 1,000 | E. 05 62 6 | Medium Cloud 4, carry N.N.E.
10 a.m. 1,000 3 64 7 3 .
1 P.M. 598 Selo, dl 68 9°5| Very clear . e
4 P.M. 950 a 70 =| 10°5 xs Cirrus +.
7 P.M. 800 Calm 64 6°5 Fe F?
. 16 9 A.M. Oya) || tsHls, WEY |) Gis 5:5 | Medium Clouds $, thin, carry E.;
been rain.
10 a.m. 660 | S.E.05 | ,, 5 is Cloud 5, -
1 P.M. 628 | Calm | 67 6 | Clear Cloud 5%, thin, carry
S.E.
4 P.M. ILS |] S18. 1 ie » | Medium Cloud ,%,.
5 P.M. 650 | S.E.2 | 59-2} 2:2] Thick
7 P.M. 443 Calm 59 15 PS Cloud +low;slight drizzle.
17 10 a.m. 325 | S.E. 0-2 | 57 1 | Very thick | Cloud +; raining.
1 P.M. 750 ” ” ” ” ” ”
4 P.M. 280 |} S. 0:2 60 2 | Clear Cloud #, carry S.
7 P.M. 2,750% Calm 55‘7| 0:7) Thickish Cloudless; numbers vari-
able.
a! 18 10 a.m. 1,125 | S.E. 0°5 | 64 5) | Thick Cloud +, carry S.; be-
ginning to rain.
1 P.M, 125) | SSeke oe Gles) | aro | hickish' Cloud + ; clearing after
rain.
4 P.M. 5,320! S.H.2 | 66 9 | Clear Cloud ?, carry 8.S.W.
5.30 p.m. | 4,800 . as ... | Medium
6.30 p.m. | 7,400 3 62:5| 8 af Carry S.
7 P.M. 4,450 | S.W.3 | 61:8] 7:8 5 Carry S.
a 19 10 a.m. 2,150 |OSisnte Gs 8 | Medium Cloud 3, carry S.W.
12 2 FOO: aes 64 i ¥5
1 PM. 4,300 | S.S.E. 2 | 65 8°5 3 Cloud #, carry S.
4 P.M. 1,475 Sal 63 75| Clear Cloud 4, carry W.
6 P.M. 1,350 | W.0:> | 61:2) 5:2 3
8.30 p.m. | 1,830 | W. 0:2 | 58:2} 3:2| Medium Cloud +, carry W.
3 20 10 a.m. 190 | S.E. 0°5 | 56:5} 1:5) Very thick | Cloud 4, carry S.W. ;
raining.
1 P.M. 485 | N.W. 0:2 | 59 3 | Clear Cloud 4, carry N.W.
5 P.M. 116 | N.W. 0°5 | 58°3]) 2:5} Thickish Cloud +, carry W.; raining.
3 21 10 a.m. 529 | SEP 1 59:77| 2-7) Medium Cloud 1; wet night,
showery morning.
|
672 MR JOHN AITKEN ON THE NUMBER OF DUST PARTICLES IN THE
TABLE I1.—The Number of Dust Particles vn the Atmosphere for 1891—continued.
S » ou = 2
ee) ae 5
Place. Date. | Hour. ae 3 Wind. #5 : ag REMARKS.
J a a td
July
Kinearriocu.| 21 1 P.M. 625 | S.E.1 | 61:5} 5 | Thickish Cloud 4, carry S.W.;
clouds low.
4 PM 1,475 | S.E. 0°2 | 63°5| 7:5) Clear
7 P.M 2,400 | N.E. 0-1 | 59 AT bs Cloud 4.
9 P.M. 1,475 | N.W. 0:2} 53°3) 2:3) Medium
a 22 10 a.m. 574 | N.W. 0°5| 55°5| 1:5] Clear Cloud +, carry N.W,;
showers.
: 1 PM 677 | N.W.3 | 58:3] 4:3 hs Cloud 4, carry N.W.
5 P.M 381 = 56 3 . ~ | Cloud 4, carry N.W.;
a few drops of rain.
9 P.M. 280 | N.W.1 | 54 2 % Cloud 5%.
55 23 10 a.m. 241 A 58 4 a Cloud 4, carry N.
1 P.M. 364 | N.W. 2 | 60°35} 5:5 * os
1.30 P.M. 550 a5 a G 5 5
4 PM. 3,600 | NAW. 1 7)"63 72 ee Clouds very thin.
5.30 pM. | 3,150 | N.W. 0°5| 58°5| 5 | Very clear | Cloud 4, very thin, carry
N.W.
8 P.M. 3,350 | N.W. 0:2 | 55 4 | Medium Cloud + ; a few drops of
rain.
ee 24 9 A.M 238 | N.W. 0:5} 56°5| 4:5) Medium Cloud 4, carry W.
10 am Zoi | NAW. 1258 4 | Thickish Cloud 4+, carry W.; a
few drops of rain.
1 P.M. 106 | N.W. 3 | 57 4:5| Clear Cloud 4, carry W.
1.30 p.m 469 | NW. 2 | 57°2| 5:2 E Cloud 4, carry N.W.;
a few drops of rain.
6 P.M. 606 | N.W. 1 | 55 4 ‘, Cloud +.
8.30 P.M. 297 45 53°D| 3 | Thickish 3
= 25 10 a.m 205 | NeW. 2) jas 5 | Medium Cloud 4, carry N.W.;
clouds low.
1 P.M 23) NEW bio) al : Cloud +; a few drops
of rain.
4 P.M 371 ” 57 e ” ” ”
7 P.M 234 s 57:2] 4:2 - Cloud +, carry W.
9 PM 105 53 54:4] 2°4| Clear Cloud +; very clear
between showers.
Sy 26 10 aM 47 | N.W. 1 | 59:4) 2 - S 55
1 pM 43. | N.W. 2 | 64 4 a Cloud #, carry 8.W.;
showers.
1.30 P.M. 43 PS 62°7| 3:7| Extremely
clear
4 P.M. 760 | N.W. 1 | 58°7| 3°5| Clear Cloud 4, carry S.W.;
clouds low.
7 PM. 214 PS 57 2°5 ss Cloud 4, carry W.
9 P.M. 132 Hf 56 2°4 B: 5 4
4 27 10 a.m. 526 | N.W.3 | 54 6 | Very clear | Cloud 4, carry N.N.W.
11.30 a.m.| 2,000 i 56°4| 7:4 sf Cloud 4, carry N.W.
1 pM. 1,000 5 56 6 bs 9 5
3 P.M. 559 i 5a:5)|| | 6:2 ie Cloud }, carry N.W.
5.30 P.M. 753 54. 5 - -;
7 P.M. 1,800 52 4 | Thickish Cloud +, carry N.W.; |)
slight showers. f
9 P.M. 562 sf 51 3 | Medium Cloud 4, carry N.W.
5 28 10 a.m. 123 “ 54°5| 5:5| Extremely | Cloud #, carry N.W.
clear
ATMOSPHERE OF GREAT BRITAIN AND ON THE CONTINENT.
673
TABLE I—The Number of Dust Particles in the Atmosphere for 1891—continued.
2s 3 g =
Place. Date. Hour. 2 : : Wind. aE 3 ea Remarks.
Ze Eads
July |
Kinearriocu.| 28 | 11.30 a.m. Y75. || INOWE 3h od 5 | Extremely | Cloud ,%.
clear
1 P.M. 70 | N.W. 4 | 53:°5| 5:5) Very clear | Cloud 5%,, carry N.W.;
showers.
2.30 P.M. 180 Pe 525] 5 5 Cloud ,%.
4 P.M. 234, = 53 6°5 is 3
7 P.M. 245 | N.W.1 | 50 3 | Medium Cloud +.
9 P.M. BOK | NeW Jiao ae x Cloud +; clouds low. |
% 29 10 a.M. 75 | N.W.3 | 51:5} 2:5) Very clear | Cloud 4, carry N.W,; |
very slight drizzle.
11.30 a.m. 338 3. 57 4 | Extremely | Cloud 4, carry N.W.
clear
1 PM 49 ” 55 35 ” ” ”
4 P.M. 56 | N.W. 4 | 57 4 re Cloud 4.
7 P.M. 66 | N.W. 2 | 53 2°6 i Cloud 4, carry N.
9 P.M. bY | INOW, 1) | o2 2 5 Remarkably clear day.
a 30 10 am. 1,250 5 61°5| 9:5) Very clear | Cloud 4, thin, carry
N.E.
10.30 a.m.} 1,610 4. 62:°5| 95 5
11.30 a.m.| 1,565 é 64 | 10 a3 A few thin white clouds.
1 P.M. 1,688 | N.W. 0°5| 65 9°8| Extremely 7 A
clear
3 P.M. e255 | NeW 2 :. UD Cloud #, carry N.E.
6 P.M. 207. 4 Ori) 455 ss Z a
7 P.M. 245 4 SB) Bye - $5 5
8.30 P.M. 238 . 54 3 .
5 31 10 a.m. 250 | N.W. 0:5 | 55:5] 5:5) Clear Thin cirrus.
11.45 a.m. | 2,050 | N.W. 1 | 57:5] 6 Ke 3
1 P.M. 1,550 | NOW. 2 |Per Zi - -
3.30 P.M. 605 $5 56°5| 5°5| Very clear | Cloud 4.
7 P.M. aon | NeWe lesan 4 5 Cloud {; clouds low.
9 P.M, 257 | IN. We 0:2))) 54:5) 2°5 5 Cloud +; mist low.
Aug.
PS il 10 a.m. 413 | W.0:2 | 565} 1:5] Very thick | Cloud +; drifting mist.
11 am. 132 ” ” ” ” ”
11.30 a.m. 238 | N.W. 0°5 | 59°5) 4 | Clear Cloud +; slight misty
rain.
1 P.M. 385 * 58 3 5 Cloud +; beginning to
rain.
2.30 P.M. 574 5 63 5 #. Cloud } ; numbers vari-
able.
7 P.M 196 | N.Weel eon 1 | Very clear | Cloud +}; occasional
drizzle.
9 P.M 224. | IN: We 0:2 |, 2:5 x Cloud +, carry S.W.
Ps 2 10 am 152 * 59 6 | Medium Cloud 4, carry W.;
showers.
1 P.M 1,880 W. 1 ba 5 3 Cloud 4; showers; num-
bers variable.
4 P.M 850 | W. 0-2 | 60 7 Aa Cloud 3.
9 P.M 540 | N.W. 0:2 | 56 4-5 a Cloud 4.
9 P.M 573 | Calm | 51°5| 0-5) Thickish Cloud +; showers.
55 3 10 a.m 2,112 | S.E. 0:2 | 58 5 | Medium Cloud 4.
11.30 am. | 1,225 EK. 1 “e ; %
674
MR JOHN AITKEN ON THE NUMBER OF DUST PARTICLES IN THE
TaBsLE 1—Zhe Number of Dust Particles in the Atmosphere for 1891—continued.
Number of
Particles
per ¢.c.
182
518
182
809
550
588
231
94
315
483
950
570
474 |
444
203
308
1,060
2,850
5,100
3,550
2,900
1,025
4,200
392
385
925
607
497
500
775
900
262
1,375
950
371
6,800
8,400
5,100
5,900
6,000
Place. Date. Hour.
Sept.
ALFORD 55) 5.30 P.M.
16 10 a.m.
6.30 P.M.
< 17 10 a.m.
1 P.M.
6 P.M.
* 18 10 a.m.
3 P.M.
6 P.M.
9 19 1 P.M.
4.30 P.M.
9 21 9.30 a.M.
4 P.M.
6 P.M.
2 Die 10 a.m.
5 P.M.
- 23 10 a.m.
6 P.M.
53 24 10 a.M.
1 P.M.
6 P.M.
3 25 10 a.m.
6 P.M.
“5 28 10 a.M.
3 P.M.
6 P.M.
" 29 10 A.M.
1 P.M.
TABLE II.—The Number of
Feb.
GARELOCHHEAD| 17 eee
Z
4 P.M.
2 18 11.30 a.m.
4.30 P.M.
5 P.M.
5.30 P.M.
+ 19> | des Oa,
12.30 p.m.
3 P.M.
5.30 PM.
6 P.M.
20 | 11.30 a.m.
785
of.
cr hy
=i
eo bo
a
a State of
5 the air. RUMABERY
sa)
5°5| Very clear | Cloud }.
4-2 Fe Cloud +; showers.
4-5 s Cloud $; showers,
2 | Very thick | Misty rain; number
variable.
2°2 a Misty rain,
1 ” ”
7°6| Very clear | Cloud 3.
7 | Extremely Fy
clear
6:2 55 Cloud }.
8 | Very clear | Cirrus only.
FA 3 Cloudless.
1:2) Very thick | Cloud +; heavy rain.
2 ” ” ”
ur ” ” ”
4 | Medium Cloud +.
3°5 . Cloud 5%.
1:5| Very thick | Slight rain.
3 | Thickish Cloud +.
2 | Thick Cloud +; afew drops of
rain.
3 | Very thick = 3,
1 a Cloud 4.
5 | Clear Cloud +.
4:6) Thickish Cloud +.
4:3| Very clear | Cloud ,%.
5 is Cloud 3.
3°2| Clear Cloud 4.
7 | Very clear | Cloud 3.
8:°5| Extremely | Cloud 54.
clear
Dust Particles in the Atmosphere for 1892.
Neal
NNW. 2
NN.W.1
Not
”
S.E. 0-2
Variable
i 0"5
”
ENE. 3
? | Very clear
5 ”
4°3 »
5 | Extremely
clear
6 ”
” ”
5°D »
3°5| Very thick
2 | Thick
4 | Thickish
-
.
Very clear
Thin cirrus,
Cloudless.
ATMOSPHERE OF GREAT BRITAIN AND ON THE CONTINENT.
TaBLE I].—TZhe Number of Dust Particles im the Atmosphere for 1892—continued.
675
Place. Date. Hour.
Feb.
GARELOCHHEAD] 20 4 PM.
4 P.M.
i 21 5 P.M.
43 WY he,
4 P.M.
4.30 P.M.
5 P.M.
* 23 11.30 a.m.
12
12.30 p.m
March
Hykres 30 4 P.M
FA 31 3 P.M
April
9 1 4 P.M
* 2 4 PM
- 4 3 P.M
ae 5 3.30 P.M
f 4 P.M
a 6 2 P.M
5 7 3 P.M
oF 9 4 PM
MENTONE 16 4 PM
4.30 P.M.
5.30 P.M.
5 18 4 P.M.
“a 19 4 P.M.
i 20 4 P.M.
* 21 4 PM.
as 22 4 PM.
% 25 4 P.M.
5 26 4 P.M.
Mivan 28 10 a.m.
BELLAGIO 29 3 P.M.
May | 4.30 p.m.
5 il 9.30 A.M.
VOL. XXXVII. PART III. (NO. 28).
north wind.
al
Be: a |
2 Ors : Zou) S State of
a= FH Wind. e Ei 2 hake REMARKS.
ae ie El
1,375 | E.N.E. 3} 30°5| 2 | Thickish Before snow-shower.
2,05 s “be me) |) biel In snow-shower.
2,725 |E.N.E.0°5| 37 2 | Medium to | Gale and snowing all
thickish night.
3,250 Calm 40 Pe eehirelx
4,500 EK. 2 39 » | Very thick
3,750 a 1 A i SE “4
4,950 9 Sec = A
6,800 | S.E.1 | 44 5 | Thickish
8,700 | SBS - 3 =
17,250 | E.S.E. 4 | 46 ‘3
2,650 | N.W. 0:2 | 42°5| 0-5] Very thick | On Fenouillet; raining.
32,750 | E. 0-2 | 54:5] 8-5] Clear On Fenouillet ; air from
Hyéres.
4,400 |E.N.E.0°5| 62 8 ‘; On Fenouillet.
2,400 | E.N.E. 1 | 61 9 53 2
2,670 | N.W.0°5 | 66 $5 os e
9,000 KE. 1 69°5) 15 35 On Fenouillet ; air from
Hyéeres.
42,500 bE] 68 13°5 LP) 99 ”)
2,775 | ENE. 1) 60 8 | Medium On Fenouillet; numbers
variable.
35,000 W. 2 Br es On Fenouillet ; air from
Toulon.
1,825 | E.N.E. 3 | 62 8:5 x On Fenouillet ; dust
rising from roads.
17,750) |) We Oo" 60 4% | Thickish At Cape Martin; air
from Monte Carlo.
6,000 | S.W. 0°5 Medium At Cape Martin ; air
coming from sea.
2,100 | 8S.0°5 | 56 3% ‘ 4 2
2,600 Wes 58 | 16 | Extremely | On hill 1000 feet up.
clear
16,500 S. 0:2 54 | 12 | Clear On till; air from
Mentone.
2,650 Wel 60 | 11:5) Very clear | At Cape Martin.
650 | S.W.1 | 57:5! 8-5) Extremely | On shore to east of
| clear Mentone.
1,000 | S.W. 0°5 | 63 8 | Very clear | At Cape Martin.
785 | S.E. 0°2 | 61 4 | Medium ss
833 | S.E. 0°5 | 63 6 ys On shore to east of
Mentone.
1,500 Bel 49 i) Thick At top of spire of Cathe-
dral ; lowest observed.
16,000 * . =H 5 At top of spire of Cathe-
dral ; raining ; highest
observed.
1,875 | 8.05 | 51 4 | Clear On Serbelloni ; been
north wind.
2,900 5 515} 5:5 e Been raining, now fair.
L3to |) S02 50 5 | Very clear | On Serbelloni; been |
676
MR JOHN AITKEN ON THE NUMBER OF DUST PARTICLES IN THE
TaBLE Il.—TZhe Number of Dust Particles in the Atmosphere for 1892—continued.
Place.
BELLAGIO.
BAvENo
Date.
May
2
10
11
12
Hour.
4.30 P.M.
6 P.M.
12.30 p.m.
9 A.M.
11 a.m.
3 P.M.
5 P.M.
8 A.M.
9.30 a.m.
10.30 a.m.
3.30 P.M.
5 P.M.
3 P.M.
4 P.M.
6 P.M.
9 AM.
11 a.m.
3.30 P.M.
12.30 p.m.
2.30 P.M.
5 P.M.
12
2 P.M.
3.30 P.M.
4 P.M.
5.30 P.M.
2 P.M.
4 PM.
4.30 P.M.
6.30 P.M.
9 A.M.
3.00 P.M.
4 P.M.
4.30 P.M.
3.30 P.M.
4 P.M.
Number of
Particles
per c.c.
1,125
2,200
1,870
2,300
1,575
1,325
1,750
1,187
2,200
1,700
1,825
2,550
2,275
2,250
1,750
2,800
1,600
2,700
1,525
2,450
1,075
1,825
3,550
7,000
2,500
Wind.
S.W. 0°5
N.W. 0:2
S.W. 1
N. 0°2
”
Calm
Variable
Galn
| Tempera-
ture
|
66
| Humidity.
State of
the Air.
Clear
Medina
Very thick
Medi
lsc 5
Meda
Clear
”
Very clear
Clear
Very clear
Medium
Clear
”
”?
”
Medium
”
”
Clear
Thick
Clear
Thickish
REMARKS.
On Serbelloni ; passing
showers.
On hill-side 1000 feetup.
At the side of the lake ;
beginning to rain.
At the side of the lake.
At the side of the lake ;
raining.
be) ”
On Serbelloni; trees wet.
”
At the side of ihe laleg
On steam-boat on way
to Como.
” ”
On steam-boat near
Laveno.
At the side of the lake.
At the side of the lake ;
passing showers.
At the side of the lake.
” ”
Vio ”
At entrance to Simplon
Pass.
At the side of the lake.
” ”
On hill-side 1200 feet
up; air from lake.
Onhill-side, 1300 feet up.
At the side of the lake.
te) ”
On hill-side 1200 feetup.
On hill-side ; air coming
from lake.
At lake-side.
At lake-side ; rain at
different places.
On hill-side 1200 feet
up ; air from lake.
On hill-side 1400 feet up;
air from mountains.
On hillside 1800 feet
up; air from moun-
tains.
On hillside 1200 feet
up; thunder to S.E.
distant showers.
On hill-side 1400 feet
up ; air off lake.
ATMOSPHERE OF GREAT BRITAIN AND ON THE CONTINENT.
677
TABLE II.—The Number of Dust Particles in the Atmosphere for 1892—continued.
= 8 S 5}
Place. Date. Hour. ae H Wind. aE
Sa ee
A
May
BavENo 12 4.30 pm. | 3,200 | N.0O2 | 63
6.30 p.m. | 3,370 | S.E. 1 65
Fr 13 9 A.M. 4,100 | S.E. 0:2 55
3.30 p.m. | 6,700 Ps 64
4 P.M. 4,800 ‘5 63
4.45 p.m. | 3,100 .02 | 61
6.30 P.M. 2,600 S.E. 2 63
5 14 9 A.M. 6,600 | S.E. 0:2 | 66
2 P.M. 4,700 | S.E.1 5
3.30 p.m. | 3,750 2 65
4 P.M. 3,400 | S. 0:5 64
4.45 p.m. | 3,150 S. 1 60°5
sy to) 12530 pian, |) 4,400) | -E 0:2) | 72
2 P.M. 3,000 | E.S.E. 0:5} 69
3 P.M. 2,(00 | H.S.E. 1 | ,,
*y 16 10 a.m. 2,950 | S.E. 0:2 | 72
2.30 p.m. | 3,500 8. 1
3 P.M. 3,400 By
aro0) Pema 1 950) |) Se0s5
Locarno . 16 5.30 P.M. 1,850 |W.S.W.0:2) 70
LUCERNE . 18 9.45 am. | 5,000; E. 0:2
VITZNAU . 18 | 10.30 a.m. | 3,550 4 54:5
Rier Kuim 18 1 P.M. 5,100 |W.N.W.0-2} 43
2.30 p.m. | 3,900 ; 43
3 P.M. 3,450 e 40
5.30 p.m. | 2,000 5 40°5
7 P.M. 1,920 ‘5 37
3 19 8 A.M. 1,125 | W.05 | 36
10 a.m. 2,025 W. 1 38
12 1,925 | N.W. 0°5 | 43
2 P.M. 2,050 | N.W.1 | 41
4 P.M. 1,175 | N.W.2 | 40:5
6 P.M. 1,213 3 #
7 P.M. 1,050 ss a
10
Ne) | Humidity.
Or Or Ot
State of
the Air.
Thickish
Medina
Clear
Thickish
Medium
Thickish
Medium
”
”
Very thick
haze
REMARKS.
On hill-side 1800 feet
up; distant thunder.
At lake-side.
On hill-side 1200 feet
up; been thunder.
On hill-side 1500 feet up.
On hill-side 2000 feet
up ; air off lake.
At lake-side.
bP]
On hill-side 1200 feet
up; air off lake.
On hill-side 1500 feet
up; air off lake.
On hill-side 2000 feet
up; air off lake.
At lake-side.
bP)
”
On steam-boat opposite
Luino.
On steam-boat; thunder
in distance.
On steam-boat opposite
Ascona ; been rain.
On hill-side 800 feet up;
been thunder and rain.
On steam-boat on Lake
of Lucerne.
Wind variable and
numbers variable.
Snow on ground.
Lower part of Pilatus
nearly invisible.
Clouds all gone in even-
ing; Jungfrau Eiger,
&ec., only just visible
through haze (Hoch-
gerrach not visible).
Haze very thick to east.
Jungfrau Kiger, &c., seen
through thick haze.
Cloudy.
Clouded all over.
678
MR JOHN AITKEN ON THE NUMBER OF DUST PARTICLES IN THE
Tasce I.—The Number of Dust Particles in the Atmosphere for 1892—continued.
Place. Date.
May
Riet Kuntm . 20
» 21
» 22
- 20
10.45 a.m.
12
2 P.M.
4 P.M.
6 P.M.
7 P.M.
7.30 A.M.
8 A.M.
9 aM.
10 a.m.
12
12.30 p.m.
2 P.M.
4 P.M.
6 P.M.
6.30 P.M.
1 P.M.
7.30 A.M.
8 a.m.
10 a.m.
12
2 P.M.
4 P.M.
6 P.M.
Number of
Particles
8. 0-5
S.W. 05
W. 0-2
Variable
38
46
49
Bl
9
45
50
53
”
44-5
43
42
41
Humidity.
bo
bo
State of
the Air.
Medium
Very thick
”
Thickish to
thick
Medium
”
Thickish
Thick
oP)
”
Medium
”
In dlond
Very thick
REMARKs.
Sky clear at sunrise,
now clouded over.
Air from Lucerne.
”
”
Jura visible all day, |
clouded afternoon.
In dense cloud and
slight rain.
In dense cloud.
In thin cloud.
In thin cloud.
Clouds above Rigi
Kulm.
Clouds some height
above mountain.
Cloud and sunshine.
Lower part of Pilatus
scarcely visible.
Cloudless ; very thick | ;
E., thick N.
Very clear, high toS.W. |
Cloudless.
Cloudless; clear high up. | —
Cloudless.
”?
9
Cloudless all day but |
Hochgerrach
never visible.
was
Clearest morning ob-
served this year.
Hochgerrach just visible.}
Raining.
Close drifting rain.
ATMOSPHERE OF GREAT BRITAIN AND ON THE CONTINENT.
679
TaBLE Il.—The Number of Dust Particles in the Atmosphere for 1892—continued.
nO s 2. £
Place. Date. Hour. 4 = = Wind. ae z hag ReMARKs.
Z8* |e
May |
Riet Kuum . | 23 7 P.M. 579 | W.0°5 | 41 1 | Very thick | Close drifting rain.
_ 24 7.30 A.M, 750 | N.W. 0:5 | 44 » | Thick to | Very thick upper air;
medium medium lower.
8 A.M. siaiar || NGS O22 || 1:3 Fe
10 a.m. WABI) SB, OY |) 33457) Bh) Q Clouds too near to esti-
mate clearness.
10.30 a.m. | 2,600 re 54 3°5| Medium
12 ils 8. 0°2 | 50 2°8| Clear
2 P.M. 1,900 | Variable | 51 6 P
2.45 P.M. 1,000 5s sd: Nee ae
4 P.M. 4,450 | H.02 | 51 3°5| Clear
6 P.M. 6,400 4 A9:5| 4 a Air from Zug.
6.30 p.m. | 3,500 S.0°2 | 49 5 5s
7 P.M. 1,950 3 48 “ 53 Hochgerrach only just
visible.
7.30 pw. | 1,800 _ e fe
9 P.M. U5) |) SEB, OP | on A ae
eo 25 7.30 A.M. 850 | S.02 | 54 9 | Clear Hochgerrach } hazed ;
| Jura 4 hazed.
8 AM 843 ‘ 54:5] 85 cs Perfectly cloudless.
10 a.m 1275 |S.S:E. 0°35) 57:5) 9 Clear a
12 1,525 Sh ll 59 8:8 59 a
1 P.M 1,750 ¥5 ses oa rf .
VITZNAU . 25 2.45 P.M 6,300 | W. 0:2 | 81 17 “5 Near Vitznau.
3.15 p.m 7,200 * (3) 12 nm Half a mile from Vitz-
nau.
3.45 P.M 7,200 3 79 14 P One mile from Vitznau.
4.15 pM 7,400 . bec At Vitznau; air off lake.
4.45 pM 6,000 e On board steam-boat
going to Lucerne.
5.10 p.m 5,950 a aes 55 ie 5 3
LucERNE 26 6.30 P.M 688 | S.0-2 | 75 | 16-5) Extremely | Been strong southerly
clear wind on lake all day.
ENGLISH 51 4.30 p.m. | 7,000 Calm Thick On steam-boat.
CHANNEL
June
KincarrLocu 30 7 P.M. 398 | W.0°5 Bs ie. aa On Loch Linnhe.
8 P.M. 700 | N.W. 0:2 | 53 3 | Thick Numbers variable.
July
a 1 9 A.M. 198) Wis Oome a5 6 | Thickish Clear low down ; _ be-
ginning to rain.
10.30 a.m. 202 | N.W. 0°5| 54 3°5 5 Raining.
12 327 | N.W. 1 | 52 3 | Medium 5
2 P.M. 950 | N.W. 0°5 | 54°5|_,, Thickish i
5 P.M. 1,037 | NOWese Uta 6°5| Medium Very slight rain.
7 P.M. 1,600 | N.W. 0-2} 56°5) 5:5 i,
9 P.M. 1,225 ny 52 3 | Thickish (24).
is ne 9 AM. 1,425 | S.E. 0:2 1 Very thick | Raining.
12 3,150 ” 55 ” ” ”
3 P.M. 775 Ss. 1 il i os Ee
6 P.M. 975 | S.E. 0:5 | 56 1 5 =
” 3 9 A.M. 675 ” ” ” ” ”
12 812 | S.E. 0-2 | 55 i Pe 5
680 MR JOHN AITKEN ON THE NUMBER OF DUST PARTICLES IN THE
TaBLE II.-—The Number of Dust Particles in the Atmosphere for 1892—continued.
Place. Date. Hour.
July
KINGAIRLCCH 3 3 P.M.
6 P.M.
8 P.M.
4 9 A.M.
12
3 P.M.
6 P.M.
. 5 9 A.M.
11 a.m.
1 P.M.
4.30 P.M.
7 PM.
5 6 9 A.M.
10 a.m.
12
4 P.M.
7 P.M.
7 9 aM.
10 a.m.
1 P.M.
4 P.M.
7 P.M.
Bs 8 9 AM.
10 a.m.
1 P.M.
4 P.M.
7 P.M.
9 9 A.M.
10 a.m.
1 P.M.
5 P.M.
7 P.M.
9 P.M.
10 9 A.M.
10 a.m.
4 P.M.
5 P.M.
6 P.M.
6.30 P.M.
7 P.M.
9 P.M.
es 12 10 a.m.
1 P.M.
4 P.M.
7 P.M.
a 13 10 a.m.
l P.M.
4 P.M.
Number of
Particles
per cc.
1,125
650
139
900
700
400
550
70
73
280
195
518
210
750
775
1,000
350
79
532
357
413
7175
600
451
1,000
775
675
BID
550
625
785
1,650
1,775
1,500
1,450
4,500
2,900
2,600
2,000
1,450
925
385
1,125
900
490
900
3,150
1,762
4 2
4 oo
Wind. a8 3
sal ian
S.E. 0:2 | 57 9
58 it
N.W.1 | 54 oa
INEWeseeeleD): 6
W. 1 61 10
. 60 6
S. 0:5 55 if
NGWe ome oerD | 025
* 53 It
N.W. 2 | 54 4
_ 53 2}
N.W. 1 | 53 3:5
N.W. 0°5 | 54:5) 5
S:S.E. 1 | 53 35
Soule 55 4
S.S.E. 1 | 56 D)
N.W. 2 | 54 1
2 525) 1:5
INEWeo oe 4
W. 2 54 3
N.W. 2 4 4-5
“f 53 4
N.W. 1 Hs .
_ B4 | 5
‘3 53 2
a 5A | DB
NEWae 52 1185)
W.0°5 | 55:5) 3
W. 02 | 57 5
Variable | 55 3°5
S.E. 0:2 - 3
Calm 5 4
N.W. 0:2 | 53 3345)
S.E. 0°5 | 54 3)
¥ 56 5
N.W. 0:2] 61:5] 8
i 60 8
” ‘
E.S.E. 0:2 a
S.E. 1 60 8
13, Il 62 9
” 65 ”
Wea Al 62 is
13; al 60 8
Be 64:5} 9
By 67 10
State of
the Air.
Very thick
Clear.
Very clear
Medium
Very thick
Thickish
Thick
Very thick
Gio é
Mbicktsh
Medium
Thick
Thickish
Thick
Thickish
Clear
Thickish
Medium
Clear
Medium
Clear
”
Very clear
Thickish
Very clear
REMARKS.
Raining.
Slight rain.
Cloud }.
(80). Cloud +; begin-
ning to rain,
Raining.
”
Rain nearly over.
Showers.
”
Light rain.
Raining.
”
Heavy rain.
”
Air clear where free
from showers.
”
Showers.
”
”
Raining.
Showers.
Raining.
Showers.
Airclear betweenshowers.
Showers.
Passing showers.
Cloud 4.
Cloud }.
(150).
Cloud 5}.
(200). Cirrus $.
(200). Cirrus
200).
ta00y Wind N.E, on
Loch Linnhe all day.
(250). Carry N.E.;
cloud 5.
(250). Cloudless.
(250). Cloudless.
ATMOSPHERE OF GREAT BRITAIN AND ON THE CONTINENT. 6381
TaBLE II.—The Number of Dust Particles in the Atmosphere for 1892—continued.
Place.
KINGAIRLOCH
Date.
July
13
14
16
ily)
18
19
20
Hour.
Number of
| Particles
per c.c.
Wind.
Humidity,
State of
the Air.
REMARKS.
7 P.M.
9 A.M.
10 a.m.
1 P.M.
4 P.M.
5 P.M.
7 P.M.
9 P.M.
8.30 a.m.
9 A.M.
10 A.M.
1 P.M.
4 P.M.
7 P.M.
9 P.M.
9 A.M.
10 a.m.
10.30 a.m.
1 P.M.
4 PM.
7 P.M.
9 P.M.
9 AM.
10 a.m.
2 P.M.
4.30 P.M.
5.45 P.M.
7 P.M.
9 P.M.
9 aM.
10 a.m.
1 P.M.
2.30 P.M.
4.30 P.M.
7 P.M.
9 P.M.
9 A.M.
10 a.m.
1 P.M.
4 P.M.
7 P.M.
9 P.M.
9 a.M.
10 a.m.
N.W. 0-2
N.W. 05
N.W. 3
N.W. 4
N.W. 2
N.W. 3
NEW t
N.W. 0:2
2,400 4] E.S.H. 0°2
or
Very clear
Clear
Clear
Medium
@lear
Very thick
”
Very clear
Beenstrong N.E. windon
Loch Linnhe all day.
Clouded over; wind N.E.
on Loch Linnhe.
(48). Dull.
(40). Carry N.W.
(60). Carry N.W.
Clouded over.
Wind N.E. on J.och
Linnhe.
(130).
(130). Cloud ;%.
Clear low, thick high ;
cloud 4.
(80). N.E. wind on
Loch Linnhe.
(250).
(250). Cloud 4.
Cirrus 3.
Thin clouds all over.
Blowing strong from
N.E. on Loch Linnhe.
(250). Thin cloud #.
Change in wind local.
(250). Clouded over.
Thin blue haze.
Wind fallen on Loch
Linnhe.
(200).
Cloudless.
(250). Thin blue haze.
Cloud Ss.
Dull.
Clouded all over; a few
drops of rain.
Raining.
”
Cloud}. No rain since
Cloud ;8,. Showers.
Cloud =. Showers.
682
MR JOHN AITKEN ON THE NUMBER OF DUST PARTICLES IN THE
TABLE I1.—TZhe Number of Dust Particles in the Atmosphere for 1892—continued.
Place.
KINGAIRLOCH
Date.
July
20
21
23
26
Hour.
11.30 a.m.
1 P.M.
4 P.M.
7 P.M.
9 P.M.
9 a.m.
10 a.m.
1 P.M.
4 P.M.
7 P.M.
9 PM.
9 A.M.
10 a.m.
1 P.M.
2 P.M.
4 P.M.
7 P.M.
9 P.M.
9 A.M.
10 a.m.
1 P.M.
2 P.M.
4 P.M.
7 P.M.
9 P.M.
9 A.M.
10 a.m.
2 P.M.
2.30 P.M.
4 P.M.
7 PM.
9 P.M.
9 A.M.
10 a.m.
12.30 P.M.
1.30 P.M.
4 P.M.
7 P.M.
9 P.M.
9 A.M.
10 a.m.
10.45 a.m.
11 a.m.
11.20 a.m.
11.30 a.m.
12.30 p.m.
3 P.M.
Number of
Particles
per ¢.c.
675
1,938
3,125
3,800
4,000
448
329
2,900
487
5D
N.W. 0:5
N.W. 0:2
1B, OF
Calm
N.W. 0-2
NW. 05
0-2
Tempera-
ture
59'5
or
ve
Humidity.
OU
.
moo to Oo HE OLD
Ot CO Or Or
.
.
Ol Or OU
Ont RO
HH
~~
sy
for)
oO [SS Ty ot
ARE ANIGAHMTRMHWARHWINE Ww
KR Kn
ot
State of
the Air.
Very clear
Clear :
Medium
Thickish
Very thick
Clear
Medium
Clear
Very clear
Medium
@lear :
”
Clear to
medium
Thickish
Very thick
Thick
Medium
Clear
Very clear
Clear
bb)
”
Very clear
”
”
Clear
Very thick
Thick
REMARKS.
(200).
Cloud 4.
Only cirrus clouds.
(70). Clouded all over.
Rain in distance.
Clouded all over.
Misty rain.
(130). Upper air thick. |
(70). Clouded all over.
(200).
Clouded all day and
raining on hills near.
Occasional slight rains
all day.
Clouded all day.
(70). Cloud 4.
(130). “Only cirrusclouds,
Cloudless.
(130). Cloudless.
(30). Cloudless.
(8). Clouded all over.
Cloud $.
Cloud 3.
(150).
(250). Cloudless.
Cloudless.
Cloud 55.
(200). Onlyslight cirrus. |
(12). Cloud 4.
”
On yachton Loch Corrie.
On yacht at north side
of Loch Linnhe.
On yacht at south side
of Loch Linnhe.
On yacht near Appin.
On yacht near Oban.
On yacht in Sound of | —
Kerrera.
ATMOSPHERE OF GREAT BRITAIN AND ON THE CONTINENT.
| cen
H 2 i)
Place. Date. Hour, [2:8 E
a8 8
a Ay
July
KINGAIRLOCH 27 3.30 P.M. | 5,300
5 P.M. 4,700
6 P.M. 4,900
ee 28 11 A.M. 1,800
12 1,350
1 P.M. 1,275
3 P.M, 1,275
Sept.
ALFORD Ne 10 a.m. 308
1 P.M. 322
6 P.M. 700
- 19 10 a.m. 469
6 P.M. 524
fr 20 10 a.m. 1,337
6 P.M. 3,450
as 21 10 a.m. 3,800
6 P.M. 6,800
. ap) 10 a.m. 825
6 P.M. 3,400
. 23 10 a.m. 1,675
10.30 a.m. | 1,150
CALLIEVAR 1.30 p.m. | 1,750
2.30 P.M. 1,075
3 P.M. 1,025
ALFORD 6 P.M. 2,800
55 24 10 a.m. 224
CALLIEVAR 11.45 am. 196
12 217
12.15 P.M. 182
12.30 P.M. 168
2 P.M. 217
ALFORD 3.15 P.M. 406
6 P.M. 688
43 26 10 a.m. 530
1] am. 750
6§ P.M. 4,250
= 27 10 a.m. 580
6 P.M. 2,750
x 28 10 a.m. 294
6 P.M. 469
x 29 10 a.m. 350
6 P.M. 900
Wind.
Tempera-
ture.
on
(oP)
Sa =
x
58
47
52
~
Drab
Or
Or Or
OFONON
oo He:
Our
WS OS on | Humidity.
Or Ot
Or
Our
State of
683
TaBLE Il—The Number of Dust Particles in the Atmosphere for 1892—continued,
A) REMARKS.
Thick On yacht in Sound of
Kerrera.
5 On yacht in Loch
- Feochan.
Ps On yacht in Sound of
Kerrera.
Thickish On yacht near Oban.
Medium Onyachtopposite Appin.
- On yacht near Ardgour.
Clear At Ardgour.
Very clear | Cirrus cloud 7.
Clear Cloud .
Very clear | Thin cloud 5.
Clear Cloud 4; been slight
shower.
Thickish Clouded all over,
Medium Cloud 4; airfrom Alford.
Clear Cloudless; air from
Alford.
Medium . .
Very clear | Cloudless.
Clear Cloudless ; air from
Alford.
Medium Clouded over.
Thickish (W.20,E.10). Cloud #.
bP)
bP)
Very thick
Very clear
b]
Glenn
Thickish
Clear
Medium
Very clear
(W. 20, E.13). Clouded
over.
(W. 15, E. 13); Loch-
nagar not visible.
(6).
Cloudless.
(250).
Cairngorm and Loch-
nagar quite clear.
Cloud +5:
(200).
Clouded over.
(40). Clouded.
Clouded ; been raining.
Cloud 4.
Cirrus clouds }.
Cloud $.
Thin clouds; numbers
variable.
VOL. XXXVII. PART III. (NO. 28).
5K
684
MR JOHN AITKEN ON THE NUMBER OF DUST PARTICLES IN THE
TABLE III.—-The Number of Dust Particles in the Atmosphere for 1893.
Place.
Hybres
CANNES
MENTONE.
”
San Remo
Minan
2
BELLAGIO.
”
Phd
BavENo
Date.
March
25
27
28
29
31
April
1
4
12
17
19
21
22
aa
bo
Hour.
10 a.m.
3 P.M.
4 P.M.
10 a.m.
5 P.M.
1B)
2.30 P.M.
4 P.M.
2 P.M.
4 P.M.
2 P.M.
4 P.M.
4 P.M.
2 P.M.
3.30 P.M.
3.3) P.M.
4.15 P.M.
6 P.M.
3.30 P.M.
3.45 P.M.
4 P.M.
Number of
Particles
31,250
11,400
1,085
1,062
6,750
1,800
875
1,900
2,050
1,850
1,675
975
1,025
698
100,000
150,000
3,300
7,100
4,300
3,600
4,050
3,500
1,850
2,800
2,300
6,400
4,500
3,050
5,100
2,600
1,900
1,525
3,350
2,500
2,250
1,675
bo
MRNARN Mm
qRRPEHoss FF
mM
RNPN
=
ays
Tempera-
ture
61°5
c
S State of
| the Air.
=)
jaa
75] Medium
4 >
8 5,
5 :
3 i
8'5| Clear
10 oa
8 +
95 +
8°5 s,
14 -
10 | Very clear
6°5| Medium
10 Clear
9 .
5 Medium
3 3
5 ”
5 Clear
... | Thick
nee ee
iil Thickish
1 4 ”
6 Of
13 Medium
8 .
” ”»
4:5 ”
10-5 m
8:°5| Thickish
9°5 i
6 ”
55 a
14 Very clear
19 x
” ”
15°5 °
14:5 “s
19 a
185 a
18 9
REMARKS.
Observed on Fenouillet.
” ”
” ”
” ”
Observed on Fenouillet ;
been rain.
Observed on Fenouillet ;
air from Toulon.
Observed on Fenouillet;
air from Hyéres ;
numbers variable.
Observed at Presqu’ Ile
de Gien.
Observed on Fenouillet.
Observed on Fenouillet;
air from Hyéres ;
numbers variable.
Air coming direct from
Mediterranean.
At Cape Martin.
At Red Rocks.
At Cape Martin.
On breakwater.
On shore of west bay.
On breakwater ;no spray.
On topof spire of Cathe-
dral.
Top of Serbelloni.
”
”
Abthelake se
On hill-side 1500 feet
up; showers distant.
At lake-side.
On hill-side 1500 feet
up ; air off lake.
At lake-side.
On hill-side 1500 feet
up ; air off lake.
3) ”
At lake-side.
Onhill-side 1500 feetup.
Onhill-side 2000 feetup.
At lake-side. hs
Onhill-side 1500feetup. |
” ”
” ”
ATMOSPHERE OF GREAT BRITAIN AND ON THE CONTINENT.
685
TasLe II1—The Number of Dust Particles in the Atmosphere for 1893-—coutinued
REMARKS.
© Ss s = See
2S s é Ss ate o
Place. Date. Hour. a Es Wind. = 3| 5 iho due
=} (ou f=™) =) ly
A en
May
BaveNno 5 5 P.M 2,100 E. 2 70 | 14 | Very clear
* 6 9 aM 2,900 | S.E.2 | 62 9 | Clear
12.30 p.m. | 4,500 | E.S.E. 2 - 10 3
2.30 P.M 4,800 | S.E. 0°5 A Be Fr
3.30 P.M 3,600 Bae 58 13°5 ss
4pm. | 3,450 | N.E.0°5 | 56:5) 12:5 P
4.15pm. | 1,650 | S.E. 05 | 58 14 +
6 P.M. 1,225 1B, 2 59 12 )
Locarno . 8 5 P.M. 3,000 8. 0°5 Bigs) || S95) 5
Lucerne . 9 5 P.M. 800 Sa! 61:°5| 13 | Very clear
VITZNAU . 10 9.30 a.m. | 2,800 S. 0:2 Clear
10 a.m. 5,000 a MA Ses -s
11 am. | 10,000 Calm 58 (5)
Riet Kut . 1 P.M. ES (MCOKO) | IN, OR | AER) || S95) 1) Mblouvake
2.30 P.M. 2,800 INS 39 0 In cloud
4 PM. 2100) | Ne: 0:5) 39-25) 0:25 55
6 P.M. 15007) INS O:5e 83 Gron|O *
\ 11 7 A.M. 525 | N. 02 | 36 0:5 i.
9 A.M. 756 Calm om 0 -
9.30 a.m. 739 38 37 -
11 a.m. 698 | N.E. 0:5 | 39 si B
12 DA | NEES ISS 7 A
1 pM. 2,750 Ke 39°5| 05 ,
3 P.M. 1,400 | N.E.2 | 37 0 _
5 P.M. 550 | E. 0°5 ‘ ‘ ui
7 P.M. 441 | NR O22) 36:5 |, r
Fy 12 7 AM. 690 E. 2 36 5 5
9 A.M. 975 | E.N.E. 2 | 34°5| 1:5) Medium
11 a.m. 3,000 ¥ 39 3 | Thickish
1 P.M. 3,019 i BOs 2d 3
3 P.M, 5,700 | E.N.E. 1 | 36 3 | Medium
3.30 p.m. | 5,700 9 35 3:5 My
5 P.M. 2,025 195 3) 31 1 3
7 P.M. 1,625 | E.S.E. 2 | 30 2 2
13 7 AM. 2,050 5 33 2 | Clear
At lake-side ; sudden
rise of wind.
At lake-side.
”?
Onhill-side 1500 feetup;
wind and numbers
variable.
Onhill-side 2000 feet up ;
wind and numbers
variable.
On hill-side 2000 feet up ;
numbers changing
with wind.
At lake-side.
On hill-side 500 feet up.
At lake-side; air off lake.
Onsteamernear Lucerne.
Onsteamer near Vitznau.
On lake-side ; numbers
variable.
Wind and numbers
both variable.
No rain.
rb}
9?
Clouds passing over hill-
top.
Distant thunder; clouds
passing over hill.
Cloud settled on hill-top.
Been showers of sleet,
hail, and rain.
Raining.
Clouds passing over top
of Rigi.
Top of mountain clear
of clouds.
Showers in distance.
Snow-showers in the
afternoon.
Transparency variable
in different directions.
Thunderstorm in direc-
tion of Zurich.
Clear to E., thickish W.
Clear in some directions,
thick in others.
Hochgerrachjust visible;
cloudless.
686
MR JOHN AITKEN ON THE NUMBER OF DUST PARTICLES IN THE
TaBLe Il.—Zhe Number of Dust Particles in the Atmosphere for 1893—continued.
Place.
Riet Kutm .
VITZNAU .
ENGLISH
CHANNEL
Date.
May
13
14
15
16
20
Hour.
9 aM.
11 A.M.
12
1 p.m.
3 P.M.
5 P.M.
7 P.M.
7.30 P.M.
6 A.M.
7 A.M.
8 A.M.
9 A.M.
11 a.m.
1 P.M.
3 P.M.
5 P.M.
7 P.M.
7.30 P.M.
7 AM.
9 A.M.
11 a.m.
12
1 P.M.
3 P.M.
5 P.M.
7 P.M.
9 P.M.
7 AM.
9 A.M.
10.30 a.m.
11 a.m.
1)
1 P.M.
9.30 P.M.
3 P.M.
3.30 P.M.
4 P.M.
Number of
Particles
per ¢.c
2,975
13,250
15,750
16,500
10,875
11,250
4,035
3,300
1,250
1,100
1,375
1,375
1,625
1,725
3,325
1,750
1,825
1,875
925
1,375
150
2,700
4,405
3,900
2,650
2,800
2,650
1,225
1,275
2,050
2,600
2,650
2,650
5,400
5,100
5,300
8,500
6,000
3,800
Wind.
8.E. 0-2
8. 0°5
S.W. 0°5
S.W. 1
Vansable
"05
Tempera-
ture.
09 |
©
Boe bo | Humidity.
Ot Cr
isy)
ie)
41
52°5
47°5
41:5
42,
48:5
52
69
67
69
State of
the Air.
Clear
Medium
Thickish
Thick
Very thick
Medion
”
”
Thichish
10-5 | Medium
10
1
”
»”
REMARKS.
(E. 70, W. 250).
Nearly cloudless above,
but low down nearly
covered.
(EK. 45). Clouds tend-
ing to form on Rigi.
(E. 50).
(E. 50, W. thick haze).
(E. 50, thick haze to W.),
cloudless.
Hochgerrach not seen
since 7 A.M.
Cloudless.
(E. 100, W. 120).
(E. 80, W. 180).
(KE. 80, W. 100).
(E. 80, W. 80).
(E. 70, W. 60).
(E. 80, W. 60), Cloud-
less all day.
(E.90,W.180). Cloudless.
(E. 100, W. 100). Thin
haze over sky.
(EK. 60, W. 50). Clouds
becoming denser.
Air still getting thicker.
No distant mountains
visible.
Clouds beginning to
form on Rigi.
Clouded all over.
Been slight rain.
Light rain.
(40). Cloudy morning.
Thin cloud just passed
over top of Rigi.
(30). Clouded over.
Clouds passing away.
Two miles up the lake |
from Vitznau.
One mile from Vitznau.
Dull ; observed near
French coast.
Air coming off French
coast.
ATMOSPHERE OF GREAT BRITAIN AND ON THE CONTINENT.
687
TaBLe IIl.—7Zhe Number of Dust Particles in the Atmosphere for 1893—continued.
On , eS ina)
ee So & Sy
Place. Date. Hour. 2 = - Wind. 2 B z ae & REMARKS.
Be EP |e
May
ENGLISH 20 5 P.M. 3,600 Air coming up Channel.
CHANNEL
June
KINGAIRLOCH 22 | 11.15 a. 259 | N.W.0°5 | 53 2 | Clear Onyachtin Loch Linnhe
near Oban.
12.30 p.m. 175 - igystsy || Se Fe Onyachtin Loch Linnhe
near Appin.
12.45 p.m. 420 | N.W. 2 | 54 2°5 On yachtin Loch Corrie;
clouded.
1.30 P.M. 322 | N.W. 1 5 5 3 Clouded all over.
3 P.M. 196 BS 52 1 5 Slight rain.
6 P.M. 84 N. 2 50°5| 3 - (250).
9 P.M. 350 Neel 48:5! ,, | Medium (56). Slight rain.
Ps 23 9 A.M. 350 x3 51 4:5 * (70). Slight showers.
12 357 N. 2 53 5 is Slight rain.
3 P.M. 217 3 % 4°5 P (26). Slight rain.
6 P.M. 488 zs BBi) || 5. Fe (50). Slight rain.
9 P.M. 406 | N.O5 | 515] 3 | Thickish Light rain.
24 9 a.m. 105 | N.W. 2 | 53:5] 4:5) Clear (40). Cloud 3.
1 P.M. 67 5 59 7 5 (40).
3 P.M. 126 | N.W.3 | 56°5| ,, | Very clear | (200). Cloud i.
6 P.M. 950 5 57 8 _ (200). Cloud 4.
9 P.M. 119 | N.W. 2, | 50 3 | Clear (160). Beginning torain.
, 25 9 A.M. 109 |W.N.W. 2} 53°5| 4:5] Very clear | (140). Cloud #.
11 am. 112 . 54 3°5 mS Slight showers.
2 P.M. 2,800 | N.W. 2 | 56 6 Ff (200). Cloud ;%.
2.30 p.m. | 2,700 a A Fr *
6 P.M. 1,900 |W.N.W. 1] 53°5| 4:5 Bs (200). Clouded over.
9 PM. 1,375 |W.N.W.0-5| 51 3 | Clear (130). Cloud 32.
io 26 9 aM. 336 | N.W. 0°2| 52:2) 3:2 - (130). Cloud 53,.
11.30 a.m. 469 | S.W. 0:5 | 52°8| 3:8] Very clear
12.30 p.m. | 1,225 ; S.H. 05 | 54:5} 4°5 5 Cloud ;%; on hill-side
700 feet up.
4 PM. 1,750 Calm 54 6 - Cloud 1; on hill-side
800 feet up.
5.30 P.M. 725 | E.S.E. 0-5} 58 7 a (250). On hill-side 700
feet up.
7 P.M. 1,500. | NE 0225 |, 9 5 (200). Thin cirrus only.
9 P.M. 1,200 Calm 51 3 | Clear (100). Cloud 4.
5 27 9 A.M. I3}50) | S18, I |} il 5 | Medium (50). Clouded ever.
10 a.M. L700 |= SBE OR aiea9 $3 (50).
1 P.M. 1,125 Calm 57 1 Very thick | Clouded over; drizzling
rain.
4 P.M. 1,200 Pe 61 @ | Lhick (15).
7 P.M. 1,550 rf 58 il Very thick | Raining.
9 P.M. 609 | S.E. 0-2 | 57°5| 0:5 = (13). Slight rain.
ny 28 9 A.M. 536 | 8S. 0:2 a |) hick 13). Raining.
10 a.m. 1,025 - 59 2 | Thickish (26). Showery
1 P.M. 2,700 | S.E. 0°5 | 63 5 3 (20). Cloud 55.
4 P.M. 1,250 | N.W. 0°5| 62°2| 4:2) Medium (80). Cloud 55.
7 P.M. U192) | ENWe 62 4 # (60). Cloud 5%.
9.30 P.M. 675 | N.W. 0°5 | 59 2°5| Thickish (15). Clouded over.
29 9 AM. 217 | N.W.1 | 54 I) Dhiek (6). Drizzling rain.
688
MR JOHN AITKEN ON THE NUMBER OF DUST PARTICLES IN THE
TABLE IlI.—Zhe Number of Dust Particles in the Atmosphere for 1893—continued.
Place.
KINGAIRLOCH
Date.
30
July
bo
Hour.
10 a.m.
11.30 a.m.
1 P.M.
2.30 P.M.
5 P.M.
7 P.M.
9.30 p.m.
9 A.M.
10 a.m.
1 P.M.
3 P.M.
4 P.M.
7 P.M.
9.30 P.M.
9 A.M.
10 a.m.
11 a.m.
1 P.M.
2.30 P.M.
4 P.M.
7 PM.
9.30 P.M.
9 A.M.
10 a.m.
1 P.M.
3.30 P.M.
4 P.M.
7 P.M.
9.30 P.M.
9 aM.
10 a.m.
1 pM.
4 P.M.
5 P.M.
7 P.M.
9.30 P.M.
9 A.M.
10 a.m.
11 a.m.
1 P.M.
4 P.M.
7 PM.
9,30 P.M.
9 AM.
10 A.M.
12
1 P.M.
2.30 P.M.
4 P.M.
of
Number
Particles
per ¢.c
1,300
18,000 ?
3,200
4,300
4,700
3,250
3,450
5,400
3,950
6,250
4,100
6,900
3,450
3,400
2,300
2,300
2,400
1,600
1,025
705
659
637
568
564
2,400
1,500
1,150
1,250
1,050
950
950
875
635
825
925
544
511
935
1,200
1,100
2,400
a
bel
Wind 5 g
{cb}
B
N.W. 1 |.53°5
N.W. 2 | 54
Nes eo:
i 56
N.W. 0:5 | 55:2
N.W. 1 | 55°5
N.W. 0:5 | 54
S.H. 0'5 | 56
5 585
1D, 65
EK. 0°5 68
3) 67:5
” 65
‘ 61:3
S.E. 0°5 | 65:5
S.E. 1 66°5
i 70
S.E. 2 74.
SB, Oe || 72
Ss. 1 70
9 69
S. 0°5 66
Calm 58
1D, OY 59
S.E. 0:2 | 63°5
N.W. 0:2} 65:5
¢ 665
N.W. 1 | 64
” 58
N.W. 0:5 | 60
B 66
N.W. 1 | 69
INS Wie le6icd
a 65
N.W. 1 | 62°5
N.W. 0:5} 58°5
BO 63
9 66
05 64
” 67
99 69
39 66
Calm 63
iy 2 61
a 65
1D (05) 67
a 70°5
a 715
S.W. 0:2 | 73
| Humidity.
~
2
wr WwW oe
RO ROME
HH
POoAMIDOAEWOTOR
bo OU ot or
Cur
State of
the Air.
Thick
Medium
Clear
Mhickish
Medium
Clear
Media
Thickish
Thick
Very thick
Thick
Very thick
Thickish
Medium
Clear
Thickish
Very clear
Thickish
Very clear
Giese
Thickish
”
Meditra
Thickish
REMARKS.
(6). Raining.
Drizzling rain.
(35). Clouded over.
(70). Clouded over.
”
Cloud 5%.
Cloud 5%.
Cloudless.
Cloudless.
Cloudless.
(65).
(28).
(28).
(35).
(100).
(60). Cloudless,
Gloudiess
Only cirrusclouds.
. Only cirrusclouds, |
Only cirrus clouds.
. Only cirrus clouds.
Cloud 4.
Cloud 5%.
Cloud 4.
Cloud 5%.
(9). Been
nearly over.
(9). Clouded over.
(26). Cloud 7.
(40). Cloud,%,,very thin.
(50). Cloud #, very thin. |
(60). Cloud 4.
(40). Clouded over, thin.
(105). Cloud4, very thin.
(40). Cloud 4.
(150). Cloud +5.
(150). Cloud 4.
(100). Cloud 2.
(100). Cloud $.
(70). Clouded
very thin.
(16). Cloud 4, thin.
(20). Cloud ?, thin.
(20). Cloud 4, thin.
(40). Cloud},thin; N.E| —
wind on Loch Linnhe,
(20). Cloud 4.
Clouded over.
Clouded over.
Cloud 4, thin.
Cloud 5.
Cloudless.
(80), Cloud+,verythin.|
(100). Cloudless.
raining,
over,
ATMOSPHERE OF GREAT BRITAIN AND ON THE CONTINENT.
689
TaBLe TI—TZhe Number of Dust Particles in the Atmosphere for 1893—continued.
Place.
KINGAIRLOCH
Date.
July
5
10
Hour. = = = Wind. ae s Ha REMARKS.
eee ae |e
5.30 p.m. | 2,450 | S.W. 0:2} 71 9 | Clear (100). Cloudless.
6 P.M. 1,925 _ 1m ... | Medium (40).
9.50 pm. | 1325 | E02 | 63 5°5| Thickish (20).
9 A.M. 875 ‘. as 6°5 | Clear (60). Only cirrus clouds.
10 a.M. 900 | S.E.0°5 | 67 | 12 55 (80).
11.30 a. 9007) "S20: ” 3 = (80). Thin clouds all
over sky.
1 P.M. 2,292 Re 67°5| 11 5 (80). Cloud,§,, very thin.
4 P.M. 5,750 | S.E. 0°5 | 66 8°5 | Thickish (25). Clouded all over;
a few drops of rain.
5.30 p.m. | 4,800 | S.E. 0-2 | ,, ri 5 (15). Clouded all over.
(635 5,700 ” ” 85 ” ” ”
9.30 p.m. | 4,650 Calm 60°5| 4:5 i (135). Clouded all over ;
a few drops of rain.
9 A.M. 3,700 | S.E.1 | 65 65 FF (17). Cloud #, thin.
10 a.m. 5,000 i 66°5| 7:5 Re (17). Cloud 3.
11.30 a.m. | 4,700 os 71 9°5 bs (15). Cirrus only.
1 P.M. 6,500 i, 68 if _ (10). Clouded over and
heavy thundery ap-
pearance.
4 PM. 5,200 8. 2 73°5| 10 | Thick (10). Air been much
thicker ; cloud 3.
7 P.M. 3,750 | S.E.1 2-0 eon | Thickish (15). Cloud $; thunder
to S.W. distant.
930'rmM. | 2.575 | SE. 0:5 | 70 8 r (15). Clouded over.
9 a.m. 3,200 | S.E. 0-2 - (15). Cloud}; thunder-
storm during the night.
10 a.M. 4,875 | S.E.0°5 | 74 | 105 e (15). Cloud ;5.
11.30 am. | 4,000 2m O1d)|) 9855 53 (26). Cloud 5%.
12.30 p.m. | 5,000 | S.E.0:2 | 73 | 10 | Medium (50). Clouded over ;
thunder near.
12.45 p.m. | 3,500 | S.E.3 | 70 8 us Sudden gust of wind.
1 P.M. 3,500 | S.E. 0-2 | 71 7 | Thickish (27). Cloud; thunder
to S.W.
2.30 P.M. 1,500 PB: 68 7°5| Thick Clouded over ; thunder,
rain.
3 P.M. 2,000 ms Son nds 3 5 3
3.30-P.mM. | 2,312 As 64 2 53 % 5
4 P.M. 2,250 i ss 5, | Lhickish (15). Clouded; raining.
DelorPm, | 1,625 |) BO se 7 - (14). Clouded over, thin.
6.30 p.m. | 3,750 a i 55 fa 9 9
9.30 p.m. | 2,150 Calm 63 1 | Very thick
9 A.M. 1,050 | N.E. 2 * 4 | Thickish (50). Raining.
10 a.m. 658 o 65 5 | Clear Clouded over; showers.
11 a. 448 | N.E.05 | ,, 4 | Very clear | (120). Cloud 5.
2 P.M. L375 | Es0:5) 760 2% # (130). Clouded over;
beenthunderand rain.
4 PM. 1,600>)|) Sekine 7 » | Lhickish (26). Clouded over ;
raining.
7 P.M. 1,600 | S.E.3 | 59 5 | Medium (50). Clouded over.
9.30PM. | 1,575) SEI | 57 3 3 % i
9 AM. 1,500 | S.E. 0:2 | 59 |) Dhickish (17). Slight rain.
10 a.m. 1,475 61 Medium (50). Clouded over.
690 MR JOHN AITKEN ON THE NUMBER OF DUST PARTICLES IN THE
TaBLe I1—Zhe Number of Dust Particles in the Atmosphere for 1893-— continued.
On , S i=
HY oO Bt j=
Place. Date Hour 2 : ~ Wind ae 3 ase REMARKS.
July
Kinearriocn | 10 11 a.m. 1,575 | S.E. 0-2 | 64 6 | Medium (50). Clouded over.
3 P.M. 1,000 | S.E. 0°5 | 58 2 t Clouded over; been
thunder and rain.
4 P.M. 1,250 62°5| 5:5| Clear Cloud }.
6.30 P.M 1,350 ‘ 62 5 # Cloud }; heavy thunder-
- clouds to E. all after-
noon. :
7 P.M. 1,250 | (S0.5 | 61 4 | Medium (50). Cloud }.
9.30 p.m. | 2,100 | Calm 59 » | Thickish (17). Cloud #.
ms ll 9 A.M. 2,000 | N.E. 0.2 | 62 5°5| Medium 50). Clouded over.
10 a.M. 1,850 5 67 8 A teOy Cloud 3, thin.
1 P.M. 2,300 | S.E. 0:5 | 72 9°5 i (50). Cloud 4. 4
4 P.M. 1,450 | N.E. 0° | 70 | 10 | Clear (100). Cloud $; been
thunder to 8.E., no
rain.
7 P.M. 1,350 | S.E. 0°5 | 64 8 | Medium (40). Cloud 32.
9.30 p.m. | 1,275 Calm 57°5| 2°5% Clear (60). Clouded over ;
been rain.
“3 12 9 A.M. 5380 | S.E.1 | 65 6 5s (100). Cloud #, thin.
10 a.m. t S.E. 0°5 | 64:5) 6:5 . Numbers very irregular,
sometimes very high,
12.30 P.M. 500 E, 2 70 9 | Very clear | (200). Thin cloud 3.
1 P.M. 366 4 Sl ae 2 (200),
2 P.M. 308 | N.E. 1 | 67 8 5 (250). Cloud ;%.
4 P.M. 247 | N.E.0°5 | 64 75 + (250). Clouded over.
7 P.M. 273 % 61:5} 6:5 5 (200). Cloud 5%.
9.30 p.m. 329 Calm 60 4 3 (200). Cloudedallover.
13 9 aM. 392 | E.0-2 | 57-5] 3:5 és B 3; a
10 a.M. 850% a 59 5 3 (200). Numbers very |
variable.
11 aM. 192 | Calm 59:5 | 4:5 i (250). Clouded over.
1 P.M. 1,500 | N.W. 0°5 | 57 3'°3 1 Clouded over ; distant
showers.
2.30 p.m. | 1,275 5 56 3 2 Clouded over; slight
rain.
4 P.M. 3,500 | N.W.1 | 56°5| ,, | Very thick | (10). Clouded over; no
rain.
7 P.M. 182 | N.W. 0:2 | 56 2°8| Very clear | (200). Clouded over ;
been slight rain,
9.30 P.M. 175 5 52 3 ‘5 (200). Cloud 4.
a 14 9 A.M. 98 | N.W.1 | 54 3°8 i (250), Clouded over.
10 a.m. 85 5 56 4:5 3 ae Cloud 9; blue
aze.
lpm. {12,250 | N.W.2 | 59 58 i (200). Cloud 4.
2pm. |13,500 5 57 5 ” i: ,
3Pp.M. |12,500 | N.W. 3 | 61 7 3 (200). Cloud }.
4pm. |11,000| N.W.2] , | ,, ss (200). Cloud }.
5.15 p.m. | 4,500 i 58 | 65 i (200). Cloud 54.
6 P.M. BIGOT N, Ws 1) | * 4, 6 i se if
6.30 p.m. | 2,300 By “ : a (200). Cloudless.
7 P.M. 2,100 i DGD) %, is 4 .
8.30 P.M. 850 | N.W. 0°5 | 53 4 Z (200). Cloud }.
D
9.30 P.M. 378) | NLIW, 0:2} BLD |, Fs (200). Cloud 4.
ATMOSPHERE OF GREAT BRITAIN AND ON THE CONTINENT.
TABLE II].—TZhe Number of Dust Particles in the Atmosphere for 1893—continued.
Place.
KINGAIRLOCH
© S Ae >
a a Oo a =
oo ‘ 2 o
Date. Hour. = = - Wind. | & 3 E
Ze Be | fi
July
15 9 A.M. 420 | N.W. 0°2 | 55 3°
9.30 A.M. pyNay WIND. OP || esc ia
10 a.m. 446 _ 57
1 P.M. 1,200% E.0:2 | 61
11,000 ? x A
3 P.M. 7,900 | N.W. 0:2) 62:5
4 P.M. 9,325 | N.W. 1 | 60
5.15 p.m. | 7,700 | N.W. 0:5 | 58°5
5.30 p.m. | 5,700 i Sor
5.45 pm. | 4,400 = 58°5
7 P.M. 3,500 i, 58
8 P.M. 3, L00 | N.W. 0:2) ;,
9,30 p.m. | 1,412 i 55:5
16 9 aM, 674 | Variable | 56
10 A.M. 560 te rf
11 a.m. 245 n os
2 P.M. 3,700 4) S.E. 0°5 | 60
4 PM. 1,600 S. 0:2 59
7 P.M. 825 Calm 5S
9 P.M. 483 | N.W. 0°5| 53
17 9 A.M. 575 | W.N.W. 2| 51
10 a.m. 364 . 54
1 PM 399 |W.N.W. 3) 58
2 P.M. 702 “a 57
2.45 P.M 469 59°5
4 P.M. 725 i 56:5
6.30 P.M 2,100 5, 56
7 P.M 3,250 *s a8
9 P.M 294 5 52
18 9 aM 560 | E. 02 | 59
9.30 A.M 775 | S.E, 0:5 | 59-2
10 a.M. 567 5 59 53
11.30 a.m. 483 | §. 0:2 60 6°5
1 P.M. 530 S. 1 56 4
4 P.M. 1,175 ra 54 y
7 P.M. 1,625 s 52 1
9 P.M. 750 | S.E. 0:2 ‘; 0:5
19 9 aM. 238 |W.N.W.0-2| 58:5) 1
10 a.m. 280 | W. 05 | 61:5) 1:5
1 P.M. 345 | S. 0°5 61 3
4 P.M. 2,500 2% Calm 58 2
7 P.M. 1,600 S. 0:2 7955 || 55}
9.30 P.M. 950 s 57 3
20 9 A.M. 250 W. 2 Ba) G5
10 a.m. 273 ra 55 2°5
VOL. XXXVII. PART III. (NO. 28).
State of
the Air.
Very clear
Very clear
Clear’
Very clear
Medium
”
2
2
Very clear
Thickish
Medium
Very’ clear
Thickish
q
REMARKS.
(130). Clouded over.
(130). Clouded over,
thin,
(200). Cloud ¢ ; lowest
observed.
Numberschanging great-
ly ; highest observed.
(200). Cloud 3; thin.
(200). Cloud 4.
(200). Clouded over.
(130). Been rain lately ;
clouded over.
(65). Slight shower.
(130). Cloud ;%.
(50). Showers distant.
Raining.
Been heavy rain.
Been very heavy rain.
(150). Cloud 4; raining
since 9 A.M.
Cloud ?; very clear be-
tween showers.
Cloud 2; been rain.
Cloud 4.
(150). Cloud 3.
” ”
” bP)
Raining ; clouded over.
Clouded over.
(40).
(50).
(130). Clouded over.
(26). Beginning to rain.
Raining.
Been raining lately.
Been wet night; still
clouded over.
Raining.
Frequent showers.
Raining.
Showers.
”?
Showers, but air clear .
between.
Raining.
692
MR JOHN AITKEN ON THE NUMBER OF DUST PARTICLES IN THE
TaBLE III.—Zhe Number of Dust Particles in the Atmosphere for 1893-—coutinued.
Place. Date.
July
KINGAIRLOCH 20
% 21
Sept.
ALFORD . . i
” 2
7 4
” 5
” 6
‘, 7
” 8
” 9
* ll
Hour.
1 pM.
4 P.M.
7 P.M.
9.30 P.M.
9 A.M.
10 a.M.
1 P.M.
2 P.M.
2.30 P.M.
3 P.M.
10 a.m.
11.30 a.m.
1 P.M.
6 P.M.
9 A.M.
10 a.m.
6 P.M.
9 aM.
1] a.m.
4.30 P.M.
7 P.M.
10 A.M.
11.30 a.m.
6 P.M.
9 aM.
1 P.M.
6 P.M.
10 a.m.
10.30 a.m.
1 P.M.
3 P.M.
6 P.M.
10 a.m.
1 p.m.
4 P.M.
6 P.M.
9 A.M.
10 a.m.
12
5 P.M.
S x
AGE || 5 3
‘2 ’
2s om Wind ae
ze a
476 |W.N.W. 4| 57
336.| W.4- | 52°5
725 e 52
OO}! EN Wo il gs
329 | W.05 | 54
392 > 57
560 Ww. 1 56
588 i; 575
58> | oS... 2 0) 58
483 > %9
525 |W.N.W.0-2| 59
248 |W.N.W. 1) 59°5
252 5 61
252 | N.W. 2 | 59
201 HNON: We Lil) 5;
245 | N.N.W. 2) ,,
1,825 | N.E. 0°5 | 55
3,000 2% Calm 58
2,250 | S.E. 0:2 | 63
L660); EHA0'2 69
3,500 | S.E. 0°2 | 56
2,800 % 64
1,400 | S.0:2 | 66
975 | W.05 | 60
485 | N.W. 0°5 | 59°5
434 |W.N.W. 1| 63
5AD | W.80:2 6
700 |W.N.W.0-2)_,,
554 5 58
490 W. 1 59
455 |N.N.W.0°5| 61
2,300% Calm 54:5
483 | N.W.1 | 56°5
675 | NaH 2 50:5.
800 5 50
1,025 | N.E. 0°5 | 47
539 N. 2 ¥
427 ” ”
737 ‘i 48
1,475 - 44
950 iN; 1 44:5
6,000 2 Calm 48
7,000 2 5 51
2,650 ,, 54
6,300 ? a 56
| Humidity.
CU Or Or or
or
Oren
09 CO DH ATH Ht GD OL OD OD
HH Hr Ht
Or or
State of
the Air.
”
”
Very clear
Thickish
Very clear
Median
Thickish
”
”
29
”
Clear
”
Very clear
ee
Medium
Very clear
Very clear
”
Clear
REMARKS.
Showers.
Raining heavy.
Raining,
Showers.
(200). Cloud $; been
raining.
(200). Cloud $.
(200). Cloud 4,
In Loch Corry. |
(200). Cloud4; in Loch
Linnhe.
” ”
Clouded over ; raining.
Fair, but clouded over.
Dull.
No rain since morning.
Clouded over.
Cloud }.
(30).
Cloud 3, thin.
(40). Cloudless.
” ”
(100). Cloudless.
Cloud $.
(200). Cloudless.
(200). Thin clouds 4.
Clouded over; beginning
to rain.
(200). Clouded over;
been rain lately.
Cloud 5%.
Cloud 3.
Been raining.
Cloud }.
Clouded over; been rain-
ing.
Cloud +; been raining.
Cloud {.
Cloud }; been rain
during night.
(200). Cloud }.
Cloudedover; beginning
to rain.
Cloud }.
Cloudless.
(100).
Cloud, cirrus only.
” ”
ATMOSPHERE OF GREAT BRITAIN AND ON THE CONTINENT.
695
TaBLE III.—The Number of Dust Particles in the Atmosphere for 1893—continued.
ace s
Place. Date.| Hour. |2:3°]| Wind | 2%
Eas a5
= Ay jor Sy
A
Sept.
ALFORD iH 4.30 p.m. | 4,450% Calm 57
6 P.M. 6,250 ? a 51
% 12 9 a.M. 6,500 3 50
9.30 a.m. | 3,300 “f as
10 a.m. 2,350 ss 56
11 a.m. 1,400 | W.05 | 58
1 P.M. 1,025 |W.N.W.0-5) 61
6.30 P.M. 875 |W.S.W.0°2) 52:5
2 13 9 A.M. 378 W. 4 63
10 a.M. 217 3 -
11.30 a.m. 56 y 67°5
4.30 P.M. 399 | W.N.W. 1} 58
6 P.M. 616 | N.W. 0:2} 54
a 14 9.30 A.M. 700 Calm 555
1 P.M. 4,850 2 5 60
2 P.M. 182 W. 1 64
6 P.M. 434 |W.S8.W.0°5} 61
5 15 9 A.M. 273 W. 2 62
1 P.M. 238 |W.N.W. 3) 64:5
10
wow | Humidity.
ch
State of
the Air,
Clear
~
ws
”
Medium
Clear
”
Very clear
4
3 a
® Thickish
4°5] Clear
5
2
» | Very clear
”
REMARKS.
Cloud, cirrus only.
Cloud 2.
(60).
Cloud, thin cirrus only.
(100). Clouded over; thin.
(150). Clouded over.
(200). Clouded over.
Cloud 4; raining 12 to |
1 P.M.
(150).
(100). Clouded over.
Raining.
Clouded over ;
slight rain.
(100). Clouded over, thin.
(200). Cloud 3.
(250).
been
DR JOHN MURRAY AND MR ROBERT IRVINE ON THE CHEMICAL CHANGES IN THE COMPOSITION OF SEA-WATER.
TABLE V.
Water associated with Mud at Queensferry 16 fathoms [collected October 10, 1892].
Results in Grammes per Kilogramme.
E = a Ammonia in parts
Density.] Halogen (as Chlorine). [ainsi as Carbonate of Lime (CaCO,). Sulphuric Acid (SO,). Lime (CaO). Total Bases as Sulphates. per million.
alee = acs : ag Ss ag = a : a | s
F ae\.4 | Isa) 4 IER a |. |e] 6 | 8] ¢ , | Be | g | £2) ¢ , | ee | 6 | Se | gs iY |e
2 2a |Se 8 || @ Iael| & isl & ie |e 8 | ee | # gq || a3 el | ae Z g | ae 5 | ee 3 a | ea
B iS EH | ea | & Hea] & Sei 8 J iiga | & 33 3 2 Za 8 38 5 3 Za 5 a8 5 a ae,
A 41556) 6 | 8a | & & We lens || & ia & Be g a iP I Bs = i ga = ae tI 4 B
@ | Be) & Same Sie Seu ene ee cme Sp | @ | ea | a Se | & | ga | e a | 3
i S 56 a Isic} 3 isto) jail 4 iste)
Ist 1029:25 | 21-487 21°720| —-283| -2242 | -1354| +-0888 | +1336 | + -0906 | 2°5905 | 2°5187 | +0768 2°4816 | +1089} +7672 *6572 +1100 6487 +°1185 | 46°873 46-910 — 037 46°299 +574 777 5°63
2nd | 1024-93] 18°655 18621 | +034} -2663 | 1160) +-1503 | 1163 | + +1500] 2:1579 | 2°1556 | + 0023) 2°1595 | — 0016 *6020 6635 +0385 5645 | +°0375 | 40°420 40:217 + °2038 40°290 +180 3:90 1°95
3rd 1024°27 | 18°144 18145 | = 001} °3385 | 1131 | +2254 | 1131 | + +2254] 2-0547 | 21004 | — 0457 | 21004 | — 0457 5914 “5490 +0424 5490 +0424 | 39-345 397189 +7156 39°187 +158 761 2°24
4th 1025:27] 18'862 18°860| +002} °8395 | 1178 | +2217 | 1178} +-2217 | 2:0895 | 2°1835 | — 0940 | 2°1835 | — 0940 ‘5851 *5707 +0144 *6707 +0144 | 40°849 40°733 +116 40°737 +112 7:02 117
5th 1025744] 19°015 19°000 | +015] 3236 | 1184} +2052) -1185 | +2051] 2-1129 | 2-1994 | —-0865| 2:2012 | — 0883} +5796 “5749 +0047 “5754 +0042 | 41°142 41-035 +7107 41068 +074 6-14 117
| Water ji i ]
soe 102836 | 17°506 | 17486 | +020] ‘1072 | -1090} —-0018 | -1091 | — 0019} 2:0605 | 2:0242 | +-0363 | 20265 | +°0340) +5450 5291 +0159 "5297 +'0153 | 37°913 37°766 +147 37809 +104 0°02 0-10
Mud | |
Note.—In the 8rd portion, the total carbonic acid = 0°2968 grammes
Carbonic acid calculated from alkalinity = 071489 a
Difference = 01479 (nearly bicarbonate).
TABLE VI,
Water associated with Mud in Granton Harbonr [collected January 15, 1892].
Results in Grammes per Kilogramme.
| Density.] Halogen (as Chlorine). | Alkalinity as Carbonate of Lime (CaCO,). Sulphuric Acid (SO,). Lime (CaO), Total Bases as Sulphates.
FI i> ; S | 8s | os ey S Bg S ag |
2 ge] 8 gal @ |e @ , |B) 8 | ae g , ea 3 &8 3 ; 38 g &8 $
g| 8s 5 S| # | eB lee 8 ee #8 fq | 3g 5 Be a FI ae z ge FI 3 =a a 38 q
are g 5 32 2 Zo 2 8 a Lo E ao o 25 By go o So o
415°56. a Aa 2 Be 2A g =| 8 é 2A 8 fae 3 3 2A BS El é a ZA a 3.8 g
& I ax & ad 33 | Be =| S real a Bo = i a & ase tI & 2 E 3 Ge
é| a So) 4 |28) @ &§ A 28 A os A ee a 58 a as e)
oI | 58 ci iste) cl isie) od o8
Ist } 1025°31 | 17-466 | 18°899 | — 1-433] -6071 | 1179} +-4892| 1089) +4982 | 2°5709| 2°1854| +-3855 | 2:0219 5490 “9791 +5720 +4071 5419 +4872 39°957 40-817 — 860 37°722 +2°235
2ndj 102! 18°461 | 18-754) — +293] +6804 | 1170) +°5634 | 1152) +5652 | 18751 | 21709) — +2958 | 2:1870 2619 "8825 5675 ‘3150 5586 3239 40°347 40°504 — "157 39°872 + 475
3rd | 1024°60 | 18°331 | 18-384 | — -053] -6697 | 1147 | + 5550 | “1144 +5553 | 1°6851| 21280) —-4499 | 21219 “4368 “4878 5564 — 0686 5547 — "0669 39°592 39°705 = 112 39°591 + ‘001
Ath | 1024°60 | 18-483 | 18-384] + -099] -6320 | -1147] +5173 | 1153) +°5167 |1°105 | 2-1980| — -5175 1395 “5290 *6805 "6564 +1241 5593 +°1212 39°884 39°705 +179 39919 — 035
5th | 102434 | 18365 | 18195) + 170) -6167 | +1135) +-5032| 1146) +-5021 | 1°6150 | 2-1014| —-4864 | 2-1257 “5107 oon “a ox 89°565 39°297 +268 39°664 — “099
6th | 1024-43 | 18-459 | 18-261 | + -198] -6059 | 1139] +-4990 | -1152| +-4907 | 16102) 2-1138| —-5036 | 2-1367 "5265 se ane =
7th | 1024°53 | 18587 | 18°333 | + +264] -6004 | 1144 | +4860 1160] +4844 | 1990} 92-1991) —-5931 | 21515 5525 | °4185 "5549 — 1364 5624 = 1439
Sth | 1025-75 | 19-404 | 19-210] + +194] -6295 | -1198| +-5097 | -1211| +-5084 | 1°6350| 92-2936] — 5886 | 2:2462 6112 5173 “5813 — "0640 “5872 — 0699 41°634 41-489 | +7145 41°908 — 274
i
Note. —The saline NH; of 1st portion was 20 parts per million; in another water from the harbour it was as high as 80,
P ? ny alive
em! _ = fs
a i. rs - ; > (= -
"s » li = a - ailing ir —
as 7 S ee ee ae ee ey we a oe
: Ne =
§ &
Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin. Vol. XXXVII.
DIAGRAM No. I, SHOWING THE NUMBER OF DUST PARTICLES IN THE ATMOSPHERE AT BEN NEVIS OBSERVATORY AND KINGAIRLOCH :
DURING JULY 1891.
SATA eS Se VANISINS S|
L LL |_| i jt Ld | = [eee 6000
CeN OS SUIONENS Noe) ana NZCNZ Ny e e
inal BAZ Pe aNASIZS es Ze
: i j | \ |
— = | | | = I | ll Il | a 1 ie | |
| | |
ae r 4000
nie | [ ! T i | | ; a
| tt | | + — aF 8000
| __t | | L__| eeu esl La [ease | SL a Mee J i
1 ! ! | h r 2000
| ! ) = a + =a 1000
-s | me See St, ve \ 4 + —\ fe 500
‘ | 2 | » |_I_# é : ; | P awa 78. 79 ? Date.
SISSIAINA SSIS \ANCNNIDCEIS@IOINS SINT IN SZ NIN
| a | T if
Te NLL NEO ei nn Se S| TS
| | | | | Lint | 6000
i ioe NI dst AI \ S a \| ess = =} yy] a * wy—tiy RZ Nb Re N all —all (S aa MZ a
| i rt ;—|5000
tL L | I [ I =
1
| "I } mr rail i 4000
| | _ 15) PLL FILL I ci
ve ini 7A ji | ;—|3000
ae ee Le |
=I - —ll | i \
| | rai + +2000
pel | :
| an ZI uae
ci | : eee + 1000
| ) 5 Tr fe tI : a 500
Nix © NAS in ellie z | I Z 3O | | By Date.
AEA ASIAN SSEINANENANSNINNONNNENNENESENS
The wp Eines show the number of Particles at Ben Nevis Observatory. } The Upper Arrows show the Direction and Force of the Winds on Ben Nevis. a
The Thick Lines show the number of Particles at Kingairloch. The Lower » at Kingairloch.
The Intermediate ,, n m » over the British Isles.
Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin. Vol. XXXVII.
DIAGRAM No. Il, SHOWING THE NUMBER OF DUST PARTICLES IN THE ATMOSPHERE AT BEN NEVIS OBSERVATORY AND KINGAIRLOCH
DURING JULY 1892.
SS 6000
; | =j j | [ | L i a | ae | LI Bll iss in Za | Ze VY, VA ENE tt
| RAC ON JS CE Se eas 9000
L | | : | L E | | i ; }— , | 4000
i = i a i ia il ‘tals 3000
LI ia | | L J 2000
| | II | a |
a | 4 - | | AsJ1000
aa te = be =} i “I 4 SENS — =, } 500
oes e Ff al y, E W y) WA ie |x _| Date.
St SISSON SS SIDI SS SOS IIIS S'S ON SISOS SS Sen
OSTA SZUN LENT PPA ny HT Soe ae |
| ae ea aE 6000
PONTE ONZE NON Za al A ZABARA VAN | IZ TA
ices : | | 1 t f yy, | a KIT IN Al | | | ae
- + = tL == = IL L he =
ue L ie NI —14000
4 SE =, ze JL = = a —| 4K |
aims i | on 3000
| Lt pee LU | Zi ‘
| 1 HL ar I —- 2000
I | | | \. | 1000
~ A a fas al = 2 ae | 500
a a “AI NA 2? ea wie: ec [ G al. | | date,
VIG=NNIDNINNICNAN SAWON ENE ASRS =) =e
The Thick Line shows the number of Particles at Kingairloch. The Lower » at Kingairlooh.
The Intermediate ,, n » over the British Isles.
r
ry
\
as
. : Ses
. gael Ie
; ? ee Se
! :
ty
,
‘
é:
k
ve
.
;
e¢ ‘
(605 4)
XXIX.—On the Variations of the Amount of Carbonic Acid in the Ground-Air
(Grund-luft of Pettenkofer). By C. Hunter Srewarr, B.Sc., M.B. (From the
Public Health Laboratory of the University of Edinburgh.) (With Three Plates.)
(Read 6th June 1892.)
The chemical examination of ground-air, z.e., the air which is contained in the pores
of the soil, was first made by Bousstncautr and Levy in 1853.* Their results, however,
attracted little attention till Perrenkorer, in 1857, pointed out that the determination of
the amount of carbonic acid in the air of a given soil might be used as a means of
estimating the organic decomposition going on there. In 1871 he first published his
results, and since that time the subject has been worked at by many investigators both
from the agricultural and hygienic point of view, including in the latter class FLECK at
Dresden, Fopor at Buda-Pesth, Hesse in Saxony, and Nicuoxtts in America. As
researches of this nature have not attracted much attention in this country, a short
account of the modus operandi may be interesting as a preliminary.
Tron tubes, with an internal diameter of 1 inch, and having lateral perforations for
4 inches from the lower end, are sunk into the ground. In sinking the tubes care must
be taken to disturb the ground as little as possible, and, further, that neither the sunk
open end nor the lateral perforations are tightly plugged. A solid pointed rod of the
same diameter as the tube is first driven into the soil to make a hole of the required
depth, and then withdrawn. The tube is now armed with a solid piece of iron, shaped
like a spear head, and driven into the hole for 3 or 4 inches deeper than is desired.
The tube is now withdrawn for 3 or 4 inches, which, separating the iron guard, leaves
the open end of the tube quite patent. The iron guard having a slightly greater diameter
than the tube, prevents the lateral perforations being plugged with the soil. The ground
is carefully stamped round the tube to prevent the direct entrance of atmospheric air.
To insure the complete settling of the soil round the tube, it is advisable to wait for a
week before beginning experiments. For convenience of working, the upper end of the
tube should project for about 3 feet above ground. This upper end, fitted with a
perforated rubber cork, is connected by glass and rubber tubing with a Pettenkofer
carbonic acid absorption tube, and this communicates with an ordinary water aspirator.t
A solution of barium hydrate, about 13 grammes to the litre, is used for absorbing the
carbonic acid. The pure barium hydrate of commerce often contains traces of alkaline
salts, the presence of which interferes with the accuracy of the titration by oxalic acid.
The addition of 0°2 grams neutral chloride of barium to each litre of baryta solution
* Annales de Chenie et de Physique, 1853.
+ Fig. A shows the apparatus and arrangement of sunk tube.
VOL. XXXVII. PART. III. (NO. 29). 5 M
696 DR C. HUNTER STEWART ON THE
removes this possible source of error. The Pettenkofer tube, with a capacity of about
130 ¢.c., is charged with 100 cc. baryta solution, and the glass tube at A replaced. This
tube should be contracted at the end, so as to break up the entering air into small bells,
and thus insure the complete absorption of the carbonic acid. The air is aspirated at the
rate of 1 litre per 45 minutes.* If aspirated at a greater rate, then two tubes in series,
each charged with 100 c.c. baryta solution, are necessary. I have found by experiment
that by aspirating through two tubes in series, at the rate of 45 minutes per litre, there —
was no change in the baryta solution in the tube nearest the aspirator, showing that
entire absorption had taken place in the one tube. After the experiment the contents of
the tube are emptied into a stoppered bottle, and set aside to allow the barium carbonate
Gs Ae
to settle. The stopper should be paraffined to prevent absorption of carbonic acid from
the air. Six or eight hours are necessary for the settling of the precipitate. It is some- —
times stated that the baryta acts on the substance of the glass during these operations,
and thus undergoes a change quite irrespective of the carbonic acid. If this were so, a
serious error would exist in this method of carbonic acid estimation, especially when
working with small quantities, e.g., im examining outside atmospheric air. In connection
with this, the following experiments were made :—Two Pettenkofer tubes, A and B, and
two 120 c.c. white glass stoppered bottles, C and D, were taken, B and D being coated
inside with a layer of solid pure paraffin. Hach was then rinsed out with the baryta
solution to absorb the carbonic acid of their contained air, drained, and charged with
* Before connecting the absorption apparatus, the air is directly aspirated from the iron tube to clear it of its
contained air,
‘
VARIATIONS OF THE AMOUNT OF CO, IN THE GROUND-AIR. 697
100 c.c. of the solution. The stoppers of the bottles were paraftined, and the Pettenkofer
tubes carefully closed by rubber and glass rod stoppers. Three experiments of each were
made :—
Original Strength
of Baryta Solution
in terms of 1. 2 3.
the Oxalic Acid
Solution.
Pettenkofer Tubes after 1 hour.
x F : ; ; : 45:2 c.c. 45-2 45°15 45:2
By. : : : ; : A 45°15 45-2 45°25
Glass Stoppered Bottles after 8 hours.
Co: : : : : 2 fe 45-2 45°15 45°15
pS. : : : : a 45°15 45:2 45°15
These variations from the original titre of the baryta solution are fairly within the
limits of error of observation, and cannot be attributed to any action of the glass.
The oxalic acid solution used for titrating the baryta solution is made by dissolving
14107 gramme recrystallised and air-dried oxalic acid in 1 litre distilled water. Hach
e.c. of this solution is equivalent, in combining with barium hydrate, to 0°25 ¢.c. carbonic
acid at 0° C. and 760". By using this strength of acid, PErTENKOFER pointed out that
there is a gain in accuracy and quickness. 100 c¢.c. of the baryta solution, as we have
seen, are used in each experiment. Now, instead of titrating the whole of the solution
with an acid, each c.c. of which is equal to 1 ¢.c. of carbonic acid, we titrate one-quarter
of this (25 c.c.) with an acid, each c.c. of which is equal to one-quarter of a c.c. of carbonic
acid. In both cases the number of c.c.’s of oxalic acid used is the number of c.c.’s of
carbonic acid which 100 c.c. of the baryta solution is equivalent to. Three separate
titrations can be made from each experiment without disturbing the precipitated carbonate
of barium, giving thus an opportunity of checking the work. ‘Two out of three should be
the same.
Oxalic acid solution decomposes if kept long, and on this account sulphuric acid,
diluted to be equivalent to it, is sometimes used instead. In this research oxalic acid
solution only was used, and was freshly prepared weekly. The tabulated results at the
end of this paper are expressed in c.c.’s per litre at the temperature of 0° C.
The analysis of ground-air shows that it is simply atmospheric air with its oxygen in
part replaced by carbonic acid, with the occasional presence of some other gases, ¢.g.,
ammonia and carburetted hydrogen. Various observers have found that the sum of the
oxygen and carbonic acid in it is nearly equal to the oxygen in atmospheric air.
Bovusstncavutt and Levy state that when the sum of the two gases is in excess of the
698 DR C. HUNTER STEWART ON THE
oxygen in the atmosphere, then putrefaction is going on in the soil. Under the action of
anaerobic organisms the organic matter itself supplies the oxygen necessary for oxidising
its own carbon.
Such excess of carbonic acid has generally been found at considerable depths, and in
late autumn, when the deeper layers of the soil have their maximum temperature.
In the deeper layers of an impure and rather impermeable soil, putrefaction is
common if the suitable conditions of warmth and moisture are present : in an impure and
permeable soil, on the other hand, there would be simply oxidation. Ammonia and
carburetted hydrogen are present in very small quantity, but the amount is said to
increase with the depth. ‘The most of the ammonia formed in the soil is absorbed by
the humus. The amount of these two gases is so small and so variable, and their estima-
tion, moreover, so laborious, for practical purposes the determination of the carbonic acid
is the best index to the amount of organic decomposition taking place.
The following are taken from Fopor’s exhaustive work, Luft Boden und Wasser ;-—
Oxygen per cent. Carbonic Acid per cent.
1 Metre deep, . . : 4 20031 f8 1019
4 Metre deep, . : ; 17-9 otk 3°76
The amount of carbonic acid in the air of a given soil depends on (1) the amount of
organic matter, (2) permeability, (3) depth, (4) temperature and moisture. PETTENKOFER
found that the ground-air from the Desert of Sahara had the same composition as the
atmosphere, the conditions for the development of carbonic acid being absent. But no
reliable conclusions can be drawn as to the purity of a soil from the carbonic acid estima-
tion unless its permeability be known. If the carbonic acid be determined in two soils,
similar as regards organic impurity, temperature, and moisture, but of different permea-
bilities, the less permeable will contain more carbonic acid than the more permeable,
because in the former the air is prevented from so easily diffusing vertically into the
atmosphere, and horizontally into the adjacent soil. As regards temperature, the amount
of carbonic acid is least in late winter and spring, and goes on increasing, reaching its
maximum in summer and early autumn, and declining again to its minimum in winter, —
Unfortunately, | had no means of determining the temperature of the soil at the time
that this work was in progress. In the curves appended will be found one of the mean
temperature of the week, derived from the averages of the maximum and minimum
temperature, and the temperature at 9 A.M. and 9 p.m. These show that at a depth of
3 feet the carbonic acid curve follows the temperature curve, but, on an average, about
3 weeks later. This, probably, may be taken as the time required for a variation of —
atmospheric temperature to be propagated to the depth of 3 feet, and to influence the
rate of decomposition there. Fopor found the rainfall to exert a great influence,
especially if rain followed a prolonged drought in the summer. As this investigation
extends only over fourteen months, it does not permit of any conclusions on this point.
VARIATIONS OF THE AMOUNT OF CO, IN THE GROUND-AIR. 699
Fopor’s work extended over three years. The amount of carbonic acid in the air of a
uniform soil increases with the depth. This arises, not from increased chemical change
taking place, nor necessarily from more organic impurity being present, but simply because
the carbonic acid does not get so easy vent as in the more superficial layers.
The soils on which these experiments were made were—(1) the grounds of the Hdin-
burgh Royal Infirmary, and (2) the grounds of Heriot’s Hospital. On the Infirmary site,
the part of the soil examined is for 3 to 4 feet made soil. Below this the soil is natural.
The upper made soil had a medium permeability, and contained 12 to 13 per cent.
of clay, and 73 per cent. sand, gravel, and small stones. It was part of ‘a kitchen
garden, but had not been used for 1 year before the experiments. The organic matter
in it yielded 0°21 per cent. nitrogen.
The ground of Heriot’s Hospital was stiff and clayey, under grass, and had not been
disturbed for nearly 200 years. It may be taken as a typically pure soil. In the
Infirmary grounds the determinations were made daily, morning and evening, from June
1, 1887, to July 20, 1888. At the 3-feet tube there was no intermission except for
about three weeks in May 1888, and on rare occasions when, by the rise of ground-water,
the tube was blocked. ‘The tubes were sunk within a distance of 3 feet from each other,
at depths of 3 feet, 6 feet, and 12 feet. From the low-lying nature of the soil, and the
nearness of the clayey subsoil to the surface, the 12-feet and even the 6-feet tube were
liable to frequent blocking with ground-water. This is the reason of the fewness of the
determinations at these depths. In the Heriot’s Hospital grounds the determinations
were made in the morning only, on an average, three times weekly.
Plate 1 shows the comparison between the weekly averages of the morning and
of the evening 3-feet determinations at the Royal Infirmary, with the weekly averages
of the daily maximum and minimum temperatures.
It will be noticed that from September to the middle of December the evening
determinations are lower than the morning. From the middle of December to the end
of March they are higher, while from April to the end of June they are again lower, with
a tendency to again become higher in July and August. In another paper on atmos-
pheric air, I hope to discuss the bearings of this in fuller detail.
Plate 2 shows the weekly averages of the morning and evening 3-feet determina-
tions combined, with the mean daily temperature.
Plate 3 shows the comparison between the monthly averages of the amount of
carbonic acid at a depth of 3 feet in the ground-air of the typically pure soil of Heriot’s
Hospital grounds and the comparatively impure soil of the grounds of the Royal Infirmary.
The small proportion of carbonic acid in the former, as compared with the latter, is very
marked, especially as the former is less permeable.
Tables 1 to 6 show the detailed statement of all the experiments.
The amount of carbonic acid in the 3-feet determinations at the Infirmary ground
being greater than that of those at 6 feet and 12 feet, is an exception to the rule that the
amount of this gas in ground-air increases with the depth. But this is explained by the
700 DR C. HUNTER STEWART ON THE
fact already pointed out that the upper. 3 or 4 feet is made soil, and not at all similar to
the natural soil below. The increase with depth is seen in the following comparison
between the 6 feet and 12 feet determinations at the Infirmary and the 8 feet and 6 feet
determinations at Heriot’s Hospital Grounds.
|
July. | Aug. | Sept.} Oct. | Nov. | Dec. | Jan. | Feb. | Mar.) Apr. | May. | June.| July.
6 ft. | 9°85) 10-7 | 13°8
Infirmary
Grounds, ) 49 , | 15-99| 16-0 | 17-1
Heriot’s Oo yp eee C6) 7:4) 3h W393 Serb el a6 4-0 3°7 |- 4:6 "bss
Hospital ;
Grounds, 6, | .. | 83] 804 85 | 3:9 | 3:2 | 4:06) 4:56) 3°99 | 4:5) 4:1 | 4:9 16
The importance of the rdle played by the soil in the etiology of disease, which has
long been insisted on by PETrENKoFER and the Munich School, has been emphasised by
the elaborate investigation and report made by Dr Batarp to the Local Government
Board in 1887 on the causation of summer diarrheea. He attributes its epidemic occur-
rence to some decomposition taking place in organically contaminated soil under the
influence of micro-organisms at the depth of about 4 feet. The marked feature in these
epidemics is the great and sudden increase in the number of cases at the end of July and
beginning of August, at which time he found the underground temperature at a depth of
4 feet to be at its maximum. This sudden rise is followed by a comparatively slow —
decline. A reference to the curves in the tables accompanying this paper will show that
the carbonic acid in the ground-air reaches suddenly its maximum amount at the same
period, and that its decline is similarly slow. Since carbonic acid is a product of bacterial
action on organic matter, it is evident that the upper reaches of the soil are biologically
most active at the time when summer diarrhcea attains its maximum intensity.
As showing that the amount of carbonic acid in ground-air is to some extent a
measure of organic matter present in the soil, I append the following experiments made
in January :-— :
Averagely Pure Soil, 3 Feet. Disused Burying-Ground 3 Feet,
Organic Nitrogen, . ; . 0:065 per cent. so 0°136 per cent.
Carbonic Acid in Ground-Air, . 36 cc, per litre. ... 13'5 cc. per litre.
fe
VARIATIONS OF THE AMOUNT OF CO, IN THE GROUND-AIR.
701
Date.
1887.
June
July
WOON HD eke wo eH
G Herior’s Hospiran
ROUNDS OF RoyaL INFIRMARY. Create.
6 Feet Deep. 12 Feet Deep. hae ue,
Morning. | Evening. || Morning. | Evening.
i oe
8:0
6-2
6°5
sl
(ar)
8-0
48
55
58
50
5°9
60
62
57
73
8°8 me
3°4 8°5
8:0 8°6
ae 8°9
9:0 57 ues mae
3°9 12°3 a) 88
5°6 8-2 74 75
ul 11:0 10°5 14:0
9°2 9-0 14:2 11:3
75 10:0 Mes 13:1
75 10°8 5D 13°5
8°6 9°4 13:0 15°05
9:2 9°0 13°9 16-2
78 9°8 13°8 16°3
9°2 9°1 15:0 14:9
8-4 5°6 14:1 12°45
8°6 88 12°6 1571
ou, 10°2 14°6 Gs
10°5 10°4 15°35 18:3
12°7 12°5 16°85 17°65
10°65 12:0 17-0 18:3
11:2 111 18°4 17-14
10°75 11:0 17°8 lies
12°3 117 16°55 al
10°7 oad 17°45 13-1
10°6 11-2 16°45 16°65 ate
97 8°68 176 14:0 54
SES) oul 13°0 13°37
3 Feet Deep.
Morning. | Evening.
14°4
13-4
114
SET,
14°2
12:4
14:4
12°2
13:0
13'1
12°4
13°4
12°4
13°
151
17°25
17:2 Bue
15°5 20°2
18°4 18°8
ads 20°5
18°7 Ger
19:0 21°3
18°75 19°6
ree] 21°9
21°75 23°5
23°1 24°4
23°0 23°7
17-4 21°6
22°7 22°6
Ror 20°4
20°1 22°6
20°3 22°3
21°7 20°9
23°1 20°5
24°55 25°1
260 25°4
25°4 24°5
26°2 26°2
25°5 26°6
27°85 29°1
eS) 27°5
25°3 26°1
256 BOE
18:0
Date.
Aug.
Sept.
DR C. HUNTER STEWART ON THE
Grounps oF Royat INFIRMARY.
3 Feet Deep.
Morning. | Evening.
27°9 25°4
25°0 25°3
24°2 28°7
27°3 25°5
25°4 29°9
29°8 27°4
26°2 25°6
28°0 26°8
24°6 25°8
27°8 27°6
24°8 24°2
25°7 27°3
25°6 28°6
27°3 26°2
23°2 25°2
24°4 24°0
25'8 29°1
26°1 23°6
23°9 26°8
29°2 27°77
27°63 27°4
26°3 24°5
23°6 25°2
20°93 21°3
20°62 20°5
20°1
24°3 24°75
242 22°8
24°4 22°15
25°1 29°65
28°7 23°8
24°4 25°5
25°6 25°85
24°65 23°95
27°9 21°9
240 seis
188
21°1 19°2
6 Feet Deep.
Morning. | Evening.
7°85 9:7
9°6 10°0
75 11:2
10°4 11:0
10°7 (ial!
11:0 9°9
9-4 103
10°9 9°4
9°9 ets
11°3 116
10:0 10°3
10°2 Ti:
73 oak
9°0 11°0
10:2 1071
97 11:0
101 123
12°0 12°3
Te) 12°7
12°8 12°95
12°85 13°4
Vile, 10°4
10°9 9°57
9:0 9°5
87 Sal
775 84
8°85 87
87 84
70
a 8°95
9°85 9°2
10°75 9°8
9°6 10°2
110 13:0
13°6 12°9
11°75 19°17
13°5 13°55
14°77 15°55
13°85 114
130 14°4
13:1 13°18
13°8 12°3
10°25
133 9°9
12 Feet Deep.
Morning. | Evening.
13°2 16°3
14:2 178
16°8 20°2
17°85 181
15°6 20°0
LOT 18-0
17°2 18-0
19°45 18:0
16°6 16°05
ey 18°9
16°35 16°95
16°5 13°6
157 18°8
1671
16:1 14°35
16°85 14°8
16°55 14°25
19-1 166
16°8 18°4
16°95 18°4
18°95 18°9
20°1 16°9
165 19°25
18:1 14°6
1571 14°6
16°3 12°65
12°2 173
14°75 15°2
14:2
dove 11°05
14°5 12°5
16°95 13°8
130 10°9
16°4 17°6
16-4 12°6
14°2 17:0
155 150
1371 17-0
15°4 175
14°6 20°25
170 13°45
17°6 19°5
17:0 170
16°9 13°5
Herio1’s Hosprran
GROUNDS.
3 Feet 6 Feet —
Deep. Deep.
63 74
si | Fa
‘a | 8
a | 7
Yah Ger
69 78
6°8 8-2
79 9:3
86 9°5
76 9°3
68 ialas
6°3 9°4
6°2 79
6°3 87
so | 7a
3°35 67
3°95 Sys)
4:0 6°8
4°8 6°S
53 68
6°2 8:4
6°8 8:7
VARIATIONS OF THE AMOUNT OF CO, IN THE GROUND-AIR.
703
Heriot’s Hospiran
GROUNDS OF THE RoyaL INFIRMARY.
GROUNDS.
Date. 3 Feet Deep. 6 Feet Deep. 12 Feet Deep. aoe met
1887. Morning. | Evening. || Morning. | Evening. |} Morning. | Evening.
Sept. 7 19:0 18°2 13°9 16°9 4°5 8°8
8 Bi 18°4 10°7 74 8-4
9 23°16 17°86 31 6°7
10 19°66 17°05 5°75 59
11 19°63 19°3 oo
12 21°36 18°6 6-9 6°95
13 21°5 14:0 73 58
14 17°35 15:0 75 88
15 17°45 16°75 6-2 6°8
16 18°95 17°3 5-4 0)
17 184 19°3 6:7 (3)
18 17°53 163 ae
19 17°05 15°2 72 75
20 19°6 18°8 6-9 8°15
21 Wz 167 6°3 78
22 20°55 19°55 8°45 85
23 19°3 19:0 de a 74 971
24 oy 23°6 15°65 16°35 8-0 9°8
25 UTS) 21:1 14°6 15°3
26 22°2 ah 1571 oe
27 a. 18°25 =e 13°25 she oes
28 19°55 18°85 ANAL 16°9 87 10°05
29 17°65 17°4 12°3 13°67 10°1 11°35
30 18°65 18°8 116 13°1 8°75 9°4
Oct. 1 19°05 167 15-7 14:0 9°5 90
2 19°5 20°06 14:1 14°3 ee
3 19°6 18°0 13°55 13°15 9-0 10°6
4 18:3 17°4 14°78 15°35 9°2 9°3
5 19°4 Loa 16:2 16°4 8°35 9°6
6 21°3 19°6 1671 13°25 on 9°9
a 23°7 19°5 14°66 Leet 8°85 10-4
8 18°8 yet 12°95 11°34 I 10°0
9 15°65 13°75 12°56 11°74 a Dae
10 15°87 13°8 8:48 9°5 81 10°35
11 14°3 14:0 5°57 8°55 8:05 11°3
12 bes 14:15 8:18 7°28 8-4 9°3
13 15°75 RG (Gs) ac 8°55 9°45
14 Ae 12°83 net 6°56 ooe
15 16°95 15°95 8°42 7°82 9:2 9°7
16 Bae 15°05 9°3
17 15°28 Srcke ate ooh ce ste
18 ae 15°85 9°86 754 s) 88
19 14°6 15°9 6°62 81 715 (OU
21 16°0 14:3 71 5°35 7°65 8°6
23 20°4 14°55 758 5°85 en oer
25 16°8 14°5 55 4°3 ° 6°35 5°85
27 yal 14:0 6°43 5-4 1°85 a7
VOL. XXXVII. PART III. (NO. 29). ON
704 DR C. HUNTER STEWART ON THE
Hertior’s Hosprra
Grounbs or Royat Inrirmary. a
GROUNDS.
Date. 3 Feet Deep. 6 Feet Deep. 12 Feet Deep. ae nae
1887. | Morning. | Evening. |} Morning. | Evening. || Morning. | Evening.
Oct. 29 15°3 12°5 51 4°7 i 37
30 16:0 14:7 4°95 52 2°45 3°25
Nov. 1 13°45 nee 5°25 ive 17 31
3 17°25 1471 8°75 6-4 * 2°55 3°6
5 14:2 118 6°5 5°95 Je} Ba:
7 14:5 72 3°2 4-4
9 ae ste 3:15 46
if 9°55 8:0 3°65 4°75
13 74 9°95 3 a
15 9°8 mie 3-4 4:2
18 115 9°5 3°15 3°7
20 12°25 10°07 ee on
22 9°28 742 3°8 3°8
24 12°2 8:27 471 45
26 9°02 ae 3°6 3°7
30 10°4 6°75 1:9 2°8
Dec. 1 9°8 8-4 2°05 27
3 8°55 51 oe ae
5 9°25 6°45 2°6 31
7 TH 5°65 2°65 2°1
9 8:3 5-4 2°55 27
13 oh 8°75 2°1 3°5
15 79 66 3-4 3°15
17 59 79 3°15 31
ig 755 69 3°8 2°95
21 75 ant 4°7 3°9
24 10°0 88 Pa <a
26 8°56 9-9 41 4:2
28 8° 7:45 B3 on
31 49 39
1888.
Jan. 3 9°2 all 2°0 3°0
5 4°64 7°93 2°5 31
7 75 6°6 dee 271 3°4
9 76 74 wie use ae
| 8°75 10°4 5°55 2°8 33
13 9°9 a 50 die: 4:05 415
15 9°8 10°3 45 515 57 56
17 11:2 8°35 4°65 4-9 = 3°9 3°75
20 9°45 9°3 4°35 4°15 = ee a
22 10:0 78 5°35 4°7 3°65 3°8
24 59 8°7 4°6 58 4-1 3°95
26 see 9°8 3°6 4°6 3°05 4°25
| 28 9°3 56 1-4 Li 4-4 48
30 9°55 8°5 Ast, 4-0 56
VARIATIONS OF THE AMOUNT OF CO, IN THE GROUND-AIR. 705
GROUNDS oF RoyaL INFIRMARY. Herror’s Hospirat
GROUNDS.
Date. 3 Feet Deep. 6 Feet Deep. 12 Feet Deep. ne met
1888. Morning. | Evening. | Morning. | Evening.
Feb. 1 89 88 aoe oe tad ae 4:0 515
3 7°35 6°6 i 3 4:4 3°7
5 67 9-0
7 7°85 7°85 3°0 4-2
9 il (iid 4°35 4:3
11 48 ; 4-7 4°25
13 71 5:25 4-05 46
15 8°85 =e 4-15 4°15
17 Teal 81 2°6 4:8
21 8-4 81 Sal A-75
23 5°25 8:3 46 51
27 9-8 Shsie 4:5 5:3
29 4°8 8:0 58 4-4
March 2 V2 iT 4-] 4°3
4 57 Ge be 3
6 745 = 4°35 4°65
8 7:0 12 2°25 4-2
10 a4.
12 88 78 ne
14 88 30 3°65
16 6°45 ae vd
19 8:7 bi05 31 30
21 12°5 eo 3H 4-4
23 8:3 8:4 5°4 4:9
27 age 3°6 4-4
April 2 6°53 (eal 3°7 5°6
4 8:0 71 4:5 4°3
6 7°36 9°86
8 8°3 9°25 50 5D
10 9°53 3°5 4:0 3°7
12 8°75 foe 4°8 47
23 9°8 8°5 506
Path 4°04 By) i 4:3
29 86 9°6 2°0 31
May 1 86 8:0 fe 2°8 4'8
3 88 7:0 91 9°25
5 8°55 (Ox 8:15 6°25 53 33
il 577 fell 6°4 74 23 oe
9 67 6°8 BBO
28 as 9-0 ae 9°95
29 11°86 12°24 10-2 111 4°] 5°5
Bil 13:15 10°99 15°45 9°6 3°9 4:0
June 1 12°55 9°75 97 73 Bae ae 36 4:2
2 9°98 So 9-98 Aa ea ach 45 4°8
706 VARIATIONS OF THE AMOUNT OF CO, IN THE GROUND-AIR.
Herior’s Hospiran
Grounps oF Royau INFIRMARY.
GROUNDS.
Date. 3 Feet Deep. 6 Feet Deep. 12 Feet Deep. vin Bi |
1888. Morning. | Evening. || Morning. | Evening. || Morning. | Evening.
June 3 9°95 11°98 8°75 8°8 ae
4 10°95 11:2 8°95 7°65 ae
5 10°8 “et 815 ett 55 4:3
6 11°55 10°15 ale ue nay ets ae a5
7 12-1 10°85 fete oe ane aaa 6'8 ° Noel
8 11°34 10°45 cee 5 du ee 5°9 64
9 14:18 13:78 Bo sictt brie Ee 4:5 44
10 10°24 8°08 exe aha isge ere ate oe
11 9°65 12°77 oot oie ae a 4:2 4'8
12 13°66 10°44 Sen ee Slate mee 3°8 50
13 11°6 arte 2°0 4°3
16 oS 12°15 fae ee
17 14°6 12°5 11°95 8:13
18 14°68 aoe 9°85 els
19 16°75 9°65
20 14:05 153 9:08 12°6 4:3 5'5
21 164 135 9°4 9°6 46 54
22 16:0 156 12:0 9°6 51 57
23 16°8 19:9 15°55 12:7 45 51
24 17°6 20°0 14:8 13°15
25 19°15 183 11:0 13°1 4°5 3°7
26 21°0 20°75 14°4 14°35 4-9 3°5
27 220 12°6 11:8 12°3 2°9 3°6
28 18°85 13-2 49 5°4
29 21:0 131 59 53
30 19" 12°4
July 1 16:0 13°5 11°07 15:05
2 22°0 16°6 20°3 13°75 4-2 50
3 19°93 18°46 13°'8 46 4°8
4 21°9 23°45 4°6 6:0
5 24°3 20°45 62 76
6 14°86 28°0 4:2 6°6
7 22°55 22°1 4°7 81
8 21°8 18:0
9 tp 14°45 4°] 4°2
10 15°75 18:0
11 20°9 19°5 4°3 45
12 16:0 19°3 6°6 68
13 19°75 19°2 5:1 rfc!
14 21°35 = 6-2 4°6
15 22°3 atte 70 76
16 20°1 20°6 73 10°3
q 9
iA’ .
5 NOV. 9
Vol. XXXVII.
tween the Weekly Average of the Morning and of the Evening Determinations
of the Carbonic Acid in the Ground Air from the Royal Infirmary Grounds,
I.
with the Weekly Average of the Daily Maximum and Minimum Temperatures.—PLATE
PEE
1
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Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin.
+
Weekly Average of the Morning and Evening Determinations of the Carbonic Acid in the Ground Air from Royal Infirmary Grounds,
with the Weekly Average of the Mean Daily Temperature.—Piate II.
(Jeni |
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APRIL May JUNE
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a -—
Vol. XXXVIL.
Monthly Average of the Daily Determinations of the Carbonic Acid in the
Ground Air of the soil in (1) the Royal Infirmary Grounds,
(2) the Heriot’s Hospital Grounds.—Prate ILI.
= ea
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22
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GROUNDS OF ROYAL INFIRMARY,
20
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15
14
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at the following reduced Prices :—
Vol Price to the Price to Vol Price to the Price to
; Public. Fellows. , Public. Fellows.
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* Vol. XXXV., and those which follow, may y be had in Numbers, each Number a a ‘
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PRINTED BY NKILL AND COMPANY, EDINBURGH.
TRANSACTIONS
OF THE
VOL. XXXVII. PART IV.—FOR THE SESSION 1894-95.
CONTENTS.
XXX. Note on some Fossils from Seymour Island, in the Antarctie Regions, obtained by Dr
Donald. By G. Suarman and E. T. Newron. (With a Plate), .
XXXI. On the Partition of a Parallelepiped into Tetrahedra, the Corners of which Coincide
with Corners of the Parallelepiped. By Prof. Crum Brown. (With Two Plates),
i XXXII On the Manganese Oxides and Manganese Nodules in Marine Deposits. By Joun
. Murray, LL.D., Ph.D., of the Challenger Expedition, and Roger Irving, F.C.S.,
“XXXI IL. I.—On the Estimation of Carbon in Organic Substances by the Kjeldahl Method. I1.—
Its Application to the Analysis of Potable Waters. By Cuartes Hunter Srewart,
D.Se., M.B. (From the Public Health Laboratory of the University of Edin-
burgh.) (With Two Plates),
— XXXIV. The Chemical and Bacteriological Examination of Soil, with special reference to the
é Soil of Graveyards. By James Bucnanan Youne, M.B., D.Sc. (From the Public
Health Laboratory, University of Edinburgh),
THE CouNcIL OF THE SOCIETY, .
AnpHaperica List or THE ORDINARY ae
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List or OrpiInaRY FELLOWS ELECTED DURING Sasa 1891- 92,
Ist OF Honorary Frettows Eecrep purine Sxssion 1891- 92,
Fautows DrcEASED on RESIGNED, pele 92,
AWARDS OF THE Kairu, i ae ce na AND NEILL a FROM 1827 TO “1393, AND OF
THE GUNNING VICTORIA JUBILEE Prize, rrom 1884 To 1893,
OCEEDINGS OF THE STATUTORY GENERAL MEETINGS, : ;
List or Pusiic Instrrurions AND INDIVIDUALS ENTITLED 10 RECEIVE Gaens OF THE ‘TRANSACTIONS
_____ AND PRoceEpiNes or THE Royat Society,
Inpex, .
EDINBURGH:
PUBLISHED BY ROBERT GRANT & SON, 107 PRINCES STREET,
MDCCCXCV.
Price Seven Shillings and Siapence.
ROYAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH.
a AND WILLIAMS & NORGATE, 14 HENRIETTA STREET, COVENT GARDEN, LONDON.
XXX.—WNote on some Fossils from Seymour Island, in the Antarctic Regions, obtained
by Dr Donald. By G. SHarman and E. T. Newron. (With a Plate.)
(Read 4th June 1894.)
These fossils are especially interesting on account of their having been obtained
from a more southerly point than any hitherto recorded. The number of specimens is
nine; five of these are referable to the genus Cucullea, one to Cytherea, one probably
to Natica, and two are fragments of Coniferous Wood. With the Cytherea are other
small shells which may indicate the presence of Crassatella (?) and Donax (2). Two of the
pieces of Cucullwa are entirely free from matrix, while three show in their interiors a
fine sandy rock which effervesces when treated with hydrochloric acid. The shells them-
selves have a caleedonic appearance, but, like the matrix, they effervesce strongly with
acid ; they are much denuded, having apparently been long exposed to the weather. The
matrix within the Cytherea is coarser than that in the Cucullea, containing, besides
fragments of quartz and of a black rock, numerous fragments of shells. The Natica (?)
is almost free from matrix, and is much denuded, but in some of the crevices sandy
material may be seen very like the matrix of the other shells. All these genera have a
wide distribution in time, and are now living, consequently they give but little clue to
the age of the rocks in which they were found. Cucullea is rare at the present day, and
the few known species occur in the Mauritius, Nicobar, and China ; but as a fossil it is
very common and widely distributed. With regard to the species of these Antarctic
shells, more will be said below ; but as two of them find their nearest allies in species
which occur in Lower Tertiary beds, it is probable that these also are of about the same
age, and nothing more definite can be said until additional and more characteristic
specimens are forthcoming. Through the courtesy of Mr R. Erueripce and Mr R. B.
NeEwTOoN, these specimens have been compared with the fossils collected by Darwin in
Patagonia, as well as with others from the far south, preserved in the British Museum ;
while the specimens collected by Captain T. Baker in Patagonia (Quart. Jour. Geol. Soc.,
vol. xxiv. p. 505), and preserved in the Geological Society's Museum, have been kindly
opened for our inspection by Mr W. Jones. Hach of the forms will now be noticed
separately.
Cucullea Donaldi, sp. nov.
All the five specimens of Cucullea are believed to belong to one species, although
the larger fragment (fig. 2) seems to have been part of a longer shell. The ornamentation
VOL. XXXVII. PART III. (NO. 30). TO
708 G. SHARMAN AND E. T. NEWTON ON
on all of them is the same, and their margins are very much thickened. The most perfect
specimen (fig. 1) has both valves preserved, and only wants the umbones ; its greatest
length is about 2°6 in., the height 2°2 in., and the thickness 1°6 in. Anteriorly the shell
is rounded, posteriorly it falls away obliquely from the hinge line, and has but a slight
tendency to angulation. The hinge line is comparatively short, and the umbones
appear to have been tolerably prominent. The whole surface of the shell is marked by
coarse radiating bands, crossed by lines of growth, and where the shell is denuded these
are very strongly marked, but where the surface is intact they are much less clearly
seen. The ligamental area has but few (three) impressed lines. This specimen does not
show the hinge or the lip, but one of the others (fig. 2) has a few of the longitudinal teeth
characteristic of Cuculle@a, and another shows the inner lip to be coarsely crenulated.
This shell is much like the C. alta of Sowerby, from Tertiary beds of St Cruz, Port
Desire, Patagonia, described in Darwin’s Geological Observations in South America
(p. 252), but besides being less in height, and apparently having smaller umbones, its
ligamental area has fewer impressed lines. ‘This shell also has much resemblance to the
C. decussata of SowErsy, from the Lower Eocene of Britain (Min. Conch., pl. 206), but
the Antarctic shell has a shorter hinge line, is more coarsely radiated, and shows no
angulation extending from the umbo to the posterior extremity. As this shell cannot
be referred to any known species, it is proposed to name it Cucullea Donaldi.
Cytherea antarctica, sp. nov.
The one shell referred to this genus (fig. 3) does not show the hinge or the pallial line,
and consequently there are these elements of uncertainty in the reference, but the form so
closely resembles certain species of Cytherea that there is but little room for doubt. The
posterior part of the shell is wanting, but the lines of growth, which are strongly marked,
show that it was oval in outline, and probably measured 2°3 in. in length, its height
being 1°8 in. ; and its thickness, when both valves were together, must have been about
08 in. This shell has some resemblance to C. orbicularis of .Epwarps, from the Lower
Kocene of Britain (Quart. Jour. Geol. Soc., vol. viii. p. 265, pl. 16, fig. 5, 1852), but
differs in its oval outline and less prominent umbones ; it approaches more nearly the
oval varieties of the species ; it is even nearer to C. Bellovacina of DusHaves (Descript.
Anim. sans Vert., vol. i. p. 474, pl. 32, figs. 15-17, 1860), from the Sables inférieur ;
but the Antarctic shell has the umbones less prominent, and directed more forwards— —
possibly also the anterior margin is more pointed, and the entire shell more oval. The
differences between this shell and the species just mentioned are certainly very small, but
having regard to its southern origin and to these slight differences, it would not be
well to refer it to either of the northern species, and it is therefore named Cytherea
antarctica.
SOME FOSSILS FROM SEYMOUR ISLAND, OBTAINED BY DR DONALD. 709
Crassatella (?).
A fragment of a lamellibranch shell (fig. 7), on the under side of the Cytherea,
shows strong, widely separated, raised lines, in the direction of the lines of growth, with
finer intermediate lines—an ornamentation resembling that of some Crassatella.
Donaz (?).
A small triangular valve of a lamellibranch (fig. 6), also on the Cytherea, which has
the umbo nearly central, and the lip crenulated, looks much like a Donax. Near this
shell is another (fig. 5), much denuded, showing indistinct radiating lines, crossed by two
or three ridges following the lines of growth; this may perhaps belong to the same
genus.
Natica (?).
One very much denuded gasteropod shell (fig. 4) has much the character of a Natica,
but this reference is rendered uncertain by the presence of longitudinal lines on the
abraded surface, reminding one of those seen on Purpwra—the mouth, however, shows no
signs of any siphonal notch; but, on the other hand, there is a thick callus over the
umbilicus. Near the outer lp the lines of growth form strong and irregular varices.
There is evidence that, when complete, the newer whorls largely overlapped the preceding
ones, thus completely obliterating the sutures, as is so often the case in Natica. The
substance of the thick shell is deeply penetrated by some boring organism.
Comferous Wood.
The pieces of wood are much mineralised, effervescing strongly with acid, and they
tend to break up in the rings of growth. The general appearance is that of coniferous
wood, and this is confirmed by an examination with the microscope. A transverse
section (fic. 9) shows the rings of thickened cells marking the yearly growth, much as in
fir wood. ‘The radial section (fig. 8) exhibits the elongated cells, with their characteristic
discs, which are moderately large and in single rows. It is only here and there that the
dises are visible, having for the most part been obliterated. The medullary rays, as
shown in both radial and tangential sections, are arranged in small bundles.
Other fossils are said to have been obtained from Seymour Island by a Swedish
vessel, and it is to be hoped that some account of them will be published.
Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin? Vol. XXXIX.
MESS®S G.SHARMAN & E.T.NEWTON on FOSSILS FRom SEYMOUR ISLANDS.
¥. Huth, Lith? Edin®
egee)
XXXI.—On the Partition of a Parallelepiped into Tetrahedra, the Corners of which
Coincide with Corners of the Parallelepiped.* (With Two Plates.) By Professor
Crum Brown.
(Read 5th and 19th March 1894.)
1. When the Parallelepiped is a Cube.
Tt will be convenient first to fix a form of notation for the corners of the cube. With
the origin within the cube and rectangular co-ordinates parallel to three edges meeting in
a corner, the eight corners lie each in one of the eight octants, and may conveniently and
symmetrically be represented thus :—
+++ A —--
+-- B, —++
-+- O, +— +
--+ D, ++-
teh Gr bo pn
Or, calling any corner A, the corners distant ,/2 from A (the length of the edge
being 1) and taken positively, 7.¢., contrary to the watch-hand way, as seen from A, are
B, C, D (see figures).
So that, passing from corner to corner along an edge, we change both letter and sign,
along a face diagonal we change letter but not sign, along a body diagonal we change
sign but not letter.
The forms of tetrahedra which can be cut out of a cube without making new corners.
are the following five, each of which is noted by one of its positions in the cube,—
1. ABCD, the regular tetrahedron, the edges coinciding with the non-parallel face-
diagonals of the cube.
2. ABCD, a tetrahedron with three contiguous half-faces of the cube and for its fourth
face the equilateral triangle whose side is the face-diagonal. Its opposite edges are an
edge and a face-diagonal of the cube. We may call the corner which differs in sign
from the others, the smgular corner. It is an undivided corner of the cube.
These are all the forms with all four jetters; for four corners with all four letters,
two of one and two of the other sign, such as ABCD, lie all in one plane and
represent the four corners of a face of the cube.
3. AABC, a tetrahedron two faces of which are the scalene triangles with the edge,
the face-diagonal and the body-diagonal of the cube for sides, one face a half-face of the
* This paper arose out of a conversation with Lord Kenvin last December. He was interested in one set of tetra-
hedral partitions of the general parallelepiped, of which he has since made use in his discussion of the homogeneous
partition of space, and thus interested me in the general question which he suggested as worthy of detailed
investigation.
Mole XXMVIL PART IV, (NO. 2&2): 5 P
712 PROFESSOR CRUM BROWN ON THE
cube, and the fourth face the equilateral triangle whose side is the face-diagonal of the
cube. The characteristic pair of opposite edges of this tetrahedron consists of the body-
diagonal and the face-diagonal of the cube, the other two pairs of opposite edges consist
each of a face-diagonal and an edge of the cube. We may call the corner which differs
in sign from the others, the singular corner. At the singular corner a body-diagonal
and two edges of the cube meet. .
4 and 5. A pair of enantiomorph tetrahedra, AABC and AACB; each having for
two faces the scalene triangles; and for the other two, half-faces of the cube. Their
characteristic pair of opposite edges consists of a body-diagonal and an edge of the cube,
the other two pairs are two face-diagonals and two edges of the cube respectively.
These five forms are shown in figs. 1-5. Fig. 6 shows the 4th and 5th forms placed
so as to indicate their enantiomorphism.
As it will be convenient to have a symbol for each of the five tetrahedra independent
of its position in the cube, the following will be used :—For ABCD, &c., 2 ; for ABCD,
&c., A; for AABC, &., I; for AABOC, &c., L; for AACB, &c., T.*
That these five are all the tetrahedra that can be cut out of a cube without making ~
new corners can be proved as follows. There are seventy ways in which the eight
corners can be taken four at a time. Of these, six correspond to the faces and six to
sections of the cube through opposite face-diagonals, so that there remain fifty-eight
corresponding to tetrahedra. Now can occur in two positions, ABCD and ABCD ;
A can occur in eight positions, because its singular corner, that in which three edges of
the cube meet (A in fig. 2), can be at any one of the eight corners of the cube; I can
occur in twenty-four positions, six for each body-diagonal, thus, for the body-diagonal
AA, we have AABC, AACD, AADB, AACB, AADC, AADB; L and TI can occur in
twelve positions each, three for each body-diagonal, thus, for the body-diagonal AA, we
have AABC, AACD, AADB, and AACB, AADC, AABD. We have thus in all fifty-
eight positions of the five tetrahedra, as we have fifty-eight groups of four corners of the
cube corresponding to tetrahedra.
The volume of & is one-third of the volume of the cube, the volume of each of the
other four tetrahedra is one-sixth of the volume of the cube, each of them being a pyramid
with one-half of the face of the cube as base, and as vertical height the edge of the cube.
Having ascertained what our bricks are, we have now to find out in how many ways
we can build a cube with them.
We shall first look at the complex, for there is only one, in which 2 occurs. {2 has a
volume equal to one-third of the cube. But a little consideration shows that only one 2
can have a place ina cube. If we put two 2’s together in the most compact way, that
* The letters A, I, L, and © have been chosen because they contain 3, 1, 2 and 2 straight lines respectively, as the
corresponding tetrahedra contain 3, 1, 2 and 2 half-faces of the cube respectively. O, which contains no straight line, —
might have been chosen for the regular tetrahedron, as it contains no part of the surface of the cube, but, as O has been
sometimes used to symbolise the regular octahedron, Q was selected, perhaps partly because this tetrahedron has twice
the volume of any of the others,
PARTITION OF A PARALLELEPIPED INTO TETRAHEDRA. 713
is, by applying them face to face, we see that the line joining the corners opposite to the
united faces is longer than any line in the cube. There can therefore be only one 2 in
this complex. The rest of it, that is, two-thirds of the cube, must be made up of other
tetrahedra, each of which has a volume equal to one-sixth of the cube, and there must
therefore be four of them. Now, as 2 has no part of the surface of the cube, these four
must have the whole of it. This can only be by each of them having three half-faces of
the cube. This is the case only with A; accordingly, this complex consists of one 2 and
four A’s (fig. 1). This quinquepartite division of the cube may be noted as 2, 44.* As
this is the only division containing ®, all the rest must be sexpartite divisions, containing
six equal-volume tetrahedra.
Let 2, 6, J, y represent the numbers respectively of tetrahedra of the forms I, A, L,
in a combination forming a cube. We have (1) 17+6+/+y=6 because of the volume,
and (2) 1+36+ 2/+2y=12 because of the surface. From these we see at once that
7=6, and that /+¥ is always an even number.
Not only is 1=6, but I and A are always necessarily connected together, the equi-
lateral triangle of the one being applied to that of the other so as to form a figure which
we shall call (1A).
That this is so can easily be shown. The equilateral triangle which forms a face of
the I and of the A is an “internal” face, that is, a face in the interior of the cube, and
must therefore, in the complex, be covered by another internal face, or by other internal
faces, or by portions of other internal faces. It cannot be covered by other internal
faces or by parts of such, because no other triangle in the system has an angle of 60°,
and there are no two angles in the system which together make up an angle of 60° (of
the two angles of the scalene triangle, one is greater than 60° and the other less than 30°),
so that the internal equilateral triangle must be covered by another of the same. But
two A’s cannot go together, they would form a double triangular pyramid, entirely sur-
rounded by six half-faces of the cube; four of the five corners of this double triangular
pyramid would indeed coincide with corners of the cube, but the fifth corner, while in a
body-diagonal of the cube, would be far from the position of any corner of the cube.
And no more can two I’s go together, for they would form a figure in which two half-
faces of the cube would meet at a re-entrant angle. The internal equilateral triangle of
a A must therefore be covered by the internal equilateral triangle of an I, and therefore
neither I nor A can occur except in combination as an (IA),
(1A) is an oblique square pyramid, the base of which is a face of the cube, and the
apex of which is one of the four corners of the cube not in the base. Of its corners,
three are of one sign and two of the other. It can be divided into an I anda A by a
plane passing through the three cosignal corners. But it can be divided into two tetra-
hedra in another way. A plane through the apex and the two cosignal corners (the
* If we leave out the condition forbidding new corners, we can obtain, from this quinquepartite division, a case
of division into six equal-volume tetrahedra, by cutting into two equal tetrahedra by a plane containing one edge and
bisecting the opposite edge.
714 PROFESSOR CRUM BROWN ON THE
singular corners of the I and of the A) cuts the IA into an L and aT’, so that we may as
well call this figure an LY as an IA. We thus see that in any complex, IA may be
replaced by a pair consisting of an L and a I (see figs. 7, 8,9). In an LI pair there are
obviously three corners of the L which coincide each with a corner of the I. Two of
these are the corners at the ends of the common body-diagonal, the other occupies the
place of the singular corner of the A in the IA by which the LI can be replaced. We
may call this the A corner of the LV or IA. In considering the sexpartite divisions of
the cube we may therefore begin with those containing only L’s and I’s, and then deme
the rest from these by putting IA in place of LI.
These complexes containing only L’s and I’s may be called central forms, as every
tetrahedron in them has an edge bisected at the centre of the cube. The simplest central
form is that in which all the tetrahedra, three L’s and three Is, meet in one body-
diagonal. It is obtained by cutting the cube by three planes, each passing through the
same body-diagonal and two parallel edges. It is shown in fig. 10. It will be seen that —
any one of the three planes mentioned above divides the cube into two halves. These
halves are not similarly divided ; one is divided into two L’s with a I’ between them, and
the other into two I’s with an L between them. But as each of them is exactly a half
cube, and as they are externally precisely alike, a whole cube can be made up quite as
well of two of the first kind or of two of the second kind as of one of each. We thus
obtain two other central forms consisting of 4 L’s and 2 I’s, and of 4 I’s and 2 L’s
respectively (figs. 11, 12). These three central forms will perhaps be more easily imagined,
in the absence of the models which were exhibited to the Society, by supposing the
cube surrounded by a circumscribed sphere, the surface of which is divided into lunes of
60°, each of which corresponds to an L or to al’. The axis in reference to which the
meridians are drawn is a body-diagonal of the cube, and each meridian passes through
one of the non-polar corners of the cube. <A lune of 60° corresponds to an L if it has a
corner of the cube in the northern part of its western and one in the southern part of its
eastern meridian, and to a lif it has a corner of the cube in the southern part of its
western and one in the northern part of its eastern meridian. A lune of 120° corresponds
to the figure IA or LI.
In the central form, 31,31, all the meridians are drawn in reference to one body- —
diagonal; in the central forms, 41,21 and 41',2L, there are two axes, both, of course,
hody-diagonals of the cube, and the plane containing the two axes is the plane cutting
the cube into the two halves referred to above. Stereographic projections of one half of
the sphere in the three cases 3L,3V, 41,21, and 41,2L, are shown in figs. 13, 14, 15.
The point from which the projection is taken is on the sphere half-way between A and
B. The forms are shown in figs. 10, 11,12. It will, of course, be seen that the two
biaxial forms (as we may call 4L,2T and 41°,2L, in distinction from the uniaxial 31,30)
are enantiomorph, and accordingly all their derivatives occur in enantiomorph pairs.
We shall consider in the first place the uniaxial forms, that is to say, the derivatives —
of 'SL,3E.
PARTITION OF A PARALLELEPIPED INTO TETRAHEDRA. ria!
Or
By the replacement of one LI pair by an IA, we have the form LA,2L,2V. There
is only one form with these tetrahedra, shown in fig. 16, because all the LI pairs are
simuarly situated in the central complex 3L,3V. But there are two ways in which two
LI pairs can be replaced by two IA’s._ For the two pairs replaced, and, of course, the two
IA’s replacing them, may be either contiguous, or separated from one another by an L on
the one side and a I’ on the other. We thus have two different forms, 2(IA),LT.
They are shown in figs. 17, 18, and may be distinguished as }} 2([A), LT and ||2(1A), LT,
as in the first, where the IA’s are contiguous, the plane of the equilateral triangle of the
one IA is inclined to that of the other, while in the second form, where the two IA’s are
not contiguous, the plane of the one equilateral triangle is parallel to that of the other.
There is only one form, 3(14), produced by replacing all three LY pairs by IA’s. It is
shown in fig. 19.
Turning now to the biaxial forms, we see that it is sufficient to describe one half of
them, because, on account of the enantiomorphism, everything that is true of 41,21 and
its derivatives can be made to apply to 41,21 and its derivatives by changing L into T
and I into L.
We shall therefore consider the derivatives of 41,21 only.
By replacing one LI pair by IA, we obtain the form I4,3L,1. Of this there is only
one, as any LV in 41,21 can be brought, by turning the form about into the position of
any other. But, as in the uniaxial series, so here, there are two essentially different
ways in which two LI’s can be replaced by two IA’s. As to the two I’s of the LI’s,
there can be no dubiety, for there are only two in the form, but as each I lies between
two L’s, we may have the two Is paired with L’s, so that the two A corners have the
same letter and opposite signs, or the same sign and different letters ; and thus we have
two forms, || 2(1A),2L and }{ 2(14),2L, as with the uniaxial forms with 2(1A). These
biaxial forms are all shown in figs. 20-27.
We have in all, then, the following divisions of the cube without new corners :—
Quinquepartite. 2, 44. One form.
Sexpartite. Uniaxial. 3L,3F. (1A),2L,2F. 2(1A),LP. || 2(14),LT.
3([A), Five forms.
4 Biaxial, « 4higte(iAyen, hy. H2(EA), OT ho(TA)on
AT Oi (AS ENP SK. T2(TA),20, ~ (hadA)2r
Eight forms in four enantiomorph pairs.
716 PROFESSOR CRUM BROWN ON THE
Il. When the Parallelepiped is General.
By a general parallelepiped I mean one in which we do not assume any particular
value of any plane angle, and therefore no right angle, and no equality of any parts of
the parallelepiped, except such as are necessarily equal by the definition of the parallele-
piped. In a general parallelepiped the eight corners are, therefore, all different from one
another. It is only in particular cases that we have interchangeable corners. No doubt,
the opposite corners (such as A and A) are equal, but they are not interchangeable. The
opposite corners are enantiomorph, mirror-images of each other, A will no more fit into
a mould of A than a right hand will fit into the mould of an otherwise perfectly equal
left hand. Therefore, all the distinct postions of the tetrahedral partitions of the cube
correspond to essentially different partitions of the general parallelepiped. A cube can
be converted into any parallelepiped by appropriate homogeneous strains, and, conversely,
any parallelepiped into a cube. Such strains do not change the volume-ratios of the
tetrahedra into which the figure has been divided, and parallel lines remain parallel, and
intersecting lines still intersect after as before the change of form.
Each of the fourteen partitions of the cube may therefore be taken as the type of a
genus of partitions of the parallelepiped ; and we may use the models and diagrams which
were made for the case of the cube for the case of the general parallelepiped, if we keep in
mind that what was with the cube only a difference of position is in the case of the parallel-
epiped an essential difference of form. Indeed, it is not necessary that we should suppose
even a difference of form, for we may suppose any other difference which would make the
eight corners non-interchangeable. For instance, we might suppose our cube to be com-
posed of a heterogeneous material, say of gold and silver, so that the ratio of the two
metals varied with the distance from a point not equidistant from any two corners. Here
two A’s would indeed be of exactly the same form, but they would be neither chemically
nor commercially interchangeable. |
What we have now to do, therefore, in order to ascertain the number of different
ways in which a general parallelepiped can be divided into tetrahedra without making
new corners, is to count the number of ways in which the fourteen divided cubes can be
put into a cubical box the corners of which are distinctively noted.
Taking first the quinquepartite division 2,44, we see that {2 can occupy two
positions in the cubical box, viz, ABCD and ABCD. Each of these absolutely
determines the positions of the four A’s, so that there are two, and only two, quinque-
partite divisions of the general parallelepiped. Neglecting the condition forbidding new
corners, each of these quinquepartite divisions gives rise to six sexpartite divisions with
six tetrahedra of equal volume. For the © can in each case be cut into two equal-
volume tetrahedra by a plane passing through an edge and bisecting the opposite edge,
and, in the parallelepiped, {2 has six different edges.
PARTITION OF A PARALLELEPIPED INTO TETRAHEDRA. Fully
The sexpartite division without new corners. Here we have thirteen genera, which
we shall consider in order—-
Ist, 3L,30', The only variation which we can make in this case consists in taking
different body-diagonals as the axis. There are four body-diagonals, therefore there are
four ways in which this complex can be put into the box, and therefore four different
species in this genus.
2nd, I,4,2L,20. Here there is only one I. When its position is fixed, the position
of all the other tetrahedra is fixed. As the I can be placed in twenty-four positions,
there are twenty-four species in this genus.
3rd, || 21,24,L,1. Here the position of the one I fixes that of the other I, for they
have the same body-diagonal, and their singular corners are at opposite ends of this
body-diagonal. When these two are fixed all the other tetrahedra are fixed, for the L
lies between the two I’s on the one side, and the I’ between them on the other side, and
the position of each of the A’s is, of course, fixed by that of the corresponding I. To
take an example, let AABC be one of the I’s, the other is necessarily AABC, the L is
AABC and the I AABC, the two A’s being DABC and DABC.
The number of species in this genus is therefore the number of pairs of positions of I
of the form AABC,AABC. This number is obviously twelve, three for each body-
diagonal,—for the body-diagonal AA for instance, AABC,AABC; AACD,AACD ;
AADB,A ADB.
4th, ++ 21,24,L,1. Before considering this genus it will be convenient to take
5th, 31,34. Here the circumscribing sphere is divided into three lunes of 120°, each
of which corresponds to an IA. The singular corners of the three I’s are all at the same
end of the axis, and therefore there are two different positions for each body-diagonal,
that is, eight positions in all, or eight species of this genus.
Returning to 4th, + 21,24,L,1, we see that in this form we have an IA of 31,34,
replaced by an LI pair. And in each position of 31,34, it may be any one of the IA’s
that is so replaced. Hach species, therefore, of 31,34 gives rise to three species
of +; 21,24,LV; there are therefore twenty-four species of this genus.
We now have to consider the biaxial forms; and we have first to notice an essential
difference between the uniaxial and the biaxial forms. In the former every internal face
of one tetrahedron is covered by a single internal face of another tetrahedron. ‘Thus, the
internal face of a A is covered by the equal internal face of an I, and the internal face of
an L, and similarly what we may call the “L” internal face of an I, are covered by
the equal and oppositely-placed internal face of an I’, or by what we may call the “ I”
internal face of an I,
In the biaxial forms the case is quite different; here we have always, in the plane
containing the two axes, either two L faces belonging to two tetrahedra on one side of
that plane covered by two L faces belonging to two tetrahedra on the other side of it, or
two I’ faces similarly covered by two I faces, as shown in fig. 30. The two L faces
(or the two I’ faces) may, of course, be either two internal faces of two L’s (or two Is) or
718 PROFESSOR CRUM BROWN ON THE
a face of an L (or l) and an “L” (or “I'”) face of an I. It is therefore obvious that
when an L and a I unite to form an IA they must be on the same side of the plane
containing the axes.
6th and 7th, 4,2, and 41,2L. Each of these is completely determined in position
if the plane containing the axes is fixed. Thus with axes AA and BB we have in the
form 41L,2I, on the one side of the plane of the axes, the tetrahedra, L=AABO,
T= AACD and L=AADB;; and on the other side of the plane the tetrahedra, L= BBAD,
I'=BBDC, and L=BBCA. With the same axes we have in the form 4I',2L, on the one
side ! = BBAC, L = BBCD, and !' = BBDA; and on the other side T= AABD, L= AADO,
and I'= AACB. |
As there are four body-diagonals, they may be taken two ata time as axes in Six
different ways, and there are therefore six species in each of these genera.
8th and 9th, IA,3L,T, and IA4,30,L. Each of these contains one I, and the I can
occupy any one of twenty-four positions in the cubical box, and the position of the I
fixes the positions of the other tetrahedra. There are therefore twenty-four species in
each of these genera. This can be shown in another way. Lach species of 41,20 (or of
41',21,) can give rise to four species by the replacement of an LI pair by IA. For this
replacement may take place on either side of the plane of axes, and on either side in two
ways, the I’ (or L) uniting to form IA with the one or with the other of its L (or I)
neighbours. As there are six species of each of the genera 4L,2T and 41,2L, there are
twenty-four species of each of the genera [A,3L,P and IA,30,L.
10th, 11th, 12th, and 13th. || 2(1A),2L, || 2(1A),2T, 4 2(TA),2L, and 44 2(1A),am
These forms are derived from 4L,2V and 41,2L, by replacing an LI pair on each side of
the plane of the axes by IA.
In each form there are two ways on each side of the plane of the axis in which the
replacement of an LI’ pair can take place, and either way on the one side can go with either
way on the other side. ‘There are, therefore, for a given pair of axes, four positions for
2([A),2L and four for 2(1A),21T. Of these half belong to the parallel and half to the non-
parallel forms. Thus for the axes AA and BB and the forms 2(IA),2L we have, on the —
CD side of the plane of the axes, the two arrangements :—I=BBAD, 4=CBAD,
L=BBAD, and I=BBCA, A=DBCA, L=BBCA; and on the other, the CD side of the —
plane, the two arrangements :—I =AADB, A=CADB, L=AADB, and I=AABC,
A =DABC, L=AABC.
Calling these arrangements, each of which makes up half of the cube, C, D, C and D,
after the singular corner of the A in each, we see that C and C or D and D go together
to form ||2(IA),2L, and C and D, or C and D go together to form {}2(IA),2L. Ina
similar way for 2(1A),21 we have the four arrangements :—On the CD side, I= AABD,
A=CABD, l'=AABD, and I= AACB, A=DACB, T=AACB, and on the CD side
I=BBDA, A=CBDA, l=BBDA, and I=BBAC, A=DBAC,=BBAC. Of theser@
and C, or D and D go together to form ||2(I14),2Il’, and C and D or C and D go together
to form |; 2(1A),21. Thus, for each pair of body-diagonals as axes there are two positions
PARTITION OF A PARALLELEPIPED INTO TETRAHEDRA. 719
of each of the parallel forms, and two of each of the non-parallel forms, and therefore
twelve species of each of the four genera.
Of the thirteen genera of sexpartite divisions without new corners we have therefore
the following number of species :—Ist, 3L,31", four species; 2nd, ([A),2L,21, twenty-four
species ; 3rd, || 2(1A),L,1', twelve species; 4th, t+ 2(1A),L,I°, twenty-four species; 5th,
3(1A), eight species—that is seventy-two species of the five uniaxial genera; 6th, 41,21,
six species; 7th, 41,2L, six species; 8th, (IA),3L,I’, twenty-four species ; 9th, ([A),3I’,L,
twenty-four species ; 10th, || 2(1A),2L, twelve species; 11th, || 2(14),2I’, twelve species ;
12th, ++ 2([A),2L, twelve species ; 13th, + 2(1A), 21°, twelve species—that is 108 species ;
of the eight biaxial genera. In all 180 species of the thirteen genera of sexpartite
divisions without new corners. If we add the two quinquepartite species we have 182
ways in which a general parallelepiped can be cut into tetrahedra without making new
corners, or if we add the twelve species of equal-volume sexpartite divisions with new
corners derived from the quinquepartite species, we have 192 ways in which a general
parallelepiped can be cut into six tetrahedra of equal volume.
In counting the number of ways in which a parallelepiped can be cut into tetrahedra,
the only properties of the parallelepiped which have been used are that it is bounded by
six quadrilateral faces, and that its four body-diagonals intersect in a point. The special
character of a parallelepiped, that it has three sets of edges, the four edges in each set
being parallel and equal in length, has been used only to show that the six tetrahedra
into which the parallelepiped is divided are equal in volume. Everything, therefore, that
has been said of the divisions of the general parallelepiped into tetrahedra is true of a
hexahedron, the four body-diagonals of which intersect in a point, except the equality in
volume of the tetrahedra, and the parallelism of the two IA planes in such forms as
2([A),L,P. Professor Curysrat has pointed out to me that in such hexahedra, instead of
three sets of parallel edges as in the parallelepiped, there are three sets of concurrent
edges, the four edges in a set meeting, when produced, in a point, and that an ordinary
perspective projection of a parallelepiped is an orthogonal projection of such a hexa-
hedron.
VOL, KRMVI, PARDIAV. (NOs 73h) DG
-
is. Roy. Soc. Edin. Vol. XXXVII.
PROFESSOR CRUM BROWN ON THE DIVISION OF A PARALLELEPIPED INTO TETRAHEDRA,
c
B
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A RITOHIE & SON EDIN™
Roy. Soc. Edin. Vol. XXXVI.
_ —~——s PROFESSOR CRUM BROWN ON THE DIVISION OF A PARALLELEPIPED INTO TETRAHEDRA:
D
34,
ee
( 721 )
XXXII.—On the Manganese Oxides and Manganese Nodules in Marine Deposits.*
By Joun Murray, LL.D., Ph.D., of the “Challenger” Expedition, and Roper
IRVINE, F.C.S.
(Read 21st May, 1894.)
During the “Challenger” Deep-Sea Exploring Expedition a great many peculiar-
looking manganese nodules or concretions were dredged from the floor of the ocean at
great depths, chiefly in the Red Clay areas of the Pacific, but also in less abundance in
the Red Clays of the Atlantic. In the other varieties of Deep-Sea deposits these nodules
were much less abundant than in the Red Clays.
In still more recent soundings, both American and British ships have discovered in
many regions of the Pacific and Indian Oceans a dark-brown coloured deposit containing
a large amount of manganese dioxide, similar in character to the Red Clays from which
the “Challenger” procured the largest hauls of manganese nodules. There is then
every reason for supposing that manganese deposits and nodules are very widely dis-
tributed over the ocean’s bed, especially in deep water at great distances from land. It
was only occasionally that manganese nodules were present in any abundance in a
Globigerina Ooze, and in these exceptional instances there was always much volcanic
débris associated with the deposit. In the Blue Muds surrounding continental shores
manganese nodules were rarely observed ; still, on some rocks and boulders dredged from
terrigenous deposits, a coating of manganese dioxide was observed on that portion of the
stone which had projected above the surface of the mud.
The interest in these peculiar manganese deposits is much enhanced by the extra-
ordinary organic and mineral associates of the manganese nodules in the centre of the South
Pacific. In this region hundreds of sharks’ teeth, many of them of gigantic size and
* Manganese, symbol, Mn ; atomic weight, 55 (oxygen=16), is a metal closely resembling iron, with which it is
most frequently associated. It is slightly magnetic. It has never been found native except in minute traces in
meteorites. When eliminated from its ores it is of a greyish-white colour, resembling cast-iron ; it has a specific gravity
of about 7:2-8°0 (Mendeléeff). The metal was first isolated in 1774 by Salier. For a long time there was confusion
as to its name, and not till after the beginning of the present century was the name manganese generally adopted. The
Latin (manganesium) is arbitrarily altered from magnesium, and is rarely used in technical works. Magnesia was
the original name of the black oxide of manganese, which was used by the ancients for removing colouring matter from
glass, and was generally confounded with the lodestone (Magnes and Magnesius lapis).
Its principal use isin the manufacture of ferro-manganese, which absorbs nine-tenths of the whole production.
The dioxide of manganese, in connection with hydrochloric acid, is the means at present adopted to produce chlorine
for bleaching purposes, but the decomposition of magnesium chloride, or the electrolysis of water with the production
of peroxide of hydrogen, may altogether revolutionise this process of bleaching. Small quantities of manganese are in
demand to clear glass coloured by iron ; for certain alloys; for the manufacture of pottery, electric piles, and colours.
Speaking generally, iron and manganese are the great pigments of nature. The annual production of manganese in
1891 was 316,000 tons, of which more than one-half was produced by Russia, principally from the Caucasus, where the
mineral is very rich, containing 90 per cent. of dioxide; Germany, the United States, and Chili produce each between
25,000 and 40,000 tons annually ; Cuba, France, and Belgium each between 15,000 and 20,000 tons; Great Britain
Sweden, and Austria each between 5000 and 10,000 tons.
VOL. XXXVII. PART IV. (NO. 32). 5R
722 DR JOHN MURRAY AND MR ROBERT IRVINE ON THE
belonging to extinct species, dozens of ear-bones and other bones of cetaceans, myriads
of small zeolitic crystals, cosmic spherules, and numerous fragments of highly altered
volcanic rocks were brought up with the manganese nodules, and these bodies not
unfrequently formed the nuclei around which the manganese was deposited. These
manganese nodules, and the other interesting substances associated with them, are de-_
scribed and figured with considerable detail in the ‘“ Challenger” Report on Deep-
Sea Deposits.*
In the present paper we propose to point out the distribution of the oxides of man-
ganese in the geological series of rocks, in fresh and sea water, and in marine deposits, with
special reference to our explorations in the lochs of the west of Scotland; to give an
account of investigations undertaken to ascertain the source of the manganese present in
marine deposits in the form of the higher oxides, and thereafter to discuss the various
views that have been advanced to explain the formation and distribution of manganese
concretions in marine deposits in general.
Manganese in Eruptive and Schasto-Crystalline Rocks.—Manganese is present in
nearly all the crystalline rocks, generally only in such minute traces that it does
not usually appear in analyses of these rocks owing to its not having been specially
looked for. It increases in amount along with the iron, and is more abundant in
the basic than in the acid series of rocks.t+ In some fragments of basic volcanic
glass from the bed of the Pacific, Murray and Renarp found 0°34 and 0°44 per
cent. of manganous oxide (MnO) present as silicates.{ In a large number of rocks
which we examined, the quantity of manganous oxide (MnO) ranged between
0°01 and 1°0 per cent. In the unaltered crystalline and schisto-crystalline rocks
the manganese exists as protoxide in combination with silicic acid. When these
rocks had undergone alteration, some of the manganese was present as carbonate.§
* See Murray and Renarp, Deep-Sea Deposits Chall. Exp., London, 1891.
+ The following are some of the manganese-bearing silicates (the numbers after the names indicate the percentage
of MnO) :—Paulite, 0-6; diallage, 5-20; augite, 0-3 ; acmite, 1-3; rhodonite, 54; hermanite, 47; w«gerine, horn-
blende ; pyrosinalite, 21 ; astrophyllite, 10; tephroite, 70; knabellite, 35; zephrolite; manganese-alumina garnet ;
pyrochlore, 7 (somewhat variable) ; tantalite, 1-6.
+ Murray and Renarp, op cit., p. 307.
§ I. In the following rocks, chiefly from the Clyde drainage area, the manganese oxide was soluble in carbonic
and dilute acetic acids, therefore presumably present as carbonate :—
Per cent. MnO.
Felstone, from Blackhill, contained from 5 : : 0°5 to 1:0
# » Devonside, "5 : d ‘ trace
= », Gourock (2 samples), ‘3 5 ; ; d 0:1 to 0°5
- », Innerleithen, = : : : ‘ 0-1 to 05 —
‘3 » Lanark, ra E ; : P 05 to 1:0
s: » Lesmahagow (9 samples), ,, , ; ' ‘ 05 to 1:0
» (Green) eH % rf ; ‘ : E O71 to 0°5
Breccia (caleareous), ,, Glenfalloch, 7 E : ; : 0'5 to 10
Limestone, » Kilsyth, * : : : : 0°5 to 1:0
Mud (25 fathoms), », Cumbrae, s ; . : 4 01 to 05
Sandstone (new red), ,, Hamilton, % ; : ; : 05 to 1:0 ;
Tuff (volcanic), » Eaglesham, 3 ; ~ ; : 0-1 to 0°5
MANGANESE OXIDES AND MANGANESE NODULES IN MARINE DEPOSITS. 725
These silicates are in all probability the original source of all the carbonate and
II. In the following rocks the manganese occurred only partly in a soluble condition :—
Per cent. MnO.
Mica-schist, from Glenmorag, contained from : 2 - 0-1 to 05
Sandstone, », Lesmahagow, ‘ : : ? 05 to 1:0
Felstone, » Pentland Hills, aa 3 : : : 0°5 to 1:0
7 », Clyde Area, by O'1 to 05
Basalt, » Castle Hill, Edinburgh, 55 : : 0:01 to 0-1
Voleanicrocks,,, Argyllshire, is : : : j 01 to 0%
III. In the following rocks the manganese was in an insoluble condition, probably silicate :—
Per cent. MnO.
Pumice, from Lipari, contained from : : : 0°5 to 1:0
» (black) ,, Iceland, ¥ . : : : Od tomo
3 5 », Ascension, i : : : : O71 to 05
Pumice tuft, » Rhineland, 5 0-1 to 05
Iceland ,, » Dannibora, 5 : ; : : 0-1 to 05
Felstone, » Coldstream, * : : ‘ : 0'1 to 0°
33 » Kilmalcolm, uf ; ; : ; 05 to 1:0
Dolerite, » Kirk o’ Shotts, . : : : ; 0-1 to 0°5
Greywacke, » Abington, BY : : ‘ : 071 to 05
Granite, », Lanarkshire, Be : F ; ‘ O-1 to 0°5
Melaphyr, » Bowling, a3 : : ; OOletondat
Serpentine, », Glenfalloch, ¥ ; : : : trace
Peridotite, % . a F : : > 0:01 tor Ont!
Besides the above-named rocks, about fifty others were examined for manganese, which was found to be present
in amounts varying from traces to 0’5 per cent. of MnO.
Fresh Blue Muds, from various places in the estuaries of the Clyde and Forth, were examined and found to contain
manganese partly as silicate and partly as carbonate. There was a slight trace of manganese found in some samples of
Globigerina Ooze, but none in corals, boiler deposits, or siliceous sinter (from Iceland). A piece of coral (Plewrocovalliwm
johnson, taken by the “Challenger,” Station 3, 1525 fathoms), was coated on the outside with manganese dioxide, but
internally there was no trace of manganese. Minute traces were found in kelp and in sea-weed ash.
The process adopted for the comparative estimation of manganese was the colour-test, obtained when the material
under examination was fluxed with potassium and sodium carbonates and a little pure potassium nitrate. The
fused mass, on cooling, gives the green colour characteristic of manganates—even when manganese is only present in
minute traces. Comparison with a standard series of coloured fluxes, each containing a known amount of manganese
varying from 0:01 to 1:0 per cent., was an easy, quick, and at the same time a comparatively accurate, method of
estimating the quantity of manganese present. The proportion of manganese existing in the rocks under the various
conditions of carbonate, silicate, and higher oxides might be roughly determined by thorough trituration and treatment
with carbonic acid in aqueous solution; but the expenditure of time involved in the prosecution of this process renders
the substitution of dilute acetic acid for carbonic acid advisable, the dilute acetic acid attacking the carbonate alone.
The amount of peroxide present was determined as usual by the Bunsen process, we., by taking advantage of its
power of liberating chlorine from hydrochloric acid. Crystalline silicates, even when reduced to the finest state of
division, are only very gradually decomposed by carbonic acid. We found that all the manganese which is combined
with carbonic acid in the rocks is thus rapidly extracted by the use of dilute acetic acid, and can be determined by
evaporating the solution so obtained to dryness, and treating the dried residue with fluxing materials at a red heat,
or by actual precipitation by the general methods in use for manganese determination. We can thus determine the
proportion of manganese existing in a rock or mineral as carbonate. If, however, the manganese exists partly as
carbonate and partly as silicate, we obtain the portion present as carbonate in the acetic acid solution, and the portion
existing as silicate or the higher oxides in the insoluble residue.
The process adopted by us for the determination of the quantity and state of combination of the manganese
in a rock sample was as follows :—
(1) Exactly 1 gramme of the sample, reduced to a fine powder, was intimately mixed with 4 grammes of the fusion
mixture already referred to (20 parts Na,CO,, 26 parts K,CO,, 1 part KNO,), and heated in a platinum crucible
over the blow-pipe until tranquil fusion supervened. The liquid mass was then poured out upon a porcelain slab and
allowed to cool. The quantity of manganese present in the fused magma was ascertained by comparing its colour with
that of the series of standard coloured fluxes. This gave the total percentage of manganese in the sample.
(2) Another portion from the same pulverised sample, weighing 1 gramme, was exhausted with dilute acetic
acid (to extract the carbonates), and the amount of manganese in the residue determined colorimetrically after fusion
724 DR JOHN MURRAY AND MR ROBERT IRVINE ON THE
higher oxides of manganese found either in sedimentary strata or in the ores of
veins.”*
The Ores of Manganese-—The ores of manganese and iron are almost the only
metalliferous minerals that occur in stratified beds. The manganese ores are as widely
distributed as those of iron, but they are only rarely found in any considerable quantity,
while those of iron are often present in very extensive beds. ‘The principal manganese
ores are oxides, and so intimate is their connection with those of iron that manganese occurs
as a constituent in all iron ores ; manganese dioxide was at one time, indeed, regarded as an
iron ore. The ores of iron and manganese have evidently had a similar origin. In the
United States, nodules of manganese dioxide form the bulk of the manganese ores, and
they either are or were embedded in calciferous shales. They occur in pockets or sheets,
the individual nodules varying from the size of a pin’s head to masses weighing tons. In
Russia, Chili, and other countries the manganese ores appear, from the descriptions, to be
similar to those of the United States, and to have been laid down under similar physical
conditions. The manganese and iron ores occur in the stratified rocks of all geological
formations, and they appear to have had their origin in the disintegration of the
crystalline rock-masses of the region in which they are found. The manganiferous
minerals and ores of veins and lodes have, in all probability, had a similar origin in the
alteration of the crystalline rocks of the vein-walls and deposition from aqueous solution.t
asin (1). The deficit (7.c., the difference between the above two determinations) due to exhaustion with dilute acetic
acid we assume to be present as carbonate of manganese.
In many of the rocks and minerals examined in this manner we found the manganese wholly combined with carbonic
acid, in others partly with carbonic acid and partly with silicic acid ; in some cases it is present as peroxide ; it may —
exist in all three forms in the same rock, whilst in the majority of minerals it exists combined with silicic acid alone.
The felstones of the upper area of the Clyde basin seem to contain all their manganese in a soluble condition, pre-
sumably as carbonate. These rocks effervesce on treatment with dilute acids. If the deposits of the Clyde Sea-Area
contain more peroxide than the deposits of other similar areas, this may be due to the soluble condition of the manganese
in these felstones. In the laboratory, when a portion of these rocks was simply fused or fritted without fluxing
material, the carbonic acid was expelled, and the bases were found in the cooled mass to be combined with silicic acid
alone, as a silicate or silicates insoluble even in strong hot hydrochloric acid. Even when ten per cent. of carbonate
of lime was added to the pulverised felstone, and the mixture fused, the silicates in the fritted material were insoluble,
showing the acid nature of this class of rocks. This experiment shows that in the presence of silicic acid (or acid
silicates) carbonates are decomposed by heating, silicic acid taking the place of the carbonic acid expelled, and also that
the manganese found in these rocks has really been infiltrated as carbonate into even the heart of the felstone. These
felstones are hard compact rocks, and contain no water which can be expelled even at 400° F. (204°'4 C.), nor do they
absorb water, even when soaked in it for twenty-four hours.
We are indebted to John Young, Esq. LL.D., Hunterian Museum, Glasgow; Mr C. Maclaren Irvine, Lanarkshire ;
J. S. Dixson, Esq., Hamilton; Mr Durham, Newport, Fife; Mr Pearcey, and Captain Turbyne, for specimens of
rocks, drainage waters, and deposits from the Clyde area.
* Professor CLARKE estimates that manganese makes up about 0:08 per cent. of the earth’s crust. (Bull. Phil.
Soc. Washington, vol. xi. p. 188, 1892).
+ The following are the principal manganese minerals :—Pyrolusite, (MnO,); hausmannite, (Mn,O,) ; braunite,
(Mn,0,) ; manganite, (Mn,O.,H,O); psilomelane, (MnO,, united with some protoxide, as of Mn.Ba.K, or H,) ; dialogite
(MnCO.).
The following are oxides—Jacobsite, erednerite, chalcophanite, franklinite, pyrochroite.
Sulphide (blende)—Alabandine (MnS).
Anhydrous Carbonates—Breunnerite, siderite, mangano-calcite.
Hydrated Sulphates—Lankite, mellardite.
Hydrated Phosphates (the numbers are percentages of MnO in the mineral)—Fillowite (40), heterozite, dicksonite
(25), fairfieldite (16), neddingite (46), eosphorite (24), childrenite (9), tuplite.
MANGANESE OXIDES AND MANGANESE NODULES IN MARINE DEPOSITS. 725
Some of the manganese present as carbonate in the deeper parts of veins may, however,
have been derived by emanations directly from the internal metallic nucleus.*
Dendrites and Coatings of Manganese Dioxide.—The surfaces of rocks containing
manganese, on exposure to moist air, become gradually coloured a dirty-brown by
the deposition of manganese dioxide, and the internal cracks of many rocks become lined
with very beautiful dendrites of the same substance. Even limestones and coral-reef
rocks present similar markings where exposed to running water. In the case of coral
islands, the manganese which sometimes discolours the coral rock can be traced to the
decomposition of the pumice and volcanic minerals, occasionally abundant in the red earths
of these islands.
During the past few years we have examined a large number of the streams flowing
into sea lochs connected with the drainage area of the Firth of Clyde in Scotland. On
the stones and sandy particles forming the beds of these streams, as well as on the faces
of exposed cliffs over which water trickles, abundant deposits and coatings of manganese
dioxide were observed. ‘The brilliant shining black lustre of the surfaces of many of the
rolled pebbles was due to this oxide.t
Manganese Dioxide in Suspension in Fresh and Sea Waters.—A_ considerable
quantity of water from various streams flowing into the Clyde Sea-Area was carefully
filtered, and on the filters we found traces of manganese in an insoluble condition.{ This
manganese was present as dioxide, which we believe to have been derived from the
mutual attrition of the manganese-coated stones in the beds of the streams, especially
during floods. Traces of manganese were also obtained on the filters through which
large quantities of sea-water had been passed. This was the case with samples both from
the Clyde Sea-Area and from the open Atlantic. This manganese was probably present
as dioxide associated with the fine clayey matter which is held in suspension in sea-
water, even in some samples collected at great distances from land.§
After the water from the Clyde streams was carefully filtered, manganese was found
to be present in solution in nearly all the samples in combination with carbonic and
humic acids. The manganese was always more abundant in solution towards the head
waters of the streams, especially near deposits of peat.|| Its less abundance towards the
* L. de Launay, Formation des gites Métalloferes, p. 232; M. Saraup, Le Manganese des Pyrénés, (Memoirs de V Académie
des Sciences de Toulouse, 1893).
+ Stones and sand coated and aggregated with manganese dioxide, and often presenting a polished surface and
black metallic lustre, were observed in the River Clyde (Stonebyres Falls, Rutherglen, Underbank) and its tributaries
the Mousewater, Hallhill, Diller, Devon, Teiglam, Craignethan, Birkwood, Poniel, Powtrail and Shortcleugh Burns,
and Cander and Fence Waters; also in the streams flowing directly into the Clyde Sea-Area, as Sea Mill Water,
Skelmorlie and Fairlie Burns (Wemyss Bay), and the streams falling into Loch Fyne, Loch Ranza, Loch Goil, and
Campbelltown Loch. At Middleton Farm, Loch Fyne, there occurs a sandy deposit containing 0:7 per cent. MnO,,
and at Dundee there is found in alluvium, interlayered with red sand, a black sand containing 2°5 to 3 per cent. MnO,.
t Water was examined in this way from the Clyde, Nethan, Mousewater, Hagshaw Burn, Loch Ranza Burn, and
Glen Morag Burn.
§ See Murray and Irvine, “Silica in Modern Seas,” Proc. Roy. Soc. Hdin., vol. xviii. p. 243, 1891.
|| The samples in which manganese was found in solution came from Clyde River and its tributaries, as, for
example, Mouse Water, Hagshaw Burn, Hallhill Burn, Skelmorlie Burn, Glen Morag.
726 DR JOHN MURRAY AND MR ROBERT IRVINE ON THE
mouths of the streams was evidently due to the oxidation of the carbonate and its conse-
quent deposition on the stones of the bed of the stream as dioxide. We have, on the other
hand, examined Jarge quantities of carefully-filtered sea-water from various regions of
the open ocean, but have never been able to detect manganese in solution, although,
as above stated, we have found traces of manganese in the clayey matter in suspension
in many of the sea-waters we have examined. The soluble bicarbonate of manganese,
which, as we have seen above, exists in the water of fresh-water streams, is probably all
deposited as dioxide on meeting with the alkaline and oxygenated water of the ocean.
It is generally stated that all elementary substances can be detected in solution in ocean
water ; still, as a matter of fact, all the samples of normal sea-water which we have had
under examination have not yielded any traces of manganese in solution.* A large
number of deposits from the boilers of sea-going steamships were likewise examined for
manganese, but no traces were found. These investigations seem conclusively to show
that manganese is not present in solution in the normal sea-waters of the ocean, and
consequently the material for the formation of the manganese nodules, so abundant in
the abysmal regions of the deep sea, cannot be derived from solution in the waters of
the open ocean.
Manganese in Mud-Waters.t—lIt has been shown that the sea-water associated with
the deposits on the floor of the ocean has a very different composition from the normal
superincumbent sea-water. A further examination of these mud-waters, and of the
changes taking place in the muds, has furnished important indications as to the source and
* To determine the limits of detection of manganese in sea-water, standardised solutions of pure chloride of
manganese (in sea-water) were prepared, and after boiling with excess of bromine for some time the precipitated MnO,
was estimated. With solutions containing from 1 part in 15,000 to 1 part in 100,000, the separation was rapid and
apparently complete, and the precipitated dioxide was collected on a filter and weighed, after ignition, as Mn,O,; with
solutions containing 1 part in 1,000,000, MnO, separated out after boiling with bromine for some time. On treating a
solution of 1 part MnCl, in 10,000,000 of sea-water, the precipitate of MnO,, after prolonged boiling with bromine,
was quite distinct, but in this case appeared as a brown scum on the surface of the liquid, and formed a distinct brown
ring round the walls of the white porcelain basin above the evaporating surface of the liquid.
Having established this point, we endeavoured to find manganese by this method in fresh, clear, filtered sea-water,
obtained from the German Ocean. Two gallons were evaporated until the contained sea-salts began to crystallise out.
The liquid was filtered clear of deposited sulphates and carbonates, and treated with bromine. There was not even the
faintest trace of coloration. The basin in which this sea-water was evaporated was washed with hot hydrochloric acid, so
as to decompose carbonates thrown down during evaporation, and the filtered liquid so obtained exactly neutralised with
ammonia, and thereafter treated with bromine. In this case there was not the faintest trace even of coloration. We
therefore conclude that in the sea-water samples examined by us, manganese, if present, could not have been there to
a greater extent than 1 part in 10,000,000.
To confirm the above by more delicate tests, the two portions from the sea-water—viz., the strong brine and the
residue of salts treated with hydrochloric acid—were boiled down until most of the salts had crystallised out. The
crystals were separated, washed with pure hydrochloric acid, and the washings added to the mother liquor, which was
then evaporated to dryness, and ignited to drive off ammoniacal salts. This residue—in which we assume any man-
ganese present in solution in the original sea-water would appear—was then fused with carbonates of potash and soda
aud a little potassium nitrate. The fluxed mass when cold was absolutely milk-white. This result (when the
extreme delicacy of this method of detecting manganese is taken into account) points to the conclusion that manganese
is not present in solution in ordinary sea-water, at least within the chemical limits of observation at our disposal,
ani therefore ordinary sea-water cannot provide the material for the formation of manganese nodules.
+ Murray and Irvine, “ On the Chemical Changes which take place in the Composition of the Sea-Water associated
with Blue Muds on the Floor of the Ocean,” Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin., vol. xxxvii. p. 481, 1893.
MANGANESE OXIDES AND MANGANESE NODULES IN MARINE DEPOSITS. 727
mode of accumulation of the manganese dioxide in the deposits dredged from some regions
of the sea-bed. The following details with reference to the manganese in these mud-
waters illustrates the difference between these mud-waters and samples of normal sea-
water :—
I. Water filtered from the Blue Mud taken from a depth of 6 fathoms in the sea-water
quarry at Granton during February 1892, was found after standing in a bottle for two
years to give a deposit of manganese dioxide amounting to 0°045 grammes per kilo-
gramme, equivalent to 0°06 grammes MnCO, originally in solution, or equal to one part
MnCO, in 16,600 of water.
II. In water filtered from the Blue Mud from the same quarry during March 1894 we
found manganese in solution amounting to 0:0315 grammes of MnCO, per kilogramme, or
one part in 31,700 of water. In water immediately overlying this mud we found, at the
same time, manganese in solution amounting to 0°0034 grammes of MnCO; per kilogramme,
or one part in 300,000 of water. In the same place, and at the same date, in water taken
18 inches above the surface of the mud, there were found distinct traces of manganese in
solution. The sea broke into this quarry forty years ago. At the present time there is
a distinct black coloration all around the rocky walls of the quarry between high and
low water marks, due to a deposit of manganese dioxide—the deposit being apparently
more abundant on a built portion, where the lime pointing is exposed at the joints
to the action of the water. At some places the stones and shells in the channel, by
which the sea-water flows in and out of the quarry at each tide, are likewise coated
with a thin deposit of manganese dioxide. The salt-water was examined as it entered
the quarry with the flowing tide, and it was not found to contain any manganese in
solution.
The mud at the bottom of the quarry is made up of a mass of fine detrital matter, in
which are small crystals of quartz, felspar, hornblende, augite, mica, magnetite, and
other minerals. When dried in the air this mud was found to contain about 0°1 per cent.
of manganous oxide (MnO), present partly as carbonate and partly as silicates. It
therefore seems evident that the manganese dioxide on the walls of this quarry and on
the stones in the tidal entrance has its origin in the carbonate of manganese in solution
in the sea-water associated with the mud, and that this carbonate, in its turn, is derived
from the decomposition of the minerals contained in the mud.
III. Sea-water filtered from mud from Granton Harbour (depth 2 fathoms) in March
1894 contained manganese carbonate in solution amounting to 0008 grammes per kilo-
gramme, or 1 part in 120,000 of water.
IV. Sea-water filtered from a grey-coloured mud obtained in a depth of 20 to 25
fathoms, off the Tan Buoy, Cumbrae, in the Clyde, gave distinct indications of manganese
in solution, but not nearly in such abundance as in the waters from the muds in Granton
Quarry and Granton Harbour.
V. Sea-water filtered from a brownish-black mud obtained in a depth of 22 to
29 fathoms, off Castle Bay, Little Cumbrae, contained manganese in solution amount-
728 DR JOHN MURRAY AND MR ROBERT IRVINE ON THE
ing to 0°0114 grammes of MnCO, per kilogramme, or 1 part MnCO,; in about 94,000
of water.
VI. Sea-water filtered from a Blue Mud obtained off Balloch Pier, Cumbrae, in a depth
of 25 fathoms, contained manganese in solution as MnCO, amounting to 00105 grammes
per kilogramme, or 1 part of MnCO, in about 95,000 parts of water. This mud, as well
as that obtained off the Little Cumbrae, contained, in addition to quartz, many volcanic
minerals and rock fragments, some of them much altered.
All our experiments seem to show that in the oozy pulp formed by the sea-water,
organic matter, and the mineral constituents, active chemical changes must necessarily be
taking place. This mud, when completely freed from adherent sea-water salts by washing
with distilled water, gave no indication of manganese peroxide by the Bunsen test; but,
on fusing the washed mud with alkaline carbonates, the characteristic colour of the mass
showed manganese to be present in the silicates. It may be taken for granted, then, that
the carbonate of manganese in these mud-waters is derived either (1st) from the direct
decomposition of the rock-fragments in the mud by the alkaline carbonates in the sea-
water, or (2nd) from the reduction of the higher oxides of manganese by the organic
matter in the muds ; for, as we will show later on, in the presence of decomposing organic
matter, deoxidation takes place in the muds, and soluble bicarbonate of manganese is
formed. Both these processes, doubtless, take place in most marine deposits. The great
increase of alkalinity owing to the formation of sulphides must give these mud-waters a
great power in decomposing silicates and setting free the bases to combine with the
carbonic acid always present in excess in mud-waters.* The influence of carbonate of
lime in rendering silicic acid soluble through the formation of calcium silicate must also
be important in initiating chemical changes in many deep-sea deposits. .
Rate of Oxidation of the Bicarbonate of Manganese in Sea- Water.—In the foregoing
paragraphs we have frequently referred to the oxidation of the carbonate of manganese
and the subsequent deposition of the dioxide. A number of laboratory experiments
were undertaken with the object of arriving at some idea of the rate at which these
changes take place :—
I. One part of bicarbonate of manganese was added to 10,000 parts of sea-water.
Tt ” ” 30,000 ”
IL. : - 100,000 :
The most dilute portion (III.) was the first to change by oxidation of the bicarbonate
into dioxide of manganese, which attached itself to the walls of the vessel. The other
portions (I. and II.) separated more slowly ; but, in all three experiments, the oxidation
of the whole of the bicarbonate was completed in the course of afew months. There can
be little doubt that the separation of the whole of the dioxide would have taken place
much more rapidly had the water been aérated by constant agitation. The water
* See Murray and Irvine, Trans. Roy. Soc, Hdin., vol, xxxvii. p. 485.
MANGANESE OXIDES AND MANGANESE NODULES IN MARINE DEPOSITS. 729
in the dilute portion (III.) being much more abundant relatively to the manganese
than in the other portions consequently offered much more dissolved oxygen, and thus
led to a more rapid oxidation. It thus appears that manganese cannot long remain in
solution in sea-water even as bicarbonate, but must soon be deposited as dioxide.
Distribution of Manganese Nodules and Manganese Dioxide Coatings im the
Marine Deposits of the Clyde Sea-Area.—The manganese dioxide which coats the stones
in the beds of the streams flowing into the Clyde Sea-Area is, as we have shown, rubbed
off—especially during floods—and carried to the sea along with ferric oxide and other
detrital matters. Soon after reaching the salt-water the greater part of this detrital matter
is thrown down not far from the shores, and forms the Blue Muds which cover the
bottom in all the deeper reaches of the Clyde basins. In this Blue Mud, as we have
seen, active chemical reactions take place, many of them initiated by the action of
the decomposing organic matters always associated with these deposits. The sulphates
of the sea-water are, in these circumstances, deoxidised, and the sulphur of the hydro-
_ sulphuric acid combines with the iron, forming sulphide of iron, which is unaffected by
the presence of the carbonic or humic acids in the mud, and hence remains a permanent
constituent of the deposit, giving it, indeed, its blue or black colour. The sulphide of
manganese, formed at the same time and in the same manner, is not, however, permanent,
but is at once decomposed by the carbonic acid present in the mud-waters, sulphuretted
hydrogen being evolved and bicarbonate of manganese formed.* Even the loosely-
combined carbonic acid of the bicarbonates in sea-water effects this decomposition.
There is, however, another way in which bicarbonate of manganese may originate in
these mud-waters. The increased alkalinity induced by the above changes gives to the
water associated with the mud greater solvent power over silica and silicates, and those
mineral particles of the deposit which may contain manganese are slowly decomposed,
and, along with other carbonates, carbonate of manganese is formed which, as we have
seen, may remain for a short time in solution, but, on meeting the oxygen in the overlying
sea-water, is soon deposited as dioxide.t
A large number of laboratory experiments were conducted with the view of studying
these various reactions, among them the following :—
I. Sulphide of manganese and excess of ferric hydrate were suspended in water
through which carbonic acid was passed. The sulphuretted hydrogen, resulting from the
* See IRvinE and Gipson, Proc. Roy. Soc. Edin., vol. xviii. p. 54, 1891.
+ If we take the Blue Mud extending over an area of 1 square mile and 1 foot in depth as containing one half
of its weight of water (equal to 867,700,000 lbs.), and holding 1 part of MnCO, in 95,000, we will have a total
amount of 9134 lbs. MnCO, per square mile, and if we take the amount found in the water immediately overlying
the mud in Granton Quarry as representing what occurs in the Clyde area, i.c., 1 part in 300,000, we have per
square mile of water 1 foot deep (weighing 1,735,400,000 Ibs.) 5785 Ibs. MnCO.,, or a total, including that obtained from
the mud and from the water overlying it, of 14,919 Ibs., or 23 lbs. per acre of surface available for nodule formation.
Of course there may be much more, as there must be a continuous removal of MnCO, by tidal action ; but, con-
sidering the extent of the floor of the Clyde basin, even the amount here estimated is very great.
Taking the amount of flow at Lanark at 15,000 cubic feet per second, holding 1 part manganese in 28,000,000 of
water, this represents a daily quantity of over 1 ton carried by that river to the sea. This is manifestly a low approxi-
mation, as the flow is much augmented by tributaries between this point and the sea.
VOL. XXXVII. PART IV. (NO. 32). aS
730 DR JOHN MURRAY AND MR ROBERT IRVINE ON THE
action of carbonic acid and water on the sulphide of manganese, combined with the iron
present, forming sulphide of iron. This reaction took place so long as there was excess
of ferric hydrate, and may be thus represented :—
MnS +H,O +2C0,=MnCO, . CO,+H,8.
3H,S + Fe,0,=2FeS+S+43H,0.
II. Sea-water, starch solution (to represent non-nitrogenous organic matter), and car-
bonate of manganese were placed in a vessel, and allowed to stand for several days at a
temperature of 80° F. (26°67 C.). It was found that sulphuretted hydrogen was continu-
ously given off till ail the sulphates present in the sea-water were decomposed, bicarbonate
of manganese (MnCO;.CO,) being at the same time formed. It was noticed that the
carbonate of manganese oxidised much more rapidly in alkaline fluids than in pure water ;
and sea-water, it must be remembered, is probably always alkaline.
III. Powdered deep-sea manganese nodules were placed in sea-water along with
decomposing mussel-flesh. In a few days the sulphates of the sea-water had been
reduced to sulphides; and while the sesquioxide of iron present in the nodules was
thrown down as insoluble sulphide of iron, the manganese dioxide was first reduced to
sulphide, but finally appeared in the sea-water as soluble bicarbonate of manganese.
These experiments show that manganese dioxide cannot exist for any time in muds
where there is a large quantity of decomposing organic matter, such as is nearly always
present in the Blue Muds of the Clyde Sea-Area and similar deposits around continental
lands. This result is in complete harmony with the actual observations as to the distribu-
tion of manganese oxides, made known by means of the dredge and trawl. What is known
as the Clyde Sea-Area consists of a series of submarine basins, separated from each other
by submarine barriers. The depth of the basins ranges from 30 to 106 fathoms, and the
depth of water over the intervening ridges varies from 3 to 15 fathoms. In all the
deeper parts of the basins there is a bluish mud, in which, as a rule, no manganese nodules
are found, but on the immediate surface of the deposit of Blue Mud there is a surface layer
with a reddish or light-grey colour, in which deposits of manganese dioxide do occur. When
stones are dredged from these muds many of them are, as a rule, surrounded by a dark
ring of manganese dioxide, marking the depth to which they have been embedded in the
mud. The whole upper surface of the stones has likewise a slight coating of manganese,
while the portion imbedded in the mud is free from these manganese deposits.
The submarine ridges between the different lochs or basins are usually covered with
rocks and stones, many of which are dark coloured from a coating of manganese dioxide.
Very little mud is, as a rule, deposited on the shallower parts of these ridges, owing to their
being continually washed by tidal currents. Mud is, however, deposited among the stones
a few fathoms deeper on either side of these ridges, and some hollows or small depressions
on the barriers are filled with mud, in which small manganese nodules are frequently found
in great abundance. The larger stones in the positions here indicated all showed the
dark ring of manganese marking out the line between the mud and water. The deposits
MANGANESE OXIDES AND MANGANESE NODULES IN MARINE DEPOSITS. 731
of manganese on some of the stones at the water-line were 3 or 4 inches in thickness.
The nodules varied in size from 2 inches to 7), of an inch in diameter, and all showed a
concentric arrangement of parts. The general appearance of the stones and nodules is
shown by the sections in figures 1, 2, 3, and 4.
Fic. 1.—Schistose Boulder from the Barrier, Loch Goil, 75 natural size. A, boulder of Mica schist. B, layers of
Manganese dioxide.
Fic. 2.—Section of Loch Striven Nodule (natural size). Frc. 3.—Section of small Nodule from
The layers of Manganese dioxide (B) have been de- Loch Goil (natural size).
posited round a piece of slate (A).
Fic. 4.—Section of Boulder of Schist from Loch Fyne, showing Manganese Deposit (4 natural size).
A, boulder of schistose rock. B, layers of Manganese dioxide.
The chemical composition of these nodules differs only slightly from that of those
taken in the deep sea, and this difference arises from the greater abundance of mineral
particles and their different nature, quartz and other continental minerals being almost
732 DR JOHN MURRAY AND MR ROBERT IRVINE ON THE
absent from the deep-sea samples, but abundant in those from the Clyde area. The
manganese is also more completely oxidised in the deep-sea samples.*
* Partial Analyses of Several Clyde Nodules (Anderson).
Nodules from off Paddy’s
Nodules from off Skate Island, Lower Loch Fyne, Nodules from off Skelmorlie
* -, 5 Rocks, Upper Loch Fyne, in *
in 104 Fathoms, ” 90 Fathoms. Bank, in 11 Fathoms.
Composi- pe
,_|tion after . | tion after
Composition after Per- Comal: Deduct- Per- Comper Deduct-
Percentage Composition after | Deducting Water | centage imedicrs ing cen’ age | neduet- ing
Composition. Deducting Water. and Com- in Water Com- ing Water
Insoluble Matter. | position. Water ond position. Water. and
* \Insoluble * | Insoluble
Matter. Matter,
Rinds. | Kernels.} Rinds. | Kernels.] Rinds. |Kernels.
Manganese Oxide, MnO. . . | 24°830 | 33°657 | 39-294 | 44°367 | 59-429 | 62°710 | 16420 | 30°151 | 41°538 | 16°656 | 28°543 | 39°616
Peroxide Oxygen,O. . . .| 4'846| 7:096] 7°669| 9:354]|11°599 | 13-221] 3°720] 6°831] 9°410] 3°366| 5:768| 8-006
Ferric Oxide, FeO; . . . . sad 20 on 508 bets ee 7-117 | 13-068 | 18-004} 6-960 | 11°927 | 16°554 |
Alumina;,ALQ;;1.4%. 5.9% ; ee ae saa “ing 00 ae 1°758 | 3°228| 4°447] 1°890| 3°239] 47495
Insoluble in Hydrochloric Acid | 21°410 | 22°190 | 33°882 | 29°251] ... .. | 14°930 | 277415 | ... | 16°310 | 27°950
Loss on Ignition . . . . . | 40°040/28°870] ... 300 $e Ee 2Sc0208| meen .. | 43°890
Formula of Peroxide. . . . |MnOj;.g¢MnOj-93) _ ... aa ae fo MnO, | .. ve JMn0j. 99
Partial Analysis of a Manganese coating on a stone from Loch Fyne (see Fig. 4).
The substance was broken, and the Fine Particles separated from the Coarse by levigation, and dried in air.
Manganese coating was divided into Fine Washings =63°03 per cent.
a 5 Coarse Particles=36°97 —,,
100°00
Fine Washings. Coarse Particles.
Composition , Composition
Er ta; ; Mg ta)
Garensge | ater eauetng | @aeentage | alter Botuetng
Water, HO 12°615 a 17°434
Manganese Dioxide, MnO, 57930 66°293 58°560 70°925
Ferric Oxide, Fe,0, 3°220 3°685 1°960 2°374
Alumina, Al,0, 1°120 1°282 0°910 1°102
Silica, SiO, 9°000 10°300 6°810 8°248
Insoluble in Hydro- Versio Oxia Fe.0 t t t th
higgins hcia erric Oxide, 0» race race race race
| Alumina, Al,Os 3°750 4°291 2°410 2919
Total Insoluble in Acid, (14°020 16044 10040 12°160)
The main difference between the two analyses is the larger quantity of iron and clayey matter present in the
Fine Washings, and a corresponding increase of manganese in the Coarse Particles.
fan
MANGANESE OXIDES AND MANGANESE NODULES IN MARINE DEPOSITS.
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734 DR JOHN MURRAY AND MR ROBERT IRVINE ON THE
A most extensive series of dredgings was conducted during several years in nearly
all parts of the Clyde Sea-Area, and so constant were the conditions under which the
manganese deposits occurred that Captain TurByNx, of the yacht ‘‘ Medusa,” could usually
point out with certainty the situations in which they might be procured by the dredge.
There is one apparent exception, viz., the very deepest spot in the whole area (106
fathoms), in Lower Loch Fyne. The nodules from this place were described several years
ago by Mr J. Y. Bucnanan.* This deep hole is very limited in extent, and the nodules
found in it occur only in one place, and that at the very deepest point. The hole is
situated off Skate Island, towards which, from the Cantyre shore, there runs a submerged
tongue or ridge, so that the water passing through this narrow gully to supply the whole
of the upper parts of Loch Fyne is much confined, and motion of the water takes place
at a greater depth here than at other parts of the area. With reference to currents, then,
this deep hole resembles the hollows filled with mud on the ridges and barriers. t
In addition to the deposits of manganese dioxide on stones, and in the form of ©
nodules, many of the living and dead shells found in the deeper parts of the district are
coated with this substance—for instance, those of Astarte sulcata, Nucula sulcata, Pecten —
septemradiatus, Cyprina rslandica, Corbula gibba, Venus fasicula, Venus casina, Scro-
hicularia alba, Buccinum undatum, Fusus antiquus. Many of the dead fragments of
[ithothamnion calcareum from the shallow dredgings are black coloured, and thoroughly
impregnated with deposits of manganese dioxide.
A survey of the foregoing facts seems to show conclusively that the bicarbonate of
manganese, which we have found in solution in the sea-water associated with the Blue
Muds of the Clyde sea-basins, has been derived either from the deoxidation of the
dioxide carried into the sea by streams along with other detrital matters, through the
decomposition of organic matter in the presence of the sulphates of the sea-water, or
directly from decomposition in the mud of manganese-bearing silicates present among the
* See Bucnanan, Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin., vol. xxxvi. p. 459, 1891. ‘
+ Captain Turbyne, of Mr Murray’s yacht “ Medusa,” writes as follows as to the manganese dredging in the Clyde
Sea-Area :—“ Regarding the nodules being in pot-holes, I consider that I have absolute proof of that on the outer side
of the barrier of Loch Goil. In the first place, we were dredging from the outside toward the barrier or up the loch,
on the slope, as I thought, between the mud and harder ground. In this case we ought to have been shallowing our
soundings, but after towing for a short time the dredge suddenly began to dip, which was seen from the angle of the
wire, and more had to be run out ; then we suddenly came fast, and had to heave up, and this was the haul in which
the nodules were got. They differed from those at Skelmorlie Bank in being much larger, and to the unaided eye
they seemed perfectly smooth and quite round. In the second place, after finding the nodules I tried to get more both
on this and on several other occasions ; but though we tried to strike the spot as nearly as possible, it was only after |
dredging up and down the loch and in close sections across it, that we again hit on the spot. For these reasons I have
come to the conclusion that the nodules are found in a hole of small extent. This is the only instance in my experience
in which I am certain that the nodules were taken from a small hole. In my opinion the slopes of Skelmorlie Bank
and Minard Narrows are full of small holes containing mud and manganese nodules where the tide meets with an
obstruction. The 106 fathom-hole has always been a mystery to me. I often thought that if the nodules were formed
in that deep hole, why don’t we get them off Brodick in 95-97 fathoms, which part is practically a continuation of the
trough in which the 106 fathom-hole is situated? Surely this submarine tongue you mention and the small size of
the 106 fathom-hole has got something to do with it. I can say nothing about under-currents at the deep hole, but
there is a strong surface-current at spring-tides, as we rapidly got out of position, and it is well known to fishermen
and others that, with the wind against the tide, a nasty sea is met with off Skate Island.”
MANGANESE OXIDES AND MANGANESE NODULES IN MARINE DEPOSITS. 735
mineral particles of the mud itself. It is probably derived from both these sources.
Further, this bicarbonate, on escaping in solution from the mud into the overlying water,
takes up oxygen, and is deposited in a higher state of oxidation on any objects which
may lie on or project above the surface of the mud. In this way we may account for
the tonsure-like rings of dioxide of manganese which surround many stones, and for the
deposits on the shells of the molluscs living in the immediate surface layers of the muds.
The formation of manganese nodules on the immediate surface of the deposit, on
the tops of the barriers, and in the pit-like depressions, is most probably to be accounted
for by the more abundant supply of oxygen, or by the diminished amount of decomposing
organic matter in these positions.
In those deep parts of the Clyde basins, where there is little motion from tidal or
other currents, the bicarbonate of manganese in the mud-water would gradually ooze
out into the overlying water, and be slowly carried along till deposited as dioxide near
the tops of the ridges, where motion is more rapid and oxygen more abundant. In the
muds of the Clyde Sea-Area there is most probably a continual and very slow shifting
of the dioxide of manganese deposits from one position to another, for if a partially
embedded stone, covered on its upper surface with a deposit of manganese dioxide,
should become more deeply embedded from the accumulation of the deposit, the
lower portions of the dioxide would be reduced by this deoxidisimg mud, and the
manganese, passing through the state of sulphide and bicarbonate, would ultimately be
transferred to some other point higher up on the stone, or to a still greater distance,
before being again laid down as dioxide. There would thus always be a tendency for the
manganese dioxide to accumulate in the surface layers of a Blue Mud deposit, as well
as at certain favourable points, such as in the little hollows filled with mud, over which
the water is continually changing, or where there is an absence of decomposing organic
matter.
When viewed in this leht, the amount of the manganese, in relation to the whole
mass of the deposits being laid down on the floor of the ocean, may not be so great
as some dredgings, at points where accumulation has taken place, would lead us to
suppose.
| Manganese Nodules and Manganese Dioxide Deposits in the Deep Sea.—The
dredgings, trawlings, and soundings conducted in recent years by the ‘Challenger ”
and other deep-sea exploring expeditions, show that deposits containing a large quantity
of manganese dioxide are very widely distributed. Over large areas of the Mid-Pacific
and Mid-Indian Oceans there is a dark chocolate-coloured deposit, usually in depths
beyond 2200 fathoms. Whenever dredgings have taken place on this chocolate-coloured
clay, large numbers of manganese nodules have always been procured, associated with
sharks’ teeth, ear-bones of whales, and the other peculiar substances mentioned in the
opening paragraphs of this paper.
In some few places in the Pacific, the Globigerina Oozes, which occur at lesser
depths than the Red Clay, have also this deep chocolate colour due to the minute grains
736 DR JOHN MURRAY AND MR ROBERT IRVINE ON THE
of manganese dioxide disseminated throughout the deposit. When dredgings have been
obtained in these Globigerina deposits, many manganese nodules have been procured,
hut they were not accompanied by large numbers of sharks’ teeth, bones of cetaceans,
zeolitic crystals, and cosmic spherules, as in the case of the Red Clays. Very many
minute particles of basic volcanic rocks, most of them in an altered condition, were, how-
ever, present in these dark chocolate coloured Globigerina Oozes.
The one outstanding fact connected with the distribution of manganese nodules in
the abysmal regions of the ocean is, that wherever they occur in great abundance, they
are accompanied by numerous fragments and lapilli of basic volcanic rocks, and many
of these, on examination, are found to be in an advanced state of alteration. For instance,
a typical Globigerina Ooze is usually of a white or rose colour, and the inorganic residue,
insoluble in dilute acids, consists of clayey matter, oxides of iron, and a few mineral
particles chiefly of volcanic origin, along with fragments of pumice. In such a typical
deposit, a few grains of manganese dioxide may be observed attached to some of the
Foraminiferal shells, or in the residue after removal of the
carbonate of lime by dilute acid. As a rule, no manganese
nodules are procured by dredging on such a typical Globi-
gerina Ooze. A Globigerina deposit with the same species
of Foraminifera, the same percentage of carbonate of lime,
laid down in similar latitudes and under similar physical
conditions, but containing much volcanic débris of a basic
character, is, however, of a dark chocolate colour, and con-
tains many manganese nodules.
apie, Reva acai ric Indeed, all observations go to show that the quantity of
positions of manganese (natural yyanoanese dioxide in these abysmal deposits is in direct
size). Station 160; 2600 fathoms. : e
Southern Indian Ocean. relation to the abundance and basic character of the erupted
rocks and minerals associated with them, and the extent to which these minerals and
rock particles have undergone alteration.
In the Blue Muds, which in deep water surround continental land and cover the
bottoms of enclosed or partially enclosed seas, no manganese nodules similar to those from
the central regions of the ocean basins have as yet been obtained in dredgings. In a
good many instances, however, stones and boulders have been dredged from Blue Muds or
other terrigenous deposits, with the upper or emerged surfaces coated with manganese.
Markings of this substance were also found on some shells, fragments of pumice, and
phosphatic concretions which evidently had lain on the immediate surface of the mud.
The Blue Muds in deep water have a thin red-coloured watery layer on the surface, and
beneath this the deposit is of a dark blue colour, and often smells strongly of sulphur-
etted hydrogen. These deeper layers contain much decomposing organic matter, like
the muds of the Clyde Sea-Area, and in them no deposits of manganese have as yet
been found other than mere traces; but manganese dioxide was found coating objects
lying on the immediate surface layer, and, as in the case of the Clyde mud, these
MANGANESE OXIDES AND MANGANESE NODULES IN MARINE DEPOSITS. 737
deposits doubtless arise from the oxidation of the bicarbonate of manganese, which oozes
or seeps out of the dark-coloured reducing layers beneath.
The blue-coloured layers of those muds situated in deep water near shore gradually
disappear towards the central parts of the ocean basins, the deposit passing into Globi-
gerina, Pteropod, and Radiolarian Oozes and Red Clays. These latter deposits have gene-
rally one uniform colour throughout, of being usually red, chocolate, rose, or dull grey.
No trace of a blue layer beneath a red-coloured surface one can be detected in these
abysmal deposits. Apparently the organic matter, which reaches the bottom in these
Fic. 6.—Tooth of Carcharodon megalodon (natural size). This is the Fie. 7.—Manganese nodule with
largest specimen taken during the cruise of the “ Challenger.” Scalpellum darwinit growing on
Station 281; 2385 fathoms. South Pacific. it. Station 299; 2160 fathoms.
South Pacific.
abysmal regions, is less abundant than nearer shore, and probably the rate of accumulation
is so slow that the decomposing organic matter is never covered up, as in the case of the
Blue Muds. At all events, when deoxidation of the sulphates in sea-water does take place
in the Red Clays or Globigerina Oozes, it never results in the formation and permanent
addition of any large quantity of sulphide of iron to the deposit, as in the case of the
Blue Muds, the iron being nearly all in the form of sesquioxide, and hence the whole
deposit, at least to the depth of 18 inches, is of a red colour. In the case of the Blue
Muds, the thin red-coloured watery layer on the surface becomes gradually converted
into the blue layers beneath with the growth of the deposit.
VOL. XXXVII. PART IV. (NO. 32). aT
738 DR JOHN MURRAY AND MR ROBERT IRVINE ON THE
In some cases it was observed that large light-yellow-coloured patches occurred in the
red and chocolate clays, arising apparently from the decomposition of some organic body
at the discoloured spot, so that even in these abysmal deposits the same deoxidation
changes do take place as in the Blue Muds, and there may be a tendency to the pro-
duction of manganese nodules, on or near the surface, at the expense of the dioxide of
manganese in the deeper layers. We know that many of the deep-sea nodules were
formed on the very surface of the deposit, and even projected above it, the upper portion
of the nodule giving attachment to Hydroids, Polyzoa, Annelids and other organisms.
All the manganese nodules from the dredging or trawling at any one of the ‘Challenger ”
stations have a strong family likeness, being similar in their general form and size. So
marked was this resemblance, that Mr Murray, or his assistant, could at sight with
certainty indicate the station from which any given specimen was _ procured.
Sometimes they were all flattened and of an oval shape,
with a well-marked upper and under surface; nodules
of this shape were evidently formed on the immediate
surface of the deposit. At other stations they were pear-
shaped, and in these instances the small end was embedded
in the mud, while the large end projected above the deposit.
In other localities all the nodules were round, at one station
being about half an inch, and at another one or two inches in
diameter. At one place in the South Pacific the surface of
a Red Clay had been covered by a fall of volcanic ashes over
an inch in depth, the whole deposit had then become a
hardened mass, and subsequently was broken into fragments
Fic. 8.—Large tooth of v : agate
(Oxyrhina trigonodon »), about the by some disturbance at the bottom. Large slabs, consisting
a RR pe of the upper layers of this deposit, were brought up in the
2350 fathoms. South Pacific. trawl, and it could be seen that many of the manganese
nodules had been situated on the very surface of the Red Clay previous to the fall of ash,
while only a few had been completely embedded in the deeper layers of the Red Clay.
There is, then, much evidence to show that even in the abysmal regions the manganese
nodules are more abundant in the surface, than in the deeper, layers of the deposit.
That these nodules do, however, occur at least a foot beneath the surface is proved by
some small ones having been found at that depth in the sounding-tube.
General conclusions with reference to the Manganese Dioxde in Marine Deposits.—
From the foregoing considerations it may be inferred that the manganese of the dioxide
present in marine deposits was originally combined with the silica in the crystalline rocks
of the earth’s crust. Through the alteration and decomposition of these crystalline rocks
the manganese was converted into bicarbonate. In terrestrial rocks and in the beds of
streams this bicarbonate is deposited as dendrites and coatings of manganese dioxide.
If any bicarbonate of manganese reaches the sea in the waters of rivers it is almost
immediately deposited as manganese dioxide on meeting the alkaline sea-water. The
MANGANESE OXIDES AND MANGANESE NODULES IN MARINE DEPOSITS. 739
dioxide of manganese found on terrestrial rocks may be carried to the ocean, and widely
distributed over the sea-bed along with other detrital matters. In marine deposits,
mineral particles, derived from the disintegration of the crystalline rocks of the earth’s'
crust, are everywhere present. In some regions the fragments derived from the disinte-
gration of the acid series of rocks predominate, in others the fragments from the basic’
series. These minerals and rock fragments undergo alteration in the soft oozy deposit,
in the same way as the rocks on the terrestrial surfaces. The manganese in the silicates
is converted into bicarbonate of manganese, which is deposited as manganese dioxide
wherever there is a sufficient supply of oxygen. Experience has shown that nodules of
manganese are much more abundant in all those areas where the basic series of rocks pre-
dominate, and this is evidently connected with the greater abundance of iron and
manganese in these rocks.
Manganese dioxide is a very stable and insoluble substance, and it might be supposed
Fic. 9,—Manganese nodule with two Fic. 10.—Petrous and tympanic bones of Jeso-
Tunicates (Stycla sqwuamosa and Styela plodon (species allied to /ayardi), outer surfaces
bythia) and a Brachiopod attached. covered with manganese (natural size).
Station 160 ; 2600 fathoms. Southern Station 286 ; 2335 fathoms. South Pacific.
Indian Ocean.
that when once formed in marine deposits it would be permanent. We have shown that
there is, however, sufficient evidence, that, owing to repeated deoxidation and reoxidation,
the manganese in marine deposits is continually being transferred from one position on
the floor of the ocean to another. Wherever decomposing organic matter is present in the
muds, deoxidation of the sulphates of the sea-water and of the manganese dioxide in the
deposits takes place with the formation of sulphides of iron and manganese. The sulphide
of iron is stable and remains in the deposit, but the sulphide of manganese, being unstable
in the presence of carbonic acid, passes to bicarbonate of manganese and on meeting with
a supply of oxygen is once more deposited as dioxide of manganese at some not very
distant spot. It appears, then, that the manganese dioxide in marine deposits, whether
originally derived from the decomposition of the rocks of the land surfaces or from the
minerals forming part of the marine deposits, is continually shiftmg its position. The
chemical processes in operation tend to favour its accumulation towards the surface of
marine deposits, or in those areas on the ocean floor where there is a relatively small
740 DR JOHN MURRAY AND MR ROBERT IRVINE ON THE
amount of decomposing organic matter in the deposits at the bottom. In this way there
may have been a gradual transference of manganese from the continents towards the
remoter recesses of the abysmal regions from the earliest geological times, for, in the
abysmal regions, where there is relatively a small amount of organic matter, and where the
rate of accumulation of the deposit is slowest, the manganese dioxide would be more
stable than in other areas.
Wherever manganese dioxide has once been deposited, a relatively rapid nodular
formation there takes place in the clay or ooze, owing to the acidiferous properties
of this dioxide, which, decomposing the carbonate of manganese in solution, produces
manganous-manganic oxide, it may be Mn,O, or a mixture of MnO and MnO,. This
manganous-manganic oxide in the hydrated condition gradually becomes fully oxidised
into dioxide ; in this way we may account for the fact that the inner layers of some
nodules are found to be more highly oxidised than the outer layers.
To the same action of manganese dioxide as an acid we may probably attribute the
presence of calcium, nickel, cobalt, copper, and other metals in the nodules, for this
dioxide would decompose the carbonates of any of these substances if present in the oozy
Blue Mud or clay by uniting with their protoxides. In these soft oozes and clays the
most favourable conditions are likewise present for the deposition of the manganese in
concentric layers around a nucleus, similar in many respects to the urinary calculi found
in the organs of many mammalia.
Theories concerning the Origin of Manganese Nodules in Marine Deposits.—Ever
since the discovery of large numbers of manganese nodules by the “Challenger” Expe-
dition on certain parts of the floor of the ocean, there has been much discussion both with
regard to the source of the manganese and the mode of formation of these concretionary
bodies.
GumeEL,* after an analysis of some of the ‘“ Challenger” specimens, referred the for-
mation of the nodules to the action of submarine springs holding manganese in solution,
which would be precipitated upon contact with sea-water. The rounded form of the
nodules he believed to be due to repeated turnings and rollings on the bed of the ocean.
It is almost certain that this distinguished geologist would not have held these opinions,
could he have seen the large number and variety of nodules procured by the ‘‘ Challenger ”
Expedition in many regions of the ocean. The form and distribution of the various
nodules and coatings would have convinced him that submarine springs could not have
had anything to do with their formation. a
A cosmic or meteoric origin has been assigned to the oxides of manganese and iron in
the manganese nodules.t| Murray and Renarp have shown that magnetic spherules con-
taining native iron and nickel, and certain spherules, called chondres, composed largely of
silicates are present in deep-sea deposits, and have brought forward almost conclusive
{
A
* GUMBEL, Sitzb. d. k. Bayer. Akad. d. Wiss., Ba. viii. p. 189, 1878; Forschungsreise S.M.S. “Gazelle,” Th. ii,
p. 103.
+ See Lockynr, Nature, vol. xxxviii, p. 521, 1888; Hickson, The Fauna of the Deep Sea, p. 38, London, 1894.
MANGANESE OXIDES AND MANGANESE NODULES IN MARINE DEPOSITS. 741
evidence that these spherules have an extra-terrestrial origin.* But these cosmic
spherules make up a very small part of the whole deposit. _ While admitting that a very
small quantity of the iron and a still smaller quantity of the manganese in abysmal
deposits have originated in the fall of meteorites to the earth, still it is undoubted that
the great bulk of the manganese and iron in the manganese nodules has been derived
from terrestrial rocks.
Dievxarait,+ from an examination of some samples of sea-water from the Atlantic
and Indian Oceans, came to the conclusion that manganese existed in sea-water in
the form of soluble bicarbonate, which becoming oxidised at the surface of the sea
then fell to the bottom as oxides, and there took on a concretionary form. We have
shown that, while manganese carbonate exists in the water associated with the clays,
muds, and oozes at the bottom of the ocean, yet, so far as our researches go, there are no
traces of manganese in solution in the great body of oceanic water. Traces of manganese,
however, may be found in suspension in almost any sample of ocean water, associated
with the suspended clayey matter which is nearly always present. This view of
DigvuLaFaltT, as well as that of Renarp,{ that the greater part of the manganese
accumulated at the bottom of the ocean has been derived from manganese in solution in
the waters of the ocean, must therefore be abandoned. Besides, the distribution of the
manganese dioxide in marine deposits in no way corresponds to what would take place did
it fall to the bottom everywhere on oxidation of its carbonate at the surface of the ocean,
even taking into consideration the rate of accumulation of the different kinds of deposits.
Mr J. Y. Bucuanan, the chemist of the Challenger Expedition, has referred the
origin of manganese nodules to the intervention of living organisms, it being held
that the fine mud which some deep-sea organisms pass through their alimentary
canals undergoes chemical changes, sulphuretted hydrogen and sulphides of iron and
manganese being formed, the latter becoming subsequently oxidised. Those animals, such
as Annelids, Holothurians and other Echinoderms, which obtain their food in this way,
feed only on the thin red-coloured surface-layer of a Blue Mud. The excreta found in
this layer are all red-coloured, so that if sulphide of iron be formed within the bodies of
the animals, it must again be reoxidised after evacuation. The blue colour of the excreta
found in the deeper layers is no doubt due to sulphide of iron, but this blue colour is
an effect of the accumulation of the deposit as a whole, and arises from the decomposition
of the organic matters imprisoned in the deeper layers by the gradual accumulation at
the surface of the deposit. It has been shown that sulphide of manganese cannot exist
under the same conditions as the sulphide of iron, but immediately passes into carbonate
of manganese, which again passes to dioxide in the presence of the oxygen of the super-
incumbent sea-water. These changes take place not directly through the action of living
organisms, but through the decomposition of organic débris present in the muds. Did the
formation of manganese nodules in any way depend directly on the activity of living
* Murray and RenarD, Deep-Sea Deposits Chall. Exp., pp. 327-336.
+ Dizvunaratt, Comptes rendus, tom. xevi. p. 718, 1883.
{ Murray and Renarp, Deep-Sea Deposits Chall. Exp., p..372, note.
VOL. XXXVII. PART IV. (NO. 32). 5 U
742 MANGANESE OXIDES AND MANGANESE NODULES IN MARINE DEPOSITS.
organisms, we would expect them to be more abundant where marine organisms are
especially numerous ; the reverse is, however, the case. On coral reefs, Blue Muds, and
Globigerina Oozes, manganese nodules are usually rare or entirely absent, although
animal life is especially abundant in these areas. On the other hand, where living
organisms are relatively rare or least numerous, as for instance around some volcanic
islands and in the deepest recesses of the ocean, there we meet with depositions of dioxide
of manganese and manganese nodules in the greatest abundance. It follows, then,
that the mineralogical nature of the deposit has most to do with the rarity or abund-
ance of manganese nodules, and not the greater or less abundance of living organisms.
In a recent publication Professor Jupp,* misled apparently by some supposed analo-
gies, has argued that the manganese, the iron, and the other rarer metals, found in man-
ganese nodules ‘‘ must have been separated from their state of diffusion in sea-water ” by
organic agency. In the decomposition of all organic structures, it may be admitted that
the chemical changes are initiated by bacteria, but with this exception it does not appear
‘ that organisms play any part in those changes which result in the formation of the
manganese-iron nodules in marine deposits. In the foregoing pages we have shown
satisfactorily that the formation of manganese nodules is due to purely chemical reactions
taking place in marine deposits on the floor of the ocean, and not to secretion by
organisms. Professor Jupp’s views on this matter are rejected as inadmissible by all
investigators who have devoted their attention to the problem.
In his first preliminary paper on Manganese in Deep-Sea Deposits, published in
1877, Murrayt pointed out the association of large numbers of manganese nodules with
the great abundance of basic volcanic débris in the deep-sea deposits at many localities.
He held that the manganese dioxide originated in the decomposition of the manganiferous
volcanic materials in the deposits through the action of carbonic acid, the carbonate of
manganese formed passing gradually in the presence of the oxygen of the sea-water to
the higher oxides of manganese. All the investigations described in this paper, indeed
al] subsequent researches on the subject, seem to confirm this view, which may now be
regarded as firmly established. Biscnorr long ago showed that the rocks which furnish
iron and manganese ores contain both these metals as silicates of the protoxides, and that
water which had permeated these rocks held carbonates of these metals in solution.
“There can be,” he says, ‘no doubt that the sesquioxide of manganese that occurs in
manganese ores originates from carbonate of manganese.”{ More recently Bousstncaut §
discussed the formation of coatings of manganese dioxide in various regions, and
arrived at conclusions similar to those of Bischorr and Murray. The distribution
and localisation of manganese dioxide on the floor of the ocean at the present time is
thus shown to be strictly comparable with the corresponding subaérial phenomena,
modified by the peculiar conditions which obtain on the floor of the ocean.
* Fortnightly Review, January 1894, p. 73.
+ On the Distribution of Voleanic Débris over the Floor of the Ocean, Proc. Roy. Soc. Hdin., vol. ix. p. 255, 1877.
{ Bischof, Chemical Geology, vol. iii. p. 508, English edition.
§ Annales de Chemie et de Physique, ser. 5, tom. xxvii. pp. 289-311, 1882.
(eras)
XXXIII.—I. On the Estimation of Carbon in Organic Substances by the Kjeldahl Method.
II. Its Application to the Analysis of Potable Waters. By Cuartes HunrEr
Stewart, D.Sc., M.B.* (From the Public Health Laboratory of the University
of Edinburgh.) (With Two Plates.)
An easy and yet accurate method of determining carbon and nitrogen in organic
substances has long been a desideratum, especially among those engaged in the applica-
tion of chemistry to biological, hygienic, and agricultural questions. For the deter-
mination of nitrogen the method of Dumas, with its numerous modifications, is still the
only one applicable in all cases, but the time required for it, and the manipulative
dexterity necessary, has prevented its wide application for the above-named purposes.
The method of Wit and VaRRENTRAP, though less generally applicable, is easier, and, until
the publication of KsjELDAHL’st method, was most frequently used in applied chemistry.
KJELDAHL claims for his method the same applicability and as great accuracy as the Will
and Varrentrap method, with the added advantage of greater ease in working.
The Kjeldahl method is founded on the fact that most nitrogenous organic substances,
when heated along with strong sulphuric acid, are decomposed, their nitrogen being
converted into ammonia, which, in presence of the sulphuric acid, forms sulphate of
ammonia. The modus operandi given by him is as follows. The weighed quantity of
the substance (which may vary from 0°1 gramme to 0°7 gramme according to the
percentage of nitrogen) is introduced into a long-necked bohemian glass flask of about
100 c.c. capacity, and 10 c.e. of strong sulphuric acid added. The flask is now supported
in an inclined position on the ring of a retort stand covered with wire gauze and heated
by a low flame. After the action has been well established, the flame is raised until the
acid begins to boil. The heating is continued till the colour of the acid is pale yellow.
The time required varies with the substance, but in the majority of cases two to three
hours is sufficient. The flame is now removed and the flask and its contents allowed to
cool. When perfectly cool, a few grains of powdered permanganate of potassium is
dusted in and the flask again heated with a low flame for five or ten minutes. When the
colour of the acid has become green the reaction is ended. There is no loss of ammonia
in the process, either in the original heating with sulphuric acid or in the subsequent
treatment with permanganate of potassium, if carried out in the way described. A
known quantity of sulphate of ammonia, heated with strong sulphuric acid and subse-
quently treated with permanganate of potassium, gave, on neutralisation and distillation, the
amount of ammonia used. KsELDAHL points out that simple heating with sulphuric acid
for two to three hours will convert from 90 per cent. to 100 per cent. of the nitrogen
* Thesis for degree of D.Sc. (Depart. of Chemistry), University of Edinburgh.
+ Zeitschrift fiir Analytische Chemie, Band 22 (1883), p. 366, &e.
VOL. XXXVII. PART IV, (NO. 33). 5 xX
744 DR CHARLES HUNTER STEWART ON THE ESTIMATION OF
into ammonia in the case of easily decomposed bodies, as uric acid, asparagin, and most
albuminoid substances. Most of the alkaloids and all the aromatic bodies give, by simple
heating with sulphuric acid, a much smaller percentage of their nitrogen as ammonia.
When the reaction is ended, the flask is allowed to cool, and then the contents are
diluted with distilled water, emptied into a distilling flask, and made frankly alkaline
with a strong solution of caustic potash previously boiled and cooled. In the distillation
bumping must be avoided. 150 c.c. are distilled over and collected in an Erlenmyer
flask of 250 c.c. capacity, containing a measured quantity of 45th normal sulphuric acid.
This flask has a double-bored cork; through one of the holes passes the delivering end
of the condenser about half-way in, in the other there is a glass tube cut flush with the
cork inside, and opening free to the outside. The titration is done by 5th normal
alkali, litmus being the indicator.
The following are some of the results given by him, compared with results by WILL
and VARRENTRAP’S method.
Ksrxpauu’s Method. Witt and VarrentrRaP.
Triethylamine, : ; : - ; ‘ . | 10°16 per cent, nitrogen. | 10°18 per cent. nitrogen.
Asparagin, . : : 5 5 ; E . | 18°7 5 Pe INeHOl = ms
Uric acid, . 7 : : : : F 4331 - *; 33°3 ‘ 3
Urea, . : . - ‘ : : ; . |46°6 a a 46°7 ' ~
Chloride of aniline, : : : ; ‘ . OS PA 10°82 i, -
Indigotin, . : : : : ‘ , . |10°6 = ‘5 10°68. 4, 5
Hippuric acid, ‘ : : ¢ ; : = Hgil Go ak 5 3 USD S
Hydrochlorate of morphia, ; ; ‘ é oi) 4°25 == - 4:36, re
- » quinine, F ‘ : ‘ A ES Fa gc Se PS
Caffein, 2 é E : : ; . . | 28°6 53 53 28°86, BS
Casein, ‘ 4 5 : "4 3 4 . | 156 3 a 15°6 as B
Egg albumen, ; “3 4 A : : . | 153 3 * 15°6 .
Many modifications of this process have been proposed, both for the purpose of
hastening the decomposition of the organic matter, and also for making it more generally
applicable. The more important among these are: (1) The addition of a small quantity of
phosphoric anhydride to the sulphuric acid. (This was first suggested by KsELDAHL
himself, but only in certain cases.) (2) The addition of about 0°5 gramme anhydrous
sulphate of copper and about 1 gramme metallic mercury.
An elaborate investigation into this whole question was made by Darert.* Regard-
ing the action of the sulphuric acid itself, he says (p. 329): ‘‘The sulphuric acid
withdraws from the nitrogenous substance the elements of water and ammonia with the
formation of the latter.” |
“The sulphurous acid formed during the decomposition acts in a reducing way on
* Beitriige zur Kentniss des Kjeldahlschen Stickstoff-Bestimmungsverfalren ; Landwirthschaftlichen-Versuchs-Stationen,
Band xxxiv., 1887.
CARBON IN ORGANIC SUBSTANCES BY THE KJELDAHL METHOD. 745
the nitrogenous compound.” Regarding the action of the permanganate of potassium,
he says (pp. 335 and 336): “In the hot acid the added permanganate of potassium
decomposes the compounds of an organic nature still present in the fluid. ‘The nitro-
genous part is chiefly so split up that a part or the whole of the nitrogen is converted
into ammonia. ... In the quantitative estimation of nitrogen, the oxidation with
permanganate can be very advantageously used. Care must, however, be taken that
the substance has been long enough heated previously (with the acid) and also that not
too much be added.”
KseLDAHL had previously pointed out that the sulphuric acid must first so far decom-
pose the substance to enable the permanganate to finish the reaction without loss of
nitrogen.
Regarding the action of sulphate of copper and mercury, these undoubtedly hasten
the reaction. They act probably as oxygen carriers to the substance, being alternately
oxidised and reduced. They are not, however, generally applicable. He says (p. 347) :
“Bodies which have little resistance to the action of sulphuric acid can suffer a loss of
nitrogen by the presence of these metallic substances causing too active an oxidation
while the ammonia is being formed by the action of the sulphuric acid.” He concludes,
from his research, that the Kjeldahl process is applicable to all amides and ammonium
bases, pyridin and quinoline bodies, the alkaloids, albuminoid substances, &c.
EsTIMATION OF CARBON IN ORGANIC SUBSTANCES BY THE KJELDAHL METHOD.
In the Archiv fiir Hygiene, Band xiv., 1892, p. 364, Dr Oxapa of Tokio described
an apparatus for this purpose, and gave a table showing his results. Fig. 1 is copied
from his paper. (A) is the flask in which the oxidation takes place, and is fitted with
a ground in glass tube which leads to an Erlenmyer’s flask containing 100 cc. distilled
water (B). This flask has two other tubes, one connecting it with the Wolff's bottle
(C) and another connecting it with a wash-bottle (G) containing baryta water. The
Wolff's bottle (C) is nearly one-half filled with a saturated solution of permanganate of
potassium and is connected with a Pettenkofer’s carbonic absorption tube (D), and this in
turn with a water-pump. The capacity of (D) is over 300 ¢.c.’s. In conducting an experi-
ment, 20 c.c. of strong sulphuric acid and a small quantity of metallic mercury are put
into the flask (A), and then the amount of substance to be used, contained in a tinfoil boat,
is added. 300 cc. of a strong baryta solution (87 grammes barium hydrate and 3°7
grammes barium chloride to 1 litre) is put into the absorption tube. A flame is applied
to the flask and the pump turned on to cause a slow current of air entering at the wash-
bottle (G) in the direction of the Pettenkofer absorption tube. When the reaction is
finished, 2.e., when the sulphuric acid is colourless, air is allowed to pass through the
apparatus some time longer; the apparatus is then opened, the flame put out, and the
contents of the absorption tube poured into a tightly stoppered bottle and set aside to
746 DR CHARLES HUNTER STEWART ON THE ESTIMATION OF
settle. In titrating this solution, 10 c.c. is used. This apparatus seems to the writer
ineflicient for getting accurate results.
First.—As to the method of closing the flask in which the combustion is carried
on. OKADA is aware of this, and points out that, considering the high pressure in the
inside of the flask, it is necessary to see that the ground glass tube fits tightly. But
“if this and the other connections are not tight the smell of sulphurous acid will make
it apparent.” Any apparatus the accuracy of which requires such a proof cannot be
considered sufficient.
Second.—Considering the large quantity of carbonic acid (in some of his experiments
250 e.c.) produced, and the consequently larger amount of sulphurous acid that must be
produced at the same time, his means of absorption of both gases are insufficient. In
the writer’s experience, two carbonic acid and two sulphurous acid tubes are necessary
in such an apparatus to ensure complete absorption of these gases, however strong the
respective solutions may be.
Third.—There is no sweeping out of the apparatus before the experiment and no
sweeping out of the combustion flask after the experiment. In the first case there
must be a gain, in the second a loss, of carbonic acid.
In 1892 the author communicated to the Royal Society of Edinburgh a paper
containing a description of an apparatus which he had devised for this purpose, as well
as the results he had obtained by its use. Fig. 2 shows the apparatus. (A) is a
long-necked bohemian glass flask of about 300 c.c. capacity, fitted with a rubber cork
having two holes bored through it. Through one hole passes a tube (the inlet tube)
to within 2 inches from the bottom of the flask. The end of the tube in the flask is
slightly bent down and slightly contracted. The part of the tube outside the flask
has a bulb blown on it which is closed at its outer end by a rubber tube and clip (B).
This tube is connected by rubber tubing and a T-tube with the series of bulbs and
tubes at (C). Through the other hole in the cork passes another tube (the outlet tube),
projecting about + inch into the flask, and connected at its outer end by means of a
T-tube with both the tubes and bulbs at (C) and the absorption flasks and tubes at (D).
(D,) is empty, (D,) and (D;) are half filled with a boiled and acidified saturated solution
of permanganate of potassium for the purpose of absorbing the sulphurous acid produced
in the reaction. (D,) is one-half filled with a solution of barium nitrate and silver
nitrate in order to catch any trace of sulphuric acid or hydrochloric acid which might
accidentally pass over. (D;) is empty and is connected by rubber tubing with two
tubes (E) containing baryta solution for absorbing the carbonic acid produced in the
reaction, and the second of these is connected by rubber tubing with a water-pump.
(C,) contains strong sulphuric acid, (C,) and (C;) have their left limbs filled with
soda lime and their right limbs with fused chloride of calcium. (C,) contains a
strong solution of caustic soda. The tubes (E) are a modification of Petten-
kofer’s tube. Fig. 3 (A) shows the ordinary Pettenkofer tube. Fig. 3 (B)
CARBON IN ORGANIC SUBSTANCES BY THE KJELDAHL METHOD. 747
shows the modification as used by the author. The ordinary tube requires to be
filled by means of a pipette, and the author found that, with the utmost care, there
was a slight risk of error, especially when working with strong solutions of baryta in the
laboratory, where the amount of carbonic acid is always greater than in outside air.
The possible error is not great, but if small quantities of organic substances are being
analysed, say 5 or 10 milligrams, the error is multiplied many times. In the subsequent
application of the method to water analysis even such a slight error would be serious.
The modification of the tube was devised for me by Mr Marrnanp Gizson, B.Sc., and in
every respect answers the purpose. It acts as its own pipette, containing 100 c.c. when
filled up to the mark near the bulb. The following is the method of filling. The
carefully washed and drained tube is rinsed out with the baryta solution to be used.
The end near the bulb is connected with the syphon tube from the store baryta solu-
tion bottle by the usual clip and rubber connection, and the other end is connected with
a water-pump. When the pump is turned on, and the clip released, sufficient baryta
solution is sucked into the tube, which is then disconnected from the pump and storage
bottle. Any excess is allowed to flow out till the level of the fluid is at the mark. The
connections between (D;) and (E,), between (E,) and (E,), and (E,) and the pump are made
with tight rubber tubing vaselined inside. The other connections are rubber wired. In
conducting an analysis the weighed quantity of the substance in a platinum boat is
gently slid into the flask, taking care to avoid sparking of the substance on the inside
wall. The pump is put in connection with (D;), and the rubber connected with the outlet
tube clipped at (a) and air aspirated through the flask and the rest of the system for
half-an-hour. This is to replace all the air in the apparatus by air free from carbonic
acid, &c. The rubber at (D;) is now clipped, the pump disconnected, and the tubes filled
with baryta solution connected up. The cork of the flask is now removed and 10 or 20
e.c. of pure strong sulphuric acid put into the flask, taking care to prevent any acid
touching the neck of the flask where the cork is to be placed. The cork is quickly
replaced, (b) is clipped and (q@) is opened, the pump now slightly turned on and the clip
at (D;) opened. When bells of air are freely passing through the tubes a low flame is
applied to the flask. The heating is continued till the sulphuric acid becomes of a pale
straw colour. The current of air during the heating does not pass into the flask, but is
sufficient to determine a slow current of the gaseous contents of the flask in the direction
of the absorption tubes at (D) and (EK). After the flame has been removed and cooling
begun, there is apt to be a very rapid suction of air into the flask, and hence, to avoid any
risk of the baryta solution being sucked back, the pump should be turned on a little
more for a few minutes. When the contents of the flask have cooled, 3 or 4 c.c.’s of a
boiled and cooled saturated and acidified solution of permanganate of potassium is added
by the bulb (B). It is added by means of a pipette with a fine limb, the clip at:(B) is
relieved and the limb of the pipette inserted so as to be tightly grasped by the rubber.
This prevents any ingress or egress of air during the operation. The pipette is with-
drawn and the clip replaced. A low flame is now applied and the acid heated for about
748 DR CHARLES HUNTER STEWART ON THE ESTIMATION OF
ten minutes. Should the acid quickly become decolorised, then probably too little
permanganate has been added, and the flask must again be cooled and more added until
the colour, after again gently heating, remains greenish or pinkish. (The author has
found a second addition of permanganate necessary only in such substances as narcotine
or naphthaline.) The flame is now removed and the flask cooled with the same pre-
cautions as previously. When cool, the tube is clipped at (a) and the clip at (b) opened
and the entire system swept out for half-an-hour. The operation is now entirely ended.
The tube at (D,) is clipped, the pump turned off a little though not altogether, (E,) is
disconnected from (D;) and the pump immediately turned off. The contents of the
baryta tubes are emptied into bottles with well-ground glass stoppers, which had
previously been rinsed out with some baryta solution and drained. The stoppers are sealed
with paraffin. Eight to twelve hours are necessary for the precipitate to entirely settle.
[Ina paper, ‘‘ On the Variations of the Amount of Carbonic Acid in the Ground-Air,”* the
author has detailed experiments which he made, proving that, during such work as the
above, the glass of the tubes or bottles has no effect in altering the titre of the baryta
solution.] The contents of the combustion flask are ready for dilution, neutralisation,
and distillation as in the ordinary Kjeldahl process for the estimation of nitrogen. In
the estimation of the carbon the acid which I have used for titration is the same as
recommended by PETTENKOFER for the estimation of carbonic acid in air. It is made by
dissolving 1°4107 grammes recrystallised and air-dried oxalic acid in 1 litre distilled
water. Hach c.c. of this is equivalent in power of combining with baryta or other base
to 0°25 ¢.c. carbonic acid at 0° C. and 760™: Each tube, as we have seen, contains
100 c.c. baryta solution. Instead of titrating the whole 100 c.c.’s with an acid each ce.
of which is equivalent to 1 ¢.c. of carbonic acid, 25 ¢.c. (one-quarter of the whole) is
titrated with an acid each c.c. of which is equivalent to one-quarter of a c.c. of carbonic
acid. In both cases the number of c¢.c.’s of oxalic acid solution used is the number of
c.c.’s of carbonic acid which 100 «ec. of the baryta solution is equivalent to. Three
separate titrations can be made from the contents of each tube without disturbing the
precipitated carbonate of barium, giving thus an opportunity of checking the work. The
oxalic acid solution should be prepared at least weekly. Where few determinations
require to be made, a solution of sulphuric acid is more convenient on account of its
stability. The indicator used in the experiments was phenol-phthaleine. The strength
of baryta solution was such that each 100 ¢.c. was equivalent in combining power to
between 45 and 50 ec.’s carbonic acid at 0° C. and 760™ As, in some of the
experiments with organic substances, very small quantities were used, every means known
to the author of making the method of titration accurate and consistent with itself was
used. This was especially necessary in applying the method to the analysis of potable
waters. At the risk of being tedious these may be shortly described.
First.—About five-sixths of the amount of oxalic acid solution which would likely be
necessary for the titration was run into the titrating flask and the indicator added. The
* Trans, Roy. Soc. Edin., vol. xxxvii.
CARBON IN ORGANIC SUBSTANCES BY THE KJELDAHL METHOD. 749
25 c.c. of baryta solution was now added, and being directly discharged into the acid and
mostly neutralised, the danger of change of titre by exposure to air of the flask was
reduced to a minimum. More oxalic acid was now added till the pink colour just
disappeared. The baryta solution which had adhered to the wall of the pipette mean-
while had run together, and there was always at least one drop could be got out of it
by closing the upper end with the finger and warming the bulb with the hand. This
restored the colour again, which would probably disappear with one-half drop of the acid.
Using a burette graduated to tenths of a c.c. one can easily work to one-twentieth c.c.
Second.—Reading the burette.
By the time the titration was finished the oxalic acid solution had time to drain
down, and thus the reading gave the exact number of c.c.’s used.
Example of the analysis of uric acid; quantity used, 7 milligrams.
Titre of baryta solution—25 c.c. require 45°4 cc. acid solution.
After the experiment.
No. 1 Tusz.
lst Titration, é : ‘ : : 25 c.c. require 41°8 ¢.c. acid solution.
2nd ‘ ‘ ‘ : ‘ : fe 5) | 18d cies 5, a
Mean = 41°825 c.c.
No. 2 Tune.
lst Titration, : : : A ‘ 25 ec. require 44°3 c.c, acid solution.
2nd 5 : é : F : Pi a cae) CHO +
Mean = 44°73 cc.
Subtracting from original baryta solution
45-4 — 41825 = 3°575
454 — 44:3 = Ih
Total carbonic acid, 4°675 c.c.
= 2°51 milligrams carbon.
2°51 milligrams of carbon in 7 milligrams uric acid = 35°86 per cent. of carbon.
The amount of carbon theoretically is 35°71 per cent.
= : calculated from combustion, 36°53 per cent.
Table I. contains the results obtained by this method from five different substances
compared with the results got by combustion. The combustions were made for me in
the Public Health Laboratory by Mr Marrianp Gigson, B.Sc.
Note.—If the air be allowed to sweep through the flask during the heating of the sulphuric acid, some
of this latter will almost certainly be found in the baryta solution. The solution of barium nitrate and
silver nitrate is to fix any trace that might come over by accident. Conducting the method as described, no
sulphuric acid ever gets to (D,).
=
or
Oo
DR CHARLES HUNTER STEWART ON THE ESTIMATION OF
Added June 1894.
APPLICATION OF THE KJELDAHL METHOD TO THE ANALYSIS OF POTABLE WATERS. .
The application of the Kjeldahl process (for the determination of nitrogen) to the
analysis of potable waters has been a good deal studied both in this country and
America. In 1888 Dr J. A. Buarr worked at it in the Public Health Laboratory of the
University of Edinburgh, and his results were submitted as a Thesis. ae
Messrs Drown and MarTIN* give an account of its application to a number of potable
waters in America, and also the comparison between the amount of albuminoid ammonia
got by the Wanklyn method and the organic nitrogen calculated as ammonia by the
Kjeldahl method. In ninety-one surface waters examined by them they found the
following as an average :— |
Albuminoid Ammonia, WANKLYN. Organic Ammonia, KJELDAHL.
0°0224 per 100,000 0:04958
Converting the Kjeldahl results into nitrogen, we have organic nitrogen, 0°0408
They consider the addition of permanganate of potassium unnecessary in the operation.
Regarding the influence of nitrates or nitrites, they say: “We have not found that
the presence of nitrates and nitrites in water interferes with the accurate determination
of the organic nitrogen. The error, which has been found by KyELDAHL and WARRINGTON
to be caused by nitrates in the determination of organic nitrogen, seems to disappear
under the conditions of great dilution which we have in natural waters.”
This statement is founded on the following experiments. From a large vessel of
water three different portions of 500 c.c. each were taken. . Sonera
No, 1e No. 2. No. 3.
With nothing added, With 0°7 mgrms., KNO,. With 0°6 mgrms., KNO,,.
Organic nitrogen, . 3 5 0°0354 0:0354 0:0365
This point will be referred to later.
* Chemical News, vol. 59, p. 272 (1889).
CARBON IN ORGANIC SUBSTANCES BY THE KJELDAHL METHOD. 751
EsTIMATION OF CARBON IN THE ANALYSIS OF PoTABLE WATER.
TreMANN and GARTNER * give a full account of the method of Wotrr, DEcEner,
and HErzFELD for “ estimating the carbon in the non-volatile organic substances contained
in drinking waters.”
Half a litre of the water is distilled until the residue in the retort is about 300 c.c.
In the distillate the volatile organic matter is estimated in terms of the amount of
permanganate of potassium used up in its oxidation. The residue in the retort is
evaporated down in a platinum dish to about 15 ¢.c. and then emptied into a flask of
about 300 c.c. capacity. The retort and platinum dish are rinsed out with about 10 c.c.
diluted sulphuric acid, and this is added to the contents of the flask and the whole
gently warmed to get rid of any carbonic acid from carbonates present in the water.
After cooling, 10 grammes of powdered bichromate of potassium are added, and the flask
(A) connected up with the apparatus as shown in Fig. 4. The flask is closed by a
rubber cork through which pass a thermometer, a funnel tube (b), and an exit tube
connected with a condenser (B), which is in turn connected with two U-tubes (C) and (E),
containing calcium chloride, and a third tube (D), containing ground metallic antimony.
F is a caustic potash bulb for absorbing the carbonic acid evolved in the operation.
The tube (d) is to prevent any chance of a reflux of carbonic acid or moisture, and is
continued by means of rubber tubing to a water-pump. To conduct the experiment 50
e.c, of diluted sulphuric acid (three parts acid and two parts water) are added to the flask
by means of the funnel tube (b), the stopcock of which is then closed. A low flame
is now applied to the flask, and after heating for about an hour it is boiled for about
ten minutes, and the pump turned on and the stopcock of the funnel tube opened.
Carbonic acid free air is sucked through the apparatus for twenty minutes in order to
sweep out the carbonic acid produced in the combustion. The metallic antimony in
tube (D) is for the purpose of absorbing any chlorine produced from chlorides in the
water. The potash bulb is disconnected and weighed ; the increase in weight represents
the carbonic acid produced in the operation. This method is in use on the Continent
for the analysis of potable waters. WinoGRaDsky,t in a research on Nitrification, used
it for determining the carbon in organic matter; but for determining nitrogen he used
the ordinary Kjeldahl method. In common with other observers, he has found the
method to give too low results.
* Die Chemische und Microscopische Untersuchung des Wassers, 1889, p. 247, &c.
+ Annales de VInstitut Pasteur, Tom. 4, 1890, p. 257, &c.
VOL. XXXVII. PART IV. (NO. 33). an
752 DR CHARLES HUNTER STEWART ON THE ESTIMATION OF
Tue ESTIMATION OF CARBON AND NITROGEN IN PoTAaBLE WATER.
(The Author’s Method.)
500 e.c. of the water are evaporated down over a flame in a bohemian glass flask
(similar to that used in the determination of carbon and nitrogen in organic substances)
to about 100 ce. This gets rid of the “Free Ammonia.” Should the water be very
impure a few drops of caustic alkali must be added previous to evaporation. Meanwhile,
the presence of nitrates has been tested for in another sample of the water, and, if present,
their amount quantitatively determined. If no nitrates be present, or their amount less
than 1 grain nitrate of potassium per gallon of the water, then 3 ¢.c. of diluted sulphuric
acid (or enough to make the water distinctly acid) is added to the residue in the flask
and the evaporation continued to about 15 ¢c¢. This can be done quite easily without
any risk of decomposing the organic matter. This treatment frees the water residue
from carbonic acid derived from carbonates. The flask is now connected up with the
apparatus which has already been described, and the process conducted exactly in the
same way as for the determination of carbon and nitrogen already described, except that
no permanganate of potassium requires to be added. The author found, from numerous
experiments on the same water, with and without addition of permanganate, that the
same results were got. In the examination of sewage the addition of permanganate
is advisable. Though the amount of carbonic acid evolved in water analysis is small,
two carbonic acid absorption tubes are necessary. In all the experiments some carbonic
acid has been found in the second tube. The rate at which the air is aspirated through
the apparatus is about 5 litres per hour.
ESTIMATION OF THE NITROGEN.
Into a distillation flask an amount of 10 per cent. caustic soda solution—rather more
than is necessary to completely neutralise the contents of the combustion flask—is put,
and rendered ammonia free by distillation and allowed to cool. To this is added the
diluted and cooled contents of the combustion flask and the whole distilled. 200 ce.
collected in a marked flask is taken over and the ammonia estimated by NuassiEr’s
reagent, the ordinary standard solution of chloride of ammonium, 1 ¢.c. contains 0°01
milligram of ammonia, being used. In ordinary cases, 50 c.c. of the distillate is taken
for this purpose, but if the water be very impure, 25 c.c. may have to be taken, and
in extreme cases even less. In these latter cases it is better to operate on 250 cc. of
the water rather than 500 c.c. The titration for carbonic acid has been already described.
There is always a trace of ammonia present in pure sulphuric acid, and this has to be
deducted from the total ammonia. As a rule, the pure sulphuric acid obtained in
Edinburgh contains in 10 ¢.c. about 0°03 milligram of ammonia. The exact amount
must of course be determined in each sample of the acid, and the bottle containing
CARBON IN ORGANIC SUBSTANCES BY THE KJELDAHL METHOD. 793
the acid must be kept away from any chance of contamination with ammonia or
organic matter.
Example :-—
500 c.c. of Moorfoot water after filtration through sand at the Water Works, Alnwick Hill.
Tube No. 1 contained 2°9 ¢.c. carbonic acid.
” ” 2 ” 0°45 ce. 36
Total, . . 3°35 ec. “5
=1°8 milligrams carbon.
200 c.c. distillate containing ammonia.
Of this, 50 c.c. contained 00495 milligrams ammonia.
0:0495 x 4=0'198 milligrams ammonia.
10 c.c. sulphuric acid contained 0:033 a 5
Total, . < 0°165 5 ”
=0'1358 milligrams organic nitrogen.
Il
0°36 parts per 100,000 organic carbon.
HI
0°02716 . a » hitrogen.
Should nitrates be present in the water in amount more than 1 grain of nitrate of
potassium per gallon, these must be got rid of prior to the combustion. After trying
several plans, e.g., addition of sulphurous acid, or bisulphite of potassium, to the water
during evaporation, the following was adopted as most reliable. From 5 to 10 ce. of
a strong solution of ferrous sulphate (according to the amount of nitrate present) is
added to the flask after the water has been evaporated down to 100 c.c.’s, and the
evaporation continued as usual. This solution of ferrous sulphate is prepared as follows.
Ferrous oxide is precipitated from a strong solution of ordinary ferrous sulphate
by means of caustic potash. ‘The precipitated oxide is washed by agitation with boiled
and cooled distilled water and decantation until the washings contain no sulphates. The
moist oxide is dissolved in the smallest quantity of pure sulphuric acid. This
treatment is necessary to free it of ammonia and organic matter. There is still, how-
ever, a trace of ammonia in the solution due to the sulphuric acid, and this must
be estimated and allowed for. The nitric acid is not decomposed by the ferrous
sulphate till the combustion has begun, and the nitric oxide formed, mixing with the
air in the apparatus, forms the brown fumes of trioxide and tetroxide of nitrogen.
In passing through the watery solution of permanganate of potassium they are
decomposed, according to the well-known reaction, into nitrous and nitric acid, which
remain in the fluid.
754 DR CHARLES HUNTER STEWART ON THE ESTIMATION OF
The following blank experiments were undertaken to test the tightness of the
connections in the apparatus. The clips were arranged for sweeping out the whole
apparatus, the combustion flask was empty, and only one carbonic acid absorption
tube inserted.
No. I. Experiment :—
c.c.’s Oxalie Acid
Solution.
Original titre of ) _ ieee
baryta solution f AOraegiaa
c.c, S Uxalic Aci
Solution.
After 14 hours’ aspirati 1st Titration, 41°5 c.c.
er 14 hours eae st Titration, HO \ mean, ALA75.
through apparatus, 2nd 5, Al4D. cc.
No. II. Experiment :—
c.c.’s Oxalie Acid
Solution.
Original titre of ) AG*15
= 46715 ae.
baryta solution SH Oe
c.c, S OUxalic Acl
Solution.
’ aspirati 1st Titration, 46°05 c.c.
After 3 hours’ aspiration | st Titration, 46°05 cc. \ mean, 46-075.
through apparatus, 2nd _ «3, 446" 1se-c:
No. III. Experiment :—(Two absorption tubes used).
c.c.’s Oxalic Acid
Solution.
Original titre of ) _ 41°9 cc
baryta solution i
After 44 hours’ aspiration a Wiatiou 4185s
through apparatus, ond Ailes iet
No. 1 tube, i ~
No. 2 tube, | 1st Titration, 41°9 c.c.
2nd 33 41°9 e.c.
These fairly fall within the error of experiment.
Working error of the method.
A large bottle was filled with Edinburgh main water and of it four samples of
500 ¢.c. each were analysed. The following are the results per 100,000.
Organic Carbon. Organic Nitrogen.
3 foe ee ; . : 0°3493 0:0242
ae Le: : : ; 0°352 0°0255
_ oe : : : 0°3412 0'0232
lee ta : : : 0333 0°02306
Mean, . : ; : 0:3439 0:02.40
Percentage difference from mean of cases above mean and below mean.
Carbon + 1°92 percent. — 2°03 per cent.
Nitrogen + 3°35 a — 3°66 A
— ere ry ere peste sree ce es ee | ns es |
CARBON IN ORGANIC SUBSTANCES BY THE KJELDAHL METHOD. 755
Four samples of Loch Katrine water treated in same way.
Organic Carbon. Organic Nitrogen.
No. 1, 0:02.40
eg i yew ctne OS TG 0:0234
ea) A en 0.3090 0-02272
age 0:3063 0:02372
Mean, 0:3090 0:02346
Percentage difference from mean of cases above and below mean.
Carbon
Nitrogen +
+ 0°83 percent. — 0°83 per cent.
1°67 i — 417 3
Thus the mean working error in carbon is less than 2 per cent., and the mean working
error in nitrogen is less than 3 per cent., when working with an amount of organic matter
yielding less than 2 milligrams of carbon and less than 0°2 milligram nitrogen.
Liffect of presence of nitrates on the estimation of nitrogen.
The following experiments were made (in each experiment the samples were taken
from the same bottle of water) :—
Experiment I. :—
Organic
Carbon.
Edinburgh Main Water, ; : 5 F : : 0°3143
+ ‘98 grain nitrate of potassium per gallon, 0°3116
Experiment I. :—
Edinburgh Main Water, : : ‘ : : 3 0°3116
9 %9 + °98 grain nitrate of potassium per gallon, 0°3143
bb} ” + 1:47 ” ” yy 0°3143
Experiment LIL, :—
Edinburgh Main Water, : : ; : : . : 0:2928
55 3 + °98 grain nitrate of potassium per gallon, 0'2910
” ” + °98 ” ” ” ae ae
” ” 5 1°47 ” ” ” ope sae
” ” +1:47 ” 5 oe 0°2928
Experiment IV.:—
Edinburgh Main Water, : : : : : ; 0°3412
$5 » +1°'98 grain nitrate of potassium per gallon, 0°3493
” ” +1'98 ” rh ” 0°3412
Organic
Nitrogen.
0:02354
0°02272
0:02450
0°02450
0:0232
0°0219
0:0212
0:0219
0:0182
0°01943
0:02223
0°0206
0:01795
The following shows the effect of the addition of ferrous sulphate as described :—
756 DR CHARLES HUNTER STEWART ON THE ESTIMATION OF
Experiment V.:—
Edinburgh Main Water, . 5 2 : : 5 : : 0°2418 0:0180
> + 2°96 grains nitrate of potassium per gallon, 0°2418 0:00
” ” +3°93 ” ” ” ees. 0:00
oe these a eis, 49:96 P 2 2 0:0180
c.c, solution a) 4.996 ‘ i ke 0-01878
rous sulphate,
In the foregoing experiments the mark (——) means carbon not determined.
From the above experiments, it is evident that, when the amount of nitrate in a water
exceeds 1 grain per gallon of nitrate of potassium, it begins to have an effect on the
nitrogen; and at less than 3 grains per gallon the nitrogen in such waters as were
examined entirely disappears. In many highly polluted waters, when analysed by
KseLpaut’s method without previous decomposition of the nitrates, there was no organic
nitrogen at all found. The treatment by ferrous sulphate always gave consistent results.
Though surface waters, like those analysed by Messrs Drown and Martin, contain,
as a rule, very little if any nitrate, a very large number of waters do. The author has
repeatedly this year examined waters with as much as 20 grains nitric acid (N,O;)
per gallon. These were waters in use for drinking purposes. If the report of the
Commission on the water supply of Britain (1876) be consulted, it will be seen how
many drinking waters have more than 1 grain per gallon.
Note.—Since the results on Table I. were obtained, the author has modified the apparatus slightly. The
bulb on the inlet tube with its rubber and clip arrangement has been replaced by one having two well-ground
stoppers, the one at the point of junction of the bulb with the tube and the other in the upper and outer
opening. This permits of the sulphuric acid being added without opening the flask as well as of adding the
permanganate solution. (See Fig. 5.)
TABLE I.
Calculated
Name of Substance. | Weight taken. ata Found. Difference. i Grogntage ay eg
ustion.
Milligrams. | Milligrams. | Milligrams. | Milligrams.
Urea, . : : 75 15°84 Llo79 05 21°12 21°05
Pie as : : 51 10°77 10°89 12 +: 21°37
en : 5 28 - 5°91 5°88 03 21:00
5 ee : ; 10°44 2°20 2°23 03 40 21°42
Uric Acid, . d 38 13°88 13°88 0°0 36°53 36°53
7 : : 10°6 3°87 3°89 0°02 . 36°69
+ ; ; 8°2 2°99 2°90 0:09 i 35°50
| - , ‘ 70 2°55 2°51 0°04 Er 35°86
| Creatine, ; : 50°84 19°02 18°46 0°56 37°43 36°29
| 5 : 5 20 7°56 T47 0°09 99 36°99
+5 : . 16:12 6:03 5°82 0°21 . 36°19
a3 : : Dis 3°58 3°54 0°04 3 36°95
Narcotine, . : 22°33 14°29 14:03 0°26 63°92 62°84
3 F F 13°62 871 8°63 0°08 % 63°3
F : 4°61 2°94 2°89 0:05 a 62°66
| Naphthaline, : 9°56 8°96 9°00 0:04 93°75 94°14
f : 4°42 4°14 4°14 0°0 + 93°75
CARBON IN ORGANIC SUBSTANCES BY THE KJELDAHL METHOD. CHSC
A sample of Narcotine, the analysis of which had been made in the Chemical] Labora-
tory of the University, was kindly given to the author by Professor Crum Brown. ‘The
following is the result of analysis by the author’s method, compared with the theoretical
yield and the amount got by combustion.
Theory. Combustion, New Method.
Carbon, : : : A 63°92 63°72 63°80
Nitrogen, . ‘ F é 3°39 3°47 3°33
TABLE II.—Table showing the Results got by the Method in Various Waters.
Parts per 100,000.
Name of Water. Date.
Free Albuminoid Organic Organic
Ammonia. Ammonia. Carbon. Nitrogen.
Filtered Moorfoot Water, . . | Sept. 27, 1893. 0:0002 00066 0°344 00517
” » ‘ 5 || Oce GO, 5 0-00 0:0145 0°378 0-048
” ” “ 2 bs Sa Pa 0°0005 0:0108 0°342 0:0465
Unfiltered _ : : So. ail” 5 0:0016 0:0230 0:404 00344
Filtered “6 : : ha ae 0-0004 0:0118 0°355 0:0256
” » 5 5) ove B53 ~ 0:00 00154 0°333 0:0245
5 e : : ree | 0:0002 00138 0°3654 00334
” a ; : Siemeililsioa 0:0010 0:0164 0°403 0:0301
9 ¢ : ot aay 0:0002 0:0140 0:424 0:0256
- as : < deck x45 ue 0-00 00118 0°446 0:0238
¥ 93 : : * Cray not dete\rmined. 0°438 0:0236
Crummock Lake, Cumberland, . | Jan. 16, 1894. 0:00 0-006 07188 0:0163
Bakewell Water Supply, : : art WO ae 0:0008 0:005 0°2043 0:0112
Talla Water, . ; = | Mlar, 24e" oe, not dete|rmined. 0°1827 0:0168
roid ,, : ‘ ‘ : ae hae 7 5 - 0°2632 0:0276
Loch Katrine, . ; 5 . | April 65. 5 0:0002 0:0048 0°3090 0:02346
es 20 ft. from surface, Aug. 27, ,, 0:00 0:0078 0°2524 0:0145
: 40 e 5 fo. - 0:00 0:0072 0°3062 00188
55 60 7 A Se Te x 0:0002 0:0053 0°2596 0:0188
35 80 5 ie ah is 0:00 00058 0°2686 0:0168
o 100 5 A samt . 0:00 0:0050 0°2149 0:0138
_ 120 Ma - a 0:00 0:0068 0°2337 00148
140 5 - ee . 0:0004 0:0066 02311 0:0145
St Mary’s Loch, a s as OK 0:00 0:0098 03814 0:0208
s 55 es oat - 0:0004 00124 0°3439 00172
5 i 3 - a ee - 0:00 0:0072 0°3036 0°0136
5 80 Fs re aps - 0:0008 0:0072 0°3224 00185
5) 100 % - ig es Ss 0:00 0:0056 0°2043 0:0083
- 120 ‘. #5 ai a 0:0006 0:0058 0°2875 00164
¥ 140 Ms 55 aoe: 5s 0:00 0:0080 0°3036 0:0169
Loch Lomond, . ; » ||) Dee = ie 0:00 0°0164 0°3654 0°0230
Surface Well, Clicks : : 5 : ; 0:0018 00146 071504 0:0310
” » Jorfarshire, . ‘ 5 é ; 0:0005 0:0206 0°5426 0:0544
- 5 59 ; : : : : 0:0120 0:0206 0591 0:0738
5 , Caithness, . : d : 3 0:0590 0:0200 0666 00742
%, » East Lothian, ; : : ; 0:00 0:019 03116 00412
» ” » : : L : : 0:0004 * 0:006 0°2122 0:0177
BS » Berwickshire, ; ‘ ; : 0:90 0:0038 0°1907 0:0170
» » » : 3 : : : 0-001 0:0402 05266 0:0660
» » Morayshire, . ; : : ; 0:00 0:0078 0:2860 0:0250
55 » Lincolnshire, . : ; ‘ 5 0:0048 0:030 0°634 0:0942
: EP Roy. Soc. Edin. Vol XXXVII.
DR. HUNTER STEWART ON THE ESTIMATION OF CARBON IN ORGANIC SUBSTANCES.
Fig. 1.
Fig, 3.
Fig. 5.
Roy. Soc. Edin.
DR. HUNTER STEWART ON THE ESTIMATION OF CARBON IN ORGANIC SUBSTANCES,
——
== S| eeed
‘S) ro) Ri =:
Vol. XXXVI.
( ies)
XXXIV.—The Chemical and Bacteriological Examination of Soil, with special refer-
ence to the Soul of Graveyards. By James BucHanan Youne, M.B., D.Sc.
(From the Public Health Laboratory, University of Edinburgh.)
(Read 28th May 1894.)
The research which forms the subject of this paper was undertaken in the hope that
it might throw some additional light on the numerical relation existing between the
bacteria present at various depths in ordinary soils, and in soils which had been used for
purposes of interment. It was thought well to combine the chemical with the bacterio-
logical examination for the purpose of determining to what extent the amount of organic
matter present in the two classes of soil differed, and in what respect the organic matter
of the one was different from that of the other, as well as to ascertain, if possible, to
what extent the process of self-purification goes on in soil which has been used for
burial.
The examination of soil, both chemically and bacteriologically, presents difficulties
which have been so thoroughly appreciated that but little work has been done on the
subject in this country. The great difficulty of getting reliable samples, and the difficul-
ties associated with the investigation of the samples when obtained, have doubtless been
the deterrent factors.
Many and various methods have been suggested and employed for the bacteriological
examination of soil, with more or less success. The method which I have employed, and
which I had formerly found to give very satisfactory and consistent results, is that
devised by Professor Hurpps, formerly of Wiesbaden, now of Prague. For the estima-
tion of the organic matter in the samples I employed Dr Hunter Srewarr’s modifi-
cation of the Kjeldahl process, and I have found it to work most satisfactorily.
Collection of Samples.—The samples of soil for bacteriological examination were in
all cases taken from graves which were being opened for burial, or from freshly opened
eround. All samples were taken from a clean and freshly-cut surface of soil by means of
a sterilised knife, digging well in, so as to avoid surface contamination. Having cut out
a sufficiently large sample, it was at once transferred to a sterile Foster's box, which was
again placed in a tin case previously sterilised by washing with a solution of perchloride
of mercury (1 in 1000). In this tin case the glass capsule (Foster’s box) rested on a
sheet of coarse filter-paper, soaked in corrosive sublimate solution, covering the entire
bottom of the case. In such cases the samples were at once removed to the laboratory
and their examination proceeded with. The bacteriological examination was in all cases
VOL. XXXVII. PART IV. (NO. 34). Bz
760 DR JAMES BUCHANAN YOUNG ON THE
proceeded with immediately on the arrival of the samples at the laboratory. In every
case cultivations were started within four hours from the time of taking the sample, and
in the majority of cases within two hours. This was important in order to minimise any
error arising from the rapid multiplication which takes place in the bacteria, as pointed
out by FRAENKEL.
Details of Bacteriological Examination.—For the cultivation of aerobic organisms
I found that plate cultivations in Foster’s boxes were most suitable, for the reason that
many of the bacteria caused such rapid liquefaction of the nutrient medium that difficulty
was experienced in counting them in roll-culture, owing to the running together of
neighbouring liquefying colonies. Subcultures were also more easily made from the
surface of the nutrient jelly in the Foster’s box than from the surface of a roll-cultivation.
For anaerobic forms roll-cultivation had, of course, to be resorted to.
500 cubic centimetres of distilled water is put into a plugged and sterilised flask of
about one litre capacity, and sterilised in the autoclave by exposure to streaming steam
for ninety minutes, or by exposure to steam at fifteen pounds pressure for one hour.
The water having thoroughly cooled, have ready a plugged and sterilised test-tube.
Flame the lip and plug of the test-tube carefully, and with a sterilised metal spatula or
knife cut from the centre of the sample of soil a quantity (varying from about 5 gramme
at a depth of one foot from the surface to 5 grammes at a depth of eight or nine feet), and
add it with all precautions to the sterilised test-tube, and replug.
The plugged test-tube containing the earth is now carefully weighed, and its
weight noted. The contents of this tube are now added, with all the usual precautions
to avoid contamination, to the flask containing the 500 cubic centimetres of sterile
distilled water. Now weigh the plugged test-tube. The difference between the first
and second weights is the weight of earth added to the water in the flask. The earth
so added to the water is thoroughly mixed with the water by shaking, so as to wash all
the bacteria out of the portion of soil added to the flask. When the earth is reduced
to the finest possible state of division, and is thoroughly mixed with the water, the
suspension is ready for inoculating the fluidified culture medium.
With a sterilised pipette, each drop from which is equivalent to 7th part of a cubic
centimetre, a quantity of the suspension is sucked up, and the required number of drops
added to a test-tube containing about eight cubic centimetres of fluidified nutrient jelly,
all precautions being taken to avoid contamination. Having added the fixed number of
drops, the test-tube is replugged, and the suspension remaining in the pipette is returned
to the stock flask. This process is repeated until the desired number of inoculations has
been made. The stock flask containing the suspension is thoroughly shaken up every
time before introducing the pipette, in order to obtain a thorough mixture, and so ensure
that a fair sample of the whole is taken.
The tubes containing the fluidified jelly, so inoculated, are now cautiously shaken
up to ensure thorough mixture, and the inoculated medium from each carefully poured
into a sterile Foster’s box and allowed to solidify. When this jelly has set, the capsules
—— ee
CHEMICAL AND BACTERIOLOGICAL EXAMINATION OF SOIL. 761
are placed in tin incubating cases, in which they rest on filter-paper, kept moist with
corrosive sublimate solution.
These plate cultivations were allowed to incubate as a rule for four days at 16°
Centigrade, after which the colonies were counted, examined, and, where necessary,
subcultures made from them. On each sample of soil three plates were done. One
plate was inoculated with 2 drops of the suspension, another with 4 drops, while the
third had 8 drops added to it. In dealing with samples from depths greater than
5 feet from the surface, I usually inoculated the plates with 2, 4, and 16 drops
respectively. In counting, the mean of the plates was always taken, although in most
cases the numbers present in the various plates consisted well with oné another. On
the later samples a worts-gelatine cultivation was made for the purpose of estimating
the number of moulds present. Such cultivations were inoculated with one cubic
centimetre of the suspension.
DETAILS OF CHEMICAL EXAMINATION.
Organic matter.—The method used for the estimation of the organic matter present
in the samples was Dr Hunter Stewart's modification of the Kjeldahl process, com-
municated by Dr Stewart to the Royal Society of Edinburgh in December 1892. Dr
Stewart has so modified the process that organic carbon and organic nitrogen can be
estimated at the same time, and with great facility.
In applying the method to soil, it was thought well to first add about 15 cubic
centimetres of dilute sulphuric acid to the earth in the flask, aspirate for half an hour
before putting the baryta tubes into the circuit, gently heating during that time, allowing
the flask to cool, and sweeping out for twenty minutes thereafter. The object of this
was to get rid of any carbonic acid which might be present in the form of carbonates.
The quantity of earth used was, as a rule, 5 grammes for each estimation, although
in some of the purer samples 10 grammes was the working quantity. Hach sample got
exactly the same treatment, and in practice as good results were got when only 2°5
grammes were used as when 5 or even 10 grammes were employed.
In order to prevent bumping and loss of flasks and time, a sandbath, heated by a
large Fletcher’s burner, had to be used as the source of heat in distilling.
Free Ammonia.—The ammonia, whether free or in the form of its salts, was esti-
mated in the following way. Five grammes of the soil, previously rubbed down in a
mortar, were put into a large bolt-headed distilling flask, rendered slightly alkaline with
““ammonia” free caustic soda-solution, and distilled. Each 50 ¢.c. of the distillate was
Nesslerised as it came over. The amount of ammonia thus calculated was converted
into nitrogen and deducted from the result got by the Kjeldahl method.
Moisture.—A quantity of the earth, generally about 10 grammes, was rubbed up in
a mortar and dried in the hot-air chamber until a constant weight was attained, and the
percentage of moisture calculated.
762 DR JAMES BUCHANAN YOUNG ON THE
In all, twenty-nine different samples of soil were examined. Of these, six were
examined by chemical methods only, five by bacteriological methods only, while the
remaining eighteen samples were examined both chemically and bacteriologically. The
results of these examinations are appended in tabular form. In these tables
The mark — means “ not examined.”
The mark 0 means “ none found.”
Comparing the results obtained, we see that the number of micro-organisms present
in soil which has been used for burial exceeds that present in undisturbed soil at similar
levels, and that this excess, though apparent at all depths, is most marked in the lower
reaches of the soil.
For example :—In sample IL, virgin soil, at a depth of 4 feet 6 inches from the
surface, the number of bacteria present was 53,436 per gramme of soil, whereas at the
same depth in similar soil which had been used for burial eight years previously (sample
19), the number of organisms present was 363,411 per gramme. A more striking
example is that of a sample at the same depth, below which there had been a burial
35 years previously at a depth of 6 feet 6 inches (sample 12), where the bacteria
numbered 722,751 per gramme. ‘‘The most important fact developed by FRAENKEL’S
researches,” says STERNBERG in his Manual of Bacteriology, p. 659, “is that in virgin soil
there is a dividing line at a depth of from three-quarters to one and a half metres, below
which very few bacteria are found, and that consequently the ground water-region is
free from micro-organisms, or nearly so, notwithstanding the immense numbers present
in the superficial layers.”
This great diminution in the number of organisms in the lower reaches of the soil is
fairly well seen on comparing the number of bacteria present in samples 1, 2, 3, and 4,
being virgin soil from Grange Cemetery. The manner in which the dividing line
disappears in the case of soils which have been used for purposes of burial is readily seen
by glancing over the tabulated results. Although, as formerly, the number of organisms
in the lower strata is small when compared with the numbers present near the surface,
the difference is by no means so striking. In considering these figures, however, it must
not be forgotten that in samples from the same level in similar soils the number of
bacteria may vary, even in soils which have been undisturbed.
That the amount of organic matter present in the soil is an important factor in deter-
mining the number of bacteria found, one can hardly doubt. But so many conditions
must be taken into account, such as the depth from the surface, the amount of moisture,
as well as the nature and temperature of the soil, and probably many other conditions
which may affect these minute organisms in ways as yet quite unknown to the bacteriolo-
gist, that no definite conclusions can be drawn.
‘‘ MIGUEL, in 1879, estimated the number of bacteria in one gramme of earth collected
in the park of Montsouri, Paris, at a depth of twenty centimetres, at 700,000; and in a
cultivated field, which had been manured, at 900,000” [ Manual of Bacteriology, STERN-
BERG, p. 568].
CHEMICAL AND BACTERIOLOGICAL EXAMINATION OF SOIL. 763
From this it would appear that the addition of organic matter has a well-marked
influence in increasing the number of bacteria in soil, but that there is any definite
relation between the amount of organic matter and the number of organisms present is
not apparent in my results.
For example :—Comparing the number of organisms present in sample 11 with that
found in sample 20, we find that they vary very widely although the organic nitrogen
and carbon present vary but slightly, the two samples being taken at the same depth,
though in different ground.
Rem™eErs, in his research on the soil of graveyards [Zeitschrift fiir Hygiene, Band
vil., 1889] found that the number of micro-organisms was not greatest immediately
under the coffin, as one would naturally suppose, but at some little distance above,
although the number in the vicinity of the coffin was comparatively great.
In one case he found the numbers to be as follows :—
In the superficial layers, . : ; ; : : ] : 320,100
At 1:2 metre, near the coffin, . ’ , : . : : 844,500 > per c.c
At 16 metre, just under the coffin, . ; : : ; : 142,300
In another case he found them to number :—
At 1 metre, near the coffin, : : ; ; : ; 460,100 be oat
At 16 metre, just under the coffin, : ‘ : : J a: 170,300 POUSS
A further fact developed by Retmers is that the number of bacteria diminishes
greatly in the soil beneath the layer containing the coffin.
Example I.:—
At 1 metre, near the coffin, ; : : 2 . . : 460,000
At 16 metre, just under ine coffin, . ; F : F ; 170,000 > per c.c
At 2 metres, ; P ‘ : f ‘ 2 : 56,000
Example II.:—
No coffin found, but at a depth of 15 metre many bones.
At 1 metre, : ; ; f : ; : ‘ ; ; 985,000
At 1:8 metre, . ; : 5 ; : ; : : ; 244,600 - per c.c
At 2 metres, : ; : : : : : , ; . 15,600
In this country exhumations are by no means common, and it is with great difficulty
that one can obtain samples of soil from the immediate vicinity of coffins. On only two
occasions was I able to obtain such samples, the results of which I state below. These
bear out very well, I consider, the statements of RErMErs.
No. [. :—
a, Grange Cemetery. Sample taken from immediately under a coffin buried three
and a half years previously. Sample taken 6 feet 6 inches from surface.
@. Sample taken at a depth of 4 feet 6 inches from surface in same grave as last.
764 DR JAMES BUCHANAN YOUNG ON THE
The number of organisms was as follows :—
8. At 4 feet 6 inches, near the coffin, . s : : : : 722,751 ne
a. At 6 feet 6 inches, just under the coffin, f ‘ : ; 539,015 lp ae
The organic matter in both these samples was fairly large in amount, and chiefly of
animal origin, as indicated by the large proportion of nitrogen to carbon, and the amount
of organic matter was greater in the 4 feet.6 inches sample than in that at the lower
level, immediately under the coffin. The proportion of nitrogen to carbon, however, was
higher in the sample from immediately under the coffin than in the more superficial
one.
Nowlin
a. Echo Bank Cemetery. A scraping was taken from the side of a coffin just laid
bare in opening an adjoining lair. Sample was taken at a depth of 4 feet 6 inches from
the surface. |
@. Sample taken at same time as above, at a depth of 6 feet 6 inches from the surface,
z.e. about 1 foot 6 inches below the coffin.
a. At a depth of 4 feet 6 inches, at the coffin, . , 508,933 i é
8. At a depth of 6 feet 6 inches, 2.e. at 1 foot 6 inches below coffin, 62,210 5 PS! Bo
The amount of organic carbon and nitrogen was greater in the scraping from the
coffin than in the sample taken at 6 feet 6 inches down, and the percentage of nitrogen
was also considerably higher than in the sample from the lower level.
I was desirous of obtaining similar samples, as well as samples at a lower level, but
failed to obtain them.
Note.—In all four samples liquefying organisms, especially Proteus vulgaris and
Bacillus gasoformans, were very common.
The organisms found in soil are, as one would naturally suppose, to a great extent
common to both water and soil. Bacillary forms are much more common than coccal
forms, very few micrococci, indeed, being found in the soil. It is somewhat difficult to
understand how this very marked preponderance of bacilli over micrococci is brought
about. We know that in air micrococci are abundant, being very much more common
there than bacilli, a fact which is generally attributed to the vitality of the bacilli being
destroyed or diminished by desiccation and exposure to sunlight. May we not then
assume that the bacilli, having their habitat in soil, are under the best conditions possible
for the preservation of their. vitality, living in a medium which is continually more or
less moist, and containing a greater or less amount of organic matter, and where they are
free from these variations of temperature and exposure to sunlight which are supposed
to render the atmosphere less suitable for their survival ?
In all, 21 different organisms were recognised. As regards the relative frequency of
occurrence of the various bacteria, I have found Bacillus mycoides to be comparatively
common to all depths down to between 5 and 6 feet. Below that level it was much
less frequently found in ground which had been undisturbed for any considerable length
of time, although in polluted soils this was by no means so marked. Cladothria
CHEMICAL AND BACTERIOLOGICAL EXAMINATION OF SOIL. 765
dichotoma was very constantly present, being seldom absent from any plate which could
be preserved sufficiently long to allow it to produce the characteristic brown coloration in
the nutrient medium surrounding it. In the cultivations from undisturbed ground in
Grange Cemetery, samples 1, 2, 3, and 4, Cladothrix dichotoma was present in very
large numbers, especially in the 4 feet 6 inches sample.
The facultative anaerobic bacteria Proteus vulgaris and Bacillus gasoformans were
very common in polluted soils at all depths, although Protean forms were almost
entirely absent from the four samples of virgin soil which I examined.
In sample 11, being a sample taken from the immediate vicinity of a coffin, and in
sample 20, which was of a similar nature, both Proteus vulgaris and Bacillus gasoformans
were exceptionally numerous, both on the aerobic plates and in the anaerobic tubes.
Whether or not this was a mere coincidence I have been unable to determine, as I have
never since been able to obtain samples of a similar nature. It would seem, however,
that in such positions these organisms are specially abundant, finding a fit nidus for
their multiplication, and probably take an active part in producing the changes which
bring about the resolution of the cadaver into simpler elements. In any case, one cannot
but be struck by the constant occurrence in polluted soils of Proteus, whereas in virgin
soils I found it comparatively rarely.
Bacillus candicans was met with in most samples, being very numerous in the more
superficial samples, though by no means confined to these.
Bacillus subtilis, contrary to expectation, was only occasionally met with, while
Bacillus megateritum was recognised on only two occasions. On one of these occasions
it was found growing on the surface of worts-gelatine, thus showing its vitality under
adverse conditions, namely, growing on an acid medium.
The chromogenic bacteria were by no means absent, Bacillus violaceus having been
present on three separate occasions, and at three different depths, viz., 3 feet, 3 feet 6
inches, and 8 feet.
Bacillus fluorescens liquefacvens was found once, but a non-liquefying fluorescent
bacillus was rather frequently present in the more superficial samples.
Bacillus arborescens of FRANKLAND was recognised on five occasions, while Bacdllus
janthinus, Bacillus helvolus, Bacillus aurantiacus, and Bacillus prodigiosus were each
found once.
Micrococci were few in number, six species being recognised. The most frequently
found was Micrococcus candicans, while Micrococcus flavus desidens was occasionally
met with. The others were not found at all often.
No pathogenic organisms were discovered, but of course the temperature used for
incubation was not that most suitable for their development if present.
Purely anaerobic forms were never recognised, but the facultative anaerobic organisms
Proteus vulgaris and Bacillus gasoformans were frequently met with under the conditions
before mentioned. Bacillus violaceus and Bacillus prodigiosus, belonging to the same
class, were also found.
766 DR JAMES BUCHANAN YOUNG ON THE
In seventeen of the samples, moulds were specially investigated, worts-gelatine being
used as the culture medium. I never found moulds present in any sample taken at a depth
exceeding 5 feet from the surface. Those found were Mucor mucedo and Penicillium
glaucum, the former exceeding the latter in number in most samples. In several
instances I also observed a white mould resembling a mucor. I was never, however,
able to get it in a stage of sporulation.
Turning now to the results of the purely chemical examination of the various samples,
we find that the surface layers of both ordinary and graveyard soils always contain a
considerable amount of organic matter, and that the amount of organic nitrogen and
carbon in ordinary soil near the surface may be as great, if not greater, than im similar
soil in graveyards, e.g. compare samples 10, 14, and 15.
When, however, we come to compare the amount of organic matter present in the
two classes of soil in the deeper strata, we find that the amount of organic nitrogen and
carbon in graveyard soil greatly exceeds that present in undisturbed soil, while the
proportion of nitrogen to carbon in the polluted soil is higher than in undisturbed soil at
a similar level.
The first nine samples of soil given in the table may be taken as fair samples of
ordinary ground which has never been used for agricultural purposes, and therefore may
be regarded as virgin soil, while sample 10 may be regarded as a sample of ordinary sur-
face soil. Samples 1, 2, 3, and 4 are from a portion of Grange Cemetery which had never
been used for burial, was the original soil of the cemetery, and was being trenched to
render it more suitable for burial. For the first two feet the ground consisted of a mix-
ture of clay and sand, with clay predominating, while below that level it was almost pure
sand, with stones here and there. In these samples, it will be noted, the organic matter
is small in amount, while the mean relation of nitrogen to carbon is as 1 to 10°25.
Samples 5 to 10 (inclusive) are from undisturbed ground in the Arboretum, attached to
the Royal Botanic Gardens, and were obtained by means of a boring instrument devised
by Dr Hunter Stewart, The ground has, on an average, about 2 feet 6 inches of soil on
the surface, below which it is almost pure sand. The amount of organic matter, it will
be noted, varies, the mean of the ratio of nitrogen to carbon being 1 to 8°9.
The remaining fourteen samples, of which a chemical examination was made, are all
from burial-grounds. The amount of organic matter present varies widely, as does also
the relation of nitrogen to carbon.
For convenience of comparison, we may divide the twenty-four samples into two classes,
namely “ pure soils” and ‘ polluted soils,” the term ‘pure soils” being applied to those
which have not been used for interment, and which have not been disturbed in any way,
viz., samples 1 to 10 inclusive, while the term “polluted soils” is applied to soils used
for burial, whether at a remote or recent date, as well as to lairs, which, although not
previously used for interment, must share to a great extent, by drainage through their
substance, the pollution arising from the decomposition of bodies buried in adjacent
ground,
PPS wn
CHEMICAL AND BACTERIOLOGICAL EXAMINATION OF SOIL. 767
If we thus classify the samples, and again subdivide each of the classes into ‘“‘ samples
from a depth of 4 feet and less depths,” and “samples from a depth 4 feet 6 inches
and greater depths,” and take the mean of the ratios of nitrogen to carbon in each sub-
class, we find a striking fact apparent, viz., that although the organic nitrogen and
carbon in samples of polluted soil above the 4 feet level may be fairly large in
amount, yet the ratio of nitrogen to carbon is not markedly increased when compared
with the ratio found to exist in pure soils at similar levels.
In the case of samples taken below the 4 feet level, however, things are very
different. There the organic nitrogen and carbon in polluted soils is large in amount as
compared with pure soils, and the ratio of nitrogen to carbon is very decidely increased.
The difference in the ratios is best seen in the subjoined table.
Depths.
4 feet and less depths,
4 feet 6 inches and greater
depths,
Pure Soils.
Polluted Soils.
Relation of Nitrogen to Carbon.
Relation of Nitrogen to Carbon.
1 to 8:9
1 to 10°25
1 to 8:56
1 to 7°87
From such a comparison one is inclined to believe that burial has but little influence
on the organic matter present in the upper reaches of the soil, whereas the increase in the
amount of organic matter and the high proportion of nitrogen to carbon in the deeper
layers indicates that a considerable amount of organic matter is added to these layers by
the decomposition of the bodies buried in the soil. It would also appear from the table
that the amount of ammonia present, either free or in the form of its salts, is at least a
rough indication of the purity or otherwise of the soil, though giving no indication of
the nature of the organic matter present. A large percentage of organic nitrogen and
carbon is always associated with a high percentage of ammonia.
My results do not afford any indication as to what extent and with what rapidity the
process of “ self-purification”” goes on. For this it would be necessary to get numerous
samples from the immediate vicinity of coffins buried for varying lengths of time, as well
as samples at various distances above and below the coffins. A complete investigation of
this kind would, no doubt, prove most interesting, but would necessarily spread itself
over a considerable period of time, as such samples are only to be obtained on rare
occasions.
This research, although it occupied the writer’s time for fully eight months, does not
profess to be by any means an exhaustive examination of the soil of graveyards, being at
the best fragmentary, and merely touches on the outskirts of a subject on which much
interesting and instructive work remains to be done.
VOL. XXXVII. PART IV. (NO. 34). 6A
768 DR JAMES BUCHANAN YOUNG ON THE
The conclusions which I would draw from my results are these, briefly :—
First.—That the soil of graveyards contains, as a rule, more bacteria than virgin soil,
the difference being most marked in the deeper layers, although the number of bacteria
is not so great as one would expect.
Second.—That, as Retmers has pointed out, the bacteria are not most numerous
immediately surrounding the coffin, but at some distance above.
Third.—That at a short distance under the coffin there is a marked diminution in
the number of bacteria present in the soil.
Fourth.—That liquefying bacteria, especially Proteus vulgaris, are very abundant in
soil from the immediate vicinity of coffins.
Fifth.—That burial has little if any effect in increasing the organic matter in the
upper reaches of the soil, whereas it has a very marked effect on the layers containing the
coffins, z.e. at depths greater than 4 feet or thereby from the surface.
Siath.—That the organic nitrogen and carbon in graveyard soil are by no means so
great in amount as is commonly supposed, indicating, I consider, that if burial is pro-
perly conducted in suitable soil, there need be no risk to the health of communities
List oF Mtcro-ORGANISMS RECOGNISED.
Micrococer.
M. aurantiacus. M. citreus.
M. candicans. M. flavus desidens.
M. candidus, M. luteus.
Bacilla.
B. arborescens. B. janthinus.
B. aurantiacus. B. megaterium.
B. candicans. B, mycoides.
B. fluorescens liquefaciens. B. prodigiosus.
B, fluorescens non liquefaciens. B. proteus vulgaris.
B. gasoformans. B. subtilis.
B. helvolus.
Cladothricie.
Cladothrix dichotoma.
Moulds.
Mucor mucedo. | Penicillium glaucum.
CHEMICAL AND BACTERIOLOGICAL EXAMINATION OF SOIL. 769
Addendum :—
Dr Stewart's Borne INSTRUMENT.
The boring instrument devised by Dr Stewart, and used by me in obtaining the
samples of soil from the Arboretum, is an exceedingly ingenious instrument, and by its
means reliable samples can readily be obtained. It is made throughout of steel-tubing.
The cutting section, specially hardened, and provided at its point with a strong taper
screw, has in it a long cutting-slot, one edge of which is sharp, the other being rounded
off. This slot can be opened or closed by means of a handle A attached to a rod passing
down the interior of the bore to a hollow “ plunger” (O in section). When A is pulled
up, O is elevated and leaves the cutting-slot open. Similarly, when A is pushed down, H
(the cutting-slot) is closed. A transverse section of the cutter is shown in F. His a
projection attached to the plunger, which, when the plunger is raised, clears the cutting-
slot of any earth got during the sinking of the borer. In using the instrument, having
got it down to the required depth, the cutting-slot is opened by pulling up the handle
A, boring is resumed, and when it is judged that a sufficiently large sample of soil is
contained in the cavity of the cutter, the cutting-slot is closed by pushing down the
handle A, and firmly pinching it by means of the thumb-screw B. The borer is now
pulled up, and the sample of soil emptied into a suitable vessel.
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APPENDIX.
TRANSACTIONS
ROYAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH.
VOL. XXXVII. PART IV. 6B
CONTENTS.
THE COUNCIL OF THE SOCIETY,
ALPHABETICAL LIST OF THE ORDINARY FELLOWS,
LIST OF HONORARY FELLOWS,
LIST OF ORDINARY FELLOWS ELECTED DURING SESSION 1891-92,
LIST OF HONORARY FELLOWS ELECTED DURING SESSION 1891-92,
FELLOWS DECEASED OR RESIGNED, 1891-92,
LIST OF ORDINARY FELLOWS ELECTED DURING SESSION 1892-93,
FELLOWS DECEASED OR RESIGNED, 1892-93,
LIST OF ORDINARY FELLOWS ELECTED DURING SESSION 1893-94,
FELLOWS DECEASED OR RESIGNED, 1893-94,
LAWS, OF THE SOCIETY,
THE KEITH, BRISBANE, NEILL, AND GUNNING VICTORIA JUBILEE PRIZES,
AWARDS OF THE KEITH, MAKDOUGALL-BRISBANE, AND NEILL PRIZES,
FROM 1827 TO 1893, AND OF THE GUNNING VICTORIA JUBILEE PRIZE
FROM 1884 TO 1893,
PROCEEDINGS OF THE STATUTORY GENERAL MEETINGS,
LIST OF PUBLIC INSTITUTIONS AND INDIVIDUALS ENTITLED TO RECEIVE
COPIES OF THE TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL
SOCIETY,
INDEX,
778
719
794
796
TOT
798
799
800
801
802
803
810
813
817
825
833
ROYAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH.
LIST OF MEMBERS.
COUNCIL,
ALPHABETICAL LIST OF ORDINARY FELLOWS,
AND LIST OF HONORARY FELLOWS,
At November 1894.
THE COUNGEE
OF
THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH,
NOVEMBER 1894.
PRESIDENT.
Str DOUGLAS MACLAGAN, M.D., F.R.C.P.E., LL.D., Professor of Medical
Jurisprudence in the University of Edinburgh.
HONORARY VICE-PRESIDENTS, HAVING FILLED THE OFFICE OF PRESIDENT.
His Grace THE DUKE or ARGYLL, K.G., K.T., D.C.L. Oxon., LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.S.
Tar Ricut Hon. Lorp MONCREIFF, of Tullibole, LL.D.
Tue Ricut Hon. Lorp KELVIN, LL.D., D.C.L., P.R.S., Grand Officer of the Legion of
Honour of France, Member of the Prussian Order Pour le Mérite, Foreign Associate
of the Institute of France, Regius Professor of Natural Philosophy in the University
of Glasgow.
VICE-P RESIDENTS.
Sir WILLIAM TURNER, M.B., F.R.C.8.E., LL.D., D.CL, D.Sc. Dub, F.BS.,
Professor of Anatomy in the University of Edinburgh.
RALPH COPELAND, Ph.D., Astronomer-Royal for Scotland, and Professor of Practical
Astronomy in the University of Edinburgh.
JAMES GEIKIE, LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.S., Professor of Geology in the University of
Edinburgh.
Tue Hon. Lorp M‘LAREN, LL.D. Edin. and Glas., F.R.A.S., one of the Senators of the
College of Justice.
Tue Rey. Proressor FLINT, D.D., Corresponding Member of the Institute of France.
JOHN G, M‘KENDRICK, M.D., F.R.C.P.E., LL.D., F.R.S., Professor of the Institutes
of Medicine in the University of Glasgow.
GENERAL SECRETARY.
P. GUTHRIE TAIT, M.A., D.Sc., Professor of Natural Philosophy in the University of
Edinburgh.
SECRETARIES TO ORDINARY MEETINGS.
ALEXANDER CRUM BROWN, M.D., D.Sc., F.R.C.P.E., LL.D., F.R.S., Professor of
Chemistry in the University of Edinburgh.
JOHN MURRAY, LL.D., Ph.D., Director of the Challenger Expedition Publications.
TREASURER.
PHILIP R. D. MACLAGAN, F.F.A.
CURATOR OF LIBRARY AND MUSEUM,
ALEXAN DER BUCHAN, M.A., LL.D., Secretary to the Scottish Meteorological Society.
COUNCILLORS.
D’ARCY W. THOMPSON, B.A., F.L.S., Pro- , FREDERICK O. BOWER, M.A., F.R.S., Regius
fessor of Natural History in University
College, Dundee.
1.*SHIELD NICHOLSON, M.A., D.Sc., Pro-
fessor of Political Economy in the University
of Edinburgh.
GEORGE CHRYSTAL, M.A., LL.D., Professor
of Mathematics in the University of Edin-
burgh.
J. BATTY TUKE, M.D., F.R.C.P.E.
ALEXANDER BRUCE, M.A., M.D., F.R.C.P.E.
Professor of Botany in University of Glasgow.
A. BEATSON BELL, Advocate, Chairman of
the Prison Commission, Scotland.
Sm ARTHUR MITCHELL, K.C.B., M.A., M.D.,
F.R.C.P.E., LL.D.
THOMAS R. FRASER, M.D.,F.R.C.P.E., LL.D.,
F.R.S., Professor of Materia Medica in the
University of Edinburgh.
ROBERT MUNRO, M.A., M.D.
D. NOEL PATON, B.Sc., M.D., F.R.C.P.E.
CARGILL G. KNOTT, D.Sc.
é fag
( 779 )
ALPHABETICAL LIST
OF
THE ORDINARY FELLOWS OF THE SOCIKTY,
CORRECTED TO NOVEMBER 1894.
N.B.—Those marked * are Annual Contributors.
B. prefixed to a name indicates that the Fellow has received a Makdougall-Brisbane Medal.
K. $3 = és Keith Medal.
N. is ps s Neill Medal.
Wo de : a ss the Gunning Victoria Jubilee Prize.
iP - », contributed one or more Papers to the TRANSACTIONS.
Biocon] =|
1879 Abernethy, Jas., Memb. Inst. C.E., Prince of Wales Terrace, Kensington
1871 * Agnew, Stair, C.B., M.A., Registrar-General for Scotland, 22 Buckingham Terrace
1888 * Aikman, C. M., M.A., B.Sc., F.L.C., F.C.S., Lecturer on Agricultural Chemistry in Glasgow
and West of Scotland Technical College, 128 Wellington Street, Glasgow
1881 Aitchison, James Edward Tierney, C.LE., M.D., LL.D., F.R.S., F.LS., F.RCS.E,
M.R.C.P.E., Corresp. Fell. Obstet. Soc. Edin., Brigade-Surgeon, retired, H.M. Bengal
Army, 20 Chester Street.
1878 * Aitken, Andrew Peebles, M.A., Sc.D., F.1.C., 57 Great King Street . 5
1875 |K. P.|* Aitken, John, F.R.S., Darroch, Falkirk
1889 * Alison, John, M.A., 112 Craiglea Drive
1894 Allan, Francis John, M.D., C.M. Edin., M.O.H., Strand District, 53 Devonshire Street,
Portland Place, London
1888 * Allardice, R. E., M.A., Professor of Mathematics in Stanford University, Palo Alto, Santa
Clara Co., California
1878 Allchin, W. H., M.D., F.R.C.P.L., Senior Physician to the Westminster Hospital, 5
Chandos Street, Cavendish Square, London 10
1856 |B, P.| Allman, George J., M.D., F.R.S., M.R.LA., F.L.S., Emeritus Professor of Natural History,
University of Edinburgh, Ardmore, Parkstone, Dorset
1874 Anderson, John, M.D., LL.D., F.R.S., late Superintendent of the Indian Museum and Pro-
fessor of Comparative Anatomy in the Medical College, Calcutta, 71 Harrington
Gardens, London |
1893 Anderson, J. Maevicar, Architect, 6 Stratton Street, London
1883 * Anderson, Robert Rowand, LL.D., 16 Rutland Square
HSSSe)" P: Andrews, Thos., Memb. Inst. C.E., F.R.S., F.C.S., Ravencrag, Wortley, near Sheffield 15
1881 | Anglin, A. H., M.A., LL.D., M.R.1.A., Professor of Mathematics, Queen’s College, Cork
VOL. XXXVII. PART Iv. 6¢
780 ALPHABETICAL LIST OF THE ORDINARY FELLOWS OF THE SOCIETY.
Date of
Election.
1867
1893
1883
1886
1849
1885
1894
1879
1875
1879
1877
1870
1892
1889
1886
1872
1883
1887
1882
1893
1874
1893
1889
1887
1857
1888
1892
1893
1882
1887
1886
1874
1888
1887
1875
BE;
P.
Annandale, Thomas, M.D., F.R.C.S.E., Professor ve Clinical Surgery in the University of
Edinburgh, 34 Charlotte Square
_* Archer, Walter E., Inspector of Salmon Fisheries of Scotland: Woodhall, Juniper Green
Archibald, John, M.D., C.M., F.R.C.S.E., 2, The Avenue, Beckenham, Kent
|* Armstrong, George eee M.A., Memb. Inst. C.E., Professor of Engineering in the
University of Edinburgh 20
Argyll, His Grace the Duke of, K.G., K.T., D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S. (Hon. Vicz-Pres.),
Inveraray Castle .
* Baildon, H. Bellyse, B.A., Duncliffe, Murrayfield, Edinburgh
|* Bailey, Frederick, Lieut.-Col. (/ate) R.E., Secretary to the Royal Scottish Geographical
| Society, 7 Drummond Place
* Bailey, James Lambert, Royal Bank of Scotland, Ardrossan
* Bain, Sir James, 3 Park Terrace, Glasgow
* Balfour, George W., M.D., F.R.C.P.E., LL.D., 17 Walker Street
* Balfour, I. Bayley, Sce.D., M.D., C.M., F.R.S., F.L.8., Professor of Botany in the Univer-
sity of Edinburgh, Inverleith House
Balfour, Thomas A. G., M.D., F.R.C.P.E., 51 George Square
* Ballantyne, J. W., M.D., F.R.C.P.E., 24 Melville Street
* Barbour, A. H. F., M.A., M.D., F.R.C.P.E., 4 Charlotte Square
25
30
* Barclay, A. J. Gunion, M.A., 729 Great Western Road, Glasgow
* Barclay, George, M.A., Clerkington, by Haddington
* Barclay, G. W. W., M.A., 91 Union Street, Aberdeen
Barlow, W. H., Memb. Inst. C.E., F.R.S., High Combe, Old Charlton, Kent
Barnes, Henry, M.D., 6 Portland Square, Carlisle 35
Barnes, R. 8. Fancourt, M.D., M.R.C.P.L., Physician, Chelsea Hospital for Women, 7
Queen Anne Street, Cavendish Square, London
Barrett, William F., M.R.I.A., Professor of Physics, Royal College of Science, Dublin
Barry, Frederick W., M.D., C.M., D.Sc., Local Government Board, Whitehall, London
Barry, T. D. Collis, Staff Surgeon, M.R.C.S., F.L.S., Chemical Analyser to the Government
of Bombay, and Prof. of Chemistry and Medical Jurisprudence to the Grant Medical
College, and of Chemistry, Elphinstone College, Malabar Hill, Bombay
* Bartholomew, J. G., F.R.G.S., 12 Blacket Place
Batten, Edmund Chisholm, of Aigas, M.A., Thornfaulcon, near Taunton, Somerset
if Beare, Thomas Hudson, B.Se., Memb. Inst. C.E., Professor of Engineering and Mechanical
Technology in University College, Gower Street, London
Beck, J. H. Meining, M.D., M.R.C.P.E., Rondebosch, Cape Town
* Becker, Ludwig, Ph.D., Regius Professor of Astronomy in the University of Glasgow, The
Observatory, Glasgow
Beddard, Frank E., M.A. Oxon., F.R.S., Prosector to the Zoological Society of London,
Zoological Society’s Gardens, Regent’s Park, London 45
* Begg, Ferdinand Faithful, 13 Earl’s Court Square, London, 5. W.
* Bell, A. Beatson, Advocate, Chairman of Prison Commission, 2 Eglinton Crescent
Bell, Joseph, M.D., F.R.C.S.E., 2 Melville Crescent
* Bell, Sir William James, of Scatwell, B.A., LL.D., F.C.S., Barrister-at-Law, Scatwell,
Muir of Ord, and 1 Plowden Buildings, Temple, London
* Bernard, J. Mackay, B.Sc., 25 Chester Street
Bernstein, Ludwik, M.D., Lismore, New South Wales
40
50
Se ee
Date of
Election.
1893
1881
1880
1884
1850
1863
1862
1878
1894
1884
1872
1869
1886
1884
1871
1873
1886
1886
1877
1893
1892
1890
1887
1864
1883
1885
1870
1883
1867
1888
1869
1870
1882
1887
1894
1887
1888
ALPHABETICAL LIST OF THE ORDINARY FELLOWS OF THE SOCIETY. 781
iK- B.
a
* Berry, George A., M.D., C.M., F.R.C.S., 31 Drumsheugh Gardens
* Berry, Walter, of Glenstriven, K.D., Danish Consul-General, 11 Atholl Crescent
* Birch, De Burgh, M.D., Professor of Physiology, Yorkshire College, Victoria University,
16 De Grey Terrace, Leeds
* Black, Rev. John S., M.A., LL.D., 6 Oxford Terrace 55
Blackburn, Hugh, M.A., LL.D., Emeritus Professor of Mathematics in the University of
Glasgow, Roshven, Ardgour
Blackie, John S., Emeritus Prof. of Greek in the Univ. of Edin., 9 Douglas Crescent
Blaikie, The Rev. W. Garden, M.A., D.D., LL.D., Protessor of Apologetics and Pastoral
Theology, New College, Edinburgh, 9 Palmerston Road
* Blyth, James, M.A., Professor of Natural Philosophy in Anderson’s College, Glasgow
* Bolton, Herbert, 94 Dickenson Road, Rusholme, Manchester 60
Bond, Francis T., B.A., M.D., M.R.C.S., Gloucester
* Bottomley, J. Thomson, M.A., F.R.S., F.C.S., Lecturer on Natural Philosophy in the Uni-
versity of Glasgow, 13 University Gardens, Glasgow
Bow, Robert Henry, C.E., 7 South Gray Street
* Bower, Frederick O., M.A., F.R.S., F.L.S., Regius Professor of Botany in the University
of Glasgow, 45 Kerrsland Terrace, Hillhead, Glasgow
Bowman, Frederick Hungerford, D.Sc., F.C.S. (Lond. and Berl.), F.I.C., Assoc. Inst. C.E.,
Assoc. Inst. M.E., M.IE.E., &c., Mayfield, Knutsford, Cheshire 65
* Boyd, Sir Thomas J., 41 Moray Place
* Boyd, William, M.A., Peterhead
* Bramwell, Byrom, M.D., F.R.C.P.E., 23 Drumsheugh Gardens
Brittle, John Richard, Memb. Inst. C.E., Farad Villa, Vanbrugh Hill, Blackheath, Kent
Broadrick, George, Memb. Inst. C.E., Hamphall, Stubs, near Doncaster 70
Brock, G. Sandison, M.D., C.M., 42 Lauriston Place
* Brock, W. J., M.B., D.Sc., 13 Albany Street
* Brodie, Sir Thomas Dawson, Bart., of Idvies, W.S., 9 Ainslie Place
* Brown, A. B., C.E., 19 Douglas Crescent
Brown, Alex. Crum, M.D., D.Sc., F.R.C.P.E., LL.D., F.R.S. (Secretary), Professor of
Chemistry in the University of Edinburgh, 8 Belgrave Crescent 75
* Brown, J. Graham, M.D., C.M., F.R.C.P.E., 3 Chester Street
* Brown, J. Macdonald, M.B., F.R.C.S.E., Apsley House, 12 Cumin Place
Browne, Sir Jas. Crichton, M.D., LL.D., F.R.S., 7 Cumberland Terr., Regent’s Park, London
* Bruce, Alexander, M.A., M.D., F.R.C.P.E, 13 Alva Street
Bryce, A. H., LL.D., D.C.L., 11 Forres Street
* Bryson, William A., Electrical Engineer, 11 Bothwell Street, Glasgow
Buchan, Alexander, M.A., LL.D., Secretary to the Scottish Meteorological Society
(CuraToR oF LisrARY aND Museum), 42 Heriot Row
Buchanan, John Young, M.A., F.R.S., 10 Moray Place, Edinburgh
* Buchanan, T. R., M.A., M.P. for East Aberdeenshire, 10 Moray Place, Edinburgh, and
12 South Street, Park Lane, London, W.
* Buist, J. B., M.D., F.R.C.P.E., 1 Clifton Terrace 85
* Burgess, James, C.I.E., LL.D., M.R.A.S., M. Soc. Asiatique de Paris, 22 Seton Place
* Burnet, John James, Architect, 18 University Avenue, Hillhead, Glasgow
* Burns, Rev. T., F.S.A. Scot., Minister of Lady Glenorchy’s Parish Church, 2 St Margaret’s
Road
(os)
0
782 ALPHABETICAL LIST OF THE ORDINARY FELLOWS OF THE SOCIETY.
Date of
Election. |
1883 | |* Butcher, S. H., M.A., LL.D., Litt.D. Dub., Professor of Greek in the University of
) / Edinburgh, 27 Palmerston Place
1887 | P. | * Cadell, Henry Moubray, of Grange, Bo’ness, B.Se. 90
1869 Calderwood, Rev. H., LL.D., Professor of Moral Philosophy in the University of Edin-
burgh, Napier Road, Merchiston
1879 * Calderwood, John, F.I.C., Belmont’ Works, Battersea, and Gowanlea, Spencer Park, Wands-
worth, London, 8. W.
1893 Calderwood, W. L., Napier Road, Merchiston
1894 * Cameron, James Angus, M.D., Medical Officer of Health, Firhall, Nairn
1878 Campbell, John Archibald, M.D., Garland’s Asylum, Carlisle 95
1874 Carrington, Benjamin, M.D., 14 Grafton Street, Brighton
1882 * Cay, W. Dyce, Memb. Inst. C.E., 107 Princes Street
1876 * Cazenove, The Rev. J. Gibson, M.A., D.D., 22 Alva St., Chancellor of St Mary’s Cathedral
1866 Chalmers, David, Redhall, Slateford
1890 Charles, John J., M.A., M.D., C.M., Professor of Anatomy and Physiology, Queen’s College,
Cork 100
1874 * Chiene, John, M.D., F.R.C.S.E., Professor of Surgery in the University of Edinburgh,
26 Charlotte Square
1875 * Christie, John, 19 Buckingham Terrace
1872 Christie, Thomas B., M.D., F.R.C.P.E., Royal India Asylum, Ealing, London
1880 | K. P.| * Chrystal, George, M.A., LL.D., Professor of Mathematics in the University of Edinburgh,
5 Belgrave Crescent
1891 *Clark, John B., M.A., Secretary to the Edinburgh Mathematical Society, Mathematical
and Physical Master in Heriot’s Hospital School, 58 Comiston Road 105
1886 * Clark, Sir Thomas, Bart., 11 Melville Crescent
1863 | P. Cleghorn, Hugh F. C., of Stravithie, M.D., LL.D., *.L.S., St Andrews, United Service |
Club, 14 Queen Street
1875 * Clouston, T. S., M.D., F.R.C.P.E., Tipperlinn House, Morningside
1892 * Coates, Henry, Pitcullen House, Perth
1887 * Cockburn, John, F.R.A.S., Glencorse House, Milton Bridge, Midlothian 110
1888 | Collie, John Norman, Ph.D., F.C.S., University College, London
1886 | Connan, Daniel M., M.A., Education Department, Cape of Good Hope
1872 | * Constable, Archibald, LL.D., 11 Thistle Street
1894 Cook, John, M.A., Principal of the Central College, Bangalore, India
1891 * Cooper, Charles A., 15 Charlotte Square, Edinburgh 115
1890 | P. |* Copeland, Ralph, Ph.D., Astronomer-Royal for Scotland, and Professor of Practical
| Astronomy in the University of Edinburgh (Vicz-PresipENT), 15 Royal Terrace
1879 * Cox, Robert, of Gorgie, M.A., 34 Drumsheugh Gardens
1875 * Craig, William, M.D., F.R.C.S.E., Lecturer on Materia Medica to the College of Surgeons,
71 Bruntsfield Place
1887 * Crawford, William Caldwell, Lockharton Gardens, Slateford, Edinburgh :
1886 * Croom, John Halliday, M.D., F.R.C.P.E., 25 Charlotte Square 120
1887 * Camming, A. S., M.D., F.R.C P.E., 18 Ainslie Place
1878 * Cunningham, Daniel John, M.D., D.C.L., F.R.S., F.Z.S., Professor of we in Trinity
College, Dublin, 43 Fitzwilliam Place, Dublin
1886 * Cunningham, David, Memb. Inst. C.E., Harbour Chambers, Dock Street, Dundee
1877 * Cunningham, George Miller, Memb. Inst. C.E., 2 Ainslie Place
ALPHABETICAL LIST OF THE ORDINARY FELLOWS OF THE SOCIETY. 783
Date of
Election.
1871 * Cunynghame, R. J. Blair, M.D., Vice-President of the Royal College of Surgeons, 18
Rothesay Place edo
1885 * Daniell, Alfred, M.A., LL.B., D.Sc., Advocate, 3 Great King Street
1884 Davy, Richard, F.R.C.S., Surgeon to the Westminster Hospital, Burstone House, Bow,
North Devon
1894 * Denny, Archibald, Braehead, Dumbarton
1876 * Denny, Peter, Memb. Inst. C.E., Dumbarton
1869 | P. Dewar, James, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., Jacksonian Professor of Natural and Experimental
Philosophy in the University of Cambridge, and Fullerian Professor of Chemistry at
the Royal Institution of Great Britain, London 130
1884 * Dickson, Charles Scott, Advocate, 4 Heriot Row
1888 * Dickson, H. N., 125 Woodstock Road, Oxford
1876 | P. |* Dickson, J. D. Hamilton, M.A., Fellow and Tutor, St Peter’s College, Cambridge
1885 Dixon, James Main, M.A., Professor of English Literature in the Washington University
of St Louis, United States
1881 | P. |* Dobbin, Leonard, Ph.D., Assistant to the Professor of ey in the University of
Edinburgh, 23 Bilmaine Road 135
S67 | P. Donaldson, J., M.A., LL.D., Principal of the University of St Andrews, St Andrews
1882 * Dott, D. B., Memb. Pharm. Soc., 7 Cameron Crescent
1892 Doyle, Patrick, C.E., M.RB.LA., RG .S., Editor of Indian Engineering, Calcutta
1866 Douglas, David, 22 ue Place
1880 * Drummond, Henry, F.G.S., Professor of Natural History in the Free Church College, 2 Park
Circus, Glasgow 140
1860 Dudgeon, Patrick, of Cargen, Dumfries
1876 * Duncan, James, 9 Mincing Lane, London
1889 * Duncan, James Dalrymple, F.S.A. Scot., Meiklewood, Stirling
1870 Duncan, John, M.A., M.D., LL.D., F.R.C.S.E., 8 Ainslie Place
1878 * Duncanson, J. J. Kirk, M.D., F.R.C.P.E., 22 Drumsheugh Gardens 145
1859 Duns, Rev. Professor, D.D., New College, Edinburgh, 14 Greenhill Place
1892 Dunstan, M. J. R., B.A., F.C.S., Director of Technical Education in Agriculture, 9
Hamilton Drive, Nottingham
1888 * Durham, James, F.G.S., Wingate Place, Newport, Fife
1893 Edington, Alexander, M.B., C.M., Colonial Bacteriologist, Graham’s Town, South Africa
1869 Elder, George, Knock Castle, Wemyss Bay, Greenock 150
1885 Elgar, Francis, Memb. Inst. C.E., LL.D., 18 York Terrace, Regent’s Park, London
1875 Elliot, Daniel G., New York
1855 Etheridge, Robert, F.R.S., Assistant-Keeper of the Geological Department at the British
Museum of Natural History, 14 Carlyle Square, Chelsea, London
1884 * Evans, William, F.F.A., Secretary Royal Physical Society, 18a Morningside Park
1863: | P. Everett, J. D., M.A., D.C.L., F.R.S., Professor of Natural Philosophy, Queen’s College,
Belfast 155
1879 | P. | * Ewart, James Cossar, M.D., F.R.C.S.E., F.R.S., F.L.S., Professor of Natural History, Uni-
versity of Edinburgh
1878 | P. | * Ewing, James Alfred, B.Sc., Memb. Inst. C.E., F.R.S., Professor of Mechanism and Applied
Mechanics in the University of Cambridge, Langdale Lodge, Cambridge
1875 Fairley, Thomas, Lecturer on Chemistry, 8 Newton Grove, Leeds
1888 | P. |* Fawsitt, Charles A., 9 Foremount Terrace, Dowanhill, Glasgow
VOL. XXXVII. PART IV.
(er)
S
784 ALPHABETICAL LIST OF THE ORDINARY FELLOWS OF THE SOCIETY.
Date of
Election.
1859
1883
1888
1868
1886
1852
1876
1880
Bee
BB.
Fayrer, Sir Joseph, K.C.S.I., M.D., LL.D., F.R.C.P.L., F.R.C.S. L. and E., F.R.S., Honorary
Physician to the Queen, 53 Wimpole Street, London 160
* Felkin, Robert W., M.D., F.R.G.S., Fellow of the Anthropological Society of Berlin,
8 Alva Street
* Ferguson, John, M.A., LL.D., Professor of Chemistry in the University of Glasgow
Ferguson, Robert M., LL.D., Ph.D., 5 Learmonth Terrace
Field, C. Leopold, F.C.S., Upper Marsh, Lambeth, London
Fleming, Andrew, M.D., Deputy Surgeon-General, 8 Napier Road 165
* Fleming, J. S., 16 Grosvenor Crescent
* Flint, Robert, D.D., Corresponding Member of the Institute of France, Corresponding
Member of the Royal Academy of Sciences of Palermo, Professor of Divinity in the
University of Edinburgh (Vicz-PresipEnt), Johnstone Lodge, 54 Craigmillar Park
Forbes, Professor George, M.A., Memb. Inst. C.E., M.S.T.E. and E., F.R.S., FR.AS., 34
Great George Street, Westminster
* Ford, John Simpson, F.C.S., 135 Bruntsfield Place
Forlong, Major-Gen. J. G., F.R.G.S., R.A.S., Assoc. C.E., &c.,11 Douglas Crescent 170
Foster, John, Liverpool
Fowler, Sir John, Bart., K.C.M.G., Memb. Inst. C.E., LL.D., Thornwood Lodge, Kensing-
ton, London
Fraser, A. Campbell, M.A., LL.D., D.C.L., Emeritus Professor of Logic and Metaphysics
in the University of Edinburgh, Gorton House, Hawthornden
* Fraser, Patrick Neill, Rockville, Murrayfield
Fraser, Thomas R., M.D., F.R.C.P.E., LL.D., F.R.S., Professor of Materia Medica in the
University of Edinburgh, 13 Drumsheugh Gardens 175
* Fullarton, J. H., M.A., D.Sc., Zoologist to the Fishery Board for Scotland, 101 George St.
* Fulton, T. Wemyss, M.B., Secretary for Scientific Investigations to the Scottish Fishery
Board, 8 Cameron Crescent
* Fyfe, Peter, Chief Sanitary Inspector, Glasgow
* Galt, Alexander, B.Sc., F.C.S., Physical Laboratory, The University, Glasgow
Gatty, Charles Henry, M.A., LL.D., F.LS., Felbridge Place, East Grinstead 180
Gayner, Charles, M.D., Oxford
* Geddes, George H., Mining Engineer, 8 Douglas Crescent
* Geddes, Patrick, Professor of Botany in University College, Dundee, and Lecturer on
Zoology, Ramsay Garden, University Hall, Edinburgh
Geikie, Sir Archibald, LL.D., D.Sc. Dub., F.R.S., F.G.S., Corresponding Member of the
Institute of France, Corresponding Member of the Royal Academy of Berlin, Director
of the Geological Surveys of Great Britain, and Head of the Geological Museum, 28
Jermyn Street, London
* Geikie, James, LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.S., F.G.8., Professor of Geology in the University of
Edinburgh (Vicz-PresipEntT), 31 Merchiston Avenue 185
* Gibson, George Alexander, D.Sc., M.D., F.R.C.P.E., 17 Alva Street
* Gibson, George A., M.A., 11 Huntly Terrace, Kelvinside, Glasgow
* Gibson, John, Ph.D., Professor of Chemistry in the Heriot-Watt College, 20 George Square
* Gibson, R. J. Harvey, M.A., F.L.S., Professor of Botany, University College, Liverpool,
43 Sydenham Avenue, Sefton Park, Liverpool
Gifford, H. J., Walsingham House, Piccadilly, London, W. 190
* Gilmour, William, 9 Inverleith Row
ALPHABETICAL LIST OF THE ORDINARY FELLOWS OF THE SOCIETY. 785
Date of
Election.
1880 * Gilruth, George Ritchie, Surgeon, 48 Northumberland Street
1850 Gosset, Major-General W. D., R.E., 70 Edith Road, West Kensington, London
1880 * Graham, James, LL.D., 198 West George Street, Glasgow
1891 * Graham, Richard D., 11 Strathearn Road 195
1883 * Gray, Andrew, M.A., Professor of Physics in University College, Bangor, North Wales
ues | P. Gray, Thomas, B.Sc., Professor of Physics, Rose Polytechnic Institute, Terre Haute,
Indiana, U.S.
1886 * Greenfield, W. S., M.D., F.R.C.P.E., Professor of General Pathology in the University of
Edinburgh, 7 Heriot Row
1884 * Grieve, John, M.A., M.D., F.L.S., 212 St Vincent Street, Glasgow
1886 * Griffiths, Arthur Bower, Ph.D., Lecturer on Chemistry in the School of Science of the City
and County of Lincoln, 12 Knowle Road, Brixton, London 200
1883 Gunning, His Excellency Robert Halliday, Grand Dignitary of the Order of the Rose of
Brazil, M.A., M.D., LL.D., 12 Addison Crescent, Kensington
1888 | P. Guppy, Henry Brougham, M.B., 6 Fairfield, W., Kingston-on-Thames
1867 | . Hallen, James H. B., C.1.E., F.R.C.S.E., Veterinary Lieut.-Colonel in H.M. Indian Army,
Retired, Pebworth Fields, under Stratford-on-Avon
1881 * Hamilton, D. J., M.B., F.R.C.S.E., Professor of Pathological Anatomy in the University
| of Aberdeen, 4 Forest Road, Aberdeen
: 1876 | P. |* Hannay, J. Ballantyne, Cove Castle, Loch Long 205
1888 * Hart, D. Berry, M.D., F.R.C.P.E., 29 Charlotte Square
1869 Hartley, Sir Charles A., K.C.M.G., Memb. Inst. C.E., 26 Pall Mall, London
1877 Hartley, W. N., F.R.S., Prof. of Chemistry, Royal College of Science for Ireland, Dublin
1881 * Harvie-Brown, J. A., of Quarter, Dunipace House, Larbert, Stirlingshire
1880 | P. |* Hayeraft, J. Berry, M.D., D.Sc., Professor of Physiology in tbe University College of
South Wales and Monmouthshire, Cardiff 210
: 1892 * Heath, Thomas, B.A., Assistant Astronomer, Royal Observatory, Edinburgh
1862 Hector, Sir J., K.C.M.G., M.D., F.R.S., Director of the Geological Survey, Wellington, N.Z.
| 1876 |K. P. | * Heddle, M. Forster, M.D., Emeritus Prof. of Chemistry in the University of St Andrews
1893 Hehir, Patrick, M.D., F.R.C.S.E., M.R.C.S.L., L.R.C.P.E., Surgeon-Captain, Indian Medi-
cal Service, Principal Medical Officer, H.H. the Nizam’s Army, Hyderabad, Deccan, India
1890 | P. Helme, T. A., M.D., 258 Oxford Road, Manchester 215
1884 * Henderson, John, jun., Meadowside Works, Partick, Glasgow
1890 * Hepburn, David, M.D., Principal Demonstrator of Anatomy in the University of Edinburgh
1881 |N. P.| * Herdman, W. A., D.Sc., F.R.S., Prof. of Natural History in University College, Liverpool
1871 Higgins, Charles Hayes, M.D., M.R.C.P.L., F.R.C.S., Alfred House, Birkenhead
1894 Hill, Alfred, M.D., M.R.C.S., F.LC., Medical Officer of Health, The Council House,
Birmingham 220
1859 Hills, John, Major-General, C.B., Bombay Engineers, United Service Club, London
1879 Hislop, John, LL.D., formerly Secretary to the Department of Education, Forth Street,
Dunedin, New Zealand
1885 Hodgkinson, W. R., Ph.D., F.LC., F.C.S., Professor of Chemistry and Physics at the Royal
Military Academy and Royal Artillery College, Woolwich, 8 Park Villas, Blackheath,
London
1881 | N. P.| * Horne, John, F.G.S., Geological Survey of Scotland, Sheriff-Court Buildings, Edinburgh
1893 Howden, Robert, M.B., C.M., Lecturer on Anatomy, University of Durham College of
Medicine, Newcastle-on-Tyne 225
786. ALPHABETICAL LIST OF THE ORDINARY FELLOWS OF THE SOCIETY.
Date of
Election.
1885
1886
1888
1847
im
Nese.
* Hoyle, William Evans, M.A., M.R.C.S., 25 Brunswick Road, Withington, Manchester
Hunt, Rev. H. G, Bonavia, Mus. D, Dub., Mus. B. Oxon., F.L.S., La Belle Sauvage,
London
* Hunter, Colonel Charles, of Pliis Coch, Llanfairpwll, Anglesea, and Junior United Service
Club, London
* Hunter, James, F.R.C.S.E., F:R.A.S., Rosetta, Liberton, Midlothian
* Hunter, William, M.D., M.R.C.P. L. and E., M.R.C.S., 54 Harley Street, London 230
* Inglis, J. W., Memb. Inst. C.E., Kenwood, Liberton, Midlothian
* Irvine, Robert, Royston, Granton, Edinburgh
Jack, William, M.A., LL.D., Professor of Mathematics in the University of Glasgow
Jackson, John, 10 Holland Park, London
* James, Alexander, M.D., F.R.C.P.E., 44 Melville Street 235
* Jamieson, A., Memb. Inst. C.E., Professor of Engineering in The Glasgow and West of
Scotland Technical College, Glasgow
Jamieson, George Auldjo, Actuary, 24 St Andrew Square
Japp, A. H., LL.D., The Limes, Elmstead, near Colchester
Johnston, John Wilson, M.D., Surgeon-Major, Dacre House, Shrewsbury Road, Oxton,
Birkenhead
Johnston, T. B., F.R.G.S., Geographer to the Queen, 9 Claremont Crescent 240
* Jolly, William, H.M. Inspector of Schools, F.G.S., Greenhead House, Govan
Jones, Francis, Lecturer on Chemistry, Beaufort House, Alexandra Park, Manchester
Jones, John Alfred, Memb. Inst. C.E., Vice-President, and Engineer, City of Madras,
Peter’s Road, Madras
Kelvin, The Right Hon. Lord, LL.D., D.C.L., P.R.S. (Honorary Vicz-PRresiDEnT), Grand
Officer of the Legion of Honour of France, Member of the Prussian Order Pour le
Mérite, Foreign Associate of the Institute of France, and Regius Professor of Natural
Philosophy in the University of Glasgow
* Kerr, Rev. John, M.A., Manse, Dirleton 245
Kerr, Joshua Law, M.D., Croft House, Crawshawbooth, Manchester
* Kidston, Robert, F.G.S., 24 Victoria Place, Stirling
* King, Sir James, of Campsie, Bart., LL.D., 115 Wellington Street, Glasgow
* King, W. F., Lonend, Russell Place, Trinity
* Kingsburgh, The Right Hon. Lord, C.B., Q.C., LL.D., F.R.S., M.S.T.E. and E., Lord
Justice-Clerk, and Lord President of the Second Division of the Court of Session,
15 Abercromby Place 250
* Kinnear, The Hon. Lord, one of the Senators of the College of Justice, 2 Moray Place
* Kintore, The Right Hon. the Earl of, M.A. Cantab., Keith Hall, Inglismaldie Castle,
Laurencekirk
* Knott, C. G., D.Se., Lecturer on Applied Mathematics in the University of Edinburgh
(late Professor of Physics, Imperial University, Japan), 42 Upper Gray Street,
Edinburgh
* Laing, Rev. George P., 17 Buckingham Terrace
*Lang, P. R. Scott, M.A., B.Sc., Professor of Mathematics in the University of St
Andrews 255
* Laurie, A. P., B.A., B.Sc., Woodside, Baldwin’s Hill, Loughton
* Laurie, Malcolm, B.A., B.Sc. F.L.S., Professor of Zoology, St Mungo’s College,
Glasgow
ALPHABETICAL LIST OF THE ORDINARY FELLOWS OF. THE SOCIETY. 787
Date of
Election.
1870
1881
1872
1863
1874
1889
1870
KE:
iE.
1
Laurie, Simon S., M.A., LL.D., Professor of Education in the University of Edinburgh,
Nairne Lodge, Duddingston
* Lawson, Robert, M.D., Deputy-Commissioner in Lunacy, 24 Mayfield Terrace
* Lee, Alexander H., C.E., 58 Manor Place 260
Leslie, Hon. G. Waldo Leslie House, Leslie
* Letts, E. A., Ph.D., F.1.C., F.C.S., Professor of Chemistry, Queen’s College, Belfast
* Lindsay, Rev. James, B.D., B.Sc., F.G.S., Corresponding Member of the Royal Academy
of Sciences, Letters aa Arts, of Padua, Minister of St Andrew’s Parish, sae
Terrace, Kilmarnock
Lister, Sir Joseph, Bart., M.D., F.R.C.S.L., F.R.C.S.E., LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.S., Foreign
Associate of the Institute of France, Professor of Clinical Surgery, King’s College,
Surgeon Extraordinary to the Queen, 12 Park Crescent, Portland Place, London
* Livingston, Josiah, 4 Minto Street 265
* Low, George M., Actuary, 15 Chester Street
* Lowe, D. F., M.A., Headmaster of Heriot’s Hospital School, Lauriston
Lowe, W. H., M.D., F.R.C.P.E., Woodcote, Inner Park, Wimbledon
Lyster, George Fosbery, Memb. Inst. C.E., Gisburn House, Liverpool
* Mabbott, Walter John, M.A., Merchiston Castle Academy 270
Macadam, Stevenson, Ph.D., Lecturer on Chemistry, Surgeons’ Hall, Edinburgh, 11 East
Brighton Crescent, Portobello
* Macadam, W. Ivison, F.1.C., F.C.S., Lecturer on Chemistry, Slioch, Lady Road, Newington,
Edinburgh
M‘Aldowie, Alexander M., M.D., 6 Brook Street, Stoke-on-Trent
Macallan, John, F.1.C., 3 Charlemont Terrace, Clontarf, Dublin
M‘Arthur, John, “ Wilcroft,” Nicosia Road, Wandsworth Common, London 275
* M‘Bride, Charles, M.D., Wigtown
* M‘Bride, P., M.D., F.R.C.P.E., 16 Chester Street
M‘Candlish, John M., W.S., 27 Drumsheugh Gardens
* Macdonald, James, Secretary of the Highland and Agricultural Society of Scotland, 9
Lauriston Gardens
* Macdonald, William J., M.A., 26 Dalhousie Terrace 280
* M‘Fadyean, John, M.B., B.Sc., Professor of Pathology and Dean of the Royal Veterinary
College, Camden Town, London
Macfarlane, Alex., M.A., D.Sc., LL.D., Professor of Physics in the University of the State
of Texas, Austin, Texas
* Macfarlane, J. M., D.Sc., Professor of Biology in the University of Pennsylvania, Lans-
downe, Delaware Co., Pennsylvania
* M‘Gowan, George, F.I.C., Ph.D., 29 Victoria Parade, Ashton-on-Ribble, Preston
* MacGregor, Rev. James, D.D., 11 Cumin Place, Grange 285
MacGregor, J. G., M.A., D.Sc., Prof. of Physics in Dalhousie College, Halifax, Nova Scotia
M‘Intosh, William Carmichael, M.D., LL.D., F.R.S., F.L.8., Professor of Natural History
in the University of St Andrews, 2 Abbotsford Crescent, St Andrews
* Mackay, John Sturgeon, M.A., LL.D., Mathematical Master in the Edinburgh Academy,
69 Northumberland Street .
* M‘Kendrick, John G., M.D., F.R.C.P.E., LL.D., F.R.S. (Vice-Presipent), Professor of
the Institutes of Medicine in the University of Glasgow
Mackenzie, John, New Club, Princes Street 290
788 ALPHABETICAL LIST OF THE ORDINARY FELLOWS OF THE SOCIETY.
Date of
Election.
1894 * Mackenzie, Robert, M.D., 1 Bruntsfield Terrace
154s | P. Maclagan, Sir Douglas, M.D., F.R.C.P.E., LL.D. (Present), Professor of Medical Juris-
prudence in the University of Edinburgh, 28 Heriot Row
1894 * Maclagan, Philip R. D., F.F.A. (Treasurer), 14 Belgrave Place
1869 Maclagan, R. C., M.D., F.R.C.P.E., 5 Coates Crescent
1864 M‘Lagan, Peter, of Pumpherston 295
1869 | P. M‘Laren, The Hon. Lord, LL.D. Edin. and Glasg., F.R.A.S., one of the Senators of the
College of Justice (Vicz-PRESIDENT), 46 Moray Place
1888 * Maclean, Magnus, M.A., Assistant to the Professor of Natural Philosophy in the University
of Glasgow, 8 St Alban’s Terrace, Dowanhill, Glasgow
1876 * Macleod, Rev. Norman, D.D., Westwood, Inverness
1883 * Macleod, W. Bowman, L.D.S., 16 George Square
1872 * Macmillan, Rev. Hugh, D.D., LL.D., 70 Union Street, Greenock 300
1876 * Macmillan, John, M.A., D.Sc., M.B., C.M., 31 Nelson Street
1893 * M‘Murtrie, The Rev. John, M.A., D.D., 5 Inverleith Place
1884 * Macpherson, Rev. J. Gordon, M.A., D.Sc., Ruthven Manse, Meigle
1883 * M‘Roberts, George, F.C.S., Todhill, Newton-Mearns, Renfrewshire
1888 Mactear, James, F.C.S., 2 Victoria Mansions, Hyde Park, London 305
1890 * M‘Vail, John C., M.D., 2 Strathallan Terrace, Dowanhill, Glasgow
1880 | P. Marsden, R. Sydney, M.B., C.M., D.Sc, F.LC., F.C.S., 64 Park Road, South, and
Town Hall, Birkenhead
1882 | P. Marshall, D. H., M.A., Professor of Physics in Queen’s University and College, Kingston,
Ontario, Canada
1869 Marshall, Henry, M.D., Clifton, Bristol
1888 * Marshall, Hugh, D.Sc., Assistant to the Professor of Chemistry in the University of Edin-
burgh, Druim Shellach, Craigmillar 310
1892 * Martin, Francis John, W.S., 9 Glencairn Crescent
1864 Marwick, Sir James David, LL.D., Town-Clerk, Glasgow
1866 Masson, David, LL.D., Litt.D. Dub., Professor of Rhetoric and English Literature in the
Univ. of Edinburgh, Her Majesty’s Historiographer for Scotland, 110 Princes Street
1885 | P. |* Masson, Orme, D.Sc., Professor of Chemistry in the University of Melbourne
1890 * Matheson, The Rev. George, M.A., B.D., D.D., Minister of St Bernard’s, Edinburgh, 19 St
Bernard’s Crescent 315
1888 * Methven, C. W., Memb. Inst. C.E., Engineer-in-Chief to the Natal Harbour Board,
Engineer’s Office, Harbour Works, Port Natal
1885 | B. P.| * Mill, Hugh Robert, D.Sc., Librarian, Royal Geographical Society, 1 Saville Row, London
1886 * Miller, Hugh, H.M. Geological Survey Office, George IV. Bridge
1833 Milne, Admiral Sir Alexander, Bart., G.C.B., Inveresk
1886 * Milne, William, M.A., B.Sc., 57 Springbank Terrace, Aberdeen 320
1866 Mitchell, Sir Arthur, K.C.B., M.A., M.D., LL.D., 34 Drummond Place
1889 | P. |* Mitchell, A. Crichton, D.Se., Professor of Pure and Applied Mathematics, and Principal of
the Maharajah’s College, Trivandrum, Travancore, India
1865 Moir, John J. A., M.D., F.R.C.P.E., 52 Castle Street
1870 Moncreiff, The Right Hon. Lord, of Tullibole, LL.D. (Honorary Vicz-Presipent), 15
Great Stuart Street
1871 * Moncrieff, Rey. Canon William Scott, of Fossaway, Christ’s Church Vicarage, Bishop- Wear-
mouth, Sunderland 325
ALPHABETICAL LIST OF THE ORDINARY FELLOWS OF THE SOCIETY. 789
Date of
Election.
1890 Mond, R. L., M.A. Cantab., F.C.S., 20 Avenue Road, Regent’s Park, London
1868 Montgomery, Very Rev. Dean, M.A., D.D., 17 Atholl Crescent
1887 Moos, N. A. F., L.C.E., B.Sc., Assistant Prof. of Engineering, College of Science, Bombay
1887 More, Alexander Goodman, M.R.I.A., F.L.S., 74 Leinster Road, Dublin
1892 Morrison, J. T., M.A., B.Sc., Professor of Physics and Chemistry, Victoria College, Stellen-
bosch, Cape Colony 330
1892 * Mossman, Robert C., F.R. Met. Soc., 10 Blacket Place
1874 | K. P.| * Muir, Thomas, M.A., LL.D., Superintendent-General of Education for Cape Colony, Educa-
tion Office, Cape Town
1888 * Muirhead, George, Mains of Haddo, Aberdeen
1887 Mukhopadhyay, Asfitosh, M.A., LL.D., F.R.A.S., M.R.I.A., Professor of Mathematics
at the Indian Association for the Cultivation of Science, 77 Russa Road North,
Bhowanipore, Calcutta
1870 Munn, David, M.A., 2 Ramsay Gardens 335
1894 * Munro, J. M. M., M.LE.E., 136 Bothwell Street, Glasgow
1889 * Munro, Rev. Robert, M.A., B.D., F.S.A. Scot., Free Church Manse, Old Kilpatrick
1891 * Munro, Robert, M.A., M.D., Hon. Memb. R.I.A., Hon. Memb. Royal Soc. of Antiquaries
of Ireland, Secretary of the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland, 48 Manor Place
1892 * Murray, George Robert Milne, F.L.S., Natural History Department, British Museum,
Cromwell Road, London
1857 Murray, John Ivor, M.D., F.R.C.S.E., M.R.C.P.E., 24 Huntriss Row, Scarborough 340
1877 |K. B.|* Murray, John, LL.D., Ph.D. (Szcrerary), (Society’s Representative on George Heriot’s
N.P. Trust), Director of the Challenger Expedition Publications. Office, 45 Frederick
Street. House, 32 Palmerston Place, and United Service Club
1888 * Murray, R. Milne, M.A., M.B., F.R.C.P.E., 10 Hope Street
1887 Muter, John, M.A., F.C.S., South London Central Public Laboratory, 325 Kennington
Road, London
1888 Napier, A. D. Leith, M.D.,C.M., M.R.C.P.L., 67 Grosvenor St., Grosvenor Sq., London
1877 * Napier, John, C. Audley Mansions, Grosvenor Square, London 345
1887 * Nasmyth, T. Goodall, M.D., C.M., D.Sc., Cupar-Vife
1883 * Newcombe, Henry, F.R.C.S.E., 5 Dalrymple Crescent, Edinburgh
1884 * Nicholson, J. Shield, M.A., D.Sc., Professor of Political Economy in the University of
Edinburgh, Eden Lodge, Eden Lane, Newbattle Terrace
1880 | P. |* Nicol, W. W. J., M.A., D.Sc., 15 Blacket Place
1878 Norris, Richard, M.D., M.R.C.S. Eng., 67 Broad Street, Birmingham 350
1888 * Ogilvie, F. Grant, M.A., B.Sc., Principal of the Heriot-Watt College
1888 * Oliphant, James, M.A., 11 Ramsay Gardens
1886 Oliver, James, M.D., F.L.S., Physician to the London Hospital for Women, 18 Gordon
Square, London
1884 |K.P.| * Omond, R. Traill, Superintendent of Ben Nevis Observatory, Fort-William, Inverness
1877 Panton, George A., 73 Westfield Road, Edgbaston, Birmingham 355
1892 Parker, Thomas, Memb. Inst. C.E., Newbridge House, Wolverhampton
1886 | P. |* Paton, D. Noel, M.D., B.Sc., F.R.C.P.E., 33 George Square
1889 * Patrick, David, M.A., LL.D., c/o W. & R. Chambers, 339 High Street
1892 * Paulin, David, 6 Forres Street
1881 | N.P. | * Peach, B. N., F.R.S., F.G.S8., Acting Palzontologist of the Geological Survey of Scotland,
86 Findhorn Place 360
790 ALPHABETICAL LIST OF THE ORDINARY FELLOWS OF THE SOCIETY.
Date of
Election.
1889
1863
1887
1886
1869
1893
1888
1889
1883
1859
* Peck, William, F.R.A.S., Town’s Astronomer, Murrayfield, Edinburgh
Peddie, Alexander, M.D., F.R.C.P.E., 15 Rutland Street
* Peddie, Wm., D.Se., Assistant to the Professor of Natural Philosophy, Edinburgh University,
2 Cameron Park
* Peebles, D. Bruce, Tay House, Bonnington, Edinburgh
Pender, Sir John, G.C.M.G., M.P. for Wick Burghs, 18 Arlington St., Piccadilly, London 365
Perkin, Arthur George, 8 Montpellier Terrace, Hyde Park, Leeds
* Perkin, W. H., Ph.D., F.R.S., Professor of Chemistry in Owens College, Manchester
* Philip, R. W., M.A., M.D., F.R.C.P.E., 4 Melville Crescent
Phillips, Charles D. F., M.D., LL.D., 10 Henrietta St., Cavendish Sq., London, W.
Playfair, The Right Hon. Lord, K.C.B., LL.D., F.R.S., 68 Onslow Gardens, London 370
Pole, William, Memb. Inst. C.E., Mus. Doc., F.R.S., Atheneum Club, London
* Pollock, Charles Frederick, M.D., F.R.C.S.E., 1 Buckingham Terrace, Hillhead, Glasgow
Powell, Baden Henry Baden-, C.I.E., M.R.A.S., Forest Department, India
Powell, Eyre B., C.S.1., M.A., 28 Park Road, Haverstock Hill, Hampstead, Iondon
Prain, David, Surgeon, Indian Medical Service, and Curator of the Herbarium, Joyal
Botanic Gardens, Shibpur, Calcutta 375
* Pressland, Arthur, M.A., Camb., Edinburgh Academy
Prevost, E. W., Ph.D., Elton, Newnham, Gloucester
Primrose, Hon. B. F., C.B., 22 Moray Place
* Pullar, J. F., Rosebank, Perth
* Pullar, Robert, Tayside, Perth 380
Ramsay, E. Peirson, M.R.LA., F.L.S., C.M.Z.S., F.R.G.S., F.G.S., Fellow of the Imperial
and Royal Zoological and Botanical Society of Vienna, Curator of Australian Museum,
Sydney, N.S.W.
* Rankine, John, M.A., LL.D., Advocate, Professor of the Law of Scotland in the University
of Edinburgh, 23 Ainslie Place
* Rattray, James Clerk, M.D., 61 Grange Loan
* Rattray, John, M.A., B.Sec., Dunkeld
Raven, Rev. Thomas Milville, M.A., The Vicarage, Crakehall, Bedale 385
* Readman, J. B., D.Se., F.C.S., 4 Lindsay Place, Edinburgh
Redwood, Boverton, F.I.C., F.C.S., Assoc. Inst. C.E., Glenwathen, Ballard’s Lane, Finchley,
Middlesex
* Richardson, Ralph, W.S., 10 Magdala Place
Licarde-Seaver, Major F. Ignacio, Athenzum Club, Pall Mall, London
* Ritchie, R. Peel, M.D., F.R.C.P.E., 1 Melville Crescent 390
Roberts, D. Lloyd, M.D., F.R.C.P.L., 23 St John Street, Manchester |
* Robertson, D. M. C. L. Argyll, M.D., F.R.C.S.E., Surgeon Oculist to the Queen for Scot-
land, 18 Charlotte Square
tobertson, George, Memb. Inst. C.E., Atheneum Club, Pall Mall, London
* Robertson, Right Hon. J. P. B., Q.C., LL.D., Lord Justice-General of Scotland and Lord
President of the Court of Session, 19 Drumsheugh Gardens
* Robinson, George Carr, F.I.C., F.C.S., Lecturer on Chemistry in the College of Chemistry,
Royal Institution, Hull 395
* Rogerson, John Johnston, B.A., LL.B., LL.D., Merchiston Castle Academy
Rosebery, The Right Hon. the Earl of, K.G., LL.D., H.M. First Lord of the Treasury
and Lord President of the Council, Dalmeny Park, Edinburgh
Date of
Election.
1880
1880
1869
1864
1891
1885
1880
1888
1875
1889
1872
1894
1894
1872
1870
1871
1888
1876
1868
1891
1882
1885
1883
1871
1880
1846
1880
1889
1882
1874
1891
1886
1884
1877
1888
1868
ALPHABETICAL LIST OF THE ORDINARY FELLOWS OF THE SOCTETY. 791
Rowland, L. L., M.A., M.D., President of the Oregon State Medical Society, and Professor
of Physiology and Microscopy in Williamette University, Salem, Oregon
* Russell, Sir James Alexander, M.A., B.Se., M.B., F.R.C.P.E., LL.D., Woodville, Canaan Lane
Rutherford, Wm., M.D., F.R.C.P.E., F.R.S., Professor of the Institutes of Medicine in
the University of Edinburgh, 14 Douglas Crescent 400.
Sandford, The Right Rev. Bishop D. F., LL.D., Boldon Rectory, Newcastle-on-Tyne
Sawyer, Sir James, Knt., M.D., F.R.C.P., J.P., Consulting Physician to the Queen’s Hospital,
Haseley Hall, Warwick
Scott, Alexander, M.A., D.Sc., St Peter’s College, Cambridge
Scott, J. H., M.B., C.M., M.R.C.S., Prof. of Anatomy in the University of Otago, N.Z.
* Scott, John, C.B., Memb. Inst. C.E., Shipbuilder, Hawkhill, Greenock 405
Scott, Michael, Memb. Inst. C.E., care of A. Grahame, Esq., 30 Great George St., Westminster
* Scougal, Andrew E., M.A., H.M. Inspector of Schools, 12 Blantyre Terrace
* Seton, George, M.A., Advocate, Ayton House, Abernethy, Perthshire, and 13 Old Cavendish
Street, London
* Shand, John, M.D., F.R.C.P.E., 34 Albany Street
* Shield, Wm., M.Inst.C.E., Executive Engineer, National Harbour of Refuge, Peterhead 410
* Sibbald, John, M.D., Comr. in Lunacy, 3 St Margaret’s Road, Whitehouse Loan
Sime, James, M.A., Craigmount House, 52 Dick Place
* Simpson, A. R., M.D., President of the Royal College of Physicians, Professor of Mid-
wifery in the University of Edinburgh, 52 Queen Street
* Sinclair, D, S., 370 Great Western Road, Glasgow
* Skinner, William, W.S., Town-Clerk of Edinburgh, 35 George Square 415
Smith, Adam Gillies, C.A., 35 Drumsheugh Gardens
* Smith, Alex., B.Sc., Ph.D., Prof. of General Chemistry, University of Chicago, Ills., U.S.
Smith, C. Michie, B.Sc., F.R.A.S., Professor of Physical Science, Christian College, and
Officiating Government Astronomer, Madras, India
* Smith, George, F.C.S., Polmont Station
Smith, James Greig, M.A., M.B., 16 Victoria Square, Clifton 420
* Smith, John, M.D., F.R.C.S.E., LL.D., 11 Wemyss Place
Smith, William Robert, M.D., D.Sc., Barrister-at-Law, Professor of Forensic Medicine in
King’s College, 74 Great Russell Street, Bloomsbury Square, London
Smyth, Piazzi, LL.D., Ex-Astronomer-Royal for Scotland, and Emeritus Professor of
Astronomy in the University of Edinburgh, Clova, Ripon
Sollas, W. J., M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., late Fellow of St John’s College, Cambridge, and Pro-
fessor of Geology and Mineralogy in the University of Dublin, Lisnabin, Dartry
Park Road, Rathgar, county Dublin
* Somerville, William, Dr’Oec., B.Se., Professor of Agriculture and Forestry in the Durham
College of Science, Newcastle-upon-Tyne 425
* Sorley, James, F.F.A., C.A., 18 Magdala Crescent
* Sprague, T. B., M.A., LL.D., Actuary, 29 Buckingham Terrace
* Stanfield, Richard, Professor of Mechanics and Engineering in the Heriot-Watt College
* Stevenson, Charles A., B.Sc., Memb. Inst. C.E., 28 Douglas Crescent
* Stevenson, David Alan, B.Sc., Memb. Inst. C.E., 45 Melville Street 430
* Stevenson, James, F.R.G.S., Largs
* Stevenson, Rev. John, LL.D., Minister of Glamis, Forfarshire
Stevenson, John J., 4 Porchester Gardens, London
792 ALPHABETICAL LIST OF THE ORDINARY FELLOWS OF THE SOCIETY.
Date of |
Election.
1888
1868
1866
1873
1877
1889
1894
1823
1875
1885
1872
1861
1890
1870
1892
1872
1892
1885
1884
1870
1887
1887
1880
1863
1870
1882
1876
1878
1893
1874
1874
1888
1894
1861
~P,
SA
G4 by
P,
1 ea oF
NE.
* Stewart, Charles Hunter, D.Sc., M.B., C.M., 3 Carlton Terrace
Stewart, Major-General J. H. M. Shaw, late R.E., Assoc. Inst. C.E., F.R.G.S., 61 Lancaster
Gate, London, W. 435
Stewart, Sir Thomas Grainger, M.D. Edin. and Dub., F.R.C.P.E., Professor of the
Practice of Physic in the University of Edinburgh, 19 Charlotte Square
* Stewart, Walter, 1 Murrayfield Gardens
* Stirling, William, D.Sc., M.D., Brackenbury Professor of Physiology and Histology in
Owens College and Victoria University, Manchester
* Stockman, Ralph, M.D., F.R.C.P.E., 12 Hope Street
* Struthers, John, M.D., LL.D., Emeritus Professor of Anatomy in the University of Aber-
deen, 24 Buckingham Terrace 440
Stuart, Captain T. D., H.M.I.S.
* Syme, James, 9 Drumsheugh Gardens
* Symington, Johnson, M.D., F.R.C.S.E., Prof. of Anatomy in Queen’s College, Belfast
Tait, The Venerable A., D.D., LL.D., M.R.I.A., Archdeacon of Tuam, Moylough Rectory,
Ballinasloe, County Galway, Ireland
Tait, P. Guthrie, M.A., D.Sc., Professor of Natural Philosophy in the University of Edin-
burgh (GeNERAL SECRETARY), 38 George Square 445
Tanakadate, Aikitu, Professor of Natural Philosophy in the Imperial University of Japan,
Tokyo, Japan
Tatlock, Robert R., F.C.S., City Analyst’s Office, 156 Bath Street, Glasgow
* Taylor, W. A., M.A. (Camb.), 3 East Mayfield
* Teape, Rev. Charles R., M.A., Ph.D., 15 Findhorn Place
* Thackwell, J. B., M.B., C.M., Tenterfield, New South Wales - 450
* Thompson, D’Arcy W., B.A., F.L.S., Prof. of Natural History in University College, Dundee
* Thoms, George Hunter, of Aberlemno, Advocate, Sheriff of the Counties of Orkney and
Zetland, 13 Charlotte Square
Thomson, Rev. Andrew, D.D., 63 Northumberland Street
* Thomson, Andrew, M.A., D.Sc., Assistant to the Professor of Chemistry in the University
College, Dundee, 10 Pitcullen Terrace, Perth
* Thomson, J. Arthur, M.A., Lecturer on Zoology, School of Medicine, 11 Ramsay Gardens 455
Thomson, John Millar, 85 Addison Road, London
Thomson, Murray, M.D., late Professor of Experimental Science, Thomason College, Roorkee,
India, 44 Victoria Road, Gipsy Hill, London, S.E.
Thomson, Spencer C., Actuary, 10 Eglinton Crescent
Thomson, Wm., M.A., B.Sc., Professor of Mathematics, Victoria College, Stellenbosch, Cape
Colony
Thomson, William, Royal Institution, Manchester 460
Thorburn, Robert Macfie, Uddevalla, Sweden
* Tillie, Joseph, M.D., C.M., 10 Castle Terrace
* Traquair, R. H., M.D., LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.S., Keeper of the Natural History Collections
in the Museum of Science and Art, Edinburgh, 8 Dean Park Crescent
* Tuke, J. Batty, M.D., F.R.C.P.E., 20 Charlotte Square _
* Turnbull, Andrew H., Actuary, The Elms, Whitehouse Loan 465
* Turnbull, The Rev. Thomas Hardie, The Manse, Lesmahagow
Turner, Sir William, M.B., LL.D., D.C.L., D.Sc. Dub., F.R.C.S.E., F.R.S., Professor of
Anatomy in the University of Edinburgh (Vicr-PreEsipENT), 6 Eton Terrace
ALPHABETICAL LIST.OF THE ORDINARY FELLOWS OF THE SOCIETY. 793
Elsetion.
1877 | * Underhill, Charles E., B.A., M.B., F.R.C.P.E., F.R.C.S.E., 8 Coates Crescent
1889 Underhill, T. Edgar, M.D., F.R.C.S.E., Broomsgrove, Worcestershire
1891 Vernon, Henry Hannotte, M.D., 7 Talbot Street, Southport, Lancashire 470
1875 Vincent, Charles Wilson, F.I.C., F.C.S., M.R.I., Librarian of the Reform Club, Pall Mall,
38 Queen’s Road, South Hoey ieee
1888 , Walker, James, Memb. Inst. C.E., Engineer’s Office, Harbour Works, Douglas, Isle of Man
1891 | P. | * Walker, James, D.Sc. Ph.D., Professor of Chemistry in University College, Dundee, 8
Windsor Terrace, Dundee
1873 * Walker, Robert, M.A., University, Aberdeen
1886 * Wallace, R., F.L.S., Prof. of Agriculture and Rural Economy in the Univ. of Edinburgh 475
1891 * Walmsley, R. Mullineux, D.Sc., Professor of Physies and Electrical Engineering in the
Heriot-Watt College
1866 Watson, Patrick Heron, M.D., F.R.C.S.E., LL.D., 16 Charlotte Square
1862 | P. Watson, Rev. Robert Boog, B.A., LL.D., F.L.S., President of the Conchological Society,
Free Church Manse, Cardross, Deneaoncliiee
1887 * Webster, H. A., Librarian to the Univ. of Edinburgh, 7 Duddingston Park, Portobello
1882 * Wenley, James A., Treasurer of the Bank of Scotland, 5 Drumsheugh Gardens 480
1890 | White, William Henry, C.B., LL.D., F.R.S., Memb. Inst. C.E., Assistant Controller of the
Navy, and Director of Naval Construction, The Admiralty, London
1881 Whitehead, Walter, F.R.C.S.E., Professor of Clinical Surgery, Owens College and Victoria
University, 499 Oxford Road, Manchester
1894 Whymper, Edward, Surrey House, Victoria Embankment, London
1883 Wickham, R. H. B., M.D., F.R.C.S.E., Medical Superintendent, City and County Lunatic
Asylum, Newcastle-on-Tyne, West Mead, Dawlish, South Devon
1879 * Will, John Charles Ogilvie, M.D., 379 Union Street, Aberdeen 485
1868 Williams, W., Principal and Professor of Veterinary Medicine and Surgery, New Veterinary
College, Leith Walk
1888 * Williamson, George, F.A.S. Scot., 37 Newton Street, Finnart, Greenock
1879 * Wilson, Andrew, Ph.D., F.L.S., Lecturer on Zoology and Comparative Anatomy, 110
Gilmore Place
1878 * Wilson, Rev. John, M.A., 23 Buccleuch Place
1882 Wilson, George, M.A., M.D., 7 Avon Place, Warwick 490
1891 * Wilson, John Hardie, D.Sc., The Yorkshire College, Leeds
1889 Wilson, Robert, Memb. Inst. C.E., St Stephen’s Club, and 7 Westminster Chambers,
: Victoria Street, London
1870 Winzer, John, Chief Surveyor, Civil Service, Ceylon, Southfield, Paignton, S. Devon
1886 * Woodhead, German Sims, M.D., F.R.C.P.E., Director of the Laboratories of the Royal
Colleges of Physicians (Lond.) and Surgeons (Eng.), Examination Hall, Victoria
Embankment, W.C., and 1 Nightingale Lane, Balham, London, 8. W.
1884 Woods, G. A., M.R.C.S., Lansdowne, 36 Hoghton Street, Southport 495
1890 * Wright, Johnstone Christie, Riverslied, Crieff
1887 * Yeo, John S., Carrington House, Fettes College
1882 * Young, Frank W., F.C.S., Lecturer on Natural Science, High School, Dundee, Woodmuir
Park, West Newport, Fife
1892 Young, George, Ph.D., Firth College, Sheffield
1882 * Young, Thomas Graham, Westfield, West Calder 500
794 LIST OF HONORARY FELLOWS.
LIST OF HONORARY FELLOWS
AT NOVEMBER 1894.
His Royal Highness The Prince or WALES.
FOREIGNERS (LIMITED TO THIRTY-SIX BY LAW X.).
Klected.
1889 Marcellin Pierre Eugéne Berthelot,
1864 Robert Wilhelm Bunsen,
1883 Luigi Cremona,
1889 Ernst Curtius,
1858 James D. Dana,
1892 Armand Hippolyte Louis Fizeau,
1877 Carl Gegenbaur,
1888 Ernst Haeckel,
1883 Julius Hann,
1884 Charles Hermite,
1879 Jules Janssen,
1875 August Kekulé,
1864 Albert von Kolliker,
1864 Rudolph Leuckart,
1881 Sven Lovén,
1888 Demetrius Ivanovich Mendeléef,
1886 Alphonse Milne-Edwards,
1864 Theodore Mommsen,
1881 Simon Newcomb,
1886 H. A. Newton,
1874 Louis Pasteur,
1889 Georg Hermann Quincke,
1886 Alphonse Renard,
1892 Emile Dubois-Reymond,
1881 Johannes Iapetus Smith Steenstrup,
1878 Otto Wilhelm Struve,
1886 Tobias Robert Thalén,
1874 Otto Torell,
1868 Rudolph Virchow,
1892 Gustav Wiedemann,
Total, 30,
Paris.
Heidelberg.
Rome.
Berlin.
New Haven, Conn.
Paris. :
Heidelberg.
Jena.
Vienna.
Paris.
Paris.
Bonn.
Wurzburg.
Leipzig.
Stockholm.
St Petersburg.
Paris.
Berlin.
Washington.
Yale College.
Paris.
Heidelberg.
Gand.
Berlin.
Copenhagen.
Pulkowa.
Upsala.
Lund.
Berlin.
Leipzg.
LIST OF HONORARY FELLOWS.
BRITISH SUBJECTS (LIMITED TO TWENTY BY LAW X.).
Elected.
1889
1865
1892
1884
1892
1881
1883
1884
1876
1892
1886
1881
1884
1864
1892
1874
1883
Sir Robert Stawell Ball, Kt., LL.D., F.R.S., M.R.LA., Lowndean
Professor of Astronomy in the University of Cambridge,
Arthur Cayley, LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.S., Corresp. Memb. Inst, of
France,
Colonel Alexander Ross Clarke, C.B., R.E., F.B.S.,
Edward Frankland, D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S., Corresp. Mem. Inst. of
France,
David Gill, LL.D., F.R.S., Her Majesty’s Astronomer at the Cape
of Good Hope,
The Hon. Justice Sir William Robert Grove, LL.D., D.C.L.,
BeRESS
Sir Joseph Dalton Hooker, K.C.S.L, M.D., LL.D., D.C.L., F.B.S.,
Corresp. Mem. Inst. of France,
William Huggins, LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.S., Corresp. Mem. Inst. of
France,
The Right Hon. Thomas Henry Huxley, LL.D., D.C.L., F.RB.S.,
Corresp. Mem. Inst. of France,
Sir James Paget, Bart., LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.S., Corresp. Mem.
Inst. of France,
The Lord Rayleigh, D.C.L., LL.D., D.Sc. Dub. Sec. RB.S.,
Corresp. Mem. Inst. of France,
The Rey. George Salmon, D.D., LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.S., Corresp.
Mem. Inst. of France,
J. S. Burdon Sanderson, M.D., LL.D., D.Sc. Dub., F.R.S.,
Sir George Gabriel Stokes, Bart., M.P., LL.D., D.C.L., F.B.S.,
Corresp. Mem. Inst. of France,
The Right Rev. W. Stubbs, D.D., LL.D., Bishop of Oxford,
James Joseph Sylvester, LL.D., F.R.S., Corresp. Mem. Inst.
of France,
Alexander William Williamson, LL.D., F.R.S., Corresp. Mem. Inst.
of France,
Total, 17.
VOL, XXXVII. PART IV.
Cambridge.
Cambridge.
Redhill, Surrey.
London.
Cape of Good Hope.
London.
London.
London.
London.
London.
London.
Dublin.
Oxford.
Cambridge.
Oxford.
Oxford.
London.
62
795
796 LIST OF MEMBERS ELECTED.
ORDINARY FELLOWS ELECTED
Durine SxEsston 1891-92,
ARRANGED ACCORDING TO THE Datr OF THEIR ELECTION.
7th December 1891.
GrorcE Ropert Mitne Murray, Natural Roser C. Mossman, F.R. Met. Soe.
History Department, Brit. Museum
4th January 1892.
J. W. Batiantine, M.D.
lst February 1892
Tuomas Hearth, B.A., Assistant Astronomer H. J. Girrorp.
Royal Observatory, Edinburgh. THoMaS Parker, Memb, Inst. C.E.
J. H. Merino Becs, M.D. W. J. Brock, M.B., D.Sc.
7th March 1892.
Professor J. T. Morrison, M.A. Rev. JoHn Kerr, M.A.
4th April 1892.
Patrick Neint FRAsER. Davin PauLin.
16th May 1892.
Grorce Youne, Ph.D. W. A. Tayior, M.A. Camb.
JouN Simpson Forp, F.C.S. ARTHUR J. PressLanp, M.A.
Henry Coatss. Patrick Doyte, C.E., M.R.1.A.
M. J. R. Dunstan, B.A., F.C.S.
6th June 1892.
J. B. THackwe Lu, M.B., C.M. Parer Fyre, Chief Sanitary Inspector, Glasgow.
4th July 1892.
Francis Jonn Martin, W.S,
LIST OF MEMBERS ELECTED. 797
HONORARY FELLOWS ELECTED
Durine Session 1891-92.
FOREIGN.
Gustav WiEpEMANN, Professor of Physics in the University of Leipzig.
Wittiam Dwicut Wuitney, Professor of Sanskrit and Comparative Philology in Yale College,
United States.
Emite Dusors-ReyMonp, Professor of Physiology in the University of Berlin.
ARMAND Hipronyte Louis Fizeau, Mem. Inst. of France.
BRITISH.
Davi Git, LL.D., F.R.S., Her Majesty’s Astronomer at the Cape of Good Hope.
Colonel AnexaNpER Ross Crarke, C.B., R.E., F.R.S.
Sir James Pacet, Bart., LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.S., Corr. Mem. Inst. of France.
The Right Rev. W. Stuszs, D.D., LL.D., Bishop of Oxford.
798 LIST OF MEMBERS DECEASED, ETC.
»
FELLOWS DECEASED OR RESIGNED
Durine SEssion 1891-92.
ORDINARY FELLOWS DECEASED.
Sir James Brunurges, Memb. Inst. C,E. Sir Grorce H. B. Mactzop, M.D.
Professor W. Dirtmar, LL.D., F.R.S. Tuomas Ne1son.
ALEXANDER Forses Irvine of Drum, LL.D. W. F. Skene, LL.D., D.C.L., Historiographer Royal
ALEXANDER Kerrier, M.D., LL.D. James Tuomson, LL.D., F.R.S.
Joun Ramsay L’Amy of Dunkenny. Joun Kieren Watson.
Sir Danie Wirson, LL.D.
RESIGNED.
General JoHN Bay.y. Professor A. H. Sexton.
WiuiaM Fereuson, Esq. A. Sttva Waite.
The Earl] of Happineron. G. B. WIELAND.
HONORARY FELLOWS DECEASED.
Session 1891-92.
BRITISH.
Joan Coucn Apam, LL.D., F.R.S.
Sir Gzorcr Bropert Airy, K.C.B., LL.D., D.C,L., F.R.S.
The Right Hon. Lorp Tennyson, Poet-Laureate, F.R.S.
LIST OF MEMBERS ELECTED.
ORDINARY FELLOWS ELECTED
Durine SEsston 1892-93.
ARRANGED ACCORDING TO THE DaTE OF THEIR ELECTION.
16th January 1893.
Donaup Brirx, W.S. ALEXANDER Low Bruce.
ALEXANDER Epineron, M.B., C.M.
6th February 1893.
Freperick Witi1AM Barry, M.D., C.M. R. 8S. Fancourr Barnes, M.D., C.M.
ARTHUR GEORGE PERKIN. Patrick Hruir, M.D.
6th March 1893.
©. G. H. Kinnear, F.R.1.B.A. GEORGE SANDIsON Brock, M.D., C.M.
Roserr Howpen, M.B., C.M. W. L. CanpERwoop.
3rd April 1893.
Professor Lupwic Brcxsr, Ph. D. JospeH TrnLim, M.D., C.M.
lst May 1893.
Gxorce ANDREAS Berry, M.D., C.M. J. Macvicar ANDERSON.
Watrer EH. Arce.
3rd July 1893.
The Rev. Jonn M‘Murtnrin, M.A., D.D.
799
800 LIST OF MEMBERS DECEASED, ETC. |
FELLOWS DECEASED OR RESIGNED
Durine Sxesston 1892-93.
ORDINARY FELLOWS DECEASED.
Hersert H, AsHpown, M.D. W. Macponatp Macponatp of St. Martin’s,
GrorcE Brook, F.L.S. Ropert A. Macriz.
Rev. Toomas Brown, D.D. W. Burns Tuomson, M.D.
Wiuiyam Durga. JamES Watson, C.A.
Emeritus Professor W. Morsk Grainty Hewitt. Rosert Stopparr Wyxp, LL.D.
CHARLES JENNER.
RESIGNED.
Lord Stormontu-Daruine. - Sir R. Mirebode SmirH.
Professor A. W. Harn. Professor J. E. A. SrecGe@aty.
Lord Kynuacny. J. R. Stewart.
HONORARY FELLOWS DECEASED.
SESSION 1892-93.
FOREIGN.
ALPHONSE DE CANDOLLE. Eryst Epuarp Kumyer.
BRITISH.
Sir Ricuarp Owen, K.C.B., M.D., LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.S.
LIST OF MEMBERS ELECTED.
ORDINARY FELLOWS ELECTED
Durine SEssion 1893-94,
ARRANGED ACCORDING TO THE DATE OF THEIR ELECTION.
Ath December 1893.
The Rev. Taomas Harpie TURNBULL. JAMES MACDONALD.
15th January 1894.
Francis Jonn Auvan, M.D., C.M. HERBERT Boiron.
James Ancus Cameron, M.D. Joun Cook, M.A.
Cyartes Henry Garry, M.A., LL.D.
5th February 1894.
Lieut.-Col. FrepERIcK BaI.ey. Arrrep Hint, M.D., M.R.C.8,
Professor JoHn StrutTHERS, M.D., LL.D. James Buresss, C.1.E., LL.D.
ARCHIBALD DENNY.
5th March 1894.
Water JoHN Massort, M.A. J. M. M. Munro, M.I.E.E.
Epwarp WHYMPER.
7th May 1894.
Joun Swann, M.D., F.R.C.P.E. Matcoum Lauris, B.Sc., B.A.
JOHN JACKSON.
2nd July 1894.
Rosert Mackenziz, M.D. WiuiaM Surevp, M.Inst.C.E.
Paiuie R. D. Maciaean.
801
802 LIST OF MEMBERS DECEASED, ETC.
FELLOWS DECEASED OR RESIGNED
Durine Session 1893-94.
ORDINARY FELLOWS DECEASED.
Donaup Berry, W.S. Gerorce Leste, M.D., C.M.
ALEXANDER Low Bruce. General R. Macuaean, R.E.
Ropert Cuark. R. B. Matcoum, M.D., F.R.C.P.E.
Rosert Hurcuison. Rey. Professor W. Ropertson Smiru, M.A.,
C. G. H. Kinnear, A.R.S.A. LL.D. a vane
ALEXANDER Lesiie, M.Inst.C.E. Emeritus Professor Wintiam Swan, LL.D.
RESIGNED.
Davin Prypvs, M.A., LL.D. ARTHUR Awperson, C.B.. M.D.
HONORARY FELLOWS DECEASED.
- Session 1893-94.
FOREIGN.
Pierre J. vAN BENEDEN. Hermann Lupwica FERDINAND von HELMHOLTz.
FerDINAND DE Lessups. Wituiam Dwienr Wurrney,
BRITISH.
Joun Antuony Frovupn, LL.D.
LAWS
OF THE
ROYAL SOCTERY OF EDINBURGH,
AS REVISED 20TH FEBRUARY 1882.
VOL. XXXVII. PART IV. 6F
( 805 )
A WS.
[By the Charter of the Society (printed in the Transactions, Vol. VI. p. 5), the Laws cannot
be altered, except at a Meeting held one month after that at which the Motion for
alteration shall have been proposed. |
1.
THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH shall consist of Ordinary and
Honorary Fellows.
If.
Every Ordinary Fellow, within three months after his election, shall pay Two
Guineas as the fee of admission, and Three Guineas as his contribution for the
Session in which he has been elected; and annually at the commencement of every
Session, Three Guineas into the hands of the Treasurer. This annual contribution
shall continue for ten years after his admission, and it shall be limited to Two
Guineas for fifteen years thereafter.*
II.
All Fellows who shall have paid Twenty-five years’ annual contribution shall
be exempted from further payment.
IV.
The fees of admission of an Ordinary Non-Resident Fellow shall be £26, 5s.,
payable on his admission ; and in case of any Non-Resident Fellow coming to
reside at any time in Scotland, he shall, during each year of his residence, pay
the usual annual contribution of £3, 3s., payable by each Resident Fellow ; but
after payment of such annual contribution for eight years, he shall be exempt
* A modification of this rule, in certain cases, was agreed to at a Meeting of the Society held on
the 3rd January 1831.
At the Meeting of the Society, on the 5th January 1857, when the reduction of the Contribu-
tions from £3, 3s. to £2, 2s., from the 11th to the 25th year of membership, was adopted, it was
resolved that the existing Members shall share in this reduction, so far as regards their future annual
Contributions.
Title.
The fees of Ordin-
ary Fellows residing
in Scotland.
Payment to cease
after 25 years.
Fees of Non-Resi-
dent Ordinary
Fellows.
Case of Fellows
becoming Non-
Resident.
Defaulters.
Privileges of
Ordinary Fellows.
Numbers Un-
limited.
Fellows entitled to
Transactions.
Mode of Recom-
mending Ordinary
Fellows.
806 LAWS OF THE SOCIETY.
from any further payment. In the case of any Resident Fellow ceasing to reside
in Scotland, and wishing to continue a Fellow of the Society, it shall be in the
power of the Council to determine on what terms, in the circumstances of each _
case, the privilege of remaining a Fellow of the Society shall be continued to —
such Fellow while out of Scotland.
V.
Members failing to pay their contributions for three successive years (due
application having been made to them by the Treasurer) shall be reported to
the Council, and, if they see fit, shall be declared from that period to be no
longer Fellows, and the legal means for recovering such arrears shall be
employed.
Vi
None but Ordinary Fellows shall bear any office in the Society, or vote in
the choice of Fellows or Office-Bearers, or interfere in the patrimonial interests
of the Society.
VIL.
The number of Ordinary Fellows shall be unlimited.
Vat
The Ordinary Fellows, upon producing an order from the Treasurer, shall
be entitled to receive from the Publisher, gratis, the Parts of the Society’s
Transactions which shall be published subsequent to their admission.
1 B-@
Candidates for admission as Ordinary Fellows shall make an application in
writing, and shall produce along with it a certificate of recommendation to the
purport below,* signed by at least /ows Ordinary Fellows, two of whom shall
certify their recommendation from personal knowledge. This recommendation
shall be delivered to the Secretary, and by him laid before the Council, and
shall afterwards be printed in the circulars for three Ordinary Meetings of —
the Society, previous to the day of election, and shall lie upon the table during |
that time.
* “A B., a gentleman well versed in Science (or Polite Literature, as the case may be), being
“to our knowledge desirous of becoming a Fellow of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, we hereby
“ yecommend him as deserving of that honour, and as likely to prove a useful and valuable Member.”
7
LAWS OF THE SOCIETY. 807
»e
Honorary Fellows shall not be subject to any contribution. This class shall
consist of persons eminently distinguished for science or literature. Its number
shall not exceed Fifty-six, of whom Twenty may be British subjects, and Thirty-
six may be subjects of foreign states.
XI.
Personages of Royal Blood may be elected Honorary Fellows, without regard
to the limitation of numbers specified in Law X.
XII.
Honorary Fellows may be proposed by the Council, or by a recommenda-
tion (in the form given below*) subscribed by three Ordinary Fellows ; and in
case the Council shall decline to bring this recommendation before the Society,
it shall be competent for the proposers to bring the same before a General
Meeting. The election shall be by ballot, after the proposal has been commu-
nicated viva voce from the Chair at one meeting, and printed in the circulars
for two ordinary meetings of the Society, previous to the day of election.
PSU
The election of Ordinary Fellows shall only take place at the first Ordinary
Meeting of each month during the Session. The election shall be by ballot,
and shall be determined by a majority of at least two-thirds of the votes, pro-
vided Twenty-four Fellows be present and vote.
XD.
The Ordinary Meetings shall be held on the first and third Mondays of
every month from December to July inclusively ; excepting when there are
five Mondays in January, in which case the Meetings for that month shall
be held on its third and fifth Mondays. Regular Minutes shall be kept of
the proceedings, and the Secretaries shall do the duty alternately, or
according to such agreement as they may find it convenient to make.
- We: hereby mecomimend!= 5 <2 0) aces :
for the distinction of being made an Honorary Fellow of ‘this Society, declaring that aac a us 2 ea
our own knowledge of his services to (Literature or Science, as the case may be) believe him to be
worthy of that honour,
(To be signed by three Ordinary Fellows.)
To the President and Council of the Royal Society
of Edinburgh.
Honorary Fellows,
British and :
Foreign.
Royal Personages.
t
Recommendation
of Honorary
Fellows.
Mode of Election.
Election of Ordi-
nary Fellows.
Ordinary Meet-
ings.
The Transactions.
How Published.
The Council.
Retiring Council-
ors.
Election of Office-
Bearers.
Special Meetings ;
how called.
Treasurer's Duties.
808 LAWS OF THE SOCIETY.
XV.
The Society shall from time to time publish its Transactions and Proceed-
ings. For this purpose the Council shall select and arrange the papers which
they shall deem it expedient to publish in the 7’ransactions of the Society, and
shall supermtend the printing of the same.
The Council shall have power to regulate the private business of the Society.
At any Meeting of the Council the Chairman shall have a casting as well as a
deliberative vote.
XVI.
The Transactions shall be published in parts or Fasczculi at the close of
each Session, and the expense shall be defrayed by the Society.
DOVE
That there shall be formed a Council, consisting—First, of such gentlemen
as may have filled the office of President ; and Secondly, of the following to be
annually elected, viz.:—a President, Six Vice-Presidents (two at least of whom
shall be resident), Twelve Ordinary Fellows as Councillors, a General Secretary,
Two Secretaries to the Ordinary Meetings, a Treasurer, and a Curator of the
Museum and Library.
XVIII.
Four Councillors shall go out annually, to be taken according to the order
in which they stand on the list of the Council.
XIX.
An Extraordinary Meeting for the Election of Office-Bearers shall be held
on the fourth Monday of November annually.
XX.
Special Meetings of the Society may be called by the Secretary, by direction
of the Council; or on a requisition signed by six or more Ordinary Fellows.
Notice of not less than two days must be given of such Meetings.
XXI.
The Treasurer shall receive and disburse the money belonging to the Society,
granting the necessary receipts, and collecting the money when due.
He shall keep regular accounts of all the cash received and expended, which
shall be made up and balanced annually ; and at the Extraordinary Meeting im
November, he shall present the accounts for the preceding year, duly audited.
:
:
LAWS OF THE SOCIETY. 809
At this Meeting, the Treasurer shall also lay before the Council a list of all
arrears due above two years, and the Council shall thereupon give such direc-
tions as they may deem necessary for recovery thereof.
XXII.
At the Extraordinary Meeting in November, a professional accountant shall
be chosen to audit the Treasurer’s accounts for that year, and to give the neces-
sary discharge of his intromissions.
XXIII.
The General Secretary shall keep Minutes of the Extraordinary Meetings of
the Society, and of the Meetings of the Council, in two distinct books. He
shall, under the direction of the Council, conduct the correspondence of the
Society, and superintend its publications. For these purposes he shall, when
necessary, employ a clerk, to be paid by the Society.
XXIV.
The Secretaries to the Ordinary Meetings shall keep a regular Minute-book,
in which a full account of the proceedings of these Meetings shall be entered ;
they shall specify all the Donations received, and furnish a list of them, and of
the Donors’ names, to the Curator of the Library and Museum ; they shall like-
wise furnish the Treasurer with notes of all admissions of Ordinary Fellows.
They shall assist the General Secretary in superintending the publications, and
in his absence shall take his duty.
XX.
The Curator of the Museum and Library shall have the custody and charge
of all the Books, Manuscripts, objects of Natural History, Scientific Produc-
tions, and other articles of a similar description belonging to the Society ; he
shall take an account of these when received, and keep a regular catalogue of
the whole, which shall lie in the Hall, for the inspection of the Fellows.
XXVI.
All Articles of the above description shall be open to the inspection of the
Fellows at the Hall of the Society, at such times and under such regulations,
as the Council from time to time shall appoint.
XXVII.
A Register shall be kept, in which the names of the Fellows shall be
enrolled at their admission, with the date.
Auditor.
General Secretary’s
Duties.
Secretaries to
Ordinary Meetings.
Curator of Museum
and Library.
Use of Museum
and Library.
Register Book
€ weBthiO ws)
THE KEITH, MAKDOUGALL-BRISBANE, NEILL, AND
GUNNING VICTORIA JUBILEE PRIZES.
The above Prizes will be awarded by the Council in the following manner :—
I. KEITH PRIZE.
The KerrH Prize, consisting of a Gold Medal and from £40 to £50 in
Money, will be awarded in the Session 1895-96 for the “best communication
on a scientific subject, communicated, in the first instance, to the Royal Society
during the Sessions 1895-94 and 1894-95.” Preference will be given to a
paper containing a discovery.
Il. MAKDOUGALL-BRISBANE PRIZE.
This Prize is to be awarded biennially by the Council of the Royal Society
of Edinburgh to such person, for such purposes, for such objects, and in such
manner as shall appear to them the most conducive to the promotion of the
interests of science ; with the proviso that the Council shall not be compelled
to award the Prize unless there shall be some individual engaged in scientific
pursuit, or some paper written on a scientific subject, or some discovery in
science made during the biennial period, of sufficient merit or importance in
the opinion of the Council to be entitled to the Prize.
1. The Prize, consisting of a Gold Medal and a sum of Money, will be
awarded at the commencement of the Session 1894—95, for an Essay or Paper
having reference to any branch of scientific inquiry, whether Material or
Mental.
2. Competing Essays to be addressed to the Secretary of the Society, and
transmitted not later than 8th July 1894.
3. The Competition is open to all men of science.
APPENDIX—KEITH, BRISBANE, NEILL, AND GUNNING PRIZES. 811
4. The Essays may be either anonymous or otherwise. In the former case,
they must be distinguished by mottoes, with corresponding sealed billets, super-
scribed with the same motto, and containing the name of the Author.
5. The Council impose no restriction as to the length of the Essays, which
may be, at the discretion of the Council, read at the Ordinary Meetings of the
Society. They wish also to leave the property and free disposal of the manu-
scripts to the Authors ; a copy, however, being deposited in the Archives of
the Society, unless the paper shall be published in the Transactions.
6. In awarding the Prize, the Council will also take into consideration
any scientific papers presented to the Society during the Sessions 1892-93,
1895-94, whether they may have been given in with a view to the prize or not.
Ill. NEILL PRIZE.
The Council of the Royal Society of Edinburgh having received the bequest
of the late Dr Patrick Nem. of the sum of £500, for the purpose of “the
interest thereof being applied in furnishing a Medal or other reward every
second or third year to any distinguished Scottish Naturalist, according as such
Medal or reward shall be voted by the Council of the said Society,” hereby
intimate,
1. The Nem. Prize, consisting of a Gold Medal and a sum of Money, will
be awarded during the Session 1895-96.
2. The Prize will be given for a Paper of distinguished merit, on a subject
of Natural History, by a Scottish Naturalist, which shall have been presented
to the Society during the three years preceding the 8th July 1895,—or failing
presentation of a paper sufficiently meritorious, it will be awarded for a work
or publication by some distinguished Scottish Naturalist, on some branch of
Natural History, bearing date within five years of the time of award.
IV. GUNNING VICTORIA JUBILEE PRIZE.
This Prize, founded in the year 1887 by Dr R. H. GuNNING, is to be awarded
triennially by the Council of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, in recognition of
original work in Physics, Chemistry, or Pure or Applied Mathematics.
VOL. XXXVII. PART IV. 6G
812 APPENDIX—KEITH, BRISBANE, NEILL, AND GUNNING PRIZES.
Evidence of such work may be afforded either by a Paper presented to the
Society, or by a Paper on one of the above subjects, or some discovery in them
elsewhere communicated or made, which the Council may consider to be
deserving of the Prize.
_ The Prize consists of a sum of money, and is open to men of science resi-
dent in or connected with Scotland. The first award was made in the year
1887. 1 OM
In accordance with the wish of the Donor, the Council of the Society may
on fit occasions award the Prize for work of a definite kind to be undertaken
during the three succeeding years by a scientific man of recognised ability.
(813002)
AWARDS OF THE KEITH, MAKDOUGALL-BRISBANE, NEILL, AND
GUNNING VICTORIA JUBILEE PRIZES, FROM 1827 TO 1893,
I. KEITH PRIZE.
lst Brenntat Periop, 1827—29.—Dr Brewster, for his papers “on his Discovery of Two New Immis-
cible Fluids in the Cavities of certain Minerals,” published in
the Transactions of the Society.
2np BrenniaL PerRiop, 1829-31.—Dr Brewster, for his paper ‘fon a New Analysis of ‘Solar
Light,” published in the Transactions of the Society.
3rD BienniaL Periop, 1831-33.—THomas Grauam, Esq., for his paper “ on the Law of the Diffusion
of Gases,” published in the Transactions of the Society.
47H Brenniat Periop, 1833-35.—Professor J. D. Forsss, for his paper “ on the Refraction and Polari-
zation of Heat,” published in the Transactions of the Society.
5TH BrenniaL Periop, 1835-37.—Joun Scorr RussEtt, Esq.,for his Researches “on Hydrodynamics,”
published in the Transactions of the Society.
6TH Brenna Periop, 1837-39.—Mr Jonn Suaw, for his experiments “on the Development and
Growth of the Salmon,” published in the Transactions of the
Society.
71H Brenniat Periop, 1839-41.—Not awarded.
8tH Brenniat Periop, 1841-43.—Professor James Davin Forsss, for his papers “on Glaciers,”
published in the Proceedings of the Society.
9TH BienniaAL Periop, 1843-45.—Not awarded.
10TH Brenniat Periop, 1845-47.—General Sir THomas Brispane, Bart., for the Makerstoun Observa-
tions on Magnetic Phenomena, made at his expense, and
published in the Transactions of the Society.
11tH Brennan Periop, 1847—49.—Not awarded.
127H Brennrat Periop, 1849-51.—Professor Kexzand, for his papers “on General Differentiation,
including his more recent communication on a process of the
Differential Calculus, and its application to the solution of
certain Differential Equations,” published in the Transactions
of the Society.
13TH Brenniau Periop, 1851-53.—W. J. Macquorn Rangine, Esq., for his series of papers “on the
Mechanical Action of Heat,” published in the Transactions
of the Society.
147H Brenniat Periop, 1853-55.—Dr THomas AnpeErson, for his papers “on the Crystalline Con-
stituents of Opium, and on the Products of the Destructive
Distillation of Animal Substances,” published in the Trans-
actions of the Society.
15TH Brenntat Periop, 1855-57.—Professor Boots, for his Memoir “on the Application of the Theory
of Probabilities to Questions of the Combination of Testimonies
and Judgments,” published in the Transactions of the Society.
16TH Brennrau Pariop, 1857-59.—Not awarded.
17TH Brenntat Periop, 1859=-61.—Joun Atian Broun, Esq., F.R.S., Director of the Trevandrum
Observatory, for his papers “on the Horizontal Force of the
Earth’s Magnetism, on the Correction of the Bifilar Magnet-
ometer, and on Terrestrial Magnetism generally,” published in
the Transactions of the Society.
814 APPENDIX—KEITH, BRISBANE, NEILL, AND GUNNING PRIZES.
187 BrenniaL Periop, 1861-63.—Professor WitLiAm THomson, of the University of Glasgow, for his
Communication “on some Kinematical and Dynamical
Theorems.”
197x BrenniaL Pertop, 1863-65.—Principal Forses, St Andrews, for his “Experimental Inquiry into
the Laws of Conduction of Heat in Tron Bars,” published in
the Transactions of the Society.
207rH BrenniaL Periop, 1865-67.—Professor C. Piazzi Smyta, for his paper “on Recent Measures at
the Great Pyramid,” published in the Transactions of the
Society.
2ist Brenniat Pertop, 1867-69.—Professor P. G. Tart, for his paper “on the Rotation of a Rigid
Body about a Fixed Point,” published in the Transactions of
the Society.
22np BienniaL Periop, 1869-71.—Professor CrerK MAxweEt1, for his paper “on Figures, Frames,
and Diagrams of Forces,” published in the Transactions of the
Society.
23rp BrenniaL Pertop, 1871—73.—Professor P. G. Tait, for his paper entitled “ First Approximation
to a Thermo-electric Diagram,” published in the Transactions
of the Society.
247H BIENNIAL Periop, 1873-75.—Professor Crum Brown, for his Researches “on the Sense of Rota-
tion, and on the Anatomical Relations of the Semicireular
Canals of the Internal Kar.”
257H BrenniaL Periop, 1875-77.—Professor M. Forster HEppix, for his papers “on the Rhom-
bohedral Carbonates,” and “on the Felspars of Scotland,”
published in the Transactions of the Society.
26TH Brenntat Periop, 1877-—79.—Professor H. C, Fieemine JENKIN, for his paper “on the Appli-
cation of Graphic Methods to the Determination of the Effi-
ciency of Machinery,” published in the Transactions of the
Society; Part II. having appeared in the volume for 1877-78.
277H Brenniat Periop, 1879-81.—Professor GrorcE Curystat, for his paper “on the Differential
Telephone,” published in the Transactions of the Society.
287H BrenniaL Periop, 1881-83.—Tuomas Muir, Esq., LL.D., for his “ Researches into the Theory
of Determinants and Continued Fractions,” published in the
Proceedings of the Society.
297H BienniaL Periop, 1883-85.—Joun AiTKEN, Esq., for his paper “on the Formation of Small
Clear Spaces in Dusty Air,” and for previous papers on
Atmospheric Phenomena, published in the Transactions of
the Society.
307TH BienniaL Periop, 1&885-87.—Joun Youna Bucwanan, Esq., for a series of communications,
extending over several years, on subjects connected with
Ocean Circulation, Compressibility of Glass, &c.; two of
which, viz., “On Ice and Brines,” and “On the Distribution
of Temperature in the Antarctic Ocean,” have been published
in the Proceedings of the Society.
31sr Brenntav Periop, 1887—89,—Professor E. A. Lerts, for his Papers on the Organic Compounds
of Phosphorus, published in the Transactions of the Society.
2np Brenntat Periop, 1889-91.—R. T. Omonn, Esq., for his Contributions to Meteorological Science,
many of which are contained in Vol. XXXIV. of the
Society’s Transactions.
33rd BiennraL Periop, 1891-93.—Professor Tuomas R. Fraser, F.R.S., for his Papers on Strophan-
thus hispidus, Strophanthin, and Strophanthidin, read to the
Society in February and June 1889 and in December 1891,
and printed in Vols. XXXV., XXXVI., and XXXVII. of
the Society’s Transactions.
APPENDIX—KEITH, BRISBANE, NEILL, AND GUNNING PRIZES. 815
Il. MAKDOUGALL-BRISBANE PRIZE.
lst BieynzaL Prriop, 1859.—Sir Roprerick Impry Murcuison, on account of his Contributions to
the Geology of Scotland.
2np Brenniat Periop, 1860—62,—Witniam Setter, M.D., F.R.C.P.E., for his “‘ Memoir of the Lite
and Writings of Dr Robert Whytt,” published in the Trans-
actions of the Society.
3RD BrenniaL Pgriop, 1862—64.—Jonn Denis Macponaxp, Esq., R.N., F.R.S., Surgeon of H.MLS.
“Tearus,” for his paper “on the Representative Relationships
of the Fixed and Free Tunicata, regarded as Two Sub-classes
of equivalent value; with some General Remarks on their
Morphology,” published in the Transactions of the Society.
47H Brenniat Periop, 1864—66.—Not awarded.
5TH Bianniat Prriop, 1866-68.—Dr AuexanpEr Crum Brown and Dr Tomas Ricwarp Fraser,
for their .conjoint paper “on the Connection between
Chemical Constitution and Physiological Action,” published
in the Transactions of the Society.
6rH BienniaL Periop, 1868—70.—Not awarded.
7tH BrenntaL Periop, 1870—72.—Grorczk James Auuman, M.D., F.R.S., Emeritus Professor of
Natural History, for his paper “on the Homological Relations
of the Celenterata,” published in the Transactions, which
forms a leading chapter of his Monograph of Gymnoblastic
or Tubularian Hydroids—since published.
8TH Brenniat Periop, 1872—74.—Professor Lister, for his paper “‘on the Germ Theory of Putre-
faction and the Fermentive Changes,” communicated to the
Society, 7th April 1873.
9TH Brenniat Periop, 1874-—76.—AExanpER Bucuan, A.M., for his paper “on the Diurnal
Oscillation of the Barometer,” published in the Transactions
of the Society.
10TH Brenntau Pertop, 1876—78.—Professor ARCHIBALD GEIKIE, for his paper “on the Old Red
Sandstone of Western Europe,” published in the Transactions
of the Society.
11 rH Brennian Periop, 1878—80,—Professor Piazz1 SmytTH, Astronomer-Royal for Scotland, for his
paper “on the Solar Spectrum in 1877-78, with some
Practical Idea of its probable Temperature of Origination,”
published in the Transactions of the Society.
12TH BrenniaL Periop, 1880—82.—Professor James Grikis, for his “Contributions to the Geology of
the North-West of Europe,” including his paper “on the
Geology of the Faroes,” published in the Transactions of the
Society.
13TH BienniaL Periop, 1882—84.—Epwarp Sane, Esq., LL.D., for his paper “on the Need of
Decimal Subdivisions in Astronomy and Navigation, and on
Tables requisite therefor,” and generally for his Recalculation
of Logarithms both of Numbers and Trigonometrical Ratios,
—the former communication being published in the Pro-
ceedings of the Society.
147H Brenniat Periop, 1884—86.—Joun Murray, Esq., LL.D., for his papers “On the Drainage
Areas of Continents, and Ocean Deposits,” “The Rainfall of
the Globe, and Discharge of Rivers,” “ The Height of the Land
and Depth of the Ocean,” and “The Distribution of Tem-
perature in the Scottish Lochs as affected by the Wind.”
157TH Birenniau Perron, 1886—88.—ArcuieaLtp Grixie, Esq., LL.D., for numerous communications,
especially that entitled “ History of Volcanic Action during
the Tertiary Period in the British Isles,” published in the
Transactions of the Society.
16TH Brenniat Periop, 1888-90.—Dr Lupwie Becker, for his Paper on “The Solar Spectrum at
Medium and Low Altitudes,” printed in Vol. XXXVI.
Part I. of the Society’s Transactions,
816 APPENDIX—KEITH, BRISBANE, NEILL, AND GUNNING PRIZES.
177 Breyntat Pertop, 1890-92.—Huen Rosert Miz, Esq., D.Sc., for his Papers on “The Physical
Conditions of the Clyde Sea Area,” Part I, being already
published in Vol. XXXVI. of the Society’s Transactions,
III. THE NEILL PRIZE.
Ist TRIENNIAL Period, 1856-59.—Dr W. Lauper Linpsay, for his paper “ on the Spermogones and
Pycnides of Filamentous, Fruticulose, and Foliaceous Lichens,”
published in the Transactions of the Society.
2np TRIpNNIAL Pertop, 1859-62.—Rosert Kaye Grevitiz, LL.D., for his Contributions to Scottish
Natural History, more especially in the department of Cryp-
togamic Botany, including his recent papers on Diatomacez.
3rd TrrenniaL Periop, 1862-65.—Anprew Crompie Ramsay, F.R.S., Professor of Geology in the
Government School of Mines, and Local Director of the
Geological Survey of Great Britain, for his various works and
Memoirs published during the last five years, in which he
has applied the large experience acquired by him in the
Direction of the arduous work of the Geographical Survey of
Great Britain to the elucidation of important questions bear-
ing on Geological Science.
4ru Trienniat Pertop, 1865-68.—Dr Wittiam Carmicuart M‘Intosu, for his paper “on the Struc-
ture of the British Nemerteans, and on some New British
Annelids,” published in the Transactions of the Society.
5tH Trrenntat Periop, 1868-71.—Professor Witt1am Turner, for his papers “on the great Finner
Whale ; and on the Gravid Uterus, and the Arrangement of
the Foetal Membranes in the Cetacea,’ published in the
Transactions of the Society.
6TH TrrenniaL Pertov 1871-74.—Cuartes Wittiam Peacs, Esq., for his Contributions to Scottish
Zoology and Geology, and for his recent contributions to Fossil
Botany.
77H TRIENNIAL Pertop, fo 77.—Dr Ramsay H. Traquatr, for his paper “on the Structure and
Affinities of Tristichopterus alatus (Egerton), published in
the Transactions of the Society, and also for his contributions
to the Knowledge of the Structure of Recent and Fossil Fishes.
8TH Trrenniat Pertop, 1877-80.—Joun Murray, Esq., for his paper “on the Structure and Origin
of Coral Reefs and Islands,” published (in abstract) in the
Proceedings of the Society.
97TH TRIENNIAL Pertop, 1880-83.—Professor HerpMan, for his papers “on the Tunicata,” published
in the Proceedings and Transactions of the Society.
10TH TrienNIAL Periop, 1883-86,—B. N. Pracu, Esq., for his Contributions to the Geology and
Paleontology of Scotland, published in the Transactions of
the Society.
lla Trrenniat Periop, 1886-89.—Rosert Kinston, Esq., for his Researches in Fossil Botany, pub-
lished in the Transactions of the Society.
127TH TrienntaL Periop, 1889-92.—Joun Horne, Esq., F.G.S., for his Investigations into the Geolo-
gical Structure and Petrology of the North-West Highlands.
IV. GUNNING VICTORIA JUBILEE PRIZE.
Isr T'rrenniau. Pertop, 1884-87.—Sir Witi1am Tuomson, Pres. R.S.E., F.R.S., for a remarkable
series of papers “on Hydrokinetics,” especially on Waves
and Vortices, which have been communicated to the Society.
2np Trrenniat Periop, 1887-90.—Professor P. G. Tart, Sec. R.S.E., for his work in connection with
the “Challenger” Expedition, and his other Researches in
Physical Science.
3rd TrrenniaL Pertop, 1890-93,—Atexanper Bucuan, Esq., LL.D., for his varied, extensive, and
extremely important contributions to Meteorology, many of
which have appeared in the Society’s Publications.
PROCEEDINGS
OF THE
STATUTORY GENERAL MEETINGS,
23RD NOVEMBER 1891,
28TH NOVEMBER 1892,
AND
27TH NOVEMBER 1893.
( 819 ) Hee APG et
STATUTORY MEETING.
HUNDRED AND NINTH SESSION.
Monday, 23rd November 1891.
At a General Statutory Meeting,
Sir Doucias MaciaGan, M.D., in the Chair,
The Minutes of last General Statutory Meeting of 24th November 1890 were read,
approved, and signed.
On the motion of Dr Buchan, the Rev. Professor Duns and Mr SKINNER were requested
to act as Serutineers.
The Treasurer's Accounts were submitted, along with the Auditors’ Report, and
approved.
The Scrutineers reported that the following Council had been duly elected :—
Sir Douvetas Mactacan, M.D., F.R.C.P.E., President.
Rey. Professor Fuint, D.D.,
Professor Curystat, LL.D.,
THomas Muir, Esq., LL.D., Se eer ec
Sir Artaur Mitcuett, K.C.B., LL.D., ;
A. Forges Irvine, Esq. of Drum, LL.D.,
Sir Wm. Turner, M.B., F.R.S.,
Professor Tart, M.A., General Secretary.
Professor Crum Brown, F.R.S., 1 Shai eee eae
Henn Miguray, Boq., LL.D, f ecretaries to Ordinary Meetings.
Apam Gituies Suira, Esq., C.A., Treasurer.
ALEXANDER Bucuay, Esq., M.A., LL.D., Curator of Library and Museum.
VOL. XXXVII. PART IV.
820 APPENDIX.—PROCEEDINGS OF STATUTORY MEETINGS.
COUNCILLORS.
Professor W. H. Perkin, F.R.S. Professor Ratpu Copeianp, Astronomer-Royal
A. Bratson Brett, Esq., Advocate. for Scotland.
The Right Hon. Lorp Kinessureu, F.R.S. The Hon. Lord M‘Largy, LL.D., F.R.A.S.
Dr ALEXANDER Bruce, M.A, Professor WiLL1AM RurHprForD, F.R.S.
Dr R. H. Traquarr, F.R.S. . Stair Aqnew, Esq., C.B.
Dr Byrom Bramwe t, F.R.C.P.E. The Rev. J. SurHervanp Brack, M.A.
Rosert Kinston, Esq., F.G.S.
On the motion of the CuaIRMAN, seconded by Dr Murray, thanks were given to the
Scrutineers, and to the Auditors for their Report, which was received with satisfaction, and
the Auditors were reappointed.
Dr COPELAND, seconded by the GENERAL SECRETARY, proposed a vote of thanks to the
Chairman, which he suitably acknowledged.
RALPH COPELAND, C.
(1.82107) 3
STATUTORY MEETING.
HUNDRED AND TENTH SESSION.
Monday, 28th November 1892.
At the Annual Statutory Meeting,
Professor CoprLAND, H.M. Astronomer for Scotland, in the Chair,
The Minutes of last Annual Statutory Meeting of 23rd November 1891 were read,
approved, and signed.
The Meeting nominated Dr Moir and Dr Pre. RircuiEg, Scrutineers, to examine the
Ballot Papers for the election of the New Council.
During the Ballot, the TREASURER submitted the Annual Accounts of the Society, duly
vouched, along with the Auditors’ Report, which, on the motion of the CHAIRMAN, was
approved.
The Scrutineers reported that the following Council had been duly elected :—
Sir Doucnas Macuaean, M.D., F.R.C.P.E., President.
Professor Curystat, LL.D., }
Sir Artuur Mircuett, K.C.B., LL.D.,
Professor Sir Wu. Turner, M.B., F.R.S.,
Professor Rate CoprLanp, Astronomer- t Vice-Presidents.
Royal for Scotland, |
Professor James Gerkie, LL.D., F.R.S., |
The Hon. Lord M‘Larsn, LL.D., F.R.A.S., /
Professor P. G. Tart, General Secretary.
Professor Crum Brown, F.R.S.,
Joun Murray, Esq., LL.D., Secretaries to Ordinary Meetings.
Apam Ginties Smita, Esq., C.A., Treasurer.
ALpxaNver Bucuan, Esq., M.A., LL.D., Curator of Library and Museum.
822 APPENDIX.—PROCEEDINGS OF STATUTORY MEETINGS.
COUNCILLORS.
Dr R. H. ‘Traquair, F.R.S. Rey. Professor Furr, D.D.
Dr Byrom BraMweE .t, F.R.C.P.E. Dr Jouyson Symineton, F.R.C.S.E.
Professor WimLtAmM RutHprRrorD, F.R.S. Professor JoHN Gipson.
Srair AGNEw, Esq., C.B. Professor JAMES Brytu, M.A.
Rev. J. SUTHERLAND Brack, M.A. Professor D’Arcy W. THompson.
Ropsert Kinston, Esq., F.G.S. Professor J. Suiz~tp NIcHOLson.
On the motion of the CHAIRMAN, the Scrutineers were thanked for their trouble.
On the motion of Mr BucHanan, seconded by Dr Morr, the Auditors were thanked and
reappointed.
On the motion of Dr Crum Brown, a cordial vote of thanks was passed to the
Chairman for presiding.
A. FLEMING.
STATUTORY MEETING
HUNDRED AND ELEVENTH SESSION.
Monday, 27th November 1893.
At the Annual Statutory Meeting,
Dr FLeminG, Deputy-Surgeon-General, in the Chair,
The Minutes of last Annual Statutory Meeting of 28th November 1892 were read,
approved, and signed.
The Meeting nominated Dr Moir and Mr Davin CHALMERS, Scrutineers, to examine the
Ballot Papers for the Election of the new Council.
During the Ballot, the TREASURER submitted the Annual Accounts of the Society, duly
vouched, along with the Auditors’ Report, which, on the motion of the CHAIRMAN, was
approved.
The Scrutineers reported that the following Council had been duly elected :—
Sir Dovetas Macuacan, M.D., F.R.C.P.E., LL.D., President.
Sir ArtHuR Mircuett, K.C.B., LL.D., ]
Professor Sir Witu1AM Turner, M.B., LL.D.,
F.R.S.,
Professor RatpH CopreLanp, Ph.D., Astro-
nomer-Royal for Scotland,
Professor JAMES GrIKiE, LL.D., F.R.S.,
The Hon. Lord M‘Larey, LL.D., F.R.A.S.,
The Rev. Professor Fiint, D.D.,
Professor P. Gururiz Tart, M.A., D.Sc., General Secretary.
Professor ALEXANDER Crum Brown, M.D.,
1
|
Vice-Presidents.
|
|
J
HBE:S., Secretaries to Ordinary Meetings.
JoHn Murray, Esq., LL.D., Ph.D.,
ApamM GiILLies Smits, Esq., C.A., Treasurer.
ALEXANDER Bucuan, Esq., M.A., LL.D., Curator of Library and Museum.
824 APPENDIX.—PROCEEDINGS OF STATUTORY MEETINGS.
COUNCILLORS.
Rev. J. SutHertanp Brack, M.A., LL.D. Dr J. Barry Tuxs, F.R.C.P.E.
Rosert Kipston, Esq., F.G.S. Dr ALExaNDER Bruce, M.A., F.R.C.P.E.
Professor Joun Grason, Ph.D. Professor Freprerick O. Bowrr, M.A., F.R.S.
Professor James Biryru, M.A. Professor JoHn G. M‘Kenpricx, M.D.,
Professor D’Arcy W. THompson. LL.D., F.B.S.
Professor J. Surenp NIcouson. A. Beatson Bett, Esq., Advocate.
Professor Grorcre Curystat, M.A., LL.D.
On the motion of Dr Crum Brown, the Scrutineers were thanked for their trouble.
Mr Davw CHALMERS moved a vote of thanks to the Auditors, as well as their re-
appointment. The motion was seconded by Dr Crum Brown, and carried unanimously.
On the motion of Mr CHALMERS, a cordial vote of thanks was awarded to the Chair-
man for presiding.
Dovueias Maciaeay, P.
(
8257 6)
The following Public Institutions and Individuals are entitled to receive Copies of
the Transactions and Proceedings of the Royal Society of Edinburgh :—
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(Natural History Depart-
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Royal Society, Burlington House,
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tain and Ireland, 3 Hanover Square,
London.
British Association for the Advancement
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Society of Antiquaries, Burlington
House.
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Institution of Civil Engineers, 25 Great
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Royal Geographical Society, Burlington
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IRELAND.
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Royal Irish Academy, 19 Dawson Street,
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Library of Trinity College, Dublin.
826 APPENDIX.
COLONIES, DEPENDENCIES, Wc.
Bombay, Royal Asiatic Society.
Elphinstone College.
Calcutta, Asiatic Society of Bengal.
Geological Survey of India.
Madras, Literary Society.
Canada, Geological and Natural History Survey.
Queen’s University, Kingston.
Royal Society of Canada, Ottawa.
Quebec, Literary and Philosophical
Society.
Toronto, Literary and Historical Society,
The Canadian Institute.
ae University Library.
Cape of Good Hope, The Observatory.
Melbourne, University Library.
Sydney, University Library.
Linnean Society of New South Wales.
Royal Society of New South Wales.
Wellington, New Zealand Institute.
CONTINENT OF EUROPE.
Amsterdam, Koninklijke Akademie van Weten-
schappen.
os Koninklijk Zoologisch Genootschap.
Athens, University Library.
Basle, Die Schweizerische Naturforschende Gesell-
schaft.
Bergen, Museum.
Berlin, Konigliche Akademie der Wissenschaften.
Physicalische Gesellschaft.
Deutsche Geologische Gesellschaft.
Bern, Allgemeine Schweizerische Gesellschaft fiir
die gesammten Naturwissenschaften.
Bologna, Accademia delle Scienze dell’ Istituto.
Bordeaux, Société des Sciences Physiques et
Naturelles.
Bremen, Naturwissenschaftlicher Verein.
3russels, Académie Royale des Sciences, des:
Lettres et des Beaux-arts.
Musée Royal dHistoire Naturelle de
Belgique.
L’Observatoire Royal de Belgique, Uccle.
La Société Scientifique.
Bucharest, Academia Romana.
Buda-Pesth, Magyar Tudomanyos Akademia—Die
Ungarische Akademie der Wissenschaften.
KG6nigliche Ungarische Naturwissenschaft-
liche Gesellschaft.
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anstalt.
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Meteorological Institute.
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schende Gesellschaft.
Gand (Ghent), University Library.
Geneva, Socicté de Physique et d’Histoire Natu-
relle.
Genoa, Museo Civico di Storia Naturale.
Giessen, University Library.
Gottingen, Konigliche Gesellschaft der Wissen-
schaften.
Graz, Naturwissenschaftlicher Verein fiir Steier-
mark,
Groningen, Holland, University Library.
Haarlem, Société Hollandaise des Sciences Exactes
et Naturelles.
Musée Teyler.
Halle, Kaiserliche | Leopoldino - Carolinische
Deutsche Akademie der Naturforscher.
Naturforschende Gesellschaft.
Hamburg, Naturwissenschaftlicher Verein.
Naturhistorisches Museum.
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APPENDIX. 827
Lisbon, Academia Real das Sciencias de Lisboa.
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Louvain, University Library.
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Milan, Reale Istituto Lombardo di Scienze, Lettere,
ed Arti.
Modena, Regia Accademia di Scienze, Lettere, ed
Arti.
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Moscow, Société Impériale des Naturalistes de
Moscou.
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Naturelle, d’Anthropologie et d’Eth-
nographie.
Musée Polytechnique.
L’Observatoire Impérial.
Munich, Koniglich-Bayerische Akademie der Wis-
senschaften (2 copies).
Nantes, Société des Sciences de Ouest de la
France.
Naples, Zoological Station, Dr Anton Dohrn.
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Scienze Fisiche e Matematiche.
R., Istituto d’Incorragiamento di Napoli.
Neufchatel, Société des Sciences Naturelles.
Nice, L’Observatoire.
Padua, R. Accademia di Scienze, Lettere ed Arti.
Palermo, Signor Agostino Todaro, Giardino
. Botanico.
Societa di Scienze Naturali ed Econo-
miche.
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VOL. XXXVII. PART IV.
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Rennes.
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Grands Augustins.
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Wissenschaften.
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XL.), 8. Pietro in Vincoli.
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dervindelijke Wijsbegeerte.
St Petersburg, Académie Impériale des Sciences.
Commission Impériale Archéolo-
Gesellschaft der
gique.
Comité Géologique.
L'Institut Impérial de Médecine
Expérimentale.
L’Observatoire Imperial de Pul-
kowa.
Physikalisches Central-Observato-
rium.
Physico-Chemical Society of the
University of St Petersburg.
Steckholm, Kongliga Svenska Vetenskaps-Acade-
mien.
Strasbourg, University Library.
Stuttgart, Verein fiir Vaterlindische Naturkunde
zu Wirtemberg.
61
828 APPENDIX.
Throndhjem, Kongelige Norske Videnskabers
Selskab.
Toulouse, Faculté des Sciences.
L’Observatoire.
Tiibingen, University Library.
Turin, Reale Accademia delle Scienze.
Upsala, Kongliga Vetenskaps-Societeten.
University Library.
Venice, Reale Istituto Veneto di Scienze, Lettere
ed Arti.
Vienna, Kaiserliche Akademie der Wissenschaften.
Oesterreichische Gesellschaft fiir Mete-
orologie, Hohe Warte, Wien.
Geologische Reichsanstalt.
Zoologisch-Botanische Gesellschaft.
Zurich, University Library.
Commission Géologique Suisse.
Naturforschende Gesellschaft.
ASIA.
Java, Bataviaasch Genootschap van Kunsten en
Wetenschappen.
. The Observatory.
Japan, The Imperial University of Tokio
(Teikoku-Daigaku).
UNITED STATES OF AMERICA.
Albany, New York State Library.
American Association for the Advancement of
Science.
Baltimore, Johns Hopkins University.
Boston, The Bowditch Library.
American Academy of Arts and Sciences,
Beacon Street, Boston.
Society of Natural History.
California, Academy of Sciences, San Francisco.
Cambridge, Mass., Harvard University.
: Harvard College Observatory.
Chicago Observatory.
Clinton, Litchfield Observatory, Hamilton College.
Denison, University and Scientific Association.
Philadelphia, American Philosophical Society.
Editor Annual of Medical Sciences.
Academy of Natural Sciences,
Logan Square.
Geological Survey of Pennsylvania.
Rochester, N.Y., The Geological Society of
America.
Salem, The Essex Institute.
St Louis, Academy of Sciences.
Washington, United States National Academy of
Sciences.
Bureau of Ethnology.
United States Coast Survey.
United States Fishery Commission.
United States Naval Observatory.
United States Geological Survey.
United States Department of Agri-
culture, Weather Bureau.
The Smithsonian Institution.
Surgeon-General’s Office, United
States Army.
Wisconsin, University (Washburn Observatory),
Madison.
Yale College, Newhaven, Connecticut.
MEXICO.
Mexico, Observatorio Meteorologico-Magnetico
Central.
Sociedad Cientifica ‘‘ Antonio Alzate.”
SOUTH AMERICA.
Buenos Ayres, Public Museum.
Cordoba, Argentine Republic, Academia Nacional
de Ciencias.
The Observatory.
Rio de Janeiro, The Astronomical Observatory.
Santiago, Société Scientifique du Chili.
All the Honorary and Ordinary Fellows of the Society are entitled to the Transactions and Proceedings.
See Notice at foot of page 831.
=
APPENDIX. §29
The following Institutions and Individuals receive the Proceedings only :—
SCOTLAND.
Edinburgh, Botanical Society, 5 St Andrew Sq.
Geological Society, 5 St Andrew Sq.
Scottish Fishery Board, 101 George
Street.
Royal Scottish Geographical Society.
Mathematical Society.
Scottish Meteorological Society, 122
George Street.
Pharmaceutical Society, 36 York Pl.
Royal College of Physicians Labo-
ratory, 8 Lauriston Lane.
Geological Society of Glasgow, 207 Bath Street.
The Glasgow University Observatory.
Berwickshire Naturalists’ Club, Old Cambus,
Cockburnspath.
ENGLAND,
London, Geologists’ Association, University
College.
Mathematical Society, 22 Albemarle
Street, London, W.
Institution of Mechanical Engineers,
10 Victoria Chambers, Victoria Street,
Westminster.
Meteorological Office, 116 Victoria Street.
Royal Meteorological Society, 22 Great
George Street, Westminster.
Nautical Almanac Office, 3 Verulam
Buildings, Gray’s Inn.
Pharmaceutical Society, 17 Bloomsbury
Square, London.
The Editor of the Hlectrical Engineer,
139-40 Salisbury Court, Fleet Street.
Birmingham Philosophical Society, King Edward’s
Grammar School.
Cardiff, University College of South Wales.
Cornwall, Geological Society.
Royal Institution of Cornwall, Truro.
Epping Forest and County of Essex Naturalists’
Field Club.
Halifax, Geological and Polytechnic Society of
Yorkshire.
Liverpool, Literary and Philosophical Society.
oie Biological Society, University College.
Manchester, Geological Society, 36 George Street.
Manchester Microscopical Society.
Newcastle, Philosophical Society.
North of England Institute of Mining
and Mechanical Engineers.
Norfolk and Norwich Naturalists’ Society, The
Museum, Norwich.
Oxford, Ashmolean Society.
Radcliffe Observatory.
Scarborough, Philosophical Society.
Whitby, Philosophical Society.
IRELAND,
Dublin, Royal Geological Society.
Dunsink Observatory.
Belfast, Natural Historyand Philosophical Society.
COLONIES, DEPENDENCIES, ETC.
Adelaide, South Australia, University Library.
Royal Society.
Bombay, Natural History Society.
Canada, Natural History Society of Montreal.
Canadian Society of Civil Engineers,
112 Mansfield Street, Montreal.
Halifax, Nova Scotian Institute of Science.
Melbourne, Royal Society of Victoria.
Sydney, The Australian Museum.
Department of Mines.
Hong Kong, China Branch of the Asiatic Society.
The Observatory.
Jamaica, The Institute of Jamaica, Kingston.
Madras, Superintendent of Government Farms of
Madras Presidency.
(Jueensland, Royal Society, Brisbane.
Queensland Branch of Geographical
Society.
Government Meteorological Office.
Water Supply Department.
Tasmania, Royal Society.
Wellington, N.Z., Polynesian Society.
CONTINENT OF EUROPE.
Amsterdam, Genootschap der Mathematische
Wetenschappen.
Berlin, Deutsche Meteorologische Gesellschaft.
Konigl. Preussisches
Institut.
K. Technische Hochschule.
Meteorologisches
830 APPENDIX.
Bern, Naturforschende Gesellschaft.
Bonn, Naturhistorischer Verein der Preussischen
Rheinlande und Westfalens.
Bordeaux, Société de la Géographie Commerciale.
Brunswick, Verein fiir Naturwissenschaft.
Brussels, Association Belge des Chimistes.
Bucharest, Institut Météorologique de Roumanie.
Cassel, Verein fiir Naturkunde.
Chemnitz, Naturwissenschaftliche Gesellschaft.
Cherbourg, Société Nationale des Sciences Natu-
relles.
Constantinople, Société de Médecine.
Copenhagen, Naturhistoriske Forening.
Danske Biologiske Station.
Delft, Ecole Polytechnique.
Dijon, Académie des Sciences.
Erlangen, Physico-Medical Society.
Frankfurt a. Oder,
Verein.
Gratz, Chemisches Institut der K. K. Universitit.
Halle, Verein fiir Erdkunde.
Naturwissenschaftlicher Verein fiir Sachsen
Naturwissenschaftlicher
und Thiiringen.
Hamburg, Verein fiir Naturwissenschaftliche
Unterhaltung, 29 Steindamm, St Georg.
Helsingfors, Société de Géographie Finlandaise.
Iceland, Islenzka Fornleifafelag, Reikjavik, Ice-
Jand.
Kiel, Naturwissenschaftlicher Verein fiir Schles-
wig-Holstein,
Lausanne, Société Vaudoisedes Sciences Naturelles.
Leipzig, Naturforschende Gesellschaft.
Lille, University Library.
Liibeck, Geographische Gesellschaft und Natur-
historisches Museum.
Luxembourg, L’Institut Royal Grand-Ducal.
Lyons, Société Botanique.
Société Linnéenne, Place Sathonay.
University Library.
Marseilles, Société Scientifique Industrielle, 61
Rue Paradis.
Milan, Societa Crittogamologica Italiana.
Modena, Societa dei Naturalisti.
Nijmegen, Nederlandsche Botanische Vereeniging.
Oberpfalz und Regensburg, Historischer Verein.
Odessa, Société des Naturalistes de la Nouvelle
tussle.
Offenbach, Verein fiir Naturkunde.
Paris, Societé d’Anthropologie (4 Rue Antoine
Dubois).
Paris, Sociéte Académique Indo-Chinoise de
France, 44 Rue de Rennes.
Société Philomathique.
Keole Libre des Sciences Politiques.
Bureau des Ponts et Chaussées.
Sociétés des Jeunes Naturalistes et d’Etudes
Scientifiques, 35 Rue Pierre-Charron.
Revue Générale des
Appliquées.
Sciences Pures e
Rome, Rassegna delle Scienze Geologiche in
Ltalva.
St Petersburg, Imperatorskoe Russkoe Geogra-
phicheskoe Obtshéstvo.
Russian Society of Naturalists
and Physicians.
Société Impériale Minéralogique.
Société des Naturalistes (Section
de Géologie et de Minéralogie).
565 Société Astronomique Russe.
Stavanger, Museum.
Stockholm, Svenska Sallskapet for Anthropologi
och Geografi. _
Tiflis, Physical Observatory.
Toulouse, Académie des Sciences.
Trieste, Societa Adriatica di Scienze Naturali.
Museo Civico di Storia Naturale.
Tromsd, The Museum.
Utrecht, Provinciaal Genootschap van Kunsten
en Wetenschappen.
Vienna, K. K. Naturhistorisches Hofmuseum.,
IL, Burgring, 7.
Vilafranca del Panades (Cataluiia), Observatorio
Meteorologico.
Zurich, Schweizerische Botanische Gesellschaft.
ASIA.
China, Shanghai, North China Branch of the
Royal Asiatic Society.
Japan, Tokio, The Seismological Society.
The Asiatic Society of Japan.
Yokohama, Deutsche Gesellschaft fiir
Natur- und Volkerkunde Ostasiens.
Java, Koninklijke Natuurkundige Vereeniging,
Batavia.
UNITED STATES.
Annapolis, Maryland, St John’s College.
California, State Mining Bureau, Sacramento.
The Lick Observatory, Mount Hamil-
ton, wi@ San José, San Francisco.
University of California (Berkeley).
APPENDIX. 831
Chapel Hill, North Carolina, Elisha Mitchel!
Scientific Society.
Chicago, Geological Department, University of
Chicago.
Cincinnati, Observatory.
Society of Natural History.
Ohio Mechanics’ Institute.
Colorado, Scientific Society.
Concord, Editor of Jowrnal of Speculative Philo
sophy.
Connecticut, Academy of Arts and Sciences.
Davenport, Academy of Natural Sciences.
Ithaca, N.Y., The Editor, Physical Review.
Iowa, The State University of Iowa.
Kansas, Academy of Science, Topeka.
Mass., Tuft’s College Library.
Minnesota, The Geological and Natural History
Survey of Minnesota, Minneapolis,
Minnesota.
Nebraska, The University of Nebraska, Lincoln.
New Orleans, Academy of Sciences.
New York, The American Museum of Natural
History.
The American Geographical and Sta-
tistical Society, No. 11 West 29th
Street, New York.
New York, American Mathematical Society.
Philadelphia, Wagner Free Institute of Science.
The Editor of the American Natu-
ralist, Sixth and Arch Street.
Texas, Academy of Science, Austin.
Trenton, Natural History Society.
Washington, Philosophical Society.
American Museum of Natural His-
tory, Central Park.
United States National Museum.
United States Department of Agri-
culture (Division of Ornithology
and Mammalogy).
United States Patent Office.
Wisconsin, Academy of Sciences, Arts, and
Letters.
SOUTH AMERICA.
Rio de Janeiro, Museu Nacional.
San Salvador, Observatorio Astronémico y Me-
teordlogico.
Santiago, Deutscher Wissenschaftlicher Verein.
MEXICO.
Tacubaya, Observatorio Astronomico.
Xalapa, Observatorio Meteorologico Central.
NOLLCE TO
MEMBERS.
All Fellows of the Society who are not in Arrear in their Annual Contributions, ave entitled to receive Copies of
the Transactions and Proceedings of the Society, provided they apply for them within Five Years of Publication.
Fellows not resident in Edinburgh must apply for their Copies either personally, or by an authorised Agent, at the
Hall of the Society, within Five Years after Publication. .
( 833
)
INDEX TO VOL. XXXVI.
A
Aitken (Jonn). On the Number of Dust Particles
in the Atmosphere of certain Places in Great
Britain and on the Continent, with Remarks on
the Relation between the Amount of Dust and
Meteorological Phenomena, Part II., 17.—Part
IIL, 621.
—— On the Particles in Fogs and Clouds, 413.
Alethopteris (fossil), 330, 594.
Alford, Number of Dust Particles at, 658.
Algebra, A New Algebra, by means of which Per-
mutations can be transformed in a variety of
ways, and their Properties investigated. By T.
B. Spracus, M.A., 399.
Annularia (fossil), 317, 583.
Antarctic Fossils from Seymour Island. By G.
SuarMan and E. T. Newton, 707.
Antholithus (fossil), 612.
Artisia (fossil), 354.
Assynt, Sutherlandshire, Cambrian Strata 7n.
Joun Horne and J. J. H. Tuaxt, 163.
By
B
Becker (Dr L.). Observations of the Bright Lines
of the Spectrum of Nova Aurigz, made at
Dunecht, 53.
Bepparp (Frank E.). A Contribution to the
Anatomy of Sutroa, 195.
Ben Nevis, Dust and Transparency on, 656.
Buackts (Emeritus Professor J. S.). On the Latest
Phases of Literary Style in Greece, 107.
—— On Bistratification in the Growth of Lan-
guages, with Special Reference to Greek, 615.
Borolanite—an Igneous Rock intrusive in the Cam-
brian Limestone of Assynt, Sutherlandshire,
and the Torridon Sandstone of Ross-shire, 163.
Bothrodendron (fossil), 344, 605.
Brown (Professor A. Crum). On the Partition of a
Parallelepiped into Tetrahedra, the Corners of
which coincide with Corners of the Parallele-
piped, 711.
Brown (Professor A. Crum) atid Dr James WALKER.
Electrolytic Synthesis of Dibasic Acids. Part
II. On the Electrolysis of the Ethyl-Potassium
Salts of Saturated Dibasic Acids with Side
Chains, and on Secondary Reactions acconi-
panying the Electrolytic Synthesis of Dibasic
Acid, 361.
| Bryanthus erectus, 238,
C
Callievar, Number of Dust Particles at, 660.
Calamites (fossil), 310, 579.
Calamocladus (fossil), 316.
Calamostachys (fossil), 318.
| Carbon, Estimation of, in Organic Substances, by the
Kjeldahl Method, 743.
—— Kstimation of, in the Analysis of Potable
Water, 751.
Carbonic Acid in Ground-Air (Grund-luft of Petten-
kofer). See Ground-Air.
Carboniferous Volcanic Rocks of East Lothian (Garl-
ton Hills). By Freperick H. Harcn, 115.
Cardiocarpus (fossil), 356, 612.
Carpolithus (fossil), 357.
Circular Magnetisations. See Magnetisations.
Clouds and Fogs, the Particles in. By Joun
ArrKeEn, 413.
Coal Fields of South Wales, Somerset, and Bristol,
Fossil Flora of. By Roserr Kinston, 565.
Colour-Blindness. The Present State of Knowledge
and Opinion in regard to Colour-Blindness,
By Wiuw1am Pots, 441.
of One Eye only, 453.
Coniferous Wood (fossil), 709.
Copretanp (Professor RatrH). On the New Star in
the Constellation Auriga, 51.
Cordaianthus (fossil), 355.
Cordaites (fossil), 352, 611.
Corynepteris (fossil), 587.
Crassatella (fossil), 709.
Cypripedium Leeanum, 245.
834
Cytherea Antarctica (sp. nov.), (fossil), 708.
Cytisus Adami, 259.
D
Dianthus Grievei, 220. :
Dibasic Acids, Electrolytic Synthesis of, Part II.
By Professor A. Crum Brown and Dr Jamus
Watker, 361.
Dichromic Colour-Sensations and their relation to
those of Normal Vision. By Wiutam Pots,
448, 458.
Diethylmalonate. Electrolysis of Ethyl-Potassium
Diethylmalonate, 367.
Diethyl Succinic Acids, Synthesis of, 363.
Dimethyl-Succinie Acids, Synthesis of, 361.
Dospin (LeonarD) and Fraser (Professor THomas
R.). The Chemistry of Strophanthidin, a De-
composition Product of Strophanthin, 1.
Donax (a lamellibranch), 709.
Drepanopterus (fossil), 159.
Dust Particles, the Number of, in the Atmosphere of
Certain Places in Great Britain and on the
Continent, and the Relation between the Amount
of Dust and Meteorological Phenomena. Part
Il., 17; Part IIL, 621. By Joun Arrxen,
Dust and Sunshine, 663.
Dust and Temperature, 666.
1)
Elasmobranchs. The Lateral Sense Organs of Elas-
mobranchs. Part I. The Sensory Canals of Lx-
margus. By Professor J. C. Ewart, M.D., 59.
Part II. Lateral Sense Organs of Raia batis. By
Prof. J. C. Ewart, M.D., and J. C. MrrcuHett,
B.Se., 87.
Hlectrolytic Synthesis of Dibasie Acids. Part II.
Electrolysis of the Ethyl-Potassium Salts of
Saturated Dibasic Acids. By Professor A.
Crum Brown and Dr James Watker, 361.
Eremopteris (fossil), 320, 587.
Erica Watsont, 237.
Kurypterid Remains from the Upper Silurian Rocks
of the Pentland Hills. By Matcoum Lauriz,
B.Sc., 151.
Lurypteride, Anatomy and Relations of.
Matcoutm Laurin, 509,
Eurypterus (fossil), 156, 517.
Ewart (Professor J. C.), M.D. The Lateral Sense
Organs of Elasmobranchs. Part I. The Sensory
Canals of Lemargus, 59; Historical, 60;
Development and General Anatomy, 63; The
By
INDEX.
Canals of Lemargus, 66; The Dorsal Branches
of the Cranial Nerves, 74.
Ewart (Professor J. C.), M.D., and J. C. MitcHet,
B.Sc. The Lateral Sense Organs of Elasmo-
branchs. Part II. The Sensory Canals of the
Common Skate (Raia batis), 87 ; Innervation,
90, 97; Infra-Orbital Canal, 91; Hyomandi-
bular Canal, 93 ; Lateral Canal, 96; Histology
of Lateral Canals, 98; Ventral Canals, 100 ;
Sensory Follicles or Pit Organs, 101.
F
Fogs and Clouds, the Particles in. By Joun
AITKEN, 413.
Fossil Plants of the Kilmarnock, Galston, and Kil-
winning Coal Fields, Ayrshire. By Roserv
Kipston, 307.
Fraser (Prof. Tuomas R.) and Dossin (LEonarD).
The Chemistry of Strophanthidin, a Decom-
position Product of Strophanthin, 1.
G
Galston Coal Field, Ayrshire, Fossil Plants of, 307.
Garlton Hills, Lower Carboniferous Volcanic Rocks
of. By Freperick H. Haren, 115.
GeEIkiE (Professor James), D.C.L., LL.D. On the
Glacial Succession in Europe, 127.
Geum intermedium, 225.
Glacial Succession in Hurope. By Professor James
Grikie, D.C.L., LL.D., 127.
Graveyards, Soil of, Chemical and Bacteriological
Hxamination of. By James Bucnanan YOUNG,
M-B:, Disc, (ou!
Greck, Modern. The Latest Phases of Literary Style
in Greek. By Emeritus Professor J. S. Buackts,
107.
Greek Language, Bistratification in the Growth of.
By Emeritus Professor J. S. Buackin, 615,
Greenland Shark (Lemargus microcephalus). The
Skull and Visceral Skeleton of. By Puiuip J.
Wuits, M.B., 287. The Skull, pp. 287-297.
The Visceral Skeleton, 297-303.
Ground-Air (Grund-luft of Pettenkofer), The Varia-
tions of the Amount of Carbonic Acid in, By
C. Hunter Stewart, M.B., 695.
Grund-luft of Pettenkofer. See Ground-Air.
H
Haloma (fossil), 344.
Haton (Freverick H.), Ph.D. The Lower Car-
boniferous Volcanic Rocks of East Lothian
INDEX.
(Garlton Hills), 115. Physical Features of the
District, 115. Part I.—The Lower Basic
Lavas, 116. Part II.—The Upper, more Acid
Lavas (Trachytes), 119. Part III.—The Vol-
canic Vents, 122.
Heart (Mammalian), Action of the Valves of.
D. Nort Patron, M.D., 179.
Horne (Joun) and J. J. H. Teatn. On Borolanite,
—an Igneous Rock intrusive in the Cambrian
Limestone of Assynt, Sutherlandshire, and the
Torridon Sandstone of Ross-shire, 163.
Hybridity, The Bearing of, on Biological Problems,
272.
Hybrids (Plant), A Comparison of the Minute
By
Structure of Plant Hybrids with that of their |
Parents, and its Bearing on Biological Problems.
By J. Murruzap Macraruang, D.Sc., 203.
it
Igneous Rock, intrusive in the Cambrian Limestone
of Assynt and the Torridon Sandstone of Ross-
shire. By Jonny Horne and J. J. H. Teatt,
163. ;
Impact. Part II. By Professor P. G. Tarr, 381.
Irvine (Rosert), F.C.S., and Jonn Murray, LL.D.
On the Chemical Changes which take place in
the Composition of the Sea-Water associated
with Blue Muds on the Floor of the Ocean,
481.
—— On the Manganese Oxides and Manganese
Nodules in Marine Deposits, 721.
K
Kipston (Ropert). On the Fossil Plants of the
Kilmarnock, Galston, and Kilwinning Coal
Fields, Ayrshire, 307.
—— On Lepidophloios, and on the British Species
of the Genus, 529.
—— On the Fossil Flora of the South Wales Coal
Field, and the Relationship of its Strata to the
Somerset and Bristol Coal Field, 565.
Kilmarnock Coal Field, Ayrshire, Fossil Plants of,
307.
Kilwinning Coal Field, Ayrshire, Fossil Plants of,
307, -
Kingairloch, Dust and Direction of Wind at, 639,
645.
Kjeldahl Method of estimating Carbon and Nitrogen
in Organic Substances, 743.
VOL. XXXVII. PART IV.
835
Knorr (Professor Carcitt G.). Circular, Magne-
tisations accompanying Axial and. Sectional
Currents along Iron Tubes, 7.
L
Lemargus, The Sensory Canals of. By Professor J.
C. Ewart, 59.
Lemargus microcephalus (Greenland Shark), The
Skull and Visceral Skeleton of. By Purutr
J. Waits, 287.
Laurie (Matcotm), B.Sc. On some Eurypterid
Remains from the Upper Silurian Rocks of
the Pentland Hills, 151. Stylonurus, 151, 519.
Eurypterus, 156, 517. Drepanopterus, 159.
—— The Anatomy and Relations of the Eurypteri-
dae, 509. Slimonia, 510. Pterygotus, 515.
Eurypterus, 517. Stylonurus, 519.
Lepidodendron (fossil), 334, 598.
Lepidophiloios (fossil), and the British Species of the
Genus. By Roperr Kinston, 343, 529, 604.
Lepidophyllum (fossil), 603.
Lepidostrobus (fossil), 340, 603.
Lonchopteris (fossil), 596.
Lothian (East), The Lower Carboniferous Volcanic
Rocks of. By Freprrick Harton, 115.
Lycopodiaceae (fossil), 334.
M
MacraruanNeE (J. Murrueab), D.Sc. A Comparison
of the Minute Structure of Plant Hybrids with
that of their Parents, and its Bearing on Bio-
logical Problems, 203.
Macrospores Lycopod (fossil), 349.
Magnetisations (Circular), accompanying Axial and
Sectional Currents along Iron Tubes. By
Professor CarGitt G. Kwortt, D.Sc., 7.
Manganese Oxides and Manganese Nodules in Marine
Deposits. By Joun, Murray, LL.D. and
Rosert Irvine, F.C.S., 721.
Moriopteris (fossil), 323, 592.
Masdevallia Chelsoni, 242.
Meteorological Phenomena, Their relation to the
Amount of Dust in the Atmosphere. See
Dust Particles.
Mircuett (J. C.), B.Sc., and Ewarr (Professor J.
C.), M.D. The Lateral Sense Organs of
Elasmobrauchs. Part I1.—The Sensory Canals
of the Common Skate (Raia batis), 87.
Murray (Joun), LL.D., and Irvine (Ropert), F.C.S.
On the Chemical Changes which take place in
6K
836
the Composition of the Sea-Water associated
with the Blue Muds on the Floor of the Ocean,
481. Specific Gravity of Mud-Waters, 484. Al-
bumenoid and Saline Nitrogen in Mud-Waters,
484, Reactions in Blue Muds, and the Ad-
mixture of Mud-Waters with Sea-Waters, 495.
Murray (Joun), LL.D., and Irvine (Rosert), F.C.S.
On the Manganese Oxides and Manganese
Nodules in Marine Deposits, 721. The Ores
of Manganese, 724. Manganese Dioxide in
Suspension, 725, Manganese in Mud-Water,
726. Manganese in the Marine Deposits of the
Clyde Sea-Area, 729. Manganese Deposits in
the Deep Sea, 735. Theories concerning the
Origin of Manganese Nodules in Marine
Deposits, 740.
N
Natica, a gasteropod (fossil), 709.
Neuropteris (fossil), 325, 588.
Newton (E. T.), and SHarman (G.). Note on some
Fossils from Seymour Island in the Antarctic
Regions, obtained by Dr Donald, 707.
Nitrates, Effect of, On the Estimation of Nitrogen,
755.
Nova Aurige, on the New Star in the Constellation
Auriga. By Professor RatpH Copenanp, 51.
—— Observations of the Bright Lines of the Spec-
trum of Nova Aurige, made at Dunecht. By
Dr L. Becker, 53.
O
Odontopteris (fossil), 330, 592.
P.
Parallelepiped, Partition of, into Tetrahedra, the Cor-
ners of which coincide with Corners of the
Parallelepiped, 711,
Paton (D, Nort), M.D. On the Action of the
Valves of the Mammalian Heart, 179, Position
of Valves in Ventricular Diastole, 184. Latent
Period, Right Ventricle, 185 ; Left Ventricle, 187,
Period of Expulsion, 187. Period of Residual
Contraction, Right Ventricle, 187; Left Ven-
tricle, 188, Aortic and Pulmonary Valves, 193.
Pecopteris (fossil), 332, 593,
Permutations. See under Algebra,
Philageria Veitchii, 207.
Pilatus, Mount, Number of Dust Particles at, 638.
Pinnularia (fossil), 357, 613.
INDEX.
PoLe (WiuuiAm). On the Present State of Know-
ledge and Opinion in regard to Colour-Blind-
ness, 441. Part I.—Scope of the Inquiry, 442.
Part II.—Relations between Dichromic Colour
Sensations and those of Normal Vision, 448.
Part III.—Variations in Dichromic Vision, 458.
Part IV.—General Statements and Opinions,
464. Part V.—Summary of Conclusions, 472.
Projectile, Rotating Spherical, Path of, By Professor
P, G. Tart, 427.
Pterygotus, 515.
R
Raia batis, or Common Skate, Sensory Canals of.
By Professor J. C. Ewart and J. C. MircHett,
B.Sc., 87.
Renaultia, 586.
Rhabdocarpus (fossil), 355.
Ribes Culverwelli, 229.
Rigi Kulm, Number of Dust Particles at, 626, 629,
632, 635, 637.
Rotating Spherical Projectile, The Path of.
Professor P. G. Tarr, 427.
By
Ss)
Saxtfraga Andrewsir, 232.
Sea-Water. Chemical Changes of the Sea-Water
associated with the Blue Muds on the Floor of’
the Ocean. By Joun Murray, LL.D., and
Rosert Irvine, F.C.S., 481.
Sebasic Acid, Products from, 373.
Seymour Island Fossils, Note on.
and E. T. Newton, 707.
Shark. See Greenland Shark.
Suarman (G.) and Newron (E. T.). Note on some
Fossils from Seymour Island, in the Antarctic
Regions, obtained by Dr Donald, 707.
Sigillaria (fossil), 345, 605.
Skate (the Common), Raia batis, Sensory Canals of.
By Professor J. C. Ewart and J. C, Mircustt,
B.Sce., 87.
Slimonia (fossil), 510.
Soil, Chemical and Bacteriological Examination of,
with Special Reference to the Soil of Grave-
yards. By James Buvnanan Younc, M.B.,
D;Se., (59:
South Wales Coal Field, Fossil Flora of. The Re-
lationship of its Strata to the Somerset and
Bristol Coal Field. By Roserr Kinston, 565.
Sphenophylleae (fossil), 332, 597.
Sphenopteris (fossil), 320, 585.
By G. SHarman
INDEX.
Spracus (T. B.). A New Algebra, by means of
which Permutations can be transformed in a
variety of ways, and their Properties investi-
gated, 399.
Stachannularia (fossil), 318.
Stewart (C. Hunter), M.B., D.Sc. On the Varia-
tions in the amount of Carbonic Acid in the
Ground-Air (Grund-luft of Pettenkofer), 695.
—— ].—On the Estimation of Carbon in Organic
Substances, by the Kjelhdal Method. II.—Its
Application to the Analysis of Potable Waters,
743.
Stigmaria (fossil), 350, 610.
Strophanthidin, Chemistry of, —a Decomposition Pro-
duct of Strophanthin. Preparation, 1. Solu-
bilities and General Characters, 2. Elementary
Analysis, 3. Reactions, 4, 5. By Professor
Tuomas R. Fraser, M.D., and Leronarp
Dossin, Ph.D., 1.
Strophanthin. See Strophanthidin.
Stylonurus (fossil), 151, 519.
Sutroa, a Contribution to the Anatomy of.
Frank KE. Bepparp, 195.
By
aT
Tair (Professor P. G.), On Impact, Part II., 381.
—— On the Path of a Rotating Spherical Projectile,
427.
Traut (J. J. H.) and Horne (Jonny). On Borolan-
837
ite,—an Igneous Rock intrusive in the Cam-
brian Limestone of Assynt, Sutherlandshire,
and the Torridon Sandstone of Ross-shire, 163.
Tetramethylsuccinic Acid, Synthesis of, 365.
Torridon Sandstone of Ross-shire and Cambrian
Strata in Assynt. By Joun Horne and J. J.
H. Treaty, 163.
Trigonocarpus (fossil), 356, 612.
U
Urnatopteris (fossil), 319.
W
WaLkER (James), M.D., and Professor A. Crum
Brown. Electrolytic Synthesis of Dibasic
Acids. Part II.—On the Electrolysis of the
Ethyl-Potassium Salts of Saturated Dibasic
Acids with Side Chains, and on Secondary Re-
actions accompanying the Electrolytic Synthesis
of Dibasic Acids, 361.
Wuire (Pup J.), M.B. The Skull and Visceral
Skeleton of the Greenland Shark (Lemargus
microcephalus), 287.
Y
Youne (James Bucuanan), M.B., D.Sc. The
Chemical and Bacteriological Examination of
Soil, with special reference to the Soil of
Graveyards, 759.
Meat nite ;
19 OCT
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