Skip to main content

Full text of "Transactions of the third International congress of tropical agriculture, held at the Imperial institute, London, S.W., June 23rd to 30th, 1914"

See other formats 


AGR1C. 
LIBRARY 


INTERNATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  FOR  TROPICAL  AGRICULTURE 

(L'ASSOCIATION  SCIENTIFIQUE  INTERNATIONALE 
D'AGRONOMIE  COLONIALE  ET  TROPICALE) 


Transactions  of  the 

Third  International  Congress 

of  Tropical  Agriculture 


HELD    AT   THK 

IMPERIAL    INSTITUTE,    LONDON,    S.W. 

JUNE  23RD  TO  30TH,   1914 


Papers  communicated  to  the  Congress 
VOL.   I 


Xonfcon 
JOHN     BALE,    SONS    &    DANIELSSON,    LTD. 

OXFORD    HOUSE 

83-91,  GREAT  TITCHFIELD  STREET,  OXFORD  STREET,  W. 

1915 


AGR1C. 

LIBRARY 


PREFACE. 

THE  volume  of  Proceedings  of  the  Third  International 
Congress  of  Tropical  Agriculture  (London  :  John  Bale, 
Sons  and  Danielsson),  which  has  been  published 
separately,  includes  the  President's  Address,  abstracts 
of  the  principal  papers  prepared  by  the  authors, 
and  full  reports  of  the  discussions  which  followed  the 
reading  of  the  papers  submitted  to  the  Congress.  The 
present  volume  of  Transactions  contains  the  first  in- 
stalment of  the  papers  communicated  to  the  Congress, 
the  remainder  of  which  will  be  published  in  a  second 
volume.  The  difficulties  of  the  present  international 
situation,  which  arose  a  few  weeks  after  the  conclusion 
of  the  Congress  in  July,  1914,  are  chiefly  responsible 
for  the  absence  from  these  Transactions  of  a  few  papers 
communicated  to  the  Congress. 

The  papers  contributed  by  the  Portuguese  Section  of 
the  International  Association  for  Tropical  Agriculture 
are  not  included,  as  they  have  been  printed  separately 
(Imprimerie  "  A  Editora  Limitada,"  Largo  do  Conde 
Barao,  50,  Lisbonne),  and  distributed  to  members  of 
the  Congress.  The  papers  from  Portugal  relating  to 
the  subjects  included  in  the  present  volume,  which  have 
already  been  issued,  are  as  follows:  — 

"  Rapport  sur  le  Credit  agricole  dans  les  Colonies 
portugaises."  Par  Henrique  Jose  Monteiro  de  Men- 
donca,  Jose  Dionisio  C.  de  Sousa  e  Faro,  et  Ernesto 
Jardim  de  Vilhena. 

"  Contribution  pour  1'Etude  des  Cotons  des  Colonies 

portugaises."     Par  le  Professeur  C.  de  Mello  Geraldes. 

"  Projet  pour  I'Etablissement  d'une  Methode  ration- 

nelle  pour  la  Determination  de  la  Valeur  commerciale 

des  Textiles."     Par  le  Professeur  C.  de  Mello  Geraldes. 

"  Contribution    pour    1'Etude     des     Plantations    de 

Caoutchoutieres  a  Angola."     Par  le  Professeur  C.  de 

Mello  Geraldes. 


CONTENTS. 

PAGE 

PREFACE  ...       iii 


TECHNICAL    EDUCATION    IN    TROPICAL 
AGRICULTURE. 

TECHNICAL   EDUCATION  IN  TROPICAL  AGRICULTURE. 

By  Gerald  C.  Dudgeon,  F.E.S i 

ON  AGRICULTURAL  EDUCATION  AND  ITS  ADJUSTMENT 
TO  THE  NEEDS  OF  STUDENTS.  By  Francis  Watts, 
C.M.G.,  D.Sc.,  F.I.C.  ...  7 

GLI  STUDI  DI  AGRICOLTURA  COLONIALE  IN  ITALIA  E 
L'OPERA  DELL'  ISTITUTO  AGRICOLO  COLONIALE 
ITALIANO.  Per  il  Dott.  Gino  Bartolommei-Gioli  21 

THE  NECESSITY  OF  ESTABLISHING  A  BRITISH  AGRI- 
CULTURAL COLLEGE  IN  THE  WESTERN  HEMI- 
SPHERE. By  Harold  Hamel  Smith  30 

AGRICULTURAL  EDUCATION  IN  THE  PUNJAB  :  A  NOTE 
ON  Six  YEARS'  EXPERIENCE  IN  TEACHING  AGRI- 
CULTURAL SCIENCE  IN  NORTHERN  INDIA.  By  J.  H. 
Barnes,  B.Sc.,  F.I.C.,  F.C.S 40 

AGRICULTURAL  EDUCATION  IN  THE  GOLD  COAST.    By 

W,  H.   Patterson      50 


VI  CONTENTS 

THE    ORGANIZATION    OF    AGRICULTURAL 
DEPARTMENTS   IN   RELATION   TO   RESEARCH. 

THE  ORGANIZATION  OF  AGRICULTURAL  DEPARTMENTS 
IN  RELATION  TO  RESEARCH  WORK.  By  Bernard 
Coventry,  C.I.E •••  57 

THE  ORGANIZATION  OF  AGRICULTURAL  DEPARTMENTS 
IN  RELATION  TO  RESEARCH  WORK.  By  Gerald  C. 
Dudgeon,  F.E.S 63 

ORGANIZZAZIONE   DEI   SERVIZI  AGRARI   IN  TRIPOLI- 

TANIA.     Per  il  Professore  E.  de  Cillis 69 

ORGANIZATION  OF   RESEARCH   WORK   FOR  TROPICAL 

AGRICULTURE.     By  Dr.  C.  J.  J.  van  Hall      ...      74 

SANITATION  AND  HYGIENE  ON  TROPICAL 
ESTATES. 

NOTES  ON  TROPICAL  HYGIENE  AND  PLANTATION 
WORK  AND  THE  ANTI-MALARIAL  CAMPAIGN  IN 
THE  FEDERATED  MALAY  STATES.  By  C.  L. 
Sansom,  F.R.C.S.Ed.,  M.R.C.S.Eng.,  D.P.H. 
Dublin,  and  F.  D.  Evans,  A.M.Inst.C.E.  ...  83 

AGRICULTURAL  CREDIT  BANKS  AND 
CO-OPERATIVE  SOCIETIES. 

AGRICULTURAL    CREDIT    BANKS    AND    CO-OPERATIVE 

SOCIETIES.     By  Sir  James  Douie,  K. C.S.I.     ...       95 

THE  WORKING  OF  CREDIT  BANKS  IN  THE  NETHER- 
LANDS EAST  INDIES.  By  H.  Carpentier  Alting  109 


CONTENTS  Vll 

LEGISLATION   AGAINST  PLANT  DISEASES 
AND  PESTS. 

THE  PHYTOPATHOLOGICAL  CONVENTION  OF  ROME  AND 
ITS  RELATION  TO  TROPICAL  AGRICULTURE.  By 
A.  G.  L.  Rogers ...  125 

COTTON. 

THE    WORK    OF    THE    BRITISH    COTTON    GROWING 

ASSOCIATION.     By  J.  Arthur  Hutton     133 

THE  WORLD'S   DEMAND   FOR  COTTON,   AND   INDIA'S 

SHARE  IN  MEETING  IT.     By  Arno  Schmidt       ...     163 

A    NOTE    ON    THE    IMPROVEMENT    OF    COTTON    IN 

BRITISH  INDIA.     By  G.  A.  Gammie,  F.L.S.  ...     181 

THE  INTRODUCTION  OF  AMERICAN  COTTON  INTO  SIND 

PROVINCE,   INDIA.     By   G.   S.   Henderson       ...     216 

PROBLEMS  IN  CONNECTION  WITH  COTTON  CULTIVA- 
TION IN  EGYPT.  By  Gerald  C.  Dudgeon,  F.E.S.  222 

COTTON  CULTIVATION  IN  UGANDA.  By  Samuel  Simp- 
son, B.Sc 234 

COTTON  POSSIBILITIES  IN  ITALIAN  SOMALILAND  AND 
JUBALAND  (BRITISH  EAST  AFRICA).  By  Dr.  R. 
Onor  240 

LA  COLTIVAZIONE  DEL  COTO'NE  E  L'ALLEVAMENTO  DEL 
BESTIAME  NELLA  SOMALIA  ITALIANA  MERIDIONALE. 
Per  il  Dott.  Giuseppe  Scassellati-Sforzolini  ...  246 

ALCUNI  ASPETTI  DELLA  COTONICOLTURA  NELL'ERITERA. 

Per  il  Dott.  Guido  Mangano       265 


V1I1  CONTENTS 

LA       COLTIVAZIONE       DEL       COTONE       NELLA       COLONIA 

ERITREA.     Per  Gino  Lavelli  de  Capitani         ...     279 

THE  COTTON  INDUSTRY  OF  THE  NORTHERN  PRO- 
VINCES OF  NIGERIA.  By  P.  H.  Lamb 289 

THE  PRODUCTION  OF  FINE  SEA  ISLAND  COTTON  IN 
THE  WEST  INDIES,  WITH  PARTICULAR  REFER- 
ENCE TO  THE  ST.  VINCENT  INDUSTRY.  By  W.  N. 
Sands,  F.L.S 298 

THE  COTTON  INDUSTRY  OF  THE  LEEWARD  ISLANDS 
COLONY.  By  H.  A.  Tempany,  B.Sc.,  F.I.C., 
F.C.S.  ...  315 

BOMWOLLBAU        IN        DEUTSCHEN        KOLONIEN.          Von 

Moritz   Schanz  332 

LA   CULTURE   EXPERIMENTALE   DU    COTON   EGYPTIEN 

EN  GRECE.     Par  C.  Phoca  Cosmetato 346 

THE  IMPROVEMENT  OF  COTTON  BY  SELECTION.     By 

J.  Stewart  J.  McCall,  P.A.S.I.,  C.D.A.Glas.  ...     351 

COMMERCE  AND  SCIENCE  IN  COTTON  GROWING.     By 

J.   W.  McConnell      ;  .„  ,      ...     361 

SUR  LES  OSCILLATIONS  DES  ATTRIBUTS  HEREDI- 
TAIRES  ET  LA  RESULTANTS  DES  EQUILIBRES  CON- 

STATEES    SUR    LE    COTON    EGYPTIEN.       Par    Nicolas 

Parachimonas  ...         ...         ...         ...         ...     370 

FLOWER-BUD  AND  BOLL  SHEDDING  OF  COTTON  IN 
THE  ILORIN  PROVINCE,  NIGERIA.  By  Thomas 
Thornton,  A.R.C.S.  379 


CONTENTS  ix 

PROBLEMS  CONNECTED  WITH  THE  NEW  EGYPTIAN 
COTTON  PEST,  GELECHIA  GOSSYPIELLA,  SAUNDERS, 
THE  PINK  BOLL  WORM.  By  L.  H.  Gough, 
Ph.D.,  F.E.S 385 

THE  BOLL  WORM  IN  EGYPT.  By  Gerald  C. 
Dudgeon,  F.E.S.;  with  an  appendix  on  Rhogas 
Kitcheneri,  by  L.  H.  Gough,  Ph.D.,  F.E.S.  ...  399 

NOTE    PRELIMINAIRE    SUR    LES    SELS    NUISIBLES    ET    LE 

COTONNIER  EN  EGYPTE.     Par  Victor  M.  Mosseri    435 

NOTE  PRELIMINAIRE  SUR  LES  ENGRAIS  CHIMIQUES 
DANS  LA  CULTURE  DU  COTONNIER  EN  EGYPTE. 
Par  Victor  M.  Mosseri  469 

THE  COST  OF  LABOUR  AS  AFFECTING  THE  COTTON 
CROP  (ESPECIALLY  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES).  By 
Professor  John  A.  Todd,  B.L 493 

FIBRES. 

FIBRE  INDUSTRY  OF  BRITISH  EAST  AFRICA.     By  A. 

Wigglesworth  503 

JUTE  AND  ITS  SUBSTITUTES.     By  R.  S.  Finlow       ...     518 

THE    FIBRE    INDUSTRY   IN    MAURITIUS.     By    F.    A. 

Stockdale,   M.A.,   F.L.S. ...     546 

THE  PRESENT  POSITION  AND  PROSPECTS  OF  FIBRE 
CULTIVATION  IN  THE  GERMAN  COLONIES.  By 
Dr.  W.  F.  Bruck 56° 

FIBRES  OF  THE  NETHERLAND  EAST  INDIES.  By  the 
Department  of  Agriculture,  Industry  and  Com- 
merce, Buitenzorg,  Java 574 


X  CONTENTS 

RESULTI  DI  ACCLIMAZIONE  BELLA  AGAVE  RIGIDA  VAR. 
SISALANA  IN  SiciLiA.  Per  il  Professore  Calce- 
donio  Tropea  •  ••  59° 

RUBBER. 

THE  CULTIVATION  OF  HEVEA  BRASILIENSIS  IN  UGANDA. 

By  Samuel  Simpson,  B.Sc.  ...  ...     594 

DISEASES  OF  HEVEA  IN  CEYLON.     By  T.  Fetch,  B.A., 

B.Sc ...     596 

ON    SOME   ANIMAL   PESTS    OF   THE    HEVEA    RUBBER 

TREE.     By  E.  Ernest  Green,  F.E.S.,  F.Z.S.  ...     608 

TERMES  GESTROI  AS  A  PEST  OF  THE  PARA  RUBBER 

TREE.     By  H.   C.   Pratt     637 

THE  PRINCIPLES  OF  HEVEA  TAPPING,  AS  DETERMINED 

BY  EXPERIMENT.     By  T.  Fetch,  B.A.,  B.Sc.  ...     641 

THE    PREPARATION    OF    PLANTATION    PARA    RUBBER. 

By  B.  J.  Eaton,  F.I.C.,  F.C.S 652 

SPOTTINGS  IN  PLANTATION  RUBBER   DUE  TO   FUNGI. 

By  A.  Sharpies,  A.R.C.S.,  D.I.C 679 

CEARA  RUBBER   CULTIVATION  AND   MANUFACTURE  IN 

SOUTHERN  INDIA.     By  R.  D.  Anstead,  M.A.  ...     688 

THE     CULTIVATION     OF     MANIHOT     GLAZIOVII     IN 

UGANDA.     By  Samuel  Simpson,   B.Sc.   ...         ...     697 

AUGMENTATION  DU  RENDEMENT  DU  FUNTUMIA 
ELASTICA  AU  CONGO  BELGE  PAR  LA  METHODS 
SPARANO.  Par  A.  Gisseleire  699 


CONTENTS  XI 

THE  METHODS  OF  TAPPING  CULTIVATED  CASTILLOA 
TREES,  AND  THE  YIELD  OF  RUBBER  THEREFROM. 
By  Professor  P.  Carmody,  F.I.C.,  F.C.S.  ...  702 

THE  METHODS  OF  TAPPING  CASTILLOA  RUBBER  TREES 
IN  MEXICO,  AND  THE  YlELD  OF  RUBBER  WHICH 
THE  TREES  FURNISH.  By  Ashmore  Russan  ...  704 

KAUTSCHUK-ANBAU    IN    DEN    DEUTSCHEN    KOLONIEN. 

Von   Dr.   Fritz   Frank         713 

NECESSITE  POUR  L'!NDUSTRIE  DU  CAOUTCHOUC  DE 
LA  DETERMINATION  PRECISE  AU  LABORATOIRE  DE 
LA  VALEUR  RESPECTIVE  DES  CAOUTCHOUCS.  Par 
M.  Lamy-Torrilhon ...  720 

CONTRIBUTION  A  LA  CONNAISSANCE  DU  MECANISME 
DE  LA  COAGULATION  DE  CERTAINS  LATEX  CAOUT- 
CHOUCIFERES.  Par  MM.  F.  Heim  et  R.  Marquis  723 


TECHNICAL    EDUCATION 
IN    TROPICAL    AGRICULTURE, 


TECHNICAL  EDUCATION!  IN  TROPICAL  AGRICULTURE. 
By  GERALD  C.  DUDGEON,  F.E.S. 

Consulting  Agriculturist,  Ministry  of  Agriculture,  Egypt; 
Vice-President,  International  Association  for  Tropical 
Agriculture. 

THE  rapid  extension  of  plantations  in  the  British 
tropical  dependencies,  exploited  by  capital  subscribed  to 
a  large  extent  in  the  Mother  Country,  has  rendered  com- 
petition in  the  markets  for  the  products  of  such  planta- 
tions so  keen  that  the  most  skilled  supervision  of  the 
latter  is  now  demanded.  Carefully  reasoned  and  scientific 
principles  require  to  be  substituted  for  the  crude  rule-of- 
thumb  methods  which  have  amply  served  their  purpose 
in  the  past,  but  which  are  quite  inadequate  for  ensuring 
success  in  the  future. 

Proprietors  of  tropical  plantations  from  time  to  time 
seek  for  new  candidates,  to  fill  the  subordinate  posts  of 
plantation  assistants,  who  shall  have  acquired  even  an 
elementary  knowledge  of  the  subject  with  which  they 
would  have  to  deal;  but  instead,  they  are  obliged  to  be 
satisfied  with  the  engagement  of  young  men  who  have 
obtained  a  diploma  of  agriculture  at  an  English  college 
or  with  those  who  have  relinquished  plantation  work 
elsewhere.  In  the  case  of  the  former  it  often  happens 
that  after  having  been  put  to  the  trouble  of  training  them 
the  most  promising  among  them  are  quickly  appreciated 
by  the  owners  of  neighbouring  plantations  and  they 
cannot  be  retained  by  their  original  trainers.  In  the  case 
of  the  latter  it  is  obvious  that  in  many  instances  the  result 
I 


m%? 


2          TECHNICAL    EDUCATION    IN   TROPICAL   AGRICULTURE 

must  be  unsatisfactory,  discard's  being  chiefly  made  from 
weakness. 

Although  the  larger  number  of  men  trained  in  tropical 
agriculture  are  required  for  plantation  work,  the  necessity 
for  others  similarly  qualified  for  employment  in  Govern- 
ment Agricultural  Departments  is  becoming  more  acute 
each  year.  The  value  which  is  attached  to  the  establish- 
ment of  a  Government  Department  of  Agriculture  is 
entirely  commensurate  with  the  position  of  authority  upon 
agricultural  subjects  which  its  officers  are  enabled  to  take 
up.  In  the  United  States  the  Government  were  suffi- 
ciently far-sighted  to  recognize  that  the  welfare  of  the 
country  largely  depended  upon  the  adoption  by  agricul- 
turists of  the  most  perfected  method  of  dealing  with 
every  agricultural  problem.  Agricultural  colleges  are 
found  in  every  part  of  the  country,  and  the  instruction 
given  them  is  of  a  practical  as  well  as  of  a  scientific 
nature,  extending  to  sub-tropical,  at  least,  as  well  as 
temperate  zone  requirements.  Besides  turning  out  a 
number  of  diplomaed  graduates  each  year,  the  nation  is 
in  a  position  to  select  trained  men  with  the  highest  attain- 
ments for  employment  in  the  Government  Service.  The 
United  States  Department  of  Agriculture  is  thereby  in  a 
position  to  give  an  authoritative  reply  to  any  inquiry 
respecting  the  treatment  of  crops,  and  is  looked  to  to 
provide  from  time  to  time  the  best  advice  upon  the 
subject. 

Owing  to  the  fact  that  our  only  training  colleges  in 
agriculture  for  English  youths  are  situated  in  a  temperate 
climate  and  that  the  curriculum  is  narrowed  to  the  local 
requirements  of  such  a  climate,  it  is  rare  to  find  a  Govern- 
ment official  in  the  British  Colonies  and  Dependencies 
who  can  advise  with  regard  to  tropical  plantation  work, 
or  who  can  do  more  than  point  to  the  errors,  due  to 
prejudice,  committed  by  an  ignorant  native  population. 

A  few  Departments  have  advanced  sufficiently  far  to  be 
able  to  give  advice  on  questions  of  economic  entomology, 
chemistry,  or  botanical  science;  but,  although  such  is  the 
case  in  India  and  Ceylon,  I  should  be  surprised  to  learn 
that  there  was  any  official  in  the  employment  of  the  Indian 
Government  qualified  to  give  advice  to  planters  concern- 


TECHNICAL    EDUCATION    IN   TROPICAL    AGRICULTURE          3 

ing  the  cultivation  or  preparation  for  the  market  of  even 
the  most  important  exported  plantation  product,  namely, 
tea.  This  should  not  be  the  case,  but  must  remain  so 
until  a  more  advanced  and  applicable  system  of  instruction 
is  established  whereby  student's  may  become  qualified  in 
all  branches  of  tropical  plantation  agriculture  or  be 
enabled  to  specialize  in  any. 

Until  about  eight  or  nine  years  ago,  the  posts  provided 
in  the  Agricultural  Service  of  the  British  East  and  West 
African  Colonies  and  Protectorates  were  filled  from  Kew, 
apparently  upon  the  vague  supposition  that,  as  a  Kew 
gardener  was  associated  with  the  growing  of  tropical 
plants  under  artificial  conditions,  he  was  qualified  to 
advise  upon  tropical  agriculture.  More  recently  graduates 
from  the  Universities  or  students  with  diplomas  from  the 
British  Agricultural  Colleges  were  sent  to  study  under  the 
Agricultural  Department  in  Ceylon  under  a  scheme 
initiated  by  the  Director  of  the  Imperial  Institute  in 
London.  The  benefits  which  accrued  from  the  practical 
demonstration  given  to  those  sent  to  Ceylon  emphasized 
the  urgency  of  the  establishment  of  a  superior  college  of 
tropical  agriculture. 

The  value  of  the  British  agricultural  diploma  must  not 
be  too  lightly  regarded;  for,  although  it  is  based  on 
studies  conducted  under  temperate  conditions,  it  must  be 
remembered  that  these  form  an  excellent  basis  for  the 
student  to  work  upon.  The  qualification  for  entry  into  a 
superior  college  of  tropical  agriculture  in  the  tropics 
might  include  the  possession  of  a  diploma  from  Great 
Britain.  The  course  in  tropical  agriculture  must  neces- 
sarily be  of  a  more  highly  technical  character  than  that 
required  for  the  British  diploma. 

It  is  practically  impossible  that  a  satisfactory  course  of 
training  can  be  given  except  in  the  tropics  themselves,  and 
it  therefore  becomes  necessary  to  determine  the  best 
centre  or  centres  for  the  establishment  of  the  colleges. 

The  course  in  tropical  agriculture  should  be  so  arranged 
that  students  may  specialize  in  the  study  of  plantation 
work  adapted  to  the  country  in  which  they  contemplate 
obtaining  employment.  It  is  also  essential,  as  somewhat 
different  conditions  obtain,  and  special  crops  are  cultivated 


4          TECHNICAL   EDUCATION    IN   TROPICAL   AGRICULTURE 

in  each  country,  that,  wherever  the  college  be  situated, 
undue  attention  should  not  be  given  to  the  local  needs. 
It  has  been  suggested  that  two  colleges  shall  be  founded, 
one  in  the  West  and  the  other  in  the  East  Indies;  but, 
although  the  course  of  training  would  be  similar  in  each, 
the  relative  value  of  each  branch  of  instruction  must  vary 
in  accordance  with  the  requirements  of  the  zones  to  which 
each  college  is  intended  to  contribute  trained  men. 

The  West  Indian  College  should  undertake  the  training 
for  the  whole  of  the  West  India  Islands  and  British 
Guiana,  for  which  there  need  hardly  be  any  great 
diversity  in  the  course;  but  the  college  having  its  centre 
in  the  East  Indies  would  be  obliged  to  deal  with  a  much 
greater  number  of  subjects.  From  the  latter  college 
students  might  be  required  to  qualify  in  the  special 
agricultural  and  plantation  methods  employed  in  India, 
Ceylon,  Malay  States,  Borneo,  East,  Central,  and  West 
Africa,  and  the  Sudan. 

It  has  been  suggested  that  Ceylon  offers  the  most 
suitable  site  for  the  Eastern  College,  and  there  are,  indeed, 
many  advantages  in  support  of  this  selection.  It  is  assumed 
that,  as  every  British  Colony  or  Protectorate  would  stand 
to  gain  by  the  establishment  of  a  superior  tropical  agri- 
cultural college,  contributions  towards  the  foundation  of 
the  same  would  be  made  by  each  Colony,  supplemented 
by  one  from  the  Imperial  Government.  Associations  and 
mercantile  firms  having  interests  in  plantations  in  the 
tropics  would  also  be  expected  to  contribute.  In  the 
event  of  Ceylon  being  chosen  in  these  circumstances  as 
the  site  of  the  college,  special  care  would  have  to  be  taken 
not  to  allow  the  teaching  of  subjects  specially  adapted 
to  the  requirements  of  students  in  training  for  posts  in 
Ceylon  itself  to  be  laid  down  in  the  curriculum  so  as  to 
exclude  or  supersede  those  which  might  be  necessary  for 
India  or  Africa. 

In  comparing  the  important  plantation  products  from 
the  countries  which  would  be  included  in  the  Eastern 
College  zone,  it  will  be  readily  seen  that  there  is  consider- 
able variation :  — 

CEYLON.— Tea,  rubber,  cinchona,  coffee,  cocoa,  and 
copra. 


TECHNICAL    EDUCATION    IN   TROPICAL    AGRICULTURE          5 

MALAY  STATES. — Rubber,  tapioca. 

INDIA. — Tea,  coffee,  cinchona,  cotton,  sugar,  indigo, 
tobacco,  and  jute. 

AFRICAN  COLONIES. — Cotton,  oil  seeds,  cocoa,  coffee, 
rubber  (of  several  kinds),  kola. 

In  connection  with  the  college  there  should  be  a  demon- 
stration plantation  of  a  sufficiently  large  extent  to  enable 
a  practical  study  being  made  of  the  habits  and  methods  of 
cultivation  employed  with  respect  to  all  the  above-named 
crops,  but  in  order  to  obtain  a  diploma  the  student  might 
only  be  required  to  qualify  in  tea,  rubber,  cocoa,  and 
cotton,  with  another  selected  subject. 

The  chemical,  entomological,  and  botanical  sides  of  all 
the  products  dealt  with  should  be  made  a  compulsory 
part  of  the  training  for  the  diploma  course,  and  facilities 
should  be  given  for  students  to  specialize  in  any  of  these 
subjects. 

The  preparation  or  manufacture  of  such  of  the  products 
as  require  it  should  form  part  of  the  instruction,  and  the 
working  of  the  necessary  machines  should  be  demon- 
strated. The  different  modes  of  cultivation  or  prepara- 
tion of  the  same  product  in  different  countries  is  a  point 
of  importance;  the  cultivation  of  tea,  for  example,  varies 
considerably  in  Assam,  Darjeeling,  Punjab,  and  Ceylon. 

Accepting  the  fact  that  the  majority  of  students  in  the 
tropical  college  would  be  candidates  for  posts  upon 
rubber,  tea,  cotton,  cocoa,  or  coffee  plantations,  where  a 
large  number  of  labourers  are  retained  for  the  working 
of  the  estate,  it  is  necessary  to  consider  what  subjects,  in 
addition  to  those  directly  associated  with  the  cultivation, 
scientific  treatment,  and  preparation  of  these  plantation 
products,  are  useful,  if  not  essential,  to  obtain  the  best 
results.  Among  these,  surveying,  building  construction, 
the  erection  of  machinery,  sanitary  arrangement  of 
labourers'  dwellings,  uses  of  simple  medicines,  first 
treatment  of  epidemics,  and  book-keeping  are  of  import- 
ance. 

In  the  few  agricultural  schools  in  existence,  as,  for 
instance,  those  in  South  Africa,  some  of  the  sub-tropical 
plantation  products  are  studied  in  the  school  course,  and 
demonstration  farms  are  employed  to  assist  in  the 


0          TECHNICAL    EDUCATION    IN    TROPICAL    AGRICULTURE 

instruction  given.  In  India,  also,  students  in  agricultural 
chemistry  and  entomology  are  trained  at  Pusa.  Never- 
theless, there  is  at  present  no  systematic  instruction  in 
agriculture  obtainable  which  is  capable  of  producing 
scientifically  trained  men  for  employment  upon  the  more 
important  plantations  of  the  tropics  or  for  Government 
service  in  the  tropical  Colonies  and  Dependencies. 


ON  AGRICULTURAL  EDUCATION  AND  ITS  ADJUSTMENT 
TO  THE  NEEDS  OF  STUDENTS. 

By  FRANCIS  WATTS,  C.M.G.,  D.Sc.,  F.I.C. 
Commissioner  of  Agriculture  for  the  West  Indies. 

THE  very  varied  aspects  and  the  great  range  of  subjects 
embraced  by  the  designation  "  agricultural  education  " 
make  it  difficult  to  formulate  clear  views  on  the  subject 
and  tend  to  some  confusion  of  ideas,  nor  are  the  difficulties 
lessened  if  consideration  is  given  to  the  tropical  aspects 
of  agricultural  education.  In  the  latter  case  attention 
has  to  be  given  to  a  range  of  conditions,  of  crops,  and  of 
climates  that  may  become  bewildering. 

In  much  that  has  been  said  concerning  agricultural 
education,  want  of  precision  has  resulted  from  omission 
to  consider  carefully  what  class  of  pupil  is  to  be  trained 
under  each  particular  scheme  and  what  he  is  to  be  trained 
for;  it  may,  therefore,  be  worth  while  to  endeavour  to 
obtain  a  clear  idea  of  the  status  of  certain  pupils  and 
their  requirements.  In  what  follows  regard  is  mainly 
given  to  agriculture  in  its  tropical  aspects,  and  chiefly  as 
exemplified  in  certain  West  Indian  Colonies. 

Beginning  with  the  most  elementary  grades,  con- 
sideration may  be  given  to  the  scholars  in  elementary 
schools.  Both  the  critics  and  the  well-wishers  of  this 
class  are  often  unduly  disposed  to  urge  an  extremely 
utilitarian  method  of  training  for  these  pupils,  having  in 
view,  perhaps  unconsciously,  something  in  the  nature  of 
a  technical  school,  and  looking  for  results  such  as  may 
be  expected  from  technical  training.  Obviously,  this 
seems  unfair  alike  to  teacher  and  scholar;  all  that  can  be 
expected  at  this  stage  is  an  elementary  familiarity  with 
the  most  striking  facts  of  agricultural  life  in  such  phases 
as  will  be  presented  to  these  elementary  scholars  when 
they  leave  school.  They  may  well  be  taught  elementary 
facts  about  plant  and  animal  life,  about  the  manner  in 


8  TECHNICAL    EDUCATION    IN    TROPICAL    AGRICULTURE 

which  seeds  germinate  and  plants  grow,  and  the  funda- 
mental relationships  of  plants  to  the  soil  and  air.  They 
may  also  be  trained  in  certain  simple  operations,  such  as 
the  sowing  of  seeds,  the  propagation  of  plants  by 
cuttings,  and  perhaps  such  operations  as  budding  and 
grafting,  and  these  exercises  may — and  it  is  very  desirable 
that  they  should — extend  to  simple  operations  conducted 
in  a  school  garden,  where  the  pupils  may  learn  something 
concerning  the  handling  of  soil,  the  arrangements  neces- 
sary for  the  cultivation  of  simple  crops,  probably 
principally  of  culinary  vegetables,  and  of  the  various 
incidents  requiring  the  attention  of  the  cultivator  in  order 
to  bring  these  crops  to  maturity,  such  matters  as  water- 
ing and  the  protection  of  the  crop  from  insect  pests,  all 
of  which,  if  judiciously  handled  by  the  teacher,  afford 
rich  stores  of  material  of  educational  value,  and  enable, 
even  in  simple  minds,  an  appreciation  to  be  arrived  at  of 
the  fundamental  facts  in  the  life  of  a  peasant. 

More  than  this  it  does  not  seem  necessary  to  look 
for  or  expect;  indeed,  if  it  is  carefully  looked  at,  it  will  be 
seen  that  it  really  embraces  a  wide  range,  having  regard 
to  the  child  mind,  and,  what  is  more,  it  admits  of  being- 
carried  into  effect  in  practically  every  agricultural  district, 
and  so  demands  no  educational  revolution  or  upheaval. 

This  is,  perhaps,  as  far  as  it  is  necessary  to  go  in 
connection  with  the  elementary  school,  and  as  far  as  is 
necessary  in  the  case  of  the  average  child  who  is  destined 
to  become  an  agricultural  labourer.  Should  it  be  desired 
to  afford  training  of  a  somewhat  more  advanced  and 
technical  character,  some  institution  other  than  the 
elementary  school  must  be  looked  to. 

It  must  be  remembered  that  the  numbers  who  are  to 
receive  this  more  advanced  training  will  be  very  much 
smaller  than  those  attending  the  elementary  schools,  and 
that  the  pupils  so  trained  will  stand  out  above  the 
ordinary  agricultural  labourer,  and  will  look  for  minor 
positions  of  trust  carrying  higher  rates  of  wages  than 
those  of  agricultural  labourers. 

A  system  of  training  in  some  institution  where  work  is 
carried  on  for  other  than  educational  purposes  seems 
best  calculated  to  meet  the  requirements  of  this  class. 


TECHNICAL    EDUCATION    IN    TROPICAL    AGRICULTURE          9 

The  system  may  approximate  to  one  of  apprenticeship, 
though  the  use  of  this  term,  particularly  in  some  of  the 
West  Indian  Colonies,  has  connotations  rendering  it 
undesirable. 

In  most  Colonies  there  are  botanic  gardens  and 
agricultural  experiment  stations  where  there  is  a  con- 
siderable amount  of  routine  work,  much  of  which  is 
capable  of  being  done  by  agricultural  pupils  drafted  from 
the  elementary  schools.  The  work  carried  on  in  these 
institutions  necessarily  has  a  close  connection  with  the 
agriculture  of  the  neighbourhood,  so  that  pupils  can  be 
trained  in  work  that  has  real  association  with  the  local 
agricultural  industries,  and  they  may  be  trained  to  acquire 
a  fair  perception  of  the  needs  of  these  industries.  Their 
training  may  consist  chiefly  in  carrying  out  routine  opera- 
tions and  in  learning  to  perform  these  intelligently  and 
dexterously.  In  order  to  minimize  the  danger  of  these 
pupils  drifting  down  and  being  regarded  merely  as 
labourers,  as  well  as  to  increase  their  usefulness,  it  is 
necessary  that  they  receive  a  certain  amount  of  theoretical 
instruction  in  addition  to  their  acquiring  manual  dexterity 
in  agricultural  operations.  This  may  be  accomplished 
by  giving  an  hour's  class  instruction  daily,  or  perhaps 
preferably,  by  devoting  one  day  a  week  to  this  form  of 
instruction.  The  instruction  so  given  should  be  calculated 
to  afford  an  insight  into  the  reasons  underlying  the 
operations  of  a  practical  character  in  which  they  are 
engaged. 

It  is  desirable  that  pupils  of  this  class  should  receive  a 
small  monetary  payment  by  way  of  subsistence  allowance ; 
the  amount  must  be  regulated  by  local  conditions,  it 
should  increase  progressively,  say,  half  yearly,  and  the 
acquirement  of  the  increment  should  be  contingent  on 
diligent  work  and  good  behaviour. 

It  is  undesirable  that  these  pupils  should  be  boarded 
and  fed  at  the  institution  where  they  are  trained;  they 
and  their  parents  or  guardians  should  make  arrangements 
for  their  living  under  conditions  having  the  approval  of 
the  authorities  responsible  for  their  training.  These 
conditions  will  much  more  closely  approximate  to  those 
in  which  the  pupils  find  themselves  on  faking  up  wage- 


10        TECHNICAL    EDUCATION    IN    TROPICAL    AGRICULTURE 

earning  work,  while  the  acquiring  of  ability  to  look  after 
their  own  affairs  in  the  matter  of  food  and  clothing  is 
training  of  considerable  value,  which  is  lost  if  the  pupils 
are  boarded  and  fed  by  the  educational  authority.  Further 
valuable  training,  too,  is  acquired  in  that  the  pupils  gain 
a  knowledge  of  the  manner  of  governing  their  conduct 
out  of  working  hours,  they  find  out  how  to  obtain  reason- 
able recreation,  and  acquire  a  sense  of  individual  responsi- 
bility beyond  what  can  be  attained  under  a  system  of 
boarding  together  with  its  consequent  rules  and  regula- 
tions. On  leaving  the  institution  where  they  have  been 
trained  in  order  to  take  up  wage-earning  employment 
the  change  in  the  manner  of  living  is  less  violent,  and 
the  individual  has  useful  experience  to  guide  him. 

Such  a  course  of  training  should  suffice  to  produce  the 
higher  grades  of  labourers  and  the  types  of  head  men 
who  find  so  large  a  place  in  tropical  agriculture,  men  who 
can  work  with  their  hands  or,  in  subordinate  capacities, 
supervise  the  work  of  others. 

This  perhaps  suffices  for  the  training  of  the  scholars 
from  elementary  schools.  It  is  now  necessary  to  consider 
the  facilities  to  be  offered  to  those  who  go  through  the 
secondary  schools.  These  cases  present  greater  com- 
plexity, and  in  consequence  require  even  more  careful 
planning,  combined  with  an  effort  to  see  clearly  the 
position  of  each  class  of  individual  in  the  general 
economy. 

Experience  makes  it  clear  that  it  is  the  duty,  and  that 
it  is  within  the  capacity  of  secondary  schools  of  the 
grammar  school  type  situated  in  agricultural  districts,  to 
afford  its  pupils  instruction  in  the  general  principles  of  the 
sciences  fundamental  to  agriculture,  such  as  elementary 
biology,  chemistry,  and  physics,  in  addition  to  a  good 
sound  general  education,  which  should  include  the  general 
subjects  that  may  be  classed  as  English,  elementary 
mathematics,  one  classic,  and  one  modern  language. 
This  instruction  in  science  is  the  least  that  can  be  done, 
and  it  should  be  insisted  on  by  all  who  are  responsible  for 
educational  schemes  in  agricultural  districts.  In  some 
cases  this  will  constitute  all  the  special  training  a  youth 
obtains;  he  simply  drifts  into  wage-earning  employment, 


TECHNICAL    EDUCATION    IN   TROPICAL    AGRICULTURE        II 

and  picks  up  his  technical  training  as  he  goes  along. 
What  is  to  be  done  in  the  tropics  to  improve  upon  this  is 
a  matter  presenting  some  difficulty. 

In  some  Colonies  it  is  possible  to  afford  much  useful 
training  by  using  the  botanic  and  agricultural  experi- 
ment stations  as  training  ground  for  youths  from  the 
secondary  schools,  just  as  it  is  possible  to  use  them  for 
training  pupils  from  the  elementary  schools.  In  some 
West  Indian  Colonies  where  this  scheme  is  in  operation 
the  term  "cadet"  is  employed  to  indicate  the  student 
from  the  secondary  school,  the  term  "  agricultural 
pupil  "  being  reserved  for  the  boy  from  the  elementary 
school;  it  will  be  found  in  practice  that  distinctions  such 
as  this  have  their  value. 

During  the  first  year  of  a  cadet's  training  he  should 
remain  closely  associated  with  the  secondary  school,  and 
should  continue  to  attend  such  science  classes  as  may  be 
considered  most  likely  to  be  useful  to  him;  the  remainder 
of  each  working  day  should  be  occupied  in  connection 
with  the  practical  work  of  the  botanic  and  experiment 
stations.  The  situation  of  botanic  and  experiment 
stations  near  populous  centres  usually  minimizes  the 
difficulties  attendant  upon  this  divided  course  of  work. 
For  the  first  year  of  his  training,  at  least,  a  cadet  should 
be  regarded  as  within  the  jurisdiction  of  the  school  for 
purposes  of  discipline. 

The  kind  of  training  a  cadet  may  receive  will  depend 
upon  the  nature  of  the  work  of  the  botanic  and  agricul- 
tural experiment  stations  of  any  given  district,  and  this  in 
turn  will  be  determined  by  the  nature  of  the  agriculture 
of  the  surrounding  district.  This  has  its  advantages,  for 
the  cadet  will  thus  find  his  work  and  training  approxi- 
mating closely  to  the  requirements  of  the  district  in  which 
he  is  placed  and  in  which  he  may  probably  have  to  seek 
employment;  and,  further,  this  amount  of  specialization 
permits  of  a  cadet  being  able  to  spend  some  time  in  more 
than  one  institution,  and  so  acquiring,  if  necessary,  a 
wide  range  of  agricultural  experience.  The  chain  of 
botanic  and  experiment  stations  established  throughout 
the  West  Indies  offers  unusually  good  facilities  for  study 
and  training,  of  which  advantage  is  being  taken. 


12        TECHNICAL    EDUCATION    IN    TROPICAL    AGRICULTURE 

The  training  of  a  cadet  embraces  the  acquiring  of  some 
acquaintance  with  the  manner  in  which  the  routine  office 
work  of  the  institution  in  which  he  is  placed  is  conducted. 
He  learns  how  correspondence  is  conducted  and  records 
are  kept,  and  participates  in  this  work.  He  acquires  a 
knowledge  of  the  various  agricultural  and  horticultural 
operations  carried  on  at  the  institution,  and  attains  some 
skill  in  the  practical  carrying  of  them  out;  as  his  'experi- 
ence increases  he  is  placed  in  charge  of  minor  operations, 
and  gradually  advances  to  the  supervision  of  labourers 
and  to  responsibilities  of  a  higher  order;  he  also  takes 
part  in  the  experiments  and  investigations  which  are 
undertaken  by  the  institution,  and  learns  to  appreciate 
their  bearing  on  the  agricultural  problems  of  the  district, 
at  the  same  time  learning  the  value  of  that  accuracy  and 
honesty  of  purpose  which  is  vital  to  proper  work  of 
investigation. 

Such  training  is  calculated  to  produce  in  the  cadet  that 
right  attitude  of  mind  which  is  the  aim  and  end  of  train- 
ing, and  which,  when  engrafted,  results  in  the  cadet 
having  acquired  such  habits  of  thinking,  reading,  and 
observing  that  his  education  is  life-long,  and  he  becomes 
a  progressive  and  useful  member  of  the  agricultural 
community.  The  nature  of  his  training  affords  him 
opportunities  for  remaining  closely  in  touch  with  the 
workers  of  the  botanic  and  experiment  stations  and 
with  the  work  and  publications  of  these  and  kindred 
institutions,  whereby  a  life-long  form  of  education  may, 
and  does,  result. 

The  length  of  time  a  cadet  should  remain  under  train- 
ing is  often  determined  by  personal  considerations,  but  if 
possible  it  should  extend  to  two  years,  and  in  some  cases, 
as  explained  below,  opportunities  for  extending  the 
training  may  usefully  be  given. 

It  is  desirable  that  the  cadet  should  receive  some  small 
sum  of  money  weekly;  while  this  may  be  regarded  rather 
as  a  subsistence  allowance  than  wages,  it  has  useful  effects 
in  more  than  one  direction ;  it  is  extremely  useful  in  that  it 
familiarizes  the  youth  with  the  handling  of  small  sums  of 
money  for  his  personal  use,  whereby  he  learns  some- 
thing of  the  value  and  limitations  of  money,  and  it  also 
adds  to  his  self-respect,  for  there  is  no  doubt  that  every 


TECHNICAL    EDUCATION    IN    TROPICAL   AGRICULTURE        13 

right-minded  lad  feels  justifiable  pride  in  his  first  earnings. 
Besides,  the  granting  or  withholding  of  small  increments 
affords  his  tutors  some  tangible  means  of  expressing 
approbation  or  disapproval  as  circumstances  may  demand. 

A  very  useful  purpose  may  be  served  by  arranging  that 
the  cadetship  of  any  particular  place  may  be  regarded  in 
the  light  of  scholarships  awarded  by  the  secondary  schools 
of  the  district.  It  is  important  to  maintain  the  intimate 
association  between  the  school  and  the  cadetship,  and  to 
insist  on  the  continuity  of  the  training;  a  system  of  cadet 
scholarships  tends  to  ensure  this. 

The  effort  has  been  made  in  some  institutions,  with  a 
certain  degree  of  success,  to  afford  opportunities  for 
more  extended  practical  training  to  some  of  the  cadets  by 
filling  certain  minor  posts  in  the  institution  by  means  of 
cadets  who  are  allowed  to  hold  these  posts  for  limited 
periods  only,  and  who,  at  the  expiration  of  the  specified 
time,  are  required  to  vacate  them  in  order  to  make  room 
for  others.  Occasionally  a  vacancy  may  occur  on  the 
permanent  staff  to  which  a  cadet  may  be  promoted. 

The  training  of  youths  in  local  institutions  like  the 
botanic  and  agricultural  experiment  stations  is  of  value 
to  parents  in  that  the  expense  of  the  training  is  likely  to 
be  quite  moderate  and  within  their  means,  as  frequently 
the  cadet  can  live  with  his  parents  or  relatives;  it  is  also 
of  advantage  to  employers,  for  the  work  and  progress  of 
the  cadets  may  be  kept  under  observation,  and  promising 
youths  may  be  chosen  to  fill  vacancies  that  arise  locally. 

In  all  of  this  there  is  little  doubt  as  to  the  kind  of 
youth  to  be  trained  or  the  nature  of  the  work  for  which 
he  is  being  trained.  The  cadet  is  taken  to  be  a  youth  who 
has  had  a  good  grammar  school  or  secondary  school 
training,  which  includes  some  science  subjects  such  as 
biology,  chemistry,  and  physics,  which  subjects  he  con- 
tinues to  study,  if  possible  in  his  old  classes,  for  a  year 
or  so  during  his  cadetship;  he  is  being  trained  in  order 
that  he  may  take  up  work  on  an  estate  or  plantation  in  a 
position  of  minor  responsibility,  with  the  intention  of 
rising  to  positions  of  increased  responsibility,  and 
ultimately  of  complete  management  or  control  as  time 
and  circumstances  permit. 

It  is  to  be  observed  that  the  systems  of  education  so 


14        TECHNICAL    EDUCATION    IN    TROPICAL    AGRICULTURE 

far  described  are  in  successful  operation  in  various  West 
Indian  Colonies;  in  some  instances  it  may  be  suggested 
that  the  work  is  proceeding  so  unostentatiously  and 
quietly  that  the  authorities  are  hardly  aware  that  they 
are  in  possession  of  fairly  complete  and,  perhaps, 
moderately  adequate  systems  of  agricultural  education, 
which  would  be  of  still  more  service  to  the  Colonies  if 
they  received  greater  official  recognition.  It  is  abun- 
dantly clear  to  thoughtful  minds  that  the  quiet  work  of 
the  Departments  of  Agriculture  in  the  advocating,  and  in 
some  cases  providing,  agricultural  education  in  the  West 
Indies  has  already  had  a  far-reaching  effect  that  will  be 
felt  for  some  time,  and  this  perhaps  to  an  extent  not 
generally  recognized. 

In  order  to  make  provision  for  those  engaged  in 
agriculture  who  have  passed  the  school  age  and  are 
engaged  in  practical,  wage-earning  work,  the  Imperial 
Department  of  Agriculture  for  the  West  Indies  instituted 
in  1908  a  series  of  reading  courses  and  examinations  in 
practical  agriculture.  The  reading  courses  that  are 
recommended  cover  the  general  ground  of  planting 
experience,  and  are  calculated  to  maintain  both  a  scientific 
and  practical  economic  interest  in  the  work  of  estates  or 
plantations  covering  the  wide  range  of  tropical  crops. 

Lectures  and  courses  of  instruction  are  frequently 
arranged  by  the  officers  of  Agricultural  Departments,  in 
order  to  assist  students  who  are  following  the  reading 
courses  and  preparing  for  examination. 

The  examinations  are  divided  into  three  grades :  Pre- 
liminary, intermediate,  and  final,  with  three  classes  in 
each  grade.  Except  in  the  case  of  the  preliminary,  it  is 
an  essential  condition  for  admission  to  examination  that 
the  candidate  has  been  practically  engaged  in  the  form  of 
agriculture  for  which  he  submits  himself  for  examination ; 
mere  book  work  or  class  instruction  is  held  to  be 
insufficient  to  qualify  for  admission.1 

1  Interesting  information  in  this  connection  may  be  obtained 
from  the  following  references  in  the  Agricultural  News :  Vol.  viii, 
pp.  90,  341,  365,  381 ;  vol.  ix,  pp.  375,  381 ;  vol.  x,  pp.  29,  31,  45  ; 
vol.  »i,  pp.  13,  29,  45,  61,  365,  381,  3Q7,  401,  413;  vol.  xii,  pp.  13, 
29;  vol.  xiii,  pp.  13,  29,  45,  61. 


TECHNICAL    EDUCATION    IN   TROPICAL   AGRICULTURE        15 

It  may  be  briefly  stated  that  the  three  grades  of  the 
Imperial  Department  of  Agriculture  examinations  are 
made  to  correspond  to  the  three  grades  in  practical 
planting  life.  The  preliminary  examination  is  arranged 
to  ensure  in  its  successful  candidates  the  amount  of  know- 
ledge that  may  be  reasonably  expected  in  a  youth  leaving 
a  secondary  school  to  undertake  the  first  steps  in  an 
agricultural  career.  The  intermediate  implies  such  know- 
ledge, both  in  extent  and  kind,  as  may  be  reasonably 
expected  of  the  young  man  who  has  had  some  practical 
experience  in  the  more  or  less  subordinate  posts  of  over- 
seer or  "  book-keeper,"  as  these  employes  are  technically 
termed  in  the  West  Indies,  implying  a  good  all-round 
knowledge  of  the  routine  work  of  an  estate.  The  final 
examination  is  planned  on  lines  calculated  to  inquire  into 
the  knowledge  and  capacity  of  a  man  capable  of  being 
entrusted  with  the  management  of  an  estate,  who  is 
capable  of  looking  at  agricultural  questions  in  a  somewhat 
broad  spirit  extending  beyond  the  acquaintance  with 
matters  of  estate  routine.  A  first-class  final  certificate  is 
intended  to  indicate  a  good  sound  knowledge  of  estate 
routine  and  practice  (which  would  be  indicated  by  the 
possession  of  the  intermediate  certificate),  coupled  with 
a  wide  outlook  on  agricultural  affairs  with  some  ability  to 
deal  with  the  more  difficult  abstract  problems  of  agricul- 
tural management,  all  acquired  in  connection  with  prac- 
tical (wage-earning)  experience. 

The  Imperial  Department  of  Agriculture  system  has 
been  independently  followed,  with  some  modifications  by 
the  local  Agricultural  Departments  of  some  West  Indian 
Colonies  which  hold  examinations  and  issue  their  own 
certificates. 

The  form  of  education  just  sketched  may  suffice  for 
the  needs  of  many  who  take  up  agriculture  as  their  life's 
work.  There  remains,  however,  to  be  considered  that 
higher  form  of  training  which  may  be  given  in  an  agricul- 
tural college. 

It  is  to  be  expected  that  the  training  to  be  given  in  an 
agricultural  college  will  be  of  a  more  academic  character 
than  that  outlined  under  the  cadet  system,  but  this  is  not 
without  its  dangers,  so  that  it  is  desirable  there  should 


l6        TECHNICAL    EDUCATION    IN    TROPICAL    AGRICULTURE 

be  more  rigorous  and  clear  thinking  as  to  the  aims  and 
ends  of  this  training  than  appears  commonly  to  exist. 
It  is  to  be  remembered  that  agriculture  in  its  daily 
practice  is  an  art  rather  than  a  science,  though  it  makes 
liberal  and  increasing  use  of  various  sciences.  There  is, 
therefore,  a  danger  in  imagining  that  a  knowledge  of 
agriculture  to  suffice  for  earning  a  livelihood  may  be 
acquired  by  learning  the  sciences  on  which  agriculture  is 
based.  A  little  thought  will  show  that  this  is  fallacious; 
this  erroneous  idea  lies  at  the  root  of  the  objection  of 
the  working  farmer  or  planter  to  the  college  trained 
youth,  and  it  may  be  admitted  that  in  not  very  remote 
times  this  objection  was  well  founded,  for  agricultural 
colleges  were,  in  many  instances,  deficient  in  the  means 
of  teaching  the  art  of  agriculture  while  equipped  to  teach 
its  underlying  sciences. 

Another  point  requires  careful  setting  out,  namely, 
that  not  all  who  attend  agricultural  colleges  contemplate 
the  full  practice  of  agriculture — that  is,  the  raising  and 
selling  of  crops — as  their  means  of  livelihood;  many 
students  look  to  the  following  of  limited  lines  of  work  as 
specialists,  either  as  agricultural  chemists,  entomologists, 
plant  pathologists,  and  so  forth.  It  is  clear  that  these 
need  different  training  from  those  who  are  destined  to 
become  the  actual  practising  farmers  or  planters;  in  the 
former  case  the  knowledge  of  certain  sciences  is  all- 
important,  requiring  to  be  coupled  with  a  less  perfect 
proficiency  in  the  arts  of  agriculture;  in  the  latter  the 
art,  or  arts,  of  agriculture  are  all-important,  the  sciences 
merely  accessory. 

In  order  that  the  agricultural  college  may  adequately 
teach,  even  in  a  limited  degree,  the  arts  of  agriculture, 
it  is  essential  that  the  college  shall  be  associated  with 
something  in  the  nature  of  a  farm  or  experiment  station 
where  the  actual  agricultural  operations  of  the  district 
are  carried  on;  unless  these  operations  are  conducted  on  a 
fairly  large  scale  and,  indeed,  in  almost  any  case,  the 
knowledge  to  be  gained  will  lack  fulness  and  complete- 
ness, so  that  the  student  of  an  agricultural  college  will 
benefit  by  spending  some  time  upon  a  farm  or  plantation, 
in  addition  to  his  work  at  the  college. 


TECHNICAL    EDUCATION    IN    TROPICAL    AGRICULTURE        I/ 

The  advantages  offered  to  the  student  of  an  agricultural 
college  over  those  afforded  to  the  cadet  lie  rather  in  the 
wider  scope  of  general  education  than  in  advantages  in 
learning  the  art  of  agriculture;  they  imply  that  the 
agricultural  college  student  has  larger  resources  in  the 
way  of  time  and  money,  which  he  can  afford  to  spend  in 
acquiring  his  training.  On  completing  his  training,  it  is 
conceivable  that  the  agricultural  student  from  the  college 
may  be  less  mature  than  the  cadet;  he  will,  however,  have 
had  a  wider  education,  and  may  be  expected  to  be  able 
finally  to  advance  to  higher  responsibilities  than  the 
cadet. 

In  affording  training  for  the  agricultural  specialist  the 
agricultural  college  may  be  expected  to  achieve  success, 
for  the  requirements  of  the  specialist  may,  to  a  large 
extent,  be  taught  in  class-rooms  and  laboratories,  aided 
by  such  surroundings  in  the  way  of  trial  plots  or  experi- 
mental stations  as  may  be  expected  at  a  college.  But 
even  in  this  work  it  is  essential  to  have  access  to  agricul- 
tural matters  in  their  broad  practical  aspects,  for  it  will  be 
necessary  to  study  the  practical  bearing  of  the  various 
scientific  matters  in  which  expert  knowledge  is  acquired 
and  to  which  it  is  to  be  applied. 

It  is  clear,  then,  that  agricultural  colleges,  in  order  to 
be  successful  and  to  discharge  their  varied  functions  in 
the  way  of  educating  for  subsequent  broad  training  Ihe 
youths  who  are  to  become  farmers  and  planters,  and  in 
order  to  afford  adequate  training  for  agricultural 
scientists,  must  be  planned  on  very  broad  and  generous 
lines.  They  must  be  sufficiently  large  to  warrant  the 
existence  of  competent  and  diversified  staffs  of  teachers, 
each  of  whom  is  thoroughly  equipped  to  deal  with  his 
special  subject,  and  they  must  be  in  possession  of,  or 
associated  with,  a  considerable  area  of  land  on  which  the 
staple  agricultural  industries  of  the  country  are  carried 
on  on  a  commercial  scale.  These  points  imply  that  there 
must  be  a  comparatively  large  number  of  students  in 
order  to  justify  the  expenditure  in  providing  the  equip- 
ment for  their  training,  and  there  must  also  be  assured  a 
demand  for  the  services  of  the  varied  classes  of  students 
turned  out  by  the  college. 
2 


1 8       TECHNICAL   EDUCATION   IN   TROPICAL   AGRICULTURE 

Having  these  considerations  in  view,  it  is  evident  that 
it  will  be  inexpedient  to  attempt  to  establish  agricultural 
colleges  in  small  communities  or  in  places  where  com- 
munication is  in  any  way  restricted;  such  institutions 
must,  for  success,  be  placed  in  prominent  centres  of 
thought  and  agricultural  effort. 

It  would  be  of  immense  advantage  if  an  agricultural 
college  could  be  associated  with  an  institution  devoted 
to  the  work  of  agricultural  research;  indeed,  agricultural 
research  would  be  the  vital  stimulus  of  a  healthy,  active 
group  of  men  charged  with  the  duties  of  educating  along- 
various  lines  the  students  already  referred  to. 

In  planning  an  agricultural  college,  therefore,  it  will 
be  of  great  service  if  the  fundamental  ideas  can  be  so 
enlarged  as  to  include  both  for  the  professional  staff  as 
well  as  for  the  advanced  students  the  definitely  considered 
duty  of  research.  In  the  minds  of  many  who  seek  the 
aid  of  scientific  experts  in  agricultural  subjects  there 
exists,  in  a  more  or  less  pronounced  degree,  the  idea 
that  knowledge  concerning  most  of  the  operations  and 
requirements  of  the  farm  or  plantation  is  fairly  full  and 
complete,  and  that  a  competent  adviser  should  be  able, 
with  comparatively  little  effort,  to  give  at  short  notice  a 
satisfactory  answer  to  most  inquiries  presented  to  him; 
it  is  little  realized  how  scientific  knowledge  has  grown  in 
the  last  half  century,  and  how  in  this  growing  knowledge 
wider  vistas  of  the  unknown  and  unexplored  have  come 
into  view.  Only  those  who  are  working  and  teaching 
along  the  lines  of  the  forefront  of  agricultural  knowledge 
fully  recognize  how  much  there  is  now  that  demands 
investigation  and  experiment  for  elucidation.  An  institute 
of  agricultural  research  appears  to  such  perhaps  to  be 
more  of  a  necessity  than  an  agricultural  college,  but  it  is 
also  clear  to  them,  and  perhaps  to  the  majority,  that  an 
institute  of  agricultural  research  would  be  the  ideal 
organization  on  which  to  engraft  agricultural  teaching. 

A  further  useful  association  on  the  part  of  an  agricul- 
tural college,  particularly  for  purposes  of  teaching  and 
training,  is  an  intimate  connection  with  a  Department  of 
Agriculture  of  the  kind  now  to  be  found  in  many  colonies. 
The  work  of  a  Department  of  Agriculture  brings  it  into 


TECHNICAL    EDUCATION    IN    TROPICAL    AGRICULTURE        19 

intimate  connection  with  the  agriculture  of  a  district  in 
all  that  concerns  general  development  and  progress,  as 
well  as  in  connection  with  the  work  of  combating  and 
controlling  pests  and  diseases.  By  the  intimate  associa- 
tion of  an  agricultural  college  with  an  Agricultural 
Department  it  will  be  possible  for  advanced  students  to 
be  afforded  opportunities  of  studying  real  practical 
problems,  and  of  taking  part  in  real  live  work  connected 
with  the  subjects  of  their  special  study.  With  such  an 
association  it  will  be  possible  also  on  occasion  to  place 
particular  pieces  of  work  in  the  hands  of  advanced 
students,  whereby  under  adequate  guidance  they  may 
acquire  and  exercise  responsibility  and  originality  in  an 
extended  degree  not  readily  obtainable  in  the  narrower 
confines  of  the  college. 

It  is  unnecessary  here  to  attempt  to  do  more  than 
indicate  in  the  briefest  outline  the  equipment  required  in 
an  agricultural  college,  which  one  may  now  think  of  as 
including  or  being  based  on  an  institute  of  agricultural 
research.  Obviously,  this  must  include  an  adequate 
professional  staff  capable  of  teaching  and  investigating  in 
regard  to  chemistry,  physics,  botany,  mycology,  zoology, 
entomology,  veterinary  science,  agriculture,  and  horti- 
culture, and  also  the  work  involved  in  the  specific 
industries  coming  within  the  scope  of  the  college,  such  as, 
for  example,  in  connection  with  tropical  agriculture,  the 
cultivation  and  preparation  of  such  products  as  sugar, 
cacao,  tea,  coffee,  spices,  rubber,  starches,  fibres,  fruit, 
and  a  host  of  others. 

In  conclusion,  it  may  be  stringently  urged  upon  all 
those  giving  consideration  to  the  providing  of  agricultural 
education  that  they  carefully  bear  in  mind  the  capabilities 
and  needs  of  the  many  classes  of  students,  ranging  from 
the  agricultural  labourer  to  the  scientific  expert  dealing 
with  only  a  limited  range  of  subjects,  and  that  in  putting 
forward  any  scheme  of  agricultural  education  they  should 
both  ask  themselves  and  answer  the  questions :  What  is 
the  aim  and  object  of  the  training  offered?  What  class 
of  person  is  it  designed  for?  And  what  kind  of  life-work 
(wage-earning  work)  is  he  to  be  expected  to  undertake 
when  he  has  received  the  training  proposed? 


2O       TECHNICAL    EDUCATION    IN    TROPICAL    AGRICULTURE 

Further,  it  is  essential  to  distinguish  between  those 
who  have  in  their  life's  work  to  regard  agriculture  as  an 
art,  as  a  thing  to  be  done,  and  those  who  have  to  pay 
regard  to  the  sciences  underlying  the  agricultural  arts, 
and,  what  is  of  great  importance,  to  distinguish  between 
those — the  majority — who  have  to  acquire  familiarity 
with  the  arts  of  agriculture,  but  who  have  the  opportunity 
and  the  desire  to  extend  their  education  by  learning  much 
of  the  sciences  on  which  these  arts  are  based,  without  it 
being  incumbent  upon  them  to  practise  these  sciences  in 
their  abstract  form,  and  those  who  are  destined  to  deal 
with  the  sciences  fundamental  to  agriculture,  but  who 
have  only  an  indirect  concern  in  the  agricultural  arts 
themselves.  To  the  former  the  sciences  are  accessory 
and  in  the  nature  of  true  education;  to  the  latter  they 
are  fundamental  and  the  ground  of  their  life's  work. 
Clear  appreciation  of  this  fundamental  distinction  will 
prevent  the  tendency  to  offer  the  budding  farmer  or 
planter  fragments  of  science  and  to  lead  him  to  think 
that  a  knowledge  of  these  constitutes  his  training.  It 
will  also  lead  to  the  practical  farmer  or  planter's  under- 
standing and  appreciating  the  scope  of  the  work  of  the 
scientific  experts,  whether  chemist,  mycologist,  entomo- 
logist, or  what  not,  and  to  his  intelligently  and  appro- 
priately seeking  their  aid. 

It  is  worth  noting,  in  conclusion,  that  advantage  has 
been  taken  by  several  students  for  the  purposes  of  post- 
graduate study  of  the  facilities  afforded  by  the  Imperial 
Department  of  Agriculture  for  the  West  Indies  working 
in  association  with  various  local  governments  and  pro- 
prietors of  factories  and  plantations.  Five  University 
graduates  have  received  assistance  in  entomological 
studies.  One  student  followed  a  two  years'  course  of 
study  in  sugar  production  under  the  direction  of  the 
Imperial  Commissioner  of  Agriculture  in  connection  with 
a  travelling  scholarship  awarded  by  the  Government  of 
India,  and  one  graduate  from  Cambridge  is  following  a 
course  of  study  in  practical  agriculture. 


GLI  STUDI  DI  AGRICOLTURA  COLONIALE  IN  ITALIA 
E  L'OPERA  DELL'ISTITUTO  AGRICOLO  COLONIALE 
ITALIANO. 

Per  il  Dott.  GINO  BARTOLOMMEI-GIOLI. 
Direttore  dell'  Istituto  Agricolo  Coloniale  Italiano. 

L'INTERESSAMENTO  pubblico  per  le  questioni  agrarie 
coloniali,  e  piu  specialmente  dei  tecnici  e  degli  scienziati 
pei  vasti  e  nuovi  problemi  deirAgricoltura  Coloniale, 
di  data  assai  recente  in  Italia  onde  e  facile  a  chiunque 
segnalarne  il  risveglio  e  il  successive  promettente  pro- 
gresso.  I  primi  acquisti  territoriali  ajfricani  misero  in 
evidenza  la  nostra  insufficiente  preparazione  ad  affrontare 
1'opera  di  messa  in  valore  dei  nuovi  territori  e  persuasero 
alcuni  studiosi  della  necessita  di  rivolgere  le  loro  indagini 
a  cosi  nuovi  problemi.  Talche  possiamo  dire  che  ad  ogni 
ulteriore  accrescimento  del  nostro  impero  coloniale,  tenne 
dietro  una  benaugurante  fioritura  di  pregevoli  contributi 
scientifici  in  questo  ramo  della  moderna  agricoltura. 

E'  vero  che  1'Italia,  gia  prima  di  possedere  colonie 
proprie,  aveva  largamente  contribuito  con  la  sua  gente  a 
costituire  su  territori  stranieri  important!  centri  di 
colonizzazione  rurale,  ma  e  anche  vero  che  la  natura 
della  nostra  emigrazione,  eminentemente  proletaria,  le 
difficolta  che  avrebbe  dovuto  superare  chiunque  si  fosse 
dedicate  a  siffatti  studi  tecnici  scientifici  in  paesi  stranieri, 
e,  quello  che  piu  conta,  molto  distant!  dal  nostro,  non 
valsero  a  decidere  gli  studiosi  italiani  a  dedicarsi  risoluta- 
mente  alle  questioni  agrarie  coloniali.  E  se  oggi  pure  i 
problemi  tecnici  ed  economici  del  colonizzamento  agricolo, 
che  ci  si  presentano  fuori  dei  territori  di  diretto  dominio, 
attraggono  Tattenzione  degli  scienziati  italiani,  cio  e 
dovuto  principalmente  al  cresciuto  ed  ancora  crescente 
interessamento  offerto  dalle  questioni  attimenti  ai  nostri 
possedimenti  coloniali. 

Infatti   i   nostri   studiosi   di   cose   agrarie   ricevettero  i 
primi     •efficaci     incitamenti     ad     affrontare     i     problemi 


22        TECHNICAL    EDUCATION    IN    TROPICAL    AGRICULTURE 

colonial!  quando,  or  non  e  molto,  una  piu  esatta 
cognizione  dei  compiti  da  assolvere  nelle  nostre  colonie 
territorial!  allargo  le  basi  della  coscienza  coloniale 
italiana.  E  poiche  e  compito  di  questa  breve  memoria  di 
far  conoscere  quello  che  in  Italia  si  e  fatto  negli  ultimi 
anni  per  promuovere,  indirizzare  e  disciplinare  la  coltura 
agraria  coloniale,  cosi  tralasceremo  di  menzionare  alcune 
istituzioni  che  contribuirono  in  varia  misura  ad  orientare  la 
nostra  attivita  scientifica  verso  le  indagini  coloniali,  tanto 
piu  che  della  loro  opera  sara  reso  conto  in  questo  con- 
vegno  internazionale.  Parimente  ci  asterremo  dal  riferire 
sull'attivita  sperimentale  spiegata  in  Eritrea,  Somalia  e 
Tripolitania  e  sugli  studi  preliminari  che  ne  determinarono 
Tindirizzo,  la  scarsita  dello  spazio  imponendoci  di  re- 
stringere  la  nostra  trattazione  al  solo  Istituto  metro- 
politano  che,  obbedendo  alle  necessita  dimostratesi  nella 
nostra  azione  coloniale  nel  campo  agricolo,  ha  voluto  e 
saputo  in  un  tempo  breve  costituirsi  quale  unico  centro 
della  coltura  agraria  coloniale  fra  noi.  Dandogli  vita,  i 
suoi  promotori  hanno  voluto  creare  un  nuovo  centro  della 
coltura  italiana,  scientificamente  e  tecnicamente  inteso 
alia  risoluzione  dei  piu  important!  problem!  coloniali  e 
cioe  di  tutti  quell!  che  si  prefiggono  una  piu  precisa 
conoscenza  della  messa  in  valore  dei  territori  extra- 
europei,  ove  1'Italia  ha  o  potra  avere  interessi  politici  ed 
economici. 

*  ^  *  * 

Fino  dal  1904  si  iniziarono  gli  studi  e  si  presero  i  primi 
accord!  per  la  fondazione  di  un  Istituto  Agricolo  Coloniale 
Italiano  che  doveva  proporsi  gli  scopi  seguenti :  di 
funzionare  come  centro  di  informazioni,  di  consulenza  e 
di  propaganda  per  quello  che  riguarda  TAgricoltura,  la 
Zootecnia  e  le  risorse  naturali  delle  colonie  politiche  ed 
etniche;  di  preparare  personale  tecnico,  sia  direttivo,  sia 
subalterno,  per  le  imprese  agricole  e  zootecniche  coloniali; 
d'integrare  Topera  dei  servizi  agrari  sperimentali  governa- 
tivi  delle  nostre  colonie  territoriali;  di  introdurre  in  Italia 
nuove  pratiche  agrarie  e  zootecniche,  nonche  piante  ed 
animal!  da  allevamento  da  paesi  extra-europei,  e  studiare 
colture  o  allevamenti  gia  introdotti  e  non  abbastanza 
sperimentati,  capaci  di  arricchire  la  nostra  produzione. 


TECHNICAL    EDUCATION    IN    TROPICAL    AGRICULTURE        23 

agricola  e  zootecnica,  ed  infine  di  stabilire  le  relazioni  con 
istituzioni  stromiere  per  gli  opportuni  scambi  di  materiale 
e  di  notizie  e  per  far  figurare  degnamente  anche  all'estero 
il  nostro  paese  in  questo  campo  di  studi.  Una  parte  di 
cosi  vasto  programma  pote  ricevere  pratica  attuazione  nel 
1906,  e  nel  1908  Tlstituto  Agricolo  Coloniale  Italiano 
entro  nella  fase  della  sua  piena  attivita  funzionale.  Oggi 
1'Istit.uto  Agricolo  Coloniale  Italiano  esplica  tin  crescente 
lavoro  in  ciascuno  degli  organi  che  lo  costituiscono  e  cio 
merce  il  concorso  finanziario  di  enti  governativi  e  locali, 
con  Tappoggio  di  varie  istituzioni  cittadine,  valendosi  del 
ricco  materiale  dimostrativo,  didattico,  scientifico,  rac- 
colto  nel  suo  museo  di  prodotti  agrari,  nella  sua  biblioteca, 
nei  suoi  laboratori,  nelle  serre,  mediante  un  personale 
non  da  oggi  soltanto  preparato  alle  indagini  coloniali,  ma 
bensi  allenato  da  lunghi  studi  e  da  un  tirocinio  fatto  in 
paesi  coloniali. 

A  questo  punto,  innanzi  di  riferire  circa  Tattivita 
esplicata  dall'Istituto,  giova  rilevare  alcune  fortunate 
circostanze  che  indubbiamente  influirono  sul  suo  for- 
tunato  sviluppo.  E  fra  queste  la  posizione  geografica  di 
Firenze,  ma  piu  ancora  le  sue  ricche  e  gloriose  tradizioni 
scientifiche  ed  agricole,  il  fiorirvi  gia  di  istituzioni  che 
tanta  affinita  hanno  con  quella  di  cui  parliamo.  Infatti  la 
collaborazione,  che  sino  dai  primi  giorni  le  accordarono 
disinteressata  ed  intera  alcune  istituzioni  locali,  resero 
possibile  all'Istituto  di  affermarsi  solidamente,  malgrado 
modesti  contributi  di  una  suppellettile  scientifica  che 
sarebbe  stata  scarsa,  ove  a  sopperire  a  tale  deficienza 
iniziale  non  avessero  contribuito  largamente  gli  istituti 
agrari  e  botanici,  i  musei,  le  biblioteche,  i  laboratori  onde 
e  ricca  Firenze.  E  fra  queste  istituzioni  benemerite  deb- 
bono  essere  principalmente  nominate :  la  R.  Scuola  di 
Pomologia,  Frutticultura  e  Giardinaggio,  il  R.  Istituto 
Botanico,  la  R.  Stazione  di  Entomologia  Agraria  che 
tuttavia  continuano  a  contribuire  all'azione  dell'Istituo 
nel  campo  pratico  e  scientifico. 


Ed  ora  alcune  parole  circa  Tazione  da  esso  svolta  e  che 
puo  riconnettersi  a  tre  funzioni  principali :    didattica,   dt 


24       TECHNICAL   EDUCATION   IN   TROPICAL   AGRICULTURE 

propaganda  e  di  consulenza,  pure  dipendendo  da  esse 
special!  organi  ed  uffici. 

L'azione  didattica  si  esplica  mediante :  (a)  Una  scuote 
teorico-pratica  di  agricoltura  coloniale;  (b)  un  Corso 
Superiore  di  Agricoltura  Coloniale;  (c)  un  Corso  superiore 
di  Medicina  Veterinaria  Tropicale. 

L'insegnamento  del  Corso  teorico-pratico  si  svolge  in 
due  anni  di  cui  il  primo  e  preparatorio;  al  prime  anno 
sono  ammessi  i  licenziati  delle  Scuole  Pratiche  di  Agricol- 
tura, menfre  al  secondo  (complementare)  sono  ammessi, 
oltre  i  giovani  che  hanno  frequentato  con  esito  favorevole 
quello  preparatorio,  i  licenziati  delle  Sezioni  di  Agrimen- 
sura,  Agronomia  e  Agricoltura  dei  R.  Istituti  tecnici  €  i 
licenziati  dai  Corsi  Superior!  delle  R.  Scuole  special!  o  da 
altri  Istituti  Italiani  od  esteri  di  carattere  superiore.  Le 
varie  materie  d'insegnamento  sono  le  seguenti :  — 

i°  Corso. — Agronomia  coloniale,  Botanica  generate, 
Scienze  natural!  applicate  all' Agricoltura,  Matematica 
applicata  (con  esercizi  di  topografia,  estimo  e  contabilita), 
Meteorologia  e  Geografia  coloniale,  Lingua  francese. 

2°  Corso. — Agricoltura  comparata  e  coloniale,  Geo- 
grafia botanica,  Fitografia  e  Patologia  delle  piante 
colonial!,  Tecnologia  chimico  agraria  coloniale, 
Economia  e  Tecnica  delle  aziende  agrarie  coloniali,  Geo- 
grafia economica,  Legislazione  e  Storia  delle  Colonie, 
Zootecnia  coloniale,  Igiene  coloniale,  Entomologia 
agraria  coloniale,  Lingua  francese,  Lingue  estere 
(Inglese,  Spagnola,  Araba,  a  scelta). 

Per  accordi  presi  gli  allievi  compiono  il  loro  tirocinio 
pratico  nella  vasta  azienda  orticola  della  R.  Scuola  di 
Orticoltura,  Pomologia  e  Giardinaggio,  nonche  nelle 
ampie  serre  dell'Istituto. 

I  Corsi  teorici  sono  avvalorati  da  numerose  esercita- 
zioni  nel  Museo,  nel  Laboratorio,  nella  Biblioteca  ed 
integrate  da  un  viaggio  di  studio  eseguito  mediante  un 
Campo  mobile  e  da  gite  d'istruzione. 

Una  Stazion-e  meteorologica  serve  ad  addestrare  gli 
allievi  nelle  determinazioni  riflettenti  la  climatologia 
agraria. 

Inoltre,  per  completare  il  tirocinio  pratico  dei  licenziati 
nel  luogo  stesso  ove  intendono  di  esercitare  il  loro  ufiicio 


TECHNICAL    EDUCATION    IN    TROPICAL    AGRICULTURE        25 

di  agenti  agrari  coloniali,  accordi  sono  stati  presi  e  si 
continuano  a  prendere  con  Istituzioni  Agrarie  Speri- 
mentali  e  private  aziende  delle  nostre  Colonie  e  di  paesi  di 
immigrazione  per  far  loro  acquistare  la  completa  cono- 
scenza  del  nuovo  ambiente  agricolo  sociale  ed  economico.1 

II  Corso  Superiore  di  Agricoltura  Coloniale,  della  durata 
di  2  a  4  mesi,  e  tenuto  principalmente  a  laureati  in  Scienze 
Agrarie  per  diffondere.  lo  studio  delle  questioni  agrarie 
coloniali  fira  quelli  che,  dal  loro  titolo  di  studi,  sono  gia 
designati  a  dirigere  le  sorti  della  produzione  agricola 
nazionale ;  ma  puo  essere  utilnrente  frequentato>  anche  da 
laureati  in  Ingegneria,  in  Scienze  Naturali,  in  Farmacia, 
in  Zooiatria  e  in  Scienze  Commerciali.  Le  materie  svolte 
durante  il  primo  corso  di  insegnamento  sono  le  seguenti :  — 

Geografia  coloniale,  Geografia  botanica,  Meteoro- 
logia  agraria  coloniale,  Colture  coloniali,  Tecnologia 
coloniale,  Zootecnia  colo^niale,  Economia  agraria 
coloniale  e  Cenni  di  Ingegneria  coloniale,  Storia  delle 
Colonie,  Economia  e  Legislazione  coloniale,  Profilas.si 
delle  malattie  infettive  coloniali  deH'uomo  e  del  bestiame. 

Durante  lo  svolgimento  del  Corso  in  quest'anno,  e  stato 
pure  tenuto  un  ciclo  di  lezioni  sull'Argentina  agricola  e 
una  serie  di  conferenze  da  personalita  coloniali  italiane 
per  illustrare  le  nostre  colonie  politiche  e  di  popolamento.2 

II  Corso  di  Medicina  Veterinaria  Tropicale  e  tenuto 
ogni  anno  ai  laureati  in  Zooiatria  allo  scopo  di  far  cono- 
scere  la  Eziologia  e  la  Patologia  della  maggior  parte 
delle  infezioni  e  per  illustrare  le  malattie  tropicali  e  sub- 


1  II  numero  degli  allievi  iscritti  fino  al  6°  anno  dall'apertura 
del  Corso  Teorico-Pratico  fu  di  g8  di  cui  53  licenziati.     A  22  di 
questi    1'Istituto    ha    procurato    un    decoroso    collocamento    fuori 
d'ltalia    (Argentina,    Australia,    Brasile,    Eritrea,    Montenegro, 
Singapore,  Somalia  Italiana,  Texas,   Niassaland,  Africa  Orien- 
tale  Tedesca,  ecc.)  gli  altri  adempiono  o  dovranno  presto  adem- 
piere  agli  obblighi  di  leva,   o  >hanno  trovato  impiego  in  Italia ; 
di  alcuni  e  imminente  il  collocamento. 

2  Si  iscrissero  al  i°  Corso   di   Insegnamento  N°  36  laureati  e 
uditori. 

Alia  fine  del  Corso  hanno  conseguito  il  diploma,  in  seguito  ad 
un  esame  collegiale,  N°  22  laureati  e  I'attestato  di  frequenza 
N°  2  uditori. 


26        TECHNICAL    EDUCATION    IN    TROPICAL    AGRICULTURE 

tropicali  degli  animal!  domestic!  nei  riguardi  specialmente 
di  una  razionale  profilassi. 

Le  materie  d'insegnamento  del  Corso  sono  le  seguenti : 
Geografia  coloniale,  Zootecnia  coloniale,  Entomologia 
veterinaria  coloniale,  Patologia  tropicale,  Igiene  veteri- 
naria  tropicale,  Esercitazioni  pratiche  di  Batteriologia  e 
di  Clinica.3 

*  *  *  * 

Seconda  per  importanza  e  la  funzione  di  propaganda 
esercitata  dairistituto.  A  questa  collaborano  i  suoi 
principali  organi  ed  il  personale  tutto  a  seconda  delle 
proprie  competenze.  Ma  se  il  Museo,  la  Biblioteca,  le 
raccolte  di  materials  dimostrativo,  insieme  a  speciali  cicli  di 
conferenze  sopra  determinati  argomenti  che  interessano  i 
problemi  coloniali,  valgono  a  risvegliare  in  coloro  che 
frequentano  1'Istituto  il  gusto  per  cosi  nuovo  ordine  di 
studi,  ancora  piu  attiva  e  1 'opera  di  divulgazione  che 
1'Istituto  stesso  svolge  presso  un  piu  grande  pubblico  a 
vantaggio  delle  question!  agricole  coloniali  per  mezzo  di 
alcune  sue  speciali  pubblicazioni. 

La  Rivista  "  L'Agricoltura  Coloniale  "  organo  del- 
1'Istituto  e  dei  Servizi  Agrari  dell'Eritrea,  della  Somalia 
Italiana  e  della  Tripolitania  e  entrata  col  1914  nel  suo  VIII 
anno  di  vita;  si  pubblica  in  fascicoli  mensili  di  60  a  80 
pagine  riccamente  illustrati  e  contiene  monografie  e 
memorie  scientifiche,  note  pratiche  «d  articoli  di  pro- 
paganda, un  abbondante  notiziario,  numerose  note  biblio- 
grafiche  e  gli  atti  dell'Istituto. 

La  Rivista  si  vale  di  corrispondenti  tecnici  all'Estero  e 
di  collaboratori  in  Italia  scelti  fra  le  persone  piu  com- 
petent!. 

Mancando  1'Italia  di  una  letteratura  agraria  coloniale, 
Tlstituto  dirige  la  pubblicazione  di  due  serie  di  opere, 
una  sotto  il  titolo  di  "  Biblioteca  Agrarfa  Coloniale  "  di 
cui  sono  gia  usciti  10  volumi  e  due  sono  attualmente  in 
Corso  di  stampa;  Taltra  intitolata  "  Relazioni  e  Mono- 
grafie Agrarie  Coloniali  "  di  cui  sono  stati  pubblicati  due 


3  Durante  1'anno  igi2  frequentarono  il  Corso  N°  24  laureati  e 
n-ell'anno  igis  n.  18.  In  seguito  ad  un  esame  collegiale  otten- 
nero  il  diploma  N°  42  laureati  in  Zooiatria. 


TECHNICAL    EDUCATION    IN    TROPICAL    AGRICULTURE        2.J 

volumi.  L'Istituto  ha  altresi  iniziato  la  pubblicazione  di 
brevi  guide  pratiche  per  1'emigrante  agricoltore. 

Ne  cio  basta,  poiche  da  questa  azione  di  propaganda  si 
puo  far  dipendere  un  altro  importante  servizio  esercitato 
con  fortuna  dall'Istituto.  Vogliamo  dire  del  Servizio 
Agrario  sperimentale. 

Con  esso  1'Istituto  ha  gia  incominciato  lo  studio 
sperimentale  di  piante  nuove  o  poco  studiate  nella  nostra 
agricoltura,  ha  provveduto  ad  introdurre  nuove  razze  di 
animali  domestici  in  Italia  ed  a  diffondere  pratiche  agrarie, 
che  hanno  avuto  grande  successo  aU'Estero.  Esempi  di 
questa  attivita  sono  specialmente  le  riccrche  sperimentali 
di  cotonicoltura  nel  mezzogiorno  d'ltalia  e  nelle  isole, 
eseguite  per  incarico  del  Ministero  di  Agricoltura,  le 
prove  colturali  di  numerosi  foraggi  propri  dei  paesi  aridi, 
Timportazione  di  ovini  karakul  in  Sardegna  per  migliorare 
le  razze  indigene,  1'aver  contribuito  all'introduzione  di 
riproduttori  zebu  per  prove  di  acclimatazione  e  di  incrocio 
nel  nostro  paese,  la  pubblicazione  di  note  critiche  e  mono- 
grafie  descrittive  sui  piu  noti  metodi  di  "  ar  id  o- col  turn  "  e 
sugli  studi  che  in  materia  vengono  eseguiti  nelle  diverse 
regioni  deir Africa,  deH'America,  dell'Australia,  ecc. 


Connessa  intimamente  alia  funzione  di  propaganda  e 
quella  di  consulenza  che  costittiisce  uno  dei  piu  im- 
portanti  servizi  a  cui  abbia  dato  vita  1'Istituto.  Essa  si 
esplico  attivamente  fino  da  principio,  personalmente  e  per 
corrispondenza,  e  si  svolge  in  modo  speciale  con  pareri, 
esami  di  progetti  tecnici,  provvista  di  materiale  diversi 
per  privati  e  per  Enti  governativi  Italiani  della  metropoli, 
e  delle  colonie  nostre  e  dell'estero  (Governi  delle  Indie 
Inglesi  e  Olandesi,  del  British  East  Africa  Protectorate, 
Deutsche  Ost  Afrika,  Tunisia,  Messico,  Egitto,  Francia, 
Spagna,  ecc).  II  numero  dei  corrispondenti  con  cui 
1'Istituto  fu  in  relazione  per  consulenza  tecnica,  informa- 
zioni  e  commissioni  e  rilevantissimo.  Sempre  in  ordine  a 
questa  funzione,  e  per  sua  iniziativa  e  il  piu  delle  volte  su 
richiesta  di  Enti  governativi  o  di  imprese  private, 
1'Istituto  ha  provveduto  e  partecipato  con  personale 
proprio  o  anche  valendosi  di  tecnici  e  scienziati  adatti  allo 


28       TECHNICAL   EDUCATION    IN   TROPICAL    AGRICULTURE 

scopo,  e  da  esso  non  dipendenti,  all'organizzazione  di 
important!  missioni  di  studio  compiute  tanto  nelle  nostre 
Colonie  quanto  in  quelle  di  altre  nazioni.1 


4  Fra  le  missioni  di  studio  sono  da  annoverarsi  le  seguenti  :  — 

(1)  La    Missione    del    Dott.    Guido    Mangano    nella    Somalia 
Italiana,  nel  British  East  Africa,  Deutsche  Ost  Afrika,  e  Zanzibar 
come    addetto    tecnico    dell'On.     Leopoldo    Franchetti     (Marzo- 
Luglio  iQo8). 

(2)  Missione  di  studio  eseguita  pure  dal  Dott.  Guido  Mangano 
nell'India,  Ceylon,  Penisola  di  Malacca,  Giava,   Eritrea,  Egitto 
(Agosto  igo8 — Marzo  1909). 

(3)  Missione  di  studio    del    Dott.    Guido   Mangano  nelle   prin- 
cipali  istituzioni  agrarie  coloniali  della  Francia,  Belgio,  Olanda, 
Germania  (Giugno  igio). 

(4)  Viaggio  di  studio  del  Dott.  Guido  Mangano  per  visitare  le 
Tripolitania  e  Cirenaica  per  incarico  della  Societa  per  lo  Studio 
della  Libia  (Giugno  10.12). 

(5)  Missione  di  studio  del  Dott.  Dino   Taruffi  nelPAngola  per 
incarico    del    Sindacato    Italiano  per   Imprese   nelPAfrica    Occi- 
dentale   (Agosto-Dicembre   igi2). 

(6)  Missione    di    studio    dell'On.     Prof.     Carlo    Pucci,    Proff. 
Manetti   e    Pampanini  nel    Gebel    Tripolino   come    tecnici   della 
Missione    Franchetti    della    Societa   per    lo    Studio    della    Libia 
(Febbraio-Giugno  igis). 

(7)  Missione  di   studio  dei  Proff.    G.   Stefanini  e  G.   Paoli  per 
indagini    geo-idrologiche    e   naturalistiche   nella    Somalia   Meri- 
dionale   per  conto   del  Governo  della  Somalia  Italiana    (Aprile- 
Dicembre  igi3). 

(8)  Missione    di   studio    del   Dott.    Guido   Mangano  in    Eritrea 
per  conto  della  Societa  per  la  Coltivazione  del  Cotone   (Ottobre 
igi3-Gennaio  igi4). 

Tali  Missioni  oltre  a  contribuire  all'allenamento  del  personale, 
giovano  ad  arricchire  notevolmente  la  suppellettile  scientifica 
dell'Istituto  e  le  sue  pubblicazioni. 

L'Istituto  Agricolo  Colo'niale  Italiano  ha  dotato  inoltre  le 
seguenti  missioni  di  istruzioni  e  di  materiale  scientifico  per  la 
raccolta  di  prodoitti  e  di  notizie  agrarie  : 

Missione  dei  Dott.  Scassellati  e  Mazzocchi  nella  Somalia 
Meridionale. 

Missione  del  Maggiore  Tancredi  al  Lago  Tsana. 

Missione  del  Cap.  Citerni  nell'Etiopia  Meridionale. 

Missione  della  Societa  Italiana  per  lo  Studio  della  Libia  in 
Tunisia  e  nella  Tripolitania. 

Missione  del  Col.  Miani  nel  Fezzan.  Ha  pure  prestato  assist- 
enza  a  numerosi  viaggiatori  ed  esploratori  che  per  ragioni  di 
studio  o  di  commercio,  hanno  compiuto  viaggi  nei  paesi  coloniali. 


TECHNICAL    EDUCATION    IN    TROPICAL    AGRICULTURE        2Q 

La  brevita  dello  spazio  non  ci  consente  di  dare  risalto 
ad  altre  secondarie  attivita  delFIstituto,  e  nemmeno  ci 
permette  un'  adeguata  descrizione  degli  organi  da  cui 
emanano  queste  diverse  attivita. 

Ma  pur  volendo  tacere  di  altre  numerose  iniziative  prese 
dal  nostro  sodalizio  in  breve  volgere  di  tempo,  giova 
ricordare  1'aiuto  che  1'Istituto  presto  alia  Societa  Italiana 
per  lo  Studio  della  Libia  che  sino  dal  suo  nascere  assiste 
con  1'opera  e  col  consiglio  del  suo  personale  tecnico  nella 
esecuzione  di  quella  parte  del  suo  programma  di  studio 
che  rientra  nella  nostra  funzione  di  consulenza. 

Parimente  dobbiamo  rammentare  che  la  Direzione 
deiristituto  nel  1910,  essendo  stata  incaricata  dal  Mini- 
stero  di  Agricoltura,  Industria  e  Commercio  di  rappre- 
sentare  1' Italia  e  di  promuovere  la  partecipazione  al 
Congresso  di  Agronomia  Tropicale  a  Bruxelles,  di- 
simpegno  il  compito  assuntosi  facendo  figurare  degna- 
mente  gli  studiosi  italiani  in  quella  riunione  scientifica. 

Ne  a  questo  punto  e  fuor  di  luogo  il  ricordare  che  in 
seguito  a  sua  iniziativa  1'Istituto,  aderendo  alle  reiterate 
insistenze  deirAssociazione  Scientifica  Internazionale  di 
Agronomia  Coloniale,  addivenne  alia  costituzione  della 
Sessio-ne  Italiana  deirAssociazione  stessa :  ognuno  com- 
prende  con  quale  vantaggio  per  la  stabilita  e  rintimita 
dei  rapporti  scientifici  fra  i  nostri  studiosi  e  quelli  degli 
altri  paesi  coloniali. 

Ond'  e  per  noi  ragione  di  legittimo  orgoglio  e  di 
intima  soddisfazione  poter  oggi  fare  udire  in  seno  alle 
solenni  riunioni  di  questo  Convegno  Internazionale  la 
voce  dell'Italia  recante  il  suo  primo  contribute  in  questo 
nuovo  ordine  di  studi,  al  quale  soltanto  da  pochi  anni  si  e 
dedicata,  col  consueto  fervore,  €  facendo  concoscere  nel 
contempo  la  parte  avuta  in  questo  risveglio  dall'Istituto 
Agricolo  Coloniale  Italiano.  E  vogliamo  sperare  che  da 
questa  sommaria  esposizione  di  notizie  e  di  opere  possa 
resultare  come  la  nostra  fondazione  sia  il  centro  di  studi 
che  si  dimostra  attualmente  il  piu  adatto  a  promuovere 
gli  studi  agrari  coloniali  in  Italia,  e  a  dar  loro  un  sempre 
crescente  incremento;  1'Istituto  nazionale  insomma  da 
cui  neH'ultimo  sessennio  e  sorta  la  maggiore  copia  di 
impulsi  alia  soluzione  dei  problemi  coloniali. 


THE  NECESSITY  OF  ESTABLISHING  A  BRITISH 
AGRICULTURAL  COLLEGE  IN  THE  WESTERN 
HEMISPHERE. 

By    HAROLD    HAMEL    SMITH. 
Editor  of  ''Tropical  Life." 

As  some  apology  or  explanation,  perhaps,  is  due  from 
me  for  introducing  at  this  Congress  what  might,  at  first 
sight,  appear  to  be  purely  a  national  question  relating 
only  to  this  country  and  its  dependencies,  I  would  urge 
that  nothing  to  do  with  the  tropics,  and  especially  with 
the  cultivation  of  crops  within  their  area,  can  be  regarded 
as  purely  a  national  matter.  Such  reasons  as  the  facility 
with  which  pests  are  spread,  rainfalls  encouraged  or 
adversely  affected,  the  distribution  of  seeds  and  plants, 
and  so  on,  render  it  absolutely  necessary  that  everyone 
going  to  the  tropics  to  plant,  or  even  to  trade  in  the 
produce,  should  be  trained  beforehand  along  right  lines 
within  the  Torrid  Zone,  so  as  to  be  able  either  to  check 
and  put  an  end  to  trouble  should  it  arise,  or  more  im- 
portant still,  to  learn  how  to  avoid  causing  it.  In  order, 
therefore,  that  those  who  wish  to  plant  or  trade  within 
the  Torrid  Zone  should  receive  that  training  which  is 
necessary  to  enable  them  to  do  so  with  the  greatest 
chances  of  success,  I  have  chosen,  as  the  subject  of  my 
paper,  "The  Necessity  of  Establishing  a  British  Agri- 
cultural College  in  the  Western  Hemisphere." 

Before  I  go  on  to  say  one  word  in  support,  not  so 
much  of  the  claims  of  the  West  Indies  for  an  Agricultural 
College  as  to  show  the  absolute  necessity  of  this  country, 
if  it  means  to  enjoy  that  share  to  which  it  is  entitled  of 
the  ever-increasing  commerce  of  Latin-America,  to  estab- 
lish such  a  college  in  the  Western  Hemisphere,  I  want  it 
to  be  clearly  understood  that  I  am  not  urging  the  claim 


TECHNICAL    EDUCATION    IN    TROPICAL    AGRICULTURE        3! 

of  the  West  Indies  in  competition  with  Ceylon,  for  such 
is,  in  no  wise,  my  desire.  On  the  contrary,  if,  pro  tern., 
there  is  to  be  only  one  college,  then  I  agree  that  Ceylon 
should  have  it;  but  what  I  do  maintain  is  this — and  1 
maintain  it  as  emphatically  as  I  can — that  our  welfare  as  a 
trading  nation,  as  well  as  on  account  of  our  Imperial 
interests  in  the  West,  renders  it  quite  as  important — and 
perhaps  more  so — that  we  should  establish  a  college  in 
the  Western  Hemisphere,  as  it  is  that  we  should  have 
one  in  the  East. 

Estimates  as  to  the  cost  of  a  college,  as  well  as  of  the 
annual  amount  necessary  for  its  upkeep,  vary  consider- 
ably. It  has,  however,  been  estimated  by  the  President 
of  this  Congress,  Professor  Dunstan,  that  £50,000  would 
be  sufficient  to  establish  a  college  in  Ceylon  on  a  secure 
basis.  To  this,  of  course,  as  time  goes  on,  other  amounts 
could  be  added  from  private  sources.  If  it  is  so  in  the 
East,  it  would  certainly  be  so  out  West,  where  the  cost 
should  not  exceed  that  which  is  necessary  in  the  East; 
this  being  so,  someone  has  to  put  down  £100,000  sterling 
to  establish  the  two  colleges  to  commence  with,  and 
those  who  do  so  will  get  better  value  for  their  money 
than  any  shareholders  receive  in  any  three  of  the  best 
paying  rubber  estates,  although  they  have  already  got 
back  their  capital  several  times  over. 

There  is,  of  course,  only  one  source  from  which  such  a 
sum  can  come,  namely,  the  general  public,  who  will 
benefit  by  the  establishment  of  the  two  colleges  in  every 
possible  way,  both  as  regards  the  assurance  of  increased 
supplies  of  raw  materials  for  their  factories,  as  well  as 
the  large  shipments  of  foodstuffs  which  we  now  draw 
weekly  and  daily  from  the  tropics,  and  without  which  the 
bulk  of  the  population  in  this  country,  and  the  rest  of 
the  world  generally,  would  find  it  difficult — if  not  im- 
possible— to  exist  for  more  than  a  few  months.  The 
importance,  therefore,  of  scientifically  training  tropical 
agricultural  experts  and  planters  is  not  confined  to  any 
one  country,  but  is  quite  international  in  character. 

We  must  agree  that  the  Government  of  this  country 
will  have  to  find  the  money,  and  in  saying  this  we  do  not 
think,  when  the  public  who  are  behind  the  Government 


32        TECHNICAL    EDUCATION    IN   TROPICAL   AGRICULTURE 

realize  the  exact  state  of  affairs,  that  they  will  grudge 
such  a  small  amount.  I  say  this,  because  in  April  last 
I  noticed  that  Uganda  was  to  have  a  loan  of  £3,000,000 
sterling  to  increase  its  general  efficiency,  and  from  all 
accounts  the  money  was  badly  needed,  and  will  give  an 
excellent  return. 

Glad  as  I  am,  glad  as  everyone  who  knows  Uganda  and 
the  possibilities  of  trade  that  surround  it  must  be,  that 
the  Protectorate  has  received  this  amount,  no  one  can 
compare  the  importance  of  Uganda  as  a  trading  and 
agricultural  centre,  with  the  Far  East  on  the  one  hand, 
or  of  Latin-America  on  the  other.  If,  therefore,  the 
Government  has  seen  its  way  to  vote  £3,000,000  sterling 
for  Uganda,  it  certainly,  if  it  knows  its  work  and  can 
realize  the  immense  benefit  these  colleges  will  be  to  our 
trade  and  commerce  generally,  cannot  hesitate  to  vote 
the  £100,000  sterling  to  found  two  Agricultural  Colleges 
and  Institutes  of  Tropical  Research,  one  in  the  East — 
say  in  Ceylon — and  a  second  in  the  West — let  us  say  in 
Trinidad. 

Before  going  on  to  discuss  the  class  of  student  that  I 
am  hoping  to  see  make  use  of  these  colleges — for  I 
believe  that  there  is  some  difference  of  opinion  as  to  who 
will  enter  their  doors — I  would  like  to  call  your  atten- 
tion to  the  enormous  amount  of  British  capital  that  is 
now  invested  in  Latin- America.  I  am  quoting  the  follow- 
ing figures  from  the  South  American  Journal  of 
January  7  last,  and  therefore  can  claim  that  they  are 
well  up  to  date.  According  to  this  authority,  the  total 
capital  invested  in  the  Spanish  and  Portuguese  Republics 
amounted  to  £1,001,736,565  sterling,  which  you  will 
agree  is  a  very  substantial  sum.1 


1  According  to  a  statement  in  The  South  American  Journal, 
January  7,  1914,  the  eighteen  Republics  of  Latin-America  occupy 
a  total  area  of  over  8,000,000  square  miles,  having,  according 
to  the  latest  estimates,  75,000,000  inhabitants,  with  a  total  trade 
of  £560,000,000  per  annum,  of  which  that  with  Great  Britain 
accounts  for  £125,000,000,  whilst  the  amount  of  British  capital 
invested  in  each  country,  together  with  the  total  (£1,001,000,000) 
is  as  follows  : — 


TECHNICAL    EDUCATION    IN    TROPICAL    AGRICULTURE        33 

On  the  other  hand,  if  you  read  the  books  that  have 
appeared  lately  by  reliable  authorities  on  the  immigration 
into  Latin-America  of  all  classes,  you  will  have  learnt, 
with  regret,  that  at  the  chief  commercial  and  social 
centres  the  number  of  British  subjects  tends  to  go  back 
instead  of  going  forward.  I  will  only  quote  one  instance. 
Mr.  Reginald  Enock,  in  his  book  on  the  "  Republics  of 
Central  and  South  America,"  told  us  that  out  of  the  total 
immigration  into  Brazil  during  1911  (134,000  souls)  only 
5,850  were  British,  and  from  the  figures  of  1912  and  1913, 
I  should  say,  without  being  certain  of  the  fact,  that  this 
difference  was  even  more  marked  than  it  was  shown  to 
be  in  1911.  Mr.  (now  Viscount)  Bryce  also  calls  atten- 
tion to  the  scarcity  of  English-speaking  people  in  Latin- 
America,  for  you  may  remember  that  in  his  book  on 
"  South  America:  Observations  and  Impressions,"  he 
quotes,  on  p.  510,  the  saying  of  Mr.  Hiram  Bingham, 
'"  that  the  educated  young  German  who  is  being  sent 
out  to  capture  South  American  commerce  is  a  power  to 
be  reckoned  with." 

Do  you  not  think  that  this  is  a  very  serious  matter? 
We  are  investing  our  hard-earned  savings  in  another 
country  which,  if  we  are  not  careful,  and  if  we  do  not 
increase  by  two-  and  threefold  the  number  of  our  own 
countrymen  to  represent  us  (better  still,  were  they  twenty 
times  the  number  that  they  are  to-day),  this  very  capital 
will  militate  against  our  own  prosperity  by  generating 
trade  which  goes  to  other  countries,  who  will  benefit  at 
our  cost  on  account  of  their  countrymen  being  so  greatly 
in  the  majority  to  divert  the  trade  to  their  countries. 


British  capital 

invested  in  :  — 

Argentina 

£357,74o,66i 

Guatemala   . 

£10,445,220 

Brazil   

223,895,435 

Salvador 

2,224,700 

Chile    ...       ... 

63,938,237 

Honduras 

3,143,200 

Uruguay 

46,145,393 

Nicaragua 

1,239,100 

Peru      

25,658,20.8 

Costa  Rica 

6,660,060 

Bolivia 

419,720 

Panama 

— 

Venezuela 

7,950,009 

Cuba     ... 

44,444,618 

Colombia 

6,654,094 

Shipping 

15,362,230 

Ecuador 

2,780,974 

Banks  .. 

18,514,537 

Paraguay 

2,995,730 

Mexico 

161,524,349 

£1,001,736,565 

34        TECHNICAL    EDUCATION    IN    TROPICAL   AGRICULTURE 

Far  better,  if  we  are  not  going  to  send  our  young  men 
to  Latin- America,  not  to  invest  our  money  in  it;  at  any 
rate,  if  it  is  not  better  for  the  shareholders,  it  will  be 
better  for  us  from  a  political  point  of  view.  I  believe 
that  in  Sao  Paulo  (Brazil)  alone  there  was  a  round 
million  of  Italians  in  1912  or  1911,  and  there  must  be 
between  400,000  and  500,000  Germans  distributed 
throughout  Brazil  generally.  It  has  been  contended 
that  the  bulk  of  these  are  only  workmen;  this,  however, 
does  not  make  any  difference  in  the  regret  that  I  feel 
that  there  is  not  a  proportion  of  English  among  them, 
for  if  you  follow  the  careers  of  some  of  these  men  and 
take  note  of  the  producers  of  the  immense  quantities 
of  maize,  wheat,  refrigerated  meat,  etc.,  that  is  leaving 
South  America  every  year,  you  will  find  that  many  of 
those  who  went  out  as  common  labourers  are  now  men  of 
extreme  wealth,  and  are  dominating  the  production — if 
not  the  export — of  these  valuable  shipments;  and  what 
other  nations  can  do,  I  maintain  that  the  Englishman 
can  do  in  the  same  way.  What  the  actual  number  of 
Englishmen  are  in  that  Republic  I  cannot  say,  but  from 
all  accounts  the  proportion  is  very  small  indeed,  although 
out  of  our  thousand  millions  invested  in  Latin-America, 
one-fourth,  or  224  millions,  are  invested  in  Brazil  alone. 

I  believe  that  even  in  Argentina,  which  claims  358 
millions  of  our  money,  the  English  population  is  almost  at 
a  standstill — at  any  rate,  it  is  not  increasing  at  the  rate  it 
should  do--and  I  gather  that  throughout  Latin-America 
you  will  find  it  is  the  same  thing,  only  far  worse,  in 
countries  outside  of  Brazil  and  the  Argentine. 

In  urging,  therefore,  that  this  country  must  have  an 
agricultural  college  in  the  West  Indies,  I  am  not  think- 
ing of  these  islands  alone,  but  am  urging  this  in  order  to 
induce  young  Englishmen  to  go  out  to  Latin-America 
generally  to  look  after  and  develop  our  interests  there, 
and  so  divert  the  trade  to  this  country  instead  of  allow- 
ing it  to  be  developed  by  other  nations,  who  naturally 
will  send  the  trade  to  their  own  countrymen,  and  not 
to  us. 

There  is  another  point  in  favour  of  a  second  college 
to  be  established  in  the  West  Indies,  which,  it  must  be 


TECHNICAL    EDUCATION    IN    TROPICAL    AGRICULTURE        35 

remembered,  can  be  securely  established  for  the  sum  of 
£50,000  to  £100,000  sterling  at  the  most,  and  it  is  that 
at  such  a  centre  a  man  could  be  easily  and  properly 
trained  to  go  across  to  the  West  Coast  of  Africa  to 
take  up  the  imperial  work  of  forestry  and  agricultural 
instruction  that  is  shown  to  be  so  extremely  necessary  if 
the  nations  dependent  on  agriculture  in  the  Black  Con- 
tinent (and,  after  all,  everybody  is  dependent  directly  or 
indirectly  on  agriculture  and  the  products  of  the  soil) 
are  not  to  suffer  a  serious  set-back  for  the  following 
reason :  — 

"  There  have  long  been  complaints  that  South  Africa 
is  getting  drier  every  year,  and  this  has  generally  been 
ascribed  to  the  destruction  of  trees."  Such  is  the  open- 
ing sentence  to  a  short  editorial  note  in  the  April  number 
of  the  Colonial  Journal.  In  the  second  edition  of  my 
book  on  the  "  Cultivation  of  Coco-nuts,"  I  deliberately 
included  a  short  section  at  the  extreme  end  of  the  book 
on  this  very  danger  of  deforestation  to  Africa,  and, 
quoting  the  report  of  the  Royal  Commission  on  Indian 
Finance,  I  show  that  not  only  does  the  deforestation  of 
Africa  tend  to  adversely  affect  the  agricultural  interests 
of  that  country,  but  also  of  India,  since  we  are  told  that 
by  one  of  the  most  stupendous  miracles  of  Nature — the 
source  of  the  rainy  season,  that  is — the  monsoon  in  India 
is  derived  from  the  heart  of  Africa.  I  do  so  because, 
although  South  Africa  does  not  include  the  West  Coast, 
yet  I  feel  that,  since  we  have  got  the  Sahara  up  in  the 
North,  and  such  a  report  has  been  sent  in  from  the 
South,  there  is  danger  if  precaution  is  not  taken  in  time, 
that  the  centre,  or  equatorial  portion  of  Africa,  may 
become  affected  in  the  years  to  come  and  lose  the  great 
fertility  that  it  now  boasts  of,  by  means  of  which  it  is 
putting  out  huge  exports  of  cacao  and  oil  palm  products, 
of  which  both  this  country  and  the  Continent  of  Europe 
stand  in  such  need.  Ignorance,  therefore,  through 
lack  of  training,  may  cause  our  officials  in  the  Black 
Continent  to  be  indifferent  to  the  deforestation  of  Africa, 
or  to  prove  unable  even  to  check  this  drying  up  of  the 
African  Continent  complained  of,  which,  should  it  occur, 
must,  from  all  we  are  told,  first  turn  Africa  into  a  veldt, 


36        TECHNICAL    EDUCATION    IN   TROPICAL   AGRICULTURE 

and  then  a  desert,  and  bring  ruin  and  famine  not  only  to 
Africa,  but  to  India  as  well.2 

To  establish  a  college  in  West  Africa  is,  for  many 
reasons,  impossible;  but,  as  already  stated,  since  a  good 
many  men  who  have  been  trained  in  the  West  Indies,  and 
especially  in  Trinidad,  have  done  and  are  doing  well  in 
West  Africa,  it  seems  possible  that  Government  irrigation 
and  forestry  officers  and  other  experts  that  Africa  will 
need  could  be  well  grounded  in  the  Agricultural  College 
and  Institute  of  Tropical  Research  in  the  West  Indies, 
and  so  do  better  work  in  Equatorial  Africa  than  would 
be  possible  if  they  were  trained  in  the  East,  where  the 
native  labour,  as  well  as  the  climate  and  other  conditions, 
are  so  different  to  the  two  Continental  coast  lines  washed 
by  the  Atlantic. 

You  will  notice  that  in  this  paper  I  have  not  gone  into 


2  As  regards  this  effect  one  portion  of  the  globe  may  have 
upon  another  even  when  the  temperature  and  climate  is 
extremely  different,  I  would  call  attention  to  what  Sir  Ernest 
Shackleton  told  us  at  the  dinner  given  in  his  honour  by  the 
(London)  Pilgrims  Club,  on  April  24,  when  he  pointed  out  that 
the  ice  season  in  the  Antarctic  affected  the  rainfall  in  Chile, 
Argentina,  and,  I  would  also  suggest,  along  the  entire 
coast  of  the  Pacific  side  of  South  America,  if  it  can  be  said  to 
have  any  rainfall  at  all.  "  It  has  been  found,"  he  told  those 
present,  "  that  a  dense  ice  season  in  the  Weddel  Sea  meant 
heavy  rains  in  Chile  and  the  Argentine.  It  appeared  that  there 
was  an  open  season  in  the  Weddel  Sea  this  year,  with  the  result 
that  the  rains  were  not  so  heavy  in  the  Argentine.  If,  therefore, 
they  could  get  observations  over  a  series  of  years  in  the  South 
Polar  regions,  the  farmers  and  stockbreeders  of  Argentina  would 
be  more  or  less  able  to  regulate  the  water  supplies  and  various 
other  problems  they  had  to  contend  with."  Argentina  and  Chile, 
as  Sir  Ernest  pointed  out,  did  not  belong  to  this  country,  but 
science  (and,  I  would  add,  tropical  agriculture)  knows  no  country, 
and  I  wonder,  since  the  Antarctic  affects  the  rainfall  in  this 
manner  in  Argentina  and  Chile,  whether  it  would  not  also  affect 
the  Australian  rainfall,  and  hence  the  sheep  farmers  out  there  as 
well.  I  certainly  attribute  the  more  tempered  heat  and  hence 
the  greater  salubrity  of  one  side  of  some  of  the  West  Indian 
islands  to  their  being  open  to  the  cooling  winds  coming  up  from 
the  Antarctic,  and  if  these  islands  are  so  affected  then  Australia 
as  well  as  Argentina  may  be  so. 


TECHNICAL    EDUCATION    IN   TROPICAL    AGRICULTURE        37 

details  in  favour  of  the  West  Indies,  viz.,  their  cheaper 
and  quicker  access,  cheaper  living  without  losing  caste, 
great  soil  fertility,  equal  if  not  greater  facilities  to  study 
all  tropical  crops  on  a  commercial  scale  except  tea,  and 
even  tea  is  met  with  in  Jamaica.  All  I  do  claim  for  the 
West  applies  equally  to  the  East,  and  it  is  this :  If  your 
embryo  planter  wishes  to  go  planting  in  the  West,  then 
train  him  in  the  Western  Hemisphere;  and  I  am,  as  you 
have  heard,  most  anxious  to  see  a  large  number  of 
young  Britishers  distribute  themselves  throughout  Latin- 
America.  But  if  he  wishes  to  go  East,  then  train  him 
in  the  East,  so  that  each  will  receive  his  tropical  agricul- 
tural education  amidst  the  same  surroundings  that  he  will 
have  to  encounter  when  he  sets  up  for  himself.  Neither 
have  I  called  in  the  aid  of  others  to  support  my  claim, 
but  I  do  not  do  so  as  time  is  short,  and  also  because  I 
know  that  all  of  you,  or  nearly  all  of  you  who  are 
present,  have  closely  followed  the  agitation  ever  since 
Professor  Dunstan  first  mooted  the  point  in  a  prominent 
way  at  the  late  Mr.  Ferguson's  lecture  at  the  Royal 
Colonial  Institute  in  December,  1910;  and  I  discussed 
his  proposition  at  some  length  in  Tropical  Life  in  the 
now  well-known  leader  which  appeared  in  January,  1911, 
when  I  proposed  that  a  Tropical  Agricultural  College 
should  be  established  as  a  memorial  to  King  Edward  VII. 
All  those  who  have  followed  the  question  as  I  have  can 
tell  you  how  the  Times,  Westminster  Gazette,  Nature, 
and  other  papers  on  this  side  have  supported  the  claims 
of  the  tropics  for  agricultural  colleges,  and  the  West 
Indies  in  particular. 

In  conclusion,  I  would  add  that  if  this  Government, 
or,  shall  I  say,  any  Government  that  rules  this  country 
and  its  dependencies,  were  as  keen  on  wringing  out  the 
labour  and  empire-building  capacity  that  is  latent  within 
us  all  (though  some  are  very  loth  to  make  use  of  it)  as 
they  are  of  squeezing  out  our  money  for  taxes,  I  reckon 
that  the  development  of  the  resources  of  the  tropics  and 
sub-tropics  would  go  ahead  at  a  much  more  rapid  rate 
than  it  is  doing  at  present.  Why  not  adopt  the  idea  of 
conscription  to  compel  everyone  to  do  his  (or  her)  share 
of  the  work  of  the  country,  so  as  to  develop  the  resources 


38        TECHNICAL    EDUCATION    IN    TROPICAL    AGRICULTURE 

of  the  Empire  by  the  united  effort  of  all  as  well  as  for 
the  benefit  of  all,  either  driving  away  the  slackers  or 
reforming  their  ways  on  a  tramp-farm  or  labour  colony? 
T  say  this  because  I  think  the  bulk  of  those  who  at 
present  work  at  half  or  quarter  pressure  only  would  be 
much  more  healthy,  as  they  would  be  more  useful  if  they 
worked  at  full  pressure,  and  their  help  is  certainly  needed. 
Standing  next  to  me  at  a  meeting  held  at  the  Mansion 
House  in  support  of  the  British  Dominions  Exhibition, 
to  be  held  at  the  Crystal  Palace  next  year,  was'  Mr.  Will 
Crooks,  the  well-known  Labour  M.P.,  who,  in  the  course 
of  his  speech,  claimed,  and  rightly  claimed,  that  the  lower 
classes,  because  they  are  used  to  rough  it,  were  often 
just  the  very  ones  who  got  on  best  when  they  went  forth 
into  the  world  to  make  their  way;  and  once  educated 
men  with  capital  who  have  had  the  advantage  of  being 
trained  at  an  agricultural  college  in  the  tropics  are 
induced  through  this  training  to  go  thence  to  increase 
our  supplies  of  foodstuffs  and  raw  materials,  then  these 
others  will  follow,  especially  if  slackers  are  discouraged, 
if  not  coerced  at  home,  and  every  workman  compelled 
to  do  a  minimum  share  of  his  country's  work,  in  the 
same  way  as  these  same  men  are  so  very  keen  just  now 
to  compel  their  employers  to  pay  them  all — good,  bad, 
or  indifferent — an  equal  minimum  wage.  One  day 
perhaps  our  Government  will  find  that  it  is  their  duty  to 
round  us  all  up  once  a  year,  as  the  ranchers  do  their 
cattle,  take  stock  of  all,  asking  each  what  they  are  doing, 
ascertain  what  they  can  do,  and  then  see  that  it  is  done. 
This  may  sound  autocratic,  but  it  will  be  at  least  fair — 
far  fairer  than  the  world  is  to-day,  when  a  minority  of 
us  work,  and  work  hard,  to  pay  the  major  portion  of  the 
taxes  and  help  slackers  have  an  easy  time. 

Since  the  Government  of  to-day  has  found  the  money 
necessary  to  ensure  the  health  of  the  workers  in  this 
country  and  to  keep  the  aged  from  having  to  depend  on 
charity,  so  also  is  it  their  duty — that  is  to  say,  the  duty 
of  ourselves — to  spend  an  amount  far  less  than  i  per 
cent,  of  the  total  of  this  year's  Budget  to  ensure  this 
country  receiving  those  regular  and  increasing  supplies 
of  foodstuffs  and  raw  material  without  which  we  cannot 


TECHNICAL    EDUCATION    IN    TROPICAL    AGRICULTURE        39 

continue  to  be  one  of  the  leading — if  not  the  leading — 
countries  in  the  world.  If  on  a  Budget  of  £200,000,000 
we  cannot  squeeze  out  one-thousandth  part  to  secure  our 
enjoying  the  lead  in  the  world's  commerce,  then  I  would 
maintain  that  we  should  be  signally  failing  in  our  duty, 
both  to  the  present  generation  and  those  who  are  to  come 
hereafter. 


AGRICULTURAL  EDUCATION  IN  THE  PUNJAB:  A 
NOTE  ON  SIX  YEARS'  EXPERIENCE  IN  TEACHING 
AGRICULTURAL  SCIENCE  IN  NORTHERN  INDIA. 

By  J.  H.  BARNES,  B.Sc.,  F.I.C.,  F.C.S. 

Principal  of  the  Punjab   Agricultural  College 
and  Agricultural  Chemist  to  the  Punjab  Government. 

IT  was  in  the  year  1901  that  Lord  Curzon,  then  Viceroy 
of  India,  inaugurated  the  policy  of  establishing  a  school 
of  tropical  agriculture  for  India,  a  school  which  was  to 
be  a  university  in  the  breadth  of  its  work,  since  it  was  to 
study  agricultural  problems  first  hand,  as  well  as  to  train 
the  Indian  students  in  the  methods  by  which  these  studies 
could  be  carried  out.  The  Agricultural  Research  Institute 
at  Pusa  was  the  direct  outcome  of  this  policy;  and  the 
budget  surplus  of  the  year  1905-06  placed  at  the  disposal 
of  the  Government  of  India  funds  which  enabled  it  to 
expand  the  original  scheme  of  one  school  for  all  India 
into  one  college  for  each  province.  There  had  already 
been  in  existence  in  India  schools  or  colleges  where 
tuition  in  such  subjects  as  agriculture,  chemistry,  and 
botany  were  given,  as,  for  example,  the  Poona  School  of 
Science,  the  Sibpur  College  in  Bengal,  the  Agricultural 
School  at  Cawnpore,  and  the  Saidpur  College  in  Madras. 
There  were  also  one  or  two  specialists  in  agriculture,  one 
of  whom,  Mr.  J.  Mollison,  C.S.I.,  was  selected  by  Lord 
Curzon  to  fill  the  post  of  Inspector-General  of  Agriculture 
in  the  new  department  then  about  to  be  formed.  I  shall 
pass  over  the  work  of  these  schools  with  the  remark — 
and  here  I  quote  Mr.  Mollison's  personal  opinion — that 
the  results  were  not  satisfactory;  they  achieved  nothing. 
The  grants  which  were  distributed  by  Lord  Curzon's 
Government  in  1905  placed  two  and  a  half  lakhs1  in  the 

1  £16,667  sterling. 


TECHNICAL    EDUCATION    IN    TROPICAL    AGRICULTURE        4! 

hands  of  the  Government  of  the  Punjab,  a  sum  with 
which  to  commence  operations,  and  the  local  Government 
added  to  this  a  further  sum  of  one  and  a  half  lakhs,2  and 
began  the  formation  of  a  Department  of  Agriculture 
which,  in  the  first  instance,  consisted  of  a  civilian  director, 
with  four  European  experts,  two  agriculturists,  one  of 
whom  was  to  be  the  principal  of  the  new  college  and  the 
other  a  district  officer,  one  chemist,  and  one  botanist. 
The  site  chosen  for  the  new  college  was  situated  on  a 
piece  of  land  near  Lyallpur  in  the  Lower  Chenab  Canal 
Colony,  land  which  had  been  reserved  from  the  early 
days  of  the  opening  of  the  colony  to  serve  as  a  Govern- 
ment experimental  farm.  Building  operations  were  com- 
menced in  1906,  and  two  blocks  of  buildings,  one  consist- 
ing of  laboratories,  lecture  rooms,  offices,  museums, 
library,  etc.,  and  the  other  of  the  laboratories  and  lecture 
rooms  for  the  teaching  of  chemistry  and  physics.  These 
buildings  were  completed  in  1911,  by  which  time  a  college 
workshop,  and  a  small  electric  generating  station  and 
gas  plant  had  been  added.  The  total  cost  of  the  buildings 
was  Rs.  three  lakhs,  fifty-one  thousand  nine  hundred  and 
twenty-four,3  and  the  fitting  and  equipment  and  scientific 
apparatus,  tools,  machinery,  etc.,  Rs.  one  lakh,  eighty- 
five  thousand  four  hundred  and  twenty-five4  more.  In 
the  equipment  of  the  college  provision  was  made  by  the 
Staff  to  carry  out  research  work  in  the  different  sciences 
as  well  as  the  ordinary  routine  teaching.  The  college 
laboratories  are  roomy  and  well-aired;  thus,  for  example, 
one  of  the  botanical  laboratories  has  a  floor  space  of 
51  by  31  ft.  and  a  height  of  26  ft.,  the  whole  of  one  side 
facing  north  being  fitted  with  large  windows,  so  that  a 
microscope  can  be  used  at  any  point  of  the  laboratory. 
One  of  the  chemical  laboratories  has  a  floor  space  of 
60  by  27  ft.  and  a  height  of  25  ft.,  and  is  fitted  with  every 
modern  convenience,  the  details  of  all  fittings  having 
been  worked  out  by  the  specialist  in  charge  of  each 
section.  The  college  was  opened  to  students  in  Sep- 
tember, 1909,  and  a  course  of  instruction  which  had  been 


2  £10,000  sterling.  3  ^23,462  sterling. 

4  £12,365. sterling. 


42        TECHNICAL    EDUCATION    IN   TROPICAL   AGRICULTURE 

laid  down  by  the  fourth  Board  of  Agriculture  at  Pusa  in 
1908  in  the  form  of  a  standard  curriculum  for  provincial 
agricultural  colleges  in  India  was  started.  A  consider- 
able amount  of  discussion  had  taken  place  on  the  subjects 
of  the  curriculum,  the  length  of  the  course,  and  the 
entrance  qualification  of  students.  The  curriculum  itself 
was  enforced  by  the  Local  Government,  though  the 
opinion  of  some  of  the  members  of  the  Staff  was  opposed 
to  much  of  its  detail.  In  the  absence  of  any  experience 
of  Indian  students  and  Indian  conditions  by  these,  how- 
ever, it  may  be  said  to  have  been  perhaps  the  best  that 
could  be  done  at  the  time.  It  has  shown  the  disadvan- 
tages of  binding  an  educational  institute  to  a  rigid  course 
of  studies,  and  the  results  obtained  at  Lyallpur  indicate 
the  necessity  of  rendering  a  curriculum  based  on  Western 
methods  and  translated  to  the  Orient  sufficiently  mobile 
and  elastic  to  adapt  itself  to  its  new  environment  without 
having  at  the  same  time  to  break  through  the  iron  bands 
of  officialism.  The  general  experience  throughout  the 
whole  of  these  colleges  in  India  can  be  said  to  have  been 
similar,  and  has  found  expression  in  the  Proceedings  of 
the  Meeting  of  the  Board  of  Agriculture  in  1913,  held  at 
Coimbatore,  where  the  abandonment  of  this  curriculum 
was  advised,  and  the  substitution  for  it  of  such  courses 
as  would  be  felt  to  meet  the  requirements  of  the  students 
in  the  different  provinces  of  India.  It  is  with  my  experi- 
ence in  the  Punjab  with  Punjab  students  and  teaching 
them  the  subject  matter  of  this  standard  curriculum  which 
I  propose  to  deal  in  this  paper,  and  to  draw  from  this 
experience  some  generalizations  which  may  serve  as  a 
guide  to  other  teachers  rinding  themselves  placed  in  a 
similar  position.  The  course  of  studies  laid  down  necesr- 
sitated  on  the  part  of  the  students  a  working  acquaint- 
ance with  the  English  language  and  some  elementary 
knowledge  of  arithmetic,  elementary  mathematics,  and 
the  elements  of  general  science  (the  latter  being  optional). 
These  could  only  be  obtained  in  students  who  had 
reached  some  recognized  standard  of  general  elementary 
education,  and  the  standard  adopted  was  that  of  the 
Entrance  Examination  (Matriculation)  of  the  Punjab 
University.  Doubts  were  expressed  both  by  the  members 


TECHNICAL    EDUCATION    IN   TROPICAL    AGRICULTURE        43 

of  the  teaching  staff  and  senior  and  experienced  civil 
officers  (i)  as  to  the  suitability  of  this  entrance  standard 
for  the  course  of  instruction  to  be  given;  (2)  as  to  the 
effect  which  the  introduction  of  such  a  regulation  as  this 
would  have  in  weeding  out  a  class  of  Indian  students 
considered  desirable,  and  the  automatic  forcing  into  the 
college  of  an  undesirable  class.  Both  of  these  fears  have 
been  more  or  less  justified,  for  in  the  first  place  the 
experience  has  shown  that  this  entrance  standard  does 
not  enable  the  college  to  recruit  a  student  qualified  to 
attend  the  lectures  and  laboratory  courses  embodied  in 
the  curriculum;  and  secondly,  the  students  have  almost 
without  exception  entered  the  college  solely  with  the 
object  of  obtaining  employment  in  one  or  other  branches 
of  the  public  service,  and  not  from  a  desire  to  benefit  the 
farming  classes  directly  or  indirectly.  These  students, 
instead  of  coming  from  a  farming  stock,  are  for  the  most 
part  of  the  Khatri  or  shopkeeping  class,  which  is,  in 
Northern  India,  the  class  most  interested  in  education, 
and  the  one  which  floods  the  University  colleges  and 
secures  the  bulk  of  the  prizes  offered  in  the  different 
branches  of  Government  service  and  civil  employ,  and 
in  the  learned  professions.  The  curriculum  recom- 
mended consists  of  practical  and  theoretical  instruction 
in  agriculture,  agricultural  chemistry,  botany,  veterinary 
science,  entomology,  physics,  etc.5 

The  whole  curriculum  was  from  the  first  arranged  on 
the  lines  of  the  best  English  or  American  agricultural 
colleges,  the  course  containing  as  large  a  proportion  of 
practical  work  as  could  be  well  included,  and  at  the  same 
time  the  student  was  given  an  up-to-date  account  of  the 
subjects  under  study. 

The  system  of  marking  also  aimed  at  minimizing  the 
danger  of  cramming  by  allotting  40  per  cent,  of  the 
whole  marks  obtainable  in  the  diploma  examination  to 
work  done  during  the  three  years'  residence,  and  a  40  per 
cent,  pass  standard  adopted.  In  this  way  a  premium 
was  placed  on  steady  work,  thus  rendering  it  practically 

5  The  syllabus  of  the  Punjab  Agricultural  College  has  been 
omitted. 


44        TECHNICAL    EDUCATION    IN    TROPICAL    AGRICULTURE 

impossible   for   a   student   of   average   ability   to    fail   to 
obtain  his  diploma. 

In  spite  of  the  care  taken  to  give  as  good  a  course  as 
possible  and  encouraging  steady  work  by  the  students, 
the  system  has  failed  in  two  respects.  It  has  failed  in 
the  first  instance  in  popularity  with  the  people  of  the 
province,  for  the  last  session  opened  with  one  student 
only  coming  forward,6  and  secondly,  it  has  failed  to 
produce  as  good  a  type  of  man  as  expected.  I  have 
carefully  examined  the  causes  which  have  led  up  to 
the  fall  in  popularity,  and  I  attribute  it  to  two  causes :  - 

(1)  The  lack  of  employment  on   a  remunerative   scale 
for  past  students  of  the  college. 

(2)  The  high  standard  of  the  course,  for  the  generality 
of  Indian  students  and  the  hardships  entailed  on  them  in 
keeping  pace  with  it.     The  two  are  correlative. 

In  the  first  place  the  public  were  notified  that  the 
diploma  of  Licentiate  in  Agriculture  of  the  Punjab 
Agricultural  College  would  be  considered  as  equivalent 
to  the  B.A.  or  B.Sc.  of  the  Punjab  University  in 
educational  value  in  the  selection  of  candidates  for 
employment  in  the  provincial  civil  services.  This 
certainly  stimulated  recruitment,  since  the  agricultural 
course  was  only  three  years  in  length,  whereas  the  B.A. 
or  B.Sc.  course  was  one  of  four  years. 

No  encouragement  has  been  given,  however,  to 
students  of  the  agricultural  college  to  enter  the  magis- 
terial and  revenue  services,  as  the  authorities  consider 
that  the  college  should  be  primarily  a  training  ground 
for  agriculturists  or  specialists  in  agricultural  science, 
and  not  for  revenue  officials. 

The  Punjab  is  for  the  most  part  farmed  by  a  class  of 
peasant  proprietors  and  men  of  small  holdings.  There 
are  very  few  large  estates  in  existence  similar  to  those 
of  the  big  zemindars  of  the  United  Provinces  of  Agra  and 
Oudh  and  of  Bengal.  Consequently,  there  is  practically 


6  The  latest  newspaper  report,  May  13,  1014,  states  that  a 
similar  position  has  arisen  at  the  Agricultural  College  at  Nagpur, 
in  the  Central  Provinces.  A  similar  condition  has  been  reached 
in  Bengal. 


TECHNICAL    EDUCATION    IN   TROPICAL    AGRICULTURE        4^5 

no  demand  for  the  services  of  past  students  as  managers 
of  estates,  and,  indeed,  during  the  past  five  years  I  have 
not  had  more  than  a  dozen  inquiries  for  qualified  men. 
and  only  one  or  two  of  them  offered  anything  like  a 
reasonable  scale  of  pay,  these  latter  offers  coming  from 
other  parts  of  India.  This  in  no  way  reflects  on  the 
students  of  the  Punjab  Agricultural  College  as  compared 
with  other  agricultural  colleges  in  India,  for  the  Research 
Institute  at  Pusa,  which  has  all  India  to  choose  from  for 
its  staff,  has  shown  a  preference  for  my  men.  The 
students  themselves  are  mostly  too  poor  to  afford  to 
farm  their  own  lands  after  undergoing  this  expensive 
education.  There  consequently  remains  only  'employ- 
ment in  the  Provincial  Agricultural  Service,  and  in  this 
their  pay  at  present  is  on  to-o  low  a  scale  to  induce 
healthy  competition.  The  employment  in  the  Punjab 
Agricultural  Service  is  at  present  limited  to  five  or  six 
recruits  a  year.  The  question  of  improving  the  prospects 
of  these  men  is  receiving  the  attention  of  Government, 
and  I  hope  to  secure  a  scale  of  pay  commensurate  with 
the  time  and  money  they  have  spent  on  their  'education 
and  the  salaries  commanded  by  young  Indians  of  similar 
educational  attainments  elsewhere. 

The  second  cause  is  undoubtedly  an  important  one 
also,  for  the  students  entering  the  agricultural  college 
possess  such  a  poor  knowledge  of  English  and  the  sub- 
jects of  primary  educational  importance  as  to  be  unable 
to  assimilate  the  college  lectures,  at  any  rate  for  the  first 
six  months  or  so.  This  is  emphasized  by  the  ease  with 
which  students  possessing  a  better  education  than  that 
of  the  University  entrance  standard  can  get  ahead  of 
their  fellow  students.  The  difficulty  which  the  students 
consequently  experience  tends  to  lower  the  popularity  of 
the  college.  It  cannot  be  said  that  the  standard  of 
tuition  is  too  high  if  we  take  into  consideration  the  class  of 
men  we  are  attempting  to  train — men,  that  is  to  say,  who 
are  to  staff  the  departmental  farms,  to  assist  the  expert 
agriculturists  in  their  district  work,  and  to  act  as  advisers, 
demonstrators,  and  itinerant  lecturers  in  the  districts  in 
promulgating  the  methods  of  agricultural  improvement. 

The  natural  inferences  to  be  drawn  are  that  either  we 


46        TECHNICAL    EDUCATION    IN    TROPICAL   AGRICULTURE 

must  raise  the  entrance  standard  of  the  students  or  we 
must  lengthen  the  course  of  instruction  given,  but  in 
both  of  these  cases  we  shall  be  met  with  the  difficulty  of 
being  unable  to  offer  sufficient  employment  afterwards 
to  induce  candidates  to  come  forward.  I  have  sum- 
marized the  situation  in  a  note  which  is  published  in  the 
Proceedings  of  the  Meeting  of  the  Board  of  Agriculture 
in  India,  held  at  Coimbatore  in  December,  1913  (published 
by  the  Superintendent;  Government  Printing  Press,  Cal- 
cutta, price  is.  9d.)-  In  this  note  I  have  shown  that  the 
cost  of  education  in  the  Lyallpur  College  amounts  to 
something  like  Rs.  8,000  per  licentiate  turned  out  (average 
of  the  last  three  years),  and  this  figure  takes  into  account 
only  the  annual  recurring  expenses  of  the  institute  after 
deducting  a  very  liberal  amount  for  the  expenditure  in 
time  and  money  on  the  research  laboratories.  It  is  con- 
sequently a  very  expensive  system  of  education,  and  at 
the  same  time  is  not  yielding  results  proportionate  to  the 
cost.  I  am  of  opinion  that  the  entire  policy  of  agricul- 
tural education  requires  remodelling.  In  the  first  place, 
the  results  obtained  in  countries  where  farming  is  an 
important  industry,  and  where  large  sums  of  money 
have  been  spent  on  its  development,  indicate  that 
all  attempts  at  improvement  must  be  based  on  investi- 
gation— investigation  of  the  causes  of  sterility,  causes  of 
diseases,  the  effect  of  climatic  conditions,  and  the  possi- 
bilities of  improvement  of  land,  stock,  and  plants.  Such 
investigations  demand  a  number  of  experimental  stations 
for  experiment  and  record  and  well-equipped  scientific 
laboratories,  where  the  necessary  scientific  inquiries 
can  be  carried  out.  I  think  we  may  attribute 
the  high  position  held  in  scientific  agriculture  by  the 
Department  of  Agriculture  in  the  United  States  of 
America  to  the  fact  that  this  broad  principle  is  being 
followed  there,  namely,  that  inquiry  has  preceded 
education  and  instruction.  The  second  point  is  that 
experience  throughout  the  world  seems  to  show  that 
technical  education  given  in  agricultural  colleges  to  be 
effective  should  be  of  only  one  or  both  of  the  following 
two  types :  — 

(a)  Elementary    instruction     in     the     form     of     short 


TECHNICAL    EDUCATION    IN   TROPICAL    AGRICULTURE        47 

farmers'  classes  suitable  for  the  actual  cultivators  of  the 
land,  technical  in  character,  and  qualifying  the  students 
attending  them  to  become  better  farmers.  Such  classes 
must  of  necessity  be  exceedingly  simple,  and  in  many 
cases  will  give  empirical  methods  of  improvement  worked 
out  on  experimental  stations  and  farms  without  going 
into  the  underlying  scientific  principle  on  which  these 
improvements  are  based.  They  must  in  all  cases  be  given 
on  such  farms  or  by  men  who  have  been  trained  there, 
for  they  rely  for  their  success  on  a  thorough  acquaint- 
ance with  the  practical  difficulties  to  be  met  and  overcome. 

(b)  A  course  of  instruction  embodying'  the  best  methods 
of  scientific  investigation  adopted  in  working  out  im- 
provements. Such  a  course  is  of  the  highest  possible 
type,  and  can  be  given  only  by  men  who  are  engaged  in 
such  investigations  and  at  an  institute  fully  equipped  for 
this  class  of  work.  Such  an  education  as  this  places  a 
higher  value  on  the  student  who  has  passed  through  it 
as  a  technologist  than  as  a  mere  educated  man.  Conse- 
quently, the  students  passing  through  such  a  course  as 
this  go  on  to  apply  in  a  direct  manner  the  education  they 
have  received. 

Between  these  two  limits  agricultural  education 
appears  to  result  in  the  students  afterwards  taking  to 
other  and  sedentary  pursuits.  The  expense  of  scientific 
and  technical  education  will  not  permit  of  this,  and  the 
system  should  aim  at  the  waste  being  limited  to  the 
normal  failures,  which  usually  occur  during  the  course. 
It  is  my  opinion,  therefore,  that  in  opening  an  agricul- 
tural department  in  one  of  the  colonies  these  principles 
should  be  followed,  firstly,  the  establishment  of  experi- 
mental stations  and  laboratories  necessary  to  collect  the 
large  amount  of  information  which  is  essential  to  future 
progress.  As  these  results  begin  to  accumulate,  the  first 
course  of  instruction  referred  to  above  can  be  commenced 
with  every  prospect  of  it  proving  successful.  For  the 
first  few  years  at  least  the  higher  course  of  instruction 
should  be  limited  to  the  personal  training  obtainable 
under  the  experts  and  specialists  in  the  laboratories 
attached  to  the  experimental  stations;  and  the  colleges, 
when  they  are  started,  should  be  started  in  a  conservative 


48        TECHNICAL    EDUCATION    IN    TROPICAL    AGRICULTURE 

spirit,  and  where  possible  attached  to  existing  universities 
or  existing  science  colleges.  The  present  position  of 
agricultural  education  in  India  indicates  that  we  have 
started  at  the  wrong  end.  We  have  attempted  to  put 
education  first  and  inquiry  second,  and  we  have  handi- 
capped the  very  limited  expert  staff  by  placing  this  heavy 
teaching  burden  on  them.  This  is  being  done  in  a 
country  where  elementary  education  has  only  reached 
5  per  cent,  of  the  entire  population,  and  consequently 
there  exists  no*  spontaneous  demand  for  higher  education 
in  its  highest  sense.  Until  this  difficulty  has  passed  away, 
T  consider  that  we  shall  achieve  a  higher  efficiency  with 
the  staff  at  our  disposal  by  concentrating  the  higher 
teaching  in  one  institute,  and  using  all  other  institutes 
as  experimental  stations  and  schools  for  giving  instruc- 
tion of  the  first  class.  We  are  about  to  put  this  to  the 
test  in  the  Punjab  by  substituting  for  the  present  diploma 
course  a  two  years'  course  of  instruction,  consisting 
almost  entirely  of  outdoor  farm  work  with  lectures  on 
farm  subjects,  a  few  popular  science  lectures,  and  some 
tuition  in  English  and  arithmetic.  This  course  is  being 
taken  up  with  the  approval  of  the  Board  of  Agriculture 
in  India.  This  two  years'  course  will  be  followed  by  a 
further  course  of  two  years,  in  which  higher  instruction 
will  be  given,  including  agricultural  chemistry  and 
botany,  and  the  various  other  subjects  of  the  old  diploma 
syllabus.  Whether  the  second  two  years'  course  is  given 
at  Lyallpur  or  at  a  college  central  for  several  provinces 
will  depend  upon  the  number  of  students  forthcoming. 
In  addition  to  this  class,  there  is  already  being  given  in 
the  vernacular  a  course  for  .farmers  which  extends  over 
six  months,  and  consists  entirely  of  outdoor  instruction 
on  the  farm  in  the  use  of  improved  implements  and  the 
application  of  improved  methods.  We  have  also  under 
contemplation  a  class  for  young  officers  in  the  Civil 
Service,  in  the  Irrigation  Department,  and  for  assistants 
in  the  Provincial  and  Revenue  and  Educational  services. 
All  of  these  men  during  the  course  of  their  work  have  to 
deal  with  a  farming  population,  and  very  often  with 
questions  relating  to  land  and  crops,  and  it  is  considered 
advisable  that  they  should  know  something  of  the  system 


TECHNICAL    EDUCATION    IN    TROPICAL    AGRICULTURE        49 

on  which  a  department  existing  for  the  improvement  of 
agriculture  works. 

It  will  be  seen,  therefore,  that  as  a  result  of  the  past 
six  years'  experience  an  entire  change  of  policy  in  agricul- 
tural education  is  about  to  take  place  in  the  Punjab;  how 
far  this  change  will  be  productive  of  good  it  is  yet  early 
to  say,  but  I  am  confident  that  it  is  a  step  in  the  right 
direction,  and  that  the  Indian  student  trained  under  these 
new  conditions  will  prove  himself  to  be  a  better  man  than 
his  predecessor. 


AGRICULTURAL  EDUCATION   IN   THE  GOLD  COAST. 

By  W.  H.  PATTERSON. 
Government  Entomologist,  Gold  Coast. 

AGRICULTURAL  education  is  at  the  present  time  entirely 
under  the  control  of  the  Agricultural  Department,  and 
the  scope  of  work  embraces :  — 

(1)  The  introduction,  propagation,  and  distribution  of 
plants  and  seeds  of  economic  products. 

(2)  Research  work  relative  to  yields   of  crops;  plant 
pests  and  diseases,  and  means  of  controlling  the  same. 

(3)  Instructional   work,    embracing   training   of   pupils 
to  become  agricultural  staff  officers,  itinerant  instructors, 
schoolmasters  to  manage  school  gardens,  and  the  local 
agricultural  shows. 

If  the  work  of  the  early  coastal  settlers  be  left  out, 
educational  measures  may  be  stated  to  have  been  started 
in  1888,  when  His  Excellency  Sir  W.  Brandford  Griffith, 
K.C.M.G.,  the  then  Governor,  wrote:  "It  was  mainly 
with  a  view  of  teaching  the  natives  to  cultivate  economic 
plants  in  a  systematic  manner  for  purposes  of  export  that 
I  have  contemplated  for  some  time  the  establishment  of 
an  agricultural  and  botanical  farm  and  garden  where 
valuable  plants  could  be  raised  and  distributed  in  large 
numbers  to  the  people  in  the  neighbourhood  in  the  first 
instance,  and  afterwards  sent  further  into  the  country 
by  pupils  whom  I  contemplate  taking  from  the  schools 
when  willing  to  give  their  attention  to  industrial  pursuits. 
By  their  labour  and  agency,  when  sufficiently  educated 
for  the  purpose,  additional  farms  or  gardens  could  be 
started,  and  by  these  means  the  people  generally  would 
become  acquainted  with  the  fact  that  other  products  than 
those  indigenous  to  the  country  had  been  introduced  into 
it  were  thriving,  and  would  be  remunerative,  and  thus 
observing  the  advantage  to  be  gained  by  their  pro- 
pagation would  be  disposed  to  cultivate  them.  .  .  ." 


TECHNICAL    EDUCATION    IN    TROPICAL    AGRICULTURE        5! 

Arrangements  were  therefore  made  to  start  a  station  at 
Aburi  in  1890  with  one  European  curator  and  one  native 
clerk,  and  the  expansion  is  so  great  that  to-day  there  are 
eleven  European  officers  and  twenty-seven  native  officers, 
clerks,  and  learners,  with  a  cocoa  industry,  the  output 
of  which  in  1913  reached  113,239,980  lb.,  valued  at 
£2,489,218.  There  are  five  large  stations  and  two  small, 
or  sub-stations,  yet  such  is  the  growth  of  the  cocoa 
industry  alone  that  it  is  most  difficult  to  cope  with  it 
adequately;  consequently,  sanitary  conditions  on  many 
farms  are  disappointing  and  may  lead  to  much  future 
trouble,  though  it  may  appear  that  farmers  are  depending 
too  much  upon  cocoa;  yet  Para  rubber  is  being  exten- 
sively planted,  and  coconuts  may  claim  attention  in  the 
near  future. 

Owing  to  the  difficulty  experienced  in  keeping  pace 
with  the  cocoa  industry,  the  staff  has  as  yet  not  been 
sufficiently  large  to  enable  original  research  work  to  be 
carried  out,  but  with  the  erection  of  an  entomological 
laboratory  and  provision  for  the  appointment  of  a 
mycologist,  it  is  hoped  results  may  be  forthcoming  in 
the  near  future. 

The  cocoa  industry  owes  its  present  position  largely 
to  the  demonstration  plots  at  the  older  stations,  but  it  is 
aided  to  a  large  extent  by  European  and  native  travelling 
instructors.  Unfortunately,  there  are  a  number  of 
difficulties  in  the  way  of  obtaining  the  best  results  from 
such  instruction,  the  chief  of  which  being:  (i)  Lack  of 
sufficient  officers;  (2)  the  difficulty  of  travelling;  (3) 
inability  to  punish  owners  of  neglected  and  dangerous 
farms;  (4)  shortage  of  labour  to  work  farms,  due  to  the 
lack  of  means  of  transport  save  by  head  loads.  This 
instructional  work  has  been  assisted  by  the  distribution 
of  simply  written  pamphlets  in  English  and  the  vernacular 
on  the  cultivation  and  preparation  of  the  more  important 
economic  crops.  One  special  feature  should  be  men- 
tioned, viz.,  that  demonstrations  in  pruning,  cleaning, 
preparation  of  land  and  crops  are  given  on  the  farms,  at 
which  the  chiefs  and  their  followers  are  expected  to 
attend.  The  sad  part  of  this  work  is  the  impossibility  of 
closely  following  it  up,  and  it  is  heavily  discounted,  as 


52       TECHNICAL    EDUCATION    IN   TROPICAL    AGRICULTURE 

the  shortage  of  officers  prevents  the  same  district  from 
being  frequently  visited.  It  is  hoped  this  may  be  shortly 
overcome.  Small  model  blocks  were  recently  started. 
These  have  been  placed  in  the  charge  of  local  men  who 
had  received  some  weeks'  training  in  cocoa  cultivation, 
and,  provided  it  is  found  possible  to  give  these  plots 
frequent  supervision,  they  should  serve  as  demonstrations 
to  the  surrounding  farms. 

To  provide  future  officers,  the  native  staff  at  the 
various  stations  is  graded  as  follows:  — 

Office  Salary 

Learner  £25  to     £40,  by     £5 

Garden  Assistant          £40  to     £60,  by     £$ 

Second-class  Overseer  ...          ..     £60  to    £So,  by    £$ 

First-class  Overseer     ^80  to  ^100,  by     £S 

Native  Travelling  Instructor  ...  ^100  to  £150,  by  £10 

After  the  trial  of  various  schemes  to  obtain  suitable 
learners,  it  was  found  necessary  to  adopt  this :  That 
candidates  should  have  passed  Standard  VI,  have  a 
good  knowledge  of  English  reading,  writing,  and 
arithmetic.  Selected  candidates  are  appointed  on  six 
months'  probation;  yet  there  are  so  many  inducements 
for  educated  lads  that  good  material  is  not  readily 
obtainable.  The  training  covers  a  period  of  three  years, 
during  which  time  the  pupils  are  given  free  quarters. 
After  one  year's  training  they  are  frequently  sent  as 
interpreters  with  European  officers  on  tour,  from  which 
they  derive  much  benefit.  The  training  is  essentially 
practical,  and  but  little  time  is  given  to  the  theoretical 
side,  as  these  men  are  expected  to  be  farm  workers. 

Many  garden  labourers,  after  learning  improved 
methods,  eventually  become  cocoa  farmers,  and  their 
knowledge  is  thus  passed  on  to  their  neighbours. 

Classes  in  agriculture  for  school  teachers  were  started 
in  1904,  and  may  now  be  regarded  as  quite  successful, 
for  in  1910  sixty-seven  received  tuition,  and  the  number 
of  applicants  is  yearly  increasing.  The  course  is  divided 
into  two  sections :  the  January  and  July  courses,  each 
occupying  three  weeks.  The  students  attend  at  the 
stations  daily  for  seven  hours,  and,  in  addition  to  a  lecture 
of  about  one  to  one  and  a  half  hours'  duration,  they 


TECHNICAL    EDUCATION    IN   TROPICAL   AGRICULTURE        53 

perform  all  classes  of  agricultural  practical  work  under  the 
supervision  of  the  Curator.  Students  other  than  school 
teachers  may  attend  these  classes — an  advantage,  as  many 
eventually  become  farmers.  The  lectures  cover  the 
following  ground,  and  provided  the  candidates  have  a 
good  knowledge  of  English  and  are  of  fair  intelligence, 
good  should  result  in  the  future. 

CLASS  I.    JANUARY  COURSE. 
Theoretical   Work. 

Atmosphere. — Composition :  oxygen,  nitrogen,  and 
carbonic  acid  gas,  water  vapour;  properties  of  each; 
necessity  for  the  balance  being  evenly  maintained;  how 
this  is  effected  in  nature  by  breathing,  transpiration,  and 
decomposition  of  vegetable  and  animal  matter.  Air 
necessary  to  life,  both  animal  and  vegetable,  and  necessity 
for  it  to  reach  the  roots  of  plants.  Water:  its  com- 
position, indispensable  to  plant  growth  (containing  plant 
foods  in  solution). 

Plant  Growth,  General. — Roots,  various  forms :  tap 
roots,  fibrous  roots,  tuberous  roots,  adventitious  roots, 
aerial  roots,  root-hairs.  Functions  of  roots :  support, 
absorption  of  water  and  food  materials,  store  up  food, 
etc.  Stem's,  various  forms :  upright,  woody  and  herba- 
ceous, climbing  and  creeping,  underground,  and  modi- 
fications. 

Structure  of  Stems :  Epidermis,  cortex,  vascular 
bundles,  pith  or  hard  wood  in  centre,  and  the  medullary 
rays,  the  difference  between  stems  of  monocotyledonous 
and  dicotyledonous  plants,  e.g.,  coconuts  and  cocoa, 
the  method  by  which  woody  stems  become  thicker,  the 
functions  of  stems  with  special  reference  to  the  cambium 
and  vascular  tissue  (food  and  water  channels),  etc. 

Leaves :  Structure,  various  forms  and  modifications 
adopted  in  nature  to  suit  certain  localities;  relation  to 
stem  through  vascular  bundles. 

Stomata :  Chlorophyll  and  protoplasm;  functions — 
breathing  and  manufacture  of  plant  food;  transpiration. 

Flowers:     Structure,    sepals,    petals,     stamens,    pistil, 


54       TECHNICAL    EDUCATION    IN   TROPICAL   AGRICULTURE 

ovary,  ovules.  Fertilization :  how  brought  about, 
agencies,  wind,  insects,  etc.  Seeds:  structure;  seed 
coat;  embryo;  cotyledon;  plumule  and  radicle;  albuminous 
and  ex-albuminous;  methods  of  dispersal  in  nature,  wind, 
water,  animal.  Structure  of  fruit,  e.g.,  sandbox,  etc.; 
wings.  Conditions  necessary  for  germination:  air, 
moisture,  and  suitable  temperature.  Propagation  of 
seeds :  conditions  necessary  in  nursery  beds,  sowing,  etc. 

Weeds:  Definition;  injury  caused  by,  to  cultivated 
crops;  rob  the  soil  of  moisture  and  available  plant  food 
by  competing  with  them:  overshading,  etc.;  importance 
of  preventing  multiplication  of;  methods  of  eradication. 

Soils. — Formation  confined  to  disintegration  of  rocks, 
vegetable  decomposition,  and  alluvial  soils.  Classification 
and  physical  properties  :  clay,  sand,  and  humus,  deep  and 
shallow  soils.  Principal  chemical  constituents  of:  phos- 
phates, nitrates,  potash,  sodium,  calcium,  magnesium, 
iron,  and  silica.  How  soils  are  exhausted :  repeated  in- 
judicious cropping,  weeds,  sun's  rays.  Methods  of 
improving  the  physical  properties  and  chemical  con- 
tents of  soils :  digging,  draining,  liming,  mulching, 
manuring,  etc. 

Practical  Work. 

Use  of  various  tools,  especially  digging  fork,  spade, 
hoes,  rakes,  rubber  tapping  implements,  line  and  tape 
measures. 

Preparation  of  nursery  seed  beds,  methods  of  sowing 
seeds,  pricking  out  and  potting  seedlings. 

Propagation  of  various  plants  by  cuttings,  layering, 
budding,  and  grafting;  watering,  holing,  and  weeding; 
pruning  and  training  trees.  Conservation  of  moisture 
by  surface  tillage,  and  mulching  and  weeding  estab- 
lished crops.  Digging,  lining,  holing,  and  laying  off 
of  a  plantation  of  cocoa;  making  drains;  and  general 
principles  of  method  of  forming  a  school  garden.  The  pre- 
paration for  the  market  of  cocoa,  coffee,  ginger,  copra, 
and  such  crops  as  may  be  ripe  at  the  time  of  holding  the 
class.  Taught  to  recognize  the  more  important  economic 
plants  and  the  chief  ornamental  plants. 


TECHNICAL   EDUCATION    IN    TROPICAL   AGRICULTURE        55 

CLASS  II.     JULY  COURSE. 
Theoretical  Work. 

Resume  of  the  work  done  in  Class  I. 

Cropping  (general) :  Soils  and  climatic  conditions  most 
suitable  for  the  various  economic  crops;  thus,  cocoa, 
deep,  rich  soil  with  sufficient  rainfall;  cotton,  a  light 
loamy  soil  and  a  long  dry  season;  sisal  hemp,  poor  soil, 
and  a  light  rainfall. 

Scientific  Rotation  of  Crops:  Beneficial  results  of; 
soil  not  exhausted  to  the  same  extent;  deep-rooted  and 
shallow-rooted  plants  use  a  greater  area  of  soil;  soil  does 
not  get  plant  sick;  importance  of  leguminous  plants  in  a 
rotation. 

Cultivation  of  the  more  important  crops,  such  as 
rubber,  both  Para  and  Funtumia;  cocoa,  different 
varieties;  maize;  ground  nuts;  cotton;  sisal;  Mauritius 
hemp;  yams;  cassava;  method  of  preparing  their  products 
and  estimated  yields  per  acre  and  values  per  cwt.  or  ton. 

Catch  Crops :   Meaning  and  examples  of. 

Green  Manuring :    Plants  most  suitable  for. 

Useful  ''bush"  plants  producing  articles  for  export; 
oil  palm;  raphia  palm;  kola,  etc. 

Insect  Pests :  Life-history,  general ;  stages  of  develop- 
ment; nature  of  destruction  by;  stage  of  development  in 
which  most  destructive;  simple  methods  of  control;  pre- 
cautions against;  instances  of  known  attack. 

Fungoid  Diseases:  Brief  description;  necessity  for 
taking  active  steps  to  fight  against;  precautions  to 
use  to  prevent  them  spreading  determined  by  nature  of 
attack,  e.g.,  root  disease,  isolation;  stem  and  branch 
disease,  cutting  off  and  burning;  cocoa  pod  disease, 
burning;  and  other  general  measures  to  adopt.  Fire  the 
most  effective  and  generally  cheapest  in  the  end ;  spraying 
with  fungicide  more  of  the  nature  of  a  prevention  than 
a  cure. 

The  value  of  school  gardens  properly  managed. 

Practical  Work. 

Resume  of  work  in  previous  class,  together  with :  — 
Digging  and  preparation  of  land. 


56       TECHNICAL   EDUCATION   IN   TROPICAL   AGRICULTURE 

Sowing  seeds  and  roots  in  the  field  at  stake  and  in 
rows;  rubber,  cocoa,  kola,  coffee,  cotton,  jute,  corn, 
ginger,  etc. 

Planting  out  plants  at  measured  distances,  such  as 
cocoa,  rubber,  tobacco,  lemon  grass. 

Tapping  rubber  trees.  Preparation  of  rubber,  lemon 
grass  oil,  cinnamon,  annatto,  fibres.  Practical  treatment 
of  insect  and  fungoid  diseases,  such  as  "  Sankonuabe  " 
borers,  caterpillars,  etc. ;  cocoa  die-back,  pod  disease, 
root  diseases,  etc. ;  collecting  and  burning  all  dead  wood, 
diseased  and  empty  cocoa  pods. 

Preparation  of  kerosene  emulsion,  Bordeaux  mixture, 
together  with  the  use  of  sprayers  and  syringes. 

Students  deriving  the  greatest  apparent  benefit  from 
the  above  syllabus  are  those  who  have  received  tuition  in 
Nature  teaching  at  the  Government  Training  Institution 
for  Teachers.  The  text-book  most  suitable  for  the  work 
has  been  found  to  be  Watts's  "Nature  Teaching." 

The  final  source  of  educational  teaching  is  by  agricul- 
tural shows,  which  have  proved  very  popular,  but  which  it 
has  not  yet  been  found  practicable  to  hold  more  than  once 
annually. 


THE    ORGANIZATION    OF 

AGRICULTURAL    DEPARTMENTS     IN 

RELATION  TO   RESEARCH. 


THE     ORGANIZATION     OF    AGRICULTURAL 
DEPARTMENTS    IN   RELATION    TO   RESEARCH  WORK. 

By  BERNARD  COVENTRY,  C.I.E. 

Agricultural  Adviser  to  the  Government  of  India  and 
Director  of  the  Agricultural  Research  Institute, 
Pusa,  India. 

THE  organization  of  agricultural  research  is  a  matter 
of  the  utmost  importance,  for  on  the  proper  ordination 
of  the  various  units  employed  depends  the  success  of  the 
undertaking.  It  will  be  futile  to  engage  the  services  of 
highly  qualified  and  highly  paid  scientific  experts  unless 
their  work  is  conducted  on  the  basis  of  a  carefully  devised 
system  of  co-ordination.  In  the  establishment  of  such  a 
system,  the  guiding  principle  should  be  to  grant  to  each 
•department  of  science  the  fullest  scope  and  freedom 
compatible  with  due  recognition  of  the  governing 
authority,  the  limitations  of  its  own  sphere  of  work,  and 
the  possibilities  of  a  carefully  prepared  budget.  It  should 
further  be  recognized  that  the  business  of  carrying  on 
the  work  in  the  various  branches,  such  as  agriculture 
proper,  agricultural  chemistry,  economic  botany,  plant 
pathology,  and  the  like  is  in  each  case  a  profession 
requiring  a  high  education,  unusual  qualifications,  and 
specialized  training  on  the  part  of  the  persons  employed. 
The  expert  officer  of  one  branch  is,  therefore,  not 
qualified  to  undertake  the  work  in  another.  It  must, 
therefore,  be  realized  that  the  personal  equation  is  an 
important  factor  in  the  scheme  of  organization,  and  that 
the  Department  stands  or  falls  in  the  person  of  the 


58  AGRICULTURAL    DEPARTMENTS    AND    RESEARCH 

scientific  officer  whom  it  engages.  Not  all  who  go 
through  a  course  of  scientific  study  at  the  Universities 
are  fitted  for  research,  and  special  care  should,  therefore, 
be  taken  in  the  selection  of  scientific  officers.  They 
should  be  appointed  on  probation  for  a  time,  which 
should  not  ordinarily  exceed  three  years.  At  the  end  of 
this  time,  or  before  it,  the  services  of  an  unsuitable  pro- 
bationer should  be  rigorously  dispensed  with.  If  found 
suitable,  he  should  be  confirmed  in  his  appointment. 
Thereafter,  he  should  be  left  as  much  as  possible  to 
himself.  The  initiative  in  respect  of  a  particular  line  of 
work  and  the  method  of  approaching  it  should  be  almost 
entirely  left  to  him,  for  individuality  and  tastes  play  such 
an  important  part  that  to  attempt  to  bring  about  research 
by  "order"  would  lead  assuredly  to  undesirable  con- 
sequences. 

The  next  point  we  may  consider  is  that  of  collaboration. 
How  are  the  various  branches  of  a  department  for  agricul- 
tural research  to  collaborate  and  yet  maintain  that 
freedom  which  is  predicated  as  being  essential  ?  Were 
we  dealing  with  the  research  of  a  commercial  or  industrial 
undertaking,  where  the  purpose  was,  for  example,  the 
improvement  in  the  manufacture  of  certain  definite 
products,  the  matter  would  be  simple,  for  the  scientific 
man  would  have  to  subordinate  his  views  and  his  work 
to  the  exigencies  of  the  particular  business  he  was 
engaged  in,  and  it  is  not  unreasonable  to  expect  that  on 
account  of  the  restrictions  put  upon  him  by  his  agreement 
and  the  promptings  of  common  sense  he  would  focus  his 
endeavours  on  the  common  objective.  In  an  agricultural 
department  under  the  State  the  matter  is  not  so  simple. 
The  common  goal  of  raising  the  level  of  agricultural 
practice  may  be  approached  by  many  roads,  and  it  is 
conceivable  for  lines  of  work  to  be  taken  up  in  the  various 
branches  of  agricultural  science  without  any  reference  to 
collaboration.  There  are  two  kinds  of  collaboration : 
one  in  which  the  contribution  by  one  branch  of  science 
to  another  is  mere  assistance  given  in  an  ancillary 
capacity:  as,  for  example,  the  economic  botanist  takes 
up  the  improvement  of  the  wheat  plant  on  Mendelian 
lines.  It  is  certain  that  he  will  require,  during  the  course 


AGRICULTURAL    DEPARTMENTS   AND    RESEARCH  59 

of  his  investigations,  to  determine  the  nitrogen  content 
of  his  wheats.  For  this  purpose  he  will  seek  the  aid  of 
the  chemist.  This  is  but  assistance  on  a  minor  or  frac- 
tional factor,  which  would  not  exactly  be  called  colla- 
boration. In  another  case  the  soil  bacteriologist  is 
working  at  various  bacteria-producing  plant  foods  and 
plant  toxins.  He  requires  the  aid  of  the  chemist  to 
determine  the  nature  of  the  plant  foods  and  the  nature  of 
the  action  of  the  toxins  on  vegetable  tissues.  Here  the 
work,  both  of  the  chemist  and  bacteriologist,  is  funda- 
mental, and  nothing  short  of  a  collaboration  of  both 
officers  is  required.  This  is  collaboration  in  its  full 
sense.  If  we  are  to  preserve  the  freedom  of  the  indivi- 
dual, there  are  only  two  courses  open  by  which  true 
and  amicable  collaboration  can  be  brought  about.  The 
word  "  amicable  "  is  used  advisedly,  for  without  such  a 
quality  collaboration  could  scarcely  deserve  the  name. 
One  course  is  for  combined  work  to  take  place  under  a 
private  understanding;  the  other  is  by  arrangement  in 
conference  or  council  of  the  heads  of  the  scientific 
branches.  The  formation  of  such  a  council  is  of  the 
greatest  necessity  for  a  scientific  body  attached  to  an 
Agricultural  Department.  While  preserving  the  freedom 
of  the  individual,  it  throws  open  the  road  not  only  to 
collaboration  of  the  most  approved  kind,  but  it  can  be 
used  for  an  exchange  of  views  and  as  an  effective  control 
of  the  work  by  the  scientific  officers  themselves,  and 
should,  therefore,  form  an  integral  part  of  the  general 
scheme. 

We  may  now  proceed  to  give  very  briefly  the  various 
units  required  in  a  scheme  of  research.  We  will  assume 
a  Central  Research  Institute  fully  equipped  with  up-to- 
date  laboratories  and  a  farm  of  sufficient  size,  and  with 
such  quality  and  condition  of  soil  as  to  render  the  results 
and  operations  on  the  farm  normal.  The  divisions  in  the 
institute  representing  the  various  branches  of  agricultural 
science  and  practice  would  be  somewhat  as  follows :  A 
senior  officer  of  the  best  qualifications  should  be  appointed 
at  the  head,  of  each. 

(i)  The  Agricultural  Division,  dealing  with  the  practice 
of  agriculture  proper,  animal  husbandry,  agricultural 
engineering,  and  with  economics. 


6O  AGRICULTURAL    DEPARTMENTS   AND    RESEARCH 

'  ^_- 1. Ti.  .'.*-.'-      .."•'  *J-.vK'ji  >••»''""'. 

(2)  The    Chemical    Division,    dealing    with    physical, 
chemical     (organic     and    inorganic),     and     bio-chemical 
problems. 

(3)  The  Botanical  Division,  concerned  chiefly  with  plant 
improvement. 

(4)  The  Bacteriological  Division,  dealing  with  soil  and 
other  agricultural  bacteria. 

(5)  The    Division    of    Plant    Pathology,    fungoid    and 
bacterial. 

(6)  The  Division  of  Entomology. 

(7)  The    Veterinary   Division,    which   may    include    re- 
search and  manufacturing  laboratories  for  the  production 
of  sera. 

(8)  Library,  publications,  illustrations. 

(9)  Special    crops    and   industries,   for    which    separate 
officers    should,    when    necessary,    be    appointed.     In    a 
tropical  country  these  might  include  special  investigations 
on  sugar-cane,  cotton,  tea,  rubber,  etc. 

At  the  head  of  the  whole  should  be  appointed  a  director 
with  a  separate  office,  and  this  brings  us  to  the  con- 
sideration of  the  principles  that  should  guide  the  selection 
of  the  occupant  of  such  an  important  post.  Views  on 
this  differ  widely.  At  one  extreme  we  have  the  view  that 
the  director  of  a  scientific  institute  should  himself  be  a 
scientific  man,  so  that  he  can  manage  and  control  the 
work  of  those  under  him  by  the  weight  of  his  knowledge 
and  personality.  At  the  other,  there  are  those  who  hold 
the  opinion  that  he  should  not  be  by  profession  a  scientific 
man,  as  he  would  be  apt  to  be  biased  in  the  direction  of 
his  own  branch  to  the  detriment  of  the  others. 

In  the  opinion  of  the  writer,  neither  of  the  extreme 
views  are  a  suitable  guide.  It  is  conceivable  that  the 
best  man  available  may  be  a  highly  trained  scientific  man, 
but  it  is  equally  possible  that  he  may  not.  He  would  not 
close  the  door  in  either  case,  but  would  base  the  principle 
of  selection  more  on  general  qualities  for  organization 
and  control,  coupled  with  sympathy  and  general  under- 
standing of  the  work  and  preparedness  to  sink  his 
individuality.  The  opportunities  for  cheap  and  startling 
notoriety  gained  from  the  achievements  of  those  under 
him  are  great  to  the  director  of  an  Agricultural  Research 


AGRICULTURAL   DEPARTMENTS    AND    RESEARCH  6l 

Institute,  and  the  occasions  when  a  "  splash  in  the  pool  " 
has  been  made  to  the  detriment  of  good  and  solid  results 
are  not  uncommon.  The  successful  director  will  be  one 
who,  while  exercising  sufficient  control  and  influence  to 
get  the  various  sections  of  an  institute  to  work  peacefully 
together,  relieving  them  of  as  much  correspondence, 
account  and  general  administrative  work  as  possible, 
will"  at  the  same  time  obliterate  himself  in  such  a  manner 
that  every  man  under  him  will  feel  that  he  is  the  master 
of  his  own  job. 

From  the  creation  of  the  Central  Research  Institute  as 
described  naturally  follows  the  necessity  of  an  organiza- 
tion for  expansion  and  the  spread  and  demonstration  of 
the  results  of  research,  for  the  distribution  of  seed  of 
improved  varieties  of  crops,  and  for  further  experiment 
in  particular  localities.  The  spheres  of  units  for  expan- 
sion and  localized  work  would  have  to  be  defined.  In 
India  they  are  the  provinces ;  in  England  they  would 
conveniently  be  the  counties.  At  the  head  of  each  unit 
would  be  an  administrative  head  or  director,  and  the 
principles  of  co-ordination  laid  down  for  the  organization 
of  a  Central  Research  Institute  would  apply  equally  to 
these  units.  But  local  problems  and  the  demonstration 
of  improved  methods  would  be  their  chief  concern,  and 
the  staff  would  have  to  be  chosen  to  that  end.  The 
agricultural  expert,  as  opposed  to  the  strictly  scientific 
man,  would  be  chiefly  in  request,  as  it  is  only  through  him 
that  the  farmer  and  cultivator  can  be  adequately  reached. 
The  appointment  of  other  experts  would  have  to  be  made 
according  as  local  problems  and  local  differences  require 
research  and  experiment  to  be  carried  on  away  from  the 
central  body.  The  work  of  demonstration  and  distri- 
bution will  require  a  subordinate  staff  sufficiently  numer- 
ous to  effectually  push  an  improved  method;  and  it  is 
to  be  observed  that  this  staff  should  be  under  the  direct 
control  of  the  professional  man  concerned  with  the 
work.  The  undertaking  of  demonstration  work  under 
the  immediate  control  of  the  director,  especially  in 
tropical  countries,  is  to  be  strongly  deprecated,  unless 
he  himself  is  expert  in  the  particular  work  with  which 
he  is  dealing. 


62  AGRICULTURAL    DEPARTMENTS   AND    RESEARCH 

In  conclusion,  it  is  to  be  regretted  that  time  and  space 
forbid  the  entry  into  the  more  minute  details  of  organiza- 
tion, and  that  it  has  been  necessary  to  confine  these 
remarks  mostly  to  the  enunciation  of  general  principles. 

These  principles  may  be  summarized  as  under:  — 

(1)  The  creation  of  an  institute,  made  up  of  divisions 
dealing  with  the  various  branches  of  agricultural  science 
and  practice,  immediately  controlled  by  a  highly  qualified 
expert  officer  in  charge  of  each,  the  whole  being  under 
the  general  governing  control  of  a  director. 

(2)  Fullest  scope  and  freedom  allowed  for  research  work 
compatible  with  due  recognition  of  the  governing  authority, 
and  limited  in  each  branch  to  its  own  sphere  of  work  and 
financial  possibilities. 

(3)  Recognition  of  the  personal  equation  as  a  ruling 
factor    in    the   prosecution    of    research    work,    and    the 
undesirability   of   undue   interference,    or    of   attempt  to 
bring  about  research  by  "  order." 

(4)  Adequate  means  for  co-operation  between  experts 
by  private   arrangement    or   through   the    medium    of   a 
council. 

(5)  Control  of  the  scientific  work,  as  far  as  possible, 
by  the  scientific  officers  themselves  in  council. 

(6)  The    director    to    be    selected    more    for    general 
qualities  for  organization  and  control,  understanding  of 
the  work,  and  readiness  to  sink  his  individuality. 

(7)  Extension   of  the   work   by   the   erection    of   local 
stations  for  the  purpose  of  demonstration  and  distribution 
and  the  working  of  local  problems. 

(8)  The  appointment  of  an  adequate  subordinate  staff 
for  this   purpose   under   the   direct    control    of   the    pro- 
fessional man. 


THE    ORGANIZATION     OF    AGRICULTURAL    DEPART- 
MENTS  IN   RELATION   TO   RESEARCH  WORK. 

By  GERALD  C.  DUDGEON,  F.E.S. 

Consulting  Agriculturist,  Ministry  of  Agriculture,  Egypt; 
Vice-President,  International  Association  for  Tropical 
Agriculture. 

THE  ever-changing  demands  of  the  markets  of  the 
world  render  necessary  the  frequent  introduction  of  new 
or  improved  methods  in  agricultural  practice;  and,  in 
order  that  the  new  enterprise  shall  succeed  from  its 
commencement,  it  becomes  imperative  that  the  course 
followed  shall  be  one  of  precision  and  in  accordance  with 
scientific  principles. 

The  practical  agriculturist  must  certainly  continue  for 
the  present  to  be  the  most  important  participator  in  the 
production  of  crops,  but  he  cannot  have  the  leisure  or 
sufficient  opportunity  for  the  examination  and  proper 
determination  of  the  use  of  natural  phenomena  upon 
which  the  improvement  of  his  practical  work  may  often 
depend. 

The  study  of  the  laws  of  natural  or  chemical  science 
which  may  be  applied  to  ensure  certain  results,  or  the 
suggestion  of  the  manner  in  which  they  can  be  adapted 
advantageously  to  agriculture,  must  be  left  to  the 
specialist;  the  practical  agriculturist  finding  sufficient 
occupation  in  the  application  of  the  suggestion  to  his 
land  or  crops.  That  modern  agriculture  owes  its 
advancement  largely  to  the  labours  of  research  chemists, 
entomologists,  and  botanists  can  scarcely  be  questioned. 

The  functions  of  a  Government  Department  of  Agricul- 
ture entail  the  provision  of  advice,  assistance,  and 
protection  to  the  cultivators  in  the  country  to  enable 
them  to  compete  successfully  with  those  of  other 
countries.  Such  a  department  itself  should  have  no 
commercial  interest  in  the  products  of  the  soil,  but  should 


64  AGRICULTURAL    DEPARTMENTS   AND    RESEARCH 

be  in  a  position  to  supply  information  on  all  agricultural 
questions  without  prejudice. 

In  order  to  do  this  its  efforts  must  be  directed  to  the 
collection  of  information  concerning  agriculture  in  other 
countries,  as  well  as  to  the  conduct  of  scientific  investi- 
gations locally.  Research  work  is  then  eminently 
marked  out  for  adoption  by  Government  Departments, 
the  proper  working  of  the  laboratories  of  which,  in  an 
agricultural  country,  are  almost  essential  for  the  progress 
and  welfare  of  the  State. 

With  regard  to  the  manner  in  which  research  work  is 
to  be  carried  on,  it  becomes  a  rather  more  difficult  matter 
with  Government  control  than  would  be  the  case  with 
private  enterprise.  The  reason  for  this  is  that  it  is  not 
generally  recognized  by  the  critics  of  a  Government 
administration  that  much  greater  latitude  should  be 
allowed  in  research  than  in  other  Government  work; 
immediate  and  tangible  results  are  frequently  looked  for 
which  cannot  be  reasonably  demanded.  For  instance,  it 
is  extremely  difficult,  and  sometimes  even  impossible,  to 
lay  down  precisely  the  direction  in  which  work  will 
proceed,  because,  when  making  experiments,  results  are 
frequently  obtained,  almost  at  the  commencement,  which 
may  necessitate  a  complete  alteration  of  the  original  plan 
and  distribution  of  expenses.  It  is  easy  to  realize  what 
effect  such  an  alteration  may  exercise  upon  an  adminis- 
tration in  which,  for  the  most  part,  the  provisional 
arrangements,  budgetary  and  otherwise,  have  been  care- 
fully defined  in  advance  for  the  whole  year. 

In  conjunction  with  the  work  to  be  performed  in  the 
laboratories  themselves,  it  is  necessary  that  experiment 
farms  should  be  available.  In  a  country  where  climatic 
or  soil  conditions  vary,  it  may  even  be  necessary  to 
conduct  several  in  different  parts  of  the  country.  In  very 
few  instances,  however,  is  it  imperative  that  the  areas  of 
such  farms  should  be  of  large  size.  In  countries  such  as 
the  United  States  and  Egypt  it  does  not  appear  difficult  for 
Government  to  obtain  land  on  a  short  lease  (in  the  latter 
country  for  a  single  crop  only  if  necessary)  upon  the  simple 
guarantee  of  a  slightly  superior  monetary  return  than  the 
average  one  for  a  similar  crop  in  the  same  locality.  This 


AGRICULTURAL  DEPARTMENTS  AND  RESEARCH      6$ 

arrangement  enables  all  experiments  connected  with 
manurial,  watering,  cultivation,  or  insecticide  trials  to 
be  carried  out  in  a  number  of  different  localities  at  a 
minimum  cost.  It  seems  advisable  to  take  this  oppor- 
tunity to  digress  slightly  to  refer  to  the  distinction  which 
should  be  emphasized  between  pure  experiment  farms  and 
those  intended  for  demonstration,  as  this  point  is 
frequently  overlooked.  In  the  case  of  the  former,  the 
object  of  which  is  usually  to  compare  one  system  of 
operations  with  another  in  order  to  test  superiority  and 
to  obtain  knowledge  for  subsequent  application,  it  is 
obvious  that  the  results  may  be  so  different  and  the  in- 
feriority of  the  specially  treated  parts  may  predominate 
so  much  over  the  controls  that  there  may  be  a  monetary 
loss  from  the  area  leased.  Experiment  farms  should 
never,  therefore,  be  regarded  as  revenue  producing  pro- 
jects. The  contrary  is  the  case  in  respect  to  demon- 
stration farms,  where  a  complete  knowledge  is  assumed 
by  which  improved  results  may  be  obtained,  provided  no 
unforeseen  adverse  conditions  occur.  Demonstration 
farms  must,  therefore,  be  considered  as  indications  of  a 
means  of  getting  a  greater  return,  and  should  show  an 
increased  profit  over  similar  farms  in  the  same  vicinity 
which  may  be  considered  as  the  control  areas. 

With  regard  to  the  staff  and  organization  necessary  for 
agricultural  research  in  a  Government  Department,  these 
are  very  largely  dependent  on  the  special  requirements 
of  the  country.  It  can,  however,  be  laid  down  that,  in 
general,  three  scientific  branches  are  necessary,  the 
relative  importance  of  each  being  dependent  upon  the 
local  conditions  and  chief  crops  of  the  country. 

The  minimum  superior  staff  in  each  of  these  branches 
and  an  indication  of  their  duties  are  shown  below :  — 

CHEMICAL  SECTION. 

Chief  Chemist :  Conducting  and  reporting  on  manurial 
experiments;  recommendations  for  the  treatment 
of  soils;  control  and  disposal  of  the  correspond- 
ence of  the  Section.  Investigation  of  value  of 
mineral  resources  as  applied  to  agriculture;  im- 
provement of  soils. 

5 


66      AGRICULTURAL  DEPARTMENTS  AND  RESEARCH 

Assistant  Chemist:  Analyses  of  soils,  insecticides, 
plants,  cattle  food,  etc.  Students  should  be 
attached  to  this  Section  under  the  Assistant 
Chemist. 

ENTOMOLOGICAL  SECTION. 

Chief  Entomologist:  Direction  of  all  experiments 
with  applications  of  insecticides;  fumigation  of 
plantation  trees;  general  campaigns  against 
noxious  insects,  etc.  Proposals  for  legislation 
and  control  of  the  importation  of  insect  pests  on 
plants  and  in  seeds.  Organization  of  industries 
and  demonstrations  with  regard  to  useful  insects, 
such  as  silkworms,  'bees,  lac  insects,  etc. 

Assistant  Entomologist:  Examination  of  the  life- 
histories  of  economic  insects,  systematic  classi- 
fication, propagation  of  insect  parasites,  etc. 

Assistant  Entomologist :  Research  in  connection  with 
insect  diseases  and  methods  of  insect  control. 
Students  in  entomology  can  be  attached  to  the 
two  assistant  entomologists. 

BOTANICAL  SECTION. 

Chief  Botanist:  Introduction  of  new  plants  and  the 
improvement  of  existing  ones.  Correspondence 
and  general  direction  of  the  whole  section. 

Plant  Breeder,  Assistant  Breeder,  Superintendent  of 
Experiment  Farms :  Mendelian  selection.  Investi- 
gation into  the  nature  and  improvement  of 
economic  plants.  In  Egypt  plant  breeding  is  of 
most  importance  in  the  Section,  as  the  work  of 
cotton  improvement  supersedes  all  others.  In 
countries  where  extensive  permanent  plantations 
exist  of  tea,  cocoa,  coffee,  rubber,  etc.,  a  plant 
breeder  is  also  necessary.  Students  should  be 
attached  to  this  Section. 

Mycologist:  Examination  of  fungoid  diseases  of 
plants;  advice  with  regard  to  fungicides  and  co- 
operation with  the  Entomological  Section  in 
connection  with  the  examination  of  plants  and 
seeds  coming  from  abroad. 

In  order  that  each  of  the  above  sections  should  possess 
at  least  one  officer  whose  whole  time  can,  if  necessary, 
be  given  up  uninterruptedly  to  laboratory  research  and 
report,  routine  work  should  be  distributed  as  far  as 
possible  among  the  students  attached  to  the  Section.  For 
instance,  in  the  Chemical  Section  ordinary  analyses  of 


AGRICULTURAL  DEPARTMENTS  AND  RESEARCH      67 

soils,  manures,  etc.,  can  be  carried  out  by  the  advanced 
students.  In  the  Entomological  Section,  in  a  similar 
manner,  insect  breeding,  section  cutting  of  insects  for 
microscopic  examination  in  connection  with  diseases  and 
similar  work  can  be  done  by  the  students  of  entomo- 
logy. The  plant  breeder's  work,  which  largely  consists  of 
the  examination  of  the  economic  value  of  the  plants  he  has 
produced  by  hybridization  and  selection,  and  the  collec- 
tion of  detailed  information  regarding  the  behaviour  of 
different  strains,  must  be  assisted  in  the  field  experiments 
by  a  practical  agriculturist.  It  is  a  handicap  to  the 
efficiency  of  his  own  work  if  he  is  obliged  to  arrange  the 
ordinary  work  of  preparation  of  the  soil  and  cultivation 
of  the  crop  which  is  being  experimented  with  under  field 
conditions.  It  becomes  necessary,  therefore,  that  he 
should  have  a  farm  superintendent  working  in  close  co- 
operation with  him,  and  in  such  a  manner  that  the  proper 
utilization  of  his  suggestions,  etc.,  may  be  ensured. 
Valuable  results  have  doubtless  been  lost  in  the  endeavour 
to  employ  the  scientific  investigator  for  the  practical 
application  of  his  theories.  The  students  in  the  Botanical 
Section  should  conduct  all  the  germination  and  other 
special  tests  and  assist  in  the  supervision  of  flower  count- 
ing and  other  field  operations. 

In  every  country  it  is  important  that  the  occupation  of 
the  research  agriculturist  should  be  dissociated  as  far  as 
possible  from  purely  administrative  work,  although,  in 
order  to  ensure  the  best  results  and  to  comprehend  the 
requirements  of  agriculture,  the  administrative  head  of 
the  department  should  be  acquainted  with  scientific 
agriculture  in  all  its  branches. 

In  conjunction  with  scientific  agricultural  work,  it  is 
necessary  that  facilities  for  the  publication  of  results  and 
recommendations  should  be  supplied.  An  agricultural 
journal  is  a  necessity,  and  should  not  only  act  as  a  means 
of  distributing  knowledge,  but  should  serve  as  a  record 
of  progress.  It  is  unnecessary  that  such  a  publication 
should  appear  at  fixed  periods;  in  fact,  it  is  better  that  it 
should  not  be  designed  to  do  so,  as  the  limitation  of  time 
in  the  preparation  of  a  contribution  may  detract  from 
its  completeness  and  consequent  value. 


68  AGRICULTURAL   DEPARTMENTS   AND    RESEARCH 

A  reference  library  and  well-fitted  laboratories  are  two 
essentials  for  the  proper  equipment  of  a  scientific  agricul- 
tural department,  and  the  compilation  of  a  museum  should 
result  from  the  careful  arrangement  of  the  material 
collected  and  examined. 

In  describing  the  organization  of  a  scientific  section,  it 
will  be  clear  that  I  have  had  in  mind  for  the  most  part 
the  requirements  of  the  country  in  which  I  recently 
undertook  the  organization  and  formation  of  an  agricul- 
tural department.  It  is  only  necessary  to  add  that  the 
model  indicated  is  that  which  has  been  applied  to  Egypt, 
and  that  certain  modifications  would  be  found  necessary 
in  every  country  in  accordance  with  the  local  conditions. 
In  the  main,  however,  it  would  probably  be  found  adapt- 
able to  many  tropical  or  sub-tropical  countries. 


ORGANIZZAZIONE   DEI   SERVIZI   AGRARI  IN 
TRIPOLITANIA. 

Per  il  Professore  E.  DE  CILLIS. 
Direttore  delVUfficio  Agrario. 

SCOPPIATA  la  guerra  tra  la  Turchia  e  1' Italia,  ed  iniziata 
I'occupazione  della  Libia,  mentre  ancora  duravano  le 
operazioni  guerresche,  il  Governo  italiano  inviava  nella 
primavera  del  1912  una  missione  di  tre  tecnici,  allo  scopo 
di  procedere  allo  studio  del  paese  dal  punto  di  vista 
agrologico.  Prima  che  si  potessero  adottare  dei  prov- 
vedimenti  intesi  a  favorire  I'agricoltura  e  la  coloniz- 
zazione,  era  appunto  necessario  che  fossero  conosciute 
con  la  possibile  maggiore  esattezza  le  condizioni  di  una 
regione,  che  fra  tutte  quelle  africane  era  stata  meno 
esplorata  e  meno  descritta.  In  seguito  agli  studi  eseguiti 
dalla  missione,  una  prima  relazione  veniva  presentata  al 
Ministero  di  agricoltura1  e  pubblicata  nello  stesso  anno. 

L'anno  successive,  pacificata  la  Tripolitania  in  grandis- 
sima  parte,  una  seconda  missione,  formata  da  un  numero 
molto  maggiore  di  componenti,  specialisti  nelle  varie 
discipline,  fu  inviata  dal  Governo  italiano.  Essa  ebbe 
campo  di  visitare  tutta  la  Tripolitania  settentrionale,  e 
cioe  1'intera  regione  costiera  e  la  parte  marginal^  del- 
Taltopiano.  Anche  essa  presento  una  relazione  in  due 
volumi,  che  venne  pubblicata  lo  stesso  anno.2 

Contemporaneamente  la  Societa  per  lo  studio  della 
Libia,  costituitasi  in  Italia,  inviava  una  Commissione 
propria,  che  si  proponeva  a  preferenza  lo  studio  agro- 
logico  del  Gebel,  ed  anche  questa  Commissione,  compiuto 


1  Ministero  di  agricoltura,  industria  e  commercio.     "  Ricerche 
e   studi  agrologici   sulla  Libia."     Vol.    i°,    La  zona  di   Tripoli. 
Bergamo  :  Arti  Grafiche.     1912. 

2  Ministero    delle    Colonie.      La    Tripolitania    settentrionale. 
Roma  :   G.  Bertero.     1913. 


70  AGRICULTURAL   DEPARTMENTS   AND    RESEARCH 

il  suo  lavoro,   nelle  primavera  del   1914,   pubblicava  una 
relazione  propria.3 

In  tal  modo  gli  studi  preliminari  intorno  alle  condizioni 
dell'ambiente  fisico,  della  tecnica  e  della  economica- 
agraria  della  regione,  ed  a  quelle  sociali  della  popolazione 
possono  dirsi  completi.  Ed  e  notevole  il  fatto  che  le  tre 
relazioni  s'integrano  e  si  completano,  giungendo  a 
risultati  comuni,  per  cui  la  Tripolitania,  nella  sua  parte 
piu  interessante,  che  e  quella  settentrionale,  la  piu  adatta 
senza  dubbio  ad  un  progresso  piu  o  meno  rapido  nel- 
ragricoltura  e  ad  esser  colonizzata  da  ekmenti  italiani, 
puo  dirsi  oggi  sufficientemente  ed  esattamente  conosciuta. 

I  risultati  ai  quali  sono  giunti  i  lavori  delle  tre  missioni 
concordano    nel   riconoscere   che   la   Tripolitania    setten- 
trionale,  in  gran  parte  della  sua  superficie,   puo   essere 
utilizzata  mediante  Tincremento  della  coltura  asciutta  di 
essenze    arboree    (olivo,    mandorlo,    vite,    carrubbo,    fico 
d'india  ed  altre)  ed  erbacee  (orzo,   frumento);  in  minor 
parte,  mediante  la  coltivazione  irrigua  delle  piu  svariate 
specie  di  piante  dei  paesi  caldi;  e  quindi  generalmente  si 
presta   ad   una   conveniente   colonizzazione   per   parte   di 
elementi  italiani. 

Sulle  basi  di  queste  conclusioni,  che  abbiamo  molto 
succintamente  trascritte,  e  sulle  proposte  formulate  dalle 
tre  Commissioni,  il  Governo  italiano  ha  recentemente 
istituito  in  Tripolitania4  un  Ufficio  agrario,  al  quale  sono 
stati  affidati  Timpianto  e  la  direzione  di  tutti  i  servizi 
inerenti  all'agricoltura  ed  alia  colonizzazione.5 

II  programme  di  organizzazione  e  di  attivita,  che  sara 
svolto    dairUfficio    agrario,    puo    riassumersi    nelle    sue 
grandi  linee,  nel  modo  seguente :  — 

L'Ufficio  agrario  verra  distinto  in  due  grandi  Sezioni; 
una  amministrativa  ed  una  tecnica.  La  Sezione  amminis- 
trativa  e  destinata  ad  eseguire  lo  studio  statistico  ed 
economico  della  Regione;  a  seguire  lo  svolgersi  della 
colonizzazione;  a  proporre  ed  attuare  tutti  i  provvedi- 

3  "  La     Missione     Franchetti    in     Tripolitania     (II     Gebel)." 
Firenze,  Milano  :  Filli  Treves.     1914. 

4  Con  R.  Decreto  del  2  Marzo,  1914,  No.  169. 

5  In  Tripolitania  esiste  un  Ufficio  economico,  istituito  fin  dal 
1912,  per  i  servizi  inerenti  all'industria  ed  al  commercio. 


AGRICULTURAL   DEPARTMENTS   AND    RESEARCH  7 1 

menti  diretti  all'incremento  dell'agricoltura  locale  e  della 
colonizzazione.  La  Sezione  tecnica  e  essenzialmente 
scientifica  e  sperimentale,  e  si  occupera  della  soluzione 
dei  problemi  d'indole  colturale,  dal  doppio  punto  di  vista 
tecnico  ed  economico. 

La  Sezione  amministrativa  avra  la  sua  sede  in  Tripoli, 
insieme  agli  altri  uffici  di  Governo.  I  servizi  posti  alia 
sua  dipendenza  sono  i  seguenti :  — 

i°  Servizio  di  statis'tica  ed  informazioni  agrarie. — Esso 
sara  diretto  ad  accertare  e  seguire  metodicamente  il 
movimento  economico-agrario  della  Regione,  e  svolgera 
la  sua  azione : 

(a)  con  la  formazione  di  un  catasto  agrario,  per  mezzo 
del  censimento  dei  poderi,  delle  piantagioni  e  del  bestiame; 

(b)  mediante  la  compilazione  di  rapporti  periodici  sullo 
andamento  delle  colture,  sulle  principal!  faccende  agrarie, 
sulle    previsioni   e    sul    compute    finale    dei    raccolti,    sul 
movimento  migratorio  del  bestiame,  sull'oscillazione  dei 
prezzi  delle  derrate  agrarie  sopra  i  mercati  locali,   suite 
domande  ed  offerte  di  compra-vendita  dei  terreni  e  prezzi 
relativi,   sui  fitti  e  contratti  agrari  diversi,  sulla  esporta- 
zione  ed  importazione  delle  derrate  agrarie,  ed  in  generate 
su  tutti  i  fenomeni  economici  degni  di  rilievo; 

(c)  mediante    inchieste    speciali    eseguite    nelle    varie 
plaghe  e  sopra  determinati  argomenti. 

2°  Servizio  della  colonizzazione. — Esso  svolgera  il  suo 
compito : 

(a)  mediante  ricerche  dirette  sulla  disponibilita  e  qualita 
dei  terreni  colonizzabili; 

(b)  con  la  pubblicazione  di  guide  e  monografie  illus- 
tranti  determinate  plaghe  e  determinati  tipi  di  coltura; 

(c)  mediante  carteggio  informative  diretto,  fra  TUfficio 
e  gli  agricoltori  italiani  o  altri  enti; 

(d)  mediante  consulenza  tecnica  ed  aiuti  morali  diversi; 

(e)  mediante  ricerche  sullo  sviluppo  della  colonizzazione 
libera. 

3°  Servizio  delle  concessioni. — Esso  si  occupera  di 
sperimentare  la  concessione  dei  terreni  demaniali,  appli- 
cando  tipi  contrattuali  diversi,  sopra  poderi  diversi  per 
estensione,  per  sistema  di  coltura  e  per  amministrazione. 

4°  Servizio  del  Genio  rurale. — Comprendera  gli  studi  e 


72      AGRICULTURAL  DEPARTMENTS  AND  RESEARCH 

la  esecuzione  di  opere  dirette  ad  utilizzare  le  risorse 
naturali  del  paese,  specialmente  dal  lato  idraulico,  ed  a 
mettere  alcune  plaghe  adatte  in  condizioni  di  essere  facil- 
mente  colonizzate. 

5°  Servisio  dcU'agricoltura,  propriamente  detto. — Si 
occupera  dello  studio  e  deirattuazione  di  tutti  i  provvedi- 
menti  diretti  a  favorire  ragricoltura  indigena  e  coloniale; 
quindi  saranno  a  tale  scopo  adottati  tutti  i  mezzi  acconci 
a  questo  fine,  quali  pubblicazioni,  sussidi  e  premi;  distri- 
buzione  di  semi  e  piante;  prove  pubbliche  di  macchine  e 
delle  principali  pratiche  di  coltivazione;  impianto  di 
stazioni  di  profilassi  e  cura  delle  malattie  delle  piante  e 
degli  animali;  ed  infine  1'applicazione  di  provvedimenti 
d'indole  legislativa,  diretti  ad  impedire  la  retrogradazione 
del  patrimonio  fondiario  del  paese  ed  a  stimolarne 
Tincremento. 

La  Sezione  tecnica  avra  la  sua  sede  centrale  all'Ex- 
Scuola  di  agricoltura  turca,  poco  distante  dalla  citta  di 
Tripoli  (contrada  Messri);  sopra  i  vasti  terreni  demaniali 
die  circondano  il  caseggiato,  e  che  si  presentano  di  natura 
diversa  (steppa  a  tipo  vario,  dune  mobili)  potranno  agevol- 
mente  impiantarsi  i  campi  e  le  aziende  sperimentali, 
destinate  allo  sviluppo  del  programma  di.ricerche  tecniche 
ed  economiche,  proprio  a  questa  Sezione. 

Altri  campi  ed  aziende  sperimentali  saranno  poi  man 
mano  impiantati  nelle  varie  regioni,  ed  i  primi  impianti 
avranno  luogo  a  Sabrata,  a  Zliten  ed  a  Tarhuna. 

Questa  Sezione  comprendera  i  seguenti  riparti :  — 

i°  Sperimentazione  tecnica. — Essa  comprendera  : 

(a)  Campi   sperimentali   per  le   coltivazioni   aboree   ed 
erbacee  irrigue,  e  per  i  vari  sistemi  di  elevazione  d'acqua 
e  d'irrigazione; 

(b)  Campi    sperimentali    per   le   coltivazioni   arboree   e 
erbacee  asciutte; 

(c)  Campi    sperimentali    forestali,    diretti    specialmente 
allo  studio  dei  frangiventi  e  della  fissazione  delle  dune 
mobili ; 

(d)  Stazione  zootecnica,  diretta  allo  studio  del  migliora- 
mento  delle  razze  locali,  mediante  selezioni  ed  incroci,  ed 
allo  studio  delle  varie  pratiche  di  allevamento,  e  special- 
mente deH'alimentazione. 


AGRICULTURAL   DEPARTMENTS   AND    RESEARCH  73 

(e)  Stazione  di  meccanica  agraria,  diretta  allo  studio 
delle  macchine  e  del  lavoro  relative,  specialmente  dal 
punto  di  vista  deH'applicazione  dei  principi  del  dry- 
farming. 

2°  Sperim'entazione  economica. — Essa  sara  fatta  me- 
diante  Timpianto  di  varie  aziende  irrigue  ed  asciutte,  ad 
economia  e  con  sistemi  contrattuali  diversi,  ed  airamminis- 
trazione  successiva  di  queste  aziende  con  vari  sistemi  di 
conduzione.  In  tal  modo  saranno  specialmente  resi 
evidenti  i  rapporti  fra  i  vari  fattori  della  produzione  ed  i 
vari  capitali  investiti,  la  loro  singola  ed  armonica  funzione, 
gli  effetti  economic!  e  la  retribuzione  spettante  a  ciascuno 
di  essi. 

3°  Selezioni  ed  acclimatazioni. — Comprendera  lo  studio 
delle  razze  delle  piante  coltivate  in  Tripolitania,  allo  scopo 
del  loro  miglioramento  e  1'introduzione  di  specie  e  di  razze 
coltivate  in  altri  paesi  del  Nord-Africa  e  altrove,  al  fine 
di  sottoporle  ad  un  lavoro  di  acclimatazione,  per  provare 
1'utilita  economica  della  loro  introduzione. 

4°  Servizio  meteorologico-agrario. — Esso  comprendera 
6  oss-ervatori  regionali  e  16  stazioni  termo-udometriche, 
sparse  nei  vari  punti  della  Tripolitania,  anche  i  piu  interni 
(Sokna,  Ghadames,  Murzuk)  ed  un  osservatorio  centrale, 
che  raccogliera  tutte  le  osservazioni  dai  vari  uffici  e  li  co- 
ordinera  ai  fini  di  uno  studio  completo  della  climatologia 
del  paese  in  rapporto  all'agricoltura. 

La  Sezione  sperimentale  sara  in  rapporto  con  le  istitu- 
zioni  scientifiche  italiane,  per  quelle  ricerche  e  per  lo 
studio  di  quei  problemi  d'indole  strettamente  scientifica  e 
che  potranno  agevolmente  studiarsi  in  Italia. 

Nel  suo  primo  periodo  di  attivita,  il  personale  dello 
Ufficio  comprendera:  un  direttore;  due  capi  servizio>;  un 
segretario  ed  un  int'erprete-traduttore;  quattro  tecnici; 
quattro  assistenti;  quattro  capi-coltivatori;  oltre  il  per- 
sonale amministrativo,  tecnico  e  di  servizio  inferiori, 
necessario  al  normale  funzionamento  dei  vari  servizi. 

Per  lo  svolgimento  dei  diversi  rami  di  attivita  dello 
Ufficio  agrario,  trovasi  impostata  nel  bilancio  coloniale, 
per  1'esercizio  1914-15,  la  somma  di  Lire  716,000.  Essa 
sara  naturalmente  man  mano  accresciuta  negli  anni  succes- 
sivi,  a  misura  che  Tattivita  deHJUfficio  andra  accre'scendosi 
ed  irradiandosi  nelle  varie  plaghe  della  Regione. 


ORGANIZATION   OF  RESEARCH  WORK  FOR  TROPICAL 
AGRICULTURE. 

By  Dr.  C.  J.  J.  VAN  HALL. 

Chief  of  the  Division  for  Plant  Diseases,  Department  of 
Agriculture,  Java. 

THE  importance  of  scientific  research  is  increasing 
every  year,  and  tropical  countries  which  possess  a  well- 
organized  staff  of  able  scientists,  devoting  themselves  to 
agricultural  research  work,  are  reaping  important  benefits. 

Until  recently  tropical  agriculture  was  wholly  based 
upon  empirical  rules;  planters  as  well  as  small  proprietors 
were  using  methods  adopted  from  their  predecessors  and 
their  fathers.  It  gradually  became  recognized,  however, 
that  scientific  research  was  indispensable,  and  that  it 
could  render  the  same  important  services  to  tropical 
agriculture  as  it  had  done  already  to  agriculture  in 
temperate  climates.  The  entomologist  was  called  to  the 
tropics  to  investigate  the  life-history  of  the  noxious 
insects  and  to  find  out  methods  of  combating  them.  The 
botanist  was  asked  to  investigate  the  plant  diseases 
caused  by  fungi  or  bacteria,  and  to  find  remedies.  The 
chemist  was  called  in  to  give  his  help  for  manurial  ex- 
periments, for  the  analysis  of  fat  and  oil-containing 
plants,  and  for  investigating  new  methods  of  preparing 
various  products  to  improve  their  quality.  The  agrono- 
mist had  to  begin  his  investigations  on  methods  of  plant- 
ing, tillage,  and  pruning,  on  new  varieties  and  their 
practical  value,  on  green  manures,  cover-crops,  and  shade 
trees.  The  introduction  of  new  plants  and  varieties 
became  an  important  field  of  investigation,  and  the  great 
importance  of  plant-breeding,  so  long  neglected  in  the 
tropics,  was  at  length  recognized.  The  geologist  had  to 
give  his  help  for  the  classification  of  soils  and  for  finding 
new  methods  for  ascertaining  their  value.  The  bacterio- 
logist could  no  longer  be  dispensed  with  when  a  thorough 
investigation  of  the  character  of  soils  was  wanted.  On 


AGRICULTURAL  DEPARTMENTS  AND  RESEARCH      75 

the  whole  there  is  at  the  present  time  hardly  a  single 
branch  of  science  which  is  not  essential  to  the  improve- 
ment of  tropical  agriculture.  On  the  other  hand,  every 
effort  to  improve  agricultural  methods  must  be  sustained 
by  scientific  research,  and  at  the  present  time  almost  every 
planter  is  convinced  that  he  cannot  improve  his  methods 
without  scientific  help. 

There  is,  however,  less  agreement  among  the  scientific 
men  themselves  regarding  the  method  of  helping  the 
planter  and  regarding  their  position  towards  the  man  of 
practice.  Speaking  generally,  we  may  say  that  there  are 
two  parties.  The  one  consists  of  men  who,  above  all, 
are  anxious  to  do  real  scientific  research  work;  they 
understand  that  they  must  keep  in  touch  with  agriculture, 
because  they  are  working  on  behalf  of  it,  but  their  work  is 
more  in  the  laboratory  and  in  the  experiment  garden  than 
in  the  field.  The  other  party  comprises  those  who,  above 
all,  are  anxious  to  do  practical  work  and  to  get  practical 
results;  they  are  well  convinced  that  they  must  follow 
scientific  lines,  but  they  find  more  to  do  in  the  field  than 
in  the  laboratory  or  the  experiment  garden. 

It  cannot  be  said  that  these  two  parties  have  always 
lived  in  peace  together;  often  they  have  been  at  variance, 
and  there  have  been  more  or  less  vehement  discussions 
as  to  who  was  right  and  who  was  wrong;  the  one  was 
sometimes  called  "very  scientific  but  not  practical/'  and 
the  other  "  unscientific  and  superficial." 

I  think  we  must  be  convinced  that  there  is  no  reason 
for  such  an  antagonism.  Just  as  well  people  might  fight 
about  the  question :  Who  has  done  the  better  work,  the 
man  who  has  grown  the  wheat,  or  the  other  who  has 
made  food  of  it  ?  Indeed,  the  one  cannot  do  without  the 
other. 

And  here  we  are  coming  to  the  point.  With  all  research 
work  done  on  behalf  of  agriculture  it  must  be  fully 
realized  that  we  are  concerned  with  applied  science,  and 
that  there  are  two  sides  to  this  work :  the  research  of 
the  thing  itself  and  the  investigation  of  its  application. 
They  are  equally  important  and  scientific,  and  must  be 
done  with  the  same  intelligence  and  the  same  application 
if  success  is  to  be  assured. 


76      AGRICULTURAL  DEPARTMENTS  AND  RESEARCH 

In  organizing  an  Institute  for  agricultural  research 
work,  whether  it  be  part  of  a  Department  of  Agriculture, 
an  Experiment  Station,  or  any  other  Institute,  the 
organizer  will  have  to  take  care  that  opportunity  is 
afforded  for  the  development  of  both  kinds  of  work, 
which  we  may  call,  for  convenience  sake,  the  laboratory 
work  and  the  field  work. 

Every  branch  of  applied  science  has  thus  its  two  sides. 
In  phytopathology  the  worker  in  the  laboratory  has  to 
find  out  the  cause  of  the  plant  diseases;  he  has  to  study 
the  life  of  the  fungus  and  its  host-plant,  its  behaviour 
outside  the  host-plant  in  pure  cultures,  its  resistance 
against  different  disinfectants  and  its  other  characters; 
he  has  to  make  inoculation  experiments  in  the  experi- 
ment garden  on  different  plants,  and  to  study  the  influence 
of  different  circumstances  on  the  effect  of  the  inoculation. 
The  task  of  the  worker  in  the  field  is  to  study  the 
influence  of  external  conditions,  such  as  planting  dis- 
tance, way  of  pruning,  drainage,  soil,  etc.,  and  the 
appearance  and  spread  of  the  disease;  he  has  to  make 
experiments  with  different  fungicides  and  to  ascertain 
the  best  method  of  fighting  the  disease;  he  has  to  con- 
sider the  cost  of  the  different  remedies  and  the  gain 
obtained  by  their  use;  and  he  has  to  test  in  the  field 
different  varieties  as  to  their  powers  of  resistance  against 
disease. 

In  economic  entomology  the  division  of  labour  is  about 
the  same;  the  laboratory  man  cultivates  the  noxious 
insects  and  makes  a  very  detailed  study  of  their  life  in 
captivity;  and  he  endeavours  to  import  from  other 
countries  natural  enemies  of  these  insects.  The  man  in 
the  field  studies  the  appearance  of  the  insects  in  the  field, 
the  influence  of  different  methods  of  cultivation,  of  crop- 
rotation,  and  the  value  and  cost  of  the  application  of 
insecticides  and  other  methods  of  combating  the  pest. 

In  geology  the  worker  in  the  field  makes  a  "flying 
survey  "  of  the  soils,  and  notes  the  natural  vegetation 
and  the  growth  and  yield  of  different  crops;  he  takes 
samples  of  these  soils  and  sends  them  to  the  laboratory, 
where  the  laboratory  man  makes  a  petrographic  study  of 
the  samples  and  studies  their  physical  and  chemical 
characters. 


AGRICULTURAL  DEPARTMENTS  AND  RESEARCH      *JJ 

Little  need  be  said  about  the  research  work  in  the 
laboratory  and  the  arrangement  of  the  laboratories  and 
the  experiment  gardens.  It  should  be  remembered, 
however,  that  the  best  work  does  not  always  issue  from 
the  best  equipped  laboratories;  one  with  the  most  com- 
plete installations  and  the  most  refined  apparatus  takes 
more  time  from  the  scientist  than  a  more  simple  one, 
and  we  must  remember  what  splendid  work  is  often 
done  in  primitive  laboratories.  It  seems  to  me  of  greater 
importance  to  arrange  things  so  that  the  laboratory  man 
can  do  his  research  work  undisturbed,  without  being 
called  upon  to  perform  other  duties.  Experimental  work 
always  takes  much  time,  and  good  scientific  research  can 
only  be  effected  when  one  can  devote  himself  entirely  to 
it.  Therefore,  let  the  laboratory  man  be  troubled  as 
little  as  possible  with  administrative  work,  with  educa- 
tional work,  or  anything  of  this  kind.  Give  him  his 
experimental  garden  close  to  his  laboratory,  so  that  he 
can  walk  into  it  at  any  moment  he  chooses,  to  inspect 
his  breeding  plots,  his  insect  house,  or  his  infection 
experiments.  Do  not  hurry  him  to  get  results  too  soon 
—research  work  done  in  a  hurried  way  is  always  bad 
work — but  give  him  an  opportunity  to  go  into  the 
questions  as  thoroughly  as  he  can  to  obtain  results  of 
fundamental  importance. 

The  scientist  in  the  field,  whether  he  be  geologist, 
botanist,  entomologist,  or  chemist,  has  to  work  in  quite 
another  way.  He  has  to  investigate  the  methods  of 
cultivation  and  to  improve  them.  His  part  of  the  work 
is  to  put  into  practice  new  methods  and  to  investi- 
gate their  practical  value,  the  expenses,  and  yield 
obtained.  It  is  an  error  to  think  that  this  can  be  done 
in  an  experiment  garden ;  the  conditions  here  are  different 
from  those  on  a  plantation  or  in  the  field  of  the  small 
proprietor,  and  this  fact  makes  it  impossible  to  get  In 
the  experiment  garden  a  clear  and  complete  account  of 
any  new  method,  be  it  the  application  of  a  manure,  a 
spraying  method,  a  method  of  tilling,  pruning,  or  crop 
rotation. 

There  are  only  two  ways  by  which  conclusive  results 
may  be  obtained :  either  the  scientist  himself  must  carry 


78  AGRICULTURAL   DEPARTMENTS    AND    RESEARCH 

on  the  experiment  on  the  fields  of  some  large  experiment 
plantation,  or  he  must  do  it  on  a  plantation  in  collabora- 
tion with  the  manager  of  the  plantation  (or  on  a  field  of  a 
small  labourer  in  collaboration  with  the  owner). 

The  last-mentioned  method  is  to  be  preferred;  it  has 
two  great  advantages  :  — 

(1)  In  collaboration  with  a  practical  planter  or  native 
proprietor,  the  methods  can  be  investigated  thoroughly 
from  a  real  practical  point  of  view. 

(2)  For  the  demonstration  and  propagation  of  a  success- 
ful new  method  an  experiment  on  a  plantation  or  a  field 
of  a  small  proprietor  is  much  more   effective   than   one 
carried  out  in  an  experiment  garden  or  an  experiment 
plantation. 

A  few  examples  may  be  given  in  support  of  this  con- 
tention :  — • 

Experiments  to  fight  the  witch-broom  disease  of  cocoa 
in  Surinam  were  started  in  1904  and  1905  on  three  planta- 
tions in  collaboration  with  the  managers.  The  method 
applied  consisted  in  removing  the  entire  leaf-^bearing 
crown,  followed  by  spraying — a  rather  drastic  measure, 
about  which  most  of  the  planters  were  very  sceptical. 
After  a  few  years  experimenting,  however,  we  knew  not 
only  that  the  method  successfully  eradicated  the  disease, 
but  we  knew  also  exactly  what  expenses  for  labour,  tools, 
etc.,  it  required,  and  the  practical  difficulties  the  planter 
had  to  be  prepared  to  meet  when  he  applied  it  himself. 
Further,  the  neighbours  and  other  planters  came  to  the 
plantation  occasionally  to  follow  the  results,  and  when 
we  were  convinced  of  the  success  of  the  method  it  was 
unnecessary  to  begin  a  campaign  for  demonstrating, 
propagating,  or  advertising  the  method.  This  result 
could  never  have  been  obtained  so  quickly  if  the  experi- 
ment had  been  carried  out  in  an  experiment  garden. 

It  is  quite  true  that  not  every  planter  and  not  every 
small  proprietor  is  fit  for  such  a  collaboration,  and  it  is 
an  important  part  of  the  task  of  the  scientist  in  the  field 
to  select  the  right  man. 

Breeding  experiments  with  cocoa  and  coffee  were  com- 
menced two  years  ago  by  one  of  the  private  experiment 
stations  in  Java.  The  work  was  started  on  two  cocoa 


AGRICULTURAL  DEPARTMENTS  AND  RESEARCH      79 

estates  and  one  coffee  estate  in  collaboration  with  the 
managers.  The  botanist  drew  up  a  scheme,  according  to 
which  some  thirty  trees  were  selected  by  the  managers  on 
each  estate;  these  were  kept  under  observation  by  the 
managers,  who  noted  down  particulars  as  to  the  appear- 
ance of  diseases,  yield,  quality  of  produce,  etc.,  in  accord- 
ance with  the  scheme  made.  As  a  result  of  these  obser- 
vations some  of  the  trees  have  been  eliminated,  only  the 
very  superior  ones  being  kept.  The  managers  then 
carried  out  experiments  to  surround  the  selected  trees 
by  suitable  cages  to  prevent  pollination  from  neighbour- 
ing trees.  This  year  (1914)  seed  will  be  collected,  and 
the  descendants  of  each  tree  will  be  grown  in  separate 
fields,  so  that  the  planters,  together  with  the  botanist, 
will  be  able  to  form  an  opinion  as  to  the  value  of  each 
strain  of  coffee  and  cocoa  plants.  Putting  it  into  a  few 
words  :  the  scheme  was  made  by  the  botanist,  the  work 
was  done  by  the  planters,  and  only  occasionally  was  it 
necessary  for  the  botanist  to  visit  the  plantation  to  see  if 
the  work  was  going  on  satisfactorily  and  to  help  in 
eliminating  difficulties. 

Such  experiments  are  not  only  valuable  for  obtaining 
improved  races  of  coffee  and  cocoa,  but  at  the  same  time 
the  planters  are  educated  to  become  plant  breeders. 

The  advantages  of  collaboration  between  the  scientist 
and  the  practical  man  have  also  been  proved  in  the  efforts 
made  in  Java  to  improve  the  cultural  methods  of  the  small 
proprietors. 

At  first  the  Government  established  several  "  demon- 
stration fields,"  on  which  the  travelling  instructor  had 
different  plots,  made  by  his  own  workmen,  to  demonstrate 
new  cultural  methods  or  new  crops  to  the  Javanese  small 
proprietors.  The  effect,  however,  was  very  poor. 
Whether  the  Javanese  farmers  inspected  the  demon- 
stration field  or  not  they  kept  to  their  old  methods. 
Therefore,  another  way  was  tried.  The  travelling  in- 
structor now  selects  a  few  of  the  most  intelligent  and 
most  forward  of  the  small  proprietors,  and  induces  them 
to  apply  the  new  methods  or  to  try  the  new  crops  on 
their  fields.  If  it  is  a  success  they  adopt  the  new  method, 
and  it  is  remarkable  how  quickly  the  neighbours  follow 
their  example. 


80  AGRICULTURAL   DEPARTMENTS   AND    RESEARCH 

This  general  outline  will  serve  to  give  an  idea  of  the 
scheme  of  organization  as  regards  the  division  of  labour 
in  the  laboratory  and  the  field,  and  of  the  character  of 
these  two  phases  of  the  work. 

There  is,  however,  another  matter  not  less  important 
than  the  organization  of  a  right  division  of  labour,  and 
that  is  to  ensure  a  proper  collaboration  between  the  two 
workers. 

It  need  hardly  be  said  that  the  man  in  the  laboratory 
must  be  kept  informed  as  to  the  results  of  the  field  ex- 
periments, and  often  his  attention  will  be  called  to  new 
objects  for  investigation.  On  the  other  hand,  the 
worker  in  the  field  needs  the  results  of  the  laboratory 
work  in  order  to  organize  his  experiments  on  a  rational 
basis.  Only  by  keeping  in  close  touch  with  each  other 
can  they  work  along  the  right  lines. 

Between  the  different  branches  of  science  also  a  good 
relationship  is  necessary.  Very  often  the  botanist  will 
have  to  refer  to  the  geologist,  to  the  chemist,  etc.,  for 
information  and  help.  Such  a  collaboration  will  enable 
each  man  to  acquire  a  knowledge  of  the  lines  of  work 
of  the  department  or  station  as  a  whole,  and  this  know- 
ledge will  be  of  importance  to  all  the  scientists.  In  a 
very  interesting  paper,  Circular  No.  117  of  the  Bureau  of 
Plant  Industry,  U.S.  Department  of  Agriculture  (Wash- 
ington, 1913),  on  "  The  Bureau  of  Plant  Industry,  its 
Function  and  Efficiency,"  Mr.  Galloway,  the  Chief  of  the 
Bureau,  makes  this  interesting  statement:  "The  future 
success  of  the  Department  "  [of  Agriculture  in  the  United 
States]  "  will  depend  in  large  measure  on  each  man  being 
made  to  feel  a  personal  responsibility  as  to  the  details  of 
his  work  and  at  the  same  time  realize  that  he  must  lend 
his  full  support  to  matters  of  general  policy  which  concern 
the  division  of  which  he  is  a  member  and  the  department 
as  a  whole." 

It  has  often  been  said  that  schemes  are  things  not  fit 
to  be  followed.  I  am  convinced  that  the  sentence  quoted 
is  just  as  applicable  to  the  scheme  I  put  forward  here 
as  to  others. 

In  organizing  agricultural  departments  and  experiment 
stations  we  have  to  reckon  with  local  conditions,  with 


AGRICULTURAL   DEPARTMENTS   AND   RESEARCH  8 1 

the  funds  available,  with  the  scientific  men  we  can  get 
for  the  work,  and  with  many  other  conditions  which 
often  compel  us  to  arrange  things  differently  from  the 
scheme  I  propose. 

It  may  be  well  at  this  point  to  mention  the  conditions 
obtaining  in  the  Dutch  East  Indian  Colonies. 

As  regards  the  estates,  several  private  experiment 
stations  have  been  established,  each  being  devoted  to  one 
or  to  a  few  special  cultures,  like  tea,  or  coffee  and  rubber, 
etc.  They  are  situated  in  the  centre  of  the  districts  where 
the  particular  crops  are  grown.  This  makes  them  very 
suitable  for  experimental  and  demonstration  work  on  the 
plantations.  The  staff  of  scientists,  however,  is  not 
always  large  enough  to  do  all  the  research  work  as 
completely  as  is  desirable.  On  the  other  hand,  the 
Department  of  Agriculture  can  hardly  ever  be  made 
sufficiently  large  and  extensive  to  do  all  the  local  experi- 
mental work  in  the  field.  Under  the  present  Director  of 
Agriculture  arrangements  have  been  made  to  ensure  as 
far  as  possible  a  proper  division  of  work,  and  there  has 
been  loyal  co-operation  in  this  respect,  much  of  the 
research  work  being  done  by  the  staff  of  the  Department, 
and  much  of  the  field  work  by  the  scientists  of  the  stations. 
In  order  to  keep  in  close  touch  with  each  other  combined 
visits  are  made  frequently  to  the  plantations,  and  once 
a  year  all  the  scientists  of  the  stations  and  of  the  Depart- 
ment meet  for  a  few  days  to  discuss  the  work  and  the 
way  of  collaborating. 

As  regards  the  small  labourers,  each  district  has  its 
own  agricultural  instructor;  these  instructors  have  all 
taken  a  course  of  study  at  the  Agricultural  High  School 
in  Holland,  and  have  passed  additional  examinations  in 
Buitenzorg.  Their  duty  is  to  carry  out  the  experiments 
in  collaboration  with  the  native  small  proprietor;  the 
laboratory  work  or  research  work,  in  the  strict  jense 
of  the  word,  is  done  by  the  botanists,  entomologists, 
geologists,  or  chemists  of  the  division  to  which  the 
subject  belongs,  be  it  the  investigation  of  a  plant 
disease,  a  manurial  experiment,  or  any  other  investiga- 
tion. Between  the  workers  in  the  laboratory  and  the 
agricultural  instructors  frequent  interviews  are  held,  and 
6 


82  AGRICULTURAL    DEPARTMENTS    AND    RESEARCH 

combined  visits  to  the  fields  are  made  to  fix  the  work  and 
ensure  collaboration. 

In  other  countries  different  arrangements  may  have  to 
be  made.  But  whatever  the  adaptations  to  special  con- 
ditions may  be,  it  must  always  be  the  aim  of  the  organizer 
to  provide  facilities  for  pure  research  work  in  the  labora- 
tory and  experiment  garden,  as  well  as  for  experimental 
work  in  the  field.  Opportunity  must  be  made  to  enable 
the  man  carrying  on  research  to  work  as  freely  as  pos- 
sible, to  go  very  thoroughly  into  the  question,  and  to 
make  his  work  as  fundamental  as  possible;  no  hurrying 
whatever,  simply  to  obtain  practical  results  quickly,  must 
be  allowed.  The  experimenter  in  the  field  must  go 
straight  to  his  object,  and  for  this  purpose  opportunity 
must  be  made  for  him  to  work  in  close  collaboration  with 
the  planter  or  native  farmer.  By  this  means  it  will  be 
possible  to  attain  a  practical  success,  and  at  the  same 
time  to  demonstrate  the  new  method. 

Our  endeavours  to  improve  agricultural  methods  in 
the  tropics  must  always  depend  on  the  united  efforts  of 
these  two  scientists. 


SANITATION  AND  HYGIENE  ON 
TROPICAL  ESTATES. 


NOTES  ON  TROPICAL  HYGIENE  AND  PLANTATION 
WORK  AND  THE  ANTI-MALARIAL  CAMPAIGN  IN 
THE  FEDERATED  MALAY  STATES. 

By  C.  L.  SANSOM,  F.R. C.S.Ed.,  M.R.C.S.Eng.,  D.P.H. 

Dublin. 
Principal  Medical  Officer,  F.M.S. 

AND 

F.  D.  EVANS,  A.M.Inst.C.E. 
Executive  Engineer,  Malaria  Advisory  Board,  F.M.S. 

THE  subject  of  the  problems  of  tropical  hygiene  and 
preventive  medicine  which  arise  in  plantation  work  is  a 
large  one;  to  deal  with  it  comprehensively  in  a  short 
contribution  would  be  impossible,  and  all  that  is  attempted 
now  is  a  brief  reference  to  a  few  of  the  most  interesting 
and  important  facts,  to  experiences  which  may  be  of  value, 
and  to  some  general  conclusions  which  have  been  arrived 
at  in  the  Federated  Malay  States.  In  this  country,  as  in 
many  others,  those  who  control  plantations  are  realizing 
that  good  health  is  absolutely  necessary,  and  that  a  robust 
labour  force  is  the  great  factor  in  the  management  of  an 
estate  economically.  We  depend  on  immigrant  labour, 
which  for  agricultural  purposes  is  mainly  recruited  from 
Southern  India.  Estates  have  their  reputation  to  maintain 
in  India,  and  those  places  where  much  sickness  prevails 
find  it  difficult  and  expensive  to  obtain  labourers;  hence 
even  the  engagement  of  workers  is  hampered  by  bad 
health.  Estates  with  a  good  reputation  not  only  recruit 
labour  at  less  expense,  but  are  able  to  secure  more 
vigorous  individuals  who,  of  course,  require  less  medical 
attention,  do  more  work  on  each  day,  and  work  more 
days  in  each  month;  whereas  the  unhealthy  estate  pays 


84         SANITATION   AND    HYGIENE    ON    TROPICAL    ESTATES 

a  higher  recruiting  rate,  and  generally  obtains  a  less 
satisfactory  type  of  individual,  who  does  less  work  each 
day  and  works  fewer  days  each  month.  At  the  same 
time,  to  get  and  keep  him  a  higher  rate  of  pay  has 
frequently  to  be  given :  this  is  in  addition  to  the  expense 
of  caring  for  a  large  percentage  of  sick  persons.  All  the 
foregoing  appears  so  very  obvious  that  it  would  hardly 
seem  necessary  to  mention  it,  yet  many  of  those  who 
are  connected  with  agricultural  undertakings  are  still 
apparently  unconvinced  that  substantial  and  permanent 
prosperity  is  so  very  dependent  upon  good  health,  and 
that  expenditure  on  the  prevention  of  sickness  is  not  only 
humanitarian,  but  highly  productive,  sound,  and  business-- 
like. 

Immigrant  labour  has  been  immensely  valuable  in  this 
country,  but  the  introduction  of  labourers  to  a  tropical 
area  but  recently  opened  up  has  certain  drawbacks,  none 
of  which  are  really  insuperable.  In  the  first  place,  the 
recruiting  of  Indian  labourers  from  remote  districts,  where 
they  have  not  been  living  under  good  hygienic  conditions, 
increases  the  risk  of  introducing  infectious  diseases. 
Before  April,  1911,  many  estates  were  put  in  quarantine 
every  year  because  new  arrivals  brought  serious  illness 
themselves,  or  in  their  clothing.  To  combat  this  difficulty 
a  system  of  detention  for  seven  days  on  arrival  was 
instituted;  this  period,  added  to  the  five  or  six  days  at 
least  spent  on  board  the  steamer,  has  proved  sufficient  for 
the  detection  of  anyone1  incubating  illness  and  to  prevent 
the  spread  of  it  amongst  the  labour  forces  on  estates. 
The  result  of  the  system  has  been  particularly  gratifying; 
since  its  adoption  (with  one  exception — a  delayed  in- 
cubation case  of  small-pox)  no  estate  has  been  infected 
by  new  arrivals.  When  it  is  stated  that  over  100,000 
persons  arrived  during  the  year  1913,  and  many  of  them 
proved  to  be  infected,  the  advantage  of  the  system  needs 
no  further  comment.  The  method  is  as  follows:  On 
arrival  of  the  ship  the  immigrants  are  taken  to  the  deten- 
tion camp  and  separated  into  groups,  vaccinated,  and 
clothing  and  persons  are  disinfected.  At  the  end'  of  a 
week,  if  found  free  from  disease,  they  are  distributed  to 
the  various  estates  who  have  recruited  them.  A  further 


SANITATION    AND    HYGIENE    ON    TROPICAL    ESTATES         85 

advantage  of  the  system  is  that  the  immigrant  has  a  period 
of  rest  after  the  voyage,  and  is  well  fed  for  a  week  before 
commencing  work,  and  as  many  of  them  only  come 
because  they  are  poor  and  possibly  on  the  verge  of 
destitution  in  India,  the  benefits  of  a  rest  and  good  food 
are  considerable,  and  it  has  been  found  that  all  gain 
weight  during  their  detention  in  the  camp;  thus  they  start 
work  in  better  physical  condition  than  if  they  were  sent 
direct  to  the  place  of  their  employment.  A  Labour  Code 
(No.  6  of  1912)  is  in  force  which  provides  for  the  pro- 
tection of  the  health  of  labourers. 

Protection  measures  on  individual  estates  will  now  be 
discussed,  and  it  is  first  necessary  to  mention  the  dangers 
a  labour  force  in  the  tropics  is  confronted  with.  The 
most  important  are  cholera,  dysentery,  ankylostomiasis, 
small-pox,  and  malaria.  Cholera,  dysentery,  and  anky- 
lostomiasis can  be  prevented  by  attention  to  water  supply 
and  sanitation.  When  water  is  obtained  from  a  stream 
or  spring  this  must  be  kept  uncontaminated,  and  when 
obtained  from  a  well,  the  well  should  be  lined,  covered, 
and  fitted  with  a  pump,  care  being  taken  that  no  seepage 
can  find  its  way  into  it  from  the  near  neighbourhood. 
Open  wells  are  dangerous  :  not  only  can  various  objection- 
able matter  be  thrown  into  them  and  dirty  vessels  be  used 
for  lifting  water  out,  but  coolies  habitually  dip  their  loin 
cloths  into  open  wells,  and  this  is  obviously  attended  with 
evil  consequences.  Drinking  water  in  the  tropics  is 
generally  warm  and  particularly  suited  to  the  develop- 
ment of  disease  germs,  and  the  greatest  possible  care  of 
it  will  be  well  repaid.  Daily  efficient  scavenging  and  the 
provision  of  adequate  latrine  accommodation  near  the 
barracks  of  a  labour  force  will  keep  down  the  incidence 
of  dysentery  and  prevent  the  spread  of  ankylostomiasis. 
If  the  manager  in  control  of  a  plantation  takes  peculiar 
care  of  these  two  necessaries  of  life — drinking  water  and 
scavenging — he  will  go  a  long  way  towards  keeping  his 
labour  force  healthy  and  fit  for  work.  Small-pox  will  be 
prevented  by  vaccination. 

Malaria  is-  undoubtedly  one  of  the  greatest  scourges  in 
the  tropics.  It  is  argued — and  there  is  good  reason  for 
accepting  the  argument — that  the  movements  of  peoples 


86         SANITATION   AND    HYGIENE    ON   TROPICAL   ESTATES 

in  a  tropical  area  increase  the  virulence  of  malaria,  and 
apparently  people  who  are  but  slightly  affected  in  one 
tropical  country  become  seriously  affected  when  moved 
to  another.  Again,  it  is  recorded  that  increases  of 
population  in  areas  subject  to  malaria  add  very  largely  to 
the  virulence  and  intensity  of  the  disease.  In  the  Malay 
States  malaria  has  to  be  reckoned  upon  and  dealt  with  by 
the  planter,  the  haunts  of  the  malaria-carrying  mosquito 
must  be  obliterated  if  he  is  to  keep  his  labour  force 
efficient;  in  fact,  in  some  cases,  if  he  is  to  keep  a  labour 
force  at  all.  The  Federated  Malay  States  Government 
has  instituted  a  Malaria  Advisory  Board  to  investigate 
the  best  methods  of  preventing  malaria  and  to  show  how 
these  can  be  carried  out,  and  the  Executive  Engineer 
attached  to  the  Board  will,  in  the  latter  part  of  this  paper, 
describe  and  discuss  the  work  done. 

Finally,  attention  is  called  to  the  Annual  Reports  of 
the  Principal  Medical  Officer,  Federated  Malay  States, 
for  1911  and  1912.  It  will  be  seen  from  these  that  the 
death-rate  amongst  estate  labourers  has  fallen  enor- 
mously. The  figures  for  1913  are  29  per  1,000,  as  against 
60  per  1,000  in  1911.  This  reduced  mortality  is  largely 
due  to  protection  of  water  supplies,  better  housing,  better 
sanitation,  anti-malarial  measures,  and  last,  but  not  least, 
more  individual  attention  to  the  labourer,  and  especially  to 
his  food.  To  argue  that  all  a  planter  needs  to  do  is  to  see 
that  a  labourer  gets  a  little  rice,  and  expect  good  health 
and  good  work  as  a  consequence  is  foolish.  Rice  alone  is 
not  sufficient;  even  if  enough  rice  is  eaten  to  supply  the 
amount  of  energy  required  for  an  ordinary  day's  work,  the 
bulk  of  that  amount  is  not  and  cannot  be  digested.  Male 
labourers  are  not  as  a  rule  efficient  cooks,  and  are  often 
careless  about  their  cooking;  they  are  also  addicted  to 
the  habit  of  cooking  a  supply  for  more  than  one  day,  so 
that  what  is  kept  over  from  the  first  day  becomes  sour 
and  unwholesome.  Attention  to  the  food  supply  of  a 
labour  force  is  essential;  this  has  been  widely  recognized 
here,  and  the  good  results  of  such  attention  are  very 
obvious  wherever  it  has  been  given.  Sonie  who  are 
expert  in  the  management  of  their  labourers  supply 
cooked  rations  without  finding  difficulties.  This  is  the 


SANITATION   AND    HYGIENE    ON    TROPICAL    ESTATES         8/ 

best  way.  Others  see  that  proper  meals  are  cooked  and 
consumed.  Whatever  system  is  carried  out  it  should  be 
part  of  the  manager's  duty  to  attend  to  this,  and  in  no 
case  will  it  fail  to  benefit  the  labourer  and  increase  the 
returns  to  the  estate  from  the  labour  force. 

These  few  notes  are  hurriedly  put  together  in  the  hope 
that  our  experiences  may  be  useful  to  those  engaged  in 
plantation  work  in  the  tropics.  Effort  has  been  made  to 
use  the  simplest  language  and  avoid  technical  terms,  and 
only  a  few  of  the  most  important  points  have  been  men- 
tioned; but  if  these  few  points  are  recognized  and 
adequately  dealt  with  by  the  planter,  many  costly  evils 
can  be  definitely  prevented. 

As  mentioned  earlier  in  this  paper,  malaria  is  one  of 
the  greatest  scourges  of  the  tropics,  and  it  is  particularly 
severe  in  the  Malay  States.  With  the  growth  of  the 
planting  industry  and  the  consequent  introduction  of 
Tamil  labour  from  Southern  India,  the  effects  of  malaria 
became  so  marked  as  to  call  for  special  activity  on 
the  part  of  Government.  Death-rates  on  some  very 
malarious  estates  rose  at  times  to  as  much  as  500  and 
600  per  1,000  per  annum.  Government  insisted  through 
the  Health  Department  on  many  expensive  sanitary 
reforms  and  general  measures,  and  these,  as  stated,  have 
been  successful  in  reducing  abnormally  high  death-rates, 
but  have  had  less  marked  effect  on  malarial  sickness. 

On  the  flat  lands  near  the  coast  agricultural  improve- 
ment of  the  land,  coupled  with  the  housing  of  coolies 
some  distance  from  undrained  jungle,  as  persistently 
advocated  by  Dr.  Watson  and  others,  had  the  desired 
result  of  practically  abolishing  malaria,  but  in  the  hill- 
lands  these  measures  produced  no  results,  and  the  reason 
for  this  will  appear  later.  Towns  situated  in  hill-land 
have  also  suffered  severely,  and  from  time  to  time  various 
measures  have  been  tried  without  much  benefit.  This 
was  not  in  most  cases  due  to  the  wrong  advice  of  medical 
officers,  but  to  the  lack  of  thoroughness  in  carrying  their 
advice  to  a  logical  conclusion,  and  a  few  years  ago  the 
attitude  of  authority  was  to  view  malaria  as  an  unfor- 
tunate but  unavoidable  evil  in  hill-land. 


88         SANITATION    AND    HYGIENE    ON    TROPICAL    ESTATES 

Kuala  Lurnpur,  the  capital  of  the  Federated  Malay 
States,  suffered  in  common  with  all  other  similarly 
situated  towns,  and  the  death-rate  from  malaria  for  the 
five  years  1907  to  1911  averaged  9*56  per  1,000  per 
annum.  As  a  large  number  of  officials  live  in  the  town, 
and  these  were  continually  attacked  by  malaria,  their  com- 
plaints were  sufficient  to  cause  Government  to  take  action. 
The  splendid  results  obtained  from  the  anti-malarial 
campaign  on  the  Isthmus  of  Panama  showed  that 
thorough  work  properly  directed  was  capable  of  effecting 
the  desired  improvement.  Kuala  Lumpur  has  a  population 
of  about  50,000  inhabitants,  there  are  some  swamps  situated 
along  the  banks  of  the  rivers,  but  the  principal  breeding 
places  of  malaria-carrying  mosquitoes  were  found  to  be 
in  the  ravines  among  the  hills  surrounding  the  town. 
Apart  from  these  places  the  town  was  fairly  well  drained. 
In  1908  funds  were  provided  to  enable  the  Public  Works 
Department  to  attempt  thorough  drainage  as  an  anti- 
malarial  measure  in  the  ravines.  The  work  proceeded 
in  a  desultory  fashion  until  1911  without  success,  and  in 
that  year  Government,  at  the  instance  of  the  Principal 
Medical  Officer,  appointed  a  Malaria  Advisory  Board  to 
control  and  direct  measures  to  be  taken  against  malaria 
throughout  the  Federated  Malay  States. 

In  addition  to  various  general  decisions  the  Board 
decided,  first,  completely  and  thoroughly  to  drain  a 
section  of  Kuala  Lumpur,  which  was  typical  of  malarious 
hill-land,  and  which  could  serve  as  an  example.  The 
work  was  rapidly  carried  out,  and  by  the  end  of  1911  a 
large  area  of  Kuala  Lumpur  had  been  thoroughly  drained. 
The  work  was  continued,  and  at  the  end  of  1913  an  area 
of  about  3,100  acres,  including  almost  the  whole  of  the 
hill-land,  had  been  drained.  The  swamps  are  now  being 
dealt  with,  and  by  the  end  of  the  current  year  (1914)  work 
on  all  these  should  at  least  be  well  in  hand. 

Before  discussing  the  results  of  the  work  it  will  be  as 
well  to  understand  what  are  the  requirements  of  anti- 
malarial  drainage.  Malaria  is  carried  by  certain  varieties 
of  anopheiine  mosquitoes.  Mosquitoes  will  not  breed  in 
running  water;  hence  if  all  water  in  any  district  flows 
with  a  fair  velocity  in  channels  free  from  obstruction, 


SANITATION    AND    HYGIENE    ON    TROPICAL    ESTATES         89 

mosquitoes  cannot  continue  to  exist  in  that  district. 
Owing  to  careless  wording  in  the  writings  of  some 
authorities,  an  idea  is  prevalent  that  certain  mosquitoes 
can  breed  in  running  water.  To  disabuse  the  mind  of 
this  incorrect  notion,  it  is  only  necessary  to  remember 
that  mosquito  larvae  are  for  two  or  three  days  at  least 
quite  helpless,  or  nearly  so.  Mosquitoes  breed  in  the 
pools  formed  along  streams  and  among  the  weeds  and 
algae  of  their  margins;  and  it  is  owing  to  the  way  pools 
are  formed  along  hill-streams  and  ordinary  earth  drains 
in  hill  country  owing  to  violent  flooding  during  rains, 
that  hill-land  drained  to  a  certain  standard  for  agriculture 
yet  remains  a  breeding  ground  for  mosquitoes,  and  hence 
is  often  malarious.  In  addition,  hill-land  is  full  of  springs 
which  are  constantly  breaking  out  in  fresh  places. 

To  drain  hill-land  thoroughly  it  was  necessary  to  use 
agricultural  pipe  drains,  although  their  use  was  attended 
by  great  difficulty,  and,  it  may  be  remarked,  that  except 
in  the  case  of  work  carried  out  under  the  Malaria 
Advisory  Board,  often  resulted  in  much  expense,  and  at 
least  partial  failure.  A  description  of  the  work  cannot  be 
given  here,  but  it  is  hoped  that  an  exposition  of  the 
methods  employed  will  shortly  be  available.  It  may  be 
stated,  however,  that  complete  success  has  attended  the 
work  of  the  Board,  and  that  the  most  precipitous  country 
has  been  drained  at  a  very  moderate  cost,  and  that 
thorough  drainage  can  now  be  employed  with  confidence 
on  any  ground  by  those  properly  qualified  to  under- 
take it. 

The  results  of  the  work  in  Kuala  Lumpur  are  most 
satisfactory,  and  demonstrate  in  a  striking  manner  the 
advantage  of  anti-malarial  drainage  well  carried  out. 
Unfortunately,  the  returns  are  still  effected  by  the  con- 
tinued existence  of  four  large  swamps,  known  to  breed 
anopheline  mosquitoes,  where  filling  work  is  in  progress 
under  the  Public  Works  Department,  and  what  malarial 
sickness  remains  in  the  town  is  largely  due  to  these 
swamps.  The  table  below  gives  the  true  death-rate  and 
the  malarial  death-rate  for  each  year  since  1907:  — 

1907  1908  1909  1910  1911  1912  1913 

True  death-rate  per  1,000  ...  37-9  437  32-3  30-3  39-4  367  35-5 
Malarial  death-rate  per  1,000  ...  9-7  107  77  9*8  9*9  5*8  4'2 


90         SANITATION   AND    HYGIENE    ON    TROPICAL    ESTATES 

Malaria  does  not,  as  a  rule,  prove  fatal,  except  after 
many  attacks,  and  the  reduction  in  the  malarial  death- 
rate  means  an  enormous  reduction  in  malarial  sickness. 
In  a  town  situated  as  Kuala  Lumpur  the  "  true  "  death- 
rate  will  always  be  higher  than  the  "  real,"  as  only  one 
month's  residence  is  needed  for  a  person  to  be  classed 
as  a  resident,  and  there  will  always  be  a  significant  death- 
rate  from  malaria  while  it  exists  on  the  borders  of  the 
town,  but  malaria  can  and  will  be  practically  eradicated 
from  Kuala  Lumpur. 

Further  interesting  figures  are  available  in  the  health 
returns  of  the  Police  Depot,  Kuala  Lumpur,  for  the  years 
1910  to  1913  inclusive  Sikh  and  Pathan  police  recruits 
are  trained  for  a  few  months  only  at  the  depot,  so  that 
the  population  constantly  changes,  and  conditions  are, 
therefore,  favourable  to  severe  malaria.  The  following 
table  gives  the  average  monthly  percentage  of  Indian 
recruits  at  the  depot  who  were  detained  in  hospital  or 
given  sick  leave  for  malaria  monthly :  — 

1910  1911  1912  1913 

Average  monthly  percentage     ...     35*8     ...     57^0     ...     27-3     ...     11*3 

The  protective  works  here  were  practically  completed 
early  in  1912,  except  for  the  continued  existence  of  one 
of  the  swamps  mentioned  above,  which  still  affects  the 
health  of  the  depot  and  the  town  in  the  neighbourhood. 
Very  few  places  can  show  a  sickness-rate  to  compare 
with  that  given  for  1911  above,  when  on  an  average  every 
Indian  recruit  was  attacked  by  malaria  seven  times  in  the 
year.  Owing  to  the  great  improvement  in  the  health 
conditions  all  recruits  suffering  from  malaria  are  now 
admitted  to  hospital.  Formerly  there  were  too  many 
cases  to  allow  of  this  being  done. 

Amongst  the  Government  Officers  and  their  servants, 
who  live  in  a  completely  drained  area,  few  cases  of 
malaria  have  occurred  since  the  beginning  of  1912,  and 
none  of  these  have  been  reported  by  the  medical  authori- 
ties as  having  been  infected  or  reinfected  in  the  area 
itself.  Formerly  these  officers  suffered  severely. 

That  the  improvement  in  the  malarious  condition  of 
Kuala  Lumpur  has  been  due  to  the  works  undertaken  is 


SANITATION    AND    HYGIENE    ON    TROPICAL    ESTATES         QI 

proved  by  the  persistence  of  malaria  in  the  neighbour- 
hood of  the  swamps  already  referred  to,  and  also  on  the 
limits  of  the  drained  area.  Several  new  bungalows  on 
the  north-west  of  the  original  area  were  occupied  early 
in  1913,  and  nearly  all  the  occupants  were  attacked  by 
malaria.  Since  the  middle  of  the  year,  when  drainage 
work  in  the  neighbourhood  (commenced  in  January) 
afforded  definite  protection,  no  new  cases  have  occurred. 
Temporary  quarters  were  built  for  200  Tamil  coolies  on 
the  western  limit  of  the  drained  area  early  in  1913.  The 
Tamil  coolies,  who  had  not  had  malaria  for  the  previous 
year  or  two,  were  attacked  so  severely  that  they  had  to 
be  removed  back  within  the  drained  area,  with  immediate 
improvement.  An  attempt  to  house  Chinese  coolies  in 
the  quarters  had  similar  results,  and  the  quarters  have 
been  abandoned.  Rubber  estate  coolies  to  the  south  of 
the  drained  area  suffered  from  malaria,  and  the  estate 
authorities  have,  during  the  past  few  months,  carried  out 
a  thorough  drainage  scheme  to  protect  them,  with  the 
assistance  of  the  executive  officers  to  the  Board. 

The  experience  and  the  results  obtained  from  the  work 
in  Kuala  Lumpur  are  very  convincing,  and  anti-malarial 
drainage  on  similar  lines  is  to  be  applied  to  all  the 
malarious  towns  in  the  Federated  Malay  States. 

The  executive  officers  of  the  Malaria  Advisory  Board 
have  also  supervised  anti-malarial  drainage  work  on  many 
other  estates,  and  it  may  be  mentioned  that  their  services 
are  available  to  private  authorities  without  charge,  upon 
request.  In  order  to  have  definitely  conclusive  proof  to 
offer  to  estate  owners  of  the  good  and  economy  to  be 
derived  from  anti-malarial  drainage,  the  executive  staff 
are  now  carrying  out  a  demonstration  scheme  on  a  very 
malarious  estate,  where  everything  that  ordinary  sani- 
tation and  medical  practice  can  suggest,  short  of  mosquito 
destruction  and  mechanical  protection,  has  already  been 
tried  without  success.  Full  particulars  of  the  work  on 
this  estate  and  the  health  returns  will  be  made  public 
from  time  to  time. 

Dr.  C.  A.  Benfly  remarked  at  Madras  in  1912  that 
drainage  and  jungle  clearing,  in  order  to  eradicate  malaria 
effectively,  must  be  accompanied  by  extension  and 


92         SANITATION    AND    HYGIENE    ON    TROPICAL    ESTATES 

improvement  in  agriculture.  By  this  he  undoubtedly  meant 
that  such  works  were  not  likely  to  remain  effective  unless 
extension  and  improvement  of  agriculture  formed  part  of 
the  general  scheme;  in  other  words,  that  subsequent 
maintenance  of  anti-malarial  works  was  of  equal  import- 
ance to  their  proper  execution.  Provision  must  be  made 
for  maintenance  at  the  time  when  the  works  are  pro- 
vided for. 

Whatever  arguments  are  put  forward  for  the  good  to 
be  derived  from  any  particular  measures  affecting  health, 
they  are  not  likely  to  be  productive  of  action  on  the  lines 
advocated,  unless  it  can  be  shown  conclusively  that  such 
measures  will  result  in  a  sufficient  return  to  those  who 
undertake  them.  It  is  not  anticipated  that  the  fact  that 
proper  and  thorough  drainage  will  eradicate  malaria  will 
be  disputed,  as  the  point  was  proved  many  times  even 
before  the  method  by  which  the  disease  is  transmitted 
was  established.  The  object  of  this  portion  of  the  paper 
is  to  show  that  sufficient  knowledge  has  been  gained  for  a 
definite  statement  to  be  made  as  to  the  cost  of  eradicating 
malaria  in  the  Federated  Malay  States,  and  hence  in 
other  similarly  situated  countries.  The  original  cost  of 
thoroughly  draining  hill-land  in  the  Malay  States,  unless 
it  possesses  quite  exceptional  features,  will  not  exceed 
$36  (£4  45.)  per  acre  of  gross  area  drained,  and  will 
generally  be  much  less.  (The  rates  of  wages  for 
labourers  are:  Tamils — 35  cents — about  iod.,  and  Chinese 
— about  65  cents — about  is.  6d.  per  day.)  Thorough 
drainage  in  hill  towns  will  cost,  as  a  rule,  a  little  more 
than  this,  as  many  features  have  to  be  included  which 
should  really  form  part  of  ordinary  town  drainage,  and 
more  attention  must  be  paid  to  appearance.  The  cost  of 
maintenance  may  be  accepted  as  about  10  per  cent,  of 
the  first  cost  in  the  year  following  construction,  and 
5  per  cent,  in  subsequent  years;  these  are  the  maximum 
normal  figures,  but  it  must  be  remembered  that  undesir- 
able saving  in  expenditure  on  construction  will  most 
certainly  lead  to  heavier  charges  for  maintenance,  and 
also  that  maintenance  should  commence  on  the  day  that 
construction  ceases. 

It  is  at  present  considered  necessary  to  drain  all  land 


SANITATION    AND    HYGIENE    ON    TROPICAL    ESTATES         93 

thoroughly  within  a  distance  of  half  a  mile  of  a  dense 
population,  although  a  less  distance  will  give  adequate 
protection  to  a  scattered  population,  and  local  circum- 
stances must  be  considered  in  this  connection.  From  the 
rate  per  acre  given  above  the  approximate  cost  of  an 
anti-malarial  drainage  scheme  in  any  locality  can  easily  be 
obtained  by  those  having  a  full  knowledge  of  local  con- 
ditions. A  close  estimate  of  the  cost  of  any  particular 
works  can  only  be  prepared  by  an  engineer  who  has  had 
experience  of  the  work  required.  One  point  needs  special 
consideration  in  any  scheme  for  thorough  drainage  as  an 
anti-malarial  measure,  and  that  is,  whether  it  is  better  to 
concentrate  the  population  it  is  desired  to  protect  or  to 
protect  it  in  a  scattered  condition.  There  can  be  no 
doubt  that  at  least  partial  concentration  is  economical, 
and  the  cost,  il  any,  of  moving  buildings  on  this  account 
should  be  added  to  the  cost  of  the  drainage  scheme  to 
obtain  the  total  cost.  No  difficulty  can  attach  to  concen- 
tration of  population  either  in  a  town  or  on  most  agricul- 
tural estates,  but  further  experience  is  needed  before  a 
pronouncement  can  be  made  in  connection  with  areas 
under  rice  cultivation  and  other  similar  areas. 

Against  the  expenditure  on  thorough  drainage  has  to  be 
set  the  great  improvement  to  health  conditions  which 
will  undoubtedly  follow,  and  in  particular  on  estates,  in 
which  this  Congress  is  interested,  the  greater  working 
capacity  of  the  labour  force,  the  greater  efficiency  of  the 
labour  force  consequent  on  better  management  resulting 
from  more  active  supervision  on  the  part  of  a  healthy 
manager  and  assistants,  reduction  in  recruiting  ex- 
penses due  to  improved  reputation,  and  reduction 
in  medical  administration  charges.  The  greater  working 
capacity  and  efficiency  of  the  labour  force  following 
improved  health  conditions  will  usually  be  the  most 
important,  although  there  are  many  estates  in  the  Malay 
States  where  the  reduction  in  medical  administration 
charges  alone,  if  malaria  were  eliminated,  would  pay 
for  a  thorough  drainage  scheme  in  about  three  years, 
and  these  are  by  no  means  the  worst  cases.  The  differ- 
ence in  cost  of  labour  per  unit  of  output  from  a  well  and 
a  badly  managed  labour  force  can  easily  amount  to  50  per 


94         SANITATION   AND    HYGIENE    ON    TROPICAL    ESTATES 

cent,  or  more,  especially  when  the  force  works  for  day 
wages.  On  a  malarious  estate  in  Selangor,  having  a 
manager  and  six  assistants,  there  have  been  occasions 
when  only  one  has  not  been  confined  to  his  quarters  with 
malaria.  Efficient  management  is  impossible  under  such 
conditions. 

In  conclusion,  it  may  be  remarked  that  anti-malarial 
measures  require  to  be  carried  out  with  a  thoroughness 
which  can  only  be  appreciated  by  those  connected  with 
the  work,  and  no  anti-malarial  measure  is  likely  to 
succeed  unless  it  is  under  the  immediate  supervision  of  a 
responsible  and  competent  officer  who  is  keenly  interested 
in  its  success.  Medical  officers  can  effect  little  as  regards 
thorough  drainage  without  the  co-operation  of  engineers, 
and  it  rests  with  them,  therefore,  not  only  to  initiate 
action  on  this  problem,  but  also  to  interest  the  engineers 
who  will  be  connected  with  its  solution.  This  can  rarely 
be  accomplished  in  any  way  other  than  by  personal  effort. 
It  should  be  borne  in  mind  also  that  failure  in  the  demon- 
stration of  measures  calculated  to  improve  health  has  a 
most  serious  effect  on  public  opinion  and  the  mind  of 
authority,  and  it  is  on  this  account  far  better  when 
endeavouring  to  carry  out  such  an  economical  improve- 
ment as  the  eradication  of  malaria  to  make  sure  of  it 
being  thoroughly  well  done  in  one  locality,  when  the  rest 
can  safely  be  left  to  public  opinion  and  authority,  rather 
than  to  risk  the  possibility  of  failure,  by  inadequate  work 
in  many  localities.  Reduction  of  malarial  sickness  follows 
good  thorough  drainage  so  quickly  that  there  is  no  fear 
of  the  public  neglecting  to  couple  the  cause  with  the 
improvement. 


AGRICULTURAL    CREDIT    BANKS 
AND  CO-OPERATIVE  SOCIETIES. 


AGRICULTURAL   CREDIT   BANKS    AND    CO-OPERATIVE 
SOCIETIES, 

By  SIR  JAMES  DOUIE,  K. C.S.I. 
Late  Financial  Commissioner  in  the  Punjab. 

THE  decade  from  1840  to  1850  was  a  very  noteworthy 
one  in  the  history  of  co-operation.  It  saw  the  start 
of  co-operative  distribution  in  England  and  co-cperative 
credit  in  Germany,  both  of  which  have  since  grown  to 
vast  dimensions.  History  should  assign  very  high  places 
among  the  makers  of  modern  Germany  to  Raiffeisen  and 
Schulze,  the  authors  of  the  two  main  types  of  co-operative 
credit  societies.  Indeed,  their  influence  has  spread  far 
beyond  the  limits  of  the  German  Empire.  I  must  assume 
in  my  hearers  a  general  knowledge  of  the  wonderful 
growth  of  co-operative  credit  in  Europe.  It  is  enough  to 
note  that  there  are  now  17,000  banks  of  the  Raiffeisen 
type,  pure  or  modified,  in  Germany,  four-fifths  of  which 
are  united  in  an  Imperial  Federation,  which  also  embraces 
about  8,000  other  co-operative  societies,  41  unions,  and 
77  central  societies.  A  few  years  ago  the  membership  of 
credit  societies  affiliated  to  this  great  federation  amounted 
to  1,200,000  persons,  and  their  working  capital  was 
£106,000,000,  of  which  £102,000,000  consisted  of  deposits, 
while  loans  granted  during  the  year  amounted  to  15^ 
millions,  and  payments  on  current  accounts  to  33^  millions. 

I  cannot  better  describe  the  pure  Raiffeisen  type  of 
bank  than  by  setting  out  the  constitution  of  the  village 
banks  affiliated  to  the  Irish  Agricultural  Organization 
Society. 

(a)  Limitation  of  area,  so  that  all  members  may  be 
acquainted  with  each  other. 


96  AGRICULTURAL    CREDIT    BANKS 

(b)  Persons  known  to  be  sober,  honest,  and  hard-work- 
ing eligible  for  membership.     Poverty  no  bar. 

(c)  No  entrance  fees  or  shares. 

(d)  Members  jointly  and  severally  responsible  for  re- 
payment of  all  sums  lent  to  or  deposited  in  the  bank. 

(e)  Deposits  bearing  interest  received   from  members 
and  outsiders. 

(/)  Loans  made  only  to  members  and  only  for  pro- 
ductive and  economical  purposes. 

(g)  Period  of  loan  sufficiently  long  to  admit  of  its 
object  being  attained  before  repayment  is  demanded. 

(h)  The  borrower  must  produce  two  sureties.        <* 

(/)  No  division  of  profits.  They  must  be  credited  to  a 
reserve  fund. 

(&)  Complete  equality  of  members,  the  officials  being 
elected  at  a  general  meeting. 

(/)  No  payments  to  officers,  an  exception  being  some- 
times made  in  the  case  of  the  Secretary.  Raiffeisen  was 
in  favour  of  combining  credit  and  trading  functions  in  a 
single  society,  and  this  combination  is  often  a  feature  of 
German  rural  banks. 

The  Schulze  Delitzsch  type  of  bank  is  very  different. 
Large  areas  are  preferred.  Shares,  which  nowadays  are 
often  pretty  large,  are  held  by  the  members,  dividends 
are  paid,  and  the  percentage  which  may  be  allowed  as 
the  return  to  shareholders  is  not  limited.  Since  the 
German  law  permitted  limited  liability  the  Schulze 
Delitzsch  banks  have  mostly  adopted  it.  Loans  are,  as  a 
rule,  granted  for  short  periods.  Service  is  not  gratuitous. 
These  banks,  therefore,  approach  far  more  closely  to  the 
ordinary  business  bank,  and  there  is  always  a  risk  of 
their  becoming  commercial  undertakings  pure  and  simple. 
They  are  not  poor  men's  banks  in  the  sense  that 
Raiffeisen  banks  are.  There  is  no  reason  why  a  farmer 
should  not  be  a  shareholder  in  a  Schulze  Delitzsch  bank, 
and  in  Germany  many  farmers  are.  But  the  Raiffeisen 
bank  meets  far  more  fully  the  needs  of  the  small  peasant 
landholder,  and  to-day  we  may  confine  attention  almost 
entirely  to  pure  or  modified  examples  of  that  type.  Since 
1889  shares  have  by  law  become  a  necessary  feature  of 
co-operative  credit  in  Germany,  but  most  Raffeisen  banks 


AGRICULTURAL   CREDIT   BANKS  97 

have  kept  their  shares  quite  small  and  have  clung  to 
unlimited  liability.  Where  limited  liability  has  been 
adopted  it  bears  a  very  different  meaning  from  the  term 
as  used  in  England.  It  is  deliberately  arranged  that 
shareholders  shall  only  pay  up  a  fraction,  sometimes 
but  a  small  fraction,  of  the  nominal  value  of  their  shares, 
while  their  liability  extends  to  the  amount  of  such 
nominal  value.  Some  of  the  Raiffeisen  banks  which 
followed  the  leadership  of  Herr  Haas  showed  at  one 
time  a  very  undesirable  tendency  to  rely  on  State  aid. 
There  is  one  feature  of  Raiffeisen  banks  on  which  their 
founder  laid  the  greatest  stress,  and  which  figures  pro- 
minently in  the  articles  of  the  4,000  banks  included  in  the 
Raiffeisen  Federation.  It  is  declared  that  "  the  society 
rests  upon  a  Christian  and  patriotic  foundation,"  and 
among  its  objects  is  "the  organization  of  means  for  the 
promotion  of  rural  social  welfare  and  love  of  home." 
It  is  this  feature  of  Raiffeisenism  which  has  specially 
appealed  to  the  clergy,  and  one  result  has  been  the 
organization  of  a  large  number  of  successful  rural  banks 
in  Italy  which  are  really  branches  of  the  Roman  Church 
organization,  and  whose  members  must  be  professed 
Catholics.  Raiffeisen  societies  are  run  by  popularly 
elected  committees  of  management  and  boards  of  super- 
vision. The  function  of  the  latter  is  to  scrutinize  the 
executive  work  of  the  former  and  prevent  imprudence  or 
abuse.  A  further  check  has  been  provided  by  the  group- 
ing of  the  rural  banks  in  unions,  with  power  to  inspect 
and  audit  the  accounts  of  all  affiliated  co-operative 
agricultural  societies.  For  the  purpose  of  financing  rural 
banks  central  banks  have  been  formed,  the  shares  in 
which  are  held  by  agricultural  co-operative  societies. 
German  rural  banks  as  a  whole  have  succeeded  in  attract- 
ing sufficient  deposits  to  supply  their  wants  in  the  way  of 
loanable  capital.  One  rural  bank  receives  more  *han  it 
requires  and  another  less.  The  former  could  lend  direct 
to  the  latter,  but  it  is  far  more  convenient  for  both  parties 
that  its  surplus  should  be  deposited  in  a  central  bank, 
and  thence  distributed  to  the  bank  whose  loans  exceed  its 
deposits. 

There   is   no   time   to    speak   of   rural   banks  in   other 
7 


98  AGRICULTURAL    CREDIT   BANKS 

European  countries.  In  connection  with  the  problem  of 
indebtedness  in  India  and  tropical  countries  the  case  of 
Servia  is,  however,  specially  interesting.  In  that  land 
of  small  peasant  farmers  usury  was  rampant,  and  its 
exactions  so  monstrous  that  the  extreme  step  was  taken 
of  forbidding  sales  and  mortgages  without  the  consent  of 
the  authorities.  At  the  close  of  1908  Servia  had  over 
800  village  banks  of  the  pure  Raiffeisen  type,  liability 
being  unlimited,  and  all  profits  being  carried  to  the 
reserve  fund.  I  shall  have  a  word  to  say  before  I  close 
of  the  uplifting  effect  of  these  village  banks  on  the 
Servian  peasantry. 

The  lessons  to  be  learned  from  European  experience 
are  that,  where  we  are  dealing  with  small  peasant 
farmers  the  Raiffeisen  type  is  the  best.  The  absolutely 
essential  points  are  limitation  of  area,  the  rigorous  ex- 
clusion of  unworthy  members,  the  grant  of  loans  only 
for  productive  or  economical  purposes  and  on  the  pro- 
duction of  proper  security,  the  enforcement  of  punctuality 
in  repayment,  and  a  thoroughly  democratic  organization. 
The  question  of  shares  or  no  shares,  of  limited  or  un- 
limited liability,  of  dividends  or  no  dividends,  are  matters 
to  be  decided  according  to  local  circumstances.  If  there 
are  dividends  the  maximum  rate  payable  should  be  fixed, 
the  figure  should  be  moderate,  and  it  should  be  a  sine 
qua  non  that  a  considerable  part  of  the  annual  profits 
should  be  carried  to  reserve.  Where  loans  have  to  be 
taken  by  the  bank  it  should  establish  a  pretty  wide  margin 
between  the  rate  it  charges  to  members  and  the  rate  it 
pays.  P-ersonal  security  is  best.  Securities  consisting  of 
mortgages  are  dangerous  because  realization  may  be 
difficult  and  the  turnover  tends  to  become  too  slow.  Elee- 
mosynary loans  of  State  money  should  be  ruled  out. 
Governments  easily  succumb  to  the  temptation  to  bribe 
one  class  at  the  expense  of  another,  and,  whatever  the 
result  to  the  giver,  the  taker  is  not  blessed.  State  loans, 
if  given  at  all,  should  bear  a  rate  of  interest  which  pro- 
tects the  general  taxpayer  from  loss.  Even  so  they  are 
only  justifiable  as  a  temporary  expedient.  Their  ten- 
dency is  to  make  banks  careless  and  to  turn  them  aside 
from  their  real  object  of  creating  credit  out  of  thrift. 


AGRICULTURAL   CREDIT   BANKS  99 

The  Government  which  finances  rural  banks  will  sooner 
or  later  claim  an  amount  of  control  over  them  which 
will  rob  them  of  much  of  their  power  for  good.  The 
question  whether  a  single  society  should  be  concerned 
with  credit  and  with  trade  is  one  regarding  which  there  is 
much  difference  of  opinion.  Except  in  the  case  of  very 
small  societies,  I  think  the  attempt  to  combine  the  two 
functions  is  inconvenient,  if  not  dangerous. 

The  problem  which  presents  itself  in  Eastern  and 
tropical  countries  is  not  identical  with  the  European 
problem,  because  of  the  different  character  of  the  people 
at  their  present  stage  of  development  and  the  comparative 
absence  of  ordinary  banking  facilities.  It  is  fortunate, 
therefore,  that  we  have  now  eight  years'  experience  of 
the  successful  working  of  rural  banks  in  the  different 
provinces  of  our  Indian  Empire,  much  of  which  is 
included  in  the  tropics.  It  must  also  be  remembered  that 
in  some  of  our  tropical  Crown  Colonies  East  Indians  are 
now  an  important  element  in  the  population.  My  own 
Indian  experience  was  gathered  from  a  long  residence  in 
the  Punjab,  and  part  of  what  I  have  to  say  has  special 
reference  to  the  state  of  things  existing  in  that  province. 

The  Indian  population  is  predominantly  rural,  being 
engaged  either  in  tillage  or  in  crafts  ancillary  to  tillage. 
As  a  rule,  land  is  cultivated  in  small  parcels  by  peasant 
farmers,  who  are  either  tenants  or  owners.  An  ordinary 
holding  in  the  Punjab,  a  land  of  small  proprietors,  is 
one  of  6  or  7  acres. 

If  the  British  Government  did  not  create  ownership  in 
Northern  India,  it  certainly  made  what  was  previously 
worth  little  a  very  valuable  possession.  It  made  titles 
secure  by  drawing  up  a  complete  record  of  rights,  and  it 
gave  the  landowner  a  substantial  share  in  the  profits  of 
farming  by  limiting  its  demand  for  land  revenue  and 
assessing  it  for  comparatively  long  terms.  Finally,  it 
established  the  pax  Britannica.  The  result  was  a  rapid 
extension  of  cultivation  and  a  rise  in  the  value  of  land, 
which  to-day  on  the  average  sells  in  the  Punjab  at  over  a 
hundred  times  the  land  revenue.  But  the  very  success  of 
the  policy  created  a  new  problem.  Ignorant  peasants, 
hard-working  but  rarely  thrifty,  and  on  certain  occasions, 


IOO  AGRICULTURAL   CREDIT   BANKS 

e.g.,  at  marriages,  almost  compulsorily  extravagant, 
found  they  had  become  possessed  of  what  was  for  their 
position  in  life  large  credit.  They  used  it  foolishly,  and 
once  a  man  was  on  the  books  of  the  local  usurer  he 
found  himself  on  a  slope,  at  the  bottom  of  which  was  a 
slough  of  despond  consisting  of  a  practically  irredeem- 
able mortgage  of  his  holding.  Fourteen  years  ago  the 
Government  took  its  courage  in  its  hands  and  put  severe 
restrictions  on  alienations  of  land  to  persons  not  belong- 
ing to  agricultural  tribes. 

For  many  years  the  Indian  Government  has  offered 
loans  for  agricultural  improvements  at  a  rate  of  interest 
sufficient  to  secure  itself  against  risk  of  loss.  The  usual 
rate  is  6J  per  cent.  Such  State  loans  are  known  as 
takdvi.  They  are  secured  by  the  mortgage  to  Govern- 
ment of  a  sufficient  part  of  the  borrower's  holdings. 
The  periods  allowed  for  recovery  are  ample.  Large 
powers  are  taken  to  enforce  repayment;  but  it  is  only  in 
the  rarest  instances  that  resort  to  them  is  necessary,  and 
takdvi  is  generally  recovered  with  ease  and  regularity. 
The  amount  advanced  in  the  Punjab  in  a  recent  year 
was  £22,000.  Contrast  this  with  the  sum  of  £414,000 
lent  to  members  by  credit  societies  in  1912-13. 

The  first  Indian  Act  relating  to  Co-operative  Credit 
Societies  was  passed  in  1904.  It  was  superseded  in  1912 
by  an  Act  dealing  with  co-operative  societies  of  all  kinds 
having  for  their  object  "  the  promotion  of  the  economical 
interests  "  of  their  members.  It  follows  orthodox  lines, 
but  no  attempt  has  been  made  to  force  into  one  mould 
societies  spread  over  a  vast  territory  inhabited  by  300 
millions  of  people  of  the  most  diverse  creeds,  characters, 
and  social  conditions.  Here  it  is  only  necessary  to  notice 
one  or  two  points  affecting  village  agricultural  credit 
societies.  Societies  are  to  consist  of  ten  or  more  persons 
residing  in  the  same  town  or  village  above  the  age  of  18. 
The  liability  of  the  members  is  unlimited  unless  the 
Local  Government  otherwise  directs.  Loans  may  not  be 
given  on  the  security  of  movables  without  the  sanction  of 
the  Registrar,  and  the  Local  Government  is  empowered 
to  forbid  or  restrict  loans  secured  by  mortgages  of  real 
property:  25  per  cent,  of  the  profits  must  be  credited  to 


AGRICULTURAL  CREDIT  BANKS  IOI 

reserve,  and  10  per  cent,  may  be  devoted  to  charity. 
Government  can  prescribe  a  maximum  rate  of  dividend 
on  shares  by  rule.  Societies,  of  course,  can  themselves 
provide  for  this  in  their  by-laws.  The  most  important 
thing  to  notice  is  the  powers  of  audit,  inspection,  and 
control  which  the  Government  reserves.  An  annual 
audit  must  be  made  by  the  Registrar  or  under  his  orders. 
The  audit  must  include  an  examination  of  overdue  debts. 
The  Registrar  may  carry  out  an  inquiry  into  the  state  of 
any  society  of  his  own  motion,  and  must  do  so  on  the 
demand  of  three-fourths  of  the  members.  If  a  creditor 
requests  him  to  have  the  books  inspected  he  must  comply. 
If  the  result  of  the  inquiry  shows  that  it  is  necessary  he 
can  order  the  winding  up  of  the  society. 

I  have  only  time  to  give  you  a  few  figures  to  illustrate 
the  marvellous  growth  of  agricultural  co-operative  credit 
in  India  in  the  eight  years  following  the  passing  of  the 
Act  of  1904.  In  1905-06  there  were  283  banks  with  a 
membership  of  28,629;  in  1912-13,  12,324,  with  a  member- 
ship of  573,536.  The  increase  during  the  last  year  in 
the  number  of  societies  amounted  to  50  per  cent.  The 
capital  rose  from  £31,548  to  £3,562,286.  The  distribution 
of  the  latter  sum  is  interesting :  — 

Per  cent. 

Loans  from  other  societies    ... 

Loans  (mostly  deposits)  from  individuals  .  ..25 

Deposits  of  members 

Share  capital 

Reserve    ... 

Loans  from  Government 

The  loans  made  were  in  1905-06,  £22,696,  and  in  1912-13, 
£1,920,712.  The  most  remarkable  advance  has  been  in 
the  Punjab,  where  the  energy  of  the  peasants,  and  the 
fact  that  they  own  their  own  holdings,  has  supplied  an 
excellent  field  for  co-operation.  In  Burma  an  interesting- 
development  is  the  starting  of  a  number  of  insurance 
societies. 

The  organization  of  the  societies  varies  a  good  deal 
in  different  provinces.  In  Northern  India  the  Bengal 
societies  are  nearest  to  the  original  Raiffeisen  type.  The 
Punjabi  wanted  shares  and  the  prospect  of  future  profit. 
The  shares,  valued  at  10  rupees  (or  135.  4d.)  each,  are 


**** 

# /l'fl V":  ?*** •"*  ^ 


102 


AGRICULTURAL    CREDIT   BANKS 


subscribed  by  instalments  extending  over  ten  years.  In 
old  banks,  after  ten  years,  members  can  withdraw  fully 
paid-up  shares,  but  they  cannot  withdraw  their  quota  of 
the  profit  earned,  which  is  allotted  to  them  in  fresh 
shares.  No  dividends  are  payable  for  ten  years,  and  it 
will  be  necessary  to  fix  a  maximum  that  may  be  given 
thereafter  if  grave  risk  is  to  be  avoided.  In  new 
societies  the  shares  are  not  withdrawable,  and  it  is  to 
be  hoped  that  the  older  societies  will  agree  to  modify 
their  by-laws  as  regards  this  matter.  It  may  be  interest- 
ing to  note  the  objects  for  which  loans  were  granted  in 
the  Punjab  in  1912-13:  — 


Purchase  of  cattle  ... 

Payment  of  old  debts 

Payment  of  Government  revenue 

Household  expenses  ... 

Fodder  for  cattle    ... 

Marriage  expenses 

Seed 

Redemption  of  mortgages 

Sinking  of  wells 

Other  purposes 


Per  cent. 
26J 

1 8 

12 
II 
1O 

7 
5 
i 
i 


The  figures  refer  to  number  of  loans  granted.  Nearly 
half  the  money  advanced  was  for  paying  off  old  debts 
and  redeeming  mortgages.  There  are  some  signs  in  the 
Punjab  that  unpunctuality  in  repayment  of  loans  by 
members  may  cause  trouble.  The  Registrar  has  noted 
that  "  more  care  must  be  taken  in  admitting  members 
and  in  making  loans,  and  better  security  must  be 
required."  In  the  last  resort  it  is  always  possible  to 
order  the  winding  up  of  a  society  that  will  not  reform. 
Another  danger,  or  rather,  the  same  danger  in  another 
form,  is  the  too  ready  renewal  of  loans  or  the  grant  of  a 
new  loan  immediately  after  an  old  one  has  been  nominally 
paid  off.  The  village  banks  have  been  largely  grouped  in 
unions,  and  a  number  of  central  banks  have  also  been 
formed.  These  societies  are  on  the  basis  of  limited 
liability.  Most  unions  in  India  undertake  not  only  the 
duty  of  promoting  common  action  and  providing  .in- 
spection, but  also  that  of  financing  the  affiliated  banks. 
The  ordinary  joint  stock  banks  have  begun  to  show  their 
confidence  in  the  co-operative  central  banks  and  unions 
and  to  supply  them  with  funds  when  required.  The  most 


AGRICULTURAL  CREDIT  BANKS  1 03 

usual  rate  of  interest  paid  by  central  banks  on  deposits  is 
6  per  cent.,  and  the  most  usual  rate  charged  on  advances 
to  village  banks  9  per  cent.  The  latter  pay  from  6  to  9  per 
cent,  to  depositors,  and  usually  lend  at  9§  and  12^  per 
cent.  I  ought  to  have  said  that  shares  in  co-operative 
central  banks  in  the  Punjab  are  largely  subscribed  by 
private  individuals. 

Fortunately,  the  Government  has  from  the  outset  been 
chary  in  the  matter  of  lending  to  societies.  I  have 
already  noted  how  small  a  portion  of  the  working  capital 
is  now  represented  by  State  money.  In  the  Punjab  it  is 
less  than  i  per  cent.  I  think  most  people  who  know  the 
East  well  will  agree  in  thinking  that  as  regards  audit, 
inspection,  and  control,  the  attitude  of  the  Government  in 
India  must  for  some  years  to  come  be  very  different  from 
that  which  is  befitting  in  Europe.  I  shall  quote  one  or 
two  remarks  on  this  subject  made  by  two  Indian  gentle- 
men at  the  yearly  Conference  of  Registrars  in  1912.  Rai 
Bahadur  Bishn  Datta  Shukul  said:  "If  we  ask  our 
depositors  and  shareholders  why  they  believe  co-operative 
business  to  be  sound,  they  invariably  show  that  they 
attach  tremendous  importance  to  audit  by  the  Registrar 
and  his  staff.  ...  I  speak  for  the  public  of  the 
Central  Provinces  when  I  say  that  the  co-operative  move- 
ment will  fail  altogether  unless  Government  continues  to 
supply  a  special  audit  staff."  Rai  Bahadur  N.  R.  Kelker, 
who  also  belongs  to  the  Central  Provinces,  said : 

Western  theories  and  Western  practice  must  be  modi- 
fied to  suit  the  requirements  of  the  case.  It  will  take 
years  of  hard,  continuous,  and  patient  labour,  both  on 
the  part  of  officials  and  non-officials  .  .  .  before  we 
can  hope  to  see  an  organization  independent  of  Govern- 
ment control  and  supervision.  The  possibilities  of  abuses 
and  waste  due  to  ignorance,  if  not  to  anything  else,  have 
to  be  avoided  at  any  cost.  ...  If  Government 
control  is  abruptly  withdrawn  at  this  stage  .  .  .  the 
movement  as  a  whole  will  wither  away.  .  .  .  Once 
the  idea  gets  abroad  that  '  independence  '  is  contem- 
plated people  will  lose  all  confidence."  Recent  expo- 
sures of  fraudulent  marriage  funds  and  joint  stock  banks 
in  India  have  probably  confirmed  these  two  gentlemen 


IO4  AGRICULTURAL   CREDIT   BANKS 

in  their  views  on  this  subject.  In  the  Punjaub  the 
controlling  staff  paid  by  Government  consists  of  an 
English  Registrar  and  Indian  Assistant  Registrar,  seven 
inspectors  and  ten  sub-inspectors;  but  unions  and 
central  banks  pay  for  an  additional  inspecting  staff, 
which  also  works  under  the  orders  of  the  Registrar.  The 
enthusiasm  displayed  by  some  of  the  carefully  chosen 
body  of  inspectors  is  most  hopeful.  They  are  not  red- 
tape  bureaucrats,  but  sometimes,  on  the  contrary,  deserve 
to  be  described  as  missionaries  of  co-operation. 

British  Colonies  and  Dependencies  are  broadly  divisible 
into  countries  in  which  people  of  European  descent  can 
do  field  work  efficiently,  and  countries  in  which  farm 
labour  must  be  done  by  indigenous  or  imported  coloured 
people.  Tropical  countries  and  a  considerable  area  north 
and  south  of  the  tropics  fall  into  the  latter  category. 
The  difference  is  reflected  in  the  form  of  administration. 
In  the  one  class  we  have  the  self-governing  Colonies,  and 
in  the  other  the  Crown  Colonies  and  our  great  Indian 
Dependency,  where  popular  Government  is  impossible. 
So  far  as  agricultural  credit  banks  are  concerned  atten- 
tion may  be  confined  to  the  coloured  population,  in- 
digenous or  imported.  It  is  unlikely  that  under  present 
circumstances  co-operative  credit  will  appeal  to  farmers 
of  European  descent  in  our  Colonies,  or  European  land- 
owners, too  often  absentee,  in  the  West  Indies.  Apart 
from  the  ordinary  business  sources  of  credit  they  will 
rely  on  State  loans.  The  agricultural  loans  of  Rhodesia, 
Australia,  and  New  Zealand  are  identical  in  their  nature 
with  takdvi  in  India.  In  democratically  governed  coun- 
tries any  system  of  State  loans  may  lead  to  abuse,  and 
this  at  least  is  essential,  that  they  should  be  made  at  such 
a  rate  of  interest  as  will  safeguard  the  general  taxpayer 
from  loss. 

In  this  matter  of  agricultural  co-operative  credit  in  the 
tropics  we  have  at  present  to  think  of  three  classes :  - 

(a)  East  Indians. 

(b}  Other  Asiatics,  as  Cingalese,  Malays,  and  Poly- 
nesians. 

(c)  Persons  of  pure  or  mixed  African  descent. 

Experience  in  India  itself  leads  us  to  conclude  that  the 


AGRICULTURAL  CREDIT  BANKS  1 05 

first  class,  especially  where  it  has  the  opportunity  of 
acquiring  land,  is  excellent  material  for  co-operative 
credit.  The  East  Indian  comes  from  a  country  whose 
people  are  familiar  with  communal  village  life  and  the 
action  of  caste  and  trade  guilds.  It  is  worth  while, 
therefore,  to  take  a  rapid  survey  of  the  position  of  East 
Indians  in  our  Crown  Colonies.  Ceylon  has  about  one 
million  Indian  immigrants  and  their  descendants.  The 
agricultural  credit  movement  has  already  spread  from 
India.  It  should  be  of  use  to  the  East  Indians,  and 
probably  also  to  the  native  Cingalese.  In  the  Malay 
States  the  native  is  not  disposed  for  regular  .field  work, 
and  there  is  a  steady  inflow  of  Indian  labour.  Here,  too, 
there  should  be  room  for  co-operative  credit  societies,  at 
least  among  the  immigrants.  In  Fiji  the  Indian  element 
is  growing  rapidly,  and  is  likely  to  become  the  pre- 
dominant one,  for  the  unenergetic  indigenous  popula- 
tion is  unfortunately  dwindling.  The  natives  of  that 
fertile  but  thinly  populated  group  of  islands  evince  no 
desire  for  a  strenuous  life,  and  I  fear  we  may  leave  them 
out  of  account.  When  the  African  slaves  were  freed,  the 
first  use  they  made  of  their  liberty  was  to  refuse  regular 
work,  and  the  planters  had  to  look  elsewhere.  Mauritius 
began  to  import  Indian  labour  eighty  years  ago.  By 
1907  the  population  had  increased  fourfold.  It  numbered 
376,000,  of  whom  264,000  were  of  East  Indian  descent. 
The  rest  are  mostly  Creoles.  The  neighbouring  French 
Colony  of  Reunion  has  also  a  considerable  Indian  popu- 
lation. Turning  to  the  New  World,  British  Guiana  has 
a  population  of  300,000  (only  three  per  square  mile),  of 
whom  133,000  are  East  Indians.  The  future  prosperity  of 
the  Colony  largely  depends  on  this  element.  Dutch  Guiana 
has  also  a  considerable  Indian  population.  Trinidad, 
with  800,000  cultivable  acres,  nearly  half  of  which  is 
Crown  property,  had  twenty  years  ago  70,000  East 
Indians  out  of  a  total  of  200,000.  Creole  labour  is 
abundant  in  Jamaica,  and  there  the  East  Indian  element 
is  smaller  and  much  less  essential,  though  still  useful. 
British  Honduras  could  profitably  absorb  much  East 
Indian  labour.  I  think  we  may  say  that  wherever  in  our 
tropical  possessions  the  East  Indian  has  settled  under  fair 


IO6  AGRICULTURAL    CREDIT   BANKS 

conditions  there  is  hope  for  the  development  of  co- 
operative credit. 

Regarding  persons  of  African  descent,  I  do  not  speak 
with  any  first-hand  knowledge.  In  their  own  continent 
I  fancy  Africans  are  usually  accustomed  to  a  communal 
frame  of  society  and  also  prefer  to  work  in  gangs,  each 
having  its  own  leader:  they,  therefore,  possess  some  of 
the  requirements  of  co-operation.  But  at  their  present 
stage  of  development  most  of  them  must  be  hardly  fitted 
for  the  working  of  self-governing  societies  such  as  we 
are  accustomed  to  in  Europe,  and  with  modifications  in 
India.  Some  of  you  may  be  interested  in  knowing  how 
the  Roman  Catholic  Church  met  the  difficulty  among  the 
aborigines  of  the  Chota  Nagpur  division  in  India.  The 
information  is  to  be  found  on  p.  14  of  the  Report  of  the 
Fifth  Annual  Conference  of  Indian  Registrars.  Even  in 
the  West  Indies  people  of  African  descent  are  obviously 
not  as  good  material  for  co-operative  credit  as  East 
Indians.  They  require  a  strong  spur  to  make  them 
regular  workers :  but  they  can  respond  to  it,  as  in 
Barbados,  where  it  is  provided  by  pressure  on  the  soil. 
Elsewhere  it  may  be  hoped  that  the  example  of  the  East 
Indians,  and  the  chances  now  offered  by  the  policy  of 
land  settlement,  will  give  the  needed  stimulus. 

Of  late  years  two  closely  connected  questions  of  land 
settlement  and  co-operative  agricultural  credit  have  been 
much  discussed  in  the  West  Indies.  Fortunately,  dis- 
cussion has  now  ripened  into  action.  As  regards  both 
matters,  St.  Vincent  has  taken  the  lead  among  the 
islands.  In  1911  it  started  its  first  agricultural  credit 
society.  Last  year  it  passed  an  Ordinance  for  "  regis- 
tration, encouragement,  and  assistance  of  agricultural 
credit  societies  under  the  '  Raiffeisen  System.'  '  The 
Raiffeisen  model  has  been  closely  followed  even  in  the 
prominence  given  to  religion.  Government,  I  think 
wisely,  has  reserved  strong  powers  of  inspection  and 
control.  Where  the  treasurer  is  not  a  minister  of  religion 
or  a  justice  of  the  peace,  he  must  be  "  some  respectable 
and  responsible  person  approved  by  the  Governor."  The 
latter  can  instruct  a  public  auditor  to  investigate  and 
report  to  him  regarding  the  organization  and  adminis- 


AGRICULTURAL  CREDIT  BANKS  IO/ 

tration  of  business,  and  he  can  at  any  time  cancel  the 
registration  of  a  society.  Arrangements  have  been 
made,  and  no  doubt  will  in  future  be  made,  for  a  more 
sympathetic  kind  of  inspection  than  that  of  an  auditor. 
There  were,  some  time  ago,  six  societies  in  St.  Vincent 
with  123  members,  all  probably  small  farmers.  There  is 
some  difficulty  in  securing  the  rejection  of  unworthy 
candidates  for  membership,  and  for  some  time  this  will 
require  careful  watching.  The  Government  lent  the  six 
societies  £294  at  6  per  cent.,  but  I  believe  the  adminis- 
trator has  been  able  to  arrange  with  a  joint  stock  bank 
which  will  get  rid  of  State  subventions,  a  very  temporary 
expedient.  British  Guiana  and  Trinidad,  where  the  field 
of  action  may  ultimately  be  vastly  larger,  is  moving  in 
the  same  direction.  The  British  Guiana  Committee, 
which  reported  in  January,  1911,  rejected  unlimited 
liability,  contemplated  small  local  banks,  not  exclusively 
agricultural,  taking  advances  from  Government  at  4  per 
cent.,  and  making  loans  to  their  own  members  at  12  per 
cent.  Four  per  cent,  seems  much  too  low  a  rate  for  the 
State  to  charge,  and  financial  aid  from  Government 
should  only  be  looked  on  as  a  temporary  expedient.  How 
long  it  is  likely  to  be  required  a  person  unacquainted  with 
local  conditions  cannot  judge.  I  believe  this  report  has 
recently  been  discussed  in  the  local  Legislature,  but  I  have 
not  seen -a  report  of  the  proceedings.  Jamaica  has  a 
number  of  rural  societies  financed  by  the  State,  and  not 
of  the  pure  Raiffeisen  type. 

While  the  State  should  limit  its  financial  assistance, 
both  in  respect  of  time  and  amount,  as  far  as  possible,  I 
suppose  that  it  will  have  to  assume  at  least  as  much  share 
in  the  direction  and  control  of  the  movement  as  we  have 
found  necessary  in  India.  There  is  one  point  in  this 
connection  which  is  not  really  unimportant,  and  that  is 
the  avoidance  of  requiring  needlessly  elaborate  accounts 
and  returns.  I  look  with  dismay  at  the  lengthy  annual 
statement  required  in  England  from  every  little  village 
bank,  with  its  petty  receipts  and  disbursements.  A  hard- 
worked,  half-educated,  and  unpaid  secretary  sometimes 
gives  up  the  task  in  despair.  Educational  work  intended 
to  teach  the  benefits  of  co-operation  and  the  means 


IO8  AGRICULTURAL    CREDIT    BANKS 

whereby  they  can  be  secured  is  a  thing  on  which  State 
money  and  the  time  of  Government  officials  may  very 
properly  be  expended. 

I  have  in  the  main  left  you  to  infer  from  figures  the 
economic  benefits  which  co-operative  credit  societies  have 
diffused.  People  do  not  make  use  of  village  banks  to 
the  extent  they  do  in  Germany  or  India,  unless  they  meet 
a  very  real  and  very  pressing  need.  And  I  have  been 
silent  regarding  the  moral  benefits  to  which  Raiffeisen 
attached  equal  importance.  But,  in  conclusion,  I  may  make 
one  quotation  from  a  Servian  report,  translated  by  Mr. 
Wolff,  on  p.  483  of  his  book  on  "People's  Banks." 
"  Peasants  who  used  to  spend  their  days  in  the  public- 
house  playing  cards  and  boozing  have  thrown  off  that 
habit.  .  .  .  On  one  occasion  a  member  of  a  village 
bank  was  seen  playing  cards  and  losing  4  francs.  He 
was  brought  before  the  Committee  and  summarily  ex- 
pelled. Other  members  who  were  suspected  of  indulging 
in  play  took  warning,  and  are  now  rarely  to  be  seen  in 
the  public-house.  .  .  .  The  annual  report  of  the 
village  bank  of  Azagna  says :  '  Our  Association  has 
taught  us  to  respect  one  another  and  to  help  one  another, 
to  enable  each  to  live  better  and  to  work  better.  In  a 
little  time  it  has  made  us  learn  many  useful  things  which 
our  schools  have  failed  to  teach  us.'  ' 
0  si  sic  omnes ! 


THE  WORKING*  OP  CREDIT   BANKS   IN   THE 
NETHERLAND  EAST  INDIES. 

By  H.  CARPENTIER  ALTING,  Batavia. 

THE  object  of  the  system  of  popular  credit  banks  is 
to  give  the  inhabitants,  and  more  especially  the  native 
population,  an  opportunity  to  save  money,  and,  in  the 
form  of  loans  against  interest,  to  obtain  material  assist- 
ance for  carrying  on  their  trade  and  occupations,  for  the 
acquisition  of  estate,  and  for  other  useful  purposes.  It 
is  in  principle  intended  also  for  persons  other  than  natives, 
and  therefore  generally  supplements  the  work  of  the  great 
European  banks. 

The  primary  purpose  of  such  banks  is  to  furnish  the 
population  with  the  necessary  means,  at  a  reasonable 
rate  of  interest,  for  carrying  on  their  business  or  vocation 
and  for  other  material  purposes,  and  to  cause  such  means 
to  be  contributed  as  much  as  possible  by  the  people  them- 
selves. A  natural  outcome  of  the  latter  is  that  a  regular 
and  economical  production  of  goods  as  well  as  then 
proper  distribution  and  use  are  encouraged. 

Since  1904  the  system  of  popular  credit  banks  has  been 
under  the  care  of  the  Government.  Previous  to  this, 
however,  popular  institutions  already  existed  in  certain 
places.  These  were  generally  of  the  nature  of  provident 
institutions,  viz.:  — 

(a)  Loan  and  savings  banks  for  natives  (Government 
officials    and    private    persons),    such    as    the    so-called 
"  prijaji  banks/' 

(b)  Mutual  burial  and  benefit  funds. 

(c)  Village  barns  for  the  mutual   storage   of  selected 
rice  seed  ("  loemboeng  bibit  "). 

(d)  Village    barns    for    the    supply    of    rice    (padi)    to 
indigent   persons,    either   on  loan  or  free   ("  loemboeng 
miskin,"  or  "loemboeng  amal  "). 

(e)  Societies    for   defraying   the  'cost   of   ritual    feasts 


110  AGRICULTURAL   CREDIT   BANKS 

given  by  the  members,  more  especially  marriages  and  cir- 
cumcisions ("  sinoman  "  societies).  On  the  island  of  Bali 
village  banks  are  found  which  lend  money  to  the  villagers. 

The  origin  of  these  various  institutions  is  uncertain; 
but  it  is  known,  however,  that  as  far  back  as  the  begin- 
ning of  the  nineteenth  century  the  Government  took  an 
interest  in  the  storing  of  rice  (padi)  in  the  villages, 
with  a  view  to  assisting  the  necessitous  and  ensuring  a 
supply  of  seed,  whilst  Dutch  officials  introduced,  or  at 
least  encouraged,  the  idea  of  making  monetary  pro- 
visions, more  especially  for  the  benefit  of  native  Govern- 
ment employees. 

The  popular  credit  banks  which  have  been  organize^ 
since  1904  and  systematically  established  on  those  already 
existing  are  closely  connected  with  the  system  of  govern- 
ment in  native  communities,  regencies,  or  provinces, 
divisions  and  districts.  They  fall  into  three  categories  :  — 

(i)  The  Village  Rice  Credit  Banks. — These  are  known 
as  r<  loemboeng  dessa  "  in  Java,  and  "  loemboeng  negari " 
on  the  West  Coast  of  Sumatra.  They  are  institutions  of 
the  native  community  (in  Java  "dessa,"  on  the  West 
Coast  of  Sumatra  "  negari  "),  or  of  groups  of  native 
communities,  and  therefore  of  the  village  communities. 
The  stock  of  rice  (padi)  is  usually  formed  by  the  farmers 
from  contributions  in  natura,  which  are  returned  later  on 
out  of  the  profits  earned.  Less  frequently  the  original 
stock  is  obtained  from  joint  planting  by  the  dessa 
members  on  a  portion  of  the  communal  land. 

Where  the  means  of  the  population  appear  to  be  in- 
sufficient the  Government  advance  money,  free  of  interest, 
for  the  purchase  of  padi  and  materials  for  cultivation. 
The  padi  is  lent  out  on  condition  of  repayment  in  natura 
when  the  next  crop  comes  in,  with  an  additional  25  to 
50  per  cent,  by  way  of  interest.  As  soon  as  the  debts 
due  in  respect  of  the  loemboeng  have  been  paid  and  a 
reserve  fund  has  been  formed,  the  interest  is  reduced  as 
far  as  practicable  according  to  the  loss  due  to  the  desic- 
cation of  the  padi  and  the  cost  of  administration. 

In  law  the  loemboeng  is  regarded  as  a  property  and  a 
trade  of  the  native  community,  established  at  the  expense 
of  the  farmers. 


AGRICULTURAL  CREDIT  BANKS  III 

The  necessary  buildings  are  erected  by  the  joint  labour 
of  the  dessa  people.  The  padi  which  has  not  been  loaned 
is  sold  annually,  and  out  of  the  proceeds  the  expenses  of 
administration  and  the  cost  of  repairs  to  the  buildings 
are  defrayed,  the  balance  being  paid  into  a  reserve  fund. 
The  reserve  funds  of  the  loemboengs  dessa  are  invested 
in  current  account  at  the  local  people's  bank  (divisional 
bank).  The  final  result,  therefore,  is  that  the  native 
community  possesses  a  building  free  from  debt,  with  a 
stock  of  padi  as  well  as  a  reserve  fund  in  cash.  Loans 
are  principally  given  to  farmers  at  the  time  when  field 
work  is  carried  on.  The  management  of  the  loemboeng 
is  in  the  hands  of  a  committee,  which  usually  consists  of 
three  farmers  and  the  chief  of  the  village,  who  receive  a 
share  of  the  profits.  The  book-keeping  is  in  charge  of  a 
competent  person,  who  is  in  the  service  of,  and  paid  by, 
a  group  or  circle  of  neighbouring  villages,  and  who 
visits  the  various  loemboengs  in  turn  according  to  a  fixed 
table  (once  a  week). 

The  dessa  loemboeng  is  generally  found  in  those 
villages  where  the  cultivation  of  padi  is  the  principal 
means  of  subsistence.  It  prevents  the  padi  crop  passing 
too  quickly  out  of  the  hands  of  the  farmers  into  those  of 
the  purchasers,  and  thereby  obviates  a  rapid  fall  in  price 
during  and  shortly  after  the  gathering  of  the  crop,  and  a 
strong  rise  a  few  months  later  when  the  padi  is  in  the 
buyers'  hands.  The  price  of  the  padi  is,  therefore,  more 
uniform  during  the  year,  a  circumstance  which  has  a 
favourable  influence  on  the  feeding  of  the  people  and  on 
their  wages.  The  loemboeng  further  enables  the  farmer, 
without  having  to  suffer  want,  to  give  better  and  more 
timely  attention  to  the  tilling  of  the  soil. 

Where  the  land  is  owned  by  a  large  number  of  small 
proprietors  there  is  less  justification  for  the  existence  of 
the  loemboeng.  This  is  generally  true  also  of  those 
places  where  the  local  supply  of  padi  is  insufficient  to 
provide  the  necessary  food,  necessitating  its  being  im- 
ported, and  where,  therefore,  the  population  has  to  adopt 
other  means  of  support  (commercial  crops,  industries, 
fisheries,  etc.).  The  constant  improvement  in  the  means 
of  intercourse,  both  inland  and  with  foreign  countries, 


112  AGRICULTURAL   CREDIT   BANKS 

also  diminishes  the  need  of  padi  credit.  The  turnover  of 
the  loemboeng  in  Java  has,  in  fact,  reached  its  highest 
point;  the  money  bank  is  gradually  taking  its  place. 

The  arrangements  and  management  of  the  loemboeng 
are  subject  to  regulations  fixed  by  the  community  con- 
cerned and  approved  by  the  authorities. 

The  loemboeng  miskin  and  loemboeng  bibit  which  still 
exist  at  some  places  are  gradually  diminishing  in  number. 

The  dessa  loemboengs,  both  district  and  divisional 
banks,  have  established  a  mutual  fund  for  insurance 
against  fire  and  other  calamities. 

(2)  The  Village  Money  Credit  Bank  (village,  dessa, 
negari,  or  marga  bank). — This  is  a  savings  and  credit 
bank  for  the  benefit  of  the  inhabitants  of  one  or  more 
hamlets,  villages,  or  groups  of  villages.  It  has  the 
same  legal  standing  as  the  loemboeng  dessa,  and  is 
governed  and  managed  in  the  same  manner. 

In  Java  the  working  capital  is  usually  formed  by  means 
of  a  loan  obtained  from  the  divisional  bank  by  employing 
the  moneys  of  the  loemboengs  or  those  belonging  to  the 
native  community.  The  borrowers,  however,  are  obliged 
to  pay,  in  addition  to  the  capital  sum  and  interest,  a 
surplus  which  is  booked  as  a  deposit  on  their  part.  The 
interest  charged  is  fairly  high,  24  to  40  per  cent,  per 
annum,  but  as  only  small  sums  are  lent  (usually  not  more 
than  10  fl.  (i  florin  =  is.  8d.)  to  any  one  person)  this 
interest  is  not  oppressive.  Repayment  is  made  as  a 
rule  in  weekly  or  monthly  instalments,  e.g.,  if  10  fl.  be 
borrowed,  n  fl.  must  be  repaid  in  eleven  weeks;  this 
includes  i  fl.  for  interest  and  deposit.  This  arrangement 
has  the  advantage  that,  as  the  bank  builds  up  a  capital  of 
its  own  out  of  the  profits,  a  smaller  amount  is  booked  as 
interest  and  a  relatively  larger  amount  as  deposit.  The 
deposits  are  occasionally  returned  in  part,  e.g.,  on  fast 
days  or  on  other  important  days.  The  high  interest 
enables  the  bank  soon  to  repay  the  capital  taken  up.  In 
some  places  part  of  the  deposits  is  retained  and  con- 
verted into  shares  of  from  i  fl.  to  5  fl.  Only  such 
persons  are  admitted  as  borrowers  as  shall  be  first 
accepted  by  those  already  affiliated.  Their  identity  is 
established  by  means  of  finger  prints.  Although  legally, 


AGRICULTURAL  CREDIT  BANKS  113 

therefore,  a  communal  institution,  the  dessa  bank 
assumes  more  or  less  a  co-operative  character.  Outside 
Java  it  is  easier  to  make  the  people  themselves  contri- 
bute at  once  the  initial  capital,  in  the  form  of  shares  -of 
one  or  more  guilders.  As  soon  as  the  working  capital 
amounts  to  a  sufficient  sum  and  a  reserve  has  been 
formed  the  interest  is  reduced.  The  banks  here  referred 
to  have  a  current  account  with  the  divisional  or  residency 
bank  (see  below)  for  the  borrowing  of  working  capital 
or  for  temporarily  depositing  surplus  funds.  The  village 
banks,  which  so  far  have  lent  chiefly  small  sums  of  a  few 
guilders  per  head,  will  gradually  become  the  ordinary 
credit  and  savings  banks  of  the  small  farmers,  traders, 
and  artisans.  This  is  especially  the  case  in  a  thickly 
populated  island  like  Java,  where  the  means  of  the  great 
mass  of  the  people  are  insignificant. 

type  of  bank  has  developed  out  of  the  mutual  savings  and 
credit  bank  of  native  Government  employees  (so-called 

(3)  The  Regency,  Divisional,  or  District  Bank. — This 
prijaji  bank).  The  latter  began  by  lending  its  surplus 
funds  to  farmers  and  artisans,  but  has  gradually  assumed 
the  character  of  a  general  savings  and  credit  institution, 
chiefly  accessible  to  the  individual  natives  and  the  village 
banks.  The  opportunity  offered  to  invest  money  is  also 
taken  advantage  of  by  non-natives  and  by  the  native 
communities.  The  area  served  by  the  bank  often  coin- 
cides with  an  Administrative  Department,  seldom  with 
part  thereof;  in  the  outer  Colonies,  sometimes  with  a 
whole  District,  having  a  population  of  from  a  quarter 
to  one  million.  Such  a  bank,  which  has  often  many 
branches,  is  under  the  management  of  an  incorporated 
association  of  notables,  official  and  non-official  Europeans, 
and  natives  (Article  1653  °f  tne  Civil  Code  of  the  Nether- 
land  East  Indies).  This  association  is  of  a  purely  philan- 
thropic character,  and  the  members  are  not  allowed  to 
benefit  financially. 

The  institution  is  in  some  places  called  a  regency,  in 
others  a  divisional  or  district  bank  (generally  popular 
bank). 

The  administrators  perform  their  duties  gratuitously; 
nevertheless,  the  bank  is  managed  on  strictly  commercial 
8 


114  AGRICULTURAL    CREDIT   BANKS 

principles,  and  is  therefore  not  a  charitable  institution. 
It  is  intended  to  appoint  gradually  representatives  of  the 
depositors  and  creditors  on  the  managing  body,  but  at 
present  Government  officials  and  other  prominent  in- 
habitants predominate.  The  management  is  carried  on 
by  a  responsible  administrator  (usually  a  European), 
assisted  by  European  and  native  book-keepers,  clerks, 
and  other  members  of  the  staff.  The  Government  assists 
the  banks  as  long  as  is  necessary  with  cash  subsidies  to 
defray  the  expenses  of  management;  in  1913  such  sub- 
sidies amounted  to  127,000  fl.  In  the  first  few  years 
after  1904  loans  were  also  given  by  the  Government  to 
the  banks  out  of  the  Government  exchequer  at  the  rate 
of  4  per  cent,  interest  with  a  view  to  the  formation  or 
supplementing  of  the  working  capital;  there  was  no 
obligation  to  pay  the  interest,  but  this  had  to  be  added  to 
the  reserve  fund  until  such  time  as  such  additions  should 
appear  to  be  no  longer  required.  Since  January  i,  1913, 
when  the  Central  Fund  (see  below)  commenced  opera- 
tions, the  Government  has  ceased  to  furnish  working 
capital,  except  for  supporting  through  the  medium  of 
the  banks  measures  of  an  economic  nature,  involving 
special  risk,  and  for  which  the  Central  Fund  has  no 
money  at  its  disposal,  such  as  the  importation  of  foreign 
breeding  cattle,  the  colonization  of  Javanese  in  the  outer 
possessions,  etc.  The  banks  do  not  possess  any  capital 
of  their  own  other  than  the  reserves  formed,  with  the 
exception  of  two,  who  have  a  small  share  capital.  It  is 
therefore  their  object  to  form  a  strong  reserve  fund  as 
quickly  as  possible. 

The  working  capital  consists  of  deposits  made  by 
individuals  and  by  native  communities  and  local  societies, 
such  deposits  are  principally  :  — 

(a)  Deposits  at  from  three  to  twelve  months'  notice  of 
repayment  at  a  rate  of  interest  varying  from  4  to  6  per 
cent,    per    annum;    these    deposits    are    chiefly    made    by 
Europeans. 

(b)  Savings,  which  may  be  withdrawn  on  demand  at  a 
rate  of  interest  varying  from  3  to  4  per  cent,  per  annum. 

(c)  Compulsory  deposits  at  a  rate  of  interest  of  6  per 
cent,  per  annum,  i.e.,  money  which  borrowers  bind  them- 


AGRICULTURAL  CREDIT  BANKS  115 

selves  to  deposit,  and  which  are  only  returned  in  urgent 
cases  or  when  borrowers  completely  sever  their  relations 
with  the  bank. 

(d)  Moneys    in    current    account    from    village    credit 
banks,  from  native  communities,  and  from  public  institu- 
tions at  a  rate  <of  interest  varying  from  2  to  6  per  cent, 
per  annum. 

(e)  Borrowed  moneys- 

The  banks  lend  money  chiefly  for  productive  purposes 
to  individuals,  to  companies,  and  other  associations  prin- 
cipally of  native  producers  or  consumers,  and  to  native 
communal  credit  banks  for  the  benefit  of  agricultural 
pursuits,  trade,  and  sea  fisheries,  as  well  as  for  the 
redemption  of  mortgaged  lands  and  crops,  and  the  pre- 
paration of  ground  for  cultivation.  Money  is  also  lent 
for  the  erection  of  dwellings  and  on  a  moderate  scale 
for  non-productive  purposes. 

The  banks  encourage  in  this  way  production  in  every 
field  of  labour  and  enterprise  in  which  the  native  is 
engaged  or  which  are  open  to  him.  The  interest  charged 
by  the  banks  amounts  to  from  12  to  18  per  cent.,  excep- 
tionally 24  per  cent.  The  banks  have  also  commenced 
to  act  as  intermediaries  in  cash  transactions  between  the 
natives  by  the  issue  of  drafts,  cheques,  and  the  opening 
of  current  accounts,  thus  supplementing  the  work  of  the 
large  European  banks. 

As  security  the  banks  demand  a  personal  surety  or, 
especially  in  the  case  of  small  farmers,  joint  sureties 
("  tanggoeng  renteng  "  or  "  tanggoeng  menanggoeng  ") 
consisting  of  small  groups  of  borrowers.  The  latter 
measure  also  tends  to  promote  mutual  confidence  and 
supervision  as  a  basis  of  social  responsibility  and  co- 
operation. The  banks  have  further  been  declared  com- 
petent to  establish  a  credit  charge  on  hereditary  individual 
and  undivided  substantial  rights  of  natives  in  respect  of 
grounds  belonging  to'  the  State  domain,  and  also  on 
existing  or  proposed  buildings,  works,  and  plantations  of 
natives  on  land  on  which  native  rights  of  usage  are  in 
force  (Netherland  East  Indies  Government  Gazette, 
1908,  No.  542).  This  credit  charge  is  in  its  nature 
identical  with  a  mortgage,  but  is  so  far  not  accessible 


Il6  AGRICULTURAL   CREDIT   BANKS 

to  individuals.  (See  also  Netherland  East  Indies  Govern- 
ment Gazette,  1909,  No.  584.)  The  credit  charge  is 
especially  a  means  of  counteracting  the  custom  very 
prevalent  amongst  natives  of  mortgaging  grounds  and 
fruit  trees,  such  mortgaging  giving  the  creditor  the 
usufruct  of  the  mortgaged  property  and  thereby  im- 
poverishing the  debtor. 

Property  on  which  a  credit  charge  has  been  established 
continues  to  be  used  by  the  debtor,  who  therefore  enjoys 
the  revenue  thereof.  It  is  consequently  provided  that 
any  mortgage  on  property  on  which  a  credit  charge  has 
already  been  given  shall  be  void. 

A  credit  charge  is  given  by  an  authentic  Act  (in  con- 
formity with  a  fixed  form),  executed  before  a  native 
Government  official.  The  Act  is  entered  in  a  public 
register.  The  cost  is  a  very  small  one. 

Should  it  be  necessary  to  levy  execution  on  any  pro- 
perty on  which  a  credit  charge  has  been  established,  the 
same  will  be  carried  out  through  the  medium  of  the 
President  of  the  Native  Court  of  Law. 

The  banks  also  enjoy  exemption  from  or  reduction  of 
stamp  duty  in  respect  of  share  certificates  in  the  working 
capital  (vide  the  stamp  ordinance).  The  banks  issue 
annual  printed  reports. 

(4)  There  also  exists  at  Batavia  a  central  bank  under 
the  name  of  Central  Fund  for  the  Popular  Credit  Banks, 
with  which  the  credit  banks  referred  to  under  (3)  may 
enter  into  connection.  This  body  has  been  established  by 
Royal  decree  (see  Netherland  East  Indies  Government 
Gazette,  1912,  No.  393),  is  incorporated,  and  provided  by 
the  Government  with  a  working  capital,  which  will  be 
gradually  increased  to  5,000,000  fl. 

The  objects  of  the  Central  Fund  are :  — 

(a)  To  supply  working  capital  to  and  investing  the 
moneys  of  popular  credit  banks,  and  (b)  to  advise  and 
assist  in  their  management. 

The  Central  Fund  is  also  of  service  in  the  supervision 
of  such  banks,  carried  out  on  behalf  of  the  Government 
(see  below,  "  Government  Supervision  ").  It  has  power 
to  contract  loans,  to  invest  its  funds  in  bonds,  and  deposit 
same  with  banking  institutions  and  to  purchase  movable 


AGRICULTURAL  CREDIT  BANKS  1 1/ 

and  real  estate  in  so  far  as  it  shall  be  required  for  the 
service  of  the  Fund. 

The  manager  of  the  Fund  is  subordinate  to  the  Director 
of  Inland  Government,  and  is  under  the  supervision  of 
a  committee  appointed  by  the  Governor-General.  The 
staff  of  the  Fund  is  composed  of  officials  and  function- 
aries in  the  service  of  the  State,  but  they  are  paid  by  the 
Central  Fund. 

The  Central  Fund  renders  accountant's  services  to  the 
popular  banks.  It  pays  to  the  State  on  the  working 
capital  interest  equal  to  that  which  is  paid  by  the  District 
(now  ranging  from  3  to  16  per  cent.).  It  charges  the 
popular  banks  6  per  cent,  interest.  Credits  are  only 
opened  to  those  popular  banks  which  are  well  managed, 
and  is  therefore  a  guarantee  also  for  the  prompt  repay- 
ment of  withdrawn  deposits. 

The  Central  Fund  may  also  be  charged  by  the  Govern- 
ment with  the  book-keeping  of  and  supervision  as  regards 
the  use  of  funds  granted  by  the  Government  on  behalf 
of  the  revival  of  popular  welfare  (such  as  famine 
funds,  etc.). 

ABBREVIATED  BALANCE  SHEET  OF  THE  CENTRAL  FUND  ON 
DECEMBER  31,  1913. 

Debit.  Credit. 

Cashinhand fl.  365-81     Working  capital  ...  fl.  2,125,250-00 

Banks    and     banking  Creditors  ...  156,547*23 

institutions  .  368,110-35 


Investments  ... 
Shares 
Debtors 
Inventory 
Balance  of  loss 


1,127,569-10 

764,008-05 

I3.59470 

I,IOO'OO 

7,049-22 


fl.  2,281,797-23  fl.  2,281,797-23 

PROFIT  AND  Loss  ACCOUNT. 


Charges 
Interest 

Debit. 

fl.  41,346-07 
60,645-44 

Credit. 
Accountancy 
Interest 
Sundries 
Balance  loss  ... 

fl.  8,970-00 
84,396-22 
1,576-07 
7,049-22 

fl.  ior, 991-51  fl.  101,991-51 

The  following  figures  show  the  position  of  the  popular 
credit  banks  on  December  31,   1913:  — 


n8 


AGRICULTURAL   CREDIT   BANKS 


(l)    LOEMBOENG   DESSA   OR    LOEMBOENGS   NEGARI. 

Java  and  Madoera  : 

Number 12,282 

Assets     ...         ...          2,66r,ooo  piculs  padi          ...  fl.  2,988,000  in  cash 

Liabilities  ...  218,000       ,,       ,,  ...  902,000      ,, 

(2)  DESSA  OR  NEGARI  BANKS. 

Number  Assets  Liabilities 

Java  and  Madoera  ...   1,300  ...  fl.  800,000  ...   fl.  418,000  (including  deposits 

fl.  227,000) 
Outer  possessions    ...      406  ..         112,000  ...       109,000  (deposits) 


(3)  REGENCY,  DEPARTMENTAL,  OR  RESIDENCY  BANKS. 


ASSETS 

LIABILITIES 

i 

1 

Money  outstand- 
ing and  in  hand, 
together  with  the 
value  of  buildings 

Due  to  the 
Government 

Due  to  the 
Central 
Fund 

Deposits 

Other 
deposits 

Reserve  funds 

and  appurtenances 

Java    and 

74 

fl.  15,768,000 

fl.  25,000 

fl.  872,000 

fl.  8,  716,  ooo 

fl.4,  728,000 

fl.  1,  427,000 

Madoera 

Outer 

6 

1,128,000 

47,000 

249,000 

249,000 

I39,OOO 

49,000 

possessions 

Co-operative  Credit  Banks.  —  Contrary  to  what  is 
found  in  most  other  countries,  the  popular  credit  banks 
in  the  Netherland  East  Indies,  as  will  appear  from  the 
foregoing,  do  not  emanate  from  co-operative  societies 
direct,  although  those  interested  in  these  do  contribute 
to  the  formation  of  working  capital  and  have  a  voice  in 
the  native  communal  banking  institutions.  All  banks,  in 
fact,  are  in  a  more  or  less  considerable  degree  under  the 
influence,  and  even  under  the  direct  orders,  of  the  State 
and  village  authorities,  although  it  is  intended  gradually 
to  curtail  such  interference  and  render  it  finally  super- 
fluous. The  reason  why  the  popular  credit  bank  system 
has  not  at  once  been  founded  and  built  up  on  a  purely 
co-operative  basis  is  the  necessity  on  the  part  of  the 
superior  authorities  of  improving  without  delay  the  need 
of  credit  and  the  periodically  recurring  condition  amongst 
small  farmers  of  scarcity  of  food  and  of  means  of  culti- 
vation, an  evil  to  which  attention  was  drawn  more 
especially  in  the  dry,  and  for  agriculture  so  disastrous 


AGRICULTURAL  CREDIT  BANKS  119 

years  1901  and  1902.  In  the  first  place,  therefore,  dessa 
loemboengs  and  divisional  banks  were  established  in 
Java  on  a  large  scale,  followed  later  on,  when  the  distress 
had  been  met,  by  the  establishment  at  a  slower  rate  of 
small  banks  in  and  outside  Java.  The  Government  also 
made  direct  grants  in  the  above-named  years  of  money 
and  padi  stocks  on  a  large  scale  where  most  required, 
but  this  system  could  not  be  permanently  adopted,  as  it 
encouraged  carelessness,  and  did  not  offer  sufficient 
guarantee  that  the  funds  were  efficiently  and  honestly 
applied;  no  permanent  improvement  could  be  effected  in 
this  way.  The  degree  of  popular  development  and  the 
sense  of  social  responsibility  were  not  and  are  not  even 
now  sufficient  to  permit  of  the  establishment  of  purely 
co-operative  credit  banks  otherwise  than  with  the  greatest 
caution  and  by  taking  steps  towards  the  introduction  of 
co-operative  principles  in  the  existing  banks.  Indeed,  in 
every  part  of  the  world  the  utmost  care  is  necessary  in 
establishing  the  co-operative  movement  on  a  firm  basis. 
In  the  life  of  the  natives  primitive  forms  of  association 
are  not  uncommon  (see  above),  a  fact  which,  as  regards 
small  farmers,  is  scarcely  surprising.  In  money  matters, 
however,  there  is  little  or  no  mutual  confidence,  all  the 
less  on  account  of  the  feudal  power  of  the  head  of  the 
family,  hamlet,  or  village,  keeping  the  voice  of  the 
ordinary  man  in  the  background. 

Only  the  more  emancipated,  the  officials,  and  privately 
employed  persons  possess  sufficient  elements  for  the 
establishment  and  maintenance  of  mutual  help  societies, 
which,  however,  confine  themselves  chiefly  to  purpose* 
of  consumption  or  provision  at  death.  As  far  as  the 
mutual  help  and  savings  banks  of  native  officials  in  Java 
are  concerned  (prijaji  banks),  the  majority  of  these  have 
failed  through  mismanagement  or  have  been  amalgamated 
with  the  divisional  bank.  Only  two  are  still  in  existence. 
In  the  Government  of  the  West  Coast  of  Sumatra  such 
banks  are  known  under  the  name  of  "  bankangkoe." 

Of  late  years,  however,  with  the  rise  of  the  third 
estate,  a  tendency  has  been  more  and  more  noticeable 
amongst  the  people  of  forming  a  common  fund  with  the 
object  of  trading  for  profit  and  for  the  accommodation 


120  AGRICULTURAL   CREDIT  BANKS 

of  its  members.  Most  of  these  efforts  have  hitherto 
ended  in  failure,  as  an  attempt  was  usually  made  to 
attract  too  many  persons.  People  were  included  who  did 
not  understand  the  true  meaning  of  such  a  fund,  and  who 
had  not  complete  trust  in  each  other,  who  were  in  reality 
only  looking  for  gain  without  taking  into  account  the 
chances  of  loss,  and  who  failed  to  realize  that  everyone 
must  begin  by  appreciating  his  citizenship  and  by  show- 
ing that  he  does  so.  Efforts  have  been  made  sporadic- 
ally to  promote  a  community  of  interests  by  the  establish- 
ment of  a  fish  auction,  by  planting  for  joint  account,  and 
selling  tea  and  other  produce.  Here  also  those  interested 
have  so  far  shown  an  insufficient  sense  of  devoting  and 
asserting  themselves,  expecting  everything  from  the 
organizers.  Slowly,  however,  the  people  are  beginning 
to  understand,  and  the  more  emancipated  are  endeavour- 
ing by  co-operation  and  mutual  furtherance  of  their 
material  interests  to  emulate  and  get  level  with  the  non- 
native,  especially  by  the  establishment  of  trading  and 
land  exploitation  concerns,  as  well  as  of  credit  asso- 
ciations. 

This  tendency  is  recognized  by  the  Government,  and 
it  is  contemplated  to  introduce  a  legal  ordinance  relating 
to  co-operative  societies,  the  existing  Acts  not  being 
sufficiently  applicable. 

OFFICIAL  STAFF  FOR  THE  ORGANIZATION,  PROMOTION,  AND 
GOVERNMENT  SUPERVISION  OF  THE  POPULAR  CREDIT 
BANK  SYSTEM. 

Whilst  the  establishment  of  popular  credit  institutions  is 
locally  under  the  care  and  guidance  of  the  European  and 
native  administrative  officials  and  the  village  chiefs,  lower 
native  Government  functionaries  (mantris)  are  entrusted 
with  the  regular  supervision  of  the  existing  communal 
credit  institutions  and  with  assisting  in  establishing  new 
ones;  on  an  average  there  is  one  mantri  to  fifty  institu- 
tions. The  mantris  are  under  the  control  of  European 
and  native  officials,  who  superintend  part  of  a  district  or 
one  or  more  districts,  and  who  also,  accordingly  as 
required  by  the  organization  and  as  the  institutions 
become  capable  of  managing  their  own  affairs,  relieve 


AGRICULTURAL  CREDIT  BANKS  121 

the  administrative  officials  of  their  daily  labours,  even 
though  the  system  remains  under  the  superintendence  of 
the  District  Government. 

The  above-mentioned  officials  further  assist  native 
traders  and  contractors  in  organizing  firms  and  in 
arranging  and  carrying  on  a  simple  system  of  book- 
keeping in  their  affairs. 

A  general  Government  adviser  in  connection  with  the 
Department  of  Inland  Administration  resides  at  Batavia, 
and  is  charged  with  the  superintendence  and  further  ex- 
tension of  the  organization,  assisted  by  a  small  staff  of 
officials  and  by  the  Central  Fund. 

The  bureau  of  the  adviser  draws  up  the  working  plan, 
gives  hints,  distributes  guide  books,  compiles  statistics, 
issues  a  general  annual  report,  and  likewise  makes  all 
proposals  of  a  legal  and  administrative  character  in  con- 
nection with  its  object. 

The  salaries  and  duties  of  the  officials  and  functionaries 
and  their  relations  towards  the  administrative  officials 
have  been  regulated  by  the  Government  in  official  and 
supplementary  gazettes  and  circulars  (see  further  the 
Netkerland  Indies  Government  Almanac,  vol.  i). 

The  co-operative  system  also  forms  part  of  the  work  of 
these  officials,  whilst  those  connected  with  the  Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture,  Commerce,  and  Industry  are  like- 
wise interested  in  the  co-operative  system  as  a  means  of 
improving  the  production. 

Official  Publications. — Periodicals :  The  reports  on  the 
popular  credit  bank  system,  at  first  called  "  Systematic 
Review  of  the  Agricultural  Credit  System,"  1904  to  1913 
inclusive;  ditto  the  reports  of  the  divisional  banks;  also  a 
paper  distributed  by  the  Central  Fund  concerning  credit 
and  co-operative  systems  (see  also  the  Colonial  report, 
and  as  regards  the  nominative  list  of  popular  banks, 
vol.  ii  of  the  Government  Almanac). 

Pamphlets  and  other  publications  in  so  far  as  they  are 
compiled  by  the  officials  connected  with  the  popular 
credit  banks :  — 

(i)  Hints  concerning  the  establishment,  arrange- 
ment, management,  and  supervision  of 
village  credit  banks  (loemboengs  dessa  and 
dessa  banks)  1906,  1908 


122  AGRICULTURAL   CREDIT   BANKS 

(2)  Arrangement   and   working   method    of   local 

savings  and  credit  banks,  chiefly  for  the 
benefit  of  the  native  population  (so-called 
divisional  banks)  ...  1907 

(3)  Banking  and  bank  control  1910 

(4)  Regulations  concerning  credit  banks  and  their 

application  with  explanatory  notes  (in  Dutch 

and  Malay)  1910 

(5)  Provisional    guide    to    the    establishment    of 

mutual  savings  and  loan  banks  for  natives, 
more  especially  in  the  outer  possessions 
(bank  negari)  ...  1911 

(6)  Sketch  of  a  method  of  book-keeping  for  trade 

and  industries  of  natives  (in  Malay) 1913 

(7)  Concerning    saving;    promoting    credit   banks 

and   mutual   co-operation          ...         ...         ...     1912 

Dari  hal  ketjermatan,  perhoetangan  (credit 
banks)  dan  persoekoetoean  (Malay  trans- 
lation)  1913 

(8)  Some  particulars  concerning  divisional  banks, 

compiled  by  the  officials  of  the  popular  credit 
banks  in  the  Netherland  East  Indies  ...  1912 

(9)  Minutes  of  the  meeting  held  at  Magelang  in 

March,  1913,  of  the  officials  for  the  establish- 
ment of  the  popular  credit  banks  stationed 

in  Java  and  Modoera 1913 

(10)  Co-operation  of  natives 1911 

(n)  Transactions  of  natives  for  joint  account      ...     1911 

(12)  The  future  arrangement  of  the  Indian  credit 

banks          ...         1910 

(13)  The  fishermen's  society  at  Tegal          1913 

(14)  Collection  of  some  decrees  and  circulars       ...     1914 

THE  ATTITUDE  OF  THE  NATIVE  POPULATION  TOWARDS  THE 
POPULAR  CREDIT  BANKS. 

An  opinion  is  current  amongst  non-natives  that  the 
native  as  a  rule  is  unable  to  save  and  is  extravagant,  but 
this  opinion  is  not  founded  on  just  observations  and 
judgments.  The  native  farmer  strives,  like  any  other 
human  being,  to  get  something  which  he  can  call  his 


AGRICULTURAL  CREDIT  BANKS  123 

own:  land,  cattle,  dwelling,  or  padi.  The  ordinary 
native,  however,  still  often  acts  in  a  different  way  in 
regard  to  money  as  to  other  property,  because  money  is 
in  many  respects  looked  upon  by  him  less  as  a  means  of 
exchange  than  as  a  possession  itself,  or  as  a  means  of 
purchasing  unnecessary  articles,  and  he  has  not  yet  learnt 
to  make  a  judicious  use  of  it. 

As  money,  however,  becomes  more  generally  a  means 
of  exchange  amongst  natives,  and  many  articles  which  are 
or  have  become  indispensable  *can  now  only  be  obtained 
with  money  the  native  begins  better  to  realize  its  value, 
and  therefore  appreciates  more  and  more  its  possession. 
A  want  of  social  feeling,  fear  of  theft,  or  of  the  demands 
of  embarrassed  members  of  his  family  and  of  those 
in  power  have  certainly  contributed  to  render  him 
careless  with  money  and  at  first  to  undervalue  its 
possession,  but  as  it  got  more  appreciated  these  circum- 
stances induced  him  to  convert  the  money  into  easily 
pledgeable  ornaments,  or  to  keep  it  in  a  place  known 
only  to  himself.  The  popular  banks  and  the  post  office 
savings  bank  have  gradually  altered  this,  and  more 
especially  the  system  of  compulsory  saving. 

The  native  would  deposit  much  more  money  in  the 
savings  and  other  banks  if  this  could  be  kept  absolutely 
secret.  In  many  cases,  when  in  want  of  money,  the 
natives  would  rather  contract  a  loan  than  ask  for  the 
return  of  their  savings. 

The  result  achieved  by  the  village  banks  and  loem- 
boengs  has  proved  to  the  native  that  he  need  not  imme- 
diately spend  his  earnings  without  injury  to  his  pocket, 
and  that  gradually  a  community  of  property  can  be 
established. 

Both  institutions  have  rendered  the  ordinary  man  more 
free  in  his  movements  by  keeping  him  more  out  of  the 
hands  of  moneylenders,  who  try  to  secure  for  themselves 
the  produce,  ground,  or  labour  of  the  debtors.  These 
moneylenders  cannot  be  blamed.  It  is  necessary  for 
them  to  be  able  to  rely  absolutely  on  a  regular  supply  of 
labour  and  produce  and  to  have  the  agricultural  land  at 
their  disposal.  As  long  as  the  native,  not  being  in  want, 
did  not  feel  impelled  himself  to  provide  for  these  things 


124  AGRICULTURAL  CREDIT  BANKS 

without  the  pressure  of  the  advance  received  on  them, 
the  non-native  had  to  take  the  matter  in  hand. 

Indeed,  the  system  of  advancing  money,  which  is 
decidedly  open  to  abuse  as  a  means  of  extortion,  although 
this  is  not  the  rule,  aims  in  the  first  place  at  the  above 
object  rather  than  at  putting  out  money  at  interest.  The 
credit  banks,  therefore,  strongly  co-operate  in  rendering 
the  people,  whose  requirements  have  increased  with  the 
pressure  of  the  times,  economically  free,  a  first  condi- 
tion to  enable  them  to  devote  themselves  undisturbed  to 
cultivation,  to  develop  enterprise,  and  to  compete  in  the 
economic  struggle.  The  native,  in  fact,  begins  more  and 
more  to  raise  himself  and  to  engage  in  trade,  industry, 
and  agriculture  on  a  large  scale,  in  which  the  divisional 
banks  render  assistance.  The  idea  is  also  under  consider- 
ation of  introducing  a  Bill  of  limited  scope  for  the 
prevention  of  usury,  i.e.,  usury  in  the  sense  of  extortion, 
profiting  by  anyone's  pecuniary  embarrassment. 

Not  all  moneys,  of  course,  lent  by  the  banks  have  found 
useful  employment.  On  the  one  hand  loans  have  often 
been  granted  for  measures  which,  being  -of  too  wide  a 
scope,  have  in  the  long  run  proved,  although  well  in- 
tended, to  have  been  lacking  in  usefulness;  and,  on  the 
other  hand,  the  debtor  has  often  misused  the  money 
borrowed.  Here  and  there,  for  instance,  encouragement 
has  been  given  artificially  to  the  breeding  of  cattle,  the 
cultivation  of  certain  crops,  and  the  redemption  of 
mortgaged  lands,  notwithstanding  that  the  need  thereof 
was  not  actively  felt  by  those  interested.  As  a  conse- 
quence the  debtor  has  undoubtedly  often  gone  oack 
instead  of  forward,  but  gradually,  thanks  to  experience,  a 
more  rational  comprehension  has  prevailed,  and  the  native 
has  learnt  to  take  a  better  view  of  his  social  duties. 

In  the  Mohammedan  world  the  interest  prohibition  of 
the  Koran  restrains  the  strongly  religious  from  feeling 
the  necessary  sympathy  for  the  popular  banks,  which, 
however,  does  not  prevent  the  great  mass  from  paying 
and  receiving  interest.  Neither  are  the  spiritual  leaders 
unanimously  opposed  to  it  now  that  it  appears  that  the 
interest  paid  serves  to  form  a  reserve  fund  for  the  banks, 
and  the  depositors  also  run  the  risk,  at  all  events  in  theory, 
of  participating  in  the  losses. 


LEGISLATION  AGAINST  PLANT 
DISEASES  AND  PESTS. 


THE  PHYTOPATHOLOGICAL   CONVENTION   OF   ROME 
AND  ITS  RELATION  TO  TROPICAL  AGRICULTURE. 

By    A.    G.    L.    ROGERS. 
Board  of  Agriculture. 

A  MOVEMENT  has  been  on  foot  for  many  years  past, 
among  some  of  the  leading-  entomologists  and  plant 
pathologists  of  Europe,  in  favour  of  international  action 
in  the  direction  and  control  of  plant  diseases.  The 
reasoning  that  has  led  to  this  movement  is  based  on  the 
success  of  the  International  Conventions  which  have  been 
founded  in  connection  with  so  many  subjects  in  recent 
years,  and  especially  of  the  Berne  Convention  of  1880, 
ratified  by  nearly  every  European  country,  and  having 
for  its  object  the  prevention  of  the  spread  of  phylloxera. 
But  this  agitation  might  have  remained  unimportant  and 
inoperative  had  it  not  been  for  the  great  number  of 
epidemic  plant  diseases  which  have  been  observed  lately, 
and  the  exceptional  activity  of  certain  countries  in  pass- 
ing laws  purporting  to  prevent  the  introduction  of  such 
diseases,  and  actually  hindering  international  trade  to  a 
material  extent.  It  is  not  only  the  fear  of  new  diseases, 
but  the  fear  of  fresh  legislative  restrictions,  which  has 
given  the  movement  in  favour  of  international  action  so 
great  an  impetus  in  the  last  few  years.  Recent  events 
have  given  it  a  definite  shape. 

On  the  invitation  of  the  French  Government  an  Inter- 
national Phytopathological  Conference  was  held  last 
February  in  Rome,  at  which,  after  several  days'  dis- 
cussion, a  draft  Convention  was  prepared,  which  has  now 
been  submitted  to  the  Governments  of  the  countries 
represented  on  that  occasion  for  their  consideration  and 


126   LEGISLATION  AGAINST  PLANT  DISEASES  AND  PESTS 

ratification.  This  Convention,  if  accepted  by  the  prin- 
cipal countries  of  the  world,  as  is  generally  expected  will 
be  the  case,  may  have  an  important  bearing  on  inter- 
national trade  in  plants,  and  will  profoundly  influence 
the  nature  of  not  only  the  restrictions  at  present  imposed 
on  importation,  but  also  the  internal  regulations  designed 
to  extirpate  or  control  the  more  serious  plant  diseases. 
Thirty-one  independent  States  or  dependencies  were 
represented,  while  one  or  two  others  who  did  not  send 
delegates  signified  their  agreement  with  the  principle 
involved.  There  was  very  little  disagreement  among 
those  who  were  present,  for  all  were  bent  on  securing  a 
definite  result,  and  the  proposals  were  generally  moderate 
and  reasonable.  But  as  the  larger  number  of  delegates 
represented  European  States,  whose  climate  is  temperate 
or  only  semi-tropical,  it  is  certain  that  the  interest  of 
those  countries  received  a  greater  share  of  attention  in 
the  discussions  which  took  place  than  those  of  countries 
lying  within  the  tropical  zone.  Representatives  of  Chile, 
Costa  Rica,  the  Dominican  Republic,  the  Indian  Empire, 
and  Guatemala  were  present,  but,  except  in  the  case  of 
India,  they  were  all  diplomatists,  and  apparently  not 
specially  conversant  with  tropical  agriculture,  still  less 
with  the  pests  which  beset  plants  in  tropical  regions.  No 
one  was  there  to  speak  on  behalf  of  any  part  of  Africa, 
except  the  French  delegates  who  represented  Morocco, 
Algiers,  and  Tunis.  There  was  no  representative  of  the 
United  States,  the  West  Indies,  Brazil,  or  Australia.  It 
is  only  natural,  therefore,  that  the  special  difficulties 
connected  with  tropical  conditions  were  barely  mentioned 
in  the  discussions,  and  not  at  all  in  the  Convention.  As, 
however,  it  was  undoubtedly  the  intention  of  those 
present  at  the  Conference  to  prepare  a  scheme  which 
should  be  of  world-wide  application,  it  is  worth  while 
considering  the  details  of  the  proposed  Convention  to  see 
how  far  it  can  be  adopted  in  hotter  countries,  and  what 
would  be  the  effect  on  the  legislation  and  administration 
now  in  force  in  such  places.  I  propose,  therefore,  to 
give  an  epitome  of  the  Phytopathological  Convention  of 
Rome,  and,  as  far  as  I  am  able,  a  short  summary  of  the 
regulations  in  force  in  tropical  countries,  with  a  few 


LEGISLATION  AGAINST  PLANT   DISEASES   AND   PESTS       127 

observations  on  the  changes  in  the  latter  which  might 
have  to  be  made  if  the  Convention  is  adopted.  This,  I 
hope,  will  clear  the  ground  for  discussion;  but  as  I  have 
no  personal  knowledge  of  tropical  agriculture,  I  must 
leave  it  to  those  who  are  good  enough  to  listen  to  my 
paper  to  say  how  far  in  their  opinion  the  Convention  is 
applicable  to  the  agricultural  conditions  with  which  they 
are  familiar. 

In  the  first  place,  therefore,  it  should  be  stated  that 
the  Convention  aims  at  securing  that  each  adhering  State 
should  take  steps  to  eradicate,  or  at  least  control,  the 
more  dangerous  diseases  with  which  it  is  beset,  and 
should  devote  their  energies  to  that  purpose  rather  than 
the  examination  of  imported  plants.  The  idea  is  a 
realization  of  the  old  proverb  that  if  everyone  swept  his 
own  doorstep  we  should  have  a  clean  street.  With  this 
object  each  State  is  required  to  maintain  one  or  more 
establishments  of  technical  and  scientific  research,  an 
organization  of  effective  inspection  of  all  nurseries, 
gardens,  glasshouses,  and  other  establishments  offering 
living  plants  for  sale,  together  with  an  organization  for 
the  issue  of  phytopathological  certificates  of  health  and 
the  regulation  of  transport.  The  word  "  plants  "  in  this 
article  means  plants  or  parts  of  plants  used  for  cultivation 
(though  cut  flowers  are  also  included),  and  it  excludes 
vines  (dealt  with  under  the  Berne  Convention,  which  it  is 
hoped  will  be  universally  adopted),  grain,  seeds,  potatoes, 
edible  bulbs  and  roots,  and  fruit,  as  well  as  produits  de 
grande  culture,  a  phrase  which  it  is  difficult  to  translate, 
but  which  is  intended  to  include  general  agricultural 
produce. 

The  countries  that  adhere  to  the  Convention  pledge 
themselves  not  to  accept  any  plants  unless  accompanied 
by  a  phytopathological  certificate,  declaring  either  that 
the  consignment  has  been  duly  examined  and  is  free  from 
certain  specified  pests  or  that  they  proceed  from  a  nursery 
which  has  been  so  examined  and  reported  upon.  By 
implication,  therefore,  they  pledge  themselves  to  accept 
all  consignments  which  are  duly  certified,  though  this  is 
not  directly  stated;  and  it  seems  that  in  the  event  of  any 
country  desiring  to  increase  the  strictness  of  its  regulations 


128   LEGISLATION  AGAINST  PLANT  DISEASES  AND  PESTS 

it  would  be  at  liberty  to  do  so,  though  it  would,  of 
course,  expose  itself  to  the  risk  of  retaliation.  States 
which  do  not  adhere  are  expressly  debarred  from  getting 
better  terms  than  those  which  are  parties  to  the  Con- 
vention. So  far  the  procedure  is  based  on  ordinary 
administrative  methods  which  are  common  to  all  countries 
alike,  but  an  interesting  and  important  provision  is  intro- 
duced by  Article  10.  It  was  felt  by  all  present  at  the 
Conference  that  it  was  impossible  to  draw  up  a  list  of 
pests  which  should  be  specified  in  the  Convention  for 
reasons  which  are  sufficiently  obvious.  It  was,  therefore, 
decided  that  each  country  should  be  authorized  to  prepare 
a  list  of  pests  against  which  it  wishes  to  be  protected,  and 
to  require  that  the  certificate  should  state  that  the  plants 
to  be  introduced  are  not  affected  with  or  have  not  been 
exposed  to  the  infection  of  these  pests.  But  lest  the  list 
should  be  made  too  long  and  should  include  a  number  of 
trivial  diseases,  it  was  stipulated  that  the  list  should  be  as 
restricted  as  possible,  and  should  not  include  any  plant 
diseases  which  are  of  old  standing  and  are  widely  spread 
in  almost  all  countries;  that  the  pests  should  be  epidemic  in 
character  and  destructive,  or  at  least  very  injurious  in 
action,  and  should  be  capable  of  being  easily  conveyed 
by  living  plants  or  parts  of  such  plants.  Finally,  no 
country  may  schedule  any  pest  whose  host  plant  is  not 
found  in  the  country  to  which  the  consignment  is  to  be 
sent.  There  are  several  other  articles  which  deal  with 
administrative  details,  but  they  do  not  affect  the  policy 
of  the  Convention,  which  is  contained  in  the  part  already 
described. 

We  may  now  compare  the  scheme  contemplated  by 
this  Convention  with  the  regulations  already  in  force  in 
the  more  important  tropical  countries,  including  those 
States  which  have  part  of  their  territory  in  the  tropical 
zone.  India,  the  most  important  of  all,  has,  as  far  as  I 
am  able  to  ascertain,  no  regulations  of  any  kind,  though 
a  law  recently  passed  gives  authority  to  issue  orders,  and 
it  is  understood  that  a  scheme  has  for  some  time  past 
been  under  consideration.  In  the  case  of  others,  the 
simplest  form  is  that  which  requires  that  all  consignments 
shall  be  fumigated  on  arrival  without  any  other  formality. 


LEGISLATION  AGAINST  PLANT  DISEASES  AND  PESTS   129 

This  appears  to  be  the  law  in  Ceylon,  Uganda,  Dominica, 
Grenada,  St.  Christopher  and  Nevis,  Barbados  and  St. 
Lucia.  In  other  cases  this  is  supplemented  by  the  require- 
ment that  the  permission  of  the  Government  of  the 
importing  country  must  be  obtained,  but  except  in  the 
case  of  Italian  Somaliland  there  are  clauses  which  pro- 
hibit the  landing  of  certain  plants.  Thus  Mauritius  pro- 
hibits the  importation  of  vines,  except  from  the  United 
Kingdom,  and  requires  a  licence  from  the  Director  of 
Forests  and  Gardens  before  other  plants,  including  cut 
flowers,  are  admitted.  Mozambique  prohibits  the  im- 
portation of  conifers  and  peach  trees,  vines  which  are 
not  resistant  to  Phylloxera  vastatrix,  coffee  plants  and 
stone  fruit  of  any  kind  from  North  America  or  other 
places  where  peach  yellows  and  peach  rosette  are  present, 
and  apple  trees  liable  to  take  woolly  aphis.  But  in  the 
case  of  other  plants  the  number  that  may  be  imported 
is  limited,  and  fumigation  is  required  on  arrival.  Some- 
what similar  regulations  are  in  force  in  South  Africa. 
The  Government  of  German  East  Africa  has  prohibited 
the  landing  of  certain  plants,  and  admits  others  only  after 
permission  has  been  obtained.  The  Commonwealth  of 
Australia  has  apparently  only  prohibited  the  landing  of 
gooseberry  bushes,  but  it  restricts  the  landing  of  vines 
to  those  which  are  authorized  by  a  licence  from  the 
Government,  and  requires  all  other  plants  to  be  inspected 
and  fumigated  on  arrival. 

Very  few  countries  have  imposed  the  requirements  that 
plants  shall  be  examined  and  certified  free  from  disease 
by  an  inspector  of  the  country  of  origin.  But  this  has 
been  decided  upon  in  the  case  of  British  East  Africa, 
which  only  admits  rubber,  cocoa,  coconuts,  rice,  tobacco, 
and  potatoes  on  receipt  of  a  certificate  from  the  official 
agricultural  authority  of  the  countries  from  which  the 
plants  originated  to  the  effect  that  they  have  been  grown 
in  areas  known  to  be  free  from  diseases  or  pests  which 
characteristically  attack  such  plants.  A  certificate  of 
health  is  required  in  Rhodesia,  but  it  appears  that  the 
seller  is  made  responsible  for  the  certificate  and  not  the 
Government.  The  Peruvian  Government  require  a  licence 
from  their  Ministry  of  Agriculture  before  importation, 
9 


I3O   LEGISLATION  AGAINST  PLANT  DISEASES  AND  PESTS 

and  this  will  only  be  issued  when  a  certificate  as  to  free- 
dom from  disease  given  by  the  competent  authority  at 
the  place  of  exportation  is  produced.  New  Zealand, 
though  scarcely  a  tropical  country  at  all,  and  the  United 
States,  only  part  of  which  is  tropical,  also  require  a 
Government  certificate  before  admission. 

The  certificates  demanded  in  each  case  relate  to  the 
general  health  of  the  plants,  and  no  attempt  is  made  to 
define  what  the  pests  are  for  which  examination  should 
be  made.  Two  countries,  however — Australia  and  New 
Zealand — have  given  a  clue  as  to  the  diseases  "  against 
which  they  wish  to  be  protected  "  by  publishing  a  list  of 
the  diseases  which  have  been  scheduled  as  affecting 
plants.  In  both  cases  the  list  is  long  and  comprehensive, 
and  in  Australia  it  includes  Mucor  and  Penicillium,  so 
that  the  task  of  the  inspector  in  that  country  must  be  a 
difficult  one. 

It  is  not  pretended  that  this  description  is  exhaustive, 
and  no  doubt  many  countries  have  modifications  of  the 
regulations  described  above  which  affect  importation  in 
other  ways.  Much  also  depends  on  the  way  the  laws  are 
administered.  It  is  believed,  however,  that  there  are  no 
regulations  which  cannot  be  classified  under  one  of  these 
categories.  If,  therefore,  they  are  compared  with  the 
regulations  contemplated  by  the  Rome  Convention  certain 
points  attract  attention  at  once :  — 

(1)  Most  of  the  plants  which  are  the   subject  of  the 
restrictions — tea,    coffee,    rubber,    cotton,    etc. — are    pro- 
ducts   of    general    consumption    which    have    no    exact 
analogy  in  temperate  agriculture.     It  is  possible,  there- 
fore, that  a  special  article  must  be  introduced  to  regulate 
the  trade  in  these  commodities,   or  they  might  even  be 
excluded  from  the  Convention  altogether.     On  the  other 
hand,  the  Rome  Convention  is  avowedly  only  a  beginning, 
and   as  the   phytopathological   services   of   each   country 
improve  fuller  responsibilities  will  be  undertaken,  and  the 
list  of  exempted  plants  restricted. 

(2)  With    hardly    any   exception    the    method    adopted 
ir>  tropical  countries  against  the  introduction  of  disease 
contemplates  preventive  measures  at  the  frontier  of  the 
country  of  destination,  while  the  scheme  underlying  the 


LEGISLATION  AGAINST  PLANT  DISEASES  AND  PESTS   13! 

Rome   Convention  implies  examination  at  the  place   of 
origin.     This  is  a  wide  and  important  difference  involving 
a  question  of  principle,  and  unless  the  Governments  of 
tropical  countries  can  see  their  way  to  adopt  this  change  it 
seems  to  be  impossible  for  them  to  ratify  the  Convention. 
The  advantages  and  disadvantages  need,  therefore,  to  be 
carefully  considered.     The  latter  are,  of  course,  obvious. 
The  large  size  of  most  tropical  States,  the  difficulty  of 
means    of   communication,    the    smallness    of   the    white 
population  in  many  instances,  and  the  difficulty  of  secur- 
ing a  strict  compliance  with  the  law  among  the  native  or 
coloured  races  make  inspection  difficult  and  evasion  an 
easy  matter.     The  number  of  pests,  both  those  that  are 
known  and  those  that  are  not,   increases  the  difficulty, 
while  the  rapidity  with  which  an  imported  pest  will  spread 
and  the  obstacles  in  the  way  of  overtaking  it  seem  almost 
insuperable    objections.     At    first    sight,    therefore,    the 
arguments  in  favour  of  examination  and  treatment  at  the 
port  of  landing  seem  almost  unanswerable.     On  further 
consideration,  however,  there  seems  much  to  be  said  for 
the  opposite  point  of  view.     Fumigation  at  the  port  of 
landing  may  be  a  satisfactory  means  of  preventing  the 
introduction  of  disease,  but  it  does  not  appear  to  be  more 
efficacious  than  fumigation  at  the  port  of  departure;  and  if 
the  diseases  against  which  the  country  wishes  to  be  pro- 
tected  are   known,   an   examination   of  the  consignment 
by  a  competent  inspector  is  in  most  cases  as  good.     All 
that  is  necessary,  therefore,  is  that  consignments  that  are 
exported  should  be  examined  and  treated,   if  necessary, 
instead  of  those  which  are  imported.     Moreover,  if  the 
examination  can  take   place   at  the  premises  where  the 
plants  were  grown,  there  is  not  only  a  much  better  chance 
of  detecting  the  disease,  but  the  results  are  more  satis- 
factory, since  it  is  clearly  better  to  search  for  and  destroy 
disease  in  one's  own  country,  where  the  discovery  may 
lead  to  national  benefit,  than  to  expend  one's  energies  in 
excluding  the  disease  from  elsewhere.     Nearly  all  tropical 
countries — certainly  all  of  moderate  size  and  longer  settle- 
ment— aim  at  the  control  of  some  plant  diseases  in  home 
farms   and  plantations,   and  all  that  is  necessary  is  the 
extension  of  this  principle  a  little  further.     In  theory  it  is 


132   LEGISLATION  AGAINST  PLANT  DISEASES  AND  PESTS 

probable  everyone  will  agree,  but  will  object  that  in 
practice  it  is  impossible,  because  no  country  will  trust 
the  certificate  of  any  other  country.  It  will  be  objected 
that  the  examination  will  be  perfunctory  where  it  is  not 
ignorant,  and  that  diseases  will  be  found  on  consignments 
officially  declared  to  be  free.  The  same  fear,  it  must  be 
admitted,  was  present  among  some  of  the  delegates  at 
the  Rome  Conference,  but  as  it  was  most  conspicuous  in 
those  countries  whose  system  of  inspection  was  the  least 
satisfactory,  there  is  some  reason  for  thinking  that  the 
fear  is  bred  of  the  knowledge  of  their  own  deficiencies. 
The  proper  remedy  is  for  each  country  to  perfect  its  own 
service,  and  it  will  then  quickly  be  able  not  only  to  detect 
the  faults  of  others,  but  to  remedy  them  when  they  arise. 

The  adoption  of  this  principle  in  most  European 
countries  has  proved  a  national  advantage,  since  it  has 
enabled  the  Government  to  secure  for  home  consumers 
the  same  advantages  which  are  obtained  for  foreign 
customers  without  additional  cost,  and  has  undoubtedly 
led  to  an  improvement  in  the  general  cleanliness  of 
nursery  stock. 

In  conclusion,  therefore,  it  would  appear  that,  though 
most  tropical  countries  may  have  to  modify  their  regula- 
tions drastically  if  they  desire  to  adhere  to  the  Conven- 
tion, it  will  not  prove  an  exceptionally  difficult  task  to  do 
so;  while  the  advantages  which  will  result  therefrom  will 
be  of  great  benefit  to  the  home  consumer,  and  will  tend  to 
promote  international  trade  instead  of  hampering  and 
restricting  it,  as  do  so  many  of  the  regulations  in  force  at 
the  present  time. 


COTTON. 


THE  WORK  OF  THE  BRITISH  COTTON  GROWING 
ASSOCIATION, 

By  J.  ARTHUR  HUTTON. 

Chairman  of  the  Council  of  the  British  Cotton  Growing 
Association. 

It  would  be  quite  impossible  in  a  short  paper  to  give 
a  full  account  of  the  work  carried  on  by  the  British  Cotton 
Growing  Association  during  the  last  twelve  years,  and, 
therefore,  on  this  occasion  I  do  not  propose  to  go  into  any 
detail,  but  rather  to  give  a  general  idea  of  our.  successes 
and  our  failures.  Naturally  in  all  pioneering  work  one 
must  make  mistakes  in  learning  the  best  methods  of  work- 
ing, but  I  can  say  with  pride,  that  the  Council  have  never 
been  afraid  of  publishing  their  failures,  for  they  have 
rightly  regarded  them  as  the  means  of  ultimately  attain- 
ing  success. 

Before  dealing  with  the  work  of  the  Association  1 
propose  to  give  you  a  short  account  of  the  formation  of 
that  body.  In  January,  1901,  at  the  Annual  Dinner  of  the 
Oldham  Chamber  of  Commerce,  Mr.  Benjamin  Crapper, 
one  of  the  most  active  members  of  the  Council  and  the 
Chairman  of  the  East  African  Committee-  of  the  Associa- 
tion, drew  attention  to  the  dangerous  position  of  the  Lan-. 
cashire  cotton  industry,  owing  to  the  fact  that  it  was  de- 
pendent on  the  United  States  for  the  bulk  of  its  supplies  of 
the  raw  material,  and,  therefore,  that  the  industry  was  at 
the  mercy  of  the  vagaries  of  the  weather  in  one  particular 
part  of  the  world  I  need  not  dwell  on  the  sufferings 
which  were  subsequently  caused  when  the  mills  had  to  be 
put  on  short  time  owing  to  the  failure  of  the  American 
crop,  nor  need  I  do  more  than  draw  attention  to  the  ob- 
vious fact  that  the  only  way  by  which  such  calamities 
can  be  avoided  in  the  future  is  by  the  establishment  of 
cotton  growing  in  all  parts  of  the  world.  If  the  basis  of 
supply  is  broadened,  and  if'  cotton  is  grown  in  quantity  in 
Africa  and  other  countries  as  well  as  in  India,  Egypt,  and 
the  United  States,  one  can  regard  the  failure  of  the  crop 


134  COTTON 

in  any  particular  part  of  the  world  with  equanimity,  for  in 
all  probability  it  would  be  balanced  by  more  favourable 
climatic  conditions  elsewhere. 

The  Oldham  Chamber  of  Commerce  promptly  fol- 
lowed the  matter  up  by  appointing  a  Committee  to  inquire 
into  the  question.  A  considerable  amount  of  correspond- 
ence took  place  with  the  Colonial  Office,  Governors,  and 
other  Colonial  officials,  and  their  report  was  published  in 
November,  1901.  The  report  may  be  summed  up  in  one 
sentence.  In  the  opinion  of  the  Committee  : 

"  Suitable  cotton  for  the  Lancashire  trade  could 
be  grown  in  various  parts  of  the  British  Empire." 

This  report  was  circulated  amongst  the  other  Cham- 
bers of  Commerce,  and  on  February  i8th,  1902,  a  represen- 
tative meeting  was  held  at  the  Manchester  Chamber,  when 
an  influential  committee  was  appointed.  In  the  meantime 
the  late  Sir  Alfred  Jones,  with  his  usual  energy  and  zeal, 
had  already  commenced  operations  on  his  own  account,  and 
had  sent  out  ten  tons  of  American  seed  to  West  Africa 
in  May,  1901.  Acting  as  Chairman  of  the  West  African 
Committee  of  the  Manchester  Chamber  of  Commerce,  I 
invited  Sir  Alfred  Jones  and  some  of  the  leading  West 
African  merchants,  to  dinner  on  May  /th,  1902,  at  the 
Albion  Hotel,  Manchester,  to  meet  representatives  of  the 
cotton  trade,  and  at  that  dinner  the  British  Cotton  Growing 
Association  was  born. 

A  general  meeting  of  various  Associations  and  other 
bodies  interested  was  held  at  the  Manchester  Chamber  on 
June  1 2th,  1902,  when  the  Association  was  formally  in- 
augurated with  a  guarantee  fund  of  £50,000.  Sir  Alfred 
Jones  was  elected  President,  and  Mr.  J.  E.  Newton  Chair- 
man and  myself  Vice-Chairman  of  the  General  Committee. 
Active  operations  were  at  once  commenced,  and  several 
cotton  experts  were  sent  out  to  various  parts  of  the  Em- 
pire to  inquire  and  report.  It  was  very  soon  realised  that 
the  funds  at  the  disposal  of  the  Committee  were  quite  in- 
adequate, and  at  a  meeting  held  in  November,  1903,  it  was 
decided  to  increase  the  Guarantee  Fund  to  £100,000.  By 
this  time  the  Committee  were  able  to  realise  how  enormous 
was  the  work  they  had  taken  in  hand,  and  also  that  for  a 
considerable  period  a  large  amount  of  pioneering  work 
would  have  to  be  undertaken,  and  that  as  this  work  could 
not  be  remunerative  for  some  little  time  it  would  be  diffi- 
cult to  get  ordinary  capitalists  to  interest  themselves  in  the 
work.  It  was  not  originally  intended  that  the  Association 
should  attempt  to  do  more  than  make  inquiries  and  carry 


COTTON  135 

on  a  small  amount  of  experimental  and  missionary  work, 
but  it  very  soon  became  apparent  that  unless  the  Associa- 
tion undertook  the  entire  supervision  of  the  industry  and 
the  actual  buying  and  ginning  of  the  cotton,  very  little 
good  could  be  done. 

In  January,  1904,  owing  to  the  shortage  in  the  supply 
of  American  cotton,  the  situation  in  Lancashire  became  so 
much  more  serious  that  it  was  decided  to  reconstitute  the 
Association  on  a  permanent  basis,  and  to  apply  to  His 
Majesty,  the  late  King  Edward,  for  a  Royal  Charter.  On 
August  2/th  the  Charter  was  finally  sealed,  and  the  Asso- 
ciation was  reconstituted  with  a  capital  of  £500,000,  of 
which  £471,000  have  been  actually  subscribed. 

Sir  Alfred  Jones  was  the  first  President  of  the  Asso- 
ciation, and  I  must  here  record  the  very  great  debt  of 
gratitude  owed  to  his  memory  by  all  who  are  interested 
in  the  welfare  of  the  British  Empire.  It  is  mainly  due  to 
his  untiring  energy  and  to  his  splendid  generosity  that  the 
Association  has  been  able  to  achieve  its  present  position. 

As  you  are  all  aware,  on  the  death  of  Sir  Alfred  Jones 
the  Earl  of  Derby  very  kindly  consented,  on  the  unani- 
mous request  of  the  Council,  to  accept  the  position  of 
President  of  the  Association,  and  we  are  all  most  grateful 
to  him  for  the  invaluable  services  he  has  rendered  to  the 
Association. 

In  1906,  owing  to  ill-health,  Mr.  J.  E.  Newton  had  to 
retire  from  the  position  of  Chairmanship  of  the  Council,  and 
I  was  appointed  in  his  place. 

I  must  draw  attention  to  the  fact  that  the  Association 
is  absolutely  representative  in  character.  Its  members  con- 
sist of  spinners  and  manufacturers,  merchants  and  ship- 
pers, and  representatives  of  all  the  various  industries  con- 
nected with  the  Lancashire  cotton  trade,  and  further  than 
that,  many  of  the  Labour  bodies  are  taking  an  active  iff 
terest  in  the  work,  and  some  of  their  representatives  are 
the  most  useful  members  we  have  on  our  Council.  I 
should  also  draw  attention  to  the  fact  that  the  capital  has 
been  subscribed  mainly  for  the  purpose  of  extending  the 
growth  of  cotton  and  not  for  the  earning  of  dividends,  in 
fact  it  was  stipulated  in  the  prospectus  that  no  dividends 
should  be  paid  for  a  period  of  seven  years. 

Before  dealing  with  the  actual  work,  I  should  like  to 
draw  attention  to  the  great  assistance  which  has  been 
rendered  to  the  Association  by  His  Majesty's  Government 
and  by  both  political  parties.  The  philanthropic  character 
of  the  Association,  and  the  beneficial  nature  of  its  work. 


136  COTTON 

is  fully  recognised  at  the  Colonial  Office,  and  I  might  almost 
go  so  far  as  to  say  that  the  officials  there  look  on  the 
Association  almost  as  a  Department  of  their  office.  They 
realise  as  no  one  else  does,  that  wherever  we  go,  and  wher- 
ever we  are  successful,  we  carry  prosperity  with  us,  though 
it  frequently  happens  that  the  Association  itself  is  the  only 
body  which  derives  no  profit  from  its  transactions.  Thanks 
mainly  to  our  efforts,  many  of  the  West  Indian  Islands 
which  were  in  a  serious  financial  position  are  to-day  in  a 
state  of  prosperity.  Thanks  largely  also  to  our  work, 
cotton  is  the  leading  article  of  export  in  Nyasaland  and 
Uganda,  and  "  grants-in-aid "  from  the  Imperial  Govern- 
ment to  these  Colonies  have  become  a  thing  of  the  past. 
Also  in  Nigeria  cotton  provides  a  large  portion  of  the 
revenue  of  the  railway,  and  that  Colony  has  benefited  in 
many  other  directions,  for  it  is  manifest  that  every  pound's 
worth  of  cotton  exported  has  to  be  paid  for  by  a  pound's 
worth  of  imported  goods,  with  consequent  benefit  to  the 
revenue  of  the  Colony.  There  is  an  old  proverb  :  That 
the  real  benefactor  of  mankind  is  the  man  who  makes  two 
blades  of  corn  grow  where  one  grew  before.  Equally  so 
the  man  who  can  get  cotton  grown  where  none  grew 
before  is  conferring  invaluable  benefits  both  on  the  native 
who  grows  the  cotton  and  on  those  who  spin  it  into  yarn 
and  weave  it  into  cloth,  and  also  on  the  railway  and  ship- 
ping interests,  and  all  the  other  allied  industries  and  trades. 
There  is  a  further  point  to  which  I  must  draw  atten- 
tion, and  that  is  the  valuable  and  disinterested  advice  which 
the  Association  are  able  to  give  to  the  officials  at  the  Colo- 
nial Office  and  also  in  our  Colonies.  During  the  twelve 
years  we  have  been  at  work  we  have  acquired  valuable 
experience,  and  the  officials  know  that  when  we  offer 
any  advice  or  urge  any  particular  course  of  action,  we  have 
only  one  object  in  view,  and  that  is  the  development  of 
cotton  growing  in  the  British  Empire.  Knowing  this,  we 
naturally  are  most  careful  in  any  representations  we  put 
forward,  and  we  never  urge  the  Government  to  take  any 
particular  step,  whether  it  be  the  building  of  a  railway  or 
the  guaranteeing  of  a  Colonial  loan,  unless  we  are  con- 
vinced that  what  we  urge  is  in  the  interests  of  the  Empire. 
I  say  it  with  pride  that  we  have  never  yet  asked  the  Gov- 
ernment to  take  any  particular  step  without  meeting  with 
success.  I  can  only  hope  that  the  Association  may  be 
able  to  retain  its  present  semi-philanthropic  character,  and 
obtain  the  necessary  funds  for  it  to  continue  its  work  on  a 
permanent  basis.  If  anything  were  to  happen  which 


COTTON  137 

necessitated  the  winding-up  or  dissolution  of  the  Associa- 
tion it  would  be  a  disaster  for  the  Empire. 

The  work  of  the  Association  may  be  divided  into  three 
periods  :  — 

1 I )  Inquiry. 

(2)  Experimental. 

(3)  Development. 

The  first  and  second  periods  are  practically  over,  for 
there  is  no  part  of  the  Empire  capable  of  producing  cotton 
in  any  quantity  which  has  not  been  fully  inquired  into  by 
the  Association,  and  in  many  cases  experimental  work  has 
actually  been  carried  on.  We  are  now  in  the  third  and 
perhaps  the  most  difficult  stage,  and  that  is  development, 
for  development  means  capital,  and  it  is  by  no  means  easy 
for  a  semi-philanthropic  body  to  raise  capital. 

During  the  first  two  periods  our  inquiries  and  experi- 
ments were  extended  throughout  the  greater  part  of  the 
British  Empire,  and  the  Council  have  now  decided  that  as 
far  as  any  large  results  are  concerned  the  districts  which 
offer  the  best  prospects  are  : 

(1)  India. 

(2)  Uganda  and  Nyasaland. 

(3)  West  Africa. 

(4)  The  Anglo- Egyptian  Sudan. 

(5)  The  West  Indies. 

No  doubt  there  are  other  parts  of  the  Empire  where  cotton 
can  be  grown,  but  the  Council  have  decided  that  their  main 
energies  must  be  concentrated  on  those  countries,  and 
therefore  on  the  present  occasion  I  only  propose  to  deal 
with  this  portion  of  the  work. 

INDIA. 

It  is  held  by  many,  and  with  some  justification,  that 
India  offers  the  best  prospect  of  large  and  quick  returns. 
In  1902-3  the  Indian  crop  amounted  to  3,855,000  bales, 
and  had  increased  to  5,197,000  bales  five  years  later. 
There  was  a  falling  back  in  the  next  two  years,  but  in  1909- 
10  the  crop  touched  the  record  figure  of  5,317,000  bales, 
only  to  fall  back  again  to  4,078,000  bales  in  1911-12.  It 
will  be  seen  at  once  that  the  fluctuations  are  very  large, 
as  I  suppose  must  always  be  more  or  less  the  case  with 
agricultural  crops,  which  are  naturally  dependent  on  the 
vagaries  of  the  weather.  There  is,  however,  one  serious 
disadvantage  connected  with  Indian  cotton,  and  that  is 
the  fact  that  the  bulk  of  it  is  far  too  short  for  anything 


138  COTTON 

but  the  coarsest  yarn,  and  not  one  Lancashire  spinner  in 
a  hundred  could  make  any  use  of  Indian  cotton.  It  is 
principally  used  on  the  Continent,  and  in  Japan,  and  in  India 
itself.  At  the  same  time  it  must  not  be  forgotten  that  if 
there  is  an  increase  in  the  quantity  of  cotton  produced  in 
India  it  will  to  a  certain  extent  reduce  the  demand  for  long- 
stapled  cotton.  It  would,  however,  be  dangerous  to  attach 
too  much  importance  to  this  argument,  for  the  world  re- 
quires better  and  finer  qualities  every  day,  and  conse- 
quently the  demand  for  medium  and  long-stapled  cotton  is 
increasing  correspondingly.  The  principal  demand  in  Lan- 
cashire is  for  cotton  from  ^  inch  to  il/±  inches  in  length, 
and  there  never  was  a  period  in  recent  years  when  there 
was  so  great  an  actual  scarcity  of  cotton  about  il/%  inches 
long.  Most  cotton  is  bought  and  sold  on  the  basis  of 
futures,  or  paper  contracts,  with  a  premium,  or  the  opposite, 
according  to  the  quality  of  the  actual  cotton.  At  the  pre- 
sent moment  spinners  are  having  to  pay  100  points  on,  or  a 
premium  of  one  penny  per  pound  for  cotton  which  a  few 
years  back  could  have  been  bought  at  a  price  of  one- 
farthing  per  pound  over  contracts. 

It  is  evident,  therefore,  that  the  main  efforts  of  the 
Association  should  be  devoted  to  the  production  of  cotton 
of  longer  staple  than  that  grown  in  India.  At  the  same 
time  there  is  danger  of  growing  cotton  which  is  too  long 
for  the  average  spinner,  and  especially  so  when  such  cotton 
is  not  grown  under  the  best  conditions.  When  the  staple 
exceeds  i1/^  inches  in  length  it  can  only  be  used  by  spin- 
ners who  are  spinning  the  finer  counts,  such  as  are  usually 
spun  from  Egyptian  cotton,  and  for  this  purpose  cotton 
which  is  coarse  and  irregular  in  staple,  or  wasty  or  soft,  or 
stained,  is  difficult  to  use,  and  is  discarded  by  the  spinner. 
In  other  words,  unless  long-stapled  cotton  is  well  grown  it 
is  almost  unsaleable,  and  in  addition  the  market  for  this 
class  of  cotton  is  to  a  certain  extent  a  limited  one.  It 
would  be  easier  to  sell  hundreds  of  thousands  of  bales  of 
inch  cotton  than  it  would  be  to  find  a  market  for  a  few 
hundred  bales  of  cotton  il/±  inches  long. 

The  Association  felt  that  as  far  as  India  was  con- 
cerned trie  Government  of  India  was  the  only  body  which 
could  do  any  good,  and  one  of  the  first  steps  they  took 
was  to  send  a  deputation  on  February  2/th,  1904,  to  Mr. 
St.  John  Brodrick,  who  was  then  Secretary  of  State.  They 
drew  attention  to  the  great  importance  of  increasing  the 
quantity  of  cotton,  and  special  emphasis  was  drawn  to  the 
necessity  of  improving  the  quality.  It  was  also  pointed  out 


COTTON  139 

that  if  India  could  grow  a  superior  type  of  cotton,  the 
grower  would  be  able  to  command  a  wider  market  and  a 
better  price  for  his  produce.  This  was  followed  up  on 
September  5th,  1904,  by  a  despatch  to  the  Viceroy,  Lord 
Curzon.  This  despatch  will  be  printed  in  full  as  an 
Appendix  to  this  Paper.  The  principal  steps  recommen- 
ded by  the  Association  were  as  follows :  — 

I. — The  establishment  of  Government  seed  farms, 
where  experiments  could  be  carried  out  with  different 
varieties  of  seed,  both  indigenous  and  exotic,  and  where 
continual  selection  from  the  best  varieties  could  be  made 
from  year  to  year,  so  as  to  ensure  a  supply  of  the  best 
possible  seed  to  the  native  cultivators.  This  is  the  most 
vital  factor  in  successful  cotton  cultivation,  and  much  of 
the  prosperity  in  the  United  States  is  due  to  the  continual 
efforts  of  the  Agricultural  Department,  planters,  seed 
suppliers,  and  others  to  obtain  new  and  improved  strains. 
Similar  efforts  in  India  with  wheat  have  been  most  success- 
ful. 

2. — To  carry  on  at  these  farms  experiments  with 
fertilisers,  and  better  methods  of  cultivation,  with  the  view 
of  giving  the  natives  a  practical  object-lesson  of  the  ad- 
vantage to  themselves  of  an  improvement  on  their  present 
methods.  These  farms  would  also  afford  valuable  train- 
ing grounds  for  native  experts,  who  could  afterwards  act 
as  advisers  in  other  districts. 

3. — The  establishment  of  a  special  Agricultural  De- 
partment devoted  solely  to  cotton,  with  a  staff  of  experts 
with  a  scientific  knowledge  of  the  best  modern  methods 
pursued  in  the  United  States  and  Egypt.  In  addition  to 
the  Central  Institution  there  should  be  an  efficient  staff  in 
each  Province,  who  should  supervise  and  assist  locally  in 
all  questions  connected  with  selection  of  seed,  better 
methods  of  cultivation,  the  use  of  fertilisers,  and  ginning 
and  grading  of  cotton. 

4. — The  establishment  of  Agricultural  Banks  on  simi- 
lar lines  to  those  in  existence  in  Egypt,  so  as  to  enable 
the  native  planter  to  obtain  financial  assistance  on  reason- 
able terms,  and  thus  reap  better  profits  than  he  does  now. 

5. — The  carrying  out  of  a  thorough  survey  of  the  ex- 
isting varieties  with  a  view  to  the  selection  of  that  most 
suited  to  each  district  and  to  its  ultimate  improvement. 

There  is  no  doubt  that  much  of  the  scientific  work 
which  has  since  been  carried  on  by  the  Indian  Government 
is  a  result  of  the  representations  made  by  the  Association. 


140  COTTON 

Acting  in  co-operation  with  the  Government  of  India 
the  Association  voted  the  sum  of  £3,000,  which,  with  a 
similar  amount  from  the  Government,  was  to  be  spent  on 
certain  experiments,  which  were  carried  out  by  Messrs. 
Shaw,  Wallace,  and  Co.,  in  endeavouring  to  establish  per- 
ennial or  tree  cottons.  I  regret  to  say  that  these  experi- 
ments were  a  failure,  and  it  is  rather  remarkable  that 
various  experiments  carried  out  in  several  colonies  with 
Caravonica  and  other  perennial  types  of  cotton  have  been 
unsuccessful. 

In  1905  the  Council  voted  a  sum  of  £10,000  to  be  spent 
by  the  Government  of  India  in  experimental  work.  Of 
this  amount  the  sum  of  £2,000  was  actually  spent,  but 
afterwards,  in  view  of  the  heavy  demands  on  the  Associa- 
tion in  other  Colonies,  the  Government  agreed  that  the 
Association  should  be  relieved  of  further  liability  in  the 
matter. 

In  1911  representations  were  made  to  the  Association 
that  local  buyers  in  India  would  not  pay  a  suitable  price 
for  improved  qualities  of  cotton,  and  that  it  was  of  very 
little  use  for  the  Department  of  Agriculutre  to  raise  and 
distribute  supplies  of  superior  seed  unless  a  higher  price 
was  paid  for  the  better  than  for  the  ordinary  cotton.  The 
Association  then  offered  to  establish  buying  stations  and 
to  erect  one  or  two  ginning  and  baling  factories,  provided 
that  the  Indian  Government  would  take  half  the  risk,  and 
would  share  either  the  profit  or  the  loss  as  the  case  might 
be,  and  the  Association  would  undertake  that  the  native 
farmer  should  receive  the  highest  possible  price  for  his 
cotton.  In  conseque  ice  of  representations  from  Bombay 
spinners  and  merchants,  which  were  perhaps  not  altogether 
disinterested,  the  Indian  Government  were  unable  to  accept 
the  Association's  offer,  which  would  certainly  have  ensured 
that  the  native  farmer  was  properly  rewarded  for  his  labour. 

Since  then  the  Association  have  not  taken  any  further 
practical  steps  in  India,  for  they  feel  that  the  Government 
are  now  thoroughly  alive  to  the  great  importance  of  the 
question,  and  fully  realise  that  it  is  to  the  advantage  of  the 
natives  to  grow  cotton,  not  only  in  increased  quantity,  but 
also  of  improved  quality,  so  as  to  be  able  to  command  a 
larger  market  for  their  produce.  From  time  to  time  the 
Association  continue  to  render  valuable  assistance  to  the 
Government  by  reporting  on  samples  of  new  types  of 
cotton.  Owing  to  their  close  connection  with  the  Lan- 
cashire trade,  both  with  spinners  and  brokers,  they  are  in 
a  particularly  favourable  position  to  judge  as  to  the  suita- 


COTTON  141 

bility  for  the  market  of  any  new  type  of  cotton.  When 
all  is  said  and  done,  the  buyer  has  the  last  word  in  the 
matter,  and  it  is  most  important  that  the  farmer  should 
grow  the  cotton  which  the  spinner  wants. 

WEST    INDIES. 

In  some  ways  the  results  obtained  in  the  West  Indies 
are  the  most  satisfactory,  for  the  West  Indian  Islands  are 
producing  a  sufficient  quantity  of  Sea  Island  cotton  to  fully 
meet  the  present  demand.  Unfortunately,  owing  to  the 
existing  style  of  ladies'  dresses,  the  demand  for  lace  has 
fallen  off  very  much,  and  consequently  the  demand  for  the 
highest  class  of  cotton  has  not  increased  during  recent 
years.  One  can  only  hope  that  the  present  rather  unbe- 
coming fashions  may  change,  and  that  the  demand  for  Sea 
Island  cotton  may  increase,  and  that  the  Association  will 
be  able  to  advise  the  planters  to  increase  the  acreage  under 
cotton. 

In  connection  with  the  work  in  the  West  Indies,  there 
was  one  great  advantage.  The  Imperial  Department  of 
Agriculture,  which  was  then  under  the  able  management 
of  Sir  Daniel  Morris,  was  a  thoroughly  equipped 
organisation,  with  an  excellent  staff  of  scientifically  trained 
experts,  such  as  existed  in  no  other  part  of  the  Empire. 
As  soon  as  the  cotton  proposition  was  placed  before  Sir 
Daniel  Morris,  he  at  once  grasped  the  great  possibilities 
of  the  question,  and  what  was  perhaps  more  important,  he 
was  able  to  take  immediate  steps  to  ensure  that  the  plan- 
ters should  receive  supplies  of  seed  of  the  highest  possible 
quality.  Mr.  Lomas  Oliver,  who  is  a  member  of  our 
Council,  and  who  himself  uses  the  best  quality  of  Sea 
Island  cotton,  paid  two  visits  to  the  West  Indies,  and  I 
accompanied  him  on  the  second  occasion.  I  cannot  express 
too  high  praise  for  the  excellent  work  which  was  being 
carried  on  by  Sir  Daniel  Morris,  who  has  been  so  ably 
succeeded  by  Dr.  Watts.  I  could  only  wish  that  the 
authorities  would  realise  the  vital  importance  in  agricultural 
countries  of  a  fully  equipped  and  trained  agricultural  de- 
partment. As  a  rule  the  organisation  which  looks  after 
agriculture  is  generally  the  "  Cinderella "  of  the  Govern- 
ment Departments.  No  doubt  the  other  Departments  are 
of  considerable  importance,  but  a  few  years  ago  in  many 
of  our  tropical  Colonies  there  were  no  Agricultural  De- 
partments of  any  sort  whatever,  and  even  to-day  in  the 
majority  of  cases  they  are  not  much  to  boast  of.  What 


142  COTTON 

is  most  lamentable  is  that  the  Imperial  Department  of 
Agriculture  is  not  to-day  in  the  position  it  was  a  few  years 
ago,  and  this  is  partly  the  fault  of  the  West  Indians  them 
selves.  Each  island  wants  to  have  its  own  Department  of 
Agriculture,  and  refuses  to  bear  its  share  of  the  cost  of  the 
Central  Department.  It  will  be  evident  to  anyone  who 
takes  a  disinterested  view  of  the  matter,  that  a  large  central 
and  important  organisation  can  work  more  effectively  and 
more  economically,  and  will  attract  the  highest  class  of  men, 
who  would  hardly  care  to  join  a  small  local  department. 
It  is  far  better  to  have  one  or  two  well-paid  men  of  high 
scientific  standing  than  half-a-dozen  men  of  second-rate 
ability. 

The  Association  have  made  several  money  grants  to 
the  West  Indies,  for  the  payment  of  experts,  for  the  erec- 
tion of  ginning  machinery,  and  for  financing  crops,  etc., 
and  such  help  is  still  being  given.  The  principal  assist- 
ance they  render  is  in  marketing  the  cotton,  and  in  advising 
the  agricultural  authorities  as  to  the  market  values  of  the 
various  types  of  cotton,  and  they  do  all  in  their  power  to 
ensure  that  the  grower  receives  the  highest  possible  price 
for  his  cotton.  Sea  Island  is  not  everybody's  cotton,  and 
it  is  not  always  easy  to  find  a  quick  market  for  it.  The 
Association,  however,  recognise  that  if  the  industry  is  to 
continue  it  is  most  important  that  the  planter  should  be 
paid  a  good  price.  In  this  connection  I  must  draw  atten- 
tion to  the  great  gratitude  we  all  owe  to  Mr.  Charles 
Wolstenholme,  of  Liverpool,  who  has  I  know  sacrificed 
much  of  his  time  and  his  business  in  his  endeavours  to 
help  the  planter.  Thanks  to  the  Imperial  Department, 
and  thanks  to  Mr.  Wolstenholme,  some  of  the  best  cotton 
in  the  world  is  to-day  being  grown  in  the  West  Indies. 

WEST  AFRICA. 

In  commencing  operations  in  West  Africa,  the  Associa- 
tion had  two  difficulties  facing  them,  viz.,  the  huge  extent  of 
the  country,  and  lack  of  any  properly  equipped  Agricultural 
Departments.  Cotton  as  an  article  of  export  was  non- 
existent, and  there  was  no  one  to  whom  to  apply  for  defi- 
nite information  as  to  where  cotton  could  or  could  not  be 
grown,  and  it  was  impossible  to  say  where  good  results 
might  be  expected.  Everything  had,  as  it  were,  to  com- 
mence at  the  very  beginning. 

The  British  Possessions  in  West  Africa  cover  an  area 
of  about  450,000  square  miles,  and  the  population  is  about 


COTTON  143 

20,000,000.  This  area  of  450,000  square  miles  represents 
an  extent  of  nearly  300,000,000  acres,  or  about  three- 
quarters  of  the  area  of  the  cotton  States  of  America.  It 
is  therefore  evident  that  the  extent  of  territory  to  be  in- 
vestigated was  enormous. 

As  regards  the  question  of  Agricultural  Departments,  I 
must  point  out  that  owing  to  inexperience,  and  owing  also 
to  the  fact  that  there  was  not  a  single  official  in  West 
Africa  who  had  any  practical  experience  of  cotton  growing, 
the  Association  was  obliged  to  spend  large  sums  of  money 
not  only  in  proving  where  cotton  could  be  grown,  but  also 
where  it  could  not  be  grown.  I  do  not  think  I  can  exagger- 
ate the  importance  of  this  point.  Money  spent  in  scientific 
investigation  in  tropical  countries  will  ultimately  save  the 
waste  of  hundreds  of  thousands  if  not  millions  of  pounds. 
This  applies  just  as  much  to  rubber,  sugar,  and  other  pro- 
ducts as  it  does  to  cotton.  Time  after  time  the  Association 
made  representations  to  this  effect  fo  the  authorities  at 
the  Colonial  Office,  and  I  am  afraid  even  to-day  the  abso- 
lute necessity  of  having  a  properly  equipped  Agricultural 
Department  in  each  of  our  Colonies  is  not  fully  realised. 
After  continued  representations,  in  1904  the  Government 
appointed  Mr.  Gerald  C.  Dudgeon  as  Superintendent  of 
Agriculture  for  West  Africa,  but  on  his  retirement  the 
vacancy  was  not  filled.  I  am  glad  to  say  that  the  position 
to-day  is  somewhat  better  than  it  was  in  1902,  when  the 
Association  first  commenced  operations.  One  great  diffi- 
culty is  that  there  is  no  proper  system  of  training  experts. 
Further,  there  is  no  organised  system  for  collecting  and 
collating  information  so  that  one  colony  can  benefit  by 
the  experience  of  another. 

In  order  to  meet  this  want  the  Association  urged  the 
Government  to  organise  a  central  authority  or  Bureau  for 
Tropical  Agriculture.  A  small  scientific  committee  was 
appointed,  but  I  am  not  aware  whether  this  Committee 
ever  held  a  meeting.  I  have  at  any  rate  never  seen  any 
report  of  its  proceedings. 

The  Association  on  its  part,  as  a  first  step,  in  1903 
engaged  a  number  of  practical  planters  from  America,  and 
these  men  were  sent  out  to  Gambia,  Sierra  Leone,  the 
Gold  Coast,  Lagos,  and  Southern  Nigeria.  It  was  then 
found  that  cotton  of  fair  quality  was  growing  in  the  wild 
state,  and  that  in  various  districts  a  considerable  quantity 
was  grown  for  local  consumption. 

I  will  not  weary  you  with  the  details  of  the  work, 
but  I  must  draw  attention  to  one  important  fact,  which  we 


144  COTTON 

very  soon  discovered.  Owing  to  the  climate  the  European 
cannot  work  in  the  open  in  West  Africa,  and  he  also  has 
to  return  on  leave  at  frequent  intervals  to  recover  his 
health.  Our  first  term  of  service  was  twenty  months 
in  Africa  and  4  months  on  leave,  with  full  pay.  We  soon 
found  this  was  too  long,  and  the  service  was  subsequently 
altered  to  15  months  in  Africa  with  three  months'  leave, 
and  in  certain  districts  our  employees  remain  10  months 
in  Africa  with  2  months'  leave.  The  cost  of  passages  on 
the  steamer  to  and  from  Africa  is  in  consequence  very 
heavy,  and  this  coupled  with  comparatively  large  salaries 
renders  it  necessary  to  keep  the  number  of  white  employ- 
ees as  low  as  possible.  For  this  reason  it  is  extremely  diffi- 
cult to  work  a  large  plantation  in  Tropical  Africa  economic- 
ally. Further,  the  native  will  do  better  work  when  farming 
for  himself  than  when  employed  as  a  hireling.  The  Council 
therefore  decided  to  devote  their  principal  energies  to 
establishing  cotton  growing  as  a  native  industry,  and  it  is 
almost  a  truism  to  state  that,  generally  speaking,  cotton 
is  a  black-man's  crop. 

In  1904  an  agreement  was  entered  into  with  the  Gov- 
ernment that  model  farms  should  be  established  in  various 
centres  for  carrying  on  experiments  with  different  varieties 
of  seed,  etc.,  which  should  ultimately  become  seed  farms 
for  the  distribution  of  seed.  The  cost  of  these  farms  was 
to  be  borne  by  the  local  Governments.  The  reason  for 
this  agreement  was  that  we  had  discovered  that  cotton 
growing  was  not  merely  a  question  of  shipping  out  so 
many  hundred  tons  of  American  and  Egyptian  seed,  and 
expecting  that  the  natives  would  sow  it  and  reap  good 
crops.  Judging  from  our  experience,  one  requires  at 
least  three  or  four  years'  patient  work  before  one  can  de- 
cide that  any  exotic  seed  will  do  well  in  any  particular 
district.  One  might  go  further,  and  state  that  it  by  no 
means  follows  that  a  variety  which  does  well  in  one  district 
will  do  equally  well  in  another  part  of  the  same  Colony. 

The  Association  on  their  side  undertook  for  a  period 
of  three  years  to  purchase  all  seed-cotton  offered  at  a 
minimum  price  of  id.  per  lb.,  and  to  establish  buying  and 
ginning  centres  where  required.  They  further  undertook 
to  provide  experts  who  would  travel  round  the  country 
preaching  the  gospel  of  cotton  growing. 

This  agreement  was  subsequently  modified,  and  it  was 
arranged  that  the  Association  should  take  over  the  experi- 
mental work  at  the  plantations,  and  that  the  Governments  of 
Sierra  Leone,  Lagos,  and  Southern  Nigeria  should  pay 


COTTON  145 

the  Association  £6,500  per  annum,  and  the  Association 
undertook  to  spend  £10,000  annually  in  each  of  the  three 
Colonies  on  experimental  work.  • 

The  result  of  the  work  on  these  experimental  farms 
proved  that,  regarded  as  plantations  from  a  commercial 
point  of  view,  they  would  not  pay.  The  results  of  the 
experiments  were  published  in  pamphlet  form  by  the 
Association,  and  the  main  point  which  was  proved  was 
that  after  a  certain  number  of  years  exotic  cottons  could 
be  established  so  as  to  give  satisfactory  results,  and  some 
of  the  best  crops  were  obtained  from  imported  Upland 
American  seed  after  it  had  been  thoroughly  established. 
At  the  same  time  let  me  point  out  that  in  the  early  stages 
of.  the  industry  it  is  extremely  dangerous  to  distribute 
broadcast  large  quantities  of  exotic  seed  which  have  not 
been  established,  and  it  is  better  to  commence  with  local 
varieties.  If  the  quality  of  these  is  unsatisfactory,  they 
can  subsequently  be  replaced  by  exotic  cottons  after  the 
same  have  been  thoroughly  proved  and  established. 

It  is  difficult  to  say  whether  the  methods  of  cultiva- 
tion practised  by  the  natives  can  be  improved  upon.  They 
are  the  result  of  long  experience,  and  nothing  but  practical 
proof  of  other  methods  would  justify  one  in  persuading  the 
natives  to  abandon  the  methods  which  many  years'  ex- 
perience has  shown  to  give  the  best  results. 

One  thing  is  quite  certain,  and  that  is  that  the  dis- 
tribution of  seed  should  either  be  in  the  hands  of  the 
Government  or  under  Government  control,  and  the  Asso- 
ciation have  on  frequent  occasions  made  representations 
to  the  Colonial  Office  to  this  effect. 

As  it  was  found  to  be  unwise  to  distribute  exotic 
seed  the  Association  endeavoured  to  improve  the  local 
varieties  by  selection,  and  this  was  done  in  bulk  in  perhaps 
rather  a  rough  and  ready  way  at  the  ginneries.  Samples  of 
each  lot  of  cotton  were  sent  home,  and  instructions 
were  sent  out  to  reserve  certain  lots  for  sowing 
purposes,  and  either  to  destroy  or  ship  home  the 
seed  from  undesirable  cotton.  This  may  not  be  a  very 
scientific  method,  but  in  Lagos  the  results  have  been  most 
satisfactory.  The  Association  have  absolute  control  over 
the  distribution  of  seed,  and  I  should  also  add  have  to 
bear  the  cost  of  the  same.  In  the  early  days  there  was 
great  variation  in  quality — some  of  the  cotton  was  worth 
one-farthing  per  Ib.  more  than  Middling  American,  and 
some  was  difficult  to  sell  at  id.  below  contracts,  a  differ- 
ence of  il/4.d.  per  Ib.  To-day  Lagos  cotton  is  the  most 

10 


146 


COTTON 


regular  and  even  in  quality  of  any  cotton  produced  in  any 
part  of  the  world,  and  the  bulk  of  the  crop  is  sold  at  prices 
ranging  from  10  to  20  points  on  Middling  American.  This 
is  entirely  due  to  the  work  carried  on  by  the  Association, 
and  it  is  no  exaggeration  to  say  that  if  they  had  absolute 
control  of  the  industry  in  each  colony  it  would  be  of 
immense  advantage  to  the  welfare  of  the  district.  The 
Association  have  to  sell  the  cotton,  and  therefore  are  in 
a  much  better  position  to  judge  which  type  will  give  the 
best  results. 

It  was  subsequently  decided  that  each  Colony  should 
take  over  the  experimental  work,  and  I  cannot  say  that 
the  results  have  so  far  altogether  justified  the  change.  But 
it  must  not  be  forgotten  that  most  of  the  men  who  took 
the  work  over  had  had  little  or  no  experience  of  cotton 
growing,  and  had  to  begin  ab  initio. 

While  on  this  point  I  should  like  to  say  a  few  words 
on  the  present  quality  of  West  African  cotton,  and  as  to 
how  it  might  be  improved.  Unfortunately,  as  a  rule,  West 
African  cotton  gives  a  very  bad  ginning  return,  and  the 
proportion  of  lint  is  only  about  27  per  cent.  In  other 
words,  it  takes  3^  Ib.  of  unginned  or  seed  cotton  to  give 
one  pound  of  lint.  If,  therefore,  the  buying  price  is  fixed 
at  id.  per  Ib.  for  seed  cotton,  the  first  cost  works  out  at 
3^d.  per  Ib.  of  lint  cotton,  and  when  one  has  allowed  for 
cost  of  buying,  ginning,  financing,  freight,  insurance, 
brokerage,  and  other  charges,  the  cost  in  Liverpool  will 
work  out  at  about  6%d.  per  pound,  which  leaves  very  little 
margin  for  profit.  If  a  variety  which  gave  33  per  cent,  of 
lint  could  be  established,  one  could  increase  the  buying 
price  to  i^d.  per  pound,  or  by  25  per  cent.,  without  in- 
creasing the  cost  delivered  in  Liverpool.  It  is  therefore 
evident  that  a  variety  which  gives  a  better  percentage  of 
lint  is  to  be  aimed  at.  West  African  cotton  is  also  rather 
on  the  short  side,  and  also  of  a  rough  and  harsh  character, 
and  rather  brown  in  colour,  and  other  things  being  equal 
it  would  certainly  be  an  advantage  if  a  variety  could  be 
established  rather  whiter  in  colour  and  of  a  more  silky 
nature.  The  one  great  advantage  of  West  African  cotton, 
and  which  gives  it  its  value  is  the  fact  that  it  is  exceedingly 
strong,  and  gives  very  little  waste  in  spinning,  and  there- 
fore I  would  sooner  stick  to  the  present  varieties  rather  than 
introduce  a  new  cotton,  which,  though  longer,  whiter,  and 
silkier,  was  of  a  soft  and  wasty  character.  If  cotton  is 
really  strong  the  spinner  will  overlook  many  other  faults, 
but  when  the  market  is  well  supplied,  soft  and  weak  cotton 
is  almost  unsaleable. 


COTTON  147 

When  the  local  Governments  decided  to  take  over  the 
experimental  farms  a  new  agreement  was  entered  into  with 
the  Home  Government,  and  it  was  arranged  that  the  Asso- 
ciation should  receive  a  grant  of  £10,000  per  annum  from 
Imperial  funds,  for  a  period  of  three  years,  terminating  on 
March  3 1st,  1913.  This  agreement  was  subsequently  ex- 
tended for  a  further  period  of  three  years  to  March  3ist, 
1916.  This  grant  was  given  on  condition  that  the  Associa- 
tion should  raise  £150,000  additional  capital,  and  the 
Association  further  undertook  to  establish  and  maintain 
seven  pioneer  ginning  and  buying  stations  as  follows :  — 

Gold  Coast,  at  Labolabo  and  Tamale. 

Southern  Nigeria,  at  Illushi. 

Northern  Nigeria,  at  Lokoja,  Zaria  and  Kano. 

Nyasaland,  at  Port  Herald. 

The  Association  further  undertook  to  provide  seed  for 
sowing  free  of  charge  in  the  above-mentioned  Colonies, 
and  also  in  Lagos.  I  should  mention  that  the  cost  of  this 
in  Lagos  alone  in  1913  amounted  to  £1,700.  The  Associa- 
tion further  undertook  that  their  staff  should  give  up  a  con- 
siderable portion  of  their  time  to  missionary  work.  The 
Association  are  most  grateful  to  His  Majesty's  Govern- 
ment for  this  valuable  monetary  assistance,  without  which 
they  would  have  been  compelled  to  curtail  their  work.  There 
is,  however,  no  doubt  that  the  Government  acted  wisely  in 
giving  this  help  to  the  Association,  for  not  only  has  the  latter 
spent  the  whole  of  the  grant  on  pioneering  work,  but 
has  also  spent  a  good  deal  of  its  own  money  as  well. 
For  example:  In  1912  the  cost  of  working  the  various 
branches  in  Africa  amounted  to  £16,532,  so  that  after 
deducting  the  Government  grant,  the  Association  were 
actually  £6,532  out  of  pocket  in  actual  cash  alone,  in 
addition  to  the  time  and  labour  devoted  to  the  work.  I 
should  also  point  out  that  it  is  more  than  probable  that 
the  best  possible  value  was  obtained  for  the  money  spent, 
for  it  is  an  admitted  fact  that  in  the  nature  of  things  Gov- 
ernment Departments  cannot  work  as  economically,  as 
efficiently,  or  as  expeditiously  as  commercial  men. 

One  great  advantage  in  West  Africa  was  the  fact  that 
there  were  a  large  number  of  merchants  established  in 
the  various  Colonies,  and  the  Association  cannot  thank 
them  sufficiently  for  the  valuable  co-operation  they  have 
given.  An  agreement  was  entered  into,  and  the  merchants 
undertook  to  purchase  all  cotton  offered  to  them  on 
account  of  the  Association,  and  in  consequence  each  mer- 
chant's trading  factory  became  a  buying  station  for  the 


148  COTTON 

Association.  The  merchants  receive  a  fair  remuneration 
for  their  services,  and  the  Association  benefit  by  economies 
in  the  cost  of  a  special  staff  for  buying  cotton.  I  should 
also  mention  the  great  advantage  of  having  a  thoroughly 
pood  bank  established  in  a  Colony.  Cotton  must  be 
oought  with  actual  cash,  and  thanks  to  the  Bank  of  British 
West  Africa,  the  Association  are  able  to  obtain  all  the 
cash  required  even  at  outlying  stations. 

The  one  great  difficulty  in  West  Africa,  and  indeed 
throughout  Africa  generally,  is  the  difficulty  of  transport. 
African  rivers,  with  the  exception  of  perhaps  the  Nile  and 
the  Congo,  are  generally  too  low  for  transport  at  the  time 
when  cotton  is  coming  forward,  or  else  they  are  broken  up 
by  rapids.  In  Nyasaland  I  have  known  cases  when  12 
months  have  elapsed  between  the  time  the  cotton  has  been 
gathered  and  when  the  proceeds  could  be  realised  in 
Liverpool.  At  this  very  moment  500  tons  of  seed 
cotton  are  lying  at  Yelwa  on  the  river  Niger,  and  it 
will  be  impossible  to  transport  it  before  December,  when 
the  river  rises.  Even  then  it  may  not  be  practicable,  for 
$here  are  several  stretches  where  the  river  is  broken  up  by 
rapids. 

There  is  no  doubt  that  cotton  growing  in  Africa  can 
never  be  really  successful  until  the  country  is  opened  up  by 
railways,  and  this  applies  not  only  to  cotton,  but  also  to 
other  products.  In  West  Africa,  speaking  generally,  along 
the  coast  line  and  for  some  distance  inland,  the  rainfall  is 
far  too  heavy  for  successful  cotton  cultivation,  and  the 
Association  soon  discovered  that  their  efforts  must  be  de- 
voted to  the  interior.  Consequently  in  season  and  out  of 
season  they  were  continually  urging  the  Government  to 
make  railways,  and  it  is  largely  in  consequence  of  their 
representations  that  the  Lagos  railway  was  extended  from 
Ibadan  to  Jebba,  and  that  the  Baro-Kano  railway  was  put 
in  hand.  Luckily,  it  seems  almost  impossible  to  put  down 
a  railway  in  Africa  which  does  not  pay,  and  even  if  a  rail- 
way barely  covered  working  expenses  the  indirect  benefits 
would  more  than  balance  the  cost  of  interest  and  sinking 
fund.  In  any  case,  it  is  a  waste  of  labour  and  material  to 
convey  produce  on  men's  heads.  The  time  which  is  thus 
occupied  in  porterage  would  be  better  spent  in  growing 
cotton.  » 

In  this  connection,  I  should  draw  attention  to  the 
great  value  of  the  conferences  which  are  periodically  held 
at  the  Colonial  Office  between  the  permanent  officials  and 
representatives  of  the  Association,  under  the  Presidency  of 


COTTON  149 

the  Under-Secretary  of  State.  We  all  owe  a  great  debt  of 
gratitude  to  the  Duke  of  Marlborough,  who  inaugurated  this 
wise  and  businesslike  procedure.  There  is  no  doubt  that 
meetings  of  this  sort  save  an  immense  amount  of  time  and 
misunderstanding,  and  it  would  be  a  good  thing  if  those 
officials  who  are  connected  with  cotton  growing  in  Africa 
or  elsewhere  would  occasionally  visit  us  in  Manchester.  I 
can  promise  them  that  we  would  receive  them  with  all  hos- 
pitality, and  I  think  both  sides  would  benefit  by  an  inter- 
change of  ideas. 

It  was  only  fitting  that  the  first  large  saw-ginning 
factory  to  be  erected  in  the  British  Empire  should  have 
been  named  after  the  Duke  of  Marlborough,  and  the  Marl- 
borough  Ginnery  at  Ibadan  has  turned  out  many  thousands 
of  bales  since  it  was  first  erected  in  1905.  In  this  con- 
nection I  should  just  point  out  that  large  ginneries  are 
much  more  economical  than  small  ones,  and  especially  so 
as  the  cotton  can  at  once  be  efficiently  packed  in  a  hydraulic 
baling  press.  It  is  a  most  dangerous  thing  to  gin  cotton 
in  small  ginneries  and  then  to  convey  the  lint  in  lightly- 
pressed  bales  to  a  central  baling  factory.  We  have  suffered 
very  much  from  stained  and  damaged  cotton  by  this 
method  of  working,  but  once  the  cotton  is  efficiently  baled, 
it  will  stand  a  good  deal  of  exposure  without  damage. 
Probably  in  the  early  stages  of  the  industry  small  gin- 
neries may  be  necessary,  but  one  cannot  have  a  powerful 
hydraulic  press  at  each  small  ginning  factory,  and  our  ex- 
perience leads  us  to  believe  that  it  is  better  to  incur  the 
increased  cost  of  conveying  the  cotton  in  the  unginned 
state  to  a  large  central  ginning  factory.  There  is  also  the 
further  point  that  the  spinner  does  not  like  small  bales, 
and  in  addition  the  charges  for  handling  the  same  are  higher 
in  proportion.  It  is  no  exaggeration  to  say  that  cotton 
packed  in  large  hydraulic  pressed  bales  will  nett  at  least 
one  halfpenny  per  pound  more  than  when  loosely  packed 
in  small  bales. 

The  Association's  present  type  of  ginnery  consists  of 
two  batteries  of  four  gins  each,  with  70  saws  in  each  gin. 
The  cotton  is  automatically  conveyed  by  pneumatic  feed 
to  the  gins,  and  thence  to  the  press,  which  will  turn  out 
eight  bales  of  400  Ib.  of  lint  cotton  per  hour,  or  about 
12,000  bales  in  the  season.  The  weight  of  the  bales  is 
regulated  by  an  electric  attachment,  so  that  each  bale 
contains  exactly  400  Ib.  of  lint,  consequently  when  a  spin- 
ner buys  so  many  bales  of  cotton  he  knows  exactly  what 
amount  of  cotton  he  will  receive.  The  bales  measure  80 


150  COTTON 

cubic  feet  to  the  ton  weight,  giving  a  density  of  28  Ib.  of 
cotton  for  each  cubic  foot.  We  adopted  a  standard  of 
400  Ib.  as  being  more  easily  handled  than  bales  of  heavier 
weight,  and  the  bales  are  much  liked  by  spinners.  I  do  not 
think  the  Association  have  now  much  to  learn  about  ginning 
and  baling  cotton. 

The  seed  is  conveyed  to  hoppers,  where  it  is  automati- 
cally weighed  as  it  is  sacked,  and  each  sack  contains  the 
same  weight. 

The  motive  power  is  usually  obtained  from  two  or  three 
gas  engines  of  100  h.p.  each  of  the  vertical  type  with  four 
cylinders  each,  which  ensures  a  steady  drive.  The  gas  is 
made  from  cotton-seed,  so  that  power  is  obtained  at  a  mini- 
mum cost,  for  as  a  rule  in  out-of-the-way  districts  in  the 
centre  of  Africa  cotton-seed  has  little  value  and  coal  and  oil 
are  most  expensive.  Generally  ample  storage  is  provided  at 
each  ginnery,  for  there  is  no  doubt  that  cotton  improves  by 
lying  unginned  for  some  little  time  after  picking.  Each 
large  ginnery  is  also  protected  against  fire  by  automatic 
sprinklers. 

I  should  also  mention  that  the  Association  spare 
no  expense  in  providing  good  quarters  for  their  staff,  and 
the  bungalows  are  usually  two  storeys  high,  the  living  room 
being  on  the  first  floor,  which  is  a  great  advantage  in  a 
tropical  country. 

Amongst  other  experiments,  the  Association  erected  a 
small  plant  at  Ibadan  to  extract  the  oil  from  the  seed,  but, 
judging  from  experience,  unless  there  is  a  local  market  for 
the  cake  and  the  oil  it  is  more  economical  to  send  the  seed 
home  and  to  sell  it  to  the  oil  mills  in  this  country. 

Before  I  leave  West  Africa,  I  must  say  a  few  words 
about  the  results  obtained.  We  have  spent  a  good  deal  of 
money,  'but  we  have  acquired  most  valuable  experience. 
Speaking  generally,  as  far  as  rate  of  progress  is  concerned 
the  results  have  been  somewhat  disappointing,  and  there  is 
no  doubt  that  affairs  do  not  march  as  rapidly  in  West  Africa 
as  one  could  wish.  Gambia  was  a  failure,  as  the  natives  pre- 
ferred their  old  industry  of  growing  ground-nuts.  In  Sierra 
Leone  the  rainfall  was  too  heavy  for  cotton  to  be  a  success. 
In  the  Gold  Coast  the  quality  was  excellent,  but  apparently 
cocoa  was  more  suited  to  the  climate.  Work  is  still  being 
carried  on  there  and  also  in  the  Northern  Territories,  but 
the  quantity  of  cotton  produced  is  infinitesimal  In  most 
parts  of  the  Eastern  Province  of  Nigeria  the  rainfall  is  far 
too  heavy  for  cotton,  and  had  it  not  been  for  the  excellent 
quality  of  the  Ishan  cotton — the  best  grown  in  British  West 


COTTON  151 

Africa — this  centre  would  have  been  closed  down.  There 
may,  however,  be  possibilities  on  the  new  railway  between 
Port  Harcourt  and  the  Niger.  In  the  Lagos  Province  the 
results  have  been  most  satisfactory,  and  last  year's  crop  was 
over  13,000  bales.  In  Northern  Nigeria  a  large  quantity  of 
cotton  is  grown,  but  owing  to  the  demand  for  local  consump- 
tion the  ruling  price  is  prohibitive.  Sooner  or  later 
European  cloths  must  displace  the  native  manufactures,  but 
in  the  meantime  we  can  only  hope  that  the  Agricultural  De- 
partment may  be  able  to  establish  a  variety  for  which  the 
Association  will  be  able  to  pay  a  higher  price. 

West  African  cotton  now  commands  a  ready  market 
in  Liverpool,  which  is  perhaps  best  shown  by  the  fact 
that  the  Liverpool  Cotton  Association  have  established 
standards  for  West  African  cotton.  The  quality,  thanks  to 
the  Association,  is  now  so  regular  and  reliable,  and  the 
cotton  is  so  excellently  ginned  and  baled,  and  the  B.C.G.A. 
mark  has  acquired  such  a  reputation  for  regularity  and 
honesty,  that  the  whole  of  each  year's  crop  could  be  sold 
before  it  is  even  planted.  The  Association  make  a  point  of 
paying  the  highest  possible  price  to  the  natives,  and  more 
often  than  not  their  cotton-buying  account  shows  an  actual 
loss. 

BRITISH  EAST  AFRICA. 

The  results  obtained  in  British  East  Africa  have  been 
disappointing.  The  Government  commenced  some  experi- 
mental plantations,  and  the  Association  sent  out  a  small  gin- 
ning plant  to  Mombasa.  It  was  later  arranged  that  the 
Association  should  undertake  the  experimental  work,  and 
eventually  this  was  handed  over  to  the  British  East  Africa 
Corporation  when  they  were  appointed  the  agents  of  the 
Association.  The  plantation  worked  by  the  Corporation 
was  not  a  success  and  had  to  be  abandoned,  and  I  am  sorry 
to  say  that  several  other  companies  have  been  equally  unsuc- 
cessful. This  is  partly  due  to  unfavourable  climatic  con- 
ditions, though  it  is  quite  possible  that  better  results  might 
be  obtained  by  trying  to  establish  cotton  growing  as  a  native 
industry.  Some  fair  results  have  been  obtained  with  native 
cultivation  in  the  Kisumu  district  adjacent  to  Lake  Victoria. 

The  main  interest  to  the  Association  in  East  Africa  is 
the  fact  that  Mombasa,  or  rather  Kilindini,  is  the  terminus 
of  the  Uganda  Railway  and  the  outlet  for  Uganda  cotton. 
It  has  been  suggested  by  several  of  our  numerous  critics  that 
the  Association  does  nothing  for  Uganda.  So  far  from  this 
being  the  case,  I  can  assure  them  that  at  almost  every  con- 


152  COTTON 

ference  held  at  the  Colonial  Office  the  question  of  Uganda 
cotton  has  been  brought  forward  "in  one  way  or  another,  and 
I  have  no  doubt  that  at  times  the  officials  have  looked  on 
the  Association  as  an  intolerable  nuisance. 

For  many  years  we  continually  urged  the  importance  of 
a  direct  service  of  steamers  to  and  from  Kilindini,  Port 
Sudan,  and  other  ports  in  our  East  African  possessions,  and 
it  is  largely  due  to  representations  made  by  the  Association 
that  we  now  have  a  regular  service  of  steamers  from  Eng- 
land to  East  Africa.  The  Union  Castle  Company  deserve 
every  credit  for  what  they  have  done  to  meet  this  long-felt 
want 

One  of  the  principal  difficulties  in  establishing  cotton 
growing  in  new  fields  is  transport,  and  when  the  cultivation 
of  cotton  began  to  extend  in  Uganda  there  was  a  serious 
shortage  of  steamers  on  Lake  Victoria  and  of  trucks  on  the 
Uganda  Railway.  This  has  now  been  put  right,  and  the 
Uganda  Railway  is  now  a  paying  concern,  thanks  mainly  to 
the  revenue  derived  from  the  carriage  of  cotton  and  seed 
and  of  the  imported  goods  to  pay  for  these. 

There  is  a  fine  harbour  at  Kilindini,  but  the  wharfage 
accommodation  is  inadequate  for  the  traffic,  and  the  Asso- 
ciation have  continually  urged  the  Colonial  Office  to  take 
this  matter  in  hand.  I  am  glad  to  say  the  officials  are  now 
fully  alive  to  the  importance  of  this  question,  and  it  is  to 
be  hoped  that  we  may  shortly  see  better  arrangements 
established,  and  that  ocean  steamers  will  be  able  to  go 
alongside  and  discharge  and  load  their  cargo  without  the 
wasteful  expense  and  the  delay  of  lighterage. 

UGANDA. 

The  results  obtained  in  Uganda  are  quite  the  largest 
and  in  some  ways  the  most  satisfactory  of  any  new  cotton 
field  in  the  Empire.  Unfortunately,  owing  to  lack  of  suffi- 
cient capital,,  the  Association  were  unable  to  undertake  any 
direct  work,  and  had  to  confine  their  energies  to  representa- 
tions to  the  Colonial  Office  and  communications  with  the 
Uganda  Company.  Later  on,  in  1906,  when  the  British 
East  Africa  Corporation  was  formed,  the  Association  took  up 
shares  in  this  company,  and  two  of  the  Council  joined  the 
Board  of  Directors,  and  the  Corporation  were  appointed  the 
agents  of  the  Association  for  East  Africa  and  Uganda. 
Although  this  was  perhaps  the  most  satisfactory  arrange- 
ment wHich  could  have  been  made,  it  cannot  be  regarded 
as  an  ideal  one.  Every  commercial  company  must  naturally 


COTTON  153 

look  principally  to  the  earning  and  payment  of  dividends, 
and  it  is  not  to  be  expected  that  they  should  regard  cotton 
growing  entirely  from  the  Association's  point  of  view. 
Although  the  affairs  of  the  Association  must  as  far  as 
possible  be  run  on  business  lines,  in  order  to  avoid  financial 
disaster,  at  the  same  time  the  Council  consider — and  rightly 
— that  the  establishment  and  extension  of  cotton  growing 
must  be  paramount  to  the  earning  of  dividends.  In  other 
words,  the  Association  must  and  do  take  risks  which 
ordinary  commercial  companies  would  have  to  refuse. 

In  the  early  days  large  quantities  of  seed  of  various 
varieties  were  distributed  indiscriminately,  and  in  any  ship- 
ment of  Uganda  cotton  one  could  find  cotton  of  every 
variety  and  nature  mixed  together,  and  in  one  single  bale 
one  would  find  cotton  varying  from  ^  to  \y^  inches  in 
length.  Representations  have  been  frequently  made  by  the 
Association  that  it  was  of  the  greatest  importance  that  there 
should  be  a  properly  equipped  Department  of  Agriculture, 
and  that  the  distribution  of  seed  for  sowing  must  be  under 
Government  control.  This  is  the  most  vital  question  in  con- 
nection with  cotton  growing,  for  unless  the  seed  issued  to 
the  natives  is  sound  in  quality  and  pure  in  strain  everything 
else  is  thrown  away.  One  may  have-  the  most  perfect 
climate  and  the  most  excellent  soil  in  the  world  and  the  best 
methods  of  cultivation,  but  unless  the  seed  sown  is  of  good 
quality  all  these  other  advantages  are  wasted. 

One  of  the  difficulties  was  to  find  trained  experts  to 
work  in  an  Agricultural  Department,  and  the  Association 
have  frequently  urged  the  Government  to  establish  a  system 
of  scholarships  whereby  young  men  who  have  had  a  good 
scientific  training  at  home  could  subsequently  obtain  the 
necessary  practical  training  in  the  various  branches  of 
tropical  agriculture. 

Even  to-day  Uganda  cotton  is  by  no  means  satisfactory 
in  quality,  and  one  of  the  worst  defects  is  the  large  amount 
of  stained  and  weak  cotton  which  not  only  seriously  affects 
the  selling  price  but  also  renders  it  more  difficult  of  sale. 
Short-stapled  cotton  which  is  regular  in  length  and  quality 
will  often  fetch  a  higher  price  and  be  easier  to  sell  than 
longer-stapled  cotton  which  contains  a  considerable  propor- 
tion of  stained  and  short  fibre.  It  is  of  the  very  greatest 
importance  to  the  spinner  to  be  able  to  depend  on  the 
regularity  of  any  particular  mark  or  brand  of  cotton 
which  he  may  buy,  and  I  am  sorry  to  say  that  Uganda  cotton 
varies  as  much  as  id.  to  2d.  per  pound  in  value.  As  I  pre- 
viously mentioned.  Lagos  cotton  does  not  vary  one-farthing 


154  COTTON 

per  pound  between  the  best  and  the  worst,  and  although 
the  fibre  and  staple  of  Uganda  is  very  much  superior  to 
Lagos  cotton,  a  good  deal  of  it  has  to  be  sold  at  a  lower 
price. 

As  regards  the  stained  cotton,  it  is  still  a  moot  point  as 
to  what  is  the  actual  cause.  It  may  be  the  result  of  climatic 
conditions,  or  it  may  be  caused  by  careless  picking,  or  by 
bad  handling  after  it  is  picked.  It  is  probable  that  all  three 
causes  contribute  to  the  unsatisfactory  result.  I  am  glad  to 
say  that  in  1912  and  1913  the  cotton  was  decidedly  better 
in  quality,  and  as  there  happened  to  be  a  scarcity  of  this 
particular  type  of  cotton  it  met  with  a  ready  sale.  It  is  too 
soon  yet  to  decide  as  to  the  quality  of  the  present  crop,  but 
I  should  like  to  utter  a  word  of  warning  as  to  the  danger  of 
introducing  more  new  types  of  cotton.  Uganda  cotton  of 
the  old  type  at  its  best  is  very  much  liked  by  spinners  and 
commands  a  ready  sale  and  if  the  defects  could  be 
eliminated  it  has  a  great  future  before  it,  as  America  seems 
less  and  less  able  to  produce  this  particular  type  of  cotton 
running  from  it^th  to  i-ft-th  inches  in  length.  It  is  by  no 
means  an  easy  matter  to  get  spinners  to  change  their  quality 
and  to  try  new  growths,  and  frequently  this  can  only  be 
done  by  accepting  a  lower  price.  Now  that  we  have 
created  a  regular  demand  for  Uganda  cotton  it  would  be 
dangerous  to  change  the  type,  for  it  would  completely  upset 
the  market,  and  all  the  work  of  creating  a  demand  would 
have  to  be  done  over  again.  In  any  case  I  should  strongly 
urge  that  one  should  proceed  very  slowly  and  tentatively  in 
the  matter.  If  the  existing  defects  could  be  eliminated,  one 
could  not  wish  for  better  cotton  than  what  I  may  term  the 
1912  to  1913  type  of  Uganda  cotton. 

One  subject  which  has  given  a  good  deal  of  trouble  is 
that  of  Cotton  Rules,  regulating  distribution  of  seed,  culti- 
vation and  marketing  of  cotton,  etc  Time  after  time  the 
Association  have  drawn  the  attention  of  the  Colonial  Office 
to  the  necessity  for  regulations,  not  only  in  Uganda  but  also 
in  other  Colonies,  for  the  control  of  the  industry.  Unfortu- 
nately the  Cotton  Rules  first  proposed  for  Uganda  were 
quite  impracticable,  and  would  have  been  an  unnecessary 
interference  with  legitimate  commercial  enterprise  with  no 
corresponding  advantages.  It  was  actually  suggested  that 
cotton  should  be  classified  into  at  least  a  dozen  different 
grades,  although  there  was  not  a  single  individual  in  the 
country  capable  of  grading  cotton  into  even  four  or  five 
grades  It  was  also  proposed  that  all  shippers  should  be 
compelled  to  use  the  same  marks  or  brands,  which  would 


COTTON  155 

have  had  the  effect  of  placing  those  who  really  took  trouble 
to  keep  their  cotton  clean  on  the  same  level  as  those  who 
handled  it  carelessly.  Mainly  owing  to  representations 
from  the  Association,  the  Cotton  Rules  have  been  redrafted 
on  a  better  basis. 

The  first  record  of  exports  of  cotton  from  Uganda  was 
in  1904,  when  54  bales  were  shipped.  Since  then  the 
industry  has  advanced  by  leaps  and  bounds,  as  will  be  seen 
from  the  following  statement  showing  the  crop  of  each  year 
in  round  figures:  — 

1906   50obales. 

1907   2,000      „ 

1908   4,000 

1909  5,000     „ 

1910  12,000  „ 

1911   20,000  „ 

1912  29,000  „ 

1913  26,000 

It  is  understood  that  the  falling  off  in  1913  was  due  to 
some  mistake  about  the  issuing  of  seed,  and  that  for  some 
unexplained  reason  a  large  quantity  of  seed  for  sowing  was 
distributed  too  late. 

So  rapid  an  increase  in  a  new  industry  naturally  caused 
innumerable  troubles,  difficulties  of  transport,  difficulties  of 
finance,  and  so  on.  Further,  there  was  a  large  amount  of 
reckless  competition,  and  the  buying  price  was  raised  to 
such  a  point  that  many  of  the  buying  companies  lost  money. 
The  Association  did  all  in  their  power  to  promote  a  buying 
agreement,  for  they  recognised  that  in  the  long  run  inflated 
prices  would  do  no  good  to  the  industry.  It  is  difficult  for 
native  farmers  to  understand  the  fluctuation  of  price  in  the 
markets  of  Europe,  and  they  would  certainly  be  discouraged 
when  the  price  had  to  be  brought  down  again  to  an  economic 
basis. 

As  regards  financing,  the  Association  gave  all  possible 
help  by  very  large  loans  to  the  British  East  Africa  Cor- 
poration and  others,  and  they  did  all  in  their  power  to 
ensure  quick  sales  and  prompt  cash  returns  for  any  cotton 
consigned  to  them.  They  also  took  up  the  question  of 
transport  very  seriously  at  the  Colonial  Office,  and  the 
representations  they  made  have  been  most  effective.  A 
railway  has  been  constructed  from  Jinja  on  Lake  Victoria  to 
Namasagali  on  Lake  Kioga,  and  there  is  now  a  better  supply 
of  rolling-stock  on  the  Uganda  Railway  and  more  steamers 
and  barges  on  both  Lakes.  The  Government  authorised  a 
loan  of  £500,000  for  the  construction  of  roads  and  the 


156  COTTON 

improvement  of  transport  facilities  generally,  and  more 
recently  the  Government  have  arranged  to  assist  in  the 
issue  of  a  further  loan  of  £3,000,000  for  the  provision  of 
better  transport  facilities  in  our  East  African  possessions. 

NYASALAND. 

Nyasaland  is  no  exception  to  the  general  rule,  that  one 
of  the  greatest  difficulties  in  establishing  cotton  growing 
in  a  new  country  is  the  absence  of  economical  means  of 
transport.  In  the  early  days  cotton  had  to  be  conveyed, 
mostly  in  head  loads,  from  Blantyre  and  elsewhere  to  the 
Shire  River.  Thence  it  was  conveyed  by  barge  down  to 
the  Zambesi  and  to  Chinde.  Frequently  for  many  months 
together  river  transport  was  impossible.  At  Chinde  it  was 
transhipped  into  ocean-going  barges  and  conveyed  to  Beira, 
where  it  was  loaded  on  to  the  ocean  steamers.  It  is  surpris- 
ing that  in  face  of  these  difficulties  any  cotton  was  grown 
at  all.  A  railway  was  first  constructed  between  Port  Herald 
and  Chiromo,  and  the  extension  to  Blantyre  was  completed 
in  1909.  Later  on,  thanks  very  largely  to  the  efforts  of  Sir 
George  Fiddes,  arrangements  were  made  for  the  extensor, 
of  the  railway  from  Port  Herald  down  to  the  Zambesi,  which 
would  entirely  eliminate  the  difficulties  of  low  water  in  the 
Shire  river.  Towards  the  cost  of  this  the  Association  and 
their  friends  raised  £36,200  of  the  required  capital,  and  the 
work  is  now  rapidly  being  pushed  on.  Negotiations  are 
also  proceeding  for  the  construction  of  a  connecting  railway 
from  the  Zambesi  to  Beira,  and  when  this  is  completed  it  will 
be  possible  to  load  cotton  on  to  trucks  at  Blantyre,  which 
will  convey  it  direct  to  the  steamer  at  Beira,  This  railway 
will  eventually  become  one  of  the  main  trunk  lines  in  South- 
East  Africa,  and  its  extension  to  Lake  Nyasa  and  North  - 
Eastern  Rhodesia  is  only  a  question  of  time.  The  Asso- 
ciation have  never  missed  an  opportunity  of  impressing  on 
the  Colonial  Office  the  great  importance  of  economic  trans- 
port for  the  produce  of  Nyasaland. 

Like  Uganda  and  other  Colonies,  there  was  no  Agricul- 
tural Department  in  Nyasaland,  but  in  consequence  of 
representations  from  the  Association  an  expert  was 
appointed  in  1904,  and  to-day  Nyasaland  has  a  small  but 
efficient  Agricultural  Department  which  is  doing  excellent 
work. 

The  quality  of  the  ootton  grown  in  Nyasaland  is 
generally  excellent  in  quality,  and  as  there  are  two  types  of 
country,  the  Lowlands  and  the  Highlands,  so  also  are  there 


COTTON  157 

two  types  of  cotton.  Generally  speaking,  in  the  Highlands 
cotton  of  Upland  American  type  has  been  most  successful, 
and  after  several  years  of  work  the  Nyasaland  Upland  type 
was  definitely  established  in  1909.  It  is  not  very  long  in 
staple,  but  is  very  clean  and  silky,  and  Nyasaland  seed  has 
given  very  good  results  in  other  countries.  It  fetches  as  a 
rule  from  about  id.  to  2^d.  over  Middling  American.  In  the 
Lowlands,  cotton  of  the  Egyptian  type  has  given  the  best 
results,  and  Abassi  better  than  Affifi.  It  is,  however, 
possible  that  even  more  satisfactory  results  might  be  ob- 
tained with  long-stapled  American  cotton  of  the  Allen's 
or  Griffin  type. 

In  the  early  days  the  Association  had  no  branches  of 
their  own,  but  the  African  Lakes  Corporation  were 
appointed  as  their  agents,  and  a  very  large  amount  of 
financial  assistance  has  been  given  by  us  to  a  number  of 
European  planters  to  enable  them  to  start  cotton  growing. 
The  Association  lost  a  good  deal  of  money  through  these 
advances,  but  on  the  whole  the  results  have  been  quite 
satisfactory  from  a  cotton  growing  point  of  view.  The 
establishment  of  an  entirely  new  industry  is  a  difficult 
matter,  and  especially  so  in  a  tropical  country. 

In  1906  an  attempt  was  made  to  establish  cotton  grow- 
ing as  a  native  industry,  and  the  Association  made  arrange- 
ments for  the  African  Lakes  Corporation  to  purchase  all  the 
cotton  grown  on  their  behalf.  This  industry  did  not  pro- 
gress very  rapidly  at  first,  and  in  1910,  in  consequence  of 
representations  from  the  Government,  the  Association 
decided  to  establish  their  own  branches,  without,  however, 
interfering  with  the  friendly  relations  which  existed  with 
their  agents.  A  ginning  factory  and  buying  station  was 
established  at  Port  Herald,  and  a  powerful  hydraulic  press 
was  erected  so  as  to  help  the  planters  in  obtaining  low  raters 
of  freight.  Two  other  ginning  and  buying  stations  have 
since  been  established  at  Chiromo  and  Vua  (on  Lake 
Nyasa),  and  the  Association  have  just  purchased  another 
ginning  factory  at  Fort  Johnston,  which  would  otherwise 
have  been  closed  owing  to  the  company  which  owned  it 
going  into  liquidation.  The  Association  continue  to  give 
considerable  financial  assistance  to  the  planters  and  others, 
though  probably  in  the  future  the  system  of  financing  crops 
will  be  discontinued,  and  cash  advances  against  actual  cotton 
will  take  its  place.  Nyasaland  is  only  a  small  country,  and 
very  large  results  cannot  be  expected,  but  it  is  satisfactory 
to  be  able  to  record  that  the  crop  increased  from  192  bales 
in  1903  to  1,444  bales  in  1906,  and  the  1912  crop  amounted 
to  6,800  bales. 


158  COTTON 

There  are  also  considerable  cotton  possibilities  in 
North-Eastern  Rhodesia,  which  geographically  is  part  of 
Nyasaland.  The  Association  is  working  in  co-operation 
with  the  North  Charterland  Exploration  Company,  and  is 
giving  considerable  financial  assistance  to  planters  and 
others.  Cotton  cannot,  however,  ever  become  a  big  question 
in  this  country  until  better  means  of  transport  are  provided. 

ANGLO-EGYPTIAN  SUDAN. 

When  the  Association  commenced  operations  there 
were  no  economic  means  of  transport  to  the  interior  of  the 
Anglo-Egyptian  Sudan,  but  as  soon  as  the  Suakm-Berber 
Railway  was  completed  in  1906  the  Association  offered  to 
do  what  they  could  to  assist,  but  they  were  informed  that 
their  help  was  not  required,  and  no  further  steps  were  taken 
in  the  matter.  In  1909  the  Egyptian  cotton  crop  was  an 
absolute  failure,  and  it  became  evident  that  one  must  look 
elsewhere  for  an  addition  to  the  supply  of  cotton  of  the 
Egyptian  type,  and  the  Association  again  began  to  make 
inquiries  as  to  the  possibilities  of  the  Sudan.  On  October 
1 3th,  1910,  Sir  William  Mather  gave  an  important  address 
at  the  Manchester  Town  Hall  on  the  cotton  possibilities  of 
the  Sudan,  and  the  Association  then  decided  to  take  up 
5,000  shares  in  the  Sudan  Plantations  Syndicate,  which  was 
far  and  away  the  most  important  cotton  growing  firm  in  the 
Sudan.  The  Association  appointed  a  representative  to  join 
the  Board  of  Directors  of  the  Syndicate,  and  subsequently 
took  up  a  further  4,000  shares. 

The  Sudan  Government  had  commenced  an  important 
practical  experiment  at  Tayiba  to  prove  whether  cotton 
could  be  grown  on  the  Gezira  Plain  with  irrigation  between 
July  and  March,  and  they  wisely  handed  over  the  manage- 
ment to  the  Syndicate.  In  view  of  the  great  importance  of 
the  question,  and  with  the  object  of  acquiring  more  definite 
information  on  the  subject,  the  Council  decided  in  1911  to 
send  out  a  deputation,  and  representatives  of  the  Association 
visited  the  Sudan  in  January,  1912.  The  Deputation  were 
most  deeply  impressed  with  the  cotton  possibilities  of  the 
Sudan,  and  they  were  particularly  struck  with  the  excellent 
quality  of  the  cotton  which  was  being  grown  there.  Their 
report  has  been  published  in  full,  but  the  results  of  their 
investigations  may  be  summarised  as  follows :  — 

I. — TOKAR :     Good    possibilities    of    producing 

10,000  to  20,000  bales  of  cotton  of  fair  quality  in  the 

immediate  future. 


COTTON 


159 


2. — KHARTOUM  AND  NORTH  :  Moderate  pro- 
spects of  producing  5,000  bales  or  more  of  high-class 
Egyptian  cotton  in  the  immediate  future,  with  further 
possibilities  of  increase  if  an  earlier  maturing  and  more 
robust  type  of  cotton  can  be  established. 

3. — GEZIRA  :  One  of  the  finest  cotton  propo- 
sitions in  the  world.  There  seems  to  be  no  reason  why 
in  the  next  few  years  one  should  not  raise  annually 
50,000  bales  or  more  of  really  high-class  Egyptian 
cotton,  with  the  prospect  of  the  production  increasing 
to  250,000  bales  within  10  or  15  years,  and  with  further 
possibilities  later  on  of  a  production  of  1,000,000  bales 
or  more. 

4. — RAIN-GROWN  COTTON  :  The  prospects  in 
the  Sudan  of  producing  very  large  quantities  of  cotton 
of  American  type  are  most  encouraging  and  in  some 
ways  better  than  those  in  either  Northern  Nigeria  or 
Uganda.  There  is  land  enough  to  grow  millions  ot 
bales,  but  the  future  must  depend  on  sufficient  popula- 
tion, efficient  Government  supervision,  and  the  requisite 
commercial  assistance  for  buying  and  ginning. 

5. — GEDAREF  AND  KASSALA  :  There  are  con- 
siderable possibilities  in  these  districts  for  both  rain- 
grown  and  irrigated  cotton. 

There  is  not  the  least  doubt  that  the  Tayiba  experi- 
ment was  an  eminent  success,  and  the  Council  therefore 
decided  to  press  the  Government  to  do  all  in  their  power  to 
push  on  the  development  of  the  Gezira  Plain  with  ail 
possible  speed.  The  establishment  of  cotton  growing  is  a 
slow  business  at  the  best,  and  many  years  must  elapse  before 
any  new  field  can  be  expected  to  produce  100,000  bales 
annually  even  under  the  most  favourable  conditions.  Con- 
sidering that  Lancashire  consumption  is  over  4,000,000  bales 
per  annum,  and  considering  also  that  the  world's  demands 
for  cotton  are  growing  rapidly  every  day,  it  is  evident  that 
the  question  is  one  of  the  greatest  urgency.  The  Associa- 
tion were  convinced  that  the  Gezira  Plain  was  the  only  new 
field  where  one  might  expect  an  appreciable  quantity  of 
high-class  cotton  in  a  reasonable  time,  and  on  January  23rd, 
1913,  a  deputation  from  the  Association  waited  on  Mr. 
Asquith  and  urged  that  the  Government  should  guarantee 
the  interest  on  a  loan  of  £3,000,000  to  be  raised  by  the 
Sudan  Government  for  the  construction  of  irrigation  and 
other  works  in  the  Sudan,  The  Government  soon  after- 
wards introduced  the  necessary  legislation  in  Parliament, 
and  it  is  hoped  that  the  loan  will  shortly  be  issued  and 


160  COTTON 

operations  commenced  with  the  least  possible  delay.  We 
can  at  any  rate  congratulate  ourselves  on  the  fact  that  Lord 
Kitchener  has  taken  up  this  important  question  with  his 
well-known  zeal  and  energy,  and  I  think  we  can  safely 
leave  the  matter  in  his  hands. 


SUMMARY. 

I  now  propose  to  sum  up  as  shortly  as  possible  the 
results  of  our  twelve  years'  work.  We  have  spent  £170,000 
on  experimental  work,  and  although  this  may  seem  a  large 
sum  to  devote  to  this,  I  think  we  can  rightly  claim  that  the 
results  justify  the  expenditure.  In  the  first  place,  we  have 
aroused  the  interest  of  the  whole  Empire  in  the  possibilities 
of  cotton  growing,  and  we  have  started  a  movement  which 
will  go  on  for  ever.  Further  than  that,  during  the  last 
twelve  years  a  really  appreciable  quantity  of  cotton  has 
been  grown  in  new  fields  where  little  or  no  cotton  was  grown 
before. 

In  1 903  the  amount  of  cotton  grown  in  new  fields  in  the 
British  Empire  amounted  to  only  1,900  bales,  valued  at 
£29,000.  It  is  estimated  that  in  1913  78,800  bales  were 
produced,  worth  £1,170,100,  and  since  we  commenced 
operations  in  1902  no  less  than  360,640  bales  have  been  pro- 
duced, to  the  value  of  £5,195,100.  We  have  also  acquired 
most  valuable  experience,  and  we  have  got  a  staff  and 
organisation  fully  capable  of  dealing  with  the  work.  While 
not  losing  sight  of  the  object  for  which  the  Association  was 
formed,  everything  is  run  on  business  lines  as  far  as  possible, 
for  it  is  essential  that  we  should  be  able  to  pay  our  way,  as 
otherwise  we  should  have  to  abandon  the  work.  I  think  it 
will  be  generally  admitted  that  it  would  be  a  misfortune  for 
Lancashire,  and  indeed  for  the  whole  Empire,  if  the  Asso- 
ciation had  to  suspend  or  even  to  curtail  its  operations  in 
any  way. 

In  order  to  give  you  some  idea  of  the  magnitude  of  our 
business,  I  may  mention  that  47,466  bales,  to  the  value  of 
£661,227,  passed  through  our  hands  in  1913,  and  at  the 
present  moment  we  have  over  £250,000  advanced  against 
cotton.  We  do  all  we  can  to  help  planters  and  others  by 
financing  and  superintending  the  sale  of  their  cotton,  and 
we  make  a  point  of  obtaining  the  very  best  price  possible. 
For  these  services  we  charge  a  small  commission,  which 
brings  us  in  a  substantial  sum  towards  our  standing  ex- 
penses. We  also  supply  machinery,  plant,  baling  material, 


COTTON  l6l 

seed,  etc.,  on  easy  terms  of  repayment,  and  we  are  now  con- 
ducting a  large  banking  business  in  financing  cotton,  seed, 
machinery,  etc. 

We  also  render  valuable  services  to  Agricultural  De- 
partments and  others  in  reporting  on  samples  and  advising 
as  to  their  suitability  for  the  market,  and  we  are  always 
willing  to  help  anyone  who  requires  definite  information 
as  to  cotton  or  cotton  growing. 

What  perhaps  will  give  the  best  idea  of  the  magnitude 
of  our  business  is  the  fact  that  we  received  and  despatched 
no  less  than  62,113  letters  in  1913,  or  an  average  of  207 
per  working  day. 

We  also  hold  a  large  number  of  shares  in  cotton  grow- 
ing companies,  and  have  our  own  representatives  as  Direc- 
tors to  assist  in  the  management ;  and,  including  the  com- 
panies in  which  we  are  interested  or  which  have  been 
formed  with  our  assistance  and  our  own  capital  of  ^480,000, 
the  total  amount  of  capital  raised  for  cotton  growing  under 
our  auspices  now  amounts  to  £1,1 2  5,000.  The  work,  how- 
ever, continues  to  grow  rapidly,  and  the  provision  of  large 
sums  of  additional  capital  is  a  most  pressing  question. 

I  think  therefore  the  Association  can  claim  that  they 
have  more  than  justified    their    existence,    for    they    have 
definitely  proved  that  the  British  Empire  can  produce  the 
cotton  which  Lancashire    requires.       The  quantity    is,    of 
course,   at  present   small  in  comparison  with  Lancashire's 
total  consumption,  but  the  rate  of  progress  we  have  achieved 
is  infinitely  greater  than  was  the  case  in  the  early  days  of 
cotton  growing  in  the  United  States  of  America.     A  great 
statesman,  in  drawing  attention  to  the  future  importance  of 
our  Colonies,  impressed  on  his  hearers  the  necessity  of  think- 
ing Imperially.   I  think  the  Association  can  claim  with  pride 
that  they  have  done  even  more  than  this,  for  they  have  been 
acting   Imperially,  and   have   started  one   of   the  greatest 
Imperial  movements  of  modern  times,  and  one  which  must 
be  for  the  ultimate  welfare   of   the    whole  of  the  British 
Empire. 

Before  I  conclude,  I  should  like  to  express  on  behalf  of 
the  Association  the  grateful  thanks  we  owe  to  His  Majesty's 
Government  for  the  generous  treatment  and  for  the  valuable 
assistance  they  have  always  given  us,  no  matter  which  party 
was  in  power.  The  British  Cotton  Growing  Association 
knows  no  politics.  It  is  impossible  to  mention  everyone  by 
name,  but  I  must  take  this  opportunity  of  expressing  OUT 
most  grateful  thanks  both  to  Mr.  Harcourt  and  to  Lore! 
Emmott  for  the  deep  interest  they  have  taken  in  the  work 

I 1 


1 62  COTTON 

and  the  invaluable  help  they  have  given  us.  Nor  can  I 
sufficiently  express  our  gratitude  to  the  other  officials  both 
at  the  Colonial  Office  and  in  the  Colonies,  for  without  the 
assistance  and  sympathy  they  have  always  so  readily  given 
our  work  would  have  been  impossible.  Finally,  I  should 
like  to  express  our  grateful  thanks  to  Professor  Dunstan  and 
the  staff  of  the  Imperial  Institute  for  most  valuable  advice 
and  assistance  on  many  occasions,  and  particularly  to  him 
as  President  of  this  Conference  for  affording  us  an  oppor- 
tunity of  laying  before  you  this  summary  of  our  somewhat 
arduous  labours  during  the  last  twelve  years. 


[NOTE. — This  paper  is  reprinted  from  plates  supplied 
by  the  British  Cotton  Growing  Association,  and  the  appendix 
referred  to  on  p.  139  has  not  been  reproduced  here.] 


THE  WORLD'S  DEMAND  FOR  COTTON,  AND   INDIA'S 
SHARE  IN  MEETING  IT. 

By  ARNO  SCHMIDT. 

Secretary    of  the   International  Federation   of  Master 
Cotton  Spinners'  and  Manufacturers'  Associations. 

THE  cotton  industry  of  the  world  has,  during  the  last 
ten  years,  been  suffering  from  a  scarcity  of  raw  material. 
This  scarcity  has  frequently  been  so  pronounced  that 
mills  in  all  parts  of  the  world  have  been  obliged  to  curtail 
production  at  one  time  or  other.  At  a  meeting  of  the 
International  Committee  held  early  in  June,  1914,  in  Paris, 
it  was  generally  admitted  by  the  representatives  of  fifteen 
countries  that  the  cotton  spinning  industry  all  the  world 
over  had  never  been  in  such  a  depressed  condition  as  at 
present,  and  it  was  stated  by  the  members  of  the  Com- 
mittee that  many  English  and  Continental  spinning  mills 
are  curtailing  their  working  hours.  This  slackness  of 
trade  is  partly  due  to  the  Balkan  War  and  the  Chinese 
Revolution,  but  very  largely  also  to  the  high  price  of 
American  cotton,  which  rules  the  prices  of  all  other 
cottons. 

The  primary  cause  of  short-time  working  undoubtedly 
arises  from  the  fear  that  the  world's  yearly  supply  of 
cotton  will  not  be  sufficient  to  meet  the  yearly  demand. 
During  last  season  we  were  told  that  the  American  cotton 
crop  would  be  about  13,500,000  bales,  whilst  it  is  recog- 
nized that  14,500,000  bales  of  American  cotton  are 
required  annually.  This  probable  scarcity  caused  an 
increase  in  the  price  of  the  raw  material  and  of  the 
finished  article,  and  a  falling-off  in  the  demand  for  manu- 
factured goods.  It  must  be  remembered  that  by  far  th<! 
vast  majority  of  the  people  in  the  world,  the  poorest 


1 64  COTTON 

who  have  no  choice  but  to  use  cotton  clothing,  have  only 
a  very  small  fixed  amount  per  annum  to  expend  on  cloth- 
ing, and  it  makes  a  great  difference  to  them,  in  the 
quantity  of  clothing  they  can  afford  to  buy,  whether 
cotton  is  6d.  or  8d.  per  Ib. 

WHAT  ARE  THE  POSSIBILITIES  OF  EXTENDING  COTTON 
CULTIVATION  IN  THE  WORLD  ? 

Africa. — At  one  time  the  hope  was  entertained  that 
Africa  would  solve  the  problem  of  supplying  the  cotton- 
spinning  industry  with  its  ever-increasing  requirements, 
but  after  ten  years'  work  in  that  continent  it  has  been 
proved  that,  in  consequence  of  the  absence  of  the  requisite 
training  of  the  people,  the  comparative  scarcity  of  labour, 
the  absence  of  transport  facilities,  the  necessarily  slow 
development  of  research  work,  and  of  the  unwillingness 
of  the  people  to  work  longer  than  is  absolutely  necessary 
to  keep  their  few  wants  supplied,  developments  in  those 
parts  must  be  slow.  Perhaps  the  next  generation  will 
reap  the  benefit  of  the  present  pioneer  work.  Most 
valuable  work  is  being  carried  on,  not  only  by  the  British 
Cotton  Growing  Association,  but  also  by  the  German, 
French,  Italian,  and  Portuguese  colonial  cotton  growing- 
associations.  The  very  existence  of  these  associations  is 
a  proof  of  the  earnestness  with  which  this  question  of 
increasing  the  supply  of  cotton  is  being  handled. 

Egypt. — Egypt  is  limited  in  its  cotton  crop  by  the 
comparatively  small  area  that  can  be  irrigated;  Lord 
Kitchener  is  doing  his  utmost  to  reclaim  some  consider- 
able stretches  of  waste  land,  and  bring  it  under  irrigation. 
Egypt  now  produces  about  one  million  bales,  of  700  Ib., 
per  year,  but  there  has  been  during  the  past  ten  years  a 
falling  off  in  the  yield  per  acre. 

Anglo-Egyptian  Sudan. — The  possibilities  in  the  Anglo- 
Egyptian  Sudan  are  certainly  very  great,  but  it  will 
probably  taken  fifteen  years  for  that  country  to  produce 
half  a  million  bales.  In  view  of  the  threatened  shortage 
of  long-staple  cotton  from  America,  owing  to  the  advance 
of  the  boll-weevil  into  the  Sea  Island  tract,  the  irrigation 
scheme  in  hand  in  the  Sudan  should  be  accelerated,  and 
money  should  be  liberally  supplied  for  the  work. 


COTTON  165 

United  States  of  America. — Cotton  planters  of  the 
United  States  of  America,  and  others  interested  in  land, 
often  assure  us  there  is  no  need  to  look  elsewhere  for 
the  supplies  to  meet  the  increasing  wants  of  the  cotton 
industry.  I  would  say,  in  reply  to  this  contention,  that 
it  would  be  unwise  for  the  world's  spinners  to  depend 
upon  one  source  of  supply  only,  especially  when,  as.  in 
the  case  of  the  United  States,  there  is  a  climate  which, 
judging  from  the  alarmist  reports  issued  every  year, 
seems  to  be  the  most  uncertain  in  the  world.  Further, 
the  cotton  districts  in  the  United  States  are  suffering 
severely  from  lack  of  labour.  Several  experts  who  have 
recently  visited  the  country  state  that  in  1911,  when  the 
cotton  crop  of  the  United  States  reached  16,000,000  bales, 
much  more  was  grown,  but  that  it  had  to  be  left  to  rot 
in  the  fields,  as  there  were  no  people  to  pick  it.  Some 
authorities  maintain  that  wages  have  increased  of  late 
to  such  an  extent  that  the  growing"  of  cotton  is  becoming 
unremunerative,  and  that  unless  cotton  can  be  sold  by 
the  planter  at  6d.  per  lb.,  which  means  that  the  spinners 
will  have  to  pay  considerably  more,  cotton  cultivation 
in  the  United  States  of  America  will  decline.  As  an 
example  of  the  recent  wages  paid  in  the  United  States  I 
am  able  to  state  that,  whilst  the  "  piece  rate  "  for  picking 
in  Texas  usually  began -at  50  to  60  cents  per  100  lb.  of 
seed-cotton,  rising  later,  as  the  crop  became  thinner  and 
more  difficult  to  gather,  to  over  100  cents,  during  the 
early  part  of  last  season  pickers  could  not  be  got  in  Texas 
below  70  cents,  and  the  100  cents  rate  was  reached  very 
quickly.  If  we  remember  that  it  takes  about  300  lb.  of 
seed-cotton  to  make  100  lb.  of  lint  cotton,  the  cost  of 
picking  works  out  at  ijd.  per  lb.  Under  these  condi- 
tions, countries  outside  the  sphere  of  such  high  wages 
seem  to  have  an  excellent  opportunity  of  competing  with 
the  United  States  of  America,  even  if  the  climatic  con- 
ditions are  not  as  favourable.  Experts  seem  more  and 
more  of  the  opinion  that  cotton  growing  in  the  United 
States  will  only  be  remunerative  in  the  case  of  long- 
stapled  cottons,  such  as  are  produced  in  the  Mississippi 
Delta,  whose  value  is  much  above  the  ordinary  type. 

These    considerations    seem    to    justify    the    prevalent 


l66  COTTON 

assumption  that  the  limit  of  the  cotton  crop  of  the  United 
States  has  been  reached.  It  is  true  that  owing  to  the 
excellent  organization  of  the  United  States  Department 
of  Agriculture  the  yield  per  acre  is  gradually  increasing; 
but  if  labour  cannot  be  found  to  harvest  the  cotton,  the 
full  advantage  of  its  activity  cannot  be  realized.  So  long 
as  no  efficient  mechanical  cotton  picker  is  invented  (and 
so  far  the  results  obtained  have  not  been  satisfactory), 
the  cotton  crop  of  the  United  States  will  probably  not 
far  exceed  16,000,000  bales.  In  the  event  of  an  efficient 
mechanical  cotton  picker  being  put  on  the  market,  it  is 
doubtful  if  many  planters  would  be  able  to  afford  to 
purchase  it.  The  tendency  in  the  States  is  to  split  up 
the  large  plantations  into  small  holdings,  and  the  small 
farmer  has  not  the  capital  with  which  to  buy  such  a 
machine.  We  must  not  leave  out  of  consideration  the 
boll-weevil  scourge  which  is  devastating  vast  stretches  of 
territory.  It  is  stated  that  in  five  years'  time  the  Sea 
Island  cotton  districts  will  be  attacked,  and  that  the 
farmers  there  will  be  forced  to  grow  early  maturing 
varieties  of  cotton,  which  are  largely  of  short  staple.  It 
is  for  this  reason  that  every  effort  should  be  made  to 
complete  the  irrigation  works  in  the  Anglo-Egyptian 
Sudan.  Egypt  and  the  Sudan  will  be  called  upon  to  make 
up  for  the  shortage  that  will  result  in  the  supply  of  long- 
staple  cotton,  when  the  Sea  Island  districts  have  become 
a  prey  to  the  ravages  of  the  boll-weevil. 

South  America. — The  Republics  of  South  America  are 
already  suppliers  of  cotton  to  a  small  extent  (500,000 
bales),  and  when  better  means  of  transportation  are 
established,  and  the  population  increases,  it  is  probable 
that  Brazil  and  Peru  will  furnish  large  quantities  of 
cotton.  But  for  a  generation  or  two  this  cannot  happen. 
At  present  the  unsettled  financial  condition  of  these 
Republics  prevents  development. 

Asiatic  Russia. — Asiatic  Russia  supplies  the  Russian 
•cotton  industry  with  one  million  bales  of  cotton  of  500  lb., 
quite  equal  in  quality  to  Middling  American.  The  prin- 
cipal cotton-growing  districts  are  Ferghana,  Syr  Darja, 
Semiretschenck,  Samarkand,  and  the  Transcaspian  terri- 
tory. The  danger  of  the  increasing  evaporation  of 


COTTON  167 

moisture  from  the  soil  in  Turkestan,  the  lack  of  transport 
communications  for  the  importation  of  fodder  and  food 
crops,  as  well  as  for  the  exportation  of  the  cotton  crop, 
and  the  lack  of  labour,  are  the  principal  reasons  why  the 
extension  of  cotton  cultivation  in  Asiatic  Russia  is  bound 
to  be  slow.  The  average  wage  of  a  labourer  is  43.  per 
day;  this  alone  is  enough  to  prevent  any  large  extension. 

China  and  Korea. — It  is  estimated  that  China  and  Korea 
produce  about  one  and  a  half  million  bales  of  cotton  of 
500  lb.,  but  very  little  is  known  as  to  the  possibilities  of 
extension.  The  quality  produced  is  very  low,  and  the 
cotton  is  adulterated  with  over  15  per  cent,  of  water  and 
sand.  The  unsettled  political  state  of  China  is  bound  to 
impede  developments  there. 

Turkey. — Turkey  produces  about  100,000  bales  of 
cotton  per  annum.  Owing  to  the  massacres  which  have 
recently  taken  place  in  Asia  Minor,  the  country  suffers 
severely  from  lack  of  labour,  and  even  if  the  projected 
works  of  irrigation  are  successfully  carried  out,  it  will 
be  a  long  time  before  appreciable  quantities  of  cotton 
can  be  exported. 

India. — After  considering  the  possibilities  of  the  exten- 
sion of  cotton  cultivation  in  all  these  countries  we  come 
to  India,  which  possesses  an  excellent  network  of  rail- 
ways, has  a  hard-working  population,  90  per  cent,  of  the 
315,000,000  being  born  agriculturists,  and  in  which  cotton 
has  been  an  important  crop  from  time  immemorial.  It 
is  true  that  crops  in  India  are  largely  dependent  on  the 
monsoons,  but  it  is  equally  true  that  the  climate  of  India 
is  no  less  favourable  to  cotton  growing  than  that  of  the 
United  States.  Besides,  the  Government  has  developed 
a  wonderful  system  of  irrigation,  especially  in  the  North; 
and  the  Indian  ryot,  taking  him  as  a  whole,  is  a  steady, 
plodding  worker,  who  has  begun  to  appreciate  the  advan- 
tages resulting  from  an  increased  income.  This  is  a  verv 
important  factor.  The  Indian  ryot  has  discovered  tnat 
well  irrigation  makes  cotton  growing  profitable;  indeed, 
in  Madras  and  the  United  Provinces  the  number  of  wells 
constructed  by  the  cultivators  in  recent  years  may  be  said 
to  represent  the  savings  that  have  resulted  from  the 
increased  profits  on  cotton  cultivation.  These  wells  are 
the  best  insurance  against  famine. 


l68  COTTON 

I  now  turn  to  the  question  of  the  demand  for  raw 
cotton.  It  has  been  said  that  a  demand  for  cotton  goods 
is  one  of  the  first  signs  of  civilization. 

Mr.  Alexander  J.  Kusnetzoff,  one  of  Russia's  leaders 
of  the  cotton  industry,  stated  at  the  Seventh  Inter- 
national Cotton  Congress  at  Brussels  (1910)  that  of  the 
1,500,000,000  inhabitants  of  the  earth,  there  are  only 
500,000,000  completely  clothed,  whilst  750,000,000  are 
partly  clothed,  and  250,000,000  do  not  possess  any  cloth- 
ing whatever,  and  that  in  order  to  provide  clothing  for 
the  whole  of  humanity,  at  least  42,000,000  bales  of  cotton, 
or  15^  Ib.  for  every  human  being,  were  annually  required. 

The  world's  consumption  of  cotton  has  increased  from 
1909  to  1913  at  the  rate  of  almost  one  million  bales  per 
annum !  These  figures  are  based  upon  the  statistics 
issued  by  the  International  Cotton  Federation,  compiled 
from  the  individual  returns  of  the  spinners. 

Russia  has  increased  its  consumption  of  cotton  as 
follows  :  — 

Consumption — Ib.  (English)  Consumption — Ib.  (English) 

1855                 ...              54,195,000  I9OI                 ...           603,371,000 

i860                ...              90,325,000  1902                 ...           541,950,000 

1870                .   .            144,520,000  1903                 ...           794,860,000 

1875 
1880 
1886 
1890 
1894 


162,585,000  1904  ...  726,213,000 

307,105,000  1905  ...  614,210,000 

361,300,000  1906  ...  755,117,000 

252,910000  1907  ...  751,504,000 

444,399,000  icoS  ...  794,860,000 


The  weight  of  cotton  cloths  produced  on  power  looms, 
and  consumed  in  India  has  increased  from  536,960,200  Ib. 
in  1896-97  to  988,027,318  Ib.  in  1912-13.  The  consumption 
per  head  of  the  population  in  India  is  equal  to  3*63  Ib., 
or  roughly  14  yards.  The  clothing  of  the  people  of  India 
requires  at  present  3!  million  bales  of  cotton  (including 
waste),  but  every  additional  yard  used  per  head  of  the 
poDtilation  represents  an  increase  of  about  232,000  bales 
of  500  Ib.  each.  The  increased  prices  which  the  culti- 
vators of  India  are  receiving,  not  only  for  their  cotton, 
but  also  for  other  produce,  are  bound  to  place  them  in 
an  improved  financial  position,  which  will  undoubtedly 
lead  to  an  increased  expenditure  on  clothing. 

But  besides  Russia  and  India  there  are  other  vast 
countries,  such  as  China,  Africa,  Central  Asia,  etc.,  all 


COTTON  1 69 

of    which    will    demand    increasing    supplies    of    cotton 
clothing. 

Consideration  must  also  be  given  to  the  fact  that  cotton 
lias  entered  into  many  new  uses  in  Europe.  It  is  in  great 
demand  for  the  making  of  motor-car  tyre  covers, 
bagging,  ropes,  aeroplane  cloth,  etc.;  and,  as  a  result 
of  the  discovery  of  the  mercerizing  process,  in  the  manu- 
facture of  certain  classes  of  goods,  cotton  has  replaced 
silk  to  a  considerable  extent.  As  soon  as  the  fashionable 
ladies  of  Europe  revert  from  the  "  hobble  "  skirt  to  the 
fuller  skirt — and  fashion  seems  to  be  developing  in  this 
direction — large  additional  supplies  of  cotton  will  be 
wanted.  Spinning  and  weaving  machinery  has  extended 
to  meet  the  increased  demand,  and  this  extension  will 
continue;  but  the  cotton  industry  must  obtain  an  annual 
increase  of  about  1,000,000  bales  of  raw  material. 

As  a  further  example  of  the  growing  consumption  of 
cotton  by  the  European  countries,  I  may  state  that, 
according  to  Government  figures,  the  consumption  per 
head  of  population  in  Germany  has  increased  from  not 
quite  J  Ib.  in  1840  to  16  Ib.  in  1912.  Whilst  the  figures 
for  the  consumption  of  wool  show  a  decline,  the  cotton 
consumption  is  more  than  twenty-five  times  bigger  than 
70  years  ago. 

This  enormous  and  ever-increasing  demand  for  raw 
cotton  secures  the  cultivator  for  many  years  to  come  a 
remunerative  price  for  his  cotton  crop,  and  not  only  the 
Government  of  India,  but  every  other  Government  is 
fully  justified  in  encouraging  the  cultivation  of  cotton  in 
face  of  this  regularly  increasing  demand. 

It  is  not  yet  twenty  years  since  Middling  American 
cotton  was  3d.  per  Ib.,  but  for  the  past  few  years  it  has 
rarely  fallen  below  6d.  per  Ib. 

The  demand  outside  India  for  the  cotton  grown  there 
comes  principally  from  Japan  and  the  Continent  of 
Europe;  Lancashire  and  the  United  States  of  America 
are  only  small  consumers.  On  the  European  Continent 
Indian  cottons  of  superior  qualities  are  being  employed 
more  and  more  to  take  the  place  of  American  cotton, 
and  the  statistical  compilations  of  the  International 
Cotton  Federation,  showing  the  stocks  of  cotton  in  the 


170  COTTON 

mills  of  the  whole  world  on  March  i,  1914,  indicate  the 
increased  use  to  which  Indian  cotton  has  been  put  during 
the  last  year. 

The  question  of  the  cotton  supply  should  be  looked 
upon  from  an  international  point  of  view,  as  all  the 
nations  are  interdependent. 

THE  PRODUCTION  OF  COTTON  IN  INDIA. 

The  International  Cotton  Federation  has  at  all  times 
urged,  in  the  first  instance,  the  growing  of  larger  quan- 
tities of  cotton  in  India.  Although  the  question  of  quality 
has  been  looked  upon  as  a  point  of  secondary  importance, 
yet  it  is  one  which  would  naturally  receive  the  attention 
of  the  growers. 

The  results  achieved  in  regard  to  quality  in  Madras, 
in  the  Punjab,  in  Sind  and  Guzerat  are  very  promising, 
for  taking  these  together  we  have  had  during  last  season 
a  crop  of  some  300,000  bales  which  are  of  a  quality  equal 
to  Middling  American,  though,  owing  to  defective  pick- 
ing and  mixing,  the  price  obtained  for  these  cottons  may 
not  have  been  as  high  as  it  might  otherwise  have  been. 

It  is  a  mistaken  idea  to  suppose  that  India  can  produce 
only  coarse  and  short  cottons.  It  is  an  historical  fact 
that  India  used  to  produce  cotton  from  which  the  finest 
kinds  of  tissues  were  woven,  and  it  is  only  through 
mixing  of  different  cotton  varieties  and  the  lack  of 
scientific  supervision  that  the  Indian  cottons  have 
deteriorated.  I  am,  however,  able  to  state  the  experi- 
ence of  many  cotton  spinners  to  the  effect  that  the  Indian 
cottons  have  improved  again  of  late  years  in  quality,  no 
doubt  due  to  the  activities  of  the  agricultural  experts,  and 
there  is  every  reason  to  hope  that  further  progress  will 
be  made  in  this  direction. 

The  tour  which  I  undertook  during  last  winter  through 
the  Indian  cotton-growing  provinces  extended  to  Sind, 
the  Punjab,  North-West  Frontier  Province,  the  United 
Provinces,  Madras  Presidency,  Central  Provinces,  Burma, 
Assam,  and  part  of  the  Bombay  Presidency.  Thanks  to 
the  excellent  arrangements  made  by  the  India  Office,  I 
was  able  to  make  a  pretty  exhaustive  survey  of  the  con- 


COTTON  I/ I 

ditions  in  the  comparatively  short  time  of  five  months. 
I  will  content  myself  here  simply  with  drawing  attention 
to  the  salient  features  of  each  province,  and  refer  those 
of  you  who  are  specially  interested  in  the  question  to  the 
report  which  the  International  Cotton  Federation  will 
issue  in  a  few  days. 

Sind. 

The  most  interesting  development  arises  from  the 
formation  of  a  syndicate  of  Bombay  millowners,  which 
has  started  operations  as  the  result  of  a  suggestion  I 
made  four  years  ago  on  the  occasion  of  my  first  visit  tc 
India.  This  syndicate  acts  as  a  buying  agency  for  the 
purchase  of  cotton  grown  from  American  seed,  which 
the  Deputy-Director  of  Agriculture  has  introduced 
amongst  the  cultivators  in  Lower  Sind.  Unfortunately, 
this  year,  owing  to  unexpected  rains  in  August,  this 
American  cotton  has  suffered  severely,  almost  one-third 
of  the  plants  having  been  washed  out  of  the  ground,  and 
the  colour  of  the  lint  has  been  considerably  damaged  in 
the  remaining  plants.  Instead  of  having  a  crop  of  800 
bales  of  American  cotton  from  Lower  Sind,  only  450  bales 
have  been  harvested.  This  syndicate  has  also  erected  a 
ginning  factory  in  Upper  Sind,  but  there  the  cultivation 
has  suffered  from  a  lack  of  water  in  the  canals.  The 
future  of  Sind  as  a  cotton-growing  area  depends  largely 
on  the  supply  of  water  in  the  canals,  and  it  has  been 
proved  that  unless  the  construction  of  the  Rohri  Canal, 
a  project  that  has  been  before  the  public  for  about  thirty 
years,  is  undertaken,  Sind  cannot  be  relied  upon  as  an 
annual  supplier  of  large  quantities  of  cotton.  It  is  a 
great  pity  that  this  district,  which  is  very  similar  to 
Egypt,  is  withheld  from  producing  good  cotton  owing 
to  the  impasse  in  connection  with  the  canal  project. 

The  indigenous  Sind  cotton  is  short,  but  is  much  appre- 
ciated on  account  of  its  whiteness. 

Punjab. 

The  outstanding  feature  of  this  province  is  that  this 
season  from  25,000  to  30,000  bales  of  American  cotton 
have  been  grown  in  the  Lyallpur  district.  This  cotton 


17-2  COTTON 

originally  came  from  Dharwar,  but  experts  agree  that 
the  staple  and  colour  have  improved  since  it  has  been 
taken  into  the  Punjab.  The  great  drawback  is  that  the 
ginners  who  purchase  the  cotton  from  the  cultivators 
try  to  mix  the  local  cotton  with  this  Lyallpur-American 
cotton  in  the  hope  of  cheating  the  buyer.  The  effect  is 
that  this  cotton  mixture  is  not  sold  at  the  price  it  would 
command  if  it  were  kept  pure  and  that  when  the  seed  is 
used  in  the  second  year  for  sowing  purposes  the  mixture 
has  already  taken  place.  It  is  of  the  utmost  importance 
that  the  Department  of  Agriculture  of  the  Punjab  should 
undertake  a  wide  distribution  of  American  seed  and 
confine  it  to  certain  villages.  The  more  that  cotton  of 
one  variety  is  grown  in  a  district  the  more  difficult 
becomes  the  task  of  mixing  it  with  others.  In  this  con- 
nection I  might  say  that  one  of  the  characteristics  of  the 
Indian  is  a  bent  for  gambling.  No  one  else  in  the  world 
is  so  given  to  speculating  and  gambling  as  the  Indian, 
and  although  he  may  have  been  found  out  nine  times  in 
some  underhand  practice,  he  will  persevere  and  try  the 
tenth  time  in  the  hope  that  he  will  not  be  detected. 

The  licensing  of  ginning  factories  would  undoubtedly 
be  a  remedy  for  this  mixing. 

The  Punjab  Government  has  undertaken  •extensive 
irrigation  works,  and  besides  those  canals  already  supply- 
ing water  to  the  northern  part  of  the  Punjab  there  will 
be  inaugurated  at  the  end  of  this  year  the  Lower  Bari 
Doab  Canal,  which  will  supply  water  to  a  large  tract  of 
country  where  the  prospects  of  growing  good  cotton, 
Lyallpur-American,  are  excellent.  The  land  is  level  and, 
therefore,  most  suitable  for  irrigation,  and  the  clearing 
will  cost  comparatively  little. 

The  International  Cotton  Federation  fias  received  the 
offer  from  the  Punjab  Government  of  a  free  lease  of 
7,500  acres  of  cotton  land  in  the  Lower  Bari  Doab  Canal 
Colony  for  the  purpose  of  establishing  a  model  cotton 
plantation  and  a  buying  agency.  The  special  features  of 
this  undertaking  are :  Intensive  cultivation  will  be  intro- 
duced; American  cotton,  similar  to  that  grown  in  Sind 
and  the  Punjab,  will  be  grown;  pure  strains  of  seed  will 
be  distributed;  and  cotton  will  be  bought  from  the  sur- 


COTTON  173 

rounding  districts  at  a  premium  made  known  at  the  time 
of  the  planting  season.  The  land  has  been  offered  free 
for  twenty  years,  and  in  the  event  of  more  than  10  per 
cent,  being  earned,  the  surplus  of  profits  above  that 
figure  will  be  returned  to  the  Government,  thus  ensuring 
that  the  Indian  cultivators  will  not  be  exploited.  The 
undertaking  is  to  be  an  educational  movement,  for  the 
good  of  India,  and  not  primarily  a  money-making 
venture. 

North-West  Frontier  Province. 

There  are  two  kinds  of  cotton  grown  here.  One  has 
a  staple  I  in.  long,  whilst  the  other  measures  f  in. 
The  former  is  grown  on  land  flooded  by  hill  streams, 
whilst  the  latter  is  grown  on  canal-irrigated  tracts. 
Unfortunately,  the  ginning  out-turn  of  this  cotton  is  only 
25  per  cent.,  but  there  is  no  reason  why  it  should  not  be 
improved  by  seed  and  plant  selection.  As  in  the  Punjab, 
so  in  this  province,  the  mixing  of  two  different  kinds  of 
cotton  is  going  on.  In  both  cases  the  ginners,  who  are 
the  first  buyers,  and  not  the  growers,  are  the  culprits. 
It  is  high  time  that  it  was  realized  in  India  that  the 
shortest  fibre  in  a  mixture  of  cotton  decides  the  price  of 
the  whole  mixture,  just  as  the  value  of  a  chain  may  be 
gauged  by  the  strength  of  its  weakest  link.  The  growth 
of  cotton  in  this  province  has  more  than  doubled  during 
the  last  five  years,  but  the  possibility  of  extension  is  not 
very  great.  I  recommended  in  this  province  the  establish- 
ment of  a  cotton  market  with  a  Government  grader,  such 
as  there  is  at  Tokar,  in  the  Anglo-Egyptian  Sudan. 

United   Provinces. 

In  the  Western  Circle  a  white-flowering  cotton  with  a 
ginning  percentage  of  39  to  40  has  been  largely  intro- 
duced and  gives  a  very  remunerative  result  to  the 
farmers.  This  cotton  is  very  short,  but  owing  to  its 
high  ginning  out-turn  is  very  remunerative.  A  longer 
cotton,  of  American  origin,  Buri,  f  in.  long,  has  been 
introduced  as  an  experiment  and  promises  well.  It  will 
be  a  contest  as  to  whether  it  will  be  more  remunerative 
for  the  farmer  to  grow  the  short  or  the  longer  cotton. 


174  COTTON 

Round  Cawnpore,  an  American  variety  is  being  grown, 
and  200  bales  of  this  were  bought  last  season  by  a 
Cawnpore  millowner  at  6Jd.  per  Ib.  The  ordinary  cotton 
round  Cawnpore  is  very  short  Bengal.  There  is  urgent 
need  for  the  work  of  an  additional  agricultural  expert  for 
Bundelkhand,  where  the  conditions  are  entirely  different 
from  those  in  the  Cawnpore  area,  the  soil  and  climate  of 
Bundelkhand  being  almost  identical  with  those  of  the 
Central  Provinces.  In  Bundelkhand  has  been  inaugurated 
during  the  last  decade  an  extensive  canal  system,  but 
whereas  in  1904  it  had  160,000  acres  under  cotton,  only 
90,000  were  cultivated  last  season  with  cotton.  This  is 
all  the  more  strange  as  all  the  other  districts  of  the 
United  Provinces  have  gradually  increased  their  cotton 
acreage.  The  Department  of  Agriculture  holds  the 
opinion  that  Bundelkhand  offers  a  good  future  for  the 
growing  of  cotton. 

Central  Provinces. 

The  organizations  which  assist  the  Department  of 
Agriculture,  and  have  been  created  by  it,  are  excellent. 
Agricultural  Unions  and  Co-operative  Agricultural 
Societies  attend  to  the  distribution  of  cotton  seed,  and 
it  is  probably  due  to  the  excellent  organization  of  the 
Department  of  Agriculture!  of  that  Province  that  it  is 
now  the  second  largest  cotton  producer  of  India.  Since 
1902,  when  the  activities  of  the  Agricultural  Department 
started,  the  area  under  cotton  has  increased  by  almost 
900,000  acres.  The  cotton  grown  generally  is  short, 
about  J  in.  long,  but  the  quantity  is  large  and  ever 
increasing.  Cambodia  has  been  tried  with  enormous 
success  in  Chanda,  on  the  new  Government  farm,  under 
tank  irrigation;  it  not  only  yielded  well,  but  produced  a 
lint  that  has  been  spoken  of  by  a  Cawnpore  millowner 
as  "  the  best  cotton  grown  in  any  part  of  India."  The 
Central  Provinces  are  the  new  home  of  Buri  cotton,  for 
it  is  from  here  that  the  United  Provinces  and  Assam  have 
received  the  seed. 

It  is  unfortunate  that  the  good  reputation  which  the 
Agricultural  Department  is  endeavouring  to  gain  for  the 
cotton  raised  in  the  Central  Provinces  and  Berar  is 


COTTON  175 

suffering  largely  from  the  malpractice  of  watering  the 
ginned  cotton  prior  to  pressing.  At  all  the  most  im- 
portant centres  one  can  see  hose-pipes  being  used  freely, 
say 'half  an  hour  over  100  loose  bales,  and,  in  spite  of 
the  remonstrances  made  by  the  spinners  of  the  world, 
it  is  surprising  that  the  Government  of  India  cannot  see 
its  way  to  suppress  this  practice,  which  has  been  termed 
a  "  fraud  "  by  the  Secretary  of  State  for  India. 


Madras. 

As  regards  Madras,  an  improvement  has  undoubtedly 
taken  place  in  the  quality  of  Northerns,  which  the 
Agricultural  Department  has  improved  by  plant  selection. 
A  slighter  improvement  has  taken  place  in  the  Western 
cotton,  but,  unfortunately,  owing  to  lack  of  staff,  hardly 
any  work  has  been  carried  on  by  the  Department  of 
Agriculture  for  the  improvement  of  Cambodia.  When 
this  Cambodia  was  introduced  it  had  a  ginning  out-turn 
of  44  per  cent.,  now  it  varies  from  33  to  35  per  cent. 
With  plant  selection  and  importation  of  new  supplies  of 
seed  good  work  might  be  done  by  agricultural  experts. 
Spinners  complain  very  much  of  the  falling-off  in  quality 
of  Cambodia  cotton.  This  cotton  has  i  in.  staple,  and 
is  a  phenomenal  yielder,  as  500  Ib.  of  lint  per  acre  is 
quite  a  common  crop.  As  Indian  cotton  generally  yields 
only  100  Ib.  per  acre,  it  will  be  readily  understood  that 
many  ryots  are  using  all  kinds  of  unsuitable  land  for  the 
purpose  of  trying  this  wonderful  cotton.  Unfortunately, 
the  Co-operative  Credit  Societies  in  Madras  are  not  yet 
sufficiently  developed  to  take  up  agricultural  work.  A 
great  improvement  would  take  place  if  the  Department 
of  Agriculture  were  to  sell  selected  seed  on  credit  in  this 
Presidency. 

Burma. 

So  far  little  attention  has  been  paid  to  Burma  cotton. 
The  Government  state  that  about  47,000  bales  are  grown 
every  year,  but  last  year,  and  again  this  year,  between 
70,000  and  80,000  bales  were  exported.  Burmese  cotton, 
as  now  marketed,  is  a  mixture  of  long  and  short  varieties. 
12 


176  COTTON 

The  long  cotton  has  a  staple  of  i  in.,  is  white  in  colour, 
and  silky.  It  is  known  under  the  name  of  Bhamo  cotton, 
and  used  to  be  exported  to  China.  The  Chinese  insisted 
upon  the  different  pickings  being  kept  apart,  but  when 
about  fifteen  years  ago  mechanical  ginning  factories  were 
started  in  Burma  their  managers  were  not  so  particular 
as  to  quality  and  insisted  upon  quantity,  with  the  result 
that  the  mixing  has  continued,  and  even  now  no  satis- 
factory difference  is  made  in  price  for  the  different 
qualities  or  for  clean-picked  cotton.  Three  large 
European  firms  have  formed  a  combine,  and,  in  the 
absence  of  effective  competition,  the  low  prices  paid  by 
the  combine  to  cultivators  must  result  in  a  reduction  in 
the  acreage  next  year.  One  advantage  has  resulted  from 
this  combine,  and  that  is  that  its  buyers  steadily  refuse 
to  accept  any  seed-cotton  that  has  been  watered. 

Considerable  quantities  of  a  coarse  cotton  giving  50  per 
cent,  ginning  out-turn  are  grown  on  the  sides  of  the  hills 
in  the  Shan  States  and  other  hill  districts,  under  perennial 
cultivation.  The  method  of  cultivation  is  to  burn  down 
the  hillside  and  then  put  in  cotton  plants  and  allow  them 
to  stay  for  three  years.  By  that  time  the  soil  has  become 
impoverished,  and  the  tribes  then  go  to  other  tracts  and 
start  the  same  process  afresh.  Owing  to  lack  of  staff 
and  railways  the  Agricultural  Department  has  not  been 
able  to  introduce  more  economic  methods  in  these  parts. 

Assam. 

There  is  a  small  plantation  in  the  Kamrup  plain  of 
Assam,  where  last  year  several  acres  of  Buri  cotton  had 
been  grown  as  an  experiment.  The  results  have  been 
excellent.  The  spinner  who  obtained  this  cotton  bought 
it  at  the  rate  of  7d.  per  Ib.  The  result  of  this  experiment 
has  astonished  the  officials  of  the  Assam  Agricultural 
Department,  who  had  previously  declared  that  cotton 
could  not  be  cultivated  in  the  plains  of  Assam.  The 
Lieutenant-Governor,  Sir  Archdale  Earle,  showed  great 
interest  in  this  new  venture,  and  promised  that  the 
Agricultural  Department  should  take  up  the  question  of 
cotton  growing. 


COTTON  177 

Baroda. 

I  was  exceedingly  pleased  with  the  general  conditions 
at  Baroda,  especially  with  the  Government  farm  there, 
under  the  management  of  an  Indian.  Extensive  areas 
are  grown  under  Cambodia  cotton,  and  the  Dewan  and 
his  officials  are  evidently  alive  to  the  necessity  of  helping 
on  the  Department  of  Agriculture.  Five  hundred  farmers 
met  at  Baroda  on  February  20  to  hear  an  address  from 
H.H.  the  Gaekwar  on  the  advantages  of  Co-operative 
Credit  Societies  in  relation  to  the  improvement  of  the 
cultivation. 

The  Broach  and  Navsari  cottons  of  Baroda  have  a 
world-wide  reputation  for  their  excellent  qualities. 

Bombay  Presidency. 

I  did  not  visit,  on  this  occasion,  many  parts  of  this 
Presidency,  but  I  had  previously  made  a  thorough  investi- 
gation. In  the  north  of  Bombay  Presidency  the  Govern- 
ment have  achieved  very  good  work  with  regard  to 
improved  Broach  cotton,  and  the  Bombay  millowners 
established,  on  the  recommendation  of  the  International 
Cotton  Federation,  a  buying  agency,  guaranteeing  a 
premium  for  cotton  that  had  been  raised  from  the  im- 
proved seed.  Unfortunately,  last  season  difficulties 
arose,  but  it  is  hoped  that  the  Government  will  under- 
take a  stricter  superintendence  of  the  distribution  of  seed 
and  the  collection  .of  the  cotton  from  the  small  farmers. 

In  the  south  of  Bombay  Presidency,  in  the  Karnatak 
tract,  Dharwar  and  Gadag  are  the  principal  centres.  At 
Dharwar  we  find  the  only  saw-gins  in  use  in  the  whole 
of  India.  Indian  cotton  is  ginned,  in  general,  by  roller- 
gins,  but  here  in  Dharwar  saw-gins  are  used  for  the 
purpose  of  separating  the  fibre  of  American  cotton  from 
the  seed.  Latterly  the  Dharwar  American  cotton  has 
deteriorated,  and  the  Government  has  introduced  with 
success  Broach  and  Cambodia  cottons. 

Bombay  Presidency  is  the  largest  producer  of  Indian 
cotton,  supplying  over  29  per  cent,  of  the  total  Indian 
crop. 


178  COTTON 

Conclusions. 

The  outlook  in  general,  as  regards  India  as  a  large 
supplier  of  cotton,  is  most  promising,  but  the  Govern- 
ment will  have  to  engage  a  much  larger  staff  of  farming 
experts.  The  few  who  are  at  present  in  the  Govern- 
ment's employment  are  a  great  credit  to  the  British 
nation,  and  are  the  most  remunerative  investment  which 
the  Government  of  India  has  ever  undertaken.  I  can 
prove  that  in  almost  every  province,  through  the  instru- 
mentality of  these  farming  experts,  additional  millions  of 
rupees  are  annually  brought  into  the  country. 

The  Government  of  India  spends  about  £i  per  thousand 
of  the  population  on  agriculture,  leaving  out  veterinary 
expenditure.  Comparisons  with  other  countries  show 
how  absurdly  small  this  outlay  is.  The  United  Kingdom 
spends  £46  per  thousand,  Queensland  £92*5,  Austria 
£86'5,  Prussia  £62*5,  United  States  of  America  and 
Canada  a  little  over  £36,  France  and  Hungary  about  £27. 
The  Pioneer  of  Allahabad,  which  supplied  this  informa- 
tion, in  a  leading-  article  dealing  with  an  address  I  gave 
before  the  Board  of  Agriculture,  says  this  comparison 
is  very  instructive,  and  that  no  one  can  fail  to  see  that 
State  expenditure  on  agriculture  in  India  is  only  in  its 
infancy,  and  that  an  unanswerable  case  exists  for  its 
expansion. 

On  my  journey  I  advocated  the  system  of  supplying 
seed  on  credit,  the  same  as  has  been  introduced  by  Lord 
Kitchener  in  Egypt.  All  the  machinery  exists  for  the 
collection  of  the  value  of  the  seed  through  the  tax- 
collector.  If  this  method  were  adopted  in  India,  we 
would  soon  see  the  Department  of  Agriculture  obtaining 
a  monopoly  over  the  supply  of  seed,  and  in  this  way  the 
ryot  would  gradually  free  himself  from  the  hands  of  the 
moneylender.  The  more  general  establishment  of  cotton 
markets,  with  Government  graders,  and  possibly  in  some 
provinces  the  licensing  of  ginning  factories,  would  be 
effective  means  of  stopping  the  mixing  of  the  various 
cottons,  for  not  only  is  the  purchaser  cheated  through 
this  practice,  but  much  greater  harm  is  done  when,  in 
the  following  season,  the  mixed  seeds  are  sown  in  the 


COTTON  179 

field.  The  watering  of  cotton  should  be  made  a  penal 
offence. 

I  feel  convinced  that  the  introduction  of  such  methods 
as  I  have  suggested  would  enable  India  to  supply  in  the 
near  future,  say  in  about  five  years,  a  cotton  crop  of 
10,000,000  bales.  Cotton  is  a  crop  that  can  be  readily 
converted  into  cash  at  any  time.  It  is  a  crop  that  requires 
a  food  or  fodder  crop  as  a  rotation,  and  therefore  does 
not  interfere  with  the  growing  of  food  and  fodder  crops. 
Of  course,  the  man  who  owns  only  half  an  acre  must  in 
the  first  instance  devote  his  land  to  the  raising  of  food 
crops.  The  cotton-seed  cakes,  or  better,  the  meal  of 
these  cakes,  form,  in  all  agricultural  countries,  an  ex- 
cellent cattle  food  which  is  not  yet  sufficiently  used  in 
India.  The  meal  can  be  conveniently  packed  in  a  small 
compass,  and  can  be  transported  expeditiously  by  rail  to 
famine-stricken  districts  when  necessary.  These  cotton- 
seed cakes  have  found  great  favour  in  England  and  the 
United  States,  and  one  may  justly  look  upon  cotton  quite 
as  much  as  a  fodder-producing  plant  as  a  fibre  plant, 
seeing  that  the  seed  grains  are  the  heaviest  portion  of 
the  crop. 

At  present  5*9  per  cent,  of  the  gross  cropped  area  of 
India  is  under  cotton,  whilst  79'6  per  cent,  is  under  food 
and  fodder  crops;  even  in  famine  years  India  exports 
foodstuffs.  It  must  be  remembered  that  cotton  is  a  crop 
that  can  be  warehoused  for  years  without  suffering  in  the 
least,  and  as  I  have  shown  at  the  beginning  of  my  paper, 
there  is  very  little  possibility,  owing  to  the  ever-increasing 
demand,  that  we  shall  see  in  the  near  future  low  prices 
prevailing  for  cotton  for  any  length  of  time. 

Even  if  Lancashire  does  not  herself  use  very  large 
quantities  of  Indian  cotton,  yet  two  great  advantages 
accrue  to  the  English  cotton  industry  from  the  extension 
of  cotton  cultivation  in  India,  viz.:  — 

(i)  Every  additional  bale  of  cotton  raised  in  India 
liberates  a  bale  of  American  cotton,  and  consequently 
lessens  the  demand  and  price  for  it.  Seeing  that  this 
year's  crop  in  India  will  probably  amount  to  6,000,000 
bales,  the  boon  to  the  cotton  industry  as  a  whole,  as  a 
result  of  a  crop  of  these  unprecedented  dimensions,  must 


180  COTTON 

have  been  very  great.  Had  the  Indian  crop  been  of 
normal  size,  the  price  of  American  cotton  would  un- 
doubtedly have  risen  to  record  figures.  As  it  is,  the 
cotton  manufacturing  industry  of  the  whole  world  has 
benefited. 

(2)  Lancashire's  secondary  advantage  is,  that  by 
extending  cotton  cultivation  in  India  by  improved 
methods,  especially  by  seed  selection,  the  ryot  becomes 
financially  better  off,  the  consequence  being  that  he  is 
able  to  spend  more  money  on  his  clothing,  of  which  about 
90  per  cent,  is  supplied  by  Lancashire. 


A  NOTE  ON  THE  IMPROVEMENT  OF  COTTON  IN 
BRITISH  INDIA. 

By  G.  A.  GAMMIE,  F.L.S. 
Imperial  Cotton  Specialist,  India. 

I. — THE  POSITION  OF  INDIAN  COTTON  UP  TO  1890. 

IN  Dr.  J.  Forbes  Royle's  book  on  the  "  Culture  and 
Commerce  of  Cotton  in  India,  etc.,"  published  in  1851, 
we  have  an  exhaustive  account  of  the  position  of  Indian 
cotton  as  it  stood  up  to  that  year,  and  it  is  necessary 
to  understand  that  the  avowed  object  of  all  the  early 
trials  was  to  produce  cotton  which  could  compete  on 
equal  terms  with  that  of  America  in,  at  least,  the  English 
markets.  It  was  tacitly  assumed  that  no  indigenous  kind 
could  possibly  answer  the  purpose,  so  that  the  experi- 
ments from  the  first  were  mainly  directed  to  the  intro- 
duction of  superior  exotic  varieties. 

The  present  section  of  this  paper  is  compiled  from 
Dr.  Royle's  book  and  some  other  sources  with  a  view 
to  make  clear  in  what  manner  the  problem  of  the  improve- 
ment of  Indian  cotton  was  attacked  before  the  establish- 
ment of  the  present  Department  of  Agriculture  in  India. 

Before  the  acute  demand  for  cotton  arose  in  the  markets 
of  the  world  India  was  looked  upon  as  a  great  country 
which  grew  immense  quantities  of  raw  material,  making 
it  up  into  useful  clothing  for  her  own  people.  She  was 
also  famous  from  ancient  times  for  exporting  elegant 
fabrics  to  the  most  civilized  nations.  Now  that  such  an 
increasing  call  for  the  raw  material  has  been  made,  it 
has  become  usual  to  look  upon  the  country  as  a  vast 
cotton  farm,  whose  business  it  should  be  to  supply  the 
raw  material  to  Europe,  and  to  take  back  in  any  quan- 
tities the  manufactured  goods  that  the  makers  choose 
to  send.  When  we  realize  the  conseauences  that 


182  COTTON 

would  ensue  in  Europe  in  the  event  of  an  inadequate 
supply  of  cotton,  we  are  not  surprised  to  know  that 
not  only  the  manufacturers,  but  the  general  public 
even,  are  directly  interested  in  the  area  of  culture 
being  extended.  India,  from  its  great  extent  and 
apparently  illimitable  powers  of  production,  is  looked 
to  as  the  country  capable  of  counterbalancing  our 
irregularities  of  supply  and  cost.  It  is  granted  that  it 
would  be  for  the  benefit  of  the  Indian  farmer  to  share 
more  largely  in  the  trade  which  the  American  planter 
nearly  monopolizes.  The  reasons  why  the  Indian  farmer 
cannot  compete  on  equal  terms  is  ascribed  either  to  mis- 
management or  to  the  absence  of  a  regular  demand  and 
of  remunerative  prices.  There  is  no  doubt  of  the  con- 
tinuous demand  for  cotton  in  general,  and,  if  India  has 
anything  to  complain  of  in  this  respect,  it  must  be  either 
owing  to  the  nature  of  the  Indian  cotton  or  to  the  state 
in  which  it  is  sent  to  market. 

The  first  question  which  arises  is,  whether  manu- 
facturers in  Europe  require  large  quantities  of  such 
cotton  as  the  people  themselves  use,  or  whether  they 
require  some  other  kinds  which  can  be  grown  successfully 
in  India? 

To  take  first  the  nature  and  condition  of  Indian  cotton, 
we  find  that  with  regard  to  its  quality,  it  will  be  admitted 
that  some  of  it  at  least  must  be  quite  fitted  for  the 
purposes  of  the  cotton  manufacturer,  if  we  consider  only 
the  durability"  and  substance  of  Indian  calicoes,  or  the 
fineness  in  texture  of  the  celebrated  muslins.  It  is 
possible,  however,  that  the  cotton  suitable  for  such 
purposes  when  spun  by  hand  may  be  yet  unfit  for  the 
rougher  handling  of  machinery,  more  especially  when 
we  remember  that  the  weavers  of  the  Southern  Provinces 
derive  part  of  their  success  in  manufacture  from  the 
softness  of  the  climate,  while  in  the  Northern  Provinces 
the  weavers  create  the  same  atmosphere  artificially  by 
working  in  underground  chambers,  in  which  the  air  is 
maintained  at  its  proper  degree  of  moisture.  It  is 
probable,  however,  that  the  cotton  in  different  tracts  of 
such  an  extensive  country  may  differ  so  much  that  what 
is  produced  in  one  part  may  be  fit  for  European  textile 
purposes,  while  that  of  another  part  may  be  quite  unsuit- 


COTTON  183 

able.  The  extent  and  regularity  of  the  foreign  demand 
for  Indian  cotton  will  therefore  depend  upon  the 
proportion  of  that  which  is  of  the  desired  quality  to 
that  which  is  not  required.  It  is  also  obvious  that  the 
best  product  may  be  sent  in  such  a  bad  state  to  the 
market  that  its  value  will  be  greatly  depreciated,  and  a 
prejudice  against  its  regular  employment  will  arise  and 
persist.  Indian  cotton  has  always  been  held  to  possess 
the  good  qualities  of  colour,  a  high  facility  for  taking 
some  dyes  better  than  American  cotton,  and  for  its 
thread-swelling  in  the  process  of  bleaching,  so  that  the 
cloth  made  from  it  becomes  more  substantial  in  appear- 
ance. To  show  the  minute  attention  which  was  paid  by 
the  people  of  India  to  the  cotton  employed  in  calicoes  and 
muslin,  it  is  recorded,  as  long  ago  as  1789,  that  the 
general  distinction  in  quality  that  the  natives  make  is 
whether  the  thread  made  from  any  cotton  swells  or  not 
in  the  bleaching.  Most  of  the  Indian  cotton  has  one 
great  defect,  that  is  shortness  of  staple,  which,  although 
it  can  be  twisted  and  spun  between  the  fingers,  may  yet 
be  blown  away  during  the  various  processes  of  machine 
spinning;  hence  it  has  been  found  that  the  waste  in  using 
Surat  cotton  is  25  per  cent.,  whilst  from  the  American 
the  loss  is  12^  per  cent. ;  and  also  the  same  machinery 
produces  a  larger  quantity  of  yarn  from  the  American 
than  from  the  Surat  cotton,  and  this  is  attributed  to  the 
more  brittle  character  of  the  latter.  An  improvement  of 
10  to  25  per  cent,  in  the  quality  of  Indian  cotton  was 
considered  necessary  before  its  consumption  would  be 
materially  increased.  One  reason  for  the  small  amount 
of  waste  in  the  American  cotton  was  that  most  of  it 
could  be  used  for  purposes  of  inferior  spinning,  while 
of  the  Surat  a  large  portion  cannot  be  worked  into 
inferior  articles.  The  shortness  in  the  staple  of  the 
predominant  classes  of  Indian  cotton  is  undoubtedly  the 
chief  factor  against  its  introduction  into  general  use ; 
but  another  chief  cause  is  the  dirty  state  in  which  it 
reaches  the  manufacturer,  this  condition  being  dependent 
on  the  careless  manner  in  which  it  is  collected  and  stored 
and  to  the  fraudulent  admixture  made  to  it  after  purchase 
from  the  growers.  All  the  evidence  which  has  been 


184  COTTON 

collected  points  to  the  fact  that  the  cultivator  is  not  the 
only  one  at  fault,  and  that,  moreover,  he  is  not  encouraged 
to  take  any  pains  in  improving  the  state  of  the  product 
he  brings  to  market. 

Experiments  in  the  Improvement  of  Cotton. 

Long  discussion  established  the  fact  that  Indian  cotton 
in  its  present  state  will  never  be  used  as  a  substitute  for 
American,  except  when  the  latter  is  scarce  and  dear. 
The  only  method,  therefore,  open  to  India  to  secure  a 
steady  and  profitable  trade  was  to  improve  the  condition 
and  quality  of  the  produce.  Experiments  were  conducted 
under  the  auspices  of  the  East  India  Company  for  a 
series  of  years,  and  the  ultimate  result  was  that  no 
permanent  improvement  was  effected  in  improving  the 
cotton  of  India. 

The  following  summary,  taken  from  Dr.  Royle's  book, 
shows  the  measures  adopted  at  different  periods  to 
improve  the  culture  of  cotton  in  India :  — 

1788. — The  Court  of  Directors  called  the  attention  of  the 
Indian  Government  to  the  cultivation  of  cotton 
in  India,  "  with  a  view  to  affording  every 
encouragement  to  its  growth  and  improvement." 
500,000  Ib.  weight  of  cotton  were  ordered  to  be 
sent.  Reports  were  called  for  from  the  collectors 
of  districts. 

1789. — Screws  for  compressing  cotton  were  at  this  time 
established,  both  by  the  Company  and  by  indi- 
viduals. 

1790. — Cotton  (422,207  Ib.)  received  from  India.  Ahmocd 
cotton  seed  directed  to  be  sent  to  Bengal. 
Reports  of  culture  at  Bombay,  Benares,  and 
Dacca  received,  also  from  collectors  of  Bengal 
and  Bihar.  Dr.  Anderson  employed  in  dis- 
tributing cotton  seed  from  Mauritius  and  from 
Malta  throughout  the  Peninsula  of  India. 

1794. — A  machine  sent  out  for  cleaning  cotton  from  seed 
and  other  impurities. 

1797. — A  plantation,  under  Mr.  M.  Brown,  established  at 
Randatarra,  in  Malabar,  chiefly  for  spices;  but 


COTTON  185 

Mauritius  and  Nankeen  cottons  were  grown  in 

1 80 1,  and  the  produce  sent  to  this  country. 
1799. — Nag-pur   cotton   seed   directed   to   be   tried   in  the 

Circars,  and  a  bounty  offered  to  growers. 
,,        Dr.  Roxburgh,  Superintendent   of  the  Botanical 

Garden,     Calcutta,     grew    and    described    eight 

species  of  Gossypium. 
1802-03. — Reports  received  on  the  cotton  trade  of  Bombay 

and  of  the  Gangetic  Doab. 
1809. — Cotton  ordered  from  India.   30,000,000  Ib.  received 

in  the  following  year. 
1810. — Samples   of   Georgian  and   Grenada  cottons   sent 

out;  also  seeds  of  West  Indian  and  of  American 

cottons.     Directions  sent  out  for  the  culture  of 

cotton,    prepared   by   Mr.    R.    Hunt   and   by  the 

African  Society. 
1811. — Bourbon     seed     procured     and     distributed     to 

Collectors  of  Surat  and  Broach,  with  directions 

for  cultivation. 
1813. — Mr.     B.     Metcalfe,     a    cleaner     of    cotton    from 

Georgia  and   New   Orleans,   sent   to  Tinnevelly 

with  saw-gins. 
,,        Mr.    Bruce    directed    to    send    cotton    seed    from 

Persia     to     India.      Seed     from     Bourbon     and 

Seychelles  procured. 
1814. — Two    or    three    hundred    bales    of    the    best    and 

cleanest    Toomil    cotton    directed    to    be     sent 

annually. 
1816. — Collector   at    Caranja    cultivates    Bourbon    cotton 

there. 
,,        Drawback  allowed  "  of  the  whole  internal  and  sea 

duties  "  on  cotton  exported  to  Great  Britain. 
,,        Two  improved  gins  sent  to  Bombay,  one  for  clean- 
ing black-seed,  the  other  for  green-seed  cotton. 
1817-19. — Mr.  Assistant-Surgeon  Gilder  succeeds  in  culti- 
vating Bourbon  cotton  at  Kaira. 
,,        Cotton  culture  attempted  in  Circars  by  Commercial 

Residents,  etc. 
,,        The   Court   suggest  that,    in   addition  to   Caranja 

and  vSalsette,  Malwan  should  be  tried. 
1818. — Satisfactory    reoort    from    Malwan.     Pernambuco 


1 86  COTTON 

seed  asked  for.  Mr.  Hughes  successfully  culti- 
vates Bourbon  cotton  at  Tinnevelly.  Mr.  Heath, 
having  obtained  instructions  from  Mr.  Hughes, 
succeeds  in  Coimbatore.  Memoir  from  Mr. 
Randall,  Commercial  Resident  in  Ceded  Districts, 
proposing  rewards  for  growing  Brazil  cotton  in 
districts  of  Madras  Presidency. 

1818. — Four  cotton  farms  of  400  acres  directed  to  be 
established  at  Tinnevelly,  Coimbatore,  Masuli- 
patam,  and  Vizagapatam. 

1819. — Considerable  success  by  Mr.  Heath  in  Coimbatore. 
The  cotton  approved  of  in  England,  and  500  bales 
of  300  Ib.  each,  sent  to  China,  sold  well  there. 

1823. — Barbados  and  Brazil  cotton  grown  by  Lady 
Hastings  at  Titty ghur,  near  Barrackpore. 

1826. — Dr.  Royle  attempted  culture  of  the  Bourbon, 
Nurma,  and  common  Indian  cottons  in  the 
Botanic  Garden,  Saharunpore. 

1828. — Attention  again  called  to  the  subject  of  cotton 
culture  by  Lord  Ellenborough,  the  President  of 
the  Indian  Board,  "  in  different  and  distant  parts 
of  India,"  and  in  an  excellent  paper  by  H.  St. 
George  Tucker,  Esq.,  a  member  of  the  Court 
of  Directors. 

1829. — The  Court  direct  attention  to  the  growth  of  new 
and  better  species;  send  out  machines  for  clean- 
ing cotton;  send  out  seeds  of  Upland  Georgian 
and  of  New  Orleans  cotton;  also  Sea  Island. 
Pernambuco,  and  Demerara  cotton  seed,  with 
accounts  of  methods  of  cultivation;  five  of 
Whitney's  saw-gins  sent  out  to  India,  with 
twelve  more  made  up  in  England,  and  metallic 
work  for  twelve  sets  to  be  made  up  in  India. 
,,  A  quantity  of  Surat  cotton  (500  bales)  also  ordered 
to  be  sent,  of  the  best  quality,  and  well  cleaned. 
,,  Rewards  to  be  offered,  both  to  ryots  and  to 

wakarias,  for  clean  picking  and  cleaning. 
,,        The  Agricultural  Society  of  India  had  an  allow- 
ance of  £1,000   a  year,   exclusive  of  rent,   until 
1833,  to  attempt  the  culture  of  cotton.     Rs.  20,000 
allowed  for  premiums  for  cotton  and  tobacco. 


COTTON  187 

1829. — December  31. — Bombay  Government  report  estab- 
lishing a  farm  in  Guzerat,  under  Mr.  Finney; 
another  in  Dharwar,  etc.,  under  Dr.  Lush; 
another  in  Salsette.  Land  offered  for  cultivation 
of  cotton. 

1830. — 300  bales  of  Toomil  cotton  sent,  and  25  bales  from 
Broach  Farm. 

1831. — Partial    success    at    Cotton    Farm    established    at 

Akra,  near  Calcutta. 

,,        Bus  want    Sing,    of    Ahmednagar,    encouraged   to 
grow   cotton. 

1832. — The  Court  do  not  approve  of  bounty,  but  direct 
that  land  appropriated  to  the  growth  of  cotton, 
sugar,  etc.,  should  not  be  subject  to  a  higher 
assessment.  3,000  to  4,000  bales  ordered  to  be 
sent,  if  procurable,  at  Rs.  115  per  candy. 
,,  Disposal  of  cotton  grown  in  the  experimental  farm 
of  Guzerat  for  Rs.  152  to  156  per  candy. 

1833. — Reports   from  Collectors   of   Cuddapah,   Guntoor, 

Arcot,  Salem,  and  Coimbatore. 
,,        Farm    subsidiary    to    that    at    Danda    in    Guzerat 

established,  to  be  cultivated  by  ryots. 
,,  Farm  established  at  Segee  Hullee,  in  Bedere 
District,  under  Dr.  Lush.  White-seeded  peren- 
nial (New  Orleans  ?)  succeeded ;  also  the  Pernam- 
buco  and  Egyptian.  Agency  for  the  purchase 
of  cotton  from  natives  who  had  been  instructed 
in  picking  it  clean.  Screws  and  packing  sheds 
at  Dharwar,  Noulgond,  and  Gudduck.  Natives 
had  the  option  of  paying  their  rents  in  kind  or 
receiving  a  remunerative  price.  Foreign  cotton 
seed  also  tried  in  Dharwar,  Poona,  and  the 
Konkan. 

1834. — Egyptian    cotton    seed    and    Egyptian    cleaning 

machine  applied  for  and  supplied. 

,,        Machine  for  cleaning  cotton  in  Brazil  applied  for. 
,,        Dr.  Royle  publishes  an  essay  on  the  cultivation  of 
cotton  in   India  in  his   "  Illustrations   of   Hima- 
layan Botany,"  pp.  84-101. 

1836. — Guzerat  and  Southern  Mahratta  Farms  broken  up. 
,,        Report    of    the    proceedings    of   the    East    India 


l88  COTTON 

Company  in  regard  to  the  production  of  cotton 
wool  published. 

1837. — Dr.  Wight  publishes  an  essay  on  the  cotton  culture 
of  the  Peninsula. 

1839. — The  Court  of  Directors  propose  undertaking  a 
more  complete  experiment  than  any  heretofore 
by  procuring  planters  from  America. 
,,  An  excellent  minute  by  the  late  Earl  of  Auckland 
on  this  subject,  with  reports  from  Madras  and 
Bombay  giving  an  account  of  the  results  of 
former  experiments,  as  well  as  proposals  for  the 
present  one. 

,,        Dr.    Wight    publishes    figures,     etc.,     of    cotton 
plants  in  his  "  Illustrations  of  Indian  Botany." 

1840. — Mr.  Elphinstone,  Collector  of  Rutnagerry,  suc- 
ceeds in  cultivating  both  Sea  Island  and  Bourbon 
cotton. 

,,  Captain  Bayles  returned  with  ten  planters  from 
cotton  States  of  North  America,  bringing  with 
him  seeds  and  saw-gins,  ploughs  and  hoes,  with 
model  of  a  gin-house.  A  hand  saw-gin  was  pre- 
pared at  Liverpool.  Dr.  Royle  drew  up  a  report 
on  the  results  hitherto  obtained,  and  on  the 
objects  of  the  present  experiment  (vide  "  Pro- 
ductive Resources  of  India,"  pp.  312-355). 
,,  The  Chairman,  Deputy  Chairman,  and  several  of 
the  Directors  proceed  to  Liverpool  to  witness 
the  working  of  the  American  saw-gins. 
,,  Three  planters,  assigned  to  Bombay,  were  sent  to 
Broach,  but  shortly  left  India. 

1841. — Three     planters,     sent    to     Madras,     were     first 

stationed  at  Tinnevelly,  then  at  Coimbatore. 
,,        Four  planters,  sent  to  Calcutta,  were  stationed  in 

the  Doab  and  Bundelkharid. 

,,        Dr.  Burns  appointed  to  the  charge  of  the  experi- 
ments in  Broach. 

1842. — Dr.  Wight  succeeded  Captain  Hughes  in  the 
charge  of  the  cotton  experiments  in  Coimbatore, 
and  still  continues  in  charge. 

,,        An  engineer  sent  to  each  of  the  three  Presidencies 
to  repair  and  put  up  machinery. 


COTTON  189 

1842. — Mr.  Shaw,  the  Collector,  cultivates  New  Orleans 
cotton  in  Dharwar.  Mr.  Hadow,  Assistant  to 
the  Collector,  cultivates  Bourbon  cotton  in 
Dharwar. 

,,  Mr.  Mercer,  having  been  burnt  out  of  his  farm 
in  Bundelkhand,  was  transferred  to  Bombay,  and 
stationed  at  Dharwar,  where  he  was  joined  by 
Mr.  Hawley,  who  afterwards  went  to  Broach. 

,,  After  two  seasons  the  planters  despair  of  success 
in  the  Doab. 

,,       Mr.  Finnic  explores  the  North- West  Provinces  for 

suitable  sites. 

1843. — Mr.  Blount  sent  t0  Gorruckpore,  but,  not  succeed- 
ing, went  to  Bombay. 

,,  Mr.  Finnic  establishes  a  model  farm  near  Agra, 
but  fails. 

,,  Mr.  Price,  an  American  planter,  employed  to 
introduce  American  cotton  into  Bengal,  has  had 
no  success;  is  now  endeavouring  to  improve  the 
culture  of  Indian  cotton. 

,,        Mr.    Wroughton,    Collector   of   Coimbatore,    suc- 
ceeds in  growing  New  Orleans  cotton. 
1844. — Mr.    Terry   began    cultivation    in    Rungpore,    but 

soon  left  from  ill-health. 

1845. — Messrs.  Simpson  and  Blount  appointed  to  conduct 
experiments  in  Khandesh. 

,,  Cotton  Committee  appointed  at  Bombay  to  inquire 
into  and  report  on  causes  of  the  decline  of  the 
cotton  trade  of  India. 

1847. — Mr.  Landon  appointed  to  carry  on  the  experiments 
in  Broach,  where  he  is  now  established  on  his 
own  account. 

,,  Return  ordered  by  the  House  of  Commons  to  be 
printed  of  the  papers  in  possession  of  the  East 
India  Company,  showing  what  measures  have 
been  taken  since  1836  to  introduce  the  growth 
of  American  cotton  or  to  encourage  the  pro- 
duction of  native  cotton  in  India. 

1848. — Mr.  Blount,  having  returned  from  America,  is 
engaged  to  take  charge  of  the  culture  in  Dhar- 
war. 


IpO  COTTON 

1848. — Report  from  the  Select  Committee  of  the  House 
of  Commons  on  the  growth  of  cotton  in  India. 

1849. — Mr.  Simpson,  having  returned  from  America,  is 
engaged  to  prosecute  the  experiments  in 
Khandesh. 

,,  200  cottage  saw-gins,  prepared  under  the  super- 
intendence of  the  Manchester  Commercial  Asso- 
ciation and  of  Mr.  Petrie,  sent  by  the  Court  of 
Directors  to  the  three  Presidencies.  Seeds  and 
saws  sent  at  various  times  during  these  experi- 
ments. 

1850. — The  Indian  Government  offers,  through  the  Agri- 
cultural Society  of  India,  a  reward  of  Rs.  5,000 
for  an  improved  cotton-cleaning-  machine. 

The  underlying  difficulty  in  the  improvement  of  Indian 
cotton  has  been  the  indifference  of  the  cultivators  on  the 
subject,  and  this  frame  of  mind  has  been  upheld  by  the 
lack  of  reward  from  the  trade  for  their  efforts  and  by  the 
lack  of  direct  contact  with  purchasers  from  the  European 
markets. 

The  long  series  of  failures  which  occurred  was  supposed 
by  some  to  be  due  to  the  trials  having  been  conducted 
by  Government  officers  who  had  no  personal  interest  in 
them.  Others  say  that  attention  was  not  always  paid  to 
the  peculiarities  of  soil  and  climate,  and  in  the  case  of 
both  failure  and  success  no  explanations  were  given  of 
the  causes  which  conduced  to  the  results,  and  finally, 
although  results  were  on  record  for  a  series  of  years,  the 
same  results  were  obtained  and  continued  to  be  announced 
as  new. 

The  following  extract  is  from  a  letter  from  the 
Governor  in  Council  at  Bombay  to  the  Court  of  Directors, 
dated  May  30,  1812.  After  detailing  the  failures  to  grow 
cotton  on  Salsette  Island,  this  letter  goes  on  to  say :  — 

"  These  failures  are  attributed  to  the  same  cause  as 
those  which  have  rendered  many  of  the  agricultural 
speculations  in  India  abortive.  The  Hindoo  labourer 
will  never  yield  any  adequate  return  for  his  wages  when 
employed  in  agricultural  concerns,  even  with  the  utmost 
vigilance  of  the  farmer.  The  severe  labour  of  working 


COTTON  191 

the  soil,  and  every  other  duty  incident  to  this  calling, 
require  a  very  strong  interest  to  induce  that  attention  to 
it  which  is  absolutely  necessary.  This  is  entirely  wanting 
in  the  day-labourer;  nor  is  there  any  circumstance  in  his 
connection  with  his  employer  which  gives  him  motives 
either  of  sympathy  or  dependence,  which  might  excite 
in  him  sufficient  attention  to  the  work  he  is  engaged 
in.  It  is  different  in  manufactures,  where  the  labourer 
employed  is  under  the  more  immediate  inspection  of  the 
master. 

"  The  cultivators  in  small  farms  of  the  soil  of  Salsette 
are  stated  to  evince  such  a  deplorable  apathy  and  indiffer- 
ence to  their  lot  in  life  as  to  operate  as  a  bar  against 
prevailing  on  them  to  attempt,  on  their  own  account,  a 
cultivation  with  which  they  are  unacquainted.  They  have 
barely  the  means  of  providing  for  their  families  and 
paying  their  rents;  they  are  incapable  of  enjoying  any 
satisfaction  which  arises  from  new  and  successful 
pursuits;  and  it  would  be  difficult  to  persuade  them  to 
hazard  even  the  miserable  provision  they  are  now  certain 
of,  in  the  hope  of  obtaining  a  better  one  by  any  new  or 
speculative  undertaking.33 

All  the  experiments,  however,  did  not  prove  to  be 
absolute  failures,  and  cotton  of  excellent  quality  was 
produced  in  several  places.  The  Upland  Georgian  and 
New  Orleans  became  so  thoroughly  established  in  the 
Southern  Mahratta  country  of  Bom-bay  that  they  are 
now  looked  upon  as  indigenous;  the  Bourbon  is  seen  as 
a  garden  plant  over  the  whole  of  India,  and  as  a  field 
plant  in  some  parts  of  Madras. 

To  conclude  this  brief  account  of  the  principles  of 
improvement  followed  through  many  years  under  the  old 
order  of  things,  the  sum  of  practical  knowledge  gained 
was  that  India  is  capable  in  many  parts  of  producing 
cotton  good  enough  to  compete  with  the  product  of 
America,  and  that  the  enormous  proportion  of  the  in- 
digenous article,  on  account  of  many  well-defined  defects, 
can  never  come  into  general  use,  and  some  of  these 
defects  have  been  due  to  the  indifference  of  the  cultivators 
to  the  state  of  the  cotton  produced  by  them,  the  want  of 
encouragement  to  them  from  the  trade  to  bestow  more 
'3 


IQ2  COTTON 

care  in  cultivation  and  marketing,  and  the  systematic 
adulteration  which  is  practised  unchecked  by  the  trade. 

A  scheme  was  formulated  in  England  to  raise  a  sum 
of  £20,000,000  to  be  expended  in  India  during  five  years 
in  measures  calculated  to  forward  India  as  a  cotton- 
producing  country.  The  outbreak  of  the  Mutiny  put  an 
end,  however,  to  these  negotiations. 

Commenting  on  the  effect  of  the  American  Civil  War 
and  the  great  Cotton  Famine  of  1862-66,  Dr.  Charles  W. 
Dabney  (Butt.  No.  33,  1896,  U.S.  Dept.  Agric.,  "The 
Cotton  Plant,"  p.  14)  very  truly  observes:  "Probably 
no  equally  great  industry  was  ever  more  completely 
paralysed  or  had  its  future  placed  in  greater  jeopardy 
than  cotton  growing  in  the  United  States  during  the  war 
of  1861-65.  So  great  was  the  decrease  in  production 
which  followed  the  effectual  closing  of  the  ports  that  only 
one  bale  of  cotton  was  grown  in  1864-65  for  every  fifteen 
bales  raised  in  1861-62.  The  chief  menace  to  the  future 
of  cotton  production  lay  in  the  efforts  that  were  put  forth 
by  other  cotton-growing  countries  at  this  time  to  produce 
those  particular  varieties  which  had  for  so  long  given  the 
United  States  the  monopoly  of  the  European  markets; 
and  nothing  could  more  completely  demonstrate  the 
remarkable  adaptation  of  our  Southern  States  to  the 
growing  of  varieties  which  the  experience  of  generations 
has  proved  to  be  the  best  for  manufacturing  purposes 
than  the  fact  that  it  took  them  only  thirteen  years  from 
the  end  of  the  war  to  regain  the  primary  position  which 
they  held  at  its  commencement." 

In  1863  a  Cotton  Commissioner  was  appointed  for 
Bombay,  and  the  year  following  for  Berar  and  the 
Central  Provinces.  Cotton  farms  were  established  under 
these  Commissioners.  The  Bombay  Cotton  Frauds 
Act  IX  of  1863  became  law,  but  it  is  generally  believed 
it  did  more  harm  than  good,  and  it  was  shortly  after 
repealed.  For  the  ten  years  ending  1859  the  United 
Kingdom  imported  an  average  of  2,318,575  bales  of 
cotton  (each  400  lb.),  and  of  that  amount  India  supplied 
405,291  bales.  But  in  the  ten  years  ending  1869,  which 
included  the  troublous  times  of  the  American  War,  the 
United  Kingdom  imported  an  average  of  2,736,661  bales, 


COTTON  193 

of  which  India  supplied  1,282,172  bales — the  record  year 
being  1866,  when  India  furnished  1,847,759  bales.  Thirty 
years  later  (1899)  the  United  Kingdom  took  4,065,617 
bales,  of  which  India  furnished  only  77,297  bales,  and 
in  1903  the  Indian  portion  slightly  improved,  the  United 
Kingdom  having  taken  203,550  bales  of  Indian  cotton. 
The  immediate  response  made  by  India  during  the 
cotton  famine  shows  her  capabilities,  but,  as  in  the 
United  States,  so  in  India,  the  demands  of  her  own  mills 
have  now  become  the  chief  controlling  factor  in  the 
amount  available  for  export.  The  outcry  in  Europe  was 
against  the  adulteration  not  the  low-grade  staple.  The 
position  of  Indian  cotton  in  the  European  markets  was 
as  a  mixing  fibre,  or  as  a  fibre  to  be  used  in  uphol- 
stery. The  success  of  Western  intelligent  agriculture 
over  Eastern  ignorance  and  greed  was  rapidly  assured, 
and  in  time  the  Indian  cotton  fell  so  low  that  it  was 
practically  debarred  from  being  imported  into  Liverpool. 
But  the  century  closed  with  India,  instead  of  exporting 
cotton  goods,  having  become  the  largest  single  market 
for  English  manufactured  cottons,  its  demands  having 
been  just  under  £20,000,000. 

II. — THE  POSITION  OF  INDIAN  COTTON  FROM   1890 
ONWARDS. 

Immediately  on  the  establishment  of  the  present  Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture  in  India  it  was  realized  that  before 
further  trials  could  be  made  in  the  improvement  of  the 
cotton  crop,  a  very  great  deal  of  preliminary  work  had  to 
be  done.  The  indigenous  cottons  were  first  subjected  to 
botanical  classification,  and  as  the  work  was  commenced 
in  the  Bombay  Presidency  a  start  was  naturally  made  with 
its  cottons,  which  eventually  proved  to  be  more  diverse 
than  those  found  in  the  other  large  cotton  tracts  of  India. 
When  a  fairly  accurate  knowledge  of  these  cottons  had 
been  obtained  a  large  number  of  varieties,  found  through- 
out the  whole  country,  were  collected  by  Mr.  Mollison, 
then  Inspector-General  of  Agriculture.  These  were 
grown  in  contiguous  plots  for  three  years,  and  after  this 
period  of  study  and  observation  an  attempted  classifica- 


194  COTTON 

tion  of  Indian  cottons  was  published  by  the  present  writer. 
Another  scheme  of  much  the  same  character,  and  differing 
only  in  some  minor  details,  was  put  forth  by  Sir  George 
Watt  in  his  admirable  work  on  the  "  Wild  and  Cultivated 
Cottons  of  the  World."  Mr.  F.  Fletcher,  some  time 
Deputy  Director  of  Agriculture,  prepared  a  mass  of 
material  for  a  work  of  the  same  nature,  but  this  has  never 
seen  the  light. 

In  the  Punjab,  Mr.  D.  Milne,  the  Economic  Botanist, 
has  botanically  surveyed  the  cottons  of  his  Province.  In 
the  United  Provinces,  Mr.  Martin  Leake  has  been  steadily 
working  on  the  inheritance  of  characters  in  the  cotton 
plant,  and  it  is  expected  that  valuable  results  will  be  the 
outcome  of  his  patient  work.  In  the  Central  Provinces 
Mr.  Clouston  has  separated  out  all  the  types  in  his  large 
cotton  tract.  Mr.  Main  has  done  the  same  in  Bombay, 
and  Mr.  Sampson,  by  the  separation  of  mixed  varieties, 
in  the  Madras  Presidency,  has  established  at  least  one 
cotton  of  high  merit. 

So  far,  then,  as  the  botany  of  Indian  cotton  is  con- 
cerned, we  may  say  now  that  we  know  definitely  every 
form  in  India,  and  in  most  cases  also  the  limits  of  each 
type. 

The  claims  of  adoption  of  several  systems  of  scientific 
classification  is  still  a  matter  of  argument  and  discussion ; 
but  from  a  practical  point  of  view  it  has  been  found  more 
profitable  in  most  of  the  Provinces  to  use  the  vernacular 
names  known  to  the  people,  and  this  method  is  quite 
precise  enough  for  ordinary  purposes.  As  people  were 
still  possessed  with  the  old  idea  that  Indian  cottons  would 
be  still  inferior  even  if  they  were  improved,  a  large 
number  of  foreign  varieties  of  tree  cottons  were  intro- 
duced, and  sanguine  persons  actually  risked  loss  by 
putting  them  out  on  a  field  scale  at  once. 

Results  of  a  few  years'  experiments  proved  plainly  that 
these  tree  cottons  possessed  so  many  inherent  defects 
that  their  profitable  cultivation  was  impossible,  results 
which  probably  coincide  with  the  experience  gained  in 
every  country  in  which  they  have  been  tried.  It  is  certain 
that  the  Bourbon  cotton  gave  hope  of  success  in  the 
Konkan  and  North  Guzerat,  and  actually  succeeded  in 


COTTON  195 

establishing  itself  in  the  Salem  and  Coimbatore  Districts 
of  the  Madras  Presidency;  but  sooner  or  later,  no  matter 
what  success  was  gained  at  first  with  it,  the  ultimate  result 
was  failure.  At  the  present  moment  there  is  no  serious 
cultivation  of  any  tree  cotton  in  India. 

Trials  were  not,  however,  restricted  to  tree  cottons, 
but  many  American  and  Egyptian  annual  varieties  were 
also  introduced  and  tested,  especially  in  the  Southern 
Mahratta  country,  where  Upland  Georgian  and  New 
Orleans  cottons  were  so  successfully  introduced  as  to 
be  looked  upon  now  as  indigenous;  no  higher  class  of 
American  type  has  been  found  capable  of  acclimatization. 
The  short  season  tracts  without  irrigation  which  prepon- 
derate in  India  and  the  black  soil  districts  also  have  been 
found  altogether  unsuitable,  and,  so  far  as  we  can  see 
at  present,  the  successful  cultivation  of  American  and 
Egyptian  annual  cottons  can  only  be  conducted  in  the 
irrigation  colonies  of  Sind  and  the  Punjab,  and  perhaps 
in  some  parts  of  the  United  Provinces. 

In  the  southern  parts  of  the  Madras  Presidency  an 
American  type  of  cotton  from  Cambodia  has  been 
successfully  introduced,  and  this  also  grows  fairly  well 
outside  black  soil  areas  where  irrigation  is  practised. 

In  some  parts  of  the  Central  Provinces  another  cotton 
of  an  Upland  type  has  been  introduced  from  Chota 
Nagpur,  where  it  has  been  under  cultivation  for  about 
a  century.  The  area  suitable  for  this  cotton  is  restricted, 
and  its  quality  is  too  low  to  enable  it  to  compete  with 
the  product  from  America. 

While  the  systematic  study  of  the  Indian  cottons  was 
in  progress  experiments  were  established  with  the 
purpose  of  finding  out  how  much  improvement  could  be 
effected  in  them  by  selection  and  hybridization.  It  was 
found  impossible  to  cross  Indian  with  American  varieties, 
while  all  the  Indian  varieties  could  be  easily  hybridized. 
The  summary  of  the  results  gained  by  these  methods  will 
be  given  separately  for  each  Province. 

Bombay  Presidency. 

In  the  Bombay  Presidency  there  are  four  distinct 
cotton  tracts  : — • 


196  COTTON 

(1)  Southern  Mahratta  country. 

(2)  and  (3)  North  and  South  Guzerat. 
(4)  Deccan,   with  Khandesh. 

In  the  Southern  Mahratta  country  the  two  prevailing 
types  of  cotton  are  American,  which  had  been  acclima- 
tized many  years  ago,  and  an  Indian,  which  appears  to 
be  a  degenerated  type  of  Surat  Broach  cotton.  As 
Dharwar  American  cotton  showed  but  slight  response 
to  improvement  by  selection,  it  was  decided  to  test  the 
Cambodia,  because  that  had  given  such  excellent  results 
in  Madras.  The  success  of  Cambodia  was  more  or  less 
assured  from  the  first,  but  as  the  cultivators  have  dis- 
covered that  it  thrives  on  a  smaller  rainfall  than  is 
required  by  the  Dharwar  American,  the  proportionate 
areas  of  each  under  cultivation  is  controlled  by  the 
amount  of  rain  that  falls  at  the  sowing  time.  The  prices 
realized  during  the  present  season  prove  that  Cambodia 
cotton  is  intrinsically  superior  to  Dharwar  American. 

On  a  day  when  the  market  rate  of  Dharwar  American 
stood  at  Rs.  126  per  Naga  of  1,344  Ib.  of  kapas,  the 
corresponding  rates  for  Cambodia  cotton  ranged  from 
Rs.  196  to  Rs.  166,  the  variation  depending  on  the 
ginning  percentage,  which  ranged  from  37  and  above 
to  32-5. 

It  has  lately  been  ascertained  that  the  Dharwar 
American  cotton  is  composed  of  two  varieties,  the  pro- 
portionate mixture  of  which  appears  to  vary  in  different 
localities.  It  is  expected  that  after  all  an  improvement 
can  be  effected  by  selecting  out  the  superior  type. 

The  other  cotton  of  the  Southern  Mahratta  country  is 
Kumpta,  similar  in  the  botanical  characters  to  Broach, 
but  producing  an  inferior  cotton  with  a  low  ginning 
percentage.  Experiments  in  selection  and  cross-ferti- 
lization in  this  Kumpta  cotton  have  increased  the  ginning 
percentage  from  25  to  29  on  the  Dharwar  Farm.  It  yet 
remains  to  be  seen  whether  the  improvement  will  main- 
tain itself  over  field  areas.  As  Broach  cotton  outclasses 
Kumpta  in  colour  and  ginning  percentage,  some  years 
ago  it  was  considered  that  an  immediate  improvement 
could  be  effected  by  the  direct  introduction  of  Broach 
seed  (from  Navsari,  which  produces  the  best  fibre). 


COTTON  197 

The  extension  of  this  cotton  in  the  Dharwar  District  will 
be  limited,  as  the  longer  growing  season  of  Broach  would 
always  be  a  strong  factor  against  the  possibility  of  its 
ever  supplanting  Kumpta  to  any  degree.  This  was 
successful  from  the  first,  and  last  year  the  approximate 
area  sown  was  about  4,000  to  5,000  acres.  The  season, 
on  the  whole,  was  unfavourable  both  to  Broach  and 
Kumpta  cottons. 

While  the  rate  of  Kumpta  for  the  day  was  Rs.  129  per 
Naga  of  1,344  Ib.  of  kapas,  that  of  Broach  (Navsari 
seed)  varied  from  Rs.  155  to  Rs.  190,  the  ginning  per- 
centage ranging  from  29*5  to  34. 

In  Broach  cotton,  which  has  been  grown  continuously 
at  Dharwar  for  ten  generations,  the  percentage  has 
dropped  from  34  to  29,  which  is  4  per  cent,  higher  than 
average  Kumpta  even  at  its  best;  practically  it  will  not 
be  possible  to  grow  Broach  in  this  tract  unless  a  con- 
siderable proportion  of  the  seed  is  renewed  at  short 
intervals  by  direct  importation,  as,  besides  the  loss  in 
percentage,  the  Broach  cotton  degenerates  also  in  colour 
and  other  qualities. 

Many  of  the  higher  class  of  annual  American  cottons 
do  not  thrive  in  this  tract.  It  is  possible  that  one  or  some 
of  these  may  be  established  in  the  future,  but  for  the 
present  we  can  only  safely  say  that  the  successful  intro- 
duction of  Broach  and  Cambodia  cottons  have  been  made. 

In  Guzerat,  with  which  is  associated  the  peninsula  of 
Kathiawar,  the  chief  varieties  belong  to  the  hcrbacemn 
race,  which  produces  the  finest  of  the  Indian  cottons. 
These  attain  their  highest  quality  in  Navsari,  extending 
northwards  to  above  Surat;  from  Broach  northwards  a 
series  of  lower  quality  forms  come  in,  and  in  the  sandy 
alluvial  soil  (goradu)  of  North  Guzerat  a  perennial 
variety  is  found  scattered  through  other  crops.  In 
Kathiawar,  since  the  advent  of  famine  and  years  of  un- 
certain rainfall,  inferior  types  of  neglectum  have  in  many 
tracts  completely  ousted  the  herbaceum,  which  for  many 
a  year  produced  first-class  cottons.  In  the  tracts  of 
deep  and  dense  black  soil  in  South  Guzerat  repeated 
experiments  with  numerous  exotic  varieties  have  proved 
their  absolute  unsuitability  to  this  class  of  soil,  and  the 


198  COTTON 

Department,  therefore,  has  perforce  to  concentrate  its 
energies  on  the  problem  of  how  to  improve  a  product 
which,  as  it  is,  is  admittedly  amongst  the  most  superior 
in  India.  By  judicious  crossing  and  selection  a  strain 
has  been  produced  which  is  valued  at  5  per  cent,  above 
the  article  ordinarily  brought  to  market,  and  there  is 
sufficient  evidence  at  hand  to  warrant  the  hope  that  a 
still  better  result  can  be  obtained.  It  is  unfortunate 
that,  as  the  improvement  has  been  effected  without  any 
modification  or  alteration  in  the  botanical  characteristics 
of  the  local  type  of  the  plant,  these  better  kinds 
cannot  be  distinguished  in  the  fields,  so  that  the  trade 
have  to  rely  on  the  testimony  of  the  supervising  officers 
of  the  Department  that  the  cottons  brought  to  market 
are  really  what  they  profess  to  be.  In  practice  it  seems 
that  these  cottons  are  accepted  on  their  ginning  per- 
centage, which  is  slightly  higher  than  in  the  case  of  the 
unselected  types. 

It  will,  therefore,  be  understood  that  in  the  Southern 
Guzerat  tract  the  conditions  are  totally  adverse  to  the 
introduction  of  any  exotic  variety  whatever,  and  the  only 
possible  scope  for  improvement  is  in  the  raising  of  the 
standard,  which  is  already  sufficiently  high.  The  new 
types,  having  been  developed  by  crossing  and  selection 
of  local  forms,  all  belong  to  the  same  species.  The 
only  tangible  distinctions  which  they  present  are  slightly 
increased  length  of  fibre  and  percentage  of  cotton  to 
seed.  Up  to  the  limit  of  the  black  soil  in  the  Broach 
District,  northwards  from  Broach  round  Baroda  and 
towards  Cambay,  where  the  soil  is  lighter  than  in  the 
tract  already  dealt  with,  the  cultivators  find  that  the 
local  varieties  called  Kanvi  and  Ghogari  (the  latter  exist- 
ing more  as  an  admixture  than  as  a  pure  crop  on  account 
of  its  high  percentage)  are  more  profitable  to  grow  than 
the  more  valuable  Broach.  To  the  ordinary  eye  there  is 
practically  no  difference  in  the  appearance  of  the  plants, 
but  the  environment  has  favoured  the  development  of  an 
agricultural  race.  In  this  tract  the  only  improvement  to 
be  expected  in  the  indigenous  cottons  is  in  a  direction  of 
an  increased  quantity  and  higher  percentage. 

The    indigenous    cotton    of    the    Kaira    District    is    a 


COTTON  199 

perennial  variety  called  rozi,  which  lasts  for  four  or  more 
years.  This  is  never  grown  except  as  a  mixture  with 
other  crops.  The  soil  of  this  district  under  normal  con- 
ditions is  suitable  for  the  culture  of  exotics,  and  a  fair 
measure  of  success  has  been  obtained  in  the  introduction 
of  Cambodia  under  irrigation. 

In  years  past  there  were  strong  hopes  that  Bourbon 
would  succeed  as  a  field  crop  under  irrigation  in  this 
tract.  The  earlier  results  were  very  promising,  but,  as 
is  usually  the  case  with  the  exotic  cottons  in  India,  the 
series  of  adverse  seasons  destroyed  the  crop.  Isolated 
plants  continued  to  persist  in  the  hedges  especially,  and 
it  was  a  discovery  of  such  that  led  Mr.  Spence  again 
to  foster  the"  hope  that  its  cultivation  would  really  be 
remunerative  if  conducted  on  the  proper  lines.  His 
experiments  also,  after  at  first  promising  well,  finally 
closed  in  the  usual  disaster. 

The  successive  trials  with  many  pure  and  crossed 
varieties  of  exotic,  tree,  and  annual  cottons  on  the  Nadiad 
Farm  over  a  series  of  years  proved  that,  however  well 
they  flourished  in  normal  years,  they  invariably  succumbed 
to  the  vicissitudes  of  abnormal  seasons. 

In  the  succeeding  District  of  Ahmedabad,  of  the  three 
indigenous  types  called  Lalio,  Wagad,  and  Mathio,  the 
latter  in  the  Dhandhuka  taluka  bordering  Kathiawar,  the 
first  two  are  herbaceums  and  the  third  is  a  neglectum. 
Lalio  as  an  irrigated  crop  and  Wagad  as  a  dry  crop,  in 
the  opinion  of  people  most  capable  of  judging,  will 
always  compete  profitably  with  any  exotic  cotton  intro- 
duced to  this  tract. 

The  statement  on  pp.  200-201,  extracted  from  the 
Annual  Report  of  the  Surat  Agricultural  Station  for  1912- 
13,  gives  the  composition  of  the  cotton  crop  as  it  naturally 
exists  in  the  fields  throughout  Guzerat. 

Although  the  greater  proportion  of  the  Guzerat  cottons 
belong  botanically  to  one  species,  they  differ  greatly 
amongst  each  other  from  an  agricultural  and  commercial 
point  of  view.  It  is  obvious  that  these  well-known  differ- 
ences must  be  due  to  the  physical  constituents  of  the  soils 
and  climatic  conditions.  A  number  of  soil  samples  were 
taken  and  submitted  to  Dr.  Leather  for  physical  and 


200 


COTTON 


STATEMENT  OF  ANALYSIS  SHOWING  THE  COMPOSITION 


Varadi                                            Jari 

.Name  under 
which  sample 
was  received 

Locality 

I 
G.         i        p- 
Neglectum     e*»  ^c  ur 

G. 

Neglectum 

G. 

Neglectum 

G. 

Neglectum 
vera 

rosea         cutchica 

vera 

malvensis 

Kathia- 

warensis 

Ahmedabad  District. 

Lalio 

Dholka 









Wagad 

,, 



— 

— 

— 

— 

Lalio                 ...     Sanand 

.  

— 

— 

— 



Wagad              ...         ,,                    ...          _ 

— 

— 

— 

— 

Deshi 

Viramgam         ...          

— 

— 





Lalio                 ...  ,'  Daskroi             ...         

— 

— 

— 

— 

Kaira  District. 

Rozi                  ...  1  Anand               ...         — 









,,                      ...  \  Kapadvanj        ... 

._ 

— 

— 



Kanvi               ...     Tliasra              ...         — 









Rozi 

j       









Kanvi 

Mehmadabad   ... 









Malvi 
Kanvi 

•••  ;      33*4 
Matar                ...         — 

25-0 

8-3 

— 

I3-9 

Jadiana 
Deshi 

Nadiad 

3'8 

'i!4 

— 

38-5 

Rozi                   ...     Borsad               ... 









American         ...         ,,                    ...  j 

— 

— 

— 

— 

Panch  Mahals. 

Deshi 

Godhra             ...          4*0 



36-0 



60  'o 

,  , 

Halol                 ...          — 







Kanvi 

Kalol 









Khandeshi 

,,                      ...  i      44-4 

26  o 

7*4 

— 

in 

Broach  District. 

Deshi 

Ankleshwar      ... 

_ 

_ 

_ 

» 

Hansot              ...         -— 







Ghogari 

Rajpipla            ... 









,, 

Jambusar 









,, 

Broach               ...          — 





.  . 



Deshi 

» 

— 

— 

— 

— 

Surat  District. 

Deshi                ...     Bardoli              ...  j       — 

__ 

Farm  Seed 

j  *                                         -.. 



__  ' 





Deshi 

Chikhly 









...  j  Chorashi            ...         — 







...    Jalalpur 



...     Mandvi            ...  ! 



... 

Olpad               ...  ;       — 

—            — 

—                 — 

Pardi 

— 

— 

COTTON 


201 


OF  THE  COTTON  CROP  IN  GUZERAT. 


Gossypium 
indicum 

ChSttuT                               Gossypium  herbaceum 

i 

I 

Gossypium  Gossypium 
obtusi-          Barba- 
folium     1      densis 
Kozi      i   Bourbon 

I 

Bani 

American 

Buri 

R 

Broach 

Ghogari 

Kanvi 

Lalio 

Wagad 

89-3 

107 

— 

—        i        — 

— 

— 

— 

IO'O 

90  'o 

— 

— 

— 

— 



— 

— 

— 

Tl 

27 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

77'3 

— 

— 





— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

100  -0 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

58-3 

— 

417 

— 

— 

— 

















100-0 



— 

— 

— 

— 

14*2 

60'8          — 

— 

25-0 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

58-0 

41-9 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

37 

— 

96-3 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

45'2 

54'8    ; 

— 

— 

— 

19-4 

— 

— 

— 

—     i     — 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

47-8 

52-2        — 

— 

— 

— 

— 

r8 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

4'5 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

95  '5 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

167 

— 

— 

83-3    i      ~ 

100  -o 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

48-6 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

56-8 

43'2 

— 

— 

— 

II'I 

-' 

' 

63-6 

36-3 

— 

— 

—         93*1 

6-9 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

897 

10-3 

—     i     — 

— 

—            — 

— 

— 

— 

7  '9 

92-1 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

207 

79'3 

'f  - 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

lOO'O 

— 

— 

— 

lOO'O 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

lOO'O 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

917 

8  '3 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

lOO'O 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

lOO'O 

— 



— 

— 

— 

— 



— 

97-5 

2-5 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

lOO'O 

2O2  COTTON 

chemical  analysis,  and  at  the  same  time  samples  of  the 
cottons  were  also  taken  for  valuation  in  the  market.  To 
take  the  soil  samples  first,  the  first  three  sets  are  all  of 
goradu  soils,  which  grow  early  ripening  varieties  of  the 
herbaceum  type  called  Kanvi  and  Lalio,  the  average 
rainfall  of  the  first  set  being  41  in.,  of  the  second  35  in., 
of  the  third  29  in. 

The  clay  and  silt  ranged  from  29*1  to  32*5  per  cent., 
sand  from  67^5  to  76*2,  and  the  percolation  test  gave 
I  to  i '6  cm.  per  hour;  taking  the  cotton  of  Navsari  for 
the  day  as  equal  to  100,  the  cotton  of  this  tract  was 
valued  at  87*5.  The  next  sample  was  a  besar  soil 
growing  Wagad,  also  a  comparatively  early  variety  of 
herbaceum.  The  rainfall  in  this  tract  averages  29  in., 
the  proportion  of  clay  and  silt  was  53,  sand  47,  the  per- 
colation test  gave  0*7  cm.  per  hour;  taking  Navsari 
again  at  100,  the  cotton  from  this  tract  is  worth  89*28. 
The  next  set  of  samples  were  from  the  Broach  District  : 
average  rainfall  41  in.;  proportion  of  clay  and  silt  77*4, 
sand  22*6,  percolation  test  0*1  cm.  per  hour;  value 
of  the  cotton  equal  to  92'8.  The  next  two  samples 
from  the  Surat  District:  rainfall  average  39  in.,  pro- 
portion of  clay  and  silt  74,  sand  26,  the  percolation  test 
0*3  cm.  per  hour;  the  value  of  the  cotton  equal  to  98^21 . 
The  last  sample  was  from  the  Navsari  tract :  average 
rainfall  44  in.;  proportion  of  clay  and  silt  66,  sand  34, 
the  percolation  test  o'4  cm.  per  hour;  the  market  value 
of -the  cotton  equals  100.  It  will  be  seen  from  the  above 
figures  that  the  quality  of  the  cotton  is  in  direct  propor- 
tion to  the  density  of  the  soil. 

In  Kathiawar,  the  Native  States  of  Morvi,  Wankaner, 
Muli,  Wadhwan,  and  Lakhatar  grow  pure  Wagad  and 
Kanvi  cottons  within  their  jurisdiction;  the  former  is 
easily  distinguished  by  its  bolls  not  opening  out  when 
ripe;  patches  of  Lalio  in  which  the  bolls  open  very  widely 
are  occasionally  grown  under  irrigation.  The  remaining 
States  in  Kathiawar,  in  addition  to  the  three  forms  men- 
tioned above,  grow  also  Mathio,  a  form  of  neglectum, 
which  came  into  favour  after  the  famine  year  of  1899- 
1900,  on  account  of  its  greater  drought-resisting  nature. 
Mathio  at  present  occupies  a  large  area.  Some  of  the 


COTTON  2O3 

Native  States  are  keen  to  improve  the  cotton  crop. 
Advice  is  freely  given,  and  seeds  are  being  supplied  of 
pure  varieties  of  Lalio  and  rosea,  the  latter  in  place  of 
Mathio,  as  the  soil  and  other  conditions  are  admirably 
fitted  for  this  type  of  cotton. 

In  Khandesh  and  the  closely  adjoining  parts  of  the 
Deccan  we  enter  from  the  westward  an  enormous  tract 
of  country  which  produces  the  inferior  class  of  cotton 
known  as  Bengals.  The  four  principal  types  of  cotton 
found  in  Khandesh  consist  of  varieties  of  neglectum, 
two  with  yellow  and  two  with  white  flowers.  Upland 
Georgian  is  found  everywhere  as  a  slight  admixture,  and 
its  presence  here  reminds  us  of  the  futile  efforts  which 
were  once  made  to  introduce  it  into  this  tract,  its  total 
acreage  reaching  60,000  acres  at  one  time. 

In  1905  the  four  varieties  of  Khandesh  cotton  were 
separately  grown,  and  the  N.R.  cotton,  one  of  the  con- 
stituents of  this  mixture,  from  1909  has  proved  from 
field  trials  that  it  is  the  most  hardy,  best  yielding,  and 
the  highest  ginning  variety  of  this  tract.  Mr.  Main  says 
that  the  results  of  the  last  two  years  confirm  the  opinion 
of  experienced  cultivators  that  N.R.  cotton  is  more 
drought-resisting  than  the  Khandesh  mixture. 

One  cultivator  reports  having  got  a  six-anna  crop  of 
N.R.  and  a  three-anna  crop  of  the  Khandesh  mixture  on 
the  same  soil.  The  crop  is  relatively  early  maturing  as 
compared  with  the  yellow-flowered  types;  the  bolls  open 
well  and  mature  uniformly.  The  summary  of  the  results 
of  four  years  shows  that  N.R.  gives  much  the  highest 
out-turn  as  compared  with  other  types.  It  has  also  sub- 
stantial advantage  in  ginning  percentage,  which  secures 
for  it  a  much  better  price  in  the  Dhulia  market,  and  the 
net  profit  per  acre  is  strikingly  superior  in  the  case  of 
N.R.  The  following  valuations  give  the  relative  values 
of  the  components  of  the  Khandesh  mixture :  — 

Rs. 
Rosea  N.R.         ...  ..  ..      280  per  candy  of  784  Ib. 


R.  cutchica  N.R.C. 
VeraN.V. 
MalvensisN.V.M. 
Local  Khandesh 


272 
320 
277 
262 


The  last  is  reported  to  be  ordinary  fully  good  Khandesh 


204  COTTON 

cotton.  The  seed  farm  at  Jalgaon  in  East  Khandesh  has 
been  started  for  the  supply  of  pure-bred  seed  of  N.R. 
variety  to  the  cultivators,  who  are  quite  awake  to  its 
advantages. 

Sind. 

In  1911  Mr,  Keatinge  says  in  his  note  on  "Improved 
and  Exotic  Cottons  in  the  Bombay  Presidency,"  that, 
of  various  kinds  of  Egyptian  cottons  grown  in  Sind, 
Mitaffifi  is  the  only  one  that  has  given  really  good 
results.  Owing  to  difficulties  connected  with  the  supply 
of  irrigation  water,  the  inferior  agricultural  methods  of 
the  cultivators  and  the  long  growing  season  of  Egyptian 
compared  with  that  of  the  local  Sindhi  cotton,  and  the 
disinclination  of  the  trade  to  pay  proper  prices  for  the 
Egyptian  cotton,  its  cultivation  was  abandoned,  and  since 
then  Mr.  Henderson  has  decided  that  there  will  be  a  far 
better  chance  for  American  Upland  cottons,  which  can 
be  grown  on  a  fairly  large  scale  in  many  parts  of  Sind. 
The  local  methods  of  cultivation  are  suitable  for  them, 
and  as  the  growing  season  is  shorter  than  that  of  Sindhi 
cotton  they  can  be  grown  on  the  ordinary  inundation 
canals  and  they  can  also  be  grown  in  Upper  Sind,  where 
at  present  practically  no  cotton  is  grown,  and  in  many 
parts  of  Lower  Sind,  where  the  autumn  mists  are  pre- 
judicial to  the  later  maturing  of  Sindhi  cotton. 

In  the  last  published  Departmental  Report  it  is  stated 
that,  of  the  American  cottons,  "  Triumph  "  stood  first 
with  regard  to  yield  and  suitability  for  growth  in  Sind 
under  irrigation.  Forty  tons  of  seed  of  this  had  been 
imported  and  distributed  amongst  zaminders  both  in 
Upper  Sind  and  the  Jamrao  tract.  The  leading  merchants 
of  the  Bombay  cotton  trade  have  formed  a  syndicate 
to  set  up  ginning  and  buying  centres  at  Shikarpur  and 
Mirpurkhas  with  the  undertaking  that  the  price  paid  for 
the  produce  will  be  based  on  the  grading  of  samples  sent 
to  Liverpool. 

From  an  experiment  conducted  with  a  view  to  seeing 
how  far  Sindhi  cotton  would  respond  to  better  methods 
of  cultivation,  it  was  found  that  an  acre  plot  yielded 
1,710  Ib.  of  seed-cotton — a  yield  never  before  obtained 


COTTON  205 

except  perhaps  on  very  good  virgin  soils.     The  average 
is  said  to  be  about  800  Ib. 

The  best  cotton-growing  tract  in  the  whole  of  Sind 
for  Sindhi  cotton  is  said  to  be  the  Hala  sub-division  of 
the  Hyderabad  District;  botanically  the  cotton  is  of  the 
neglectum  or  Bengals  type,  and  in  growth  it  is  much 
more  robust  than  the  best  in  other  tracts. 

Central  Provinces  and  Berar. 

The  cottons  of  this  tract  are  in  all  respects  similar  to 
those  of  Khandesh.  The  admixture  of  Upland  Georgian 
is  most  evident  on  the  western  side  of  the  tract.  Adjoin- 
ing the  Nizam's  dominions,  and  being  also  the  prevailing 
types  throughout  them,  is  the  high-class  cotton  known 
in  the  trade  as  Hinganghat,  existing  not  only  as  a  kharif 
crop,  but  also  as  a  rabi  crop  in  some  parts.  Finally,  in 
late  years  a  plant  known  as  Buri,  a  form  of  Upland 
Georgian  long  under  cultivation  in  Chota  Nagpur,  is 
being  grown  to  a  considerable  extent  in  parts  where  the 
local  crop  is  suffering  from  wilt,  as  it  is  immune  to  that 
disease,  which  appears  to  be  favoured  by  trie  continuous 
cropping  of  the  land  with  cotton.  The  various  forms  of 
neglectum,  which  composed  the  crop,  were  isolated  and 
tested  separately  some  years  ago  by  Mr.  Clouston,  the 
Deputy  Director  of  Agriculture,  and  the  following 
account  is  summarized  from  his  reports  :  — 

The  experimental  station  at  Akola  now  serves  as  a 
centre  of  a  pure  seed  supply  for  a  large  number  of  seed 
farms,  which  again  multiply  the  supply  of  selected  Buri, 
Yosea,  and  malvensis.  The  whole  farm  area  is  now  being 
sown  with  pure  strains  of  cotton  raised  from  selected 
mother  plants.  To  provide  against  possible  deterioration 
plant  to  plant  selection  is  annually  undertaken;  the 
selected  strain  of  rosea  now  gives  40  per  cent,  of  lint 
against  39  per  cent,  of  the  ordinary  field  crop.  Mr. 
Clouston  believes  that,  although  it  is  subject  to  seasonal 
variations,  a  high  ginning  percentage  is  a  hereditary 
character  in  cotton.  Numerous  crosses  have  been  made 
between  the  different  varieties,  but  no  definite  conclusions 
have  been  arrived  at.  Cambodia  cotton  and  a  variety  of 


206 


COTTON 


Upland  have  been  tested,  but  as  they  ripen  a  month  later 
than  indigenous  varieties  they  produce  a  very  small  crop, 
and  suffer  from  the  want  of  moisture  due  to  the  cessation 
of  the  early  rains  in  this  tract. 

When  grown  as  a  pure  crop  rovea  gives  at  least  10  per 
cent,  more  lint  than  the  ordinary  field  Jari,  and  its  price 
is  the  same.  This  variety  is  known  as  Varhadi  or  Katil- 
vilayati. 

Rosea  cutchica  is  slightly  inferior  to  rosea  in  the 
quality  of  its  lint.  It  also  yields  heavily  and  is  very 
hardy,  the  percentage  of  lint  being,  however,  only  37  as 
compared  with  40  of  rosea. 

Malvensis  is  the  variety  which  is  capable  of  greatest 
improvement  in  the  quality  of  its  staple.  Different 
strains  have  been  found  to  vary  greatly  in  the  quality  of 
the  lint,  and  it  is  therefore  expected  that  in  time  it  will 
be  possible  to  evolve  a  better  type  than  that  under  experi- 
ment at  present.  Its  percentage  of  lint  is  about  30. 

The  strain  of  Bani  or  Hinganghat,  which  has  been 
propagated  at  Akola,  gives  29  per  cent,  against  26  per 
cent,  for  ordinary  Bani,  but  its  low  yield  and  poor  ginning 
percentage  condemn  it  in  the  eyes  of  the  cultivator. 

The  relative  values  per  acre  of  certain  cottons  stood  as 
follows  after  a  trial  over  four  years :  — 


(1)  Rosea 

(2)  Cutchica 

(3)  Ordinary  Jari 

(4)  Buri 

(5)  Malvensis 

(6)  Bani... 


Rs. 

70 
65 
5» 

58 
57 
44 


This  experience  proves  that  at  present  market  prices 
the  two  coarsest  cottons,  viz.,  rosea  and  cutchica,  give 
most  profit  to  the  cultivator  of  the  Central  Provinces. 

The  table  opposite  gives  the  mixture  found  in  the  crops 
grown  in  the  different  parts  of  the  Provinces. 

Cotton  grown  continuously  in  the  same  field  for  a 
period  of  years  has  become  a  common  practice.  This 
method  of  cultivation  is  condemned  by  scientists,  but 
after  trials  of  some  years  no  ill-effects  occurred,  and 
economically  the  practice  has  proved  a  sound  one  owing 
to  the  high  price  of  cotton.  The  old  idea  that  topping 


COTTON 


207 


PERCENTAGE  OF 

Local  name 

Place  from  which  obtained 
(district) 

s 

| 

c 

'I 

§ 

| 

§ 

jf'i?' 

3 

0 

Ptf 

£ 

> 

si 

Khateo  cotton 

Akola 

25 

12 

9 

5° 

4 

Buri 

Khamgaon  (Akola) 

47 

19 

19 

O 

Katilvilayati 

Akot  (Akola)... 

8 

82 

2 

4 

4 

Balapur  Jari 

Balapur  (Akola) 

5 

89 

3 

0 

3 

Gaorani 

... 

10 

40 

10 

40 

o 

Jubbalpore  ... 
Panagarh 

Jubbalpore 
Jubbalpore 

0 

o 

o 
o 

29 
18 

71 

82 

o 
o 

Patan 

Jubbalpore 

0 

0 

12 

88 

0 

Deshi  cotton 

Harda(Hosha 

igabad) 

o 

4 

62 

34 

o 

Bhopali 

Bhopal 

0 

5 

63 

32 

0 

Multai  Jari  ... 

Betul 

5 

70 

15 

5 

5 

Katilvilayati 

Chanda 

22 

35 

7 

7 

29 

Tinthidia     ... 

Seoni 

10 

32 

16 

37 

5 

Sausar 

Chhindwara 

23 

40 

16 

7 

Jari 

Yeotmal 

IS 

70 

2 

10 

o 

Katel 

Yeotmal 

32 

57 

7 

4 

o 

Katilvilayati 

Yeotmal 

22 

57 

9 

12 

o 

Hauri  (Malkapur) 
Uharwar  (Malkapur). 

Buldana 
Buldana 

5» 

17 

g 

3 
o 

6 
3 

0 

o 

plants  increased  branching  and  productiveness  has  been 
exploded  in  the  case  of  cottons  in  these  Provinces. 

Manurial  experiments  have  been  carried  out  with  a 
high  degree  of  thoroughness,  and  the  following  facts 
appear  to  have  been  established. 

Of  cattle  dung,  saltpetre,  and  poudrette  for  cotton  and 
juar  in  rotation,  poudrette  proved  to  be  the  most  valuable. 
The  results  of  the  application  of  fertilizers  was  that  the 
effect  these  had  in  increasing  the  yield  of  cotton  had  not 
been  commensurate  with  the  cost  of  the  manure,  although 
in  every  case  there  had  been  an  increase  of  crop  due  to 
its  use. 

An  application  of  cattle  dung  followed  by  top  dress- 
ing of  nitrate  of  soda  and  saltpetre  has  given  distinctly 
promising  results.  By  the  adoption  of  dry-earth  system 
of  conserving  the  urine  of  cattle  it  is  stated  that  a  farmer 
can  double  his  supply  of  manure. 

Madras. 

The  Presidency  of  Madras  resembles  that  of  Bombay 
in  having  a  diverse  series  of  species  of  cottons.  In  the 


208  COTTON 

northern  parts  we  have  an  extension  of  the  herbaceums 
from  the  Southern  Mahratta  Country.  Mr.  Mankad  says 
that  the  ceded  districts  of  Cudappah,  Kurnool,  and 
Anantpur  are  more  or  less  divided  into  three  distinct 
regions  by  the  ranges  of  hills  known  as  Erramalas  and 
Nalamalas.  West  of  the  Erramalas  are  found  herbaceum 
cottons  known  to  the  trade  as  Westerns.  In  the  valley 
between  the  Erramalas  and  Nalamalas  they  are  known 
under  the  trade  name  of  Northerns.  These  are  commer- 
cially superior  to  Westerns,  the  cotton  having  a  slightly 
reddish  tinge.  On  the  east  of  Nalamalas  is  grown  Yerra- 
patti,  a  variety  of  Gossypium  indicum  known  under  the 
trade  name  of  Coconadas.  Bellary,  Anantpur,  and  a 
portion  of  Kurnool  produce  Westerns.  Portions  of 
Kurnool  and  Cudappah  have  Northerns.  Portions  of 
Cudappah  and  Guntur  produce  Yerrapatti.  In  the 
western  and  northern  parts  Yerrapatti  is  grown  in  lighter 
kinds  of  soils;  the  Coconada  area  grows  mostly  Yerra- 
patti in  all  kinds  of  soils.  Northerns,  on  the  whole,  are 
considered  superior  and  fetch  the  highest  price. 

In  some  places  in  the  Koilpupla  taluka  District,  Kur- 
nool, and  in  the  Bangampalli  State  one  finds  a  naked- 
seeded  herbaceum.  The  staple  of  this  cotton  is  superior 
to  that  of  Northerns,  but  its  ginning  percentage  is 
only  23  to  25.  The  cultivators  prefer  this  black  seed  for 
feeding  their  bullocks,  as  they  consider  that  it  contains 
more  oil. 

In  the  south  of  the  Madras  Presidency  the  cultivation 
of  cotton  comes  in  from  Tanjore;  the  varieties  grown  are 
Uppam  (herbaceum)  down  to  Madura;  from  Madura  to 
Tinnevelly,  in  addition  to  Uppam,  is  grown  Karanganni, 
which  is  a  variety  of  Gossypium  indicum. 

Imported  Broach  grows  luxuriantly  at  Hagari  with  a 
high  ginning  percentage,  but  its  long  duration  of  growth 
is  a  drawback  to  its  cultivation. 

Selection  experiments  with  the  local  cotton  Jowari- 
Hatti  (Westerns)  are  in  progress.  In  1912  the  valuation 
of  the  selections  made  at  Hagari  Station  proved  that 
most  were  equal  to  the  best  class  of  Westerns.  The 
naked  black-seed  cotton  was  considered  by  Messrs.  Tata. 
Sons  and  Co.  to  be  the  best  of  the  indigenous  types  in 


COTTON  209 

this  tract,  both  in  colour  and  length  of  fibre,  but  its 
ginning  percentage  is  unfortunately  low,  being  only  22*2. 

On  the  Nandyal  Agricultural  Station  selection  experi- 
ments are  in  progress  with  Northerns.  By  recent 
valuation  these  are  taken  to  be  10  to  20  per  cent, 
better  than  Kumpta,  and  30  to  40  per  cent,  better  than 
Westerns. 

Seed  of  selection  No.  2  is  being  distributed.  Culti- 
vators do  not  hesitate  to  pay  10  per  cent,  over  the  local 
price  for  the  selected  seed. 

On  the  Koilpatti  Station  experiments  are  in  progress 
with  types  of  Karanganni,  which  are  uniform  in  ripening 
and  give  comparatively  large  returns  and  high  ginning 
percentage.  Strains  from  single  plant  selections  are 
being  grown  on  a  field  scale;  the  most  promising  which 
fulfil  the  desired  conditions  will  be  set  aside  for  seed 
distribution. 

The  Uppam  variety,  which  ripens  earlier  and  is  hardier 
than  Karanganni,  will  probably  always  appeal  to  the 
cultivators  who  appreciate  these  points.  Out  of  seven- 
teen samples  of  selection  Karanganni  A  type,  six  were 
valued  at  Rs.  25  higher  than  the  price  of  fully  good  fair 
Tinnevelly;  the  rest  of  the  samples  were  valued  at  Rs.  10 
higher.  Of  eight  samples  of  Karanganni  C  type,  all 
were  valued  equal  to  average  fully  good  fair  Tinnevelly. 
Of  eight  samples  of  A/C  of  Karanganni  type,  all  were 
valued  equal  to  ordinary  fully  good  fair  Tinnevelly. 

From  Trichinopoly  to  Tinnevelly,  Cambodia  has 
become  a  regular  garden  crop,  replacing  tobacco,  chillies, 
ragi,  and  other  garden  crops.  The  cultivation  of  this 
seems  to  have  spread  considerably  in  the  Nandyal  Valley 
along  the  Tungbhadra  Canal,  and  in  the  Coimbatore 
District  also.  The  produce  has  unfortunately  suffered 
from  admixture  of  inferior  Madras  cottons.  This  has 
been  detected  by  the  trade,  and  has  rendered  Madras 
cotton  unsaleable  as  a  high-class  cotton. 

The  cultivation  of  Bourbon  and  Nadan  varieties  seems 
to  be  confined  to  the  east  of  the  Coimbatore  District. 
The  former  is  a  survival  of  the  crop  introduced  as  early 
as  1817.  The  fields  always  consist  of  a  mixture  of  the 
two  varieties,  and  remain  as  they  stand  for  three  to  four 


210  COTTON 

years.  Soil  containing  a  higher  percentage  of  lime  is 
preferred  for  Bourbon,  and  it  is  in  this  kind  of  soil  that 
the  proportion  of  Bourbon  predominates.  The  reason 
for  the  mixed  cropping  is  probably  the  fact  that  Bourbon 
in  its  early  stages  requires  the  shelter  of  the  Nadan, 
which  is  fast-growing. 

Neither  gives  any  crop  in  the  first  year,  and  to  get 
something  in  the  way  of  return  the  cultivators  grow  with 
them  bajri,  tur,  castor,  etc. 

Bourbon  ripens  from  November  to  January  and  Nadan 
from  February  to  April,  so  that  the  produce  of  each  could 
be  kept  separate  if  necessary. 

Tirrupur  is  a  large  commercial  city,  where  this  cotton 
is  brought  in  every  bazaar  day,  and  bought  by  merchants 
at  a  price  above  that  of  local  cotton.  Some  merchants 
have  their  petty  agents  stationed  in  different  villages  to 
bring  this  cotton,  and  it  is  these  men  who  really  do  the 
sorting,  i.e.,  separating  samples  where  Bourbon  pre- 
dominates from  those  in  which  Nadan  predominates. 
The  extension  of  pure  Bourbon  cotton  in  its  own  area 
as  a  dry  crop  does  not  seem  practicable. 

Punjab. 

These  Provinces  are  noteworthy  in  that,  in  addition 
to  the  predominance  of  various  forms  of  neglectum, 
there  are  types  of  plants  belonging  to  an  annual  form  of 
arboreum  known  as  Gossypium  sanguineum,  or  Mooltan 
cotton.  In  the  varieties  of  neglectum  we  have  the  usual 
variations  in  the  leaf  and  colour  of  the  flower,  the 
yellow-flowered  plants  having  a  finer  staple  and  a  lower 
percentage  of  cotton  to  seed  than  those  of  the  white- 
flowered  types.  In  the  sanguineums  there  are  two  types 
of  flowers,  a  dark  red  and  a  pink. 

In  addition  to  these,  there  are  varieties  which  have 
the  botanical  character  of  indicum,  but  the  cotton  of 
neglectum.  With  the  exception  of  Mooltan  cotton  all 
these  varieties  extend  into  the  North-West  Frontier 
Province,  which,  in  addition,  also  possesses  what  seems 
to  be  a  hairy  form  of  obtusifolium.  Finally,  there  are 
series  of  American  cottons,  all  introduced,  and  these  fall 


COTTON  211 

into  three  varieties :  Upland  Georgian,  New  Orleans, 
Soft  Peruvian. 

The  first,  on  account  of  its  hardiness  and  immunity 
from  the  attacks  of  pests,  is  accepted  as  being  obviously 
the  type  which  should  be  introduced  under  canal  culti- 
vation. The  second  is  less  hardy  in  its  nature  and  is 
more  liable  to  the  attack  of  insects,  and  its  superiority 
to  the  first  is  s<5  slight  that  it  is  not  worth  the  extra  risk. 
The  Soft  Peruvian  variety  (annual  form)  is  one  of  the 
finest  cottons  ever  grown  in  India.  In  spite  of  its  higher 
price,  its  lower  out-turn  brings  it  on  a  financial  level  with 
Upland.  It  would  be  a  remunerative  crop  to  any  farmer 
willing  to  undertake  the  extra  trouble  it  requires. 

Mr.  Milne,  the  Economic  Botanist,  has  discovered  that 
the  root-rot  in  cotton  is  caused  by  a  nematode  worm. 

The  aim  of  the  Department  is  to  improve  the  crop 
generally  by  improved  methods  of  tillage  and  the  selection 
and  production  of  pure  varieties,  both  indigenous  and 
American. 

With  regard  to  the  Colonies,  the  water  requirement 
of  the  crop  is  an  important  factor.  Water  is  scarce 
towards  the  end  of  the  season,  so  a  variety  of  cotton 
which  ripens  late  is  at  a  disadvantage. 

The  chief  American  cotton  maintained  for  distribution 
is  known  as  4  F. 

As  irrigated  tracts  in  the  Punjab  and  Sind  promise  to 
be  in  future  the  chief  sources  from  which  cotton  of  the 
American  type  can  be  supplied,  the  experiments  are 
engaging  the  interest  and  attention  of  the  trade,  and  in 
this  connection  the  following  remarks  of  Messrs.  Tata, 
Sons  and  Co.  deserve  careful  consideration:  "All  the 
samples  have  one  common  characteristic  of  Dharwar 
Americans.  As  these  cottons  have  been  grown  suc- 
cessfully for  five  years,  the  presumption  is  that  the  seeds 
have  been  thoroughly  acclimatized,  and  the  time  has  now 
arrived  to  make  experiments  on  a  large  scale  to  see  if 
it  is  a  commercial  success.  If  seeds  are  distributed  to 
selected  farmers  and  a  good  watch  is  kept  on  them  to 
take  care  that  they  do  not  treat  this  cotton  in  the  happy- 
go-lucky  fashion  they  do  the  short-stapled  indigenous 
cottons  the  result  should  be  satisfactory,  and  the  question 


212  COTTON 

of  British-grown  long-stapled  cotton  will,  to  a  certain 
extent,  be  solved." 

The  Manager  of  the  Empress  Mills,  Nagpur,  has 
supplied  the  following  results  of  the  working  of  Lyallpur 
cotton,  along  with  American,  Bani,  and  Buri  types. 

The  count  spun  was  245  warp,  and  in  all  cases  number 
of  turns  per  inch  was  the  same. 

Loss  per  cent,  on  cotton  Tensi°n  of 

in  blow-rooms  24  s  warp 

Ib. 

American  F.G.M.  Bowed  ...  775         ...         57'44 

Panderkora  Bani  ...  ...  8-34         ...         60*33 

Lyallpur  ...  ...  ...         lO'oS         ...         52*20 

Buri(C.P.)         ...  ...  10-37         ...         46-10 

The  prices  at  the  time  of  purchase  were  very  nearly 
the  same  in  all  cases.  On  this  basis,  but  including  the 
blow-room  loss,  the  purchase  prices  per  Ib.  work  out  as 
below :  — 

Annas  per  Ib. 
American    ...  ...  ...  ...  ...         6*5 

Panderkora  Bani  ...  ...  ...  ...         6-53 

Lyallpur  ...  ...  ...  ...         6-63 

Buri  (C  P.)  ...  ...  ...  ...         6-65 

United  Provinces. 

The  predominant  cotton  of  this  Province  is  composed 
of  the  usual  mixture  of  neglectum,  producing  what  is 
known  in  the  trade  as  Bengals.  Towards  the  eastern 
side  of  the  Province  a  bushy  cotton,  the  intermedium  of 
Todaro,  is  grown  in  patches.  It  is  found  in  the  same 
way  throughout  the  adjoining  Provinces  of  Bihar  and 
Orissa.  The  chief  objection  to  its  extensive  cultivation 
is  its  long  growing  period.  In  addition  to  these, 
American  Upland  is  also  grown,  but  its  chances  cf 
further  extension  are  at  present  problematical.  A  few 
of  the  forms  of  neglectum  have  been  separated  and  tried 
on  the  field  scale,  and,  as  in  other  parts  of  Bengals'  tract, 
the  white-flowered  cotton  is  rapidly  ousting  the  others 
on  account  of  its  hardiness,  high  out-turn,  and  high 
ginning  percentage. 

At  present  steps  are  being  energetically  taken  to  dis- 
tribute new  and  improved  varieties  of  neglectum  cottons 
into  the  tracts  most  suitable  to  them.  Mr.  Leake  is 
attempting  to  evolve  a  hybrid  which  will  in  time  take  the 
place  of  these,  and  the  possibilities  of  American  annual 


COTTON  213 

cottons,     as    they    produce    better    staples,     are    being 
tested. 

In  Bihar  and  Orissa,  Bengal,  and  Burma,  the  cotton 
crop  is  of  such  minor  importance  that  the  attentions  of 
the  Departments  are  concentrated  on  rice,  jute,  etc., 

which  are  their  staples. 

•'  •'."'  ;  i 

Other  Provinces. 

In  Assam,  the  high  yielding  variety  of  the  Garo  Hills 
is  being  introduced  into  the  other  tracts. 

In  Burma,  a  beginning  is  to  be  made  in  the  study  of 
its  cotton  improvement. 

Of  the  Native  States,  the  Department  of  Agriculture, 
Baroda,  is  assisting  in  the  work  of  the  improvement  of 
cotton  in  Guzerat  and  Kathiawar. 

In  the  Hyderabad  State,  which  provides  15  per  cent, 
of  trie  total  crop  in  India,  nothing  appears  to  have  been 
done. 

In  the  States  of  Central  India,  Rajputana,  and  Mysore, 
much  is  being  done  in  the  shape  of  an  extension  of  the 
work  in  adjoining  British  India  tracts. 

In  conclusion,  we  have  tried  to  make  clear  the  fact  that 
the  object  of  the  early  experiments  in  the  improvement 
of  Indian  cotton  was  directly  to  furnish  a  supply  of  a 
superior  product  to  meet  the  needs  of  the  English  market. 
No  thought  was  given  to  improve  the  crop  for  the  use 
of  the  people  of  the  country.  The  modern  ideal  is  two- 
'fold:  firstly,  to  materially  benefit  the  people  of  the 
country  by  improving  the  crop  primarily  grown  for  their 
own  purposes;  secondly,  to  introduce  a  better  staple  so 
as  to  avoid  the  necessity  of  importing  foreign  cottons 
and,  in  the  event  of  a  surplus,  to  compete  with  them  in 
their  own  markets. 

The  percentages  of  the  ordinary  area  under  cotton  in 
India  in  each  Province,  together  with  the  estimated  out- 
turn for  the  three  years  ending  1913-14,  are  given  in 
Appendix  A. 

The  usual  percentage  of  loss  that  is  found  in  the  blow- 
room  as  regards  the  several  descriptions  of  Indian  cotton 
at  present  grown,  kindly  furnished  by  Messrs.  Tata,  Sons 
and  Co.,  Bombay,  appears  in  Appendix  B. 


214 


COTTON 


< 
X 
5 


OH 
OU 


ON  CO  vr>  M   —   N   ON  »G  N    «-   «    OOO   CO  tx 

_  >-.  ro  •<$•  "%  co  «  cT-  «  >-  O  «t^w 

O    ON  CO  N    CM  CO  N 


;  N  oo  oo  N  M  • 

co  Tj-r^oo  N 

'  <-•  VO  00  "">  ON 

vo"  "£  cT  i-~ 


en  O    •-    »^>OO  " 

-fr—  rxi^N 
VO   ON  •*  co  Tl- 


8O  *o  ON 
O   N   •• 
co  N   M 


O   N    CO  ^  VOOO    CON    M 


m  O  oo  TJ- 

OO    CO  CO  «-• 


as  s 

1111 

jog8 

f^'oS 


o  M   \f)  CO  COVO  OO  vO    •-   ON  CO  t^  covO    O   CO 
<«  CO  «    ON  "100  OOOO 
•• 


COvp   w   ON«   ON  co  CO  N    N   N 

b  b  b  b  b  b  ^      « 


11111=14  1  ll  1 

*l 


13  .S 

st1? 


?.  8 


co  CO  W  ^3  _g 

•3  g  g  S  S 

911  gi 

•SIP  if* 


COTTON 


215 


APPENDIX   B. 

STATEMENT  OF   PERCENTAGE  OF  Loss   FOUND   IN  THE  BLOW-ROOM  AS 

REGARDS   THE    SEVERAL    DESCRIPTIONS    OF    INDIAN    COTTON. 


Description 

Superfine 

Fine 

Fully 
good 

Good 

Remarks 

H.G.  Bengal     ..; 

10 

13 

17 



(Rajpu- 

tana 

cotton 

only) 

M.G.  Bengal     ... 

8 

IO 

13 

— 

M.G.     Sind-Pun- 

9 

II 

14 

— 

jab 

M.G.     Khandesh 

— 

10  tO  1  1 

14 

17  to  18 

M.G.      Dhaman- 

8 

9  to  10 

— 

— 

If    hand-ginned 

gam  and  Pool- 

is  mixed,  loss  will 

gam 

be  2  to  3  per  cents 

more  than  fine  clas. 

M.G.  Nagpur  and 

7 

8  to    9 

— 

— 

Do.         do. 

Kaptee 

M.G.  Umravatee 

9 

10  to  ii 

— 

— 

Do.         do. 

M.G.Akola       ... 

9 

10  to  13 

— 

— 

Cotton    in    this 

district  is  generally 

watered     before 

pressing,  hence  loss 

2  per  cent,  higher 

M.G.  Khamgan 

10 

II  tO  12 

— 

— 

M.G.  Oomra     ... 

9 

10  to  ii 

14 

— 

M.G.  Barsee     ... 

— 

13  to  14 

17  to  18 

M.G.  Broach     ... 

8 

9  to  10 

13 

— 

If     Khandesh 

kapas     is      mixed 

while  ginning,  loss 

per  cent,    will   be 

more 

M.G.  Surat 

8 

9 

12 

— 

Kim  -Sayan  loses 

more 

M.G.  Navsari   ... 

7 

8  to  9 

II 

— 

M.G.  Bhownagar 

— 

13 

17 

— 

(good  stapled) 

H.G.  Bhownagar 

— 

15 

19  tO  20 

— 

M.G.  Mathio    ... 

— 

ii 

14  to  15 

— 

M.G.  Dhollera... 

— 

13 

17 

— 

H.G.  Dhollera... 

— 

15 

19  tO  20 

— 

Saw-ginned  Dhar- 

— 

— 

— 

10  tO  12 

war 

M.G.  Westerns... 

— 

— 

— 

13  to  14 

H.G.  Westerns... 

— 

— 

— 

17  to  18 

M.G.  Kumpta  ... 



— 

— 

14  to  16 

More    if    mixed 

with  hand-ginned 

THE  INTRODUCTION  OF  AMERICAN  COTTON  INTO 
SIND  PROVINCE,  INDIA. 

By  G.  S.  HENDERSON. 
Deputy  Director  of  Agriculture,  Sind. 

COTTON  of  a  low  class  is  cultivated  in  Sind,  in  Hydera- 
bad, Thar  and  Parkar,  and  Nawabshah  districts.  The 
area  of  Sind  is  about  equal  to  that  of  Egypt,  and  although 
the  area  under  cotton  has  increased  considerably  in  the 
last  few  years,  the  total  annual  cultivation  even  now  is 
only  about  4,000,000  to  5,000,000  acres.  The  present 
out-turn  is  about  150,000  bales  per  year  besides  what  is 
used  locally  in  the  villages.  Before  the  North  Western 
Railway  was  opened  in  Sind  the  amount  of  cotton 
exported  from  that  district  was  practically  nil.  Cotton 
cultivation  is  generally  spreading  northwards  along  the 
left  bank  of  the  Indus  and  eastwards  on  the  Eastern 
Nara. 

Cotton  is  a  very  profitable  crop,  and  there  is  no  reason 
why  it  should  not  be  cultivated  to  a  large  extent  in  Upper 
Sind,  on  the  non-rice  lands.  These  latter  are  low-lying 
and  have  a  large  supply  of  flow  water;  rice  lands  are 
unsatisfactory  as  the  excessive  flooding  necessary  for  the 
rice  is  not  suitable  for  cotton. 

The  comparative  costs  and  returns  of  cotton  and  other 
staple  crops  from  the  Government  farms  at  Mirpurkhas 
and  Sukkur  are  given  in  the  statement  opposite. 

Sindhi  cotton  is  short-stapled,  coarse  and  strong,  with  a 
particularly  good  bright  colour.  In  the  market  it  ranks 
about  the  same  as  "  Bengals."  In  the  last  few  years  the 
price  has  gone  up  considerably,  and  now  runs  to  about 
Rs.  8.9  per  maund  of  81  lb.,  say  5^d.  per  Ib.  of  lint,  as 
compared  with  7'3od.  per  lb.  for  Middling  American  (the 
price  in  Liverpool,  May,  1914).  Sindhi  cotton  gins  up 
to  33  per  cent.  The  best  cotton  comes  from  Shah-jo- 
bhit,  near  Hala. 


COTTON 


21? 


£ 

O 

as 

u 


OS 

os 

ro 

00 

^ 

« 

oo 
te 

2     2     d 

o         ^    "5 

q 

8 

M 

d 

g 

J3 

u 

^    8     j- 

o       Q-      ^~      o\ 

to 

0 

^ 

05              OT           p^ 

•4-*                                         *"                  W 

£                    «        GJ 

"^ 

s 

5- 

6 

8 

to            tn 

fl 

T3.C 

If 

.=  W 

Q 

d 
£ 

vcT 

IS 

^        OS        !•* 

\T)              ' 

Ox         N          j 
en         *** 

a£     Q«P  '^          . 

•  *  a  "    9 

l|;«   ! 

N 

OT 

rt  5 

£    £) 

"o 

. 

P4                   (^ 

"°    O  rt    P^      ^ 

PH 

0    M 

•-I 

PH 

E 

S          03 

g 

ro 

„ 

I 

U 

S      *!      ^ 
q       9       q 

•                               vo 
N         oo' 

vo 

C 

2 

j| 

to 

\d       to      T^- 

£           &          V           & 

N 

1 

"o 

*7    «»    •» 

o                       Cci 

^ 

W 

£ 

£     *     ^ 

E 

§ 

o 

rj- 

c! 

c 

9 

W 
d 

£ 

00          ^         °^ 
N          «          *? 

*  <3               to      •* 

d      ^     vo       ^ 

>O 

CO 

£ 

«n          o5          w 

05      p>      Oi 

•^       "•"      w       w 

O                      " 

CO 

< 

— 

E 

c 

j 

in 

^ 

O 

•        ^       >^ 

• 

a 

1H 

d 

VO 
OS 

*H         0         00 

vd      06      oo' 

^       g       os      -r 
55      °°      (^      eg 

M 

^ 

<£         <n 

P< 

C/3 

E 

& 

E 

i 

i 

:        :        : 

:        :        I        : 

i 

• 

*                .                 » 

*                I                •            .    • 

£ 

CS 

5 

g 

2 

1 

: 

:        : 

£       :      :      : 

ON 

*-^l 

1 

J 

J                      .0 

1 

: 

:      |        : 

"a                 '       ** 

: 

<u 

.0 

c 

C 

1  !   :  2 

§ 
1 

2 

,0      "o      « 

1  a  I 

C        T3          *>          ° 

!  1  1;  j 

o 

PH 

0 

0 

0 

O 

"c  o 

II 


.£  J 
II 


2l8  COTTON 

Sindhi  cotton  cultivation  is  simple  in  the  extreme. 
After  irrigation  seed  is  broadcasted  on  the  surface  and 
ploughed  in.  Thereafter  the  crop  receives  one  or  two 
hoeings  and  nothing  further  except  irrigation  from  time 
to  time  till  the  crop  is  ready  for  picking. 

The  improvement  of  Sindhi  cotton  could  have  been 
attempted  in  several  ways :  — 

(a)  By   producing   a  still   coarser  cotton   with   higher 
ginning  out-turn.     It  is  along  these  lines  that  some  export 
firms  wish  to  direct  the  work. 

(b)  By   producing   a  finer  and    longer-stapled    cotton 
suitable   for   spinning  higher   counts   and   weaving   finer 
materials. 

The  problem  was  to  find  by  experiment  a  cotton  suitable 
to  the  country,  but  of  a  much  higher  grade.  To  grade  up 
the  indigenous  cotton  held  out  but  little  promise  of  success 
in  comparison  with  the  adoption  of  a  superior  variety 
from  some  other  part  of  the  world.  Indian  varieties  of 
superior  quality,  such  as  Broach,  were  soon  discarded 
as  undesirable;  Egyptian  was  then  tried,  and  finally 
American. 

When  the  Agricultural  Department  was  first  established 
in  Sind  about  ten  years  ago,  it  was  thought  by  the  then 
Deputy  Director  of  Agriculture,  Mr.  Fletcher,  that 
Egyptian  cotton  would  thrive  in  Sind.  It  did  well  on  all 
the  Government  farms  and  it  was  decided  to  get  a  large 
area  cultivated  in  the  district.  Four  thousand  acres  were 
cultivated  in  one  season  by  zemindars  on  the  Jamrao 
Canal,  the  out-turn  probably  averaging  5  to  8  maunds  per 
acre.  Some  difficulty  was  experienced  in  disposing  of 
the  crop,  as  Egyptian  cotton  is  not  used  by  any  of  the 
mills  in  Bombay,  and  the  amount  produced  was  not 
sufficient  to  put  the  article  on  a  commercial  footing.  The 
Mitafifi  variety  was  of  good  quality  and  was  favourably 
reported  on  by  brokers  in  Egypt.  Auction  sales  were 
established  by  Government  at  Mirpurkhas  to  dispose  of 
the  produce,  but  the  price  obtained  was  very  uneven. 
Up  to  Rs.  14  per  maund  of  81  Ib.  of  seed-cotton  was 
obtained  on  some  occasions  when  the  presence  of  buyers 
anxious  to  obtain  a  sample  caused  some  competition.  At 
other  sales  there  was  little  or  no  demand.  The  ginning 


COTTON  219 

was  another  difficulty,  the  local  gins  being  adapted  for 
the  local  cotton  and  not  giving  good  results  with  the 
Egyptian.  Further,  the  local  ginneries  were  not  at  all 
anxious  to  handle  this  cotton,  and  buyers  often  found 
themselves  in  difficulties. 

The  disadvantages  connected  with  Egyptian  cotton  in 
Sind  are :  — 

(a)  It  needs  more  careful  cultivation  than  the  Sindhi, 
and  requires  to  be  grown  on  ridges. 

(b)  It  has  a  long  growing  period,  and  needs  to  be  sown 
at  the  latest  by  the  beginning  of  April,   while  the  first 
picking  is  not  generally  ready  till  October.     This  entirely 
prevents  its  cultivation  on  the  inundation  canals.     In  fact, 
it   is   practically   only   on  the  Jamrao   Canal,   which  is  a 
perennial  canal,  that  it  can  be  grown  at  the  present  time. 

The  results  of  the  efforts  to  introduce  Egyptian  cotton 
into  Sind  are.  however,  very  interesting  and  instructive. 
It  has  been  proved  that,  given  proper  conditions,  it  will 
thrive  well  in  the  district,  which  is  one  of  the  few  places 
outside  Egypt  where  this  class  of  cotton  has  been  success- 
ful. In  the  future,  when  the  country  fills  up  and  more 
intensive  cultivation  is  adopted,  it  is  possible  that 
Egyptian  cotton  may  be  cultivated  in  Sind. 

Experiments  with  American  cotton  were  begun  several 
years  ago.  It  was  found  to  be  promising,  and  among 
its  advantages  were  :  — • 

(a)  Its  quick  growing  period;  it  can  be  sown  in  June, 
and  the  first  picking  is  available  in  the  end  of  September. 
This  is  most  important  for  Sind,   as  it  enables  it  to'  be 
cultivated  on  the  common  inundation  canals. 

(b)  It   is    a   good   yielder,    and    on    average    land    will 
produce  as  much  as  Sindhi  cotton  per  acre. 

(c)  It  seems  to  be  hardy,  and  can  be  cultivated  in  the 
same  manner  as  Sindhi  cotton. 

(d)  The  marketing  of  the  crop  is  much  easier  than  in 
the  case  of  Egyptian  cotton. 

The  writer  paid  a  visit  to  the  chief  American  cotton- 
growing  centres,  and  selected  the  variety  called 
"  Triumph "  as  being  most  suitable  for  cultivation  in 
Sind.  It  is  a  big-boiled  variety,  an  early  and  good 
yielder,  and  is  adapted  for  growth  under  irrigation. 


220  COTTON 

As  a  result  of  repeated  trials  on  the  Government  farms 
at  Mirpurkhas  and  Sukkur,  and  on  sub-stations  at  Jacoba- 
bad,  Shikarpur,  Nawabshah,  and  Tando  Mahomedkhan, 
it  was  decided  to  commence  its  cultivation  in  the  district 
on  a  large  scale.  Forty  tons  of  Triumph  seed  were 
obtained  from  America,  10  tons  being  distributed,  in  the 
beginning  of  1913,  in  Sukkur  and  Upper  Sind  Frontier, 
and  30  tons  in  the  Jamrao  area.  The  seed  was  dis- 
tributed in  good  time,  and  officers  of  the  Department 
toured  from  village  to  village,  interviewing  all  growers 
personally. 

A  considerable  amount  of  American  cotton  is  used  in 
Bombay  mills,  so  it  is  much  to  the  owner's  advantage  if 
they  can  buy  a  high  grade  of  American  cotton  in  India. 
A  syndicate,  consisting  chiefly  of  Bombay  millowners,  was 
formed  to  buy,  gin,  bale,  and  dispose  of  the  produce  of 
the  Triumph  seed  distributed  by  the  Agricultural  Depart- 
ment. The  syndicate  erected  cotton  gins  at  Mirpurkhas 
and  Shikarpur,  and  the  former  is  now  in  operation. 

It  was  not  possible  to  fix  a  price  per  maund  of  kapas 
to  be  paid  to  the  growers,  as  the  amount  of  expenses  for 
ginning,  baling,  and  freight  could  not  be  calculated  in 
the  first  season.  The  syndicate,  however,  arranged  to 
pay  on  delivery  of  the  seed-cotton  at  the  ginnery  one-half 
of  the  current  price  of  Middling  American  cotton,  as 
quoted  in  the  Times  of  India,  and  the  remainder  of  the 
price  being  paid  to  the  growers  after  the  cotton  and 
cotton  seed  were  sold. 

It  is  unfortunate  that  the  season  and  inundation  have 
been  quite  unsuitable  for  cotton  in  Upper  Sind,  and  only 
300  or  400  maunds  of  seed-cotton  have  been  obtained. 
However,  where  the  cotton  has  had  a  fair  chance  and 
conditions  have  been  observed  it  has  been  successful. 

In  Lower  Sind  most  of  the  growers  are  satisfied,  and 
the  cotton  came  in  satisfactorily  to  the  gin.  One  large 
owner  has  indented  for  300  maunds,  i.e.,  sufficient  to  sow 
1,200  acres,  for  the  next  season. 

The  crop  consisted  of  511  bales.  This  was  sold  in 
Liverpool  at  an  average  price  of  id.  per  Ib.  below  that 
of  Middling  American.  After  deducting  expenses  the 
return  to  the  growers  was  about  Rs.  9  per  maund  of  seed- 


COTTON  221 

cotton,  Sindhi  seed-cotton  being  at  the  time  at  Rs.  6  per 
maund. 

Sufficient  seed  to  sow  6,000  acres  has  been  distributed 
in  the  districts.  With  the  increased  quantity  of  the 
produce  and  better  ginning  it  is  expected  that  the  cotton 
will  grade  as  Middling  American. 

A  seed  farm  of  200  acres  has  been  acquired  by  the 
Department  to  prevent  deterioration  and  mixing  of  the 
seed.  The  farm  cotton  will  be  under  careful  inspection, 
and  the  produce  will  be  specially  ginned  on  the  farm. 

It  is  too  soon  to  say  if  the  cotton  is  established  on  a 
practical  basis  in  Lower  Sind  or  not.  But  it  is  un- 
doubtedly a  fact  that  a  high-grade  American  cotton  can 
be  grown  in  Sind  under  ordinary  Sindhi  cultivation  and 
will  give  a  good  out-turn.  Economic  conditions  may, 
however,  prevent  its  permanent  establishment. 


PROBLEMS  IN  CONNECTION  WITH  COTTON 
CULTIVATION  IN  EGYPT. 

By  GERALD  C.  DUDGEON,  F.E.S. 

Consulting  Agriculturist  to  the  Ministry  of  Agriculture, 
Egypt;  Vice-President  of  the  International  Asso- 
ciation for  Tropical  Agriculture. 

THE  unique  position  which  has  been  attained  by  Egypt 
with  respect  to  the  cultivation  of  cotton  is  chiefly  due 
to  the  remarkable  equality  of  climatic  conditions  which 
prevails  and  the  control  which  is  capable  of  being  exer- 
cised upon  the  water  supply  of  the  land. 

The  area  under  cotton  cultivation  has  increased  fairly 
steadily  during  the  past  ten  years,  exhibiting  the  follow- 
ing proportions  with  respect  to  the  cultivable  lands  of 
the  country  :  — • 

Year  Per  cent. 

1904  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  26-7 

1905  ...  ...  ...  ...  28-9 

1906  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  28*0 

1907  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  29-6 

1908  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  30-8 

1909  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  297 

1910  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  307 

1911  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  32-5 

1912  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  32-5 

1913  •••  •••  •••  •••  ••-  32-6 

If  Lower  Egypt  (including  Gizeh)  alone  be  taken  into 
consideration,  cotton  will  be  found  to  represent  42*7  per 
cent,  of  the  area  in  that  part  for  1913.  Further  expan- 
sion is  checked  for  some  time,  owing  to  the  fact  that  the 
drainage  on  certain  lands  is  inefficient.  Large  tracts 
exist  approximating  some  of  the  most  productive  cotton 
areas,  on  which  it  has  been  rendered  necessary  to  intro- 
duce frequently  a  land-washing  crop,  such  as  rice,  in 
order  to  get  rid  of  the  salt  which  rises  to  the  surface  in 
the  subsoil  water  with  the  advent  of  the  flood.  Without 
the  introduction  of  such  cultivation,  the  surface  soil  in 
these  areas  speedily  becomes  impregnated  with  salt,  to 


COTTON  223 

the  great  injury  of  all  subsequent  crops.  Rice  is  thus 
employed  as  a  recurring  reclamation  crop,  and  must 
continue  to  be  so  used  until  the  system  of  drainage  is 
completely  revised  to  obtain  for  these  areas  the  same 
advantages  as  those  which  are  found  elsewhere. 

There  are,  in  addition  to  the  lands  referred  to,  others 
in  which  no  drainage  exists  at  all,  and  which  are  per- 
manently without  reclamation  or  crops. 

The  greatest  obstacle  attached  to  the  drainage  of  such 
lands  as  those  mentioned  is  that  the  proprietors  of  certain 
portions  are  unwilling  to  combine  with  the  remainder  for 
their  mutual  benefit;  those  having  lands  approximating 
the  main  drains  usually  objecting  to  the  drains  of  their 
more  remotely  placed  neighbours  emptying  into  their  own 
drains  or  even  passing  through  their  lands.  This  state 
of  affairs  has  been  brought  about  by  the  incompleteness 
of  the  methods  employed  in  the  first  instance  for  the 
establishment  of  a  canal  and  drainage  system.  The  fact 
that  it  is  insufficient  in  any  system  of  drainage  to  lay 
down  the  main  channels  without  at  the  same  time  putting 
in  the  branch  and  subsidiary  ones  seems  to  have  been 
overlooked,  with  the  result  of  a  deadlock. 

A  remedy  which  suggests  itself  is  that  the  Govern- 
ment should  annually  select  blocks  of  convenient  size, 
and  in  these  construct  all  the  necessary  feeder  drains, 
levying  a  tax  upon  the  proprietors  of  the  lands  drained 
to  cover  the  whole  cost  of  the  upkeep.  By  this  means 
such  a  vast  benefit  would  accrue  to  the  present  possessors 
of  the  land  to  be  drained  that  it  is  certain  that  the 
majority  would  willingly  agree  to  the  adoption  of  such 
a  scheme.  An  increase  of  the  cotton  and  wheat-growing 
area  and  the  decrease  of  that  under  rice  would  almost 
immediately  ensue,  and  the  economy  in  water  due  to  this 
change  would  at  once  be  apparent. 

It  has  been  assumed  that  when  the  co-operative  move- 
ment has  more  fully  developed  the  societies  themselves 
would  undertake  the  work  of  improving  and  rendering 
fit  for  cotton  cultivation  the  lands  of  their  less  fortunately 
placed  members  by  giving  them  access  to  the  main  drains 
through  the  lands  of  their  more  fortunate  neighbours, 
but,  judging  from  the  spirit  shown  by  the  people  at  this 
15 


224  COTTON 

moment,  this  seems  an  unlikely  occurrence.  Indeed,  it 
is  often  found  at  the  present  time  that  the  small  proprietor 
is  the  victim  of  his  neighbour  who  has  large  possessions, 
and  who  frequently  uses  the  small  man's  land  as  a  con- 
venient discharge  area  for  his  own  drainage. 

The  proper  expansion  of  the  cotton-growing  area  in 
Egypt  is  largely  controlled  by  the  conditions  just  men- 
tioned, but  no  improvement  of  the  lands  referred  to  can 
be  carried  out  except  it  be  undertaken  on  a  large  scale, 
as  all  portions  of  the  area  served  by  the  same  canal 
section  and  discharging  into  the  same  main  drain  must 
necessarily  be  interdependent. 

The  reclamation  of  lands  in  the  north  of  the  Delta 
will  produce  new  areas  available  for  cotton  cultivation 
after  some  years,  but  in  the  present  condition  of  the  Nile 
most  of  the  reclamation  projects  must  be  temporarily 
abandoned.  It  should  be  mentioned  in  this  connection 
that  it  cannot  be  anticipated  that  the  cotton  yield  from 
these  lands  will  attain  the  same  average  per  feddan  as 
that  of  the  more  favourably  placed  localities. 

Meanwhile,  if  an  increase  of  area  under  cotton  should 
occur  in  the  near  future,  it  must  be  interpreted  as  corre- 
sponding to  a  diminution  of  the  cultivation  of  food  grain, 
chiefly  wheat.  Such  a  diminution  is  of  some  importance 
to  the  country.  Although  wheat  is  not  such  a  remunera- 
tive crop  as  cotton  at  the  present  price  of  the  latter,  the 
further  increased  frequency  of  cotton  in  the  rotation 
would  in  some  instances  produce  a  diminished  yield  of 
lint,  and  it  is  more  advantageous  to  the  soil  to  retain  it 
in  a  naturally  fertile  condition  than  to  be  compelled  to 
resort  to  the  application  of  artificial  manures  to  procure 
a  normal  result. 

It  is  not  generally  realized  to  what  extent  Egypt  is 
self-supporting  in  the  matter  of  food  supply.  The  accom- 
panying table  which  I  have  drawn  up  (p.  226)  gives,  I 
think,  a  clear  indication  of  the  economic  situation,  besides 
being  an  interesting  demonstration  of  the  richness  of  the 
country.  For  the  purpo.se  of  making  a  comparative 
estimate  of  the  country's  consumption  of  food  grain,  the 
crops  of  each  year  (the  earliest  harvested  of  which  are 
beans,  wheat,  and  barley)  must  be  assumed  to  become 


COTTON  225 

available  for  consumption  from  June  i.  All  the  calcu- 
lations, therefore,  with  regard  to  imports  and  exports 
in  the  table  are  made  to  apply  to  the  same  period  instead 
of  that  of  the  usual  financial  year. 

I  have  previously  pointed  out  that  32  per  cent,  of  the 
cultivable  area  is  given  up  to  the  production  of  cotton, 
but  it  will  be  seen  from  the  table  that  95  per  cent. 
of  the  grain  used  by  the  population  for  food  is  grown 
in  the  country. 

It  will  also  be  seen  that  the  consumption  approximates 
three  and  three-quarter  million  tons  each  year,  but  is 
slightly  decreasing,  in  spite  of  the  population  being 
estimated  to  increase  at  the  rate  of  1*51  per  cent, 
annually.  The  decrease  in  production  may  be  accounted 
for  to  some  extent  by  the  increase  in  the  area  under 
cotton,  but  the  decrease  in  consumption  is  more  difficult 
to  explain.  It  has  been  stated  that  in  each  year  there  is 
increased  consumption  of  meat,  but  this  is  not  borne 
out  by  the  figures  obtained  for  the  numbers  of  animals 
slaughtered  for  food;  there  is,  in  fact,  a  slight  decrease 
in  the  latter  from  1910,  in  which  year  the  maximum 
number  were  slaughtered. 

It  would  be  inadvisable  to  further  diminish  the  area 
under  food  grain  in  order  to  plant  cotton.  Although  it 
is  improbable  that  the  gradual  increase  of  the  cotton  area 
at  the  expense  of  that  of  grain  has  caused  any  general 
depreciation  in  the  weight  of  the  cotton  yield  per  feddan, 
the  limit  of  safety  has  probably  now  been  reached  in 
many  places. 

The  system  of  rotation  of  crops  has  undergone  a  con- 
siderable change  in  the  country  since  the  price  of  cotton 
has  increased.  Formerly  it  was  a  common  practice  to 
plant  cotton  once  in  a  period  of  three  years;  but  more 
recently  a  two-yearly  rotation  has  been  adopted,  and  is 
now  very  generally  employed.  In  some  instances  this 
increased  frequency  of  cotton  upon  the  same  piece  of 
land  has  resulted  in  a  diminution  of  yield,  but  in  others 
there  has  been  no  such  an  effect.  Again,  in  a  few 
instances  it  has  been  found  possible  even  to  plant  cotton 
for  several  years  in  succession  without  the  employment 
of  extraordinary  methods  of  resuscitating  the  soil  and 


226 


COTTON 


1 

>-i         to       ON       to       ••*         ^       vo 
vo       OO          O        00         ON        ^        O 
•«£        O^         Oj        O^        «^        ON        T 

1  1 

1       1 

1 

'   Ed 

•-•     o;    M"    ~    co 

| 

ro 

v£          1 

? 

vo 

CO 

c 

H-          ON        vO          ON         N          vo         M 

T^ 

cT 

0 

ON         T}-         Tj-        rt-        HI          -^         •* 
*-          rf        O          N         HH          ^~ 

co 

1      1 

1 

1 

S—        OO          ON        vo       vO          Tf 
O        vO         10        W         ^^        vo 
TJ-        co       OO        vo         HH         O         co 

10             H* 

t^          CO 

M 

00 
ON 

s? 

«^        ON       vo"         «-T        i-T         CO 

CO 

M 

e?    N 

N 

§tr. 
C 
O 

^ 

o      ^ 

O 

^"     o 

^ 

«          N          _          !•>.         ON         N          T}- 

vO         ON 

r-^     O 

j^ 

CO 

2 

CO         CO         ^          ^          ON        OO           rj- 
N           10        00           «                         -T 

rr 

5  eT 

00 

vo 

«      b 

fc 

§ 

CO 

co 

CO 

o 

t-T 

C/3 

8 

>-i         10       vo          M          ON       on 
ON         ^f        co        ON       OO          Q 
N          ?        O         10        O          0           1 

M                 VO 

^         co 

VO      OO 

ON 

g 

Ed 

H."      oo"      oo"       ^T       J"       co 

CO 
M 

co    i-T 

N 

r? 

§       * 

P.       o 

a; 

w 

o 

M 

00           CO 

Q 

£ 

c 
o 

vo        00         M         10        co        rJ- 

N           fs.          CO          VO          t-i            O 

N          TJ-        O          N          1-1         xo 

i-T       i-T                                   ' 

OO         VO 

CO 

M       1O 

vO      ON 
10      — 

CO 

VO 

CO 

J*       co 

b 

0 

2 

0 

8 

OO          N          ON         t^         t^        OO 

N           10 
T»-        OO 
ON         CO 

10      UO 

VO    OO 

on 
O 

S 

cd 

~       ^      vo"       «       ^      co 

N 

CO 

§-  I 

D 

C/3 

O 

«           10 

2 

O 

o> 

OO                    M 

u 

§ 

O          «         OO          ON        OO          N 
00           ON        00           •*          co         N 

OO          f*^ 
VO           rj- 

N       "o 

Tf 

«      b 

Q 

~ 

N           Tj-        OO           N           H-I          10           1 

VO 

10      CS 

«^ 

| 

CO 

CO 

CO 

O 

HH 

U 

| 

fN           10         ON         t^         10         O            1 

M                1-4 

CO              HN 

i->         co 

N           Tf 

00       O 

vO 

oo     • 

0 
0 

£ 

Ed 

N           0           tC          ~           ~           ^ 

06" 

N 

rC    ci 

c^ 

Q         c 

-     2 

o 

g 

vO         c^ 

~     r° 

0 

o 

O           M           N          OO           CO         N            1 

ON        co 

O       vo 

10 

-      b 

8 

»- 

co 

co 

CO 

^ 

c 

o 

" 

M 

1      1 

O 

| 

tn 

c 

O 

c 

0 

'             '•'.'.'.'.'. 

"rt       W 

O 

a, 

a, 

G        -rj 
O          QL, 

•*              !^.                                               w 

*o       •>-> 

g 

B 

'%     s 

•g         «         «         J^                   ^        ~ 

I-.-H                     ^                     U                 J^                    dj                    C                   -*J 

—         '5        -G          "-          0          rt          C 

;5      g      fe      .§      J3        *"        S 

H       g 

1 

TD 

1 
o 
U 

"^          % 

a,      a 

s  a 

COTTON  227 

without  deterioration  of  the  crop.  The  chief  reason  for 
the  substitution  of  a  two  years'  for  a  three  years'  rotation 
is  that,  in  accordance  with  the  rise  in  the  price  of  cotton, 
the  demand  for  land  has  risen,  and  the  land  itself  has 
changed  hands  at  an  enhanced  price.  The  new  pur- 
chasers, rinding  that  the  monetary  return  from  a  cotton 
crop  so  far  exceeded  that  from  any  of  the  other  crops 
which  they  could  grow,  planted  cotton  as  frequently  as 
possible.  Tenants,  who  previously  used  to  obtain  leases 
of  land  for  three  years  upon  the  old  rotation  system,  are 
now  offered  two-year  leases.  This  method  is  now 
general,  except  upon  a  few  very  large  estates  in  the 
country,  but  the  effect  upon  the  yield  caused  by  the 
alteration  in  the  rotation  has  scarcely  been  felt.  The  soil, 
which  for  the  most  part  consists  of  Nile  silt,  is  im- 
poverished to  a  very  small  degree  by  the  crop  growing 
upon  it.  It  is  renovated  to  some  extent  also  each  year 
by  the  frequent  application  of  Nile  water  carrying 
fertilizing  matter  in  suspension  even  when  not  in  flood. 

In  this  connection  it  has  been  frequently  assumed  that 
the  thick  flood  water  alone  had  a  beneficial  effect  upon 
the  soil  as  a  fertilizer,  but  from  analytical  tests  which 
have  been  made,  it  has  been  ascertained  that  there  is  just 
as  much  plant-feeding  matter  in  the  ordinary  Nile  water 
as  is  found  in  the  "  red  water"  of  the  flood.  A  deteri- 
oration of  the  quantity  of  cotton  yielded  per  feddan,  as 
well  as  of  its  quality,  is  predicted  by  some,  and  is  attri- 
buted to  the  action  of  the  Assuan  reservoir  and  the  canal 
system  in  holding  up  the  silt;  but  it  should  be  remembered 
that  that  which  is  deposited  upon  the  canal  bottoms  is 
the  heavier  material,  mainly  disintegrated  rock,  and  in 
any  case  any  value  it  may  possess  is  not  lost,  as  it  is 
applied  to  -the  lands  to  a  large  extent  when  the  cleaning 
of  canals  is  in  progress.  Any  temporary  deterioration 
in  the  quality  of  cotton,  which  is  a  defect  chiefly  notice- 
able in  the  second  and  third  pickings,  is  mainly  due  to 
the  attacks  of  the  Earias  boll  worm  or  to  shortage  of 
water.  The  more  recently  introduced  pink  boll  worm 
(Gelechia  gossypiella)  is  actually  more  destructive  to 
seed  than  to  lint,  and  is  less  likely  to  seriously  affect  the 
quality  or  yield  from  the  cotton  areas. 


228  COTTON 

The  effect  of  the  low  Nile  in  1913  will  probably  make 
itself  felt  in  some  parts  of  Northern  Egypt  in  1914  and 
1915.  Owing  to  the  deficient  water  supply  summer  rice 
cultivation  is  rendered  impossible  in  the  depressed  and 
badly  drained  parts  of  the  Delta,  where  such  a  crop  is  an 
almost  imperative  necessity  to  render  the  land  sufficiently 
sweet  to  grow  cotton.  The  result  may  cause  a  reduction 
of  from  one-half  to  one  kantar  in  the  cotton  crop  in  1915 
from  these  localities,  unless  the  situation  is  improved  by 
the  advent  of  a  good  flood  in  1914  to  enable  the  sowing 
of  a  flood  crop  of  rice. 

It  has  been  anticipated  that  the  suppression  of  rice 
growing  in  1914  will  result  in  an  increase  of  the  area 
under  cotton;  but  it  seems  scarcely  likely  that  those  lands 
which  in  the  ordinary  course  require  a  land-washing*  crop 
this  year  would  be  in  a  sufficiently  good  condition  to 
produce  a  cotton  crop. 

The  stability  of  the  economic  position  in  Egypt  and 
of  Egyptian  investments  is  often  said  to  be  depreciated 
by  the  fact  that  the  country  is  given  up  to  the  cultivation 
of  cotton  as  its  sole  exported  crop,  yet  it  is  surely  a 
sound  procedure  to  cultivate  to  the  utmost  cotton  which 
can  command  a  price  above  that  of  the  product  grown  in 
almost  any  other  country,  at  least  until  such  a  time  as  a 
similarly  good  quality  can  be  brought  into  serious  com- 
petition with  it.  That  there  should  be  any  increasing 
deterioration  in  the  quality  of  the  cotton  produced  in  the 
future  is  highly  improbable.  In  a  century  of  cotton 
growing,  during  which  no  organized  general  effort  has 
been  made  to  preserve  the  quality,  the  latter  has  pre- 
served itself  in  a  marked  degree;  much  less,  therefore, 
at  the  present  time,  when  every  opportunity  is  being 
taken  to  improve  the  fibre  and  the  yield  by  the  best 
known  methods,  should  there  be  fear  of  increased  or 
permanent  deterioration. 

No  other  crop  which  has  been  tried  in  Egypt  gives 
quite  such  a  highly  remunerative  yield  as  cotton  at 
present;  but  should  the  unexpected  occur,  and,  through 
any  unforeseen  cause,  should  there  be  a  great  diminution 
of  yield  per  feddan  or  serious  fall  in  price,  a  moderate 
substitute  might  be  found  in  wheat,  rice,  maize,  sugar, 


COTTON  229 

or  oil  seeds,  all  of  which  could  be  remuneratively  grown 
for  export. 

The  productive  power  of  the  land  is  superior  to  that 
of  any  other  tract  of  equal  dimensions  at  present  under 
cultivation,  and  there  are  fewer  disturbing  factors  than 
in  other  countries,  so  that  Egypt  without  cotton  would 
occupy  no  mean  position  as  a  competitor  in  the  markets 
of  the  world. 

So  far  I  have  chiefly  referred  to  the  question  of  the 
extension  of  the  cotton  area  in  relation  to  the  diminution 
of  the  output  of  lint  per  feddan  and  the  effect  upon  the 
food  crops. 

Without  entering  into  a  detailed  discussion  of  the 
many  problems  directly  attached  to  cotton  cultivation  in 
this  country,  the  conditions  of  which  render  such  culti- 
vation widely  different  from  that  found  elsewhere,  it  may 
be  of  interest  to  refer  to  two  important  factors  which 
exercise  an  influence  upon  the  quality.  The  first  of  these 
is  the  diversity  of  varieties  of  cotton  cultivated  at  the 
present  time  in  the  comparatively  small  and  congested 
area,  and  the  second,  the  occurrence  of  insect  pests  and 
maladies  during  the  plants'  growth. 

In  the  search  for  new  kinds  of  cotton  which  shall 
possess  to  a  marked  degree  any  of  the  desirable  features 
from  the  supposed  point  of  view  of  the  spinner,  many 
people  in  Egypt  have,  from  time  to  time,  preserved  the 
seed  produced  by  hybrids  or  natural  varieties  which  have 
appeared  in  their  fields.  The  progeny  of  by  far  the 
larger  number  of  these  have  been  disappointing,  and 
have  shown  no  constancy  in  the  characters  aimed  at,  but 
occasionally  the  contrary  has  been  the  case,  and  the 
foundation  of  a  new  strain  has  been  established.  In  this 
manner  such  cottons  as  Ashmouni,  Mitafifi,  Abassi, 
Jannovitch,  Nubari,  Sakellaridis,  Assili,  Voltos,  and  many 
other  well-known  kinds  have  been  produced,  all  of  which 
have  been  isolated  in  the  first  instance,  only  to  be  brought 
together  again  as  the  demand  for  them  has  increased 
and  their  planted  area  has  become  extended;  so  it 
happens,  at  the  present  time,  that  most  of  the  varieties 
named  are  being  grown  in  close  proximity  to  one  another, 
and  frequently  even  in  adjoining  fields.  The  fixed 


230  COTTON 

characters  of  such  varieties  slowly  break  down  by  hybrid- 
ization, the  varieties  themselves  becoming  more  and 
more  impure  each  year.  Even  a  greater  assistance  to 
their  degradation  is  the  difficulty  of  keeping  the  seed 
unmixed  in  the  operation  of  ginning.  The  mixture  of 
seed  in  the  ginneries,  as  well  as  the  hybridization  of 
plants  in  the  field,  was  of  a  small  degree  of  importance 
ten  years  ago,  when  the  number  of  varieties  were  fewer 
and  the  areas  under  cotton  were  rather  less  congested; 
but  the  subject  has  now  assumed  a  very  prominent 
position  for  consideration  in  connection  with  the  preserva- 
tion of  the  quality  of  cotton,  and  the  formation  of  the 
Department  of  Agriculture  in  Egypt  occurred  just  in 
time  to  take  this  question  up  in  a  serious  manner.  The 
distribution  of  cotton  seed  by  the  Government  and  the 
propagation  of  approved  pure  strains  of  cotton,  intended 
to  be  in  continuous  supply  to  the  country,  were  the  means 
adopted  to  counteract  the  deterioration  which  threatened 
to  become  widespread.  The  success  which  the  first 
project  has  attained  can  be  seen  from  the  following 
figures  of  distribution:  1910-11,  8,600  bushels;  1911-12, 
235,000  bushels;  and  1912-13,  460,000  bushels.  The  dis- 
tribution for  1913-14  approximates  700,000  bushels. 

With  regard  to  breeding  pure  cottons,  the  Ministry 
of  Agriculture  possesses  several  types  which  have  been 
evolved  by  Mendelian  methods  in  experimental  farms  by 
the  late  botanist  to  the  Ministry,  Mr.  L.  Balls,  the  seed 
from  some  of  which  are  now  being  propagated  with  a 
view  to  distribution  year  by  year  upon  an  increasing  scale. 
Uniformity  of  staple  is  certainly  prejudiced  so  long  as 
cultivators  plant  different  varieties  upon  proximate  areas, 
and  ginneries  are  constructed  more  with  a  view  to  the 
mechanical  separation  of  lint  and  seed  than  for  the  pre- 
vention of  admixture  of  the  varieties  of  the  latter,  but 
such  adverse  effects  should  be  reduced  to  a  minimum, 
and  possibly  even  overcome  altogether  by  the  methods 
adopted  at  present  by  the  Government  to  combat  the 
evils. 

Inferiority  of  quality  caused  by  the  attacks  of  insect 
pests  cannot  be  regarded  as  a  permanent  effect,  although 
in  a  country  such  as  Egypt,  where  the  cultivated  areas 


COTTON  231 

are  so  isolated  from  those  of  other  countries  that  counter- 
balancing influences  can  only  be  artificially  introduced, 
and  climatic  conditions  are  almost  invariable,  insect  pests 
thrive  to  the  greatest  extent  after  once  becoming  •estab- 
lished, and,  in  some  cases  by  reason  by  their  recurring 
attacks,  have  become  quasi-permanent.  In  practice, 
therefore,  we  find  that  such  a  pest  as  the  Earias  boll 
worm,  for  instance,  exercises  a  continuous  influence  on 
the  quality  of  the  later  pickings  of  cotton,  the  severity 
of  which  varies  each  year,  chiefly  in  accordance  with  the 
time  of  maturity  of  the  crop.  This  same  pest  contributes 
more  than  any  other  to  the  loss  in  yield  as  well  as  in 
quality  in  the  manner  mentioned,  and  it  frequently 
happens  that  in  a  late  maturing  year  the  estimation  of 
the  cotton  crop  is  rendered  difficult  at  the  time  of  ripen- 
ing by  the  occurrence  of  a  few  days  of  cool  or  misty 
weather  which  favours  the  activity  of  the  pest. 

Efforts  to  suppress  the  virulence  of  the  Earias  boll 
worm  pest  have  been  severely  handicapped  by  the  diffi- 
culties in  the  way  of  carrying  out  the  administrative 
measures  recommended.  In  order  that  the  insects  may 
be  reduced  to  their  minimum  in  quantity  during  the 
winter,  it  becomes  necessary  that  all  old  bolls  remaining 
on  the  dead  cotton  sticks  should  be  destroyed  by  fire, 
as  it  is  within  these  bolls  that  the  Earias  boll  worm,  as 
well  as  the  Gelechia  seed  worm,  undergo  their  period 
of  hibernation  to  a  great  extent.  The  destruction  of  the 
food  plants  of  the  species,  such  as  volunteer  cotton,  and 
the  several  species  of  Hibiscus  growing  in  the  country, 
in  conjunction  with  the  dried  bolls  themselves,  is  a 
necessity.  The  removal  of  the  dried  bolls  from  the  dead 
cotton  plants  is  a  rather  laborious  process.,  and,  as  the 
dried  plants  themselves  are  the  main  source  of  fuel  used 
in  the  country,  the  insistence  on  the  destruction  of  these 
altogether  is  scarcely  to  be  considered.  Experiments  have 
recently  been  made  with  the  conversion  of  the  dried  cotton 
plants  into  charcoal,  and  this  has  met  with  some  measure 
of  success.  Our  experiments  show  that,  although  the 
weight  of  the  fuel  is  decreased  in  the  operation  to  about 
25  per  cent.,  the  .calorific  value  of  the  charcoal  is  about 
two  and  a  half  times  that  of  the  wood,  so  that  the  loss 


232  COTTON 

for  culinary  purposes  is  little  more  than  a  third  in  heat- 
ing power.  The  cost  of  conversion  is  of  some  considera- 
tion, but  should  be  amply  repaid  by  the  diminution  of 
boll  worms  in  the  following  years'  cotton. 

A  modification  of  the  existing  law  in  connection  with 
the  measures  for  the  prevention  -of  boll  worm  propaga- 
tion is  under  consideration  by  the  Government,  certain 
important  alterations  having  been  made  with  a  view  to 
meeting  the  situation  caused  by  the  advent  of  a  new  pest, 
the  pink  boll  worm  (Gelechia  gossypielld).  If  the  pro- 
posals made  be  adopted  and  the  law  be  vigorously  carried 
out,  great  benefit  will  accrue  to  the  agriculturist  in  the 
country,  and  the  quality  of  the  cotton,  especially  with 
respect  to  the  later  pickings,  will  be  much  improved. 

The  damage  to  the  cotton  crop  effected  by  the  Earias 
boll  worm  is  far  in  excess  of  that  of  any  other  Egyptian 
cotton  pest.  An  idea  can  be  got  of  the  probable  rate  of 
increase  of  this  pest  between  January  and  September  in 
any  year  by  an  'examination  of  the  following  figures :  — 
2  (i  pair)  produce  200  eggs,  of  which  20  insects 

mature. 
20  (10  pairs)  produce  200  eggs  per  pair  =  2,000,  of 

which  1,000  mature. 
1,000  (500  pairs)  produce  200  eggs  per  pair  =  100,000, 

of  which  50,000  mature. 
50,000  (25,000    pairs)    produce    200    eggs    per    pair  = 

5,000,000,  of  which  2,500,000  mature. 
Hence  from  the  one  pair,  allowing  that  only  10  per  cent, 
survive  in  the  first  generation  due  to  scarcity  of  food, 
and  that  50  per  cent,  do  so  in  each  of  the  subsequent 
three  generations,  two  and  a  half  million  boll  worms  will 
be  produced  to  destroy  the  crop  in  September.  This  is 
an  indication  of  what  immense  good  would  be  effected 
by  a  vigorous  campaign  against  this  pest  at  the  period 
when  the  vitality  of  the  species  is  at  a  low  ebb  and  the 
food  supply  can  be  most  easily  controlled. 

In  this  paper  a  selection  has  been  made  of  three 
important  problems  relative  to  cotton  cultivation  in 
Egypt,  the  first  having  reference  to  the  possibilities  of 
extension  of  the  planted  area  and  the  effect  upon  the 
remaining  land,  and  the  other  two  to  the  influences 


COTTON  233 

opposing  the  maintenance  of  the  standard  quality  of  the 
product.  All  three  are  of  great  importance  to  the 
country,  and  continuously  occupy  the  attention  of  the 
Egyptian  Government,  as  well  as  of  his  Britannic 
Majesty's  Agent  and  Consul-General,  at  whose  instiga- 
tion so  many  important  reforms  have  been  introduced  into 
the  country. 


COTTON  CULTIVATION  IN  UGANDA. 

By  SAMUEL  SIMPSON,  B.Sc. 
Director  of  Agriculture,  Uganda. 

THE  Uganda  Protectorate  produces  more  cotton  than 
any  other  country  in  Africa,  with  the  exception  of  Egypt, 
and  the  cotton  industry  is  the  most  important  one  in 
the  Protectorate.  The  following  statistics  show  that  the 
industry  is  making  steady  progress :  — 

LINT  EXPORTED  TO  MARCH  31. 

Y  Quantity.  Value. 

Cwt.  £ 

1904-05  ...  180  ...  236 

1905-06  .  860  ...  1,087 


1906  —  07 
1907—08 
1908-09 

1909—  10 

1910-  II 
1911-12 
1912—  13 

1913-14 


3.500  ...  11,413 

14,322  ...  26,885 

14,520  ...  4I»232 

23,180  ..  60,445 

49,454  ...  168,620 

74,498  ...  236,759 

93,575  •••  254,359 

99,924  ...  317,689 


All  the  cotton  is  not  ginned  in  the  country  at  present, 
as  in  the  year  1913-14  the  actual  exports  of  ginned 
cotton  were  85,216  cwt.  valued  at  £272,367,  whilst 
44,126  cwt.  of  unginned  or  seed-cotton  valued  at  £45,322 
were  exported  to  British  East  Africa  to  be  ginned  and 
baled  there.  Some  thousands  of  tons  of  cotton  seed  are 
also  exported  annually. 

In  the  early  days  various  kinds  of  cottons  were  grown, 
sold,  ginned,  and  baled  indiscriminately  mixed  together, 
so  that  complaints  on  the  home  markets  were  very 
frequent,  whilst  the  shortage  of  storage  accommodation 
and  bad  methods  of  handling  were  responsible  for  a  large 
amount  of  stained  and  dirty  cotton  being  exported  which 
was  extremely  difficult  to  sell. 

Numerous  experiments  were  carried  out  with  various 
varieties  of  cotton  which  resulted  in  long-stapled  Upland 
American  varieties  being  ultimately  selected  as  best 


COTTON  235 

suited  to  form  the  basis  of  Uganda  cotton,  and  all  other 
cottons  have  been  discarded. 

Work  is  still  going  on  in  acclimatizing  and  grading 
up  a  suitable  cotton,  with  highly  gratifying  results. 

Better  methods  of  handling  are  being  gradually  intro- 
duced, more  storage  accommodation  provided,  and  cotton 
ginneries  erected  in  the  heart  of  the  producing  districts. 
It  is  hoped  by  these  means,  aided  by  improved  transport 
facilities,  to  lessen  very  considerably  the  quantity  of 
stained  and  dirty  cotton  shipped  from  Uganda. 

Work  on  one  of  the  Government  plantations  is  almost 
entirely  given  up  to  the  improvement  of  Uganda  cotton 
by  selection,  and  the  seed  thus  produced  is  sown  in 
restricted  areas  until  ultimately  sufficient  is  obtained  for 
the  whole  of  the  country's  seed  distribution.  The  seed 
supply  is  entirely  in  the  hands  of  the  Government,  and 
each  season's  sowing  is  done  with  the  highest  quality 
of  seed  obtainable,  and  which  has  been  grown  only  in 
a  specially  selected  area. 

Cotton  growing  is  purely  a  native  industry  and  the 
large  exports  are  due  entirely  to  the  thousands  of  small 
cultivators  throughout  the  country. 

The  yield  varies  greatly  according  to  the  district  and 
the  season.  In  parts  of  the  Buganda  Province  a  yield 
of  300  Ib.  to  400  Ib.  of  seed-cotton  per  acre  is  common, 
although  in  the  Bulemezi  County  the  yield  is  higher, 
whilst  in  the  Eastern  Province  600  Ib.  of  seed-cotton  per 
acre  is  a  moderate  estimate  in  an  average  season. 

Large  numbers  of  native  instructors  are  at  work 
throughout  the  Protectorate  teaching  the  peasants  how 
to  cultivate  and  handle  this  crop,  and  it  is  hoped  by 
this  means  to  eliminate  many  of  the  complaints  incidental 
to  the  starting  of  a  new  industry. 

All  the  cotton  seed  is  distributed  free  of  charge  to 
the  growers,  and  now  the  quantity  exceeds  300  tons  per 
annum,  the  distribution  of  which  entails  a  large  amount 
of  labour  and  organization. 

Uganda  cotton  is  of  good  quality  and  sells  regularly 
at  from  50  to  150  points  on  Middling  American. 

Legislation  has  been  passed  with  a  view  to  improving 
and  maintaining  a  higher  standard  in  Uganda  cotton 


236  COTTON 

production,  dealing  with  the  distribution  of  seed,  uproot- 
ing of  plants,  hand  cotton  gins,  licences  and  permits  to 
purchase  raw  cotton,  markets,  inspection  of  raw  cotton 
and  ginning  factories,  etc.  A  copy  of  the  rules  in  force 
is  given  below  :  — 

(As  published  in  the  Uganda  Official  Gazette  of  July  31, 
1913,  page  311.) 


THE    UGANDA    COTTON    ORDINANCE,     1908, 

AND 

THE     UGANDA     COTTON     (AMENDMENT) 
ORDINANCE,    1910. 

RULES. 
THE    UGANDA    COTTON    RULES,    1913. 


I.  These  Rules  may  be  cited  as  "  The  Uganda  Cotton 
Rules,  1913." 

II.  Cotton  seed  (for  sowing  purposes)  shall  be  distri- 
buted by  the  Government  at  such  times  and  places  and  by 
such  persons  as  the  Governor  shall  prescribe. 

III.  No  person  shall  grow  cotton  from  seed  which  has 
been  obtained  from  any  other  source  than  the  Govern- 
ment. 

IV.  All  cotton  plants  shall  be  uprooted  and  destroyed 
after  the  first  season's  crop  has  been  picked  therefrom, 
and  on  no  account  shall  they  be  allowed  to  remain  for  a 
second  season,  or  for  more  than  one  year  in  the  ground. 

V.  The  Director  of  Agriculture  may  from  time  to  time 
fix  by  notification  in  the  Official  Gazette  a  date  prior  to 
which   all   the   previous   season's  cotton   plants    shall   be 
uprooted  and  destroyed  in  any  district  and  all  such  plants 
shall  be  uprooted  and  destroyed  prior  to  such  date. 

VI.  No  person  owning  or  possessing  a  hand  cotton 
gin  shall  use  or  permit  the  same  to  'be  used  unless  and 
until  it  is  registered  at  the  Office  of  the  Department  of 
Agriculture. 

Every  hand  cotton  gin  in  actual  use  shall  be  registered 
annually  during  the  month  of  October. 

VII.  All  cotton  seed  obtained  from  hand  cotton  gins 
shall  forthwith  be  destroyed  by  the  person  so  obtaining  it 
or  by  any  person  into  whose  possession  or  ownership  such 
seed  shall  come. 

Provided  always  that  it  shah*  not  be  necessary  to  destroy 


COTTON  237 

such  seed  pending  its  being  supplied  to  the  Government, 
or  exported  or  being  treated  in  some  manner  which  will 
prevent  it  being  used  as  seed  for  growing  purposes. 

The  burden  of  proof  that  such  seed  is  to  be  so  supplied, 
exported  or  treated  shall  be  upon  the  person  owning  or 
possessing  such  seed. 

VIII.  The    Director    of    Agriculture,    or    such    other 
person  or  persons  as  may  be  authorized  by  him  in  that 
behalf,  may  grant  licences  for  the  purchase  of  raw  cotton 
within  the  Protectorate,  and  no  person  shall  purchase  raw 
cotton  within  the  Protectorate  except  under  such  a  licence 
or  under  a  permit  granted  by  the  holder  of  such  a  licence 
as  hereinafter  specified. 

IX.  Such  licence  and  permit  shall  be  in  the  forms  set 
out  in  the  schedule  hereto  or  to  the  like  effect. 

X.  It  shall  be  lawful  for  the  holder  of  a  licence  to 
grant  and  issue  permits  for  the  purchase  of  raw  cotton 
to  his  agents  or  other  persons  employed  by  him. 

Provided  always  that  the  names  of  all  persons  to  whom 
the  holder  of  a  licence  proposes  to  issue  permits  shall  be 
submitted  previously  to  the  District  Commissioner  within 
whose  district  the  holder  of  a  permit  intends  to  purchase 
raw  cotton,  and  no  such  permits  shall  be  issued  unless  and 
until  the  approval  of  the  District  Commissioner  in  writing 
has  been  received. 

XI.  In  case  any  holder  of  a  licence  shall  be  convicted 
of  a  breach  of  the  Uganda  Cotton  Ordinance,  1908,  it  shall 
be  lawful  for  the  Director  of  Agriculture  to  suspend  or 
cancel  such  licence.     In  such  case  all  permits  issued  under 
such  licence  shall  become  void,  but  the  holder  of  a  licence 
thus  suspended  or  cancelled  shall  have  the  right  of  appeal 
to  the  Governor. 

XII.  No  fee  shall  be  payable  in  respect  of  any  licence 
to  be  issued  under  these  rules ;  but  the  holder  of  a  licence 
shall  pay  in  respect  of  every  permit  issued  by  him  a  fee 
of  one  rupee  to  the  District  Commissioner  at  the  time 
approval  for  the  issue  of  such  permit  is  obtained. 

XIII.  The     Governor    may    by    notification    in    the 
Official  Gazette  fix  places  in  any  part  of  the  Protectorate 
for  the  purchase  and  sale  of  raw  cotton  and  it  shall  not  be 
lawful  for  any  person  to  buy  or  sell  raw  cotton  within 
such  part  except  at  such  places. 

XIV.  The  Governor  may  by  notification  in  the  Official 
Gazette  fix  certain  areas  within  which  the  purchase  and 
sale   of  raw  cotton   shall  be  unlawful   except  subject  to 
such  conditions  as  may  be  prescribed  in  such  notification. 

XV.  All  raw  cotton  and   every  ginning  factory  may 
be  inspected  at  any  reasonable  time  by  an  officer  of  the 
Department  of  Agriculture. 


238  COTTON 

XVI.  Any  breach  or  attempted  breach  or  non-observ- 
ance of  any  of  the  above  rules  shall  be  punishable  by 
imprisonment  of  either  description  for  a  term  not  exceed- 
ing one  month  or  by  a  fine  not  exceeding  one  thousand 
rupees  or  by  both,  and  any  cotton,  cotton  seed  or  hand 
cotton  gin  in  respect  of  which  any  such  breach  attempted 
breach   or  non-observance  has  been   committed  may  be 
confiscated    or    otherwise    dealt    with,    with    or   without 
compensation. 

XVII.  The  Uganda  Cotton    Ordinance   Rules,    1909, 
and  The  Uganda  Cotton  Ordinance  Rules  (No.  2),  1909, 
are  hereby  repealed. 

(Signed)  F.  J.  JACKSON, 

Governor. 
Entebbe, 

July  17,   1913. 


SCHEDULE. 

Form  of  Licence  (in  English  only). 
UGANDA    PROTECTORATE. 


DEPARTMENT   OF   AGRICULTURE. 


Licence  to  Purchase  Raw  Cotton. 


Issued  under  the  Uganda  Cotton  Rules,  1013. 


is  hereby  licensed  to  purchase  Raw  Cotton  within  the 

Uganda    Protectorate    during    the    year    19 and,    with    the 

approval  of  a  District  Commissioner,  to  grant  permits  for  the 
purchase  of  Raw  Cotton  to  his  agents  or  other  persons  employed 
by  him  not  exceeding  a  total  number  of permits. 


Director  of  Agriculture. 
Kampala,  Uganda, 


COTTON  239 

Form  of  Permit  (in  English  and  Luganda). 
UGANDA   PROTECTORATE. 


Permit  to  Purchase  Raw  Cotton. 

Station No 

A  permit  to  purchase  Raw  Cotton  within  the 

District  is  hereby  granted  to 

of under  Licence  No for  the 

year  191 


Holder  of  Licence. 

Fee  :  R.  i. 

Approved  : 


District  Commissioner. 


COTTON  POSSIBILITIES  IN  ITALIAN  SOMALILAND  AND 
JUBALAND  (BRITISH  EAST  AFRICA). 

By  Dr.  R.  ONOR. 
Director  of  Agriculture,  Italian  Somaliland. 

THE  production  of  long-stapled  cotton  of  Egyptian 
type  is  almost  a  privilege  of  Egypt,  and  the  attempts 
to  grow  it  elsewhere  do  not  seem  to  have  attained  note- 
worthy practical  results.  The  strong  position  of  Egypt 
in  the  cotton  market  is  founded  on  the  quality  of  the 
product  more  than  on  the  quantity. 

The  British  West  Indies  and  America  grow  the  best 
long-stapled  cotton,  "  Sea  Island,"  but  its  production 
is  limited,  and  a  great  increase  in  the  future  »is  not  to  be 
expected. 

As  far  as  length  of  staple  is  concerned,  American 
cultivators  by  careful  selection  obtained  very  good 
results  with  Upland  long  staple,  but  it  does  not  seem 
probable  that  this  type  will  interfere  with  the  com- 
mercial position  of  Egyptian  cotton. 

It  is  therefore  of  some  interest  to  know  the  possi- 
bilities of  growing  Egyptian  cotton  in  a  country  almost 
practically  unknown,  viz.,  Italian  Somaliland  and  the  land 
bordering  the  Juba  river,  both  on  the  British  East  Africa 
side  and  on  the  Italian  side. 

It  is  not  incorrect  to  say  that  if  all  plants  have  special 
climatic  requirements,  Egyptian  cotton  asks  for  very 
peculiar  ones.  Perhaps  no  other  annual  cultivated  plant 
needs  for  its  full  development  so  much  heat.  Therefore 
even  in  hot  countries  the  cycle  of  vegetation  of  such  a 
plant  is  likely  to  be  a  very  long  one.  Egyptian  cotton 
wants  hot  weather  during  the  early  growing  period  to 
induce  a  rapid  development  of  the  plant,  while  a  high 
temperature  must  prevail  for  some  months  to  bring  about 
full  production.  It  happens  sometimes  in  Egypt  that  a 
low  temperature  in  autumn  prevents  the  ripening  of  the 
last  pickings,  and  the  crop  is  therefore  much  reduced. 


COTTON  241 

Another  very  important  condition  is  the  distribution 
of  water  in  relation  to  the  various  growing  periods  of 
the  plant.  Too  much  water  during  the  early  stages  of 
growth — as  is  the  case  when  rains  are  very  abundant  and 
continuous — produces  an  excessive  vegetative  growth, 
injurious  to  the  crop,  whilst  rain  during  the  opening 
of  the  bolls  considerably  deteriorates  the  quality  of  the 
fibre. 

An  unfavourable  distribution  of  the  rainfall  is  also 
responsible  for  other  serious  damages.  Cotton  is  a 
plant  susceptible  to  the  attacks  of  many  insect  pests. 
And  as  it  must  occupy  the  land  for  a  great  length  of 
time  during  hot  weather  insect  pests  can  easily  produce 
many  generations,  and  reach  such  large  numbers  as  to 
diminish  enormously  the  quantity  and  quality  of  the 
product. 

The  chief  determining  factor  of  the  spread  of  para- 
sites is  humidity  accompanied  by  high  temperatures.  In 
tropical  countries  frequent  rains  are  to  be  considered 
much  more  dangerous  than  useful  to  the  cotton  cultivator. 

For  all  plants,  but  especially  for  Egyptian  cotton,  we 
may  say  that  a  particularly  rigid  rule  should  be  followed 
in  the  supply  of  the  water,  and — unless  under  favourable 
climatic  conditions,  with  a  rainfall  naturally  distributed 
in  accordance  with  the  requirements  of  the  cotton  plant 
— that  can  be  attained  only  in  arid  regions  and  by 
irrigation. 

The  country  we  intend  to  refer  to — Italian  Somaliland 
and  Jubaland — is  likely  to  be  well  suited  to  cotton 
cultivation.  The  climate  is  uniform.  The  average  tem- 
perature throughout  the  year  varies  between  73°  F.  in  the 
night  and  88°  F.  in  the  day. 

There  are  two  rainy  seasons,  the  first  in  April-May, 
and  another  in  October-November,  but  the  average 
yearly  rainfall  (from  12  to  25  in.)  cannot  be  relied  on, 
being  very  uncertain  and  only  exceptionally  sufficient  for 
the  full  and  normal  development  of  the  cotton  plant. 

It  is  then  necessary  to  provide  irrigation. 

Two  rivers  exist  in  the  country,  the  Uebi-Scebeli, 
flowing  in  its  lowest  portion  parallel  to  the  coast  of 
Italian  Somaliland  at  an  average  distance  of  ten  miles 


24 2  COTTON 

from    it,    and    the    Juba    river,    forming    the    boundary 
between  Italian  Somaliland  and  British  East  Africa. 

The  Juba  viver,  which  is  supposed  to  have  a  discharge 
of  about  6oc  cubic  metres  per  second  during  high-water 
period,  has  >a  principal  flood  in  October-November.  In 
this  season  it  is  possible  to  obtain  water  directly  for  irriga- 
tion purposes  in  some  places,  or  to  pump  it  at  a  small 
height  of  lift.  From  the  end  of  April  until  October  it 
is  necessary  to  get  water  by  pumping  it. 

The  Uebi-Scebeli  river  has  two  periods  of  flood,  the 
first  one  from  the  last  days  of  April  until  June,  and 
another  from  the  beginning  of  September  until  December. 
For  about  five  months  in  the  year  it  is  possible  to  get 
irrigation  water  directly.  The  Uebi-Scebeli  during  flood 
has  a  discharge  of  about  60  cubic  metres  per  second, 
which  is  reduced  to  about  one-half  during  July  and 
August. 

From  December  to  April  the  discharge  of  both  rivers 
falls  until  it  becomes  of  no  importance. 

The  dry  season  is  very  advantageous  for  cotton  culti- 
vation. It  affords  good  conditions  to  the  full  ripening 
of  bolls,  without  danger  of  the  fibre  being  injured  by 
rains,  interrupts  the  propagation  of  the  parasites,  allows 
a  very  long  picking  period,  leaving  time  for  the  eradica- 
tion and  burning  of  plants  infested  with  insect  pests  and 
their  eggs  and  for  a  good  preparation  of  soil  under  the 
best  conditions. 

The  deep,  flat,  alluvial  soils  of  the  country — most  of 
which  are  of  a  clayey  nature — are  very  good,  and 
compare  favourably  with  the  best  Egyptian  soil.  The 
average  percentage  of  the  essential  plant  foods  are  as 
follows :  — 

Nitrogen  ...  ...  ...  •••  o'io 

Potash ...  •••  ...  0-80—1-50 

Phosphoric  acid  ...  ...  ...  0*10 

Organic  matter  ...  ...  ...  1000 

Italian  Somaliland  and  Jubaland  are  almost  new  coun- 
tries. Only  three  years  ago  a  few  European  farms  were 
started  on  the  English  and  Italian  sides  of  the  Juba  river, 
and  some  thousand  bales  of  good  cotton  have  already 
been  shipped  to  Europe. 


COTTON  243 

The  agricultural  season  can  be  considered  as  beginning 
about  the  end  of  April,  since  at  this  time  rivers  begin 
flooding  and  enable  direct  irrigation  or  easy  pumping  of 
water  to  be  carried  on.  About  that  time  also  abundant 
rain  falls  which  allows  the  sowing  of  cotton  without 
irrigation. 

By  sowing  in  May,  and  under  a  normal  vegetation  of 
the  plant,  Egyptian  cotton  shows  the  first  opening  bolls 
after  140  days,  so  that  picking  begins  in  October  and 
can  be  profitably  continued  until  February. 

During  October-November  some  showers  may  come 
disturbing  picking,  but  heavy  rains  rarely  occur,  and 
in  any  case  the  sun  and  wind  rapidly  dry  the  bolls,  so 
that  the  damage  complained  of  in  other  countries  through 
wetting  of  the  bolls  is  avoided. 

The  deep  clay  soil  retains  water  for  a  long  while,  and 
under  these  circumstances  it  is  advisable  to  give  only  a 
few  heavy  irrigations,  followed  by  careful  tillage  to  keep 
the  soil  soft  and  permeable. 

In  clay  soils,  and  especially  in  hot  countries,  where  the 
high  capillary  power  and  cracking  and  shrinking  on 
drying  are  extreme,  it  is  very  important  to  keep  a  fine 
surface  tilth,  and  the  error  commonly  met  with  in  tem- 
perate countries,  that  lack  of  tillage  may  be  compensated 
by  giving  more  irrigation  water  than  usual,  must  be 
avoided. 

The  culture  system  to  be  followed  may  be  regarded 
as  a  combination  of  dry  farming  and  Irrigation. 

In  fact,  light  irrigations  cannot  penetrate  deeply  in  the 
soil  so  long  as  high  temperature  and  strong  winds  cause 
great  evaporation,  and  since  the  water  in  some  seasons, 
especially  on  the  Uebi-Scebeli,  deposits  a  good  deal  of 
fine  silt,  and  also  on  account  of  the  necessity  of  tillage, 
as  mentioned,  it  would  be  necessary  to  provide  hoeing 
after  each  watering,  the  net  result  being  an  increase  in 
the  cultivation  expenses. 

Therefore  what  may  be  correct  in  temperate  countries, 
viz.,  moderate  quantity  of  water  frequently  supplied,  is 
likely  to  be  changed,  and  under  the  conditions  stated  it 
is  better  to  give  heavy  waterings  at  comparatively  long" 
periods,  and  to  avoid  loss  of  moisture  by  careful  tillage. 


244  COTTON 

On  the  basis  of  these  principles,  if  Egyptian  cotton  is 
sown  in  May  after  a  good  rain,  which  ordinarily  occurs, 
or  after  a  heavy  irrigation,  about  forty  days  must  elapse 
before  another  watering  is  given,  so  that  the  plants  can 
root  well  and  deeply.  About  a  month  afterwards  another 
heavy  irrigation  must  be  given,  which  is  usually  regarded 
as  sufficient  to  permit  the  plant  to  come  to  maturity. 
One  more  watering  may  be  profitable  in  September 
before  the  ripening  of  the  bolls,  but  this  is  not  always 
advisable,  because,  if  the  plant  does  not  show  real  need 
of  water,  irrigation  may  induce  a  late  luxuriant  vegeta- 
tive growth  and  shedding  of  bolls,  as  well  as  encouraging 
the  spread  of  insect  pests  and  retarding  the  ripening  of 
the  crop. 

It  is  advisable,  however,  to  apply  water  after  the  first 
picking,  as  by  this  means  the  plant  is  encouraged  to 
produce  a  vigorous  vegetative  growth  and  picking  may 
be  continued  during  the  dry  season  until  the  end  of 
February,  when  it  is  necessary  to  root  out  and  burn  the 
plants  to  check  the  development  of  parasites. 

Experiments  made  by  the  Italian  Government  have 
shown  that  the  common  varieties  of  Egyptian  cotton  such 
as  Afifi,  Abassi,  Sakellaridis,  and  Jannovitch,  attain  a 
very  considerable  size,  so  that  a  distance  of  3  ft.  or  more 
between  the  rows  and  2^  ft.  between  the  plants  in  the  row 
is  not  excessive. 

Under  favourable  conditions,  that  is  to  say  with  suffi- 
cient application  of  water,  and  when  insect  pests  are  not 
encouraged  to  spread  by  small  showers  during  June  and 
July,  more  than  600  Ib.  of  lint  per  acre  have  been  obtained. 
The  cotton  produced  by  farmers  on  the  Juba  river 
attains  a  length  of  about  ij  in.  and  more,  and  has  been 
classed  with  good  Egyptian  qualities. 

Of  course,  in  a  tropical  country  like  that  we  are 
speaking  about,  one  encounters  most  of  the  problems 
commonly  met  with  in  such  regions.  The  country  is  quite 
suitable  for  white  people,  since  ordinary  tropical  diseases 
do  not  exist  there,  and  the  climate  is  very  good  and  not 
at  all  hot,  owing  to  the  monsoons  blowing  almost  all  the 
year.  But  cattle  cannot  be  employed  on  account  of  the 
presence  near  the  rivers  of  the  tsetse-fly.  It  is  therefore 


COTTON  245 

necessary  to  have  recourse  to  some  mechanical  implement 
for  field  work,  but  motor  traction  and  motor  culture  have 
made  such  progress  that  among  the  various  kinds  offered 
by  manufacturers  one  can  generally  find  the  machinery 
suitable  for  every  requirement.  The  labour  problem  also 
is  one  met  with  now  in  most  colonies,  and  in  the  country 
we  have  spoken  of  it  is  neither  easier  nor  harder  than  in 
many  other  regions. 

In  view  of  the  endeavours  to  find  new  lands  suitable  for 
the  production  of  cotton  of  the  Egyptian  type,  it  will  not 
have  been  without  interest  to  have  called  attention  to 
Italian  Somaliland  and  Jubaland  as  countries  worthy  of 
the  hopes  based  upon  them. 


LA  COLTIVAZIONE  DEL  COTONE  E  L'ALLEVAMENTO  DEL 
BESTIAME  NELLA  SOMALIA  ITALIANA  MERIDIONALE. 

Per  il  Dott.  GIUSEPPE  SCASSELLATI-SFORZOLINI. 
Dell'  Istituto  Agricolo  Coloniale  Italiano. 

10  COLTIVAZIONE  DEL  COTONE  IN  SOMALIA. 

L'AMBIENTE  NATURALE  SOMALO  PER  LA  COLTIVAZIONE 
DEL  COTONE. 

LE  condizioni  naturali  che  la  nostra  Colonia  deH'Oceano 
Indiano  presenta  nelle  sue  immense  vallate  alluvionali  del 
Giuba  e  dell'Uebi  Scebeli,  sono  ottime  per  una  estesa 
coltivazione  di  cotone,  sia  che  si  considerino  i  terreni  ed 

11  clima   della   regione,    sia  che    si   pensi   alia    possibility 
tecnica  di  rendere  facilmente  irrigabili  grandi  estensioni 
di  terreno. 

Terreni. 

I  terreni  della  Somalia1  sono  nella  enorme  maggioranza 
ricchissimi,  sia  fisicamente  che  chimicamente.  Essi  pre- 
sentano  scarsissimo  scheletro  :  sono<  argillosi,  compatti,  di 
colore  prevalente  avana  scuro  e  spesso  scurissimo,  per 
la  ricchezza  di  humus,  sono  paragonabili  ai  "  ton " 
egiziani,  compatti,  spessi,  neri,  profondi  506  metri, 
ottimi  per  il  cotone. 

Esistono,  nelle  zone  relativamente  lontane  dai  fiumi, 
terre  meno  argillose,  contenenti  discreta  quantita  di 
sabbia,  meno  compatte  e  humifere,  di  colore  rossastro. 
Sono  esse  riferibili  ai  "  lehm,"  che  pure  abbondano  in 
Egitto. 

I  terreni  somali  sono  sempre  forniti  delle  sostanze 
indispensabili  alia  vita  delle  piante. 

1  Mi  riferisco  sempre  ai  terreni  agrari  delle  vallate  alluvionali 
ed  ai  campioni  di  essi,  prelevati  a  circa  m.  0*20  dalla  superficie 
del  suolo. 


CO  IT  ON 


247 


Risultati  medi2  delVanalisi  chimica  di  circa  go  campioni  di 
terre  somale  delle  vallate  alluvionali  (riferiti  a  100  gr.  di 
terra  fina}. 


I    Quantita  media    |  Quantita  massima 

Quantita  minima 

i°  Sostanza  organica 
2°  Acqua  a  110° 
3°  Ossido  di  calcio 
4°  Anidride  fosforica 
5°  Ossido  di  potassio 
6°  Azoto  totale 

8-820                 1  5  -902 
7-012                  9-704 
7-613                 13-962 

0-12?                            0-588 
0-960                             I-970 
0-134                            0-336 

1-400 
0-627 

0'985 
0*036 
0-039 
0-033 

Risultati  medii  delV  analisi  chimiche  di  circa  go  cam-pioni  di 
terre  somale  delle  vallate  alluvionali  (riferiti  ad  un  ettaro 
e  ad  uno  strata  di  m.  0.15). 

Peso  di  un  litro  di  terra  somala  ...  ...  Kg.  1^380 

Peso  di  uno  strato  di  terra  somala  di  m.  0-15 

dell'estensione  di  un  ettaro  ..  ...  Tonn.  2,070*000 

I °)  Sostanza  organica        ...  ...  ...  182*574 

2°)  Acqua  a  1 10°               ...  ...  ...  I45'I48 

3°)  Ossido  di  calcio           ...  ...  ...  157 '589 

4°)  Anidride  fosforica        ...  ...  ...  2-546 

5°)  Ossido  di  potassio        ...  ...  ...  19-872 

6°)  Azoto  totale                 ...  ...  ...  2-773 

Alimenti  miner  ali}  eke  un  raccolto  di  cotone  netto  di  400  Kg.  'per 
ettaro,  sottrarrebbe  in  media  dal  terreno  (per  mezzo  delle 
sue  diverse  parti,  supponendo  che  queste  ne  vengano  com- 
pletamente  asportate). 


Peso 
secco 

Azoto 

Acido 
fosforico 

Potassa 

Calce 

Magnesia 

Cotone  (fibra)    ... 

400 

1-36 

0*40 

I-84 

0*76 

0-32 

Semi 

872 

27-28 

1  1  -08 

IO-2O 

2  '2O 

4*80 

Capsule 
Foglie 

540 
768 

13-72 
24-64 

5-20 
9-12 

9-76 
I3-84 

2-76 
34-08 

2-16 
6-68 

Steli 

876 

12-80 

12-36 

8-48 

3-68 

Radici 

332 

3'°4 

I-72 

4-24 

2'12 

1-36 

Totale  Kg. 

3,788 

82-84 

32-68 

52-24 

50-40 

19-00 

DalT  esame  comparativo  delle  due  ultime  tabelle  resulta  evidente 
la  grande  richessa  delle  terre  somale  (soprasuolo)  e  la  possi- 
bilita  di  coltivare  ripetutamente  il  cotone  anche  sensa  con- 
cimazioni. 

2  Parte  del  campioni  furono  prelevati  dalPA.e  fatti  analizzare 
dal  Dr.  Umberto  Misuri  e  dal  Dr.  Augusto  Gaiter. 

Altri  campioni  furono  raccolti  dal  Dr.  Macaluso  ed  analizzati 
dal  Dr.  W.  Rossi  (Agricoltura  Coloniale,  Anno  III,  N°  2,  1999). 

Altri  terreni  poi  furono  raccolti  dal  Dr.  G.  Mangano  (Agricol- 
tura Coloniale,,  Anno  III,  N°  6,  1909). 


248 


COTTON 


Anche  in  Somalia,  come  in  Egitto  ed  altrove,  notevole 
e  la  quantita  di  sali  solubili  esistenti  nel  terreno.:  questi 
non  ostacolano  la  coltura  del  cotone,  anzi  una  piccola 
quantita  di  sale,  secondo  il  Foaden,  deve  influire  favore- 
volmente  sulla  resistenza  e  sul  colore  della  fibra. 

Clima. 

Certi  elementi  del  clima  possono  rassomigliarsi  a  quelli 
dell'Egitto  e  degli  altri  paesi  cotonieri,  mentre  altri 
elementi  diversificano  notevolmente,  non  risultando  pero 
mai  sfavorevoli  alia  coltura  del  cotone. 


Tabella  delle   temperature 


della  Valle 

della  Somalia 

del  Nilo 

dell  'America  del  Nord 

Mesi 

Stati  del 

Stati 

Stati 

1      media 

minima 

massima 

media 

Nord 
(medie) 

del  centre 
(medie) 

del  Sud 
(medie) 

Gennaio    ... 

26-6 

21'5 

3I-6 

_ 

_ 

_ 

_ 

Febbraio   ... 

26-9 

32-0 

— 

— 

— 

— 

Marzo 

28-0 

22'9 

32'4 









Aprile 

22-9 

32-1 

20'01 

16-1 

I7'3 

20-9 

Maggio      ...  ;     26'6 

22-0 

31-1 

26-50 

20-7 

21-6 

24-1 

Giugno 
Luglio 

24-6 

2I-I 

29-9 
28-9 

28-99 

29-88 

24-8 
26-4 

25-S 
27-2 

27-4 
28-5 

Agosto 
Settembre 

24-6 
25-4 

20T 
20'9 

29-1 
29-8 

29  '43 

25-84 

25-2 
21-8 

26-4 
23-6 

27-8 
257 

Ottobre     .  .  . 

26-1 

21-8 

30*6 

23-01 

16-8 

18-4 

21-3 

Novembre... 

26-4 

21'9 

30-9 

18-51 

9-8 

13-1 

16-3 

Dicembre  ... 

26-4 

22"  I 

Annuale  ... 

26-3 

21-6 

307 

— 

— 

— 

— 

3  Le  cifre  della  tabella,  per  cio  che  riguarda  la  Somalia, 
rappresentano  le  medie  delle  temperature  registrate  negli 
anni  igio,  191 1,  1912,  in  6  stazioni  meteorologiche,  situate,  tre 
sulla  costa  :  Giumbo,  Brava,  Mogadiscio,  e  tre  nell'  interno  : 
Balad,  Afgoi  e  Bardera.  I  dati  climatic!  riguardanti  la  Somalia, 
elaborati  da  dalPA.,  sono  stati  desunti  dal  lavoro  del  Prof.  F. 
Eredia  :  "  Sul  clima  della  Somalia  Italiana  Meridionale." 

I  dati  metereologici  riguardanti  1'Egitto  ed  il  Nord-America, 
sono  stati  desunti  dal  lavoro  del  Prof.  A.  Zimmermann  : 
"  Anleitung  fur  die  Baumwollkultur  in  den  Deutschen  Kolonien, 
Berlin,  TQTO." 


COTTON 


249 


I 

^ 

•S, 

i 


PPppyOppONOOiO  O 


250 


COTTON 


II  clima  e  caldo  in  tutto  1'anno ;  limitata  e  la  variazione 
di  temperatura  nei  vari  mesi  e  pur  lieve  e  la  differenza  fra 
le  temperature  massime  e  minime  sia  diurne  che  mensili 
inconfronto  aquella  di  altre  regioni  tropicali.  L'anda- 
mento  della  temperatura  in  Somalia  risulta  favorevolissimo 
alia  coltura  del  cotone. 

In  Somalia  normalmente  piove  poco  :  piove  molto  di 
piu  che  in  Egitto,  molto  meno  che  nel  maggior  numero 
degli  Stati  cotonieri  del  Nord  America  (se  si  eccettua  la 
regione  del  Rio  Grande).  Nelle  regioni  interne  della 
nostra  Colonia  si  registrano  maggiori  precipitazioni  che 
nelle  regioni  costiere. 


Preci-pitazioni   annue    (in    mm.}    in    alcune    regioni    dell' Africa 
Orientate  Inglese  e  Tedesca. 


Africa  Orientale  Inglese  (medie  di  sei  anni  d'osservazioni) 


Stazione   di    Kisimayo 
Malindi 
Mombasa 


Regione  costiera 


Mazeras 
Nairobi 
Naiwasha 


V  Regione  dell'  interno 
Port  Florence  ) 
Africa  Orientale  Tedesca 


Stazione   di   Tanga 

,,         ,,     Daressalam 
Lindi 


r  Regione  costiera 


432 
1235 
1467 

1525 
910 

943 
1223 


14(0 
1 140 
£00 


Differenze  molto  forti  esistono,  come  si  vede,  fra  le 
precipitazioni  somale  e  quelle  delle  vicine  colonie  inglese 
e  tedesca,  ove  in  generate  piove  molto  di  piu. 

In  queste  regioni  pero  non  prospera  generalmente  la 
coltivazione  del  cotone. 

L'umidita  relativa  dell'aria  e,  in  Somalia,  molto  piu 
elevata  che  in  Egitto  e  cio  determina,  per  la  nostra 
Colonia,  una  condizione  di  favore  nei  riguardi  del  cotone. 

I  venti  dominant!  sono  i  monsoni,  che  spirano  tutto 
Tanno  dall'Oceano  Indiano,  con  direzione  di  Sud-Ovest 
(monsone  piu  violento)  da  aprile  a  ottobre,  e  di  Nord-Est 
(monsone  meno  violento)  da  ottobre  ad  aprile.  La 


COTTON 


251 


violenza  dei  venti  va  diminuendo  quando  dalle  regioni 
costiere  si  precede  verso  quelle  dell'  interne,  dove  sono 
pure  attenuati  i  danni  che  il  vento  puo  arrecare  alle  colti- 
vazioni  di  cotone. 


Tabella  dell'umidita  relativa. 


Somalia 

Mesi 

Brava 

Giumbo 

Mogadiscio 

Egitto 

Gennaio 

74 

80 

91 

41 

Febbraio 

73 

81 

80 

34 

Marzo 

70 

79 

82 

34 

Aprile 

72 

79 

86 

30 

Maggio 

77 

83 

85 

25 

Giugno 

74 

81 

87 

32 

Luglio 

75 

82 

89 

33 

Agosto 

70 

82 

87 

44 

Settembre 

73 

82 

89 

44 

Ottobre 

73 

82 

90 

46 

Novembre 

72 

82 

90 

53 

Dicembre 

73 

Si 

99 

53 

Annuale... 

73 

81 

87 

39 

Regime  dei  Fiumi. 

II  Giuba  e  in  massima  piena  a  novembre :  il  livello  delle 
acque  aumenta  ai  primi  di  ottobre  e  diminuisce  verso  la 
meta  di  dicembre.  Fa  seguito  la  massima  magra  in 
gennaio  e  febbraio,  quindi  la  piccola  piena  di  aprile,  dopo 
la  quale,  fmo  a  settembre,  le  acque  si  mantengono  sempre 
basse. 

Analogo  e  il  regime  deirUebi  Scebeli :  soltanto  che 
per  questo  fiume  la  piena  di  aprile  si  prolunga  per  tutto 
maggio  ed  assume  una  importanza  maggiore  di  quella 
che  ha  per  il  Giuba. 

Le  acque  dei  fiumi,  straripando,  trasportano  sospesa 
una  notevole  quantita  di  limo  fertilizzante,  che  potra 
aumentare  continuamente  le  ricchezze  di  quelle  terre. 


252 


COTTON 


Analisi  di  un  cam-pione  di  limo  dello  Scebeli  jrelevato  durante 
la  -plena  del  maggio  191 i.4 

Limo  dello  Scebeli     Limo  del  Nilo 
Scheletro  ...  ...  ...  ...  20 

Terra  fina  (sotto  mm.  i)       ..,  ...  ...  980 

Umidita  ...  ..  ...  ...  68*20 

Sostanza  organica  (perdita  a  fuoco)    ...  ...  140  88*20 

Calcare  ...  ...  ...  ...  •  2'5  30*07 

Anidride  fosforica  totale      ...  ...  ...  2  2*50 

Ossido  di  potassa  solubile  in  HC1  al  25%          ...  6-50  5-30 

Azoto      ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  0-90  1-40 

Levigazione  con  mm.  O'2  di  velocita  per  secondo. 


750 
250 


Sabbia  greggia 
Argilla    ... 

Grindigeni   della   Somalia   dividono   1'anno   in   periodi, 
come  segue :  — 

Tabella  con  i  -periodi  delVanno  somalo. 


Denominazione 

Mesi 

Tempera- 

Pioggie         Venti 

Regime 

indigena  del  periodo 

tura 

dei  fiumi 

i°)    Gilal    

Dicembre 
Gennaio 
Febbraio 

Molto 
caldo 

Secco 

Monsone 
diS-O 
(molto 
violento) 

Periodo  di 
grande 
magra 

JYLcirzo 

Cambia- 

Periodo 

Aprile 
Maggio 

Caldo 

Grandi 
pioggie 

mento 
del 
monsone 

della 
piccola 
piena 

3P)  Haret  o  Hagai 

Giugno 
Luglio 
Agosto 

Fresco 

Pioggie 
scarse 

Monsone 
diN-E 
(meno 
violento) 

Periodo 
della 
piccola 
magra 

4°)    Der       

V 

Settembre 
Ottobre 
Novembre 

Caldo 

Piccole 
pioggie 

Gambia- 
mento 
del 

Periodo 
della 
grande 

monsone 

piena 

QUALCHE   NOTIZ1A    SUGLI  ESPERIMENTI   DI   COTONE 
ESEGUITI    FlNO   AD    ORA    IN    SOMALIA. 

Primo  fra  tutti  fu  il  Carpanetti  nel  1906  a  seminare 
cotone  nella  piana  di  Torda  (Yubaland  Italiano).  Egli 
esperimento  con  vero  successo  cotoni  egiziani  (Abassi 
ed  Afifi)  ed  americani  (a  lunga  fibra)  su  circa  7  ettari  di 
superficie.  Le  varieta  Abassi  ed  Afifi  fornirono  prodotti 
ottimi  per  qualita  e  quantita,  e  cosi  accadde  delle  varieta 
americane. 

4  Assumo  quest!  risultati  dal  rapporto  del  Dott.  Onor,  posto  in 
appendice  della  Relazione  sulla  Somalia  Italiana,  presentata 
dal  Gov.  Sen.  G.  De  Martino  al  Ministro  delle  Colonie,  igi2. 


COTTON  253 

Nel  1907  il  Carpanetti  stesso  ripete  a  Bieya  e  a  Bulo 
Boda  (Yubaland  Italiano)  i  suoi  esperimenti  di  cotone, 
ma  ebbe  le  colture  danneggiate  dalla  insistente  siccita. 

Nel  1908  si  iniziarono  a  Bieya  ed  a  Elvalda  ed  in  seguito 
a  Margherita  (tutte  localita  dello  Yubaland  Italiano)  e 
ad  Avai  (sullo  Scebeli)  vaste  coltivazioni  di  cotone  per 
opera  di  concessionari  italiani.  Si  ottennero  sempre 
risultati  ottimi  dal  punto  di  vista  della  qualita  e  quantita 
del  prodotto,  anche  quando  il  tornaconto  non  arrise  al 
coltivatore  inesperto.  Presto  si  cesso  di  coltivare  cotone 
ad  Elvalda  e  ad  Avai,  mentre  tuttora  prosperano  le  colture 
di  Margherita  e  di  Bieya. 

In  tutte  queste  localita  si  adoperarono  cotoni  egiziani 
(Abassi,  Ann,  Janovitch,  Sakellaridis)  ed  Americani 
upland.  Si  semino  normalmente  in  maggio  e  giugno  e 
si  raccolse  a  novembre-dicembre.  II  cotone  ebbe  le  acque 
di  pioggia  e  quelle  di  parecchie  irrigazioni.  Si  ottennero 
in  media  circa  Kg.  1,000  di  prodotto  lordo  per  Ettaro, 
che  fornirono  circa  Kg.  350  di  ottima  fibra.5 

#•  •*  •* 

Molestarono  le  colture  di  cotone  parecchie  avversita 
nemiche,  quasi  tutte  prodotte  da  animali.  Risultarono 
molto  dannosi :  — 

5  Ecco  alcuni  giudizi  di  talune  fra  le  piu  important!  Ditte 
cotoniere  su  alcuni  campioni  di  Abassi,  spediti  nel  1910  dal  Dott. 
Lanzoni  da  Bdeya  (Yubaland  Italiano)  :  L'On.  Silvio  Crespi 
scriveva  :  "  II  cotone  e  veramente  magnifico,  pari  alle  piu  belle 
qualita  di  prodotti  egizdani  ed  anzi  supeiiore  per  lucentezza." 
La  Ditta  Gussoni  di  Milano  :  "E  difficile  stabilire  il  prezzo 
di  una  cosi  bella  qualita,  adatta  per  speciali  lavori  come 
velluti."  La  Ditta  Somaini  di  Lomazzo  :  "  E  roba  che  in 
nessuna  parte  del  mondo  si  produce  migliore."  Le  Industrie 
Tessili  Napoletane  :  "  fe  con  vivo  pdacere  che  Vi  dichiariamo  che 
abbiamo  trovato  il  Vostro  cotone  del  Benadir  veramente  splendido 
per  tiglio,  seta  e  colore,  e  tale  da  sostenere  vantaggiosamente  il 
confronto  coi  migliori  cotoni  di  produzione  egiziana."  La  Ditta 
S.  C.  Woolley  Eso  di  Cairo  :  "  Qualita  magnifica,  specialmente 
per  il  colore  e  lucentezza,  consiglia  la  vendita  a  Liverpool  per 
far  conoscere  questa  splendida  qualita  di  cotone."  L'Association 
cotonndere  di  Parigi  :  "  Qualita  Abassi  =  fully  good  middling — 
creaurg  brillant,  resa  regolare  e  nervosa,  valore  frs.  115  per  50  ks." 
L'Ing.  Fedele  Bonghi  di  Legnano  :  "  La  fibra  e  d'otrimo  aspetto  e 
raggiunge  uria  lungh.  mass,  di  36  mm." 


254  COTTON 

i°  II  verme  rosso  delle  capsule  (Gelechia  gossypiella). 

2°  Le  cicale  verdi  del  cotone  (kranselkrankheit  o 
malattia  del  raggrinzamento  delle  foglie). 

Risultarono  poco  dannosi :  — 

i°  II  verme  del  cotone  degli  americani  (Heliothis 
armiger  o  peltigerf).  Fu  notato  dal  Dott.  Onor  nel 
giugno  del  1911  nei  campi  di  cotone  di  Bieya,  ma  il 
parassita  non  produsse  i  gravi  danni,  che  produce  altrove. 

2°  La  cimice  rossa  del  cotone  (parecchie  specie  di 
Disdercus). 

3°  La    piccola    cimice    scura    del    cotone    (Oxicarenus 

hyalinipennis  ?). 

*  *  •* 

Nello  Yubaland  inglese,  tralasciando  di  parlare  degli 
esperimenti  del  Sig.  E.  Brand,  si  iniziarono  nel  1911  le 
prime  prove  di  cotone.  Appunto  in  quell'anno  il  Sig. 
Agiropolo  coltivo  ad  Halwalood  15  acri  a  cotone, 
ottenendo  ottimo  prodotto. 

Ad  Alessandra,  dirimpetto  alia  nostra  Gelib  sul  Giuba, 
il  vice  commissario  inglese  Sig.  Filleul  essegui  nel  1911 
un  esperimento  su  di  un  acre  di  terreno,  seminando 
varieta  Abassi  nel  mese  di  maggio.  In  questo  mese  ed 
in  quello  di  giugno  caddero  circa  375  mm.  di  pioggia. 
Nei  quattro  mesi  seguenti  irrigo  quattro  volte  1'appez- 
zamento.  Esegui  la  raccolta  in  novembre,  ottenendo 
oltre  896  Kg.  di  ottimo  prodotto  (circa  300  Kg.  di  fibra). 
•*  •*  * 

Sempre  nel  1911  il  Dott.  Onor,  per  conto  del  Governo 
della  Somalia  Italiana,  esegui  a  Kaitoi  (sullo  Scebeli, 
vicino  a  Merca)  dei  saggi  colturali  delle  principali  piante 
che  possono  interessare  quella  regione. 

Si  sperimentarono  fra  1'altro  le  seguenti  varieta :  — 6 

i°  Cotone  indigene. — Produce  fibra  scarsa  e  corta :  ha 
pero  una  grande  resistenza  alia  siccita  €  mahittie  e  potra 
in  seguito  ibridarsi  con  varieta  piu  pregiate. 

2°  Varieta  egiziane  (Afifi,  Sakellaridis,  Abassi). — Si 
seminarono  in  fine  maggio  e  primi  giugno,  adottando  le 
distanze  di  0*90  x  o'6o  e  di  1*20  x  o'70.  Si  posero  per 
ogni  buca  da  sei  a  otto  semi,  lasciando  poi  due  piantine 

6  Vedi  Rapporto  del  Dott.  Onor  s.c. 


COTTON  255 

per  linea.  Le  prime  capsule  cominciarono  a  schiudersi 
ai  primi  di  ottobre.  II  ciclo  vegetative  del  cotone 
egiziano  dalla  semina  al  primo  raccolto  duro  circa  140 
giorni.  Da  circa  5,800  mq.  di  superficie  ad  Afifi  si  otten- 
nero  459  Kg.  di  fibra,  il  che  corrisponde  al  rendimento 
elevato  (non  ottenibile  certo  in  media  nella  grande 
coltura)  di  790  Kg.  per  ettaro. 

3°  Cotoni  Upland. — Si  seminarono  le  seguenti  varieta: 
Ely's  Triumph,  Allen's  Long  Staple,  Thoroughbred 
Toole,  Farmer's  Friend,  Toole's  Ounce  Boll,  Cleveland 
Big  Boll,  Green  Seeds,  King,  Cook,  Mebane,  nei  primi  di 
settembre  e  cominciarono  a  dar  prodotto  circa  120  giorni 
dopo.  La  semina,  fatta  in  minuscoli  campetti,  ando 
poco  bene. 

4°  Cotone  Caravonica  (varieta  lana  e  seta). — Si  sa 
soltanto  che  i  pochi  semi  attecchiti  diedero  piante 
gigantesche,  molto  assalite  dai  parassiti  animali. 

Molti  altri  dati  e  risultati  ci  offre  nel  suo  rapporto  il 
Dott.  Onor,  riguardanti  questi  esperimenti  di  Kaitoi,  che 
ebbero,  a  parer  mio,  due  peccati  di  origine :  — 

i°  Furono  eseguiti  su  appezzamenti  di  terreno  troppo 
piccoli,  spesso  addirittura  minuscoli. 

2°  Ebbero  troppo  vicino  1'Uebi  Scebeli,  che  pote 
influenzare  1'andamento  normale  delle  colture. 

I  campetti  di  Kaitoi  furono  subito  abbandonati,  giacche 
il  Governo  Coloniale  decise  nel  1912  di  creare  a  Genale 
(sempre  sullo  Scebeli)  una  grande  azienda  agraria  speri- 
mentale,  della  quale  si  attendono  i  primi  risultati. 

Riassumendo,  tutti  gli  esperimenti  e  colture  di  cotone 
fin  qui  eseguiti  in  Somalia  hanno  sopratutto  dimostrato 
la  possibilita  tecnica  di  coltivare  ottimo  cotone,  sia  delle 
varieta  egiziane,  che  di  quelle  americane  upland. 

Restera  a  vedere  quali  elementi  concorreranno  a  rendere 
possibile  anche  economicamcnte  la  coltura  di  questa  pianta 
in  Somalia. 

QUALCHE  CONSIDERAZIONE  TECNICA   SULLA  COLTURA  DEL 
COTONE  IN  SOMALIA. 

Scclta  delle  Localita  Adattc  e  delle  Varieta. 
In  Somalia  prosperano  tanto  i  cotoni  egiziani  (Abassi, 
Afifi,  Sakellaridis,  Janovitch,  etc.)  ed  americani  sea  island 
17 


256  COTTON 

tutti  a  lunga  fibra,  irrigui,  tardivi,  esigenti,  che  i  cotoni 
upland  a  fibra  piu  o  meno  lunga,  rustic!,  seccagni, 
precoci. 

L'imbarazzo  stara  quindi  nella  scelta',  fra  tante  varieta, 
di  quella  o  quelle,  che  meglio  prospereranno  in  deter- 
minate condizioni  di  terrene,  di  clima  e  di  tempo. 

i°  Coltiveremo  con  vantaggio  i  cotoni  egiziani  e  sea 
island,  ogni  qual  volta  avremo  a  disposizione,  per  un 
periodo  lungo  di  tempo,  notevole  quantita  d'acqua  per 
Tirrigazione.  Potremo  avere  1'acqua  o  mediante  solle- 
vamento  meccanico  dai  fiumi  (specialmente  adatto  nella 
regione  dello  Scebeli,  ove  la  prevalenza  da  superare  e 
piccola)  o  meglio  con  sbarramenti  o  dighe  nel  letto  dei 
fiumi  stessi,  onde  farla,  come  in  Egitto,  defmire  dalle 
sponde  ed  incanalarla  anche  per  grandi  distanze. 

2°  In  molte  zone  dello  Scebeli  ed  in  limitate  anche  del 
Giuba,  si  potra,  senza  sbarramenti  o  sollevamento 
meccanico,  irrigare  i  terreni  durante  i  brevi  periodi  delle 
piene  dei  fiumi.  Le  acque,  straripando  dalle  sponde 
sopraelevate  sui  terreni  contermini,  potranno  irrigare 
naturalmente,  ma  per  breve  tempo,  estese  zone  a  cotone. 
Si  coltiveranno,  in  questi  casi,  tipi  upland  long  staple, 
che  pur  essendo  abbastanza  precoci  e  rustici,  forniscono 
prodotti  pregiati  ed  abbondanti  (var.  Allen's  long  staple, 
Griffin's  long  staple,  Mattaw's  long  staple,  etc.). 

3°  La  Somalia  presenta  molte  zone  paludose,  che  prima 
o  poi  dovremo  bonificare.  In  tutte  queste  plaghe  ferti- 
lissime,  che  seguiteranno  a  mantenersi  relativamente 
umide  anche  dopo  il  prosciugamento,  prospereranno  di 
certo  gli  upland  a  lunga  o  corta  fibra  e  forse  gli  stessi 
cotoni  egiziani,  senza  bisogno  deH'irrigazione.  Adattis- 
sima  per  terreni  umidi  e  ricchi  di  humus  e  la  varieta 
upland  chiamata  triumph  (del  tipo  stormproos). 

4°  Nelle  regioni  costiere  della  Somalia  pioye  molto  meno 
che  in  quelle  interne,  ove  spesso  cadono  oltre  750  mm.  di 
pioggia  all'anno.  In  queste  ultime  zone  potremo  colti- 
vare  cotone  seccagno  delle  varieta  upland  short  staple, 
resistentissime  alia  siccita,  come  la  Hawkin's  extra  pro- 
lific, la  thoroughbred  Russell,  etc.,  o  precocissime  come 
la  King's  early  improved,  la  Simpkin's  early  prolific,  la 
green  seed,  &c. 

Quindi,   riassumendo,    coltiveremo :    cotoni  egiziani   e 


COTTON  257 

sea  island  nelle  zone  irrigabili  artificialmente  per  lungo 
periodo  dell'anno;  cotoni  upland  long  staple  nei  terreni 
irrigabili  naturalmente  durante  i  brevi  periodi  delle  piene 
dei  fiumi;  cotoni  upland  short  staple  in  coltura  seccagna 
nelle  zone  umide  e  nelle  regioni  deirinterno  dove  piove 
abbastanza. 

In  tesi  generale  poi,  k  localita  piu  propizie  al  cotone 
saranno  quelk  un  po'  lontane  dalla  costa  (alta  Goscia  e 
media  valle  dello  Scebeli)  ove  piove  di  piu,  minor  danno 
produce  la  violenza  dei  venti,  piccola  e  la  prevalenza  da 
vincere  per  sollevare  Tacqua  dai  fiumi,  migliore  e  la 
qualita  delle  terre,  piu  facile  la  loro  sistemazione  onde 
renderle  irrigabili. 

Epoca  delta  Semina. 

In  Somalia,  benche  ci  sia  una  grande  uniformita  di 
clima  durante  1'anno,  sara  conveniente  iniziare  le  colture 
in  uno  dei  periodi  di  pioggia,  che  segnano  come  un 
risvegli'O  nella  vita  vegetativa  della  regione,  assopita  dalla 
siccita  del  gilal  e  dell'haret. 

i°  Le  varieta  egiziane  e  le  sea  island  si  semineranno  in 
gu,  usufruendo  dell'acqua  delle  grandi  pioggie  e  poi  di 
quella  derivata  artificialmente  dai  fiumi.  Queste  varieta 
tardive  si  cerchera  seminarle  prima  che  la  stagione  lo 
rendera  possibile,  affinche  le  piccole  pioggie  del  der  non 
danneggino  molto  il  prodotto  mature. 

2°  I  cotoni  upland  potranno  seminarsi  in  gu  o  in  der, 
secondo  dei  casi. 

(a)  Semineremo  in  der  gli  upland  long  or  short  staple 
in  tutte  quelle  zone  irrigabili  naturalmente  dalle  acque  dei 
fiumi  nei  brevi  periodi  delle  piene,  o  in  tutti  quei  terren! 
bonificati  di  recente  e  quindi  umidi  per  infiltrazioni  sotter- 
ranee,  piu  abbondanti  in  questo  periodo  delle  piene  dei 
fiumi. 

(b)  Semineremo  in  gu  gli  upland  short  staple  preco- 
cissimi,    che    dovranno   vegetare    usufruendo    della    sola 
acqua  di  pioggia. 

Irrigasioni. 

Per  i  cotoni  egiziani  credo  sufficient :  una  irrigaziooe 
(o  Tacqua  di  pioggia)  durante  la  semina,  ed  un'altra  (o 
al  massimo  due)  irrigazione  circa  45  giorni  dor»o,  Tinizio 


258  COTTON 

della  fioritura.  Una  eccessiva  quantita  d'acqua  produce 
al  cotone  un  eccessivo  sviluppo  erbaceo,  una  grande 
caduta  di  capsule,  un  forte  deterioramento  della  fibra; 
si  prolunga  il  ciclo  vegetativo  della  pianta,  col  rischio  di 
avere  il  prodotto  danneggiato  dalle  pioggie  di  der,  e  dai 
parassiti,  che  con  la  molta  umidita  facilmente  si  ripro- 
ducono. 

Eseguendo  un  buon  lavoro  preparatorio  del  terreno, 
e,  successivamente,  frequenti  sarchiature,  si  salvaguardera 
il  cotone  dai  danni  della  siccita.  I  terreni  della  Somalia 
sono  anche  abbastanza  compatti  da  trattenere  I'umidita, 
che  sara  ceduta  poco  per  volta  al  cotone. 

Ad  Elvalda  (Yubaland  Italiano)  in  una  localita  poco 
lontana  dai  fiume  ed  in  terreno  profondamente  lavorato, 
fu  eseguito  il  seguente  esperimento :  — 

II  24  novembre  1911  furano  seminati  circa  mq.  500  di 
terreno,  meta  ad  Abassi  e  meta  ad  Afifi. 

II  12  marzo  1912,  il  cotone,  che  si  era  mantenuto  in 
ottime  condizioni  di  vegetazione,  era  in  completa  matura- 
zione,  di  modo  che,  dopo  soli  108  giorni  dalla  semina 
si  poterono  raccogliere  35  Kg.  di  ottima  fibra.  In  questo 
periodo  di  tempo  non  cadde  un  mm.  di  pioggia,  ed  il 
Giuba  si  mantenne  sempre  in  magra.  Nessun  lavoro  fu 
eseguito  al  terreno  dopo  la  semina,  nessuna  cura  fu 
prodigata  al  cotone. 

Credo  poter  spiegare  il  buono  stato  vegetativo  del 
cotone,  che  non  riceve  pioggia  o  irrigazione,  per  il  lavoro 
profondo  fatto  al  terreno ;  e  la  grande  precocita  di  matura- 
zione  per  la  scarsa  quantita  d'acqua  che  si  trovo  a  di- 
sposizione  della  coltura. 

I  cotoni  upland  seminati  durante  le  piene  dei  fiumi, 
potranno  ricevere  una  irrigazione  all'atto  della  semina  ed 
un'altra,  se  sara  possibile,  circa  40  giorni  dopo. 

Epoca  della  Raccolta. 

La  raccolta  dei  cotoni  egiziani  avverra  in  der  e.  pptra 
forse  il  prodotto  essere  un  po'danneggiato  dalle  piccole 
pioggie  di  novembre.  Si  cerchera  quindi,  per  quanto 
sara  possibile,  di  anticipare  ed  affrettare  la  raccolta.  I 
cotoni  upland  seminati  in  gu  si  raccoglieranno  in  hagai, 


COTTON  259 

quelli  seminati  in  der  saranno  maturi  in  gilal,  senza  temere 
per  questi  i  danni  delle  pioggie. 

Coltura  Annuale  o  Poliennale  del  Cotone. 

Anche  i  cotoni  erbacei,  in  Somalia,  possono  assumere  la 
fisonomia  di  pianta  perenne,  come  i  cotoni  Caravonica. 

E'  conveniente  quindi  mantenere  il  cotone  in  coltura 
annuale,  o  poliennale? 

Tanto  per  Tuna  coltura,  quanto  per  1'altra,  esistono 
vantaggi  e  svantaggi,  non  ancora  esaurientemente 
ponderati. 

Con  la  coltura  poliennale  si  risparmiano  tutti  i  lavori 
preparatori  del  terreno,  di  sistemazione  della  superficie 
per  Tirrigazione  e  di  semina;  il  cotone  poi,  approfondendo 
molto  le  radici,  riuscirebbe  meno  sensibile  ai  danni  della 
siccita  prolungata. 

II  prodotto  della  coltura  poliennale  sembra  pero  che 
vada  rapidamente  deperendo  dopo  il  primo  o  secondo 
raccolto;  di  piu  la  pianta  del  cotone  si  trova  costante- 
mente  donneggiata  dai  parassiti  animali,  che  hanno  agio 
di  moltiplicarsi  rapidamente,  trovando  pasto  abbondante 
e  clima  favorevole. 

Poco  dopo  aver  potato  fin  quasi  al  colletto  la  pianta, 
che  ha  dato  il  prodotto,  ed  aver  bruciato  le  ramaglie 
secche,  nuovi  rami  spuntano  e  si  apprestano  a  fiorificare, 
e  fruttificare,  e  nuove  generazioni  di  insetti  assalgono 
vittoriosamente  piante  e  prodotti. 

Attendiamo  che  esperienze  condotte  su  vasta  scala 
possano  presto  fornire  nuovi  elementi  di  giudizio  per 
questo  importante  problema. 


CONSIDERAZIONI  SU  ALCUNE  CONDIZIONI  DELL'AMBIENTE 
ECONOMICO-AGRARIO  SFAVOREVOLI  ALLA  COLTURA  DEL 
COTONE  IN  SOMALIA. 

Mano  d' Opera. 

E  inutile  farsi  delle  illusioni :  in  Somalia  manca  attual- 
mente  la  mano  d'opera  necessaria  per  coltivare  estese 
zone  a  cotone. 


200  COTTON 

Giacche  le  poco  numerose  popolazioni  liberte,  che  sono 
dedite  all'agricoltura,  per  il  loro  attaccamento  alle 
sciambe,  non  potranno  offrirci  che  scarsa  mano  d'opera 
di  salariati :  per  essi  converranno  del  contratti  a  com- 
partecipazione,  come  si  usa  in  Eritrea  ed  altrove. 

Le  popolazioni  di  vera  razza  somala,  piu  numerose  delle 
precedenti,  sono  dedite  alia  pastorizia  ed  in  questi  ultimi 
anni  soltanto  hanno  fornito  ai  coltivatori  italiani  un  po'del 
loro  lavoro,  saltuario  pero  e  poco  efficiente. 

Anche  potendo  utilizzare  nel  miglior  modo  possibile  e 
liberti  e  somali,  la  deficienza  lamentata  permane  in  tutta 
la  sua  gravita  presente,  non  futura,  giacche  in  una 
qualsiasi  localita  della  Colonia  oggi  sarebbe  quasi  impos- 
sibile  trovare  la  mano  d'opera  necessaria  a  coltivare 
appena  5,000  Ea.  a  cotone. 

Ne  possibile  e  dirigere  per  ora  al  Benadir  parte  della 
nostra  emigrazione,  perche  anche  ammesso  che  i  nostri 
lavoratori  della  terra  possano  laggiu  acclimatarsi,  non 
riuscirebbero  a  trovare  quella  forte  remunerazione,  che 
ottengono  invece  nelle  Americhe  e  nella  stessa  Europa. 

Ed  il  Governo  Coloniale,  quindi,  oltreche  occuparsi  di 
estesi  •esperimenti  colturali  in  aziende  di  Stato,  che  i 
farmers  somali  non  reclamano  d'urgenza,  e  di  tentativi 
di  colonizzazione  bianca,  dovra,  per  altre  vie,  cercare  la 
risoluzione  di  questo  urgentissimo  problema,  se  ha  a 
cuore  che  s'inizi  Tutilizzazione  agraria  della  Somalia,  con 
una  estesa  coltivazione  di  cotone.  Perche  gli  industriali 
e  capitalisti  italiani,  che  cominciano  ad  interessarsi  di 
nuovo  del  Benadir,  naturalmente  ricchissimo,  pretendono 
a  ragione  siano  rimosse  dal  Governo  le  difficolta  piu  gravi 
deirambiente  economico,  contro  cui  s'infrangerebbero 
tutti  i  loro  sforzi  e  la  loro  buona  volonta. 

Si  e  scritto  da  molti  di  far  venire  o  dalla  Cina  o  da1- 
Tlndia  o  dairArabia  o  dall'Abissinia  la  mano  d'opera 
mancante.  Studi  diligentemente  il  Governo  queste  ed 
altre  proposte  e  venga  a  qualche  pratico  risultato.  Forse 
coirimpiego  su  vasta  scala  delle  macchine  agricole,  non 
escluse  in  seguito  quelle  che  da  tempo  si  sperimentano 
in  America  per  la  raccolta  della  fibra  del  cotone,  si  potra 
attenuare  un  po'la  gravita  del  problema. 


COTTON  26l 

Problema  Idraulico. 

Lo  accennero  soltanto  fugacemente. 

Le  zone  paludose  o  naturalmente  irrigabili  dalle  piene 
dei  fiumi  non  sono  invero  molto  estese  in  Somalia,  dove 
invece  predominano  le  plaghe,  che  solo  artificialmente 
possono  ricevere  1'acqua  dai  fiumi. 

II  sollevamento  meccanico  con  pompe  centrifughe  o 
altro,  applicabile  per  limitate  irrigazioni,  si  rende  impos- 
sibile  sia  dal  lato  tecnico  che  da  quello  economico,  per 
coltivazioni  molto  estese  di  cotone :  per  queste  puo  con- 
venire  solo  lo  sbarramentO'  dei  fiumi,  per  ottenere  un 
elevato  livello  delle  acque,  che  permetta  di  potere  avere 
1'acqua  a  basso  prezzo,  anche  a  grandi  distanze. 

Lo  Scebeli,  specialmente  nel  suo  basso  corso,  non  si 
prestera  ad  irrigare  zone  molto  estese  a  causa  della  sua 
piccola  portata  in  certe  stagioni  dell'anno. 

Solo  il  Giuba,  per  la  sua  ricchezza  di  acque,  potra  con 
opportuni  barrages,  irrigare  facilmente  le  pianure  f eraci 
della  Goscia  (Yubaland  Italiano).  Poiche  il  talweg  del 
corso  del  Giuba  segna  la  linea  di  confine  fra  la  Somalia 
nostra  e  la  Colonia  Inglese  dell'Africa  Orientale,  qual- 
unque  lavoro  sia  per  farsi  soil  fiume,  dovra  eseguirsi 
d'accordo  fra  le  due  Potenze  rivierasche.  Ad  una  intesa 
Italo-Inglese  devono  appunto  mirare  gli  sforzi  del 
Governo,  per  eseguire  sul  Giuba  tutti  quei  lavori  necessari 
alia  risoluzione  del  problema  idraulico  della  Regione. 

7  Trasporti  ed  i  Mezzi  di  Comuriicazione  Interno. 

I  trasporti  di  ingenti  quantita  di  merce  non  possono 
compiersi  in  Somalia  altro  che  con  cammelli.  Ci  si  puo 
fare  un'idea  della  gravita  di  questo  problema,  pensando 
ad  un  produttore  di  cotone  che  abbia  da  trasportare  per 
100  Km.  ad  es:  parecchie  migliaia  di  balle  di  fibra. 

I  camions  automobili,  che  fanno  ora  servizio  in  qualche 
localita  della  Colonia,  non  potranno  essere  adibiti  con 
tornaconto  al  trasporto  di  notevoli  quantita  di  cotone. 

Per  pochi  mesi  deiranno  funziona  sul  Giuba  un  servizio 
irregolare  di  piccoli  piroscafi  fluviali,  italiani  ed  inglesi, 
che  lo  risalgono  fino  a  Bardera.  Questi  steamers  pero 
scaricano  a  Giumbo  (o  Gobwen)  la  merce,  che  dovra  per 


262  COTTON 

giungere  al  porto  inglese  di  Kisimayo,  essere  inviata  o 
per  via  di  terra  a  schiena  di  cammello  (sono  oltre  15  Km. 
di  difficilissimo  cammino  su  terreno  dunoso  e  roccioso)  o 
per  via  d'acqua,  passando  per  la  foce  del  Giuba.  Puo 
risalire  detta  foce  tino  speciale  steamer,  soltanto  405 
volte  alFanno,  nei  periodi  delle  piene  del  fiume  e  di 
altissima  marea. 

I  trasporti  in  Somalia  sono  dunque  difficilissimi  e  costosi 
ed  a  cio  il  Governo  dovra  provvedere. 

Per  le  esigenze  dei  futuri  coltivatori  di  cotone,  occor- 
rera  che  dal  portodi  Brava  (quando  questo  sara  creato) 
partano  due  tronchi  ferroviari :  uno  per  il  paese  di 
Margherita  (nella  Goscia),  per  raccogliere  tutti  i  prodotti 
dello  Yubaland,  ed  uno  correndo  vicino  allo  Scebeli  per 
il  paese  di  Balad,  ove  dovrebbero  affluire,  per  via  fluviale 
possibilmente,  tutti  i  prodotti  della  ricca  regione  del 
Medio  Scebeli. 

Riassumendo  quindi :  la  coltura  del  cotone  che  prospera 
in  Somalia  per  le  sue  condizioni  propizie  di  clima  e  di 
terreno,  non  potra  trovare  la  remunerazione  che  le  com- 
pete, fino  a  che  il  Governo  Coloniale  non  avra  almeno 
cominciato  a  risolvere  la  deficienza  della  mano  d'opera, 
il  problema  idraulico  e  quello  dei  trasporti. 

11°  ALLEVAMENTO  DEL  BESTIAME  IN 
SOMALIA.7 

Nell'attesa  che  la  grande  impresa  cotoniera  si  compia 
e  mandi  la  fibra  alle  Industrie  nostre  soggette  al  mono- 
polio  Nord-Americano,  il  capitale  trovera  utile  impiego 
in  Somalia  iniziando,  con  estesi  allevamenti  di  bestiame 
bovino  ed  ovino,  la  produzione  industriale  della  carne. 

Per  iniziare  Tutilizzazione  zootecnica  della  Somalia, 
presento  il  programma  da  me  ideato,  nella  sua  massima 
semplicita  :  migliorare  la  pastorizia  indigena,  avviandola 

7  Consultisi  il  Volume,  di  recente  pubblicazione,  dello  stesso 
Autore,  ove  detto  argomento  e  ampliamente  trattato  :  "  L'Im$resa 
zootecnica  nella  Somalia  Italiana  M ericiionale  "  edito  a  cura  del 
Governo  della  Somalia  Italiana,  con  Prefazione  del  Conte 
Eugenio  Faina,  Senatore  del  Regno,  Roma,  F.  Hi  Bocca  Editor!, 
10.13.  Lire  5. 


COTTON  263 

verso  la  produzione,  anziche  del  latte  (che  e  ora  la 
funzione  economica  piu  importante)  degli  animali  da 
carne,  che  attualmente  scarseggiano  negli  allevamenti 
somali;  impiantare  un  certo  numero  di  grand!  aziende 
europee  d'allevamento,  per  ottenere  quella  forte  di- 
sponibilita  di  bestiame  da  macello,  che  renda  possibile  il 
funzionamento  dell'industria  impiantatasi  in  Somalia, 
incaricata  della  manipolazione,  trasporto  e  smercio  della 
carne  stessa,  congelata  o  refrigerata,  per  i  nostri  mercati 
o  per  quelli  egiziani. 

Al  Benadir,  su  circa  30,000  Kmq.  di  superficie,  nel  1910, 
sembra  esistessero  :  — 

764  mila  bovini. 
305      ,,      camelli. 
216      ,,      ovini. 

La  pastorizia  e  certamente  la  maggiore  ricchezza 
naturale  della  regione,  la  cui  popolazione  somala  di 
pastori  trae  appunto  dal  bestiame  e  il  nutrimento  ed  i 
talleri  necessari  ai  suoi  limitati  bisogni.  II  bestiame 
bovino  specialmente,  benche  allevato  con  metodi  primitivi, 
trova  nella  ricchezza  dei  pascoli  il  nutrimento  per  pro- 
sperare  e  per  fornire  latte  abbondante  e  carne  saporosa. 
Per  il  miglioramento  di  queste  razze  indigene  di  bovini, 
non  credo  per  ora  indispensabile  1'introduzione,  su  vasta 
scala,  di  riproduttori  di  razze  perfezionate,  i  quali,  neces- 
sitando  di  condizioni  d'ambiente,  che  non  puo  offrire  ora 
la  Colonia,  non  darebbero  risultati  soddisfacenti. 

Per  la  creazione  di  aziende  di  allevamento  utilizzeremo 
della  Somalia  tutte  le  localita,  che,  per  non  essere  suscet- 
tibili  d'irrigazione,  non  potranno  coltivarsi  a  cotone  o  ad 
altre  piante;  quindi  tutte  le  immense  praterie  e  boscaglie 
un  po'lontane  dai  fiumi,  ove  potra  Tallevatore  trovare  nel 
sottosuolo  con  facilita  Tacqua  necessaria  per  Tabbeverata. 

Le  malattie  del  bestiame  piu  gravi :  la  peste  bovina  e 
le  tripanosomiasi,  potranno  essere  vittoriosamente  com- 
battute :  la  prima  praticando  agli  animali  vaccinazioni 
antipestose,  le  seconde  facendo  evitare  al  bestiame  le  zone 
paludose,  infette  da  tse-tse,  che  sono  in  Somalia  poco 
estese  e  ben  caratterizzate. 

II  terreno  sara  inoltre  dato  in  concessione  per  un  lungo 


264  COTTON 

periodo  di  tempo,  gli  animali  riproduttori,  con  cui  iniziare 
I'allevamento,  potranno  acquistarsi  con  poca  spesa  dagli 
indigeni,  ed  il  bestiame  somalo,  abituato  a  prosperare 
pur  nelle  ingrate  condizioni  d'ambiente,  potra,  con  la 
selezione  accurata  e  con  un  allevamento  razionale,  offrire 
una  migliore  utilizzazione  delle  sue  funzioni  economiche. 
L'allevatore  non  trovera  in  Somalia  alcuna  grave  difficolta 
deirambiente  economico-agrario,  perche,  mentre  scarsa 
laggiu  e  la  mano  d'opera  dei  coltivatori,  facile  e  ricca  e 
quella  dei  pastori  ed  atta  ai  servizi  zootecnici;  non 
esisteranno  per  lui  ne  un  problema  idraulico,  ne  una 
questione  dei  trasporti  neirinterno  della  regione. 

Si  doyranno  impiantare  al  Benadir  aziende  zootecniche 
di  grande  ampiezza  e  di  tipo  pastorale  estensivo : 8  Talle- 
vatore  sfruttera  le  risorse  agrarie  spontanee  dell'azienda 
a  vantaggio  degli  animali,  che  in  questa  vivono  in  alle- 
vamento sempre  brado,  ne  ci  fara  bisogno  per  ora  di 
coltivare  foraggi  d'alto  valore  nutritive,  che  le  zone 
destinate  ora  al  pascolo  non  potrebbero  neppure  produrre. 

Poi,  quando  le  condizioni  zootecniche  della  regione 
saranno  migliorate,  anche  Tordinamento  dell'azienda  si 
differenziera  verso  un  sistema  piu  intensive,  come  appunto 
e  accaduto  nelle  regioni  di  grande  allevamento,  in  Argen- 
tina ed  in  Australia. 

Ma  anche  per  questa  utilizzazione  zootecnica  occorrono 
programmi  precisi,  uomini  capaci  e  di  buona  volonta, 
capitali  sufficient  aH'impresa.  II  Governo  Coloniale 
dovra  in  tutti  i  modi  aiutare  queste  prime  iniziative  private, 
dovra  sostituire  il  vigente  regolamento  per  le  concession! 
di  pascolo  con  provvedimenti  legislativi  che  tutelino 
meglio  i  diritti  del  concessionario,  dovra  facilitare  la 
scelta  del  terreno  e  Tacquisto  delle  fattrici  bovine  ed  ovine 
ai  coloni,  e  metterli  in  grado  di  difendere  il  bestiame 
allevato  dairinfierire  delle  epidemic. 

Con  queste  garanzie,  in  pochi  anni  il  capitale  trovera 
lagg'iu  certa  e  forte  remunerazione  e  la  Somalia  i  primi 
successi  dell'iniziativa  italiana. 

8  Veda  dettagliate  considerazioni  in  merito,  nella  pubblicazione 
c.s..  dello  stesso  Autore,  pagg.  165-171. 


ALCUNI  ASPETTI  BELLA   COTONICOLTURA 
NELL'EBITREA. 

Per  il  Dott.  GUIDO  MANGANO. 

LA  coltura  del  cotone  sara  presto  tra  le  piu  important! 
colture  della  Colonia  Eritrea,  ma  fino  ad  oggi  non  ha 
potuto  molto  diffondersi.  Gli  indigeni  la  praticano  saltua- 
riamente  e  sempre  su  estensioni  molto  limitate  -e  da 
qualche  tempo,  per  gli  alti  prezzi  della  dura,  I'hanno  quasi 
abbandonata,  pronti  del  resto  a  riprenderla  non  appena 
cessi  la  crisi  attuale  del  cereale.  Oltre  che  dagli  indigeni 
la  cotonicoltura  e  esercitata  da  una  Societa  italiana  in 
aziende  situate  in  varie  parti  della  Colonia,  Societa  che 
provvede  anche  all'acquisto,  allo  sgranaggio  e  all'espor- 
tazione  della  produzione  indigena  e  alia  quale  TEritrea 
deve  in  gran  parte  il  suo  movimento  cotoniero. 


Nell'Eritrea  la  possibilita  di  coltivare  il  cotone  e  quasi 
dappertutto  strettamente  connessa,  oltreche  con  il  regime 
delle  pioggie,  le  quali  sono  ovunque  piu  o  meno  scarse, 
anche  con  la  disponibilita  di  acque  di  irrigazione.  E 
poiche  queste  derivano  dalle  pioggie  cadute  impetuosa- 
mente  in  tin  bacino  che,  per  un  complesso  di  ragioni  che 
qui  non  e  il  caso  di  ricordare,  non  puo  trattenerle,  ma 
deve  lasciarle  scorrere  altrettanto  rapidamente  a  valle,  e 
poiche  il  periodo  di  pioggie  e  breve,  raramente  superante 
1  75  giorni,  cosi  le  acque  disponibili  per  la  irrigazione  si 
presentano  in  quantita  notevoli,  ma  improvvise  e  impetuo- 
se  e  durante  un  periodo  di  tempo  identico  a  quello  delle 
pioggie  che  tali  piene  determinano.  L'unica  forma  di  irri- 
gazione possibile  e  dunque  oggi  quella  per  inondamento, 
e  tale  si  manterra  fino  a  quando,  con  opere  grandiose,  non 
si  saranno  creati  dei  bacini  di  raccolta  dai  quali  derivare 
le  acque  nelle  epoche  e  nelle  quantita  determinate  dalle 
esigenze  della  coltura. 


266  COTTON 

In  alcune  regioni  della  colonia  pero,  e  precisamente  la 
dove  il  rilievo  del  terreno  e  tale  da  escludere  la  possibilita 
di  inondamento,  e  tuttavia  possibile  la  cotonicoltura  e  per 
la  meno  esigua  precipitazione  di  pioggia  e  per  la  speciale 
natura  dei  terreni. 

Possiamo  cosi  distinguere,  dal  punto  di  vista,  essenziale 
per  la  coltura,  della  disponibilita  di  acqua  di  pioggia  e  di 
irrigazione,  vari  ambienti  colturali,  offrenti  ciascuno  una 
speciale  forma  di  cotonicoltura.  Astraendo  dalla  quantita 
di  pioggia  che  cade  annualmente  e  che  per  tutte  le  regioni 
e  considerata  assai  scarsa,  e  non  tenendo  conto  che 
dell'epoca  in  cui  questa  pioggia  cade  e  di  quella  in  cui 
1'acqua  scorre  nei  fiumi,  parmi  si  possano  distinguere 
almeno  tre  diversi  ambienti  colturali  e,  di  conseguenza, 
tre  diversi  tipi  di  cotonicoltura. 

Vi  sono  infatti  in  Eritrea,  sempre  nelle  regioni  del  basso- 
piano,  delle  zone  a  pioggie  estive  e  a  piene  estive,  delle 
altre  zone  a  pioggie  invernali  e  a  piene  estive  ed  invernali 
e  infine  delle  zone  a  pioggie  estive,  ma  non  offrenti  alcuna 
possibilita  di  irrigazione.  Le  zone  a  pioggie  e  a  piene 
estive  sono  quelle  del  bassopiano  e  del  mezzopiano 
occidentale.  La  coltura  dovendo  farsi  sulle  terre  inon- 
date,  non  potra  iniziarsi  che  dopo  I'ultima  piena,  se  il  fiume 
non  e  idraulicamente  sistemato,  o  dopo  quel  tale  numero 
di  piene  che  si  ritiene  sufficiente  a  dotare  il  terreno  della 
quantita  di  acqua  necessaria  alia  coltura,  qualora  il  fiume 
sia  regolato  da  opere  che  consentono  di  deviare  le  piene 
dal  terreno  coltivato.  E  poiche  si  ritiene,  in  genere,  che  il 
terreno  debba  essere  molte  volte  inondato  per  immagaz- 
zinare  sufficiente  umidita,  anche  in  questo  secondo  caso 
Tinizio  della  coltura  coincidera  quasi  con  il  termine  della 
stagione  delle  pioggie.  Da  questo  momento,  cioe  dal  suo 
inizio,  la  coltura  non  avra  altro  beneficio  d'acqua  fino 
alia  stagione  delle  nebbie,  fino  cioe  a  dicembre-gennaio, 
nella  quale  epoca  questa  forma  di  precipitazione  atmo- 
sferica  sara  di  qualche  ausilio  allo  coltura,  troppo  lieve 
pero  per  produrre  degli  effetti  sensibili.  Risulta  percio 
evidentissimo  che  anche  in  terreni  bene  inondati  e  di 
natura  tale  do  conservare  a  lungo  Tumidita  immagaz- 
zinata,  e  trattati  secondo  le  buone  regole  indicate  per  la 
conservazione  deH'umidita  stessa,  dopo  un  certo  numero  di 


COTTON  267 

mesi  di  quasi  assoluta  aridita  la  coltura  venga  a  trovarsi  in 
condizioni  disparate.  Necessita  quindi  in  tale  ambiente  di 
coltivare  una  varieta  a  ciclo  breve,  oltreche  poco  esigente 
in  fatto  di  umidita,  il  cui  periodo  di  fioritura  si  svolga  del 
tutto  prima  che  il  terreno  perda  la  sua  freschezza. 

La  zona  che  abbiamo  indicata  per  seconda,  a  pioggie 
invernali  e  a  piene  estive  e  invernali,  e  quella  del  basso- 
piano  orientale  i  cui  fiumi  portano  acqua  non  soltanto 
durante  la  stagione  delle  pioggie  locali,  che  sono  invernali, 
ma  durante  quella  delle  pioggie  dell'altopiano,  che  sono 
estive. 

Si  comprende  facilmente  come,  caeteris  paribus,  questa 
seconda  zona  offra,  in  confronto  della  prima,  condizioni 
assai  piu  favorevoli  alia  coltura,  consentendo  due  succes- 
sive coltivazioni,  di  cui  la  prima  di  una  pianta  a  ciclo  vege- 
tativo  assai  breve,  o  la  coltura  di  una  varieta  di  cotone  a 
lungo  ciclo  ed  esigente  in  fatto  di  umidita,  ma  a  prodotto 
assai  piu  ricco  che  non  le  varieta  adatte  alle  condizioni 
riferibili  al  caso  precedente. 

La  terza  zona,  quella  in  cui  le  colture  possono  usufruire 
delle  sole  pioggie,  presenta  per  cio  stesso  condizioni  assai 
meno  favorevoli  che  le  precedent!.  Comprende  la  vasta 
regione  del  mezzopiano  sud  occidentale  della  Colonia  e 
quelle  parti  del  bassopiano  verso  il  Gasc  e  Setit  che  non 
sono  irrigabili.  In  questa  zona  due  sono  i  tipi  di  coltura 
adottabili :  uno  che  si  avvicina,  per  la  caratteristica  princi- 
pale  che  deve  avere  la  varieta  coltivata,  a  quella  che 
e  propria  della  prima  zona,  cioe  coltura  di  varieta  molto 
precoce  avente  termine  quando  il  terreno  ha  esaurito  la 
propria  riserva  di  umidita,  1'altro  riducente  la  coltivazione 
da  annua  a  perenne,  per  una  durata  di  anni  variabile, 
generalmente  due  o  tre,  allo  scopo  di  avere  al  secondo 
anno  piante  pronte  ad  utilizzare  le  acque  di  pioggia  e 
quindi  capaci  di  fiorire  e  fruttificare  abbondantemente 
finche  il  terreno  e  in  buone  condizioni  di  frescura.  In  tali 
condizioni  di  ambiente  le  due  caratteristiche  che  deve 
possedere  sopra  ogni  altra  la  varieta  da  coltivarsi,  sono  la 
precocita  e  la  resistenza  alia  siccita. 

Chiarita  questa  importante  questione  tecnica  relativa  alia 
forma  da  darsi  alia  cotonicoltura  nelle  varie  regioni  della 
Colonia,  devesi  considerare  un'altra  egualmente  vitale  e 


268  COTTON 

strettamente  connessa  alia  prima,  cioe  la  scelta  della 
varieta  da  coltivarsi  in  ciascuna  delle  zone  indicate :  scelta 
che  deve  tenere  conto,  oltreche  delle  condizioni  naturali 
del  luogo  anche  di  quelle  relative  all'amibiente  economico 
in  cui  la  coltura  deve  svolgersi  e  alle  esigenze  del  mercato. 

Attualmente  la  varieta  piu  diffusamente  coltivata  in 
Colonia,  indifferentemente  nelle  tre  zone  di  cui  s'e  parlato, 
puo  considerarsi  una  varieta  locale,  perche  gia  da  vari 
anni  introdotta  in  Colonia  e  necessariamente  modificatasi 
dalla  sua  forma  originana.  E'  la  varieta  americana  Allen's 
long  staple,  del  gruppo  Upland  long  staple,  1'origine  del 
quale  non  e  perfettamente  determinabile  essendo  esso  il 
risultato  di  selezioni  e  di  ibridazioni,  in  cui  oerto  ebbe  parte 
rilevante  il  Gossypium  hirsutum  e,  secondaria,  un'altra 
specie,  probabilmente  il  G.  barbadense.  L'Allen  l.s.e, 
tra  i  cotoni  Upland  piu  diffusi  per  lunghezza  di  fibra 
e  per  altre  buone  caratteristiche  di  questa,  per  la  sua  resi- 
stenza  alle  intemperie  e  per  la  sua  discreta  produttivita. 
Ha  pero,  nei  luoghi  d'origine,  il  difetto  di  essere  tardivo, 
bene  inteso  rispetto  ad  altri  Upland,  di  avere  non  poche 
esigenze  rispetto  alia  qualita  e  alia  freschezza  del  terreno 
e  di  dare  un  basso  rendimento  allo  sgranaggio.  Infatti  il 
rapporto  fibra-cotone  intero  e  27 :  100. 

In  Eritrea  questa  varieta  importata  dal  T-exas  si  e 
non  poco  modificata,  come  era  logico  attendersi,  per  lo 
sforzo  notevole  che  la  pianta  ha  dovuto  sopportare 
nell'adattarsi  al  nuovo  ambiente  tanto  diverso  da  quello 
originario.  Fortunatamente  pero,  nel  complesso,  le 
variazioni  non  sono  state  peggiorative,  come  invece  spesso 
avviene,  in  quanto  che  mantenendosi  le  doti  di  produttivita 
e  di  qualita  della  fibra,  si  pote  constatare  un  aumento  della 
resa  allo  sgranaggio.  Devesi  pero  notare  che  questo 
aumento  si  ebbe  soltanto  nelle  zone  del  i°  e  del  2°  tipo,  a 
terre  inondate,  mentre  in  quelle  del  3°  tipo  si  dove  lamen- 
tare  non  soltanto  che  il  rapporto  fibra-cotone  intero  si 
e  mantenuto  inalterato,  cioe  basso,  ma  la  qualita  della 
fibra  e  peggiorata  per  diminuita  lunghezza  e  finezza. 

Oltre  a  questa  varieta,  che  in  seguito  alle  modificazioni 
subite,  merito  di  essere  considerata  come  nuova  e  prese  il 
nome  di  Carcabat,  sono  state  e  sono  coltivate  in  Eritrea, 
ma  su  estensioni  assai  minori,  altre  varieta. 


COTTON  269 

Prima  ancora  che  fosse  introdbtta  1'attuale  varieta  Car- 
cabat,  vennero  esperimentate  colture  di  cotoni  egiziani, 
particolarmente  delle  varieta  Mitafifi  e  Abassi.  Oggi  esse 
sono  quasi  del  tutto  scomparse  dal  territorio  della  Colonia, 
mentre  oltre  confine,  nel  Sudan,  e  la  varieta  Mitafifi  quella 
piu  estesamente  coltivata.  II  loro  abbandono  fu  quasi  del 
tutto  giustificato  in  quanto  che  gli  esperimenti  che  ad  esse 
si  riferiscono  furono  per  la  massima  parte  eseguiti  in 
quella  zona  del  i°  tipo  che,  come  ho  gia  spiegato,  richiede 
una  varieta  precoce  e  poco  esigente  in  fatto  di  umidita. 

Da  tempo  antico  poi  sono  coltivate  in  Eritrea,  dagli 
indigeni,  delle  varieta  locali,  non  ben  determinate,  di  cui 
la  piu  diffusa  e  la  varieta  chiamata  dagli  indigeni  areb, 
a  seme  non  completamente  vestito,  a  fibra  corta  (22  mm. 
circa)  con  basso  rendimento  allo  sgranaggio  (28 : 100)  ma 
abbastanza  fine  e  lucente. 

Infine,  a  scopo  sperimentale,  sono  state  coltivate 
recentemente  in  Eritrea  altre  varieta  di  cotone :  alcune 
indiane,  altre  americane  di  tipo  Upland. 

Di  queste,  oggetto  di  maggiore  attenzione  e  stata  la 
varieta  King,  o,  per  meglio  dire,  una  delle  molte  varieta 
King,  un  Upland  a  corta  fibra  molto  precoce,  che  nel 
suo  paese  d'origine  e  resistente  alia  siccita,  molto  produt- 
tiva  ed  a  elevato  rendimento  allo  sgranaggio. 

Non  e  stato  possibile  conoscere  i  resultati  veri  delle 
prove  colturali  fatte  dall'Ufficio  Agrario  dell'Eritrea  parti- 
colarmente nel  Serae  e  neH'Acchele  Cusai,  ma  e  certo 
che  anche  questa  varieta  americana  avra  subito  delle  rapide 
modificazioni,  che  ritengo  sarebbe  molto  istruttivo  esami- 
nare  attentamente. 

Cio  premesso,  vediamo  quali  delle  varieta  oggi  coltivate 
meritino  di  essere  mantenute  e  quali  possano  essere  intro- 
dotte  con  notevole  probabilita  di  successo. 

Nella  prima  zona,  richiedente  una  varieta  precoce  e 
abbastanza  resistente  alia  scarsezza  di  umidita,  dobbiamo 
evidentemente  escludere : 

i°  Le  varieta  egiziane  piu  pregiate  a  lunga  fibra,  quali 
TAbassi,  il  Mitafifi,  lo  Janovitch,  il  Sekellaridis,  TAssili, 
ecc.,  perche  tardive  e  non  resistenti  affatto  in  un  ambiente 
non  ricco  di  umidita. 

2°  Le    varieta    egiziane     meno     pregiate,     anche    se 


2JO  COTTON 

sufficentemente   adatte  aH'ambiente,    perche    a    prodotto 
scarso  e  scadente. 

3°  Quelle  varieta  americane  die  essendo  precoci  e 
resistenti  alia  siccita,  in  grado  maggiore  che  non  sia 
richiesto  airambiente  della  prima  zona,  danno  un  prodotto 
di  qualita  scadente. 

4°  La  varieta  indiane,  italiane  ed  eritree  per  il  motivo 
indicate  al  capo  precedente. 

5°  Tutte  le  varieta  cosiddette  arboree,  le  quali  non 
danno  prodotto  apprezzabile  nell'anno  di  semina. 

Stabilita  a  priori  r-esclusione  di  queste  varieta  non  resta 
che  a  scegliere  tra  quelle  che  ad  una  discreta  precocita  e 
resistenza  ad  ambiente  non  ricco  di  umidita  uniscano  una 
elevata  produttivita  e  una  pregiata  qualita  di  fibra :  Carat- 
teristiche  queste  possedute  in  grado  abbastanza  elevato 
dai  cotoni  americani  Upland  long  staple  e  facilmente 
accrescibili  mediante  i  procedimenti  selettivi  di  cui  parlero 
piu  avanti. 

E'  da  considerarsi  quindi  felicissima  per  questa  zona,  la 
scelta  fatta  dalla  "  Societa  per  la  Coltivazione  del  Cotone 
in  Eritrea  "  della  varieta  sopra  descritta  e  che  oggi  va  sotto 
il  nome  di  Carcabat,  non  perche  questa  varieta  sia  capace 
di  dare  oggi,  in  un  ambiente  come  quello  della  ia  zona,  il 
massimo  risultato  desiderabile,  ma  perche  essa  costituisce 
a  mio  parere  il  miglior  punto  di  partenza  per  la  creazione 
della  varieta  ottima  per  questo  ambiente. 

Nella  seconda  zona,  che  presenta  di  fronte  alia  prima  il 
notevolissimo  vantaggio  di  due  stagioni  di  piene,  con  una 
stagione  di  pioggie  coincidente  con  la  seconda  stagione  di 
piene,  esclusa  la  possibilita  di  fare  due  successive  colture 
di  cotone  (come  invece  possono  farsi  di  una  pianta  a  ciclo 
vegetative  piu  breve  che  non  quello  del  cotone  anche  piu 
precoce)  devesi  coltivare  una  varieta  che  utilizzi  nel  modo 
piu  completo  tutta  la  non  indifferente  quantita  d'acqua 
che  le  pioggie  e  una  buona  sistemazione  idraulica  possono 
fornire  alle  coltivazioni. 

Debbono  pero  escludersi : 

i°  Tutte  le  varieta  a  breve  ciclo  vegetativo  la  cui 
maturazione  verrebbe  a  coincidere  con  le  pioggie  e  le 
seconde  piene;  2°  tutte  le  varieta  a  lungo  ciclo,  ma  a 
prodotto  eccessivamente  scarso  e  scadente;  3°  tutte  le 


COTTON  271 

varieta  cosiddette  arboree  che  non  danno  prodotto  abbon- 
dante  nell'anno  di  semina. 

Fatta  questa  eliminazione  e  facile  convincersi  che  la 
varieta  adatta  deve  ricercarsi  fra  quelle  egiziane  a  lungo 
ciclo,  a  fibra  pregiata  e  a  produzione  abbastanza  elevata. 
Evidentemente  devesi  ricercare  in  questa  varieta  un  certo 
grado  di  relativa  rusticita,  data  la  non  perfetta  regolarita 
degli  inondamenti  e  delle  pioggie  e  dato  il  frequente 
spirare  di  venti  forti.  Credo  quindi  che  la  varieta  riunente 
in  se  tutte  queste  qualita  sia  la  varieta  Mitafifi,  la  sola 
che  in  condizioni  di  ambiente  analoghe,  per  es.  nel 
distretto  cotonifero  Sudanese  di  Tocar,  sia  da  tempo  colti- 
vata  con  successo.  Naturalmente  anche  in  questo  caso 
vale  1'osservazione  fatta  precedentemente,  che  cioe  la 
varieta  Mitafifi  non  puo  oggi  dirsi  la  varieta  ideale  per 
1'ambiente  della  seconda  zona,  bensi  la  varieta  dalla  quale 
meglio  si  possa  partire  neH'opera  di  creazione  di  una 
varieta  locale  ottima. 

Per  la  terza  zona  occorre  una  varieta  molto  piu  precoce 
e  rustica  che  non  quelle  prescelte  per  la  prima  e  la  seconda 
zona :  devesi  cioe  ricercare  fra  quelle  varieta  che, 
producendo  fibra  non  del  tutto  scadente,  siano  a  ciclo 
brevissimo  e  molto  resistenti  ad  ambiente  asciutto. 
L'esame  quindi  deve  essere  limitato  alle  varieta  locali,  a 
quelle  americane  precoci  e  a  quelle  indiane,  escludendo 
non  soltanto  le  varieta  egiziane,  ma  anche  quelle  ameri- 
cane a  fibra  lunga.  Una  indicazione  precisa  di  questa 
incompatibility  almeno  inizialmente,  tra  le  condizioni  di 
ambiente  e  le  esigenze  delle  varieta  a  lunga  fibra,  la  si  e 
avuta  nelle  coltivazioni  di  questo  3°  tipo  fatte  sul  Case  e 
oltre  confine,  le  quali  presentano  una  sensibilissima 
riduzione  nella  lunghezza  della  fibra  ottenuta  in  confronto 
di  quella  del  prodotto  avutosi  dallo  stesso  seme  nelle 
colture  del  i°  e  del  2°  tipo. 

lo  ritengo  che  forse  taluna  delle  varieta  locali,  oggi 
ben  poco  ancora  conosciute,  potrebbe  essere  utilmente 
migliorata  fino  a  raggiungere  un  tipo  soddisfacente.  Ma 
mancandomi  le  basi  per  formulare  un  tale  giudizio, 
considero  che  tale  possibilita  non  vi  sia  e  si  debba  quindi, 
come  nelle  altre  due  zone,  procedere  all'mtroduzione  di 
varieta  esotica.  Non  ho  molta  fiducia  sulle  varieta 
18 


274  COTTON 

derivante  da  una  larga  ed  apprezzata  cotonicoltura,  il 
mantenimento  dell'unicita  del  tipo  nei  diversi  distretti 
cotoniferi  e  nelle  diverse  forme  di  coltura,  tanto  che 
1'autorita  non  si  perita  di  limitare  la  liberta  dei  privati 
imponendo  loro  di  escludere  dalle  proprie  colture  tutte 
le  varieta  che  non  siano  quella  determinata  dal  Governo. 
II  sistema  non  e  applicato  dovunque,  per  motivi  che  non 
serve  qui  di  esaminare,  ne  sempre  con  giusti  criteri,  ma 
se  ne  riconosce  tutta  I'importanza  e  tutto  il  valore. 

Tutto  cio  nei  riguardi  dell'industria  consumatrice  e  del 
buon  apprezzamento  della  materia  prima  sui  mercati  di 
vendita.  Ma  vi  sono  altri  vantaggi  neirunicita  del  tipo 
e  questi  riguardano  piu  direttamente  la  produzione. 

Ho  detto  che  qualsiasi  cotone,  particolarmente  quando 
introdotto  in  un  paese  nuovo,  varia  in  maniera  molto 
spiccata  e  che  tali  variazioni  si  prestano  ad  un'azione 
miglioratrice  efficacissima  da  parte  del  coltivatore.  Al 
tempo  stesso  pero  queste  variazioni  possono  avvenire  in 
senso  peggiorativo,  appena  quando  1'assistenza  del  colti- 
vatore venga  a  farsi  meno  attiva  e  si  presentino  prossime 
e  frequenti  le  cause  di  variazione  non  volute  dal  colti- 
vatore stesso. 

E'  evidente  che  queste  cause  di  non  desiderata  varia- 
zione, le  quali  hanno  per  di  piu  il  dannosissimo  effetto  di 
rendere  inomogenee  anche  le  singole  partite  dei  singoli 
produttori,  consistono  nella  promiscua  coltura  di  varieta 
differenti  o  di  una  stessa  varieta  con  sistemi  colturali 
diversi.  E  cio  non  soltanto  per  i  pericoli  di  ibridazione 
naturale,  piu  difficile  a  verificarsi  di  quanto  generalmente 
si  creda,  ma  per  la  facilita  con  cui  o  nei  campo,  o  nei 
magazzino  o  nello  stabilimento  di  sgranaggio,  possono 
avvenire  mescolanze  di  semi  che  danno  poi  luogo  a 
coltivazioni  eterogenee  nelle  quali  difficile  e  povera  di 
risultati  si  esercitera  1'opera  miglioratrice  del  coltivatore. 

Inoltre,  quando  in  una  regione  non  si  ottenga  che  un 
dato  tipo  di  prodotto,  Tindustria  dello  sgranaggio  e  resa 
piu  semplice  e  piu  razionale :  non  piu  la  necessita  di 
impianti  differenti  con  macchine  sgranatrici  adatte  a 
ciascuno  dei  tipi  sottoposti  a  lavorazione,  ne  1'adattamento 
dannoso  di  un  solo  tipo  di  macchine  alle  differenti  esigenze 
dei  vari  tipi  di  cotone  lavorato. 


COTTON  275 

Infine  la  maggior  semplicita  e  la  maggiore  efficacia 
dell'opera  sperimentale,  di  assistenza,  e  di  consulenza 
esercitata  dal  Governo  o  dagli  enti  privati  interessati  al 
miglioramento  della  produzione. 

Taluno  potrebbe  obiettare  che,  anche  ammessi  come 
indiscutibili  i  vantaggi  deirunicita  di  tipo,  e  considerata 
come  imposta  dall'ambiente  1'adozione  di  una  determinata 
forma  colturale,  non  e  prudente  limitare  la  coltura  ad 
una  sola  varieta,  onde  non  escludere  la  possibilita  che  piu 
lunghe  esperienze  indichino  altra  varieta  come  migliore 
di  quella  oggi  prescelta.  Mi  pare-  giustificato  rispondere 
che  gli  elementi  di  cui  oggi  disponiamo  sono  tali  da 
renderci  sicuri  quasi  sempre  della  giusta  scelta  di  una  data 
varieta  come  suscettibile  dei  piu  notevoli  miglioramenti 
sotto  la  mano  abile  del  selettore.  E  anche  ammesso  che 
il  punto  da  cui  oggi  si  parte  non  sia  esattamente  il 
migliore,  assai  difficilmente  converra  in  avvenire,  dopo 
ottenuti  dei  perfezionamenti  sensibili,  il  ritornare  da  capo 
e  riprendere  fin  dall'inizio  tutto  il  complesso  lavoro  di 
miglioramento.  Nei  casi  invece  nei  quali  la  varieta 
migliore  e  oggi  troppo  difficilmente  determinabile,  come 
per  noi  nei  caso  delle  terza  zona  eritrea,  allora  e  giuoco 
forza  rimandare  la  scelta  a  quando  l'esperimentazione 
avra  detto  la  sua  autorevole  parola. 

Concludendo  su  questo  argomento  diro  che  io  ritengo 
vitale  per  la  cotonicoltura  eritrea  che  i  tre  distretti  cotoni- 
feri  in  cui  la  colonia  va  divisa  debbano  complessivamente 
dar  luogo  a  non  piu  di  tre  tipi  di  prodotto,  ai  quali  riescira 
tanto  piu  agevole  il  conquistare  stabilmente  un  buon 
mercato,  quanto  piu  costanti  nei  tempo  essi  saranno. 
Necessario  quindi  che  1'opera  dei  privati  e  piu  ancor? 
quella  del  Governo  siano  intese  ad  ottenere  nei  piu  breve 
tempo  questo  risultato. 

II  mezzo,  o  per  meglio  dire  i  mezzi,  mi  sembrano  facil- 
mente  indicabili  e  non  difficilmente  applicabili. 

i°  II  primo  e  piu  essenziale  e  Tesclusione  assoluta  da 
ciascuna  zona  di  varieta  diversa  da  quella  prescelta. 

2°  Che  un  identico  criterio  guidi  il  miglio-ramentO'  delle 
varieta,  e,  perche  cio  sia  possibile,  che  la  selezione,  unico 
mezzo  atto  allo  scopo,  sia  eseguita  non  dai  singoli  colti- 
vatori  ma  da  un  solo  ente,  possibilmente  di  governo,  il 


274  COTTON 

derivante  da  una  larga  ed  apprezzata  cotonicoltura,  il 
mantenimento  dell'unicita  del  tipo  nei  diversi  distretti 
cotoniferi  e  nelle  diverse  forme  di  coltura,  tanto  che 
1'autorita  non  si  perita  di  limitare  la  liberta  dei  privati 
imponendo  loro  di  escludere  dalle  proprie  colture  tutte 
le  varieta  che  non  siano  quella  determinata  dal  Governo. 
II  sistema  non  e  applicato  dovunque,  per  motivi  che  non 
serve  qui  di  esaminare,  ne  sempre  con  giusti  criteri,  ma 
se  ne  riconosce  tutta  I'importanza  e  tutto  il  valore. 

Tutto  cio  nei  riguardi  dell'industria  consumatrice  e  del 
buon  apprezzamento  della  materia  prima  sui  mercati  di 
vendita.  Ma  vi  sono  altri  vantaggi  nell'unicita  del  tipo 
e  questi  riguardano  piu  direttamente  la  produzione. 

Ho  detto  che  qualsiasi  cotone,  particolarmente  quando 
introdotto  in  un  paese  nuovo,  varia  in  maniera  molto 
spiccata  e  che  tali  variazioni  si  prestano  ad  un'azione 
miglioratrice  efficacissima  da  parte  del  coltivatore.  Al 
tempo  stesso  pero  queste  variazioni  possono  avvenire  in 
senso  peggiorativo,  appena  quando  1'assistenza  del  colti- 
vatore venga  a  farsi  meno  attiva  e  si  presentino  prossime 
e  frequenti  le  cause  di  variazione  non  volute  dal  colti- 
vatore stesso. 

E'  evidente  che  queste  cause  di  non  desiderata  varia- 
zione, le  quali  hanno  per  di  piu  il  dannosissimo  effetto  di 
rendere  inomogenee  anche  le  singole  partite  dei  singoli 
produttori,  consistono  nella  promiscua  coltura  di  varieta 
differenti  o  di  una  stessa  varieta  con  sistemi  colturali 
diversi.  E  cio  non  soltanto  per  i  pericoli  di  ibridazione 
naturale,  piu  difficile  a  verificarsi  di  quanto  generalmente 
si  creda,  ma  per  la  facilita  con  cui  o  nei  campo,  o  nei 
magazzino  o  nello  stabilimento  di  sgranaggio,  possono 
avvenire  mescolanze  di  semi  che  danno  poi  luogo  a 
coltivazioni  eterogenee  nelle  quali  difficile  e  povera  di 
risultati  si  esercitera  T opera  miglioratrice  del  coltivatore. 

Inoltre,  quando  in  una  regione  non  si  ottenga  che  un 
dato  tipo  di  prodotto,  Tindustria  dello  sgranaggio  e  resa 
piu  semplice  e  piu  razionale :  non  piu  la  necessita  di 
impianti  differenti  con  macchine  sgranatrici  adatte  a 
ciascuno  dei  tipi  sottoposti  a  lavorazione,  ne  1'adattamento 
dannoso  di  un  solo  tipo  di  macchine  alle  differenti  esigenze 
dei  vari  tipi  di  cotone  lavorato. 


COTTON  275 

Infine  la  maggior  semplicita  e  la  maggiore  efficacia 
dell'opera  sperimentale,  di  assistenza,  e  di  consulenza 
esercitata  dal  Governo  o  dagli  enti  privati  interessati  al 
miglioramento  della  produzione. 

Taluno  potrebbe  obiettare  che,  anche  ammessi  come 
indiscutibili  i  vantaggi  deH'unicita  di  tipo,  e  considerata 
come  imposta  dall'ambiente  Tadozione  di  una  determinata 
forma  colturale,  non  e  prudente  limitare  la  coltura  ad 
una  sola  varieta,  onde  non  escludere  la  possibilita  che  piu 
lunghe  esperienze  indichino  altra  varieta  come  migliore 
di  quella  oggi  prescelta.  Mi  pare-  giustificato  rispondere 
che  gli  elementi  di  cui  oggi  disponiamo  sono  tali  da 
renderci  sicuri  quasi  sempre  della  giusta  scelta  di  una  data 
varieta  come  suscettibile  dei  piu  notevoli  miglioramenti 
sotto  la  mano  abile  del  selettore.  E  anche  ammesso  che 
il  punto  da  cui  oggi  si  parte  non  sia  esattamente  il 
migliore,  assai  difficilmente  converra  in  avvenire,  dopo 
ottenuti  dei  perfezionamenti  sensibili,  il  ritornare  da  capo 
e  riprendere  fin  dall'inizio  tutto  il  complesso  lavoro  di 
miglioramento.  Nei  casi  invece  nei  quali  la  varieta 
migliore  e  oggi  troppo  difficilmente  determinabile,  come 
per  noi  nei  caso  delle  terza  zona  eritrea,  allora  e  giuoco 
forza  rimandare  la  scelta  a  quando  resperimentazione 
avra  detto  la  sua  autorevole  parola. 

Concludendo  su  questo  argomento  diro  che  io  ritengo 
vitale  per  la  cotonicoltura  eritrea  che  i  tre  distretti  cotoni- 
feri  in  cui  la  colonia  va  divisa  debbano  complessivamente 
dar  luogo  a  non  piu  di  tre  tipi  di  prodofto,  ai  quali  riescira 
tanto  piu  agevole  il  conquistare  stabilmente  un  buon 
mercato,  quanto  piu  costanti  nei  tempo  essi  saranno. 
Necessario  quindi  che  1'opera  dei  privati  e  piu  ancorz 
quella  del  Governo  siano  intese  ad  ottenere  nei  piu  breve 
tempo  questo  risultato. 

II  mezzo,  o  per  meglio  dire  i  mezzi,  mi  sembrano  facil- 
mente  indicabili  e  non  difficilmente  applicabili. 

i°  II  primo  e  piu  essenziale  e  1'esclusione  assoluta  da 
ciascuna  zona  di  varieta  diversa  da  quella  prescelta. 

2°  Che  un  identico  criterio  guidi  il  miglioramento'  delle 
varieta,  e,  perche  cio  sia  possibile,  che  la  selezione,  unico 
mezzo  atto  allo  scopo,  sia  eseguita  non  dai  singoli  colti- 
vatori  ma  da  un  solo  ente,  possibilmente  di  governo,  il 


2/6  COTTON 

qnale  fornisca  ai  coltivatori  il  seme  selezionato  occorrente 
per  le  loro  colture,  seme  proveniente  da  una  o  piu  stazioni 
apposite,  nelle  quali  con  unicita  di  intenti  si  vadano 
gradualmente  ad  ottenere  e  a  fissare  i  caratteri  che  si 
desiderano  e  che  la  varieta  e  suscettibile  di  assumere. 

Non  e  luogo  qui  che  io  indichi  come  dovrebbe  organiz- 
zarsi  tale  importantissimo  servizio  di  fornitura  di  seme 
selezionato,  in  modo  da  renderlo  agile  e  perfettamente 
corrispondente  allo  scopo. 

3°  Poiche  malgrado  i  provvedimenti  di  cui  al  no  i  e  2, 
non  sarebbe  possibile  avere  in  modo  assoluto  Tunicita  del 
tipo  in  tutte  le  partite  del  prodotto  ottenuto  o  per  difettosa 
coltura,  o  per  effetto  di  malattie  o  per  non  accurata 
raccolta  o  per  non  buona  conservazione  o  per  male 
eseguita  separazione  della  fibra  dal  seme  o  per  un  qual- 
siasi  altro  motive,  parmi  che  a  rendere  impossibile  che 
non  accorti  o  non  scrupolosi  acquirenti  mescolassero  alle 
migliori  le  partite  piu  scadenti,  si  dovrebbe  istituire  un 
servizio  di  classificazione  delle  partite,  come  si  e  ritenuto 
di  dover  fare  nel  Sudan  Anglo  Egiziano,  classificazione 
che  attribuisce  a  ciascuna  balla  di  cotone  una  determinata 
classe,  la  quale  viene  indicata  sulla  balla  stessa  con  un 
ben  evidente  contrassegno.  Questa  classificazione  do- 
vrebbe farsi  prima  sui  mercati  locali  del  cotone  intero, 
onde  evitare  che  diverse  qualita  veugano  mescolate  all'atto 
dello  sgranaggio,  e  poi  all'uscita  delle  balle  di  espofta- 
zione  dallo  stabilimento  di  sgranaggio  e  di  pressatura. 

Neppure  di  questa  organizzazione  e  qui  il  caso  di 
rattare  con  dettaglio  :  basti  1'avervi  accennato  e  1'aver 
jetto  che  essa  e  assai  meno  complessa  di  quello  che  a 
prima  vista  potrebbe  sembrare  e  tale  da  garantire  valida- 
mente  non  solo  gli  interessi  della  Colonia  ma  quelli  del 
commercio  e  dell'mdustria  cotoniera. 

Una  quarta  questione  deve  essere  ora  toccata,  quella 
del  posto  che  il  cotone  deve  occupare  nell'attivita  delle 
singole  aziende.  Se  cioe  nelle  zone  a  cotonicoltura  il 
cotone  debba  o  possa  essere  la  sola  pianta  coltivata  o 
debba  invece  essere  avvicendata  con  altre  colture  e  con 
quali.  E'  evidente  che  le  diverse  condizioni  ambientali 
offerte  dalle  tre  zone  da  noi  distinte,  portano  anche  a 
questo  riguardo  a  tre  differenti  casi. 


COTTON  277 

Nella  prima  zona  io  non  credo  che  I'avvicendamento 
colturale  sia  una  necessita  tecnica  visto  che  le  alluvioni  dei 
fiunii  depositano  annualmente  sul  terreno  una  notevole 
quantita  di  limo  che  non  e  costituito  di  sola  argilla,  ma 
e  ricco  di  sostanze  di  varia  natura  certo  sufficient!  a  re- 
integrare  quello  che  con  la  coltura  annualmente  perde  il 
terreno  che  da  identiche  alluvioni  e  stato  originate;  e 
atteso  che  sono  da  considerarsi  praticamente  sufficient! 
ad  allontanare  il  pericolo  che  gli  agenti  di  malattie  del 
cotone  si  propaghino  da  un  anno  all'altro,  i  mezzi  adottati 
o  che  dovranno  adottarsi  severamente  per  la  difesa  e  la 
lotta  contro  le  malattie  stesse. 

II  far  partecipare  il  cotone  ad  un  avvicendamento  con 
altre  colture  sara  probabilmente  necessario,  ma  in  tal  caso 
sara  certo  voluto  da  esigenzi  di  ordine  economico  che 
sarebbe  troppo  lungo  indicare. 

Neppure  nella  seconda  zona  1'avvicendamento  sara 
imposto  da  ragioni  tecniche,  ma  solo  da  considerazioni 
d'ordine  economico.  Anche  qui  i  terreni  sono  abbon- 
dantemente  arricchiti  periodicamente  dal  limo  portato 
dalle  acque  di  piena  e  anche  qui  vengono  a  mancare  le 
forti  ragioni  per  cui  il  ripetersi  di  una  coltura  e  di  solito 
irrazionale. 

Ma  economicamente  e  senza  dubbio  svantaggioso  il 
sistema  che  instaura  e  mantiene  un  regime  di  monocoltura 
e  quindi  anche  in  questa  seconda  zona  dovra  applicarsi 
un  qualche  avvicendamento  colturale  :  nel  determinare  il 
quale,  se  si  sara  favoriti  dal  fatto  che  in  questa  zona  la 
doppia  stagione  di  piene  rende  un  po'  piu  larga  la  scelta 
delle  piante  che  possono  venir  coltivate,  si  dovra  anche 
ricordare  che  la  varieta  di  cotone  e  in  questo  caso  a  lungo 
ciclo  e  tiene  qumdi  occupato  il  terreno  un  tempo  maggiore 
che  non  la  varieta  coltivata  nella  prima  zona,  e  tale  ad  ogni 
modo  da  escludere  la  possibility  di  praticare  colture  inter- 
medie  fra  due  successive  di  cotone.  Credo  quindi  che  la 
rotazione  da  prescegliersi,  avendo  a  propria  base  la  coltura 
del  cotone,  debba  far  posto  ad  altre  colture  annuali  (non 
perenni,  tranne  che  nei  terreni  non  irrigui  essendo  rirri- 
gazione  fatta  per  inondamento)  a  breve  o  a  lungo  ciclo, 
che  consentano  non  soltanto  la  produzione  di  generi 
necessari  sul  posto  o  di  facile  mercato,  ma  offrano  ai 


278  COTTON 

coltivatori  occupazione  il  piu  possibile  costante.  Non  e 
qui  il  caso  di  dilungarsi  su  tale  sogetto,  basti  solo  notare 
che  il  doppio  periodo  di  piene  puo  consentire  nello  stesso 
anno  due  successive  colture  di  piante  a  breve  ciclo,  quali 
la  dura,  il  bultuc,  il  sesamo,  1'arachide  e  che  anche  in 
questa  zona,  come  gia  nella  prima,  un  grande  ausilio 
potra  aversi,  ad  esempio,  dalla  coltura  del  Cajanus  indicus, 
leguminosa  che  ha  gia  dimostrato  il  suo  completo  adatta- 
mento  alle  condizioni  del  luogo  e  che  e  utilissima  come 
fornitrice  di  foraggio  e  di  materia  da  sovescio. 

Nella  zona  a  sole  pioggie,  che  p>r>esenta  evidentemente 
tina  non  piccola  varieta  di  terreni  e  che  forse,  dopo  un 
piu  attento  studio  delle  sue  diverse  parti,  non  potra  piu 
essere  considerata  come  un  tutto  solo,  il  fatto  d'essere 
la  coltura  del  cotone  mantenuta  piu  di  un  anno  sul  terreno 
rende  Tavvicendamento  ben  diverse  da  quelli  adottabili 
nella  prima  e  nella  seconda  zona.  Poiche  in  questa  terza 
zona  saranno  coltivati  in  prevalenza  terreni  piu  o  meno 
compatti,  come  piu  suscettibili  di  conservarsi,  per  qualche 
mese  dopo  le  pioggie,  in  istato  di  sufficiente  freschezza, 
io  ritengo  che  ad  es.  la  coltura  dell'arachide,  che  per  la 
prima  e  la  seconda  zona  e  indicabile  per  i  terreni  piu 
sciolti,  non  possa  trovar  posto,  e  che  invece  il  sesamo, 
oltre  i  cereali  ed  altre  piante  gia  usualmente,  se  non 
diffusamente,  coltivate  dagli  indigeni  del  mezzopiano  e 
•del  bassopiano  sud  occidentale,  se  intercalate  di  tempo 
in  tempo  con  un  riposo  o  aiutate  da  una  qualche  forma 
di  concimazione,  potranno  dar  luogo  a  una  rotazione,  se 
non  teoricamente  del  tutto  razionale,  certo  praticamente 
assai  conveniente. 


LA  COLTIVAZIONE  DEL  COTONE  NELLA  COLONIA 
ERITREA. 

Per  GINO  LAVELH  DE  CAPITANI. 

PER  avere  un  concetto  di  quanto  si  e  fatto  nella  Colonia 
Eritrea  in  rapporto  alia  coltura  cotonaria,  e  necessario 
analizzare  1'opera  della  "  Societa  per  la  Coltivazione  del 
Cotone  nella  Colonia  Eritrea  "  e  cio  pel  fatto  che  a  questa 
Societa,  se  non  ufficialmente,  certo  in  linea  di  fatto  fu 
attribuito  il  compito  di  uno  studio  pratico  di  detta  coltura, 
e  per  avere  un  concetto  riassuntivo  di  questo  lavoro  che 
fu  iniziato  dieci  anni  or  sono,  crediamo  opportune 
svolgere  i  seguenti  argomenti  :  —  • 

(1)  Risultanze  tecniche  e  finanziarie  dei  primi  tre  anni 
di  esperienze. 

(2)  Impianto  industriale  per  lo   sgranagio  del  cotone; 
lavorazione  del  seme  ed  industrie  sussidiarie  che  si  dimo- 
strarono  necessarie  pel  regolare  andamento  del  lavoro. 

(3)  Risultanze  tecniche  e  finanziarie  dei  successivi  setti 
anni  di  coltura  cotonaria. 

(4)  Programma  per  ottenere  un  intensive  sviluppo  della 
coltura   cotonaria   e  cio   coll'intervento   diretto   dell'Ente 
Governo. 


Dobbiamo  alia  genialita  del  Governatore  Ferdinando 
Martini,  attuale  Ministro  delle  Colonie,  1'iniziativa  di 
studi  intorno  alia  coltura  del  cotone.  Si  ottennero  allora 
dati  dimostratisi  all'atto  pratico  incerti,  ma  ebbero 
rimmenso  pregio  di  richiamare  sull'iniziativa  1'attenzione 
degli  industrial!  Italiani  che  decisero  di  fare  un  serio 
tentative. 

Questa  e  Torigine  della  "  Societa  per  la  Coltivazione 
del  Cotone  nella  Colonia  Eritrea." 

II  compito  della  Societa  fu  quanto  mai  arduo.  Gli 
studi  iniziali  fatti  dal  Governo.  che  pur  formarono  la  base 


280  COTTON 

del  programma  d'azione  sociale,  come  gia  osservammo, 
si  addimostrarono  subito  insufficient!  e  1'impresa  si  trovo 
fin  dall'inizio  a  lottare  con  grandi  difficolta,  quali  la  scelta 
dei  terreni,  1'adattamento  della  mano  d'opera,  allora 
dedicata  solo  alia  pastorizia,  la  ricerca  della  qualita  di 
cot  one  piu  idonea  in  confronto  al  terreno  ed  al  clima,  lo 
studio  del  quesito  industriale,  1'impianto  di  tutta  un 
organizzazione  regolare  in  un'ambiente  per  natura 
diffidente,  con  insufficient!  mezzi  di  trasporto,  senza 
strade,  senza  il  piu  elementare  comfort  della  vita 
materiale  per  chi  doveva  dedicare  tutta  la  propria  energia 
creando  dal  nulla,  lottando  contro  le  febbri  malariche  ed 
un  clima  torrido. 

II  primo  anno  in  Agordat  furono  iniziati  gli  esperimenti 
colle  qualita  di  seme  Abassi  e  Mitafifi,  si  lotto  contro 
1'invasione  delle  cavallette  respingendole  con  molteplici 
fuochi  accesi  e  grandi  clamori  du  uomini,  contro  1'irruenza 
dei  fiumi  e  dei  torrenti  che  obbligarono  alia  risemina;  si 
lotto  contro  la  siccita  che  sopragiunta  in  alcune  localita 
dopo  il  periodo  delle  pioggie,  arresto  la  vegetazione 
intisichendo  verdeggianti  campi  di  cotone  che  promet- 
tevano  abbondante  raccolto.  Questa  lotta  costo  grave 
sacrificio  ma  si  ottennero  i  primi  400  quintali  di  cotone 
che,  mandate  a  sgranare  in  Egitto  viene  trovato  di  buona 
qualita  come  fibra  e  rendimento.  Si  ebbe  di  conseguenza 
la  prima  conferma  dell'adattabilita  del  suolo  coloniale 
alia  coltura  cotonaria;  si  constato  che  a  preferenza  si  deve 
appoggiarsi  su  qualita  di  cotone  sempre  a  lunga  fibra, 
ma  con  ciclo  vegetative  tale  che  si  svolga  tra  il  cadere 
delle  pioggie  ed  il  periodo  di  tempo  in  cui  il  terreno 
mantiene  1'umidita  a  pioggie  finite.  Questa  e  la  prima 
tappa  di  una  marcia  faticosa.  Oltre  a  cio,  viene  studiato 
attentamente  1'ambiente,  facendosi  un  criterio  esatto 
della  situazione,  cioe,  Timpossibilita  di  svolgere  sull'inizio 
una  coltivazione  estensiva  diretta,  mancando  un  piano 
razionale  di  bonifica  il  quale  potesse  rendere  atte  alia 
coltura  cotonaria  estese  zone  di  terreno,  e  mancando 
altresi  mano  d'opera  atta  allo  scopo. 

II  quesito  della  mano  d'opera  richiese  speciale  studio. 
La  popolazione  Eritrea  e  un'amalgama  di  varie  razze  con 
religioni  e  costumi  diversi.  Essa  e  composta  di  Abissini. 


COTTON  28l 

Bileni,  Beni-Amer,  Baria,  Basa.  II  primo  contatto  con 
elementi  cosi  diversi  non  fu  senza  difficolta  e  cio  per  la 
naturale  diffidenza  dell'indigeno  verso  il  bianco,  ma  il 
tasso  della  paga,  una  lira  la  giornata,  fu  buona  leva  per 
una  popolazione  che  raramente  vedeva  la  moneta  nei  suoi 
scambi  fatti  nel  maggior  dei  casi  col  baratto  di  merci. 
Vinta  la  prima  ripugnanza  e  trascinata  questa  gente  al 
lavoro,  si  trovo  di  poter  disporre  di  una  popolazione 
intelligente  e  volonterosa,  e  con  questo  buon  affidamento 
viene  iniziato  il  secondo  anno  di  lavoro. 

Le  qualita  di  cotone  coltivate  il  primo  anno,  come 
abbiamo  v*isto,  lasciarono  dei  seri  dubbi  riguardo  allo  loro 
adattabilita  aH'ambiente,  ma  d'altra  parte  portare  un 
cambiamento  radicale  alia  qualita  era  partito  arrischiato, 
Fu  scartato,  e  vero  1'Abassi,  pianta  troppo  delicata  e  dal 
ciclo  lunghissimo  si  rimase  pero  fedeli  al  Mitafifi  che 
aveva  dato  risultati  piu  incorraggianti  e  su  questo  si  basa 
la  semina  del  secondo  anno.  Sempre  pero  fermi  nel 
concetto  di  trovare  una  qualita  che  corrispondesse  al- 
1'esigenze  del  terreno  e  del  clima,  viene  sottoposto  a 
mezzo  dell'Ambasciata  di  Washington,  all'Ufficio  Agrario 
degli  Stati  Uniti,  il  quesito  onde  avere  una  valida  guida  nel 
risolvere  il  difficile  problema  e  Questo  Ufficio  indica  una 
nuova  qualita,  prevedendo  in  modo  precise  i  buoni 
risultati  ottenibili.  Ammirevole  percezione  che  fu  poi 
sanzionata  dai  fatti,  e  per  la  quale  si  deve  avere  speciale 
gratitudine  per  quell'Istituto.  In  seguito  a  cio  venne 
adattato  questo  seme,  sempre  pero  su  piccolissima  esten- 
zione  di  terreno. 

Durante  il  secondo  esercizio,  la  cerchia  delle  indagini 
viene  allargata  allo  scopo  di  cercare  nuove  zone  atte  alia 
coltura  cotonaria.  Si  inizia  pure  la  coltivazione  del 
cotone  fatta  direttamente  dall'indigeno  sotto  la  sor- 
veglianza  della  Societa  e  mediante  anticipi  in  seme  e 
denaro,  coH'impegno  da  parte  della  Societa  di  acquistare 
il  prodotto  ottenuto  alle  condizioni  stabilite  dal  Governo 
Coloniale. 

II  terzo  anno  fu  davvero  confortante  :  la  nuova  qualita 
che  aveva,  dato  buoni  risultati  nella  precedente  stagione 
applicata  su  maggiore  scala,  da  un  raccolto  considerevole 
in  rapporto  aU'estenzione  di  terreno  coltivato,  circa 


282  COTTON 

1,100  quintali,  e  fa  quindi  triplicare  la  media  unitaria  del 
raccolto;  mentre  il  Mitafifi  presenta  le  solite  carat- 
teristiche,  pianta  fiorente,  promessa  di  raccolto  straordi- 
nario,  ma  ad  un  dato  momento  tutto  rinsecchisce.  Al- 
1'indigeno  pero  non  si  arrischia  a  dare  subito  questa  nuova 
qualita,  che  poteva  presentare  delle  sorprese,  e  se  il  native 
porto  1,700  quintali  in  luogo  do  300  del  primo  anno,  lo 
si  deve  all'aumentata  superficie  coltivata. 

Riassumendo,  nei  primi  tre  anni  si  sono  ottenuti  non 
indifferenti  risultati  tecnici,  quali;  dimostrazione  pratica 
che  varie  zone  delia  Colonia  Eritrea,  sono  atte  alia  coltura 
cotonaria;  la  specificazione  della  qualita  di  seme  piu  con- 
facente,  la  bonta  industriale  del  prodotto  ottenuto  e 
Tinizio  della  coltura  fatta  a  mezzo  degli  indigeni. 

Dal  lato  finanziario  la  Societa  ha  dovuto  sopportare 
una  perdita  che  si  aggiro  intorno  alle  L.  150,000  ma 
certamente  questa  non  puo  essere  considerata  eccessiva, 
in  confronto  del  grave  problema  che  si  andava  studiando 
e  fu  questa  considerazione  che  spinse  a  continuare  lo 
studio  sempre  con  maggior  intensita  ed  energia. 


2°. 

II  progressive  svilupparsi  della  produzione  cotonaria, 
ha  imposto  la  sistemazione  industriale  dell'Azienda 
coloniale,  ed  al  primo  piccolissimo  impianto  di  sgranaggio 
fu  sostituito  un'impianto  complete  in  tutte  le  sue  parti  e 
cio  fu  dal  terzo  al  quarto  esercizio. 

La  massima  difficolta  superata  fu  quella  del  trasporto 
avendo  dovuto  per  circa  200  km.  portare  il  pesantissimo 
macchinario  per  regioni  senza  strade  ed  a  forti  dislivelli. 
Si  e  pure  dovuto  trovare  sul  luogo  materiale  costruttivo, 
fabbricando  direttamente  calce  e  mattoni  ed  utilizzando 
come  legname  di  costruzione  quello  proveniente  dalla 
palma  Dum  fino  allora  non  ritenuto  idoneo  a  questo 
scopo. 

Perche  1'impianto  industriale  potesse  regolarmente 
marciare  si  e  dovuto  dedicare  circa  un  anno  per  1'avvia- 
mento  e  questo  tempo  non  deve  essere  considerate 
eccessivo  se  si  tengono  presenti  le  molteplici  difficolta 
superate. 


COTTON  283 

L'impianto  consiste  in  una  caldaia  a  vapore  della 
potenza  HP  120  con  motore  di  eguale  potenza  che  aziona 
una  centrale  elettrica  la  quale  a  sua  volta  distribuisce  la 
forza  a  tutti  i  vari  riparti. 

Un  fabbricato  assai  vasto  e  adibito  a  sala  di  sgranaggio 
con  Roller  Gins,  pressatura  e  confezione  balle  cotone. 
II  seme,  che  a  mezzo  di  varie  coclee  vien  portato  in  una 
specie  di  piccolo  silos,  messo  in  vagoncini,  vien  portato 
in  un  speciale  locale  adibito  per  uso  Oleificio.  Qui  il 
seme,  prima  viene  passato  alia  Saw  Gin  per  togliere  il 
Linters,  poscia  passa  al  decorticatore  che  divide  la  parte 
oleosa  del  seme,  dalla  buccia;  un  crivello  ne  fa  la 
selezione  e  la  buccia  viene  utilizzata  come  combustibile, 
mentre  che  il  seme  va  nei  cilindri  e  quane  ridotto  in 
farina,  passa  per  un  riscaldatore,  quindi  al  former  ed  alia 
pressa.  II  pannello  per  ora  non  ha  ancora  speciali  appli- 
cazioni  e  nella  massima  parte  si  usa  come  combustibile; 
1'olio  passa  alia  sezione  di  depurazione  dove  per  mezzo 
di  vassche,  filtri  e  presse  viene  depurate  e  messo  in  con- 
dizioni  di  essere  venduto  come  Summer  Oil. 

La  lavorazione  del  seme  fu  trovata  necessaria  perche 
causa  le  forti  spese  di  trasporto,  si  era  neirimpossibilita 
di  venderlo  sul  mercato  europeo,  mentre  che  il  mercato 
locale  non  poteva  smaltire  che  la  piccola  parte  utilizzata 
come  seme.  L'olio  prodotto  fu  bene  accolto  in  Colonia 
ed  oggi  si  e  costituita  sul  mercato  una  specie  di  marca 
assai  riputata. 

Per  facilitare  il  grave  quesito  della  mano  d'opera,  si 
e  dovuto  provvedere  ad  un  impianto  di  macinazione  della 
farina  e  cio  nei  vari  centri  dove  la  coltura  e  maggior- 
mente  sviluppata;  cosi  fu  messo  un  mulino  a  due  macine 
in  Agordat  ed  a  Massaua  ed  una  macina  in  Carcabat. 

Lo  studio  del  combustibile  ha  pure  trascinato  al- 
1'organizzazione  di  un'altra  industria.  Non  potendo 
calcolare  sul  carbone  che,  data  la  distanza,  assumeva  un 
valore  favoloso  e  non  disponendo  di  boschi  sufficiente- 
mente  vasti  che  fornissero  combustibili  senza  procedere 
alia  distruzione  dei  boschi  stessi  severamente  vietata  dal 
Governo,  si  usufrui  come  combustibile  il  frutto  della 
palma  Dum,  ma  questa  trovo  subito  utile  applicazione 
nell'industria  dei  bottoni  e  non  volendo  distruggere  un 


284  COTTON 

valore  considerevole,  fu  attivato  il  commercio  di  queste 
noci  sgusciate  ed  anche  ridotte  in  fette  e  fu  utilizzato 
come  combustile  lo  scarto  del  nocciolo  dum  che  assieme 
alia  buccia  di  seme  e  parte  di  pannello  non  ancora  utiliz- 
zato, formano  il  combustibile  necessario  pel  regolare 
funzionamento  della  forza  motrice  necessaria  agli  impianti 
sociali. 

Nei  vari  impianti  sopra  enumerati,  furono  immobiliz- 
zate  circa  L. 600,000  ed  essi  nel  loro  insieme,  costituiscono 
un  impianto  coloniale  tipico. 

Fu  certamente  speciale  benemerenza  della  Societa 
quella  d'aver  potuto  formare  una  manualanza  industrial 
perfettamente  indigena,  cosicche  negli  opifici  sociali, 
all'infuoridei  capi  officina  che  sono  bianchi,  tutto  il 
rimanente  personale  e  indigeno  ed  esso  accudisce  alle  piu 
delicate  mansioni  necessarie  per  il  perfetto  funzionamento 
del  macchinario. 


Sarebbe  troppo  lungo  analizzare  partitamente  tutto  lo 
svolgersi  del  lavoro  fatto  dalla  Societa  dal  terzo  al  decimo 
anno,  ci  limiteremo  ad  accennare  i  punti  di  maggior 
interesse. 

Avuta  la  sicurezza  riguardo  la  bonta  del  seme  impiegato 
e  1'adattabilita  del  terrene  alia  coltura  cotonaria,  emerse 
la  necessita  di  abbandonare  il  carattere  sperimentale,  per 
dedicarsi  allo  sviluppo  di  quelle  zone  che  furono  trovate 
idonee  e  qui  si  e  presentato  in  tutta  la  sua  importanza  il 
grave  problema  della  sistemazione  idraulica  in  modo  che 
le  acque  dei  fiumi  potessero  venire  trattenute  sul  terreno 
nella  quantita  necessaria  per  garantire  1'andamento 
regolare  della  coltura  dalla  semina,  al  raccolto. 

L'esperienza  aveva  dimostrato  che  se  per  piccoli  appez- 
zamenti  1'utilizzazione  degli  allagamenti  non  presentava 
speciale  difficolta,  quando  si  e  dovuto  aumentare  la  super- 
ficie  da  porsi  a  coltura  e  conseguentemente  il  terreno  fu 
preparato,  pulito  da  ogni  genere  di  vegetazione,  le  acque 
non  trattenute  da  nessun  ostacolo  a  poco  a  poco  si 
formarono  un  letto  scorrente  al  dissotto  del  livello 
normale,  lasciando  nella  piu  assoluta  siccita  i  terreni 
circostanti.  Da  qui  emerse  la  necessita  di  una  razionale 


COTTON  285 

sistemazione  idraulica  e  quindi  lo  studio  della  portata  del 
fitimi  e  conseguente  resistenza  degli  sbarramenti. 

Questo  studio  fu  il  piu  gravoso  e  cui  la  Societa  dovette 
sottostare  e  cio  a  causa  di  molteplici  lavori  idraulici 
dovuti  fare  per  stabilire  1'esatta  portata  delle  piene  e  la 
resistenza  degli  sbarramenti,  opera  piu  di  Governo  che 
di  Societa  privata.  II  risultato  di  questi  studi  fu  sotto- 
posto  aU'esame  del  Governo  Coloniale  spingendolo  ad 
assumersi  la  sistemazione  definitiva  delle  varie  zone  della 
Societa  dimostrate  atte  alia  coltura  cotonaria. 

Lo  sviluppo  della  coltura  cotonaria  e  piu  che  mai  legata 
alle  sistemazioni  idrauliche,  perche  Tindigeno  a  malin- 
cuore  dedica,  ad  una  coltivazione  per  lui  nuova,  i  terreni 
naturalmente  allagati,  che  per  abitudine  e  necessita 
vengono  riservati  alia  coltivazione  della  dura  e  del  Bultuc 
e  cambiandone  la  destinazione  si  diminuisce  la  produzione 
e  si  aumenta  il  costo  dei  generi  di  prima  necessita;  se  a 
questa  tendenza  si  aggiungono  alcune  annate  sfvavorevoli 
per  siccita  o  cavallette,  si  capisce  come  si  sia  venuto 
tormando  presso  1'indigeno  uno  stato  d'animo  tale  che 
gli  fa  considerare  il  dedicarsi  alia  coltura  cotonaria  cosa 
per  lui  dannosa  ed  oppone  una  sorda  ostilita  allo  sviluppo 
di  questa  coltura.  Da  cio  la  necessita  da  parte  del 
Governo  di  bonificare  terreni  nuovi  per  fronteggiare 
1'impressionante  diminuzione  della  coltura  cotonaria 
riscontrato  nei  due  ultimi  anni  e  preparare  la  base  di  un 
forte  sviluppo  successive. 

La  Societa  in  seguito  a  ponderato  studio  e  venuta 
introducendo  nei  rapporti  suoi  cogli  indigeni  un  contratto 
di  lavoro  a  colonia  basato  sul  principle  di  dare  all'indigeno 
la  terra  bonificata,  garantir  gli  un  determinate  numero  di 
giornate  di  lavoro  a  prezzo  stabilito  in  modo  che  con 
queste  provento  1'indigeno  possa  far  fronte  alia  spesa  per 
la  farina  fornita  dalla  Societa  e  per  lui  necessaria  pel 
sostentamento  della  famiglia. 

La  Societa  fornisce  pure  gratuitamente  1'acqua, 
garantisce  1'acquisto  del  raccolto  a  condizioni  precedente- 
mente  stabilite  d'accordo  col  Governo;  per  contro  la 
Societa,  quale  compenso  per  1'organizzazione  del  lavoro, 
percepisce  dall'indigeno  un  quarto  del  raccolto. 

Questo    sistema   applicato    gia   da    due    anni,    ha   dato 


286  COTTON 

buoni  risultati,  permettendo  all'indigeno  di  procurarsi  un 
equo  guadagno  quando  circostanze  special!  climateriche 
non  decimino  o  distruggano  il  raccolto;  per  contro  la 
Societa  elimina  ogni  rischio  colturale  o  per  lo  meno  nel 
caso  piu  disgraziato  limita  la  perdita  airammontare  della 
farina  anticipata  durante  1'anno  e  nel  caso  favorevole, 
potendo  disporre  del  quarto  del  raccolto,  e  in  condizione 
di  far  fronte  alle  spese  di  organizzazione  ed  anche  assi- 
curarsi  un  discrete  utile. 

Questo  tenace  lavoro  di  esperienze  e  di  indagini 
richiese  alia  Societa  sette  anni  di  indefessa  applicazione 
e  se  le  risultanze  finanziarie  furono  per  lei  veramente 
onerose,  essa  pero  ha  portato  il  problema  della  coltura 
cotonaria  al  punto  di  poter  essere  convenientemente 
sviluppato  dal  Governo  della  Colonia  Eritrea  senza  ecces- 
sivi  rischi  e  con  vantaggio  della  Colonia  stessa.  In  una 
relazione  particolareggiata  la  Societa  espose  al  Governo 
i  risultati  ottenuti  e  prospetto  un  programma  di  lavoro 
da  svolgersi,  ed  il  Ministero  delle  Colonie  assieme  al 
Governo  dell'Eritrea,  accettando  le  conclusioni  proposte 
dalla  Societa,  merce  1'autorevole  interessamente  di  S.E. 
II  Governatore  Marchese  Salvage  Raggi,  hanno  formu- 
late un  programma  che  in  parte  fu  gia  approvato  dal 
Parlamento  ed  in  parte  lo  sara  tra  breve. 


I  provvedimenti  necessari  per  lo  sviluppo  della  coltura 
cotonaria  si  riassumono  come  segue  :  — 

Progressiva  sistemazione  idraulica  delle  zone  dimostrate 
atte  alia  coltura  cotonaria. 

Sistemazione  dei  trasporti  fra  Agordat  e  Massaua- 
Sistemazione  del  porto  di  Massaua  e  delle  linee  di  navi- 
g'azione  perche  Tinoltro  della  merce  sia  sollecito  e  poco 
costoso. 

Per  1'effettuazione  dei  lavori  idraulici  il  Governo 
Coloniale  ha  stabilito  una  cifra  annuale  di  circa  mezzo 
milione  per  un  periodo  di  dieci  anni  e  con  questa  somma 
intrapprende  la  bonifica  successiva  delle  zone  dalla 
Societa  segnate  come  atte  alia  coltura,  dedicando  a 
ciascuna  di  esse  a  seconda  del  caso  200  e  300  mila  lire 
ottenendo  cosi  dei  centri  di  2,000/3,000  ea.  ciascuno. 


COTTON  287 

Fu  preferito  il  sistema  di  piccple  bonifiche  in  consider- 
azione  della  difficolta  di  grossi  concentramenti  di  mano 
d'opera  cercando  cosi  di  destinare  ogni  bonifica  alle 
singole  tribu,  del  luogo  perche  possano  con  maggior 
facilita  dedicarsi  alle  coltura.  Mentre  che  se  si  dovessero 
fare  delle  sistemazioni  di  molte  migliaia  di  ettari,  ben 
difficilmente  nel  momento  presente  si  potrebbe  concen- 
trare  sufficiente  mano  d'opera,  perche  questa  si  sposta 
difficilmente  dalla  zona  ove  essa  abitualmente  vive. 

II  Governo  fara  pagare  un  canone  che  corrispondera 
all  interesse  del  denaro  impiegato,  piu  una  percentuale 
per  la  manutenzione  e  rammortizzo  e  questa  base  si  puo 
ritenere  equa  quando  il  Governo  garantisca  che  il  terreno 
sia  allagato  sufficentemente  per  portare  a  buon  fine  il 
raccolto. 

II  primo  esperimento  di  questo  genere  fu  fatto  lungo 
il  litorale  della  colonia  valendosi  delle  torbide  del  fiume 
Falcat.  Un'altro  centre  di  coltura  bonificato  sara  Car- 
cabat  dove  si  svolsero  gli  esperimenti  idraulici  fatti  dalla 
Societa.  Se  questo  programma  sara  messo  in  esecuzione 
in  modo  continuativo  e  razionale,  ben  presto  la  coltura 
cotonaria  della  Colonia  potra  dare  un  confortante 
risultato  riguardo  ai  quantitativi ;  e  la  Colonia  Eritrea 
potra  degnamente  figurare  nella  lotta  che  tutti  gli  Stati 
Europei  sostengono  per  svincolarsi  dal  mercato 
Americano. 

Per  le  sistemazione  dei  trasporti,  il  Governo  ha  disposto 
in  modo  che  la  ferrovia  sia  prolungata  fino  al  centre 
cotonario  e  questo  programma  per  esser  posto  in  effetto, 
necessita  di  qualche  anno  di  lavoro  e  cio  perche  il  primo 
tratto  ferroviario  si  svolge  in  regioni  montagnose  che  non 
permettono  il  sollecito  proseguire  del  lavoro.  II  giorno 
che  da  Agordat  si  potranno  inviare  al  mare  le  varie  merci 
a  mezzo  di  ferrovia,  potremo  dire  di  avere  superato  una 
delle  maggiori  difficolta,  perche  i  trasporti,  come  oggi  sono 
effettuati,  rappresentano  una  sensibile  spesa  e  sopratutto 
hanno  il  carattere  di  eccezziole  lentezza  che  rende  assai 
lunga  la  smobilizzazione  dei  capitali.  Mentre  oggi  dal- 
1'acquisto  del  cotone  alia  vendita,  possiamo  considerare 
un  periodo  di  almeno  tre  mesi,  colla  ferrovia  noi  ridur- 
remo  questo  periodo  di  tempo  ad  un  terzo  e  ognuno  si 
TO 


288  COTTON 

puo  immaginare  con  quale  vantaggio.  La  sistemazione 
del  porto  di  Massaua  permettera  1'imbarco  diretto  da 
vagone  a  vapore,  costituendo  cio  una  sensibilissima 
economia  in  confronto  al  sistema  oggi  usato. 

Riassumendo :  La  Societa,  in  died  anni  di  lavoro  ha 
potuto  dare  la  prova  dell'adattabilita  delle  terre  Eritrea 
alia  coltura  cotonaria,  ha  studiato  e  trovato  il  seme  adatto 
al  terreno,  il  sistema  di  coltura,  ha  segnato  la  via  da 
seguirsi  nei  rapporti  tra  industriale  e  coltivatore  indigeno, 
infine  ha  ottenuto  che  il  Gbverno  dedicasse  i  capitali 
necessari  perche  la  coltura  possa  avere  quello  sviluppo 
che  ognuno  desidera  e  di  cui  la  Colonia  e  suscettibile.  I 
sacrifici  dalla  Societa  sopportati  per  raggiungere  lo  scopo 
prefisso,  furono  sensibilissimi  se  esaminati  in  confronto 
al  capitale  di  cui  disponeva,  ma  puo  con  orgoglio  ritenere 
di  aver  fatto  opera  veramente  meritoria  ed  ora  spetta  al 
Governo  ed  ai  cotonieri  Italiani  di  dare  impulse  a  questa 
iniziativa,  perche  con  sforzo  collettivo  si  raggiunga  quel 
tanto  desiderate  sviluppo  della  coltura  cotonaria,  che 
possa  portare  un  sensibile  aiuto  alia  industria  Europea 
che  vuof  svincolarsi  daU'egemonia  Americana. 


THE  COTTON  INDUSTRY  OF  THE  NORTHERN 
PROVINCES  OF  NIGERIA. 

By  P.  H.  LAMB. 
Director  of  Agriculture,  Northern  Provinces,  Nigeria. 

COTTON  has  been  widely  grown  in  the  Northern 
Provinces  of  Nigeria  from  time  immemorial.  When 
the  earliest  European  travellers  first  visited  the  country 
they  found  the  Hausas  dressed  in  cotton  clothes  of  their 
own  making.  Not  only  was  cotton  cultivation  general, 
but  spinning  and  weaving  were  then,  as  now,  most 
important  occupations  of  the  people.  Indigo  was  grown 
as  a  field  crop,  and  dye  pits  were  to  be  found  k  every 
village  of  any  size.  All  this  is  still  going  on,  in  spite  oi 
the  advent  of  the  white  man  and  the  opening  up  of 
markets  where  cotton  goods  are  offered  for  sale.  The 
native  in  many  cases  still  prefers  his  hard-wearing  home 
spun  to  the  more  showy  and  cheaper,  but  less  durable, 
Lancashire  cloth.  As,  however,  the  manufacturer  comes 
to  study  more  closely  the  requirements  of  the  people, 
this  state  of  things  will  doubtless  gradually  alter. 

The  fact  that  cotton  cultivation  had  been  established 
for  so  long  in  Nigeria  may  lead  many  people  to  suppose 
that  the  conditions  there  must  be  admirably  suited  to 
cotton  production  on  a  large  scale,  and  it  has  resulted 
in  most  extravagant  statements  being  made  to  the  effect 
that  Nigeria  could  in  the  course  of  a  few  years  supply 
the  whole  of  Lancashire's  requirements.  Those  re 
sponsible  for  such  ideas,  however,  apparently  entirely 
lost  sight  of  the  fact  that  the  conditions  necessary  to 
enable  the  native  to  grow  cotton  in  sufficient  quantities 
to  supply  his  own  requirements  were  very  different  from 
those  which  would  enable  him  to  compete  in  the  world's 
markets. 

All   that    the    Nigerian    native    wanted    was    to    clothe 
himself  and   his   family  according  to  the   custom   of  his 


290  COTTON 

tribe.  He  did  not  stop  to  consider  whether  the  yield  of 
his  crop  was  large  or  small,  or  whether  the  staple  was 
long  or  short,  as  compared  with  that  of  other  countries. 
But  when  we  come  to  consider  the  possibilities  of  Nigeria 
as  a  producer  of  cotton  for  the  world's  markets  the 
aspect  of  things  is  entirely  altered. 

The  only  way  by  which  the  native  can  be  induced  to 
produce  a  crop  for  export  is  to  create  in  him  the  desire 
for  money.  He  will  then  strive  to  gratify  that  desire  by 
the  easiest  method  possible.  In  other  words,  he  will  do 
the  work,  or  grow  the  crop,  that  will  yield  him  the  best 
return  for  his  labour.  That  is  the  crucial  test,  and  it  is 
by  this  test  that  cotton  must  ultimately  rise  or  fall  in 
Nigeria.  When  viewed  in  this  light,  questions  as  to 
what  is  the  yield  per  acre,  what  is  the  length  and  quality 
of  the  staple,  and  what  is  the  ginning  percentage,  become 
all-important,  for  they  determine  what  return  the  pro- 
ducer will  get  for  his  labour.  It  is  the  answer  to  this 
question  which  determines  what  shall  be  the  leading  crop 
or  crops  in  every  country,  and  it  naturally  results  in  a 
definite  geographical  distribution  of  the  commercial 
products  of  the  world  into  those  countries  best  adapted 
for  the  production  of  each. 

The  rapid  opening  up  of  Nigeria  to  trade  is  resulting 
not  only  in  a  demand  for  cotton,  but  for  ground  nuts, 
cereals,  and  raw  products  of  every  description.  There 
are  in  consequence  many  ways  open  to  the  native  by 
which  he  may  earn  money,  and  the  question  as  to 
whether  cotton  cultivation  will  be  among  the  chief  of 
them  is  just  now  being  weighed  in  the  balance.  At 
present  the  tendency  is  to  plant  ground  nuts  in  prefer- 
ence to  cotton.  The  popularity  of  this  valuable  crop  may 
be  gauged  by  the  fact  that  the  export  of  ground  nuts 
(mainly  decorticated)  has  increased  nearly  tenfold  in  a 
single  year.  There  is  no  doubt  that  the  Northern 
Provinces  of  Nigeria  as  a  whole  are  admirably  adapted 
for  the  production  of  this  oil  seed,  and  that  unless  cotton 
cultivation  can  be  made  much  more  profitable  than  it  is 
at  present  it  will  receive  but  scant  attention. 

The  British  Cotton  Growing  Association  have  for  some 
years  past  spared  no  trouble  or  expense  to  develop  the 


COTTON  291 

cotton-producing  potentialities  of  the  Northern  Provinces 
of  Nigeria.  An  account  of  the  cotton  industry  of  that 
country  would  therefore  be  incomplete  without  mention 
of  the  work  which  they  have  done  and  the  results  so  far 
obtained.  A  uniform  price  of  id.  per  Ib.  has  been  offered 
to  the  natives  for  all  seed-cotton.  Ginneries  have  been 
erected  on  the  main  transport  routes  for  dealing  with 
the  crop,  the  lint  being  made  up  by  means  of  hydraulic 
presses  into  400  Ib.  bales,  in  which  form  it  is  shipped  to 
Liverpool.  Furthermore,  large  quantities  of  seed  have 
been  distributed  annually  through  the  Chiefs  to  th^ 
peasantry  free  of  charge,  so  that  nobody  who  desired  to 
grow  cotton  should  be  prevented  from  doing  so  by  lack 
of  seed. 

At  present  three  power  ginneries  are  maintained  by 
the  Association.  One  of  these  has  been  working  since 
1906  at  Lokoja — the  confluence  of  the  Niger  and  Benue 
rivers — and  last  year  shipped  339  bales.  The  other  two 
plants  are  situated  at  Zaria  and  Ibi  respectively,  and  were 
started  in  1912.  Their  joint  output  for  last  year  (1913) 
was  1,506  bales. 

It  will  thus  be  seen  that  hitherto  the  output  of  cotton 
from  the  Northern  Provinces  has  been  quite  small.  It 
has,  moreover,  been  derived  purely  from  unimproved 
cottons  of  local  origin.  A  brief  survey  will  now  be  given 
of  these  indigenous  cottons,  and  of  the  steps  which  have 
been  taken  by  the  Agricultural  Department  during  the 
past  year  to  improve  the  prospects  of  cotton  cultivation. 

The  principal  species  in  cultivation  at  the  present  time 
are  the  following  :  — • 

Gossypium  peruvianum,   two  varieties. 
,,          punctatum. 
,,  obtusifolium  var.   africana. 

,,          arboreum  var.  sanguine  a. 

By  far  the  most  widely  cultivated  is  Gossypium  peru- 
vianum, which  develops  into  a  strong-growing  woody 
plant.  The  bolls  are  small,  and  the  crop  seldom  seems 
to  yield  under  native  cultivation  more  than  250  Ib.  of 
seed-cotton  per  acre,  but  generally  not  as  much.  The 
length  of  staple  is  generally  less  than  an  inch. 


2Q2  COTTON 

The  variety  grown  around  Zaria  is  characterized  by  a 
dark  red  stem,  this  coloration  extending  to  the  leaf  veins 
and  in  a  lesser  degree  to  the  leaves  themselves,  reminding 
one  forcibly  of  the  American  Upland  variety,  "  Willet's 
red-leaf."  The  lint  is  cream-tinted,  being  in  this  respect 
like  the  Mitafifi  of  Egypt.  The  local  variety  of  Gossy- 
pium  peruvianum  found  in  the  locality  of  Ilorin  has  much 
the  same  habit  of  growth,  but  does  not  possess  the 
peculiar  coloration  noted  above;  its  lint,  moreover,  is 
not  so  deeply  tinted,  while  its  ginning  percentage  is  only 
about  28,  as  against  that  of  the  Zaria  variety,  which  works 
out  on  the  average  at  33. 

Gossypium  punctatum,  which  is  regarded  as  being  the 
wild  form  of  Gossypium  hirsutum,  is  found  in  general 
cultivation  around  Kano.  Last  year,  on  a  trial  plot  of 
five  acres,  it  yielded  268  Ib.  per  acre,  but  as  it  gave  only 
25'37  Per  cent,  of  lint  on  ginning,  it  cannot  be  regarded 
as  a  profitable  kind  of  cotton  for  the  ginner  to  buy.  The 
staple  is  about  f  in.  long. 

Gossypium  obtusifolium  var.  africana  is  grown  as  a 
perennial  in  the  north,  where  the  rainfall  is  too  small 
and  unreliable  to  support  a  more  prolific  variety.  Its 
yield  is  small,  the  ginning  percentage  low,  and  the  staple 
very  short.  These  features  render  it  quite  unsuitable  for 
export. 

Gossypium  arboreum  var.  sanguined  has  nowhere  been 
observed  as  a  field  crop,  but  a  few  plants  may  often  'be 
seen  around  compounds.  It  is  used  by  the  natives  for 
the  preparation  of  a  medicine.  Always  grown  as  a 
perennial,  it  comes  to  maturity  very  slowly,  and  its  yield 
appears  to  be  very  small,  though  the  lint  is  long,  strong, 
and  silky. 

Further  particulars  as  to  the  botanical  characteristics 
of  the  above  species  may  be  found  in  Watt's  book  on 
"  The  Wild  and  Cultivated  Cotton  Plants  of  the  World." 

Early  in  1913  the  recently  formed  Department  of 
Agriculture  decided  to  open  experimental  farms  in  two 
of  the  most  promising  centres  for  cotton  cultivation, 
with  the  object  of  studying  the  native  indigenous  cotton 
of  each  district,  and  of  testing  its  qualities  against  those 
of  well-known  and  improved  exotic  varieties.  The  sites 


COTTON 


293 


chosen  for  this  work  were  situated  in  the  Zaria  and  Ilorin 
Provinces  respectively,  the  former  representing  the  more 
arid  conditions  of  the  north,  whereas  the  latter  is  situated 
some  200  miles  further  south,  where  the  rainfall  is 
heavier  and  the  atmosphere  more  humid.  A  parallel 
series  of  variety  tests  was  carried  out  at  each  of  these 
places.  The  following  table  gives  their  respective  rain- 
falls for  1913: — 


January 

February 

March 

April 

May 

June 

July 

August 

September 

October 

November 

December 

Total 


ZARIA.                                 ILORIN. 

MthaeSfIrm°n        At  Headquarters.     On  the  farm. 

Inches                     Inches                       Inches 

Nil 

— 

Nil 

0-03 

Nil 
075 

0-14 

£g 

...No  available 
records 

i  -55 

7-28 

4'V 

4-86 

10-13 

10-96         ...       13-87 

7-10 

8-57         ...       11-30 

o'95 

2-65         ...         4-83 

Nil 

Nil 

Nil 

-          ...        Nil 

27-90 


43-82 


The  exotic  varieties  chosen  for  trial  were  Allen's 
Improved  (Uganda  seed),  Nyasaland  Upland  (the  acclima- 
tized cotton  of  Nyasaland),  and  Durango  (one  of  the 
latest  improved  American  types).  Ten  acres  of  each  of 
the  imported  varieties  were  grown  at  each  farm,  as  well 
as  five  acres  of  the  native  local  variety.  The  idea  of 
having  such  large  plots  was  to  eliminate  as  far  as  possible 
field  errors  due  to  variations  of  soil,  and  at  the  same 
time  to  secure  for  propagation  the  following  year  appre- 
ciable quantities  of  any  variety  which  should  give 
promising  results. 

The  Zaria  farm  was  manured  by  the  usual  native 
method  of  kraaling  cattle  on  the  land  at  night.  The 
amount  of  manure  applied  in  this  way  was  estimated  at 
three  tons  per  acre.  No  manure  was  applied  to  the  Ilorin 
farm,  as  the  land  had  not  been  cultivated  for  some  years, 
and,  moreover,  no  manure  was  available. 

Two  sowings  took  place — in  June  and  July  respectively 
— in  order  to  minimize  as  far  as  possible  risks  occasioned 
by  the  weather. 


294 


COTTON 


The  following  table  gives  the  comparative  results :  — 


ZARIA 


ILOKIN 


Variety 

Average  yield  of 

Average 
yield  of 
seed- 
cotton 
per  acre 

Ginning 
percent- 
age 

Selling 
price  of 
seed- 
cotton 

Gross  return 
per  acre 

seed-cotton 
per  acre 

On 

large 

On 
i  -acre 

plots 

plots 

lb. 

£  s.    a. 

lb. 

lb. 

Allen 

391 

29-83 

ijd, 

2      8    II 

63 

61 

Nyasaland 

277 

31-10 

i|d. 

in     9 

54 

101 

Durango    ... 

237 

3I-08 

ifd. 

I       8      2 

55 

69 

Zaria          ^ 

| 

Native  - 

"Gwundi"  1 
Ilorin           f 

284 

30*97 

rid. 

i     6    8 

63 

121 

"Ishan"    J 

It  will  be  noticed  that  the  yield  at  Zaria  is  greatly  in 
excess  of  that  at  Ilorin,  and  this,  in  spite  of  the  fact  that, 
owing  to  scarcity  of  rain  in  the  earlier  part  of  the  season, 
it  was  found  impossible  to  cultivate  the  soil  at  Zaria  more 
than  4  in.  deep,  whereas  that  at  Ilorin  was  thoroughly 
prepared  to  a  depth  of  8  in.  Nor  can  the  difference  be 
accounted  for  by  irregularity  of  stand  or  stunted  growth, 
since  in  both  these  respects  the  Ilorin  farm  compared 
very  favourably  with  that  at  Zaria.. 

The  cause  of  the  almost  complete  failure  of  the  Ilorin 
crop  was  boll-shedding.  The  same  trouble  was  encoun- 
tered, but  to  a  less  extent,  at  Zaria.  Boll-shedding  is,  of 
course,  a  well-known  phenomenon  in  every  cotton-grow- 
ing country,  but  on  so  wholesale  a  scale  as  occurred  in 
the  Ilorin  Province  last  year  it  is  absolutely  disastrous. 
Excessive  humidity  or  drought,  and  more  especially 
marked  alternations  of  these  conditions,  are  its  recognized 
causes.  The  last-named  seems  to  have  been  mainly 
responsible  at  Zaria,  where  the  rain  often  falls  in  very 
intermittent  storms.  At  Ilorin,  however,  Mr.  Thornton 
— who,  before  he  joined  the  Department,  had  been 
engaged  in  cotton  growing  for  some  years  in  the  West 
Indies — attributes  this  abnormal  boll-shedding  mainly  to 
excess  of  rainfall  and  cloudy  weather  during  the  flower- 
ing season,  when  the  plant  requires  copious  sunshine  with 
occasional  gentle  showers. 


COTTON  295 

Referring  to  this  subject,  he  says :  "  During  the  wet 
season  there  was  a  continual  heavy  shedding  of  buds  and 
bolls,  and  the  shedding  of  these  increased  after  a  day  or 
days  of  greater  humidity.  Shedding  decreased  when  the 
dry  weather  set  in,  and  again  increased  shortly  after- 
wards, but  later  decreased  again  after  the  plants  had 
had  a  chance  to  accommodate  themselves  to  the  changed 
conditions. 

"  During  the  months  of  August  and  September,  and 
early  in  October,  when  the  buds  were  forming  and  flower- 
ing was  taking  place,  the  atmosphere  was  very  damp  and 
the  sky  almost  continually  cloudy." 

Continuing,  he  says:  "  It  might  be  suggested  that  it 
would  be  advisable  to  plant  cotton  at  a  time  such  that 
the  formation  of  buds  and  flowers  would  take  place  after 
such  unfavourable  months  were  past. 

"  But  then  it  must  be  remembered  that  directly  after 
this  wet  period  conditions  change  entirely  round,  and  a 
drought  sets  in  just  as  severe  as  it  has  previously  been 
damp.  And,  as  the  soil  is  very  porous,  with  little  power 
of  retaining  moisture,  there  would  be  very  little  chance 
of  the  plants  developing  any  size  whatever  to  carry  a 
crop.  It  is  true  that  August  this  year  was  a  very  wet 
month,  whereas  it  is  usually  a  very  dry  one.  This  doubt- 
less would  affect  the  plants  more  than  in  a  normal  year, 
so  that  one  cannot  draw  positive  conclusions  from  one 
year's  work." 

In  addition  to  the  injury  4ue  to  climatic  causes,  an 
immense  amount  of  harm  was  done  on  the  Ilorin  farm 
by  boll  worm.  It  was  proved  that  200  per  cent,  of  the 
bolls  were  wholly  or  partially  destroyed  by  this  insect. 
The  worm  most  largely  responsible  for  the  damage  was 
identified  by  the  Imperial  Bureau  of  Entomology  as 
Earias  cupreozriridis,  and  it  was  stated  that  this  insect 
had  not  previously  been  reported  as  attacking  the  cotton 
boll.  Efforts  are  being  made  by  the  Department  to  make 
the  annual  uprooting  and  burning  of  cotton  plants  com- 
pulsory in  order  to  keep  this  and  other  insect  pests  in 
check.  In  a  territory  of  such  enormous  size,  however, 
where  cotton  has  been  cultivated  by  careless  methods 
for  generations,  it  is  extremely  difficult  to  enforce  such 


296  COTTON 

a  measure  without  legislation.  Though  such  legislation 
would  undoubtedly  in  the  long  run  be  in  the  interests  of 
cotton  cultivation,  it  is  feared  by  some  that  it  might  for 
the  time  being  cause  a  set-back  in  certain  districts. 

The  natives  of  Ilorin  seldom  cultivate  cotton  by  itself, 
but  generally  in  conjunction  with  yams,  the  cotton  being 
considered  as  of  quite  secondary  importance.  Our  results 
in  Ilorin  this  year  certainly  tend  to 'justify  this  practice, 
as  the  yields  so  far  observed  are  not  large  enough  to 
warrant  the  amount  of  labour  involved  in  treating  it  as 
a  main  crop. 

At  Zaria  the  results  were  much  more  positive,  and 
though  the  yields  are  not  large  when  compared  with  those 
of  other  countries,  they  must  be  regarded  as  a  satisfactory 
beginning.  The  best  acre  of  cotton  on  the  farm  yielded 
627  Ib.  of  seed-cotton.  This  plot  was  well  manured,  and 
was  planted  with  Allen's  Improved  seed  from  Uganda. 
It  was  not  part  of  the  variety  test. 

Durango  turned  out  to  be  the  poorest  of  the  exotic 
varieties,  not  only  in  yield,  but  also  in  strength  of  lint. 
It  was  chiefly  remarkable  for  the  immense  size  of  its  bolls. 

The  Allen's  Improved  and  Nyasaland  were  both  very 
satisfactory  in  the  earlier  pickings,  but  the  later  pick- 
ings were  in  every  case  weak.  This  weakness  is  almost 
certainly  due  to  the  fact  that  during  the  harmattan — a 
noxious  wind  which  blows  from  the  desert  during  the 
dry  season — the  plant  dries  up  before  it  has  time 
thoroughly  to  mature  the  bolls  which  set  after  the 
rains  are  finished,  and  consequently,  though  such  bolls 
ultimately  open,  their  lint  consists  in  reality  of  dried 
immature  fibres.  The  smallness  of  the  yield  of  Nyasa- 
land Upland  as  compared  with  Allen's  Improved — 277  Ib. 
against  391  Ib. — may  largely  be  accounted  for  by  the 
irregular  germination  of  the  Nyasaland  seed,  which 
resulted  in  an  uneven  stand  of  plants.  It  is  anticipated 
that  with  locally  grown  seed  this  apparent  shortcoming 
will  disappear  in  the  next  crop.  Several  natives  have 
already  agreed  to  grow  these  two  varieties  in  1914  from 
seed  raised  on  the  Zaria  farm  in  1913,  and  we  hope  by 
this  means  to  get  750  acres  of  long-staple  cotton  under 
cultivation  this  year.  It  is  proposed  to  have  the  whole 


COTTON  297 

of  the  work  carried  out  under  native  overseers,  in  order 
to  minimize  any  possibility  of  this  choice  seed  becoming 
mixed  with  native  varieties.  The  whole  of  the  resulting 
crop  will  be  purchased  at  an  enhanced  price,  warranted 
by  the  superior  quality  of  the  staple.  The  seed  will  thus 
become  available  for  redistribution.  Should  these  im- 
proved varieties  continue  to  give  satisfactory  returns 
(which  becomes  increasingly  likely  as  they  become 
acclimatized  the  more  perfectly  to  their  new  environment) 
their  popularity  will  soon  become  so  well  established  that 
they  will  ultimately  replace  the  indigenous  species. 

All  that  can  be  expected  of  a  Government  cotton-seed 
farm  is  to  introduce  and  test  improved  varieties.  The 
subsequent  propagation  of  the  selected  variety  must 
always  be  done  with  the  co-operation  of  a  group  of 
cultivators,  the  area  cultivated  extending  annually  from 
the  centre  as  the  supply  of  seed  becomes  available  in 
larger  quantities.  This  system  has  been  proved  again 
and  again,  not  only  in  America,  but  more  recently  in 
India,  Egypt,  Uganda,  and  Nyasaland. 

While  thus  endeavouring  to  improve  the  quality  of  the 
cotton  of  Nigeria  as  well  as  the  yield  per  acre,  the  import- 
ance of  reducing  the  cost  of  production  by  more  up-to- 
date  methods  of  cultivation  is  not  being  lost  sight  of.  At 
present  practically  the  whole  of  the  arable  land  of  Nigeria 
is  turned  over  by  hand;  but  on  the  Zaria  farm  last  year 
a  start  was  made  in  the  use  of  implements  by  employing 
cultivators  drawn  by  cattle  to  work  the  land  under  cotton. 
It  is  intended  during  the  coming  season  greatly  to  extend 
this  work,  and  if  possible  to  induce  natives  to  cultivate 
their  own  land  by  similar  means,  thus  enabling  them  to 
employ  their  time  to  greater  advantage  than  hitherto. 

By  this  means  alone  the  agricultural  wealth  of  the 
community  is  capable  of  enormous  expansion. 


THE  PRODUCTION  OP  FINE  SEA  ISLAND  COTTON  IN 
THE  WEST  INDIES,  WITH  PARTICULAR  REFER- 
ENCE TO  THE  ST.  VINCENT  INDUSTRY. 

By  W.  N.  SANDS,  F.L.S. 
Agricultural  Superintendent,  St.   Vincent. 

AT  least  130  years  ago  a  fine  cotton,  presumably  Sea 
Island,  was  grown  in  the  West  Indies,  but  according  to 
Sir  George  Watt,  in  his  book,  "  The  Wild  and  Cultivated 
Cotton  Plants  of  the  World,"  p.  270,  ''There  is  little  or 
no  evidence  in  support  of  the  belief  that  Sea  Island  cotton 
is  indigenous  to  Barbados,  nor  in  fact  to  any  of  the  West 
Indian  Islands,"  and  he  further  states  "  that  it  is  highly 
probable  that  the  modern  stock  is  a  hybrid,"  Again  on 
p.  272  he  writes:  "Although  it  is  known  that  much 
intimacy  existed  between  the  early  West  Indian  and 
American  colonists,  still  the  first  direct  mention  of  the 
conveyance  of  cotton  seed  from  these  islands  to  the  main- 
land occurs  in  the  year  1785.  I  have  been  told  (though  I 
have  not  been  able  to  confirm  the  statement)  that  there 
is  an  older  record  regarding  Charleston,  in  which  mention 
is  made  of  cotton  being  sent  from  the  West  Indies  to 
America  in  1714.  It  is  recorded  of  1785,  however,  that 
what  appears  to  have  been  Sea  Island  cotton  was  first 
produced  in  Georgia  from  seed  obtained  from  the 
Bahamas.  In  1789  we  next  read  of  cotton  seed,  possibly 
Sea  Island,  having  been  sent  from  Jamaica  to  Georgia, 
but  there  seems  to  be  some  confusion,  since  it  is  at  the 
same  time  spoken  of  as  '  Pernambuco  cotton.'  This 
much,  however,  appears  fairly  certain — namely,  that  the 
cotton  first  exported  from  the  United  States  went  from 
Virginia  and  North  Carolina,  and  was  accordingly  not 
likely  to  be  anything  but  '  Levant  '  cotton — it  certainly 
could  not  have  been  Sea  Island — so  that  it  is  perhaps  safe 
to  infer  that  the  United  States  of  America  obtained  their 
stock  of  the  Sea  Island  plant  very  possibly  through  th*» 


COTTON  299 

West  Indies,  and  that,  too,  so  late  as  the  middle  of  the 
eighteenth  century. 

"  There  would  seem  no  doubt,  however,  that  South 
America  and  the  Antilles  were  growing  a  superior  cotton 
closely  akin  to,  if  not  identical  with,  much  of  the  so-called 
Sea  Island  cotton  of  to-day,  long  anterior  to  its  intro- 
duction into  the  United  States." 

At  p.  278,  loc.  cit.,  it  is  mentioned  that  many  writers 
say  that  when  the  plant  was  first  introduced  into 
America  it  was  a  perennial,  and  that,  through  the  accident 
of  a  mild  winter  and  the  selection  of  early  maturing  pods, 
combined  with  more  advantageous  methods  of  cultivation, 
a  stock  had  been  gradually  matured  with  an  annual  habit 
directly  adapted  to  the  climatic  conditions  of  a  limited 
tract  of  country  in  the  United  States,  and  that  this  new 
and  very  special  stock  embraces  all  the  finest  grades  and 
the  most  valuable  cottons  of  the  world,  and  is  in  fact  true 
Sea  Island. 

The  botanical  name  by  which  it  is  now  known  is 
Gossypium  barbadense  var.  maritima,  Watt. 

The  cultivation  of  long-stapled  cotton  in  the  British 
West  Indies  was  never  completely  abandoned;  it  was 
revived  during  the  American  Civil  War  of  1861-65,  but 
has  been  confined  since  then  to  a  small  production  in  the 
Grenadines  of  a  coarse  perennial  type  known  as  "  Marie 
Galante."  The  best  variety  of  this  cotton  still  has  staple 
of  from  30  mm.  to  35  mm.  in  length,  although  no  special 
selection  work  has  been  done  with  it. 

The  revival  of  fine  Sea  Island  cotton  cultivation,  how- 
ever, dates  from  the  year  1901,  when  small  experimental 
plantings  were  made  in  St.  Kitts,  Antigua,  Montserrat, 
and  St.  Lucia  from  seed  obtained  from  the  United  States. 
In  the  two  following  years  interest  in  this  cotton  rapidly 
increased  in  several  of  the  smaller  islands,  and  as  the 
outlook  appeared  favourable,  Sir  Daniel  Morris,  then 
Imperial  Commissioner  of  Agriculture  for  the  West 
Indies,  and  Mr.  J.  R.  Bovell,  Superintendent  of  Agricul- 
ture, Barbados,  paid  a  special  visit  to  the  Sea  Island 
cotton  districts  of  South  Carolina  and  Georgia  in 
September  and  October,  1903.  The  valuable  first-hand 
information  which  these  gentlemen  obtained  was  of  the 


300  COTTON 

greatest  assistance  to  West  Indian  planters,  for  it  enabled 
them  to  commence,  without  delay,  the  cultivation  of  the 
crop  along  the  best  lines.  Besides,  during  his  visit  Sir 
Daniel  Morris  secured  a  large  supply  of  seed  of  the  best 
"  Rivers  "  type  produced  on  the  seaboard  of  South 
Carolina.  This  type  was  first  planted  in  1904,  and  to-day 
is  still  largely  grown.  Other  fine  types  were  obtained 
from  seed  supplied  by  the  British  Cotton  Growing  Asso- 
ciation and  others,  and  these  also  have  proved  most 
valuable. 

In  the  year  1905  the  American  growers  of  the  finest 
types  of  Sea  Island  cotton,  fearing  West  Indian  com- 
petition, combined  to  prohibit  the  exportation  of  seed. 
It  was  at  first  feared  that  this  action  might  make  it 
difficult  to  maintain  the  quality  of  the  cotton  grown  in 
the  West  Indies,  but  it  was  soon  seen  that  with  careful 
selection  the  quality  could  be  readily  maintained  and  in 
many  instances  improved,  with  the  result  that  to-day  the 
finest  and  strongest  cotton  in  the  world  is  produced  in 
certain  of  these  islands. 

This,  then,  is  a  brief  historical  review  of  the  fine  Sea 
Island  cotton  industry  of  the  West  Indies. 

The  average  annual  output  of  British  West  Indian  Sea 
Island  cotton  for  the  past  three  years  is  2,352,755  lb., 
equal  to  5,882  bales  of  400  lb.  each. 

Last  season,  1912-13,  the  quantity  and  value  of  the 
exports  from  each  island  were  as  follows:  — 


Weight  Estimated  value 

lb.  £ 

St.  Vincent  ...                             .           443,878  ...  ...         35,141 

St.  Kitts       ...                            .           374,594  ...  ...         23,645 

Barbados       ...              ...              .            424,392  ...  ...         23,223 

Montserrat    ...              ...              .            292,182  ...  ...          18,478 

Antigua          ...              ...              .            249,433  •••  •••          15.676 

Nevis                                              .            166,477  ...  ...          10,513 

Anguilla        ...                              .            112,138  ...  ...           7, 009 

Jamaica         ...              ...               .               59, 606  ...  3,571 

Virgin  Islands               ...              ..             3'>775  •••  ...           2,°95 

Total  •••                              ».      2,154,475  ..  ...    £139,351 

It  will  be  seen  that  the  chief  British  islands  exporting 

Sea  Island  cotton  are  St.  Vincent,  St.  Kitts,   Barbados, 
and  Montserrat.     It  might  be  mentioned  here  that  this 


COTTON  3O1 

cotton  is  also  cultivated  to  some  extent  in  the  foreign 
West  Indian  Islands. 

St.  Vincent,  besides  being  the  premier  cotton-gro wing- 
island,  produces  the  most  valuable  cotton,  but  is  closely 
followed  by  St.  Kitts,  where  some  exceptionally  fine 
cotton  is  grown  under  somewhat  similar  conditions  of 
soil  and  climate  as  those  of  St.  Vincent. 

It  is  proposed  in  this  paper  to  refer  more  particularly 
to  the  St.  Vincent  industry  for  the  following  reasons  : 
(fl)  The  British  Cotton  Growing  Association  now  strongly 
advise  growers  to  cultivate  for  fineness  of  lint  in  view  of 
the  fact  that  certain  Egyptian  and  American  cottons  are 
successfully  competing  with  some  of  the  Sea  Island 
cotton  produced  in  the  West  Indies,  but  not  with  that  of 
St.  Vincent;  (b)  the  methods  adopted  in  the  production 
of  cotton  in  the  Colony  and  the  measures  taken  for  the 
protection  of  the  industry  have  been  under  closer  Govern- 
mental control  than  in  any  other  island;  and  (c)  the 
highest  degree  of  success  has  been  attained  in  the  pro- 
duction of  fine  cotton. 

In  other  islands  a  great  deal  of  most  valuable  work 
has  been  done  by  the  Agricultural  Departments  and 
planters  under  conditions  often  very  unfavourable,  and 
the  results  so  far  achieved  bear  striking  testimony  to  the 
care  and  attention  devoted  to  the  crop,  so  that  it  must 
not  be  inferred  from  what  has  been  stated  above  that  it 
is  only  in  St.  Vincent  that  the  industry  is  carried  on  to 
advantage  and  along  the  most  approved  lines. 

The  Island  of  St.  Vincent  is  eighteen  miles  in  length, 
with  a  greatest  breadth  of  eleven  miles,  and  a  total 
estimated  area  of  150  square  miles.  A  central  backbone 
of  mountains  extends  throughout  its  entire  length  with 
a  large  number  of  radiating  valleys.  The  lands  all  slope 
from  the  mountains  to  the  sea,  and  the  drainage  is  good. 
Cotton  can  only  be  successfully  grown  on  the  lands  at  a 
fairly  low  elevation  near  the  coast.  The  soil  is  of  volcanic 
origin  throughout,  and  may  be  classed  as  a  dark,  sandy 
loam.  The  subsoil  is  usually  a  compact  tuff. 

In  St.  Kitts  the  soils  are  also  volcanic  sandy  loams; 
whilst  those  of  the  other  Sea  Island  cotton  growing 
islands  are,  as  a  rule,  heavier  in  character,  and  range  from 
loams  to  clay. 


302  COTTON 

The  rainfall  of  the  cotton  growing  districts  of  St. 
Vincent  is  ample  and  often  excessive,  so  that  at  all  times 
the  crop  is  a  "  gamble  in  rain." 

The  average  total  rainfall  of  the  growing  season — June 
to  November — of  the  past  three  years  in  districts  where 
cotton  is  extensively  cultivated  was  as  follows :  — 


TVyr     «*i 

Botanic 

Agr.  Exp. 

Cane 

Peters 

Petit 

Cumber- 

Ratho 

Month 

Station 

Station 

Grove 

Hope 

Bordel 

land 

Mill 

June 

10-60 

9'IO 

8-80 

9'88 

8-58 

8'57 

5-88 

July 

9'44 

8-85 

10-22 

10-09 

9'56 

8-90 

6-03 

August 

12-70 

10-69 

12-48 

II'OI 

10-50 

10-75 

8*30 

September    . 

14-41 

I2-7I 

11*47 

9-68 

9-60 

8-32 

9-08 

October 

14-32 

12-80 

i3'55 

II'OO 

8-26 

10-27 

977 

November    . 

12-16 

11*19 

I3'i7 

8-57 

7'47 

8'93 

9-I3 

Total  inches    73-63       65-34      69-69      60-83       53'97       5574      4879 

If  the  totals  be  taken  and  an  average  struck,  it  is  found 
that  the  mean  monthly  rainfall — June  to  November 
inclusive — ranges  from  12*27  to  8' 13  in.  The  rainfall 
of  the  other  cotton-growing  islands  is  much  smaller 
than  this. 

Owing  to  the  light  soil  and  moist  tropical  climate  the 
St.  Vincent  planter  can  produce  a  lint  which,  as  mentioned 
above,  commands  the  highest  prices  in  the  market,  and 
enables  him  to  obtain  a  remunerative  return  for  his  labour 
over  an  average  of  years.  The  area  planted  each  season 
in  the  Colony  amounts  to  about  4,500  acres. 

Mention  has  already  been  made  of  the  introduction  of 
the  "  Rivers  "  and  other  fine  types  of  seed  from  South 
Carolina,  and  it  is  from  these  that  the  successful  local 
industry  has  been  built  up.  Great  care  was  necessary  at 
the  outset  to  ensure  that  only  seed  from  the  best  grown 
fields  of  plants  true  to  type  was  planted,  and  in  the  earlier 
years  all  this  seed  was  selected,  tested,  and  sterilized  with 
corrosive  sublimate  (i  in  1,000)  by  the  Agricultural  Depart- 
ment before  being  sent  out.  This  seed  work  is  still 
carried  on  at  the  Government  Central  Cotton  Ginnery 
and  by  planters,  and  only  seed  thus  selected  and  dealt 
with  is  sown.  The  procedure  adopted  in  preparing  seed 
is  as  follows  :  — 

The  seed  from  special  crop  lots  is  first  of  all  tested,  and 
only  that  giving  a  germination  of  not  less  than  85  per 
cent,  is  retained.  It  is  then  de-linted  to  facilitate  the 


COTTON  303 

work  of  selection,  and  spread  out  on  tables  covered  with 
white  cloth.  Women  who  are  specially  trained  in  the 
work  select  the  type  showing"  the  characters  desired;  that 
is,  a  heavy,  sound  black  seed  with  a  green  tuft  of  fuzz  at 
one  or  both  ends.  Seed  that  does  not  come  up  to  this 
standard  is  rejected.  The  selected  seed,  as  a  rule,  repre- 
sents from  60  to  75  per  cent,  of  the  whole. 

This  may  be  termed  the  mechanical  side  of  the  seed 
work,  but  the  scientific  side  is  not  lost  sight  of,  and 
several  planters  besides  the  Agricultural  Department 
carry  on  each  season  plant  selection  in  nurseries  so  as 
to  maintain  and  improve  the  quality  of  the  lint  and  the 
yield  of  the  crop.  The  methods  of  selection  are  based 
on  desirable  field  characters  of  the  plant,  ginning  yield 
of  seed-cotton,  and  the  length,  fineness,  strength,  and 
lustre  of  the  lint.  Other  work  performed  on  a  consider- 
able scale  by  the  Agricultural  Department  is  the  selection 
of  plants  showing  resistance  to  certain  bacterial  and 
fungoid  diseases. 

To  give  a  recent  example  of  the  value  of  this  particular 
line  of  work,  a  planter  in  a  wet  district  sowed  last  season 
64  acres  with  seed  of  cotton  with  which  no  selection  work 
had  been  done,  and  2  acres  with  seed  from  plants  selected 
as  showing  resistance  to  disease.  From  the  64  acres  he 
obtained  8J  bales,  or  3,060  Ib.  of  lint,  and  from  the  2  acres 
i  bale,  or  360  Ib.  of  lint,  or  an  average  yield,  under  similar 
conditions,  of  48  and  180  Ib.  per  acre  respectively.  The 
price  realized  for  the  lint  from  the  64  acres  was  at  the  rate 
of  2od.  per  Ib.,  and  that  from  the  2  acres  22jd.  per  Ib. 

Arrangements  are  made  with  planters  to  grow  special 
plots  of  cotton  from  s€ed  obtained  from  selected  plants 
at  the  Experiment  Station,  and  at  the  present  time  it  is 
possible  to  supply  from  the  progeny  of  these  specially 
selected  plants  all  the  seed  necessary  to  meet  the  require- 
ments of  small  growers,  who,  it  might  be  mentioned, 
grow  on  an  average  about  one-fourth  of  the  island's 
output. 

The  work  of  maintaining  the  quality  and  yield  of  cotton 
has  been  greatly  facilitated  by  the  enacting  of  certain 
legislative  measures.  Under  the  Ordinance  for  the  pre- 
vention of  the  introduction  of  pests  and  diseases,  power 
20 


304  COTTON 

is  given  the  agricultural  authority  to  destroy,  fumigate, 
or  sterilize  all  seed-cotton  or  cotton  seed  brought  into 
the  Colony,  and  the  provisions  of  this  valuable  Ordinance 
have  been  and  are  strictly  enforced.  Under  the  ''Agri- 
cultural Products  Protection  "  Ordinance  all  sales  of 
seed-cotton  of  a  less  amount  than  100  Ib.  in  weight  at 
any  one  time  have  to  be  made  to  the  Government  Ginnery, 
but  lots  up  to  4,000  Ib.  in  weight  can  be  purchased. 

The  primary  object  of  this  action  was  to  prevent  cotton 
stealing,  but  as  the  Government  wisely  purchases  the 
cotton  on  a  co-operative  or  profit-sharing  basis,  there 
are  few  sales  to  licensed  dealers.  There  is  now  only  one 
licensed  dealer  in  the  Colony,  and  the  licence  is  held  by 
a  responsible  firm,  who  in  their  own  interest  take  care 
of  the  seed — the  result  is  that  the  seed  supply  for  planting 
is  under  close  supervision.  A  third  most  valuable  and 
important  Ordinance  is  that  which  provides  for  the 
destruction  of  the  old  cotton  stalks  at  the  end  of  each 
season  in  order  to  prevent  the  carrying  over  from  one 
season  to  another  of  certain  pests  and  diseases.  As  the 
provisions  of  this  measure  cover  all  kinds  of  cotton,  it 
has  been  possible  to  destroy  all  the  perennial  "  native  " 
varieties,  and  so  reduce  to  a  minimum  the  danger  of 
cross-fertilization  of  the  Sea  Island  variety  with  un- 
desirable kinds.  It  is  worth  recording  here  that  visitors 
to  the  island  interested  in  tropical  agriculture  are  often 
particularly  struck  with  the  uniformity  of  the  cotton 
plants  in  the  field  and  the  absence  of  "  rogues  "—that  is, 
plants  not  true  to  type.  Under  the  Ordinance  above 
named  all  kinds  of  cotton  plants  have  to  be  pulled  up  and 
burnt  by  April  30  in  each  year,  and  in  the  Northern 
Grenadines  a  month  earlier.  Should  an  occupier  of  land 
neglect  to  destroy  effectually  all  the  cotton  plants  planted 
or  growing  upon  land  in  his  occupation  by  the  stated 
time,  the  Cotton  Inspector  or  other  officer  specially 
appointed  can  enter  upon  the  land  with  the  necessary 
labourers,  perform  the  work,  and  recover  the  cost  in  the 
Small  Debts  Court;  and  further,  the  offender  may  be 
fined  a  sum  not  exceeding  £10,  or  in  default  be  im- 
prisoned for  any  time  not  exceeding  one  month. 

Sea   Island   cotton   must,    therefore,    be   grown   as    an 


COTTON  305 

annual  crop  in  St.  Vincent,  but  in  all  the  other  islands, 
except  Barbados,  it  is  cultivated  as  such,  and  it  is  probable 
that  in  this  latter  island  also  this  practice  will  have  to  be 
followed  if  the  industry  is  to  survive,  unless,  of  course, 
the  leaf-blister  mite  (Eriophyes  gossypii),  which  now 
occurs  there,  can  be  controlled,  or  a  variety  resistant  to 
it  raised. 

The  methods  of  preparing  the  land  for  planting  vary 
in  the  different  islands.  The  flat  system  is  practised  in 
Anguilla  and  very  dry  places  generally;  the  ridge 
and  the  cross-hole  systems  are  adopted  in  St.  Kitts, 
Barbados,  and  Antigua;  the  ridge  in  St.  Vincent  and 
other  places.  Each  has  its  advantages  under  the  soil 
and  climatic  conditions  peculiar  to  each  place  or  district. 
The  cross-hole  system  of  St.  Kitts  allows  of  the  land 
being  easily  planted  in  sugar-cane  before  the  end  of  the 
cotton  crop,  cotton  in  this  case  being  largely  grown  as 
an  intermediate  crop  with  cane.  The  ridge  system  is 
largely  adopted  in  most  of  the  islands,  and  is  the  only 
one  practised  in  St.  Vincent.  This  may  be  briefly 
described  as  follows :  As  soon  as  the  rains  come  in  and 
the  land  can  be  worked  it  is  weeded,  the  grass,  trash, 
manure,  and  green  dressing  material,  if  available,  ranged 
off,  and  the  land  forked  or  ploughed.  This  latter  opera- 
tion is  not  always  carried  out,  but  when  performed  it 
ensures  better  cultivation.  Ridges  are  then  thrown  up 
with  the  plough,  fork,  or  hoe,  and  the  manure  and  other 
materials  completely  covered.  In  cases  where  cotton 
follows  cotton,  the  weedings  and  manure  are  ranged  in 
the  furrows  and  covered  over  by  splitting  asunder  the 
old  banks.  These  ridges  are,  as  a  rule,  formed  5  ft. 
apart,  but  on  poor  land  they  are  put  closer  together.  A 
subsoil  plough  is  sometimes  run  through  the  field  previous 
to  ridging  to  ensure  deeper  tillage.  Only  small  quantities 
of  chemical  manures  are  used,  and  experiments  made  so 
far  have  not  clearly  demonstrated  the  value  of  these  on 
well-worked  lands;  there  are,  however,  indications  that 
the  time  is  approaching  when  they  may  be  needed  to 
augment  the  limited  supply  of  pen  and  other  organic 
manures.  Cotton  seed  meal  is  a  manure  to  which 


306  COTTON 

increased  attention  is  being  given  in  view  of  the  local 
supplies  available. 

At  the  commencement  of  the  season  the  grower  often 
finds  it  difficult  to  decide  which  class  of  cotton  he  shall 
plant — that  is,  whether  it  would  pay  him  better  to  grow 
one  of  the  best  "  superfine "  types  or  one  of  the 
"  ordinary"  fine  types.  There  is  a  very  limited  demand 
for  the  specially  fine  staples,  and  it  is  understood  that 
the  ready  sale  or  otherwise  of  these  is  largely  influenced 
by  the  prevailing  fashions  in  ladies'  wearing  apparel.  It 
is  estimated  that  only  about  500  bales  of  these  special 
marks  are  required  by  European  spinners,  and  these  are 
chiefly  supplied  by  St.  Vincent  and  St.  Kitts.  West 
Indian  planters  have,  however,  been  recently  advised  to 
grow  the  finest  cotton  possible  and  to  cultivate  for  fine- 
ness, so  that  it  would  appear  that  the  demand  for  the 
highest  grades  of  West  Indian  cotton  is  increasing,  but 
it  may  also  be  due  to  the  fact  that  the  growers  of  the 
best  kinds  of  Sea  Island  in  South  Carolina  are  turning 
their  attention  to  staples  of  lower  grade.  The  "  ordinary 
fine  "  will  pay  better  to  grow  if  the  difference  in  price 
between  it  and  "  superfine  "  does  not  exceed  2-Jd.  per  lb., 
because  it  gives  a  smaller  amount  of  trouble  to  pick  and 
handle  and  the  ginning  yield  is  much  better.  From  a 
picker's  point  of  view  alone  there  is  a  wide  margin  in 
its  favour,  for  it  has  larger  bolls,  and  only  from  140  to 
160  of  these  have  to  be  picked  to  give  a  pound  of  seed- 
cotton,  as  against  180  to  200  of  the  best  "  superfine  " 
types. 

The  seed  is  sown  by  hand  when  the  land  is  in  a  moist 
condition.  With  seed  of  tested  viability  three  or  four 
are  planted  on  the  ridges  in  holes  from  20  to  24  in. 
apart  according  to  the  fertility  of  the  land.  If  the  seed- 
lings are  not  seen  after  a  week  of  good  weather  has 
elapsed  the  holes  are  resown. 

As  soon  as  the  seedlings  are  4  to  5  in.  high  they  are 
thinned  out  to  two;  a  final  thinning  to  one  plant  in  a 
hole  is  done  three  or  four  weeks  later.  The  time  of 
planting  depends  almost  entirely  on  weather  conditions. 
In  most  of  the  islands  planting  is  started  in  May — that  is, 
if  the  rains  have  come  in  by  that  time — but  in  certain  of 


COTTON  307 

the  northern  islands  it  is  sometimes  as  late  as  August  or 
September  before  seed  can  be  sown.  In  St.  Kitts,  where 
cotton  is  grown  as  a  catch-crop  on  cane  lands,  the  seed 
is  sown  in  April,  or  as  soon  as  possible  after  this  date. 
June  is  the  favoured  month  in  St.  Vincent,  but  sowings 
are  made  from  May  to  the  beginning  of  August. 

A  prominent  member  of  the  Fine  Cotton  Spinners' 
Association  remarked,  when  on  a  visit  to  St.  Vincent, 
"  that  the  grower  of  fine  Sea  Island  cotton  led  a  dog's 
life  "  :  and  this  truthfully  describes  the  cotton  grower's 
lot  from  the  time  he  sows  the  seed  until  the  cotton  is 
picked,  for  spells  of  dry  weather  in  the  growing  season 
may  prevent  and  arrest  the  germination  of  the  seed, 
cause  excessive  shedding  of  bolls,  and  wet  periods  may 
also  cause  shedding;  the  spread  of  destructive  bacterial 
and  fungoid  diseases  of  leaf  and  boll  make  weeding  im- 
practicable. Insect  pests  and  other  troubles  may  appear 
suddenly  and  cause  extensive  damage;  in  fact,  the  planter 
can  never  be  sure  of  his  crop  until  he  has  it  under  lock 
and  key. 

By  October  the  bolls  commence  to  open,  and  picking 
is  started  and  continued  until  February  or  March.  In 
those  islands  where  the  crop  is  cultivated  as  an  annual 
one  most  of  the  cotton  is  picked  between  October  and 
the  end  of  February,  and  is  obtained  in  average  seasons 
chiefly  from  the  secondary  branches.  This  cotton  is 
known  as  first  pickings.  Later  or  second  pickings,  as 
they  are  called,  are  obtained  from  the  basal  laterals  and 
tertiary  branches.  The  quality  of  this  cotton,  however, 
is  not  quite  as  good,  as  a  rule,  as  that  obtained  from  the 
first  pickings;  still,  in  selecting  plants  for  seed  particular 
attention  is  given  to  plants  showing  this  special  branching 
habit,  because  in  unfavourable  seasons  it  often  happens 
that  the  planter  has  to  rely  on  his  second  pickings  to  avoid 
a  monetary  loss  on  his  crop. 

The  average  yield  of  lint  per  acre  in  St.  Vincent  for  the 
past  eight  years  was  136  Ib.  The  highest  average  yield 
in  any  one  season  was  175  Ib.,  and  the  lowest  96  Ib.  In 
other  islands  also  there  have  been  similar  variations 
according  to  season.  For  the  1912-13  crop  the  following 
yields  were  reported:  — 


308  COTTON 

Nevis     ...  ...  60  Ib.  of  lint  per  acre. 

St.  Vincent  ...       98 

Anguilla  ...  125  ,,  ,, 

St.  Kitts  ...  150 

In  most  of  the  islands  there  are  a  few  estates  where 
yields  of  200  Ib.  of  lint  per  acre  and  over  are  annually 
obtained,  but  the  general  average  is  much  smaller  than 
this,  and  150  Ib.  per  acre  is  considered  a  fair  return  in  a 
normal  season. 

The  seed-cotton  as  brought  in  from  the  field  is  roughly 
sorted  by  the  picker  into  two  grades,  white  and  stained. 
It  is  then  sun-dried,  and  in  St.  Vincent  this  operation  is 
nearly  always  necessary.  In  no  other  island  in  the  West 
Indies  have  so  elaborate  measures  to  be  taken  to  get  rid 
of  the  excess  of  moisture  usually  present  in  the  freshly 
picked  seed-cotton.  On  some  estates  a  car  system  is 
worked,  on  others  drying  arrangements  closely  following 
the  sliding  roof  and  sliding  tray  principles  of  cacao 
"  boucans  "  are  used,  while  the  small  man  has  to  resort  to 
trays  that  can  be  lifted  by  hand  or  readily  covered  with 
sail-cloth  or  tarpaulin. 

On  large  estates  special  buildings  have  had  to  be 
erected  in  which  to  store  and  handle  the  seed-cotton. 
After  being  dried  the  seed-cotton  is  bulked  in  bags  or  in 
large  heaps  for  some  weeks  before  it  is  taken  out  to  be 
finally  cleaned  and  graded  for  the  ginnery.  This  practice 
of  bulking  improves  the  character  of  the  lint.  After 
bulking  the  seed-cotton  is  graded.  Four  grades  are 
usually  made  and  are  known  as  first  white,  second  white, 
first  stained,  and  second  stained.  The  first  grade  white 
contains  nearly  all  the  cotton  from  the  first  pickings,  and 
the  second  grade  white  the  bulk  of  the  later  pickings. 

The  first  grade  stained  contains  some  white  cotton  and 
some  discoloured,  and  the  second  grade  stained  all  dis- 
coloured. The  approximate  sale  prices  of  the  different 
grades  of  "  ordinary  fine  "  St.  Vincent,  with  the  highest 
at  22d.  per  Ib.,  would  be  second  white  i8d.  to  2od.,  first 
stained  lod.  to  is.,  and  second  stained  8d.  to  gd.  per  Ib. 
The  "  stains  "  represent,  as  a  rule,  from  10  to  20  per  cent, 
of  the  total  weight  of  lint.  The  quantity  of  stained  cotton 


COTTON  309 

is  largely  influenced  by  the  weather  experienced  during 
the  ripening  season;  if  dry  the  percentage  is  low,  if  wet 
it  is  high.  A  certain  amount  of  stained  cotton  may  also 
result  from  the  attacks  on  the  bolls  by  cotton  stainers 
(Dysdercus  sp.). 

The  grading  is  done  on  flat  'basket  trays,  or  benches,  the 
seed-cotton  being  carefully  handled  throughout  to  avoid 
injury  to  the  lint. 

The  efficient  ginning  of  West  Indian  Sea  Island  cotton 
is  due  primarily  to  a  special  visit  to  the  islands  in  1904 
of  an  expert  ginner  from  the  Sea  Islands,  at  the  instance 
of  Sir  Daniel  Morris,  to  instruct  local  ginnery  officers  in 
the  best  methods  of  ginning  and  baling,  and  the  central- 
ization of  most  of  the  work  in  large  ginneries  under  skilled 
control.  A  great  deal  depends  on  good  ginning,  and 
unless  the  Macarthy  gin  is  kept  in  perfect  working  order 
the  fine  and  long  lint  is  very  liable  to  be  cut  or  otherwise 
damaged  and  its  value  lowered  considerably.  At  the 
same  time  unless  the  seed-cotton  is  carefully  dried  and 
prepared  beforehand  the  work  cannot  be  satisfactorily 
performed. 

The  ordinary  West  Indian  Sea  Island  seed-cotton  of  the 
"  Rivers  "  type  yields  about  26  per  cent,  of  lint,  and  the 
extra  fine  type  22  per  cent.  In  the  former  case,  therefore, 
1,538  Ib.  of  seed-cotton  have  to  be  ginned  to  obtain  a  bale 
of  400  Ib.  net,  and  in  the  latter  1,818  Ib. 

There  is  a  considerable  amount  of  variation  in  the 
shape,  weight,  and  size  of  the  bales  made  in  different 
places.  In  St.  Vincent  the  lint  is  all  pressed  by  means  of 
a  simple  plunger  press,  worked  by  hand,  in  long  cylin- 
drical packages  7  by  2.\  ft.,  each  containing  360  Ib.  net. 
The  question  has  often  been  asked  why  this  practice 
is  continued  when  much  closer  compression  could  be 
obtained  by  using  hydraulic  or  steam  presses,  and  freight 
saved?  The  answer  to  this  is  that  buyers  consider  the 
package  as  best  suited  to  the  fine  local  staple,  and  advise 
growers  to  continue  to  use  it.  In  other  islands  square  or 
oblong  bales  are  made  weighing  anything  from  200  to 
500  Ib.  according  to  the  style  of  press  used. 

The  purchase  of  seed-cotton  from  small  growers  is 
an  important  feature  of  the  work  of  the  Government 


31O  COTTON 

ginneries  of  St.  Vincent  and  the  Virgin  Islands  and  the 
privately  owned  ginneries  of  the  other  islands.  In  most 
cases  the  seed-cotton  is  bought  outright,  but  in  others  a 
share  of  the  profits  made,  if  any,  is  returned  to  the  small 
grower.  It  may  be  of  interest  to  give  a  brief  description 
of  the  St.  Vincent  system  of  purchase  on  profit-sharing 
basis,  because  it  is  the  largest  and  most  successful  scheme 
of  its  kind  in  operation  in  the  islands. 

The  seed-cotton  brought  for  sale  is  first  of  all  graded 
on  the  lines  mentioned  above,  and  a  payment  made  on 
account  according  to  a  fixed  scale  of  prices  which,  during 
the  past  season,  was  for  first  grade  6£  cents  per  lb.,  second 
grade  5  cents,  third  grade  3  cents,  and  fourth  grade 
2  cents.  At  the  end  of  the  season,  aft-er  the  lint  and  seed 
have  been  sold,  and  the  purchase,  ginnery,  and  shipping 
charges  have  been  deducted,  a  bonus  equal  to  three- 
quarters  of  the  net  profit  made  is  distributed.  This  is 
calculated  on  a  percentage  basis  on  the  amount  paid  for 
seed-cotton  and  not  on  the  weight  of  seed-cotton  sold. 
Last  season  a  bonus  of  30  per  cent,  was  paid,  or  6s.  for 
every  £i  worth  of  seed-cotton.  As  6J  cents  per  lb.  were 
paid  on  account  for  first  grade  cotton,  this  meant  that 
the  grower  received  altogether  about  8  cents  per  lb. 

From  small  beginnings  in  1909-10  season  the  annual 
purchases  now  amount  to  over  half  a  million  pounds  of 
seed-cotton  each  season,  but  include  in  respect  of  about 
one-third  of  this  total  "  Marie  Galante  "  cotton  grown  in 
the  Grenadines. 

The  advantages  of  the  system  are  many,  and  its  in- 
auguration by  the  Government  has  had  a  very  beneficial 
influence  on  the  industry  as  carried  on  by  the  small  man. 

In  order  to  describe  the  many  pests  and  diseases  to 
which  Sea  Island  cotton  is  subject  another  paper  cf 
considerable  length  would  have  to  be  written.  It  is  only 
possible  to  refer  briefly  to  certain  of  the  most  important 
of  them  here. 

In  all  the  islands  except  St.  Vincent  the  cotton  worm 
(Alabama  argillacea)  is  a  very  troublesome  pest,  and  does 
a  considerable  amount  of  damage  each  year.  Strict  watch 
has  to  be  kept  for  it  throughout  the  growing  season,  and 
Paris  green  or  London  purple  promptly  applied  at  the 


COTTON  311 

commencement  of  an  attack  to  avoid  loss  of  crop  through 
the  defoliation  of  the  plants  and  the  destruction  of  the 
young  bolls. 

The  situation  in  St.  Vincent  is  a  novel  one,  for  only 
two  attacks  of  the  "  worm,"  each  over  a  very  limited 
area  of  the  island,  have  been  recorded  during  the  past 
eleven  years,  and  these,  it  was  thought,  were  due  to  two 
large  invasions  of  moths  from  the  Grenadines,  as  only 
fields  in  the  Southern  part  of  .the  island  suffered.  The 
progeny  of  these  moths,  however,  were  so  numerous  in 
the  district  that  they  could  not  be  dealt  with  effectively 
by  the  planters'  friend,  the  "  Jack  Spaniard  "  (Polistcs 
annularis),  and  other  natural  enemies  with  which  the 
Colony  is  so  well  provided.  The  control  of  the  "  worm  " 
by  natural  enemies  is  one  of  the  most  interesting  features 
connected  with  the  local  industry. 

The  leaf-blister  mite  (Eriophyes  gossypii)  is  found 
throughout  the  West  Indies,  and  is  not  considered  a 
dangerous  pest  if  the  old  cotton  stalks  are  thoroughly 
destroyed  by  fire  at  the  end  of  each  season  and  some  time 
in  advance  of  the  planting  of  the  following  crop.  The 
exceptional  situation  which  has  arisen  in  Barbados  in 
connection  with  this  mite  has  already  been  mentioned 

(P.  3<>5). 

In  Antigua  and  Montserrat,  but  more  particularly  in  the 
former  island,  a  minute  flower-bud  maggot  (Contarinia 
gossypii)  has  caused  a  considerable  amount  of  damage  in 
certain  seasons.  Early  planting  appears  to  offer  a  means 
of  controlling  the  maggot;  but  in  Antigua,  owing  to  the 
low  rainfall  there,  this  is  not  always  a  feasible  practice. 

A  great  deal  more  might  be  said  of  the  numerous 
beetles,  bugs,  "worms,"  and  scale  insects  which  take 
their  toll  of  cotton  each  season,  but  the  most  notorious 
have  been  mentioned. 

In  regard  to  bacterial  and  fungoid  diseases,  perhaps 
the  most  generally  prevalent  disease  is  that  caused  by 
"angular  spot"  (Bacterium  malvacearum);  but  in 
common  with  other  diseases,  such  as  "  anthracnose  " 
(Glomerella  gossypii),  boll  rot,  and  mildew,  the  degree 
of  infection  is  largely  influenced  by  weather  conditions, 
and  in  a  wet  season,  or  rather,  a  season  when  the  rainfall 


312  COTTON 

is  badly  distributed,  attacks  are  more  severe  in  character 
than  in  a  favourable  season.  In  St.  Vincent,  owing  to 
the  high  rainfall,  more  damage  is  done  by  "  angular 
spot  "  and  "  anthracnose  "  than  in  any  other  island.  The 
line  of  work  that  gives  most  promise  of  success  in 
minimizing  the  loss  sustained  annually  by  these  diseases 
is  the  breeding  of  plants  resistant  to  them.  A  consider- 
able amount  of  progress  has  already  been  made  along 
this  line. 

There  is  no  doubt  that  the  Sea  Island  cotton  plant,  as 
grown  at  the  present  time,  is  very  susceptible  to  climatic 
changes  and  to  the  attacks  of  pests  and  diseases,  and  it 
should  be  mentioned  that  efforts  are  also  being  made 
to  raise  hardier  types  by  hybridization  as  well  as  by 
selection.  There  are  to  be  found  in  most  of  the  islands 
certain  "  native  "  perennial  cottons  which  are,  as  a  rule, 
much  more  robust  than  the  Sea  Island,  but  which  produce 
inferior  lint.  Crosses  between  these  and  Sea  Island  are 
being  largely  made,  and  it  is  hoped  that  the  work  will 
meet  with  the  success  it  deserves,  and  enable  hybrids  to 
be  fixed  giving  satisfactory  yields  of  fine  lint  in  places 
where  the  Sea  Island  cotton  industry  is  still  in  a  very  un- 
certain condition,  and  especially  in  those  islands  where  a 
remunerative  rotation  crop  with  sugar-cane  is  so  much  to 
be  desired. 

The  crop  lots  of  the  very  fine  staples  produced  in  St. 
Vincent  sell  at  special  prices.  These  during  the  past  few 
seasons  have  ranged  from  2s.  to  2s.  Qd.  per  Ib.  The  best 
lots  of  cotton  of  other  growths  have  realized  from  is.  6d. 
to  is.  i id.  The  prices  obtained  for  the  produce  of  other 
islands,  with  the  exception  of  St.  Kitts,  have  always  been 
lower  than  those  named  under  similar  market  conditions. 
The  finest  St.  Vincent  and  St.  Kitts  staples,  besides  being 
exceptionally  strong,  fine,  lustrous,  and  uniform,  have 
a  length  of  2  in.  and  over.  The  length  of  "  ordinary 
fine "  West  Indian  ranges  from  if  to  2  in.  Fine 
Egyptian  cotton  and  some  of  the  American  grown  Sea 
Island,  as  stated  before,  compete  with  the  lower  grades 
of  West  Indian  Sea  Island,  and  on  this  account  the  latter 
are  difficult  to  sell  to-day  at  a  paying  price.  It  should 
be  mentioned  that  recently  one  of  the  finest  crop  lots  of 


COTTON  313 

St.   Vincent   cotton   has  been   spun  into   a  yarn   of  400 
"  count/'  which  gives  a  length  of  190  miles  to  the  pound. 
The  usual   spinning   "counts"   of  West  Indian  cotton, 
however,  range  from  i6o's  to  400*5. 
The  chief  fabrics  in  which  the  yarn  is  employed  are :  — 

Fancy  millinery  laces,  Lisle  gloves, 

Tulles,  Shirt  labels, 

Aeroplane  sails,  Embroidery  cottons, 

Cotton  cambrics,  Typewriter  ribbons, 

Handkerchiefs,  Union  cloth  for  umbrellas, 

Lawn  and  other  muslins,  Fine  hosiery. 

This  paper  may  be  fittingly  concluded  with  an  extract 
from  the  presidential  address  of  Dr.  Francis  Watts,  the 
Imperial  Commissioner  of  Agriculture,  delivered  at  the 
West  Indian  Agricultural  Conference,  held  in  Trinidad 
in  1912 : — 

"As  is  usually  the  case  with  any  new  industry,  the 
cotton  industry  in  its  revival  has  passed  through  many 
vicissitudes.  In  some  Colonies  its  reintroduction  has  not 
been  attended  with  the  full  measure  of  success  that  was 
looked  for,  but  in  many  places  its  progress  and  expansion 
have  exceeded  the  most  sanguine  expectations,  so  that 
to-day  cotton  growing  forms  the  staple  industry  of 
St.  Vincent,  Montserrat,  Nevis,  Anguilla,  and  the  Virgin 
Islands,  and  is  a  prominent  feature  in  the  agriculture  of 
Barbados  and  St.  Kitts.  Considerable  interest  in  cotton 
growing  is  taken  in  Tobago,  while  in  Antigua,  where  it 
has  met  with  peculiar  difficulties,  the  industry  shows  signs 
of  reviving.  In  Carriacou  and  Grenada  interest  in  this 
crop  is  increasing.1 

"  The  reintroduction  of  cotton  affords  a  striking 
instance  of  the  value  of  associated  action  extending 
beyond  the  confines  of  any  one  small  Colony.  It  is  safe 
to  say  that,  without  the  almost  simultaneous  introduction 
of  cotton  growing  into  a  number  of  islands  possessing 
most  diverse  conditions,  without  the  interchange  of 
information,  coupled  with  the  study  of  cotton  pests, 

1  Increased  interest  in  Sea  Island  cotton  is  now  being  taken  in 
Jamaica  also. 


314  COTTON 

diseases  and  difficulties,  rendered  possible  by  such  an 
organization  as  the  Imperial  Department  of  Agriculture, 
and  without  the  readily  available  help  as  regards  all  that 
concerned  markets  and  their  requirements,  focussed  and 
rapidly  applied  by  the  British  Cotton  Growing  Associa- 
tion, both  of  which  organizations  were  closely  in  touch 
with  all  that  was  going  on,  efforts  would  have  failed  in 
the  individual  islands  from  the  circumstance  of  their  isola- 
tion, and  no  cotton  industry  would  have  come  into 
existence :  the  pioneers  would  have  been  beaten  in  detail, 
but  were  saved  by  being  united." 


THE   COTTON  INDUSTRY  OF   THE  LEEWAED   ISLANDS 

COLONY. 

By  H.  A.  TEMPANY,  B.Sc.,  F.I.C.,  F.C.S. 
Superintendent- of  Agriculture,  Leeward  Islands. 

IN  the  present  paper  an  account  is  given  of  the  develop- 
ment of  the  cultivation  of  Sea  Island  cotton  in  the 
Leeward  Islands  Colony  of  the  British  West  Indies,  and 
the  position  occupied  by  the  industry  at  the  present  time. 

For  the  successful  growth  of  the  crop  a  set  of  highly 
specialized  conditions  are  essential  in  the  direction  of 
soil,  climate,  and  environment;  these,  the  natural  features 
of  the  majority  of  the  small  islands  comprising  the  group 
are  specially  adapted  to  meet,  and  at  the  present  time 
rather  more  than  half  of  the  total  export  of  fine  cotton 
from  the  British  West  Indies  comes  from  the  Leeward 
Islands. 

The  Colony  lies  between  latitudes  15°  and  19°  North 
and  longitudes  61°  to  65°  West.  Its  total  area  is  approxi- 
mately 675  square  miles.  For  administrative  purposes  it  is 
divided  into  five  Presidencies,  namely,  Antigua  (including 
the  islands  of  Antigua,  Barbuda,  and  Redonda),  St.  Kitts- 
Nevis  (including  the  islands  of  St.  Kitts,  Nevis,  and 
Anguilla),  Dominica,  Montserrat,  and  the  Virgin  Islands 
(the  latter  comprising  a  very  numerous  collection  of 
small  islands).  Sea  Island  cotton  is  at  present  cultivated 
in  every  Presidency  except  Dominica. 

In  the  early  days  of  the  history  of  the  Colony  it  is 
possible  that  cotton  was  cultivated  to  some  small  extent, 
but  it  was  soon  replaced  by  sugar.  At  the  time  of  the 
American  Civil  War  the  cultivation  of  cotton  assumed 
important  proportions  in  the  Colony,  but  with  the  cessa- 
tion of  hostilities  the  industry  rapidly  declined,  the  process 
being  hastened,  according  to  popular  account,  by  the 
ravages  of  insect  pests.  In  these  earlier  days  the  variety 
of  cotton  grown  was  of  the  short  staple  type,  and  the 
ruined  remains  of  old  saw  gins,  which  may  still  be  found 


COTTON 

at  certain  places,  attest  the  great,  though  short-lived, 
importance  to  which  cotton  cultivation  attained  in  the 
middle  years  of  the  nineteenth  century. 

The  rise  of  the  existing  industry  dates  from  1902,  in 
which  year  commercial  trial  plantings  of  Sea  Island  cotton 
were  made  in  St.  Kitts  and  Montserrat;  these  were 
rapidly  followed  by  similar  ventures  in  other  islands  in  the 
following  year;  prior  to  that  small  scale  experiments  had 
demonstrated  that  in  the  cultivation  of  the  Sea  Island 
variety  lay  the  greatest  hope  of  the  attainment  of  success- 
ful results. 

From  that  time  the  industry  has  developed  steadily, 
and  although,  as  is  inevitable,  checks  and  difficulties  have 
been  encountered  from  time  to  time,  these  have,  for  the 
most  part,  been  successfully  surmounted;  at  the  present 
time  the  industry  must  be  regarded  as  having  attained 
a  position  of  considerable  stability,  while  the  proceeds 
derived  from  it  constitute  an  important  fraction  of  the 
wealth  of  the  Colony. 

In  assisting  to  bring  about  the  development  of  the 
industry  to  the  present  level,  the  fostering  care  bestowed 
thereon  by  the  local  Government  and  by  the  British 
Cotton  Growing  Association  has  played  a  part  of  the  first 
importance;  had  this  not  been  forthcoming  there  is  no 
doubt  that  the  industry  would  not  have  developed  so 
rapidly.  At  the  same  time  the  planting  community  have 
taken  full  advantage  of  the  opportunities  offered,  and,  as 
a  result  of  this  cordial  co-operation,  the  present  position 
has  been  built  up. 

The  assistance  alluded  to  has  taken  the  form  of  grants 
and  loans  in  aid  of  the  purchase  and  erection  of  machinery 
for  handling  the  crop,  of  advances  of  money  on  easy 
terms  to  prospective  cultivators,  of  the  supply  of  skilled 
advice  and  assistance  on  matters  pertaining  to  the  treat- 
ment and  handling  of  the  crop,  and  of  the  provision  of 
ready  means  of  marketing  the  produce. 

From  the  inception  of  the  industry  practically  the  entire 
crop  has  been  marketed  through  the  British  Cotton 
Growing  Association,  while  a  considerable  proportion  of 
the  stores  and  materials  required  in  preparing  the  staple 
for  market  is  still  procured  through  that  institution. 


COTTON  317 

Soils   and    Climate. 

The  soils  on  which  cotton  is  grown  comprise  a  large 
variety  of  types :  in  St.  Kitts,  Nevis,  Montserrat,  the 
Virgin  Islands,  and  the  southern  district  of  Antigua  they 
consist  of  sands,  sandy  loams,  and  loams  of  volcanic 
origin ;  in  the  northern  district  of  Antigua,  Anguilla,  and 
Barbuda,  the  soils  are  calcareous,  being  derived  from 
limestone  rocks  of  varying  age.  On  the  whole  it  may  be 
said  that  moderately  light  volcanic  soils  are  best  suited  to 
cotton  cultivation,  although  good  returns  are  frequently 
obtained  on  calcareous  soils  and  on  non-calcareous  soils 
of  heavier  texture. 

The  rainfall  in  the  different  districts  in  which  cotton  is 
grown  ranges  from  30  to  70  in.  per  annum,  and  in 
some  places  even  more;  where  the  rainfall  is  high,  how- 
ever, cotton  can  only  be  successfully  grown  where  soil 
conditions  are  such  as  to  favour  free  drainage. 

Conditions  under  which  the  Crop  is  grown. 

Sea  Island  cotton  is  cultivated  both  as  an  estates'  crop 
and  also  by  small  peasant  proprietors. 

In  Antigua  it  is  grown  on  estates  both  as  a  main  crop 
and  as  a  rotation  crop  with  sugar-cane  on  sugar  estates, 
while  there  is  a  small  peasant  cotton  growing  industry. 
In  St.  Kitts  the  crop  is  chiefly  cultivated  as  an  inter- 
mediate between  two  crops  of  sugar-cane,  while  it  is  also 
grown  to  some  extent  as  a  main  crop ;  in  this  island  there 
is  no  peasant  cotton  growing  industry.  In  Nevis  it  is 
grown  both  as  a  main  crop  and  also  as  a  rotation  crop 
on  sugar  estates;  while  there  is  a  very  important  peasant 
industry.  In  Anguilla  the  cotton  industry  is  almost 
entirely  in  the  hands  of  the  peasants.  In  Montserrat  the 
crop  is  extensively  grown  on  estates  and  constitutes  the 
staple  crop  of  the  island,  while  there  is  also  an  important 
peasant  industry.  In  the  Virgin  Islands  the  industry  is 
exclusively  conducted  by  peasant  growers. 

Area  under  Cultivation. 

Owing  to  the  fact  that  an  appreciable  proportion  of 
the  crop  is  grown  by  peasants  on  small  holdings  scattered 


COTTON 

throughout  remote  districts  it  is  not  possible  to  give  an 
exact  figure  for  the  total  area  under  cultivation.  At  an 
approximate  estimate  the  average  total  area  cultivated 
amounts  to  between  8,000  and  10,000  acres  each  year. 
The  area  fluctuates  to  some  extent  from  year  to  year 
with  variations  in  the  market  price  of  the  staple,  while 
it  will  also  depend  in  any  one  year  to  some  extent  on  the 
weather  conditions  which  have  prevailed  during  the 
preceding  season;  the  crop  is  especially  susceptible  to 
influence  by  unsuitable  weather  conditions,  and  unfavour- 
able seasons  invariably  result  in  decreased  yields,  the 
effect  of  which  is  seen  in  a  decrease  in  the  area  planted 
in  the  year  immediately  following. 

The  industry  appears  to  have  established  itself  at  the 
present  level,  and  it  does  not  seem  likely  that  any  very 
great  increase  beyond  the  area  stated  above  is  in  imme- 
diate prospect. 

Crops  and  Yields. 

The  following  tabular  statement  shows  the  exports  of 
cotton  in  pounds  of  lint  from  each  island  and  from  the 
whole  Colony  for  each  year  since  the  inception  of  the 
industry :  — • 

EXPORTS  OF  SEA  ISLAND  COTTON  (LINT)  FROM  THE  LEEWARD 
ISLANDS  COLONY. 

Antigua,  y 

Year  including     St.  Kilts       Nevis       Anguilla    Montserrat     jgj^jj.  Total 

aiib?  a  Ih.  lh.  Ib.  Ib.  Ib.  Ib. 

1902-03    ...  22,88o  27,6OO  50,480 

1903-04  ...    27,85}  24,197  28,449  1,661  70,000  152,160 

1904-05  ...    54,289  78,219  144,721  31,452  70,723  4,ioo  383,477 

1905-06  ...    99,948  120,379  120,168  80,650  98,262  6,975  526,382 

1906-07  ...189,318  180,917  96,402  61,666  164,430  10,177  702,910 

1907-08  ...  182,180  233,006  211,431  107,989  360,000  32,520  1,127,126 

1908-09  ...    45,310  207,146  104,160  49,320  238,959  52,528  697,423 

1909-10  ...    59,960  231,441  129,063  43,400  202,542  23,139  690,154 

1910-11  ...    96,992  329,322  343,395  148,595  402,666  50,337  1,371,307 

1911-12  ...    80,910  332,16$  165,329  97,142  346,568  51,677  1,073,794 

1912-13  ...  172,023  374,594  166,477  112,138  292,182  31,775  1,149,189 

A  study  of  these  results  will  show  the  rapid  manner 
in  which  the  industry  has  developed,  and  also  the  fact  that 
there  appears  reason  to  believe  that  within  the  past  few 
years  it  has  settled  down  to  a  fairly  steady  level  of  pro- 
duction. If  an  average  value  of  is.  6d.  per  Ib.  for  lint  is 


COTTON  319 

assumed,  the  value  of  the  industry  during-  the  past  three 
years  has  ranged  between  £75,000  and  £100,000  per 
annum,  while  the  total  exports  for  the  whole  period  of 
eleven  years  considerably  exceed  £5,000,000  in  value. 
These  figures  do  not  include  values  for  cotton  seed,  which 
during  the  past  three  years  at  a  moderate  estimate  have 
been  equal  to  an  additional  £7,000  to  £9,000  per  annum. 
It  will  be  further  seen  that  according  to  the  estimate  of 
the  total  acreage  given  the  yield  per  acre  has  averaged 
from  100  Ib.  to  150  Ib.  of  lint  during  the  past  three  years. 

Seed   Supply. 

Sea  Island  cotton  is  the  most  highly  specialized  variety 
at  present  cultivated  on  an  extended  scale.  Its  essential 
features  consist  in  relatively  great  length  of  staple 
combined  with  the  property  known  as  fineness;  for  the 
production  of  a  thoroughly  marketable  article  certain 
other  qualities  must  also  be  associated  with  those  already 
mentioned,  namely,  regularity  in  the  length  of  the  fibre, 
adequate  strength,  freedom  from  weak  and  immature 
fibre,  and  a  high  degree  of  lustrousness. 

For  the  maintenance  of  these  qualities  great  care  is 
essential  in  the  selection  of  a  suitable  seed  supply  for 
planting  purposes. 

At  the  outset  of  the  industry  this  was  secured  through 
the  instrumentality  of  the  Imperial  Department  of  Agri- 
culture for  the  West  Indies,  whereby  a  supply  of  specially 
selected  seed  was  procured  in  1904  from  the  Sea  Islands 
of  Carolina;  this  has  formed  the  starting  point  from  which 
practically  all  the  strains  of  seed  at  present  cultivated 
have  been  derived;  had  this  step  not  been  taken  there  is 
little  doubt  that  the  development  of  the  industry  would 
in  some  degree  have  been  retarded. 

During  the  earlier  years  of  the  industry  the  supply  of 
selected  seed  for  planting  purposes  remained  under  the 
direction  of  the  Imperial  Department  of  Agriculture,  and 
for  this  purpose  certain  marks  of  cotton  which  had  been 
favourably  reported  on  were  each  year  reserved  for 
planting. 

With  the  growth  of  the  industry  the  actual  supply  of 
seed  has  gradually  passed  to  a  large  extent  into  the  hands 
21 


320  COTTON 

of  ginneries,  but  the  advice  and  assistance  of  the  Agricul- 
tural Department  continue  to  be  freely  sought  and  given 
in  relation  to  the  selection  and  preparation  of  suitable 
strains  for  planting. 

Investigation  has  shown  that  the  seed  of  the  Sea  Island 
variety  normally  possesses  a  tuft  of  green  fuzz  on  one  or 
both  ends,  but  that  in  every  crop  a  certain  proportion  of 
seed  is  produced  which  is  devoid  of  this  tuft  (the  amount 
usually  ranges  from  5  to  20  per  cent,  of  the  total).  It 
has  further  been  found  that  seed  lacking  this  tuft  tends 
to  produce  lint  of  inferior  quality;  consequently,  in  pre- 
paring seed  for  planting  all  those  seeds  which  do  not 
possess  the  tuft  in  question  are  removed,  together  with 
all  immature  and  aborted  seeds.  The  feature  above 
alluded  to,  of  producing  two  types  of  seed,  would  appear 
to  be  an  indication  that  the  Sea  Island  cotton  may  be  of 
mixed  origin  in  the  first  instance. 

The  susceptibility  of  Sea  Island  cotton  to  influence  by 
plant  selection  is  very  marked,  both  in  regard  to  the  habit 
of  the  plant  itself  and  also  in  relation  to  the  quality  of  the 
lint;  for  the  maintenance  and  improvement  of  quality  in 
this  respect  unremitting  labour  is  necessary.  With  the 
duty  of  carrying  on  this  work  the  Agricultural  Depart- 
ments in  the  various  islands  have  charged  themselves, 
and  it  is  gratifying  to  be  able  to  record  that  in  every 
Presidency  and  almost  every  island  in  which  cotton  is 
grown  systematic  selections  are  carried  out  each  year  by 
the  Agricultural  Department,  either  at  the  Government 
Experiment  Stations  or  on  estates  in  co-operation  with 
local  growers;  the  actual  work  of  field  selection  and  the 
examination  of  the  lint  is  in  all  cases  performed  by  officers 
of  the  Department.  The  selected  strains  of  seed  thus 
originated  become  available  in  subsequent  years  for  plant- 
ing on  an  extended  scale,  and  in  Antigua,  St.  Kitts,  and 
Montserrat  strains  of  cotton  originated  in  this  way  are 
at  the  present  time  widely  planted. 

Experience  has  demonstrated  that  as  the  result  of  local 
climatic  and  soil  conditions  each  island  has  shown  a 
tendency  to  produce  a  type  of  lint  which  is  characteristic 
of  the  locality  in  which  it  is  produced.  That  this  feature 
is  the  result  of  local  conditions  and  not  the  outcome  of 


COTTON  321 

selection  is  shown  by  the  fact  that  the  differences  in 
question  became  noticeable  when  the  seed  supply  for  all 
the  islands  was  obtained  from  the  same  source;  such 
marked  susceptibility  to  influence  by  environment  em- 
phasizes the  necessity  of  raising  strains  of  cotton  suit- 
able to  the  conditions  under  which  they  are  to  be  grown, 
and  the  realization  of  this  point  has  underlain  depart- 
mental policy  in  relation  to  the  industry  for  a  number  of 
years  past. 

Cultivation. 

For  the  successful  growth  of  the  crop  careful  and 
thorough  cultivation  is  essential.  The  tilth  of  the  soil 
must  be  maintained,  weeding  operations  scrupulously 
attended  to,  and  a  generally  high  state  of  efficiency 
prevail. 

The  standard  of  agriculture  in  relation  to  the  crop  which 
is  maintained  throughout  the  Colony  is  undoubtedly  high. 
At  the  present  time  cultural  operations  are  performed 
almost  entirely  by  hand,  with  the  exception  of  the  prepara- 
tion of  the  land,  in  which  cattle  ploughs  are  employed  to  a 
considerable  extent.  No  doubt  mule-drawn  implements 
could  be,  and  in  some  few  cases  are,  successfully  employed 
in  weeding  operations,  though  even  here  they  require 
to  be  supplemented  to  some  extent  by  hand  labour.  At 
the  present  time  the  labour  supply  available  is  adequate 
for  the  existing  industry  in  the  majority  of  districts, 
though  it  is  doubtful  whether  it  would  allow  any  further 
extensions  of  great  magnitude  to  be  made  except  at  the 
expense  of  other  industries. 

Planting. 

The  actual  time  of  planting  depends  in  a  measure  on 
the  advent  of  seasonable  weather.  In  the  early  stages 
of  growth  fairly  moist  conditions  are  essential  for  the 
successful  establishment  of  the  plants.  Once  the  crop  is 
thoroughly  established,  however,  it  is  able  to  withstand 
moderate  spells  of  drought  with  a  fair  degree  of  efficiency, 
while  moderately  dry  weather  is  necessary  during  the 
ripening  of  the  crop  and  while  picking  is  in  progress; 
excessive  moisture  during  the  latter  period  is  apt  to  lead 


322  COTTON 

to  loss  owing  to  boll-dropping  resulting  from  excessive 
accumulations  of  water  around  the  root  systems  of  the 
plants  and  from  bacterial  and  fungoid  diseases. 

As  a  general  rule  experience  has  shown  that  early 
planting  is  likely  to  give  the  best  results,  and  in  St. 
Kitts,  Nevis,  and  Montserrat  the  usual  months  for  plant- 
ing are  April  and  May.  In  places  such  as  Antigua, 
Anguilla,  Barbuda,  and  the  Virgin  Islands,  where  the 
rainfall  is  smaller  and  more  variable  in  distribution,  later 
planting  is  practised;  as  a  general  rule  July  may  be 
regarded  as  the  most  favourable  month  for  planting  under 
these  conditions,  but  unfavourable  weather  may  cause 
the  operation  to  be  postponed  to  an  even  later  date. 
Later  planting  than  July,  however,  possesses  the  dis- 
advantage that  the  crop  matures  during  the  months  of 
December  and  January,  at  which  time  the  relatively  low 
night  temperatures  frequently  experienced  may  lead  to 
injury  to  the  crop  and  result  in  serious  loss. 

Manuring. 

It  cannot  be  said  that  any  very  definite  policy  in  regard 
to  the  manuring  of  cotton  has  as  yet  been  arrived  at.  A 
very  extensive  series  of  manurial  experiments  with  the 
crop  has  been  conducted  at  the  Experiment  Station  in 
St.  Kitts  during  the  past  ten  years,  in  the  course  of 
which  the  same  manures  have  been  applied  to  the  same 
plots  year  after  year;  similar  trials  have  also  been  made 
for  less  extended  periods  in  Antigua  and  Montserrat. 
The  experiments  in  question  have  shown  that  the  crop 
is  by  no  means  exhausting,  and  that  on  lands  in  fair  tilth 
a  series  of  crops  can  be  grown  for  a  number  of  years 
without  manure,  and  not  evince  any  marked  falling  off 
of  yield  in  consequence.  This  is  especially  the  case  on 
light  lands,  under  which  conditions  it  has  been  shown 
that  the  plants  develop  a  remarkably  large  root  system. 
It  is  not  implied,  however,  that  manurial  treatment  is 
never  requisite.  When  a  crop  of  cotton  is  grown  as  a 
rotation  or  intermediate  crop  between  two  crops  of  cane 
no  serious  consequences  may  be  anticipated  from  with- 
holding manure  from  the  cotton  crop  if  the  cane  lands 
themselves  are  maintained  in  adequate  condition;  indeed, 


COTTON  323 

too  high  a  degree  of  fertility  appears  inimical,  since  it 
tends  to  develop  vegetative  vigour  at  the  expense  of  the 
reproductive  organs.  When,  however,  cotton  is  grown  as 
a  main  crop  some  form  of  manurial  treatment  eventually 
must  be  adopted.  In  Montserrat  the  practice  of  green 
manuring  for  cotton  has  attained  a  certain  degree  of 
popularity,  and  up  to  the  present  appears  well  calculated 
to  maintain  fertility,  although  it  may  in  subsequent  years 
require  to  be  supplemented  with  other  manurial  dressings. 

Pests  and  Diseases. 

The  crop  is  peculiarly  liable  to  attack  by  a  number  of 
pests  and  diseases,  the  majority  of  which  are,  however, 
readily  capable  of  control  by  the  timely  application  of 
the  proper  measures. 

Among  the  insect  pests  the  following  may  be  men- 
tioned:— 

The  Cotton  Worm  (Alabama  argillacea). — This  pest 
is  capable  of  complete  control  by  dusting  with  a  mixture 
of  Paris  green  and  lime,  and  although  at  the  outset  of 
the  industry  some  trouble  was  experienced  in  connec- 
tion with  the  attacks  of  the  insect  its  control  is  now 
thoroughly  well  understood.  In  all  islands  where  peasant 
cotton  is  grown  facilities  now  exist  for  the  procuring  of 
this  insecticide  by  peasant  growers  on  easy  terms;  with 
the  exception  of  Anguilla,  this  is  in  every  case  accom- 
plished through  the  agency  of  the  Agricultural  Depar  - 
ment,  a  stock  of  Paris  green  being  maintained  by  the 
Government  especially  for  the  purpose. 

Leaf-blister  Mite  (Eriophies  gos'sypii). — This  is  a  pest 
of  more  serious  importance;  it  has,  however,  been  shown 
that  by  the  employment  of  proper  measures  it  also  is 
capable  of  control,  the  most  essential  feature  being  the 
destruction  of  all  old  cotton  bushes  after  the  crop  has 
been  reaped;  if  this  is  neglected  the  old  plants  serve  to 
harbour  the  pest  and  act  as  centres  of  infection  to 
the  young  crop;  this  process  requires  to  be  combined 
with  the  hand-picking  and  destruction  of  all  infected 
leaves  which  appear  in  the  early  stages  of  the  growth 
of  the  crop;  dusting  with  a  mixture  of  sulphur  and  lime 


COTTON 

also  has  some  value  in  assisting  to  check  the  spread  of 
the  disease. 

Cotton  Stainers  (Dysdercus  andreae  and  D.  Delauneyi). 
—This  pest  also  has  caused  a  certain  amount  of  trouble 
from  time  to  time,  but  has  been  found  to  be  capable  of 
control  by  means  of  suitable  traps  baited  with  seed-cotton 
or  cotton  seed;  the  destruction  of  old  cotton  is  also  of 
importance  in  checking  the  spread  of  this  pest.  At  the 
present  time  measures  are  under  consideration  with  a 
view  to  providing  legislation  for  the  purpose  of  enforcing 
the  destruction  of  all  old  cotton  bushes  after  the  crop 
has  been  reaped. 

Flower-bud  Maggot  (Contarinia  gossypii). — This  has 
proved  a  pest  of  very  serious  importance  in  Antigua 
and  at  one  time  threatened  the  existence  of  the  industry 
in  that  island;  it  has  also  been  recorded  in  Montserrat, 
Barbuda,  and  the  Danish  island  of  St.  Croix;  the  disease 
is  due  to  the  larva  of  a  very  small  Cecidomyid  fly,  which 
attacks  the  young  unopened  flower  buds  and  causes  their 
death.  No  actual  remedy  has  as  yet  been  discovered  for 
the  pest,  but  it  has  been  shown  that  the  disease  is  appar- 
ently seasonal  in  its  incidence  and  that  it  is  favoured 
by  the  relatively  low  temperature  and  high  humidity 
characteristic  of  the  months  of  December  and  January; 
in  consequence,  a  palliative  has  been  found  to  exist  in 
the  planting  of  the  crop  at  such  a  time  as  will  ensure 
the  development  of  the  flower  buds  before  the  incidence 
of  the  dangerous  season. 

Fungoid  and  Bacterial  Diseases. — Fungoid  and  bac- 
terial diseases  have  not  on  the  whole  proved  of  very 
great  importance  in  relation  to  the  industry,  although 
losses  have  from  time  to  time  occurred  from  these 
causes.  Their  incidence  is  usually  contingent  on  the 
occurrence  of  exceptionally  moist  seasonal  conditions. 
Chief  among  them  may  be  cited  angular  leaf  spot 
and  black  arm,  anthracnose,  and  a  bacterial  disease 
which  causes  the  discoloration  and  subsequent  shedding 
of  partially  matured  bolls.  No  remedial  processes  have 
as  yet  become  generally  adopted  for  these  diseases, 
although  various  measures  have  been  proposed  for  the 
purpose. 


COTTON  325 

In  certain  districts  in  which  the  soils  are  inclined  to 
be  heavy  in  texture  losses  not  infrequently  occur  as  the 
result  of  insufficient  drainage,  as  it  is  not  always  realized 
that  cotton  is  a  crop  liable  to  suffer  from  the  slightest 
excess  of  soil  moisture,  and  requires  greater  attention 
in  relation  to  drainage  than  does  sugar-cane. 

Conditions  governing  the  Industry  in  the  different 
Islands. 

In  the  following  section  the  conditions  under  which  the 
industry  is  conducted  in  the  different  Presidencies  is 
briefly  considered;  the  actual  exports  of  cotton  in  each 
case  are  shown  in  the  table  on  p.  318. 

Antigua. — In  this  island  the  industry  has  experienced 
more  vicissitudes  than  anywhere  else  in  the  Colony.  In 
the  earlier  years  progress  was  steady  and  the  area  under 
cultivation  rapidly  increased  until,  in  1907,  the  total  area 
under  the  crop  amounted  to  2,500  acres;  in  this  and 
the  following  year,  however,  the  ravages  of  the  flower- 
bud  maggot  pest  made  themselves  severely  felt,  and 
resulted  in  a  very  small  yield  of  lint  per  acre  being 
obtained;  in  consequence  the  area  cultivated  became  very 
greatly  reduced  until,  in  1909,  the  area  planted  with  the 
crop  only  amounted  to  253  acres.  Since  that  time  much 
more  satisfactory  results  have  been  experienced',  and  the 
industry  has  steadily  recovered  till,  during  the  past 
season,  some  1,200  acres  have  been  under  cultivation  with 
the  crop. 

Cotton  is  cultivated  both  on  the  light  volcanic  soils 
of  the  southern  and  western  area  and  in  the  limestone 
district  of  the  north  and  east,  the  former  being,  on  the 
whole,  best  suited  to  cotton  growing.  The  heavy  clay 
soils  of  the  central  plain  are  not  so  well  adapted  to  the 
requirements  of  the  crop,  although  a  certain  amount  of 
cotton  is  grown  thereon. 

The  staple  is  cultivated  both  as  a  main  crop  and  as  a 
rotation  crop  with  sugar.  In  this  latter  connection  it  is 
of  importance  as  affording  a  means  of  resting  land  from 
cane,  thereby  lessening  the  effect  of  root  disease  (Maras- 
mius  sacchari),  which  is  at  the  present  time  a  source  of 
considerable  loss  in  the  sugar  industry. 


326  COTTON 

During  the  years  1905  to  1908  a  considerable  amount 
of  peasant-grown  cotton  was  produced;  in  the  years 
following  this  the  peasant  industry  dwindled  to  nothing, 
but  has  latterly  revived  again  to  some  extent;  the  bulk 
of  the  cotton  grown  in  this  way  is  purchased  locally  by 
licensed  buyers,  the  traffic  being  regulated  by  an  Ordi- 
nance designed  to  prevent  larceny,  which  requires  the 
registration  of  both  buyers  and  sellers  and  the  keeping 
of  books  recording  transactions  which  must  at  all  times 
be  open  to  inspection  by  the  police. 

There  is  one  ginnery  in  the  island,  the  equipment  of 
which  comprises  six  Macarthy  single  action  roller  gins, 
a  hydraulic  baling  press,  and  a  seed  disintegrator,  the 
plant  being  driven  by  a  Ho>rnsby-Ackroyd  oil  engine;  it 
is  owned  and  worked  by  a  local  company.  The  under- 
taking was  originated  in  1903  by  the  local  Government, 
and  was  worked  for  three  years  under  the  Agricultural 
Department;  it  was  transferred  to  the  present  company 
in  1906. 

Barbuda. — This  island  lies  about  25  miles  north  of 
Antigua  and  has  an  area  of  62  square  miles;  it  is  worked 
as  a  Government  estate  under  the  charge  of  a  manager 
and  assistant  manager.  The  undertaking  at  present 
combines  the  growing  of  cotton  and  other  crops  with  the 
raising  of  stock.  From  100  to  150  acres  of  cotton  are 
cultivated  each  year;  on  the  whole  the  undertaking  has 
proved  uniformly  successful  and  satisfactory  returns  have 
been  experienced.  There  is  a  ginnery  in  the  island,  the 
property  of  the  Government,  which  contains  two  gins, 
a  baling  press,  and  a  4-h.p.  oil  engine.  Till  recently  the 
quality  of  the  cotton  grown  in  this  island  has  borne  the 
reputation  of  being  somewhat  coarse,  but  during  the  past 
two  years  systematic  selection  trials  have  been  under- 
taken by  the  management  in  conjunction  with  the  Agri- 
cultural Department,  with  a  view  to  improving  the  quality 
of  the  cotton ;  it  is  hoped  that  the  fruits  of  this  work 
will  shortly  be  seen  in  a  marked  improvement  in  the 
quality  of  the  staple. 

The  effect  of  the  industry  on  the  prosperity  of  the 
island  has  been  very  marked;  prior  to  the  inauguration 
of  the  existing  undertaking  the  island  was  in  an  exceed- 


COTTON  327 

ingly  poverty-stricken  condition,  the  mode  of  life  of  the 
inhabitants  was  extremely  low,  and  annual  grants  in 
aid  of  the  Dependency  from  Antigua  funds  were  always 
necessary.  With  the  advent  of  cotton  growing  conditions 
have  materially  improved,  employment  has  been  provided 
for  the  population  of  about  800  souls  which  the  island 
possesses,  and  there  is  a  substantial  balance  to  the  credit 
of  the  enterprise. 

St.  Kitts. — St.  Kitts  lies  about  60  miles  to  the  west 
of  Antigua  and  has  an  area  of  68  square  miles.  The 
industry  has  established  itself  very  firmly  in  the  island, 
while  the  quality  of  the  cotton  grown  has  attained  a 
high  reputation. 

The  greater  part  of  the  crop  is  planted  intermediately 
between  two  crops  of  cane;  after  the  first  picking  has 
been  reaped  the  trees  are  pulled  up  and  either  burned  or 
buried,  and  the  land  planted  with  cane.  This  system 
enables  the  cultivation  to  be  carried  on  very  cheaply  and 
has  given  excellent  results;  a  certain  amount  of  cotton 
is  also  grown  as  a  main  crop.  The  soils  of  the  island 
as  a  whole  are  particularly  adapted  to  cotton  growing; 
in  the  south-western  area  the  conditions  are  almost 
ideally  suited  to  the  crop,  in  the  north-eastern  district 
the  heavier  rainfall  renders  the  crop  more  uncertain. 

On  the  whole  cotton  growing  may  be  said  to  have 
attained  a  more  uniform  degree  of  success  in  St.  Kitts 
than  in  any  other  island  in  the  West  Indies,  and  has 
greatly  added  to  the  prosperity  of  the  community. 

At  the  present  time  from  1,500  to  2,000  acres  are 
planted  each  year. 

There  is  a  large  ginnery  at  Spooner's,  on  the  wind- 
ward coast,  the  property  of  Messrs.  Sendall  and  Wade, 
the  equipment  of  which  includes  plant  for  crushing- 
cotton  seed  and  extracting  the  oil  therefrom;  the  bulk 
of  the  crop  of  the  island  is  handled  at  this  institution. 
There  is  also  a  smaller  privately  owned  ginnery  on  the 
leeward  side  of  the  island. 

No  peasant-grown  cotton  is  produced  in  St.  Kitts. 

Nevis. — Nevis  lies  south  of  St.  Kitts  and  is  separated 
from  it  by  a  channel  a  mile  wide  at  its  narrowest  point; 
the  total  area  of  the  island  is  50  square  miles. 


COTTON 

In  Nevis  cotton  is  cultivated  as  a  main  crop  and,  if 
possible,  is  kept  for  a  second  picking.  The  crop  is 
grown  both  on  estates  and  by  peasant  cultivators,  the 
latter  occupying  very  nearly  one-half  of  the  total  area 
under  cotton. 

Owing  to  the  heavier  character  of  the  soil  and  the 
rather  more  uncertain  seasons  experienced,  the  returns 
have  been  more  variable  than  in  the  sister  island  of 
St.  Kitts;  but,  taken  over  a  period  of  years,  the  returns 
have  been  satisfactory  and  the  cultivation  of  the  crop 
has  added  greatly  to  the  prosperity  of  the  island. 

At  the  present  time  cotton  cultivation  has  to  a  very 
large  extent  taken  the  place  of  sugar-cane,  and  may  be 
regarded  as  the  staple  industry  of  the  island;  the  area 
at  present  cultivated  under  the  crop  ranges  annually 
between  1,000  and  2,000  acres. 

There  is  a  large  ginnery  in  Charlestown — the  capital 
of  the  island — which  is  worked  by  a  London  firm,  while 
there  are  also  a  number  of  smaller  ginneries  at  different 
points. 

The  important  class  of  peasant  growers  are  well  looked 
after  by  the  Agricultural  Department,  their  plots  being 
regularly  visited  by  the  Agricultural  Instructor,  and 
advice  and  assistance  given  when  required.  Arrange- 
ments are  made  each  year  for  supplying  small  growers 
with  selected  seed  of  good  quality  at  cost  price,  while 
facilities  are  also  afforded  for  the  obtaining  of  Paris 
green  for  the  control  of  cotton  caterpillars. 

The  produce  of  the  peasant  cultivators  is  largely  dis- 
posed of  by  local  sale,  the  traffic  being  regulated  by  an 
Ordinance  similar  to  that  which  is  in  operation  in  Antigua. 

Anguilla. — In  this  small  island,  the  area  of  which  is 
35  square  miles,  the  growing  of  Sea  Island  cotton  has 
also  played  a  very  important  part.  With  the  exception 
of  that  which  is  produced  by  one  large  grower,  Mr.  C. 
Rey,  the  cotton  is  entirely  grown  on  small  holdings  by 
peasants.  The  conditions  are  often  rendered  unfavour- 
able on  account  of  drought  and  the  wind-swept  state  of 
the  island;  in  consequence  the  average  return  per  acre 
is  lower  than  in  St.  Kitts  and  Nevis. 

The  total  area  planted  each  year  ranges  between  600 
and  1,200  acres. 


COTTON  329 

Mr.  C.  Rey,  who  owns  a  large  ginnery,  has  done  much 
to  foster  the  growth  of  the  industry,  and  it  is  to  his 
efforts  that  the  present  position  is  largely  due.  Loans 
are  annually  granted  to  him  by  the  local  Government  and 
the  British  Cotton  Growing  Association  which  enable  him 
to  make  advances  to  small  cultivators  while  the  crop 
is  being  grown,  and  almost  the  entire  output  of  the  island 
is  marketed  through  him.  The  effect  of  the  industry  has 
been  most  marked  in  affording  a  measure  of  prosperity 
to  this  small  island,  where  formerly  the  conditions  were 
of  extreme  poverty. 

Montserrat. — Montserrat  lies  27  miles  south-west  of 
Antigua  and  has  a  total  area  of  32 \  square  miles. 

The  cotton  industry  is  of  prime  importance  in  the  island 
and  occupies  the  position  of  staple  crop.  The  total  area 
cultivated  ranges  from  2,000  to  2,500  acres.  The  industry 
has  assumed  an  assured  position  and  the  acreage  under 
the  crop  on  estates  does  not  vary  much  from  year  to 
year;  the  fluctuations  which  have  occurred  in  the  total 
area  planted  during  recent  years  have  been  very  largely 
due  to  the  varying  interest  shown  by  the  peasant  pro- 
prietary. 

The  soils  of  the  lower  coast  lands  of  the  island  are 
on  the  whole  very  well  adapted  to  cotton  growing,  but 
on  the  higher  lands  in  the  central  region  of  the  island 
soil  and  climatic  conditions  tend  to  render  the  crop  more 
uncertain. 

There  are  several  privately  owned  ginneries  in  the 
island,  the  majority  of  which,  in  addition  to  handling  the 
crops  of  estates,  also  purchase  the  produce  of  peasant 
growers.  Here,  as  in  other  Presidencies,  trading  in 
cotton  is  regulated  by  a  local  Ordinance. 

The  effect  of  the  introduction  of  cotton  growing  has 
been  most  beneficial,  and  has  served  to  place  the  island 
in  a  sound  financial  position;  prior  to  the  inception  of 
the  industry  the  condition  of  the  island  was  one  of 
considerable  depression. 

Generally  the  outlook  for  the  industry  is  promising; 
as  a  result  of  satisfactory  returns  considerable  increases 
have  taken  place  in  the  area  planted  with  the  crop  by 
peasants.  Large  tracts  of  land  have  been  reintroduced 


33°  COTTON 

into  cultivation  which  for  many  years  previously  have 
been  in  bush,  and  regular  employment  has  been  found 
for  a  considerable  section  of  the  labouring  community. 

The  Virgin  Islands. — This  Presidency  consists  of  a  very 
numerous  group  of  small  islands  lying  about  200  miles 
north-west  of  Antigua;  the  largest  members  of  the  group 
are  Tortola,  Virgin  Gorda,  Anegada,  and  Jost  van 
Dyck's;  the  total  area  of  the  Presidency  is  about  30  square 
miles.  There  are  no  properties  worked  on  estate  lines 
and  the  land  is  very  largely  in  the  hands  of  the  peasants. 

Formerly  the  conditions  of  the  islands  wrere  of  extreme 
poverty,  but  the  reintroduction  of  cotton  cultivation  has 
served  materially  to  improve  the  condition  of  affairs. 

The  crop  is  entirely  produced  by  peasant  cultivators 
on  small  holdings,  which  are  often  situated  in  remote  and 
isolated  situations. 

The  industry  has  been  developed  through  the  enter- 
prise of  the  Government  by  means  of  the  Agricultural 
Department.  Each  year  a  supply  of  selected  seed  of  good 
strain  is  provided  for  planting  purposes  and  supplied  to 
intending  growers  at  low  rates. 

A  ginnery,  containing  two  gins,  a  baling  press,  and  an 
oil  engine,  has  been  erected  by  the  Government,  and  the 
seed-cotton  produced  is  there  purchased  from  growers  at 
prices  based  on  the  current  market  values  for  lint,  the 
produce  being  subsequently  exported  and  sold. 

Guidance  and  advice  on  the  treatment  of  the  crop  are 
afforded  by  frequent  visits  of  the  agricultural  officers  to 
the  holdings  of  peasant  cultivators,  while  facilities  are 
also  given  for  the  control  of  pests  and  diseases. 

As  in  other  places  where  peasant  cotton  growing  is 
carried  on,  the  industry  has  been  largely  built  up  as  the 
result  of  efforts  on  the  part  of  the  Agricultural  Depart- 
ment, including  the  provision  of  a  ready  means  of 
marketing  the  staple  once  it  has  been  produced. 

The  effect  is  seen  in  the  greatly  ameliorated  conditions 
under  which  the  inhabitants  of  these  islands  now  exist 
and  the  improved  financial  outlook  of  the  Presidency. 

Conclusion. 

The  foregoing  pages  present  a  fairly  comprehensive 
outline  of  the  conditions  under  which  Sea  Island  cotton 


COTTON  331 

is  produced  in  the  Leeward  Islands  Colony,  and  indicate 
the  important  economic  results  which  have  followed  the 
introduction  of  the  industry.  Both  on  estates  and  among 
peasant  growers  its  effects  have  been  far-reaching,  and 
it  is  worthy  of  remark  that  these  results  have  been 
attained  in  a  comparatively  short  space  of  time. 

The  permanence  of  the  industry  now  appears  to  be 
mainly  contingent  on  two  factors,  namely:  (i)  The  con- 
tinuation of  satisfactory  market  conditions;  and  (2)  the 
non-appearance  of  any  wholesale  destructive  agency  in 
the  shape  of  disease  which  may  jeopardize  the  existence 
of  the  industry. 

Given  a  continuation  of  existing  conditions,  there  is 
no  reason  why  the  industry  should  not  be  regarded  as 
firmly  established. 

At  all  points  a  considerable  store  of  knowledge  has 
now  been  accumulated  by  growers  as  to  the  best  methods 
to  be  adopted  in  producing  the  crop;  but,  in  the  case  of 
a  highly  specialized  product  such  as  this,  there  is  still 
room  for  a  certain  degree  of  increased  appreciation  on 
the  part  of  growers  of  the  exact  requirements  of  spinners, 
and  it  may  perhaps  be  added  on  the  part  of  spinners  of 
more  detailed  knowledge  of  the  conditions  under  which 
the  crop  is  grown. 

There  does  not  appear  to  be  any  real  reason,  if  these 
two  factors  are  correctly  apprehended,  why  the  require- 
ments of  spinners  should  not  be  met  with  even  greater 
exactitude  than  at  present,  but  the  essential  feature  must 
not  be  lost  sight  of  that  each  island  will  always  tend  to 
produce  its  own  type  of  lint,  and  that  it  is  by  reselection  of 
acclimatized  strains  that  improvement  is  most  likely  to 
be  effected,  rather  than  by  importation  of  fresh  strains 
from  outside  sources. 

The  general  history  of  the  industry  is  of  interest  and 
also  serves  to  indicate  the  steps  which  are  most  likely 
to  lead  to  success  in  fostering  the  development  of  other 
industries  under  similar  conditions. 


BAUMWOLLBAU  IN  DEUTSCHEN  KOLONIEN. 

Von  MORITZ  SCHANZ. 
Chemnitz. 

DIE  Entwicklung  der  Exportkultur  von  Baumwolle  in 
den  drei  deutschafrikanischen  Kolonien,  Togo,  Kamerun 
und  Ostafrika,  hat  seit  dem  Jahre  1910  stetige  Fortschritte 
gemacht  und  zwar  erfolgt  die  gemeinniitzige  Forderung 
dieser  wichtigen  Bestrebungen  nach  wie  vor  durch  das 
Zusammenarbeiten  der  Regierungsorgane  und  des 
Kolonial-Wirtschaftlichen  Komitees,  laut  dem  am 
14.  Marz  1910  abgeschlossenen  Uebereinkommen,  das 
sich  durchaus  bewahrt  hat. 

In  T  o  g  o  hat  man,  da  Kronland  dort  nicht  vorhanden, 
das  Land  vielmehr  iiberwiegend  im  Besitz  der  Einge- 
borenen  ist,  auch  die  Baumwollkultur  von  vornherein  als 
K 1  e  i  n-oder  Volkskultur,  nicht  als  Plantagenkultur 
unter  Leitung  europaischer  Besitzer  geplant  und  der 
Erfolg  hat  die  Richtigkeit  dieses  Vorgehens  bewiesen. 
In  ziemlich  stetiger  Zunahme  stieg  die  Ernte  von  40 
Ballen  a  250  kg.  im  Jahre  1901  auf  2,200  Ballen  im  Jahre 
1912,  im  Werte  von  514,000  Mark.  Die  Zahl  der  in  den 
verschiedenen  Teilen  der  Kolonie  arbeitenden  Entker- 
nungsanstalten  betragt  12.  Ungiinstig  beeinflusst  werden 
die  Ernteertrage  durch  den  Umstand,  dass  die  Wieder- 
schlage  nicht  immer  geniigend  sind.  Dagegen  zeigen 
die  in  Togo  auftretenden  Baumwoll-Krankheiten  und 
Schadlinge  bislang  keinen  ernsten  Charakter. 

Der  von  den  Eingeborenen  iiberwiegend  in  Misch  , 
nicht  Reinkultur  und  noch  mit  recht  ungeniigenden 
Kulturmethoden  betriebebe  Baumwollbau  beschrankt 
sich,  soweit  der  Export  in  Frage  kommt,  im  Wesent- 
lichen  auf  Siid-  und  Mittel-Togo,  wo  man  mit  Ausnahme 
des  Kustengiirtels  heute  nur  noch  die  hier  langst  vor- 
handene  und  okklimatisierte  "  Togo  Sea  Island  "  anbaut, 
die  einer  guten  amerikanischen  "  middling  "  entspricht 
und  deren  Faser  nach  einem  wohl  hauptsachlich  durch 


COTTON  333 

Mischung  verschiedener  Sorten  entstandenen  Quali- 
tatsriickgang  in  den  Jahren  1908/10  jetzt  in  Lange, 
Starke  und  Glanz  wieder  zufriedenstellend  ist,  seitdem 
die  Regierung  Zucht  und  Verteilung  reiner  Saat  systema- 
tisch  und  mit  Erfolg  durchgefiihrt  hat.  Fur  das  in  Bezug 
auf  Ausfuhr  weniger  gunstig  gestellte  Nord-Togo  wird 
eine  geeignete  Baumwollsorte  noch  gesucht. 

Das  Kolonial-Wirtschaftliche  Komitee  besitzt  seit  1908 
nicht  mehr  einen  standigen  Vertreter  in  Togo,  leistet 
aber  nach  wie  vor  die  Garantie  eines  Minimalpreises  und 
stellt  Pramiengelder  zur  Verfiigung  zur  Verteilung  an 
Eingeborene  fur  besondere  Leistungen  im  Baumwollbau. 

Die  Preisgarantie  in  Togo  belauft  sich  zur  Zeit  auf 
30  Pfennige  fiir  \  kg.  entkernter  Baumwolle  loko  Eisen- 
bahnstation,  an  welcher  Ginanlagen  im  Betrieb. 

Dem  Gouverneur  von  Togo  stehen  vier  landwirtschaft- 
liche  Sachverstandige  und  funf  Bezirkslandwirte  zur 
Verfiigung,  die  ihr  besonderes  Interesse  dem  Baum- 
wollbau zuwenden  und  die  letzteren  wirken  im  gleichen 
Sinne  auch  als  Wanderlehrer  unter  den  Eingeborenen. 
Die  vom  Kolonial-Wirtschaftlichen  Komitee  ubernom- 
menene  Versuchsanstalt  Nuatscha  wurde  1912  seitens  der 
Regierung  unter  Beibehaltung  des  Lehrbetriebs  fur 
Eingeborene  zur  Landeskulturanstalt  ausgehaut  und 
ergab  1912/13  in  ihrem  feldmassigen  Anbau  von  Baum- 
wolle einen  Durchschnittsertrag  von  484  kg.  Samenbaum- 
wolle  auf  den  Hektar.  Daneben  unterhalt  die  Regierung 
auch  noch  drei  besondere  Baumwollstationen  in  den 
Bezirken  Atakpame,  Misahohe  und  Sokode. 

Um  die  Massnahmen  zur  Hebung  der  Baumwollkultur 
wirksam  zu  gestalten,  hat  sich  die  Notwendigkeit  einer 
am  9.  Januar  1914  erlassenen  Baumwollordnung  betreffs 
Handel  und  Aufbereitung  von  Baumwolle  herausgestellt. 
Demnach  darf  Baumwollsaat  an  Farbige  nur  von  der 
zustandigen  Verwaltung  abgegeben  werden.  Aufkaufer 
werden  zum  Baumwoll-Aufkauf  nur  mit  einen  Erlaub- 
nisschein  zugelassen,  der  von  der  Bezirksleitung  fur  die 
Dauer  eines  Jahres  kostenlos  ausgestellt  wird.  Die  zu 
Aussaatzwecken  bestimmte  Baumwollsaat  ist  in  Sacken 
mit  Herkunftsbezeichnung  trocken  zu  lagern;  Unbefugte 
diirfen  keinen  Zutritt  zu  den  Lagerraumen  erhalten. 


334  COTTON 

Im  Interesse  der  Ziichtung  friihreifer  Sorten  wird 
neuerdings  im  ganzen  Schutzgebeit  grundsatzlich  die  Saat 
der  ersten  Pflucke  zitr  Verteilung  und  Aussaat  benutzt. 

Der  Baumwoll-Export  Togos  ist  noch  steigerungsfahig, 
scheint  aber  kaum  je  eine  besondere  Ausdehnung  erlangen 
zu  konnen  und  die  friiher  gehegten  weitgehenden  Erwart- 
ungen  waren  jedenfalls  zu  hoch  gespannt. 

Recht  aussichtsreich  liegen  dagegen  die  Vorbeding- 
ungen  fiir  weite  Teile  von 

K  a  m  e  r  u  n  ,  sobald  erst  einmal  das  Innere  durch 
Eisenbahnen  erschlossen  sein  wird.  Das  Waldland  und 
namentlich  die  Kiiste  diirften  wegen  der  teilweisen 
phanomenal  hohen  Niederschlage  und  zu  kurzer  Trocken- 
zeit  allerdings  fur  Baumwollbau  ganz  ungeeignet  sein; 
um  so  besser  aber  eignen  sich  dafiir  die  im  Hinterland 
gelegenen  Graslandereien.  Baumwolle  ist  wildwachsend 
in  ganz  Adamaua  und  im  Tsadsee-Gebiet  verbreitet  und 
wird  siidlich  vom  Tsadsee,  ebenso  wie  im  Alluvial-Gebiet 
des  Benue  noch  heute  von  den  Eingeborenen  vorlaufig 
iiur  fur  ihren  eigenen  Bedarf,  in  mehrjahriger  Kultur  und 
in  grossem  Umfang  angepflanzt.  Es  steht  hier  erne 
dichte  und  intelligente  Ackerbau  treibende  Bevolkerung 
zur  Verfiigung  und  zwar  diirften  sich  fiir  €ine  Baumwoll- 
Exportkultur  in  erster  Linie  die  Heidenstamme,  weniger 
die  Mohamedaner  eignen. 

Schwierigkeiten  bietet  aber  verlaufig  noch  der  Ab- 
transport,  da  zunachst  nur  der  ungeniigende  Wasserweg 
auf  dem  Niger-"  Benue  "  in  Frage  kommt. 

Die  schon  friiher  in  Aussicht  genommenen  amtlichen 
Schritte  zur  Klarung  der  Baumwollfrage  in  Kamerun 
begannen  1911  mit  der  Entsendung  eines  Sachver- 
standigen  nach  dem  Bezirk  Bamum,  wo  Baumwolle  als 
Kulturpflanze  der  Eingeborenen  vorkommt,  friiher  feld- 
massig  angebaut  worden  sein  soil,  dann  aber  bei 
Vordringen  billiger  europaischer  Gewebe  vernachlassigt 
wurde.  Die  Aussichten  fiir  Baumwollbau,  wobei  als 
Wirtschaftsform  zunachst  nur  die  Forderung  der  bereits 
von  altersher  bestehenden  Eingeborenen-Kultur  in  Frage 
kommen  kann,  sind  aber  noch  heute  durchaus  giinstig 
und  die  Regierung  richtete  1912  in  vorsorglicher  Weise 
speziell  zur  Hebung  des  Baumwollanbaus  zwei  land- 


COTTON  335 

wirtschaftliche  Versuchsstatioen  in  Bamum  und  Garua 
ein.  Denselben  liegt  ob,  zunachst  die  geeignetsten 
Baumwollsorten  herauszufinden  und  zu  ziichten,  die 
Eingeborenen  zur  Baumwoll-Exportkultur  zu  erziehen 
ud  weisse  und  farbige  Wanderlahrer  heranzubilden, 
damit  die  Ausdehnung  der  Kultur  auf  gesunder  Grund- 
lage  erfolgen  kann,  sobald  verbesserte  Transportmoglich- 
keiten  sie  lohnend  machen. 

Nachdem  die  Transportfrage  mehr  geklart  s<ein  wird, 
beabsichtigt  das  Kolonial- Wirtschaftliche  Komitee  dem 
Kaiserlichen  Gouvernement  die  Mittel  fur  den  ersten 
Ankauf  der  deutschen  Adamaua-Baumwolle  zur  Ver- 
fiigung  zu  stellen,  um  diese  der  heimimischen  Industrie 
zuzufiihren. 

Die  grossten  Hoffnungen  betreffs  kolonialen  Baum- 
wollbaus  aber  setzt  man  in  Deutschland  auf 

Deutsch-Ostafrika,  Man  arbeitete  auch  hier 
zunachst  nach  amerikanischen  Methoden.  Da  sich  bei 
den  Anbau-Versuchen  mit  fremd  Sorten  aber  heraus- 
zustellen  schien,  dass  die  hochklassigen  agyptischen 
Sorten  Abassi  und  Mitafifi  die  besten  Resultate  ergaben, 
so  ging  man  begreiflicherweise  ganz  zu  diesen  iiber  und 
das  Gouvernement  verbot  1904  die  Einfuhr  amerikanischer 
Saat  nach  Ostafrika  iiberkaupt.  Erzielte  man  mit  den 
wertvollen  agyptischen  Sorten  in  den  niedrigen  Lagen 
der  Kiistengebiete  stellenweise  auch  recht  giinstige 
Resultate,  so  fand  man  ab  1909  doch  heraus,  dass  die  in 
den  benachbarten  englischen  Kolonien  Uganda  und 
Nyasaland  akklimatisierten  amerikanischen  Upland- 
Sorten  sich  auch  in  Deutsch-Ostafrika  im  allgemeinen 
als  widerstandsfahiger  erwiesen  und  hat  darauf  heute 
auch  bei  uns  den  Hauptteil  der  Produktion  eingestellt. 

Leider  besitzt  Deutsch-Ostafrika  keine  grosse  ein- 
heitliche  Baumwollzone,  sondern  eine  Anzahl,  kleinerer 
Baumwollgebiete  von  sehr  verschiedenem  Charakter,  so 
dass  iiberall  besondere  Studien  notig  sind. 

Als  grosstes  Hindernis  der  Baumwollkultur  in  Deutsch- 
Ostafrika  erwies  sich  bald  die  Unsicherheit  der  meteoro- 
logischen  Verhaltnisse  und  zwar  handelt  es  sich  dabei 
teils  um  Regenmangel,  teils  um  Regen  zur  unrechten 
Zeit.  Ersterer  ware  in  den  Perioden  ausserordentlicher 

22 


COTTON 

Trockenheit,  von  denen  das  Schutzgebiet  nicht  selten 
heimgesucht  wird,  durch  kimstliche  Bewasserung  aus- 
zugleichen,  die  man  in  Ostafrica  nach  agyptischen  Muster 
iiberhaupt  zur  Sicherung  der  Ernten  vielfach  im  Auge 
haben  muss  und  fur  welche  seitens  des  Kolonial- 
Wirtschaftlichen  Komitees  bereits  Vorarbeiten  geleistet 
wurden,  die  der  Verwertung  durch  Interessenten  barren; 
weit  bedenklicher  und  nicht  auszugleichen  ist  aber  der 
unzeitgemass  d.h.  wahrend  der  Kapselreife  einsetzende 
Regen,  der  nur  zu  leicht  das  Verderben  der  Faser  her- 
beifuhren  und  die  ganze  Ernte  gefahrden  kann. 

Regenmenge  und  Regenverteilung  sind  gleichmassiger 
im  Siiden  des  Schutzgebiets  mit  seiner  einen  Regen-  und 
einer  Trokkenzeit,  als  im  nordlichen  Kiistenland,  und 
besonders  giinstig  liegen  die  Verhaltnisse  im  Hinterland 
von  Lindi  und  Kilwa,  wo  der  Niederungsboden  vielfach 
vortrefflich  ist.  Auch  Kissaki  liefert  Baumwolle  von 
hervorragender  Qualitat  und  im  Bezirk  Muansa  am 
Victoria-See  sind  Boden-  und  klimatische  Verhaltnisse 
sehr  ahnlich  denen  von  Uganda. 

Es  ist  anfangs  viel  daruber  gestritten  worden,  ob  der 
Baumwollbau  im  tropischen  Afrika  als  Kleinbauern- 
Negerkultur,  oder  als  Plantagenkultur  betrieben  werden 
solle.  Dieser  Streit  durfte  heute  als  erledigt  zu  be- 
trachten  sein  und  zwar  nach  der  Richtung  hin  entschieden, 
dass  man  das  Problem  nicht  mehr  auf  "  Klein-  oder 
Plantagenkulturen  "  einstellt,  sondern  auf  "Klein-  und 
Plantagenkulturen/'  und  dass  man  je  nach  den  ortlichen 
Bedingungeri  insbesondere  mit  Riicksicht  auf  Landbesitz- 
tand  Arbeiterverhaltnisse,  das  eine  oder  das  andere 
bevorzugt.  Allgemein  zutreifende  Lehren  lassen  sich 
daruber  nicht  aufstellen,  vielerorts  konnen  beide  Wirt- 
schaftsformen  nebeneinander  hergehen. 

Das  trifft  z.B.  fur  Ostafrika  zu,  wo  das  Land  nicht,  wie 
in  Togo,  uberwiegend  unter  den  Eingeborenen  aufgeteilt 
ist,  sondern  ausgedehnte,  fur  Baumwollbau  geeignete 
Landereien  zu  billigen  Bedingungen  dem  Europaer  kauf- 
oder  pachtweise  zur  Verfiigung  stehen,  die  Moglichkeit 
einer  Gross-Plantagenkultur  in  europaischen  Besitz  und 
tmter  europaischer  Leitung  also  durchaus  gegeben  ist. 
Dieser  Plantagenbau  wirkt  dann  auch  anregend  und 


COTTON  337 

belehrend  auf  die  Eingeborenen  zuriick.  Ueberhaupt  wird 
sich  der  afrikanische  Neger  auf  eine  neue  Exportkultur 
nur  dann  einlassen,  wenn  ihm  der  Antrieb  dazu  von 
aussen  kommt,  sei  es  nun  durch  die  Nachbarschaft 
europaischer  Plantagen  und  Kaufleute  namentlich  wenn 
diese  es  verstehn,  die  Hauptlinge  direkt  dafiir  zu  interes- 
sieren;  sei  es  durch  eine  starke  Vermehrung  der  Be- 
volkerung  durch  welche  die  Konkurrenz  erweckt  wird; 
sei  es  endlich  durch  einen  sanften  Druck  der  europaischen 
Behorden,  indem  z.B.  die  Bezirkshauptleute  den  einge- 
borenen  Autoritaten,  den  Jumben  und  Akidas,  immer 
wieder  ihre  betreffenden  Wunsche  aussern,  oder  indem 
sie  Steuern  einfiihren,  welche  den  Anbau  von  Geldernten 
notwendig  machen,  oder  auch  durch  Einwirkung  der 
Bezirkslandwirte,  welche  auch  eine  fortgesetzte  Kontrolle 
auszuiiben  haben,  da  ohne  eine  solche  die  neuen  Produk- 
tionsarten  nicht  sachgemass  fortgesetzt  werden. 

Besonders  schwer  ist  dabei  zu  beurteilen,  w  i  e  v  i  e  1 
man  den  Eingeborenen  mit  neuen  Kulturen  zumuten 
kann,  ohne  andere  wichtige  und  eintragliche  Kulturen  zu 
schadigen.  Eine  Schwierigkeit  bei  Einfiihrung  jeder 
neuen  und  noch  nicht  ausprobierten  Volkskultur  fiir  den 
Export  liegt  auch  darin,  dass  der  Neger  durch  Missraten 
einer  Ernte  leicht  in  eine  Notlage  gebracht  und  dadurch 
entmutigt  werden  kann. 

Zur  Hebung  der  Eingeborenen-Baumwollkultur  in 
Ostafrika,  die  man  von  Anfang  an  als  besonders  wichtig 
anerkannte  und  dementsprechend  forderte,  griindete  das 
Kolonial-Wirtschaftliche  Komitee  eine  Baumwollschuk 
am  Rufiji,  und  die  Regierungsstationen  und  die  Mis- 
sionen  machten  in  ihren  Bezirken  Propaganda  fiir  den 
Baumwollbau.  Bislang  pflanzen  die  Eingeborenen  Baum- 
wolle  meist  mit  Mais,  Bohnen,  Hirse  und  Kassada  zusam- 
men  und  besonders  Mais  bildet  eine  haufige  Vor-oder 
Zwischenfrucht  mit  Baumwolle. 

Ab  1908  und  durch  die  Dernburg'sche  Reise  angeregt 
sicherten  sich  grosse  deutsche  Spinner  bedeutende 
Landereien  in  Ostafrika,  um  dort  zukiinftig  einen  Teil 
ihres  Bedarfs  an  Rohbaumwolle  durch  eigene  Plantagen 
zu  decken.  Daneben  bauten  auch  mittlere  und  kleinere 
weisse  Pflanzer  Baumwolle  an,  gewohnlich  in  Zwischen- 


338  COTTON 

kultur  mit  Manihot,  Kautschuk,  Sisal-Agaven  und 
Kokospalmen,  wenn  auch  an  deren  Stelle  letzthin  mehr 
und  mehr  der  Baumwollbau  als  Reinkultur  Platz  greift. 

Die  Zeit  ist  noch  zu  kurz,  um  heute  schon  sagen  zu 
konnen,  welche  dieser  verschiedenen  Betriebsformen  in 
ostafrikanischen  Prlanzungen  sich  lohnen  werden. 

Bislang  bringt  die  Eingeborene  n-Kultur  grossere 
Mengen  Baumwolle,  als  die  Plantagenkultur  und  der 
Baumwollbau  der  Eingeborenen  gewinnt  standig  an  Aus- 
breitung  und  Beliebtheit,  wenn  auch  nicht  in  alien  Teilen 
des  Schutzgebiets  in  gleicher  Weise.  Es  findet  vielmehr 
von  Jahr  zu  Jahr  scharfer  eine  Trennung  der  fur  diese 
Kultur  geeigneten  und  ungeeigneten  Gebiete  statt.  Nur 
in  den  sich  endgiiltig  als  Baumwollgebiete  erweisenden 
Gegenden  wird  auch  weiterhin  dies€  Kultur  gefordet 
werden,  wobei  man  gleichzeitig  besonderes  Gewicht  auf 
den  geniigenden  Anbau  von  Nahrungsmitteln  legt.  Die 
von  den  Eingeborenen  mit  Baumwolle  bestellten,  Flachen 
lassen  sich  schwer  schatzen,  die  FoTtschritte  der  Einge- 
borenen-Kultur  gehen  aber  am  gesten  aus  der  von  Jahr 
zu  Jahr  steigenden  Nachfrage  nach  Saatgut  hervor, 
welche  1910-11  rund  3,000;  1911-12,  6,000;  und  1912-13, 
10,000  Zentner  betrug,  wahrend  fiir  die  Saison  1913-14 
beantragt  waren :  — 

8,050  Zentner    Nyasa-Upland    fiir    die    Bezirke    Lindi, 

Kilwa,  Rufiji  und  Daressalam. 

2,200  Zentner  Uganda-Upland  fiir  die  Bezirke  Muansa. 
600  Zentner  agyptiche  Assili   fiir  die   Bezirke   Baga- 

moyo  und  Sadani. 
170  Zentner  verschiedener  Sorten. 

In  den  letzten  Jahren  haben  aber  auch  die  Plantagen 
im  Lindi-  und  im  Kilossa-Bezirk  sowie  am  Rufiji,  erfreu- 
licherweise  wieder  festeren  Fuss  gefasst,  nachdem  grosse, 
mitlere  und  kleinere  Europaerpflanzungen  aus  ver- 
schiedenen Ursachen  ihren  Betrieb  einstellten.  Im  Jahre 
1912  waren  von  Europaern  12,900  Hektar  mit  Baumwolle 
bestellt  und  im  ganzen  ist  die  Baumwollernte  Ostafrikas 
von  37  Ballen  zu  je  250  kg.  in  1903  auf  7,526  Ballen  in 
1912  gestiegen.  Davon  entfielen  auf  die  Jahre 


COTTON  339 

1910:    3,581   Ballen  im   Werte  von  751,000  Mark. 
1911:   4,322  „  „  1,331,000      „ 

1912:   7,526  ,,  „  2,110,000      „ 

Soweit  Europaer  im  Baumwollbau  nicht  reussierten,  ist 
es  vielfach  dem  Umstand  zuzuschreiben,  dass  sie  in  Ver- 
kennung  der  eigenartigen  meteorologischen  Verhaltnisse 
Ostafrikas  ungeeignete  Boden  und  Sorten  wahlten;  ferner 
lasst  sich  nicht  leugnen,  dass  der  Wunsch,  Rodungskosten 
zu  sparen,  bei  gleichzeitigem  Vertrauen  auf  die  Wirksam- 
keit  moderner  Kulturgerate,  die  europaischen  Pflanzer 
stellenweise  Boden  zum  Baumwollbau  heranziehen  liess, 
die  als  ungeeignet  dafiir  bezeichnet  werden  miissen,  weil 
sie  zu  kummerlichem  Gedeihen  der  Pflanze  fuhren  und 
eine  natiirliche  Predisposition  fiir  Krankheitsbefall  aller 
Art,  besonders  die  stellenweise  verhangnisvoll  aufgetretene 
Krauselkrankheit  schaffen.  Auch  wurde  leider  vielfach 
der  durchaus  notige  Fruchtwechsel  nicht  angewandt, 
sondern  Jahr  fur  Jahr  auf  demselben  Felde  Baumwolle 
gepflanzt.  Die  meisten  Landwirte,  die  zum  ersten  Male 
in  die  Kolonien  gehen,  haben  iiberhaupt  noch  gar  keine 
Erfahrungen  im  Baumwollbau  und  in  der  Beurteilung 
von  Baumwolle;  Erfahrungen  miissen  vielmehr  auch  sie 
erst  draussen  lernen.  Allmahlich  aber  wachst  auch  uns 
ein  Stamm  gereifter  Pflanzer  heran,  die  in  unseren 
Kolonien  festen  Fuss  gefasst  haben. 

Nach  dem  im  Marz  1910  zwischen  Reichs-Kolonialamt 
und  Kolonial-Wirtschaftlichem  Komitee  getroffenen 
Uebereinkommen  betreffs  Arbeitsteilung  leistet  das 
letztere  in  Ostafrika  heute  in  erster  Linie  die  folgenden 
gemeinniitzigen  Dienste  :  — • 

(1)  Ankauf,     Bearbeitung     und     Lieferung     von     aus- 
gesuchter     einheimischer     und     fremder     Baumwollsaat 
seitens  der  Geschaftsstelle  des  Komitees  in  Daressalam, 
zur  kostenlosen  Verteilung  durch  die  Regierungsstellen 
an  Eingeborene  und  hilfsbediirftige  europaische  Pflanzer; 
die  grosseren  Pflanzer  decken  ihren  Saatbedarf  selbst. 

(2)  Leistung     der     Garantie     fiir     Mindestpreise     zum 
Schutze  der  eingeborenen  Bevolkerung  gegen  plotzlichen 
Preissturz,   und  Selbstaufkauf  zu  diesen   Preisen   seitens 
des  Komitees,  falls  Aufkaufer  nicht  vorhanden  sind,  oder 


340  COTTON 

die  aufkaufenden  Handler  diese  Preise  unterbieten.  Hat 
sich  die  Baumwollkultur  erst  einmal  fest  eingebiirgert,  so 
werden  Preis'schwankungen,  sowie  vereinzelte  ungiinstige 
Ernteausfalle  die  Eingeborenen  kaum  mehr  abschrecken, 
da  derartige  missliche  Zwischenfalle  ihre  alten  Kulturen 
ebenso  treffen.  Die  Preisgarantie  betragt  zur  Zeit :  — 

Je  nach  Giite  8-10  Heller  fur  J  kg.  unentkernter  agypt. 
Baumwolle,  u.  nach  Giite  5-6  Heller  fur  J  kg.  unentkernter 
Upland-Baumwolle  franko  Bahnstation,  bezw.  Hafen. 

(3)  Unterhaltung   eines   eigenen   Saatwerks    in    Dares- 
salam    zur     mechanischen     Reinigung    und     Sortierung 
der  einheimischen  Saat,  in  Verbindung  mit  dem  Betrieb 
einer  Anstalt  zum  Entkernen  und  Packen  der  Rohbaum- 
wolle. 

(4)  Standige  Ausstellung  in  Daressalam  von  landwirt- 
schaftlichen  Maschinen  Geraten  und  Ernteaufbereitungs- 
Anlagen,  alles  deutsche  Erzeugnisse. 

(5)  Anlage  eigener  Entkernungs-Anstalten  auch  ausser- 
halb  Daressalams,  z.B.  in  Lindi,  und  Lieferung  solcher 
an  Interessenten  zum  Selbstkostenpreis  gegen  Abzahlung 
in  drei  Jahresraten. 

(6)  Unterhaltung  von  technischen  Beratungsstellen  in 
Daressalam,  1'anga  und  Lindi,  welche  gegen  Erstattung 
der   Kosten   den    Besitzern   der   Entkernungs-Anlagen — 
heute  bereits  37 — begutachtend   zur   Seite  stehen   sollen. 
Daneben  ist  fiir  1914  die  Einrichtung  einer  Maschinisten- 
schule  in  Daressalam  geplant,  um  farbige  Maschinisten  zu 
einer  zuverlassigen  Behandlung  der  Baumwollmaschinen 
heranzubilden. 

(7)  Forderung   des.  Eisenbahnbaus,'  des    Ausbaus    der 
Wasserstrassen,  Vorarbeiten  fiir  Be-  und  Entwasserung. 
So  hat  das  Komitee  dem  Kaiserlichen  Gouvernement  von 
Ostafrika  zum  beschleunigten  Ausbau  der  40  km.  langen 
Baumwolifeldbahn  im  Lindi-Bezirk  im  Jahre  1913  50,000 
Mark    iiberwiesen    und    neuerdings    die    finanzielle    For- 
derung   einer    Bahn    nach    dem    fiir    Baumwollbau    aus- 
sichtsreichen     Kissaki-Bezirk,     sowie     eine     wasserwirt- 
schaftliche  Expedition  im  Interesse  der  Verbesserung  des 
Rufiji-Schiffahrtswegs  in  Aussicht  genommen. 

Wahrend  dem  Kolonial-Wirtschaftlichen  Komitee  also 
mehr  die  kaufmannisch-technischen  Arbeiten  zufallen, 


COTTON  341 

haben  die  amtlichen  Organe  der  Regierung  die  folgenden 
Auf  gaben  ubernommen  :  — 

Sie  errichten  und  betreiben  in  den  Kolonien  landwirt- 
schaftliche  Stationen  mit  besonderer  Beriicksichtigung 
von  Baumwollsortenversuchen,  Saatzucht,  Dungung  und 
Bewasserung;  sie  organisieren  die  Bekampfung  von 
Baumwoll-Schadlingen  und  Krankheiten;  betreiben  die 
wissenschaftliche  Untersuchung  von  Baumwollboden  und 
den  meteorologischen  Dienst,  sowie  eine  geeignete  Ein- 
wirkung  auf  die  Eingeborenen-Bevolkerung,  sich  dem 
fur  die  deutsche  Nationalwirtschaft  so  wichtigen  Baum- 
wollbau  zu  widmen. 

Zur  Durchfuhrung  dieses  Programms  steht  dem 
Gouvernement  in  Ostafrika  ein  besonderer  Referent  fur 
Landwirtschaft  zur  Verfugung,  dazu  acht  Bezirksland- 
wirte,  die  gleichzeitig  als  Wanderlehrer  fur  Eingeborene 
wirken  und  die  unter  ihnen  als  Gehulfen  arbeitenden 
farbigen  Wanderlehrer  uberwachen,  welche  das  Land  zur 
Belehrung  und  Kontrolle  der  Eingeborenen  fortgesetzt 
bereisen;  endlich  zwei  Spezialisten  zur  Untersuchung  und 
Bekampfung  von  Baumwollschadlingen  und  Krankheiten. 
Das  Reichs-Kolonialamt  ist  bemuht,  tiichtige  landwirt- 
schaftliche  Krafte  ausfindig  zu  machen  und  nach  den 
Kolonien  hinauszusenden,  die  neben  einer  griindlichen 
praktischen  Schulung  auch  eine  gute  wissenschaftliche 
Durchbildung  aufweisen  konnen  und  die  Regierung  hat 
bei  der  Auswahl  dieses  Personals  im  allgemeinen  eine 
recht  gliickliche  Hand  gehabt. 

Eine  verdienstvolle  Wirksamkeit  entfalten  ferner  das 
1902  gegriindete  landwirtschaftlich-biologische  Institut  in 
Amani  und  6  auf  die  Hauptbezirke  verteilte  Baumwoll- 
stationen,  darunter  das  1904  vom  Kolonial-Wirtschaft- 
lichen  Komitee  als  Baumwollschule  begrundete  und  1910 
vom  Gouvernement  unter  Beibehaltunp-  des  Schulbetriebs 

o 

fiir  Eingeborene  ubernommene  Mpanganya. 

Das  Arbeitsprogramm  dieser  Baumwollstationen  um- 
fasst:  — 

(i)  Vergleichende  Anbauversuche  zur  Ermittelung  der 
fiir  die  betreffenden  Bezirke  geeigneten  Baumwollsorten, 
unter  Beriicksichtigung  der  Ertragshohe,  der  Faser- 
qualitat  und  der  Widerstandsfahigkeit  gegen  Krank- 


342  COTTON 

heiten  und  Schadlinge;  ferner  Akklimatisierung  hoch- 
wertiger  und  ertragreicher  Typen  aus  fremdlandischen 
Produktionsgebieten . 

(2)  Ziichtungsversuche  zur  Verhinderung  des  Abbaus 
und   der   Entartung   der   ausgewahlten    Sorten   und    zur 
stetig    fortschreitenden    Verbesserung    aller   in    Betracht 
kommenden    wertvollen    Eigenschaften,    durch    Massen- 
und   Individualauslese  und   Leistungspriifung,   um  ertra- 
greiche,  hochwertige  Lokalrassen  mit  sicheren  Ertragen 
zu  erhalten. 

(3)  Vermehrung    der     fur     den    Anbau     im     Grossen 
bestimmen  Sorten  und  Rassen  zur  Gewinnung  grosserer 
Mengen  von  Saatgut  fiir  die  Verteilung  im  Anbaubezirk. 

(4)  Versuche    zur    Feststellung    der    zweckmassigsten 
Aussaat-    und    Erntezeiten,     sowie     zur    vergleichenden 
Priifung     verschiedener     Kulturmethoden,     europaischer 
Gerate    und    Maschinen    zur    Bodenbearbeitung,    Bestel- 
lung,  u.a. 

(5)  Fruchtwechselversuche    mit    anderen    Feldfriichten, 
insbesondere  fiir  die   Ernahrung  der  Eingeborenen   und 
zum   Export;    in   Verbindung    damit    Diingungsversuche 
einschliesslich  solcher  mit  Griindiingung. 

(6)  Versuche    mit    der    Haltung    von    Rindvieh    zur 
Leistung     von     Feldarbeiten     als     Ersatz     menschlicher 
Arbeitskrafte  und  zur  Produktion  von  Diinger. 

(7)  Soweit  notwendig,  Bewasserungsversuche  zu  Baum- 
wolle,   Feststellung  der  dabei  entstehenden  Kosten  und 
des  Einflusses  auf  Menge  und  Giite  der  Ertrage  und  auf 
die  Empfindlichkeit  gegen  Krankheiten  und  Schadlinge. 

(8)  Beobachtungen    und    Versuche,    betraffend    Baum- 
woll-Krankheiten   und   Schadlinge,    sowiederen   Bekamp- 
fung. 

(9)  Beratung  und  Belehrung  von  Pflanzern  und  Einge- 
borenen in  alien  Fragen  der  Landwirtschaft,   speziell  im 
Baumwollbau. 

(10)  Ausbildung  farbiger  Wanderlehrer.     Die  Zehl  der 
auf   den    staatlichen    Baumwollstationen   zur   Ausbildung 
untergebrachten    Farbigen   ist    letzthin    weiter    vermehrt 
worden.     Bei   geniigender  Kontrolle   durch  die   Bezirks- 
landwirte    haben    sich    die    Leute    im    allgemeinen    gut 
bewahrt. 


COTTON  343 

Einen  der  wichtigsten  Punkte  bildet  natiirlich  die  Saat- 
frage. 

Bisher  wurde  die  meiste  Saat  von  Ausland  und  zwar 
aus  Aegypten  bezogen.  Die  Regierung  trachtet  jetzt 
aber  danach,  die  Saat  im  Lande  selbst  zu  gewinnen.  Zu 
diesem  Zwecke  wurden  die  Saatzuchtstationen  einge- 
richtet,  die  natiirlich  erst  allmahlich  nennenswerte 
Mengen  hochwertigen  Saatgutes  aus  eigener  ziich- 
terischer  Arbeit  liefern  konnen.  Um  aber  moglichst 
bald  schon  im  Lande  gezogenes  reines  Saatgut  zu 
bekommen,  wurde  eine  Saatpriifung  und  Saatanerken- 
nung  auf  Privatpflanzungen  durch  Sachverstandige  des 
Gouvernements  nach  dem  in  der  Heimat  bewahrten 
Muster  der  Deutschen  Landwirtschafts-Gesellschaft 
eingefiihrt.  Auf  Antrag  eines  Privatpflanzers  wird  die 
Saat  erst  auf  dem  Felde  gepruft  und  nach  der  Ernte 
nochmals  sorgfaltigst  gemustert.  Dann  erst  wird  ent- 
schieden,  ob  sie  brauchbar  ist  und  ein  Ankauf  zwecks 
Verteilung  an  die  Eingeborenen  erfolgen  soil.  Man 
hofft,  im  Jahre  1914  erstmalig  den  gesamten  Saatbedarf 
im  Schutzgebeit  selbst  decken  zu  konnen. 

Die  Regierung  arbeitet  ferner  darauf  hin,  in  jedem 
Bezirk  von  den  Eingeborenen  nur  eine  einzige  Sorte 
anpflanzen  zu  lassen  und  zwar  wird  diese  Sorte  von  dem 
Bezirksamt  nach  Anhorung  der  Pflanzer  bestimmt,  damit 
die  von  den  Eingeborenen  gebaute  Baumwolle  von  den 
Pflanzern  aufgekauft  und  mit  der  ihrigen  zusammen  ver- 
wertet  werden  kann.  Friiher  wurden  die  verschiedensten 
Sorten  in  einem  Bezirk  gebaut,  wahllos  zusammengekauft 
und  verpackt.  Die  Folge  davon  war  ein  niedriger  Preis  auf 
dem  heimischen  Markte,  denn  die  Bewertung  fand  nach 
der  geringsten  Sorte,  die  dabei  war,  statt. 

Ganz  besondere  Aufmerksamkeit  wird  seitens  der 
Regierung  der  Erkennung  und  Bekampfung  von  Krank- 
heiten  und  Schadlingen  der  Baumwolle  geschenkt. 
Leider  hat  die  Baumwolle  in  Ostafrika  noch  sehr  unter 
solchen  zu  leiden  und  einzelne  Pflanzungen  haben  sich 
dadurch  veranlasst  gesehen,  den  Baumwollbau  ganz  auf- 
zugeben.  Dass  auch  auf  guten  Baumwollboden  die 
Krankheiten  und  Schadlinge  an  vielen  Orten  zunehmen, 
hat  seinen  Grund  darin,  dass  sich  der  Baumwollbau  in 


344  COTTON 

Ostafrika  einstweilen  noch  im  Versuchsstadium  befindet 
und  es  bei  der  Kurze  desselben  bislang  noch  nicht  moglich 
war,  die  fur  die  einzelnen  Anbaugebiete  geeigneten  schad- 
lings-  und  krankheitsfesten  Sorten,  insbesondere  solche, 
mit  kurzer  Vegetationsdauer,  ausfindig  zu  machen,  bezw. 
zu  ziichten.  Die  Beschaffung  solch  widerstandsfahiger, 
den  ortlichen  Bedingungen  angepasster  Sorten  ist  das 
wirksamste  Mittel  zur  Sicherung  guter  Ernten  und  wird 
von  den  Versuchsstationen  der  Regierung  angestrebt. 

Die  Bekampfung  von  Viehseuchen,  die  fur  die  Ein- 
fuhrung  der  Pflugkultur  von  Bedeutung  ist,  hat  durch 
Mehreinstellung  von  tierarztlichen  Personal  Fortschritte 
gemacht. 

Fur  alle  diese  gemeinnutzigen  Arbeiten  sind  aber  Zeit, 
Geld  und  ein  besonders  tiichtiges  Personal  notwendig. 

An  Kosten  dafur  sind  in  den  Jahren  1900  bis  1913  ein- 
schliesslich  2j  Millionen  Mark  seitens  des  Kolonial- 
Wirtschaftlichen  Komitees  und  ij  Million  Mark  seitens 
der  Regierung,  im  ganzen  also  iiber  4  Millionen  Mark 
aufgewendet  worden. 

Nattirlich  kann  man  noch  nicht  auf  den  Tag  voraus- 
sagen,  wann  unsere  Kolonien  in  der  Lage  sein  werden, 
nennenswerte  Quantitaten  Baumwoll'e  zu  liefern.  Es 
sind  noch  gar  viele  Schwierigkeiten  zu  uberwinden.  Bei 
dem  Mangel  jeglicher  Vorbilder  und  Erfahrungen  aus 
dem  tropischen  Afrika  mussten  auch  in  den  deutschen 
Kolonien  zunachst  ganz  systematisch  exakte  Vorarbeiten 
ausgefuhrt  werden,  um  die  einzelnen  Gebiete  auf  ihre 
technischen  Grundlagen  hin  zu  priifen  und  das  bedeutet 
eine  Zeit  und  Geduld  erfordernde  schwere  Arbeit.  Wir 
befinden  uns  eben  noch  mitten  in  der  Periode  der  Experi- 
mente,  bei  denen  einzelne  Fehlschlage,  wie  bei  alien 
Versuchen  ahnlicher  Art,  unvermeidlich  sind,  wahrend 
die  erzielten  Resultate,  auf  grosseren  Anbauflachen 
nutzbar  gemacht,  erst  allmahlich  in  Erscheinung  treten 
konnen.  Jedenfalls  hat  man  bereits  einigermassen  die 
Richtlinien  festgestellt,  wie  die  Produktion  verfolgt 
werden  muss  und  man  weiss  mancherorts  mit  einiger 
Sicherheit,  wie  man  es  nicht  machen  soil  und  auch  das 
ist  schon  etwas  wert. 

Die  Vorbedingungen  fur  einen  lohnenden  Baumwollbau 


COTTON  345 

in  unseren  Kolonien  sind  vorhanden.  Es  handelt  sich 
jetzt  darum,  das  fiir  die  Frage  in  weiten  Kreisen  erweckte 
Interesse  in  die  richtigen  praktischen  Bahnen  zu  lenken 
und  dabei  wird  das  staatliche  Versuchswesen  die  wert- 
vollste  Mithulfe  leisten. 


LA  CULTURE  EXP^RIMENTALE  DU  COTON  EGYPTIEN 
EN  GRECE. 

Par  C.  PHOCA  COSMETATO. 

DEPUIS  quelques  annees  le  Gouvernement  Hellenique 
a  fait  de  grands  efforts  pour  favoriser  en  Grece  la 
culture  experimentale  du  coton  egyptien,  tant  parmi  les 
differentes  stations  agronomiques  que  parmi  les  Societes 
d' Agriculture  et  les  particuliers. 

Etant  donne  le  climat  doux  de  la  partie  du  royaume 
qui  est  limitee  par  la  frontiere  qu'avait  la  Grece  avant  la 
guerre,  cette  culture  est  appelee  a  prendre  une  grande 
extension  dans  cette  region. 

Si  en  effet  cette  plante  ne  se  montre  pas  tres  exigeante 
sur  la  nature  du  sol,  elle  est  au  contraire  tres  facilement 
impressionnee  par  les  conditions  climateriques. 

En  general  les  conditions  meteorologiques  de  la  Grece 
sont  tres  favorables  a  la  culture  du  coton,  excepte  dans 
les  regions  particulierement  froides,  a  exposition  nord. 

Par  contre  dans  les  regions  abritees  nous  trouvons  un 
ensemble  des  conditions  atmospheriques  qui  sont  eminem- 
ment  proprice  a  la  culture  de  cette  plante. 

L'hiver  etant  tres  doux  et  relativement  de  courte  duree 
nous  pouvons  executer  nos  semailles  de  bonne  heure,  vers 
le  commencement  du  mois  de  mars,  ce  qui  a  une  tres 
grande  importance  pour  la  bonne  reussite  et  le  bon 
rendement  de  notre  entreprise.  D'autre  part  le  mauvais 
temps  et  les  pluies  n'etant  pas  a  craindre  pendant  la 
maturation  du  fruit,  nous  pouvons  obtenir  une  parfaite 
maturation  de  celui-ci,  ainsi  qu'un  rendement  eleve. 

L'experimentation  de  cette  culture  a  ete  faite  un  peu 
partout  dans  le  royaume,  aussi  bien  au  Peloponnese  que 
sur  la  Grece  continentale. 

Les  resultats  des  experiences  que  je  citerai  tout  a 
1'heure  sont  ceux  obtenus  jusqu'a  1912,  1'annee  derniere 
les  troubles  politiques  n'ayant  pas  permis  1'execution 
d'aucune  experience. 


COTTON  347 

Je  vous  parlerai  tout  d'abord  des  resultats  obtenus  au 
Peloponnese,  et  je  vous  citerai  en  premier  lieu  les  experi- 
ences faites  par  la  Societe  d'Agriculture  de  Githion. 

Cette  Societe,  apres  avoir  experimente  pendant 
plusieurs  annees  la  culture  du  coton,  se  declare  tres 
satisfaite  des  resultats  obtenus  jusqu'aujourd'hui.  Comme 
condition  essentielle  du  succes,  elle  attire  Tattention  du 
Service  Agricole  sur  la  necessite  qu'il  y  a  a  faire  les 
semailles  de  bonne  heure  apres  une  bonne  preparation  du 
terrain,  vers  le  commencement  du  mois  de  mars,  et  pas 
plus  tard  que  les  dernier s  jours  de  ce  meme  mois. 
L'ecimage  ici  n'a  pas  donne  de  bons  resultats.  Par 
centre  les  binages  ont  donnes  de  tres  bons  resultats,  et 
les  parcelles  de  terre  binees  trois  ou  quatre  fois  pre- 
sentaient  une  difference  tres  marquee  de  vegetation  avec 
celles  binees  seulement  une  ou  deux  fois. 

La  culture  du  coton  a  ete  faite  sur  du  terrain  non 
irrigable,  et  en  general  le  rendement  sur  les  terres  de 
richesse  moyenne,  et  se  dessechant  relativement  en  ete, 
a  ete  de  700  a  1,025  kilos  de  coton  par  hectare,  et  de  1,150 
a  1,300  kilos  par  hectare  pour  les  terres  riches  et  con- 
servant  en  ete  une  assez  grande  humidite. 

La  surface  totale  cultivee  par  la  Societe  de  Githion  a 
ete  de  30  hectares. 

D'autres  experiences  ont  ete  faites  encore  au  Pelo- 
ponnese, et  partout  les  resultats  ont  ete  encourageants. 
En  Messinie  par  exemple  sur  les  terrains  a  sous-sol 
humide  on  a  obtenu  avec  la  variete  de  coton  Sakellaridis 
1,700  kilos  de  coton  par  hectare. 

Les  experiences  faites  sur  la  Grece  continentale  ne  sont 
pas  moins  satisfaisantes. 

La  Station  Agronomique  de  Messolonghi  a  experi- 
mentee  sur  une  assez  grande  surface  irriguabk  la  culture 
du  coton  avec  la  variete  Sakellaridis.  Malgre  Tepoque 
retardee  a  laquelle  on  a  fait  les  semailles,  vers  le  com- 
mencement du  mois  d'avril,  et  malgre  les  chaleurs  d'ete 
qui  en  ont  suivi,  le  thermometre  ayant  atteint  39°  et 
40°  C.,  le  rendement  a  ete  encore  remunerateur,  puisqu'il 
a  atteint  900  kilos  de  coton  par  hectare. 

Comme  culture  d'entretien,  on  a  donne  un  premier 
binage  vingt  jours  apres  1'apparition  des  plantes,  et  plus 


348  COTTON 

tard  apres  avoir  eclairci  ceux-ci  on  a  donne  un  second 
binage,  et  apres  quelques  jours  on  a  arrose  pour  la 
premiere  fois.  Jusqu'a  la  floraison  on  a  continue  a 
arroser  et  a  biner  tous  les  vingt  jours,  epoque  a  laquelle 
on  a  suspendu  tout  arrosage.  Mais  comme  je  1'ai  deja 
dit  plus  haut,  Tete  ayant  ete  particulierement  chaud,  on 
a  ete  oblige  de  recommencer  les  arrosages  en  aout  ce  qui 
a  eu  une  mauvaise  influence  sur  la  maturation  du  fruit, 
puisque  celle-ci  a  ete  assez  retardee. 

En  general  la  maturation  du  coton  en  Messolonghi  et 
les  environs  est  parfaite,  a  condition  d'executer  les 
semailles  de  bonne  heure. 

D'autre  part,  etant  donne  la  grande  surface  de  terre 
pouvant  etre  irriguee  dans  cette  region,  environ  5,000 
hectares,  cette  culture  est  appelee  a  prendre  une  grande 
extension. 

Des  experiences  out  ete  egalement  faites,  sous  1-e  ciel 
bleu  de  1'Attique,  dans  le  Departement  de  Livadia.  Ici  les 
semailles  ont  ete  faites  tantot  de  bonne  heure  vers  le  mods 
de  mars,  tantot  tardivement  vers  le  mi-mai.  Tous  les 
experimentateurs  n'ont  pas  prepare  le  terrain  de  la  meme 
facon  et  des  resultats  satisfaisants  en  rendement  ont  ete 
seulement  enregistres,  chez  ceux  des  agriculteurs  qui  ont 
fait  plusieurs  labours  en  automne,  et  qui  ont  effectue  les 
semailles  de  bonne  heure. 

Dans  ce  meme  departement  il  a  ete  aussi  demontre  que 
les  labours  profonds  d'hiver  etaient  d'une  necessite 
imperieuse.,  pour  la  bonne  reussite  de  cette  culture. 

Enfin  en  Thessalie  on  a  cultive  differentes  varietes  de 
coton,  non  seulement  en  vue  d'obtenir  des  resultats  au 
point  de  vue  du  rendement,  mais  aussi  pour  savoir  quelles 
sont  les  varietes  qui  murissent  le  plus  vite.  Ainsi  on  a 
experimente  avec  les  varietes  suivantes. 

i°  variete  Sakellaridis. 

2°         ,,  Voltos. 

3°        -  Ann. 

4°        ,,  Nubari. 

Les  semailles  ont  ete  effectues  en  mi-mars  et  les 
varietes  Sakellaridis  et  Voltos  sont  arrives  en  maturation 
un  mois  a  peu  pres  avant  les  deux  autres. 


COTTON  349 

Au  point  de  vue  du  rendement  on  a  obtenu  par  hectare 
avec  les  varietes  deja  citees  :  — 

i°  variete  Sakellaridis  800  kilos  par  hectare. 

2°         ,,  Voltos    ...  900  ,, 

3°        .,  Afifi         ...  950 

4°        „  Nubari    ...  800 

II  ne  faut  pas  oublier  que  ces  resultats  ont  ete  obtenus 
sur  du  terrain  non  irriguable. 

Dans  aucune  des  experiences  precitees  il  n'a  ete  fait 
usage  d'engrais,  le  but  de  1'experimentateur  etant  de 
determiner  dans  quelle  mesure  les  differents  sols  sur 
lesquels  on  a  tente  la  culture  experimentale  du  coton  se 
pretaient  a  celle-ci,  avec  la  valeur  de  leur  fertilite  intrin- 
seque. 

On  n'a  pas  eu  a  signaler  1'apparition  d'aucune  sorte  de 
maladie  de  la  plante,  qui  dans  d'autres  pays  cause  de 
grandes  pertes. 

Les  depenses  de  la  culture  du  coton  varient  generale- 
ment  suivant  la  nature  du  terrain,  et  le  nombre  des  fagons 
aratoires  donnees,  entre  150  fr.  a  300  fr.  par  hectare. 

Le  Gouvernement  Hellenique,  soucieux  de  savoir 
exactement  quelle  etait  la  valeur  du  coton  recolte,  sur 
les  differentes  regions  du  royaume,  tant  au  point  de  vue 
de  sa  qualite  qu'au  point  de  vue  de  sa  valeur  marchande, 
a  envoye  des  echantillons  en  Egypte  a  la  maison  bien 
connue  de  MM.  Coremi  et  Benachi  avec  la  priere  de  deter- 
miner la  qualite  a  laquelle  il  fallait  classer  chaque 
echantillon,  ainsi  que  sa  valeur  marchande. 

La  reponse  de  la  maison  de  MM.  Coremi  et  Benachi  a 
ete  tout  a  fait  satisfaisante.  Apres  avoir  examine  atten- 
tivement  les  differents  echantillons,  elle  a  declare  que  le 
coton  provenant  de  la  region  de  Githion  etait  de  toute 
premiere  qualite,  et  en  tant  comparable  avec  les  meilleurs 
cotons  egyptiens.  Comme  valeur  marchande  cette  meme 
maison  a  propose  d'acheter  tout  le  coton  produit  dans  ce 
district,  au  prix  de  22  ecus  le  cantare  egyptien. 

Le  coton  de  Messinie  a  ete  estime  a  21  ecus  le  cantare. 

Le  coton  produit  a  Messolonghi,  a  ete  estime  a  21  ecus 
le  cantare. 

Le    coton    d'Attique    a    ete    trouve    un    peu    inferieur 


350  COTTON 


comme  qualite  des  precedents,  et  il  a  ete  estime  a  16 
ecus  le  cantare. 

Enfin  le  coton  de  Thessalie  fut  trouve  de  bonne  qualite 
et  son  prix  estime  entre  20  a  22  ecus  le  cantare. 

Le  commerce  de  ce  nouveau  produit  agricole  n'etant 
pas  encore  developpe  dans  le  royaume,  des  intermediaires 
peu  scrupuleux  ayant  essaye  de  profiter  de  1'ignorance  des 
paysans  pour  leur  acheter  leur  recolte  de  coton  a  des  prix 
derisoires,  le  Gouvernement  a  cru  devoir  intervenir,  afin 
d'eviter  tout  decouragement  qui  pouvait  en  resulter  pour 
la  culture  de  cette  plante. 

En  effet  une  loi  veint  d'etre  votee  d'apres  laquelle  le 
Ministere  de  TAgriculture  peut  acheter  pendant  quelques 
annees  a  un  prix  qu'on  fixe  annuellement  toute  quantite 
de  coton  qui  dans  son  pays  d'origine  n'aurait  pas  pu  etre 
ecoulee  au  prix  moyen  du  marche. 

Comme  les  resultats  obtenus  jusqu'aujourd'hui  sont 
fort  encourageants  pour  cette  nouvelle  culture,  cette 
annee  on  a  fait  des  experiences  sur  une  plus  grande 
echelle,  et  on  espere  que  quand  dans  quelques  annees  la 
periode  experimentale  sera  definitivement  close,  on  pourra 
produire  en  Grece  suffisamment  du  coton  non  seulement 
pour  la  consommation  locale,  mais  aussi  pour  en  exporter. 


THE    IMPROVEMENT    OP     COTTON     BY     SELECTION. 

By  J.  STEWART  J.  McCAix,  P.A.S.I.,  C.D.A.Glas. 

Director  of  Agriculture,  Nyasaland. 

DURING  the  last  few  years  the  habits  of  the  cotton  plant 
have  been  closely  studied  in  Africa,  but  much  work 
remains  to  be  done  before  African  cotton  fields,  like 
those  of  America  and  Egypt,  will  contribute  their  normal 
returns  to  the  commerce  of  the  world. 

At  the  commencement  of  the  British  cotton  movement, 
which  is  intimately  connected  with  the  foundation  of  the 
British  Cotton  Growing  Association  in  1902,  there  were 
no  reliable  experiments  nor  knowledge  of  what  types  of 
cotton  were  likely  to  succeed  in  Africa,  the  dominating 
factor  of  the  movement  being  the  necessity  of  broadening 
the  basis  of  supply  and  supplementing  the  American  crop, 
which  promised  to  be  unable  to  cope  with  the  ever- 
increasing  demands  of  the  world. 

From  1904  cotton  growing  has  received  a  large  share 
of  attention  from  the  Government  Agricultural  Depart- 
ments, and  in  not  a  few  instances  officers  with  special 
knowledge  of  the  crop  have  been  appointed,  and,  through 
their  co-operation  with  the  British  Cotton  Growing 
Association,  considerable  native  and  European  industries 
have  been  established  on  sound  business  lines  in  the 
Colonies  and  Protectorates  of  East  and  West  Africa. 

In  the  initial  stages  of  an  industry,  whose  rapid  develop- 
ment is  of  considerable  importance,  there  is  little  time 
for  the  cotton  expert  to  settle  down  at  headquarters  and 
carry  out  careful  scientific  selection;  his  services  are 
always  in  demand  at  all  points  of  the  compass,  instructing 
planters,  distributing  seed  to  natives,  and  advising  re  a 
thousand  and  one  problems  connected  with  cotton,  but 
such  travelling  and  work  are  necessary  before  he  is 
competent  to  settle  down  and  select  what  is  required  for* 
the  country  of  his  adoption. 
23 


352  COTTON 

This  question  of  cotton  selection  has  to  be  finally 
settled,  or  the  Protectorate  or  Colony,  as  the  case  may 
be,  will  never  establish  itself  as  a  reliable  source  of  cotton, 
especially  where  the  main  cultivators  are  uneducated 
natives. 

The  great  aim  is  to  get  a  standard  type  of  cotton,  or, 
within  broad  lines,  one  of  the  following  three  types :  - 

(1)  Egyptian. 

(2)  Long  staple  Upland. 

(3)  Short  staple  Upland. 

In  order  to  do  this  the  first  necessity  is  to  control  the 
seed,  and  the  best  key  to  such  control  is  the  Customs 
ports  of  entry,  and  a  Proclamation  or  Rule  under  a  Cotton 
Ordinance  making  it  impossible  for  private  individuals 
to  import  seed  unless  approved  by  the  agricultural 
authority  is  the  surest  way  to  attain  this  standard. 

There  is  nothing  more  harmful  to  the  cotton  industry 
of  any  new  country  than  the  uncontrolled  promiscuous 
importation  of  all  classes  of  seed  by  private  individuals, 
and  nearly  every  new  centre  of  production  learned  the 
necessity  of  such  control  only  when  the  mixed  staples  of 
their  exports  were  pronounced  as  practically  unsaleable, 
and  then  large  quantities  of  seed  had  to  be  destroyed  and 
a  fresh  start  made  with  pure  seed. 

Before  proceeding,  the  writer  would  like  to  make  it 
clearly  understood  that  the  mixed  staple  above  referred 
to  is  largely  due  to  seed-mixing  at  the  ginnery  and  not 
to  cross-fertilization,  and  investigations  in  Nyasaland 
point  to  a  very  low  percentage  of  cross-fertilization  in 
cotton  as  compared  with  most  other  farm  crops;  in  fact, 
in  many  cases,  in  warm,  dry  districts,  a  considerable 
percentage  of  the  flowers  are  fertilized  before  the  buds 
open,  and  there  is  very  little  inter-flower  visitation  by 
honey  bees. 

SELECTION  OF  VARIETY. 

The  variety  to  aim  at  is  the  one  which  is  most  suitable 
for  the  country,  gives  the  heaviest  yield  per  acre,  and  the 
most  valuable  staple ;  the  determining  factors  are  generally 
•climatic. 

It  is  well  known  that,  apart  from  Sea  Island,  Egyptian 


COTTON  353 

varieties  produce  the  highest  valued  staples,  and  naturally 
in  many  instances  they  have  been  the  first  tested  in  new 
centres  of  production. 

The  experiences  of  Nyasaland  with  Egyptian  cotton 
have  been  most  disappointing,  and  it  has  now  been  proved 
for  all  time  that  it  is  impossible  to  cultivate  Egyptian 
cotton  with  any  degree  of  success  at  elevations  over 
1,000  ft.;  and  further,  on  account  of  the  general  infection 
of  bacterial  blight  throughout  the  heavier  soils  of  the 
Shire  valley,  the  only  place  where  Egyptian  cotton  can 
be  profitably  grown  is  on  limited  areas  of  light  soil  in  the 
Lower  Shire  and  Ruo  Districts;  and  for  these  reasons 
Egyptian  cotton  gives  little  indication  of  ever  becoming 
an  extensive  cultivation  in  Nyasaland. 

Of  the  two  remaining  types,  viz.,  long  staple  Upland 
and  short  staple  Upland,  the  former  has  given  such  good 
results  that  experiments  with  the  latter  have  been  dis- 
carded; and  in  the  progeny  of  the  American  long  staple 
variety  "  Floradora,"  originally  imported  some  ten  years 
ago,  and  now  thoroughly  acclimatized,  we  have  an 
excellent  type  of  cotton  known  as  Nyasaland  Upland, 
and  when  grown  from  carefully  selected  seed  produces 
fibre  which,  in  years  of  small  Egyptian  crops,  can  be 
used  for  mixing  with  Abassi;  and,  in  years  of  plentiful 
Egyptian  cotton  is  easily  absorbed  by  the  fine  spinners 
and  velvet  manufacturers  at  a  remunerative  premium  of 
2d.  to  2-Jd.  on  Middling  American,  or  in  round  figures 
8d.  to  Qd.  per  Ib.  (is.  to  is.  2jd.  per  Ib.  was  paid  for 
choice  consignments  when  Egyptian  cotton  was  scarce  in 
1909-10). 

In  1909  the  brokers  reported  that  they  considered 
Nyasaland  Upland  to  be  the  finest  cotton  ever  grown 
from  Upland  seed  and  imported  into  Liverpool  from 
America  or  anywhere  else,  and,  immediately  on  receiving 
this  report,  the  writer  induced  Sir  Alfred  Sharpe  (then 
Governor)  to  issue  a  Proclamation  stopping  the  importa- 
tion of  seed  from  America,  and  since  1910  no  Upland  seed 
other  than  that  imported  by  the  Director  of  Agriculture 
for  experiment  has  been  allowed  entry  to  the  Protectorate, 
and  we  have  now  a  uniform  type  of  cotton  and  no  further 
complaints  regarding  mixed  staples. 


354  COTTON 

COMPARISON  WITH  ORIGINAL  STOCK  AND  VALUE  OF 
ACCLIMATIZATION. 

In  1912  the  writer  imported  through  the  United  States 
Department  of  Agriculture  some  pure  "  Floradora  "  seed 
from  American  stock  to  compare  it  with  Nyasaland 
Upland,  and  when  this  seed  was  grown  under  exactly 
similar  conditions  on  the  Government  farm  the  plants 
from  the  freshly  imported  seed  were  noticeable  for  their 
excessive  luxuriance  as  compared  with  Nyasaland  Upland 
(late  "  Floradora  ").  The  leaves  and  bracteoles  of  the 
Nyasaland  Upland  had  decreased  in  size  by  at  least  one- 
third,  the  staple  from  the  imported  seed  was  similar  in 
length  and  strength,  but  had  not  assumed  the  same  degree 
of  lustre  and  silkiness  which  seem  to  be  an  acquired 
characteristic  of  all  cotton  grown  for  a  few  years  in  the 
Shire  Highlands,  this  feature  being  previously  recorded 
in  connection  with  many  short  staple  variety  tests  con- 
ducted during  the  last  five  years;  and  lastly,  the  yield 
from  the  newly  imported  seed  did  not  compare  favourably 
with  the  established  local  variety. 

CLIMATIC  FACTORS  AND  SOIL  FACTORS  AFFECTING  QUALITY 
OF  STAPLE. 

In  Nyasaland,  cotton  is  grown  at  all  elevations  from 
200  to  3,200  ft.  above  sea-level,  and  on  soils  varying 
from  sand  to  heavy  red  clay;  under  such  conditions  it  is 
not  surprising  that  there  is  a  large  variation  in  quality 
of  staple,  and  a  study  of  their  influences  on  the  cotton 
plant  is  necessary  before  proceeding  with  direct  selection. 

The  Government  of  Nyasaland  have  two  farms,  one 
situated  at  Namiwawa,  Zomba,  at  an  elevation  of  2,300  ft. 
approximately,  and  the  other  at  Nyachiperi,  Lower  Shire, 
at  an  elevation  of  200  ft.  At  both  centres  cotton  selection 
has  been  carried  out  for  four  years  on  a  combined  area  of 
from  500  to  600  acres  per  annum,  and  among  others  the 
following  deductions  have  been  arrived  at  with  regard  to 
the  effect  of  elevation,  soil,  and  heat  on  long  staple 
Upland  cotton  in  Nyasaland  :  — 

(i)  Upland  cottons  grown  at  elevations  under  800  ft. 


COTTON  355 

are   inclined   to  degenerate   and   produce   a   harsh   short 
staple. 

(2)  Upland  cottons  grown  at  elevations  over  2,500  ft. 
produce  the  longest  and  silkiest  staple,  but,  unfortunately 
the  weakest. 

(3)  Upland   cottons   grown   at   elevations   of    1,700   to 
2,700   ft.    produce   the   most    satisfactory   crops   both   -i* 
quality  and  yield. 

(4)  Light  sandy  soils  produce  small  plants  with  short 
harsh  staple,  but  encourage  early  maturity. 

(5)  Heavy  clay  soils  produce  large  plants  with  superior 
lint,  but  delay  maturity. 

(6)  Prolonged  heat  at  daily  shade  temperature  of  100° 
to  115°  F.,  when  accompanied  by  drought,  tends  to  the 
production  of  short  harsh  staple. 

(7)  Periods   at    which   the   thermometer   stands    below 
60°  F.  during  the  ripening  season  have  a  distinct  tendency 
towards  the  production  of  weak  staple. 

The  writer  does  not  contend  that  the  above  facts  are 
strictly  applicable  to  all  cotton-growing  countries,  but 
their  consideration  is  worthy  of  careful  examination  as 
a  general  guide  to  selection,  and  also  demonstrates  the 
necessity  of  encouraging  planters  to  select  for  the  special 
peculiarities  of  their  own  plantations,  using  as  a  basis 
approved  seed  which  has  been  originally  selected  by 
Government  and  proved  as  suitable  in  general  for  the 
conditions  of  the  country. 

PLANT  CHARACTERS  WORTHY  OF  CONSIDERATION. 
(a)  Flower  and  Fruit. 

The  perfect  development  of  the  flower  and  fruit  largely 
determines  the  yield  of  any  variety,  and  in  this  respect 
cotton  varies  exceedingly,  some  plants  having  the  unfor- 
tunate habit  of  shedding  the  squares,  the  flowers,  or  the 
bolls,  and  such  conditions  can  be  largely  remedied  by 
selection. 

One  of  the  most  noticeable  features  in  a  field  of  tin- 
selected  Nyasaland  Upland  cotton  is  the  large  percentage 
of  practically  boll-less  plants,  and  during  propagation  and 
multiplication  from  individual  selections  the  writer  had 


356  COTTON 

to  discard  a  very  large  number  of  families  for  this  defect, 
and  for  this  reason  alone  it  is  a  wise  precaution  not  to 
commence  selecting  foundation  plants  until  the  crop  is 
approaching  harvest. 

Boll-shedding  is  largely  avoided  by  selection,  and  at 
the  time  of  writing  there  is  150  acres  of  a  selection  of 
Nyasaland  Upland  known  as  No.  56  on  the  Government 
farms  which  for  four  years  has  proved  itself  under  vary- 
ing conditions  to  be  remarkably  free  from  this  defect. 
It  may  be  of  interest  to  mention  that  the  red  shoe  flower 
(Hibiscus  rosa  sinensis)  produces  numerous  flowers  in 
Nyasaland,  but  never  sets  its  fruit,  and  the  writer  is 
inclined  to  the  opinion  that  certain  cottons  have  this 
objectionable  character  developed  in  varying  degrees, 
apart  from  the  effect  of  adverse  climatic  conditions 
which  for  many  years  have  been  recognized  as  the  more 
or  less  direct  cause. 

The  shape  of  the  boll  has  a  good  deal  to  do  with  the 
quality  of  the  lint,  as  undoubtedly  the  cotton  from  dis- 
tinctly pointed  bolls  is  longer  than  that  from  short,  round 
bolls  of  the  strictly  Upland  type. 

In  the  Report  of  the  Agricultural  Department  for  1910, 
reference  was  made  to  possible  hereditary  characters  in 
respect  of  strength  and  length  of  staple,  but  investiga- 
tions extending  over  the  last  four  years  with  cotton 
selections  from  the  same  individual  plants  grown  in  vary- 
ing conditions  and  elevations  point  to  the  fact  that 
such  desirable  qualities  are  very  largely  affected  by  soil, 
climate,  and  rainfall,  and  cotton  with  i  T%  in.  staple, 
and  described  as  strong  and  silky,  when  transferred  to 
lower  and  more  tropical  regions  of  the  Shire  Valley  with 
deficient  rainfall,  degenerates  in  a  single  season  to  a  staple 
of  i  to  ij  in.  and  the  fibres  lose  a  large  degree  of  their 
strength  and  lustre;  one  is  therefore  forced  to  the  con- 
clusion that  the  real  benefits  of  selection  can  only  be 
obtained  by  selecting  for  local  conditions,  and  that  there 
is  little  value  in  selecting  at  elevations  over  2,000  ft.  to 
improve  the  characters  of  a  crop  to  be  cultivated  on  a 
commercial  scale  at  elevations  below  500  ft. 

The  best  results  with  Upland  cotton  at  Nyachiperi 
Farm  have  been  obtained  with  selected  "  Griffin  "  cotton. 


COTTON  357 

This  cotton  for  two  years  was  cultivated  on  a  seed  plot 
in  the  Shire  Highlands,  but  proved  too  delicate  and 
susceptible  to  cold. 

During  the  last  three  years  this  cotton  has  been 
selected  and  grown  at  the  lower  river  farm,  and  promises 
to  retain  its  lustre  and  quality  in  a  greater  degree  than 
ordinary  Nyasaland  Upland,  and  the  yield  per  acre  in 
1913  was  149  Ib.  of  lint,  as  against  113  Ib.  with  Nyasaland 
Upland,  both  being  valued  at  8d.  per  Ib.;  the  gross  value 
per  acre  was  £4  195.  4d.  for  "Griffin"  and  £3  155.  4d. 
for  Nyasaland  Upland;  "Griffin"  cotton  is  certainly 
worthy  of  attention  as  a  long  staple  variety  for  hot,  dry 
districts  with  elevations  not  over  500  ft. 

(b)  Leaf  and  Stem. 

Uniformity  of  vegetative  characters  has  a  distinct  bear- 
ing on  the  economical  spacing  of  any  crop,  and  a  very 
direct  bearing  on  cropping  results  of  sun-loving  crops, 
such  as  cotton. 

There  is  a  close  connection  between  maturity  and 
vegetative  habit,  the  small  and  less  leafy  plants  generally 
maturing  several  weeks  before  the  large  and  leafy  types, 
and  although  growth  is  strongly  affected  by  food  supply, 
and  particularly  by  the  amount  of  soluble  nitrogen,  there 
is  every  possibility  of  reducing  excessive  vegetation  by 
selection. 

The  branching  character  of  the  type  has  a  great 
influence  on  the  ripening  of  the  crop,  and  under  short 
season  conditions  it  is  necessary  to  take  advantage  of 
every  character  that  leads  to  early  maturity,  as  heaviest 
yields  are  obtained  from  plants  which  carry  many  fruiting 
laterals,  arranged  around  the  main  stem  in  such  a  manner 
as  to  allow  the  maximum  amount  of  sunshine  to  reach 
the  entire  plant  without  shading  its  neighbours  or 
obstructing  tillage  operations  for  the  best  growth  of 
the  crop. 

Plants  with  extra  long  horizontal  or  prostrate  lower 
limbs  should  be  avoided,  as  they  interfere  with  cultivation, 
and  the  cotton  in  the  opening  bolls  of  such  limbs  is  always 
depreciated  through  soil  stain,  and  plants  with  dense  top 
growth  should  never  be  selected  for  Highland  cultivation, 


35**  COTTON 

as  they  stimulate  boll-shedding,  favour  boll  anthracnose, 
and  delay  harvest. 

The  writer  greatly  favours  the  small  type  of  cotton  bush 
for  Highland  cultivation  for  the  following  reasons :  — 

(a)  They  mature  early. 

(b)  They    reduce    cover    for    boll    worm    and    cotton 
stainers. 

(c)  They  are  never  cast  by  storms. 

(d)  They  are  never  so  severely  attacked  by  cotton  aphis. 

(e)  They  do  not  favour  the  spread  of  anthracnose. 

It  will  be  found  that  once  a  type  is  carefully  selected 
from  pure  acclimatized  seed  the  branching  character 
remains  constant  in  the  offspring  of  Upland  cottons;  this 
is  borne  out  in  many  varieties  of  Upland  cotton,  one  of 
the  most  marked  examples  being  "  Jackson's  limbless. " 
Egyptian  varieties,  however,  are  very  unstable  under  new 
conditions,  and  the  decrease  in  the  crops  obtained  from 
Egyptian  seed  which  has  been  grown  in  Nyasaland  for 
a  few  years,  as  compared  with  those  obtained  from  seed 
freshly  imported  from  Egypt,  is  largely  due  to  the  in- 
creasing percentage  of  tall,  imperfectly  branched  plants; 
in  the  absence  of  careful  systematic  selection  for  type, 
the  writer  always  recommends  the  use  of  freshly  imported 
Egyptian  seed. 

SYSTEM  OF  SELECTION  RECOMMENDED. 
First  year  in  field. 

(1)  Sow  the  best  seed  procurable  of  the  variety  under 
selection. 

(2)  Commence  selecting  individual  plants  a  few  weeks 
before   harvest,    paying  special   attention    to   the   points 
discussed    under     "  Plant    Characters    worthy    of    Con- 
sideration/' 

(3)  Mark  each  plant  separately,  harvest  separately,  and 
place  the  seed-cotton  into  bags  attached  to  each  plant. 

First  year  in  laboratory. 

(1)  Discard  all  bags  with  weak  staple. 

(2)  Discard  all  bags  with  staple  less  than  if  gin.  (long 
staple  Upland). 


COTTON  359 

(3)  Determine  lint  percentage,  and  discard  all  samples 
under  30  per  cent.  lint. 

(4)  Favour  silkiness  and  lustre,  and  discard  for  dulness 
and  harshness  of  lint. 

(5)  From    all    approved   bags   which   have    passed   the 
above  tests,  envelope  samples  of  lint  numbered  to  corre- 
spond   with    field    number    should    be    filed    for    future 
comparison. 

Second  year  in  field. 

(1)  Sow  the   seed   from   each   bag  in   separate   ridges 
arranged  according  to  lint  percentage. 

(2)  Make   notes   regarding   germination,    general   pro- 
gress, and  maturity. 

(3)  Uproot  before  flowering  all  lines   which   show  no 
fixity  of  type,  appear  sensitive  and  unsuited  to  climatic 
conditions,  or  are  specially  subject  to  disease,  also  delete 
number  from  Register. 

(4)  Harvest  each  line  separately,   and  mark  bag  with 
number  to  correspond  with  sample  in  laboratory. 

Second  year  in  laboratory. 

(1)  Compare   average   samples   from   bags,    with  num- 
bered samples  of  previous  year. 

(2)  Re-test  for  lint  percentage,   and  discard  under  30, 
or  for  any  other  undesirable  character,   such  as  irregu- 
larity, shortness,  or  weakness  of  staple. 

(3)  Take    further    samples    for    reference,    give    same 
number  as  in  first  year,  but  place  it  over  2  to  indicate 
second  year's  crop. 

Third  year  in  field. 

(1)  Sow    seed    from    each   number    separately   in    acre 
plots,    using    the    seed    carefully,    in    order   to    grow    if 
possible  a  plant  from  every  seed  and  so  expedite  multi- 
plication. 

(2)  Uproot    undesirable    plants    if    in    minority;    if  -in 
majority,  discard  the  whole  acre. 

(3)  Harvest  each  acre  separately. 


360  COTTON 

Third  year  in  laboratory. 

(1)  Repeat  tests  of  first  and  second  years. 

(2)  Submit  7  Ib.   samples  fo<r  brokers'   report  through 
the  Imperial  Institute. 

Fourth  year  in  field. 

Plant  10  to  20  acre  blocks  with  the  finest  selections, 
and  when  harvested  compare  yield  and  calculate  com- 
parative return  on  crop  valuation,  keeping  as  the  founda- 
tion for  all  future  selection  and  seed  distribution  the 
progeny  of  the  two  most  profitable  families. 

In  conclusion,  it  is  recommended  that  the  experimenter 
use  greater  care  in  making  his  initial  selections,  as  the 
highest  standard  of  perfection  can  only  be  attained  by 
careful  work  and  multiplication  from  the  individual  plant; 
but  in  order  to  use  a  hard  hand  in  roguing  it  is  well  to 
start  with  not  less  than  500  carefully  selected  plants,  as 
they  rapidly  decrease  in  the  first  two  years. 

The  system  of  selection  discussed  in  this  paper  is  no 
doubt  open  to  many  theoretical  objections,  but  it  is 
sufficient  for  the  writer  that  it  can  be  largely  employed 
at  little  expense  by  the  intelligent  planter,  and  even  in  a 
modified  form  has  given  most  excellent  results  in  Nyasa- 
land. 

It  may  be  of  interest  to  mention  that  the  whole  of  the 
native  cotton  in  the  Mlanje  District  of  Nyasaland 
during  the  current  year  is  the  progeny  of  two  plants 
first  selected  in  1909,  and  multiplied  on  the  Govern- 
ment Farm,  Namiwawa,  to  the  extent  of  160  acres,  and 
then  further  multiplied  by  the  villagers  of  two  native 
chiefs,  the  cotton  being  purchased  by  the  British  Cotton 
Growing  Association  and  the  seed  kept  separate  in 
sufficient  quantity  to  stock  this  district,  which  in  a  normal 
season  produces  200  tons  of  cotton. 

The  value  of  a  working  system  of  seed  selection  in 
cotton  has  been  amply  demonstrated  in  the  improved  yield 
and  prices  obtained  in  Nyasaland,  and  the  continuance  of 
a  Government  seed  farm  is  a  necessary  adjunct  to  the 
native  cotton  industrv. 


COMMERCE    AND    SCIENCE   IN   COTTON    GROWING. 

By  J.  W.  MCCONNELL. 

Vice-Chairman  of  the  Fine  Cotton  Spinners'  and 
Doublers'  Association. 

THE  primary  object  of  this  paper  is  to  put  before  the 
Congress  some  thoughts  in  regard  to  the  objective  which 
should  be  aimed  at  by  cotton  breeders  and  cotton  growers. 
I  propose  to  elaborate  a  letter  on  the  same  subject  which  I 
wrote  to  The  Textile  Mercury  in  March,  1914.  In  writing 
that  letter  I  only  had  in  view  cottons  suitable  for  fine 
yarns;  but  I  think  the  same  considerations  are  pertinent, 
at  least  to  some  extent,  to  the  growing  of  all  cottons. 
It  may  be  that  in  the  United  States  of  America  cotton 
has  been  grown  hitherto  so  as  to  give  fairly  satisfactory 
results  to  the  grower  without  any  very  particular  atten- 
tion being  given  to  scientific  considerations.  So  far  as 
this  is  the  case,  it  is  due  to  the  fact  that  cotton  growing 
in  America  is  an  inherited  industry.  For  over  a  hundred 
years — practically  for  the  whole  period  of  commercial 
cotton  spinning — America  has  been  in  the  position  of 
supplying  the  standard  cottons  of  the  trade.  It  is  prob- 
ably more  true  to  say  that  cotton  spinning  has  been 
elaborated  so  as  to  handle  in  the  best  possible  way  the 
cotton  from  America,  than  to  claim  that  America  has 
evolved  cotton  specially  suitable  for  spinners. 

But  whatever  may  be  the  truth  about  America,  there 
can  be  no  question  that  in  other  countries  success  in 
cotton  growing  can  only  be  obtained  by  the  application 
of  scientific  principles.  India  affords  an  object-lesson  of 
a  sad  kind.  There,  there  is  a  great  industry,  in  the  sense 
that  millions  of  acres  of  land  are  employed ;  great,  again, 
in  the  sense  that  millions  of  people  work  at  it;  great, 
again,  in  the  sense  that  it  is  an  ancient  industry  with  a 
great  historic  past.  In  every  other  sense  it  is  a  sadly 
little  industry.  It  produces  a  pitifully  small  quantity  of 


362  COTTON 

indifferent  quality.  Scientific  principles  have  been  ignored 
in  the  past.  It  is  to  be  hoped  that  the  new  efforts  now 
being  made  will  produce  good  results,  but  I  fear  that  the 
Government  are  still  very  far  from  recognizing  that 
liberal  expenditure  on  scientific  work  in  cotton  growing 
and  in  agriculture  generally  is  the  only  foundation  on 
which  prosperity  for  India  can  be  built.  The  stoiy  of 
cotton  in  Egypt  is  happier,  but  it  teaches  the  same  lesson. 
Apparently  its  early  successes  were  largely  due  to  the 
strong  hand  of  Mohammed  Ali  compelling  the  use  of  the 
best  seed  and  the  best  methods  of  growing  known  in  his 
day.  And  subsequently  I  think  that  Egyptian  cottons 
have  just  maintained  a  balance  between  the  tendencies 
of  Nature  to  deteriorate  and  the  efforts  of  human  agents 
to  improve. 

In  the  newer  cotton  growing  countries — which,  as  it 
happens,  are  nearly  all  in  the  tropics,  and  thus  directly 
connected  with  this  Congress — I  am  sure  that  success 
depends  entirely  on  the  application  of  the  best  scientific 
learning  to  what  is  necessarily  a  very  difficult  problem. 

The  difficulty  of  growing  good  cotton  is  due  to  several 
causes.  First  of  all  there  is  no  natural  cotton  that  is 
good.  All  its  good  qualities  have  to  be  given  to  it  by 
human  agency;  or,  at  least,  have  to  be  caught  and  kept 
by  human  agents  whenever  Nature  chances  to  give  some- 
thing good.  Otherwise  Nature  will  hurriedly  destroy  the 
good  characteristic.  But  on  the  other  side  there  is  the 
curious  difficulty  of  knowing  what  is  good.  Cotton  is  not 
a  food  or  drink,  whose  merits  can  be  appreciated  by  the 
grower  himself.  Cotton,  again,  is  not  capable  of  valua- 
tion by  chemical  analysis.  Nor  can  it  be  readily  and 
easily  tested  for  quality  in  its  natural  state.  He  who 
would  grow  good  cotton  is  confronted  with  the  difficulty 
of  knowing  what  is  good.  The  question  how  good 
qualities  can  be  added  to  or  increased  in  vegetable 
growths  is,  I  suppose,  in  itself  a  problem  for  agro- 
nomists. But  in  cotton  the  question  that  has  first  to  be 
settled  is :  What  does  the  spinner  want  ?  And,  con- 
versely, how  is  the  grower  with  a  handful  of  new  plants 
to  judge  their  relative  merits  ?  Then  there  is  the  further 
difficulty  that  the  spinner  can  only  answer  the  question 


COTTON  363 

very  imperfectly.  A  spinner  is  not  necessarily  a  scientist. 
In  all  the  century  and  a  quarter  during  which  the  cotton 
trade  has  grown  to  greatness  it  would  have  been  nearly 
useless  for  the  spinner  to  spend  time  in  studying  the  laws 
that  govern  quality  in  cotton.  Useless  because  he  knew 
no  one  who  would  have  tried  to  give  the  special  charac- 
teristics required.  The  actual  sequence  of  events,  I  think, 
has  largely  been  that  the  grower  has  grown  what  chanced 
to  grow,  and  the  spinner  has  adapted  his  machinery  to 
deal  with  it.  And  by  the  rule  of  thumb  the  spinner  has 
bought  what  suited  him  the  best,  and  the  grower  has 
used  the  seed  which  promised  the  best  results  to  himself. 

At  the  present  time  things  are  different.  In  every 
country  where  it  has  been  sought  to  introduce  cotton  as 
a  new  product  its  difficulties  have  compelled  people  to 
study  its  nature,  and  it  is  largely  owing  to  the  Agricul- 
tural Departments  that  so  much  progress  in  this  know- 
ledge has  recently  been  made.  Again,  the  organization 
of  the  Imperial  Institute,  and  the  formation  of  the  tech- 
nological departments  in  our  municipalities,  and  at  the 
Universities,  have  made  possible  research  work  in  the 
nature  of  the  fibre.  In  the  United  States  some  inter- 
esting experiments  are  being  made  with  the  object  of 
ascertaining  the  practical  differences  to  the  mill  arising 
from  the  use  of  cottons  of  different  grades,  these  grades 
being  classified  under  the  new  official  standards.  I  may 
quote  some  useful  words  from  Bulletin  No.  62,  U.S. 
Department  of  Agriculture,  which  reports  progress  so 
far  made.  Mr.  N.  A.^Cobb  says  therein:  "The  Official 
Grades  at  present  take  cognizance  of  only  two  qualities, 
viz. :  (i)  The  colour;  and  (2)  the  amount  of  trash  and 
waste  matter.  Any  complete  system  of  standardization 
of  cotton  will,  however,  have  to  take  into  consideration, 
among  other  things :  (3)  the  length  of  the  fibre ;  (4)  the 
strength  of  the  fibre;  (5)  the  clinging  qualities  of  the 
fibre;  and  (6)  the  bleaching  qualities  of  the  fibre." 

This  is  aiming  high;  it  is  indeed  a  fine  ideal,  and  the 
business  of  the  spinner  will  be  simplified  and  the  products 
of  the  mill  improved  if  the  time  ever  comes  that  official 
valuations  take  properly  into  consideration  the  spinning 
merits  of  cotton  as  apart  from  its  mere  appearance.  Mr. 


364  COTTON 

Cobb's  list  of  qualities  is  good.     Except  for  two  omissions 
it  seems  practically  to  cover  what  a  spinner  is  looking  for. 

(1)  Colour   is   important    in   many    cases.      There   are 
occasionally  sold  articles  of  wear  in  which  the  dead  white 
of    American    Upland    or    the    pearly    white    of    Abassi 
are  required;  there  are  others  which  make  their  market 
by  their  natural  brown;  but,  as  a  rule,  the  value  of  colour 
to  a  spinner  is  that  his  customers  consider  it  an  index 
of  quality;  if  he  changes  the  colour  or  shade  of  his  cotton 
his  customers  are  suspicious  that  the  quality  of  the  yarn 
has   also   been   changed.     I    think,    also,    that   to   cotton 
growers  colour  may  very  probably  be  of  great  value  as 
an  index  of  purity  or  of  trueness  to  type. 

(2)  Amount  of  trash  and  waste.      This  is  of  the  first 
importance  commercially.     Mr.  Cob'b  says  that  the   mill 
experiments  with  cottons  of  the  various  official  standards 
show  visible  waste,  varying  from  4  per  cent,  in  Middling 
Fair  to  about  n  per  cent,  in  Good  Ordinary.     If  this  be 
confirmed  by  the  fuller  report,   which  is  promised  later, 
it    shows   the    question    of   waste    to    be   an   even   more 
important   one   to   the  general  bulk  of  spinners  than    I 
should  have  expected.     I  know  its  great  importance  to 
fine  spinners.     But  on  the  figures  given  it  means  that  if 
Middling  Fair  is  worth  8d.  per  Ib.  containing  4  per  cent,  of 
waste,  then  Good  Ordinary  will  co<st  the  spinner  as  much 
if  he  pays  7'42d.  for  it.     Of  course,  in  addition,  the  yarn 
made   from  the  poorer  cotton  will  still  be  poorer,   even 
when  this  extra  percentage  of  waste  has  been  removed. 
Mr.  Cobb  speaks  only  of  visible  waste.     Invisible  waste, 
which  may  consist  of  damp,  whether  natural  or  fraudulent, 
or  of  dust,  is  equally  important.     I  may  mention  a  new 
cotton  I  once  tried.     It  was  attractive  in  appearance,  but 
the  fibres  broke  up  into  dust  to  such  an  extent  that  it 
was  almost  impossible  to  make  a  yarn  at  all,  and  quite 
impossible  to  make  a  yarn  of  the  same  counts,  i.e.,  of 
the  same  thickness,  as  usual. 

This  question  of  waste  is  one  for  scientific  breeders. 
Waste  may  be  trash,  due  to  the  leaf  or  to  the  shape  of 
the  boll.  Waste  may  be  immature  fibres,  due  to  the 
fibre  formation  on  the  seed,  which,  I  am  told,  is  an 
inherited  quality.  There  may  be  other  inherited  causes. 


COTTON  365 

Or  irregular  fibres  may  be  due  to  irregular  plant  food. 
Nature  unaided  will  give  us  little  but  waste.  It  is  to 
human  science  that  we  look  for  good  cotton. 

(3),  (4)>  (5)  Length  of  fibre,  strength  of  fibre,  and 
clinging  qualities.  Mr.  Cobb  rather  curiously  omits  fine- 
ness. Cotton  yarns  vary  in  value  according  to  their 
cleanliness,  which  is  affected  by  the  amount  and  kind  of 
waste.  They  also  vary  in  value  according  to  their  fine- 
ness, their  strength,  and  their  regularity.  These  qualities 
of  fineness,  strength,  and  regularity  in  yarns  depend 
primarily  on  the  cotton.  Cotton,  therefore,  is  valuable 
to  a  spinner  in  proportion  as  it  gives  him  these  qualities 
in  his  yarns.  Nowl  I  imagine  that  these  qualities  in  yarns 
come  from  length  and  strength  and  fineness  of  fibre,  and 
from  some  other  qualities  which  Mr.  Cobb  calls  clinging 
qualities.  The  well-known  convolutions  no  doubt  affect 
this  clinging,  and  probably  also  some  characteristics  of 
the  nature  of  flexibility  of  skin  not  easy  to  ascertain  or 
define.  A  spinner  sometimes  speaks  of  them?  as  oiliness. 
I  think  that  no  one  knows  what  are  the  exact  relations 
between  these  characteristics  in  the  fibre  and  the  qualities 
we  desire  for  our  yarns.  There  is,  I  am  sure,  room  for 
research  work  on  this  point.  There  is  also  urgent  neces- 
sity for  corresponding  research  work  by  cotton-growing 
scientists  as  to  the  means  by  which  they  are  to  produce 
those  qualities  in  cotton  which  the  textile  laboratory  finds 
to  give  the  required  results  in  yarn. 

Now  I  pass  from  the  spinner's  requirements  to  a  matter 
which  concerns  both  him  and  the  grower,  and  that  is,  that 
cotton  should  be  cheap.  The  American  orator  proclaims 
"  Cotton  is  king."  True,  but  it  is  a  limited  monarchy. 
To  remain  king,  cotton  must  be  popular,  cotton  must  be 
cheap.  Cheapness  does  not  mean  want  of  proper  profit 
for  the  grower.  It  does  mean  that  all  the  resources  of 
science  must  be  employed  to  produce  large  crops  per  acre. 
Suitable  cultivation  must  be  given,  suitable  manures  must 
be  employed;  but,  a'bove  all,  it  rests  with  the  plant  breeder 
to  evolve  a  cotton  plant  whose  purpose  in  life  is  to  make 
cotton,  and  not  wood  or  cotton  seed.  The  plant  must 
also  be  energetic  and  ripen  its  fibre  quickly,  so  that  men 
and  not  the  insects  can  get  it.  There  is  no  necessary 


366  COTION 

conflict  in  cotton  between  quality  and  quantity.  The 
Sakellaridis  cotton  in  Egypt,  the  Cambodia  in  India,  have 
proved  that  it  is  possible  at  the  same  time  to  make  cotton 
more  valuable  to  a  spinner  and  at  the  same  time  more 
prolific,  and  therefore  less  expensive,  to  the  grower. 
Here,  then,  is  another  objective  for  the  cotton-growing 
scientist.  I  suppose — though  I  do  not  actually  know — 
that  in  each  country  some  obscure  laws  of  climate  and 
soil  eventually  prescribe  what  cottons  can  be  grown 
prolifically.  It  is  for  the  individual  planter  and  for  the 
Agricultural  Department  of  each  Government  to  ascer- 
tain within  these  limits  what  kind  of  cotton  will  give  the 
greatest  monetary  return.  This  is  roughly  the  product 
of  the  two  factors,  quantity  of  lint  production  multiplied 
by  price  obtainable.  The  relative  price  obtainable  for 
any  cotton  as  compared  with  others  which  might  be 
grown  is  necessarily  variable.  It  varies  partly  as  the 
world's  needs  alter.  It  varies  still  more  as  the  quantity 
produced  increases  or  decreases.  Sakellaridis  has  spoilt 
its  price  by  its  own  productivity.  But  it  will  still  be 
grown  in  Egypt  because  it  pays  the  grower  even  at  the 
lower  price.  And  in  a  few  years,  if  its  excellence  is  pre- 
served, it  will  regain  its  price,  because  the  spinners  who 
once  use  it  can  never  go  back  to  a  poorer  cotton. 

I  suggest  here,  as  a  broad  rule  for  every  country  and 
for  every  plantation,  that  it  is  bad  business  to  grow 
cotton  of  small  value  per  pound  instead  of  higher-priced 
cotton,  unless  the  cheaper  cotton  is  so  prolific  that  its 
extra  quantity  makes  up  for  its  lower  price. 

We  can  now1  define  to  some  extent  the  questions  to  be 
answered  by  any  paternal  Government  which  desires  its 
subjects  to  produce  cotton.  Some  of  the  questions  are : 
Can  cotton  be  grown  regularly  one  year  after  another? 
This  depends  on  soil  and  climate.  Is  there  labour  avail- 
able for  growing  and  picking?  What  kinds  of  cotton 
can  be  grown,  and  therefore  what  price  can  be  expected 
in  the  market  ?  What  will  be  the  cost  of  carriage  and 
merchanting  ?  And,  therefore,  will  the  price  that  remains 
for  the  grower  give  him  a  reasonable  return  when  multi- 
plied by  the  quantity  he  can  grow?  Will  it  pay  him  as 
well  as  other  crops  possible  to  be  grown  ? 


COTTON  367 

For  more  advanced  communities  the  questions  which 
arise  are  easy  to  state  but  exceedingly  difficult  to  answer. 
Two  questions  cover  the  whole  field;  they  are:  How  can 
the  cottons  grown  be  so  improved  as  to  be  worth  more 
money?  and,  How  can  they  be  made  more  prolific  so 
that  the  results  of  growing  them  will  be  better  for  the 
grower  ? 

The  answers  to  both  questions  lie  in  the  sphere  of 
thought  which  I  have  attempted  to  indicate. 

But  there  is  one  quality  more,  not  named  by  Mr. 
Cobb,  and  yet  I  think  the  most  important  of  all  to 
growers  and  to  spinners.  I  refer  to  uniformity.  In  all 
the  qualities  a  spinner  wants  in  cotton,  viz.,  fineness, 
strength,  length,  adhesiveness,  colour,  and  freedom  from 
waste,  in  each  and  every  case  uniformity  is  essential 
if  the  quality  is  to  'be  worth  money.  To  be  partly  fine 
is  to  be  coarse;  to  be  partly  strong  is  to  be  weak;  to  be 
irregular  in  length  or  colour  or  anything  else  is  to  be 
so  far  poorer  and  less  valuable.  Also  irregularity  in 
plant  habit  is  a  certain  bar  to  a  big  production.  Now 
I  believe  that  this  virtue  of  uniformity,  this  sine  qua  non, 
without  which  no  goodness  is  good,  I  believe  that  this 
is  now,  for  the  first  time  in  the  history  of  cotton,  within 
reach  of  attainment.  Uniformity  can  only  be  hoped  for 
from  plants  which  will  breed  pure.  A  pure  plant  may 
conceivably  fail  in  uniformity,  but  without  purity  uni- 
formity is  inconceivable.  Now  it  is  well  known  to  all 
students  of  cotton  growing  that  the  work  of  Mr. 
Lawrence  Balls  in  Egypt,  and  of  others  elsewhere,  has 
shown  that  it  is  possible  to  cultivate  cotton  on  a  com- 
mercial scale  from  pure  parents.  There  is  a  good  deal 
of  evidence  that  purity  in  itself  gives  value  to  cotton. 
The  best  practical  cotton  growers  of  my  acquaintance 
attach  the  first  importance  to  purity,  even  where  they 
have  not  hit  on  Mr.  Balls's  system  of  securing  it.  The 
experiments  of  the  Americans  with  Egyptian  seed  in 
Arizona  bear  a  curious  testimony  to  this  principle.  So 
long  as  they  used  imported  seed  the  results  were  poor. 
But  by  selection  or  by  accident  they  struck  on  an  indi- 
genous offshoot  from  the  original  Mitafifi.  Some  of 
the  cotton  from  this  is  as  much  superior  to  the  best 
24 


368  COTTON 

Sakellaridis  as  that  is  superior  to  anything  else  in  Egypt. 
They  were  not  working  on  Mr.  Balls's  system,  and  in 
practice  the  commercial  crop  from  this  cotton  is  too  mixed 
to  be  of  any  great  value.  But  the  testimony  to  the  value 
of  purity  lies  in-  the  description  of  his  experiments  given 
by  Mr.  Kearney.  Year  after  year  he  comments  on  the 
prepotency  of  his  new  cotton,  and  on  its  resistance  to 
hybridization.  It  is  evident  that  Nature  was  here  making 
one  of  her  rare  efforts  to  produce  a  pure  cotton,  and 
that,  so  far  as  she  succeeded,  she  was  producing  some- 
thing exceptionally  good. 

But  the  most  striking  evidence  of  the  value  of  purity  is 
to  be  found  in  the  mill  tests  of  Mr.  Balls's  own  cottons. 
Four  samples  of  pure  strains  were  selected  for  examina- 
tion. The  finger  test  of  Alexandrian  valuers  found  one 
to  be  good,  the  others  indifferent.  I  may  admit  that  the 
judgment  of  practical  spinners  was  not  entirely  at  variance 
with  this,  but  the  mill  test  was  very  different.  Of  the 
four  samples,  one  represented  an  attempt  to  develop  a 
substitute  for  Sea  Island  cotton.  In  the  first  instance  it 
was  unfortunately  not  tested  on  this  basis  in  the  mill. 
No  exact  report  can  be  given,  but  the  cotton  was  reported 
to  be  neppy  and  wasty,  but  strong.  I  have  subsequently 
had  a  small  sample  put  through  a  mill  which  spins  only 
Fine  Sea  Island  cottons.  The  experimental  cotton  proves 
to  be  very  wasty,  i.e.,  to  have  a  large  excess  of  imperfect 
fibres;  but  when  spun  into  yarn  so  fine  as  i88's,  it  is 
about  9  per  cent,  stronger  than  the  standard  of  the  mill, 
and  is  about  equal  in  appearance. 

The  other  three  samples  were  tested  against  Nubari 
classified  as  "  Good/'  This  showed  a  loss  of  18  per 
cent,  of  waste  and  gave  a  strength  of  10*00  Ib.  One 
sample,  which  I  will  call  A,  showed  16*8  per  cent,  waste, 
and  strength  12*50  Ib.  This  I  understand  to  be  from 
Assili  parentage  and  to  be  extraordinarily  prolific.  B 
showed  17*5  per  cent,  waste  and  strength  14*00  Ib.  This 
is  the  cotton  that  was  approved  in  Alexandria.  C  showed 
15*7  per  cent,  waste  and  strength  16*30  Ib.  Considering 
that  the  comparison  was  made  against  Nubari  cotton 
classing  "  Good,"  which  is  far  above  the  average  of 
Egyptian  cotton,  it  must  be  admitted  that  these  are 


COTTON  369 

remarkable  results.  The  waste  in  each  case  is  less  and 
the  strength  much  greater.  It  is  unfortunate  that  the 
bulk  of  the  cotton  grown  from  these  four  strains  was 
sold  off  before  the  results  of  our  experimental  tests  were 
known.  Thus  there  has  been  no  opportunity  of  qualify- 
ing or  confirming  the  tests  on  a  large  scale,  but  I  may 
say  that  I  have  had  a  second  test  made  with  small  samples 
in  another  mill,  and  again  all  three  samples  were  stronger 
than  Good  Nubari;  and  again  sample  C}  in  which  uni- 
formity was  the  most  noticeable  characteristic,  came 
out  the  strongest  of  the  lot. 

In  conclusion  I  make  two  suggestions. 

In  the  first  place,  I  suggest  that  arrangements  ought 
to  made  either  at  the  Imperial  Institute  or  in  Manchester, 
perhaps  preferably  in  Manchester,  so  that  small  quantities 
of  cotton  can  be  practically  tested  under  conditions 
resembling  those  of  an  ordinary  mill.  In  experienced 
hands  a  trustworthy  test  can  be  made  with  a  pound  weight 
of  cotton  or  even  less.  If  some  such  practical  testing 
were  regularly  available  it  would  greatly  assist  the 
scientific  breeders  and  laboratory  workers  in  cotton- 
growing  countries,  because  they  would  not  only  be  able 
to  send  small  samples  to  be  submitted  to  the  test,  but 
they  would  also  be  enabled  to  'bring  their  laboratory 
experiments  on  single  bolls  and  single  fibres  into  closer 
relation  with  mill  practice  than  is  now  possible. 

Secondly,  I  commend  to  all  who  are  practically  engaged 
in  cotton  breeding  or  cotton  growing  that  purity  should 
be  their  principal  objective.  Hitherto  the  whole  character 
of  the  plant  has  been  a  chance  entanglement  of  qualities, 
and  improvement  a  nearly  insoluble  problem.  When 
pure  strains  become  generally  available  the  processes  of 
improvement  in  quality  or  in  quantity,  or  of  gradual 
modification  in  any  desired  direction,  will  become  possible, 
and  growers  and  spinners  will  both  be  benefited. 


SUE  LES  OSCILLATIONS  DBS  ATTRIBUTS  HERifol- 
TAIRES  ET  LA  RESULTANTE  DES  EQUILIBRES, 
CONSTATJSES  SUR  LE  COTON  EGYPTIEN. 

Par  NICOLAS  PARACHIMONAS. 

CONTRAIREMENT  aux  cotons  amcricains  ou  asiatiques 
qui  montrent  tine  certaine  stabilite,  les  cotons  egyptiens 
presentent  des  tendances  irresistibles  vers  la  variabilite. 

Les  experiences  m'ont  demontre  que  les  graines  issues 
du  meme  ou  des  memes  generateurs  donnent  des  individus 
differant  les  uns  des  autres,  tant  au  point  de  vue  botanique 
qu'au  point  de  vue  industrial. 

Les  causes  en  sont  multiples :  les  conditions  du  milieu, 
telles  que  le  climat,  la  nature  du  sol,  le  systeme  de 
culture,  les  agents  physiques  et  chimiques;  et,  en  general, 
les  proportions  des  energies  radioactifs  influencent 
certainement  1'essor  de  la  plante  et  tendent  a  la  sortir  de 
son  orbite  normale. 

Cependant  ces  conditions  semblent  avoir  une  action 
lente  et  il  leur  faut  longtemps  pour  manifester  leurs 
effets. 

A  elle  seule,  Faction  de  ces  facteurs  ne  peut  pas  ex- 
pliquer  la  variabilite  intense  a  laquelle  nous  assistons,  a 
moins  qu'on  n'admette  en  meme  temps  que  la  source  des 
differentiations  interesse  les  tendances  de  Teconomie 
intime  du  cotonnier  egyptien  qui  subit  les  consequences 
de  sa  sensibilite  aux  effets  les  plus  subtils  des  influences 
des  lois  qui  nous  sont  actuellement  voilees. 

Quoique  voilees,  ces  lois  revelent,  par  leurs  mani- 
festations, le  mecanisme  intime  des  tendances  et  par  la 
deduction  on  atteint  une  association  d'idees  qui  peut, 
dans  une  certaine  mesure,  expliquer  les  phenomenes  qui 
se  produisent  journellement. 

L'agriculture  egyptienne  est  fortement  interessee  de 
ces  revelations  qui  sont  d'une  grande  portee  pratique; 
et  si  dans  le  cours  des  speculations  elles  nous  conduisent 
parfois  dans  le  domaine  de  1'abstraction,  elles  ne 


COTTON  371 

manquent  pas  de  nous  accorder  le  benefice  des  concep- 
tions pratiques  que  1'observation  et  1'experience  finissent 
par  eriger  en  regies,  regies  qui  sont  autanf  d'articles  du 
grand  code  de  Tinconnu  qui,  helas,  nous  entoure  et  nous 
penetre. 

Si  Ton  veut  remonter  a  Torigine  de  la  plante  qui  nous 
occupe,  on  doit  se  placer  au  moment  ou  s'operent  les 
merveilleux  effets  des  affinites  mys^.erieuses  qui  donnent 
naissance  au  germe,  a  1'embryon,  qui  contient  dans  son 
sein  tout  un  monde;  se  placer  au  moment  ou  se  fo<rme 
le  pont  a  travers  lequel  la  vie  passe  et  se  perpetue,  c'est- 
a-dire  au  moment  des  etreintes  des  antherozoides  dans 
le  sein  de  1'ovule  qui  frissonne  passivement  au  contact  du 
processus  du  pollen  qu'elle  a  appele  de  si  loin  avec  cette 
force  attractive  qui  deconcerte  les  chercheurs  des  prin- 
cipes. 

Dans  ce  moment  solennel,  les  deux  elements,  le  male 
et  la  femelle,  semblent  etre  deux  poles,  le  positif  et  le 
negatif,  dont  le  contact  produit  une  vie  nouvelle;  ils  sem- 
blent etre  ou  avoir  des  mouvements  dans  un  etat  distinct, 
qui  se  combinent,  se  completent,  se  neutralisent,  s'allient, 
s'influesicent,  se  confondent,  pour  donner  naissance  a  une 
resultante,  pour  se  faire  une  orbite  commune,  un  centre 
commun  qui  sera  1'equilibre  nouveau,  1'etre  complet  de 
la  classe  superieure,  capable  dans  son  evolution  de  per- 
petuer  a  travers  le  temps  et  Tespace  le  cycle  des  mani- 
festations par  la  succession  merveilleuse  des  eloignements 
et  des  rapprochements  des  poles  d'energie  ainsi  soup- 
Bonnes. 

Theoriquement,  les  proprietes  du  pollen  et  de  Tovule 
etant  d'une  meme  origine,  si  les  conditions  du  milieu  ne 
viennent  pas  les  influences  Tceuf  qui  est  produit  de  leur 
mariage  devra  contenir  les  memes  proprietes  que  leur 
generateur  commun,  et  si  Ton  osait  reduire  le  mecanisme 
organique  en  une  formule  mecanique  on  pourrait  dire  que 
le  nouvel  organisme  se  developpera  mecaniquement  tel 
un  ressort,  une  spirale,  qui  subit  les  meme  pressions,  qui 
contient  les  memes  affinites,  les  memes  mouvements 
centrifuges  ou  centripetes. 

C'est  la  la  manifestation  ordinaire  de  1'implacable  loi 
de  1'heredite  qui  conserve  Tequilibre  acquis  des  energies 


3/2  COTTON 

qui  laisse  intacts  les  facteurs  dont  1'equation  reste  ainsi 
invariable. 

Dans  la  nature,  cet  equilibre  est  souvent  rompu,  soit 
par  les  actions,  soit  par  les  reactions  des  diverses  energies 
intimes  ou  exterieures,  et  les  parturbations  qui  en 
resultent  donnent  lieu  soit  a  d'autres  equations,  soit  a  la 
destruction  de  1'organisme. 

Cela  peut  se  resumer  par  1'enonce  de  la  reductibilite 
des  termes  de  toute  equation  organique  jusqu'a  la  rupture 
de  1'equilibre,  et  si  Ton  se  permettait  une  divagation  dans 
le  domaine  des  hypotheses,  on  pourrait  supposer  un 
simple  deplacement  des  centres  des  equilibres  ou  bien  des 
modifications  de  la  valeur  des  axes  de  1'arbite,  sans  que 
ces  translations  aient  toujours  pour  effet  d'aneantir  les 
affinites  ou  de  disloquer  le  mecanisme  des  energies  qui 
creent  ou  subissent  ces  affinites.  En  d'autres  termes,  il 
s'agirait  de  concevoir  une  coordination  des  mouvements 
et  des  vitesses  de  sorte  que  leur  resultante  ait  des 
tendances  centripetes  necessaires  a  la  conservation  de 
1'equilibre. 

Pour  ne  pas  tomber  dans  le  domaine  de  la  meta- 
physique,  et  pour  enoncer  les  diverses  etapes  de  la  loi 
de  1'heredite,  il  est  prudent,  dans  1'etat  actuel  de  nos 
connaissances,  de  retenir  les  trois  dimensions  mecaniques 
qui  seules  peuvent  etre  representees  par  des  nombres. 

En  1'espece,  ces  trois  dimensions  que  1'on  peut  con- 
f  ondre  a  trois  directions  du  mouvement  sont :  — 

i°  L'inertie,  c'est-a-dire  1'equilibre  des  activites  au 
moment  de  1'observation. 

2°  Le  recuT,  du  au  relachement  des  affinites  a  la  perte 
d'energies,  au  rayonnement  centrifuge. 

3°  La  propulsion,  due  au  resserrement  des  affinites,  a 
1'acquisition  de  nouvelles  energies,  a  1'acceleration  des 
vitesses. 

Ces  trois  etats  ne  peuvent  etre  que  les  divers  degres 
de  la  manifestation  des  mouvements  dont  la  vitesse  et 
Tenvergure  constituent  les  diiferenciations. 

Que  les  energies  soient  considerees  comme  potentielles 
ou  comme  cinetiques,  peu  importe,  elles  restent  toujours 
dynamiques  et  nous  imposent  notre  attitude  envers  Tetude 
des  phenomenes. 


COTTON  373 

Si  Ton  pouvait  definer  les  trois  etats  sus-dits,  je  crois  :  — 

i°  Que  I'heredite  peut  etre  assimilee  a  une  manifesta- 
tion de  1'inertie  qui  semble  etre  1'equilibre  des  energies  le 
plus  stable,  en  d'autres  termes,  Tequilibre  des  motive- 
ments  dont  la  resultante  a  une  direction  et  une  vitesse 
centripete  determinees  au  moment  de  1' observation.  La 
multiplication  du  cotonnier  se  faisant  par  la  division, 
cette  resultante  due  a  1'action  des  memes  facteurs  se 
perpetue  a  travers  le  temps  et  1'espace  selon  des  lois 
determinees  et  poursuit  sa  direction  et  sa  vitesse  qui  lui 
sont  allouees  par  le  mecanisme  mondial,  tant  qu'elle  n'est 
pas  genee  dans  son  evolution  par  Intervention  d'autres 
activites. 

2°  Que  Tattavisme  ou  Tarchegonisme  peut  etre  con- 
sidere  comme  la  rupture  de  1'equilibre  hereditaire  con- 
state et  le  -retour  dans  les  limites  des  equilibres  pre- 
existants.  On  dirait  que  le  relachement  de  Faction  des 
energies  relativement  nouvellement  acquises  modifie  la 
direction  ou  la  vitesse  de  la  resultante  des  proportions  et 
ramene  le  champ  du  developpement  dans  les  dimensions 
et  les  formes  preexistantes,  en  suivant  pas  a  pas  ou  bien 
en  enjambant  les  series  recurrentes  des  oscillations,  si 
infinitesimales  que  soient  les  actions  contraires. 

3°  La  propulsion  semble  etre  la  differenciation  pro- 
gressive due  a  la  rupture  de  Tequilibre  hereditaire  par 
suite  des  deviations  qu'a  subi  la  resultante  par  Faction  de 
nouvelles  energies  qui  viennent  s'y  ajouter,  ou  bien  par 
suite  de  nouvelles  dispositions  des  energies  deja  exist- 
antes.  Cette  action  imprime  ou  acquiert  un  developpe- 
ment nouveau  en  suivant  pas  a  pas  ou  en  enjambant  les 
series  des  valeurs  progressives,  si  minimes  que  soient  les 
causes  des  oscillations. 

La  loi  qui  regit  ces  mouvements  et  que  Ton  peut 
appeler  "  loi  des  resultantes  "  donne  le  spectacle  des 
infinies  manifestations  organiques  ou  inorganiques  qui 
semblent  n'etre  en  definitive  que  les  divers  degres  des 
intensites  radioactives  plus  ou  moins  centrifuges,  plus  ou 
moins  centripetes,  avec  un  champ  de  developpement  des 
vitesses  plus  ou  moins  etendu,  en  proportion  avec  les 
vitesses  et  les  directions  innees  des  elements  qui  entrent 
dans  les  equations. 


374  COTTON 

Cette  conception,  si  temeraire  ou  si  banale  qu'elle 
paraisse  donne  souvent  la  clef  de  1'explication  de  la 
plupart  des  phenomenes  des  differenciations  que  Ton 
constate  dans  la  nature  que,  ces  differenciations  se  mani- 
festassent  par  des  series  recurrentes  ou  par  des  series 
progressives.  Elle  explique  aussi  les  associations,  les 
dissociations,  les  compositions,  les  decompositions,  les 
conflagrations,  les  evaporations,  les  combinaisons,  etc., 
et  fait  entrevoir  le  jeu  de  toutes  les  radioactivites  des 
corps  en  presence,  radioactivites  dont  la  resultante  amene 
les  declanchements  des  ressorts  centralisateurs,  provoque 
les  delachements  des  affinites  acquises,  Tacceleration  ou 
le  ralentissement  des  vitesses  et  determine  des  directions 
differenciees. 

La  rupture  des  equilibres  n'est-elle  pas,  en  effet,  con- 
stante  ?  Qu'il  s'agisse  de  retrogradations  ou  qu'il 
s'agisse  de  propulsion,  les  affinites  subissent  des  oscilla- 
tions proportionnelles  a  Tintensite  et  a  la  duree  des 
actions  ou  des  reactions  des  energies  mises  a  1'oeuvre, 
depuis  les  radiations  centrifuges  jusqu'a  la  formation  des 
cristaux,  ces  deux  formes  suppossees  pres  des  extremes  de 
Tenergie  materielle. 

Tout  en  abandonnant  1'interpretation  de  ces  specula- 
tions a  la  theorie,  il  est  peut-etre  utile  de  deduire  les  trois 
propositions  suivantes :  — 

i°  Si  les  energies  qui  agissent  sur  une  resultante 
donnee  sont  sans  effet,  1'equilibre  persiste  et  se  transmet, 
par  la  division,  aux  descendants,  avec  les  memes  attributs, 
supposons  100. 

2°  Si  les  energies  neutralised  ou  detruisent  une  partie 
des  energies  existantes,  il  se  formera  une  nouvelle 
resultante  qui  ne  pourra  transmettre  aux  descendants  que 
les  attributs  qu'elle  a  pu  conserver,  supposons  90. 

3°  Si  enfin,  les  energies  ajoutent  leur  action  a  celle 
des  energies  existantes,  il  se  formera  une  nouvelle  resul- 
tante qui  transmettra  aux  descendants  les  attributs 
accumules,  supposons  no. 

C'est  a  ce  mecanisme  que  peuvent  etre  attributes  les 
innombrables  differenciations  que  Ton  constate  sur  le 
cotonnier  egyptien. 

Quoiqu'il  en  soit,   ces  differenciations  sont  constantes 


COTTON  375 

et  elles  sont  d'autant  plus  sensibles  que  les  individus  que 
Ton  examine  sont  plus  nobles. 

Ayant  porte  mes  comparaisons  sur  plusieurs  centaines 
de  varietes  pendant  vingt  ans,  j'ai  eu  1'occasion  de  con- 
stater  que  les  influences  agissant  sur  la  resultante  prise 
comme  terme  de  comparaison  creent  de  nouveaux 
equilibres  dont  la  position  est  le  plus  souvent  retro- 
gradee. 

Cela  est  du  certainement  a  1'instabilite  des  equilibres 
hereditaires  du  cotonnier  egyptien.  II  est  vrai  que  dans 
le  regne  vegetal,  comme  du  reste  dans  le  regne  animal, 
il  n'y  a  pas  de  varietes  mais  des  individus;  mais  chez  le 
cotonnier  egyptien,  les  differentiations  sont  tres  appre- 
ciables. 

Si  nous  prenons  une  graine  d'une  variete  de  coton 
rigoureusement  controlee  comme  descendant  de  parents 
a  caracteres,  connus,  et  si  nous  examinons  ses  descendants 
directs,  nous  nous  trouverons  en  presence  d'ecarts  tres 
appreciables.  La  multiplicite  des  differentiations  est 
telle  que  Ton  pent  schematiquement  les  figurer  par  un 
arbre  a  trois  branches :  Ces  branches  porteraient  des 
branches  secondaires  et  des  feuilks  qui  representeraient 
autant  de  groupes  et  autant  d'individus.  La  branche  du 
milieu  porterait  des  individus  ou  des  groupes  d'individus 
se  rapprochant  au  centre  de  1'inertie  hereditaire  initiale; 
la  branche  gauche,  aurait  des  groupes  et  des  individus 
se  rapprochant  par  la  retrogradation  au  centre  primitif 
ou  archegone;  et  la  branche  droite  aurait  des  groupes  et 
des  individus  se  rapprochant  par  Tacquisition  de  nouvelles 
tendances  au  centre  cree  par  la  propulsion. 

Les  oscillations  que  j'ai  remarquees  decrivent,  tel  un 
pendule,  des  arcs  dont  les  fleches  atteignent  toutes  les 
dimensions,  depuis  1'extreme  gauche  jusqu'a  1'extreme 
droite.  II  en  est  resulte  ainsi  des  graduations  infinies, 
mais  d'une  grande  instabilite,  depuis  la  valeur  90  jusqu'a 
la  valeur  no  et  meme  parfois  au  dega  et  au  dela  de  ces 
limites. 

Les  consequences  pratiques  en  sont  importantes. 

Si  Ton  multiplie  une  graine  prise  a  1' extreme  droite  de 
la  courbe  des  oscillations,  elle  donnera  lieu,  au  bout  de 
quelques  generations,  a  des  diiferenciations  telles  que  Ton 


376  COTTON . 

aura  les  ecarts  les  plus  developpes,  depuis  1'extreme  droite 
d'ou  Ton  est  parti,  jusqu'a  Textreme  gauche  de  Tarbre 
genealogique  primitif.  II  en  arrive  de  meme  quand  on 
multiplie  des  graines  appartenant  aux  branches  du  milieu 
ou  de  gauche. 

Cela  est  du  dans  la  majorite  des  cas  au  travail  intra- 
cellulaire  ou  la  loi  des  resultantes  se  traduit  par  des 
oscillations  a  vitesse  differente,  par  des  series  recurrentes 
a  termes  de  valeur  infinitesimale. 

La  determination  de  la  valeur  des  termes  d'une  serie 
recurrente  est  en  I'espece  irrealisable  parce  que  I 'appre- 
ciation et  la  inesure  des  valeurs  des  energies  qui  contri- 
buent  aux  oscillations  nous  echappent. 

Ces  facteurs  restant  inconnus,  dans  1'etat  actuel  de  nos 
connaissances,  il  est  temeraire  d'essayer  de  tracer  a 
1'avance  la  portee  d'une  resultante  et  c'est  pour  cette 
raison  que  tous  ceux  qui  ont  tente  d'etudier  les  pheno- 
menes  des  trois  etats  de  1'equilibre  sous  la  designation 
generique  d'Heredite,  se  sont  vu  finalement  forces 
d'avouer  la  vanite  de  leurs  recherches. 

Get  ordre  d'idees  conduit  a  la  refutation  de  certaines 
regies  Mendeliennes  qui  veulent  presumer  des  termes 
dans  les  series  recurrentes  ou  progressives  quand  ces 
termes  restent  totalement  ignores.  Et  a  inoins  qu'on  ne 
veuille  se  complaire  a  des  regressions  expectantes,  on 
reconnait  que  Ton  doit  revenir  de  la  voie  des  trans- 
gressions dans  laquelle  engage  souvent  1'intangible 
transcendance  et  frequemment  la  generalisation  de 
quelques  cas  de  stabilite  apparente  insuffisamment 
expliques  ou  definis.  Peu  importe,  en  effet,  la  concep- 
tion de  quelques  valeurs  dont  la  ireductibilite  reste  quand 
meme  variable  et  evolue  dans  le  domaine  des  hypotheses. 

Pour  avoir  voulu  generalise!*  les  propositions  Men- 
deliennes, on  a  tente  d'appliquer  en  Egypte  la  methode  de 
selection  sur  les  cotonniers.  Mais  les  resultats  furent 
franchement  negatifs  quand  il  s'est  agi  de  plantes  d'une 
certaine  noblesse  (agricole  et  industrielle).  C'est  juste- 
ment  parce  que  les  equilibres  y  sont  instables  et  que  les 
effets  de  la  stabilite  relative  Mendelienne  constatee  sur 
d'autres  genres  de  plantes  ne  peuvent  pas  se  manifester 
au  meme  degre  chez  le  cotonnier  egyptien. 


COTTON  377 

Cela  se  congoit  et  s'explique  si  Ton  remonte  a  1'origine 
des  varietes  egyptiennes  du  coton,  varieties  qui  sont  des 
metis  a  generateurs  plus  ou  moins  stables. 

Parmi  les  varietes  egyptiennes  il  y  en  a  qui  montrent 
un  plus  grand  degre  de  resistance  a  la  variabilite,  telle  que 
le  "  Jannovitch  "  ou  les  tendances  archegoniques  n'ont 
pas  a  la  soumettre  a  des  grandes  deviations  parce  qu'elle 
est  prise  sur  la  branche  gauche  de  la  variete  primitive 
"  Maho  "  d'origine  egyptienne  ou  bien  africaine. 

Malheureusement  cette  propriete  de  stabilite  lui  est 
constitutionnelle  et  individuelle,  mais  a  la  longue,  cette 
variete  a  subi  elle-meme  des  transformations  radicales. 

Dans  mes  recherches  j'ai  essaye  de  transmettre  cette 
stabilite  relative  du  "  Jannovitch "  dans  mes  nouvelles 
varietes  obtenues  par  croisement;  chaque  fois  que  j'ai 
cru  reussir  dans  ce  sens,  j'ai  ete  en  butte  a  des  degra- 
dations archegoniques  qui  rendaient  mes  efforts  vains  et 
mes  resultats  negatifs  quoique  mes  essais  ont  porte  sur 
plusieurs  centaines  de  tentatives.  Je  n'ai  pas  un  exemple 
qui  puisse  me  permettre  d'avouer  un  succes,  et  je  suis 
contraint  de  signaler  que  cette  stabilite  est  tres  probable- 
m-ent  le  facteur  qui  m'a  fait  assister  a  des  retrogradations 
archegoniques  tres  marquees,  chaque  fois  que  j'ai  employe 
comme  un  des  generateurs  la  variete  en  question. 

II  s'agit  la  probablement  d'un  mouvement  qui  imprime 
des  ralentissements  dans  le  travail  intracellulaire  et  qui 
provoque  des  deviations  de  la  resultante  vers  une  direction 
archegonique. 

Les  caracteres  hereditaires  qui  devaient  theoriquement 
exister  chez  ces  metis  subissent  les  retrocessions 
d'elements  retrogradants  qui  s'y  accumulent  aux  depens 
des  elements  avances. 

Par  centre  j'ai  realise  des  propulsions  tres  marquees 
avec  des  generateurs  moins  stables  et  qui  par  1'evolution 
m'ont  donne  des  fixites  relativement  satisfaisantes. 

II  y  a  la  la  contribution  de  plus  d'un  facteur  inconnu 
que  revele  la  variante  des  termes  des  equations.  II  n'est 
pas  rare  avec  des  generateurs  geants  d'obtenir  des  types 
nains  et  reciproquement,  sans  pouvoir  attribuer  ces 
retrecissements  ou  ces  elargissements  du  champ  de 
developpement  a  d'autres  causes  qu'a  celles  qui  doivent 


COTTON 

interesser  le  travail  intracellulaire,  lors  des  echanges 
radioactifs  dans  la  formation  de  la  resultante.  Les  per- 
turbations qui  se  signalent  dans  les  resultantes  des 
equilibres  des  cotons  egyptiens  sont  frequentes  et 
inevitables  meme  chez  les  types  qui  semblent  montrer  la 
plus  grande  resistance.  Et  si  Ton  ajoute  a  1'instabilite 
constitutionnelle  des  cotonniers  egyptiens  Faction  de 
toute  sorte  de  radiations  exterieures  telles  que  la  lumiere 
et  la  chaleur  prolongees,  I'humidite  qui  intercepte  les 
vitesses  des  ions,  les  radiations  qui  emanent  so  it  de  la 
dissociation  des  divers  sels  du  sol  egyptien,  soit  des 
decharg'es  electro-magnetiques,  soit  d'autres  sources,  si 
Ton  ajoute  Taction  de  ces  agents  au  jeu  intercellulaire 
des  plantes,  on  ne  manque  pas  de  soupgonner  les  causes 
primordiales  qui  peuvent  etre  dues  a  la  contingence  de 
ces  elements,  dans  les  modifications  des  champs  de 
developpement  des  resultantes.  Mais  ainsi  qu'il  a  ete 
dit  plus  haut,  ces  contingents  dont  dispose  la  nature,  sont 
un  appareil  de  second  ordre  et  n'agis'sent  que  lentement. 
En  1'espece,  puisque  ces  facteurs  sont  communs  a  tous 
les  individus  sous  etude  et  puisque  les  variations  dans  les 
attributs  hereditaires  sont  diverses,  il  est  prudent  de 
reconnaitre  que  c'est  a  la  loi  des  resultantes  des  mouve- 
ments  intermoleculaires  que  nous  devons  attribuer 
1'exuberance  des  differenciations  auxquelles  nous  assis- 
tons  tous  les  jours. 

En  fait,  en  Egypte,  nous  n'avons  pas  de  varietes  de 
coton  fixes,  de  sorte  que  celles  qui  ont  un  certain  age, 
telles  que  le  Achmouni,  le  Mitafifi,  le  Abassi,  le  Nubari, 
le  Sakellaridis,  etc.,  ne  sont  plus  que  des  expressions 
conventionnelles,  leur  degenerescence,  apres  des  retro- 
gradations  successives  ayant  atteint  des  eloignements  tres 
prononces  du  point  de  depart. 

Aussi  sommes-nous,  en  Egypte,  en  presence  d'un  grave 
probleme  qu'est  celui  de  la  degenerescence  de  nos 
varietes  degenerescence  aggravee  par  rabatardissement 
et  le  systeme  non  approprie  des  irrigations. 


FLOWER-BUD   AND   BOLL    SHEDDING    OF    COTTON    IN 
THE  ILORIN  PROVINCE,  NIGERIA. 

By  THOMAS  THORNTON,  A.R.C.S. 

Assistant   Superintendent    of   Agriculture,    Northern 
Provinces,  Nigeria. 

ONE  of  the  most  serious  troubles  there  is  to  contend 
with  in  this  part  of  Nigeria  in  the  growing  of  cotton  is 
the  shedding  of  flower-buds  and  young'  bolls.  It  will  be 
well  understood  that  this  trouble,  if  it  occurs  to  any 
extent,  will  be  of  great  importance  in  reducing  the  crop 
returns. 

On  arriving  in  the  Province  at  the  beginning  of  April 
of  last  year,  the  old  cotton  which  was  standing*  indicated 
that  shedding  had  been  very  serious  during  the  previous 
season.  Practically  no  bolls  from  which  cotton  had  been 
picked  were  to  be  seen  on  the  lower  parts  of  the  plants; 
almost  all  the  crop  had  been  reaped  from  bolls  which  had 
been  developed  at  the  tops  of  the  plants  and  the  ends  of 
the  branches. 

I  arranged  to  try  and  determine  the  cause  of  this 
shedding,  and  with  this  object  in  view  made  a  daily  record 
of  the  flowers  opening,  the  buds  and  bolls  shed,  and  the 
various  climatic  factors. 

The  minimum  temperatures  were  taken  every  morn- 
ing, and  the  maximum  every  afternoon.  The  readings 
indicated  by  the  wet  and  dry  bulb  thermometers  were 
taken  daily  at  6  a.m.,  9  a.m.,  12  noon,  3  p.m.,  and  6  p.m., 
and  the  relative  humidity  of  the  atmosphere  at  these  times 
was  worked  out  from  these  records. 

Four  different  types  of  cotton  were  kept  under  observa- 
tion:  Ishan,  an  African  type;  Allen's  Improved,  an 
American  long  staple  cotton  which  had  been  obtained 
from  Uganda ;  Nyasaland  Upland,  another  American  long- 
staple  cotton  obtained  from  Nyasaland;  and  Durango,  a 
long  staple  cotton  obtained  from  California. 


380  COTTON 

The  flowers  opening  each  day  were  counted,  and 
each  morning  all  the  sheddings  were  picked  up  and 
counted  from  two  rows  of  each  type.  The  number  of 
plants  were:  Ishan,  769;  Allen's  Improved,  849;  Nyasa- 
land,  737;  and  Durango,  772. 

The  buds  and  bolls  which  had  been  bored  by  the  boll 
worm  were  separated  from  the  others  and  counted. 

All  these  types,  with  the  exception  of  Nyasaland,  were 
planted  on  July  15;  Nyasaland,  which  arrived  late,  was 
planted  on  July  28. 

The  rainfall  in  August  this  particular  year  was  very 
heavy  in  comparison  with  other  years,  between  10  and 
ii  in.  being  recorded;  September  was  lower  than  the 
average  with  8J  in. ;  the  rain  ceased  on  October  19  after 
nearly  5  in.  had  been  recorded  for  the  month.  No  more 
rain  fell  until  February  26  of  this  year. 

The  plants  grew  exceedingly  well,  not  too  large,  but 
just  a  good  average  size. 

In  the  case  of  the  exotic  types,  flowering  commenced 
eight  weeks  after  planting,  and  in  four  weeks  from  that 
time  the  maximum  number  of  flowers  were  opening  per 
day.  This  maximum  was  maintained  for  about  a  week, 
then  flowering  began  to  fall  off,  and  in  from  eight  to  nine 
weeks  from  the  commencement  of  flowering  it  had  fallen 
to  a  minimum.  In  four  months  from  the  time  of  planting 
the  first  flowering  period  was  completed.  After  this  new 
growth  rapidly  took  place,  and  in  two  more  weeks  a 
second  flowering  period  had  commenced.  This  last 
flowering  period  only  lasted  from  four  to  five  weeks,  and 
the  number  of  flowers  opening  per  day  did  not  rise  so 
high  as  in  the  first  flowering  period. 

With  Ishan,  a  native  variety,  the  flowering  period  was 
a  long  drawn  out  one,  the  first  flowering  period  only 
ending  when  the  exotics  were  finishing  their  second 
period.  The  flowering  of  Ishan  commenced  ten  and  a 
half  weeks  after  planting;  the  maximum  flowering  period 
was  reached  five  weeks  later,  and  this  flowering  period 
was  finished  seven  weeks  later.  The  flowering  period  of 
this  type,  therefore,  lasts  twelve  weeks. 

The  shedding  of  flower-buds  commenced  before  any 
flowers  opened,  and  the  shedding  of  small  bolls  com- 


COTTON  381 

menced  a  few  days  after  the  first  flowers  opened.  This 
shedding  of  both  buds  and  bolls  continued  as  long  as  any 
were  being  formed. 

During  the  early  part  of  the  flowering  period  the 
shedding  of  buds  was  higher  than  the  shedding  of  bolls, 
but  towards  the  end  of  the  period  this  was  reversed,  and 
a  larger  proportion  of  bolls  were  shed. 

Almost  all  the  buds  shed  were  only  about  a  quarter  of 
an  inch  across  the  widest  part  of  the  bracts,  and  the  bolls 
were  mostly  shed  within  a  few  days  of  the  opening  of  the 
flowers.  After  the  bolls  were  about  a  week  old  very 
few  were  shed;  it  was  always  found  that  when  older  bolls 
were  shed  the  tissues  at  the  bottom  of  the  bolls  had 
turned  black,  which  indicated  the  presence  of  disease,  or 
that  they  had  been  damaged  by  the  boll  worm. 

The  maximum  shedding  took  place  during  the  wet 
period,  and  shortly  after  the  dry  season  commenced  there 
was  a  great  decrease  in  the  number  of  sheddings.  A 
decreased  shedding  continued  for  about  ten  days,  and 
then  it  commenced  to  increase  again,  and  this  increased 
shedding  continued  for  about  three  weeks.  During  this 
latter  heavy  shedding  period  the  leaves  were  also  shed. 

This  latter  increased  shedding  commenced  three  weeks 
after  the  dry  season  began,  and  it  was  evident  that  the 
plants  were  suffering  from  a  decreased  water  supply. 
This  is  what  one  would  naturally  expect;  the  plants  had 
been  developed  under  more  moist  conditions,  and  when 
there  was  a  shortage  in  the  supply  of  water  the  plants 
had  to  reduce  the  transpiration  area,  and  the  leaves 
were  shed. 

After  these  three  weeks  of  increased  shedding  new 
growth  again  commenced,  a  new  flowering  period  was 
begun  with  the  exotics,  and  the  proportion  of  sheddings 
rapidly  decreased,  and  this  reduced  shedding  continued 
until  the  plants  were  approaching  the  end  of  the  flowering 
period. 

The  shedding  was  therefore  of  two  kinds.  During  the 
wet  period  the  leaves  were  not  shed  with  the  flower-buds 
and  the  bolls,  but  during  the  dry  season  the  increased 
shedding  of  buds  and  bolls  was  accompanied  by  the 
shedding  of  leaves. 


COTTON 

During  the  wet  period  the  shedding  was  not  uniform 
from  day  to  day,  although  heavy  shedding  continued  all 
the  time;  on  certain  days  the  number  of  sheddings  would 
rise  to  a  very  high  point,  and  it  was  observable  that, 
although  the  climatic  conditions  were  fairly  complex, 
preceding  such  days  the  relative  humidity  of  the  atmo- 
sphere had  been  unusually  high,  accompanied  by  a 
cloudy  sky  and  generally  rain.  The  absence  of  sunshine 
during  August,  September,  and  early  October  was 
particularly  noticeable. 

The  high  humidity  of  the  atmosphere  and  the  small 
amount  of  sunshine  appear  to  be  responsible  for  the 
shedding  during  the  wet  season.  For  on  the  arrival  of 
the  dry  season  the  atmosphere  becomes  drier  and  the 
amount  of  sunshine  increases  and  shedding  decreases; 
also,  a  drier  period  during  the  wet  season  is  followed  by 
a  decreased  shedding,  so  there  appears  to  be  a  close 
connection  between  the  two. 

We  cannot  at  the  present  time  explain  exactly  what 
effect  these  conditions  have  on  the  cotton  plant,  but  it  is 
possible  that  the  moist  conditions  affect  the  transpiration 
of  the  plant,  and  in  some  way  set  up  an  abnormal  con- 
dition in  the  plant  which  results  in  these  organs  being 
shed. 

When  the  dry  season  commences  the  atmosphere  becomes 
drier  and  more  sunshine  is  obtained,  and  the  shedding 
then  decreases;  but  as  the  dry  season  advances  still 
further  the  plants  which  had  been  developed  under  more 
moist  conditions  begin  to  feel  the  effects  of  these  changed 
conditions,  and  in  response  to  the  diminished  water  supply 
a  shedding  of  the  leaves  takes  place,  together  with  an 
increased  shedding  of  flower-buds  and  bolls.  New  growth 
afterwards  takes  place,  a  new  set  of  leaves  is  produced, 
and  a  new  flowering  period  is  begun.  It  appears  as  if 
the  plant  has  now  accommodated  itself  to  the  new  con- 
ditions, and  shedding  falls  to  a  minimum. 

During  the  wet  season  the  developing  bolls  were  much 
affected  with  anthracnose  and  boll-rot,  but  as  the  dry 
season  advanced  these  troubles  almost  disappeared. 

Boll  worms  were  also  a  serious  trouble,  for  as  many 
as  25  per  cent,  of  the  flower-buds  and  bolls  which  were 
shed  during  the  season  had  been  bored  by  these  worms. 


COTTON  383 

Then,  again,  the  sheddings  did  not  fully  indicate  the 
extent  of  the  trouble,  as  a  large  number  of  flower-buds 
and  bolls  remained  attached  to  the  plants  after  they  had 
died.  These,  of  course,  could  not  be  counted. 

What  has  been  said  in  regard  to  shedding  applies  to  all 
the  varieties  grown,  and  the  general  appearance  of  the 
plants  grown  by  the  natives  shows  them  to  have  acted 
in  a  similar  manner  to  those  kept  under  observation  on 
the  experimental  farm. 

All  varieties  of  soil  were  represented  on  the  farm;  part 
of  the  land  was  sloping,  part  flat,  and  part  bottom  land. 
Most  of  it  was  well  drained  naturally,  and  shallow  drains 
were  made  throughout  the  farm  to  carry  off  the  surface 
water  during  the  constant  heavy  rains.  Deep  main 
drains  were  also  made  to  collect  the  water  from  the 
surface  drains.  At  one  part  of  the  farm  there  was  a  drain 
about  6  ft.  deep,  but,  in  spite  of  different  soils  and  drains, 
shedding  was  very  similar  all  over  the  area. 

One  often  hears  it  stated  that  the  native  varieties  are 
hardier  than  the  imported  types,  but  during  the  season 
now  under  consideration  the  native  types  acted  in  exactly 
the  same  way  as  the  others  in  this  matter  of  shedding. 
The  native  types,  however,  were  not  so  badly  affected 
by  the  drought.  This  is  accounted  for  by  the  fact  that 
they  have  a  much  deeper  root  system,  and  can  therefore 
draw  on  the  lower  layers  of  earth  for  moisture. 

Practically,  no  cotton  was  obtained  from  any  flowers 
which  opened  during  the  wet  period,  almost  all  the  crop 
being  produced  by  those  flowers  which  opened  after  the 
dry  season  commenced. 

Should  occasional  showers  fall  during  the  dry  season 
it  is  probable  that  fair  crops  may  be  obtained;  but  these 
showers  cannot  be  depended  upon,  as  has  been  shown 
this  last  season,  when  no  rain  fell  from  October  19  until 
February  26. 

This  season  the  crops  have  been  very  poor,  the  amount 
obtained  from  the  different  varieties  being  only  from 
50  to  100  Ib.  of  seed-cotton  per  acre. 

On  account  of  the  fact  that  the  flower-buds  and  bolls 
are  shed  during  the  wet  season,   it  might  be  suggested 
that  seed  should  be  put  in  at  such  a  time  that  flowering 
25 


COTTON 


would  only  commence  after  the  wet  period  is  finished. 
With  a  soil  capable  of  retaining-  moisture  to  a  high  degree 
this  might  be  possible;  unfortunately,  the  soil  in  this 
district  is  of  a  very  sandy  nature,  with  little  power  to 
retain  moisture.  The  result  of  late  planting  would  be 
that  the  plants  would  only  have  produced  a  small  growth 
before  the  dry  season  commenced,  the  root  system  would 
be  near  the  surface,  and  the  plants  would  very  quickly 
suffer  from  the  effects  of  drought. 

In  Ilorin  Province  September  is  the  wettest  month  of 
the  year,  the  rainfall  during  the  last  nine  years  varying 
from  8^  to  17  in.  The  rainfall  afterwards  diminishes  very 
quickly,  so  that  before  the  dry  season  commences  there 
is  practically  no  period  with  a  moderate  rainfall,  and  then 
there  is  not  much  chance  of  rain  during  the  dry  season. 

It  is  quite  possible  that  in  districts  where  the  rainfall 
eases  off  more  gradually,  or  where  rains  are  more  to  be 
depended  upon  during  the  dry  season,  the  results  would 
be  more  promising. 

In  the  Ilorin  Province  the  indications  are  that  not  much 
of  a  crop  can  be  expected  from  flowers  which  open  during 
the  wet  season,  and  that  the  principal  crop  will  have  to 
be  obtained  from  flowers  which  open  during  the  dry 
season. 

There  is,  however,  the  possibility  that  special  plants 
may  be  developed  which  are  able  to  produce  crops  from 
flowers  which  have  opened  during  the  wet  period. 
During  the  past  season  I  was  fortunate  in  finding  a 
native  plant  in  a  native's  garden  which  had  ripened  all  its 
crop  from  such  flowers.  It  may  be  possible  to  evolve  a 
new  type  of  cotton  from  this  plant,  but  that,  of  course, 
can  only  be  ascertained  by  experiment.  All  the  seed  from 
this  plant  was  collected,  and  this  'season  it  will  be  sown 
to  see  if  the  plants  raised  retain  their  flowers  during  the 
wet  period.  If  such  a  type  of  plant  can  be  evolved,  the 
prospects  of  cotton  growing  in  this  Province  will  be 
greatly  improved. 


PROBLEMS  CONNECTED  WITH  THE  NEW  EGYPTIAN 
COTTON  PEST,  GELECHIA  GOSSYPIELLA  SAUNDERS, 
THE  PINK  BOLL  WORM. 

By  L.  H.  GOUGH,  Ph.D.,  F.E.S. 

Chief,   Entomological   Section,  Ministry   of  Agriculture, 

Egypt. 

CONSIDERABLE  evidence  can  be  brought  forward  to 
support  the  theory  that  the  pink  boll  worm  has  been 
introduced  into  Egypt  within  the  last  ten  years,  and  that 
it  came  from  India.  There  are  no  records  available  for 
Gelechia  gossypiella  Saunders  from  Egypt  prior  to  the 
autumn  of  1910.  A  few  specimens  were  taken  by  Mr. 
F.  Willcocks,  Entomologist  to  the  Khedivial  Agricultural 
Society,  in  October  of  that  year.  Mr.  Andres  claims 
also  to  have  taken  specimens  at  Alexandria  in  1910.  In 
October,  1911,  a  few  were  bred  out  from  cotton  bolls 
collected  at  Fua  by  myself.  These  were  identified  by  Mr. 
Dudgeon,  and  were  then  considered  by  us  to  be  the  first 
specimens  recorded  from  Egypt,  neither  Mr.  Willcocks's 
nor  Mr.  Andres's  records  having  been  published  at  that 
time.  Specimens  were  also  taken  by  Mr.  Willcocks  in 
1911.  The  insect  was,  however,  still  decidedly  rare.  At 
the  end  of  March,  1912,  some  pupae  of  Gelechia  were 
brought  to  me  by  Mr.  Pappis  from  Damanhur,  having 
been  found  by  him  in  cotton  seed.  A  few  specimens  were 
bred  out  of  pomegranates  in  July,  1912. 

The  pink  boll  worm  was  not,  however,  found  doing 
any  damage  until  the  autumn  of  1912,  when  it  appeared 
in  enormous  quantities  at  Abu  Qeer  Estate,  near  Alexan- 
dria, and  in  considerable  numbers  everywhere  in  the 
Delta. 

The  first  parasites  of  Gelechia  found  in  Egypt  were 
reared  in  the  autumn  of  1912.  I  bred  out  one  Chelonella 
sulcata  Nees,  and  Mr.  Willcocks  recorded  Pimpla 
roborator  Fabr.  from  his  breeding  cages.  I  also  found 
a  Pimpla  larva  in  direct  connection  with  a  pink  boll  worm. 


3  COTTON 

Mr.  Willcocks  also  recorded  Pediculoides  ventricosus 
Newport  from  Gelechia  larvae.  This  mite  appears  to 
have  been  a  pest  in  his  laboratory,  and  to  have  attacked 
several  of  the  workers. 

In  the  autumn  of  1913  Gelechia  had  already  become  so 
abundant  as  to  <be  recognized  as  the  principal  cotton  pest 
throughout  the  Delta,  and  had  extended  its  known  range 
considerably  in  Upper  Egypt.  We  have  bred  specimens 
from  Heluan,  Fayum,  Beni  Suef,  Minia  and  Assiut  in 
Upper  Egypt  this  year,  besides  having  received  specimens 
from  all  parts  of  the  Delta. 

This  brief  recapitulation  of  the  known  history  of  the 
insect  in  Egypt  points  to  its  recent  introduction.  It  is 
hardly  possible  to  understand  how  an  insect  which  was  a 
great  rarity  in  1910  should  have  become  the  major  pest 
by  1913  on  any  other  assumption.  The  first  introduction 
of  the  insect  must  have  taken  place  only  a  few  years  prior 
to  1910. 

Until  recently  the  origin  of  the  insect  in  Egypt  was 
rather  a  mystery.  Since  1904  all  importation  of  cotton 
seed  into  Egypt  has  been  totally  prohibited,  the  only 
exception  until  1912  having  been  in  favour  of  unginned 
cotton  from  the  Sudan.  Gelechia  gossypiella  does  not, 
however,  appear  to  occur  in  the  Sudan  as  yet,  or  has 
not  hitherto  been  recorded  from  there.  It  can  conse- 
quently hardly  have  been  imported  from  the  Sudan. 
Some  light  has,  however,  recently  been  thrown  upon  the 
mystery.  A  consignment  of  "  ginned "  cotton  from 
Indiaj  was  held  up  in  the  autumn  of  1913  at  Alexandria, 
as  it  was  found  to  contain  seeds  in  great  quantity.  It 
was  allowed  to  be  delivered  to  the  consignee  on  condition 
that  all  the  seed  should  be  removed  from  the  lint  in  the 
presence  of  an  Inspector  of  the  Ministry  of  Agriculture. 
Although  the  cotton  had  been  steam-pressed  several 
living  G.  gossypiella  larvae  were  discovered  in  the  Indian 
cotton  seed.  The  amount  of  seed  in  the  bales  varied  very 
considerably,  in  one  sample  taken  there  were  seeds  at  the 
rate  of  750,000  to  the  ton  of  lint. 

Having  discovered  this  possible  source  for  the  intro- 
duction of  G.  gossypiella  into  Egypt,  the  question  arose 
as  to  the  date  of  the  first  importation  of  Indian  cotton 


COTTON 


38? 


into  the  country,  especially  as  the  importer  stated  that 
he  had  not  dealt  with  Indian  cotton  before  1910.  The 
following  table,  kindly  supplied  by  the  Director-General 
of  Customs,  shows  that  considerable  quantities  have  been 
imported  from  India  since  1903,  in  all  about  466  tons, 
of  which  350  tons  were  landed  at  Port  Said,  about  62  tons 
at  Suez,  and  nearly  54  tons  at  Alexandria.  The  destina- 
tion of  the  cotton  imported  cannot  now  be  followed  up, 
but  it  is  unlikely  that  any  of  it  was  manufactured  at 
Suez  or  Port  Said.  Some  may  have  been  re-shipped  to 
Alexandria  from  Port  Said,  as  has  happened  this  winter. 
In  any  case,  the  coincidence  that  the  first  estate  to  be 
badly  damaged  in  Egypt  was  within  a  few  miles  of 
Alexandria  (Abu  Qeer)  is  remarkable. 


QUANTITY  AND  VALUE  OF  COTTON  IMPORTED  INTO  EGYPT  FROM 
INDIA,  i  goo- 1913. 


V^*— 

ALEXANDRIA 

PORT  SAID 

SUEZ 

TOTAL 

V  cars 

Quantity 

Value 

Quantity 

Value 

Quantity 

Value 

Quantity 

Value 

Kilos. 

;£E. 

Kilos. 

^E. 

Kilos. 

£E. 

Kilos. 

£E. 

1900 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

1901 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

•  — 

— 

— 

1902 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

1903 

— 

-  — 

— 

— 

20,510 

294 

2O,5IO 

294 

1904 

14,360 

2O  I 

— 

• 

11,467 

183 

25,827 

384 

1905 

— 

— 

— 

— 

9,I5° 

107 

9,150 

107 

1906 

— 

— 

80,552 

3,235 

688 

46 

81,240 

3,281 

1907 

9,366 

I87 

137.436 

5,672 

15,198 

617 

l62,OOO 

6,476 

1908 

21,460 

296 

— 

— 

— 

21,460 

296 

1909 

— 

— 

31,206 

3I2 

— 

— 

31,206 

312 

1910 

8,254 

341 

— 

4,829 

172 

13,353 

5»3 

191  1 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

1912 

— 

— 

10,998 

494 

— 

— 

10,998 

494 

1913 

17 

2 

8,995 

4,549 

90,012 

4,551 

N.B. — The  embarkation  of  this  cotton  is  chiefly  effected  at  Bombay. 

It  is  not  intended  in  thus  sketching  the  probable  method 
of  introduction  of  the  pink  boll  worm  to  impute  blame 
to  anybody.  The  importers  were  not  doing  any  illegal 
action,  and  wer§  not  aware  that  the  importation  of  badly 
ginned  Indian  cotton  was  attended  by  any  special  risk. 

Hitherto  the  pink  boll  worm  is  the  only  insect  known 
to  have  been  introduced  in  this  manner;  it  is,  however, 


388  COTTON 

quite  possible  that  other  cotton  pests  may  have  been 
brought  in  at  the  same  time  and  in  the  same  way. 

The  importation  of  Egyptian  cotton  seed  into  cotton- 
growing  countries  zvhere  Gelechia  gossypiella  does  not 
yet  exist  ought  to  be  strictly  prohibited,  or  else  -history 
may  be  expected  to  repeat  itself. 

The  life-history  of  the  pink  boll  worm  in  Egypt  is 
already  fairly  well  known,  and  in  most  respects  resembles 
the  Indian.  Apparently  it  is  in  a  transition  state  between 
a  univoltine  and  a  multivoltine  insect. 

Some  larvae  resulting  from  the  October  or  November 
broods  of  moths  pass  the  winter  dormant  as  full-fed 
larvae,  pupating  in  spring,  or  even  in  summer.  Out  of 
these  pupae  some  moths  emerge  early  in  June  and  July, 
others  still  later  in  the  year,  and  it  appears  to  be  possible 
(on  the  authority  of  Mr.  Willcocks)  that  some  specimens 
emerge  so  late  as  to  produce  larvae  that  will  again  hiber- 
nate. Such  insects  are  consequently  strictly  single 
brooded.  On  the  other  hand,  a  large  number  of  the 
spring  pupae  give  rise  to  moths/  in  June,  the  progeny  of 
these  moths  appear  in  their  turn  to  fly  in  July  and  August, 
and  then  generation  seems  to  follow  generation  until 
the  second  half  of  December.  Of  the  larvae  of  the  last 
generation  some  pupate  and  emerge  as  adults  late  in 
December  and  the  first  week  in  January;  these  are 
probably  lost  for  the  purpose  of  propagation :  others 
hibernate  as  larvae,  as  already  stated,  and  carry  on  the 
life  of  the  species. 

The  exact  length  of  time  required  for  a  generation  can 
consequently  be  seen  to  vary  from  one  year  to  a  few 
weeks.  Cold  evidently  has  a  retarding  influence  on  the 
larvae.  A  large  number  of  larvae  extracted  from  seeds  at 
the  end  of  January  were  placed  in  glass  tubes.  Of  these 
some  were  kept  in  an  incubator  at  37°  C.,  others  at 
27°  C.,  still  others  at  room  temperatures  varying  from 
10°  to  15°  C.  All  the  larvae  in  the  two  lots  at  warm 
temperatures  had  spun  cocoons  for  themselves  at  the  end 
of  two  days;  those  kept  at  room  temperatures  remained 
torpid,  neither  moving  nor  spinning  for  nine  days,  after 
which  they  began  to  spin  cocoons.  Some  of  the  larvae 
kept  at  37°  C.  started  pupating  after  eight  days,  others 


COTTON  389 

remained  dormant,  but  healthy,  for  three  further  months 
without  pupating,  and  were  still  in  the  larval  state  at  the 
time  of  writing  (April  n).  The  larvae  kept  at  27°  C.  had 
started  pupating  after  nine  days,  some  lingering  in  the 
same  way  as  before  mentioned  as  larvae  up  till  the  middle 
of  April. 

As  all  these  larvae  were  kept  under  exactly  the  same 
conditions,  heat  does  not  appear  to  be  the  factor  con- 
trolling the  length  of  their  hibernation  or  aestivation 
period.  Moisture  combined  with  heat  appears  to  be  fatal 
to  them.  Of  thirty-eight  dormant  larvae  exposed  to 
37°  C.  in  a  moist  chamber,  only  two  had  spun  cocoons 
after  ten  days,  the  other  thirty-six  being  dead.  The  two 
which  spun  cocoons  died  before  pupating.  Of  the  larvae 
kept  dry  at  37°  C.,  30  per  cent,  were  dead  after  ten  days, 
none  of  those  kept  at  27°  C.  died,  and  only  5  per  cent. 
of  those  kept  at  room  temperatures. 

No  experiments  have  yet  been  undertaken  to  discover 
whether  all  the  larvae  of  the  summer  generations  pupate 
and  hatch  as  adults  in  short  periods,  or  whether  some  of 
them  aestivate  and  pupate  later  to  hatch  next  year,  in 
the  manner  followed  by  the  larvae  of  the  previous  autumn. 

Gelcchia  gossypiella  larvae  have  in  Egypt  been  found 
feeding  on  cotton,  okroe,  or  bamiah  (Hibiscus  esculentus), 
tehl  (Hibiscus  cannabinus),  and  at  Mariout  on  Malva  sp., 
and  on  pomegranates.  Usually  the  seeds  are  attacked,  but 
the  larvae  are  also  capable  of  feeding  in  flower  buds. 

It  is  not  possible  to  detect  the  presence  of  Gelechia 
larvae  in  attacked  bolls  without  opening  the  bolls;  Earias 
larvae  leave  a  large  hole  at  the  side  of  the  boll  or  shoot 
they  feed  in,  and  are  easily  detected  by  the  accumulation 
of  frass  below  the  hole.  Exactly  how  the  young 
Gelechia  larvae  enter  the  bolls  has  not  been  observed;  it 
may  possibly  happen  through  the  stigma  of  the  flower, 
or  else  the  minute  hole  made  by  the  larvae  when  entering 
the  boll  closes  up  again.  For  this  reason  there  is  no 
possibility  of  combating  the  insect  by  pulling  off  attacked 
bolls,  a  method  which  might  be  expected  to  be  of  help 
in  checking  the  early  generation  of  Earias.  Gelechia 
larvae  also  do  not  damage  the  cotton  in  the  same  way  as 
Earias  larvae  do.  Whilst  ordinary  boll  worm  larvae  feed 


390  COTTON 

on  the  developing  lint,  and  by  their  presence  damage 
and  stain  the  lint  in  the  section  of  the  boll  they  have 
attacked,  Gelechia  larvae  feed  on  the  seeds  only,  hollow- 
ing them  out  and  living  in  the  cavity  they  make.  This 
causes  twofold  damage.  The  lint  developing  on  an 
injured  seed  does  not  develop  normally,  the  extent  of  the 
damage  depending  on  the  developmental  stage  of  the 
seed  when  first  attacked.  The  lint  may  consequently 
hardly  develop  at  all,  remain  shorter  and  weaker  than 
normal,  or  be  scarcely  affected.  The  injured  seeds 
naturally  lose  their  germinating  power  and  value  for 
crushing.  The  lint  is  not,  however,  stained  by  the  larvae 
nor  blackened  by  sooty  mould,  as  happens  frequently 
after  an  attack  by  Earias. 

During  the  course  of  its  development  each  Gelechia 
larva  may  attack  more  than  one  seed;  at  the  time  of 
maturity  of  the  bolls  it  is  normal  to  find  "  double  "  seeds; 
the  larvae,  after  having  more  or  less  completely  hollowed 
out  a  seed,  attaches  a  second  seed  to  the  opening  of  the 
first  by  a  web  of  silk  threads,  and  feeds  on  the  contents 
of  the  second  seed.  A  third  seed  is  sometimes  attacked 
and  stuck  to  the  first  two  in  the  same  way.  Such  double 
seeds  are  readily  found  in  unginned  cotton  by  passing  the 
lint  between  the  fingers  and  feeling  for  the  seeds.  That 
they  are  very  firmly  spun  together  can  be  seen  by  the 
fact  that  the  double  seeds  mostly  pass  intact  through  the 
gins,  with  the  enclosed  larvae  unhurt. 

We  have  invariably  found  Gelechia  pupating  inside  the 
double  seeds,  except  where  this  has  been  experimentally 
prevented,  though,  according  to  Mr.  Andres,  the  larvae 
leave  the  seeds  to  pupate  elsewhere.  When  removed 
from  the  interior  of  the  seed,  full-grown  larvae  spin  new 
cocoons  for  themselves,  the  period  required  for  them  to 
start  spinning  evidently  depending,  as  already  stated,  to 
a  great  extent  on  temperature. 

Some  larvae  which  had  been  removed  from  their 
original  double  seeds  in  making  their  cocoons  employed 
nothing  but  their  own  silk,  economizing  the  silk  by 
leaving  the  glass  of  the  tubes  in  which  they  were  confined 
to  form  part  of  the  walls  of  the  cocoon.  Others,  how- 
ever, utilized  foreign  bodies  to  strengthen  or  to  help  out 


COTTON  391 

the  web,  or  perhaps  with  an  instinct  to  make  the  cocoon 
less  visible.  Some  blotting  paper  in  the  moist  chamber 
was  utilized  by  two  larvae,  being  reduced  first  to  fluff  and 
then  incorporated  in  the  web.  Another  larva,  kept  in  a 
corked  (dry)  tube,  made  cork  dust  serve,  biting  up  the 
cork  to  produce  the  dust.  Another,  which  had  access  to 
cotton-wool,  utilized  cotton  fibre.  One  larva,  which  by 
accident  had  entered  a  narrow  glass  tube,  simply  spun  a 
transverse  web  on  either  side  of  itself,  closing  up  the 
tube  in  both  directions  with  a  tight,  flat,  circular 
membrane. 

In  winter  hibernating  larvae  may  be  looked  for  wherever 
cotton  seed  is  to  be  found.  Probably  the  majority  will 
be  found  in  seed  that  has  been  ginned  and  stored.  Some 
seed  we  were  using  for  experimental  purposes  was 
infested  to  the  extent  of  one  worm  to  every  ten  seeds, 
and  at  least  30  to  40  per  cent,  of  the  seeds  were  damaged, 
but  this  was  an  exceptionally  bad  sample.  After  the  last 
picking  a  large  number  of  immature  bolls  remain  on  the 
cotton  sticks;  these  bolls  are  invariably  infested.  The 
cotton  sticks  are  uprooted  and  stored  in  the  villages  for 
fuel,  and  the  capsules  adhering  to  them  form  an  important 
reservoir  for  the  insect  to  pass  the  winter  in.  As  diseased 
bolls  readily  fall  to  the  ground,  large  numbers  of  worms 
can  be  found  hibernating  in  bolls  lying  on  the  ground. 
Bolls  collected  on  the  ground  in  January  were  found  to 
contain  a  number  of  living  worms,  and  still  more  dead 
ones. 

It  is  impossible  to  make  a  reliable  estimate  of  the 
amount  of  damage  done  by  the  pink  boll  worm,  or  even 
to  give  figures  to  show  the  proportion  of  damage  done 
by  Gelechia  and  Earias  respectively. 

What  figures  are  available  to  show  the  relative  amount 
of  damage  done  in  1911,  1912,  and  1913  by  Gelechia  all 
trend  in  the  same  way.  In  localities  where  any  damage 
was  done  in  1911,  great  damage  followed  in  1912,  and 
much  less  damage  was  observed  in  1913.  Of  course,  for 
very  many  localities  no  figures  exist  for  1911  or  1912, 
although  extensive  damage  has  been  reported  from  them 
in  1913.  It  is  hoped,  and  seems  probable,  that  in  these 
cases  also  the  maximum  of  damage  has  already  been 


392  COTTON 

reached,  and  that  the  1914  crop  will  be  less  affected.  The 
damage  will  probably  always  be  most  severe  in  new 
localities. 

The  relative  proportions  of  Gelechia  and  Earias  present 
in  cotton  bolls  have  also  been  worked  out  for  several 
localities,  and  it  is  found,  as  was  to  be  expected,  that 
Gelechia  is  commoner  than  Earias  in  some  localities, 
whilst  the  opposite  result  is  obtained  in  other  places. 
The  figures  available  do  not  show  anything  worth  record- 
ing yet,  but  will  be  useful  for  comparison  in  coming 
years. 

If  it  has  been  impossible  to  get  a  reasonably  accurate 
estimate  of  the  total  damage  by  examining  the  destruction 
done  in  counts  of  large  numbers  of  bolls,  or  of  the 
damaged  seeds  in  bolls  of  entire  plants  collected  for  the 
purpose,  it  is  almost  as  impossible  to  obtain  results  by 
comparing  the  returns  for  the  total  crop  in  1911,  1912, 
and  1913. 

In  1911  the  crop  was  7,386,328  kantars,  in  1912 
7,499,100  kantars,  and  in  1913  the  estimate  of  the  Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture,  which  appears  to  be  very  close  to 
the  exact  quantity,  is  7,554,000  kantars,  yet  there  is  no 
doubt  that  a  very  severe  and  general  attack  occurred  in 
1913.  These  figures  refer  to  the  lint;  the  damage  is, 
however,  more  evident  in  the  seed  than  in  the  lint.  This 
year  it  has  been  almost  impossible  to  find  cotton  seed 
free  from  Gelechia  larvae;  some  bad  samples  examined 
by  us  had  at  least  30  to  40  per  cent,  of  damaged  seeds. 

The  statement  has  just  been  made  that  the  damage  in 
any  locality  seems  to  reach  its  maximum  in  the  first  or 
second  year  of  the  known  existence  of  Gelechia  in  that 
locality,  and  that  thereafter  the  number  of  pink  boll 
worms  observed  there  in  a  given  number  of  bolls 
decreases.  Such  a  decrease  can  be  brought  into  con- 
nection with  observations  of  their  parasites. 

The  following  parasites  have  been  bred  from  or 
observed  on  Gelechia  gossypiella:  Pimpla  roborator 
Fabr.,  Chelonella  sulcata  Nees,  Limnerium  interruption 
Holmgr.,  Pediculoides  ventricosus  Newport,  and  Micro- 
sporidium  polyedricum  Bolle. 

Pimpla  roborator  is  an  Ichneumonid  with  a  very  wide 


COTTON  393 

distribution  throughout  the  palsearctic  region,  and  is 
known  to  infest  boring  larvae  of  insects  belonging  to 
widely  different  Orders.  It  was  common  in  Egypt  prior 
to  the  advent  of  the  pink  boll  worm,  and  has  but  recently 
taken  to  parasitizing  Gelechia  larvae.  P.  rob  orator 
was  the  first  parasite  observed  on  the  pink  boll  worm, 
and  still  remains  the  commonest  parasite  of  that  pest  in 
Egypt.  The  part  it  plays  in  combating  Gelechia  is  with- 
out doubt  a  very  important  one.  It  has  become  quite  a 
familiar  object  in  magazines  where  unginned  cotton  is 
stored  within  the  range  of  the  pink  boll  worm. 

Chelonella  sulcata,  also  an  Ichneumonid,  appears  to 
have  been  rare  before  last  autumn  (1913).  Only  one 
specimen  was  known  to  us  in  1912,  which  we  had  bred 
from  Gelechia;  nevertheless,  our  breeding  cages  during 
the  last  crop  season  produced  large  numbers  of  this 
parasite.  We  have  not  hitherto  bred  Chelonella  from 
any  other  insect  larva,  and  are  not  in  a  position  to  say 
whether  this  parasite  was  introduced  along  with  its  host, 
or  whether  it  is  indigenous  to  Egypt;  this  season  it  has 
been  the  second  most  important  parasite  of  the  pink  boll 
worm. 

Limnerium  interruptum  is  also  an  Ichneumonid  insect, 
and  is  evidently  able  to  parasitize  insects  other  than 
Gelechia  gossypieila,  as  the  species  is  known  to  occur  in 
England.  In  Egypt  it  has  hitherto  only  been  bred  from 
Gelechia,  being  otherwise  so  rare  that  no  captured 
specimens  have  yet  been  recorded.  The  pink  boll  worm 
has,  however,  provided  a  convenient  and  common  prey, 
and  it  has  multiplied  enormously  in  some  places.  Its 
range  is  not  yet  co-extensive  with  the  range  of  Gelechia , 
and  it  must  still  be  considered  a  very  local  insect. 

Pediculoldes  ventricosus  was  discovered  infesting* 
Gelechia  larvae  by  Mr.  Willcocks  in  1912,  and  in 
1913  became  so  common  that  the  work  of  unloading 
Egyptian  cotton  seed  in  English  ports  was  interfered 
with,  as  the  mites  also  attack  man  when  their  normal 
hosts  are  wanting.  This  parasite  also  seems  to  be  some- 
what local  in  its  distribution;  Mr.  Willcocks's  laboratory 
is  stated  to  have  been  badly  infested.  It  has  not  been 
noticed  in  our  buildings,  although  very  large  quantities 


394  COTTON 

of  cotton  seed  and  Gelechia  larvae  have  been  handled  by 
us.  To  obtain  specimens  we  had  to  examine  samples  of 
seed  from  a  great  number  of  localities.  Whether  the 
mite  will  ever  be  of  much  help  in  checking  Gelechia  gossy- 
piella  still  remains  to  be  seen.  It  appears  to  breed  fastest 
in  warm  and  somewhat  moist  surroundings — conditions 
that  hardly  obtain  in  seed  stores  in  Egypt  during  the 
winter. 

Microsporidium  polyedricum,  the  protozoan  parasite 
which  caused  so  much  destruction  to  the  cotton  worm 
(Prodcnia  litura  Fabr.)  in  the  last  two  years,  has  also 
been  observed  in  Gelechia. 

As  time  goes  on  other  parasites  will  doubtless  be  dis- 
covered attacking  Gelechia.  Rhogas  Kitcheneri  is  most 
probably  also  a  parasite  of  the  pink  boll  worm,  as  we 
have  bred  it  from  other  lepidopterous  larvae,  in  addition 
to  Earias,  which  was  its  first  discovered  host. 

The  amount  of  mortality  due  to  all  these  parasites  has 
been  found  to  vary  in  the  seed  samples  examined  from 
i o  to  40  per  cent. ;  it  may  even  reach  a  higher  percentage 
if  outside  reports  be  true. 

Parasites  and  diseases  are  evidently  helping  to  combat 
the  worm,  and  when  the  measures  devised  by  the  Ministry 
of  Agriculture  have  been  enforced  we  will  probably  have 
the  pest  well  in  hand.  The  existing  legislation  against 
the  boll  worm  (Earias)  is  being  extended  to  make  it 
applicable  to  Gelechia  also.  For  this  purpose  clauses  are 
being  added  to  the  law  making  it  an  offence  to  store 
cotton  sticks  for  fuel  after  a  certain  date  each  year  without 
having  destroyed  all  attached  bolls,  and  permitting  the 
Government,  if  necessary,  to  have  bolls  removed  at  the 
expense  of  the  owner.  Cotton  sticks,  it  must  be  remarked, 
form  the  principal  fuel  supply  for  large  parts  of  Egypt. 

It  would  not,  however,  be  sufficient  merely  to  destroy 
all  the  larvae  and  pupae  hibernating  in  the  bolls,  in  the 
field,  or  in  the  stacked  firewood,  unless  something  were 
done  to  destroy  the  larvae  and  pupae  sheltering  in  the 
cotton  seed  intended  for  planting. 

The  Entomological  Section  of  the  Ministry  of  Agricul- 
ture has  made  a  careful  study  of  the  methods  for  use  in 
destroying  the  pink  boll  worm  in  cotton  seed  without  at 
the  same  time  injuring  the  seed. 


COTTON  395 

It  has  been  impossible  to  find  a  satisfactory  system 
of  dealing-  with  the  pink  boll  worm  after  the  cotton  seed 
has  been  sacked.  If  any  treatment  is  to  be  applied 
successfully  the  seed  must  be  loose,  whether  in  large  or 
in  small  quantities. 

The  best  'results  have  been  obtained  from  the  following" 
methods :  — • 

(i)  Hot-air  Treatment. — It  was  anticipated  and  proved 
to  be  correct  that  there  is  a  difference  in  the  temperatures 
necessary  to  kill  Gelechia  larvae  and  cotton  seed.  A 
practical  temperature  under  o°  C.  was  not  found;  on  the 
other  hand,  the  worms  cannot  exist  at  50°  C.  for  longer 
than  is  required  to  heat  them  through  and  through  to  that 
temperature.  Cotton  seed,  on  the  other  hand,  will  under- 
normal  conditions  remain  unaffected  if  thoroughly  warmed 
up  to  65°  C.,  and  possibly  up  to  75°  C.  However,  both 
worms  and  seed  can  stand  much  higher  temperatures  for 
short  periods,  the  rule  being,  the  higher  the  temperature 
the  shorter  the  period,  and  total  mortality  occurs  amongst 
tlie  worms  long  before  the  seed  suffers. 

In  treating  seed  with  hot  air  it  was  found  necessary, 
if  uniform  results  were  to  be  obtained,  to  spread  out  the 
seeds  in  a  'single  layer,  in  order  to  give  the  heated  air 
access  to  every  single  seed.  Other  factors  to  be  con- 
sidered were  the  heat  conductivity  of  the  material  on 
which  the  seeds  were  carried,  the  initial  temperature  oi 
the  seed,  the  temperature  employed,  and  the  time  of  the 
exposure.  The  seed  must  not  previously  have  been 
wetted,  or  wetted  and  dried.  In  order  to  kill  the  worms 
and  not  to  hurt  the  seed,  it  was  necessary  to  adjust  all 
these  factors,  which  could  be  adjusted  in  the  machine 
used,  in  such  a  way  that  the  worms  and  seed  should 
reach  a  minimum  temperature  throughout  of  about  55° 
to  60°  C.  The  material  of  the  carrier  would  normally 
be  a  constant,  the  depth  of  the  seed  layer  also.  The 
initial  temperature  of  the  seed  in  our  experiments  was 
not  considered,  as  it  would  not  have  varied  more  than 
one  or  two  degrees  from  15°  C.,  that  being  the  tempera- 
ture of  our  laboratory.  In  the  practical  application  of 
the  hot-air  treatment  the  initial  temperature  of  the  seed 
might  become  important,  as  it  could  conceivably  vary  by 


396  COTTON 

30°  to  40°  C.  in  Egypt  according  to  the  season  of  the 
year.  However,  the  main  variable  factors  will  remain 
the  temperature  of  the  hot  air  used,  and  the  time  allowed 
for  action. 

A  machine  to  apply  the  hot-air  method  of  destruction 
of  Gelechia  larvae  would  in  principle  consist  of  an  endless 
band  to  carry  the  seed,  heated  either  by  steam  pipes  or 
other  radiators,  or  else  heated  by  a  hot-air  blast.  Instead 
of  one,  several  endless  bands  might  be  required,  one 
above  the  other,  each  receiving  the  seed  from  the  one 
above  it,  and  discharging  on  to  the  one  below  in  order 
to  economize  space. 

As  already  stated,  the  temperature  required  would 
depend  on  various  factors,  amongst  which  the  construc- 
tion of  the  machine  and  the  time  allowed  for  the  seed  to 
traverse  the  heated  part  are  the  most  important.  The 
permissible  temperature  would  have  to  be  found  for  each 
machine. 

A  machine  on  the  lines  sketched  above  has  been  erected 
by  the  State  Domains  Administration  by  way  of  a  large 
scale  experiment,  and  having  been  found  to  be  satis- 
factory, a  full-sized  machine  is  now  being  built  by  that 
Administration. 

(2)  Treatment  with  Gases. — Cotton  seed  can  also  be 
treated  successfully  by  carbon  bisulphide  and  other  gases. 
Again  an  indispensable  condition  is  that  the  seed  must 
not  be  treated  in  sacks.  We  find  that  the  best  results  are 
obtained  by  placing  the  seed  in  vats  that  can  be  sealed 
hermetically,  and  by  making  the  gas  circulate  through 
the  seed  by  means  of  a  pump,  which  sucks  the  gas  out 
through  a  pipe  at  the  top  of  the  vat  and  forces  it  in  again 
through  a  pipe  entering  from  below.  Without  some  such 
arrangement  the  gases  do  not  seem  to  penetrate  to  any 
depth  through  the  seed,  and  consequently  are  not  able  to 
kill  the  larvae. 

We  are  erecting  a  machine  with  which  we  will  be  able 
to  deal  with  40  to  50  tons  of  seed  daily  as  an  experiment. 
This  machine  has  already  been  used  on  a  few  tons  of  seed 
intended  for  exportation,  and  the  samples  examined 
showed  that  the  operation  had  been  successful. 

The    gas    giving    the    best    results    has    hitherto    been 


COTTON  397 

carbon  bisulphide,  which  kills  all  larvae  present  in  half  an 
hour,  if  applied  at  the  rate  of  i  c.c.  of  the  fluid  to  each 
litre  space  contained  in  the  cotton  seed  vat.  Exposures 
of  less  than  half  an  hour  are  not  always  safe,  nor  are 
quantities  of  less  than  O'l  per  cent,  carbon  bisulphide. 

Hydrocyanic  acid  gas  also  gives  good  results,  but 
requires  longer  to  kill  the  worms.  Sulphur  dioxide  is 
also  distinctly  promising,  but  it  has  not  been  possible 
for  us  to  make  a  thoroughly  satisfactory  experimental 
arrangement  for  the  use  of  this  gas  on  a  small  scale. 

(3)  Treatment  with  Cyllin. — A  remedy  usable  only  on 
a  small  scale  is  immersion  in  cyllin  and  water.  We  have 
found  that  steeping  for  twenty-four  hours  in  solutions  of 
i  :  100,  i :  500  and  I  :  1,000  has  no  injurious  effect  whatever 
on  the  seeds,  and  yet  kills  every  worm  in  the  sample. 
The  only  objection  to  the  method  is  that  the  seed  must 
be  instantly  planted,  as  the  long  immersion  is  apt  to  start 
the  germination.  The  seed  will  germinate,  and  the  seed- 
ling grows  readily  when  watered  with  i  per  cent,  cyllin. 

In  an  Appendix  given  at  the  end  of  this  paper  will  be 
found  the  figures  on  which  all  these  deductions  are  based. 

In  our  opinion  the  pink  boll  worm,  which  has  in  three 
years  sprung  into  existence  as  a  major  cotton  pest,  need 
not  be  feared  as  much  as  either  the  Egyptian  cotton  worm 
or  the  ordinary  boll  worm  (Earias),  for,  provided  the 
desired  legislation  is  enforced  and  the  power  is  given  to 
carry  out  the  necessary  operations,  it  ought  to  be  possible 
to  restrict  its  ravages  to  a  minimum. 


APPENDIX. 


TABLE  SHOWING  EFFECTS  OF  INSECTICIDES  ON  GELECHIA  LARVAE 
AND  COTTON  SEED. 


GELECHIA 

LARVAE 

COTTON  SEED 

Time 

Insecticide  used 

allowed 
for 

bfl 

u 

$o 

8 

<O  T3 

&s 

Remarks 

action 

.5 

m 

i 

~ 

£  ctf 

c  5 

IM 

Q 

I1 

'I 

V 

'£ 

£ 

O 

&  W> 

Minutes 

Carbon    bisulphide, 

30 

0 

25 

100 

70 

45 

6l 

I  c.c.  to  litre  space. 

pumped     as    gas 

30 

o 

20 

IOO 

80 

205 

28 

through       cotton 

30 

0 

31 

100 

49 

67 

42 

seed  container 

30 

I 

35 

97 

49 

42 

54 

I  '5  c.c.  to  litre  space. 

30 

0 

34 

IOO 

36 

61 

37 

6  c.c.  to  litre  space. 

i 

Hydrocyanic      acid 

The  gas  was  developed  from  — 

gas,    pumped 

30 

I 

ii 

92-5 

81 

8 

9i 

(  i  grm.  sodium  cyanide. 

through       cotton 

30 

4 

26 

87 

(good 

1  I  c.c.  sulphuric  acid. 

seed  container 

60 

O 

28 

IOO 

seed) 

(2  c.c.  water. 

30 

13 

20 

60 

34 

81 

29 

(2  grm.  sodium  cyanide. 

60 

0 

28 

IOO 

57 

So 

53 

2  c.c.  sulphuric  acid. 

60 

o 

29 

IOO 

4  c.c.  water. 

[5  grm.  sodium  cyanide. 

30 

0 

15 

IOO 

35 

55 

48 

•1  5  c.c.  sulphuric  acid. 

(10  c.c.  water. 

30 
60 

o 

0 

12 
10 

IOO 

IOO 

34 
28 

35 
41 

48 
40 

[10  grm.  sodium  cyanide. 
•1  10  c.c.  sulphuric  acid. 
(20  c.c.  water. 

Sulphur  dioxide  gas, 
pumped    through 
cotton  seed    con- 
tainer 

30 
60 

6 

2 

12 
19 

66 
90 

87 
74 

49 
63 

63 

54 

The  gas  was  developed  from  — 
(5  grm.  sodium  sulphite. 
5  c.c.  sulphuric  acid. 
IO  c.c.  water. 

30 
60 

2 
O 

2S 

18 

92 

IOO 

83 
89 

72 
49 

S3 

64 

(IO  grm.  sodium  sulphite. 
10  c.c.  sulphuric  acid. 
20  c.c.  water. 

Hours 

Strength  of  solution  used  — 

Cyllin,  seed  soaked 

24 

3 

13 

81 

39 

55 

42 

4,000. 

in  solution 

24 

0 

12 

IOO 

37 

47 

44 

2,000. 

24 

o 

50 

loo    123 

126 

49 

1,000. 

24 

o 

16 

IOO     1  08 

151 

42 

1,000. 

24 

o 

9 

loo     33 

48 

40 

1,000. 

24 

0 

7 

IOO       36 

50 

4i 

500. 

Controls 

32 

18 

36 

54 

50 

53 

These  controls  were  made  from 

5 

20 

20 

56 

52 

52 

the  same  seed  as  was  used  in 

16 
28 

'1 

48 
18 

40 
*35 

38 
'54 

4i 
46 

all    the   experiments,    except 
the    first    one    recorded    for 

24 

6 

20 

"3 

187 

37 

hydrocyanic   acid   gas. 

6 

3 

33 

133 

129 

50 

4 

6 

40 

19 

175 

10 

36 

19 

34'5 

127 

*55 

42 

43 

10 

19 

104 

187 

36 

THE  BOLL  WORM  IN  EGYPT. 

By  GERALD  C.  DUDGEON,  F.E.S. 

Consulting  Agriculturist  to  the  Ministry  of  Agriculture 
in  Egypt;  Vice-President  of  the  International  Asso- 
ciation for  Tropical  Agriculture. 

PREVIOUS  to  1911  the  name  boll  worm  was  used  in 
Egypt  exclusively  in  application  to  one  species  (Earias 
insulana,  Boisd.),  but  in  the  year  named  a  new  pest 
appeared  which  resembled  the  other  in  its  depredations 
upon  cotton  bolls,  and  to  which  the  name  "  pink  boll 
worm  "  has  been  applied  to  distinguish  it. 

Owing  to  the  points  of  difference  between  the  two 
species  being  somewhat  marked  it  is  necessary  to  refer 
to  each  separately,  and  the  present  paper  therefore  deals 
only  with  the  common  boll  worm  (E.  insulana,  Boisd.); 
it  is  proposed  to  give  an  account  of  the  pink  boll  worm 
(Gelechia  gossypiella,  Saund.)  in  a  subsequent  paper. 

In  a  special  article  which  was  contributed  by  me  to 
the  British  Section  of  the  International  Association  for 
Tropical  Agriculture,  and  which  was  published  in  The 
Bulletin  of  the  Imperial  Institute,  vol.  x  (1912),  under 
the  title  of  "The  Cotton  Worm  in  Egypt,"  I  dealt  with 
the  history  of  the  inception  of  cotton  cultivation  in  Egypt 
and  the  gradual  increase  of  production. 

There  was  no  record  of  the  appearance  of  any  cotton 
pest  in  Egypt  until  after  cotton  had  been  established  in 
the  country  for  forty  years;  but  about  that  time  closer 
attention  seems  to  have  been  given  to  the  reasons  for 
the  shortage  of  crops  in  some  seasons  which  had  hitherto 
been  placed  to  the  account  of  water  scarcity  only. 

As  a  result  of  this  the  Earias  cotton  boll  worm  was 
discovered,  an  insect  which  had  previously  been  known 
to  exist  in  India,  from  which  country  it  may  have  been 
introduced,  and  from  where  it  is  abundantly  evident  the 
pink  boll  worm  came  recently. 

The  insect  commonly  referred  to  as  the  boll  worm, 
26 


40O  COTTON 

"  ver  de  la  capsule"  or  "  dud  el  luz,"  in  Egypt  is 
identical  with  one  of  the  species  which  is  destructive  to 
cotton  in  India,  and  is  the  larva  or  caterpillar  of  a  night 
flying  moth.  It  has  received  its  common  name  from  the 
habit  it  possesses  of  boring  into  and  consuming  the 
contents  of  cotton  bolls  or  seed  capsules.  Although  the 
injury  effected  is  somewhat  similar  to  that  caused  by 
the  American  boll  worm  (Chloridea  obsoleta,  Fabr  = 
Heliothis  armigera,  auctorum),  the  Egyptian  and  Indian 
insect  referred  to  here  enters  the  boll  completely,  and 
lives  within  it  for  a  considerable  time,  whereas  the 
American  insect  lives  for  the  most  part  outside.  The 
remedial  treatments,  therefore,  to  be  applied  to  the  two 
species  are  dissimilar. 

In  appearance  the  two  insects  are  quite  different 
through  all  their  stages.  It  may  be  mentioned  that  the 
American  boll  worm  occurs  also  in  Egypt,  but  is  rare, 
and  has  never  established  itself  as  a  serious  menace  to 
crops. 

The  zoological  position  of  the  Egyptian  boll  worm  is 
in  the  family  Noctuidae,  sub-family  Acontianae;  and  the 
genus  E arias  to  which  it  belongs  is  included  as  an 
aberrant  one,  for  which  reason  it  has  been  referred  by 
various  authors  to  the  families  Tortricidae  and  Arctiadae 
in  accordance  with  the  presence  of  certain  characters 
peculiar  to  those  families. 

From  the  form  of  the  cocoon  it  would  appear  to  be 
allied  to  some  insects  included  in  the  Noctuid  sub-family 
of  Sarrothripinae  and  the  Arctiad  sub-family  Nolianae. 
Considerable  confusion  has  been  caused  by  the  separation, 
by  Boisduval  himself,  of  the  Egyptian  insect  under  the 
name  of  Eriophaga  gossypiana  from  his  species  Tortrlv 
insulana  and  Earias  siliquana  from  Madagascar,  but  later 
authorities  are  agreed  regarding  the  identity  of  all  as 
one  species  under  the  oldest  specific  name  of  insulana 
in  Hubner's  genus  Earias,  which  was  described  in  1818, 
and  of  which  E.  fabia,  Stoll.,  is  the  type. 

The  following  synonymy  is  taken  from  that  appearing 
in  Sir  George  Hampson's  catalogue  of  the  Lcpldoptera 
phalsense,  with  a  few  additional  references  from  local" 
publications :  — • 


COTTON  4OI 

Earias  insulana. 

Tortrix  insulana,  Boisd.,  Faun.  Madag.,  p.  121,  pi.  16, 

f-  9  (i833)- 
Earias    smaragdinana,    Zell.,    K.     Vet.-Akad.    Handl 

p.  79  (1852). 

Earias  siliquana,  Herr-Schaff,  Schmett.  Eur.  ii,  p.  448, 
Nyct  ff.  1-3  (1853). 

Earias  frondosana,  Wlk.,  Cat.  Lep.  Het.  B.M.,  xxvii, 
204  (1863). 

Earias  frondosana,  Butler,  ///.  Het.  B.M.  vi,  p.  14, 
pi.  105,  f.  i  (1886). 

Acontia  xanthophila,  Wlk.,  Journ.  Linn.  Soc.  Zool., 
vii,  p.  50  (1863). 

Earias  simillima,  Wlk.,  Cat.  Lep.  Het.  B.M.,  xxxv, 
p.  1775  (1866). 

Earias  simillima,  Kirby,  Cat.  Lep.  Het.,  p.  282  (1892). 

Earias  Morion,  Rmbr.,  Cat.  Lep.  S.  And.  ii,  pi.  15. 
fig.  6  (1866). 

Earias  gossypii,  Frauenf.,  Verh.  sool.-bot.  Ges  Wien, 
xvii,  p.  791  (1867). 

Earias  anthophilana,  Snell.,  Tijd.  v.  Ent.,  xxii,  p.  96, 
pi.  8,  fig.  i  (1879). 

Earias  anthophilana,    Kirby,    Cat.    Lep.    Het.,   p.    282 

(1892). 

Earias  tristrigosa,  Butl.,  Proc.  Zool.  Soc.  Lond., 
p.  614  (1881). 

Earias  tristrigosa,  Kirby,  Cat.  Lep.  Het.,  p.  282  (1892), 

Eriophaga  gossypiana,  Boisd.,  Memoir  sur  I'insectc 
ravageur  des  plantes  de  colon  en  Egypte,  Rapport  de  la 
Commission  du  Gouvern.  (1872). 

Eriophaga  gossypiana,  Ismalum,  Bull.  Com.  Agric. 
Cairo,  i,  p.  27,  Ann.  B  (1884). 

Earias  insulana,  Cotes  and  Swinhoe,  Cat.  Moths  Ind. 

(1887). 

Earias  insulana,  Kirby,  Cat.  Lep.  Het.,  p.  281  (1892), 
Earias    insulana,    Hampson,    Moths    Ind.,    ii,    p.    133 


Earias  insulana,  Staud.,  Cat.  Lep.  Pal.,  p.  362  (1901). 
Earias  insulana,  Willcocks,  Year-book,  Khediv.  Agric. 
.,  Cairo,  p.  57  (1905). 


402  COTTON 

Earias  insulana,  Hampson,  Cat.  Lep.  Phalsense,  vol.  xi, 
p.  502  (1912). 

Earias  dorsivitta,  Staud.,  Iris,  x,  p.  165  (1897). 
Earias  ochreimargo,  Warren,  Seitz  I,  iii,  p.  296  (1913). 
Earias  semifascia,  Warren,  Seitz  I,  iii,  p.  296  (1913). 

A  contribution  by  Mr.  F.  C.  Willcocks  to  the  Year- 
book of  the  Khedivial  Agricultural  Society,  for  1905, 
pp.  57-91,  comprises  a  complete  account  of  the  life-history 
of  the  .insect,  and  description  of  all  the  stages.  The 
following  account  of  the  three  incomplete  stages  is  quoted 
from  the  above  in  extenso. 

THE  EGG. 

The  egg  is  approximately  0*5  mm.  in  diameter;  the 
height  is  almost  equal  to  the  diameter.  When  first  laid 
it  varies  in  colour  from  a  pale  turquoise  blue  to  bluish- 
green;  later  the  green  tint  generally  becomes  dominant, 
a  brownish  ring  tinged  with  green  appears  around  the 
upper  third  of  the  egg,  and  an  area  of  the  same  colour  in 
the  centre. 

The  egg  is  more  or  less  globular  in  form,  and  is 
surmounted  by  a  prominent  crown;  viewed  from  above 
the  outline  is  circular.  The  shape  is  variable  according 
to  the  conditions  under  which  the  egg  has  been  laid.  If 
deposited  on  a  hairy  surface,  such  as  a  bamiah  fruit 
(Hibiscus  esculentus),  the  base  is  usually  much  rounded, 
and  consequently  the  spherical  shape  is  well  marked;  but 
when  the  egg  is  laid  on  a  smooth,  unyielding  surface, 
or  if  pressure  is  brought  into  use  in  order  to  fix  it  in 
some  crack  or  irregularity  on  the  surface  of  the  object 
on  which  oviposition  is  taking  place,  the  basal  part  is 
more  flattened,  and  the  globular  form  is  thus  lost. 

In  general  appearance  the  egg  is  not  unlike  a  miniature 
poppy  head,  except,  of  course,  for  the  more  complicated 
structure  and  sculpturing  on  the  shell. 

The  surface  is  marked  with  numerous  vertical  and  very 
slightly  zigzag  ribs,  which  stand  out  very  prominently 
from  the  sides.  These  ribs  can  be  classified  into  two 
sets  of  long  and  medium  length  respectively. 


COTTON  403 

The  long  ribs  project  at  the  top  and  curve  away  from 
the  surface,  and  thus  form  the  points  of  the  large  crown 
which  surmounts  the  upper  portion  of  the  egg.  The 
second  series  or  shorter  longitudinal  ridges,  which  alter- 
nate with  the  long  ones,  stop  at  the  base  of  the  crown, 
and  do  not  project  outwards  so  as  to  form  points. 

Within  the  large  crown,  and  at  a  very  slightly  higher 
elevation,  there  is  a  much  smaller  one  which  surrounds 
the  micropyle. 

The  points  of  the  latter  are  slender,  upright,  and 
generally  bifid  at  the  apex;  they  appear  to  be  formed  by 
ribs,  which  proceed  in  a  slight  upward  curve  from  the 
points  of  the  large  crown;  the  single  ridges,  which  spring 
from  two  of  the  outer  teeth,  converge  and  form  a  point 
in  the  micropylar  crown.  However,  the  points  com- 
prising the  latter  are  not  half  the  number  which  form  the 
primary  crown,  because  some  of  the  ribs  which  spring 
from  the  teeth  of  the  larger  crown  run  in  between  those 
which  make  up  the  micropylar  crown. 

The  secondary  crown  surrounds  a  small  area,  more  or 
less  flat,  in  the  centre  of  which  is  the  micropyle.  This 
space  is  sculptured  with  several  delicate  converging 
ridges,  which  form  a  somewhat  rosette-shaped  pattern. 

The  vertical  ribs  are  joined  by  a  series  of  small  concave 
transverse  striae,  which  are  alternately  opposite  each 
other,  the  enclosed  areas  being  markedly  concave.  The 
sculpturing  becomes  obsolete  at  the  base.  The  whole 
shell  reflects  light  very  strongly,  which  gives  the  egg  the 
appearance  of  being  made  of  blown  glass. 

Opposition  on  Cotton. — The  eggs  are  laid  on  various 
parts  of  the  cotton  plant,  but,  as  far  as  Mr.  Willcocks's 
observations  go  at  present,  the  bolls,  terminal  buds,  and 
perhaps  also  the  squares,  appear  to  be  the  favourite 
positions  for  oviposition.  They  may  also  be  found  on  the 
large  flower  buds,  and  occasionally  on  the  petioles  and  in 
the  axils  of  the  leaves,  or  on  the  leaves  themselves. 

As  a  rule  each  female  lays  a  single  egg  on  a  boll,  but 
sometimes  she  lays  two,  or  possibly  more.  However,  as 
several  females  oviposit  on  the  same  capsule,  it  is  by  no 
means  unusual  to  find  quite  a  number  of  hatched  and 
unhatched  eggs  in  different  stages;  this  is  more  common 


404  COTTON 

towards  the  end  of  the  season.  The  favourite  situation 
on  the  boll,  for  the  deposition  of  the  egg  or  eggs,  is 
in  one  of  the  grooves  near  the  apex.  They  are  also 
deposited  on  the  sides  of  the  fruit  and  on  various  parts 
of  the  involucre. 

In  the  case  of  squares  they  are  laid  on  the  involucre, 
frequently  on  the  teeth.  When  vegetative  buds  are 
chosen  the  eggs  are  placed  on  the  small  leaves. 

Opposition  on  other  Plants. — In  the  case  of  tehl 
(Hibiscus  cannabinus)  and  bamiah  (H.  esculentus),  the 
eggs  are  laid  on  the  fruits  and  flower  buds.  The  writer 
has  sometimes  found  as  many  as  twenty  eggs  and  egg- 
shells on  a  single  small  fruit  of  the  latter  plant.  On  the 
garden  hibiscus  (H.  rosa-sinensis)  the  females  oviposit 
on  the  flower  buds  and  in  the  axils  of  the  leaves. 

Time  of  Oviposition. — Egg-laying  takes  place  during 
the  night.  Probably  the  females  commence  to  oviposit 
at  dusk  between  intervals  of  feeding,  as  they  are  very- 
active  on  the  wing  at  this  time.  The  moths  have  never 
been  noticed  flying  about  during  the  daytime,  except,  of 
course,  when  they  have  been  disturbed  from  their  day 
retreats;  they  will  then  only  fly  a  short  distance  and 
quickly  settle  again. 

Number  of  Eggs  laid  and  Length  of  Egg-laying  Period. 
— It  has  not  been  possible  to  obtain  sufficient  data  on  this 
subject  to  make  any  definite  statement  as  to  the  total, 
or  average  number  of  eggs,  which  a  female  of  this 
species  is  capable  of  producing.  A  female  which  was 
kept  under  observation  in  the  laboratory  in  September, 
and  supplied  with  food  in  the  form  of  cane-sugar  syrup, 
laid  on  five  consecutive  nights  a  total  of  233  eggs.  On 
the  first  night  96  were  deposited  on  the  food  plants  and 
various  parts  of  the  cage;  on  the  second  58,  on  the  third 
49,  on  the  fourth  19,  and  on  the  fifth  and  last  night  only 
ii  were  laid. 

In  this  instance  the  egg-laying  period  only  lasted  five 
nights,  but  in  the  case  of  some  females  which  were  bred 
and  kept  under  observation  in  December,  1904,  it  was 
very  much  further  extended,  although  the  total  number 
of  eggs  laid  in  each  case  was  considerably  less  than  the 
above  female  gave  rise  to.  This  may  be  accounted  for 


prej  sSSa  J13JO  j^ 

£•  §•  5  ?  s  2 

EGGS  LAID  ON  CONSECUTIVE  NIGHTS 

I 

o 

* 

I 

JT 

0 

I 

•2 

o 

* 

£ 

0 

0 

^ 

HH 

o 

10 

0 

o 

2" 

ro 

0 

J? 

O 

o 

N 

O 

o 

g 

0 

* 

o 

0 

0 

0 

M 

0 

0 

o 

CO 

CO 

0 

0 

0 

r* 

o 

O       « 

2 

VO 

o 

0        0 

0 

^ 

0 

0        0 

o 

* 

o 

0        ro 

CO 

fO 

0 

N        O 

0* 

N 

CO 

0          N 

0 

H 

1 

0        0 

0 

December,  1904 

^ 

o 

O        "•> 

o 

o 

~ 

o      o 

0 

!? 

o 

O             Tf 

vO 

CO 

~ 

0              M 

o 

£ 

M 

IH              O 

o 

"8 

JJ* 

VO               CO            *                   HH 

10 

1 

I    °    I 

3 

•-" 

O        N        O        t^ 

e? 

*^ 

co       O        O        O 

« 

0 

o      o      o      « 

s 

ir» 

0        «        «        in 

8 

N 

vo        0        CO      vo 

sr 

00 

0        0        co       ^ 

OO 

O 

O         O        ^       00 

£ 

O 

••H          O          M          fO 

"2 

OO 

2"    2     o     M 

10 

\O       *          w        o        O        t^ 

J 

N           O           N          t^         t^         1-1 

ro 

v£>          0)          N          00          ON         CO 

f-H                                                               1—  1 

M 

HH               CO           VO               Tj-             CO 

E 

ct       «        w        co       2 

O 

1          1          1          1 

O> 

w          10                       N 

00 

°^         "*         ^-         JJ?        ^          1 

-  1   %  a    i    i 

i 

paip  3JUUI3J 

C          g          B          C          8          C 

»*,   c    ^i,   A   Q    ^ 

paDuauiiuoo 
SuiAuj-SSg 

ir^      r>»     oo      oo      oo       co 

I'  11  Jjj 

S3IBUI9JJO  -0N    |             Hi           W           CO          ^f         XO        VO 

406  COTTON 

to  some  extent  by  the  much  lower  temperature  con- 
ditions. These  females  were  supplied  with  sugar-syrup 
for  food.  The  table  on  p.  405  shows  the  egg-laying  record 
and  life  of  each  female.  These  figures  are  not  of  very 
great  value,  as  they  only  deal  with  a  limited  number  of 
individuals,  and  have  not  been  duplicated  or  carried  out 
under  more  normal  surroundings.  However,  they  show 
that  the  females  will  breed  and  oviposit  at  a  temperature 
ranging  from  50°  to  60°  F.,  also  that  under  certain  con- 
ditions the  egg-laying  period  may  extend  in  a  somewhat 
irregular  fashion  over  a  considerable  number  of  days,  and 
that  the  life  of  a  female  may  last  well  over  a  month. 

How  these  results  would  compare  with  what  actually 
takes  place  in  the  field  it  is  not  yet  possible  to  say. 

The  fact  that  larvae  in  all  stages  of  growth,  eggs, 
pupae,  and  adults,  may  be  found  in  the  same  field  and  at 
the  same  time  throughout  the  summer  months  tends  to 
show  that  possibly  the  egg-laying  period  may  last  some 
little  time. 

Incubation  Period  and  Hatching  of  the  Egg. — During 
the  summer  months  the  egg  stage  lasts  from  three  to 
four  days,  but  in  late  autumn  and  winter  it  will  be 
extended  to  eleven  or  twelve  days. 

A  short  time  before  hatching  the  egg  becomes  dark 
in  colour  owing  to  the  head  of  the  larva  showing  through 
the  shell. 

When  ready  to  emerge  from  the  egg  the  young  boll 
worm  bites  vigorously  at  the  shell  until  it  makes  a  hole 
through  it,  generally  at  the  base  of  the  primary  crown. 
The  hole  is  gradually  enlarged  until  it  permits  of  the 
easy  passage  of  the  head.  This  having  been  accom- 
plished, the  larva  crawls  out  free  of  the  shell.  The 
process  of  eating  a  passage  through  the  shell  is  not  con- 
tinuous, rests  being  taken  at  intervals;  the  young  cater- 
pillar appears  to  find  it  hard  work  to  bite  through  the 
main  vertical  ribs.  The  period  occupied  from  the  time 
the  boll  worm  first  commences  to  bite  at  the  shell  until 
it  finally  escapes  varies  in  length;  sometimes  it  only 
takes  about  twenty  minutes,  at  others  it  may  be  pro- 
longed to  fifty  minutes. 

The   empty    egg-shell   is    dull    transparent    white,    and 


COTTON  407 

generally  keeps  its  shape;  the  crown  and  upper  part  may 
or  may  not  be  left  attached  to  the  lower  portion.  The 
newly  hatched  boll  worm  does  not  appear  in  any  case  to 
devour  the  shell  which  it  has  just  vacated. 

LARVA  OR  WORM  STAGE. 

The  Young  Larva. — When  first  hatched  the  young  boll 
worm  is  about  1*4  mm.  in  length  and  of  a  pale  yellowish 
colour,  with  a  conspicuous  bluish-green  or  bluish  dorsal 
line,  which  disappears  after  a  short  time.  The  head  is 
black  or  very  dark  brown,  shiny,  and  furnished  with  a 
number  of  long,  fine,  and  pale-coloured  hairs.  Thoracic 
shield  brown.  The  body  is  provided  with  numerous  fine 
pale  hairs,  which  are  of  considerable  length,  especially 
on  the  anal  segments. 

After  it  has  escaped  from  the  egg  the  boll  worm 
wanders  about  for  a  short  time,  and  finally  proceeds  to 
bore  into  a  boll,  square  or  terminal  bud. 

Description  of  Mature  Boll  Worm  (Plate  II,  Figs.  3 
and  4). — The  mature  larva  or  boll  worm  is  about  15  mm. 
or  slightly  more  in  length ;  the  anterior  part  of  the  body  is 
rather  thick-set,  but  it  tapers  towards  the  anal  end.  The 
"  hunched-up  "  appearance  is  most  marked  when  the  boll 
worm  is  at  rest.  The  general  colouring  varies  from 
reddish-brown  (often  with  a  purplish  tinge),  with  pale 
brownish-yellow  and  orange  markings,  to  pale  bluish- 
green  and  dull  olivaceous-green,  with  similar  adornments. 
The  body  is  furnished  with  numerous  fleshy  spikes,  which 
give  the  larva  a  very  characteristic  appearance. 

The  head  is  highly  polished,  black  or  very  deep  brown, 
shaded  with  a  paler  tint  of  the  same  colour;  there  is 
a  prominent  median  transverse  yellowish  band,  which 
gradually  merges  into  brown  at  the  edges.  Antennae 
pale.  Inverted  V-shaped  mark,  fine  and  dark.  The  head 
is  provided  with  a  small  number  of  short,  fine,  and  pale 
hairs. 

The  thoracic  shield  is  shiny,  yellowish  in  colour,  with 
a  median  transverse,  shallow,  but  broad  groove,  coloured 
darlc  brown;  posterior  edge  of  shield  also  of  the  same 
colour.  The  shield  is  cut  longitudinally  by  a  pale  line, 
narrow  anteriorly,  broadening  out  posteriorly;  along  the 


408  COTTON 

edges  there  are  several  small  black  punctures,  also  similar 
markings  on  the  posterior  margin  of  the  shield.  The 
latter  is  furnished  with  four  pairs  of  long  yellowish  hairs, 
shaded  at  the  base,  which  arise  from  small  darkish  brown 
tubercles  arranged  as  follows:  four  bordering  the 
anterior  margin,  one  placed  each  side,  immediately 
behind  the  median  transverse  groove  near  the  lateral 
margin,  and  one  each  side  of  the  median  longitudinal 
pale  line,  near  the  posterior  edge  of  the  shield. 

On  each  of  the  second,  third,  and  fourth  segments  there 
are  two  pairs  of  prominent  fleshy  spikes — two  median  and 
two  lateral.  On  the  second  and  third  segments  the 
median  pair  situated  each  side  of  the  dorsal  line  are  the 
largest,  and  dark  in  colour;  the  lateral  ones  are  pale  and 
slightly  shorter.  Both  pairs  on  the  fourth  segments  are 
pale. 

These  fleshy  spikes  are  piliferous,  bearing  large 
numbers  of  short  fine  hairs,  which  are  dark  on  the  dark- 
coloured  spikes,  and  pale  on  the  others.  From  the  apex 
of  each  spike  there  springs  a  very  long  pale  hair. 

The  base  of  each  of  these  piliferous  prominences  is 
surrounded  by  a  patch  of  bright  orange  colour.  On  the 
second,  third  and  fourth  segments,  between  the  median 
spikes  and  immediately  each  side  of  the  dorsal  line,  there  is 
a  small  brownish  tubercle,  from  which  arises  a  short  fine 
hair,  dark  at  the  base,  pale  at  the  tip.  There  is  also  a 
similar  tubercle  between  the  median  and  lateral  spikes, 
which  is  surrounded  by  a  blackish  area.  There  are 
several  short  hairs  near  the  base  of  the  lateral  spikes  on 
.segments  three  and  four. 

On  each  of  the  segments  from  five  to  ten  there  are  two 
median  and  two  lateral  piliferous  fleshy  spikes,  but  they 
are  less  conspicuous  than  those  on  the  anterior  part  of 
the  body.  Each  is  surrounded  at  the  base  by  an  orange- 
coloured  area,  which  is  more  marked  in  the  case  of  the 
lateral  than  of  the  median  spikes;  around  the  latter  it  is 
frequently  obscure  or  absent,  especially  posteriorly.  The 
spikes  themselves  on  this  part  of  the  body  are  sometimes 
pale  orange  in  colour.  On  the  fifth  and  sixth  segments 
there  are  four  prominent  blackish  or  dark  brown  spots; 
on  the  posterior  edge  of  these  there  is  a  small  tubercle 


COTTON  409 

Avhich  bears  a  short  tapering  hair,  dark  at  the  base,  paler 
towards  the  tip.  On  the  seventh  segment  the  median 
spots  are,  as  a  rule,  obscure;  the  lateral  ones  prominent, 
but  not  nearly  so  clearly  defined  as  on  segments  five  and 
six.  On  the  eighth  segment  all  four  are  conspicuous;  on 
the  ninth  and  tenth  the  lateral  spots  are  fairly  well  marked, 
the  median  pair  pale  and  obscure  in  comparison.  The 
tubercles  are  present  in  each  case.  On  segment  eleven 
there  are  three  pairs  of  fleshy  prominences — median, 
lateral,  and  sub-lateral;  they  are  more  rounded  conical 
in  shape,  and  the  covering  hairs  are  less  numerous  and 
more  spike-like.  The  apical  hairs  are  long,  stout,  and 
dark  at  the  base,  finer  and  pale  at  the  tip.  Anterior  to 
the  median  pair  of  prominences,  and  each  side  of  the 
dorsal  line,  there  are  two  brownish  tubercles  which  bear 
a  short  hair.  On  segment  twelve  there  are  six  fleshy 
prominences,  and  in  this  case  the  two  tubercles  are  repre- 
sented by  similar  but  smaller  structures. 

The  anal  shield  on  the  thirteenth  segment  is  dark 
brown  or  blackish,  with  sinuous  margin.  Around  the 
latter  are  placed  rounded  conical  prominences,  covered 
with  short  spike-like  hairs,  and  bearing  at  the  apex  a 
long,  rather  stout,  and  dark-coloured  hair.  On  the 
central  area  of  the  shield  there  are  a  pair  of  similar  but 
smaller  prominences. 

Below  the  anal  shield  there  are  two  stout  projecting 
fleshy  spikes,  which  are  covered  with  numerous  stiff 
hairs,  and  furnished  at  the  apex  with  a  long  hair. 

The  spiracles,  which  are  oval,  black,  ringed  with  black, 
are  situated  in  a  line  with  and  anterior  to  the  lateral  row 
of  fleshy  spikes,  with  the  exception  of  the  spiracle  on 
the  fourth  segment,  which  is  below.  There  is  a  sub- 
spiracular  line  of  hairs,  except  on  the  second  and  third 
segments.  Below  these,  and  almost  ventral,  there  is 
another  line  of  hairs  which,  on  segments  one  to  three, 
arise  from  two  tubercles,  large  and  small,  placed  side  by 
side;  on  the  fourth  and  fifth  segments  these  are  repre- 
sented by  a  fairly  conspicuous  fleshy  spike.  Posteriorly 
they  are  very  much  less  prominent. 

The  first  three  segments  of  the  body  are,  as  a 
rule,  pale,  frequently  pale  bluish-green.  Laterally  the 


4IO  COTTON 

abdominal  segments  are  dark  reddish-brown,  sometimes 
having  a  distinct  purplish  tinge.  On  the  fifth,  sixth,  and 
eighth  segments  this  dark  colour  extends  over  from  each 
side  and  meets  in  the  central  line  of  the  body.  The  dorsal 
area  on  the  seventh  and  ninth  to  twelfth  is  pale  yellowish- 
white,  shaded  with  pale  brownish-yellow.  The  ventral 
surface  is  a  pale  and  rather  dull  bluish-green  or  dull  olive- 
green.  Some  larvae  are  almost  entirely  of  the  former 
colour.  Others  are  more  of  a  pale  olive-green,  but  in 
all  cases  the  dorsal  area  on  segments  seven  and  nine  to 
twelve  is  paler.  The  dorsal  line  is  slightly  darker  and 
fairly  well  marked. 

The  thoracic  legs  are  pale,  shaded  with  dark  brown  and 
smoky  black,  armed  with  strong  pale  brown  claws. 
Abdominal  feet  and  claspers  same  colour  as  venter, 
furnished  with  crescent-shaped  series  of  pale  brown 
hooks.  The  whole  surface  of  the  skin  is  covered  with 
very  minute  hairs. 

Length  of  Larval  Life. — During  the  summer  months 
the  larval  stage  lasts  about  a  fortnight,  but  in  the  autumn 
and  winter  months,  when  the  temperatures  are  lower, 
growth  takes  place  at  a  much  slower  rate,  and  this  period 
is  very  considerably  prolonged. 

PUPA  STAGE. 

Situation  and  Formation  of  the  Cocoon  on  Cotton. — 
When  mature  the  boll  worm  leaves  the  boll  on  which 
it  has  been  feeding  and  spins  a  boat-shaped  cocoon,  either 
between  the  side  of  the  capsule  and  the  involucre,  or 
between  two  of  the  involucral  bracts,  or  in  any  convenient 
fold  of  the  latter.  The  cocoon  is  not  necessarily  made 
on  the  boll  which  the  larva  has  vacated  on  reaching  full 
growth,  as  it  is  not  uncommon  to  find  one  on  a  boll  which 
has  not  been  attacked.  The  boll  worm  in  many  cases 
evidently  wanders  about  the  plant  before  finally  settling 
on  a  spot  in  which  to  pass  the  pupal  stage.  Very  often, 
on  account  of  the  drying  up  and  contraction  of  the 
involucre,  the  cocoon  becomes  loosened,  and  may  be 
finally  dislodged  altogether  and  fall  to  the  ground  owing 
to  the  disturbance  of  the  cotton  plants  by  wind. 


COTTON  411 

Occasionally  the  cocoons  are  attached  to  the  stem  or 
a  dead  leaf,  and  sometimes  the  boll  worm  crawls  down 
the  stem  of  the  cotton  plant,  and  attaches  its  cocoon  to  the 
latter  just  below  the  ground  level. 

Mr.  Fletcher1  states  that  tffey  also  enter  the  cracks  in 
the  soil  to  pupate,  and  that  they  spin  their  cocoons  on 
the  under  side  of  the  leaves  and  weeds  growing  amongst 
the  cotton.  So  far  Mr.  Willcocks  has  not  been  able  to 
find  them  in  this  position.  What  proportion  of  the  larvae 
pupate  in  these  last-named  situations  is  not  known,  but 
it  will  probably  be  found  that  the  majority  pupate  on  the 
plants.  One  would  expect  this  to  be  the  case  from  the 
nature  of  the  cocoon. 

Situation  of  the  Cocoon  on  other  Plants*. — In  the  case 
of  tehl  (Hibiscus  cannabinus),  the  cocoons  are  spun 
between  the  seed  capsules  and  the  stem,  or  between  two 
contiguous  fruits,  and  occasionally  on  the  involucral 
bracts.  On  the  garden  hibiscus  (Hibiscus  rosa-sinensis) 
they  may  be  found  on  the  stem  in  such  places  as  the  fork 
of  a  branch,  or  under  a  piece  of  loose  bark,  etc. 

Description  of  the  Cocoon  (Plate  I,  Fig.  18).— The 
cocoon  is  somewhat  boat-shaped,  but  it  varies  slightly 
in  form,  according  to  the  position  in  which  it  has  been 
made.  The  end  at  which  the  head  of  the  pupa  is  situated 
is  blunt,  and  consists  of  two  lips,  which  are  tightly  drawn 
together  with  silken  strands ;  they  can,  however,  be  forced 
apart  easily  by  a  slight  squeeze  between  the  finger  and 
thumb,  and  also  by  the  moth  itself  when  it  is  ready  to 
emerge.  These  lips  turn  outwards  slightly  and  form  a 
ridge,  which  projects  at  the  apex  into  a  small  silken 
process;  this  is  more  marked  in  some  specimens  than  in 
others. 

The  silk  of  which  the  cocoon  is  made  is  very  closely 
woven  and  felt-like  in  texture;  in  colour  it  varies  from 
white  and  dirty  cream  to  pale  and  dark  brown.  There 
are,  however,  two  coats  of  silk,  which  can  be  easily 
separated,  and  it  is  only  the  outer  one  which  is  dark- 
coloured;  the  inner  is  pale,  often  white,  with  a  pearly 
lustre. 

1  "  Notes  on  some  Egyptian  Insect  Pests,"  p.  65,  Bombay,  1905. 


412  COTTON 

The  dark  brown  type  is  very  difficult  to  see  when  spun\ 
on  the  dried-up  involucre  of  a  cotton  boll,  and  more 
especially  when  on  the  tehl  plant,  as  it  almost  exactly 
matches  its  surroundings. 

Description  of  the  Pupa  (Plate  I,  Fig.  17). — Length 
9  mm.  to  1 1 '5  mm.  Head,  wing,  and  leg  cases  light 
yellowish-brown.  Thorax  dull  blackish,  with  a  purplish 
tinge  at  the  sides;  in  some  specimens  the  general  colour 
of  this  part  of  the  body  is  distinctly  dull  purple,  as  it  is 
also  on  the  empty  pupa  case.  There  is  a  distinct  median 
carina  on  the  thorax,  the  surface  of  which  is  much 
roughened,  the  rugosities  being  in  the  form  of  an 
irregular  reticulate  pattern. 

On  the  first  four  segments  of  the  abdomen  the  dorsal, 
surface  is  of  a  dull  purplish  colour,  median  segments, 
paler,  shading  to  yellowish-brown  at  the  sides.  Tip  of 
the  abdomen  dark  and  bluntly  rounded.  Dorsal  surface 
roughened.  Ventral  surface  pale  yellow,  sometimes, 
suffused  with  a  greenish  tinge.  On  each  side  of  the  fifth 
abdominal  segment  posterior  to  the  spiracle  there  are; 
a  number  of  small  brown  points  which  stand  out  pro- 
minently from  the  sides.  These  are  arranged  in  a  more 
or  less  linear  area,  which  is  widest  in  the  middle.  On 
each  side  of  the  last  segment  of  the  abdomen,  and  placed 
vertically,  there  are  generally  three  well-marked  tooth-like 
projections,  the  one  nearest  the  dorsum  being  the  most 
prominent,  and  a  series  of  sharp-edged  ridges  below  them. 
Both  the  teeth  and  the  ridges  appear  to  be  variable  in 
number  and  distinctness,  but  in  any  case  the  tooth-like 
projection  nearest  the  dorsum  is  present  and  conspicuous. 

Length  of  the  Pupal  Stage.  —  During  the  summer 
months  the  pupal  stage  lasts  from  ten  days  to  a  fortnight. 
In  the  late  autumn  and  winter  months  it  is  very  consider- 
ably prolonged.  Larvae  which  pupate  at  the  end  of 
December  or  in  January  may  remain  in  this  stage  for 
two  months  or  slightly  more.  Some  boll  worms  which 
pupated  in  the  laboratory  in  January,  1904,  gave  rise  to 
the  adults  early  in  March  after  a  quiescent  period  varying 
from  thirty-five  to  fifty-two  days. 


THE    BOLL    WORM    IN    EGYPT. 


PLATE  I. 


17 


H.  KNIGHT,  Pinxit. 

FORMS     OF     EARIAS     INSULANA,     BOISD. 

1 — 3.     var.  semifascia,  Warren.  15,     16.     E.  insulana,  Boisd. 

7,    8.     var.  anthophilana,  Snell.  17.     Pupa. 

14.     var.  ochreimargo,  Warren.  18.     Cocoon. 

Other  figures  represent  intermediate  forms. 


COTTON  41$ 

PERFECT  STAGE. 

The  moth  (Plate  I,  figs.  1-16)  has  the  head,  thorax,. 
and  fore  wings,  bright  pea-green,  chrome-yellow,  or 
brownish,  the  latter  crossed  by  three  more  or  less. 
distinct  dark  lines,  each  angled  acutely  above  the  middle. 
The  hind  wings  are  semi-transparent  white,  with 
pale  fuscous  margins  and  apex.  The  abdomen  above  is 
silvery-grey,  and  the  under  surface  white.  The  fore- 
wings  frequently  have  patches  of  purplish  or  brown  near, 
the  middle.  During  summer  and  early  autumn  the  green, 
forms  are  in  greater  numbers,  and  in  the  latter  part  of 
the  year  these  are  comparatively  rare,  being  replaced  by 
the  yellow  and  brownish  forms.  The  patched  form  seems 
to  occur  at  the  transitory  period  between  the  green  and 
yellow  forms.  This  suggests  that  a  seasonal  dimorphism 
exists,  which  is  usually  an  indication  that  a  protective 
colouring  is  necessary  for  the  insect's  preservation.  In. 
this  case  the  green  insects  would  be  inconspicuous  when 
settled  on  the  green  foliage,  and  the  brown  and  yellow 
similarly  so  when  upon  withered  leaves,  etc. 

The  various  forms  are  described  and  figured  by  Mr. 
Storey,  Assistant  Entomologist  to  the  Ministry  of 
Agriculture,  in  vol.  iii,  part  ii,  of  the  Agricultural 
Journal  of  Egypt.  This  illustration  is  reproduced  as. 
Plate  I  with  this  paper. 

The  perfect  insect  measures  about  22  mm.  in  expanse, 
and  the  body  is  about  9  mm.  in  length. 

It  is  curious  to  note  that  it  has  been  frequently  found 
m  desert  places  far  removed  from  cultivation.  Mr. 
Willcocks  mentions  that  Mr.  Graves,  of  Cairo,  found 
specimens  near  Moses'  Well  (opposite  Suez)  and  in  Wadi 
Hof,  Helwan,  about  four  miles  from  cultivation.  The 
species  is  common  in  Kharga  Oasis  in  the  Western  desert, 
having  probably  been  introduced  with  cotton  or  bamiah. 

Habits. — With  regard  to  these,  Mr.  Willcocks  says : 
"  During  the  daytime  the  moths  frequently  shelter 
between  the  involucre  and  the  boll,  and  they  may  often 
be  found  at  rest  on  a  leaf  exposed  to  the  full  glare  of: 
the  sun. 


414  COTTON 

"  Sometimes  they  may  be  taken  in  coitu  in  the  latter 
situation.  Rough  grass  and  weedy  growths  near  the 
cotton  fields  also  form  day  retreats  for  the  adults.  When 
at  rest  the  wings  are  tightly  folded  into  the  sides  of  the 
body  with  one  fore  wing  slightly  overlapping  the  other, 
so  that  the  insect  appears  more  or  less  wedge-shaped. 
When  they  settle  to  feed  the  wings  are  held  in  a  '  tecti- 
form  '  position  over  the  abdomen. 

"  As  soon  as  it  becomes  dark  the  boll  worm  moths  may 
.be  seen  on  the  wing,  their  object  being  to  feed  and  ovi- 
posit. They  fly  with  a  rather  slow  and  wavering  flight. 

"  Certain  flowers  appear  to  have  a  strong  attraction 
for  them.  During  the  last  week  in  November,  1905, 
great  numbers  of  the  moths  were  observed  flitting  about 
a  bed  of  chrysanthemums,  from  the  disc  flowers  of  whicii 
they  were  busily  engaged  in  sucking  out  the  nectar. 
During  the  day  they  concealed  themselves  amongst  the 
petals,  as  many  as  four  or  five  being  present  on  a  single 
flower-head." 

The  species  has  been  recorded  from  the  following 
localities  :  — 

Europe. — Southern  Spain,  Sicily,  Crete. 

Africa. — Throughout  North,  East,  and  South,  and 
recorded  from  Northern  Nigeria  in  the  West,  Canaries, 
Madagascar,  and  Mauritius. 

Asia. — Syria,  Baluchistan,  India,  Burma,  and  Siam. 

Australasia . — Queensland . 

The  food  of  the  larvae  appears  to  be  limited  to  plants 
belonging  to  the  Order  Malvaceae,  among  which  it  has 
only  been  found  upon  the  following'  species  in  Egypt : 
Cotton  (Gossypium  spp.),  bamiah  (Hibiscus  esculentus), 
tehl  (H.  cannabinus},  and  garden  hibiscus  (H .  rosa- 
sinensis  and  H.  mutabilis).  A  distinct  preference  is  shown 
for  cotton  in  Egypt,  although  in  India  bamiah  seems  to 
be  more  attractive,  and  for  this  reason  has  been  used  as 
a  trap  in  that  country. 

It  is  the  opinion  of  several  entomologists  and  other 
careful  observers  in  Egypt  that  more  damage  is  usually 
done  to  the  cotton  crop  by  the  boll  worm  than  by  the 
cotton  worm,  notwithstanding  that  the  latter  is  so  much 
more  conspicuous  in  the  fields. 


COTTON  415 

First  Records  of  £.  insulana  in  Egyptian.  Cotton  Fields. 

In  spite  of  the  fact  that  the  presence  of  boll  worms  in 
a  cotton  field  is  much  less  conspicuous  to  the  casual 
observer  than  that  of  cotton  worms,  the  former  were 
recorded  as  attacking  cotton  several  years  previous  to 
the  latter.  The  credit  of  having  first  drawn  attention  to 
the  pest  belongs  to  Joannovitch  Bey,  who  studied  the 
habits  of  the  insect  from  1865  to  1872,  and  published  a 
record  of  his  observations  in  a  paper  under  the  title  of 
"  Description  de  1'insecte  ravageur  du  coton  en  Egypte  " 
(Bulletin  de  Vlnstitut  Egypt.,  1873). 

In  1871  a  Commission  was  formed,  to  which  Joan- 
novitch Bey  presented  a  report.  The  insect  was  sent  for 
identification  to  Boisduval,  who  described  it  as  a  new 
species,  which  he  placed  in  the  genus  Eriophaga,  and 
named  Eriophaga,  gossypiana.2  Boisduval  pointed  out 
in  his  description  that  the  species  was  distinct  from  his 
Tortrix  immlana,3  but  later  authorities  do  not  agree  that 
this  is  the  case,  and  the  last  specific  name  takes  pre- 
cedence, and  has  been  adopted  throughout  scientific 
literature  dealing  with  the  insect. 

Important  though  the  boll  worm  is  for  consideration 
in  respect  to  cotton  in  Egypt,  very  little  was  written 
concerning  it  during  the  subsequent  thirty  years,  the 
contribution  by  Innes  Bey  in  1884  (Bulletin  du  Comite 
Agric.,  No.  i,  1884),  a  report  by  Mr.  Williamson  Wallace, 
presented  to  the  Commission  of  1895  (which  does  not 
appear  to  have  been  included  in  the  general  report  of  the 
Commission),  and  a  communication  by  M.  Dechevalerie 
(Bulletin  de  Vlnstitut  Egypt.,  May,  1898),  comprising 
nearly  the  whole  literature  with  reference  to  it  produced 
during  that  period  in  Egypt.  In  1905  Mr.  F.  C.  Willcocks 
contributed  a  very  complete  description,  including  all  that 
was  known  up  to  that  time  concerning  the  boll  worm,  and 
from  this  work  I  have  already  given  extracts.4  In  1906 


2  See  Bull,   du  Comite   Agric.,  No.    i,  Avril,   1884,  Ann.    B., 
p.  29,  le  Caire. 

3  Boisduval. — Faun.  Madag.j  p.   121,  pi.   16,  fig.  9,  1833. 

4  Willcocks,  F.  C.— Year-book  of  the  Khediv.  Agric.  Soc.  for 
1905,  PP.  57-Qi. 

27 


COTTON 

an  article  based  upon  the  writer's  report  to  the  Secretary 
of  State  for  the  Colonies  of  Great  Britain  appeared  in 
the  Bulletin  of  the  Imperial  Institute,  which  dealt  with 
the  insects  which  attack  cotton  in  Egypt,5  and  a  reference 
was  again  made  in  an  account  prepared  by  the  writer 
upon  insect  and  other  cotton  pests  and  the  methods 
suggested  for  their  destruction,  which  appeared  in  the 
Bulletin  of  the  Imperial  Institute  in  the  following  year.6 
An  article  upon  the  subject  of  the  methods  employed  in 
Egypt  and  elsewhere  to  check  the  ravages  of  the  cotton 
boll  worm  appeared  in  the  Agricultural  Journal  of  Egypt 
in  1911. 7 

Commission  of  1910. 

Tn  the  report  of  the  Cotton  Commission,  which  was 
issued  in  1910,  reference  was  chiefly  made  to  the  cotton 
worm  among  the  pests  which  infest  cotton,  but  a  few 
references  occur  which  show  that  it  was  recognized  that 
the  boll  worm  was  responsible  for  considerable  damage. 
On  p.  5  of  the  report  we  find:  "  La  production  coton- 
niere  totale  de  TEgypte  n'a  pas  augmente  dans  la  meme 
proportion  que  la  superficie  plantee,  et  en  1909  plus 
particulierement,  il  y  a  eu  une  chute  brusque  dans  le 
rendement  moyen  au  feddan.  Si  Ton  etudie  la  situation 
particuliere  a  la  Haute  Egypte,  on  constate  qu'a  part 
1'annee  1905  ou  les  chenilles  de  la  capsule  commirent 
d'enormes  degats  le  rendement  au  feddan  n'y  a  pas  suivi 
une  marche  descendante.  L'annee  1909  marque  cependant 
une  chute  accentuee." 

The  Commission  recommended  two  methods  to  be 
employed  against  the  boll  worm  attacks,  one  of  which 
was  the  production  of  an  early  maturing  variety  of 
cotton,  and  the  other  the  promulgation  of  a  decree 
making  the  destruction  of  all  malvaceous  plants  neces- 
sary by  the  end  of  December.  The  Commission  also 
considered  the  application  of  the  system  of  moth  trap, 

5  "Insects  which  attack  Cotton  ID   Egypt"  (Dudgeon),   Bull. 
Im$.  InsL,  vol.   iv,  igo6,  pp.  48-50. 

6  "  Insects  and  other  Cotton  Pests  and  the  Methods  suggested 
for  their  Destruction"  (Dudgeon),  Bull.  Im$.  Inst.,  vol.  v,  1907, 

p.  145- 

7  Dudgeon,    G.    C. — Agric.    Journ.    of   Egypt,    vol.    i,     191 1, 

pp.  40-43- 


COTTON  4 17 

introduced  by  Messrs  Andres  and  Maire,  for  the  capture 
of  the  boll  worm  and  cotton  worm  moths,  and  a  large 
amount  of  work  with  these  appliances  was  subsequently 
undertaken  by  Mr.  F.  C.  Willcocks,  with  the  result  that 
they  proved  to  exercise  an  insufficient  deterrent  effect 
upon  the  propagation  of  the  insects. 

Cotton  Worm  and  Boll  Worm  Commission  in  1912. 

In  1912  a  Commission  was  formed  at  the  instigation 
of  Lord  Kitchener  to  make  a  complete  study  of  the  cotton 
pests,  and  the  Sub-Committee  appointed  by  the  Commis- 
sion is  still  engaged  in  the  investigation.  In  the  mean- 
time another  pest  has  appeared  which  has  placed  the 
common  boll  worm  rather  in  the  background,  and  which 
has  given  evidence  of  causing  a  diminution  in  the 
numbers  of  the  original  insect  by  the  substitution  of  itself 
in  its  place. 

The  efforts  which  are  now  being  made  to  destroy  this 
new  pest,  the  pink  boll  worm  or  seed  worm,  can  almost 
all  be  made  applicable  to  the  Earias  boll  worm  also,  and 
the  modification  of  the  boll  worm  decree  rendering  it 
compulsory  to  pick  off  and  burn  all  bolls  after  the  last 
cotton  picking  is  designed  to  be  effective  against  both 
pests  equally. 

Estimation  of  Damage  done  by  the  Common  Boll 
Worms. — It  has  always  been  a  matter  of  great  difficulty 
to  estimate  the  damage  done  to  the  cotton  crop  by  the 
larva  of  Earias  insulana.  It  is,  in  fact,  only  possible  to 
give  a  comparative  estimate  of  the  effect  each  year,  but, 
as  the  degree  of  destruction  is  almost  wholly  dependent 
upon  whether  the  crop  is  an  early  or  late  one,  it  is  nearly 
safe  to  predict  that  damage  will  be  great  when  the  crop 
is  late  and  slight  when  it  is  early. 

The  reason  for  the  above  is  that  the  generations  of 
boll  worm  multiply  rapidly  throughout  the  year,  being  at 
their  minimum  in  the  winter  or  early  spring,  when  the 
food  plants,  cotton  and  hibiscus  (bamiah  and  tehl)  are 
most  scarce,  and  increasing  in  each  generation  as  these 
plants  again  become  plentiful,  until,  in  the  month  of 
October,  the  greatest  quantity  of  food  is  available  and 
the  largest  number  of  boll  worms  are  able  to  find 
sustenance. 


COTTON 

It  is  often  supposed'  by  the  agricultural  population  that 
the  prevalence  of  fogs  and  cold  weather  increase  the 
numbers  of  boll  worm.  This  is  only  indirectly  the  case, 
as  we  find  that  the  fogs  and  mists  retard  the  maturity  of 
bolls  and  thereby  assist  the  development  of  boll  worms, 
in  addition,  to  which  a  condition  of  subdued  light  is  pro- 
duced, which  is  favourable  to  the  awakening  of  activity 
in  the  feeding  larvae;  bright  sunlight  being  a  strong 
adverse  condition. 

Effect  produced  by  an  Attack. — The  effect  of  an  attack 
of  Earias  boll  worm  upon  the  cotton  plants  is  evidenced 
in  several  ways.  In  the  earlier  generations,  when  no  boll 
flowers  or  buds  are  present  on  the  cotton  plant,  the  young 
worm  attacks  the  terminal  shoots  of  the  plant,  each  worm 
tunnelling  into  the  succulent  shoot  near  the  top  and 
eating  a  passage  down  the  centre  of  the  stem  until  it 
reaches  the  harder  and  more  woody  parts,  when  it  leaves 
the  stem  to  attack  a  fresh  shoot.  A  terminal  shoot  which 
has  been  attacked  in  the  manner  described  withers  and 
soon  changes  to  a  dark  colour,  and  if  cut  off  at  a  point 
a  little  below  the  withered  portion  the  living  boll  worm 
may  be  found  within  the  stem. 

As  soon  as  the  buds  appear  upon  the  plants  the  worms 
attack  them  in  preference  to  the  shoots,  and  the  presence 
of  a  boll  worm  in  a  bud  is  manifested  by  what  is  termed 
"  flaring  "  in  the  United  States,  where  a  similar  result 
is  produced  by  the  boll  weevil,  an  insect,  fortunately  for 
the  present  confined  to  the  Southern  cotton  states  in 
America.  The  appearance  of  a  flared  bud  differs  from 
that  of  a  healthy  one  in  that,  in  the  flared  one,  the 
involucres  or  leaf-like  coverings  of  the  bud  open  widely, 
exposing  the  bud,  which  in  a  normal  case  would  be  hidden 
by  them.  In  some  cases  the  flared  bud  falls  to  the 
ground,  its  vitality  being  injured  by  the  growing  connec- 
tion with  the  stem  becoming  interrupted  or  atrophied. 
Although  the  bud  has  been  destroyed  in  this  way  the 
boll  worm  rarely  suffers  by  the  fall,  leaving  the  fallen  bud 
to  attack  a  fresh  one. 

Boll  worms  are  frequently  found  in  the  flowers,  feeding 
upon  the  pollen  and  reproductive  organs,  thereby  render- 
ing the  flowers  themselves  sterile. 

When  attacking  a  boll  the  minute  larva  lives  for  the 


COTTON  419 

first  few  days  after  its  emergence  from  the  egg  in  the 
outer  shell  of  the  boll,  producing  a  small  circular  hole 
which  it  enlarges  as  it  proceeds  into  the  boll  itself. 
When  a  boll  worm  has  entered  a  boll  it  protects  itself 
from  disturbance  by  other  insects  or  parasites  by  dis- 
charging a  quantity  of  more  or  less  moist  excreta  which 
effectually  prevents  the  entry  of  any  other  insect  by  the 
passage  which  has  been  made  by  the  larva. 

The  boll  worm  may  confine  its  attack  to  one  cell  only 
in,  a  boll,  or  it  may  destroy  all  three  cells,  or  even  more 
than  one  boll.  If  a  medium-sized  boll  be  attacked  it 
frequently  dies  and  dries  up  without  becoming  detached 
from  the  plant,  but  in  such  a  case  the  plant  itself  has 
ceased  growing*,  otherwise  the  boll  would  most  probably 
fall  to  the  ground.  When  the  bolls  die  and  remain 
attached  to  the  plant  they  become  a  reddish-brown  in 
colour,  and  are  known  to  the  native  cultivators  as 
"  nabroon." 

Large  bolls  when  pierced  at  a  period  of  semi-maturity 
open  prematurely,  and  by  the  exposure  of  their  moist, 
incompletely  developed  lint  render  themselves  liable  to 
the  attacks  of  saprophytic  fungi,  which  completely  destroy 
the  value  of  the  lint  by  covering  it  with  black  spores. 

Prolongation  of  Metamorphoses  in  Winter. — As  the 
autumn  advances  and  the  weather  becomes  colder  the 
larval  stage  of  the  boll  worm  is  prolonged,  and  after  all 
the  valuable  cotton  has  been  picked  the  cotton  plants  are 
pulled  up  and  stored  for  fuel.  During  this  storing  period 
boll  worms  remain  inside  the  drying  bolls  attached  to 
the  plants,  feeding*  upon  the  seeds  until,  by  reason  of  the 
contraction  due  to  the  drying  up  of  the  contents,  the 
worms,  if  immature,  die,  or  if  fully  mature  emerge  in  the 
usual  way  to  pupate.  For  this  latter  change  they  secrete 
themselves  in  the  dried  and  shrivelled  involucres  and 
leaves  or  upon  the  stems  and  form  a  smooth  cocoon  of 
brownish  or  buff-coloured  silk  in  which  to  undergo  the 
change  into  the  pupa  state,  during  which  time  they 
require  no  further  nourishment.  In  this  stage  they 
remain  until  the  warmer  weather  causes  them  to  be 
transformed  into  moths,  when  they  emerge,  either  to 
remain  dormant  for  a  further  period,  or  to  fly  off  to 
deposit  eggs  on  the  food  plants  of  their  coming  genera- 


42O  COTTON 

tion,  such  food  consisting  of  the  shoots  emanating  from 
cotton,  bamiah,  or  tehl,  which  have  been  left  in  the 
ground.  Upon  these  the  females  lay  isolated  eggs  in 
the  most  protected  positions  possible,  and  the  larvae 
emerge,  after  a  further  dormant  egg  period,  to  carry 
on  a  precarious  existence  upon  the  limited  food  supply 
available. 

Probable  Vitality  of  Generations. — During  the  earliest 
brood  it  is  probable  that  only  10  per  cent,  of  the  eggs 
laid  produce  moths  for  the  next  generation,  but  it  may 
safely  be  reckoned  that  50  per  cent,  of  each  of  the 
subsequent  ones  survive. 

From  experiments  which  have  been  made  by  Mr. 
Willcocks,  and  which  have  been  previously  quoted,  the 
average  number  of  eggs  laid  by  a  female  moth  in 
December  and  January  is  determined  as  140,  and  the  time 
occupied  by  a  female  for  the  complete  oviposition  at  this 
season  varies  from  eight  to  forty-four  days.  On  the 
other  hand,  a  female  kept  under  observation  by  Mr. 
Willcocks  in  September  continued  laying  for  five  nights 
only,  but  deposited  233  eggs. 

In  order,  therefore,  to  give  some  idea  of  the  rate  of 
propagation  of  the  Earias  boll  worm  throughout  the 
year,  the  following  calculation  is  considered  a  fair  one. 

Assuming  that  the  females  in  the  first  generation  lay 
140  eggs  each  and  in  the  following  generation  200  eggs, 
an  estimate  of  the  production  in  the  fifth  generation 
(October)  from  one  pair  of  moths,  the  female  of  which 
laid  in  January,  can  be  arrived  at  as  follows  :  — 

i  pair  produces  140  eggs,  of  which  10  per  cent.  =  14 
produce  moths. 

7  pairs  (14  moths)  produce  200  eggs  each  ==  1,400,  of 
which  50  per  cent.  =  700  produce  moths. 

350  pairs  (700  moths)  produce  200  eggs  each  =  70,000, 
of  which  50  per  cent.  =  35,000  produce  moths. 

17,500  pairs  (35,000  moths)  produce  200  eggs  each  = 
3,500,000,    of   which   50   per   cent.   =   1,750,000   produce 
moths. 

One  female  moth  which  laid  in  January  would  there- 
fore be  responsible  for  the  production  in  October  of 
3,500,000  boll  worms,  of  which,  at  a  very  moderate 
estimate,  1,750,000  would  survive  to  become  mature. 


COTTON  421 

Some  conception  of  the  damage  resulting  from  the 
preservation  of  each  pair  of  boll  worm  moths  in  the  early 
months  of  the  year  can  be  obtained  from  this. 

General  Disregard   of  the  Importance  of  the 
Boll  Worm, 

Scientific  entomologists  and  those  who  have  made  a 
study  of  the  insect  pests  on  cotton  are  convinced  that 
the  cotton  worm  is  of  minor  importance  in  comparison 
with  the  boll  worm;  yet,  although  proposals  have  been 
constantly  invited  by  the  Cotton  Worm  and  Boll  Worm 
Commission  for  remedial  measures  against  this  pest,  few 
suggestions  have  been  received  and  none  have  proved  of 
any  practical  value.  All  the  investigations  in  connection 
with  this  pest  have  been  made  by  the  Scientific  Staff  of 
the  Ministry  of  Agriculture  and  the  members  of  the 
Sub-Committee  of  the  Commission,  and  nearly  every 
satisfactory  proposal  for  remedial  measures  has  emanated 
from  the  Ministry  or  the  Commission  itself. 

Some  Influences  on  the  Activity  of  Boll  Wowns  and 
Methods  of  Control  Indicated. 

In  connection  with  many  lepidopterous  insects  it  has 
been  found  that  the  greatest  activity  is  shown  in  their 
attacks  upon  plants  at  times  when  the  latter  are  not 
exposed  to  bright  sunlight.  Very  many  lepidopterous 
larvae  will  not  feed  except  in  positions  where  they  are 
protected  from  the  direct  rays  of  the  sun,  therefore  in 
most  cases  the  depredations  are  done  at  night,  in  cloudy 
weather,  or  in  positions  where  the  greatest  amount  of 
shade  is  obtainable.  Although  demonstration  of  the 
utility  of  the  defoliation  of  the  cotton  plants  as  a  bene- 
ficial measure  for  boll  worm  attacks  has  not  been  made, 
the  success  which  is  said  to  attend  this  operation  in 
connection  with  the  boll  weevil  in  the  United  States  of 
America  is  some  assurance  that  a  similar  result  might  be 
expected  in  the  case  of  the  Egyptian  boll  worm.  Defolia- 
tion is  effected  in  Texas  by  attacks  of  a  cotton  worm, 
Aletla  argillacea,  the  advent  of  which  is  welcomed  in  the 
boll  weevil  districts,  though  this  defoliating  cotton  worm 
is  destroyed  in  other  localities.  The  effect  of  the  defolia- 
tion is  not  only  to  kill  the  boll  weevil  larvae  in  the  affected 


422  COTTON 

bolls  by  exposure  to  the  sun's  heat,  but  to  accelerate 
maturity  of  the  bolls  themselves.  In  Egypt  the  experi- 
ment of  defoliation  has  yet  to  be  made,  and  could  be 
done  by  hand  without  injury  to  the  plants. 

A  member  of  the  Commission  drew,  attention  to  the 
fact  that,  as  it  was  stated  that  the  terminal  shoots  of 
cotton  plants  were  attacked  by  boll  worms  before  the 
buds  and  bolls  were  produced,  an  addition  might  be  made 
to  the  existing  law  to  compel  the  picking  of  infested 
shoots  at  the  time  when  the  people  were  employed  in 
the  fields  for  the  collection  and  destruction  of  the  eggs 
of  cotton  worm  (Prodenia  litura,  Fabr.).  To  add  such 
clauses  to  a  law  which  is  promulgated  to  deal  with  the 
ravages  of  cotton  worm  only  would  but  create  a  con- 
fusion, but  a  clause  was  inserted  in  the  instructions  given 
to  cotton  worm  inspectors  to  draw  attention  to  the  fact 
that  the  wilted  and  withered  terminal  shoots  on  cotton 
plants  would  be  found  to  contain  'boll  worms  and  to 
direct  that  these  should  be  picked  and  destroyed  together 
with  the  leaves  which  contained  cotton  worms  or  the 
egg  masses. 

When  buds  have  been  attacked  by  the  pest  and  have 
become  detached  from  the  plant  due  to  the  suppression 
of  their  vital  connection  with  the  stem  which  bore  them, 
the  boll  worm  usually  leaves  the  fallen  bud  to  search 
for  a  fresh  one.  During  this  time  the  larva  exposes 
itself  to  the  greatest  peril,  being  a  ready  prey  to  carni- 
vorous beetles  (Carabidas)  and  to  the  intestine  infesting 
larvae  of  the  Ichneumonidae  and  Braconidae,  the  adults  of 
which  hover  about  cotton  plants  and  patrol  leaves,  buds 
and  bolls  in  search  of  the  boll  worms,  in  whose  bodies 
they  deposit  their  eggs.  A  short  account  of  these  para- 
sites is  given  in  another  part  of  this  paper. 

Some  of  the  Braconidae,  among  which  the  most  im- 
portant one  found  in  India  destructive  to  the  Earias 
boll  worm  is  Rhogas  Lefroyi,  Dudgeon  and  Gough,  were 
introduced  into  Egypt  in  1912  by  the  Egyptian  Govern- 
ment. Great  difficulty  was  experienced  in  transporting 
the  parasite  mentioned  from  Bengal  to  Egypt  in  a  living 
condition,  and  just  when  success  had  been  attained  in  this 
direction  the  value  of  the  introduction  was  depreciated 
by  the  discovery  of  a  nearly  allied  indigenous  Braconid, 


COTTON  423 

named  Rhogas  Kitchcneri,  Dudgeon  and  Cough,  in  the 
province  of  Beni  Souef,  in  Upper  Egypt.  This  little 
parasite  has  been  found  commonly  in  the  first  locality  and 
shows  signs  of  spreading.  The  experiment,  which  was 
conducted  in  India  by  Professor  Maxwell  Lefroy,  in  pro- 
pagating the  Rhogas  parasite  and  introducing  it  into  the 
fields  infected  with  boll  worm  showed  that  the  diminution 
in  the  percentage  of  attacked  bolls  was  very  large,  but 
the  difficulties  of  propagation  on  a  large  scale  in  the 
laboratory  were  so  great  that  this  scheme  as  a  remedial 
measure  seemed  well-nigh  impracticable.  The  transfer- 
ence of  infected  larvae  or  the  parasite  pupae  to  new 
localities  to  enable  colonies  of  the  parasite  to  establish 
themselves  naturally  promises  to  be  of  greater  efficacy  in 
Egypt.  Operations  in  this  direction  are  being  under- 
taken by  the  Entomological  Section  of  the  Ministry  of 
Agriculture. 

The  Rhogas  or  other  Braconid  parasites  which  may 
attack  the  Earias  boll  worm  can  only  do  so  when  the 
larva  is  feeding  in  the  flowers,  or  when  it  has  freshly 
commenced  to  perforate  a  boll,  or  when  it  is  leaving  one 
boll  to  reach  another,  or  to  pupate.  During  these  short 
periods  of  exposure  if  the  parasitic  Braconid  does  not 
discover  the  larva  the  latter  is  apparently  secure  from 
its  attack,  as  after  having  entered  the  bud  or  boll  the 
entrance  is  quickly  stopped  by  the  excrement  voided  by 
the  feeding  larva.  In  India,  where  Earias  insulana  and 
E.  fabia  are  both  found  attacking  cotton,  other  Braconids 
occur  infesting  their  larvae,  but  it  appears  that  none  are 
furnished  with  sufficiently  long  ovipositors  to  penetrate 
deeply  into  the  bore-hole  made  by  the  Earias  nor  have 
any  means  of  reaching  the  larva  in  the  boll.  In  conse- 
quence their  attacks  must  be  made  in  a  similar  manner 
to  those  of  the  Rhogas  here  referred  to. 

Having  taken  into  consideration  the  fact  that  the 
Earias  boll  worm  feeds  upon  a  very  limited  number  of 
plants,  all  belonging  to  the  natural  order  Malvaceae,  of 
which  cotton,  bamiah  and  tehl  are  almost  the  only 
widespread  and  plentiful  examples  in  the  country,  Mr. 
Willcocks  recommended  in  i()o68  that  certain  preventive 

8  Year-book  of  the  Khediv.  Agri.  Soc.  for  1005,  p.  87. 


424  COTTON 

measures  should  be  introduced.  Mr.  Willcocks  main- 
tained that  tehl  and  bamiah  should  always  be  pulled  up 
by  the  roots,  never  cut,  as  the  latter  would  only  induce 
new  growth  from  the  roots,  which  would  yield  a  suffi- 
ciency of  food  for  the  next  generation  of  boll  worms. 
Cotton  wood,  he  urged,  should  not  be  allowed  to  remain 
in  the  field  until  January,  March,  and  April,  as  this  was 
certain  to  provide  a  material  help  to  the  boll  worm. 
When  the  cotton  wood  was  cleared  he  recommended  that 
it  should  be  used  for  fuel  as  quickly  as  possible,  in  order 
to  destroy  the  boll  worm  pupae  which  might  be  upon  it. 

Legislation  regarding  Cotton  Boll  Worm. 

The  outcome  of  Mr.  Willcocks 's  recommendation  was 
the  promulgation  of  a  law  (No.  27  of  1909)  which  was 
originally  designed  with  the  chief  object  of  the  elimina- 
tion of  all  growth  of  bamiah,  tehl,  and  cotton  for  a 
definite  period,  but  which,  as  it  was  finally  passed,  per- 
mitted the  continuous  cultivation  of  ratoon  cotton  (okr) 
in  some  districts,  and  was  found  almost  unworkable  in 
connection  with  the  rest  of  the  cotton  area,  owing  to  the 
fact  that  cotton  plants  were  permitted  to  be  cut  instead 
o-f  being  pulled  up,  and  were  frequently  found  growing 
as  strong  plants  when  the  succeeding  crop,  berseem  or 
wheat,  was  cut  in  the  next  spring. 

After  much  representation  of  the  evils  attached  to  the 
cultivation  of  okr  or  ratoon  cotton  this  cultivation  was 
regulated  by  law  at  the  instance  of  the  Department  of 
Agriculture  (No.  19  of  1912).  It  was  made  compulsory 
by  this  new  law  to  uproot  or  cut  below  the  surface  of 
the  soil  all  plants  of  cotton,  bamiah,  or  tehl  in  such  a 
manner  that  they  could  not  sprout  again.  This  obligation 
with  respect  to  the  greater  part  of  Egypt  was  executable 
before  December  15  of  each  year,  and  a  few  districts  only 
in  the  north  were  permitted  to  extend  the  period  until 
January  15.  The  cultivation  of  okr  or  ratoon  cotton  was 
only  permitted  in  certain  districts  if  a  Ministerial  Arrete 
was  published  to  this  effect  before  March  I  in  the  year 
preceding. 

There  was  a  great  improvement  occasioned  by  the 
enactment  of  this  law.  The  cultivation  of  ratoon  cotton 


COTTON  425 

ceased  and  most  of  the  cotton  plants  were  pulled  up 
previous  to  the  date  mentioned.  Cultivators  in  Upper 
Egypt  still  continued  to  cut  their  cotton  after  having 
sown  berseem  (clover)  in  the  standing  crop,  and  volunteer 
cotton  was  frequently  found  in  the  late  spring  in  conse- 
quence. Insufficient  attention  also  was  paid  to  the 
destruction  of  bamiah  and  tehl. 

Nevertheless  a  beneficial  effect  was  apparent  in  almost 
every  instance  where  a  comparison  was  made  between 
the  bolls  attacked  by  Earias  in  1912  and  those  from  the 
same  localities  in  1913  (see  Appendix  I).  It  is  true  that 
in  some  cases  more  bolls  were  attacked  by  boll  worms 
than  before,  but  upon  examination  it  was  found  that  the 
depredator  was  not  Earias,  but  the  new  pest,  the  pink 
boll  worm. 

In  consequence  of  the  rather  sudden  appearance  of 
the  pink  boll  worm  in  Egypt,  a  proposition  was  made 
early  in  May,  1913,  by  myself,  in  my  capacity  as  Member- 
Reporter  of  the  Cotton  Worm  and  Boll  Worm  Commis- 
sion, to  the  said  Commission  that  a  clause  might  be 
inserted  in  the  existing  Boll  Worm  Law  No.  19  (1912) 
to  the  effect  that  it  should  be  made  compulsory  to  detach 
and  destroy  all  bolls  upon  cotton  plants  immediately 
after  the  last  picking  of  cotton.  This  measure  would  be 
equally  efficacious  for  the  destruction  of  hibernating 
Earias  boll  worms  as  for  the  other  species. 

The  Commission  having  at  its  meeting  of  May  8 
favourably  entertained  the  above  proposition,  submitted 
the  same  to  the  Government,  with  the  recommendation 
that  the  proposed  necessary  steps  be  taken  for  the  eradi- 
cation of  the  pests. 

In  a  subsequent  letter,  dated  July  3,  to  the  Govern- 
ment the  Commission  expressed  a  wish  that  it  be  made 
compulsory  for  cultivators  to  detach  immediately  after 
the  last  picking  all  the  bolls  remaining  on  the  cotton 
plants  before  the  removal  of  the  plants  ordered  by  Law 
No.  19  (1912). 

Further,  the  Commission  was  of  the  opinion  that  the 
destruction  of  the  worms  in  the  bolls  detached  in  the 
above  way  could  be  done  by  their  submission  to  the  heat 
of  ovens.  This  system  would  have  the  double  advantage 


COTTON 

of  killing  the  worms  without  entirely  damaging  the  cotton 
which  villagers  might  still  be  able  to  obtain  from  the 
bolls  in  question. 

With  reference  to  the  above,  a  letter,  dated  August  9, 
1913>  was  received  from  the  Council  of  Ministers  to  the 
effect  that  the  Council  having  considered  the  above  propo- 
sition found  it  was  opportune  to  take  into  serious  con- 
sideration the  wish  expressed  by  the  Cotton  Worm  and 
Boll  Worm  Commission. 

Unfortunately,  at  that  time  it  was  not  possible  to  get 
any  legislation  passed  owing  to  the  delay  in  the  forma- 
tion of  the  new  Legislation  Assembly,  to  whom  it  was 
necessary  that  all  laws  should  be  submitted  for  discussion. 
Some  action,  however,  was  deemed  necessary,  as  the 
depredations  by  both  species  of  boll  worms  were  severe, 
and  if  no  steps  to  ameliorate  the  condition  were -under- 
taken the  result  might  mean  a  still  further  loss  in  the 
following  season. 

The  proposals  for  a  law  were  submitted  by  the  Ministry 
of  Agriculture  to  the  legal  advisers  of  the  Government, 
but  owing  to  the  change  in  the  constitution  of  the 
country  the  law  was  not  passe.d  in  time  for  any  com- 
pulsory action  being  adopted  in  the  winter  of  1913. 
Urgent  steps  were,  however,  taken  to  get  the  measures 
recommended  in  the  law,  to  be  carried  out  administra- 
tively pending  the  passing  of  the  law  itself.  To  this  end 
the  Ministry  of  the  Interior  issued  instructions  in  the 
winter  of  1913  to  the  Governors  of  Provinces  that  the 
cultivators  should  be  induced  by  administrative  measures 
to  pick  off  and  destroy  by  fire  all  bolls  left  on  cotton 
plants  after  the  final  picking  of  the  crop.  Great  difficulty 
was  experienced  in  this  work,  as  without  the  aid  of  the 
law  the  provincial  authorities  were  severely  handicapped. 
In  a  few  districts  a  large  number  of  bolls  were  picked 
and  destroyed,  but  in  others  practically  none.  The  law 
of  which  the  draft  follows  was  passed  and  put  into  force 
in  1914.  The  political  situation  interfered  somewhat  with 
the  strict  observance  of  the  articles  at  as  early  a  date  as 
was  desirable,  but  eventually  stringent  action  was  taken 
which  should  be  followed  by  good  results. 

The  law  is  as  follows :  — 


COTTON  427 

LOI    No.    4   DE    1914. 


Loi  modifiant  la  Loi  No.   19  de   1912  portant  les  Mesures   a 
prendre  pour  la  Destruction  du  Ver  de  la  Capsule. 


Nous,  Khedive  d'Egypte, 

Vu  la  loi  No.  19  de  1912  portant  les  mesures  a  prendre  pour 
la  destruction  du  ver  de  la  capsule  du  coton; 

Sur  la  proposition  de  Notre  Ministre  de  1'Agriculture  et  Pavis 
conforme  de  Notre  Conseil  des  Min.istres; 
L'Assemblee  Legislative  entendue ; 

Vu    les    deliberations    de    PAssemblee    Generale    de    la    Cour 
d'Appel  Mixte  en   date  des    12  et    17   juin    1914,  prises   en   con- 
formite  du  Decret  du  31  Janvier  1889; 
Decretons  : 

ARTICLE  i. 

II  est  ajoute  a  Particle  premier  de  la  loi  sus-visee  un  troisieme 
alinea  ainsi  congu  : — 

Chaque  annee,  apres  la  recolte,  toutes  les  capsules  encore 
adherentes  a  ces  plants  devront  etre  enlevees  et  brulees. 

Cette  operation  devra  etre  executee,  au  moins  quinze  jours, 
avant  les  dates  respectivement  fixees  ci-dessus  pour  chaque  pro- 
vince, pour  Parrachage  ou  la  coupe  des  racines  des  plants  et 
dans  tous  les  cas  avant  qu'il  ne  soit  precede  a  cet  arrachage  ou 
cette  coupe. 

ARTICLE  2. 

II  est  ajoute  a  Particle  3  de  la  loi  sus-visee  un  second  alinea 
ainsi  concu  : — 

En  cas  de  contravention  au  troisieme  alinea  de  Particle 
premier,  les  plants  seront  toujours  saisis  et  brules,  qu'ils  aient 
etc  ou  non  arraches  ou  coupes. 

ARTICLE  3. 

Nos  Ministres  de  PInterieur,  de  la  Justice  et  de  PAgriculture 
sont  charges,  chacun  en  ce  qui  le  concerne,  de  Pexecution  de  la 
presente  loi  qui  entrera  en  vigueur  a  partir  de  la  recolte  de  1914. 
Fait  au  Caire,  le  20  juin  1914. 

Pour  le  Khedive  : 
(Signe)     H.  RUCHDI. 
Par  le  Khedive  : 

Le  President  du  Conseil  des  Ministres, 

Ministre  de  PInterieur. 

(Signe)     H.  RUCHDI. 

Le  Ministre  de  la  Justice. 

(Signe)     SARWAT. 
Le  Ministre  de  PAgriculture. 
(Signe)      I. 


COTTON 

Suggestions  were  made  by  the  Chief  Inspector  of  the 
Ministry  of  Agriculture,  Mr.  A.  T.  McKillop,  that  cotton 
sticks  might  be  economically  made  into  charcoal,  and 
demonstrations  were  given  of  the  method  of  conversion.9 
It  was  maintained  that  if  this  were  adopted  it  would  over- 
come the  difficulties  in  connection  with  the  operation  of 
picking  of  bolls,  to  be  made  compulsory  by  the  law 
mentioned  above,  and  would  not  completely  destroy  the 
cotton  sticks,  which  are  the  chief  form  of  fuel  in  a  large 
part  of  the  country.  The  loss  in  volume  caused  by  the 
conversion  of  cotton  wood  into  charcoal  is  compensated 
to  some  extent  by  the  increased  calorific  value  of  the 
charcoal.  The  main  advantage,  however,  would  be  that 
the  boll  worms  remaining  in  the  dead  cotton  plants  as 
well  as  in  the  cotton  bolls  would  be  effectively  destroyed. 
The  neglect  of  the  cultivators  to  make  use  of  this  sug- 
gestion made  it  imperative  to  carry  through  the  law 
mentioned  above. 

Among  the  many  measures  proposed  for  the  destruc- 
tion of  insect  pests  the  experiments  conducted  in  the 
Entomological  Section  of  the  Ministry  of  Agriculture 
under  the  direction  of  Dr.  Lewis  Gough  call  for  special 
mention.  Dr.  Gough,  as  member  to  the  Commission, 
submitted  a  note  to  the  Committee  pointing  out  that  with 
relation  to  all  the  cotton  pests  the  action  of  various  insect 
maladies  was  under  examination.  Experiments  have 
since  been  made  with  most  of  the  diseases  known  to  be 
fatal  to  insects,  and  with  reference  to  the  common  boll 
worm  it  has  been  found  that  it  is  among  those  susceptible 
to  attacks  of  the  protozoan  disease  (Micros poridium 
polyedricum,  Bolle),  as  well  as  the  other  diseases  of  silk 
worms.  The  Microsporidium  disease,  known  also  as 
"  grasserie,"  is  common  among  silk  worms,  and  was 
introduced  into  Egypt  in  1912,  in  which  year  a  spon- 
taneous outbreak  occurred  among  cotton  worms  (Pro- 
denia  litura,  Fabr.),  which  were  very  numerous  in  that 
year. 

The  rapidity  with  which  this  disease  spread  throughout 
the  country  and  the  subsequent  effect  on  the  appearance 

9  McKillop. — Agric.  Journ.  of  Egypt,  1913,  vol.  iii,  part  2, 
p.  27. 


THE   BOLL    WORM   IN   EGYPT. 


PLATE  II. 


f 


Mrl^"ii|l^ 


1.  Rhogas  Kitcheneri,  Dudgeon  and  Go  ugh. 

c?    x  18. 

2.  Wings  of  R.  Kitcheneri  showing  rieura- 

tion.      x  30. 


3.  Larva  of  Earias  insulana,  Boisd.  (lateral 

view),     x  8. 

4.  Larva    of    E.    insulana,     Boisd.     (dorsal 

view),     x   8. 


COTTON  429 

of  these  insects  in  1913  and  1914  is  now  of  almost  general 
knowledge  in  Egypt.  The  disease  was  found  to  be  easily 
transmitted  to  Earias  by  removing  them  from  the  bolls 
and  bringing  them  in  contact  with  it,  but  from  the  larva's 
method  of  feeding  inside  the  living  bolls  it  was  difficult 
to  produce  a  general  outbreak  among  boll  worms.  The 
same  applies  also  to  other  contagious  insect  diseases  as 
applied  to  the  boll  worm;  the  isolated  interior  feeding 
habits  of  the  larva  having  been  found  up  to  the  present 
the  insuperable  hindrance  to  infective  control. 

Natural  Enemies  destructive  to  Earias  Boll  Worm. 

Reference  has  been  made  elsewhere  to  the  insects  which 
have  been  found  attacking  the  Earias  boll  worm.  Mr. 
Willcocks,10  in  1906,  referred  to  ants  having  been  found 
eating  holes  through  the  cocoons  of  the  boll  worm  and 
devouring  the  pupae,  but  it  was  doubtful  whether  these 
accounted  for  very  large  numbers  of  boll  worms,  as  the 
fields  did  not  abound  in  ant  colonies. 

A  small  lepidopterous  larva  was  also  found  by  Mr. 
Willcocks  attacking  and  devouring  the  pupae;  the  species 
was,  however,  not  determined.  (There  is  some  evidence 
to  show  that  this  may  be  an  insect  known  as  Cryptoblabes 
gnidiclla,  Mill,  whose  carnivorous  habits  have  not  been 
previously  noted.) 

A  hymenopterous  parasite  belonging  to  the  family 
Braconidse  was  also  found  by  the  same  observer.  This 
was  not  common,  and  the  perfect  insects  when  emerged 
were  found  to  belong  to  the  species  which  was  afterwards 
described  under  the  name  of  Rhogas  Kitcheneri,  Dudgeon 
and  Gough  (Plate  II,  figs,  i  and  2). 

Two  specimens  of  another  hymenopterous  parasite  were 
found  inside  the  pupae  of  boll  worms.  They  were  said 
to  resemble  one  of  the  stages  of  a  Chalcid,  but  it  is 
possible  they  may  have  belonged  to  Pimpla  roborator, 
Nees  (see  p.  431). 

In  the  summer  of  1912  the  Government  deputed  the 
Entomologist  of  the  Department  of  Agriculture  to  visit 


10  Willcocks.—  Year-book  of  the  Khediv.  Agric.  Soc.  for  1905, 

P.  85. 


43°  COTTON 

India  to  investigate  the  methods  of  suppressing  the 
Earias  boll  worm  in  that  country,  and  on  the  return  of 
this  officer  a  number  of  larvae  infected  with  Rhogas 
Lefroyi,  Dudgeon  and  Gough,  were  introduced. 

The  introduction  of  these  was,  however,  rendered 
unnecessary  owing  to  the  discovery  a  little  later  of  an 
already  acclimatized  nearly  allied  insect,  which  has  been 
described  under  the  name  of  Rhogas  Kitcheneri.11 

The  first  recorded  specimens  of  R.  Kitcheneri  were 
bred  in  October,  1912,  in  the  laboratories  of  the 
then  Department  of  Agriculture,  from  common  boll 
worms  from  Beni  Souef.  The  species  has  since  been 
recorded  from  Menufia  and  Kharga  Oasis.  Further 
investigations  will  probably  show  that  it  occurs  through- 
out the  greater  part,  if  not  the  whole  of  Egypt.  How- 
ever, although  it  was  abundant  in  consignments  of  boll 
worms  received  from  Beni  Souef  and  Kharga  Oasis,  it 
does  not  seem  to  be  generally  common  in  the  Delta. 

Although  the  act  of  oviposition  has  not  been  actually 
observed  in  this  species,  the  eggs  are  probably  laid  in 
the  boll  worms  when  they  are  entering  or  leaving  a  boll, 
or  when  they  are  near  the  entrances  of  their  tunnels.  As 
the  ovipositor  is  only  5  mm.  long,  Rhogas  cannot  lay 
its  eggs  in  larvae  which  have  made  their  way  well  into 
the  bolls,  as  can  Pimpla  roborator,  the  commonest  para- 
site of  the  pink  boll  worm,  which  has  a  much  longer 
ovipositor.  One  egg  only  is  laid  in  each  boll  worm. 
The  young  larva  lives  inside  the  host,  feeding  at  first 
only  on  the  less  vital  tissues,  such  as  the  fat  bodies.  So 
skilfully  does  it  avoid  the  vital  organs  that  it  is  not  until 
the  Rhogas  larva)  is  full  grown  and  has  left  its  host  that 
the  latter  dies.  After  leaving  the  host  the  larva  pupates 
in  a  small  ovoid  silken;  cocoon,  which  is  generally  found 
beside  the  remains  of  the  dead  boll  worm. 

Nothing  is  known  of  the  number  of  generations  of 
Rhogas  that  take  place  in  the  course  of  a  year,  but  it 
is  probable  that  the  life-history  closely  approximates  to 
that  of  the  host,  as  all  the  specimens  that  have  been  bred 


11  Dudgeon     and     Gough. — Bull.     Ent.     Soc.     Egypt _,     1912, 
pp.   140-141. 


COTTON  431 

appeared  at  the  same  time  as  boll  worm  moths  from 
the  same  consignment  of  bolls.  From  boll  worms  from 
Kharga  Oasis  perfect  insects  of  Rhogas  have  emerged 
in  July  and  in  November,  and  from  those  from  other 
localities  during  October,  November,  and  December. 

Rhogas  Kitcheneri  has  also  been  bred  in  the  labora- 
tories of  the  Ministry  of  Agriculture  from  the  Kharga 
Oasis  date  worm,  Ephestia  cautella,  Walk.  This  is,  how- 
ever, the  only  other  known  host  of  Rhogas  in  Egypt. 

Pediculoides  ventricosus,  Newp.,  a  minute  mite,  ecto- 
parasitic  on  the  pink  boll  worm,  on  a  variety  of  other 
Lepidopterous  larvae,  and  even  on  man,  has  been  found 
by  Mr.  Willcocks  feeding  on  common  boll  worms  in  his 
laboratory.  He  has  not,  however,  found  it  on  this  host 
in  the  field. 

In  addition  to  the  above  there  are  three  Hymenopterous 
insects  which  are  parasitic  on  the  pink  boll  worm  which 
may  in  the  future  attack  the  common  boll  worm  also, 
though  they  have  not  been  found  doing  so  up  to  the 
present.  These  are  Pimpla  rob  orator,  Fabr.  (family 
Ichneumonidae),  Limnerium  interruption,  Holmgr. 
(family  Ichneumonidae),  and  Chelonella  sulcata,  Nees 
(family  Braconidae).  The  first  of  these,  Pimpla 
roborator,  is  exceedingly  abundant  on  the  pink  boll  worm, 
and  is  known,  to  feed  on  a  large  variety  of  boring  larvae. 
It  is  highly  probable  that  it  may  also  feed  on  the  common 
boll  worm.  The  other  two  species  are  much  less 
common  than  the  last,  though  they  were  far  from  rare 
during  the  autumn  of  1913.  It  is  at  present  early  to 
give  any  further  opinion  as  to  the  probabilities,  or  other- 
wise, of  their  parasitizing  the  common  boll  worm. 

Investigations  with  regard  to  the  possibilities  of  multi- 
plying the  parasites  upon  the  Earias  boll  worm  are 
occupying  the  attention  of  the  Entomological  Section  of 
the  Ministry  of  Agriculture,  the  application  of  insecticides 
being  impracticable  in  connection  with  an  interior  feeding- 
larva  of  this  description,  and  reliance  having  to  be  almost 
entirely  placed  upon  the  mechanical  methods  provided 
for  by  law.  The  latter  up  to  the  present  promise  the 
greatest  efficacy. 
28 


432 


COTTON 


fa  ON    »-3 
O  M      ri 


u 


Decrease 
percentage 
in  1913 

Mcoooi-iHivooopotx             os 

7   T    7    7"   T    7    i    T    7    '    7 

rtj    ±i 

PH 

Hoi                                                i-fci 

i-iO'OOJNi-iCOON             1            CO 

1 

Number 
attacked 

oo 
OOOu">NTl->-iroOi'">|         t^ 

Hfl 

111 

OOONOOOOO                   00 
*JT>        Q         O        OO         O         O         O        *O         O          |          ^* 

Observation 
date 

r^cx)i-i^xoioooo                     ^ 

HH                N                hi               M                M                                                                  CS 

1        **  *  « 

O^^J            jj            5j*4J           4J           4j"o)                        CT1* 

^H        O     ^O        CO        CO       CO        CO       CO        CO                        ^" 

V 

N              co             •rfcot^i-icoON! 

Tf                C»                 ^MCOt-iMClMl 

Number 
attack'ed 

oo             "•>            r^^t^i-icooo 

Ct                 NMCOwNwOOl 

1 

Number 
of  bolls 
examined 

N             vO              i-iOOt^OOco 

co       2       VOvo_ON_,           ^1 

cT 

rf    4> 

6-3 

«   S 

II 

>          a,         a.a-cua.a.cua.i 

qj                      <1><UCJ(U^Q-'(U 

55         co         cococococococo 

•            •            :::::::: 

! 

g;     1^ 

s   1 
j  D 

:         j«            ;        :        :        :        :        :      c       a 
°                                        .5              S     '" 

i  1  i  JiHill 

**                ^                /-ii                       **         ^         •"*         <5          t^         tO 

CO          ^s          O^PQSjScoPQco^ 

COTTON  433 


APPENDIX    II. 

NOTE  ON  RHOGAS  KITCHENERI,  DUDGEON  AND 
GOUGH. 

By  L.  H.  GOUGH,  Ph.D.,  F.E.S. 

Chief 'j  Entomological  Section,  Ministry  of  Agriculture,  Egypt. 

The  following-  observations  have  been  made  on  Rhogas 
Kitchencri,  Dudgeon  and  Gough. 

Rhogas  Kitcheneri  attacks  the  larvae  of  more  than  one 
species  of  moth,  the  usual  Egyptian  hosts  being  Earias 
insulana  and  Ephestia  cautella,  the  common  link  of  which 
is  that  the  larvae  live  inside  fruits,  such  as  cotton  bolls, 
dates,  etc. 

More  than  one  larva  develops  in  each  attacked  cater- 
pillar, as  many  as  eleven  having  been  noted  in  one  case. 
The  host  becomes  moribund  at  least  one  or  two  weeks 
before  the  Rhogas  larvae  leave  it  to  pupate.  In  the 
specimens  observed  the  Rhogas  larvae  have  wandered  a 
few  millimetres  away  from  their  dead  host,  and  then 
spun  themselves  grey,  egg-shaped,  silken  cocoons.  The 
greatest  distance  wandered  before  pupation  has  been 
ij  cm. 

The  Rhogas  hatched  (in  winter  in  Egypt)  about  a 
month  to  five  weeks  after  pupation,  and  the  insects  from 
one  batch  hatched  on  several  successive  days.  The  pro- 
portion of  females  to  males  is  occasionally  excessive,  in 
one  case  it  was  eight  females  to  three  males.  Copula- 
tion took  place  immediately  after  expanding  and  was 
repeatedly  performed. 

The  adults  are  rather  easily  kept  alive  if  fed.  Some 
placed  in  a  Petri  dish  and  fed  with  wetted  lump  sugar 
lived  from  January  21,  1915,  to  February  27,  1915,  being 
active  at  the  time  of  writing.  Another  lived  from 
January  17,  1915,  to  February  23,  1915,  when  it  was 
required  as  a  specimen  and  killed.  Egg-laying  has  not 
yet  been  observed,  and  in  consequence  the  time  required 
for  the  larvae  to  develop  and  the  age  of  the  victims 
selected  are  not  known. 


434 


COTTON 


Adult  Rhogas  Kitcheneri  are  frequently  found  hiber- 
nating or  hiding  inside  dried  dates,  in  which  they  would 
be  able  to  find  moist  sugary  food. 

The  attached  table  shows  the  dates  for  two  sets :  — 


Host 
observed 

Larva* 

leave  their 
host  and 

Rhogas  hatch 

Copula- 
tion takes 

Duration  of  life 

moribund 

spin 
cocoons 

Females 

Males 

Date 

place 

Dec.  4, 

Dec.  20, 

4 

I 

Jan.  20, 

Jan.  20, 

One  female  died  Feb. 

1914 

1914 

3 

I 

1915 
Jan.  21, 

1915 
Jan.  21, 

13.  1915 
One  female  died  Feb. 

1915 

lais 

15,  1915 

i 

I 

Jan.  23,  i  Jan.  23, 

One  male  died  Feb.  13, 

1915 

1915 

1915  ;       remainder 

alive  on    Feb.    27, 

1915 

Jan.  5, 

Jan.  13, 

— 

i        Feb.  17, 

— 

Killed  Feb.  23,  1915 

1915 

1915 

1915 

EXPLANATION  OF  PLATE  I. 

Figs,  i  to  3. — Earias  insulana.,  Boisd.  var.  semifascia.  Warren 
(slightly  enlarged). 

Figs.  7  and  8. — Earias  insulana,  Boisd.  var.  antho-philana } 
Snellen  (slightly  enlarged). 

Fig.  14. — Earias  insulana,  Boisd.  var.  ochreimargo,  Warren 
(slightly  enlarged). 

Fig.  17. — Pupa  of  E.  insulana,  Boisd.  (slightly  enlarged). 

Fig.  18. — Cocoon  of  E.  insulana,  Boisd.   (slightly  enlarged). 

(The  other  figures  represent  intermediate  forms  of  E.  insulana}. 

Natural  sizes  are  shown  by  lines  below  each  figure. 

EXPLANATION  OF  PLATE  II. 

Fig.  i. — Rhogas  Kitcheneri,  Dudgeon  and  Gough,  $  X  18.  A 
braconid  parasitic  upon  Earias  insulana.  (Natural  size  2*25  mm.) 

Fig.  2. — Wings  of  Rhogas  Kitcheneri  x  30,  showing  the  dis- 
tinctive neuration  and  darkened  areas. 

Fig.  3. — Larva  of  Earias  insulana,  Boisd.,  x  8,  lateral  view. 
(Natural  size  u  mm.) 

Fig.  4. — Larva  of  Earias  insulana,  Boisd.,  x  8,  dorsal  view. 
(Natural  size  n  mm.) 

Natural  sizes  of  figures  i,  3  and  4  are  shown  by  lines  below 
the  figures. 


NOTE  PRELIMINAIRE   SUE  LES    SELS   NUISIBLES  ET 
LE  COTONNIER   EN   EGYPTE. 

Par  VICTOR  M.  MOSSERI. 

Membre  de  V  Institut  Egyptien,  Vice-President  de  I' Union 
des  Agriculteurs  d'Egypte. 

LES  terres  arables  d'Egypte  contiennent  des  sels 
solubles  dont  la  dose  varie  depuis  des  traces  jusqu'a 
25  pour  cent1  et  au  dela. 

La  nature  et  la  proportion  de  ces  sels,  de  meme  que 
leur  distribution  verticale  dans  plusieurs  terres  de  ce 
pays,  ont  ete  deja  determinees.2 

Parmi  ces  sels,  quelques-uns  sont  utiles  ou  inoffensifs, 
d'autres  sont  nuisibles  a  des  degres  divers.3 

L'agriculture  egyptienne,  a-t-on  dit,  est  une  lutte  in- 
cessante  centre  les  sels.  C'est  qu'en  verite,  ils  intervien- 
nent  si  frequemment  et  affectent  la  productivite  du  sol 
d'une  maniere  si  sensible,  qu'il  faut  toujours  en  tenir 
compte  parmi  les  facteurs  agrologiques  intrinseques  les 
plus  dominants  qui  reglent  cette  productivite. 

J'ai  signale,  il  y  a  quelques  annees,  cette  relation 
etroite  qui  existe  entre  les  sels  et  la  fertilite  des  terres 


1  A  moins   d'indication   contraire,    tous  les  resultats  sont  ex- 
primes  en  pour  cent  de  terre  seche. 

2  Lucas,  A. — (1°)  "  Soil  and  Water  of  the  Fayoum  Province," 
Survey  Department,,  1902  ;   (2°)  "  Soil   and  Water  of  the  Wadi 
Tumilat  Lands,"  Survey  Department,  10,03. 

Means. — "  Reclamation  of  Alkali  Lands  in  Egypt,"  Bull.  21, 
Bureau  of  Soils,  U.S.  Department  of  Agriculture,  1903. 

Hughes,  F. — (i°)  "  Manurial  Trials  on  Cotton,"  Year  Book  of 
the  Khediv.  Agric.  Society,  1909;  (2°)  "  The  Occurrence  of 
Sodium  Salts  in  Egypt,"  ibid.,  1905. 

Mosseri,  V. — (i°)  "  Nouveau  systeme  de  drainage  et  dessale- 
ment  des  terres,"  Bull.  Institut  Egyptien,  tome  iii,  1909,  et  tome 
v,  IQII;  (2°)  "Les  Terrains  alcalins  en  Egypte  et  leur  traite- 
ment,"  Bull.  Institut  Egy-ptien,  tome  v,  IQII. 

3  Lucas,  loc.  cit.;  Mosseri,  loc.  cit. 


436  COTTON 

egyptiennes.4  Cette  relation  a  ete  dernierement  con- 
firmee au  cours  des  etudes  entreprises  sur  une  vaste 
echelle  par  le  Survey  Department  du  Gouvernement 
Egyptien.3 

Les  resultats  de  ces  travaux1  seront  exposes  a  ce  Con- 
gres  par  M.  Keeling. 

L'examen  de  nombreux  echantillons  de  terres  pre- 
levees  methodiquement  sur  toute  la  superficie  qui  forme 
la  region  centrale  de  la  province  de  Gharbia,  a  decele 
environ  0*30  pour  cent  de  sels  solubles  dans  les  sols 
reputes  fertiles,  0*50  dans  les  sols  de  fertilite  moyenne 
et  0*80  pour  cent  dans  les  sols  pauvres. 

Dans  bien  des  cas,  neanmoins,  il  est  indispensable  de 
tenir  compte  non  seulement  du  residu  total,  mais  de  la 
nature  et  de  la  proportion  de  chacun  des  sels  en  disso- 
lution.0 

On  sait,  en  effet,  que  les  differents  sels  ne  sont  pas 
toxiques  au  meme  degre  et  que  le  melange  de  deux  ou 
plusieurs  sels  modifie  et,  en  general,  diminue  le  degre  de 
nocivite  de  chacun  d'eux. 

C'est  par  une  telle  analyse  detaillee  qu'il  m'a  ete  permis 
de  decouvrir  la  cause  de  la  sterilite,  plus  ou  moins  com- 
plete, de  certaines  taches  que  Ton  rencontre  c,a  et  la  dans 
presque  toutes  les  regions  cultivees  de  TEgypte,  speciale- 
ment  dans  TOuest  Behera,  ou  elles  couvrent  des  milliers 
d'hectares.  Cette  improductivite  est  due  a  I'existence 
dans  la  terre,  d'une  dose,  souvent  inferieure  a  0*05  pour 
cent,  de  carbonate  de  sodium,  le  plus  nuisible  au  sol  et 
aux  plantes  parmi  les  sels  nocifs.  La  seule  determination 
en  bloc  des  sels  solubles,  classerait  souvent  ces  taches 
steriles  dans  la  categoric  des  terres  les  plus  fertiles.7 

II  est  done  toujours  interessant  de  se  renseigner  aussi 


4  Voir  Dr.  Hume. — "  The  Study  of  Soils  in  Egypt,"  Congres 
agrogeol.    de    Stockholm,    IQIO,    p.    309;    et    V.    Mosseri,    "  Le 
drainage  en  Egypte,"  Bull.  Institut  Egyptien.,  tome  iii,  1909. 

5  Voir   Keeling. — "  The    Fertility  Map    of   the   Delta,"    Cairo 
Sclent.  Journal j  1014. 

6  Mosseri,    V. — "  Nouvelles   observations    sur    le   systeme    de 
lavage  superficiel  et  drainage  combines,"  Bull.  Institut  Egyptien, 
tome  v,  IQII. 

7  Mosseri,  V. — Bull.  Institut  Egyptien,,  tome  v,  igu,  p.  71. 


COTTON  437 

completement  que  possible  sur  la  composition  exacte  des 
sels  solubles.  Tout  au  plus  peut-on,  pour  les  besoins  de 
la  pratique  courante,  et  surtout  quand  il  s'agit  de  terres 
provenant  de  regions  dont  on  a  deja  etudie  les  sels  en 
detail,  se  contenter  de  determiner  la  somme  de  ces  sels8 
et  de  doser  les  acides  carbonique  et  bicarbonique  des 
carbonates  et  bicarbonates  alcalins,  ainsi  que  le  chlore. 

La  difference  entre  le  residu  total  et  la  somme  des 
carbonates,  bicarbonates  et  chlorures,  exprimes  en  sels 
de  sodium  donne  une  idee  de  la  quantite  des  sulfates 
presents.  On  completera  ces  dosages  par  la  recherche 
qualitative  de  la  chaux  et)  de  la  magnesie.  D'apres  cette 
recherche,  on  decidera  s'il  y  a  lieu  ou  non  de  doser  ces 
elements  en  nieme  temps  que  Tacide  sulfurique. 

L'etude  du  degre  de  tolerance  du  cotonnier  a  1'egard 
des  differents  sels  que  Ton  rencontre  dans  les  terres 
egyptiennes  est,  comme  bien  Ton  pense,  un  probleme  fort 
complexe.  Plusieurs  facteurs  etrangers  interviennent 
souvent  pour  gener  plus  ou  moins  le  developpement  des 
plantes  en  observation,  tels  que :  conditions  climateriques 
defavorables,  attaques  de  parasites  vegetaux  ou  animaux, 
conditions  physiques  ou  d'aeration  imparfaite  du  sol  et 
du  sons-sol,  nappe  souterraine  elevee,  mauvaise  irrigation, 
drainage  defectueux,  etc. 

D'autre  part,  le  degre  de  tolerance  varie,  en  dehors  des 
causes  exterieures  que  Ton  vient  de  rappeler,  suivant  des 
conditions  qui  tiennent  aux  caracteres  individuels,9  a  la 
nature  des  terres,  au  mode  de  culture  adopte,  al  la  com- 
position des  solutions  salines,  etc.  L'humidite  du  sol, 
notamment  par  la  dilution  qu'elle  produit,  joue  un  role 
considerable.  Cette  humidite)  est  a  son  tour,  sous  la 
dependance  de  la  frequence  et  de  1'abondance  des  arro- 


8  De  preference  par  resistivite  au  moyen  du  pont  electrolytique 
de  Whitney,  d'apres  des  courbes  etablies  au  prealable  pour  les 
diverses  regions  a  examiner  et  en  prenant  les  precautions  neces- 
saires  dans   le   cas   des  terres  alcalines   ou   riches   en    matieres 
organiques. 

9  Kearney    et    Harter. — "  Comparative    Tolerance    of   various 
Plants  for  the  Salts  common  in  Alkali  Soils,"  Bull.   113,  Bureau 
of  Plant  Industry,,  U.S.  Department  of  Agriculture,  1907. 


438  COTTON 

sages,  de  la  texture  de  la  terre  ainsi  que  des  conditions 
du  drainage  et  des  eaux  souterraines.  Le  niveau  de  ces 
eaux  determine  dans  la  terre  la  distribution  verticale  des 
sels,  distribution  qu'il  y  a  lieu  de  considerer  dans  ses 
relations  avec  le  caractere  du  systeme  radiculaire  de  la 
plante. 

Mon  but  aujourd'hui  est  plutot  de  fixer  les  limites  de 
salure  compatibles  avec  des  rendements  eleves  de  coton 
de  qualite  superieure  et,  comme  consequence,  de 
rechercher  jusqu'a  quel  point  il  convient  de  pousser  les 
operations  de  dessalement  des  terres  pour  les  rendre 
aptes  a  produire  de  telles  recoltes. 

Tout  en  me  bornant  dans  cette  note  a  Tetude  de  la 
Basse-Egypte,  la  seule  region  du  reste  qui  produise  les 
diverses  varietes  estimees  de  coton  egyptien,  j'emprun- 
terai  certains  de  mes  exemples  a  quelques  terres  de  la 
Haute-Egypte. 

Pour  la  commodite  de  mon  expose,  j'envisagerai 
d'abord  le  Sud  €t  le  Centre  de  la  Basse-Egypte,  pour- 
parler ensuite  de  la  partie  septentrionale  qui  offre  quelques 
particularites  dignes  de  remarque. 

Plusieurs  determinations  faites  sur  des  terres  a  coton 
de  diverses  localites  m'ont  montre  que  dans  le  Sud  et  le 
Centre  de  cette  region  il  est  rare  que  les  terres  qui 
produisent  des  rendements  eleves  de  5  kantars  et  au  dela 
par  feddan  contiennent,  dans  la  tranche  utile  exploitee 
par  les  ratines,  plus  de  0*25  a  0*30  pour  cent  de  sels 
solubles. 

Voici  pour  servir  de  types,  la  composition  et  le  pour- 
centage  de  ces  sels  trouves  dans  deux  terres  fertiles 
choisies  au  hasard  parmi  celles  que  j'ai  etudiees,  et  situees 
rune  a  Bata,  Menoufia  (Sud),  1'autre  a  Kafr-Soliman, 
Gharbia  (Centre).  (Voir  Tableau  I.) 

II  ne  faut  pas  oublier  que  dans  ces  analyses  comme  dans 
toutes  celles  qui  vont  suivre,  les  ions  trouves  ont  ete 
combines  entre  eux  d'une  maniere  conventionnelle  qui 
sera  indiquee  plus  loin.  Bien  que  les  lois  physico- 
chimiques  des  solutions  d'electrolytes  justifient  quelque 
pen  les  groupements  adoptes,  il  est  evident  que  les  ions 
doses  dans  les  solutions  aqueuses  des  terres  peuvent  et 


TABLEAU    I. 

SELS    SOLUBLES   DE   QUELQUE  TERRES   FERTILES. 


SUD  DU  DELTA  (i) 

CENTRE  DU  DELTA 

BATA  (MENOUFIA) 

KAFR-SOLIMAN  (GHARBIA) 

Elements  solubles 

pour  cent  t6rre  seche 

Hod  el  Hicha 

Sibii  Bahari 

Hod  Galantat 

1910 

1910 

1913 

Sol 

Sous 

Sol 

Sous 

oa 

30  a 

ooa 

sol 

sol 

30  cm. 

60  cm. 

90  cm. 

Ions  : 

Acide  sulfurique  (SO,)    .. 

o  016 

traces 

0*016 

0*016 

traces 

traces 

traces 

Chlore  (Cl) 

0-026 

0*017 

0*019 

0-022 

0-017 

0-016 

0*019 

Acide  nitrique  (NO3) 

non  dose 

non  dose 

non  dose 

non  dose 

0*003 

0-005 

0-002 

Acide  carbonique  (CO3)  .. 

— 

— 

— 

— 

o-ooo 

0*000 

0*000 

Acide  bicarbonique(HCO3 

0-154 

0-124 

0*114 

0*078 

0-085 

0-079 

0*097 

Calcium  (Ca)    ... 

0-032 

0-024 

0-017 

o  014 

0*016 

0-016 

0*0  1  1 

Magnesium  (Mg) 
Potassium  (K)  ... 

0-005 
0*009 

0-005 
0-005 

0*005 
0-007 

0-006 

O'OIO 

0-008 
non  dose 

0-006 
non  dos< 

0-005 
non  dose 

Sodium  (Na)     ... 

0-032 

0*019 

0*030 

0*019 

0*011 

0*013 

0-030 

Combinaisons      convention- 

nelles  : 

Sulfate  de  calcium 

0-023 

traces 

0*023 

0-023 

traces 

traces 

traces 

,,         magnesium     ... 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

Chlorure  de  calcium 

0*041 

0*027 

0-029 

0-019 

0*027 

0-025 

0*030 

,,          magnesium  ... 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

,,           sodium 

— 

— 

— 

0*016 

— 

— 

— 

Nitrate  de  calcium 

non  dose 

non  dose 

non  dose 

non  dose 

0-004 

0*007 

— 

,,          sodium 

non  dose 

non  dose 

non  dose 

non  dose 

— 

— 

0*005 

Bicarbonate  de  calcium  ... 

0-040 

0*056 

— 

_ 

O'O2O 

0-020 

— 

,,             magnesium 

0^030 

0-030 

0-030 

0*036 

0*049 

0*036 

0-030 

,,             potassium 

0-023 

0*012 

0*017 

0*024 

non  dose 

non  dos6 

non  dose 

,,             sodium    ... 

0-117 

0*069 

0*109 

0*047 

0*040 

0047 

0-099 

Total  soluble 

.0-274 

0*194 

0*208 

0-165 

0*140 

0-^35 

0-164 

Pour  cent  du  residu  sec  : 

Sulfate  de  calcium 

8'4 

traces 

II'O 

I3'9 

traces 

traces 

traces 

Chlorure  de  calcium 

I4'9 

139 

I3'9 

"j 

I9-3 

18*5 

18*3 

,,           sodium 

9*6 

Nitrate  de  calcium 

— 

— 

— 

2-9 

5  '2 

— 

,,        sodium 

— 



— 



3-0 

Bicarbonate  de  calcium  ... 

14-9 

28*7 

— 



I4'3 

i7'8 

,,             magnesium 

10-9 

!5'4 

14*4 

21*8 

35  'o 

26*7 

i*3 

,,             potassium 

8-4 

6-2 

8-1 

*4'5 

non  dose 

non  dose 

non  dose 

,,             sodium    ... 

42'5 

35-8 

52-6 

287 

28-5 

34-8 

60*4 

lOO'O 

100*0 

lOO'O 

100*0 

lOO'O 

100*0 

100  '0 

(i)  Dans  une  terre  de  Bata  on  a  dose,  par  les  methodes  ordinaires,  directement,  les  elements 
suivants : 

Bicarbonate  de  calcium  ...  ...  0*036  pour  cent  de  terre  seche 

,,             ,,       magnesium  ...  ...  0*031 

Sulfate  de  calcium     ...  ...  ...  0*048 

Potasse  (K2O)            ...  ...  ...  0-004 

Soude  (Na2O)            ...  ...  ...  0-008 

Silice  (SiO2)              ...  ...  ...  0-012 

Acide  nitrique  (NO;J)  ...  ...  0*010 

Chlore         ...             ...  ...  ...  0-022 

Acide  phosphorique  ...  ...  ...  0*0008 


440  COTTON 

doivent  s'y  trouver  sous  toutes  les  combinaisons  possibles 
et  meme  en  dissociation. 

Quoi  qu'il  en  soit,  ces  dosages  montrent  que  les  sels 
solubles  des  bonnes  terres  du  Sud  et  du  Centre  consistent 
principalement  en  bicarbonates  de  calcium,  de  magnesium, 
de  .potassium  et  de  sodium.  Ce  dernier  sel  a  lui  seul 
forme  jusqu'a  la  moitie  et  au-dela.  La  somme  des 
bicarbonates  pent  atteindre  les  75  ou  80  pour  cent  et  plus 
du  total  soluble. 

Les  sulfates  sont  presents  en  faibles  quantites  ou  meme 
absents;  souverit  a  Tetat  de  sulfate  de  calcium  utile. 

La  proportion  des  chlorures  varient  entre  15  et  20 
ou  25  pour  cent  de  Tensemble  des  sels.  C'est  surtout 
le  chlorure  de  calcium  qui  predomine.  Les  carbonates 
alcalins,  notamment  le  carbonate  de  sodium,  font 
defaut.  Parfois  il  y  a  une  reaction  a  peine  sensible  a  la 
phenolphtaleine.  Cette  reaction  pent  etre  due  aux 
silicates.  On  sait  que  les  silicates  et  bisilicates  alcalins 
se  comportent  comme  les  carbonates  et  bicarbonates 
alcalins.  Je  ne  saurais  m'etendre  davantage  sur  cette 
composition  des  solutions  salines  sans  sortir  du  cadre  de 
cette  note.  Ce  que  j'en  ai  dit  suffit  pour. les  besoins  de 
mon  sujet. 

Parmi  les  sels  presents  que  je  viens  de  mentionner, 
les  chlorures  doivent  retenir  plus  particulierement  notre 
attention,  et,  en  Tabsence  du  carbonate  de  sodium,  ce 
sont  les  seuls  elements  importants,  ainsi  que  je  1'ai  indique 
ailleurs.10  Or,  dans  les  terres  fertiles  du  sud  et  du  centre, 
sur  les  0*25  a  0*30  pour  cent  de  sels  que  1'on  trouve  dans 
la  couche  ou  se  nourrissent  les  racines,  il  n'y  a  guere  plus 
de  0*1  pour  cent  de  chlorures  exprimes  en  chlorure  de 
sodium. 

Quand  on  passe  aux  terres  moins  fertiles,  parce  que 
plus  salees,  ce  sont  les  chlorures  et  les  sulfates  surtout 
qui  augmentent.  On  rencontre  ces  derniers  plus  speciale- 
ment  et  en  quantite  assez  grande  dans  les  terres  infiltrees, 
comme  il  sera  dit  plus  loin. 

Des  variations  de  moins  de  0*1  pour  cent  dans  la  dose 

10  Loc.  cit.,  p.  55. 


COTTON  441 

des  chlorures  font  sentir  leur  effet  sur  le  rendement  et 
ron  peut  deduire  de  mes  observations  qu'a  0*2  pour  cent 
de  chlorure  de  sodium  les  rendements,  toutes  choses 
cgales  d'ailleurs,  tombent  de  5  ou  6  a  3  ou  4  kantars  par 
feddan.  A  0*4  pour  cent  ils  ne  sont  plus  que  de  I  a  2 
kantars.  Quand  la  terre  renferme  0*5  pour  cent  et  au 
dela  du  dit  sel,  elle  ne  produit  plus  de  coton. 

II  ne  faudrait  pas  attacher,  bien  entendu,  une  valeur 
absolue  a  ces  chiffres :  les  chlorures  ne  forment  presque 
jamais  a  eux  seuls  la  masse  des  sels  nuisibles. 

D'autre  part,  le  rendement  n'est  pas  sous  la  seule 
dependance  des  sels.  Divers  facteurs  interviennent.  J'ai 
vu  des  terres  qui  produisent  normalement  6  kantars, 
donner  en  1909  J  kantar  seulement  par  suite  des  ravages 
du  Prodenia  litura.  En  ce  qui  concerne  les  facteurs 
agrologiques  memes,  on  peut  dire  qu'en  dehors  du  mode 
d'exploitation  et  d'amenagement  du  sol,  et  quelquefois 
de  la  dose  d'azote  disponible,  la  production  cotonniere 
est  reglee  par  les  proprietes  physiques  de  la  terre,  sa 
teneur  en  sels,  ses  conditions  d'irrigation  et  de  drainage, 
et,  enfin,  par  le  regime  des  eaux  souterraines. 

Le  cotonnier  parait  beaucoup  plus  resistant  aux  sulfates 
qu'aux  chlorures.  Cependant  il  est  difficile  de  donner 
des  chiffres  pour  le  Centre  et  le  Sud  du  Delta,  parce  que, 
dans  ces  regions,  il  est  rare  que  1'action  des  sulfates  ne 
soit  pas  'Cntierement  dominee  et  masquee  par  celle  des 
chlorures.  Les  sulfates  predominent,  par  exemple, 
quand  les  sels  proviennent  de  1'evaporation  des  eaux 
d' infiltration  de  canaux  en  charge  :  — 

TABLEAU    II. 

SELS  DES  TERRES  INFILTREES. 

Centre  du  Delta.     Kafr-S oilman  (Gharbia}. 

Residu  sec    ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  2*320 

Bicarbonate  de  sodium  ...  ...  ...  0*170 

Chlorure  de  sodium    ...  ...  ...  ...  0-136 

Sulfate  de  sodium       ...  ...  ...  ...  i'57° 

Mais  dans  ce  cas  la  plante  deperit  plutot  par  asphyxie 
et  il  est  difficile  sinon  impossible  de  distinguer  1'action 
des  sulfates.  Ceux-ci  se  presentent  quelquefois,  en  partie 
du  moins,  a  Tetat  de  sulfate  de  calcium,  utile  par  lui- 


442 


COTTON 


meme,  et  diminuant  de  beaucoup  le  degre  de  toxicite  des 
autres  sels  qui  Paccompagnent. 

D'autres  fois  on  rencontre  du  sulfate  de  magnesium 
assez  nuisible. 

La  limite  de  tolerance  du  cotonnier  a  regard  du  sulfate 
de  sodium  a  ete  trouvee  voisine  de  0*25  pour  cent  dans  le 
Wadi  Tumilat.11  Cette  limite  doit  etre  sans  doute  plus 
elevee  encore,  tout  au  moins  en  presence  du  sulfate  de 
calcium,  si  Ton  en  juge  par  les  recherches  que  j'ai  faites 
dans  le  Nord  du  Delta.  (Voir  Tableau  XL)  La  question 
merite  d'etre  etudiee,  en  raison  du  fait  que  les  sels  qui 
s'accumulent  dans  la  couche  superieure  des  terres 
soumises  a  1'action  des  canaux  en  charge,  se  compos'ent 
la  plupart  du  temps  en  grande  partie  de  sulfate  de  sodium, 
comme  le  prouvent  les  analyses  suivantes.  (Voir 
Tableau  III.) 

TABLEAU    III. 

EFFLORESCENCES  SALINES. 


Recueillies  a  la  surface  des  terres  infiltrees 
a  Kafr-Soliman 
(Centre  du  Delta) 

Recueillies  sur  talus  drains 
a  Ebchan 
(Nord  du  Delta) 

Residu  sec  total 

Sels  p.  cent  du  rhidu  sec  : 
Sulfate  de  calcium 
,,        magnesium... 
,,        potassium   ... 
,,        sodium 
Chlorure  de  magnesium 
,,           sodium 
Nitrate               ,, 
Carbonate          ,, 
Bicarbonate       ,, 

88-579 

Residti  sec  total    ... 

Sels  p.  cent  du  residu  sec  : 
Sulfate  de  calcium     ... 
,,          magnesium 
,,          potassium 
,,         sodium 
Chlorure  de  magnesium 
,,          sodium    ... 
Nitrate              ,, 
Carbonate         ,, 
Bicarbonate     ,, 

71-271 

0-860 
0-850 
0-500 
95*590 

1-970 
non  dose 
traces 
0-230 

1-520 
4*390 
non  dose 
89-420 
4-200 

O'OOO 
O'OOO 

traces 
0-470 

loo-ooo 

1  00  '000 

II  est  vrai  que  dans  ce  cas  le  seul  remede  efficace  est 
de  soustraire  les  terres  aux  infiltrations  par  les  moyens 
deja  longuement  discutes  ailleurs.12 

Le    cotonnier    tolere    la    presence    dans    le    sol    d'une 

11  Lucas.— (2°)  Loc.  cit. 

12  Willcocks,  Sir  W.— "  Egyptian  Irrigation,"  3rd  edition. 

Audebeau  Bey. — "  Rapports  presentes  a  la  Commission  des 
Domaines  de  TEtat  Egyptien,"  1909-1012. 

Mosseri,    V. — •"  Le    Drainage     en     Egypte,"    Bull.    Institnt 
Egyptien ,  tome  iii,  IQOQ. 


COTTON  443 

quantite  assez  elevee  de  bicarbonates.  Effectivenent, 
ceux-ci  forment  la  plus  grande  partie  des  sels  solubles 
que  Ton  rencontre  dans  les  terres  les  plus  fertiles,  ainsi 
que  je  1'ai  indique  ci-dessus. 

Neanmoins  lorsque  la  dose  de  bicarbonate  de  sodium 
atteint  environ  o-2  pour  cent,  il  y  a  lieu  de  le  considerer 
comme  virtuellement  dangereux,  parce  qu'il  est  suscep- 
tible dans  certaines  conditions  de  se  transformer,  en  partie 
du  moms,  en  carbonate  tres  nuisible  au  sol  et  a  la  plante. 

Le  cotonnier  est  en  realite  tres  sensible  aux  effets  de 
ce  dernier  sel.  Une  dose  de  0*1  pour  cent  suffit  a  rendre 
une  terre  argileuse  comme  le  sont  plus  ou  moins  les 
alluvions  nilotiques,  impropre  a  la  culture  de  cette  plante. 
Une  telle  terre  devient  compacte  et  donne  de  faibles 
rendements  des  qu'elle  renferme  o'O35  a  0*040  pour  cent 
de  carbonate  de  sodium,  ou  alcali  noir,  avec  0*20  a 
0*25  de  bicarbonate.  Tel  est,  par  exemple,  le  cas  d'une 
terre  de  Cheblanga  (Kafr-Atalla)  situee  au  milieu  d'une 
region  tres  fertile  de  la  Galioubia.  (Voir  Tableau  IV.) 

TABLEAU    IV. 

TERRES  ALCALINES  DU  SUD  DU  DELTA. 
Cheblanga  (Galioubia). 

Elements  solubles  pour  cent  c  ,     , 

terreseche  Sol  o  a  30  cm. 

Ions : 

Acide  sulfurique  (SO4) 

Chlore(Cl)  

Acide  carbonique  (CO3) 
A.  bicarbonique  (HCO2)    ... 
Calcium  (Ca) 
Magnesium  (Mg)... 
Potassium  (K)       ... 
Sodium  (Na) 

Conibinaisons  conventionnelks : 

Sulfate  de  calcium  ...  ...  ...     traces 

,,         magnesium         ...  ...  ...    traces 

Chlorure  de  calcium  ...  ...  ...     0^022 

,,  sodium  ...  ...  ...       — 

Carbonate  de  potassium 

„  sodium 

Bicarbonate       ,, 

Total  soluble        ...  ...  ...     0-318 

Pour  cent  du  risidu  sec  : 

Chlorure  de  calcium            ...  ...  ...  6*9 

Bicarbonate  de  potassium  ...  ...  ...  3'i 

,,              sodium        ...  ...  ...  I2X> 

Carbonate  de          ,,            ...  ...  ...  78*0 

lOO'O 


444 


COTTON 


Le  platrage  dans  ce  cas  est  eminemment  utile.  Les  pro- 
prietaires  de  cette  terre  se  plaignaient  avant  1'application 
du  platre,  de  la  tres  grande  compacite  du  sol  et  de  sa 
faible  productivite.  Pour  y  cultiver  du  coton,  on  etait 
oblige  de  recourir  a  de  nombreux  artifices  d'arrosages  et 
de  fagons  culturales.  Malgre  cela  on  y  obtenait  difficile- 
ment  3  ou  4  kantars  par  feddan.  Le  platre,  en  ameublis- 
sant  cette  terre,  a  porte  son  rendement  a  6  kantars.  Ceci 
demontre  que  le  cotonnier  est  ties  sensible  aux  conditions 
d'aeration  et  d'ameublissement  du  sol.13  Le  carbonate 
alcalin  aux  faibles  doses  precitees  est  surtout  nuisible  par 
son  action  sur  la  terre  qu'il  rend  plus  ou  moins  compacte 
et  impermeable. 

Un  bel  exemple  de  rinfluence  du  carbonate  de  sodium 
sur  la  vegetation  nous  est  offert  par  les  analyses  suivantes 
relatives  a  trois  terres  de  la  plaine  de  Kom-Ombo  formant 
partie  d'une  meme  parcelle,  ayant  au  point  de  vue  physique 
la  meme  constitution  et  ou  1'analyse  chimique  decele  a 
peu  pres  les  memes  quantites  d'elements  fertilisants. 
(Voir  Tableau  V.) 

TABLEAU    V. 

EFFETS  DU  CARBONATE  DE  SODIUM  SUR  LES  RENDEMENTS 
COTONNIERS. 

Terres  alcalines  de  la  Plaine  de  Kom-Ombo. 


Elements  solubles  pour  cent 
terre  seche 

Terre  donnant 
deo  a  i  kantar 
de  coton  au  feddan 
No.  i 

Terre  donnant 
3  kantars 
de  coton  au  feddan 
No.  2 

Terre  donnant 
5  kantars 
de  coton  au  feddan 
No.  3 

Chlorure  de  sodium 
Carbonate         ,, 
Bicarbonate       ,, 
Acide  sulfurique... 
Calcium 
Magnesium 

0-275 
0-085 
0-246 
traces  indosables 
»»             »  > 

O'2OO 
0-045 

o'ii7 
traces  indosables 
t>             » 
»             » 

CVI25 

traces 
0-152 
traces  indosables 
>»             »» 
>«             n 

La  terre  No.  i,  qui  ne  donne  que  de  o  a  i  kantar  de 
coton  au  feddan,  contient,  comme  on  le  voit,  0*085  pour 
cent  de  carbonate  et  0*246  pour  cent  de  bicarbonate  de 

13  Ceci  confirme  les  resultats  obtenus  par  Kearney  en 
Amerique  :  "  Egyptian  Cotton  as  affected  by  Soil  Variations," 
Circular  112,  Bureau  of  Plant  Industry,  U.S.  Department  of 
Agriculture,  1013. 


COTTON  445 

sodium,  soft  environ  deux  fois  plus  de  carbonate  que  la 
terre  No.  2  produisant  3  kantars.  La  terre  No.  3,  d'un 
rendement  de  5  kantars  au  feddan,  ne  contient  que  des 
traces  de  carbonate  et  0*152  pour  cent  de  bicarbonate. 

Le  dose  de  carbonate  et  bicarbonate  dans  ces  terres  de 
nature  argileuse,  quoique  a  un  moindre  degre  que  la  terre 
de  Cheblanga,  explique  les  ecarts  observes  dans  leurs 
rendements.  II  n'y  a  presque  pas,  en  effet,  de  sulfates 
nuisibles  et  les  teneurs  en  chlorures  ne  justifient  point  ces 
differences. 

Je  citerai  encore,  comme  autre  exemple,  deux  terres 
de  la  region  de  Nag  Hamadi,  Haute-Egypte,  situees  cote 
a  cote,  Tune  tres  fertile,  1'autre  difficile  a  travailler  et  de 
faible  rendement. 

L'analyse  physique  et  le  dosage  des  matieres  fertili- 
santes  ne  montrent  presque  pas  de  differences  sensibles 
entre  les  deux  terres,  sauf  que  la  mauvaise  terre  est  plus 
argileuse  (80  pour  cent  d'argile). 

A  1'examen  des  sels  solubles  on  a  trouve  de  o*on  a 
0*031  pour  cent  de  carbonate  de  sodium  et  de  0*098  a 
0*131  pour  cent  de  bicarbonate  dans  la  mauvaise  terre, 
alors  que  dans  la  bonne  terre  il  n'y  avait  que  des  traces 
de  carbonates  et  0*092  pour  cent  de  bicarbonate  de 
sodium.  Dans  les  deux  cas  le  total  soluble  ne  s'elevait 
guere  au  dela  de  0*14  a  0*2  pour  cent.  Le  platrage  a 
tres  heureusement  modifie  la  mauvaise  terre.14 

Le  cas  de  ces  dernieres  terres  nous  montre,  une  fois 
de  plus,  combien  il  est  parfois  utile  de  ne  pas  se  borner 
a  la  seule  determination  en  bloc  des  sels  solubles. 

On  peut  deduire  de  1'ensemble  des  exemples  cites  que 
le  carbonate  de  sodium  est  d'autant  plus  nuisible  aux 
rendements  du  cotonnier  que  la  terre  est  plus  argileuse; 
qu'il  suffit  quelquefois  d'une  quantite  inferieure  a  0*025 
pour  cent  de  ce  sel  pour  affecter  defavorablement  les  dits 
rendements;  qu'en  tout  cas  une  dose  d'environ  0*05  pour 
cent  parait  nefaste,  a  moins  qu'il  s'agisse  de  terres  plus 
ou  moins  sablonneuses;  qu'enfin  il  est  toujours  utile  de 
se  renseigner  sur  la  teneur  du  sol  en  bicarbonate  et  de 

14  Voir  Mosseri,  V. — Bull.  Institut  Egy^tien,,  tome  v,  1911, 
P-  71- 


446 


COTTON 


prendre  les  mesures  necessaires  pour  en  empecher  la 
transformation  en  carbonate.  Ces  differentes  conclusions 
tirees  de  Tetude  de  la  Haute-Egypte  et  du  Sud  du  Delta  se 
confirment  par  les  analyses  suivantes  relatives  a  une  terre 
de  Talbant-Kaissar  (Gharbia)  faisant  partie  du  centre 
cotonnier  le  plus  fertile  et  le  plus  repute  de  la  Basse- 
Egypte.  Cette  terre  donne  a  peine  3  kantars  au  feddan, 
alors  que  le  rendement  des  terres  avoisinantes  depasse  5 
et  6  kantars.  (Voir  Tableau  VI.) 

TABLEAU    VI. 

TERRES  ALCALINES  DU  CENTRE  DU  DELTA. 
Talbant-Kaissar  (Gharbia}. 


Elements  solubles 
pour  cent  terre  seche 

Hod  Talbant 
30  cm.                   30  a  60  cm. 

Jons  : 

Acide  sulfurique  (SO4) 

0-033 

traces 

Chlore(Cl) 

O-O29 

0-031 

Acide  nitrique  (NOS") 

0*005 

0-002 

,,     carbonique  (COS) 
,,      bicarbonique  (HCO3) 

0-024 
0*146 

0-030 
0-158 

Calcium  (Ca) 

0-007 

0-007 

Magnesium  (Mg) 

O'OII 

0-003 

Sodium  (Na) 

0-080 

0-089 

Combinaiso'ns  conventionnelles  ; 

Sulfate  de  calcium 

0-024 

tracts 

,,              magnesium 

O'O2O 

— 

Chlorure  de  calcium 

— 

0-019 

,,                magnesium 

0*028 

0-012 

,,                sodium 

0-013 

0-016 

Nitrate  de  sodium 
f.a  rhonate 

0-007 

0-OJ2 

0-003 

O-O53 

Bicarbonate 


Total  soluble 


0-201 


0*335 


0-217 
0-320 


Pour  cent  du  residu  sec  : 

Sulfate  de  calcium 

7-2 

traces 

,,           magnesium 

5'9 

-1- 

Chlorure  de  calcium 

5  '9 

,,              magnesium 

8*3 

3'« 

,,              sodium 

3'9 

5-o 

Nitrate  de  sodium 

2'I 

I'O 

Carbonate      ,, 

12-7 

16-6 

Bicarbonate   ,, 

59  '9 

677 

lOO'O 

lOO'O 

Voila  ce  que  jjai  cru  interessant  de  noter  en  ce  qui 
concerne  Taction  des  sels  nuisibles  sur  le  cotonnier  dans 
le  Centre  et  le  Sud  de  la  Basse-Egypte. 


COTTON  447 

De  ce  que  le  cotonnier  vegete  dans  le  Nord  du  Delta 
sur  des  terres  dont  le  sous-sol  contient  des  quantites 
elevees  de  sels  nuisibles,  on  en  conclut  d'ordinaire  que 
cette  plante  manifeste  a  leur  egard  une  grande  resistance. 
D'aucuns  admettent  que  dans  le  Nord  du  Delta  une  dose 
de  i  a  1*5  pour  cent15  de  chlorure  de  sodium  dans  le  sol 
est  non  seulement  inoffensive,  mais  plutot  favorable  a  la 
vegetation  et  au  rendement  de  cette  malvacee.  D'apres 
eux,  le  sel,  en  empechant  les  tiges  et  les  feuilles  de 
prendre  un  trop  grand  developpement  haterait  la  maturite ; 
ce  qui  est  tres  important  dans  ces  parties  septentrionales 
c^u  les  conditions  climateriques  obligent  a  semer  plus  tard 
et  a  recolter  plus  tot  que  dans  le  Centre  et  le  Sud  du 
Delta.  De  plus,  le  sel  ameliorerait  la  longueur,  la  resist- 
ance et  la  couleur  des  fibres. 

Cependant,  deja  en  1902,  Means  et  Kearney16  n'avaient 
trouve  dans  les  60  premiers  centimetres  de  profondeur  de 
quelques  champs  de  cotonniers  d'Aboukir  pres  d'Alex- 
andrie  que  o'6o  pour  cent  de  sels  solubles  dans  les  parties 
ou  les  plantes  etaient  parfaitement  saines,  1*8  pour  cent 
dans  celles  ou  Ton  rencontrait  de  distance  en  distance 
quelques  pieds  plus  ou  moins  resistants,  et  enfin  2  pour 
cent  et  au  dela  dans  les  endroits  ou  les  plantes  n'avaient 
pu  vegeter. 

Etant  donnee  rimportance  qui  s'attache  a  la  question, 
surtout  dans  la  mise  en  valeur  des  "  Bararis  "  ou  terres 
salees  incultes  du  Nord  du  Delta,  j'ai  resolu  d'entre- 
prendre  une  serie  de  recherches  en  vue  de  determiner 
dans  la  region  septentrionale  de  la  Basse-Egypte  Faction 
des  sels  nuisibles  sur  la  vegetation  et  le  rendement  du 
cotonnier. 

A  cet  effet  j'ai  choisi,  en  1907,  a  Manchieh  Kafr  el 
Garaida,  pres  Belcas  (Gharbia),  cinq  champs,  dont  trois 
etaient  cultives  en  Mitafifi;  les  deux  autres  en  Jannovitch 
et  Abassi.  Ces  champs  sont  designes  ci-apres  par  les 
lettres  C,  D,  E;  A  et  B  respectivement. 

15  Bull.  42,  Office  of  Experiment  Stations,  U.S.  Department  of 
Agriculture,  i8g7,  p.  n. 

16  "  Crops  used  in  the  Reclamation  of  Alkali  Lands  in  Egypt," 
Year-book  of  the  U.S.  Department  of  Agriculture,  1902,  p.  586. 

29 


448 


COTTON 


Dans  chaque  champ  on  a  choisi  des  parcelles  corre- 
spondant  aux  quatre  types  de  vegetation  suivants :  — 

(a)  Plants  non  developpes. 

(b)  Plants  peu  developpes. 

(c)  Plants  moyennement  developpes. 

(d)  Plants  bien  developpes. 

Ces  quatre  types  sont  representes  sur  les  tableaux  (VII 
a  X)  par  les  lettres  a,  b,  c,  d,  respectivement. 

Sur  chaque  parcelle  on  a  preleve  4  echantillons  repre- 
sentant :  le  premier,  la  terre  de  la  crete  des  "  mastabas  " 
ou  billons,  sur  une  epaisseur  de  2  ou  3  centimetres  seule- 
ment;  le  second,  la  terre  de  la  couche  exploitee  par  les 
racines,  couche  dont  1'epaisseur,  mesuree  d'apres  la 
longueur  du  pivot  des  plantes,  varie  de  10  a  40  centi- 
metres, suivant  les  types  de  vegetation  precites,  la 
troisieme,  la  terre  situee  au-dessous  des  pivots  sur  une 
epaisseur  de  30  centimetres;  le  quatrieme  enfin,  la  terre 
de  la  tranche  des  30  centimetres  so-us-jacents. 

A  cette  profondeur  on  a  presque  toujours  rencontre 
les  eaux  souterraines  dont  on  a  egalement  preleve  des 
echantillons.  Ces  eaux  ont  ete  trouvees  salees.  Elles 
contenaient  suivant  les  parcelles  de  2  a  12  pour  cent  de 
sels  dont  0*5  a  10  pour  cent  environ  de  chlorures.  Tons 
les  echantillons  ont  ete  pris  en  aout,  entre  deux  arrosages, 


Longueur  du 
pivot 

Hauteur  des 
tiges 

Profondeur  a 
laquelle  on 
r  encontre 
les  eaux  sou- 
terraines 

Rendement  s 
appr  oxim. 
au  feddan  en 
kantars 


Type  non 


om.  07  a  om.  10 
om.  15  aom.  18 
om.  57  a  om.  60 


Type  peu 
developp6 


om.  15  aom.  19 
om.  34  aom.  37 
om.  57  aom.  62 

o  a  i 


om.  20  a  001.30  i    001.30  a  001.40 
001.54  aom.  65    <    001.753101.25 


om.  60  aom.  65 


I  a2 


om.  60  a  om.  70 


COTTON  449 

ce  qui  est  avantageux  pour  le  but  a  atteindre.  Le  tableau 
ci-dessus  donne  en  moyenne  les  renseignements  relatifs 
aux  quatre  types  de  vegetation  choisis. 

Le  rendement  des  types  bien  developpes  correspond  a 
environ:  — 

3  kantars  au  feddan  pour  les  parcelles  A,  B,  C. 

4  ,,  ,,  la  parcelle  D. 

5  M  »>  »>  E- 

Les  tableaux  VII  a  X  resument  les  details  des  differentes 
determinations  qui  out  ete  faites.  Sauf  pour  les  terres 
cultivees  en  Abassi  et  Jannovitch  qui  out  ete  analysees 
sommairement  et  dont  les  analyses  ne  sont  pas  donnees 
ici,  pour  les  autres  on  a  determine  pour  chacune,  directe- 
ment,  tous  les  elements  portes  aux  tableaux,  a  Texception 
du  sodium  qui  a  ete  calcule  par  difference.  Pour  cela  les 
ions  basiques  Ca  et  Mg  ont  ete  combines  aux  ions  acides 
dans  1'ordre  suivant :  SO4,  Cl,  CO3,  HCO3,  NO3.  L'exces 
des  ions  acides  a  ete  combine  ensuite  au  sodium.  On  a 
prefere  pour  des  raisons  deja  donnees  ailleurs,17  recourir 
a  cette  determination  indirecte  et  laisser  de  cote  le  dosage 
du  potassium.18 

Je  ne  discuterai  que  les  resultats  des  parcelles,  C,  D,  E, 
dont  les  terres  ont  ete  ainsi  analysees.  Les  analyses 
Siommaires  des  deux  parcelles  A  et  B  corroborent,  du 
reste,  ces  resultats. 

Ces  divers  dosages  mettent  en  evidence  plusieurs  points 
interessants.  Je  me  bornerai  ici  a  signaler  les  prin- 
cipaux. 

Dans    les    regions    septentrionales    du    Delta    comme 


17  Voir  Mosseri,   V. — "  Nouveau   systeme  de    drainage    et    de 
dessalement  des  terres,"  Montpellier,  1912,  p.  18. 

18  Les   differences   que   1'on   constate  dans  toutes  les  analyses 
entre  la   somme  des  sels  obtenue   d'apres   les  groupements  con- 
ventionnels  et  celle    que    donne    le    residu   sec,  provient    de    la 
transfoTmation  des  bicarbonates  en  carbonates  pendant  1'evapora- 
tion  et  la  dessication.     D'autre  part,  le  residu  sec  comprend  de 
la  silice,  des  traces  de  fer  et  d'alumine  des  matieres  organiques, 
etc. 


TABLEAU   VII. — TABLEAU  RECAPITULATE 


Parcelles 

Types 
de 
v£g£ta- 
tion 

SULFATES 

CHLOKURES 

Nitrate  de 
sodium 
NaNO3 

Bicar- 
bonate de 
sodium 
NaHC03 

Total 
soluble 
pour  cent 
terre  sech 

CaS04 

MgS04 

Na2S04 

CaCl2 

MRC12 

NaCl 

Crete  des  billons 


c 

D 
E 

a 

a 
a 

0-306 
1734 

0-886 

0-190 
0*270 

0-091 

0-888 

I  '2  1  1 
I*7IO 

0-850 
2*892 
4*967 

0*030 

OT35 
0*001 

OT43 
0*051 
0-096 

1*610 
6*293 

8-548 

Moyennes:       0-975      0-230       0-091        o*88b         1-460      2*903       0*055        0*096       5-483! 

C 
D 
E 

b 
b 
b 

0-163 
0-238 
0*693 

0*143 

0*040 

— 

0-546 

0-059 
0-095 
0-938 

1-163 
0*608 
2*569 

0*066 
traces 
0-0015 

0-174 
0-085 
0-079 

1*768 
1-066 
4*826 

Moyennes:      0-364     0*091                        0*546        0*364      1*446       0-033        O"ii2       2*553 

C 
D 

E 

c 
c 

c 

0*136 
0-108 
0*136 

O'lIO 

0*105 
0-105 

0-290 
0-029 
0-038 

— 

— 

0-780 
0*500 
0-146 

0-030 
traces 

0-143 
0-096 
0-143 

1-489 
0-838 
0-568 

Moyennes:       0*126     O'io6       0*119                                       0*475       0-030        0*127       0*965 

C 
D 
E 

d          0*646 
d         indose 
d          0-190 

0*475 
0-170 

O'lOO 

0*139 

indose 

indose 

indose 
0-091 

0-770 
0-880 
0793 

0-067 
indose 
0-009 

0-095 
0-096 
0-096 

2-192 
1-400 
1-279 

Moyennes:       0*418      0-248       0*139                          0-091      0*814       0-038        0-095        r623 

C 
D 
E 

a 
a 
a 

0*054 
0*127 

0*221 

0-065 

Zc 
0*057 

me  des   r 

0*091 
0-086 

icines 

O'lIO 

0-277 

0-361 
0-675 
1*248 

traces         o-2o6 
0*008        0-085 
0-079 

Q'74.1 
1-096 
1-911 

Moyennes:       0-134     0-065       0*057         0*088        0*193      0-761       0*008        0*123       I>25° 

C 
D 
E 

b 
b 
b 

0-08  1 
0-272 
0*163 

0-004 
0*160 
0-215 

0-103 
0-087 

— 

0-047 

0-255 
0450 
1-170 

traces 
traces 

0-22,9 
0-067 

O'HI 

0*626 
1-052 
1746 

Moyennes:       0*172     0-126       0*095                         0*047    "0-625                        0*139       1-141 

C 
D 
E 

c 
c 
c 

traces 
0*068 
0-081 

traces 
0*130 
0*051 

0*109 
0-189 

— 

0*028 

0-130 
0-420 
0-294 

traces 

0-159 

O'HI 

0-143 

0390 
0-918 
0-599 

Moyennes  :      0-074     0*090       0-149 


—  0*028      0-281         — 


0-137       0*635 


C              d 

0*190 

0-130 

0-032 

_ 

_ 

0*110 

traces 

0-095 

0-557 

D            d 

0*163 

0-065 

0-049 

—  - 

— 

0*093 

traces 

OTII 

0-481 

E             d 

0*034 

_ 

_ 

0*060 

0*067 

_ 

_ 

O'HI 

0-272 

Moyennes:       0-129     0*097       0-040        0-060        0-067     o-ioi  0*105       0*436 


ES  PARCELLES  C,  D,  E. 


^arcelles 

Types 
de 
ve"gdta- 
tion 

SULFATES 

CHLORURES 

Nitrate 
de 
sodium 
NaN03 

Bicar- 
bonate de 
sodium 
NaHC03 

Total 
soluble 
pour  cent 
terre  seche 

CaS04 

MgS04 

Na2SO4 

CaCl2 

MgCl2 

NaCl 

o  metre  a  30  centimetres  au-dessous  du  pivot. 


C 

a 

0-108 

0-065 

i'54i 

— 

— 

0-530 

traces 

0-159 

2-40 

D 

a 

0-578 

0-365 

o-358 

— 

— 

I-I20 

— 

0*067 

2-48 

E 

a 

0-272 

0-316 

0-107 

I'I2O 

~ 

0-079 

1-89 

Moyennes :       0-319        0-248        0-949  0*107      0-923       —         o'loi       2*25 


C 

b 

0-272 

0*345 

0-683 

1-030 

traces 

0-159       2-49 

D 

b 

0^170 

0-160 

0-060 

— 

— 

I'2OO 

t  i  aces 

0-085       I>67 

E 

b 

0-299 

0-365 

0-350 

~ 

_ 

0-890 

0-143      2-°47 

Moyennes :      0*247        0*290        0*364 


—         i  -040 


0-129       2-069 


C 

c 

0-190 

0*170 

0*739 

_ 

_ 

0-I30 

traces 

O'HI 

1-340 

D 

c 

0-163 

O'I2O 

0-483 

— 

— 

0-390 

— 

o-iii 

1-357 

E 

c 

0*128 

0*03 

O-IO3 

0-I7I 

O'OOO 

O'HI 

0-543 

Moyennes:      0*160        0-190        o-6n        0*03          0*103     0*230    o'ooo      o*m 


•080 


C 

d 

0-340 

0*215 

0-647 

0-290 

traces 

0-095 

I-587 

D 

d 

0*884 

0*340 

0-819 

— 

—  ,. 

0-290 

O'OOO 

0-096 

2*429 

E 

d 

0*136 

0-030 

— 

— 

0-059 

0-207 

— 

OTII 

0-543 

Moyennes:      0-453        0*195        °'733  °"°59     0*262 


0*100       1*519 


30  centimetres  &  60  centimetres  au-dessous  du  pivot. 

C 
D 

E 

a 
a 

0-380 
0-088 
0-141 

0-225 
0*090 

0-023 

0*108 

0-350 

O*6  }O 

1*300 
0*996 

t'aces 

0-159 
0-067 

O'lII 

1-394 
1*568 
1-712 

Moyennes:      0*203        OII57        0*023        0*108        0-350     0-975 

— 

0-II2         1-558 

I 

C 
D 
E 

b 
b 
b 

1-802 
0-170 
0-141 

0*600 
0*050 

1*076 

0-018 

0*160 
0*134 

0*810 

1-745 
1-069 

traces 

O'OOO 

o-iii 
0-067 

O'lOI 

4-399 
2-194 
1-463 

Moyennes:       0*704        0*325         1*076        0*018        0-147      1-208    O'ooo       0*093       2-685 


C 

c 

1-39* 

0-430 

1-009 

_ 

0-190 

O'OOO 

0-079 

3-102 

D 

c 

0-054 

o-3 

95 

— 

0-320 

trace* 

O'lII 

0-880 

E 

c 

0-08  1 

0-085 

0-230 

0-444 

O'OOO 

0-070 

0-910 

Moyennes :      0*509        0-257        0*619 


—        0318    o-ooo      0-085       1*630 


C 

d 

I  -088 

0*150 

I-348 

_ 

0-500 

0*000 

0095 

3-181 

D 

d 

0-082 

0*3 

60 

indose 

indose 

0*460 

O'OOO 

0-138 

1-040 

E 

d 

indose 

indose 

indose 

indose 

indose 

0*290 

traces 

0079 

0-870 

Moyennes:      0-585        0*150         1*348 


—         0-416    O'ooo       0-104       i '697 


TABLEAU  VIII.— PARCELLE  C.    MANCHIA 


PLANTES  NON  DKVELOPPEES 

FEU    DEVELOPPEES 

a 

b       \        c 

d 

a 

b 

I 
C 

d 

o  a  30 

30  a  60 

o  a  30 

3ok6o 

Crete 
des 
billons 

Zone 
des 
racines 

cm. 
au-des- 
sous  du 
pivot 

cm. 
au-des- 
sous  du 
pivot 

Crete 
des 
billons 

Zone 
des 
racines 

cm. 
au-des- 
sousdu 
pivot 

cm. 
au-des- 
sousdu 
pivot 

Pour  cent  de  ttrre  seche  : 

Ions  : 

Acide  sulfurique  (SO4) 

0'43° 

0-I30     0-450 

I-I70 

0-230 

0-060 

0-930 

2-480 

Chlore  (Cl)               

O'52O     O'2IO 

0-320 

0-380 

0-750 

0-I90 

O-62O 

0-490 

Acide  nitrique  (NO,) 

0-022 

traces 

traces 

traces 

0*048 

traces- 

traces 

traces 

Ac.  bicarbonique  (HCO3) 

0-104 

0*150  '  0-116 

O'll6 

OT27 

0-174 

0-116 

0-081 

Calcium  (Ca) 

0-090    o-o  1  6    0-032 

0*112 

0-048 

0-024 

0-080 

0-530 

Magnesium  (Mg)     ... 

0-038 

0-013  !  0*013 

0-043 

0-043 

0-013 

0^069 

O'I20 

Sodium  (Na) 

0-406 

0-224    0-752 

0-293 

0-522 

0-165 

0-674 

0-698 

Cotnbinaisons  conventionnelles  : 

Sulfate  de  calcium   ... 

0*306    0-054    0*108 

0-380 

0-163 

o  081 

0-272 

1-802 

,,         magnesium 

0-190    0-065    0-065 

0-225 

0-143 

0-004 

0-345 

0-600 

,,         sodium    ... 

0-091    0-057     1-541 

— 

— 

— 

0-683 

1-076 

Chlorure  de  calcium 

— 

—          — 

— 

— 

— 

— 

,,          magnesium 

— 

—          — 

— 

0-059 

0047 

— 

— 

,,          sodium 

0-850 

0-361     0-530 

0630 

1-163 

0-255 

1-030 

O'SlO 

Nitrate  de  sodium   ... 

0-030 

traces    traces 

1 

traces 

0-066 

tiaccs 

traces 

traces 

Bicarbonate     „ 

0-143 

0*206    0*159 

0-159 

0-174 

0-239 

0-159 

O'lII 

Total  des  sels  solubles 

1-610 

0-743 

2-403 

i  '394 

I-768 

0-626 

2-489 

4'399 

Pour  cent  du  residu  sec  : 

Sulfate  de  calcium  ... 

19-00 

7-26 

4'49 

27-26 

9-22 

12-95 

10-92 

40-96 

,,         magnesium 

11-82 

875 

2-70 

16*14 

8-09 

0-65 

13-86 

13*64 

,,         sodium    ... 

5-65 

7-67 

64-15 

— 

— 

— 

27-44 

24-46 

Chlorure  de  calcium 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

,,          magnesium 

— 

— 

— 

— 

3'32 

7-50 

— 

— 

,,          sodium 

5279 

48-58 

22-05 

45-20 

6579 

40-72 

4I-39 

18-42 

1-86 

— 

— 

— 

373 

— 

— 

— 

Bicarbonate  de  sodium 

8-88 

27-74 

6-61 

11-40 

9-85 

38-18 

6-39 

2-52 

100-0      lOO'O 

too  o 

lOO'O 

lOO'O 

I  OO'O 

lOO'O 

lOO'O 

Calcaire  (CaCO3)  (Calcimetre) 

0-98      I  -I  I 

0-57 

0-88 

1*19 

1-19 

1-30 

i-i; 

M    BOURY    SUD,    PRES    BELCAS    (GHARBIA). 


MOYENNEMENT   DEVEI.OPPEES 

BlEN    DEVELOPPEES 

a 

b 

c 

d 

a 

b 

c 

d 

;rete  des 
billons 

Zone  des 
racines 

o  a  30  cm. 
au-dessous  du 
pivot 

30  a  60  cm. 
au-dessous 
du  pivot 

Crgte 
des  billons 

Zone  des 
racines 

o  a  30  cm. 
au-dessous  du 
pivot 

30  a  60  cm. 
au-dessous  du 
pivot 

0*380            0*074 

0770 

2*010 

0*930 

0-260 

0-850 

I  *800 

0*470            0080 

0*o8o 

O'HO 

0*460 

0*065 

0*I70 

0-310 

O*O22           traces 

le'geres  traces 

0000 

0*049 

iegeres  traces 

legeres  traces 

O'OOO 

0*104          0*116 

0081 

0-058 

o  069 

0-069 

0-069 

0-069 

0*040          traces 

0-056 

O-4IO 

0-190 

0*056 

O'lOO 

0*320 

0*022          traces 

0*034 

0-086 

0095 

0-026 

0-043 

0-030 

Q'451 

0*128 

0-319 

0-428 

0-399 

0*08  1 

0-355 

0*652 

0*136 

traces 

0-190 

1-394 

0*646 

0*190 

0*340 

i  -088 

0*110 

traces 

0*170 

0*430 

0-475 

0*130 

0*215 

0*150 

0*290 

0*109 

0*739 

1*009 

0*139 

0*032 

0*647 

I-348 

0*780 

0*130 

0*130 

0*I90 

0-710 

O*IIO 

0*290 

0-500 

0-030 

traces 

legeres  traces 

O-QOO       0-067 

legeres  traces 

legeres  traces 

o-ooo 

0*143 

0*159 

O'lII 

0-079   I     °'°95 

0-095 

0*095 

0-095 

1*489 

0*398 

1*340 

3-102 

2-I32 

0-557 

1-587 

3'i8i 

9-13 

traces 

14*18 

44*92 

29-47 

34-12 

21*43 

34*20 

7-38 

traces 

12-68 

13-86 

2I-67 

23-34 

I3-54 

4*71 

19*47 

27'39 

55-16 

32-56 

6*34 

574 

40*78 

42*38 

52-38 

32-65 

9-70 

6*12 

35^3 

19-75 

18-27 

15*72 

2*01 

— 

— 

— 

3-05 

— 

— 

— 

9^3 

39-96 

8*28 

2-54 

4-34 

17*05 

5*98 

2-99 

[OO'O 

ICO'O 

100  -0 

100*0 

100*0 

100*0 

I  OO'O 

100-0 

0*78 

I*O2 

1-02 

1-23 

0-39 

0*61 

1-14 

1*02 

TABLEAU    IX.— PARCELLE  D.     MANCHIA 


PLANTES  NON  DEVEI.OPPEES 

PEU   DEVELOPPEES 

a 

b 

c 

d 

a 

b 

c 

d 

3° 

30  a  60 

ok  30 

3ok6o 

Crete 
des 
billons 

Zone 
des 
racines 

cm. 

au-des- 
sousdu 

cm. 
au-des- 
sous  du 

Crgte 
des 
billons 

Zone 
des 
racines 

cm. 

au-des- 
sousdu 

cm. 
au-des- 
sousdu 

pivot 

pivot 

pivot 

pivot 

Pour  cent  de  terre  seche  : 

Ions  : 

Acide  sulfurique  (SO4 

1-440 

0-090 

0-950 

0*150 

0*200 

0-390 

0*290 

0-160 

Chlore(Cl) 

2-660 

0-550 

0-670 

0*780 

0*440 

0*270 

O*72O 

1*180 

Oxide  nitrique  (NO8) 

0-099 

0*006 

O'OOO 

O'OOO 

traces 

traces 

traces 

o-ooo 

Ac.  bicarbonique  (HCO3) 

0-037 

0-062 

0049 

0-049 

o  062 

0*049 

o  062 

0-049 

Calcium  (Ca) 

0-5IO 

0*070 

0*170 

0-026 

0-070 

o  080 

0-050 

0-050 

Magnesium  (Mg) 

0-360 

0-028 

0-065 

o  018 

0-032 

0032 

0-032 

0-051 

Sodium  (Na) 

I-l87 

0*290 

0-584 

0-545 

0-262 

0-231 

0523 

0704 

Combinaisons  conventionnelles  : 

Sulfate  de  calcium  ... 

1-734 

0-127 

0-578 

0*088 

0*238 

0*272 

0*170 

0-170 

,,         magnesium 

0*270 

— 

0-365 

0*090 

0*040 

o  160 

0*160 

0*050 

,  ,         sodium    ... 

— 

— 

0-358 

0*023 

— 

0-103 

0*062 

— 

Chlorure  de  calcium 

— 

0-091 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

- 

,,          magnesium 

1*211 

O'lIO 

— 

— 

0*095 

— 

— 

o  162 

,,          sodium.., 

2-892 

0*675 

I*I2O 

1*300 

0*608 

0-450 

1*200 

1-745 

Nitrate  de  sodium    

0-135 

0*008 

— 

— 

traces 

traces 

traces 

0*000 

Bicarbonate  de  sodium 

0-05I 

0*085 

o-oS7 

0*067 

0085 

0*067 

0*085 

0-067 

Total  des  sels  solubles 

6-293 

1*096 

2*488 

1-568 

I  -066 

1-052 

1*677 

2-194 

Pour  cent  du  residu  sec  : 

Sulfate  de  calcium  ... 

27-55 

11-59 

23-23 

5*61 

22-32 

25-85 

10-10 

7-75 

,,         magnesium 

4-29 

— 

14*66 

5-74 

3-75 

15-21 

9-54 

2*27 

,,         sodium    ... 

— 

— 

14-38 

1-46 

— 

9'79 

3-69 

— 

Chlorure  de  calcium 

— 

8*30 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

- 

,,          magnesium 

I9-25 

10-04 

— 

— 

8-90 

— 

— 

7-38 

,,          sodium... 

45^6 

61-59 

45-04 

82  92 

57-06 

42-78 

71-60 

79-55 

2-14 

073 

1 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

Bicarbonate  de  sodium 

0-81 

7-75 

2-69 

4-27 

7-97 

6*37 

5-07 

3-05 

100-0 

100*0 

100*0 

100*0 

100*0 

100*0 

lOO'O 

lOO'O 

Calcaire  (CaCO3)  (Calcimetre) 

0-64 

i-35 

0-53 

0*64 

0*88 

0*86 

0*66 

ro6 

o.  3  CHARKIA,  PRES  BELCAS  (GHARBIA). 


MOYENNEMENT  DEVELOPPEES 

BlEN  DEVELOPPEES 

a 

Crete  des 
billons 

b 

Zone  des 
racines 

c 
o  a  30  cm. 
au-dessous  du 
pivot 

d 
30  a  60  cm. 
au-dessous 
du  pivot 

a 

Crete  des 
billons 

b 
Zone  des 
racines 

c 

o  a  30  cm. 
au-dessous  du 
pivot 

d 

30  a  60  cm. 
au-dessous  du 
pivot 

o  180 

0-280 

O'6lO 

0-300 

0-I70 

0-200 

I  '45° 

0-330 

0-300 

O-26O 

0*240 

0-180 

0-530 

0-056 

0-170 

0-270 

traces 

traces 

0*000 

o-ooo 

traces 

traces 

O'OOO 

O-OOO 

0-070 

0081 

0*08  1 

0-08  1 

0*070 

0-08  1 

0*070 

0-105 

0-032 

0-020 

0*048 

0-016 

non  dose 

0*048 

O*26o 

0-025 

O'O2I 

0-026 

0-042 

non  dose 

0-034 

0*013 

0-068 

non  dose* 

o-,35 

0-251 

0*336 

— 

— 

0-083 

0-411 

— 

O'lOS 

0-068 

0*163 

0-054 

_ 

0*163 

0-884 

0-082 

0-105 

0-130 

0*210 

lo- 

0-170 

0*065 

0-340 

— 

0-029 

0-189 

0-483 

0-354* 

0*049 

0-819 

— 

0*500 

0-420 

0-390 

0-320 

0-880 

0-093 

0*290 

0*640 

traces 

traces 

O'OOO 

O'OOO 

traces 

traces 

0*000 

0*000 

0-096 

O'HI 

O'HI 

O'lII 

0-096 

O'HI 

0*096 

0*318 

0-838 

0-918 

1-357 

0*880 

1-400 

0*481 

2-429 

1*040 

12-88 

7-47 

I2'OI 

_ 

_ 

33-88 

36-39 



12-53 

14-16 

I5H7 

— 

— 

13-51 

13-99 

— 

3-d6 

20-58 

35-59 

I 

— 

10-18 

33-74 

— 

59-68 

45-70 

28*75 

— 

— 

I9-35 

11-93 

— 

H'45 

12-09 

8*18 

— 

— 

23-08 

3-95 

— 

lOO'O 

lOO'O 

lOO'O 





100  -0 

lOO'O 



0-45 

0-70 

2-09 

0-53 

1-14 

0-61 

0-78 

I*OO 

*  Somme  du  sulfate  de  sodium  et  du  sulphate  de  calcium. 


TABLEAU    X.— PARCELLE  E.     MANCHIA 


PLANTES  NON   DEVELOPPEES 

FEU   DEVELOPPEES 

a 

Crete 
des 
billons 

b 

Zone 
des 
racines 

C 

o  a  30 
cm. 
au-des- 
sous  du 
pivot 

d 

30  a  60 
cm. 
au-des- 
sous  du 
pivot 

a 

Crete 
des 
billons 

b 

Zone 
des 
racines 

C 

o  a  30 
cm. 
au-des- 
sous  du 
pivot 

d 
30  a  60 
cm. 
au-des- 
sous  du 
pivot 

Pour  cent  de  terre  seche  : 

Ions  : 

Acide  sulfurique  (SO4) 

0-626 

OT56 

0-445 

O'lOO 

0-490 

0-346     0-740 

O'lOO 

Chlore  (Cl) 

4-860 

1-020 

0-760 

0-940 

2'6lO 

0-710     0-540 

0-760 

Acide  nitrique  (NO3) 

O'OOI  1 

traces 

traces 

traces 

O'OOII 

traces  i  traces 

traces 

Ac.  bicarbonique  (HCO3)   ... 

0-070 

0*058 

0*058 

0*081 

0-058 

0-081  j  0-104 

0-074 

Calcium  (Ca) 

0-580 

0*096 

0-080 

0-080 

0-400 

0-048 

0-088 

0-048 

Magnesium  (Mg)  ... 

0-432 

0-070 

0-090 

0*090 

0-237 

0-043 

0-073 

0-034 

Sodium  (Na) 

1-9794 

0-511 

0-461 

0-421 

I  -0304 

0-518 

0-502 

0-447 

Combinaisons  conventionnelles  : 

Sulfate  de  calcium 

0-886 

O'22I 

0-272 

0-141 

0-693 

0-163 

0-299 

0-141 

,,         magnesium 

— 

— 

0*316 

— 

— 

0*215 

0-365 

— 

,,         sodium 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

0-087 

0-350 

— 

Chlorure  de  calcium 

0-888 

0-086 

— 

0-108 

0-546 

— 

— 

0-018 

,,         magnesium 
,,         sodium 

1-710 
4-967 

0-277 
1-248 

0*107 

I"I2O 

o-356 
0-996 

0-938 
2-569 

1-170 

0-890 

0-134 
1-069 

Nitrate  de  sodium... 

0-0015 

traces 

traces 

traces 

0-0015 

traces 

traces 

traces 

Bicarbonate  de  sodium 
Total  des  sels  solubles... 

0-096 

0-079 

0-079 

O'lII 

0-079 

O'lII 

0-143 

O'lOI 

8-5485 

1*911 

1-894 

1-712 

4-8265 

I-746 

2-047 

1-463 

Pour  cent  du  residu  sec  : 

Sulfate  de  calcium 

10-36 

11-63 

H'S^ 

8-23 

14-35 

9'33 

14-61 

9-67 

,,         magnesium 

— 

— 

16-68 

— 

— 

12-31 

I7-83 

— 

,,         sodium 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

4-98 

17-09 

— 

Chlorure  de  calcium 

10-37 

4  '50 

— 

6-31 

11-31 

— 

— 

1-23 

,,         magnesium 

2O  'OO 

14-49 

5-65 

20-79 

19-43 

— 

— 

9-16 

,,         sodium 

58-I3 

65-25 

59-I4 

58-18 

53-25 

67-02 

43*49 

73-04 

O'O2 

— 

— 

— 

0*03 

— 

— 

— 

Bicarbonate  de  sodium 

I-I2 

4*13 

lOO'O 

4-17 

6-49 

I  OO'O 

1-63 

6-36 

I  OO'O 

6-98 

6-90 
100  -o 

lOO'O 

lOO'O 

lOO'O 

lOO'O 

Calcaire  (CaCO3)  (calcimetre) 

0-74 

I'O2|       0-98 

I'll 

0-90 

I  -02 

1-68 

0-70 

[0.  2.    BAHARIA,  PRES  BELCAS  (GHARBIA). 


MOYENNEMBNT   DEVELOPPEKS 

BlEN   DEVELOPPEES 

a. 

I, 

c 

d 

a. 

b 

c 

d 

Crete  des 
billons 

Zone  des 
racines 

o  a  30  cm. 
au-dessous  du 

3o-a  60  cm. 
au-dessous 

Crete  des 
billons 

Zone  des 
racines 

o  a  30  cm. 
au-dessous  du 

30  a  60  cm. 
au-dessous  du 

pivot 

du  pivot 

pivot 

pivot 

0*206 

O'lOO 

0-091 

0*28l 

0-214 

0*024 

0*120 

0*240 

O'OQO 

O'2OO 

O'2OO 

O'27O 

°'55° 

0*088 

0-I70 

0-175 

traces 

traces 

O'OOO 

O'OOO 

0-0071 

traces 

o-ooo 

traces 

0*104 

0-104 

0-08  1 

0-058 

0-070 

0*08  1 

0-08  1 

0-058 

0-040 

0*024 

0^048 

0*024 

0*056 

0*032 

0*040 

0-008 

0'02I 

0-017 

O-O26 

0*017 

0-043 

0-017 

*  0-021 

non  dose 

0-107 

0'I54 

0-097 

0-260 

0-3396 

0*030 

O'lII 

— 

0-136 

0-08  1 

0-128 

O*o8l 

0-190 

0-034 

0*I36 

0*105 

0-053 

— 

0-085 

O'lOO 

— 

0*030 

0-038 

— 

— 

0*230 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

0-030 

— 

— 

0*060 

— 

— 

0-028 

0-103 

— 

0-091 

0*067 

0-059 

0'146 

0-294 

0-I7I 

0-444 

0-793 

— 

0-207 

traces 

traces 

o-ooo 

O'OOO 

0-0097 

traces 

— 

0-143 

0-143 

O'HI 

0-070 

0-096 

O'lII 

O'lII 

0-568 

Q'599 

0-543 

0-910 

1-2797 

0-272 

0-543 

23*94 

I3-52 

23-57 

8-90 

14-84 

12-50 

25-04 

18-48 

8-84 

— 

9-33 

7*81 

— 

5-52 

6-69 

— 

— 

25-27 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

5-52 

— 

— 

22-05 

— 

— 

4-67 

18-96 

— 

7*11 

24-63 

10-86 

25-70 

49-10 

31-49 

48-81 

61-99 

— 

38-I4 

— 

— 

o-oo 

O'OO 

o*75 

— 

— 

25-19 

23-87 

20-46 

7-69 

7-50 

40-82 

20*44 

lOO'O 

lOO'O 

100*0 

zoo  -o 

100*0 

100*0 

lOO'O 

0-70 

1-40 

1*25 

O'I2 

0-94 

1*31 

i-35 

0*33 

458  COTTON 

ailleurs,  le  cotonnier  est  sensible  aux  effets  des  sels  quand 
ceux-ci  depassent  une  certaine  quantite. 

Les  rendements  sont,  toutes  choses  egales  d'ailleurs  et 
dans  certaines  limites,  inversement  proportionnels  a  la 
dose  de  sels  nuisibles  que  renferme  la  terre.  II  s'agit 
seulement  de  ne  considerer  que  la  couche  reellement  en 
contact  avec  les  racines.  On  trouve  ainsi  que  ce  sont 
les  terres  qui  ne  renferment  guere  plus  de  0*30  pour  cent 
de  sels  nuisibles  qui  donnent  les  meilleurs  rendements. 
La  terre  adherente  aux  racines  des  cotonniers  de  la 
parcelle  E  (Ed),  qui  donne  4  a  5  kantars  au  feddan  ne 
contenait  que  0^272  pour  cent  de  sels  solubles  sur  lesquels 
il  y  avait  0*034  pour  cent  de  sulfate  de  calcium,  dont  j'ai 
deja  rappele  Taction  bienfaisante.  Cette  action  est  encore 
beaucoup  plus  manifeste  dans  le  cas  des  terres  Cd  et  Dd. 

Dans  I'ensemble,  la  dose  totale  des  sels  solubles  pour 
les  terres  qui  produisent  de  3  a  5  kantars  ne  depasse  guere 
0*43  dont  O'i3  de  sulfate  de  calcium  et  0*30  de  sels 
nuisibles.  Des  que  cette  dose  depasse  0*5  ou  0*6  pour 
cent  les  rendements  baissent  et  a  i  pour  cent  ils  devien- 
nent  pratiquement  mils.  Ce  dernier  point  est  mis  en 
evidence,  aussi  bien  par  1'analyse  de  la  couche  de  terre 
adherente  aux  racines  des  plantes  dans  les  types  de 
vegetation  (a),  (b),  (c),  (d),  que  par  Texamen  de  la  couche 
qui  vient  immediatement  apres. 

II  faut  noter  cependant  que  dans  cette  investigation  les 
sels  nuisibles  consistaient  en  sulfate  de  magnesium  et  de 
sodium,  en  chlorures  de  calcium,  magnesium  et  sodium 
et  enfin  en  bicarbonate  de  ce  dernier  metal.  Les  solutions 
salines  du  sol  presentent  ici  tin  caractere  qui  differe  de 
celui  qu'elles  revetent  dans  le  Sud  et  le  Centre  du  Delta, 
en  ce  qui  concerne  la  nature  et  la  proportion  des 
differents  sels  qui  les  constituent.  Les  parcelles  etudiees 
ne  contenaient  pas  de  carbonate  de  sodium. 

La  terre  de  la  parcelle  E  nous  fournit  une  bonne 
occasion  pour  etudier  Faction  individuelle  des  chlorures 
en  presence  d'une  faible  quantite  de  sulfate  de  calcium 
et  en  presence  d'une  dose  normale  de  bicarbonate  de 
sodium.  On  voit  que,  lorsque  la  dose  de  chlorures 
passe  de  0*13  a  0*32  pour  cent,  le  rendement  de  4  a  5 
kantars  tombe  a  i  ou  2  environ.  II  semblerait,  toutefois, 


COTTON  459 

d'apres  ces  chiffres  et  ceux  que  j'ai  obtenus  depuis,  que 
les  cotonniers  supportent  une  dose  legerement  plus 
elevee  de  .chlorures  et  de  sels  nuisibles  en  general,  dans 
le  Nord  que  dans  le  Centre  et  le  Sud  du  Delta. 

Cela  est  du,  sans  doute,  au  fait  que  pour  une  meme 
dose  de  sels,  les  solutions  qui  circulent  au  sein  des  terres 
sont,  en  general,  pour  differentes  raisons,  plus  diluees 
dans  le  Nord  que  dans  le  Centre  et  contiennent  ordinaire- 
ment  et  proportionnellement  plus  de  sulfate  de  calcium. 

Ce  dernier  point  se  confirme  si  Ton  considere  la  terre 
adherente  aux  racines  et  que  Ton  compare  Centre  eux  les 
chiffres  relatifs  a  la  parcelle  Cc,  sans  sulfate  de  calcium, 
avec  les  chiffres  des  parcelles  DC  et  EC,  contenant  ce 
sulfate. 

Le  cotonnier,  a  en  juger  par  ces  dosages  et  par  plusieurs 
autres  egalement,  semble  supporter  d'assez  grandes  quan- 
tites  de  sulfate  de  sodium.  Les  bicarbonates  varient  peu 
entre  les  differentes  terres  des  divers  types  de  vegetation. 
Us  sont  plus  abondants  dans  la  couche  exploitee  par  les 
racines  que  sur  la  crete  des  billons  ou  se  sont  accumules 
les  sels  solubles. 

Pour  la  region  du  Nord  du  Delta,  en  1'absence  du 
carbonate  de  sodium,  les  chlorures  et  sulfates  de  magne 
sium  et  de  sodium  sont  en  realite  ceux  dont  il  faut  le 
plus  tenir  compte,  et  ces  recherches  montrent  que  pour 
apprecier  le  degre  de  leur  toxicite  il  importe  de  prendre 
en  consideration  leurs  proportions  respectives  ainsi  que 
la  presence  ou  1'absence  du  sulfate  de  calcium. 

Or,  comme  on  peut  le  voir,  ces  proportions  sont  tres 
variables,  et  differentes  pour  les  diverses  terres.  La 
somme  des  sels  solubles  peut  ainsi  varier  dans  de  grandes 
limites. 

Dans  les  experiences  qui  nous  occupent,  le  carbonate 
de  sodium  etait  absent.  Je  Tai  trouve  par  contre  dans 
plusieurs  autres  localites,  principalement  dans  la  Behera.19 
Je  n'ai  pas  a  revenir  ici  sur  ce  que  j'ai  dit  a  son  sujet. 
J'ajouterai  simplement  qu'en  raison  de  la  nature  plus 
argileuse  des  terres  du  Nord  (Bararis),  le  carbonate 


19  Voir  Mosseri. — "  Les   Terrains  alcalins  en   Egypte,"  Bull. 
Institut  Egyptien_,  tome  v,  IQII. 


COTTON 


peut  y  produire  les  memes  effets  nuisibles  a  doses  bien 
moindres. 

Un  autre  fait  interessant  se  degage  de  ces  analyses. 
C'est  Tascension  des  sels  a  la  surface  des  billons  au  profit 
de  la  zone  exploitee  par  les  racines.  Les  chlorures 
forment  plus  de  la  moitie  des  sels  ainsi  accumules.  Par 
suite  de  cette  accumulation,  il  est  difficile  de  fixer  par 
des  chinres  les  limites  de  salure  compatibles  avec  tel 
ou  tel  rendement  dans  ces  regions  des  Bararis  (terres 
salees  du  Nord).  Ces  limites  varient  suivant  la  nature 
des  sels  qui  constituent  le  total  soluble  et  aussi  et  surtout 
suivant  les  conditions  cultu  rales,  climateriques,  agro- 
logiques  et  autres  qui  determinent  la  dilution  et  1'ascen- 
sion  precitees. 

Cette  ascension  justifie  les  pratiques  et  artifices  adoptes 
par  les  cultivateurs  des  regions  plus  ou  moins  salees  de 
la  partie  septentrionale  de  TEgypte.  Ici,  en  effet,  les 
billons  sont  peu  eleves  et  les  raies  d'arrosage  evasees. 
J'ai  montre  que  dans  ce  cas,  1'imbibition  est  moins  pro- 
fonde  et  d'une  portee  laterale  plus  grande,  ce  qui  empeche 
la  capillarite  de  puiser  les  sels  dans  les  profondeurs  du 
sous-sol  et  facilite  raccumulation  des  sels  du  sol  a  la 
surface  des  billons  ou  mastabah.  Les  graines  sont 
semees  au  bas  du  versant  Sud  des  billons,  presque  dans 
les  raies.  On  seme  plus  dru.  La  duree  du  premier 
assoiffement  ou  tddtiche  y  est  de  40  a  45  jours  au  lieu  de 
30  a  35  comme  dans  le  Centre  et  le  Sud  du  Delta.  Cela 
toujours  pour  que  la  terre  ou  s'enfonce  la  jeune  racine 
puisse  envoyer  son  exces  de  sels  sur  la  crete  des  billons. 
Les  arrosages  y  sont  pratiques  non  pas  en  rapport  avec 
les  besoins  reels  des  plantes,  mais  en  vue  de  diluer  con- 
stamment  les  solutions  salines  qui  circulent  autour  des 
racines,  etc. 

II  etait  interessant  de  montrer  que  ces  pratiques  cul- 
turales  se  justifient  scientifiquement,  ce  qui  ne  signifie 
point  qu'elles  soient  parfaites.  La  vraie  solution,  en 
effet,  est  de  dessaler  la  terre  sur  une  profondeur  con- 
venable,  afin  de  la  mettre  en  etat  d'etre  semee  de  bonne 
lieure  et  cultivee  suivant  les  methodes  les  plus  rationnelles. 

Dans  cette  premiere  investigation,  la  vegetation  et  les 


COTTON  461 

rendements  du  cotonnier  ont  ete,  jusqu'a  un  certain  point, 
proportionnels  a  1'epaisseur  de  la  tranche  dessalee, 
pouvant  etre  utilisee  par  les  racines.  Cette  epaisseur  n'a 
pu  etre  inferieure  a  50  ou  60  centimetres  sans  affecter  de- 
favorablement  les  resultats  culturaux.  Des  recherches 
ulterieures  m'ont  montre  que  cette  tranche,  compatible 
avec  un  developpement  normal  du  cotonnier,  a  en  realite 
tine  epaisseur  qui  est  le  resultat  combine  de  plusieurs 
facteurs,  tels  que  la  nature  des  terres,  leur  salure,  celle 
des  eaux  souterraines,  les  conditions  climateriques,  la 
preparation  du  sol,  les  fac^ons  de  culture,  les  arrosages, 
les  caracteres  individuels,  etc.  On  comprend,  des  1-ors, 
que  cette  epaisseur  ne  saurait  etre  la  meme  partout. 

La  connaissance  exacte  de  sa  valeur  minimum  pourtant 
est  indispensable  pour  decider  du  niveau  auquel  il  con- 
vient  de  maintenir  le  plan  d'eau  dans  des  drains  et  fixer 
les  conditions  generates  du  drainage.  Des  experiences 
multiples  restent  encore  a  faire  pour  determiner  cette 
epaisseur  suivant  les  localites. 

Toutefois,  les  recherches  de  M.  Audebeau  Bey,20  celles 
de  M.  Ferrar21  et  les  etudes  de  M.  Balls22  ont  fait  voir 
qu'en  general  pour  le  Centre  et  le  Sud  du  Delta,  ainsi 
que  pour  la  province  de  Ghiza,  une  epaisseur  minimum 
de  terre  seche  d'environ  2m.  est  indispensable  a  un  bon 
rendement  cotonnier.  Contrairement  a  ce  qui  se  passe 
dans  les  regions  du  Nord  du  Delta,  les  eaux  du  sous-sol 
dans  le  Sud  et  dans  une  partie  du  Centre,  contribuent, 
dans  une  certaine  mesure,  aux  besoins  .du  cotonnier  en  eau 
pendant  la  periode  d'etiage.  J'ai  parle  de  cette  source 
d'alimentation  dans  une  etude  recente,  a  laquelle  je 
renvoie.23 

Mes  experiences  dans  les  regions  du  Nord  du  Delta,  a 
sous-sol  plus  ou  moins  sale,  experiences  que  confirment 


20  Rapport  a  1'Administ.  des  Domaines  de  PEtat,  1909-1912. 

21  "  The  Effect  of  Water  on  the  Cultivation  of  Cotton,"  Survey 
Pa-per  No.  24,  1912. 

22  "  The  Cotton  Plant  in  Egypt,"  1912. 

23  "  L'Utilisation    du    Reservoir    souterrain,"    Bull.    Institut 
Egyptien_,    Avril,    1914;    et    Bull,    de    VUnion   des    Agriculteurs 
d'Egy-pte,  1914,  p.  7Q. 


462  COTTON 

du  reste  les  observations  culturales,  montrent  qu'il  suffit 
ordinairement  dans  ces  regions  que  le  plan  d'eau  soit 
maintenu  a  une  profondeur  de  im.  25  a  im.  50  pour 
satisfaire  amplement  au  developpement  normal  du  coton- 
nier.24  J'ai  signale  d'autre  part  qu'on  peut  obtenir  dans 
ces  regions  septentrionales  du  Delta  jusqu'a  cinq  et  six 
kantars  de  coton  au  feddan,  avec  un  plan  d'eau  maintenu 
a  70  ou  80  centimetres,  au-dessous  du  sol,  a  la  condition 
que  ce  plan  ne  subisse  point  de  fluctuations  appreciables  et 
subites  durant  la  culture  cotonniere.25 

Cependant,  a  cause  des  sels  nuisibles  du  sous-sol  et  si 
Ton  ne  veut  point  revenir  tous  les  deux  ans  a  la  culture 
du  riz  que  la  remontee  des  sels  rendrait  obligatoire,  il 
est  indispensable  de  maintenir  le  plan  des  eaux  souter- 
raines  a  im.  25  ou  im.  50  de  profondeur.  II  ne  parait 
pas  utile  d'abaisser  davantage  ce  niveau,  afin  de  ne  point 
favoriser  le  developpement  a  bo  is  et  retarder  la  maturite 
des  capsules.  D'ailleurs  le  systeme  radiculaire  du  coton- 
nier  sous  1'influence  des  conditions  de  temperature  du 
Nord  du  Delta,  s'accomode  parfaitement  d'une  moindre 
profondeur.  Les  fluctuations  de  la  nappe  souterraine 
sont  en  realite  plus  interessantes  que  son  niveau  absolu, 
loTsque  celui-ci  reste  dans  les  limites  precitees.  En  effet, 
si  dans  leurs  fluctuations  les  eaux  souterraines  parvien- 
nent  a  atteindre  les  racines  des  plantes,  elles  amenent 
I'asphyxie  de  la  partie  envahie,  et  chez  le  cotonnier  elles 
provoquent  une  chute  anormale  des  capsules  accompagnee 
d'une  diminution  de  la  resistance  des  fibres.  Dans  le 
region  des  Bararis,  les  fluctuations  sont  provoquees 
principalement  par  les  arrosages.26 

Comme  on  le  voit,  la  question  des  sels  est  intimement 
liee  a  celle  du  drainage  et  des  eaux  souterraines  et  Ton 
ne  peut  point  envisager  Tune  sans  prendre  Tautre  en 
consideration. 

Des  recherches  analogues  a  celles  de  1907  ont  ete  eten- 
dues  en  1909  a  toute  la  region  de  Kafr  el  Garaida,  pres 
Belcas  (Gharbia),  comprise  entre  le  canal  Bishma  et  le 


24  "  Le  Drainage  en  Egypte,"  loc.  cit. 

25  Cairo  Scientific  Journal.,  vol.  iii,  p.   507. 

26  Mosseri,  V. — "  Le  Drainage  en  Egypte,"  loc.  cit. 


COTTON  463 

drain  Banaouan.  Quatre  localites  ont  ete  observees : 
(i)  Garaida  haute,  tres  bonne  terre,  cote  +  3m.,  a  rende- 
ment  normal  de  6  kantars  au  feddan,  a  eaux  souterraines 
fluctuant  entre  im.5o  et  im.  (2)  Garaida  basse,  bonne 
terre,  cote  +  2*50  a  rendement  habitue!  de  4  a  4^  kantars 
et  ou  les  eaux  souterraines  se  trouvaient  a  une  profondeur 
variable  entre  im.  et  0111.83.  (3)  Manchia  (Hod  el 
Zeraia),  assez  bonne  terre  situee  a  la  cote  +  i'8o,  don- 
nant  d'ordinaire  3  a  4  kantars  et  ou  les  eaux  souterraines 
se  maintennant  entre  om.58  et  om.6o  de  la  surface.  (4) 
Manchia  (No.  3  Baharia),  mauvaise  terre  cote  +  1*20  ne 
produisant  que  I  a  2  kantars;  eaux  souterraines  a  0111.87 
et  0111.90. 

Des  plantes  des  quatre  qualites  de  terres  ont  ete,  apres 
la  deuxieme  cueillette,  extraites  du  sol  avec  leurs  racines, 
en  prenant  des  precautions  speciales  a  cet  effet. 

La  teneur  en  sels  de  ces  quatre  terres  de  differente  pro- 
ductivite,  confirme  les  donnees  precedemment  obtenues. 
(Voir  Tableau  XI.) 

D'autres  determinations  faites  sur  des  terres  de 
differentes  regions  ont  toujours  donne  les  memes 
resultats.  Je  me  dispense  de  les  relater  ici,  car  elles  ne 
diront  rien  de  plus  que  les  chiffres  deja  enonces. 

Des  essais  poursuivis  depuis  1911  en  vue  de  determiner 
le  degre  de  resistance  que  peuvent  opposer  les  varietes 
de  cotonniers  cultivees  en  Egypte,  aux  effets  des  sels, 
n'ont  pas  encore  conduit  a  des  resultats  precis.  Cepen- 
dant  le  Sakellaridis  parait  etre  la  variete  la  mieux  adaptee 
aux  terres  plus  ou  moins  salees  du  Nord  du  Delta  et  aux 
conditions  climateriques  de  cette  region  si  Ton  en  juge 
par  ces  essais  ainsi  que  par  les  resultats  pratiques  obtenus 
en  grande  culture.  Neanmoins  des  recherches  supple- 
mentaires  sont  encore  necessaires  avant  de  se  prononcer 
definitivement  sur  ce  point  et  sur  le  degre  de  tolerance  de 
chacune  des  autres  varietes. 

Enfin,  dans  une  autre  serie  d'etudes,  j'ai  essaye  de 
preciser  de  quelle  fa^on  se  traduit  sur  la  vegetation  du 
cotonnier  et  sur  ses  produits,  Taction  des  sels  nuisibles 
a  doses  moyennes.  Pour  cela  on  a  choisi  a  Manchia 
Kafr  el  Garaida  (Gharbia)  trois  parcelles  soumises  aux 
30 


464 


COTTON 


O 


•a 

e 

1 

u 

0 

O       O       *3       O»      *     .O 

ro        w          C          ON       vo          ro 

i 

8  *n 

/rt 

O         O         C         O         O         O 

M 

IS* 

8) 

m" 
u  m  c 

• 

tog 

£ 

£?     ^     S     ^     ?      « 

a 

*o 

o 

P     r     45     P     P     g 

h^ 

c 

/rt 

o       o       c       o       o      -S 

o 

* 

0 

g 

£  1 

o 

O         •*        "±         ON        O         O 

<N           U">                         ^         OO            rO 

"P     P     -S     P     P     P 

o 

vo 

P 

-:=  § 

/rt 

o      o      c      o      b      b 

«  rt-* 

Rj 

Pi 

E 

o 

o       N      •£       a\      o       o 

CJN         -t-         C          ON         M          CO 

1 

s 

M 

O         O         C         O         O         O 

b 

0 

^ 

E" 

^        ^ 

c 

s  I"* 

U 

8^       ti       «       o       o 
^  s-   §  ^  ^  ^ 

•         •       v<u       •         c       c 
o      o       c       o 

eg 
00 

b 

!>3 

g, 

c;       c 

c  •—  **• 

D 

E 

0 

O         j*        £          «        CXD          w 

o 

-a 

c 

*rt 

b      b       c       b       b      is 

b 

0 

E 

^                                                                     v^            v(y 

O 

O          ^        "*"""         vO           O           O 

o 

V 

o 

n^          *^J         S          ^^       'O         "^ 

00 

g 

KS 

C          •           v^3          *             G          c 
0          0          G          0          o          C 

b 

J2  3 

o 

G                                              C          c 

o  j> 

•     E 

C/2                                                                        (/)                t/» 

o 

0 

0          ^-        -^        vO          0          0 

o 

i>  ^ 

v§ 

Q               0)              ^H 

^ 

t  c 
v  § 

6      b       u       b       o       o 
c                                c       G 

b 

II 

-«      ^<u 

B 

o 

°       N"      "c      ^      °       ° 

g 

H 

* 

b      b     "B      b       §       o 

b 

0 

G           G 

3 

;     ;        8     ;     ; 

"o  c 

a 

K         o    W 

«  t> 

o 

ii 

u 

CO                      —         4> 

<u                3       cr       •      'ej 

S 

s 

i  •  1  §  4  1 

1  g  1  !  f  i 

1/1      <u      °     -°      §     45 

«         fe         «                  .2         B 

3 

1 

13                       o           G/J 

I  3  '1     '51 

Diagrams  to  face  this  page. 


COTTON  465 

memes  conditions  de  culture,  de  drainage  et  d'irrigation. 
Toutes  les  trois  sont  constitutes  par  des  terres  a  pen  pres 
semblables  qui  different  entre  elles  par  leur  teneur  en  sels 
nuisibles.  La  premiere  et  la  seconde  de  ces  parcelles 
representent  le  type  de  terres  legerement  salees  (0*7  pour 
cent  de  sels  solubles  dont  0*15  et  0*2  de  NaCl),  se  trouvant 
a  la  cote  +  im.  41  et  im.  19  respectivement.  La 
troisieme  est  a  la  cote  +  om.  80  et  represente  le  type  de 
terres  assez  salees  (0*856  pour  cent  de  sels  solubles  dont 
0*5  environ  de  NaCl).  Les  eaux  souterraines  subissaient 
dans  les  trois  champs  a  peu  pres  les  memes  fluctuations 
et  atteignaient  le  meme  niveau. 

Soixante-quinze  poquets  ont  etc  convenablement  choisis 
dans  chacune  des  parcelles :  le  nombre  des  capsules  a  ete 
releve  tons  les  huit  jours.  A  la  premiere  et  a  la  seconde 
cueillette  on  a  compte  les  capsules  et  pese  leur  coton. 
On  a  ensuite  determine  le  rendement  a  1'egrenage  ainsi 
que  le  poids  des  graines.  On  en  a  deduit  le  poids  de 
coton  produit  par  cent  graines  ou  ce  que  Cook  a  designe 
sous  le  nom  de  lint  index  on  "  indice-fibrc."  (Voir 
Tableau  XII.) 

On  peut  conclure  de  ces  essais  que  les  sels  exercent 
leur  action  nuisible  sur  le  cotonnier,  non  seulement  en 
diminuant  le  nombre  de  capsules  par  plante,  mais  aussi 
le  poids  de  coton-graine  par  capsule.  Si  le  rendement  a 
1'egrenage  reste  plus  ou  moins  le  meme  pour  les  cotons 
des  diverses  parcelles,  par  centre  le  poids  des  graines  est 
plus  eleve  sur  les  bonnes  terres  et  partant  le  "  lint  index." 
Sur  les  terres  salees  la  recolte  est  plus  tardive  et  les 
graines  de  la  premiere  cueillette  ne  sont  pas  suffisamment 
mures,  quoiqu'il  ne  faille  pas  accorder  une  valeur  absolue 
aux  pourcentages  respectifs  de  deux  cueillettes,  parce  que 
celles-ci  ont  ete  faites  a  des  epoques  qui  ont  dependu 
plutot  de  Tappreciation  personnelle  des  cultivateurs. 

La  difference  entre  le  poids  des  capsules  et  des  graines 
de  la  premiere  et  celui  des  capsules  et  des  graines  de  la 
deuxieme  cueillette  tend  a  demontrer  que  les  fibres  ou  poils 
de  la  premiere  cueillette  ne  sont  pas  assez  mures,  ce  que 
demontre  du  reste  1'expertise  commerciale. 

Les  fibres  ont  ete  moins  regulieres  sur  la  terre  la  plus 
chargee  de  sels. 


466 


COTTON 


TABLEAU    XII. 
EFFETS  DES  SELS  NUISIBLES  SUR  LES  RENDEMENTS  COTONNIERS. 


Observations  relatives  a  75  poquets 

Parcelle  A 
cote  +  im.  40 
Mgerement  salde 

Parcelle  6 
cote  +  im.  19 
moyennement  sale"e 

Parcelle  C 
cote  +  om.  80 
assez  satee 

Date  des  semailles 

16  avril,  1910 

23  avril  1910 

26  avril,  1910 

Date  de  la  le  cueillette 

9octobre,  IQIO 

20  octobre,  1910 

20  octobre,  1910 

Nombre  des  capsules  recoltees  a 

f      * 

1,102 

902 

423 

la  le  cueillette 

Poids  de  coton-graine  re'colte  a  la 

2,640  gr. 

1,850  gr. 

620  gr. 

le  cueillette 

Date  de  la  2e  cueillette  ... 

27  octobre,  1910 

II  novembre,i9io 

II  novembre,i9io 

Nombre  des  capsules  recoltees  a 

434 

313 

593 

la  2e  cueillette 

Poids  de  coton-graine  recolte  a  la 

952  gf- 

657  gr- 

1,203  gr. 

2e  cueillette 

Nombre  total  de  capsules  recol- 

1,596 

1,215 

1,016 

tees  (sur  75  poquets) 

Poids  total  de  coton-graines  re- 

3>592 gr. 

2,507  gr. 

1,823  gr. 

colte  (sur  75  poquets) 

Poids   de  coton-graine   par  cap- 

2 gr.  27 

2  gr.  05 

I  gr.  46 

sule  de  le  cueillette 

Poids   de  coton-graine   par  cap- 

2 gr.  19 

2  gr.  09 

2  gr.  02 

sule  de  26  cueillette 

Poids-moyen  de  coton-graine  par 

2  gr.  25 

2  gr.  06 

i  gr.  79 

capsule 

Rendement   a  1'egrenage    de    la 

34-43  pour  cent 

35  '40  pour  cent 

34*01  pour  cent 

le  cueillette  en  pour    cent 

de  coton 

Rendement  a  1'egrenage  de  la  2e 

34  '08 

34'36        ,, 

34*o8 

cueillette   en   pour   cent   de 

coton 

Pourcentage  de  la  le  cueillette  du 

73'5° 

7370        ,> 

34  '0 

total  recolte 

Lint-index  (le  cueillette) 

5-96 

5'65 

5'48 

Qualite  marchande  (classification) 

Fully  good  fair 

Fully  good  fair 

Fair 

Prix 

18  a  18$  talaris 

18  a  i8£  talaris 

16  talaris 

par  kantar 

par  kantar 

par  kantar 

La  qualite  marchande  a  passe  du  fully  good  fair  pour 
les  cotons  des  bonnes  terres  au  fair  pour  celui  des  terres 
plus  salees. 

Les  prix  out  etc  de  i8J  et  16  talaris  par  kantar  pour 
les  deux  cas  respectivement :  soit  une  difference  de  2 
talaris  et  J  en  faveur  des  terres  dessalees. 

Ces  donnees  ont  ete  du  reste  confirmees  par  des  experi- 
ences ulterieures. 


COTTON  467 


CONCLUSIONS. 

Si  des  doses  minimes  de  sels  et  specialement  de  chlorure 
de  sodium  peuvent  exercer  une  action  favorable,  ces 
doses,  des  qu'elles  depassent  une  certaine  limite,  nuisent 
incontestablement  a  la  quantite  et  a  la  qualite  des  produits. 
Ces  limites  varient  suivant  de  nombreux  facteurs  que  j'ai 
essaye  de  preciser. 

Cette  action  nuisible  se  manifests  aussi  bien  dans  le 
Sud  que  dans  le  Nord  de  1'Egypte.  Seulement  dans  les 
regions  septentrionales,  un  climat  plus  frais,  une  plus 
grande  humidite  du  sol,  une  nappe  souterraine  salee  a 
niveau  plus  elevee,  un  systeme  radiculaire  plus  tragant, 
des  pratiques  et  artifices  culturaux  appropries,  etc.,  font 
que  les  plantes  se  contentent  d'une  couche  dessalee  de 
moindre  epaisseur. 

Si  dans  le  Sud  et  le  Centre,  la  tranche  utile,  seche  et 
dessalee,  necessaire  au  developpement  normal  du  coton- 
nier,  ne  saurait  etre  inferieure  a  2m.,  dans  le  nord 
(Bararis)  il  n'est  pas  necessaire  d'abaisser  a  plus  de  im.25 
a  im.  50  le  plan  des  eaux  souterraines.  C'est  la  quantite 
de  sels  contenus  dans  cette  tranche  dont  on  doit  tenir 
compte.  On  ne  peut  neanmoins  juger  de  leur  influence 
que  si  Ton  connait  exactement  leur  nature  et  la  propor- 
tion de  chacun  d'eux. 

J'ai  montre  combien  le  cotonnier  etait  sensible  a  Taction 
du  carbonate  de  sodium,  ou  alcali  noir,  meme  a  do>ses  tres 
minimes,  d'autant  plus  minimes  que  les  terres  sont  plus 
argileuses. 

Les  apparitions  fugitives  de  ce  carbonate,  sur  lesquelles 
j'ai  insiste  dans  un  autre  travail,  sont  a  craindre  au  cours 
de  la  vegetation  et  il  est  necessaire  de  veiller  sur  les 
conditions  qui  peuvent  les  determiner. 

En  general  et  surtout  en  terres  plus  ou  moins  calcaires, 
on  en  est  averti  par  une  dose  trop  elevee  de  bicarbonate. 

Apres  le  carbonate  alcalin,  les  chlorures  constituent, 
avec  le  sulfate  de  magnesium,  les  sels  les  plus  nuisibles. 

Viennent  enfin  le  sulfate  et  le  bicarbonate  de  sodium. 
J'ai  releve  les  doses  limites  compatibles  avec  des  rende- 
ments  normaux.  Ces  doses  sont  notablement  inferieures 
a  celles  qu'on  admet  d'ordinaire. 


468  COTTON 

J'ai  montre  ensuite  de  quelle  maniere  les  sels  exercent 
leur  action  nuisible  sur  le  rendement  et  sur  la  qualite  des 
produits. 

Toutes  les  recherches  ont  etc  effectuees  sur  des  cultures 
en  pleins  champs  ne  s'ecartant  pas  des  conditions  nor- 
males.  Elles  ont  ete  multipliees  de  faqon  a  eliminer 
autant  que  possible  Tinfluenee  des  facteurs  etrangers. 

Ces  investigations  n'ont  pas  seulement  un  interet 
speculatif :  elles  sont  tres  precieuses  dans  un  pays  comme 
1'Egypte,  ou  la  question  des  sels  est  intimement  liee  a 
celle  de  la  fertilite  du  sol.  Les  resultats  obtenus  ex- 
pliquent  certaines  anomalies  observees  quelquefois  dans 
les  experiences  de  fumure.  Dans  beaucoup  de  cas,  ils 
rendent  compte  de  la  difference  de  productivite  que  1'on 
constate  entre  deux  terres  parfois  contigues,  en  apparence 
semblables. 

Les  donnees  qui  se  degagent  de  ces  recherches  trouvent 
leur  application  directe  dans  la  mise  en  valeur  des  Bararis, 
ou  terres  salees  incultes  du  Nord  du  Delta. 

Or,  dans  ces  quinze  dernieres  annees,  la  superficie 
annuellement  cultivee  en  coton  a  passe  de  1,000,000  de 
feddans  environ  a  plus  de  1,300,000  dans  la  Basse- 
Egypte,  et  de  88,000  a  380,000  dans  la  Haute-Egypte. 

Dans  cette  derniere  region,  Taugmentation  est  speciale- 
ment  due  a  la  conversion  des  bassins  de  la  Moyenne- 
Egypte.  Dans  la  Basse-Egypte  elle  est  le  resultat,  en 
partie,  de  la*substitution  de  Tassolement  biennal  a  rassole- 
ment  triennal,  et,  en  partie  de  la  mise  en  valeur  des  terres 
incultes,  particulierement  des  Bararis.  On  estime  qu^il  y 
a  environ  1,000,000  de  feddans  de  ces  Bararis  en  voie 
d'amelioration  et  1,200,000  encore  en  friche.  Avec  la 
conversion  des  bassins  restants  dans  la  Haute-Egypte  et 
la  mise  en  culture  des  Bararis,  on  pourra  augmenter  de 
plus  de  50  pour  cent  la  superficie  actuellement  consacree 
au  coton  dans  ce  pays.  Mais  tandis  que  les  terres  de  la 
Haute-Egypte  ne  pourront  produire  que  du  coton  Ash- 
mouni,  qui  devra  soutenir  la  concurrence  avec  la  canne 
a  sucre,  les  Bararis  seront  susceptibles  de  donner  les 
varietes  les  plus  fines  parmi  celles  qui  font  la  renommee 
du  coton  egyptien. 


NOTE  PRELIMINAIBE   SUR  LES  ENGRAIS   CHIMIQUES 
DANS  LA  CULTURE  DU  COTONNIER  EN  EGYPTE. 

Par  VICTOR  M.  MOSSERI. 

Membre  de  Vlnstitut  Egyptien,  Vice-President  dc  V Union 
des  Agriculteurs  d'Egyptc. 

DEPUIS  quelques  annees,  des  conditions  economiques 
nouvelles,  imposent  a  Tagriculture  egyptienne  1'obligation 
d'accroitre  de  plus  en  plus  les  rendements  tout  en 
abaissant  les  prix  de  revient. 

De  la,  sont  nees  des  pratiques  relativement  recentes,, 
parmi  lesquelles  la  fumure  intensive  du  sol. 

Pour  se  procurer  les  matieres  fertilisantes  que  son 
cheptel  vivant  ne  suffit  plus  a  lui  foiirnir,  le  cultivateur  a  du 
s'adresser  aux  engrais,  et  plus  specialement  aux  engrais 
chimiques,  qui,  a  peine  connus  il  y  a  tine  dizaine  d'annees, 
sont  aujourd'hui  1'objet  d'un  commerce  important. 

En  1913  1'Egypte  en  a  consomme  les  quantites 
suivantes :  — 

Tonnes 
Nitrate  de  soude  ..  .  ...  ...     56,922 


Superphosphate 
Cyanamide  de  chaux 
Sulfate  d'ammoniaque 
Sulfate  de  potasse 
Autres  engrais    ... 


12,704 
969 
562 

255 
240 


Total     ...     71,652 


Malgre  les  essais  qui  ont  etc  faits  dans  ce  pays  en  vue- 
d'etudier  la  fumure  rationnelle  des  plantes  qui  y  sont 
cultivees,  il  faut  avouer  qu'en  dehors  de  quelques  cas-peu 
nombreux  du  reste — la  question  n'a  pas  beaucoup  avancee. 

En  ce  qui  concerne  le  cotonnier,  on  n'a  pas  encore 
abouti  jusqu'ici  a  des  conclusions  generales  et  precises. 
D'apres  les  experiences  que  je  pourauis  depuis  1903,  en 
diverses  localites,  il  faudrait  attribuer  cet  insucces  a  un 
defaut  de  continuite  dans  les  recherche s. 


47°  COTTON 

II  est  rare  aussi  que  Ton  prenne  les  precautions  neces- 
saires  pour  eviter  1'action  des  facteurs  etrangers,  dont 
Tinfluence  est  souvent  plus  considerable  que  celle  des 
engrais  employes. 

II  est  difficile,  en  effet,  d'obtenir  pour  les  differentes 
parcelles  d'un  champ  d'experiences  des  conditions 
identiques  en  ce  qui  concerne  Thomogeneite  des  terres, 
les  arrosages,  les  attaques  des  parasites  animaux  ou 
vegetaux,  la  repartition  des  sels  solubles,  le  drainage,  les 
oscillations  des  eaux  souterraines,  les  cultures  et  fumures 
anterieures,  le  voisinage  de  plantations  arbustives,  la 
preparation  du  sol  et  les  fac^ons  culturales,  les  re- 
ensemencements,  la  proximite  d'un  drain,  d'un  canal, 
d'une  rigole  en  charge,  etc. 

Dans  la  fumure  du  cotonnier,  le  probleme  se  complique 
aussi  du  fait  que  tout  en  cherchant  a  augmenter  le  rende- 
ment,  il  est  essentiel  de  respecter  la  qualite  des  fibres, 
qualite  que  Ton  devrait  plutot  chercher  a  ameliorer. 

Pour  toutes  ces  raisons,  j'ai,  depuis  1912,  introduit 
dans  mes  essais  les  methodes  adoptees  ailleurs  en  vue  de 
reduire  le  plus  possible  les  erreurs  experimentales.  A  cet 
effet,  je  me  suis  inspire  des  travaux  de  Wood  et  Stratton1 
«t  de  ceux  de  Mercer  et  Hall.2 

Je  me  propose  d'exposer  ici  les  resultats  obtenus  par 
cette  voie  en  1912  et  1913  a  Bata  (Menoufia),  et  en  1913 
a  Kafr-Soliman  (Gharbia). 

J'envisagerai  plus  particulierement  les  effets  des  engrais 
chimiques.  Les  parcelles  choisies  dans  les  localites  pre- 
citees  representent  le  type  des  bonnes  terres  que  Ton 
rencontre  dans  le  sud  (Bata)  et  dans  le  centre  du  Delta 
(Kafr-Soliman),  comme  1'indiquent  Tanalyse  chimique  et 
physique  des  terres  de  ces  parcelles,  ainsi  que  le  dosage 
des  sels  solubles  qu'elles  contiennent.  (Voir  Tableaux  I 
et  II.) 

A  Bata,  comme  a  Kafr-Soliman,  les  eaux  souterraines 
se  trouvaient  a  plus  de  2  metres  au-dessous  de  la  surface 
du  sol;  il  n'y  avait  pas  lieu  des  lors  d'en  tenir  compte. 
Pour   eviter   des    repetitions,    voici    quels    ont   ete    les 


1  Journal  of  Agricultural  Science,  vol.  iii,   igio,  p.  417. 

2  Ibid.j  vol.  iv,  ign,  p.  106. 


5.?§J?        JUSS 

000    ^-000 

oo  O  f"^  *^t"  ON 

o 

J 

b  b  2  b           ~  «  b  N 

LO   Tj-   N     O   VO 

8 

\ 

t>>.  r-..  N  10            OOOOO 

N    O    O    M                 00    f^GQ    Tj- 

rg   3-2"^S 

o 

I 

o 

OOOO               w   _,   o   IN 

^2^  °^ 

8 

£H 

°~ 

jfg-g,;,             .0*. 

O    M    N    Th  d 
O\  M    ro  M    PO 

o 

0 

b  b  2  b           b  1-1  «  N 

^-  C\  >^>  O    O 
N        vO 

8 

ro 

a 

/rt 

GON<5r-%             OQvooo 

%a  o  r       r-oooo  «s 

b  b  j-  b           b  b  b  '-< 

Th  -4-  N  OO    M 
vO   10  O    PO  rj- 

COOO   ON  O  OO 
O           >O 

p 
8 

0 
% 
« 

/rt 

N^^^               ^^J^^- 

R2o    N    & 

o 

b  b  2  b           b  b  b  « 

rot^vOO^ 

8 

PH 

ft 

gj8rr     a«w 

O  vO  vO    IN  vO 

0 

o 

OOOO      ^00«« 
-^ 

Tt  O  vO  O  00 

1-1    N           10 

8 

SJS1?  ts-2§§^ 

OO    rf  rj-  M    M 
ro  ONVO   C'J  OO 

o 

vg 

OOOO        <«     O«->OM 

1 

10  O  vO   O  vO 
*->  N        «o 

8 

N 
0 

"B 

vS 

R 

b  b  b  b      6    b  b  b  fo 

•OCX)    £j.  O    t>» 

o 

8 

E 

O 

S        "S^ 

o            S 

b  b  «  b          b  b  b  N 

1 

OO    01  OO    ^J"CO 
O\X>    ro  M  vO 

ro        rj- 

o 

8 

* 

M 

^-vg    2   J^                ^^^.,2 

aa««. 

o 

a 

OOOO               OO'-i-' 

^S-S10?, 

8 

0 

% 

V 

sg>8«     «,a*:r 

0<  »o  *O  vO   O 

o 

1 

a 

b  b  £  b          b  b  b  « 

N   C\-i    O  vO 
ro        10 

8 

» 

O   *^  v  10              O   -^-vo  OO 

00   O   O    O    N 

o 

0 

b  b  8  b          b  b  «  N 

10  O  vO   O  t^ 

1-4    M           IO 

8 

....            .... 

Elements  solubles 
pour  cent 

terre  seche 

B 

g-«| 

k-  5  Q             5BSS 

^  2||        sees 

PSUUW           AAAA 

a 
:        :    :  a 

oHllo 

TABLEAU  I  (SUITE). 
BAT  A 


Elements  solubles  pour  cent  terre  seche 

o  a  30 

30  a  60 

60  a  90 

Residu  sec 

0-22 

o*  ro 

O'lO 

Chlorure  de  sodium... 

O*o6 

o  "04             o  '04 

Carbonate  de  sodium 

0*00 

O'OO 

O'OO 

Bicarbonate  de  sodium 

0*16 

0-16              0*14 

Analyse  mecanique  (Kopecky). 


>  2  mm.    ... 

— 

— 

— 

>  I  mm.    ... 
>  \  mm.    ... 
>  |  mm.    ... 

I'OO 

1-16 
3-52 

0-94 

1*44 
2-04 

0*94 
0-82 
2-24 

dros  sable  ... 
Sable  moyen 
Sable  fin    ... 
Soluble       ... 

5-68 
14-98 
24-52 

O'22 

4-42 
8-96 

20-10 
O'lO 

4-00 
7-60 
20-40 
o-io 

Argile  et  limon  fin  ... 

54*60 

66*42 

67-90 

100*00 

lOO'OO 

100*00 

TABLEAU    II. 

Analyse  ciinnique. 


Perte  au  feu 
Insoluble  et  silice 
Fer  (Fe2  O:t)     ... 
Alumine  (A12O3) 
Manganese  (MnO2) 
Chaux  (CaO) 
Magnesie  (MgO) 
Potasse  (K.,O) 
Soude  (Na,O) 
Acide  phosphorique 
Acide  sulfurique  (SO3^  ... 
Acide  carbonique  (CO») 
Azote 


Assimilable. 


Silice  (SiO2)    ... 

Potasse  (K2O) 

Acide  phosphorique  (P2O5) 

Analyse  mecanique  (Schloesing). 
/•Elements  grossiers 

(Calcaire      ... 
Sable       J  Siliceux 

grossier    1  Non  calcaire  et  non  siliceux    ... 
Terre  (Debris  organiques     ... 


BAT  A 
5-66 

61-48 
9*26 

16-74 

O'2I 

3*20 

0-90 

0-36 
0-25 
008 
O*9O 
0-095 


0-03I 

o  025 


fin 

Argile 
Humus 


Nop  calcaire  et  non  siliceux 


0*000 
9*000 

106-000 

0*000 

2-000 

30*000 

473*000 
0*000 

352*000 
28*000 


KAFR- 

SOLIMAN 

5^4 

62-03 

9'06 

15 '93 
0-17 
3  "40 
1-92 
0-68 
0-38 
0-31 
0-07 

075 
0-073 


0*021 

0-024 


0*000 

5*000 

106*000 

3-000 

I -000 

32-000 
553-000 

66'ooo 

228-000 

6"ooo 


1,000-000     1, 000*000 


COTTON 


473 


TABLEAU    II    (SUITE). 
Analyse  tnecaniqiie  (Beam}. 


BATA 

KAFR- 
SOLIMAN 

oa  30 

30  a  60 

60  a  90 

o  a  30  cm. 

Sable  grossier  >  £  mm. 
Sable  fin  et  limon  >  tamis  No.  100... 
Limon  fin  >  tamis  No.  100 
Argile    ... 
Sels  solubles 

2-28 
37-I4 

17-00 
43-36 

O'22 

2-54 
29-46 
2CT2O 
47-70 
O'lO 

2-30 
31-12 
16-40 
50-08 
O'lO 

1*12 
48-80 
16*72 
32-32 
I'O4 

lOO'OO 

lOO'OO 

lOO'OO 

lOO'OO 

engrais    employes    dans   tous    ces    essais    et   leurs    doses 
respectives  en  kilos  par  feddan :  — 


Sulfate  d'ammoniaque    ... 

Nitrate  de  soude 

Scories  Thomas 

Sulfate  de  potasse 

Fumier  de  ferme  (engrais  baladi) 

Superphosphate  16/18     ... 

Cyanamide  de  chaux 


loo  kilos  au  fed. 
zoo   ,, 
200    „ 
zoo    „ 
16  m.c. 
200  kilos 
loo    , 


A  part  le  nitrate  de  soude  qui  a  ete  applique  en  poquet 
au  pied  des  plantes  au  moment  de  1'eclaircissage,  tous  les 
autres  engrais  ont  ete  enfouis  au  dernier  labour  de  pre- 
paration. Les  engrais  ont  ete  employes  aux  doses 
precitees  suivant  des  formulas  indiques  aux  tableaux 
ci-annexes,  ou  chacune  porte  tou jours  le  meme  numero. 

En  1912,  comme  en  1913,  chaque  engrais  a  ete  repete 
quatre  fois,  sauf  les  temoins  qui  Tont  ete  huit  fois.  On 
avait  choisi  8  parcelles  separees,  dont  4  a  Bata  et  les 
4  autres  a  Kafr-Soliman.  Chacune  des  parcelles  avait 
ete  divisee  en  douze  lots  de  J  de  feddan  a  Bata  et  de  rV 
a  Kafr-Soliman.  On  s'etait  assure  de  Thomogeneite  du 
sol  au  point  de  vue  de  la  texture,  des  sels,  etc.,  par  des 
sondages  pousses  jusqu'a  90  cm.  de  profondeur.  (Voir 
Analyses,  Tableaux  I  et  II.) 

Malgre  ces  precautions  il  y  eut  entre  les  diverses 
parcelles  de  legeres  differences  qu'on  n'avait  pu  soup- 
gonner.  Ce  qui  m'a  conduit  pour  les  essais  de  1914  a 
repeter  stir  le  meme  champ  cinq  fois  la  meme  formule 
avec  repartition  en  chicane. 

La  distribution  des  engrais  a  ete  faite  aussi  uniforme- 
ment  que  possible.  Les  parcelles  ont  rec,u  les  memes 


474  COTTON 

traitements;  elles  avaient  porte  les  memes  cultures, 
avaient  ete  fumees  de  la  meme  maniere  et  travaillees  par 
les  memes  cultivateurs.  Les  billions  ont  ete  traces  avec 
un  ecartement  de  om.So  d'axe  en  axe.  Les  semis  ont 
ete  faits  autant  que  possible  en  quinconce  (ce  qui  est 
difficile  a  obtenir)  et  a  une  distance  de  om.5o  entre  les 
poquets.  On  s'est  attache  a  avoir  partout  le  meme 
nombre  de  pieds.  Cependant  on  eprouve  d'assez  grandes 
difficultes  a  observer  cette  derniere  mesure,  parce  que  le 
nombre  de  manquants  differe  souvent  sensiblement  entre 
les  differents  lots.  II  arrive  que  Ton  soit  oblige  de 
reensemencer  plus  d'une  fois.  Or  il  est  acquis  que  les 
plantes  issues  de  reensemencements  tardifs,  produisent 
peu  ou  pas  de  coton.  J'ai  essaye,  cette  annee,  le 
repiquage  au  lieu  du  reensemencement.  Les  resultats 
n'en  sont  pas  encore  connus. 

L'intensite  des  ravages  du  Prodenia  litura,  Fabr.,  a  ete 
appreciee  en  comptant  le  nombre  des  feuilles  infestees. 
En  1912  et  en  1913,  ces  ravages  ont,  du  reste,  ete  insig- 
nifiants.  L'intensite  des  attaques  des  "  Earias  "  et  des 
"  Gelechia  "  a  ete  jugee  d'apres  le  nombre  des  capsules 
piquees.  Pour  les  Gelechia  en  particulier,  on  a  compte 
dans  les  differents  lots  de  coton,  le  nombre  de  graines 
simples  et  doubles  contenant  des  larves,  ainsi  que  le 
nombre  de  graines  vides.  Sur  quelques  lignes  enfin,  on 
a  releve  pour  chaque  formule  la  marche  de  la  floraison 
et  de  la  formation  des  capsules. 

L'etude  de  Pinfluence  des  engrais  sur  ces  phenomenes 
fera  Tobjet  de'un  travail  ulterieur. 


Cela  dit,  examinons  les  resultats  obtenus.  Pour  etre 
bref,  j'ai  resume  dans  une  serie  de  10  tableaux  toutes  les 
donnees  en  y  ajoutant  tous  les  details  necessaires. 

i°  Action  des  engrais  sur  les  rendements.     (Volr  Tableux 

III  aV.) 

De  Texamen  des  tableaux  III  a  V,  il  appert  qu'a  Bata 
les  engrais  chimiques  appliques  au  cotonnier  sont  suscep- 
tibles  de  produire  des  excedents  de  rendement  appre- 
ciables.  Ces  excedents  sont  dus  surtout  a  Tapport  de 


COTTON 


475 


•M 


OO   ON  t>«  ON  toOO   r^vO  VO  VO         f^VO 


vo        i-t       «o 

III 


in     oo  oo 

III 


OO  00   ON       f>»  l^  TJ-  t>. 


ON  ON  ON  ON  ON  ON  ON  ON  ON  ON        ON  ON  vO  txvo        v£°r^vOtC 


vo   w   m  1000          O     .     TJ-VO          HI   ON  OO.t^        ^rf-^-Cv) 

Mrrc^p^-c«iMN       rj-M  poo       1000  j^oo 

ooob b   bob   bb    M  '  b   bbbb 


bbbbb|b|b~   bb    «  |  «   N  ~  «  « 


1        1 


+  t 


OOOOOOOOOO         OO  OOO         OOOO 


CO    to  r<  OO    f-»  ON  TJ-00 


•-i  o  f      ^to     ^Tj-om      >->  r^oo  ^~ 

vb   t^  I^       vO  vO      ON  vO  tovO         l>«vo  vo  vO 


££ 
«l 


i  Ss 


OOOOOOOOOO         OO 
O  00  1-1  o  (vJ  rr>X>  r^  N  OO 


xo 


O    >-"    O          r>»  ON  O  00 
•  Tj-00   ro  to 


OOOOOOOOOO         OO 


n 


m."     « 

~ 


_M   TJ-       to  to 

bbbbbbbbbb   bb 


VO 
O 


rf  w    lOO    ^f 

I    TJ"    »-H    V.O      Q\     T^" 

*-OvO   lO'^OiO 


rJ- 

ONV 


ON        ONVO 
vO         to  to 


OOO  OOOO 

oo  o  m  t^  t^  m  m 

O  vo  p  vp  oo  1000 

rf  m  V  rj-  ^-  ^-  Vt- 


•So.  £        v            J 

:    :Sg       I    :  :    :3      |    :  «  fr 

».  ••£•         5    •  ••         «5   •  t|  3 

4-       °^^^  °- 

^§+    ?•?  -^      ^*z 

•g  +  ajS-S'g  •g28-Sa5  + 

I^IelsJ  o&^s^^e-^ 

8  8  ^  *  g  «S  ^  ^S'S^^^T^rt 

i.i5p+l|  Is   -fsfsf 

5^*s-g+^  -s^-^+^  +  « 

•»  S  tf  •$  «  £*3  «uS^rto;.J2D<u 

11Jillf&Ii  li^^HIl 

>x   r^  V<1>     i-t  ^QJ  ••-«     Cs              —      C  •—  VQJ     C\            -^     C   «i-t     «-f 

-^'        ZW  ^HO      ZWZw 


t^CO   ON  O         •-* 


476 


COTTON 


TABLEAU    III    (SUITE). 
Annee  ign. 


ire 

2me 

e 

ire 

2me 

3  me 

Excedent 

cueil- 

cueil- 

cueil- 

Nature  des  engrais 

cueil- 

cueil- 

cueil- 

Total   i        ou 

lette 

lette 

lette 

lette 

lette 

lette 

1      deficit 

pour 

pour 

pour 

cent 

cent 

cent 

i.  Nitrate  en  deux  fois 

2-41 

2-65 

0-49 

5'55 

+  0'6l 

43 

48 

9 

2.  Nitrate  en  une  fois 

2-31 

2  '49 

0-36 

5-16 

+  O'22 

45 

48 

7 

3.  Temoin  (sans  engrais)   ... 

2-86 

1-89 

0-36 

— 

56 

37 

7 

4.  Temoin  (sans  engrais)   ... 

2-15 

2-41 

°'47 

5*°3 

— 

43 

48 

9 

5.  Nitrate  +  superphosphate 

2-07 

4  '95 

4-croi 

42 

50 

8 

6.   Superphosphate  (avant) 

2'12 

1  '97 

°'49 

4-58 

—  0*36 

4(5 

43 

ii 

7.   Superphosphate  (apres) 

2-42 

i  '99 

°'39 

4-80 

-0-14 

50 

42 

8 

8.   Temoin  (ians  engrais)   ... 

2-62 

179 

0-28 

4-69 

" 

56 

38 

6 

1'element  azote  dont  I'utilite  par  cette  localite  se  confirme 
du  reste  par  des  essais  anterieurs  poursuivis  depitis  1903. 

L'azote  sous  forme  d'azote  nitrique  directement 
assimilable  applique  en  poquet,  de  bonne  heure,  en  une 
ou  en  deux  fois  (voir  resultats  1911)  parait  etre  le  plus 
efficace.  Cependant  cette  efficacite  varie  dans  d'assez 
larges  limites,  suivant  les  annees  (comparer  entre  elles 
les  annees  1911,  1912  et  1913). 

Les  engrais  phosphates,  employes  seuls,  soit  sous  forme 
de  scories  (1913),  soit  sous  forme  de  super  (1912),  ont 
donne  des  resultants  plutot  negatifs.  Associes  au  nitrate 
ils  donnent  de  bons  resultats.  Bien  que  1'excedent  obtenu 
ne  compense  pas  toujours  les  frais  occasionnes  par 
1'application  des  engrais  phosphates,  il  semble  neanmoins 
que  ces  derniers  exercent  une  certaine  action  favorable  en 
ce  que,  associes  aux  engrais  azotes,  ils  corrigent  leur 
tendance  a  retarder  quelque  peu  la  maturite,  surtout  dans 
le  nord,  comme  nous  allons  le  dire. 

Le  super  parait  etre  plus  favorable  sous  ce  rapport  que 
les  scories,  toutefois  ces  deux  engrais  n'ont  pas  ete 
essayes  concurrement  et  dans  la  meme  annee  et  Ton  ne 
peut  des  lors  se  prononcer  definitivement  a  leur  egard. 

La  potasse  seule  n'a  produit  aucune  augmentation  de 
rendement.  Associee  au  nitrate,  elle  n'a  pas  eu  d'effet 
utile  en  1913;  tandis  qu'en  1912,  elle  a  augmente  sensible- 
ment  la  recolte. 

Le  fumier  de  ferme,  applique  directement  au  coton,  a 
produit  de  mauvais  effets  en  1913;  tandis  qu'en  1912  la 


COTTON 


477 


g   « 

Q  M 


s! 

-.•»•/"« 

M 

m         N 

«          K, 

- 

« 

« 

Jl 

Els   b 

N           vo        VO          OO 

oo 

3    O 

it 

vo         t^x          M          vO 

- 

«      * 

N         00 

oo 

00 

« 

.Ǥ 

11 

oo       oo      oo       oo 

oo 

OO         00 

oo      oo 

00 

00 

oo 

s3  rt  S 

1^        *x        m       VO 

o 

£  5  ~  Si 

co        <~O        N          ^O 

M 

1          ^ 

1      ^ 

vo 

•0 

c< 

u  2"°$= 

O          O          O          O 

O 

0 

0 

0 

o 

O 

&    '-3 

fig      g| 

3"    3     S    S 

S> 

vo 

" 

3 

^ 

rn 

8rc  1  "g^o 

O         O         O         O 

O 

1       b 

i        b 

o 

0 

o 

.  2  s  g  § 

+    +    f     1 

1 

+ 

+ 

1 

•s 

rf       00          rj-         <rf 
M        OO         ON        O 

oo 

oo 

vo        r^ 

00          « 

00^ 

^ 

r. 

H 

vo         0        vo        vo 

vo 

vo      vo 

VO         vo 

vO 

VO 

vo 

|| 

to         O          ^O         vO 

0* 

^        N 

M          ON 

_ 

00 

^ 

|| 

b      b      b      b 

b 

b       b 

b      b 

b 

b 

b 

£ 





i^        vo        ON        ON 

^. 

TJ-         ro 

O        10 

oo 

vO 

oo 

i  -H 

r^        O         O         O 

r^ 

OO          >-i 

-i         00 

0 

ON 

5*3 

0          M        'M          M 

O 

O          -" 

«       o 

M 

M 

O 

o 

V 

L^         vO         *O           ^O 

o 

Tf        OO 

TJ-         ON 

vo 

f/^ 

vo 

fO          ^"          ""^           f^ 

•->            <N 

vo 

'O 

0000 

o 

0         0 

0          0 

0 

0 

0 

& 

r^        ro        vo        vo 

ON       00 

00         vO 

VO 

ON 

v  £ 

rf        OO         OO          ON 

l-l 

vO           vo 

i^.         t->. 

r^ 

to 

•^ 

M'S 

3 

vo         vo         vo         Tf 

vo 

rl-        vo 

vo          vo 

vo 

ir* 

* 

• 

: 

";3 

1 

.2 

g       :      8.      i 

: 

__^       : 

^       : 

1 

4> 

1 

c*             -a       s 

'rt 

'S 

+   S 

<u 

s 

1 

S 

'1        <u        <"       J= 

C           3         iS           1> 

§   s   2  •; 

1 

b/5       y. 

C           t/j 

i  i 

g      "g 

W  'C 

P 
S  _}- 

OJ 

5 

•5 

s 

H 

•2-     + 

"  2o 

+ 

•3 

S5 

*2    <u    ^    s 

C            4, 

.S        « 

^»    as 

<u 

.2 

JS     g    •£     § 

iS         i3         0         e« 

3          •—            O            >> 

&      &      '-J>      U 

1 

1          1 

H      a) 

i  I 
s  g 

C 

55 

1 

1-1         N         ro        TT 

i 

VO 

vO         t^ 

00          ON 

o 

» 

!! 

COTTON 


TABLEAU    V. 

CUEILLETTES  COMPAREES  A  CELLES  DES  TEMOINS. 
Resultats  moyens  ex-primes  en  kantars  de  315  rotolis  au  feddan. 

Annee  1913. 


BATA 

KAFR-SOLIMAN 

(MENOUFIA) 

(GHARBIA) 

^Nature  des  engrais 

ire 

sme 

ire 

zme 

cueillette 

cueillette 

cueillette 

cueillette 

i.   Sulfate  d'ammoniaque  ... 
2.  Nitrate  de  soude 

+  0-22 
+  070 

+  0-05 
+  0-23 

+  0-23 

+  0-59 

—  O'2O 
+  0'08 

3.   Scories  +  sulfate  de  potasse 

—  0-40 

—  O'O4 

+  0'6l 

-f  0'12 

4.   Cyanamide  de  chaux    ... 

+  0-27 

+  O'I5 

-0'29 

+  0'I2 

5.   Scories  Thomas 

—  0*19 

-0-13 

-O'lO 

-0-23 

6.  Temoin  (sans  engrais)  ... 

— 

— 

7.  Sulfate  de  poiasse 

—  0*40 

—  O'C>7 

+°'34 

+  0-16 

8.  Temoin  (sans  engrais)  ... 

— 

— 

— 

— 

9.  Nitrate  de  soude  +  scories 

+  079 

—  O'O3 

+0-52 

-0-12 

10.    Complet  :    nitrate    +    sulfate    de 

+  0-03 

+0-52 

+  O*II 

potasse  +  scories 

ii.  Nitrate   -+-   sulfate  de  potasse    ... 

-f  O'lO 

+  O'O2 

+0-27 

+  0-19 

12.   Engrais  baladi  (fumier) 

-0-19 

-O'lO 

-075 

-fO'OI 

recolte  en  a  beaucoup  profile .  En  general  son  action  est 
assez  favorable. 

Les  resultats  obtenus  a  Kafr-Soliman  montrent  que 
dans  cette  localite  les  engrais  chimiques  de  meme  que  le 
fumier  de  ferme  appliques  directement  au  cotonnier 
exercent  sur  le  rendement  une  influence  peu  sensible. 
Les  resultats  sont  de  meme  ordre  que  ceux  de  Bata,  quant 
au  nitrate.  Us  en  different  en  ce  qui  regarde  Faction  de 
la  cyanamide,  des  scories  seules  ou  associees  au  sulfate  de 
potasse,  et  enfin  de  ce  dernier  engrais. 

Toutefois  1'engrais  complet  n'a  pas  donne  ici  de  bons 
resultats. 

En  1913,  le  fumier  de  ferme  ou  engrais  baladi,  a  Kafr- 
Soliman  comme  a  Bata,  s'est  montre  inferieur  aux  engrais 
chimiques. 

II  semble  des  lors  que  1'annee  1913  lui  a  ete  defavorable. 

Dans  les  deux  localites,  c'est  surtout  la  premiere 
cueillette,  dans  le  cas  de  deux  cueillettes;  la  premiere  et 
la  deuxieme  dans  le  cas  de  trois  cueillettes,  qui  semblent 
influencees  par  les  engrais;  la  derniere  cueillete  semble 


COTTON  479 

dependre  d'autres  facteurs  (climat,  etc).  Cependant,  une 
premiere  cueillette  abondante  n'est  pas  necessairement 
suivie  d'une  deuxieme  peu  elevee;  il  y  a  tendance  meme 
a  ce  que  Tinverse  ait  lieu. 

Je  n'insisterai  pas  davantage  sur  les  resultats  de  ces 
deux  premieres  annees,  quant  aux  rendements  culturaux. 

2°  Action  des   engrais  sur  la  maturite. 

Ce  point  merite  notre  attention.  II  est  important,  en 
effet,  de  ne  rien  negliger  des  facteurs  qui  peuvent  hater 
la  maturite,  surtout  dans  le  nord  de  1'egypte  (a  cause  des 
brouillards,  insectes,  etc.). 

Nos  essais  de  Bata  et  de  Kafr-Soliman  accusent  peu  de 
relation  entre  les  engrais  et  la  maturite  de  la  recolte. 
Toutefois,  en  suivant  les  dates  d'apparition  des  capsules 
et  en  comptant  dans  les  differents  carres,  celles  qui  restent 
sur  les  plantes  apres  la  derniere  cueillette  sans  jamais 
s'ouvrir,  on  s'apergoit  de  la  legere  tendance  qu'ont  les 
engrais  azotes  meme  dans  ces  regions  a  retarder  quelque 
peu  la  maturite. 

Des  experiences  poursuivies  depuis  1908  aux  environs 
de  Belcas  ont  fait  mieux  ressortir  cette  tendance.  Aussir 
1'excedent  qu'on  y  obtient  par  Temploi  du  nitrate  varie 
considerablement  suivant  les  conditions  climateriques  de 
Tarriere-saison. 

A  cet  egard,  Temploi  des  engrais  phosphates  associes 
aux  engrais  azotes  est  avantageux  dans  ces  parties  ou 
la  duree  de  la  vegetation  est  relativement  courte.  Le 
super  serait  plus  efficace  que  les  scories. 

Dans  le  sud  et  le  centre  (Bata  et  Kafr-Soliman)  cette 
heureuse  influence  des  engrais  phosphates  n'apparait  pas 
bien  nettement,  et  les  resultats  obtenus  en  1911,  1912  et 
1913  mettent  en  evidence  Tintervention  dans  la  maturite 
d'autres  agents  plus  puissants  que  les  engrais. 

3°  Action  des  engrais  sur  le  rendement  a  I'egrenage  et  le 
Lint-index.     (Voir  Tableau    VI.) 

On  peut  dire  que  tous  les  engrais  qui  produisent  un 
excedent  de  recolte  diminuent  ce  rendement,  et  que  cette 


^ 

14 

*< 


£!  i 2 


CO 


rS 

P  S    1 

^  -N 

fj]      CO        o, 

T    W     -*2 

£  I  3 

<S   g 

{-•    O      g 

C/) 

W 

Q 

O) 

§ 

PL. 

a 


v« 

ve. 


S^ 
S  6 

bfiE 


xapuj 


BJ  ap  ajqB 
-qojd  an-»ajg 


-qcud  anaaag 


-qojd 


BJ  ap  a[qB 
-qojd  anajj^ 


IT)  i^>  to  tr>  to  to  lO 


COO  OOON-^-Tj-T^-MH-iT^NN 

r^  r^      r4  y^j^-^vpvovp  N  c^to    ^jg 

to  to      io  to  to  to  to  to  to  to  to  to   ir^if. 


vO  OO  •— i  Tt*vO  \  N  I  vO  >^ 
'MH  O  «  w  w   '   "     w  MH 


^to          r<->i-'NT*-ro      oo        w 
<0  00  ^  0  vp  00    Tt         rr>        N 


roTj-ror-JfO        N         -<tN       f*)N 


8r  |     r  i     ^-.    r )     r^-  to  ro  '•"'    *"* 
ooooooooo 


OO  vO  O    N  3O    T}~  toOO  vO    ^OO    ^"        ^y 

ON  VO   tovO    O    "3-OO  OO    O\  tovQ         INJ 


-d-OC3NTt-O 

toroO"^CJN 


VO    ON  T(~  Tt*  ON  "^  OC  ON          "*•  N          N  rf 

MH    p  vp  O    r-^vO    Tj-    I     r^    I     ONOO        00  C\ 


OC    OOO  OOvO 


v      ro  vovO   r^OO   r^oo  tov  vv 

OOOOOOOOOO         OO 


OOOOOOOOO        00 


fO        -  -      - 

ooooo   '  b      bb 


NN  NNl-HNMH|w|Cll-l 

b  b        b  b  b  b  b      b  '  b  b 


w»" 

b  c 


ON  "  00    O  00  VO    ONOO  00   O 


p  p  TJ-OO  p  «   rh  O  <X3  CXD  oo  00 

b  b 


VQ    t— i     I-H  vQ     t— i  VO  ^O     ^^ 

b  b  b  b  b      b  '  b  b 


b  b  b  bob      b  b 


^ 

b  : 


-wwwQOOO 


s 


OwSw.CajgiU.V    0    4J  .2  ft)    <u    W    g    ,r  ,    G    v    G    v  ^    0   «.J 

11  11  Hi  Illl  |   IJIllllllllj 

law     ^g^^SSSaa    izi 


CO          >-<N 


COTTON  4l 

diminution  est  d'autant  plus  sensible  que  I'efficacite  de 
1'engrais  est  plus  certaine  et  1'excedent  plus  grand. 

Si  nous  examinons  les  poids  de  cent  graines  nous 
voyons  tout  de  suite  que  Texcedent  de  recolte  est  accom- 
pagne  d'une  augmentation  du  poids  de  la  graine. 

Ainsi,  les  engrais  et  specialement  les  engrais  azotes  qui 
augmentent  la  recolte  augmentent  proportionellement 
plus  ce  poids  que  celui  de  la  fibre : 3  cependant  il  est 
evident  que  la  diminution  dans  le  rendement  a  1'egrenage 
n'est  rien  en  comparaison  avec  I'excedent  produit  dans  le 
poids  total  de  la  recolte. 

L'examen  des  chiffres  relatifs  au  "Lint-index";4  con- 
firme  ce  que  je  viens  d'enoncer,  et  met  en  relief  Tinfluence 
de  I'association  des  engrais  phosphates  aux  engrais 
azotes.  Les  premiers  engrais  corrigent  Faction  des 
seconds  et  en  definitive  les  fibres  et  les  graines  se 
trouvent  bien  d'une  telle  association.  L'engrais  complet 
donne  egalement  de  tres  bons  resultats  a  cet  egard. 

A  la  derniere  cueillette,  les  differences  entre  les  diverses 
formules  s'attenuent  beaucoup  et  parfois  le  classement  est 
completement  change.  -Ce  qui  tend  a  demontrer  qu'ici 
egalement,  il  faut  compter  avec  les  conditions  climate- 
riques,  les  attaques  d'insectes,  etc. 

4°  Action  des  engrais  sur  la  susceptibilite  aux  attaques 
du  "  Ver  Rose  "  Gelechia  gossypiella.  (Voir 
Tableaux  VII  et  F///.) 

A  Bata  nous  voyons  pour  les  graines  doubles  qu'a  la 
premiere  cueillette,  la  difference  entre  les  diverses  for- 
mules et  les  temoins  n'excede  point  deux  fois  1'erreur 
probable  de  cette  difference. 

A  la  deuxieme  cueillette,  cet  ecart  est  encore  plus  petit. 
Toute  deduction  a  tirer  des  chiffres  trouves  est  done 
incertaine. 

On  pourrait  craindre  que  les  engrais  qui  retardent  la 
maturite  n'exposent  les  dernieres  capsules  aux  attaques 


3  M.   Hughes   etait    deja   arrive  a   une  conclusion    analogue : 
"  Manurial  Trials  on  Cotton,"  Year-book  of  the  Khedivial  Agri- 
cultural Society,  IQOQ. 

4  Poids  de  coton  produit  par  cent  graines. 


la, 
II 


I 


BI  ap  ajq^q 


sajpoaBd 


sap 


B[  ap  siq^q 
oad  jnajjg 


sap 


~     -oad.ma.ug 


•<*•      NO  N      oo 


vo  0000 

ro  vOei 


"•>         Tj-         rr         LO       vO 


«  ^ 

ss'S 


u  £ 


O         00          N 

-ojdjnajag  |         w 


sajjaDJ^d 
sap 


B[  ap 


sap 


30         0 

N     vb 

rn       fi 


NO      p      p 

NO          V         «*        ° 


sap 
auuaAop\[ 


:       o        : 

v  o- 

g.  «       g 

'S       <ufJ'C 
o-ort       ° 

I  I  1 


. 


n 


=     a 


+ 


COTTON 


TABLEAU    VIII. 

INFLUENCE  DES  ENGRAIS  SUR  LES  ATTAQUES  DU  GELECHIA  GOSSYPIELLA. 
Resultats  may  ens  compares  a  ceux  des  temoins  -pres  -pair   100. 


NOMBRE  DE  GRAINES  ATTAQUEES  SUR  1,000  GRAINES 

Bata  (Menoufia),  1913 

Kafr-Soliman  (Gharbia),   1913 

Nature  des  engrais 

ire  cueillette 

2me  cueillette 

ire  cueillette 

2me  cueillette 

Erreur 

Erreur 

Erreur 

Erreur 

Moyenne 

probable 
dela 

Moyenne 

probable 
dela 

Moyenne 

probable 
dela 

Moyenne 

probable 
dela 

difference 

difference 

difference 

difference 

Sulfate  d'ammoniaque 

260 

74 

129 

26 

124 

35 

108 

7 

Nitrate  de  soude 

ISO 

86 

16 

109 

27 

1  10 

12 

Scories  +  sulfate      de 

110 

70 

I24 

23 

91 

38 

93 

6 

potasse 

.  Cyanamide  de  chaux...]     160 

74 

138 

2O 

73 

26 

84 

6 

Scories  Thomas          ...j     130 
Temoin    (sans   engrais)!     100 

70 

97 

IOO 

18 

109 

IOO 

29 

IOO 
IOO 

7 

Sulfate  de  potasse 

70 

55 

103 

16 

"5 

31 

95 

10 

Temoin    (sans   engrais) 

IOO 

IOO 

— 

.100 

— 

IOO 



Nitrate  +  scories 

1  60 

74 

123 

17 

H3 

.     47 

103 

16 

Complet  :      nitrate    + 

2IO 

61 

125 

21 

121 

29 

123 

6 

sulfate  de  potasse  + 

scories 

Nitrate  +   sulfate      de 

no 

70 

115 

19 

103 

29 

"3 

14 

potasse 

Engrais  baladi  (fumier 

150 

74 

IO2       |         22 

94 

33 

105 

5 

des  insectes.  II  semble  resulter  cependant  d'experiences 
faites  a  Belcas  et  a  Mit  Salsil  dans  le  Nord  du  Delta,  qu'il 
n'y  ait  pas  de  relation  entre  les  engrais  et  le  nombre  de 
graines  attaquees. 

L'examen  des  chiffres  relatifs  a  Kafr-Soliman  montre 
d'une  part  qu'il  y  a  une  difference  notable  entre  Bata  et 
cette  localite  quant  a  Tintensite  des  attaques,  et  ensuite 
que  les  donnees  sont  sujettes  a  des  erreurs  telles,  qu'il 
est  impossible  de  conclure  en  toute  certitude.  D'autre 
part,  a  Belcas  et  a  Mit  Salsil,  il  y  a  eu  moins  de  graines 
attaquees  qu'a  Kafr-Soliman,  bien  que  les  deux  premieres 
localites  soient  plus  au  nord.  Du  reste  si  Ton  considere 
le  nombre  de  graines  attaquees  sur  mille  et  que  Ton  se 
reporte  au  tableau  des  resultats  compares  au  temoin  pris 
pour  cent,  on  constate  tant  a  Bata  qu'a  Kafr-Soliman  que 
les  differentes  engrais  ne  doivent  pas  jouer  un  role 
important  dans  la  question  des  attaques  du  ver  rose.  Ce 


484  COTTON 

sont  sans  doute  des  agents  climateriques  et  autres  qui  en 
reglant  les  conditions  de  r existence  et  de  la  multiplication 
de  Tinsecte,  reglent  en  meme  temps  Tintensite  de  ses 
ravages. 

La  correlation  etablie  entre  la  ire  et  la  2me  cueillette 
donne  pour  Bata  r  =  +  0*60  ±  0*18  et  pour  Kafr-Soliman 
r  =  +  0*45  ±  0*17.  Dans  les  2  cas  la  correlation  est 
positive  et  egale  ou  superieure  a  3  fois  1'erreur  probable; 
ce  qui  signifie  qu'il  y  a  une  relation  effective  entre  le 
nombre  de  graines  doubles  de  la  ire  cueillette  et  celui  des 
memes  graines  de  la  2me  cueillette,  avec  des  chances  de 
21  contre  i.  II  est  interessant  de  noter  que  dans  les  deux 
localites,  la  2me  cueillette  a  tendance  a  contenir  en 
moyenne  environ  15  fois  plus  de  graines  doubles  que  la 
premiere.  Mais  il  ne  faut  pas  attacher  une  trop  grande 
valeur  a  cette  deduction  tiree  d'une  s>eule  annee  d'obser- 
vation. 


5° 


Action  des  cngrals  sur  les  qualites  des  fibres. 


J'ai  voulu  profiter  des  experiences  de  1912  et  1913,  pour 
etudier  cette  tres  importante  question.  Une  tentative  de 
ce  genre  avait  ete  faite  en  1902;  mais  1'examen  n'avait 
porte  que  sur  un  nombre  d'echantillons  trop  restreint.5 

Cinquante  six  lots  de  coton  provenant  des  diverses 
parcelles,  ont  ete  envoyes  a  I'lmperial  Institute  de 
Londres,  aux  fins  d'analyse  et  devaluation  commerciale. 

Les  resultats  ont  ete  condenses  dans  les  tableaux  ci- 
annexes. 

C'est  la  premiere  fois,  a  ma  connaissance,  que  Ton  a 
apporte  dans  un  examen  de  ce  genre,  un  aussi  haut  degre 
de  garantie  et  de  precision.  Les  cotons  examines  pro- 
viennent  tous,  de  la  ire  cueillette. 

(a)  Couleur  et  brillant  (v.oir  Tableau  IX). — Tous  les 
cotons  possedaient  en  commun  un  leger  defaut  d'homo- 
geneite  dans  la  couleur,  sans  qu'on  puisse  assigner  a  Tun 
d'entre  eux  une  inferiorite  manifeste  a  cet  egard. 

D'un  autre  cote,  Tintensite  de  la  coloration  pour  chaque 


5  Henry     Yves. — Journal     &  Agriculture     -pratique    des     Pays 
chattds,  igo2. 


3  ^  £    3     „ 

I  I  I 

C  §    C 

I  '3>S      : 


J> 


<L>     M 

S^QJ 
•~ 


* 


I  "H 

c 


I    1         1 


HJ      £      J£ 


3         *3 


'I!  I  « 

C  C 

d>  v 

I  i 


""i  •-  *•*  ** 

js  ' '    i    «    i 

2  I    I  1  .  .         ..'||8S  I  s    I 

vi>  r?)    »-  v<u  j  S 

c:c::::i:  :i  ::::  :    :      2 

^c-Scl  fi|1  1          « 

JSJI      .=5  1  c^  s  I      I  N     !        II 

I        ^^-S^   2-.S   r  :          :^     j    ^   :^  -^  c    ^ 

^  Nv<UNvaJc3N  -OJJ^NeS  Nrt 

*1S1    =8  1  $8    =  :  n 

<S<S       M<  S  <       PQ  <W  

c:    -  :    :    :    :  :    : 

cd 

"c  -w  "c  ^  a  "c 

<          ^s  rt  ii    c<  rt  cj 

^     1  p5  £?   „        J5         ^  |^          III          II 

*   *    || . .  8:8|» s    ||     |  s  5 .  || 

<M  S<3  <3<3  PQ  -<JPQ 


c  S  ••->  c  •"  c 

^  c  g  2  g.3 

^  .«  S  -"c  S  •'c 

.o  -  js  ^^  t,  j~*  ^o  r^  ^         "^  ^Q 


-2  S  B          =  S 

•B  S  J          'S  S 

pg  <jj  ^  pQ  <J 


mmoniaque 
soude 
lfate  potasse 
e  de  chaux  ... 


ulfate  potasse 
umier) 


K"   V  3  J2        ZL.  o     ,  wS 

V?+S      ^^-iraifJs 

<ua>wcwC«u<u^.S<24)- 
•S  ta  .2  S?  .S  'S  -S  S  ^  S  -2  75  '-3 


«  2  •£  2  -c  g  CB  » 

—  -<->OrtO^----t->'< 
3^    O    >>0V|U    3v-,<i 

03^Jc«U^Hc/j^iO 

P-H    W    trj  rj-  xovO   t>  ON  O 


po 
Nitrat 
Balad 


M       W       flt  .  V«  U4 

«  <u  «  2^:      57 

^3       "C .;;  3       -S  -T" 

3    w    O    C    <"  rt    w 

Ji*.;t  JjJ 

11 111 |Il 

•  ^^  *"3j  -F^    ^    w    M-.^    ^ 

^HZ^>       ^;« 


O  O 


1    ssis-- 

1S     '2-S.^II 

*     ill 


.«  -tf   Ou 


COTTON 

variete  consideree  a  part,  a  etc,  a  peu  de  chose  pres,  la 
meme  pour  tous  les  lots. 

Les  variations  ont  ete  a  peine  sensibles  et  tantot  a 
1'avantage,  tantot  en  defaveur  de  la  meme  formule.  Le 
diametre,  du  moms  pour  le  Jannovitch,  le  Nubari  et 
1'Assili,  n'augmente  pas  avec  1'intensite  de  la  coloration, 
ainsi  que  1'avait  signale  M.  Yves  Henry  pour  1'Abassi. 

Au  point  de  vue  du  brillant,  les  cotons  de  meme  variete 
mais  de  diverses  formules,  ne  se  distinguent  presque  pas 
les  uns  des  autres. 

Si,  en  effet,  la  cyanamide  de  chaux  parait  avoir  a  Bata 
une  certaine  tendance  a  attenuer  le  brillant,  on  ne  lui 
retrouve  pas  ce  defaut  a  Kafr-Soliman,  ou  il  s'agit  pour- 
tant  d'un  coton  plus  delicat :  le  Jannovitch, 

(b)  Maturite  (voir  Tableau  X). — De  tous  les  etats  de 
la  fibre   la  maturite   est  celui  qui  influe   le   plus   sur   ses 
qualites  et  particulierement  sur  sa  resistance. 

Les  lots  dont  les  fibres  etaient  les  plus  resistantes  con- 
tenaient  le  moins  de  coton  mort  ou  non  encore  arrive  a 
maturite.  Cette  maturite  doit  etre  sans  doute  consider- 
ablement  influencee  par  des  conditions  climateriques  ou 
autres,  puisque  nous  voyons  que  la  meme  formule 
appliquee  dans  la  meme  localite  produit  suivant  les  annees 
des  resultats  differents.  Des  conditions  locales  doivent 
egalement  intervenir.  Toutefois  la  maturite  parait  avoir 
ete  favorisee  par  1'emploi  des  engrais  azotes  associes  aux 
engrais  phosphates  avec  ou  sans  potasse. 

(c)  Resistance  (voir  Tableau  X). — On  constate  tin  leger 
defaut  d'homogeneite  qui  varie  plus  suivant  les  parcelles 
que  suivant  les  engrais.     Aucun  de  ces  derniers  ne  semble 
exercer  sur  rhomogeneite  de  resistance  une  action  visible- 
ment  defavorable. 

Les  fibres  des  Nos.  9  (scories  +  nitrate)  et  10  (complet) 
sont  les  plus  resistantes  parmi  les  Nubari  de  Bata.  A 
Kafr-Soliman,  la  formule  n  (nitrate  +  sulfate  de  potasse) 
a  ete  superieure  aux  autres. 

D'une  maniere  generale  et  nonobstant  1'influence  mani- 
feste  du  sol,  des  arrosages,  etc.,  on  pent  dire  que  les 
engrais  ameliorent  plutot  la  resistance  des  fibres  et  que 
c'est  1'engrais  complet  qui  est  le  meilleur. 

(d)  Longueur  des  fibres  (voir  Tableaux  XI  et  XII). — 


a  S 

co     -S 


S  Si  5 


i« 

W 

M 

S 


O1 


<u       <u 

v    C     4;    C 

-2  S  -2  S 

filSI 

s   s 


.2  «  2  S  «  « 
*        S-- 


6s 


Ml     II 


«  «  §    s^ 

•S'S  «    I  'S'S 
iu  a>  >»  I    a>  v 

^       S 


U  U 


V 

^«2  S  „      .      «« 

ill  15.  Ill  1*11 

6|§  |  *    *    <^ 


>> 


III  I      I        ^ 

I 


CJ     3J     <U     QJ  <U 

c  c  c  c       c 

mm 


g 

C    ai    <u    4> 


i  1 1 1    M  ^lusu 


O    O    N    O    O    O 


<U    1>        "JJ             <1>  <U    4)  £       «    « 

G    G       2            G    V  G    G  Jft      C    C 

CC^QDSC  sg^sc 

oo           ^°c  oo  <^oo 

,13^               jO^a)  J3,Q  C^^D^ 

NN                      "5N^*  NN  jl          N      N 

r^ajO  4>aj  ^<L»I> 

Sow               '^wj^r<  t«tn  ;>itni« 

•^3  <J  <J 


^  44  £ 


Is  .1    +il 


. 

slifll 

•t;  vj;  .M  §  .?«  C9 


M    ON  O          •-" 


N  v£5   C?\  O    M    N 


fcn 

"«»* 

,s 

^ 

'i 

10 

M 

<x> 

Q 

Q 

CO 

g 

•g 

1 

<S 

1—  J 

J 

S 

X 

<! 
P 

^A 

p 

0 

? 

1 

<J 

w 

3 

'1 

K? 

J 

PQ 
< 

g 
</> 

<o 
^ 
^ 

CO 
ON 

HH 

H 

6J 

c/) 

^ 

>Vi 

i 

'"§ 

^ 

o 

^ 

£ 

•S 

W 

^ 

C/3 

10 

U 

<^ 

O 

«-5 

^ 

g 

S 

g 

s 
bfl 

g 

« 
c 

Sppppppppp       y>  p            ill 
y  u->  ^  in  m  invo   ^  co  "-O       m  rr 

II                   p  yn  p  m      O  jn 

CO  CO  V  rf           V  CO 

OOOO^nOOOO         OO 

OOOO        O  m 

Q\  O^  O    O^  ON  **    0\OO    O          O  OQ 

1  T  llT  M  7      U          Ml 

OOOOmOOOO        *nO 

OO  OO  00    ON         ONOO 

Ml          IN            i 

O  m  O   <n       O   O 

•s 

^•u-iu-).«-Tj-ir>ininin       ^••<ti 

in   Tj-   Tf   Tt            U-)  LT> 

V 

|pPinpppp^p       £**           ,        , 

I     |       ^^^g,   2>° 

W  "* 

1 

ooooooooo       no 

O   O   «n  O         O   O 

imetre  en  i 

OOONONONOOOONON        ONOO 
|      1     ^        7    "    7   ^    1                                     M 

TON  ON  ON        ON  ON 
1            1            I      1 
0   y>0    0          0    0 

3 

£p   pmpOOiniop         inp               pop 

o  *^          *-^  *-^  o  o      o  ^o 

OOmOOO«nOO         *n  O               »n  Q   O 

O  o               OOOO         "i*n 

ON  O  00  00    O    ONOO    ON  ON       00  OO               00    ONOO 

7  i    7  i     i  i     ii         M 

OOOOOOOm  O         OO               *n  O   O 

ONOO                  ^^    °    °N        00  00 

01^          ^^io      mi 

§ 

riur>r^r^r^i^r^u-)oovQ       vo  oo                          i 

I      I        "^     \O  vo  vO  ^O        >O  t^ 

C 

Koobbbobob       ob 

1  •'      -12    b  b  b  b      b  b 

i 

I^VQ  OO  OO    1^.00  *O  OO    t^        *O  00        *~~* 

s»  f^r^r*°°     r^r* 

2 

T  7  1  7  7  7  7    i    7-  7  '!  i    i 

N  OS  w  j-i  O  «  «  O  M         OO       ^ 

i  ^-ii^  ii 

M 

c 

I-H 

.5 

V 

1 

rt  1000   t^OO   t^  O   1^00  vO         vO    ON       2"      |             | 

wboooowbbb       bb            '        ' 

ON 

1        _    oo  invo  in      in  «n 

1      i    b  b  b  b      b  b 

8. 

OO  OC    l'-^.  t^>*OO   f^*vO  vO  OO         vO  ^C        CTN 

^ 

i 

fc/. 

M^i           1           1           || 

?~>  O    O    GM-*   t~*  ONOO    N          O    ON 

|    |     ^    1    M    1       ^ 

_) 

t-ll-H_o>-'OOO>-'          I-H    O 

^         0      M      «      «                «      - 

i^oovo^^^^^o        mm             ONVO^ 

vC'O             r^^oooo        int^ 

I 

tjbbbbobbbb       bo           bob 

bb           bbbb       bo 

w 

*O  oo  r>>.\o  jc  oo  t^  t^o       \o  in            i^oo  oo 

r^  o             t^^o  oo  t^      oo  r^ 

<ullljl  I£  M  i    7  N  ii 

1                     'III 
I-H  o              OOO-        fno 

OM«MMMMHH-           HH    «                   b    -    « 

__                            _,M1-IHH                kHW 

•1)       D              ••                       ••!< 

:    :             :    :    :  g        :    . 

eS                               e§                                       " 
«                         S   «         ^                          <u   V 

s              wl    g 

Nature  des  engrais 

§     '  ^    x     '  ^    '   §  1         Jl*                  "f-l 

itl 

Btflo(Uo§CL,(/:"2fiw'2           (flin'g 
il'l  |'o  J^  Il'+i  |        lit* 

2^^-      «  I1  «  «    «  ^. 

|!i    I|l!sH 

»-*    N   ro  ^"  invO   t^»  ON  O          •"*   ^**                 C>1    ON  O 

«N                  N  VO    OS  d          «    N 

aouajajuip  v\  ap          N  N 
ajqTjqoad  jnaaag    ) 


M          N    N 


•red  -x  "d 


QMMMO>-IMMO 

•3-n-n-TTTTi-Ti-^f 


Auuad  ap  CXDI/I 


vo  N  o  cr^oo  ON 


IN      II 

00  00  OO         OOOO 


VO  3O  SO 
fO  ro  to 


MNMMI-ll^rfNM  i-iM  MMh-i  N>-<  OO 

000000000         00  000         00  0 


»OOO  00    O    O    O  OO    N 

80000800 


OO  OO    N  00 


O   O 


mmerci 
de  pen 
ivref 


OONOONOOMNNOO         OON 

i-iroi-iNi-cro'OTiM         MCO 
OOOOOOOOO         OO 


00   "^OO   10        u-jvo 


aouaaajjip  v\  ap 
ajqijqojd 


OOOOOO 


vntnio       LTJIO  oooooo       oooo  ioQOQ        OO 

C^NN  MM  M    N    I-H  NM  O^OOO  OO 

OOO         00  000         00  QM^M         MM 


ooooo'ooo      oo 


ap  ooo'i/i  ua 
auuaAoj\[ 


C  xo  CO  co  ONVO   co  co  Tt- 


COOO    CO        00    CO 
vO  vb  vO        vb  vO 


VO    N    10  p  O    CO 


I 

>» 


C^  C» 
vOO 


Diametre 
des  fibres  en 
100,000  d'inch 


00   OxvQ   MOOOOvOM         O 
\O  vD  vO   t^vo  t^t^vO  t^        t^ 


»g. 

I  « 


^OOO   t^VO    ^-OO  iO30   r^        t^»  O*       -^J      Tf-vO    ^        '-O    ^      "5      M  OO   ON  t^        t^i 
vovovovovovovovovo        vOvO        %     vO  vO  vO        vOvO       O    ^^  *°  ^°        ^ 

.       ^ , 


ff)  O  <*5  O 


I  II  M         •<  ^>  U  rrj   U 

II       ON    „    I    M  L,       „  M 


ua  inanSiioq 


M   OO    VO    VO    VO    \O     COOjO      >H  OO^ 

10  ro  io  io  io  lovb  ro  t^       co  rf 

CO  CO  CO  CO  CO  CO  CO  CO  CO    CO  CO 


M      M     IO  MM 


00  coo  O  O  O  cocovO    COO 


o 

Tt- 


nq 


^5 
i^P    ^ 


r  des  fibre 
nches 


T^COrj-Tj-rJ-^r^-TiO         COCO 


"0  T}-  rl-  -<t  »0  CO  LO  CO  10 


a  s 


1 


2 

a 

13 
0> 


_ 

0. 


f   5S-|i 
1=1111 
«+i-a+-s 


M  N  co      vov 


«\  M 


49°  COTTON 

On  sait  que  rhomogeneite  de  longueur  n'est  pas  indepen- 
dante  des  autres  qualites  de  la  fibre.  En  general  les  lots 
examines  etaient  assez  homogenes. 

Je  tire  cette  conclusion  des  observations  qui  accom- 
pagnent  1'expertise  plutot  que  des  chiffres  qui  mesurent 
1'ecart  existant  entre  la  longueur  maximum  et  la  longueur 
minimum  des  fibres.  Cette  maniere  de  faire  conduit  on 
le  sait,  a  des  appreciations  erronees.6 

A  Bata  (1913)  les  formules  2  (nitrate),  9  (nitrate  + 
scories),  n  (nitrate  et  sulfate  de  potasse),  et  a  un  moindre 
degre  la  formule  12  (baladi)  montrent  une  tendance  a 
diminuer  la  longueur  des  fibres;  tandis  que  la  formule  10 
(complet)  semble  devoir  raugmenter.  Cependant  1'etude 
de  Terreur  probable  de  la  difference  ne  donne  pas  une 
grande  certitude  a  cet  egard. 

Ces  donnees  se  confirment  pleinement  par  les  experi- 
ence's de  Kafr-Soliman  (1913).  Pour  la  meme  annee,  les 
memes  formules  ont  exerce  une  influence  semblable  sur 
la  longueur  des  fibres  dans  les  deux  regions. 

vSi  nous  comparons  entre  eux  pour  une  meme  localite 
(Bata)  les  resultats  de  deux  annees  differentes  (1913  et 
1912),  nous  constatons  toujours  la  tendance  des  formules 
2  (nitrate)  et  12  (baladi)  a  produire  des  fibres  de  moindre 
longueur. 

(e)  Diametre  (voir  Tableaux  XI  et  XII). — L'influence 
des  engrais  sur  le  diametre  n'est  pas  tres  nette.  La  valeur 
des  erreurs  probables  est  assez  considerable  pour  nous 
imposer  une  certaine  reserve.  On  admet  d'ordinaire  que 
la  resistance  croit  avec  le  diametre  de  la  fibre.  Mes 
experiences  indiquent  que  la  finesse  n'exclut  pas  la  resist- 
ance. Elles  montrent  aussi  qu'une  augmentation  dans  la 
longueur  ne  correspond  pas  toujours  a  une  diminution 
dans  le  diametre. 

Et  inversement  qu'une  diminution  dans  la  longueur 
n'implique  pas  une  augmentation  dans  le  diametre. 

En  effet,  les  engrais  azotes  employes  seuls  n'ont  pas 
altere  la  finesse  de  la  fibre. 

(/)  Evaluation  commercial  (voir  Tableau  XI.) — 
C'est  sans  doute  le  point  qui  interesse  le  plus  le  pro- 


6  M.   Yves  Henry,  loc.  cit. 


COTTON  49t 

ducteur  et  il  est  bon  de  faire  observer  tout  de  suite  qu'il 
est  la  resultante  non  seulement  de  1'action  des  engrais, 
mais  d'une  foule  d'autres  facteurs.  Les  fumures  n'y 
interviennent  d'ailleurs  que  dans  une  faible  mesure,  ainsi 
que  le  demontre  surabondamment  revaluation  com- 
merciale. 

Examinons,  en  effet,  les  prix  accordes  a  chaque  lot,  en 
les  etudiant  pour  chaque  parcelle,  tant  a  Bata  qu'a  Kafr- 
Soliman. 

On  est  frappe  tout  d'abord  par  le  fait  que  tous  les 
cotons  de  la  premiere  parcelle  de  Bata  ont  ete  estimes 
au  meme  prix,  quelle  que  soit  la  fumure.  Dans  les  deux 
autres  parcelles  de  la  meme  localite,  les  prix  varient  non 
seulement  d'une  formule  a  1'autre,  mais  aussi  d'une 
parcelle  a  Tautre  pour  la  meme  formule. 

Les  prix  respectifs  des  differents  lots  de  la  parcelle 
No.  2  sont  plus  eleves  que  ceux  des  lots  de  la  parcelle  3. 

En  moyenne  tous  les  lots  ont  ete  cotes  au  meme  prix 
a  i  ou  2  piastres  pres,  par  kantar,  difference  insignificante. 

A  Kafr-Soliman,  et  bien  qu'il  s'agisse  du  Jannovitch, 
nous  observons  les  memes  faits  qu'a  Bata,  et  le  prix 
moyen  est  encore  ici  plus  uniforme. 

On  ne  saurait  trop  insister  sur  1'importance  des  chiffres 
de  cette  evaluation  commerciale;  ils  mettent  fin,  en  effet, 
a  des  croyances  gratuites  suivant  lesquelles  quantite  et 
qualite  sont  impossibles  a  realiser  a  la  fois  dans  la  culture 
cotonniere. 

Au  contraire,  ces  engrais  judicieusement  employes 
pourraient  ameliorer  les  qualites  de  la  fibre,  et  je  n'en 
veux  pour  preuve  que  les  remarques  suivantes  qui  accom- 
pagnent  le  rapport  d'expertise  de  1'Imperial  Institute. 
Au  sujet  des  Nubari,  les  experts  font  remarquer  que  les 
lots  de  la  premiere  parcelle  "  sont  de  qualite  tres  satis- 
faisante,  et  de  meme  valeur  commerciale  ";  pour  ceux  de 
la  parcelle  2  "  qu'ils  sont  de  bonne  qualite,  specialement 
les  Nos.  2,  6,  7,  9  et  12";  enfin  pour  les  Nubari  de  la 
troiseme  parcelle,  "qu'ils  sont  de  bonne  qualite,  legere- 
inent  inferieurs  a  1'ensemble  des  lots  des  2  parcelles 
precedentes;  les  cotons  Nos.  2,  3  et  7  sont  les  meilleurs, 
tandis  que  les  Nos.  6  et  10  contiennent  la  plus  grande 
proportion  de  fibres  faibles  et  irregulieres." 


492 


COTTON 


En  ce  qui  concerne  le  Jannovitch  de  Kafr-Soliman,  les 
memes  experts  les  ont  trouves  tous  de  "  tres  bonne 
qualite ;  ceux  de  la  premiere  parcelle  legerement  superieurs 
aux  autres,  le  tout  presentant  les  memes  defauts  que  les 
Nubari  de  Bata,  a  savoir  une  legere  irregularite  dans  la 
longueur  et  la  resistance."  Enfin  les  experts  declarent 
les  Assili  de  Bata  (1912)  "  d'excellent  qualite  dans 
rensemble;  les  Nos.  9  et  n  etant  legerement  superieurs 
aux  autres  au  point  de  vue  de  la  resistance." 

Et  Ton  pent  conclure  que  les  engrais  chimiques 
judicieusement  employes  exercent  sur  les  qualites  des 
fibres  tin  effet  favorable,  tout  en  augmentant  le  rendement 
cultural. 


THE   COST   OF  LABOUR   AS   AFFECTING  THE   COTTON 
CROP  (ESPECIALLY  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES). 

By  JOHN  A.  TODD,  B.L. 

Professor  of  Economics,   University  College, 
Nottingham. 

THE  problem  of  the  increase  of  the  world's  cotton 
supply  has  been  very  much  before  the  trade  and  the 
Government  for  the  last  fifteen  years.  A  great  deal  of 
time  and  money  have  been  spent  in  efforts  to  increase  the 
supply  by  discovering"  and  developing  new  areas  suitable 
for  cotton  growing,  and  also  by  improving  the  conditions 
in  existing  areas.  The  time  seems  opportune,  therefore, 
for  a  survey  of  the  general  conditions  which  have  emerged, 
and  the  future  possibilities  which  they  indicate.  The 
writer's  point  of  view  is  naturally  that  of  the  economist, 
and  the  line  of  inquiry  which  it  is  proposed  to  follow  in 
this  paper  may  be  indicated  thus :  Every  country  has 
among  its  own  peculiar  conditions  at  least  one  limiting 
factor  which  is  the  chief  thing  to  be  considered  in  estimat- 
ing the  possibilities  of  its  future.  To  pick  out  and  com- 
pare these  limiting  factors  should  be  of  interest,  and  may 
throw  some  light  on  the  broad  tendencies  of  the  future 
development  of  the  world's  cotton  supply. 

Thus  in  Egypt  the  limiting  factor  has  all  along  been 
the  water  supply  available  for  irrigation.  There  has 
always  been  a  neck-and-neck  race  between  the  maximum 
water  supply  and  the  area  under  cultivation.  Again  and 
again  new  irrigation  facilities  have  been  provided  which 
seemed  capable  of  meeting  maximum  requirements  for 
some  time  ahead,  but  in  an  incredibly  short  time  the 
fellah  has  again  been  crying  out  for  more  water.  In  the 
most  recent  case,  the  raising  of  the  Assuan  Dam,  a 
single  year  has  been  enough,  owing  to  an  abnormally  low 
and  late  Nile  flood,  to  produce  renewed  water  shortage 
in  spite  of  the  increased  supply.  It  seems  probable  that 
.this  will  always  be  the  case. 


494  COTTON 

In  the  Sudan  the  problem  at  first  sight  appears  similar, 
but  there  are  other  difficulties  which  may  become  serious 
as  the  area  under  cotton  increases.  The  labour  supply 
was  utterly  depleted  by  the  wars  with  the  Khalifa,  and 
in  spite  of  the  phenomenal  rate  of  increase  of  Oriental 
countries,  it  is  still  very  short.  Wages  are  at  present 
rather  below  the  level  of  Egypt,  which  may  be  taken 
roughly  at  a  shilling  a  day  for  ordinary  agricultural 
labour;  but  it  is  easy  to  imagine  what  might  be  the  effect 
of  a  too  rapid  extension  of  cotton  cultivation  in  the 
Gezira  leading  to  a  scarcity  in  the  labour  supply.  I  am 
indebted  to  Mr.  Lawrence  Balls  for  a  characteristic  fact, 
namely,  that  the  marriage  dowry  in  certain  districts  has 
risen  steadily  from  the  sumptuary  limit  of  £2  which  was 
fixed  by  the  Khalifa,  until  amounts  as  high'  as  £50  have 
been  recently  demanded.  A  general  rise  in  the  standard 
of  living,  which  this  seems  to  indicate,  might  very  well 
be  followed  by  a  rise  of  wages,  which  would  seriously 
hamper  the  development  of  cotton  growing. 

In  West  and  East  Africa,  including  Nigeria,  Uganda, 
British  East  Africa,  and  Nyasaland,  the  labour  situation 
is  very  different.  Cotton  is  cultivated  almost  entirely  by 
native  smallholders  who  are  more  or  less  independent; 
but  if  the  value  of  their  labour  be  judged  by  comparison 
with  the  rates  paid  for  other  work,  such  as  in  the  ginning 
factories,  it  is  very  low.  In  Uganda,  for  example,  the 
labourers  in  the  ginneries  are  paid  about  2d.  to  3d.  per 
day,  and  it  is  probable  that  in  none  of  these  areas  does 
the  average  day's  wage  rise  so  high  as  the  Egyptian 
figure  of  is.  a  day.  In  all  these  countries  the  chief 
difficulty  is  transport.  The  grower  has  to  carry  his  crop 
on  his  head  to  the  nearest  market,  from  which  it  may 
find  its  way  by  road  or  river  to  railhead.  After  a  long 
journey  it  at  last  reaches  the  seaport,  from  which  it  has 
still  a  long  sea  journey  to  Liverpool.  The  result  is  that 
for  cotton  which  sells  in  Liverpool  at  7d.  to  lod.  per  Ib. 
the  grower  receives  probably  not  more  than  4d.  to  7d. 
In  Nigeria,  for  example,  the  British  Cotton  Growing 
Association  fixed  buying  price  was  raised  not  long  ago 
to  ijd.  per  Ib.  of  seed-cotton.  As  the  ginning  out-turn 
is  only  about  27  per  cent,  this  means  about  4d.  per  Ib. 
of  lint. 


COTTON  495 

In  India,  again,  wages  are  very  low,  and  the  chief 
difficulty  is  to  secure  the  adoption  of  methods  of  cultiva- 
tion and  varieties  of  cotton  which  would  increase  the 
yield  above  the  present  beggarly  average  of  about  100  Ib. 
of  cotton  (lint)  per  acre.  In  China  and  Japan  the  con- 
ditions are  probably  similar  to  those  of  India.  In  Asiatic 
Russia,  where  cotton  is  grown  entirely  under  irrigation, 
the  limiting'  factor  is  again  the  water  supply  as  in  Egypt, 
though  in  certain  districts  where  the  old  native  type  of 
cotton  is  largely  or  entirely  grown  we  find  a  parallel  to 
the  Indian  conditions.  In  Bokhara,  a  Russian  tributary 
State,  a  curious  state  of  affairs  exists,  under  which  the 
method  of  collecting  the  land  revenue  controls  the  situa- 
tion. The  land  tax  is  assessed  on  the  value  of  the  crop, 
which  cannot  be  removed  from  the  field  until  it  has  been 
inspected  and  valued  by  the  revenue  officer.  To  avoid 
the  damage  which  would  result  from  the  inevitable  delay, 
cultivation  is  confined  to  the  native  type  of  cotton,  the 
boll  of  which  does  not  open  when  ripe,  but  has  to  be 
plucked  bodily  and  opened  afterwards  by  artificial  means. 

In  South  America,  Brazil  and  Peru  are  fairly  important 
cotton-produciing  countries.  Regarding  the  former,  the- 
writer  has  little  definite  information.  It  seems  to  offer 
great  possibilities  for  cotton  growing,  but  the  cost  of 
living  is  very  high  and  labour  very  poorly  paid,  resulting 
in  low  efficiency  and  high  mortality.  The  chief  hindrance 
to  the  extension  of  the  crop  seems  to  be  lack  of 
enterprise  and  the  entire  absence  of  modern  methods  of 
cultivation. 

In  Peru,  cotton  is  grown  entirely  under  irrigation  and 
the  limiting  factor  is  the  lack  of  capital  for  the  develop- 
ment of  irrigation  facilities.  Labour  is  comparatively 
costly,  wages  being  stated  in  a  report,  dated  1911,  as 
2s.  6d.  per  day. 

Coming  now  to  the  United  States  Cotton  Belt,  which 
still  supplies  about  two-thirds  of  the  world's  cotton  crop, 
we  find  a  set  of  conditions  entirely  different  from  those  in 
any  other  country  in  the  world.  The  Civil  War,  so  far  as 
it  really  turned  on  the  question  of  slavery,  was  fought  on 
the  issue  that  cotton  is  essentially  a  "  cheap-labour  crop/' 
and  that  its  cultivation  without  the  supply  of  cheap  labour 
32 


49°  COTTON 

which  the  slave  system  provided  would  be  unprofitable, 
if  not  impossible.  Of  all  the  evils  which  the  defenders 
of  the  South  prophesied  from  the  freeing  of  the  slaves 
probably  none  has  been  so  strikingly  fulfilled  as  this. 
Negro  labour  under  conditions  of  freedom  has  certainly 
not  increased  in  efficiency;  but  its  cost  has  gone  up  to  a 
degree  which  even  the  gloomiest  prophets  could  hardly 
have  anticipated.  A  few  figures  will  bring  out  the 
startling  rise  in  the  labour  cost  of  the  crop.  The  exact 
rates,  of  course,  vary  a  good  deal  in  different  districts, 
but  the  following  were  obtained  from  an  absolutely 
reliable  source  in  Texas;  and  although  the  labour  diffi- 
culty there  is  notoriously  more  acute  than  in  the  older 
parts  of  the  Belt,  the  difference  is  only  one  of  degree 
and  is  probably  not  sufficient  to  invalidate  the  argument. 
In  any  case,  Texas  already  provides  nearly  one-third  of 
the  total  American  crop. 

Most  of  the  work  of  the  cotton  crop  is  done  by  day 
wages  or  piecework  rates;  but  where  men  are  employed 
as  permanent  hands  the  wage  was  stated  at  about  $20 
per  month,  or  an  average  of  $i  per  working  day,  for 
they  take  Saturday  off  as  well  as  Sunday.  Day  wages 
are  anything  from  $i  a  day  upwards,  but  in  the  picking 
season  the  work  is  done  on  piece  rates.  These  range  in 
Texas  from  60  cents  per  100  Ib.  of  seed-cotton  at  the 
beginning  of  the  season,  when  there  is  plenty  of  cotton 
on  the  plants  and  picking  is  easy,  up  to  $i  per  100  Ib. 
at  the  end  of  the  season,  when  the  cotton  is  scarce  and 
more  difficult  to  pick.  A  good  picker  can-do  300  to  400  Ib. 
per  day;  800  Ib.  in  a  day  is  recorded  at  a  competition, 
but  that  was  with  assistance  to  carry  away  and  weigh  the 
cotton.  Even  at  these  prices  labour  is  not  easily  obtained. 
In  1913  there  was  a  special  scarcity  of  labour  in  Texas 
owing  to  the  Mexican  War,  which  prevented  the  usual 
supply  of  transitory  labour  from  across  the  border,  with 
the  result  that  in  the  first  week  of  the  picking  season 
the  pickers  struck  for  70  cents,  and  had  to  get  it.  In 
ordinary  seasons  the  average  cost  of  picking  throughout 
the  season  is  said  to  be  about  85  cents.  As  the  out-turn 
of  lint  from  seed-cotton  is  about  one-third,  this  means 
that  the  actual  cost  of  picking  the  cotton  alone  is  about 
2\  cents  per  Ib.  of  lint.  Considering  that  the  average 


COTTON  49/ 

vralue  of  the  cotton,  taking  into  account  the  large  pro- 
portion of  lower  grade  cotton,  probably  did  not  exceed 
10  or  12  cents  per  lb.,  even  with  the  high  prices  pre- 
vailing in  1913;  this  means  that  the  labour  cost  of  picking- 
alone  is  from  one-fourth  to  one-fifth  of  the  value  of  the 
cotton. 

The  total  labour  cost  of  the  crop,  as  will  be  seen  from 
the  statement  on  p.  502,  worked  out  at  about  $9*78  per 
acre.  Estimating  the  crop  at  200  lb.  of  lint  per  acre  at 
12  cents  per  lb.,  and  taking  into  account  the  value  of  the 
seed,  which  at  that  time  was  not  more  than  $20  per  ton, 
the  proportion  of  the  labour  cost  of  the  crop  to  its  total 
gross  value  ($28)  is  just  under  35  per  cent. 

Two  other  illustrations  may  be  given  of  the  serious 
handicap  imposed  upon  cotton  growing  in  America  by 
the  cost  of  labour.  Since  the  advent  of  boll  weevil  to 
the  Mississippi  Valley,  where  the  best  types  of  long 
staple  cotton  were  grown,  the  Government  experts  of 
the  Bureau  of  Plant  Industry  have  devoted  themselves 
to  the  selection  or  breeding  of  varieties  which  combine 
length  of  staple  with  good  yield- and  early  maturity;  the 
latter  is  essential  if  the  cotton  is  to  evade  the  worst 
ravages  of  boll  weevil  by  maturing  at  least  a  fair  pro- 
portion of  the  crop  before  the  weevil  appears  in  its 
full  strength  in  August  and  September.  One  type  in 
particular,  known  as  Durango,  seemed  to  be  specially 
suitable,  but  was  found  to  possess  a  drawback  which 
militated  greatly  against  its  general  adoption,  namely,  a 
peculiar  ingrowing  habit  of  the  lint  in  the  boll  which 
rendered  picking  slower  and  more  difficult.  This  was 
enough  to  make  the  negroes  practically  refuse  to  pick 
the  cotton,  except  at  prohibitive  rates,  and  the  result  is 
that  the  experts  have  been  practically  compelled  to  con- 
tinue the  work  of  selection  until  they  can  find  some  other 
variety  which  will  combine  the  advantages  of  the  Durango 
with  the  open  growing  character  of  the  ordinary  Upland 
cotton.  In  other  words,  America  must  select  its  cotton 
to  please  the  negro. 

Again,  during  the  last  few  years  great  hopes  have  been 
entertained  of  the  development  of  entirely  new  cotton- 
growing  areas  much  farther  west  than  the  existing  Belt, 
and  practical  success  has  already  been  achieved  in  two 


COTTON 

large  areas,  namely,  the  Salt  River  Valley  in  Arizona 
and  the  Imperial  Valley  in  California.  There,  under 
irrigation,  superior  varieties  both  of  long  staple  Upland 
and  Egyptian  have  been  produced  which  offered  great 
possibilities;  but  the  cost  of  picking,  especially  in  the 
case  of  the  Egyptian,  was  so  high  as  to  be  practically 
prohibitive.  The  following  quotation  is  from  a  Govern- 
ment report  recently  published:  "The  cost  of  picking 
Egyptian  cotton  was  no  less  variable  than  the  cost  of 
production.  On  the  irrigated  land  of  the  south-west 
the  cotton  plants  grow  very  large  with  many  branches. 
When  loaded  with  a  heavy  cotton  crop  the  plants  bend 
over  and  become  so  entangled  that  it  is  difficult  to  get 
through  the  field.  Where  the  acreages  were  small  for 
each  family  no  cash  outlay  for  picking  was  needed.  In 
the  Imperial  Valley,  where  labour  was  scarce  and  there 
was  a  lively  demand  for  pickers  in  adjacent  fields  of 
short  staple  cotton,  it  was  sometimes  found  necessary 
to  pay  from  3  to  3^  cents  per  Ib.  for  picking.  In  the 
Salt  River  Valley,  on  the  other  hand,  the  labour  supply 
was  adequate  and  the  bulk  of  the  crop  was  picked  for 
2  cents  per  Ib.  These  prices,  of  course,  refer  to  the  seed- 
cotton."  Taking  the  average  ginning  out-turn  as  one- 
third,  this  means  that  the  cost  of  picking  in  these  cases 
was  from  6  to  loj  cents  per  Ib.  of  lint.  It  only  remains 
to  add  that  the  cotton  fetched  approximately  21  cents 
per  Ib.,  so  that  in  some  cases  the  cost  of  picking  was 
actually  one-half  of  the  value  of  the  lint. 

Compare  with  this  the  cost  of  picking  Egyptian  cotton 
in  Egypt,  which  is  quoted  in  a  recent  report  as  P.T.  75 
($3-75)  per  acre  yielding  5  kantars  (say  500  Ib.)  of  lint 
cotton,  equivalent  to  a  cost  of  f  cent  per  Ib.  of  lint, 
against  6  to  ic-J  cents  in  California. 

Had  labour  been  the  only  extravagant  item  in  the  cost 
of  production  of  cotton  in  America  the  situation  might 
have  been  tolerable,  but  all  the  other  items  seem  to  be 
rising,  too.  Farm  implements,  horses  and  mules,  and 
supplies  of  all  kinds,  including  food  both  for  man  and 
beast,  have  gone  up  in  price  to  a  very  serious  extent. 
Thus,  reverting  to  the  Texas  case,  all  the  other  charges 
except  labour,  i.e.,  interest  on  and  depreciation  of  capital, 
in  the  form  of  implements,  plant,  draught  animals  (but 


COTTON  499 

not  the  land  itself),  the  cost  of  feeding  stuffs,  seed, 
ginning,  and  baling"  charges  and  supervision  amounted  to 
$11.34,  or  fully  40  per  cent,  of  the  gross  value  of  the 
crop,  leaving  a  balance  of  barely  25  per  cent,  to  cover 
the  landlord's  rent.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  the  rent  in  this 
case  was  exactly  one-fourth  of  the  crop  under  a  crop- 
sharing  agreement.  This  tenure  is  very  common,  and 
the  landlord's  share  is  rarely  less  than  one-fourth.  The 
result  is  that  under  these  conditions  it  takes  12  cents 
per  Ib.  to  remunerate  the  grower  fairly. 

The  situation  gives  some  cause  for  anxiety,  for  it  must 
be  remembered  that  while  the  average  yield  over  the 
whole  of  the  America  Cotton  Belt  is  only  about  200  Ib. 
per  acre,  there  are  many  small  farmers  whose  yield  is 
even  less.  The  low  yield  is  partly  due  to  lack  of  labour; 
thorough  ploughing  and  preparation  of  the  ground  are 
almost  impossible,  and  the  loss  due  to  boll  weevil  might 
be  considerably  mitigated  by  picking  up  and  burning  the 
affected  "  squares,"  for  example,  if  labour  were  obtain- 
able at  a  reasonable  cost.  Again,  while  the  basis  price 
of  Middling  American  cotton  has  in  recent  years  touched 
very  high  figures,  there  has  been  an  increasing  proportion 
of  low  grade  cotton.  This,  too,  is  largely  due  to  the 
insufficient  labour  supply.  During  the  picking  season  the 
American  Cotton  Belt  is  subject  at  times  to  very  heavy 
rains,  which  damage  the  open  cotton  not  only  directly 
by  the  effect  of  the  damp  on  the  lint,  but  also  indirectly 
by  splashing  mud  up  from  the  ground  into  the  open  bolls. 
This  results  in  tinged  or  stained  cotton,  and  the  extent 
of  the  damage  is  due  to  the  fact  that  there  is  not  sufficient 
labour  available  to  pick  the  cotton  quickly  when  the 
weather  is  favourable.  To  those  accustomed  as  the  writer 
was  to  Egyptian  conditions,  it  will  be  something  of  a 
shock  to  hear  of  ripe  cotton  being  left  hanging  on  the 
plants  all  through  the  winter,  exposed  to  frost  and  rain. 
The  writer  heard  of  cotton  being  picked  in  March  of  the 
following  year. 

Even  if  a  satisfactory  mechanical  picker  were  available 
— and,  unfortunately,  none  of  the  types  yet  placed  on  the 
market  can  be  regarded  as  satisfactory — it  would  not 
entirely  meet  the  difficulty,  which  is  most  serious  in  the 
case  of  the  small  grower.  They,  of  course,  could  not 


5OO  COTTON 

afford  the  necessary  capital  outlay,  even  if  it  would  pay 
to  invest  so  much  capital  on  a  small  holding.  As  a  matter 
of  fact,  most  of  the  smallholders  are  only  able  to  make 
ends  meet  at  all  under  present  conditions,  because  they 
are  able  to  have  the  greater  part  of  the  farm  work  done 
by  themselves  or  their  families.  If  they  were  compelled 
to  pay  market  rates  for  all  the  labour  the  crop  requires 
they  would  soon  be  faced  with  bankruptcy.  Last  year, 
for  example,  the  planter  from  whom  the  figures  above 
quoted  were  obtained  had  a  yield  of  only  about  one-third 
of  a  bale  per  acre,  and,  in  spite  of  the  high  level  of  prices, 
a  considerable  portion  of  his  crop,  owing  to  its  bad 
condition,  fetched  only  6  cents  per  Ib.  Under  such  con- 
ditions the  life  of  the  planter  is  simply  economic  slavery; 
he  is  only  making  a  living  out  of  his  family.  The  idea 
which  is  very  prevalent  in  this  country,  that,  at  present 
prices,  cotton  growing  must  be  a  very  profitable  business, 
is  about  as  far  from  the  truth  as  it  could  be,  so  far  as 
America,  or  at  least  Texas,  is  concerned. 

Making  every  possible  allowance  for  the  traditional 
grumbling  propensity  of  the  farmer  these  facts  present 
a  situation  which  calls  for  serious  consideration.  It 
means  that  under  present  conditions  there  must  be  a  large 
proportion  of  the  small  growers  who  are  working  below 
the  margin  of  profitable  cultivation.  This  may  be  all 
very  well  for  the  negro  planter,  with  his  large  family  of 
small  children,  whose  cost  of  subsistence  is  very  low,  and 
may  be  covered  by  the  equivalent  of  one  man's  wage; 
but  it  will  not  do  for  the  smaller  white  planters  of,  say, 
50  to  150  acres,  who  now  form  a  considerable  proportion 
of  the  cotton  growers  in  Texas,  and  who  under  better 
conditions  might  have  been  the  hope  of  the  cotton-grow- 
ing industry.  Something  must  be  done  if  these  men  are 
to  remain  in  the  trade  or  others  tempted  to  join  them.  It 
must  be  remembered  that  Texas  and  Oklahoma  alone 
account  for  75  per  cent,  of  the  net  increase  of  area  of  the 
last  ten  years,  and  it  is  to  them  we  must  look  chiefly  for 
further  extension. 

Unfortunately,  it  is  easier  to  point  out  the  remedy  than 
to  secure  its  enforcement.  There  is  no  immediate 
prospect  of  any  solution  of  the  labour  difficulty,  for  the 
supply  of  additional  labour  by  immigration  is  swallowed 


COTTON  501 

up  as  fast  as  it  comes.  The  difficulty  can  only  be  met 
by  increasing-  the  value  of  the  crop,  by  raising  the  average 
yield,  and  improving  the  quality.  The  only  alternative 
is  a  higher  price,  or  at  least  the  maintenance  of  a  level 
of  prices  which  we  at  present  regard  as  excessive.  The 
time  is  rapidly  approaching,  if  it  has  not  already  arrived, 
when  less  than  half  a  bale  an  acre  of  10  or  even  12  cent 
cotton  will  no  longer  pay  the  bulk  of  the  planters. 

That  such  an  improvement,  both  in  average  yield  and 
quality,  is  already  possible  is  fortunately  beyond  doubt. 
New  types  of  cotton  which  give  a  heavier  yield  of  better 
staple  cotton  are  now  being  placed  on  the  market  in 
considerable  numbers;  but  much  remains  to  be  done  in 
the  way  of  improving  the  local  conditions  under  which 
the  crop  is  marketed  in  the  districts,  so  as  to  secure  to 
the  enterprising  farmer  the  full  market  value  of  superior 
cotton.  This  question  and  the  closely  allied  problem  of 
better  baling  methods  in  America  are  too  big  to  be 
handled  here;  but  the  writer  was  convinced  that  the  only 
thing  which  will  lead  to  serious  attempts  being  made  to 
tackle  these  questions  is  the  awakening  of  the  spinners 
to  the  fact  that  something  must  be  done,  and  that  they 
ought  to  take  a  hand  in  the  doing  of  it.  What  is  wanted 
is  closer  relations  between  the  producers  and  the  con- 
sumers. The  geographical  distance  between  them  has 
produced  a  state  of  mutual  ignorance  of  each  other's 
conditions  and  requirements,  which  is  not  good  for  either 
section  of  the  trade. 

If  nothing  is  done  it  seems  almost  certain  that  the 
extension  of  the  American  crop  will  be  seriously  retarded. 
The  writer  does  not  wish  to  be  unduly  pessimistic,  but  it 
is  well  to  remember  that  there  are  countries  in  the  world 
where  cotton  could  be  grown  to  advantage  but  for  the 
fact  that  labour  is  lacking.  In  the  Argentine,  for 
example,  cotton  growing  might  have  been  established  on 
a  large  scale  ere  this  but  for  the  fact  that  labour  is  scarce 
and  dear.  Let  America  take  warning  if  she  would  escape 
serious  injury  to  her  cotton  crop.  One  cannot  help 
wondering  whether  the  future  may  not  see  a  great  re- 
distribution in  the  chief  cotton-growing  areas  in  the 
world.  The  most  striking  development  during  the  past 
thirty  years  has  been  the  extension  of  cotton  growing 


50-' 


COTTON 


under  irrigation,  in  Egypt,  in  India,  and  even  in  America, 
in  the  new  regions  of  Arizona  and  California.  May  it 
not  be  that  the  next  development  will  be  a  return  to  the 
supremacy  of  those  countries  where  the  uncertainty  of 
the  climate  is  mitigated  by  irrigation;  and  an  unlimited 
supply  of  cheap  labour  is  available  to  take  full  advantage 
of  the  ideal  conditions  thus  secured  ?  Cotton  has  always 
been  a  ''cheap-labour  crop,"  a  "black  man's  crop." 
The  negro  labour  supply  in  the  United  States  is  now 
insufficient  and  no  longer  cheap.  It  is  doubtful  whether 
the  crop  will  pay  for  white  labour.  Is  it  safe  to  reject 
as  absurd  the  idea  that  the  day  may  come  when  it  will  no 
longer  pay  to  grow  cotton  in  the  United  States  of  the 
kind  which  at  present  forms  a  large  proportion  of  the 
American  crop,  and  that  the  future  of  the  "  bread  and 
cheese  "  cotton  supply  of  the  world  lies,  say,  in  India? 


ESTIMATED  COST  OF  PRODUCTION  OF  COTTON  IN  TEXAS 
IN  1913. 

Farm  of  100  acres,  held  under  crop-sharing  lease,  landlord  taking  one- 
fourth  of  cotton  lint  and  seed.  Yield  taken  as  200  Ib.  lint  and  400  Ib.  seed 
per  acre. 

Tenant's    Capital. —  Horse,    mules,    harness,    imple- 
ments, wagons  and  miscellaneous  plant  $1,478.55. 
Interest  thereon  at  10  per  cent,  and  depreciation 
at  12^  per  cent.         ...  ...  ...  ...  $332.67 

Seed.— 75  bushel*,  at  $2...  ...  ...  ...  150.00 

Labour. — Two  hands  (or  six  months,  at  $20  each       ...        $240.00 
Chopping  cotton  twice  ...  ...  ...  150.00 

Picking  40  bales,  at  average  85  cents  per  100  Ib. 

of  seed-cotton        ...  ...  ...  ...          510.00 

Weighing  cotton,  at  75  cents  per  bale  ...  ...  30.00 

Hauling  cotton  to  ginnery,  24  days  at  $2  ...  48.00 


Ginning  and  Baling. — Weighing  at  ginnery,  at  10  cents 

per  hale  ... 
Ginning,  baling,  and  wrapping,  at  $3  per  bale   ... 

Stock  Feed. — 450  bushels  corn,  at  50  cents  ,., 
365  bales  hay,  at  50  cent? 

Supervision,   estimating  the  wages  of  a  manager  for 
i, ooo  acres  at  $100  per  month 


Value  of  Crop — 

40  bales  cotton  at,  say,  12  cents  per  Ib. 
40,000  Ib.  seed,  at  $20  per  ton 


Less  one-fointh  share  to  landlord 


4.00 

120.00 


225.00 

182.50 


$2,400.00 
400.00 

$2,800.00 
700.00 


978.00 
124.00 

407.50 

120.00 
$2,112.17 


$2,IOO.OO 


FIBRES. 

FIBRE  INDUSTRY  OF  BRITISH  EAST  AFRICA. 

By   A.    WlGGLESWORTH. 

LAST  summer  I  visited  British  East  Africa  in  order  to 
investigate  the  fibre  industries  in  that  country,  and  an 
account  of  my  observations  may  interest  the  Congress. 

British  East  Africa  is  one  of  the  newest  of  British 
possessions;  its  administration  by  the  Colonial  Office 
dates  from  1895.  It  covers  an  estimated  area  of  185,000 
square  miles,  more  than  twice  that  of  Great  Britain.  It 
has  a  white  population  of  4,000  to  5,000,  mostly  residing 
in  the  Nairobi  district,  and  a  native  population  estimated 
at  3,000,000. 

The  Protectorate  stretches  from  latitude  4°  South  to 
above  the  Equator,  and  but  for  the  fact  that  the  land 
rises  steeply  from  the  ocean  to  a  plateau  at  an  altitude 
averaging  3,000  to  4,000  ft.,  the  country  would  be  of 
little  interest  to  Europeans. 

The  scenery  is  varied  and  very  beautiful,  with  an 
exceptional  wealth  of  plant  and  animal  life.  Favoured 
as  the  country  is  by  great  varieties  of  climate,  that  of 
the  uplands  is  not  unlike  an  English  summer,  with 
comparatively  small  variation  in  temperature.  There  is 
a  double  rainy  season,  first  March  to  June,  then  the  small 
rains  during  November  to  December,  making  a  total 
annual  average  of  about  50  in.  This  double  rainfall  has 
an  important  influence  on  the  growth  of  fibre.  The  rich 
volcanic  soil  has  been  rendered  still  more  fertile  by  the 
deposit  throughout  many  generations  of  forest  humus. 

First,  let  us  take  sansevieria.  The  discovery  in  the 
Voi  district  of  vast  areas  of  Sansevieria  Ehrenbergii  led 


504  FIBRES 

to  the  first  fibre  industry  in  British  East  Africa.  Pioneers 
found  the  natives  splitting  the  stems  into  thongs  of 
exceptional  tensile  strength,  with  which  they  bound 
together  the  framework  of  their  grass  huts,  proving  the 
utility  of  the  fibre. 

The  Government  granted  concessions  to  cut  the  leaf, 
and  three  factories  were  erected  to  decorticate  the  fibre 
for  the  European  market.  A  yellowish  fibre  is  produced 
about  2.\  to  4  ft.  long,  of  good  appearance,  but  somewhat 
brittle  and  lacking  in  strength. 

The  plant  is  found  growing  in  thick  clumps  from  a 
spreading,  stout  root;  half-a-dozen  or  so  stems  spring 
from  this,  grouped  fan-shaped,  like  iris  leaves.  The 
leaf  reaches  an  average  height  of  4  to  5  ft.,  but  excep- 
tional plants  are  occasionally  seen  14  ft.  high. 

The  cutting  is  laborious,  as  the  plant  grows  under  low, 
thorny  scrub,  which  must  be  cut  with  it.  The  native 
labourers  have  to  go  farther  and  farther  afield,  since  the 
root  generally  perishes  when  the  leaf  is  cut.  In  one 
plantation  the  cutting  was  taking  place  ten  miles  away 
from  the  factory,  a  line  of  rails  and  a  locomotive  having 
been  imported  to  transport  the  leaf;  in  another  a  mono- 
rail is  in  use.  Though  isansevieria  probably  contains 
15  per  cent,  of  fibre,  the  machinery  can  only  extract 
about  3  to  4  per  cent. 

The  factories  are  built  open-ended  with  a  suction  gas 
plant  for  motive  power,  the  fuel  consisting  of  charcoal 
made  on  the  spot  from  local  wood.  A  powerful  crusher 
prepares  the  leaf  for  the  decorticator,  and  it  has  been 
found  that  the  Corona  machine,  made  by  Messrs.  Krupp, 
gives  the  best  results,  producing,  when  worked  at  full 
speed  for  eight  to  nine  hours,  about  2\  to  3  tons  of  clean, 
dry  fibre.  This  entails  the  transport  of  80  to.  100  tons 
of  leaf  per  day. 

When  decorticated  the  fibre  is  spread  in  lines  in  the 
sunlight,  and  after  a  few  hours'  exposure  is  packed  for 
export  in  bales  of  about  2  cwt.  No  washing  is  done. 

Enormous  deposits  of  waste,  containing  a  large  per- 
centage of  fibre,  accumulate  round  the  factory,  and  are 
a  source  of  expense  to  remove.  As  this  material  contains 
much  fibre  rich  in  cellulose,  it  should  make  a  valuable 


FIBRES  5O5 

by-product  for  the  manufacture  of  paper  or  celluloid. 
An  enterprising  pioneer  erected  a  laboratory  at  Mason- 
galeni  to  investigate  the  properties  of  this  waste  with  a 
view  to  its  utilization,  but  the  problem  remains  un- 
solved, and  is  a  fruitful  field  of  research. 

It  was  thought  that  land  from  which  the  sansevieria 
had  been  cut  should  be  suitable  for  sisal.  It  seems, 
however,  that  the  two  plants  grow  under  different  con- 
ditions. Sansevieria  does  not  thrive  in  the  open.  It 
prefers  low  scrub,  under  which  it  is  sheltered  from  the 
sun.  Sisal,  on  the  contrary,  must  have  sun,  and  will  not 
grow  well  where  there  is  shade.  It  does  not  appear  to 
thrive  on  the  poor  land  from  v/hich  sansevieria  has  been 
cleared.  The  future  of  sansevieria  may,  therefore,  be 
considered  rather  doubtful,  and  planters  are  justified  in 
turning  their  attention  to  sisal  for  cultivation  on  the  rich, 
volcanic  soil  of  the  uplands,  where  there  are  vast  tracts 
awaiting  cultivation. 

It  is  an  axiom  that  sisal  flourishes  best  where  the 
original  bush  has  been  thickest  and  has  cost  the  most  to 
clear.  Sansevieria  can  do  with  little  rain,  as  it  stores 
much  moisture  in  its  thick,  succulent  leaf  and  has  few 
pores  (stomata)  through  which  moisture  escapes;  but  sisal 
almost  ceases  growing,  and  loses  its  glaucous  appearance 
(the  sign  of  health),  after  a  few  months'  drought. 

Sansevieria  can  be  sold  when  Manila  and  sisal  are 
scarce  and  dear,  but  brittleness  discounts  its  value  for 
manufacture  into  ropes  and  binder  twine,  and  it  is 
neglected  and  unremunerative  when  the  standard  fibres 
are  plentiful  and  cheap.  It  costs  more  to  produce  sanse- 
vieria than  sisal,  while  its  selling  price  is  20  per  cent.  less. 

I  have  observed  that  when  subjected  to  the  action  of 
air  and  moisture  (a  natural  dew  retting)  sansevieria 
becomes  fine,  white,  glossy  and  more  spinnable,  and  I 
consider  it  possible  that  some  process  may  in  future  be 
evolved  which  will  greatly  enhance  the  value  of  the  fibre 
and  increase  its  uses. 

And  now  as  to  sisal. 

The  following  list  of  agave  fibres  of  commerce  is  given 
by  Mr.  Lyster  H.  Dewey,  Botanist  in  Charge  of  Fibre 
Investigations,  Washington,  D.C.,  U.S.A.:  — 


506 


FIBRES 


Fibres 

Plants 

Botanical  names 

Region  of 
production 

Henequen 
Mexican  sisal 

Henequen 
Sacci 

Agave  fourcroydes  Lem  .... 
Agave  elongata  Jacob! 

Yucatan 
Campeche 

Yucatan  sisal 

Weis  sisal 

Agave  rigida  Hemsley 

Chiapas 

Sisal  hemp 

Agave     rigida     longlfolia 

Sinaloa 

Engelm. 

Tamaulipas 

Agave    rigida   elongata 

Cuba 

Baker 

Bahamas 

Sisal 

Sisal      ...       -  ... 

A^ave  sisalana  Perrine  ,., 

G.E.Africa 

Bahama  sisal 

Yaxci 

Agave      rigida     sisalana 

B.E.Africa 

East  African 

Green  sisal 

Engelm. 

lava 

sisal 

New  Guinea 

India 

Hawaii 

Fiji 

Cantala 

Cantala  

Agave  Cantala  Roxb. 

Philippines 

Manila  maguey 

Maguey 

Agave  aniericana  Blanco 

Java 

Bombay  aloe 

Ananas  sabrang 

Furcraea    Cantala    Haw. 

India 

Kuntala 

Mezcal  maguey 

Mezcal  maguey 

Agave 

Sinaloa 

Mazatlan  hemp 

Mezcal  de  Sina- 

Tepic 

loa 

Mezcal  azul 

Tequila 

Tequila  azul     ... 

Agave  tequilana  Weber  ... 

Jalisco 

Tequila  maguey 

Magueyon 

Magueyon 

Agave 

Chiapas 

Zapupe  Fuerta 

Zapupe  de  Tepet- 

Agave    Lespinassei     T  re- 

Vera Cruz 

zintla 

lease 

There    are    about    300   varieties,    and    three    of    these 
supply  the  bulk  of  the  fibre  known  to  the  world  as  sisal, 


viz. : 


Agave  rigida  elongata,  Baker,  known  in  Mexico  as 
henequen,  which  produces  about  three-quarters  of  the 
world's  supply  of  sisal. 

Agave  sisalana,  Perrine. — This  is  the  variety  introduced 
into  East  Africa,  and  it  was  decided  at  the  Surabaya 
Conference  of  1912,  and  has  been  urged  by  Mr.  M.  M. 
Saleeby,  that  the  name  sisal  should  be  confined  to  the 
product  of  this  plant. 

Agave  Cantala,  Roxb. — Cultivated  in  Java,  producing 
a  finer  fibre  than  either  of  the  two  other  plants.  This  it 
was  proposed  to  name  in  commerce  Cantala  fibre. 

Sansevieria  has  been  a  stepping-stone  to  sisal  in  East 
Africa.  Sisal  is  superior  to  it  in  every  respect.  It  is  a 
hard,  strong,  whitish  fibre  extracted  from  the  leaf  of  an 
agave.  This  plant  was  first  discovered  by  Cortez  in 
Mexico.  He  found  the  Aztecs  and  the  Maya  employing 
the  agave  for  many  purposes.  They  used  the  succulent 


FIBRES  SOJ 

young  leaves  for  a  vegetable  soup,  extracted  the  fibre 
from  the  mature  leaf  to  be  made  into  garments  and  for 
cordage  purposes.  From  another  variety  they  made  a 
refreshing  beer,  still  in  use  in  Mexico,  under  the  name 
"  pulque,"  and  they  also  extracted  a  herbal  medicine. 

Plantlets  of  Agave  sisalana,  Perrine,  were  with  difficulty 
obtained  in  Mexico,  and  were  introduced  into  Florida  by 
Dr.  Perrine  in  1839,  thence  taken  to  the  Bahamas  in  1843 
by  Dr.  Nesbit,  and  from  there  to  the  Hawaian  Islands  in 
1893.  Dr.  Hindorf  imported  1,000  bulbils  from  Florida 
into  German  East  Africa  this  same  year.  From  there  sisal 
was  brought  into  British  East  Africa  fourteen  years  later. 

The  first  plantation  (in  British  East  Africa)  was  started 
in  November,  1907,  at  Punda  Milea,  forty-five  miles  from 
Nairobi,  by  Mr.  C.  B.  Hausberg,  backed  by  Messrs. 
Swift,  Rutherfoord  and  Co. 

Bulbils  were  obtained  from  German  East  Africa,  and 
were  planted  in  nurseries  while  the  ground  was  being 
prepared  for  them  by  top  ploughing  with  a  single  furrow 
plough  drawn  by  fourteen  oxen.  This  team  could  plough 
half  an  acre  in  one  day  of  eight  hours.  The  second  plough- 
ing was  done  with  a  three-furrow  disc  plough  with  six- 
teen oxen,  which  turned  over  about  two  acres  a  day. 
The  ground  was  planned  out  with  chains,  and  planted 
8  by  8  ft.  to  allow  cultivation  between  the  plants.  This 
gives  about  650  plants  per  acre,  compared  with  900  to 
i, 800  plants  in  German  East  Africa,  and  the  production 
of  fibre  is  as  great  from  the  smaller  number  of  plants. 

The  leaves  in  the  upland  district  are  heavier  than  at  the 
coast.  It  is  found  that  eleven  to  twenty  leaves,  accord- 
ing to  size,  give  I  Ib.  of  fibre,  while  at  the  coast  it  takes 
sixteen  to  thirty-five  leaves  to  produce  the  same  weight 
of  fibre. 

By  October,  1911,  over  800  acres  were  planted  out, 
and  the  machinery  was  installed  and  started.  The  plant 
consisted  of  a  suction  gas  engine  and  accessories  for 
motive  power,  a  New  Corona  decorticator,  a  primitive 
home-made  beater  in  place  of  brushing  machinery,  and  a 
Bijoli  press  for  baling. 

The  growth  of  the  plants  has  been  so  rapid  that  in 
many  cases  almost  the  whole  of  the  leaves,  about  180  in 


508  FIBRES 

number,  were  available  for  cutting  before  the  machinery 
was  quite  ready.  The  planter's  skill  consists  in  having 
mature  leaves  in  sufficient  number  to  keep  the  machinery 
steadily  working,  and  in  preserving  a  correct  balance 
between  leaf  production  and  machine  capacity. 

No  plantation  could  be  found  in  better  condition,  the 
land  being  a  model  of  cleanliness.  One  sees  stretches  of 
dark  green,  undulating  landscape,  clothed  with  a  superb 
crop  of  well-grown,  closely  planted  agave  intersected 
with  paths.  The  factory  is  well  placed  in  a  hollow  near 
the  centre.  It  is  striking  to  see  the  even  growth,  the 
plants  being  tall  enough  on  the  average  to  conceal  a  man 
on  foot. 

The  use  of  oxen  is  decidedly  advantageous,  facilitating 
the  cultivation  of  the  land.  Catch  crops  can  be  grown, 
such  as  Rose  coco  beans  planted  between  the  rows  the 
first  and  second  year,  and  four  crops  can  be  harvested, 
thus  materially  reducing  the  cost  of  the  sisal. 

The  leaf  is  ready  after  two  and  a  half  to  three  years' 
growth,  and  continues  to  grow  for  a  further  two  to  three 
years,  making  the  cycle  five  to  six  years,  and  producing 
in  all  140  to  200  leaves.  One  hundred  leaves  may  be  cut 
at  a  time,  but  generally  twenty  to  eighty  are  sufficient. 
These  are  tied  into  bundles,  and  are  transported  on  a 
trolley  line  to  the  factory. 

The  process  of  decorticating  sisal  is  simple,  and  in- 
volves the  crushing  of  the  leaf  while  it  is  automatically 
gripped  near  its  centre.  Modern  machinery  enables  the 
cleaning  process  to  be  done  in  one  operation. 

After  passing  through  this  machine  the  fibre  is  taken 
to  a  washing  tank,  where  it  is  thoroughly  rinsed  in  water 
for  forty-five  minutes1  before  being  carried  to  the  drying 


1  By  some  it  is  deemed  necessary  to  leave  the  fibre  in  water 
not  more  than  three  or  four  minutes,  so  as  to  keep  it  white  and 
prevent  loss  of  strength.  Abundant  water  supply  is  most  impor- 
tant. In  Java  the  Cantala  fibre  is  subjected  after  decortication 
to  a  process  of  retting  (fermenting  in  water)  for  three  or  four 
days,  and  while  this  improves  the  colour,  it  depreciates  the 
strength  nearly  50  per  cent.,  and  cannot  be  recommended  either 
for  this  or  for  sisal.  Further,  in  Java  a  system  of  purifying  the 
washing  water  by  chemicals  has  been  ad-opted.  A  fine  white  fibre 
(the  whitest  known)  is  obtained,  but  it  is  questionable  if  the 
expense  justifies  the  result. 


FIBRES  509 

field.  It  is  important  that  the  water  be  frequently 
changed  if  the  white  fibre  is  to  be  obtained,  colour  being 
of  value.  After  washing  the  fibre  is  carried  to  the  drying 
ground,  where  a  few  hours'  exposure  in  the  hot  sunshine 
suffices  in  good  weather.  If  left  after  being  thoroughly 
dried  the  fibre  will  tend  to  turn  yellowish  in  colour.  If 
packed  before  being  bone  dry,  it  appears  to  deteriorate 
in  transit  through  discoloration. 

When  well  dried  the  fibre  is  taken  to  the  brushing 
machine,  after  which  the  product  is  tied  with  a  wisp  of 
fibre  into  heads  of  about  5  Ib.  each,  say  4  in.  diameter, 
to  facilitate  handling  in  the  rope  and  twine  factory. 

A  new  brushing  machine,  the  invention  of  Mr.  Dwen, 
of  Messrs.  Swift,  Rutherfoord  and  Co.,  constructed  by 
Shirtliff  •  Bros.,  of  Hampton  Hill,  has  made  a  step  in 
advance,  saving  wastage  and  labour.  It  is  constructed 
with  an  automatic  grip  on  similar  lines  to  that  in  use  on 
the  decorticator. 

The  standardizing  of  qualities  in  the  factories  into  the 
following  grades :  — 

Prime  long, 

,,  medium  length, 
Good  long, 

,,  medium  length, 
Tow, 

is  favoured  by  consumers,  and  is  likely  to  become 
universal  in  British  East  Africa.  It  obviates  disputes, 
and  saves  the  expense  of  arbitration  where  deliveries  of 
fibre  are  ungraded.  After  grading  the  fibre  is  neatly 
packed  in  bales  of  2  cwt.  each,  the  contents  being  80  to 
90  cubic  ft.  to  the  ton  weight. 

A  stout  cord  made  from  the  sisal  itself  is  strong  enough 
for  baling  purposes.  Hoop-iron  is  not  recommended,  as 
it  cuts  the  fibre  if  the  hydraulic  pressure  be  excessive.  It 
is  essential  that  the  fibre  be  tightly  pressed,  seeing  that 
freight  adds  considerably  to  the  cost.  Freight  from  East 
Africa  to  U.S.A.  is  much  higher  than  that  from  Mexico 
to  New  York,  and  it  is  important  that  those  who  are 
interested  in  the  development  of  East  Africa  should 
encourage  the  shipping  companies  to  give  every  possible 


510  FIBRES 

facility  in  the  way  of  cheap  freights,  so  that  the  new 
industry  may  not  be  hampered.  The  tendency  is  to  keep 
freights  far  too  high,  and  this  must  be  remedied. 

Mr.  A.  C.  MacDonald,  the  able  Director  of  Agriculture 
for  British  East  Africa,  has  investigated  the  production  of 
sisal  in  Punda  Milea,  and  finds  that  a  total  weight  of  three 
tons  per  acre  is  produced  during  the  life  of  a  plant  which 
averages  four  and  a  half  to  five  years  and  occasionally 
six  years.  His  experiment  has  been  verified  and  even 
bettered  by  subsequent  practice. 

In  this  district  it  is  by  no  means  an  easy  task  to 
eradicate  the  sisal  "  bol  "  or  stump  before  replanting  or 
preparing  the  land  for  another  crop.  In  German  East 
Africa  this  rots  away  of  itself  within  a  year.  At  the 
coast  in  British  East  Africa  a  vigorous  jerk  will  remove 
the  stump,  but  in  the  uplands,  nourished  by  the  rich  soil, 
the  stump  is  formidable,  and  can  only  be  extracted  by 
pulling  out  with  four  to  six  oxen  yoked  to  a  short  rope 
which  is  hitched  round  the  root,  a  second  rope  at  the 
same  time  being  slipped  round  another  plant,  so  that  the 
strain  on  the  oxen  may  be  steady  and  the  work  be  ex- 
peditiously  done. 

Mr.  A.  C.  MacDonald  experimented  with  dry  arsenite 
of  soda,  which  kills  the  stump  and  facilitates  its  removal. 

The  ground  wants  a  thorough  cleaning,  and  it  is  con- 
sidered prudent  to  leave  it  fallow  a  year,  or  to  take  a 
couple  of  bean  crops  before  replanting. 

In  German  East  Africa  three  consecutive  crops  have 
been  grown,  the  second  and  third  yielding  rather  poorer 
fibre  than  the  first.  To  what  degree  soil  is  exhausted  by 
sisal  has  yet  to  be  proved. 

Elaborate  experiments  in  fertilizing  were  carried  out  at 
Amani  (German  East  Africa),  where  it  was  ascertained 
that  sisal  did  not  benefit  by  any  kind  of  fertilizer. 

In  1908  a  plantation  was  started  by  Messrs.  Mildmay 
and  Wavell  at  Nyali  on  the  mainland,  opposite  the  island 
of  Mombasa.  It  comprises  a  long  strip  of  coast  land  of 
coral  formation,  more  suitable  for  sisal  than  for  any  other 
crop.  The  labour  of  clearing  was  considerable.  No 
ploughing  could  be  done,  so  the  ground  had  to  be 


FIBRES  511 

prepared  by  the  native  "  Jembie  "  (hoe),  the  presence  of 
the  tsetse-fly  preventing  the  use  of  draught  animals. 

The  bulbils  were  procured  from  India  and  locally,  and 
were  planted  out  by  Swahili  and  Kikuyu  natives. 

The  average  rainfall  here  is  50  to  60  in.  and  it  is  fairly 
regular,  depending'  on  the  monsoon  winds. 

The  sisal  is  planted  out  on  prepared  land  immediately 
after  the  rains.  Originally  bulbils  were  chosen,  but  now 
suckers  are  preferred,  and  are  planted  out  directly  with- 
out passing  through  a  nursery.  Further,  sisal  suckers 
are  preferred  at  the  coast  because  they  are  true  to  the 
parent  type,  and  if  selected  from  the  best  plants  repro- 
duce a  pure  type;  whereas  bulbils,  through  crossing, 
contain  more  than  one  strain  and  are  liable  to  greater 
variation.  The  spacing  is  closer  than  in  Punda  Milea, 
up  to  1,400  plants  per  acre.  It  is  found  that  plants  grow 
best  in  exposed  positions,  better  on  hilltops  than  in 
valleys,  and  that  they  thrive  best  where  they  have  most 
room,  consequently  wider  planting  is  now  being  ad- 
vocated, some  coast  planters  adopting  8  by  8  ft.,  or  about 
650  plants  per  acre.  At  the  coast  sisal  may  be  inter- 
planted  one  year  before  it  poles,  so  that  the  crop  matures 
a  year  earlier.  Care  is  taken  to  keep  the  land  as  clean  as 
possible  during  the  first  year  until  the  plant  can  fend 
for  itself.  After  this  little  harm  can  happen  to  sisal. 
Owing  to  the  nature  of  the  ground  the  cost  of  clearing  is 
considerable,  amounting  to  £3  to  £5  per  acre.  Once 
cleared,  it  can  be  kept  clean  with  an  outlay  of  about  203. 
per  annum. 

After  three  years'  rapid  growth  the  leaves  are  3  to 
4^  ft.  long  and  are  fit  for  use.  One  man,  working  by 
contract,  can  cut  and  remove  the  terminal  spine  from 
1,200  to  1,500  leaves  per  day.  A  really  good  cutter  can 
prepare  3,000.  The  leaves  thereafter  are  carefully 
selected  as  to  length  before  tying  into  bundles  of  40  to 
50  Ib.  each. 

Paths  intersect  the  estate,  dividing  it  into  lo-acre  lots, 
with  roads  at  intervals  wide  enough  for  a  trolley  line  to 
convey  the  leaf  to  the  factory.  The  leaf  contains  so  small 
a  percentage  of  fibre  that  60  to  70  tons  must  be  handled 
to  produce  2  to  2j  tons  of  dry  fibre  each  day.  To  effect 
33 


512  FIBRES 

economy  of  labour  locomotives  are  now  being  used  to 
facilitate  traction  and  save  labour,  which  is  as  scarce  in 
East  Africa  as  elsewhere. 

The  plant  grows  best  where  there  are  pockets  of  broken 
coral  soil,  and  an  occasional  leaf  may  measure  63  in.  On 
flat  coral  rock  the  plants  are  stunted  with  matted  roots, 
which  spread  outwards,  joining  the  roots  of  plants  in 
the  next  row.  Small  patches  of  ground  occur  here  and 
there  where  sisal  will  not  grow.  This  causes  irregularity, 
and  entails  in  this  district  the  selection  of  the  leaf  into 
various  lengths  before  decorticating. 

As  many  as  180  leaves  have  been  cut  from  one  plant; 
others  have  poled  after  only  130  were  taken,  while  the 
average  number  in  practice  may  be  reckoned  at  140  to 
150  leaves.  When  mature  the  pole  or  seed  bearer  shoots 
up  with  incredible  rapidity  to  a  height  of  15  to  20  ft.,  and 
produces  up  to  3,000  bulbils. 

After  cutting  the  leaves  are  transported  to  the  factory. 
A  New  Corona  has  been  erected,  the  brushing  is  done  by 
converted  raspadors,  and  the  baling  in  a  hydraulic  press 
made  by  Rollings  and  Guest. 

The  sisal  is  graded  as  at  Punda  Milea;  the  fibre  is 
perhaps  rather  finer,  the  colour  and  quality  are  excellent, 
and  the  produce  finds  a  ready  market  at  the  price  ruling 
for  German  East  African  sisal. 

An  area  of  1,200  acres  has  been  planted,  and  700  to 
800  are  at  the  cutting  stage.  The  machinery  was  started 
in  January,  1913,  and  two  other  sets  are  being  fitted  up. 

In  many  estates  it  is  found  advisable  to  allot  to  the 
native  a  fixed  task,  and  on  its  completion  he  may  return 
home  or  may  continue  working  at  the  same  rate  of  pay. 
Work  starts  in  some  at  sunrise,  and  continues  without 
intermission  until  four  in  the  afternoon.  A  good  worker 
may  complete  certain  tasks  by  two  or  even  at  noon, 
after  which  his  time  is  his  own.  Wages  at  the  coast  are 
higher  than  at  the  uplands,  averaging  12  to  14  rupees 
(i6s.  to  i8s.  8d.)  per  month,  against  6  to  8  rupees  (8s.  to 
TOS.  8d.). 

At  Nyali  a  feature  is  made  of  good  housing  for  the 
natives,  and  stone  huts  have  been  built.  In  other  estates 
the  native  erects  his  own  grass  hut  in  the  traditional  way. 

These  two  estates  are  typical  of  others  in  British  East 


FIBRES  513 

Africa.  The  industry  has  taken  a  firm  root.  Planting 
proceeds  apace,  and  it  should  not  be  many  years  before 
British  East  Africa  catches  up  German  East  Africa, 
which  has  had  fourteen  years'  start,  and  whose  best 
estates  are  highly  profitable  and  yield  large  returns. 

In  other  tropical  countries  they  deem  it  inadvisable  to 
cultivate  sisal  over  1,500  ft.  altitude,  but  British  East 
African  planters  have  proved  that  an  excellent  crop  can 
be  obtained  at  5,000  ft.,  and  are  now  going  farther  afield, 
planting  sisal-  at  Naivasha  at  about  7,000  to  8,000  ft. 
altitude.  It  is  too  early  to  ascertain  the  result. 

Almost  close  to  the  Equator,  just  above  Lake  Victoria 
Nyanza,  a  successful  plantation  is  using  raspadors,  this 
being  the  first  machine  adapted  for  the  cleaning  of  sisal, 
the  invention  of  a  Franciscan  monk,  and  still  in  use  in 
Mexico.  The  fibre  from  this  district  is  rather  longer  and 
of  good  colour,  though  at  times  a  slight  defect  is  visible, 
due  to  the  pitting  of  the  leaves  from  the  storms  which 
occur  in  that  district. 

Mention  should  be  made  of  a  plantation  at  the  coast 
north  of  Mombasa,  where  a  decorticator  constructed  by 
Messrs.  Robey  and  Co.,  Ltd.,  is  at  work. 

It  is  still  to  be  proved  whether  the  coast  plantations 
or  those  in  the  uplands  will  be  more  profitable.  It  has 
been  shown  that  the  conditions  are  quite  different.  The 
rich  upland  soil  can  produce  any  crop,  and  the  land  will 
therefore  rise  in  value.  This  may  cause  the  cultivation 
of  sisal  to  be  eventually  confined  to  the  cheaper  coral 
lands  of  the  coast,  or,  as  in  German  East  Africa,  to  the 
medium  soils. 

The  weeding  of  the  coral  coast  land  entails  more  labour 
and  expense  than  in  areas  where  the  soil  can  be  cultivated 
by  draught  animals  and  mechanical  tools,  such  as  the 
Planet  Junior  cultivator  now  in  use  in  the  upland  district, 
and  a  valuable  accessory  in  view  of  the  scarcity  of  labour. 
It  is  doubtful  if  any  great  harm  is  done  after  the  first 
year  by  neglecting  to  keep  the  land  quite  clean.  The 
vitality  of  the  agave  being  greater  than  that  of  the  weeds 
enables  it  to  hold  its  own  and  thrive,  in  spite  of  its 
enemies.  Naturally  work  has  to  be  adjusted  according 
to  the  available  labour  supply,  and  in  many  plantations 
in  German  East  Africa  no  great  stress  is  laid  on  cleaning 


514  FIBRES 

the  sisal  after  it  has  entered  its  second  year.  My  visit 
there  took  place  after  the  heavy  rains,  when  the  weeds 
had  the  greatest  hold,  and  it  was  anticipated  that  several 
months  would  elapse  before  the  plantations  could  be 
weeded.  The  cost  of  cleaning  is  very  variable.  Where 
cultivation  can  be  done  by  machinery,  as  in  the  High- 
lands, the  cost  may  be  as  low  as  IDS.  to  2os.  per  annum, 
but  at  the  coast  it  is  greater,  and  in  some  parts  of  German 
East  Africa  land  can  only  be  kept  clean  at  a  charge  of 
505.  per  acre  per  annum. 

Both  in  British  and  German  East  Africa  only  Agave 
sisilana  has  been  planted,  and  neither  the  Mexican  variety 
nor  the  Cantala.  Though  producing  a  fibre  analogous  in 
appearance  to  Mexican  sisal  (henequen  or  Agave  rigida 
elongata),  A.  sisalana  is  botanically  an  entirely  different 
plant,  as  can  be  judged  from  the  shape  of  the  petal  of 
the  flower,  and  the  fact  that  the  leaves  of  the  henequen 
have  spikes  along  the  edge  as  well  as  at  the  end. 

The  African  plant  commences  to  mature  in  two  and  a 
half  to  three  years,  and  its  cycle  is  five  to  six  years, 
whereas  the  Mexican  plant  matures  after  seven  to  eight 
years,  and  is  said  to  attain  the  age  of  20  to  25  years.  It 
grows  more  slowly  and  produces  about  twenty-five  leaves 
each  year,  as  against  fifty  to  eighty  leaves  of  African 
sisal.  An  acre  in  Mexico  turns  out  1,000  to  1,500  Ib.  per 
annum  of  clean  fibre,  whilst  a  ton  has  been  gathered  in 
one  year  in  the  uplands  of  British  East  Africa.  Further, 
whereas  the  soil  and  climate  of  Africa  enable  the  plant  to 
produce  three  tons  of  fibre  in  a  cycle  of  five  to  six  years, 
in  Mexico  it  takes  ten  to  twelve  years  to  obtain  this 
same  quantity  of  fibre.  Mexico  has  the  benefit  in  so 
far  as  the  plantations  do  not  require  renewal  so  often, 
against  which  expenses  in  Africa  are  lower.  The  practice 
in  Mexico  is  shrouded  in  mystery  and  wants  investigating, 
but  it  is  certain  that  the  conditions  in  East  Africa  are  more 
favourable,  and  can  therefore  produce  sisal  at  a  lower 
cost  than  Yucatan  or  Campeche.  Sisal  cannot  be  profit- 
ably cultivated  in  patches,  since  less  efficient  machinery  is 
available  to  cope  with  a  small  production.  It  is  there- 
fore inadvisable  for  a  man  of  limited  means  to  engage  in 
its  cultivation.  It  has  been  suggested  that  a  group  of 
settlers  plant  each,  say,  100  acres,  and  combine  to  instal 


FIBRES  515 

an  up-to-date  plant  at  the  centre  of  their  plantations 
worked  on  a  co-operative  system.  In  practice  it  may  be 
difficult  to  work  out  this  scheme. 

A  good  modern  machine,  such  as  the  New  Corona, 
produces  from  two  to  two  and  a  half  tons  of  cleaned  fibre 
in  a  day  of  six  to  ten  hours.  To  keep  it  going,  say  200 
days  in  the  year  with  60  to  70  tons  of  leaf  per  day,  five  to 
six  hundred  acres  must  be  cut  out  in  a  year  in  German 
East  Africa. 

In  the  uplands  of  British  East  Africa  300  to  400  acres 
will  supply  the  annual  consumption  of  a  Corona  machine, 
and  it  is  sufficient  to  plant  900  to  1,000  acres.  An  area  of 
1,500  acres  may  be  reserved  for  each  machine,  one-third  of 
this  to  lie  fallow. 

In  German  East  Africa  it  is  reckoned  that  £20,000 
capital  is  necessary  to  bring  the  plantation  to  bearing 
point,  supply  the  necessary  machinery,  and  leave  a  margin 
for  working  capital.  A  smaller  sum  should  suffice  in  the 
British  East  African  uplands,  where  labour  is  cheaper  and 
the  land  worked  with  a  smaller  expenditure  of  labour. 

It  is  evident  that  where  machinery  and  oxen  can  be 
used  for  cultivation,  and  therefore  little  need  be  expended 
for  clearing,  the  cost  of  producing  sisal  is  below  that 
where  the  ground  must  be  tilled  by  hand,  either  for  lack 
of  animals  or  because  of  the  nature  of  the  soil.  In  com- 
pensation, barren,  rocky  land  can  be  obtained  at  a  lower 
cost. 

Methods  vary  in  different  sisal-producing  countries. 
A  study  of  the  practice  in  Mexico  and  Java  reveals  the 
advantages  enjoyed  by  planters  in  East  Africa,  and  con- 
tributes to  the  conclusion  that,  provided  an  adequate 
labour  supply  be  ensured,  the  industry  must  become  the 
most  important  of  East  Africa  because  of  its  unrivalled 
conditions,  viz. :  — 

(1)  Unequalled  climate, 

(2)  Fertility  of  soil, 

(3)  Cheap  native  labour, 

(4)  Low-priced  land, 

contributing  to  a  low  initial  cost,  compared  with  the 
average  price  of  the  last  ten  years,  £33  per  ton. 


ffi  •?: 


5    § 


W 


8      2 


<D  """ 


M       o 
4       o) 


.  CD 

&          0 


1 


FIBRES  517 

It  may  be  asked  what  influence  the  increased  production 
will  have  on  prices.  The  world's  total  consumption  of 
hard  fibres,  which  comprise  Manila,  sisal,  and  New 
Zealand  hemps,  used  mostly  for  rope  and  binder  twine, 
is  now  360,000  tons  per  annum,  and  is  increasing  at  the 
average  rate  of  4j  per  cent,  per  annum,  say  15,000  tons 

ANNUAL  PRODUCTION  OF  HARD  FIBRES. 

1913.  1912.  1911.  1910. 

Tons  Tons  Tons  Tons 

Manila  Receipts          ...  118,250  ...  172,000  ...  158,000  ...  170,000 

Mexican  Sisal              ...  142,250  ...  139,823  ...  120,000  ...  97,000 

Istle  or  Tampico         ...  10,383  ...  11,274  ...  7.753  ... 

German  East  African...  22,000  ...  16,000  ...  10,000  ...  7,000 

Java  Sisal      ...             ...  7,500  ...         6,000  ...  2,000  ...  1,000 

Bahamas  (est.)             ...  3,000  ...         3,ooo  ...  3, 600  ...  3,000 

New  Zealand              ...  30,000  ...  21,500  ...  18,100  ...  21,000 

333.383     ...     369,597     ...     319,453     •••     299,000 

annual  increase.  If  excessive  quantities  of  sisal  be  sud- 
denly thrown  on  the  market  without  any  curtailment  of 
production  elsewhere  a  fall  in  price  may  take  place,  but 
the  cheapest  producer  must  of  necessity  displace  others 
who  through  antiquated  methods  or  less  suitable  con- 
ditions are  unable  to  compete  favourably. 

New  methods  must  displace  old,  and  Africa  is  well 
suited  to  produce  fibre.  Its  soil,  climate,  and  labour 
conditions  cannot  be  improved  upon,  and  there  is  no 
reason  why  Africa  should  not  supply  the  future  fibre 
requirements  of  the  world. 

Labour  conditions  in  Europe  and  America  are  daily 
becoming  more  unsuited  to  the  production  of  fibres.  The 
peasants  of  Russia,  Germany,  and  France  are  curtailing 
the  growth  and  retting  of  hemp,  and  in  Great  Britain  it 
has  been  abandoned.  Legislative  grants  will  not  suffice 
to  reinstate  it.  The  cultivation  is  slowly  but  surely 
receding  from  Europe  and  migrating  to  Asia  and  Africa. 
Only  if  new  processes  be  evolved  with  odourless  retting 
and  scientific  treatment  in  well-equipped  factories  may 
this  industry  survive  in  Europe.  Hard  fibres  are  slowly 
but  surely  displacing  "  soft "  fibres  (Italian,  Russian, 
Hungarian)  for  cordage  purposes. 

We  are  on  the  verge  of  a  change,  and  it  is  not  hazard- 
ing much  to  predict  that  Africa  is  likely  in  the  near  future 
to  be  the  largest  producer  of  sisal  and  other  fibres. 


JUTE  AND  ITS  SUBSTITUTES. 

By    R.    S.    FINLOW. 
Fibre  Expert  to  the  Government  of  Bengal. 

THE  cultivation  of  jute  and  the  manufacture  by  hand 
of  jute  cloth  called  gunnies  (from  goni,  a  sack),  of  ropes, 
and  probably  also  of  jute  paper,  are  very  ancient  practices, 
the  dates  of  commencement  of  which  are  lost  in  antiquity. 
The  first  exports  of  raw  jute  which  were  the  origin  of 
the  great  jute  industry  of  to-day  apparently  took  place  as 
recently  as  the  first  quarter  of  the  nineteenth  century, 
when  a  few  hundreds  of  maunds  were  forwarded  to 
Europe.  Long  before  this,  however,  jute  was  cultivated 
on  a  large  scale,  at  least  in  Northern  Bengal  in  the 
districts  of  Rangpur,  Dinajpur,  and  Purnea;  but  all  the 
raw  product  was  worked  up  in  India,  partly  into  clothing 
(megili)  for  the  inhabitants  of  Bengal,  partly  into  sacking 
and  wrappers  (gunni),  and  partly  into  ropes  and  cordage. 
In  1746  an  entry  in  the  log  of  the  ship  Wake  runs  :  "  Sent 
on  shore  60  bales  of  gunny  belonging  to  the  Company, 
with  all  the  jute  ropes."  In  1804  Buchanan  Hamilton,  in 
his  manuscript  accounts  of  Rangpur,  says:  "In  this 
district  one  of  the  most  extensive  crops  is  the  '  jat  pata/ 
or  Corchorus  capsularis,  used  in  the  same  manner  as  in 
Dinajpur.  For  the  manufacture  of  the  better  kinds  of 
paper  '  tangsa,'  or  '  tosha  pata  '  (Corchorus  olitorius),  is 
more  usually  cultivated.  In  every  part  as  much  is  culti- 
vated as  is  required  for  the  use  of  the  farms;  but  in  the 
north-western  parts  of  the  country  great  quantities  are 
exported  (to  the  neighbouring  districts),  both  raw  and 
manufactured,  and  a  great  part  of  the  people  are  clothed 
with  cloth  made  of  this  material."  The  extent  of  the 
cultivation  of  jute  in  Northern  Bengal  can  be  gauged 
from  Buchanan  Hamilton's  estimate  that  at  the  time  of 
writing — about  1804 — the  area  under  jute  in  Rangpur 
approximated  to  20,000  acres.  Incidentally,  he  relates 


FIBRES 


519 


that  the  price  of  jute  varied  between  As.  8  and  Rs.  2  per 
maund.  Even  in  those  days  apparently  there  were  con- 
siderable fluctuations  in  the  price  of  the  fibre,  but  the 
general  level  of  the  values  was  obviously  low  enough  to 
excite  the  envy  of  modern  jute  manufacturers. 

In  1828  a  separate  head  was  assigned  to  jute  in  Customs 
House  records,  and  it  was  introduced  to  Dundee  about 
1830.  At  first  spinning  experiments  with  jute  in  Dundee 
do  not  appear  to  have  been  successful,  and  it  was  not 
for  some  years  that  it  was  manufactured  tO'  any  extent 
by  itself.  At  this  period  its  admixture  with  other 
material  gave  rise  to  the  significant  phrase  "  Warranted 
free  from  Indian  Jute  "  in  contemporary  market  quota- 
tions (vide  Wallace,  "  The  Romance  of  Jute,"  Calcutta, 
1909).  About  the  year  1838  the  spinning  difficulties 
appear  to  have  been  surmounted,  and  jute  began  to 
take  its  place  as  the  cheapest  material  for  the  manu- 
facture of  sacking  and  of  common  wrappers.  From  that 
time  onwards  the  rapidity  with  which  exports  of  jute 
from  Calcutta  increased  was  remarkable.  In  1829  only 
about  380  cwt.  were  dispatched.  This  increased  to 
i, 800  cwt.  in  the  following  year;  while  the  average 
annual  export  in  the  period  1828  to  1833  was  11,800  cwt. 


Period 

1828-33 
1838-43 
1848-53 
1855-56 
I 860-6 I 

1874-75 
1878-79 
1882-83 
1897-98 
19II-J2 


TABLE    I. 


EXPORT  OF  JUTE  FROM  BENGAL. 


Annual  export 
of  jute. 
Cwt. 
1 1, 800 
117,047 

439,350 

882,700 

1,074,320 

5,493.957 

6,021,382 

10,348,909 

15,000,000 

16,150,000 


The  Crimean  War  and  the  consequent  temporary 
shutting  off  of  the  Russian  exports  of  flax  and  hemp, 
the  most  serious  competitors  of  jute  in  the  gunny  market, 
gave  jute  an  impetus  which  it  has  never  lost. 

The  export  of  jute  touched  15,000,000  cwt.  in  1898,  since 


520  FIBRES 

when  the  figures  have  remained,  on  the  whole,  about 
stationary.  In  the  meantime  the  great  increase  in  the 
production  of  jute  has  been  almost  entirely  absorbed  by 
the  Indian  mills,  which  have  practically  doubled  their  con- 
sumption of  fibre.  About  the  year  1855  the  first  Indian 
jute  mill  was  established.  To-day  there  are  forty-five 
mills  in  Bengal,  employing  over  200,000  people,  and  con- 
suming, on  an  average,  fully  half  of  the  total  quantity  of 
jute  produced. 

Jute  can  be  grown  in  almost  any  type  of  soil  which 
has  the  necessary  depth,  provided  fertilizing  material  is 
available ;  as  well  as  sufficient  water,  either  in  the  form  of 
rainfall  or  of  irrigation,  to  keep  the  soil  moist.  Its 
experimental  cultivation  in  different  parts  of  India  has 
dissipated  the  idea,  long  held  by  nearly  all  who  are  not 
well  acquainted  with  the  practical  details  of  its  cultivation, 
viz.,  that  a  swampy  soil  and  an  excessively  damp  atmo- 
sphere are  necessary  for  its  successful  growth.  As  a 
matter  of  fact,  the  finest  jute  is  grown  on  land  which 
never  goes  under  water,  and  the  quality  of  the  fibre 
produced  with  irrigation  under  the  almost  arid  atmospheric 
conditions  prevailing  in  the  Punjab  left  nothing  to  be 
desired.  The  best  crops  of  jute  cannot  be  raised  on 
shallow  stony  land  or  on  the  acid  red  laterite  soils  which 
are  to  be  found  in  the  "  Bahrind  "  and  Madhupur  jungle 
tracts  in  Bengal,  Chota  Nagpur,  and  Orissa.  Outside 
these  tracts  the  crop  thrives  well  in  most  parts  -of  Bengal 
and  Assam,  but  best  of  all  perhaps  on  the  rich  alluvial 
areas  in  Eastern  Bengal,  which  are  renewed  every  year 
by  the  silt  brought  by  the  floods  from  the  rivers  which 
inundate  them.  On  lands  which  receive  such  an  annual 
deposit  of  silt  the  cultivators  are  in  the  habit  of  using 
little  or  no  manure,  and  yet,  provided  weather  conditions 
are  favourable,  they  reap  large  crops  every  year.  On 
lands  which  are  not  submerged  by  river  floods  fairly  heavy 
manuring  is  necessary,  for  the  green  weight  of  a  good 
crop  of  jute  may  be  anything  from  15  to  20  tons  (say 
400  to  600  maunds).  As  practically  the  whole  of  this 
growth  takes  place  within  three  months,  it  is  obvious  that 
plenty  of  easily  available  plant  food  is  necessary.  The 
whole  question  of  the  manuring  of  jute  is  under  investi- 


FIBRES  521 

gation,  and  it  is  probable  that  it  may  ultimately  be  possible 
to  increase  materially  the  average  yield  per  acre  of  the 
fibre. 

The  time  of  sowing  of  jute  varies  from  the  middle  of 
February  in  low-lying  "  Char  "  lands  to  the  beginning  of 
June  in  the  high  western  and  south-western  districts, 
where  sufficient  rain  often  does  not  fall  before  the  latter 
date  to  admit  of  sowing.  The  land  is  usually  prepared 
by  alternate  use  of  the  plough  and  mooi  or  henga,1  until 
a  sufficiently  fine  tilth  has  been  induced.  The  amount  of 
labour  involved  in  this  varies  considerably,  of  course, 
with  the  nature  of  the  soil.  Low-lying  bheel  soils  are 
similar  to  lands  subject  to  immersion  from  river  flood,  in 
that  they  receive  the  silt  and  drainage  from  higher  sur- 
rounding lands.  They  are  not  usually  manured.  Inter- 
mediate lands  which  are  submerged  in  the  rains,  but  which 
receive  little  or  no  silt — these  are  typical  paddy  lands — 
are  manured  for  jute,  and  in  the  Rangpur  district,  for 
instance,  commonly  only  grow  jute  for  about  two  years 
out  of  five.  A  rotation  for  such  land  might  be  :  — 

1st  year          ...  ...  ...  ...     Jute  (manured). 

2nd    ,,  ...  ...  ...  ...     Juie  (not  manured). 

3rd    „  ) 

4th    ,,   I       ...  ...  ...  ...     Paddy. 

5th    „  ) 

On  high  lands  which  are  never  submerged  it  is  the 
custom  to  manure  for  each  crop  of  jute. 

Practically  the  only  manure  in  use  at  present  for  jute, 
as  for  all  other  crops  in  Bengal,  is  cow-dung  mixed  with 
ashes  and  other  house  refuse.  A  common  dressing  of 
such  manure  is  from  50  to  75  maunds  per  acre;  but  in 
some  cases  100  maunds,  and  even  150  maunds,  are  sup- 
plied per  acre.  The  manure  is  spread  as  evenly  as 
possible  on  the  land,  and  ploughed  in  before  sowing. 
Recent  important  work  by  the  Agricultural  Department 
of  the  Government  of  Eastern  Bengal  and  Assam  points 


1  A  mooi  is  a  bamboo  instrument  rather  like  an  ordinary  ladder, 
about  7  ft.  long,  which,  with  the  driver  standing  on  it,  is  drawn 
over  the  land,  serving  the  double  purpose  of  a  roller  and  leveller. 
The  henga  is  a  plain  log  of  wood  put  to  a  similar  use  in  the 
more  westerly  districts. 


522  FIBRES 

to  the  probability  of  profitably  increasing  the  out-turn  of 
crops  in  general,  including  jute,  by  the  application  of  lime 
and  phosphates,  in  which  important  food  constituents 
there  appears  to  be  a  general  deficiency  in  the  soils  of 
Bengal.  In  view  of  this  deficiency  of  lime,  the  addition 
of  household  ashes  to  the  farmyard  manure  is  a  matter 
of  no  little  importance,  as  they  contain  all  the  mineral 
constituents  of  the  organic  materials  of  which  they  origin- 
ally formed  part.  Potassium  carbonate  and  calcium 
carbonate  are  both  important  constituents  of  wood  ash. 
They  are  both  powerfully  basic,  and  would,  therefore, 
always  tend,  in  however  small  a  degree,  to  neutralize 
acidity  of  the  soil,  an  unhealthy  condition  which  may  be 
said  to  be  directly  due  to  lack  of  lime. 

Immediately  before  sowing  the  land  is  usually  ploughed 
once,  after  which  the  seed  is  scattered  broadcast  at  the 
average  rate  of  8  to  10  Ib.  per  acre.  The  land  is  then 
either  levelled  at  once  with  the  mooi  or  henga,  or  it  may 
again  be  ploughed  crosswise  before  the  use  of  the  henga. 
The  latter  is  advisable  if  the  moisture  is  not  very  good. 
Experience  suggests  that  the  following  method  gives  a 
more  even  germination  :  Plough  first  and  level  the  surface 
with  the  henga  or  mooi;  then  sow  on  the  even  surface. 
If  the  moisture  is  very  good  and  likely  to  remain  so  it 
is  sufficient  to  rake  (Bengalee,  achra)  or  harrow  the  seed 
into  the  soft  soil  either  once  or  in  two  crosswise  direc- 
tions, the  surface  being  afterwards  consolidated  by  the 
henga  or  mooi.  If  the  moisture  is  not  good  the  plough 
may  be  used  instead  of  the  rake  after  sowing.  Of 
course,  it  follows  that  if  the  plough  is  used  a  consider- 
able proportion  of  seed  is  buried  very  deeply,  and  a  good 
deal  of  it  may  not  be  able  to  germinate.  It  is  therefore 
not  uncommon  amongst  cultivators  to  use  six  seers 
(12  Ib.)  of  seed  per  acre.  With  good  moisture,  and  if 
the  seed  is  only  raked  in,  three  seers  (6  Ib.)  of  thoroughly 
good  seed  per  acre  give  an  amply  thick  germination. 

After  germination,  when  the  young  plants  are  from 
i  to  2  in.  high,  it  is  highly  advisable  to*  pass  a  rake 
through  the  field.  In  the  jute  districts  the  achra,  or  rake, 
is  commonly  made  of  bamboo ;  but  the  ones  in  which  the 
essential  parts  are  made  of  iron  are  perhaps  more  useful 
and,  of  course,  far  more  durable.  The  achra  is  equally 


FIBRES  523 

useful  with  aus  paddy  as  with.  jute.  Both  crops  are  sown 
at  a  time  before  the  land  has  become  sodden  with 
moisture,  so  that  if  there  is  a  fine  spell  after  rain  the 
surface  of  the  soil  tends  to  harden,  forming  a  papri, 
with  the  result  that  the  growth  of  the  young  plants  is 
retarded.  The  action  of  the  bamboo  rake  is  threefold. 
Firstly,  it  tends  to  keep  the  surface  of  the  soil  loose. 
Secondly,  when  used  at  this  stage  it  frees  the  land  from 
young  weeds  which  are  just  coming  up.  Thirdly,  it  also, 
of  course,  takes  out  a  considerable  number  of  young  jute 
plants.  There  is  a  little  doubt  that  cultivators  who  are 
in  the  habit  of  using  the  rake  purposely  sow  rather  more 
seed  than  is  necessary,  so  that  they  can  afterwards  afford 
to  lose  a  considerable  number  of  jute  plants  in  getting 
rid  of  all  weeds  by  repeated  raking.  In  this  way  raking 
greatly  eases  the  subsequent  weeding  and  thinning  opera- 
tions, which  are  about  the  most  expensive  items  in  the 
cost  of  jute  cultivation.  When  large  areas  of  jute  and 
of  aus  paddy  require  weeding  and  thinning  within  a 
particularly  short  space  of  time,  as  happens  in  some  years 
when  the  weather  has  not  been  quite  favourable,  it  is 
quite  common  for  men  labourers  to  receive  from  As.  12 
to  Re.  i  a  day,  and  boys  As.  8  to  As.  12,  according 
to  their  size.  With  such  prices  the  cost  of  weeding,  if 
it  has  to  be  paid  for  entirely  in  cash,  may  approach 
Rs.  20  per  acre.  Of  course,  there  are  very  few,  if  any, 
cultivators  who  would  have  to  pay  so  much,  and,  as  a 
rule,  by  helping  each  other,  the  greater  part  of  the  labour 
is  carried  through  without  any  actual  circulation  of  cash. 
This  is  one  of  the  reasons  why  Government  Experimental 
Farms,  which  have  to  pay  maximum  prices  for  all  labour, 
are  often  unable  to  produce  a  balance  sheet  which  would 
indicate  to  cultivators  the  nature  of  the  profit  to  be  made 
on  the  cultivation  of  a  particular  crop. 

After  the  weeding  and  thinning  operations  there  is 
nothing  to  be  done  until  the  crop  is  ready  to  cut,  which 
is  well  after  the  commencement  of  the  monsoon.  In  the 
interval,  on  low-lying  tracts,  the  land,  partly  owing  to 
heavy  rainfall,  but  chiefly,  as  a  rule,  to  rise  of  the  rivers, 
becomes  submerged  to  a  greater  or  less  depth,  and  it  is 
not  at  all  uncommon  to  see  men  cutting  jute  standing  in 
water  which  is  waist  deep.  Some  jute  is  cut  very  youn.q, 


5^4  FIBRES 

in  order  to  prevent  its  entire  destruction  by  a  sudden  rise 
of  the  rivers.  The  jute  which  comes  into  the  market 
before  the  middle  of  July  is  usually  immature,  and  may 
be  a  hastily  reaped  crop  or  the  produce  of  a  late  thinning 
operation. 

The  great  bulk  of  the  jute  crop  may  be  said  to  be  cut 
at  about  the  time  when  the  flowering  stage  is  approaching 
completion,  from  the  middle  of  July  to  the  end  of  August, 
and  it  may  be  taken  that  before  this  the  crop  is  immature. 
There  are  several  advantages  in  cutting  at  this  stage, 
viz.  :  — 

(a)  The    crop    has    practically    reached    its    maximum 
height,  so  that  the  yield  of  fibre  is  also  approaching  its 
maximum. 

(b)  The  quality  of  the  fibre  is  rather  finer  than  at  later 
stages. 

(c)  The  retting  process  is  considerably  shorter,  partly 
on  account  of  the  higher  temperature  of  the  water,  and 
partly  because  of  the  greater  succulence  of  the  plant. 

The  cutting  of  jute  is  carried  out  with  a  crescent-shaped 
knife,  with  a  toothed  edge,  rather  similar  to  a  small 
European  sickle.  The  cut  stems  are  tied  in  bundles,  and, 
as  a  rule,  are  immersed  at  once,  especially  in  flooded 
districts.  In  Western  Bengal,  however,  on  high  land, 
it  is  the  custom  to  place  the  bundles  on  the  ground  close 
together  in  a  long  line,  so  that  the  upper  leafy  portion 
of  one  bundle  covers  the  bare  stem  of  the  bundle  under- 
neath. In  this  way  a  sort  of  fermentation  seems  to  take 
place,  for  the  stems  "  sweat,"  becoming  greasy  to  the 
touch,  and  the  retting  process  subsequently  takes  place 
more  quickly  and  more  evenly.  After  immersion  retting 
may  be  complete  in  a  week  to  ten  days  in  the  hottest  part 
of  the  season,  when  the  temperature  of  the  water  often 
exceeds  85°  F.  With  older  plants,  however,  and  more 
especially  if  the  water  is  becoming  cooler,  e.g.,  after  the 
beginning  of  September,  retting  becomes  very  much 
slower.  In  October  the  process  is  not  likely  to  take  less 
than  a  month,  and  at  a  later  date  it  might  easily  occupy 
six  weeks  or  two  months.  The  retting  or  rotting  is  due 
to  bacterial  agency,  and  the  optimum  temperature  for 
the  fermentation  appears  to  be  from  90°  to  95°  F.  It 
has  been  found  that  the  activity  of  the  organisms  can  be 


FIBRES  525 

considerably  increased  by  the  addition  to  the  retting  water 
of  certain  salts. 

The  lower  portion  of  the  jute  stem,  being  older  and 
harder,  is,  of  course,  more  difficult  to  ret  than  the  upper, 
more  succulent  part.  If,  therefore,  the  whole  of  the  stem 
is  immersed  at  once,  the  upper  part  rets  before  the  pro- 
cess in  the  lower  bark  is  complete,  with  the  result  that 
"  rooty "  jute  is  obtained.  If  the  plant  has  stood  in 
water  for  a  considerable  time,  the  immersed  portion  of 
the  bark  sends  out  adventitious  roots  and  becomes  still 
tougher.  The  retting  process  is  thus  made  even  more 
difficult.  In  such  a  case,  moreover,  the  fibre  from  the 
immersed  portion  of  the  plant  becomes  markedly  coarser. 
Even  retting  over  the  whole  length  of  the  plant  can  be 
obtained  by  placing  the  bundles  in  an  erect  position  in 
about  2  ft.  of  water  for  three  or  four  days  previous  to 
their  complete  immersion.  In  this  way  the  lower  bark 
commences  to  soften  before  retting  has  begun  in  the 
upper  portion.  If  the  retted  fibre  is  "  rooty  "  the  coarse 
lower  portion  can  be  cut  off,  leaving  the  upper  portion 
for  finer  work.  Sometimes,  however,  in  the  case  of  jute 
growing  on  immersed  land  there  is  a  sudden  temporary 
rise  in  the  river,  followed  by  a  fall.  In  this  case  the 
middle — temporarily  immersed — portion  begins  to  harden 
to  a  greater  extent  than  either  the  upper  or  the  per- 
manently immersed  lower  portion  of  the  stem,  and  the 
result  is  a  band  of  imperfectly  retted  fibre  right  in  the 
middle  of  the  strand.  This  is  the  worst  aspect  of  rooty 
jute.  It  is  known  in  the  trade  as  "  middle  root." 

When  the  retting  is  complete  the  bundles  of  jute  are 
taken  out  of  the  water.  It  is  found  that  the  bark,  which, 
of  course,  contains  the  fibre,  has  become  quite  soft  and 
can  easily  be  separated  from  the  central  pith.  Moreover, 
the  parenchymatous  tissue  in  which  the  fibre  is  embedded, 
as  in  a  ribbon,  has  been  so  softened  and  dissolved  away 
that,  after  stripping  from  the  stem,  the  fibre  only  needs 
careful  washing  and  drying  to  be  ready  for  the  market. 

Regarding  the  yield  of  fibre  to  be  expected  from  jute, 
everything  depends  upon  the  conditions  under  which  the 
crop  is  grown.  On  first-class  land  in  a  favourable  season 
a  return  of  over  30  maunds  (say  6  bales)  per  acre,  though 
exceptional,  is  not  impossible.  A  20  maund  crop  (4  bales) 


526  FIBRES 

is  comparatively  common.  On  the  other  hand,  under 
adverse  conditions,  the  average  yield  over  large  tracts 
frequently  falls  to  from  10  to  12  maunds  per  acre  (say 
2  to  2j  balesj,  or  even  less. 

On  the  whole  the  Government  standard  of  15  maunds 
(3  bales)  per  acre  seems  to  be  a  fair  approximation  to  an 
average  yield  for  the  whole  of  the  jute-growing  tract; 
but  it  should  be  carefully  noted  that  this  figure  is  not 
intended  in  any  way  to  convey  the  idea  that  wide  varia- 
tions from  it  are  not  very  common. 

There  are  two  main  varieties  of  the  jute  plant  in 
common  cultivation  in  Bengal,  viz.: — • 

(a)  Corchorus    olitorius    (long-fruited    jute),    which    is 
locally   known   under   the    following   vernacular   names : 
baugi  pat   (Dacca),    tosha   (Pabna),    satnalla    (Faridpur), 
deo  pat  (Dacca  and  Tipperah),  desi  pat  (Hooghly),  mita 
pat  (Assam  and  Orissa). 

(b)  Corchorus    capsularis   (round-fruited    jute),    deswal 
or   kakya   bombai   (Pabna),    baren,    bara  pat,    chota  pat, 
aussa     (Mymensingh),      belgachi,     dhaleswari     (Dacca), 
bhadya,    hewti,    bitri    (Rangpur    and    Jalpaiguri),    amon, 
aussa   (Faridpur),    deodhali   (Tipperah),    tita  pat   (Assam 
and  Orissa). 

C.  olitorius  is  more  commonly  cultivated  in  the  districts 
surrounding  Calcutta,  such  as  Hooghly,  Jessore,  etc.  It 
is  also  very  common  to  the  north  of  Calcutta  as  far  as 
Goalundo,  in  Rajshahi,  and  in  parts  of  Pabna.  Its  culti- 
vation is  on  the  increase  also  on  the  high  land  in  the 
Dacca  district.  It  produces  a  strong,  rather  coarse  fibre 
which  is  commercially  known  as  desi  jute.  It  is  a  heavy 
yielder,  but  the  value  of  its  fibre  has  hitherto  been  con- 
sistently less  than  that  of  C.  capsularis.  In  recent  years, 
however,  there  has  been  a  tendency  towards  a  better 
appreciation  of  the  qualities  of  desi  jute,  the  result  of 
which  has  been  a  corresponding  tendency  towards  an 
equalization  of  prices.  C.  olitorius  does  not  thrive  so 
well  as  C.  capsularis  on  lands  which  become  deeply  sub- 
merged. Its  cultivation  is  therefore  likely  to  be  restricted 
to  the  higher  jute-growing  tracts.  Under  these  con- 
ditions, besides  the  fact  that  it  is  a  heavy  yielder,  it  has 
an  advantage  over  C.  capsularis  in  that  it  can  be  sown 


FIBRES  527 

considerably  later  without  prejudicing  its  prospect  as  a 
crop.  This  is  a  very  important  matter  in  the  more 
westerly  districts  of  Bengal,  for  instance,  where  rainfall 
is  often  so  late  that  the  chances  of  a  successful  crop  of 
C.  capsularis  would  be  problematical. 

C.  capsularis  is  more  widely  grown  than  C.  olitorius. 
It  is  practically  the  only  kind  of  jute  to  be  found  in  the 
Jalpaiguri,  Rangpur,  Mymensingh,  and  Purnea  districts, 
and  by  far  the  larger  area  in  the  Dacca  and  Tipperah 
districts  is  also  sown  with  C.  capsularis.  It  yields  a  finer, 
softer  fibre  than  C.  olitorius,  and  once  it  has  reached  a 
height  of  about  5  ft.  it  will  continue  to  grow  unchecked 
even  when  the  land  becomes  deeply  submerged. 

Other  differences  between  C.  capsularis  and  C.  olitorius 
are :  — • 

(a)  The  seed  of  C.  capsularis  is  red  and  rather  larger 
than    that    of    C.    olitorius,    which    has    a   greenish-black 
colour. 

(b)  Both   flowers    are    yellow    in    colour;    but   that    of 
C.  olitorius  is  twice  as  large  as  that  of  C.  capsularis. 

(c)  The  leaves  of  C.   olitorius1  are   sweet  to  the  taste 
(mita  pat),  and  are  commonly  used  as  a  vegetable.     The 
leaves  and  seeds  of  C.  capsularis,  on  the  other  hand,  are 
bitter  (tita  pat),   and  an  infusion  of  the  dried  leaves  is 
commonly  used  in  Bengal  as  a  tonic  medicine.     A  con- 
siderable quantity  of  the  crude  bitter  principle  has  recently 
been  isolated  by  the  Fibre  Expert  to  the  Government  of 
Bengal,  and  its  physiological  action  is  now  being  investi- 
gated in  England,   as  well  as  by  the  Indian  Foods  and 
Drugs  Committee. 

A  detailed  study  of  the  crops  of  C.  capsularis  found  in 
different  districts  has  shown  that  the  species  embraces  a 
number  of  different  types.  All  these  types  possess  the 
same  general  characters,  viz.:  — 

(a)  Small  yellow  flowers. 

(b)  Round  fruits. 

(c)  Reddish-brown  seeds. 

Yet  they  differ  among  themselves  as  regards  tallness, 
time  of  ripening,  colour  of  stem,  etc.     Some  kinds,   for 
instance,  grow  to  a  height  of  9  to  10  ft.,  while  others, 
34 


528  FIBRES 

under  the  same  conditions,  only  reach  7  to  8  ft.  It  has 
been  noticed  that,  as  a  rule,  the  former  ripen  later  than 
the  latter,  there  being  a  month  or  more  between  the 
earliest  and  latest  races.  In  colour  of  stem  a  large 
number  of  intermediate  types  between  purple,  red,  and 
pure  green  have  been  found,  including  one  whose  stem 
is  green,  but  whose  leaf  petioles  are  red.  After  careful 
elimination  of  identical  types  about  twenty  races  of 
C.  capsularis  remain  which  show  more  or  less  marked 
individuality,  either  in  colour  of  stem  or  in  time  of 
ripening. 

Recent  work  by  Mr.  Burkill  and  myself  has  shown  that 
intermediate  colour  types  between  red  and  green  are 
probably  due  to  chance  hybridization;  nevertheless,  self- 
fertilization  takes  place  under  ordinary  circumstances  to 
the  extent  of  about  98  per  cent.  This  is  equivalent  to 
saying  that  the  seed  of  a  jute  plant  almost  invariably 
produces  plants  similar  to  the  parents.  It  follows,  there- 
fore, that  a  superior  race  of  jute  would,  given  ordinary 
precautions,  not  be  in  greater  danger  of  being  swamped 
by  adjacent  inferior  races.  It  follows  also,  on  the  other 
hand,  that  by  judicious  selection  the  cultivator  can  easily 
obtain  a  pure  strain  of  any  type  of  jute  in  his  field  which 
he  may  prefer. 

Early  green  races  of  jute  are  extensively  cultivated  in 
the  following  districts  :  — • 

Purnea, 

Jalpaiguri, 

Rangpur, 

Mymensingh  (Jamalpur). 

Dinajpur. 

While  early  red  races  are  common  in  :  — 

Jalpaiguri, 

Rangpur, 

Mymensingh  (Sarisabari). 

It  appears  that  early,  and  usually  smaller,  races  are 
chiefly,  if  not  entirely,  grown  in  the  Northern  districts. 
In  these  tracts,  moreover,  few  very  late  races  are  to  be 
found.  On  the  other  hand,  while  practically  no  very 


FIBRES  529 

early  races  are  grown  in  the  more  southerly  districts,  the 
latest  races  of  all  are  commonly  cultivated  here.  In 
Pabna,  Dacca,  Tipperah,  and  Faridpur,  for  instance,  a 
large  proportion  of  the  jute  is  very  late,  and  even  so- 
called  aus  crops  are  comparatively  much  later  than  the 
early  races  of  the  northerly  districts. 

Somewhat  similar  differences  as  regards  colour  and  the 
time  of  ripening  are  to  be  found  among  the  races  of 
C.  olitorius;  but  in  this  case  the  cultivation  of  both  early 
and  later  races  is  confined  to  the  Southern  districts. 
Very  little  C.  olitorius  is  grown  north  of  Sirajganj. 

Recent  investigation  by  the  writer  has  indicated  con- 
siderable differences  in  the  quality  of  the  fibre  yielded  by 
different  plants  of  jute.  These  differences  appear  to  be 
an  intrinsic  property  of  the  plant,  though  the  quality  of 
the  fibre  of  all  plants  also  seems  to  be  subject  to  certain 
fluctuations  due  to  the  effect  of  environment.  Using  this 
property  as  the  basis  of  selection,  it  has  been  found 
possible  to  obtain  pure  cultures  of  jute  which  appear  to 
show  an  average  improvement  of  10  per  cent.,  and  in 
some  cases  of  nearly  20  per  cent.,  over  the  average  for 
the  parent  race  from  which  the  original  single  plant 
selection  was  made.  The  demand  for  really  superior  jute 
fibre  appears  to  be  somewhat  limited,  but  the  method  of 
selection  seems  to  be  of  general  application,  and  it  may 
possibly  be  of  considerable  use  in  improving  other  fibres 
the  quality  of  which  is  of  more  importance  than  is  the 
case  with  jute. 

The  prepared  jute  fibre  may  enter  the  market  in  one  of 
several  ways.  In  the  early  days  of  the  jute  trade  it  was 
common  for  the  ryot  to  bring  his  produce  to  a  large 
centre  and  there  sell  it  direct  to  a  big  dealer.  Nowadays 
the  ryot  seldom  comes  farther  than  the  various  country 
centres  or  hats,  where  he  sells  to  the  be  part,  or  native 
dealer.  In  a  large  number  of  cases  a  small  dealer  called 
a  faria  travels  from  village  to  village  buying  up  small 
quantities  of  jute,  which  he  ultimately  takes  by  boat,  if 
possible,  into  the  nearest  country  market.  Here  he  meets 
both  the  bepari,  or  native  dealer,  and  also  in  recent  years 
the  representatives  of  large  European  farms.  Formerly 
the  beparl  used  to  have  the  smaller  country  markets  to 


530  FIBRES 

himself,  and  jute  was  collected  by  him  at  these  markets 
to  sell  to  the  big  baling  firms  at  large  centres.  In  some 
cases,  indeed,  large  firms  were  in  the  habit  of  advancing 
very  considerable  sums  oi  money  to  the  bepari  to  purchase 
jute  on  their  behalf.  In  recent  years,  as  has  already  been 
remarked,  European  baling  firms  at  large  centres  have 
found  it  to  their  advantage  to  form  their  own  buying 
agencies  at  small  country  markets,  where  they  compete 
with  the  bepari  in  buying  from  the  j arias.  Their  pur- 
chases are,  if  possible,  placed  in  country  boats  and  towed 
by  launches  to  headquarters,  where  the  jute  is  sorted 
into  a  number  of  qualities,  usually  designated  Nos.  i,  2, 
3,  4,  and  "  rejections,"  and  then  baled. 

The  chief  of  the  large  centres  for  the  purchase  of  jute 
are  Narainganj,  Chandpur,  Madaripur,  Sirajganj, 
Jagannathganj,  Demah,  Jalpaiguri,  Purnea,  Kushtia, 
Goalundo,  etc.  Of  these  Narainganj,  which  deals  with 
nearly  25  per  cent,  of  the  total  jute  crop,  is  by  far  the 
most  important.  It  is  ideally  situated  on  a  fine  broad 
river,  whose  banks  are  lined  for  a  long  distance  on  either 
side  with  jute  warehouses.  In  the  middle  of  the  jute 
season  the  river  is  a  very  busy  highway  navigated  by 
large  numbers  of  craft,  from  the  largest  river  steamers 
and  huge  flats  to  the  smallest  country  boats,  and  the 
whole  scene  is  amply  sufficient  evidence,  if  such  were 
needed,  o<f  the  magnitude  and  importance  of  the  premier 
industry  of  Bengal. 

In  a  large  centre  like  Narainganj  some  firms  deal 
only  with  Calcutta,  while  others  bale  for  export  also. 
The  former  commonly  use  a  small  press,  producing  a 
3  to  3J  maund  bale.  For  export  the  standard  5  maund 
(400  Ib.)  bale  is  universal.  Of  the  jute  which  goes  into 
Calcutta,  the  greater  proportion  ultimately  finds  its  way 
to  the  Calcutta  jute  mills;  but  a  large  quantity  is  also 
rebaled  after  sorting  for  export.  Each  exporting  firm 
has  one  or  more  "marks"  or  standards  of  quality,  and 
the  sorting  is  done  with  this  object  in  view.  Thus, 
although  the  jute  may  have  been  sorted  already  up 
country,  the  standard  of  the  up-country  dealer  does  not 
always  agree  with  that  of  the  particular  "  mark  "  for 
which  the  Calcutta  export  baler  is  known,  necessitating 
a  readjustment  of  quality.  It  should  be  said  that  the 


FIBRES  531 

"  root  "  already  referred  to  in  describing  the  preparation 
of  jute  is  cut  off  before  baling.  In  this  state  it  is  known 
in  the  trade  as  "  jute  cuttings."  Shortness  in  the  supply 
of  raw  material,  aided  by  improved  preparing  machinery, 
is  causing  an  increasingly  large  use  in  the  mills  of  what 
used  to  be  disposed  of  as  "  cuttings  and  rejections."  The 
balance  is  exported  for  the  manufacture  of  paper. 

The  increase  in  the  number  of  jute  press  houses  has 
been  considerable  in  recent  years,  both  in  the  neighbour- 
hood of  Calcutta  and  in  the  mofussil,  as  the  following 


figures  show :  — 


TABLE    II. 


Calcutta, 

Bengal, 

including 
Howrah 
and 

excluding 
Howrah 
and 

Total  for 
Bengal 

Eastern 
Bengal 

24  Parganas 

24  Parganas 

18 

— 

18 

9 

19 

— 

19 

64 

19 

5 

24 

72 

20 

2 

22 

7i 

20 

2 

22 

75 

20 

2 

22 

94 

2O 

3 

23 

101 

25 

5 

30 

127 

27 

4 

3I 

121 

29 

7 

36            .- 

136 

•        35 

7 

42 

124 

STATEMENT  SHOWING  THE  NUMBER  OF  JUTE  PRESSES 

FROM    iSgi-IQlO  INCLUSIVE. 

Year 

1891 

1901 
1902 

1903 
1904 
1905 

1906 

1907 
1908 
1909 
1910 

It  is  clear  from  these  figures  that  the  number  of  press 
houses  has  more  than  doubled  in  the  last  ten  years.  The 
increase  is  very  large  in  the  mofussil,  especially  in 
Eastern  Bengal,  where  small  presses  pressing  from  i  to 
3  maunds  are  often  encountered  in  the  most  out-of-the- 
way  places.  Considering  the  convenience  with  which 
baled  jute  can  be  handled  as  compared  with  the  loose 
fibre,  the  popularity  of  the  baling  press  is  not  to  be 
wondered  at. 

The  total  estimated  area  under  jute  in  1901-02  was 
given  as  2,339,100  acres,  and  the  out-turn  as  7,000,000 
bales.  Table  III  gives  the  estimated  acreage  in  each  of 
the  years  1902-12  inclusive,  together  with  the  out-turn, 
according  to  trade  statistics.  The  figures  show  that 
there  has  been  a  very  considerable  increase  in  acreage — 
approaching  50  per  cent,  in  the  course  of  the  last 


532 


Year 

1902-03 
1903-04 
1904-05 
1905-06 
1906-07 
1907-08 
1908-09 
1909-10 
I9IO-II 
I9II-I2 
1912-13 

*  The  figures  of  value  are  based  on  the  wholesale  price  of  jute  at  Calcutta 
in  each  year. 

decade — and   the    same   is   roughly   true   as   regards   the 
out-turn. 

In  Table  IV  will  be  found  the  figures  for :  — 

(a)  Jute  consumed  by  Indian  mills  and  its  value. 

(b)  The  amount  of  jute  exported  from  various  ports  in 
Bengal,  etc.,  and  its  value. 

The  contents  of  Table  IV  are  depicted  in  graphic  form 
in  the  curves  in  Diagram  No.  i.     A  study  of  these  data 


FIBRES 

TABLE 

III. 

Acreage  under 

Out-turn  in  hales 

Value  in 

jute 

of  400  Ib. 

rupees  * 

2,200,000 

6,577,000 

183,370,950 

2,5OO,OOO 

7,241,000 

165,196,884 

2,850,000 

7,191,000 

188,844,274 

3,145,000 

7,948,000 

192,084,594 

3,482,000 

8,569,000 

256,814,231 

3,974,300 

8,648,000 

393.971,676 

2,856,700 

8,780,000 

366,074,646 

2,876,600 

9,096,000 

243,620,617 

2,937,800 

8,124,000 

253)O96,2OO 

3,106,400 

9,500,000  approx. 

281,000,000 

3,353,841 

10,005,000        ,, 

368,000,000 

LACS  OF 
BALES 


DIAGRAM  I. — DISTRIBUTION  OF  THE  JUTE  CROP. 


100 


95 


90 


85 


60 


75 


70 


65 


60 


55 


50 


45 


40 


35 


\ 


V 


Z 


1902     1903      1904      1905       I9O6      I9O7     IQO8      I9O9     I9IO      1911        I9IZ      1913  YEARS 


FIBRES 


533 


O         »—  i        vO         O        vO         ^       ^O        OO         ON        to 
rofOr^vo         -7)-        N         O         toi-iOO 

M 

" 

ll 

00          to         N         VQ          N         CO          to         N         OO          ON 

2 

X 

9 

O~^COOOo"tooo>fCo*'          rfrf 

1 

t 
* 

p 

5  uS 

1  !  11  !  1  1  1  1  1 

1 

m 

"rt  3 

00        «•<•>       o        O        O        to 

1      1      i     „•    n"    «     «     4    o~ 

1-1         vO                                     ON        00 
OO          «                                     to 

G  EXPORTS 

Eastern 

J"o 

P^ 

V        to       o        to       ^       TJ- 

OO        ^O         ro        N        vO          TJ- 

!                Ill                     °°.      t 

i-T        ro                               ro        *-" 

2 
| 

C 

It 

»  1   t   t    |   <2    f    R    S    | 

1 

>  - 

H 

Is 

^       O        O        *"*       *^O       oo        N        O        to       tx. 

EXPORTS  FROM 
RN  BENGAL 

i 

i 

0 

£ 

rupees 

M          to        OO         OO         v£J           O 

II          1        i!)      ao       t^       o"       ^       f>f 
1           1          ON        ro      OO         ro      OO        oo 

i-O        «         C?N        ON       oo"        T? 
N         N        N        M        M        <4 

FOREIGN 
EASTE 

* 

j 

4 

PC 

\A 

!l 

oo       M-J     oo      oo       o      vo 

ro        ro         -^-         >-i          to        N 
II                         i           i—          N          rn         M          to        to 
- 
<D       1^        ^       r^       i-"        r^ 
rj-        «-c         to        M         ON        ON 

^                                          ^ 

1 

El 

1 
J 
"l 

rupees 

mt^tooo       r<^«       NOO       roo 
t^        ^        -^-        M         rooo         ONONO         M 
^J.         *J        O          ThOO          CNl^i-i          ONVO 

<N          ON\S         tOTj-oo         ONO         •*        r^> 
OOtoNvOrjO*-''-'>-'ON 

Kg 

..^ 

w  w 

zlB 

o 

5 

K 

o 

1 

8 

* 

Nt^Q         ONt^.Tj-^rj-0         r^ 
C4           ^-         O          to         t^         to         ro         t^>.         O          ^^ 

C^         ON        to       v^T        rt*       OO^        to        *^        vO        vO 

-  CONSUMPTION 

c 

I 

"* 

rupees 

OOt^ton           rj-i-.          wtOTj- 
MOOO          O          ONOOVO         t«.         •<*• 
•^•tooo^^^t^OO^rON         ro 

fOOO         TJ-«-H         MOO        t^ro 
ON        to        to        O         O         N         OJ        vO         ON 

O        ^  -     ^*       *C       W        Ov       >•*        t^T? 
t^r^.oo        OO        «oO        c»        >-* 

s 

z; 

S 
.£ 

Bales  of 

| 

Nf^VQ          i-"          MvOtooO          ONO 
OO          ONM          rotot^vO         toO          M 

QL       3^      £!       ^        ©""o        0"°        7        7 

OOOOOOOO*™*^1^ 
^        O^        ^        ^        ^        ^        O^*        ^        O^        ON 

534 


FIBRES 


shows  very  clearly  the  progress  which  has  been  made  by 
Indian  mills  in  the  last  ten  years  in  the  matter  of  the 
consumption  of  jute. 

Table   V    shows    how    the   jute   crop    is    brought   into 
Calcutta,  and  Diagram  No.  2  shows  the  position  still  more 

DIAGRAM   II.— JUTE  IMPORTED  INTO  CALCUTTA  BY    RAIL,  ROAD  AND 
LACS  OF 

BALES 
42 


-40 

38 

36 

34 

32 

30 

28 

26 

24 

22 

20 

18 

16 

14 

12 

(O 

8 

6 

4 

2 


1902     1903 


1905     1906      I9O7     I9O8      I9O9     I9IO     1911  SEASONS 


clearly.  It  would  appear  that  almost  the  whole  of  the 
increased  produce  of  jute  in  the  last  ten  years  has  been 
brought  to  Calcutta  by  train,  and  that  the  respective 
amounts  brought  in  by  other  methods  of  transport  have 
remained  substantially  constant. 


FIBRES 


535 


pg 

gg 

>   Q  7 
W    S  o^ 


g 


6.2 


S 

00    CO 
-i    OO 

$ 

g 

O 

i 

a- 

1 

10 

VO 

vO 
00 

JAMER 

1 

1 

^h   >- 
ON   OO 

If    $ 

i 

CO 
vo" 

oo 
o 

«M 

oo" 

oo" 

CO 

to 

oo 
oo" 

M 

4 

CO 

M 

CO 

CO 

H 
to 

£ 

Quantity 

Maunds 

10    fO 

to 

CO 

8 

to 

o 

VO 

HH 

o 
to 

i 

VO 

VO 

5  019,002 

VO 
VO 

vo" 

£ 

0s*   t^** 

oo   M 
oo   to 

1 

VO 

10 

to 

VO 

CO 

r^ 

10 

E^ 

M 

OO 

I 

2 

I 

1 

VO    ON 
CO    M 
N    Tj- 

00 

oo 

co 

8; 

1 

oo 

ro 

CO 

VO 
vO 

CO 
VO 

O 

0? 

h 
§ 

VO    ^f 

00 

* 

vo 

CO 

N 

N 

N 

CO 

Quantity 

Maunds 

5   10 

vO    O 

o"   M" 

CO    •-« 

co   co 

S 

VO 

ON 

oo 

oo" 

to 

oo 

4,267,550 

TT 

ON 

to 

ON 

CM 

00 
00 
CO 

vo 

vO 

*i 

Q 
i) 

§ 

4) 
1 

1 

3 

00    Tt- 
CO    w 
VO     ON 
i-T    vo 
O    to 
to   vo" 

o' 

1 

vo" 

00 

MS 

OO 

1 

M 

to 

VO 

ON 

oo 

00 

g 

vO^ 

M 
vo 

co 

o" 

to 

O 

vo" 

00 

ON 

CO 

Quantity 

Maunds 

T^-    M 

ro   O 

T?     CO 

to   O 
O    co 

Ofi 

oo" 
'q 

OO 
VO 

00 

8 

vo 

ON 
vO 

ro 
CO 

00 
co 

ON 

VO 

a 

00 

co 

ON   t^. 

VO    CN 

oo 
| 

to 

CO 

M 

M 

00 

oo 

00 

01 

*>. 

oo 

CO 

1 

a. 

3 

CO   0 
r^   to 

£ 

ON 

ON 

ON 
CO 
ON 

0 
CO 

CN 

VO 
t>. 

(S 

8 

O 

CO 

Jj 

O   ***• 

vO    vo 

£ 

ON 

OO 

M 

2" 

to 

oo 

oo 
oo 

oo 

M 

. 

**   oo 

N    0 
O    M 

M 

co 

co 

00 
00 

to 

vO 

8 

to 

00 

i 

c 

C 
3 
rt 

N    OO 
VO    t^ 
M     M 

OO 
OJ 

VO 

o 

0 

? 

S 

1 

5 

s 

vO 

O1 

S 

CN     CO 

Tf 

vo 

VO 

vO 

8 

vO 

•<r 

ON 

" 

o1  0^ 

to 

, 

o" 

00 

ON 

0 

« 

CM 

• 
I 

O^    O^ 

o 

VO 

S\ 

a 

a 

00 

1 

0 

ON 

ON 

536  FIBRES 

The  importance  of  the  jute  mill  industry  of  Bengal  has 
already  been  referred  to  in  dealing  with  the  distribution 
of  the  crop. 

Table  VI  gives  statistics  regarding  the  mills. 

TABLE   VI. 


Districts  in  which  mill 

s 

lYear 

are  situ 

lated 

Total 

Number 

Number 

Number 

24  Par- 
ganas 

Howrah 

Hooghly 

Chander- 
nagore 

number 
ofmills 

of 

of 
spindles 

of  hands 
employed 

I89I 

24 

— 

— 

— 

24 

8,814 

177,718 

— 

I9OI 

2O 

9 

5 

— 

34 

15^36 

3I3J40 

— 

1910 

26 

ii 

7 

I 

45 

32,944 

676,758 

204,104 

The  total  amount  of  share  capital  and  debentures 
invested  in  these  mills  now  amounts  to  about  15  crores 
of  rupees,  or  £10,000,000.  The  capital  is  largely 
European.  As  has  already  been  stated,  the  mills  consume 
about  half  of  the  total  jute  crop,  or  about  40  lacs  of 
bales.  To  supply  the  necessary  power,  over  617,000  tons 
oi  coal  are  annually  required. 

In  the  period  1903-10  the  number  of  looms  in  Calcutta 
mills  increased  by  over  85  per  cent.  As  there  was  also 
an  extension  in  foreign  plant,  and  as  the  rate  of  pro- 
duction of  the  raw  fibre  did  not  increase  to  the  same 
extent,  there  was  increased  competition  amongst  mills 
for  the  fibre,  resulting  in  a  considerable  enhancement  in 
the  price  of  the  raw  material.  So  long  as  the  demand  for 
manufactured  goods  was  keen  all  was  well;  but  in  a 
period  of  depression  in  the  year  1908-09  there  was  a 
tendency  to  over-production,  and  it  was  necessary  to 
restrict  the  time  of  working  to  five  days  per  week  hi  con- 
sequence. Later,  in  the  latter  half  of  1910,  the  demand 
for  jute  goods  again  asserted  itself,  and  at  the  present 
time  it  is  so  great  that,  although  last  year's  crop  was 
probably  a  record  one,  it  has  been  almost  completely 
consumed  at  practically  famine  prices,  and  the  mills  are 
now  said  to  be  in  a  more  favourable  position  than  they 
have  been  for  years. 

It  is  impossible  in  this  note  to  give  any  description  of 
the  processes  through  which  jute  go<es  in  the  course  of 
manufacture,  but  it  should  be  said  that  a  visit  to  one  of 


FIBRES 


537 


the  forty  Calcutta  jute  mills  is  advisable  to  anyone  in 
search  of  an  object-lesson  regarding  the  mo.dern  develop- 
ments of  industry  in  India.  Not  only  is  electricity  the  only 
lighting  agent,  but  the  thousands  of  horse-power  required 
to  drive  the  maze  of  machinery  is  also  applied  as  elec- 
tricity, which  is  produced  by  dynamos  driven  by  turbine 
engines  of  the  most  modern  pattern.  Nevertheless,  the 
Calcutta  mills  up  to  the  present  have  confined  themselves 
to  the  production  of  the  coarser  classes  of  goods,  chiefly 
gunny  bags  and  Hessian  cloth.  In  Dundee,  on  the  other 
hand,  a  large  proportion  of  work  of  much  finer  quality 
is  done.  Jute  now  enters  into  the  composition  of  material 
for  cheap  clothing.  It  is  also  largely  used  for  the  manu- 
facture of  carpets,  curtains,  etc.  Its  capacity  of  taking 
dyes  well  is  a  great  advantage  in  work  of  this  kind. 

The  countries  to  which  the  chief  foreign  exports  of  raw 
jute  are  made  are  :  — • 

United  Kingdom, 
Germany, 
France, 
United  States, 
Austria-Hungary . 

Of  these  the  imports  of  the  European  countries  consist 
chiefly  of  the  better  qualities  of  fibre;  the  exports  to 
America  are  said  to  consist  largely  of  ''cuttings  "  and 
'I  rejections  "  destined  for  the  manufacture  of  paper. 

The  Indian  manufactured  goods  consist  chiefly  of 
gunny  bags,  gunny  cloth,  and  a  small  and  apparently 
decreasing  amount  of  twine.  The  latter  is  doubtless 
being  ousted  by  material  of  better  quality  made  from  one 
of  the  other  hemps  whose  production  has  increased  so 
largely  in  recent  years. 

The  chief  points  to  which  gunny  bags  are  exported 
are :  — 


(a)  British  Empire  ...  ; 

Including:  Australia     ... 

United  Kingdom     . 
Straits  Settlements 
and  Hong  Kong  . 
South  Africa 
Egypt        ... 
New  Zealand 


69,748,000  bags 
33,527,000     „ 

21,000,000  ,, 

13,000,000  ,, 

12,000,000  ,, 

8,000,000  ,, 


170,000,000  bags 


FIBRES 


(b)   Foreign  ports  ... 

Including :   United  States 
Siam 

Indo-China 
Java 

West  Indies 
Turkey  (Europe   and 

Asia) 

Germany  ... 
Belgium     ... 


36,000,000  bags 

13,000,000 

14,000,000 

11,000,000 

10,000,000 

9,500,000 
6,500,000 
6,500,000 


190,000,000  bags 


The  United  States  and  the  Argentine  alone  take  nearly 
86  per  cent,  of  the  total  production  of  gunny  cloth  from 
India,  as  the  following  figures  show: — • 


(a)  British  Empire 
(6)   Foreign  ports... 

Including :     United    States 

America 
Argentina  ... 


of 


100,000,000  yd. 
854,503,000  „ 


662,534,000  yd. 
161,916,000  ,, 


Generally  it  may  be  stated  that,  excepting  the  United 
Kingdom,  Hong  Kong,  and  perhaps  the  Straits  Settle- 
ments, which  are  redistributing  centres,  the  bulk  of  the 
jute  manufactures  go  to  countries  which  are  engaged  in 
producing  large  quantities  of  agricultural  products,  such 
as  the  United  States,  Argentina,  Australia,  the  West 
Indies,  Sandwich  Islands,  and  Mauritius.  Chile  and 
Peru,  on  the  other  hand,  use  large  numbers  of  gunny 
bags  for  the  export  of  the  produce  of  their  nitre  beds. 
Of  all  the  countries  in  the  world,  the  United  States  is 
much  the  largest  consumer  of  Indian  jute  manufactures. 
The  value  of  India's  exports  to  the  United  States  has 
risen  from  about  Rs.  25  lacs  in  1885  to  about  Rs.  6  crores 
in  1910-11.  The  total  value  of  exported  Indian  jute 
manufactures  approximates  to  17  crores  of  rupees — say, 
£11,000,000  sterling.  In  1874-75  the  foreign  export 
trade  was  only  worth  Rs.  22  lacs. 

The  Indian  coasting  trade  in  jute  manufactures,  though 
much  smaller  in  volume  and  also  increasing  more  slowly 
than  the  foreign  export  trade,  is  nevertheless  one  of  great 
importance.  Diagram  No.  3  is  interesting  in  this  con- 
nection as  illustrating  the  progress  of  the  Indian  coasting- 
trade  since  1855.  The  diagram  is  based  on  the  one  con- 
tained in  the  lucid  report  on  the  maritime  trade  of  Bengal 
for  1906-07  by  Mr.  L.  F.  Morshead,  I.C.S.  It  is  only 


FIBRES 


539 


altered  to  bring  it  up  to  date  from  the  time  at  which  it 
was  published. 
While   dealing   with   statistics   of   the   jute   crop,    it   is 


DIAGRAM  III.    (AFTER  MORSHRAD).— EXPORTS  OF  JUTE  MANUFACTURES 
FROM  CALCUTTA  TO  INDIAN  PORTS. 


convenient  to  consider  how  far  the  present  jute-producing 
area  is  approaching  its  limits.  There  has  in  recent  years 
been  a  very  large  increase  in  the  actual  acreage  under 


540  FIBRES 

jute,  but  there  has  not  been  a  corresponding  expansion 
in  the  tract  of  country  over  which  jute  is  produced.  In 
other  words,  nearly  all  the  districts  which  now  produce 
jute  did  so  years  ago,  only  on  a  much  smaller  scale.  In 
recent  years,  therefore,  the  proportion  of  jute  to  other 
crops  in  these  areas  has  increased  considerably,  but  the 
process  cannot  go  on  indefinitely.  There  is  more  than 
one  point  which  would  influence  the  limit  to  which  jute 
cultivation  can  extend  in  the  present  districts  which 
produce  it.  The  most  important  of  these  is  undoubtedly 
that  of  the  food  supply.  There  can  be  no  doubt  that 
any  further  large  extension  of  jute  cultivation  in  the 
present  districts  must  be  at  the  expense  of  food  crops, 
such  as  paddy  or  sugar-cane. 

In  the  second  place,  the  foreign  demand  on  India  and 
Burma  for  rice  has  been  greater  of  late  than  usual,  partly 
on  account  of  famines  in  other  countries,  but  partly  also 
on  account  of  scarcity  in  other  parts  of  India,  with  the 
result  that  high  prices  have  ruled  for  rice  as  well  as  for 
jute.  Whether  the  large  demands  for  rice  will  be  per- 
manent or  not  remains  to  be  seen,  but  so  long  as  they 
last  their  tendency  is  towards  the  restriction  of  the 
cultivation  of  jute  at  the  expense  of  rice.  The  third  point 
is  of  greater  importance  than  it  may  appear  at  first  sight, 
viz.,  how  far  the  present  labour  supply  is  capable  of 
dealing  with  a  largely  increased  substitution  of  jute  for 
other  crops  in  the  present  jute-growing  tracts,  for  it 
cannot  be  doubted  that  jute  cultivation  involves  consider- 
ably more  labour  than  rice.  People  who  have  been  in 
the  jute  trade  for  many  years  are  almost  unanimous  in 
believing  that  the  quality  of  the  jute  brought  into  the 
market  has  not  been  so  good  in  recent  years.-  Of  course, 
there  are  spasmodic  variations  in  quality  which  are  due 
to  seasons  which  are  suitable  or  otherwise;  but  there  is 
a  strong  and  general  impression  that  outside  this  there 
is  a  tendency  towards  continuous  deterioration.  That 
this  is  not  due  to  the  plant  is  certain.  It  is  possible  to 
grow  as  good  jute  to-day  as  ever  it  was,  and,  given  good 
retting  water  and  careful  preparation,  the  results  are 
entirely  satisfactory.  It  is  certainly  a  crop  which 


FIBRES  541 

demands  considerably  more  labour  than  rice,  and  the 
reaping-  and  preparation  of  the  fibre  is  one  of  the  most 
exacting  stages  in  its  production.  If,  therefore,  the 
cultivator  is  coming  to  a  stage  when  he  tries  to  cultivate 
more  jute  than  he  can  conveniently  manage,  one  of  the 
first  signs  will  be  a  tendency  towards  more  and  more 
careless  preparation,  arid  this  is  just  what  appears  to  be 
happening. 

This  difficulty  is  to  some  extent  mitigated  by  the 
employment  of  outside  labour,  for  every  year  large 
numbers  of  coolies  migrate  eastwards  from  the  over- 
crowded districts  of  Bihar  and  the  United  Provinces, 
more  especially  to  the  jute-growing  districts  of  Northern 
Bengal.  The  supply  of  such  labour,  however,  is  not 
only  limited,  but  it  is  expensive  and,  through  lack  of 
experience,  is  often  inefficient.  The  rise  in  the  cost  of 
production  of  jute,  as  well  as  a  deterioration  in  the 
quality  of  fibre,  is  therefore  not  prevented. 

There  appears,  therefore,  to  be  some  reason  for  the 
contention  that,  as  far  as  actual  acreage  is  concerned,  the 
present  jute-producing  tract  is  approaching  its  limit. 
There  is  certainly  no  ground,  on  the  other  hand,  for 
believing  that  the  demand  for  jute  is  likely  to  slacken 
more  than  temporarily,  and  it  behoves  us,  therefore,  to 
examine  the  position  in  order  to  see  how  this  demand  is 
to  be  met.  There  are  three  possible  ways,  viz.  :  — 

(1)  By  improving  the  yield  of  fibre  in  the  present  jute- 
producing  area. 

(2)  By  extending  the  cultivation  of  jute  to  tracts  where 
it  is  not  at  present  grown. 

(3)  By  the  cultivation,  in  tracts  which  are  not  suitable 
for  the  production  of  jute,  of  other  plants  whose  fibre  is 
sufficiently  similar  to  be  used  as  a  substitute  for  jute. 

Taking  these  points  in  order  :  (i)  There  can  be  no  doubt 
that  as  far  as  the  ultimate,  if  not  the  immediate,  future 
is  concerned  agricultural  improvement  is  destined  to  play 
as  great  a  part  in  regard  to  jute  as  it  has  done  with  other 
crops  in  India  and  elsewhere.  In  the  case  of  jute,  careful 
plant  to  plant  selection  has  already  placed  in  our  hands 
races,  the  yield  and  quality  of  which  are  both  considerably 


542  FIBRES 

better  than  the  average.  The  seed  of  these  improved 
races  has  been  multiplied,  and  seed  farms  are  now  being 
established  to  produce  seed  on  a  very  large  scale  for 
distribution  to  cultivators.  Other  work  of  the  Agricul- 
tural Department  points,  as  it  was  bound  to,  to  consider- 
ably enhanced  yields,  not  only  of  jute  but  of  other  crops, 
by  means  of  improved  methods  of  cultivation  and  manur- 
ing. It  is  obvious,  therefore,  that  agricultural  improve- 
ment alone  contains  the  prospect  of  a  largely  increased 
total  output  of  jute,  amounting  possibly  to  from  15  to 
20  lacs  of  bales;  but  although  the  ultimate  'effect  of  the 
dissemination  of  this  information  to  the  cultivator  will 
be  great,  the  progress  at  the  commencement  seems  very 
slow,  for  not  only  are  the  cultivators  intensely  con- 
servative, but  their  number  is  very  great,  their  holdings 
are  small,  and  they  are  spread  over  an  area  as  large  as 
Great  Britain.  The  development  of  the  system  of  Co- 
operative Credit  Societies  is  of  great  importance  in  this 
respect. 

(2)  Regarding  new  areas  in  which  jute  cultivation  could 
extend :  The  natural  outlet  would,  of  course,  be  the 
plains  of  Assam,  which  are  by  reason  of  the  prevailing 
conditions  of  soil  and  climate  peculiarly  fitted  for  jute 
cultivation.  There  is,  indeed,  little  doubt  that  this  tract 
is  capable  of  supporting  at  least  another  million  acres 
of  jute  without  unduly  straining  the  proportion  between 
jute  and  other  crops.  The  lack  of  population  in  much 
the  greater  part  of  Assam  is,  however,  an  almost  in- 
superable bar  in  the  way  of  any  rapid  extension,  and, 
although  numbers  of  Bengalis  from  the  crowded  Southern 
districts  are  beginning  to  emigrate  to  Assam,  it  would 
appear  that  by  nothing  short  of  a  wholesale  colonization 
scheme  can  progress  be  otherwise  than  very  slow. 

In  Bihar,  Purnea  is  a  very  large  jute-producing  centre, 
but  Cuttack  is  the  only  other  district  which  grows  more 
than  10,000  acres  of  jute.  High  prices  in  the  years  1905- 
06  (see  Diagram  No.  4)  caused  about  10,000  acres  of  jute 
to  be  grown  in  1907-08  in  the  districts  of  Mozufferpore 
and  Champaran,  but  the  area  fell  again  later,  partly 
owing  to  lower  prices,  and  partly  to  lack  of  market 


FIBRES 


543 


facilities.  There  has  been  a  steady  increase  during  the 
last  three  years,  and  there  is  every  prospect  that  this 
tract  will  ultimately  produce  jute  on  a  considerable  scale. 
Experimental  jute  has  been  grown  with  success  in 
most  parts  of  India,  and  big  crops  have  been  produced 
in  the  irrigated  tracts  of  the  Punjab,  the  Central  Pro- 
vinces, and  Madras.  In  all  these  places,  however,  the 


DIAGRAM  IV.— PRICES  (IN  RUPEES)  OF  RAW  AND  MANUFACTURED  JUTE  IN 
THE  PERIOD  1901-1914. 

References  : 

A  =  Jute  |  C.C.  |  raw  per  bale  of  400  Ib. 

B  =  Jute  ordinary  per  bale  of  400  Ib. 

C  =  Gunnies,  No.  2  Twill,  44  in.  X  26^  in.,  per  100. 

D  =  Hessian  cloth,  io£  oz.,  40  in.,  per  100  yds. 


/ 

// 

It 

70 

/ 

I 

/; 

/ 

\ 

60 

/ 

\ 

;\ 

/ 

/ 

a* 

50 

/ 

f 

\^ 

\ 

/ 

/ 

\ 

/ 

/ 

/ 

/^ 

/  . 

/ 

i  \ 
V 

/ 

\ 

// 

/ 

^s 

A, 

^-^— 

"-^, 

.  

-  — 

/ 

^ 

\ 

^ 

\ 

\ 

/ 

•^«-^ 

II 

/ 

**«*^ 

/ 

70 

/P. 

\ 

/ 

x 

^ 

1 

\ 

"Xs 

^ 

/ 

20 

^ 

-—  ». 

/ 

—  —• 

/ 

\ 

/ 

s 

^—  — 

\ 

/ 

•*-^* 

/ 

10 

£~ 

*•>. 

*- 

—  — 

^ 

—  • 

**  — 

\ 

"-. 

-•*• 

s 

s 

^ 

D 

i  H  U  H  H  M  3  U  U  1  H  M 

1901       I9C2      1503      /904-      1905      /SOS      ISO7     1908     1909      I9IO       1911 


1912      1913       /9/4- 


circumstances  are  more  difficult  for  jute  than  in  Bengal, 
and  it  is  hardly  likely  that,  as  things  are  at  present,  jute 
cultivation  would  be  taken  up  on  any  large  scale  outside 
Bengal,  Bihar,  and  Assam. 

(3)  In   these   circumstances   the   question   of  jute   sub- 
stitutes is  one  of  considerable  interest.     There  would  be 
no   object,    of   course,    in   introducing   such   a   substitute 
35 


544  FIBRES 

into  Bengal,  which  is  the  home  of  jute.  There  are, 
however,  two  fibre  plants  to  be  met  with  in  cultivation 
in  nearly  every  part  of  India.  Of  these,  Hibiscus  canna- 
binus  produces  a  fibre  which  is  very  similar  in  many 
respects  to  jute,  although,  naturally  enough,  it  is  not 
looked  upon  with  favour  in  Calcutta.  It  is,  nevertheless, 
especially  certain  varieties  of  it,  a  stronger,  and  probably 
a  more  durable  fibre  than  jute,  and  for  this  reason  alone, 
if  for  no  other,  its  cultivation  is  worthy  of  encourage- 
ment. It  is  produced  on  a  considerable  scale  in  Madras, 
where  there  is  a  fluctuating  area  of  between  50,000  and 
80,000  acres  in  the  East  Coast  districts.  A  gunny  mill, 
whose  annual  consumption  is  said  to  be  about  25,000 
bales,  has  existed  for  many  years  at  Bimlipatam,  and  it 
was  proposed  to  erect  another  one  at  Ellore,  in  the  Kistna 
district.  It  is  worth  noting,  too,  that  some  spinners  in 
this  country  who  are  in  the  habit  of  using  Bimlipatam 
jute  also  speak  well  of  it.  H.  cannabinus  is  cultivated 
throughout  Bombay,  and  especially  in  Bihar  and  the 
United  Provinces,  so  that  a  comparatively  small  per- 
centage increase  over  such  a  large  area  would  have  a  very 
considerable  effect  on  the  aggregate  supply  of  fibres  of 
the  jute  class. 

The  different  races  of  H.  cannabinus  have  been  investi- 
gated, and  the  seed  of  those  producing  the  best  fibre  has 
been  selected  for  multiplication,  so  that  the  Agricultural 
Department  is  now  practically  ready  to  supply  pure  seed 
of  the  best  kinds  in  large  quantities  to  the  cultivator.  It 
is  important  to  observe  that,  apart  from  gunnies  and  cloth 
manufactured  in  Bimlipatam,  there  is  a  considerable 
export  from  India  of  hibiscus  fibre  under  the  names  of 
Bimlipatam  jute,  Deccan  hemp,  etc.,  to  London,  where 
it  is  a  recognized  item  in  the  market,  and  where  it  is 
bought  for  purposes  for  which  jute  would  otherwise  be 
required.  The  buyer  of  jute  is  thus  relieved  of  a  corre- 
sponding amount  of  competition.  Any  prolonged  short- 
age in  the  supply  of  true  jute  i;s  fairly  certain  to  cause 
a  considerable  development  in  the  cultivation  of  H. 
cannabinus. 

We    thus    see    that    each    of    the    three    methods    of 


FIBRES  545 

increasing  the  supply  of  jute  is  capable  of  contributing 
its  quota  of  help.  Progress  along  new  lines  must  neces- 
sarily be  slow  at  the  outset,  but,  taking  all  circumstances 
into  consideration,  every  sign  points  to  the  fact  that 
India  will  be  able  to  supply  the  world  with  jute  or  similar 
fibres  for  a  long  time  to  come. 

For  the  statistics  contained  in  this  paper  I  am  glad  to 
acknowledge  my  indebtedness  to  the  late  Mr.  Noel- 
Paton,  Director-General  of  Commercial  Intelligence  in 
India. 


THE  FIBRE  INDUSTRY  IN  MAURITIUS. 

By  F.  A.  STOCKDALE,  M.A.,  F.L.S. 
Director  of  Agriculture,  Mauritius, 

THE  fibre  industry  is,  after  sugar,  the  most  important 
agricultural  industry  of  the  Colony  of  Mauritius.  The 
fibre  is  obtained  almost  entirely  from  forms  of  Furcrxa 
gigantea,  which  are  now  to  be  found  growing  in  prac- 
tically all  districts  of  the  island.  These  plants  were 
doubtless  introduced  into  the  island  from  the  New  World 
as  ornamental  plants,  but  the  date  of  introduction  is 
uncertain.  They  thrive  exceptionally  well,  and  spread 
rapidly  by  means  of  the  numerous  bulbils  that  are 
produced  on  the  flower  stems  after  flowering.  Some 
exceptionally  fine  specimens  of  Furcraea  plants  are  to  be 
met  with  on  the  island.  These  are  usually  to  be  found 
on  fertile  lands  at  altitudes  varying  from  300  to  1,000  ft. 
On  the  upper,  wetter,  but  cooler  plateaux  the  plants  do 
not  generally  attain  such  a  fine  development  as  at  the 
lower  altitudes,  where  the  temperature  is  warmer.  On 
the  coastal  regions,  where  rainfall  is  scanty,  growth  is 
often  slow. 

Fibre  plants  in  Mauritius  are  locally  called  "  aloes," 
and  two  varieties  occur,  viz.,  the  "  Creole  Aloe  "  (Purer sea 
gigantea  var.  Will  erne  tiana),  and  the  "  Aloe  Malgache  '* 
(Purer sea  gigantea}. 

The  Creole  aloes  contain  a  larger  percentage  of  fibre, 
and  grow  more  rapidly  than  the  aloes  Malgache.  In 
the  higher  altitudes  the  plants  grow  more  slowly  than 
in  the  warmer  districts  around  the  coast,  and  it  is  mainly 
in  the  coastal  districts  that  exploitation  of  fibre  takes 
place.  The  aloe  Malgache  grows  much  better  than  the 
Creole  aloe  at  the  higher  altitudes,  and  those  factories 


FIBRES  547 

which  obtain  leaves  from  the  higher  lands  often  work 
quantities  of  the  leaves  of  the  former  variety.  Both 
varieties  will  grow  on  all  the  soils  of  the  Colony,  but  the 
principal  factors  that  appear  to  be  necessary  for  satis- 
factory development  are  a  uniformly  high  temperature 
combined  with  an  adequate  supply  of  water.  If  the  tem- 
perature is  low  growth  is  slow,  and  if  rainfall  is  scanty 
growth  is  stunted. 

The  Mauritius  soils  are  comparatively  fertile.  They 
are  characterized  by  a  high  percentage  of  iron  salts  with 
but  little  carbonate  of  lime.  They  may  sometimes  contain 
only  small  quantities  of  available  potash  and  phosphates. 
Soils  carrying  aloes  are  generally  in  wild  growth,  and 
therefore  do  not  as  a  rule  show  a  marked  shortage  of 
available  elements.  The  low  percentage  of  calcium 
carbonate  is  often  noticeable  in  soils  of  high  fertility 
under  intense  culture,  and  it  is  conjectured  that  basic 
salts  of  iron  may  act  as  bases  for  biological  action. 
Experiments"  to  test  this  possibility  are  in  operation. 

The  aloe  Malgache,  or  F.  gigantea,  possesses  a 
short  woody  trunk,  which  is  crowned  by  40  to  50 
oblanceolate,  rigidly  coriaceous,  subcarnose  leaves. 
These  leaves  on  vigorous  plants  are  4  to  7  ft.  long, 
usually  spineless,  and  of  a  bright  bluish-green  hue. 
From  the  plant  a  scape  of  20  to  30  ft.  in  length  arises,  and 
forms  in  its  upper  half  a  loose  panicle  with  greenish- 
white  flowers  about  2  in.  broad.  The  ovary  is  cylin- 
drical, the  stamens  are  short,  and  the  filaments  strumose 
in  the  middle. 

The  Creole  aloe,  or  F.  gigantea  var.  Willemetiana 
is  a  Mauritian  form  of  gigantea.  It  differs  from  the 
type  form  by  possessing  more  spines  along  the  lower 
portions  of  the  leaf  edges,  by  having  a  terminal  spike  to 
the  leaf,  and  by  possessing  a  well-defined  constricted  leaf 
base.  The  leaves  are  usually  less  pulpy  than  those  of 
F.  gigantea,  and  on  the  average  shorter  in  length.  The 
colour  of  the  leaves  of  the  Creole  aloe  is  a  yellowish- 
green. 

It  is  estimated  that  there  are  approximately  20,000 
arpents  (i  arpent  =  1*043  acre)  under  "aloes"  in  the 


54^  FIBRES 

Colony.  These  are  practically  all  self-sown,  but  it  is 
estimated  that  some  1,500  arpents  have  been  planted  with 
the  Creole  variety. 

Plantations. 

Plantations  of  aloes  date  back  about  ten  years.  Small 
trials  were  at  first  made  with  Creole  aloes,  and  as  these 
gave  fairly  satisfactory  results  further  plantations  were 
undertaken.  During-  1905-10  plantings  of  sisal  hemp 
(Agave  rigida  var.  sisalana)  were  made  for  comparison 
with  plantations  of  Creole  aloes. 

It  is  estimated  that  at  the  present  time  there  are  60 
to  75  arpents  planted  with  sisal  in  the  Colony,  These 
plantations  of  sisal  have  grown  satisfactorily,  but  in 
many  cases  growth  has  been  irregular.  They  also  require 
greater  attention  in  the  early  stages  than  do  plantations 
of  Creole  aloes.  Sisal  fibre  prepared  in  the  Colony  has 
been  found  to  be  of  good  quality,  and  the  small  quantities 
placed  on  the  European  markets  have  commanded  satis- 
factory prices. 

On  some  estates  areas  of  Creole  aloes  are  planted 
yearly,  so  that  young  plantations  are  coming  into  bearing 
regularly.  This  policy  has  been  found  to  be  a  wise  one, 
and  better  results  are  being  obtained  than  when  wild 
growth  is  solely  depended  upon  for  supplies.  Opinions 
differ  as  to  whether  plantings  should  be  made  with  or 
without  shade.  Plantings  made  under  the  shade  of  filao 
trees  (Casuarina  equiseti folia)  have  been  very  satis- 
factory, while  many  plantations  are  allowed  to  become 
sooner  or  later  overgrown  with  wild  acacia  (Leucsena 
glauca).  Leaves  grown  under  shade  are  not  of  such  a 
thick  and  tough  texture  as  leaves  grown  in  full  sunlight, 
and  it  is  thought  that  they  can  be  more  easily  dealt  with 
in  the  factories.  Casuarina  is  also  of  value  as  fuel,  and 
acacia  seeds  are  collected  annually  for  cattle  food. 

For  planting,  bulbils  which  have  fallen  and  rooted 
satisfactorily,  or  fair-sized  suckers  removed  from  their 
"  mother  "  plants,  are  employed.  Plants  which  have 
leaves  12  to  18  in.  in  length  (i.e.,  are  about  eighteen 
months  old)  are  generally  preferred,  as  they  appear  to 
stand  transplanting  well,  and  come  to  maturity  quicker 


FIBRES  549 

than  smaller  plants.  There  is  a  slight  preference  for 
suckers  over  bulbil  plants,  as  it  is  thought  that  they 
transplant  more  satisfactorily.  Aloes  planted  with 
eighteen-month  suckers  are  first  reaped  between  the 
third  and  fourth  years  after  planting.  The  following 
details  taken  from  the  Annual  Report  of  the  Chamber 
of  Agriculture  for  1912  are  of  interest. 

The  then  President  (Mr.  E.  Carcenac)  writes:  "In 
large  areas  of  the  Black  River  district,  for  example, 
where  the  culture  of  sugar-cane,  impossible  without 
irrigation,  is  limited,  the  exploitation  of  aloes  offers 
great  possibilities." 

After  discussing  probable  costs  of  plantations,  he 
states :  — 

"  (i)  Plants  possessing  leaves  at  least  18  in.  long 
should  be  put  in  at  the  end  of  the  dry  season. 

"  (2)  The  plants  should  be  put  out  quincunx  at  4^  ft. 
apart.  An  arpent  would,  therefore,  hold  about  2,500 
plants. 

"  (3)  The  year  after  planting  a  light  cleaning  should 
be  made  in  order  to  destroy  plants  and  weeds  providing 
too  heavy  a  shade. 

"  (4)  The  leaves  may  be  cut  between  the  fourth  and 
fifth  years  after  planting,  and  a  subsequent  cutting  after 
two  wet  seasons. 

"  Each  plant  will  give  at  each  cutting  a  minimum  of 
30  leaves,  or  75,000  leaves  per  arpent.  This  should 
represent  at  least  I  ton  of  dry  fibre,  and  as  cuttings  would 
be  made  every  two  years,  an  average  of  J  ton  of  dry 
fibre  per  arpent  could  be  reckoned  on  for  each  period  of 
twelve  months." 

Cutting. 

The  cutting  of  leaves  is  usually  carried  out  by  task 
work.  The  cutters  are  paid  on  the  average  at  the  rate 
of  lod.  per  100  packets.  The  weight  of  the  individual 
packets  is  not  taken,  but  it  is  generally  estimated  that 
one  packet  of  leaves  contains  from  10  to  15  leaves  and 
produces  i  kilogram  of  green  fibre.  Actual  weighings 
have  been  made  at  several  factories  with  the  following 
results  :  — 


550  .  FIBRES 

Number  of  leaves  per  packet :  8  to  18.     Average,  12*6. 

Weight  per  packet:  6'i  to  8*4  kilos.  Average  7*8 
kilos. 

Green  fibre  produced  per  packet:  0^89  to  i'2  kilo. 
Average,  0*98  kilo. 

Dry  fibre  produced  per  packet:  0*16  to  O'i8  kilo. 
Average,  0*175  kilo. 

The  leaves  vary  greatly  in  size,  and  no  attempt  is  made 
to  grade  leaves  either  in  regard  to  maturity  or  to  size. 
At  the  time  of  cutting  the  central  shoot  and  three  to  five 
unfolded  leaves  are  left,  but  instances  occur  where  all 
leaves  are  cut  with  the  exception  of  the  central  shoot. 
The  wild  aloes  are  usually  so  close  together  and  over- 
grown with  acacia  and  shrubby  weeds  that  it  is  not 
possible  only  to  cut  mature  leaves  such  as  could  be 
practised  on  clean  plantations.  The  packets  of  leaves 
are  transported  to  the  roads  of  the  estates  and  placed  in 
heaps.  They  are  then  transported  by  ox-cart  to  the 
factory. 

Re-cutting  of  aloes  takes  place  usually  two  years  after 
the  previous  cutting,  though  sometimes  the  intervening 
period  is  shorter.  As  a  rule,  however,  two  wet  seasons 
occur  between  one  cutting  and  the  next.  The  number 
of  leaves  taken  off  at  each  cutting  varies  greatly  with  the 
district  and  with  the  age  of  the  plants. 


Yield  oj  Fibre. 

From  figures  collected  at  various  factories  in  the 
Colony,  it  appears  that  an  average  of  65,000  leaves  of 
Creole  aloes  will  produce  I  ton  of  dry  fibre.  This  gives 
an  average  fibre  recovery  of  nearly  2*3  per  cent,  on  the 
weight  of  the  leaves.  It  is  difficult,  however,  to  give 
definite  figures,  as  the  fibre  content  varies  considerably 
with  the  district  and  with  the  season  of  the  year.  In  the 
higher  altitudes  the  moisture  content  of  the  leaves  is 
higher  and  the  percentage  of  fibre  lower  than  in  the 
lower  altitudes,  and  in  the  wet  season  the  moisture 
content  of  leaves  is  considerably  higher  than  in  the  dry 
season.  Actual  tests  made  at  three  factories  in  the 


FIBRES  551 

Black  River  district  in  the  dry  season  of  1913  gave  the 
following  results  :  — • 

Factory  i.     Percentage    of   dry   fibre  =  2*64 

»        2-  »  »  =  2'53 

3-  >>  ,,  =2-38 

Careful  laboratory  tests  made  by  Mr.  Boname  (then 
Director  of  the  Station  Agronomique  of  Mauritius)  in 
1902  gave  the  following  figures :  — 

TABLE    I. 

Aloes  Malgache  Creole  aloes 

from  1,000  ft.  from  600  ft. 

Weight  of  leaves,  kilos.     ...  ...  ...       65  .  .       47 


green  fibre  obtained,  kilos.  ...  4'95o 

dry               ,,                   ,,  ...  0-930 

Dry  fibre,  percentage  of  green  fibre  ...  i8'8 

Green  fibre,  percentage  of  leaves   ...  ...         7-61 

Dry  fibre,             ,,                     ,,        ...  ...          1-43 


TABLE    II. 


4-900 
i  -170 
23-9 
10-42 
2-49 


Weight  of  leaves,  kilos.  ...             ...  ...  57-5  ..  27-5 

,,         green  fibre  obtained,  kilos.  ...  4-700  ..      2-870 

„         dry               ,,                  ,,  ...  0-955  ••  °'6°2 

Dry  fibre,  percentage  of  green  fibre  ...  20-3  ..  21 -o 

Green  fibre,  percentage  of  leaves  ...  ...  8*2  ..  10-4 

Dry  fibre,              ,,                  ,,       ...  ...      i'66  ..      2-19 


Aloes  Malgache     Creole  aloes     Creole  aloes 
from  1,000  ft.      from  1,000  ft.      from6coft. 

1375 
I  '650 

0-365 
22'I 
12-0 

2-65 


From  Table  II  the  difference  between  the  percentage 
of  dry  fibre  in  leaves  from  altitudes  of  1,000  ft.  and  of 
600  ft.  is  clearly  shown.  On  the  littoral,  yields  of  2*3  to 
2*5  per  cent,  of  dry  fibre  have  been  obtained  in  some 
factories,  while  individual  yields  from  selected  leaves 
have  exceeded  2*5  per  cent,  in  dry  seasons. 

In  the  Colony  it  is  customary  to  express  the  yield  of 
dry  fibre  obtained  as  a  percentage  on  the  weight  of  wet 
fibre;  yields  varying  between  16  and  18  per  cent,  are 
generally  obtained.  This  form  of  calculation  has  arisen 
from  the  fact  that  labourers  at  the  hand  machines  are 
paid  on  the  quantity  of  green  fibre  produced  per  day. 
The  weight  of  the  leaves  coming  into  the  factory  is  not 
known,  but  the  weights  of  green  fibre  obtained  by  the 
different  employes  are  carefully  checked.  The  weights 
of  dry  fibre  are  known  when  baled,  and  therefore  an 


552  FIBRES 

estimate  of  the  value  of  work  being  done  can  readily  be 
obtained  by  calculating  the  percentage  of  dry  fibre  on 
the  weight  of  the  wet  fibre. 

Factories. 

The  fibre  factories  are  small  ones,  their  output  ranging 
from  50  to  100  tons  of  dry  fibre  per  annum,  with  an 
average  annual  output  of  about  55  tons.  In  1913  there 
were  forty-two  factories  in  operation.  Of  these  twenty- 
five  were  situated  in  the  Black  River  district. 

The  fibre  is  scraped  by  machines  locally  known  as 
grattes,  which  are  capable  of  producing  on  the  average 
vo  ton  of  dry  fibre  per  diem.  They  are  similar  in  opera- 
tion to  the  raspadors  of  Mexico,  and  are  fed  by  hand. 
They  differ  from  raspadors  in  that  they  contain  a  greater 
number  of  scutching  blades,  and  are  generally  worked 
at  a  greater  speed.  They  are  manufactured  in  machine 
shops  in  the  Colony,  and  cost  from  £14  to  £18  each. 
They  are  worked  in  series,  and  driven  by  steam  or  suction 
gas  engines  or  by  water-power.  Water-power  is  naturally 
the  cheapest  form  of  power,  and  on  some  properties 
there  are  two  or  three  small  factories  at  different  levels, 
in  order  that  the  supply  of  water  may  be  utilized  more 
than  once.  Steam-power  is  relatively  costly,  but  was 
utilized  up  to  1912  in  those  factories  where  water-power 
was  not  available.  In  that  year  steam-engines  com- 
menced to  be  replaced  by  suction  gas  plants,  and  con- 
siderable economies  in  fuel  have  resulted.  The  suction 
gas  engines  are  small  ones,  with  a  brake  horse-power 
ranging  from  19  to  40.  They  have  been  installed  up  to 
the  present  with  charcoal  producers,  but  plants  to  take 
ordinary  wood  refuse  have  been  indented  for  installation 
within  the  next  few  months.  The  average  consumption 
of  charcoal  in  the  types  of  engines  introduced  into  the 
Colony  varies,  mainly  according  to  the  grade  of  charcoal 
used,  from  0*8  to  I  Ib.  of  charcoal  per  h.p.  per  hour. 

The  feeding  of  the  grattes  by  hand  is  a  costly  and 
laborious  process,  and  efforts  have  been  made  to  instal 
automatic  feeding  machines.  Such  a  machine  (McGregor's 
patent)  has  been  improved  by  a  local  firm  of  engineers 


FIBRES  553 

and  installed  in  five  factories.  This  machine  consists 
essentially  of  an  inclined  feeding  table  extending  to  the 
mouth  of  the  gratte.  Leaves  are  placed  on  this  inclined 
table,  gripped  in  the  jaws  of  the  feeder,  and  fed  into  the 
gratte  automatically.  The  green  fibre  is  then  pulled  back 
and  taken  out  of  the  jaws  as  they  open.  The  basal 
portion  of  each  leaf  is  left  unscraped,  and  has  to  be  cut 
off  and  discarded.  For  small  plants  where  labour  is 
difficult  to  obtain  this  machine  can  be  advantageously 
employed.  It  requires  to  have  close  supervision,  or 
otherwise  cutting  of  fibre  and  loss  of  leaves  may  result. 
The  loss  of  the  basal  stumps  of  the  leaves  is  also  con- 
siderable unless  the  feeder  is  satisfactorily  adjusted. 
During  1913  two  of  these  machines  worked  throughout 
the  year  and  are  reported  to  have  given  general  satis- 
faction. Three  other  factories  which  had  installed  them 
did  not  work  with  them,  however,  as  the  proprietors  were 
of  opinion  that  the  loss  of  fibre  was  greater  than  when 
hand  power  is  employed,  and  that  the  dry  fibre  was  not 
of  such  a  high  quality. 

The  Government  have  taken  in  hand  the  matter  of 
machinery  for  fibre  production,  and  are  installing  in  the 
Black  River  district  a  New  Corona  Automatic  Decorti- 
cating Machine  with  a  view  to  ascertaining  whether 
reductions  in  the  cost  of  production  can  be  effected. 

Manufacture. 

The  leaves  are  brought  to  the  factories  by  tramways 
or  by  ox-carts.  They  are  delivered  to  the  factories  in 
packets  each  containing  from  eight  to  eighteen  leaves. 
These  packets  are  then  checked  and  placed  in  heaps, 
from  which  they  are  transported  as  required  to  the 
"  gratteurs."  Two  gratteurs  work  at  each  gratte,  and  a 
table  is  installed  for  each  gratteur.  The  leaves  are  placed 
on  these  tables,  and  are  fed  by  the  gratteurs  into  the 
machines  two  or  three  at  a  time.  One  half  of  the  leaf 
is  scraped  and  then  withdrawn.  The  leaf  is  then  turned 
and  the  other  half  fed  into  the  machine.  The  green 
fibre,  as  scraped,  is  placed  on  rails  which  are  placed 
alongside,  and  from  there  it  is  taken  and  tied  into  small 


554  FIBRES 

bundles.  The  gratteurs  are  paid  at  the  rate  of  60  to 
80  cents  per  100  kilograms  of  green  fibre.  They  work 
from  four  to  six  hours  per  day,  and  produce  on  the 
average  200  to  250  kilograms  of  green  fibre  per  man. 
Two  shifts  per  day  work  at  each  gratte  when  labour  is 
available. 

The  green  fibre,  after  having  been  tied  in  small 
bundles,  is  weighed  and  taken  by  women  to  the  washing 
basins.  It  is  thoroughly  washed  in  clean  water,  and 
afterwards  placed  in  a  basin  containing  a  soap  solution, 
made  by  dissolving  common  soap  in  water  at  the  rate  of 
5  to  10  kilograms  of  soap  per  1,000  kilograms  of  green 
fi'bre.  The  green  fibre  is  allowed  to  soak  in  this  solution 
for  thirty-six  to  forty-eight  hours.  The  soap  solution 
helps  to  disintegrate  the  particles  of  pulp  attached  to  the 
fibre,  and  also  helps  to  give  a  white  colour  to  the  fibre. 

The  fibre  is  removed  from  this  solution  and  washed  in 
clean  water.  Afterwards  it  is  taken  and  suspended  on 
wooden  rails  in  the  open  air  for  bleaching  and  drying  in 
the  sun.  The  colour  of  the  dry  fibre  depends  largely  on 
the  weather  conditions  prevailing  at  the  time  of  bleach- 
ing and  drying.  If  the  weather  is  sunny  a  white  product 
results,  but  if  it  is  overcast  and  damp  a  yellowish-brown 
fibre  is  often  obtained. 

From  the  driers  the  fibre  is  taken  to  the  brushing 
machines,  where  the  tow  and  attached  particles  of  pulp 
are  removed.  Stained  parts  of  the  fibre  are  cut  out,  and 
it  is  then  baled  in  sacking  in  bales  of  200  to  250  kilo- 
grams each  with  hand  baling  presses.  The  fibre  is 
graded  according  to  the  colour  into  "  prime,"  "  good," 
and  "  fair  "  grades. 

These  bales  are  then  marked  and  sent  to  Port  Louis. 
The  fibre  is  purchased  by  a  local  firm  at  current  rates 
and  exported  by  them  to  London. 

Cost  of  Production. 

In  the  Annual  Report  of  the  President  of  the  Chamber 
of  Agriculture  for  1911  it  is  stated  that  the  cost  of  pro- 
duction per  ton  of  dry  fibre  approximated  £11  155.  where 
water  is  employed,  and  £14  where  steam  is  used.  The 


FIBRES  555 

Royal  Commissioners   in    1908   obtained   figures   varying 
from  £10  to  £15  per  ton. 

The  cost  of  production  has  been  carefully  inquired 
into  during  the  past  year.  The  figures  vary  in  the 
different  localities.  If  leaves  are  available  near  the 
factories  the  cost  of  transport  is  reduced,  and  if  tramway 
systems  exist  the  transport  cost  is  less  than  where  ox- 
carts have  to  be  employed.  The  average  cost  of  pro- 
duction per  ton  of  dry  fibre  might  be  itemized  as 
follows :  — • 


Factory  with 
water-power 

Factory  with 
suction  gas-power 

Factory  with 
steam-power 

5 
5 

d. 

0 

o 

£   s- 

* 

to  2      O 

d.     £ 

2 
O       I 

ft. 

d. 

£ 

s.     d. 

£ 

2 

5 

5 

d. 

o 
o 

£ 

~*  . 

to    2 

5 
5 

P 
O 

10    2 

O      O 

Cutiing  ...   2 

Transport      of  I 

leaves  to  factory 
Feeding   leaves    to  080  080  080 

gratteurs 

Decorticating       ...  2  13     4  2  13     4  2  13     4 

Skins     for     gloves  060  060  060 

of  gratteurs 

Removal  of  residue  040  040  040 

Fuel,  oil  and  atten-  100  200  400 

dance 
Transport  of  green  030  030  030 

fibre  to  basins 
Soap      ...  ...  o  13     4  o  13     4  o  13     4 

Washing  ...  030  030  030 

Drying  ...  ...080  080  080 

Brushing  ...080  080  080 

Baling  ...  ...080  080  080 

Transport   to   Port  o     7     otoi     ooo     7     otoi     ooo     7     oto 

Louis 
Miscellaneous      ...084  084  084 


d. 


Total    ...  ...n     o    01012     8    o  12    o    01013     8    o  14    o    o  to  15     8    o 

Every  effort  is  being  made  to  reduce  the  cost  of  pro- 
duction. The  fuel  item  is  heavy  where  steam  is  employed, 
and  this  is  being  met  by  the  installation  of  suction  gas 
plants.  Gratteurs  are  at  times  difficult  to  procure,  and 
therefore  a  small  automatic  feeding  machine  is  being 
constantly  inquired  for. 

Exports. 

The  exports  of  fibre  from  Mauritius  show  a  slight 
upward  tendency.  The  largest  amount  exported  during 


556 


FIBRES 


the  past  fifteen  years  in  any  one  year  was  3,105*3  metric 
tons  in  1900.  The  export  last  year  (1913)  amounted  to 
2,912*7  metric  tons.  The  average  yearly  export  for  the 
five-year  period  1899-1903  was  2,052*3  'metric  tons;  for 
the  period  1904-08,  2,1 13*1  metric  tons;  and  for  1909-13, 
2, 238' i  metric  tons.  The  exports  during  the  past  five 
years  have  been  more  regular  than  during  former  periods. 
There  are  reasons  to  suppose,  however,  that  after  the 
activity  of  1913  (resulting  in  the  export  of  nearly  700  tons 
above  the  average  for  the  last  five-year  period),  coupled 
with  the  fact  that  flowering  took  place  very  freely 
throughout  the  whole  Colony  after  the  somewhat  ex- 
tended dry  period,  August  to  December,  1913,  there  may 
be  recorded  in  the  exports  for  the  next  year  or  so  a 
reduction  of  output. 

The  value  of  the  fibre  crop  in  Mauritius  averaged 
during  the  1899-1903  period  £44,884  yearly;  during  the 
1904-08  period  it  was  £47,192;  and  in  1909-13  the  yearly 
average  value  was  £43,843.  The  local  price  for  fibre  has 
ruled  more  steady  during  the  past  five  years,  but  has 
been  lower  than  the  average  price  of  the  previous  ten 
years;  it  has  approximated  to  £20  per  metric  ton.  The 
charges  for  freight,  etc.,  to  London  may  be  estimated 
at  £6  8s.  per  ton. 

The  quantity  and  value  of  the  exports  during  the  past 
fifteen  years  are  shown  in  the  following  table :  — 


Year 


Quantity. 
Metric  tons 


1899 

2,249-8 

1900 

3,105-3 

1901 

1,243-0 

1902 

2,144-6 

1903 

i,5T87 

1904 

1,920-1 

1905 

i,673'9 

1906 

1,949-9 

1907 

2,879-7 

1908 

2,141-9 

1909 

1,878-6 

1910 

2,021-2 

1911 

2,129-3 

1912 

2,249-0 

1913 

2,9I2-7 

2052-3 


-2113-] 


2238-1 


Value  in  Mauritius 

£ 

39,245 

65,003 

22,896 

•44,844 

60,525 

36,749 

41,835 

37,637 

49,173 

•47,192 

65,760 

4i,557 
35,38o 

41,833 

40,033 

43,843 

45,465 

56,905 

Average        2134-4 


FIBRES 


557 


The  fluctuations  are  more  clearly  shown  in  graph  form, 
thus : — 


DIAGRAM  I. — EXPORTS  OF  FIBRE. 

1899       1900      1901       1902       1903       1904      1905       1906      1907       1908      1909       1910       1911        I9IH       1913 


558 


FIBRES 


The  fluctuations  in  the  local  value  per  metric  ton  of 
fibre  are  shown  in  the  following  diagram :  — 

DIAGRAM  II.— LOCAL  VALUE  PER  METRIC  TON  OF  FIBRE. 

1899      1900       1901       1902      1903      1904     1905      1906      1907      1908     1909      1910        1911        1912       1913 


The  fibre  is  chiefly  purchased  locally,  and  then  shipped 
to  the  United  Kingdom  on  the  purchasing  firm's  account. 
The  local  price  is  based  upon  the  value  of  fibre  on  the 
London  market  and  upon  the  quality  as  judged  by  the 
purchaser's  valuers. 

Mauritius  fibre  is  not  made  use  of  to  any  great  extent 
in  the  United  Kingdom,  but  is  reshipped  mainly  to 
Germany.  During  the  past  two  years,  however,  there 
has  been  a  demand  for  Furcrsea  fibre  in  the  United  States 
of  America,  and  a  large  proportion  of  the  exports  from 
Mauritius  has  found  its  way  to  that  country. 

Capital  and  Possibilities  for  Extension. 

The  industry  is  worked  on  very  little  capital,  and  there- 
fore it  does  not  increase  as  fast  as  might  be  expected, 


FIBRES  559 

considering  the  suitability  of  soil  and  climate.  There  are 
in  the  Colony  large  areas  of  land  which  are  well  suited 
for  plantations  of  fibre.  The  greater  portion  of  the 
Black  River  district  might  produce  fibre  without  undue 
competition  with  sugar-cane,  and  it  is  in  this  district  and 
in  Pamplemousses  that  extension  might  be  looked  for. 
Regular  plantations  are  now  being  made  on  a  small  scale, 
but  the  industry  is  well  worth  the  close  attention  of 
capitalists.  With  wider  plantings  centralization  of  factory 
working  would  be  possible,  and  if  sufficient  fibre  were 
available  to  keep  an  up-to-date  factory  in  full  working, 
there  appears  to  be  no  reason  why  the  return  on  capital 
invested  should  be  less  than  in  other  countries  where 
fibre  is  being  exploited  to  a  considerable  extent. 

The  cost  of  erecting  an  up-to-date  factory  is 
estimated  at  £3,000  to  £3,500,  and  the  cost  of  planting 
and  bringing  the  crop  into  bearing,  including  cost  of 
supervision,  might  be  estimated  at  £10  per  acre  for  areas 
up  to  100  acres.  With  but  little  cultivation  of  fibre  being 
carried  on  it  is  difficult  to  give  estimates  based  upon 
actual  costs,  but  with  economical  management  the  above 
figures  should  not  be  exceeded. 

Fibre  production  might  become  an  important  industry 
in  the  Colony.  It  can  progress  side  by  side  with  the 
sugar  industry,  and  is  capable  of  considerable  extension. 
For  economical  working,  large  areas  should  be  cultivated 
and  automatic  machinery  employed.  Grading  of  fibre 
according  to  length,  colour,  and  strength  should  receive 
close  attention,  in  order  to  establish  for  Mauritius  fibre 
a  reputation  in  the  world's  fibre  markets,  as  the  system 
of  grading  by  colour,  as  at  present  carried  out,  appears 
to  leave  much  to  be  desired.  If  the  experiments  of  the 
Government  with  automatic  machinery  are  successful, 
the  basis  for  centralized  factory  working  will  have  been 
established,  and  plantings  around  such  factories  may  be 
looked  for. 


THE   PRESENT   POSITION   AND   PROSPECTS   OF   FIBRE 
CULTIVATION  IN  THE  GERMAN  COLONIES. 

By  DR.  W.  F.  BRUCK. 

Professor  of  Tropical  Agriculture,  University  of  Giessen, 

Germany. 

THE  most  important  German  Colony  from  the  point 
of  view  of  fibre  cultivation  is  German  East  Africa,  where 
cotton  and  sisal  hemp  are  grown,  and  where  formerly 
sansevieria  fibre  and  Mauritius  hemp  were  produced. 
The  last-mentioned  fibres,  however,  have  practically 
ceased  to  be  exported.  In  Togo  cotton  is  of  some 
importance;  in  addition,  sisal  has  of  late  years  been 
cultivated  there,  the  amount  produced  being,  however, 
only  twenty  tons. 

Sisal  is  also  grown  in  New  Guinea.  Isolated  experi- 
ments with  fibre  plants  have  been  begun  in  other 
Colonies,  but  they  do  not  require  mention  in  connection 
with  the  world's  commerce.  Mr.  Schanz  having  under- 
taken to  read  the  paper  on  cotton  growing  before  this. 
Congress,  I  may  limit  my  remarks  to  fibre  cultivation. 

Germany  is  greatly  interested  in  the  cultivation  of 
hemp-producing  plants  in  her  own  Colonies.  According 
to  the  official  statistics  for  1913,  the  German  Empire 
imported  from  foreign  countries  fibre  materials  as. 
follows :  — 

Quantity.  Value. 

Tons  Million  marks 

Flax,  raw  and  cleaned  ...       71,204*3  ..  60 '9 


Flax  tow    ...  ...  22,388-5 

Hemp         ...             ...  ...  45,698-1 

Hemp  tow...             ...  ...  I5»998'5 

Ramie  and  ramie  waste  ...  2,396-4 

Jute  and  jute  tow     ...  ...  162,077-6 

Manila  hemp  tow     ...  ...  3.993'i 

Sisal  hemp                 ...  ...  3,609-3 

Kapok        ...             ...  ...  3.334:2 

Other  fibres  and  waste  ...  22,448-9 


15-0 


76-2 


4-8 
9-8 


Totals  ...     353,148-9  218 -o 


FIBRES  5°I 

Whilst  the  first  four  mentioned  materials  are  mainly 
produced  in  Europe  the  others  are  all  of  tropical  origin. 

SISAL  HEMP. 

The  production  of  fibres  in  the  German  Colonies  has 
been  most  successful  in  German  East  Africa,  where 
Agave  sisaiana,  Perrine,  from  whose  long,  succulent 
leaves  (over  2  m.  in  length)  sisal  hemp  is  obtained,  is 
the  only  fibre  plant  of  commercial  importance.  The 
attempt  to  stimulate  the  culture  of  agavae  in  German 
East  Africa  was  begun  in  1893,  when,  on  the  advice  of 
Dr.  Hindorf,  seeding  material  from  Florida  was  first 
secured  for  the  Deutsch-Ostafrikanische  Gesellschaft. 
The  development  of  its  production  has  been  very  rapid. 
In  the  last  nine  years  the  export  of  sisal  hemp  from 
German  East  Africa  has  been :  — 

Quantity.  Value. 

Tons  Marks 

1905  ...  ...  ...         1,397         ...         1,071,296 

1906  .  .  ...  ...         1,854        ...         1,368,169 


1907 
1908 
1909 
1910 
1911 


2,830        ...        2,161,685 


3,897 

5,284 

7,228 

11,213 


1912  ...  ...       17,079 

1913  •••  •••  •••       20,835 


2,865,633 
2,333^025 
3,011,625 
4,532,249 
7,359,86i 
10,711,591 


In  the  beginning  of  the  year  1908,  14,204  hectares  were 
planted  with  agavse,  4,376  of  which  were  ready  for 
harvest;  in  the  beginning  of  the  year  1913  the  cultivated 
area  had  increased  to  24,751  hectares,  of  which  14,359 
hectares  were  paying. 

The  greater  part  of  Germany's  demand  for  sisal  is 
already  supplied  by  East  Africa.  Whilst  formerly 
Yucatan  sisal  hemp  almost  alone  was  at  the  disposal  of 
German  industries,  this  fibre  has  now  quite  lost  its  field 
in  Germany,  whereas  East  African  hemp  is  in  increasing 
demand.  According  to  the  unanimous  view  of  experts, 
the  sisal  hemp  grown  in  German  East  Africa  is  so  ex- 
cellent as  to  surpass  the  sisal  fibre  of  other  countries. 
Indeed,  the  best  quality  of  East  African  sisal  is  almost 
equal  to  the  much  more  expensive  Manila  hemp  in  many 
respects,  and  in  some  points  it  is  even  better.  This  fact 


562  FIBRES 

has  been  particularly  established  for  binder  twines.  In 
addition,  our  Colonial  hemp  is  also  suitable  for  the  manu- 
facture of  different  kinds  of  ropes.  The  German  Imperial 
Navy  also  employs  a  considerable  amount  of  cordage 
made  from  this  East  African  material.  For  this  reason 
Germany  is  greatly  interested  in  growing  such  fibre 
material  for  its  own  needs.  The  interest,  however,  does 
not  go  any  further,  since  sisal  is  so  small  an  article  that 
if  the  production  increases  prices  would  rapidly  fall.  It 
is  doubtful  whether  under  such  conditions  it  would  pay 
to  grow  sisal. 

Distribution  and  Description  of  the  Plant. 

The  sisal  grown  in  German  East  Africa  (Agave 
sisalana,  Perrine),  sometimes  called  "  green  sisal,"  is 
identical  with  "  Henequen  verde  "  (Spanish  name)  and 
"  Yaxci  Maya  "  (Indian  name),  s-yn.  Agave  rigida 
sisalana.  The  plant  is  a  native  of  Central  America, 
and  probably  also  of  Yucatan.  The  fibre  is  used  in  small 
quantities  by  the  natives  of  Central  America,  but  does 
.lot  enter  into  consideration  for  purposes  of  exportation. 
The  plant  has  been  introduced  into  Florida,  where  it  has 
spread  to  some  extent  without  being  cultivated.  As  a 
trade  article  it  is  grown  in  the  Bahamas,  the  Turks 
and  Caicos  Islands,  in  the  Sandwich  Islands,  and  here 
and  there  in  British  India  and  Indo-China.  As  regards 
its  geographical  occurrence,  it  is  more  widely  distributed 
than  any  other  fibre-producing  agave. 

The  propagation  of  the  sisal  plant  takes  place  either 
by  means  of  suckers  growing  underground,  or  by  so- 
called  "  bulbils,"  i.e.,  adventitious  shoots  arising  from 
the  top  of  the  flowering  stem,  where  they  develop  into 
young  plants.  After  having  attained  a  size  of  12  to 
15  cm.  the  bulbils  fall  off,  and  may  then  be  at  once 
employed  for  seeding  purposes  in  suitable  beds. 

On  the  whole,  however,  we  nowadays  prefer  to  employ 
the  underground  suckers  for  the  purposes  of  propagation. 
After  two  or  three  years  these  suckers  throw  up  young- 
leaves,  which  obtain  their  nourishment  partly  from  the 
mother  plant,  and  partly  through  a  separate  system  of 
roots  which  surround  the  plant  in  a  radius  not  exceeding 


FIBRES  563 

i  metre.  The  daughter  plant  rarely  develops  a  separate 
stem.  The  leaves  are  dark  green  or  bluish-green,  their 
length  is  about  1*75  m.,  their  width  near  the  central  part 
8  to  14  cm.,  and  their  thickness  in  the  narrowest  portion 
near  the  base  of  the  leaf  2  to  4  cm.  Marginal  spikes  are 
only  found  occasionally;  when  present,  they  are  slightly 
bent  and  point  downwards,  their  length  being  25  to 
28  mm.  The  flower-bearing  stem  attains  a  length  of 
4  to  8  m.,  and  carries  slender  branches  pointing  up- 
wards. The  flowers  are  about  6  cm.  long.  Immediately 
beneath  them  arise  the  bulbils  which  have  been  mentioned 
previously.  Nothing  is  so  far  known  concerning  the 
development  of  seeds. 

Cultivation. 

If  it  is  intended  to  use  bulbils  for  cultivation  these  are 
first  reared  in  nurseries;  if,  on  the  other  hand,  suckers 
are  to  be  employed,  they  are  usually  planted  out  in  the 
field  at  once.  Care  should  be  taken  to  plant  suckers  of 
approximately  the  same  size.  It  would  be  a  mistake, 
e.g.,  to  plant  a  sucker  whose  main  stem  is  30  cm.  long 
next  to  another  one  50  cm.  in  length.  Such  differences 
in  size  render  harvesting  difficult;  besides,  the  hemp 
obtained  is  irregular  and  the  quality  of  the  product 
suffers.  Large  suckers  yield  mature  leaves  earlier,  thus 
reducing  the  time  required  for  the  harvest. 

Before  the  beginning  of  cultivation  the  area  is  parcelled 
out,  the  shrubs  are  burned  down,  and  the  ground  is  care- 
fully measured  and  marked  out.  The  plants  are  then 
planted  out,  no  further  preparation  or  digging  of  special 
holes  being  required.  Considerable  differences  may  be 
observed  with  regard  to  the  planting  distances  employed. 
Should  inter-cultivation  of  other  plants  between  the 
agavse  be  intended — a  point  which  will  receive  further 
consideration  subsequently — the  distance  should,  of 
course,  be  comparatively  great,  say,  2*5  by  2'5  m.  Other 
distances  employed  are  2'5  by  1*25,  2*25  by  1*25,  or  2  by 
2m.  As  the  normal  planting  distance  we  may  regard 
2*5  by  i '25  m.  It  is  inadvisable  to  make  the  intervals 
too  short,  e.g.,  2  by  i  m.,  or  less.  With  sucker  planta- 
tions it  is  usually  difficult  to  avoid  some  degree  of  irregu- 


564  FIBRES 

larity,  and  in  this  respect  there  is  a  distinct  advantage 
in  cultivating  bulbils  that  have  been  reared  in  nurseries. 

When  cultivation  is  first  started  the  plants  are  usually 
obtained  from  a  considerable  distance.  The  cost  of 
carriage  may  in  such  cases  be  reduced  by  the  use  of 
bulbils,  which  are  first  placed  in  nurseries,  and  there 
develop  into  young  plants.  But  when  the  cultivation  has 
progressed  so  far  as  to  have  suckers  available — usually 
in  the  course  of  the  second  year — the  planter  will,  of 
course,  use  these  for  planting  purposes  after  having 
previously  sorted  them  according  to  their  size,  especially 
where  a  sufficient  stock  of  light  railway  rails  is  available. 
At  a  later  stage  of  cultivation,  when  both  bulbils  and 
suckers  have  developed,  the  question  of  transport  alone 
will  decide  which  material  had  best  be  used  for  growing, 
viz.,  suckers  where  there  are  enough  rails,  otherwise 
bulbils  reared  in  nurseries. 

During  the  first  two*  years  care  must  be  taken  to 
prevent  grass  from  growing  in  the  plantation,  and  par- 
ticularly overgrowing  the  agavse,  otherwise  in  damp 
weather  the  plants  will  show  signs  of  rot  and  become 
infected  with  fungi.  Later,  when  the  plants  have  grown 
so  tall  that  there  is  no  danger  of  their  being  overgrown 
by  grasses,  such  scrupulous  care  to  keep  them  free  from 
weeds  is  unnecessary.  During  the  dry  season  it  is  even 
advisable  to  leave  the  grass  untouched  because  of  the 
shade  it  affords. 

A  very  important  question  is  whether  one  should  inter- 
cultivate  other  plants  among  the  agavae.  During  the  last 
few  years  experience  with  regard  to  this  question  has 
been  gained  in  German  East  Africa.  At  first  cotton  was 
used  for  this  purpose,  owing  to  the  cotton  prices  and  the 
state  of  the  German  cotton  market  at  that  time.  On  the 
whole,  however,  it  should  be  noted  that  a  good  cotton 
soil  and  a  good  sisal  soil  are  incompatible.  Good  results 
have,  it  is  true,  been  calculated  for  cotton  inter-cultivation 
in  certain  sisal  plantations;  but  this  was  only  possible 
because  the  cost  of  weeding  was  debited  entirely  or  to  a 
great  part  to  the  cultivation  of  the  agavse,  inasmuch  as 
weeding  would  have  been  required,  even  if  no  inter- 
cultivation  had  been  practised.  In  countries  where  the 


FIBRES  565 

rainy  and  the  dry  season  cannot  be  accurately  determined 
beforehand  it  is  not  expedient  to  inter-cultivate  cotton. 
Where,  however,  the  climate  is  suitable  for  cotton  grow- 
ing, as  in  the  south  of  the  Protectorate,  the  inter- 
cultivation  of  cotton  will  pay  well  in  the  earlier  stages  of 
agave  growing,  especially  in  newly  started  plantations. 
For,  whilst  the  agavse  are  developing,  the  produce  of 
cotton  culture  will  be  sufficient  to  cover  a  considerable 
part  of  the  expenses. 

Various  kinds  of  beans  have  also  occasionally  been 
used  for  inter-cultivation,  but  never  to  any  extent.  In 
some  cases  the  result  was  not  satisfactory,  climbing 
beans,  which  twine  around  the  young  plants,  proving 
especially  injurious. 

Great  importance  attaches  to  the  methodical  renewal 
of  the  plantation.  The  following  calculation  may  serve 
as  a  typical  instance :  — 

A  stock  of  1,000,000  plants  requires  a  total  area  of 
2,000  hectares1  when  worked  in  regular  rotation,  and  if 
the  planting  distance  be  2*5  by  1*25  m.,  i.e.,  about 
3,200  agavse  to  the  hectare.  For  every  million  plants 
it  is  necessary  to  plant  out  one-third,  viz.,  340,000 
young  plants,  every  year,  this  number  representing  a 
surface  of  no  to  120  hectares.  Thus,  1,000,000  agavse 
requires  325  hectares  of  soil.  The  second  million  of 
agavse,  which  must  in  time  replace  the  first,  requires  a 
further  area  of  325  hectares,  thus  giving  a  total  of  650 
hectares.  When  the  first  lot  of  agavae  filling  a  space  of 
about  no  hectares  has  run  its  course  (i.e.,  between  the 
sixth  and  seventh  years,  when  the  flower-bearing  stem 
develops),  a  fresh  space  of  no  hectares  must  be  planted. 
In  this  way  cultivation  is  worked  in  regular  rotation  over 
the  whole  area  of  1,836  hectares.  Thus,  after  the  first 
lot  has  been  harvested  at  the  end  of  the  seventh  year, 
and  the  ground  has  subsequently  lain  fallow  for  a  sufficient 
number  of  years  (seven  years  under  normal  conditions, 
but  this  time  varies  according  to  special  requirements), 
it  again  becomes  ready  for  cultivation. 


1  This  figure  allows  for  roads,  factories,  building  extensions, 
etc. 


566  FIBRES 

If  less  efficient  methods  of  cultivation  are  employed, 
e.g.,  "  wild  cultivation,"  which  will  be  described  later  on, 
replanting  is  carried  out  on  totally  different  lines. 

Harvesting, 

As  to  the  time  of  ripening  of  the  leaves  no  definite 
statements  can  be  made,  since  it  depends  upon  various 
circumstances.  Differences  are  seen  between  cultures 
derived  from  bulbils  and  those  grown  from  suckers. 
Furthermore,  the  growth  of  the  plants,  and  therefore  the 
term  of  their  harvest,  is  greatly  influenced  by  the  quality 
of  the  soil.  In  fact,  it  will  be  well  to  mention  especially 
that  the  quality  of  the  soil  exerts  a  greater  influence  than 
climatic  conditions.  For  example,  one  may  note  that  after 
several  months'  drought  the  plants  may  do  quite  well  and 
produce  particularly  firm  leaves,  an  observation  which 
recalls  the  intensive  growth  of  our  indigenous  plants 
after  their  winter's  rest. 

The  right  time  for  cutting  the  leaves  will  be  discussed 
subsequently.  At  present  it  will  suffice  to  mention  a  sign 
of  the  ripeness  of  the  leaves;  in  young  leaves  the  tips  are 
purplish-brown  and  glossy,  but  when  the  leaf  matures  it 
has  a  silver-grey  hue. 

In  German  East  Africa  cultivation  is  at  present  carried 
out  chiefly  in  two  ways.  One  is  that  of  "  methodical 
cultivation,"  already  dealt  with,  the  other  is  that  of 
"  wild  cultivation."  If  the  soil  is  not  too  rich  and  does 
not  contain  too  much  humus  it  is  considered  typically 
suitable  for  sisal  culture  in  most  tropical  countries. 
Under  such  "  normal "  conditions  the  first  leaves  can 
usually  be  cut  three  years  after  planting.  One  may  then 
continue  harvesting  the  leaves  for  about  five  to  seven 
years.  In  general,  a  sisal  plant  produces  about  200 
leaves  suitable  for  fibre  production  during  its  entire  life- 
time. Normally,  therefore,  one  whole  period  of  sisal 
cultivation  lasts  for  about  ten  years. 

With  regard  to  the  influence  of  the  soil  on  the  ripening 
of  the  leaves  one  should  distinguish  (i)  very  rich  virgin 
soils,  (2)  medium  soils  with  a  certain  amount  of  nutritive 
material  and  humus,  and  (3)  poor  soil,  e.g.,  rocky  or 
chalky  soil  near  the  sea  coast.  The  medium  soils  we 


FIBRES  567 

would  regard  as  the  most  suitable,  and  it  is  for  them  that 
the  figures  stated  previously  for  the  time  of  harvest  and 
period  of  life  are  normal.  In  richer  soils  the  first  harvest- 
ing of  the  leaves  must  be  begun  far  earlier — this  has 
proved  to  be  particularly  the  case  in  the  plantations  of 
Usambara.  In  that  district  the  suckers  produce  fully 
developed  mature  leaves  as  early  as  a  year  and  a  half 
after  planting  out.  On  such  soils,  however,  the  plant 
may  have  completed  its  term  of  existence  within  three 
years.  On  poor  soils,  on  the  other  hand,  the  agavse  do 
not  produce  mature  leaves  until  four  or  five  years  after 
having  been  transplanted  as  suckers;  but  there  the  life- 
time of  the  plants  is,  as  a  rule,  correspondingly  longer. 
As  regards  the  results  of  cultivation  on  these  different 
kinds  of  soil,  the  medium  and  poor  soils  on  the  whole 
yield  a  better  quality  and  a  greater  amount  of  fibre. 
But  the  first-mentioned  soils  contain  so  much  nutritive 
material  that  at  the  end  of  the  first  period  of  cultivation 
a  new  period  of  plantation  can  begin  immediately  without 
any  intermediate  process  of  manuring  being  required. 
After  the  second  term  of  planting'  this  soil  has  become 
so  exhausted  as  to  approximate  the  medium  soil  which 
we  consider  as  the  best  suitable. 

The  general  rule  for  a  methodically  worked  plantation 
must  always  be  that  each  plant  yields  about  200  fibre- 
producing  leaves,  and  that  3^  to  4  per  cent,  of  the  entire 
leaves  consists  of  the  fibre  material.  It  is  a  matter  of 
comparative  indifference  whether  this  result  is  attained 
sooner  or  later,  according  to  the  quality  of  the  soil.  In 
plantations  which  are  worked  in  a  really  methodical 
manner,  a  far-sighted  manager  is  always  able  to  put  a 
definite  quantity  of  fibre  on  the  market  from  any  kind 
of  soil. 

In  "  rational  cultivation  "  the  root  suckers,  of  which 
often  a  large  number  grow  around  each  individual  plant, 
are  regularly  removed, -whilst  in  "wild  culture"  the 
suckers  are  allowed  to  develop  freely.  An  advantage  of 
the  latter  method  of  culture  is  that  a  sufficient  amount 
of  leaves  is  always  available  without  the  labour  and 
expense  required  for  fresh  planting.  In  certain  planta- 
tions of  German  East  Africa  this  method  of  cultivation 
has  occasionally  proved  fairly  satisfactory,  particularly 


568  FIBRES 

in  districts  which  have  been  worked  inefficiently  for  many 
years  previously.  The  old  manager  having  been  dis- 
charged, it  becomes  the  chief  aim  of  his  successor  to  earn 
a  dividend  for  the  shareholders.  As  a  rule  he  will  not 
rind  sufficient  mature  leaves  to  feed  the  decorticating 
machines,  and  naturally  it  is  his  first  object  to  obtain  a 
sufficient  amount  of  material  rapidly— this  end  is  attained 
with  greater  speed  and  certainty  by  "  wild  cultivation." 

On  the  other  hand,  this  method  of  cultivation  has 
serious  drawbacks.  Such  plantations  are  not  easily  kept 
free  from  weeds,  and  it  is  very  difficult  to  gain  access  to 
them.  The  harvestable  leaves  are  unequal,  and  so  is  the 
resulting  fibre  material.  Besides,  in  such  plantations  the 
leaves  are  far  more  frequently  infected  with  fungi  and 
bacterial  diseases  than  in  well-kept  plantations.  The 
weeds  often  grow  over  6  ft.  high  in  such  fields,  affording 
cover  to  countless  enemies  of  the  plants.  Thus  we  must 
bear  in  mind  that  in  such  cases  dangerous  antagonists  of 
the  agavae  may  find  their  way  into  the  plantation,  and 
may  spread  epidemically  under  conditions  favouring  their 
development.  A  further  menace  to  this  method  of 
plantation  is  that  under  wild  cultivation  the  sisal  plant 
more  easily  succumbs  to  the  fate  of  almost  all  cultivated 
plants,  viz.,  that  it  begins  to  degenerate.  This  has 
already  occurred  to  some  extent  with  the  species  grown 
in  Java. 

It  should,  therefore,  be  noted  that  by  "  rational 
cultivation" — i.e.,  by  taking  proper  regard  of  accurate 
planting  distances  and  of  regular  weeding  of  the  field — 
better  results  must  be  obtained  in  the  long  run  than  by 
the  last  described  method  of  "  wild  cultivation."  Above 
all,  the  quality  produced  will  be  more  uniform. 

According  to  the  development  of  the  leaves,  the  agavse 
are  usually  allowed  to  grow  for  two  and  a  half  or,  more 
commonly,  three  years,  before  the  first  cutting  is  begun. 
The  first  harvest  of  leaves  as  a  rule  produces  a  very 
irregular  material,  thus  necessitating  preliminary  sorting 
of  the  leaves.  From  each  plant  one  can  obtain  at  the 
earliest  term  of  harvest  forty  to  forty-five  leaves;  at  the 
proper  term  up  to  sixty  leaves.  In  the  following  year, 
and  as  a  rule  also  in  the  third  year,  the  number  of 
harvestable  leaves  may  rise  to  seventy.  Generally 


FIBRES  569 

speaking,  the  number  of  leaves  produced  by  a  sisal  plant 
during  its  whole  lifetime  is  between  170  and  200  leaves. 
As  soon  as  the  flower-bearing  stem  becomes  visible  it 
should  at  once  be  cut  down,  unless  bulbils  are  desired, 
since  otherwise  the  leaves  surrounding  the  stem  will  not 
yield  proper  fibre.  The  old  rule  was  only  to  cut  those 
leaves  which  formed  an  angle  of  45°  with  the  ground. 
This  has  proved  a  mistake,  especially  in  the  richer  class 
of  soils.  In  such  cases,  if  the  leaves  forming  an  angle 
of  more  than  45°  with  the  horizontal  are  not  cut,  the 
result  would  be  that  the  flower-bearing  stem  would  shoot 
up  too  soon,  and  thus  the  life  of  the  plant  would  be 
shortened. 

After  the  whole  sisal  culture  has  been  completely 
harvested  it  is  advisable  to  let  the  ground  lie  fallow  for 
several  years.  Exhaustion  of  the  soil  can  also  be  avoided 
by  cultivating  leguminous  plants  which  enrich  the  nitrate 
content  of  the  soil. 

The  Extraction  of  Fibre  from  the  Leaves. 

Fibre  extracting  is  performed  by  various  machines, 
which  are  worked  either  by  hand  or  mechanically.  The 
method  by  which  the  flesh  is  removed  from  the  leaves  in 
such  machines  is  that  a  rotary  drum  set  with  beater 
ledges  presses  the  leaf  against  a  hard  edge,  thus  beating 
out  the  flesh  whilst  the  fibres  are  gripped  above.  The 
leaves  are  inserted  by  hand  in  the  so-called  "  raspadores," 
and  automatically  in  the  larger  machines,  e.g.,  the  "  New 
Corona."  In  the  raspadores  each  leaf  is  inserted 
separately  into  the  machine  with  its  tip  foremost,  half 
of  the  leaf  being  thus  freed  from  flesh;  it  is  then  removed 
and  its  other  end  inserted  into  the  machine.  In  the 
"New  Corona"  one  side  of  the  leaf  is  gripped  by  the 
machine  and  carried  sideways  towards  a  drum,  which 
removes  the  flesh  from  the  other  side;  then  the  part 
freed  from  flesh  is  gripped  and  carried  towards  a  second 
drum,  which  removes  the  flesh  from  the  remainder.  The 
general  principle  is  the  'same  in  all  the  different  systems 
of  extracting  machines ;  the  difference  being  that  in  some 
the  leaves  are  transported  by  chains  consisting  of  links 
of  bronze  (Finigan  machine),  or  by  spiked  wheels  of 


57O  FIBRES 

bronze  (Mola  machine),  in  others  by  hempen  ropes  (New 
Corona  machine).  With  the  large  machines,  the  work 
performed  is,  oi  course,  far  greater  than  with  the 
raspadores  or  "  double  raspadores/'  which  derive  their 
name  from  the  fact  of  two  raspadores  being  fixed  on  one 
driving  shaft.  The  raspadore  principle  has  the  draw- 
back that  some  of  the  flesh  remains  in  the  central  part 
of  the  leaf,  and  this  must  afterwards  be  removed.  On 
the  other  hand,  the  raspadore  apparatus  is  far  cheaper, 
and  would  appear  to  yield  a  better  quality  of  hemp  and 
less  waste;  it  is  also,  of  course,  much  simpler  to  work. 
Besides,  it  will  always  be  possible  to  set  up  more  than 
one  of  these  cheap  machines,  and  there  is  thus  no  danger 
that  in  case  of  a  breakdown  or  other  accident  the  whole 
factory  and  work  of  harvesting  would  come  to  a  stand- 
still; whereas  this  possibility  must  not  be  lost  sight  of 
with  the  larger  machines,  of  which  only  the  greatest 
plantations  can  afford  more  than  one. 

It  can  be  stated  as  a  general  rule  that  the  amount 
produced  by  a  double  raspadore  is  almost  half  a  ton  daily, 
for  which  5  to  7  h.p.  are  required.  The  large  machine 
most  commonly  used  in  the  Colony  is  the  "  New  Corona," 
constructed  by  the  Krupp-Gruson  Works  of  Magde- 
burg. It  is  built  in  two  types,  which  are  stated  by  the 
makers  to  require  40  and  30  h.p.,  and  to  yield  2  and 
i{?  tons  of  fibre  daily  respectively. 

It  is  hardly  advisable  to  give  any  detailed  figures  as  to 
the  capacity  and  working  expenses  of  the  various  systems 
of  machines.  The  several  factories  at  present  in  exist- 
ence show  so  many  differences  that  it  is  hardly  possible 
to  make  any  general  statement  as  to  the  cost  of  con- 
struction and  working  of  sisal  plantations.  Further 
information  will  be  found  in  a  paper  by  Hupfeld  in  the 
Tropenflanzer  (1910,  pp.  532-539)  and  in  the  annual  state- 
ments of  the  larger  sisal  plantation  companies  of  the 
Colony,  whilst  a  detailed  account  of  the  cultivation  and 
its  commercial  aspects  is  given  in  a  paper  published  by 
myself2  last  year. 


-  Bruck,  W.  F.— "  Die  Sisalkultur  in  Deutschostafrika," 
Arbeiten  der  Dentschen  Landwirtschafts-Gesellschaft,  IQI3> 
Heft  244. 


FIBRES  571 

The  results  of  sisal  cultivation  in  other  German 
Colonies  have  not  been  particularly  important  as  yet.  In 
Togo  sisal  hemp  is  produced  by  the  Kpeme  plantation, 
where,  in  1913,  263  hectares  were  cultivated,  of  which 
68  hectares  were  producing.  This  plantation  exported 
10,492  kilograms  of  fibre  in  1911  and  17,571  kilograms  in 
1912. 

In  New  Guinea,  experiments  carried  out  with  sisal 
hemp  have  given  the  following  results,  as  shown  by  the 
export  figures :  — 

Quantity.  Value. 

Kilograms  Marks 

1909  ...      ...      ...     3,242  ...  1,945 

1910  ...      ...      ...     13,782  ...  8,269 

1911  ...     ...     ...     7,686  ...  3,843 

1912  ...     ...     ...     21,342  ...  10,540 

In  1913  the  surface  cultivated  was  78  hectares  contain- 
ing over  a  quarter  of  a  million  plants. 

In  comparison  with  the  export  of  German  East  Africa, 
the  quantities  exported  by  Togo  and  New  Guinea  are 
not  particularly  important  as  yet.  But  it  should  be  con- 
sidered that  in  these  Colonies  cultivation  is  only  just 
beginning. 

On  the  whole,  we  may  say  that  we  have  been  fortunate 
with  this  branch  of  cultivation  in  our  Colony  of  German 
East  Africa.  But  nothing  definite  can  as  yet  be  stated 
with  regard  to  the  future  of  sisal.  During  the  last  few 
years  there  has  been  a  great  demand  for  fibre  material 
owing  to  the  enormous  grain  harvests  in  North  America, 
which  required  large  quantities  of  binder  twine;  thus  prices 
were  influenced  favourably.  But  it  is  by  no  means  certain 
that  such  fortunate  circumstances  will  recur  in  the  future. 
If  fibre  cultivation  should  increase  in  other  Colonies  over- 
production might  easily  occur,  and  prices  would  then 
rapidly  fall.  Under  such  conditions  it  is  doubtful  whether 
sisal  cultivation  would  continue  to  pay. 

Wherever  new  plantations  are  started  they  must  always 
be  begun  as  experiments,  for  one  can  never  tell  before- 
hand whether  the  conditions  of  soil  and  climate  will  prove 
suitable  for  cultivation.  In  addition,  it  is  necessary  to 
have  an  adequate  supply  of  workers.  A  further  factor 


57^  FIBRES 

requiring  to  be  considered  in  all  calculations  is  that  the 
plantation  must  first  pass  through  a  period  of  preparation 
lasting  at  least  five  years.  If  expensive  large  machinery 
is  to  be  laid  down  profitably,  a  large  area  is  required  for 
planting  sisal.  The  cost  of  such  plantations  is  therefore 
a  very  heavy  item. 

KAPOK. 

Some  years  ago  the  cultivation  of  kapok  trees  (Ceiba 
pentandra,  syn.  Eriodendron  anfractuosum)  was  also 
begun  in  the  German  Colonies.  The  silky  hairs  of  the 
internal  membrane  of  the  capsules  have  the  advan- 
tage of  being  very  light  and  buoyant.  In  this  respect 
kapok  surpasses  both  pith  and  cork.  Extensive  use  has 
therefore  been  made  of  kapok  within  recent  years  in  the 
manufacture  of  swimming-  and  life-belts.  The  chief 
importance  of  kapok  attaches,  however,  to  its  being  an 
excellent  substitute  for  the  animal  materials  hitherto 
employed  for  stuffing  cushions,  mattresses,  and  other 
articles  of  upholstery. 

The  first  lot  of  kapok  was  exported  from  East  Africa 
in  1909,  its  amount  being  18,137  kilograms.  The  con- 
sideration which  has  been  accorded  to  kapok  of  late  years 
has  led  to  a  further  extension  of  its  cultivation,  which  is 
at  present  increasing  rapidly.  The  exports  were  as 
follows  :  — 

Quantity.  Value. 

Kilograms  Marks 

1909  ...                 ...                 ...              18,137  ...  9,080 

1910  ...                 ...                 ...              12,205  ...  13.043 

1911  ...                 ...                 ...              28,637  ...  23,014 

1912  ...                                     ...              53,072  ...  62,601 

The  area  cultivated  has  increased  from  694  hectares  in 
the  beginning  of  1911  to  2,632  hectares  in  the  beginning 
of  1913;  of  this  surface,  641  hectares  were  ready  to  yield 
a  harvest. 

In  Togo  the  cultivation  of  kapok  has  also  been  begun 
recently.  A  comparatively  small  quantity  was  first  ex- 
ported in  1911,  the  figures  being:  — 

Quantity.  Value. 

Kilograms  Marks 

1911  ...       ...       ...       5,060  ...       6,271 

1912  ...       ...       ...       7,062  ...       7,142 


FIBRES  573 

Lately  Cameroon  has  also  exported  a  small  quantity  of 
vegetable  fibre  material,  the  exact  nature  of  which  is  not, 
however,  published  in  the  official  commercial  statistics, 
viz. : — • 

Quantity.  Value. 

Kilograms  Marks 

1911  ...                ...                ...                     156  ...                      85 

1912  ...                ...                ...                    798  ...                    316 

Perhaps  it  will  prove  possible  to  grow  kapok  there  also, 
more  especially  since  the  decrease  in  rubber  production 
affords  sufficient  opportunity  for  the  beginning  of  other 
branches  of  cultivation. 


FIBRES  OF  THE  NETHERLAND  EAST  INDIES. 

By   THE   DEPARTMENT    OF   AGRICULTURE,    INDUSTRY   AND 
COMMERCE,  Buitenzorg,  Java. 

Introduction. 

THE  Netherland  East  Indies,  like  all  other  tropical 
countries,  are  rich  in  fibres  of  different  sorts  and 
qualities.  The  greater  part  of  these  fibres  are  of  only 
local  importance,  and  the  only  kinds  which  are  adapted 
to  export  are  kapok,  rattan,  agave,  Manila  hemp,  and 
cotton;  the  fibre  of  the  coconut  palm,  that  of  the  arenga 
palm  (gemoetoe),  and  the  widoeri  (a  vegetable  silk 
obtained  from  wild  plants  of  Calotropis  giganted]  are 
of  little  importance  as  articles  of  export. 

Of  the  fibres  exported,  kapok,  Manila  hemp,  and  cotton 
are  obtained  from  plantations.  The  fibres  of  the  agave 
are  obtained  from  plants  growing  wild  and  also  from 
plantations,  while  the  rattan  is  a  product  only  collected 
from  the  forests. 

The  cultivation  of  fibre  plants  in  the  Netherland  East 
Indies,  except  that  of  cotton,  which  has  been  exported  to 
Europe  since  the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth  century, 
is  comparatively  of  recent  date. 

Kapok  was  exported  for  the  first  time  in  1860,  while 
the  cultivation  of  agave  fibre  and  that  of  Manila  hemp 
dates  from  the  beginning  of  this  century. 

The  cultivation  of  cotton,  which  is  carried  on  only  by 
the  natives,  is  gradually  increasing,  especially  in  the 
islands  beyond  Java  and  Madura. 

The  importance  of  the  fibre  trade  of  the  Netherland 
East  Indies  is  shown  by  the  following  figures  of  exports 
(in  tons)  in  recent  years  :  — 

RATTAN. 

1909        1910        1911        1912 

From  Java  and  Madura  ...  ...         515          422  774          441 

From  the   other   islands   of  the  Archi-    32,296    43,768     54,717     44,041 
pelago 

Total  ...  ...    32,811    44,190     55,491     44,482 


FIBRES 


575 


KAPOK. 

1909        1910 

From  Java  and  Madura  ...  ...      7,965      8,377 

From   the   other   islands   of   the  Archi-         586         809 
pelago 


1911 
9,906 
569 


1912 

10,295 

1,160 


Total             ...             ...      8,551      9,186  10,475  n>455 

COTTON  (UNCLEANED). 

1909                  *9,10  1911  IQI2 

From  Java  and  Madura           ...              ...         698          969  1,072  3,686 

From    the   other   islands  of  the   Archi-      6,652       7,041  5,374  6,318 
pelago 


Total 


7,380      8,010      6,446      10,004 


COTTON  (GINNED). 
1909 

From  Java  and  Madura  ...  ...        345 

From   the   other   islands   of  the  Archi-         65 
pelago 


Total 


410 


1910 

56 
118 


174 


IQIl 

201 
231 


432 


1912 
609 
523 


OTHER  FIBRES  (EXCEPT  RATTAN  CANES). 


From  Java  and  Madura 
From  the   other   islands   of  ihe    Archi- 
pelago 

Total 


1909 

835 
8 


1910 
1,817 

54 


3.784 
149 


1912 

7,335 
64 


843      1,871       3,933        7,399 


The  export  of  rattan  canes,  which  come  entirely  from 
the  islands  of  the  Archipelago  adjacent  to  Java  and 
Madura,  during  the  same  period  showed  a  value  of 
(in  dollars)  :  — • 


1909 
71,247 


1910 
50,032 


7911 
56,826 


1912 
60,582 


KAPOK. 

Distribution  and  Cultivation  in  the  Motherland  East 
Indies. — The  kapok  tree,  belonging  to  the  family  of  the 
Bombacacese,  is  to  be  found  throughout  the  Netherland 
East  Indies,  but  principally  in  Java,  which  is  responsible 
for  about  seven-eighths  of  the  total  export  of  kapok  from 
the  whole  Archipelago. 

Java  kapok,  which  is  superior  to  the  product  from 
elsewhere,  is  obtained  from  the  fruits  of  Ceiba  pen- 
tandra,  L.  (Eriodendron  anfractuosum,  DC.).  Kapok 
37 


5/6  FIBRES 

of  inferior  quality  from  British  India,  Cochin-China,  and 
Ceylon,  is  obtained  from  the  fruits  of  Bombax  mala- 
baricum  and  other  species  of  Bombax.  In  recent  years 
the  Government  of  German  East  Africa  has  spared  no 
trouble  to  encourage  the  cultivation  of  kapok  in  that 
Colony  in  order  that  a  product  may  be  obtained,  both  as 
regards  quantity  and  quality,  to  compete  with  the  Java 
product  in  the  world's  market. 

The  kapok  tree  requires  very  little  care,  and  thrives 
well  when  planted  in  any  soil;  climate  also  does  not  affect 
it  to  any  large  extent.  For  increasing  or  renewing  the 
cultivation  of  kapok,  the  common  method  of  propagating 
is  by  setting  out  cuttings  from  the  older  trees. 

With  its  straight  trunk  and  a  few  long  horizontal 
branches  almost  devoid  of  sprigs,  and  its  scanty  foliage, 
the  kapok  tree  has  a  peculiar  and  impressive  appearance. 

The  kapok  tree  is  to  be  found  in  Java,  not  only  on 
lands  belonging  to  the  natives,  but  everywhere  along 
fields  and  roads,  while  some  estates  under  European 
management  are  interested  in  its  cultivation.  The  area 
planted  with  kapok  trees  on  January  i,  1911,  amounted 
to  :  — 

In  Java  and  Madura  ...  ...  ...    68, 129  acres 

In  the  other  islands  of  the  Archipelago  ...       4,419     ,, 

Total      ...  ...  ...  ...    72,548acies 

Of  this  total,  an  area  of  52,661  acres  in  Java  and 
Madura  is  under  cultivation  carried  on  by  the  natives, 
and  in  the  other  islands  of  the  Archipelago  an  area  of 
4,293  acres. 

Preparation. — The  principal  work  of  the  kapok  pre- 
paration is  the  removing  of  the  seeds,  which  is  done 
either  by  hand  or  mechanically  by  beating  the  kapok  so 
that  the  seeds  are  freed  and  can  be  removed. 

These  seeds  form  a  by-product,  and  are  used  by  oil 
manufacturers  in  Europe. 

The  kapok,  after  being  separated  from  the  seed,  is 
pressed. 

On  the  plantations  under  European  supervision  much 
attention  is  paid  to  the  pressing,  but  in  the  establish- 
ments managed  by  Chinese  the  pressing  is  often  very 
carelessly  done. 


FIBRES 


577 


The  kapok  is  packed  in  gunny  bags  or  matting,  after 
which  the  bales  intended  for  shipment  to  Australia — 
which  are  of  a  net  weight  of  72  to  80  Ib.  and  measure 
16  cubic  ft. — and  the  bales  for  shipment  to  Europe  and 
America — which  are  of  a  weight  of  90  Ib.  and  measure 
12  cubic  ft. — are  bound  by  iron  bands  or  sometimes  by 
rattan.  Bales  which  are  not  properly  pressed  are  often 
tied  two  together,  in  order  to  reduce  the  quantity  of 
kapok  protruding  at  the  sides  and  ends  of  the  bales. 

Trade. — It  is  only  during  the  last  fifteen  years  that  the 
kapok  trade  of  the  Netherland  East  Indies  has  become  of 
such  great  importance,  although,  as  mentioned  above, 
kapok  was  first  exported  to  the  Amsterdam  market  in 
1860. 

The  kapok  trade  in  Java  is  mainly  in  the  hands  of 
European  exporters  in  the  principal  ports.  Kapok  is 
also  sold  and  shipped  directly  to  foreign  purchasers  by 
the  European  planters,  but  this  represents  a  very  small 
percentage  of  the  total  exports,  and  is  not  more  than 
20  per  cent,  of  the  total  output. 

The  chief  markets  for  Java  kapok  are  the  Netherlands 
and  Australia,  although  direct  shipments  are  now  made 
to  America,  France,  Germany,  Italy,  and  Spain,  and  have 
increased  considerably  during  the  last  few  years,  while 
formerly  these  countries  were  supplied  by  the  Amsterdam 
market.  The  consumption  of  kapok  in  England,  Russia, 
Sweden,  and  Norway  is  still  comparatively  small,  but  is 
regularly  increasing.  The  principal  countries  to  which 
kapok  from  the  Netherland  East  Indies  has  been  exported 
for  the  past  three  years  were  (in  tons  of  1,000  kilo- 
grams) :  - 

FROM  JAVA  AND  MADURA. 


Countries  of  destination 

1910 

I9II 

1912 

Netherlands     ... 

2,848 

2,282 

3,136 

Netherlands  f/t 

5'5 

I,IO3 

1,090 

France 

227 

209 

216 

United  States  of  Americ 

1,798 

2,O5O 

2,044 

Singapore 

346 

457 

386 

Australia 

2,006 

2,480 

1,605 

Australia  f/t     ... 



333 

8? 

New  Zealand   ,.. 

321 

472 

536 

Other  countries 

3i6        - 

520 

1,201 

Total 

•      8,377 

9,906 

10,295 

FIBRES 


During    1913   a   total   quantity   of  9,019  tons   was   ex- 
ported from  Java  and  Madura. 


FROM    THE    OTHER    ISLANDS    OF    THE    ARCHIPELAGO. 


Countries  of  destination  1910 

Netherlands     ...  .  360 

Netherlands  f/t  84 

Penang  ...  .  64 

Singapore          ...  .  292 

Other  countries  .  9 

Total  809 


1911 


569 


1912 
822 

43 
90 

174 


i,  160 


Uses. — Kapok  can  be  used  for  many  purposes,  and, 
when  more  generally  known,  it  no  doubt  will  have  a  good 
future. 

As  a  stuffing  material  for  cushions,  mattresses,  etc., 
kapok  seems  to  be  gradually  taking  the  place  of  the  more 
expensive  horsehair.  It  is  specially  valuable  for  such 
purposes,  as  it  does  not  absorb  dampness  quickly,  but 
remains  fresh,  and  does  not  form  a  compact  substance 
which  causes  discomfort  in  use.  It  is  very  elastic,  and 
maintains  its  elasticity  for  a  long  time,  owing  to  which 
comparatively  small  quantities  are  found  sufficient  for 
stuffing  cushions,  mattresses,  etc. 

Compared  with  quantities  of  other  materials  required 
for  stuffing  mattresses,  the  following  figures  speak  for 
themselves. 

A  single  mattress  of  3  by  6J  ft.  requires: — • 


Java  kapok 
Horsehair 
Seaweed 
Crin  vegetal 
Wood  shavings 
Alpine  grass 
Straw 


17-6  to  19-8 

26*4       28*6 

3.VO 

26-4 

33-0 

2  5  '4 


28-6 


28-6 
38-0 
28-6 
82-0 


It  might  be  mentioned  that  when  horsehair,  crin 
vegetal,  etc.,  is  used,  the  stuffing  is  frequently  enclosed 
in  a  thin  layer  of  kapok  or  wadding  to  give  the  mattress 
the  necessary  softness. 

Properties. — Kapok  absorbs  very  little  moisture,  owing 
to  which  fact  a  mattress  stuffed  with  this  material,  when 
it  once  becomes  damp,  is  soon  dried,  while  the  covering 
stands  less  chance  of  rotting  away.  Moreover,  dry 


FIBRES  579 

sterilization  of  kapok  is  possible  without  the  product 
losing  any  of  its  properties. 

It  is  not  surprising,  therefore,  that  the  use  of  kapok 
as  a  stuffing  material  for  Army  mattresses  is  rapidly 
increasing.'  Trials,  conducted  by  the  German  military 
officials,  resulted  in  a  decision  that  henceforth  no  other 
material  but  kapok  should  be  used  for  this  purpose. 

Kapok  has  also  been  found  a  very  useful  and  important 
article  for  stuffing  lifebelts  and  other  appliances  designed 
to  support  heavy  weights  in  water.  Java  kapok,  having 
great  buoyancy,  can  carry  twenty  to  thirty  times  its  own 
weight  in  water,  while  British  India  kapok  can  carry  ten 
to  fifteen  times  its  own  weight,  and  cork  only  six  times 
its  own  weight.  Java  kapok  does  not  lose  its  buoyancy 
even  after  having  been  submerged  for  some  days  and 
then  dried.  After  thirty  days'  submersion  kapok  loses 
only  10  per  cent,  of  this  property.  A  lifebelt  filled  with 
2  Ib.  of  kapok  can  carry  a  weight  of  50  Ib.  in  water. 

The  above-mentioned  properties  are  found  in  much 
higher  degree  in  Java  kapok  than  in  products  of  other 
growth. 

Kapok  is  at  present  also  used  for  spinning  purposes. 
Some  years  ago  a  German  concern  decided  to  spin  this 
fibre  into  yarns  of  various  thicknesses.  These  yarns  are 
used  for  carpets,  clothes,  etc.  Kapok  is  also  used  in  the 
manufacture  of  felt  hats  and  in  gun-cotton  factories. 

RATTAN. 

Distribution  in  the  Netherland  East  Indies. — Rattan  is 
a  more  or  less  slender  stem  of  various  species  of  palms 
belonging  to  different  genera,  of  which  the  principal 
is  Calamus,  sometimes  subdivided  into  Calamus  and 
D&monorops. 

Rattan  is  to  be  found  throughout  tropical  and  sub- 
tropical Asia,  mostly  in  the  islands  of  the  East  Indian 
Archipelago,  viz.,  Celebes,  Borneo  and  Sumatra,  and,  in 
much  smaller  quantities,  in  Java. 

Rattan  in  its  natural  state  grows  against  trees,  and  is 
gathered  by  the  natives  from  the  forests.  There  is  no 
proper  cultivation  of  rattan  in  the  Netherland  East  Indies, 
it  being  a  product  of  the  forests  and  growing  wild. 


FIBRES 


Preparation. — The  rattan  is  gathered  by  cutting  the 
stem  about  i  metre  from  the  ground,  the  remaining  part 
of  the  plant  throwing  out  new  shoots. 

After  cutting,  the  rattan  is  bleached  for  some  days 
(at  the  most  for  three  days),  and  is  then  washed  and 
dried.  Good  specimens  are  dried  in  the  sun,  and  inferior 
qualities  over  fire,  which,  however,  very  often  causes  a 
brown  colour.  After  the  drying  the  gravel  on  the  rattan 
is  removed  by  sharp  pieces  of  wood,  knives,  pieces  of 
glass,  sand,  or  a  piece  of  metallic  netting. 

Trade. — Rattan  is  an  export  article  of  great  importance 
for  the  Netherland  East  Indies.  The  trade  in  this 
product  with  foreign  countries  is  entirely  in  the  hands  of 
Europeans  and  Chinese. 

A  cheaper  quality  of  rattan  is  sent  to  Java  by  the  Arabs 
and  natives. 

The  rattan  suitable  for  binding  and  for  basket  work, 
and  the  better  qualities  of  other  kinds,  which  are  thicker, 
as  well  as  rattan  canes,  are  exported  entirely  to  Europe 
and  America,  where  the  demand  depends  on  the  ultimate 
destination. 

Inferior  kinds  of  rattan  from  East  Borneo  are  exported 
in  rather  large  quantities  to  Hong  Kong.  At  the 
Singapore  market,  where  large  quantities  of  rattan  from 
the  Netherland  East  Indies  are  sold,  the  demand  for  the 
Borneo  product  is  not  so  great.  The  exports  of  rattan 
from  the  Netherland  East  Indies  for  the  years  1910,  1911, 
and  1912  (in  tons)  are  shown  in  the  following  table:  — 

Countries  of  destination 
Nether!;  nds  ... 
United  Kingdom 
Germany 
Hamburg  f/t  ... 
United  States  of  America 
Penang 
Singapore 
Other  countries 

Total 


1910 

IQTI 

1912 

2,180     • 

3.373 

3,696 

2,373 

3,014 

2,827 

6,764 

9,101 

7,279 

3>727 

4,988 

4-907 

ca            381 

428 

69 

1,098 

1,499 

*>396 

22,572 

.       27,431 

21,727 

5,095 

5,657 

2,581 

44,190 


55,491 


44,482 


The  following  table  shows  the  value  in  dollars  of  the 
shipments  of  rattan  canes  to  the  various  countries  of 
destination :  — • 


FIBRES 


Countries  of  destination 
Netherlands  ... 
Netherlands  f/t 
United  Kingdom 
France 
Germany 
Singapore 
Other  countries 

Total 


1910 

7,683 

1911 
6,351 

1912 
6,422 

1,013 

5.432 

3,550 

978 

2,018 

•          2,884 

3,069 

57 

889 

1,544 

3,646 

:.'  2,774 

.       35,723 

39,31° 

43,888 

22 

12 

165 

50,032 


56,826 


60,582 


Uses. — Rattan  of  inferior  quality  is  often  used  in  Java 
as  a  material  for  binding  purposes  and  basket  work.  The 
natives  of  the  Netherland  East  Indies  twist  the  rattan 
into  different  articles  for  daily  use,  especially  furniture. 
The  Netherland  East  Indies  is  an  important  consumer  of 
its  own  product.  In  sugar  mills  and  in  other  branches 
of  industry,  where  strong  material  for  binding  is  required, 
great  quantities  of  rattan  are  used,  which  are  specially 
imported  to  Java  from  Borneo.  The  dark-coloured  kind 
of  rattan  is  used  by  the  natives  for  the  manufacture 
of  rigging,  and  in  coal-mines  and  fisheries  as  basket 
material.  In  Europe  and  America  also  the  rattan  is  much 
in  demand,  where  it  is  used  in  the  furniture  industry  and 
for  the  manufacture  of  trunks  and  basket  work. 


AGAVE  FIBRES. 

Distribution  in  the  Netherland  East  Indies. — A  great 
many  different  species  of  agave  and  fibre-producing 
plants  of  the  same  order  are  found  in  the  Netherland 
East  Indies  growing  wild,  and.  the  natives  have  for  many 
years  known  the  valuable  properties  of  the  fibres  of  the 
leaves  of  these  plants,  which  are  prepared  by  them  in  the 
most  primitive  way. 

Cultivation  by  Europeans*. — The  fibre  obtained  by  the 
natives  is  mostly  short,  insufficiently  cleaned,  and 
coloured.  Owing  to  these  circumstances  this  product 
would  never  have  become  an  export  article  of  much 
importance  had  not  the  European  planters  in  the  Nether- 
land East  Indies  taken  an  interest  in  its  cultivation. 
This  took  place  at  the  beginning  of  this  century, 
and  the  number  of  agave  plantations  rapidly  increased 
when  in  the  years  1903  to  1905  the  prices  were 
extraordinarily  high.  But  after  the  last-mentioned  year 


58 J  FIBRES 

the  price  declined  and  remained  unchanged,  and  for  that 
reason  the  planters  did  not  make  the  anticipated  profits, 
and  the  cultivation  progressed  only  slowly. 

At  the  beginning  of  1911  there  were  in  Java  some  thirty- 
seven  European  plantations  with  15,309  acres  under  agave 
cultivation,  and  some  681  acres  of  this  plant  cultivated 
by  the  natives  in  the  Netherland  East  Indies. 

Agave  Cantala  and  Agave  rigida  var.  sisalana. — Two 
species  of  agave  are  principally  planted,  between  which 
there  is  a  rather  great  difference,  namely,  Agave  Cantala 
and  Agave  rigida  var.  sisalana. 

Agave  Cantala,  which  seems  to  be  a  native  of  Java,  and 
which  grows  luxuriantly,  yields  a  fibre  showing  very 
important  differences  compared  with  those  of  the  true 
sisal  hemp,  the  fibre  of  Agave  rigida  var.  sisalana.  The 
Cantala  fibre  is  much  thinner,  more  brilliant  white,  and 
more  flexible  than  the  sisal  fibre,  and  owing  to  these 
properties  it  is  suitable  for  spinning  purposes  for  which 
the  coarser  sisal  hemp  is  less  suitable.  Owing  to  this 
the  foreign  markets  pay  more  for  the  carefully  prepared 
Java  Cantala  fibre  than  for  the  sisal  fibre. 

Cultivation  and  Preparation. — Of  the  cultivation  of 
these  agaves  only  very  little  can  be  said  as  they  require 
little  care,  and  grow  well  on  soils  less  suitable  for  other 
cultivated  plants.  The  yield  of  leaves  and  the  percentage 
of  fibre  are  in  this  country  almost  equal  to  that  of  other 
countries,  such  as  Yucatan  ard  German  East  Africa,  while 
in  Java  diseases  and  pests  up  to  the  present  have  only 
appeared  sporadically,  and  are  only  very  exceptionally 
observed  in  the  plantations. 

The  preparation  of  the  fibre  by  the  natives  is  done, 
as  already  mentioned,  in  a  very  primitive  way,  namely, 
by  drawing  the  agave  leaves,  which  usually  are  beaten 
soft  with  a  stone  or  a  piece  of  wood,  through  a  simple 
scraping  apparatus.  However,  the  fibre  obtained  in  this 
way  is  usually  short,  and  the  colour  as  well  as  the  clean- 
ing often  leaves  much  to  be  desired. 

The  fibre  prepared  by  the  natives  is  principally  used 
locally,  only  small  quantities  being  exported.  On  the 
plantations  under  European  supervision,  which  are  prin- 
cipally situated  in  Central  Java  and  Kediri,  the  prepara- 


FIBRES  583 

tion  of  the  fibre  is  done  in  a  less  primitive  way, .  and 
fibre-extracting  machines  are  in  general  use. 

The  fibre  obtained  by  using  these  machines  is  some- 
times brushed  after  having  been  dried,  and  is  then  sorted 
according  to  colour,  depending  on  the  requirements  of 
the  various  markets. 

On  some  plantations  where,  during  certain  periods  of- 
the  year,  the  drying  in  the  air  proceeds  too  slowly,  the 
fibre  as  soon  as  it  leaves  the  machine  is  submerged 
in  tanks  filled  with  water.  In  these  tanks  the  fibre  is 
subjected  to  a  kind  of  retting  process,  by  which  the  sub- 
stances which  cause  discoloration  during  slowly  drying- 
are  rendered  harmless. 

Packing. — The  Java  fibre  is  packed  in  bales  of  50  to 
100  kilograms,  which  are  bound  by  iron  hoops.  The  iron 
hoops  are  very  often  substituted  by  bamboo,  as  the  iron 
is  apt  to  corrode  and  the  quality  of  the  fibre  consequently 
suffer. 

Waste. — The  waste  from  the  preparation,  consisting  of 
broken  fibres,  etc.,  is  a  material  suitable  for  stuffing- 
cushions  of  carriages  and  a  valuable  material  for  the 
manufacture  of  stronger  kinds  of  paper.  It  is  partly  sold 
locally  and  partly  exported  to  Europe. 

Uses. — As  is  generally  known  sisal  hemp  is  of  much 
importance  as  a  material  for  rope  manufacture,  and  in 
this  respect  a  competititor  of  the  other  kinds  of  rope 
fibres,  such  as  Manila  hemp,  New  Zealand  flax,  Mauritius 
hemp,  etc. 

The  finer  kinds  of  agave  fibres  are  suitable  for  the 
manufacture  of  fabrics  which  have  to  answer  high 
requirements  of  strength,  and  the  Java  Cantala  has,  on 
account  of  its  cleanness,  whiteness,  high  brilliancy,  fine- 
ness, and  flexibility,  a  brilliant  future  as  a  raw  material 
ftfr  the  weaving  industry. 

The  real  sisal  hemp  is  not  sufficiently  useful  for  spin- 
ning and  the  subsequent  manufacture  of  fabrics. 

Exports. — The  export  of  agave  fibres  from  the 
Netherland  East  Indies  has  only  during  recent  years 
grown  in  importance,  as  the  result  of  the  fact  that  the 
larger  estates  which  were  laid  out  since  1904  gradually 
reached  the  producing  stage. 


584  FIBRES 

The  export  of  this  article  during  1913  amounted  to  more 
than  8,700  tons,  against  about  6,000  tons  in  1912,  and 
about  2,000  tons  in  1911.  The  following  table  shows  the 
various  countries  of  destination  in  1912  and  1913:  — 

1912.  1913. 

Tons  Tons 

Netherlands  and  Netherlands  f/t          ..      1,086         ...         1,249 


Germany 

United  Kingdom   ... 

France     ... 

Other  European  countries 

United  States  of  America 

Other  countries 


98  ...  262 
1 88) 

275  |l  •••  484 

i.3J 

4,375  -  6,557 

96  ...  196 


Total  ...     6,131  8,748 

The    principal    ports    of    export    are    Sourabaya    and 
Samarang,  from  which  the  export  amounted  to  :  — 

1912.     .  1913- 

Ton  s  Tons 

Sourabaya  ...  ...  ...      5,882  ...         8,188 

Samarang  ...  ...  ...         249  ...  253 


MANILA  HEMP. 

Introduction. — Manila  hemp  is  obtained  from  the  leaf- 
sheaths  of  the  king  of  banana  plants,  Musa  textilis,  Nees, 
which  seems  to  be  a  native  of  the  Philippines  and  the 
Sangir  Islands  of  the  Netherland  East  Indian  Archipelago. 
This  species  is  being  gradually  planted  in  other  parts 
of  the  Netherland  East  Indies,  especially  in  Java,  with  a 
view  to  the  preparation  of  the  fibre. 

Cultivation. — On  high  elevations  the  plants  take  longer 
to  reach  maturity  or  development,  but  the  fibre  obtained 
from  such  plants  is  stronger  than  from  plants  grown  at 
lower  elevations.  This  is  evidently  on  account  of  the 
slower  development  of  the  plant. 

To  thrive  well  Manila  hemp  requires  the  rainfall  to  be 
equally  distributed  throughout  the  year.  A  long  period 
of  drought  as  well  as  a  low  temperature  will  stunt  the 
plant. 

Manila  hemp  is  sometimes  grown  as  a  catch-crop  on 
rubber  estates. 

Estates  cultivating  this  fibre  plant  entirely  showed  an 


FIBRES  585 

area  of  957  acres  at  the  beginning  of  the  year  1911,  of 
which  669  acres  were  in  Java  and  Madura,  and  288  acres 
in  the  other  islands  of  the  Archipelago. 

Preparation. — The  fibre  is  obtained  from  the  leaf- 
sheaths  of  which  the  trunk  is  composed.  The  trunk  is 
first  cut  down,  and  then  the  sheaths  are  one  after  the 
other  peeled  and  the  fibre  is  extracted  by  hand,  or,  on 
larger  plantations,  by  machinery. 

The  fibre  which  is  prepared  by  hand  is,  however,  in 
every  respect  superior  to  that  which  is  obtained  mechani- 
cally, although  the  yield  by  the  former  method  is  smaller. 

As  the  existing  mechanical  preparation  requires  rather 
much  manual  labour,  the  Manila  hemp  planters  in  Java 
are  eagerly  looking  out  for  a  better  constructed  machine, 
but  up  to  the  present  their  efforts  have  not  met  with 
success.  During  recent  years  trials  have  been  made  with 
a  new  so-called  automatic  fibre-extracting  machine,  which 
seems  very  promising,  but  it  still  remains  to  be  seen 
whether  it  will  turn  out  satisfactory  in  the  end. 

The  sooner  the  drying  process  ends  the  smaller  becomes 
the  ever  threatening  danger  of  discoloration  of  the  fibre, 
owing  to  which  the  value  of  the  product  can  decrease 
considerably.  The  drying  is  done  by  hanging  the  fibre 
in  the  sun  on  a  bamboo  and  turning  it  from  time  to  time. 
Sometimes  the  fibre  before  being  dried  is  washed  once 
more.  The  dried  fibre  is  often  brushed — a  method  which 
causes  considerable  waste,  and  therefore  it  is  not  often 
done — and  then  it  is  sorted  according  to  length  and 
colour. 

Packing. — The  fibres  are  pressed  and  packed  in  bales 
of  about  100  kilograms.  During  the  packing,  folding  and 
twisting  of  the  fibre  must  be  avoided  as  much  as  possible. 
For  the  packing,  matting  or  gunny  bags  are  used.  The 
bales  are  bound  by  hoops  and  are  then  ready  for  ship- 
ment. 

Exports. — The  export  of  Manila  hemp  from  Java  is 
still  small,  owing  to  the  comparatively  low  prices  which 
were  realized  during  the  years  1907  to  1912,  and  the 
planters,  therefore,  have  not  seen  any  inducement  to 
extend  their  cultivation. 


586  FIBRES 

The  export  from  Java  and  Madura  to  the  under- 
mentioned countries  in  1912  and  1913  amounted  to  (in 
tons  of  1,000  kilograms): — • 

1912  1913 

Netherlands  ...  ...  ...         143         ...         209 

United  Kingdom      ...  ...  ...  10 

Germany    ...  ...  ...  ...  13 


Total      ...  ...  ...         166  209 

The  export  from  the  islands  of  the  Archipelago 
adjacent  to  Java  and  Madura  in  1912  and  1913  amounted 
to  the  following  quantities  which  were  shipped  to  the 
undermentioned  countries  :  — • 

1912.  1913- 

Tons  Tons 

Netherlands  ...  ...  ....  62} 

Japan  ...  ...  ...  ...  if 

Total       ...  63  51 


COTTON. 

Distribution  in  the  Netherland  East  Indies. — The  cotton 
plant  grows  best  in  the  regions  between  36°  North  and 
36°  South  Latitude.  Some  varieties  are  also  indigenous 
to  the  Netherland  East  Indies,  especially  those  in  Palem- 
bang,  in  Sumatra,  and  in  Demak  and  Kediri,  in  Java. 

Cultivation. — The  cultivation  of  cotton  in  the  Nether- 
land East  Indies  is  up  to  the  present  carried  on  entirely 
by  the  natives  as  a  catch-crop.  At  first  the  product  was 
only  used  for  making  clothes,  which  domestic  industry, 
however,  suffered  very  much  from  the  import  of  wo\en 
goods  of  cheap  manufacture,  although  to  a  certain  extent 
it  is  still  in  existence. 

The  cotton  cultivation  carried  on  by  European  planters 
has,  up  to  the  present,  not  proved  profitable,  and 
European  capital  is  concerned  almost  entirely  with  the 
purchasing  of  the  raw  product  and  the  trade  in  it,  and 
in  some  cases  the  supplying  of  seed  and  the  cleaning 
of  the  product. 

As  an  additional  cultivation  cotton  has  shown  a  certain 
vitality,  which  justifies  the  best  hopes  for  the  future, 
since  the  Government  of  the  Netherland  East  Indies  has 
given  undeniable  proofs  that  it  is  willing  to  look  well  after 


FIBRES  587 

the  interests  of  the  cotton  planters  and  to  promote  this 
cultivation. 

Although  the  quantity  of  cotton  which  is  yearly 
exported  is  not  small,  the  indigenous  varieties  have  but 
Mttle  importance  for  the  spinning  industry.  The  fineness 
kaves  much  to  be  desired  and  the  staple  is  not  long 
enough.  As  a  consequence,  when  the  Government  of  the 
Netherland  East  Indies  resolved  about  the  middle  of  the 
last  century  to  support  and  to  encourage  cotton  culti- 
vation, in  the  first  place  in  Palembang,  this  assistance 
was  limited  to  the  supplying  of  seeds  of  superior  qualities 
imported  from  elsewhere.  The  indigenous  varieties  were 
considered  to  be  so  inferior  that  even  the  possibility  of 
improving  them  by  selection,  so  that  the  product  should 
become  of  more  importance  to  the  world's  trade,  was 
considered  non-existent. 

The  attempts  of  the  Government  to  import  exotic 
varieties  of  cotton  which  are  considered  to  be  superior 
were  supported  financially  by  some  private  companies, 
one  of  which  was  the  Netherlands  Trading  Society. 
These  attempts,  however,  had  not  the  desired  success, 
and,  although  the  Government  had  no  reason  to  abandon 
them,  it  rather  preferred  to  pay  more  attention  than 
hitherto  to  an  improved  quality  by  means  of  selection, 
and  there  is  no  doubt  that  lately  this  has  proved  to  be 
the  better  course. 

The  attempts  to  import  superior  exotic  cotton  varieties 
by  means  of  seeds  from  elsewhere,  such  as  Sea  Island 
and  Upland  cotton,  were  in  the  meanwhile  continued  in 
the  eastern  part  of  the  Archipelago  (in  the  island  of 
Lombok),  and  up  to  the  present  have  been  successful,  a 
favourable  expert  opinion  having  been  expressed  in 
Europe  on  the  cotton  grown  in  the  said  district. 

Cultivation  and  Crop. — The  principal  cotton-producing 
region  in  the  Netherland  East  Indies  is  Palembang,  in 
Sumatra.  As  soon  as  the  rice  crop  is  over  the  natives 
sow  cotton  in  the  fields.  The  sowing  is  done  by  means 
of  a  peculiarly  shaped  stick,  by  which  holes  of  about 
2  cm.  depth  are  made.  In  each  of  these  holes  three  to 
five  seeds  are  laid. 

Much  care  is  paid  to  the  plantation  for  some  weeks 


588  FIBRES 

after  the  sowing,  and  the  soil  is  kept  well  weeded  until 
the  plants  are  flowering  and  thriving  well  and  until  they 
are  strong  enough  to  withstand  the  weeds. 

The  picking  is  done  either  by  removing  the  raw  cotton 
from  the  pod  after  it  has  broken  open — holding  the  boll 
with  the  left  hand  and  then  exercising  a  strong  pull — or 
by  picking  all  the  pods  and  removing  the  husks.  The 
first-mentioned  method  is  preferable. 

At  the  beginning  of  1911  the  area  under  cotton  culti- 
vation was  as  follows:  — 

Acres 
In  Java  and  Madura  ...  ...  ...  ...          3,/O2 

In  the  islands  of   the  Archipelago  adjacent  to  Java  and 

Madura  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...        18,222 


Total  ...  ...  ...       21,924 

Trade. — A  very  small  part  of  this  product  is  cleaned 
by  the  natives  in  order  to  obtain  seeds  for  planting 
purposes.  The  raw  uncleaned  product  is  bought  by 
travelling  Chinese  and  Arabs,  and  forwarded  to  the  ports 
of  shipment.  These  petty  buyers  sell  the  cotton  to 
merchants  in  the  ports  of  shipment,  among  whom  there 
are  some  export  firms.  These  firms  have  machines  for 
removing  the  seeds  before  shipping*  the  cotton. 

The  cleaned  cotton  is  exported  principally  to  Europe, 
where  the  labour  expenses  are  too  high  to  make  the 
ginning  of  the  raw  product  profitable;  and,  moreover,  the 
cost  of  transportation  of  raw  cotton  would  be  prohibitive. 

The  export  of  ginned  cotton  from  Palembang  during 
1905  and  during  the  years  1909-1912  amounted  (in  tons) 
to:  — 

Countries  of  destination  1905              1909              IQIO  1911  1912 

Netherlands  ......  i  8 

Geimany        ...              ...  54             99  207  482 

Singapore       ...              ...  44              10              18  17  22 

Japan              ...              ...  7  n 


Total          ...         44  64  118  231  523 

During  the  first  ten  months  of  1913,  326  tons  were 
exported. 

The  uncleaned  cotton  is  exported  principally  to 
Singapore,  where  a  small  part  is  cleaned  in  an  up-to-date 


FIBRES  589 

ginnery.  The  ginned  product  is  exported  from  there  to 
Switzerland  for  the  spinning  mills. 

Most  of  the  uncleaned  Palembang  cotton  imported  into 
Singapore  is  immediately  shipped  to  Japan.  The  cleaned 
product  is  used  partly  as  a  material  for  stuffing  winter 
kimonos. 

Uncleaned  cotton  is  also  exported  from  Ampenan  and 
Pabean,  in  addition  to  Palembang,  and  the  following 
quantities  (in  tons)  were  exported  during  1905  and  during 
1909-1912. 

Ports  of  shipment  1905  T9°9  1910  1911  1912 

Palembang      ...  ...  4,082  5^825  6,089  4>5'°  5>5°2 

Ampermn         ...  ...  140  831  904  657  686 

Pabean             ...  ...  247  26  48  107  130 


Total  ...     4,469       6,682       7,041         5,374       6,318 

The  export  of  uncleaned  cotton  from  Palembang  and 
Ampenan  during  the  year  1913  amounted  to  8,380 
tons.  The  shipments  were  destined  for  the  following 
countries :  — 

Coynes  of  destination  ft*            «%  |9£          •£';          %£ 

Singapore       ...              ...  4,469       5,942  6,136      4,790        5,472 

Japan                ...               ...  693  904           584            846 

United  Kingdom            ...  I 

Germany         ...              ...  47 

Total     ...  ...   4,469       6,682       7,041       5,374       6,318 

From  Palembang  7,903  tons  of  raw  cotton  were  ex- 
ported in  1913,  against  5,502  tons  in  1912;  and  375  tons 
of  cleaned  cotton,  against  523  tons  in  1912. 

Some  years  ago  a  modern  ginnery  was  established  in 
Palembang,  but  in  proportion  to  the  quantities  of  raw 
cotton  which  were  still  exported  in  1913,  this  industry 
proved  to  be  of  little  importance. 


RISULTATI  DI  ACCLIMAZIONE  BELLA  AGAVE  RIGIDA 
VAR.  SISALANA  IN  SICILIA. 

Per  il  Professore  CALCEDONIO  TROPEA. 

A  SPERIMENTARE  1'acclimazione  della  Sisalana  in  Sicilia, 
fui  indotto  da  quattro  considerazioni :  — 

i°  La  mancanza  di  colture  adatte  a  scopi  industrial!,  in 
un'Isola  che,  tanto  affine  per  clima,  terreni,  e,  talvolta 
per  condizioni  sociali,  alle  colonie  dell'Africa  setten- 
trionale,  si  presta  certamente  a  molte  coltivazioni  di 
carattere  tropicale. 

2°  La  esistenza  in  Sicilia  di  estese  piantagioni  di  Agave 
americana,  e  la  sua  acquisita  rusticita  in  terre  sassose  ed 
aridissime. 

3°  La  esistenza  di  notevoli  superfici  di  terreni  atti  alia 
coltivazione  dell'Agave  americana  e  quindi,  con  molta 
probability,  anche  dell' Agave  rigida  var.  sisalana. 

4°  La  maggiore  resa  economica  della  Sisalana,  in  con- 
fronto  alia  specie  locale. 

Queste  considerazioni  mi  fecero  concludere  sttlla  possi- 
bilita  di  introdurre  in  Sicilia  la  Sisalana,  e  di  sostituirla 
all' Agave  americana.  In  tal  modo  mi  e  parso1  di  fare  il 
vantaggio  dell'agricoltore,  dandogli  modo  di  utilizzare 
terreni  aridi  e  sassosi,  oggi  britlli  perche  inetti  alle  comuni 
coltivazioni;  il  vantaggio  deirindustriale,  col  fornirgli 
una  materia  tessile  molto  ricercata  e  che  attualmente  egli 
importa  dall'Estero;  il  vantaggio  della  Scienza,  perche, 
accertata  la  acclimazione  della  Sisalana  in  Sicilia,  viene 
ancora  una  volta  dimostrata  come  quest'Isola  possa 
essere  considerata  dal  punto  di  vista  agronomico,  come 
un  vero  lembo  di  Africa,  dove  la  civilta  ha  gia  cominciato 
ad  imprimere  i  primi  solchi  del  Progresso. 

Cio  quanto  alia  utilita  immediata  di  tale  acclimazione. 
Dappoiche,  se  la  coltura  riuscira  ad  estendersi,  come 
prevedo,  non  e  lontano  il  giorno  nel  quale  potranno 
sorgere  tutte  le  industrie  secondarie  del  Sisal,  e  special- 


FIBRES  591 

mente  quelle  inerenti  alia  estrazione  di  alcool,   di  pasta 
da  carte,  ecc.  derivanti  dai  residui  della  sfibratura. 

Tralascio,  per  brevita  necessaria  all'indole  di  questa 
comunicazione,  le  dettagliate  notizie  sugli  esperimenti 
fatti,  e  rimando  per  esse  a  quanto  ebbi  gia  a  scrivere  nel 
passato.1 

Mi  limito  quindi  a  riferire  su  quelle  conclusioni  ultime, 
cui  esse  mi  ban  condotto,  e  che  a  me  sembra  abbiano  non 
solo  interesse  per  la  Sicilia,  ma  costituiscono  dati  per 
indurre  sul  possibile  tornaconto  di  una  coltivazione  di 
Sisal  nel  Nord-Africa. 

I  periodi  piu  opportuni  ad  iniziare  la  piantagione  coin- 
cidono  coi  mesi  di  marzo  o  di  novembre,  ossia  prima  o 
dopo  il  periodo  delle  piogge.  I  rigetti  sono  da  preferisi 
ai  bulbilli,  perche  fioriscono  piu  tardi,  e  danno  piante 
meglio  formate,  di  piu  rapido  accrescimento  e  con  fibre 
piu  lunghe. 

La  lunghezza  delle  foglie,  durante  i  primi  tre  anni,  non 
raggiunge  il  metro,  eppero  solo  dopo  questo  periodo  e 
possibile  iniziare  il  taglio  delle  foglie  per  utilizzare  le 
loro  fibre. 

Dal  quarto  anno  in  poi  ogni  pianta  produce  annual- 
mente  circa  35  foglie,  mai  meno  di  30,  la  cui  lunghezza 
varia  fra  m.  1*20  e  1*40.  Occorrono  circa  72  foglie  per 
estrarre  un  chilo  di  fibre,  in  modo  che,  distanziando  le 
piante  di  due  metri  una  daH'altra  si  ha  per  ogni  Ea. 
almeno  una  tonnellata  di  fibre  della  lunghezza  media  di 
m.  i'2o. 

Campionato  il  prodotto  alia  locale  Societa  Tele  Olone 
Canapacci,  questa  ebbe  a  stimarlo  al  prezzo  medio  di 
ottanta  lire  il  quintale;  donde  il  reddito  lordo  per  Ea. 
sarebbe  di  lire  800,  dalle  quali  detraendo  il  valore  del 
terreno,  rammortamento  dell  spese  di  impianto,  e  del  fitto 
del  terreno  nei  primi  tre  anni  di  passivita,  le  spese  di 
raccolta,  di  trasporto  al  raspatoio,  rammortamento 
del  raspatoio,  le  spese  di  sfibratura,  lavaggio,  asciuga- 

1  Tropea,  C. — "  Istruzioni  su  la  coltura  e  1'industria  della 
Agave  rig.ida  var.  sisalana,"  in  Boll,  del  R.  Giardino  Coloniale 
di  Palermo,  nuova  serie,  vol.  i,  pag.  3g  a  81. 

38 


592  FIBRES 

mento,  imballaggio,  spese  che  complessivamente  non 
possono  superare  le  lire  650,  resta  un  utik  netto  per  Ea. 
di  lire  150. 

E'  necessario  inoltre  considerare  che,  adattandosi  il 
Sisal  a  terreni  di  solito  abbandonati,  ne  dovendo  subire 
confronti  con  altre  piantagioni,  esistenti,  il  suo  torna- 
conto,  che  a  prima  vista  potrebbe  sembrare  molto 
modesto,  riesce  invece  assai  considerevole  e  tale  da 
invogliare  Fagricoltore  ad  iniziare  la  piantagione. 

E'  bene  notare  inoltre  che  i  dati  di  ammortamento  del 
raspatoio  sono  calcolati  per  una  piantagione  di  solo  4  Ea., 
limitando  il  suo  lavoro  a  solo  40  giorni  dell'anno;  che  il 
numero  delle  foglie  e  preventivato  al  minimo  assoluto, 
che  non  e  calcolato  Futile  dei  prodotti  secondari,  che  e 
esagerata  la  spesa  di  raccolto,  lavaggio,  asciugamento 
e  imballaggio;  che  la  resa  di  un  chilo  ogni  72  foglie  e 
calcolata  per  le  foglie  piu  corte,  mentre  le  piu  lunghe 
hanno  dato  perfino  un  chilo  di  fibre  ogni  44  foglie,  e  infine 
che  il  prezzo  delle  fibre  fu  stimato  su  campione  non 
perfettamente  curato.  E'  naturale  quindi  che  la  colti- 
vazione  del  Sisal  debba  effettivamente  dare  un  reddito 
maggiore  di  quello  da  me  calcolato,  accrescendosi  sempre 
piu  il  valore  di  questa  piantagione. 

La  qualita  delle  fibre,  determinata  dal  suo  prezzo,  con- 
clude inoltre  sulla  necessita  di  sostituire  le  attuali  pianta- 
gioni di  Agave  americana,  con  la  Sisalana,  eppero  tende 
vieppiu  al  introdurre  in  Sicilia  questa  piantaed  a  con- 
sigliarne  estese  coltivazioni. 

Risoluta  la  quistione  deH'acclimazione,  sarebbe  tutt'ora 
impossibile  la  coltura  del  Sisal  se  non  fossero  state 
costruite  piccole  sfibratrici,  facilmente  trasportabili  e  di 
costo  molto  modesto. 

E'  noto  di  fatto  come  la  Sicilia,  per  quanto  abbia  estesi 
terreni  adatti  alia  Sisalana,  questi  raramente  appartengono 
ad  unico  proprietario,  ovvero  si  trovano  molto  distanti 
uno  dall'altro,  per  cui  molto  difficilmente  potrebbero  dar 
lavoro  ad  una  grande  sfibratrice,  ne,  del  resto,  la  mano 
d'opera  per  una  sfibratura  a  mano,  lascerebbe  alcun 
margine  airagricoltore,  assorbendo  essa  sola  il  valore  del 
prodotto. 


FIBRES  593 

Esistono  attualmente  macchine  azionate  da  motore  a 
petrolic  di  3  h.p.  capaci  di  sfibrare  nelle  died  ore  circa 
4,000  foglie,  poco  voluminose  e  abbastanza  leggere  (un 
carro  con  due  muli  potrebbe  facilmente  trasportarla  sui 
singoli  luoghi  di  produzione)  il  cui  costo,  incluso  il 
motore,  non  supera  le  4,000  lire,  eppero  addate  anche  per 
piccole  coltivazioni,  come  quelle  che  singolarmente 
potrebbero  sorgere  in  Sicilia. 

Nella  pubblicazione  che  in  principio  do  citato  sono 
esposti  dettagliatamente  i  dati  relativi  a  questa  industria 
e,  anche  per  essa,  rimando  a  quanto  ebbi  gia  a  scrivere 
sul  proposito. 

Nulla  si  oppone  quindi  alia  introduzione  e  diffusione 
dell' Agave  sisalana  in  Sicilia,  ed  io  mio  auguro  che,  in 
conseguenza  dei  risultati  esposti,  frutto  di  vari  anni  di 
esperimenti,  possa  dal  Congresso  di  Londra  partire  un 
voto  per  la  istituzione  di  campi  dimostrativi  di  Sisal  in 
Sicilia,  voto  che  il  nostro  Governo  non  potrebbe  certo 
trascurare. 


RUBBER. 


THE  CULTIVATION  OF  HEVEA  BRASILIENSIS  IN 
UGANDA. 

By  SAMUEL  SIMPSON,  B.Sc. 
Director  of  Agriculture,  Uganda. 

HEVEA  is  by  far  the  most  popular  of  all  the  rubbers 
amongst  the  planters  in  this  country,  and  it  has  been 
mainly  planted  along  with  coffee  as  a  catch-crop.  The 
area  under  Hevea  only  is  comparatively  small,  but  as 
the  mixed  crops  of  rubber  and  coffee  attain  the  age  of 
6  or  7  years  the  coffee  is  gradually  cut  out,  so  as  to 
leave  the  whole  of  the  area  entirely  free  for  the  growth 
and  development  of  the  rubber  trees. 

Para  rubber  grows  well  in  height,  but  slowly  in  thick- 
ness, for  two  or  three  years,  when  it  thickens  fairly 
rapidly,  and  at  5  years  old  a  girth  measurement  of  16  in. 
3  ft.  from  the  ground  is  common,  and  such  trees  can  be 
lightly  tapped. 

In  the  Botanical  Gardens,  Entebbe,  are  to  be  found 
the  oldest  Para  trees  in  the  country,  and  here  tapping- 
results  have  proved  fairly  satisfactory. 

Tapping  was  commenced  on  November  14,  1908,  when 
the  only  7-year-old  tree  was  tapped  along  with  one 
at  4  years  old.  Tapping  was  continued  for  a  period  of 
fifty-nine  days,  and  47  and  4-3  oz.  of  dry  rubber  were 
obtained  from  the  trees  respectively.  It  was  then 
estimated  that  i  Ib.  of  dry  rubber  per  tree  could  be  con- 
fidently expected  from  Hevea  in  Uganda. 

Further  experiments  were  made  on  trees  4  years  old 
which  were  tapped  forty-four  times  over  a  period  of  ninety 
days,  and  the  yield  averaged  4^  oz.  of  dry  rubber  per 
tree,  whilst  in  a  later  experiment  the  same  trees  gave 


RUBBER  595 

5^  oz.  of  dry  rubber  per  tree  in  a  period  of  sixty  days' 
tapping. 

In  the  same  Gardens  during  1912,  164  trees  were  tapped 
forty-one  times,  and  the  average  yield  per  tree  of  dry 
rubber  was  13  oz.  The  trees  wrere  presumably  8  years 
old,  and  the  methods  of  tapping  were  various  and  entirely 
experimental. 

The  trees  were  then  rested  for  nine  months,  and  on 
January  i,  1913,  tapping  was  re-started  on  310  trees, 
which  up  to  March  31,  1913,  had  been  tapped  seventy-one 
times.  The  yield  of  dry  rubber  per  tree  averaged  13!  oz. 

Two  of  the  trees  yielded  over  i  Ib.  of  dry  rubber  each 
during  January,  but  fell  off  considerably  afterwards. 

Tapping  experiments  on  a  commercial  scale  were 
carried  out  last  year  on  the  Kivuvu  Estate,  when  on  an 
average  1,800  trees  were  tapped  monthly  for  four  months. 
The  average  yield  per  tree  for  that  period  was  5' 13  oz. 
of  dry  rubber.  The  trees  were  5  years  old,  and  the 
method  of  tapping  was  one  basal  V  cut. 

During  a  recent  visit  to  this  estate  it  was  noticed  that 
the  young  Para  trees  showed  no  ill-effects  from  the 
tapping'  and  were  increasing  in  girth  rapidly. 

From  figures  supplied  by  Mr.  Brown,  the  manager, 
it  was  evident  that  the  cost  of  production  of  dry  rubber 
on  this  estate  was  under  is.  per  Ib. 

Some  natives  .have  small  plantations  of  Para,  and  the 
various  missions  cultivated  122  acres.  On  March  31, 
1913,  European  planters  had  214  acres  under  Para  only, 
and  2,603  acres  of  Para  interplanted  with  coffee,  whilst, 
in  addition,  171  acres  had  been  interplanted  with  cocoa. 

During  last  year  the  acreage  under  Hevea  has  under- 
gone great  extension,  as  the  supply  of  local  seed  is  now 
ample  for  the  country's  requirements. 

The  export  of  cultivated  rubber  is  still  in  its  infancy, 
as  during  1912-13  only  4,474  Ib.  were  exported,  and  the 
greater  part  of  this  was  obtained  from  rubbers  other 
than  Hevea  brasiliensis. 


DISEASES  OF  HEVEA  IN  CEYLON. 

By  T.   FETCH,   B.A.,   B.Sc. 
Government  Botanist  and  Mycologist,  Ceylon. 

WHEN  it  is  realized  that  more  than  thirty  years  have 
elapsed  since  Hevea  brasiliensis  first  began  to  be  planted 
on  estates  in  Ceylon,  it  will  be  evident  that  our  premier 
rubber  tree  has  now  successfully  withstood  a  fairly 
prolonged  exposure  to  the  parasitic  fungi  of  its  new 
habitat.  During  that  period  it  has  acquired  compara- 
tively few  diseases,  and  the  majority  of  those  have  not 
proved  serious.  The  total  number  of  recorded  diseases 
of  Hevea  has  remained  stationary  for  the  last  six  years. 

It  is  not  the  intention  of  the  present  paper  to  give  a 
summary  of  the  known  diseases  of  Hevea.  That  has 
previously  been  done  on  several  occasions,  and,  in  the 
case  of  most  of  the  diseases  there  is  nothing  to  add  to 
what  has  already  been  published.  The  following  account 
will  be  confined  to  those  diseases  which  are  of  practical 
importance  in  Ceylon  at  the  present  time — a  limitation 
which  excludes  all  leaf  diseases  and  practically  all  root 
diseases,  with  the  possible  exception  of  brown  root 
disease. 

While  Fomes  lignosus  (the  Fomes  semitostus  of  pre- 
vious Hevea  literature)  occurs  chiefly  in  association  with 
jungle  stumps  in  young  clearings,  brown  root  disease 
may  appear  at  any  stage  and,  apparently,  independently 
of  any  dead  wood.  It  is,  however,  much  less  destructive 
than  F.  lignosus,  and  as  a  rule  is  confined  in  each  case 
to  a  single  tree.  But,  judged  by  the  number  of  cases, 
it  is  now  the  commonest  root  disease  in  Ceylon. 

Roots  attacked  by  brown  root  disease  are  characterized 
by  an  encrusting  mass  of  earth,  sand,  and  small  stones 
bound  together  by  fine  brown  mycelium.  In  most  cases 
the  outer  layers  of  mycelium  ultimately  turn  black,  so 


RUBBER  597 

that  the  encrusting  mass  appears  black  instead  of  brown. 
On  cutting  into  the  diseased  root  it  is  usually  found  to 
be  traversed  by  black  or  brown  plates,  and  in  the  case 
of  tea  the  decayed  wood  may  exhibit  a  honeycomb 
structure. 

The  fungus  to  which  this  disease  is  attributed,  Hymeno- 
chsetc  noxia,  was  originally  discovered  in  Samoa  on  bread- 
fruit trees.  Subsequently  it  was  found  on  coffee  in  Java 
by  Zimmermann.  In  1905  it  was  first  recorded  as  parasitic 
on  Hevea  in  Ceylon,  and  since  then  it  has  been  found  to 
attack,  in  the  same  country,  cocoa,  tea,  dadap  (Erythrina), 
Castilloa  elastica,  Caravonica  cotton,  camphor,  Cinna- 
momum  Cassia,  Erythro.ry Ion  Coca,  Bran felsia  americana, 
Gremllea  robusta,  Codiceum  variegatum,  Ceara  rubber, 
etc.  Brick  has  recorded  it  again  from  Samoa,  where  it 
is  known  to  attack  cocoa.  Castilloa,  bread-fruit,  and 
Albizzia  stipulata,  as  well  as  jungle  trees;  and  specimens 
have  been  received  from  the  Gold  Coast  on  Funtumia. 

As  will  be  evident  from  the  foregoing  list,  the  fungus 
is  practically  omnivorous.  Yet  the  actual  damage  in  each 
case  is  usually  strictly  limited.  Its  growth  in  Ceylon  is 
very  slow,  and  if  the  plant  first  attacked  is  removed  as 
soon  as  the  disease  is  discovered,  no  further  deaths  occur 
in  that  spot.  Bancroft  records  the  same  slow  growth  in 
Malaya.  But  it  would  appear  from  the  records  to  spread 
more  rapidly  in  Samoa.  Instances  of  its  slow  progress 
when  allowed  to  run  unchecked  have  been  noted  in  the 
case  of  both  tea  and  rubber;  in  one  instance  three  Hevea 
trees  in  a  line  were  killed  in  four  years. 

The  fungus  apparently  spreads  from  one  plant  to  the 
next  only  if  the  roots  are  in  contact,  but  even  this  does 
not  generally  occur  unless  the  dead  plants  are  allowed 
to  remain  for  a  fairly  long  time.  An  exception  to  this  is 
general  in  the  case  of  Grevilleas  in  tea  plantations,  where 
the  Grevilleas  are  first  attacked;  in  such  cases  a  number 
of  tea  bushes  may  be  killed  before  the  Grevillea  dies. 
Anstead  has  recorded  an  experiment  in  which  a  diseased 
root  was  buried  in  contact  with  the  roots  of  a  healthy 
tree,  with  the  result  that  the  latter  was  infected  and  died. 

The  experiment  of  replanting  a  tree  of  the  same  species 
in  the  place  where  one  had  just  died  from  brown  root 


59^  RUBBER 

disease  was  tried  at  Peradeniya  about  four  years  ago. 
The  "supply"  is  still  healthy.  It  would  appear  that 
replanting  can  be  carried  out  immediately,  provided  that 
all  dead  wood  has  been  removed. 

The  disease  has  been  found  to  originate  on  jungle 
stumps  in  one  instance  in  tea.  In  another  case  it  was 
common  on  Hevea,  planted  among  cocoa,  where  the 
intermediate  rows  of  cocoa  had  been  cut  out  to  make 
room  for  the  Hevea.  It  may,  indeed,  be  said  that  a  large 
proportion  of  the  cases  of  brown  root  disease  on  Hevea 
in  Ceylon  are  on  old  cocoa  land.  On  new  clearings  in 
Ceylon  it  has  not  been  found  possible  to  trace  the  disease 
to  jungle  stumps.  Bancroft,  however,  states  that  in 
Malaya  each  case  of  infection  has  been  referable  to  the 
presence  of  a  jungle  stump. 

But  in  the  majority  of  its  occurrences  in  Ceylon,  other 
than  on  Hevea,  brown  root  disease  has  killed  plants  in 
old-established  cultivations  where  no  jungle  stumps 
existed.  This  is  notably  the  case  in  tea  and  Grevillea. 
In  such  cases  only  an  infection  by  means  of  spores  appears 
possible.  Here  we  are  met  by  a  difficulty.  As  a  rule 
Hymenochsete  noxia  does  not  produce  spores,  or,  indeed, 
a  fructification.  When  the  fungus  has  grown  up  the  tap- 
root and  reached  the  surface  of  the  soil,  where  it  should 
begin  to  form  its  fructification,  it  usually  ceases  altogether 
to  grow  in  that  direction.  In  several  cases  in  Hevea, 
tea,  and  cocoa,  stumps  of  diseased  plants  have  been  left 
undisturbed  in  the  hope  that  they  would  develop  the 
fructification,  but  all  have  ultimately  succumbed  to  white 
ants  without  doing  so,  though  some  have  persisted  for 
four  years.  Sometimes  the  fungus  does  ascend  farther 
up  the  stem,  forming  a  brown  velvety  coat,  but  as  a  rule 
this  is  present  only  in  small  patches.  If  the  root  is  dug 
up,  planted  in  a  pot,  and  kept  under  favourable  conditions 
for  the  development  of  the  fungus  no  greater  success 
results.  Experience  in  Malaya  would  appear  to  agree 
with  this.  Bancroft  states  that  the  fungus  does  not 
apparently  fruit  in  abundance  in  that  country;  he  had 
only  been  able  to  find  a  single  fruit  on  camphor,  and 
that  a  badly  developed  specimen. 

Recent    investigations    into    brown    root    disease    on 


RUBBER  599 

Grevillea  and  tea  have  furnished  suggestions  which  may 
explain  this  spread  of  the  disease  to  fresh  centres  in  the 
apparent  absence  of  any  fructification  and  spores,  but 
these  have  not  yet  been  completed. 

Of  the  stem  diseases,  "  pink  disease  "  and  "  dieback  " 
are  of  minor  importance  in  Ceylon.  The  former  is 
apparently  exceedingly  common  in  Java,  where  it  has 
been  fully  investigated  by  Zimmermann,  Zehntner,  and 
Rant. 

Pink  disease  is  caused  by  Cofticium  salmonicolor,  B. 
and  Br.  (Corticium  javanicum,  Zimm.).  The  fungus  is 
widely  distributed  through  the  Eastern  tropics,  but  the 
damage  caused  by  it  varies  considerably.  In  Java,  Dr. 
Rant  has  enumerated  141  species  of  wild  and  cultivated 
plants  which  are  known  to  be  attacked  by  it;  but  on  the 
mainland,  in  the  Federated  Malay  States,  it  appears  to 
be  scarcely  known.  In  Ceylon  and  India  the  conditions 
are  reversed,  for  it  has  caused  much  loss  in  South  India, 
but  very  little  in  Ceylon.  It  occurs  on  various  plants  in 
Ceylon  up  to  an  elevation  of  5,000  ft.,  but  only  sporadic- 
ally. To  the  list  of  hosts  given  by  Rant,  Ceylon  can 
add  camphor  and  Poly alt hia  longi folia. 

In  Hevea  the  disease  usually  attacks  the  main  stem  at 
or  immediately  below  a  fork.  The  bark  dies  and  splits 
away  from  the  wood,  sometimes  all  round  the  stem, 
sometimes  over  a  limited  patch.  In  the  former  case  the 
tree  is  ringed  and  the  crown  dies;  in  the  latter  the  dead 
bark  scales  off  and  an  open  wound  is  left.  The  difference 
is  probably  due  to  weather  conditions. 

The  fungus  makes  its  appearance  on  the  diseased  bark 
in  three  forms.  In  one  form  minute  pink  cushions  are 
produced  in  small  cracks  in  the  bark;  this  form  has  been 
described  as  a  different  fungus  (Necator  decretus,  Mass.). 
In  the  early  stages  of  this  form  the  minute  cracks 
resemble  large  lenticels,  and  this,  before  the  pink 
cushions  appear,  has  been  styled  the  "  measles  "  stage. 
In  a  second  form  the  hyphse  of  the  fungus  extend  over 
the  surface  of  the  bark  in  long,  silky  strands  which  may 
coalesce  and  form  a  thin  shining  plate  of  fungus  tissue. 
The  third  form  is  the  fully  developed  fructification,  a  thin 
pink  sheet  overlying  the  bark,  and  ultimately .  splitting 


6OO  RUBBER 

into  small  fragments  by  lines  more  or  less  at  right  angles 
to  each  other. 

In  Ceylon  pink  disease  usually  makes  its  appearance 
towa'rds  the  close  of  the  rains  of  either  monsoon.  As  a 
rule,  treatment  is  confined  to  pruning  down  the  tree  below 
the  diseased  part.  In  South  India,  spraying  the  forks  of 
the  trees  with  Bordeaux  mixture  has  been  found  to 
prevent  attack. 

The  term  "  dieback  "  might  equally  well  be  applied  to 
some  cases  of  pink  disease,  since  in  the  latter  the  whole 
of  the  crown  above  the  diseased  part  of  the  stem  may 
die.  The  name  has,  however,  become  associated  with  a 
different  disease,  in  which  the  whorls  of  branches  die  in 
succession  from  the  top  downwards,  owing  to  the  growth 
of  a  fungus  down  the  main  stem. 

The  chief  agent  in  dieback — that  is,  the  fungus  which 
kills  the  main  stem — is  Botryodiplodia  theobromse.  It 
occurs  throughout  the  tropics,  but  is  especially  common 
in  cocoa-growing  countries.  As  usual,  it  has  received  a 
number  of  names,  among  which  may  be  noted  Lasio- 
diplodia  theobromx,  Lasiodiplodia  nigra,  Diplodia 
cacaoicola,  Diplodia  rapax,  Botryodiplodia  elastic^. 
Though  numerous  diseases  have  been  attributed  to  this 
fungus,  it  is,  in  general,  a  saprophyte.  It  develops  in 
abundance  on  plucked  cocoa  pods,  felled  Hevea  stems, 
stems  of  Ficus,  etc.,  though  these  may  have  been  quite 
healthy  when  living.  It  is  only  necessary  to  gather  cocoa 
pods  or  to  fell  a  sound  Hevea  stem  and  to  leave  it  to 
dry,  either  under  cover  or  exposed  to  rain,  to  obtain  this 
fungus.  In  about  a  week  the  material  will  be  covered 
with  masses  of  spores  in  the  form  of  a  black  powder.  If 
the  material  is  somewhat  dry  the  spores  may  be  white  at 
first,  turning  black  subsequently. 

Botryodiplodia  theobromse  can,  however,  function  as  a 
wound  parasite,  and  in  that  capacity  it  may  attack  Hevea 
and  cocoa.  In  the  case  of  Hevea,  once  it  has  obtained 
entrance  to  the  stem  it  travels  rapidly  downwards,  and 
may  kill  the  tree  completely  within  four  or  six  weeks. 
The  wood  of  the  stem  is  blackened  by  the  hyphae  of  the 
fungus,  the  cambium  is  converted  into  a  brown  slimy 
layer,  and  the  bark  splits  away  from  the  wood  and 
dries  up. 


RUBBER  6OI 

As  to  the  circumstances  in  which  the  fungus  is  able 
to  enter  the  stem  there  is  some  difference  of  opinion. 
Bancroft,  as  a  result  of  his  experiments,  concludes  that 
it  is  simply  a  wound  parasite,  i.e.,  that  it  can  enter 
through  any  wound,  or,  at  least,  one  which  exposes  the 
wood.  His  experience  in  Malaya  differs  from  that  in 
Ceylon,  in  that  dieback  has  been  found  to  begin  there 
from  the  stubs  of  pruned  branches.  In  Ceylon  that  has 
not  yet  been  observed,  though  pruning  has  on  many 
estates  been  carried  out  on  an  extensive  scale.  And 
attempts  to  infect  healthy  Hevea  saplings,  i  or  2  years 
old,  with  the  spores  of  Botryodiplodia  have  failed.  The 
most  remarkable  fact,  however,  which  tells  against  the 
theory  that  the  fungus  is  a  simple  wound  parasite  is  that 
it  has  not  yet  been  found  to  attack  the  tapped  surface, 
even  though  the  wood  has  been  exposed  by  bad  tapping. 

It  is  noteworthy  that  Botryodiplodia  theobromse  follows 
soon  after  the  attack  of  another  fungus  in  many  cases, 
and  it  is  because  of  that  faculty  that  so  many  diseases 
have  been  attributed  to  it.  It  develops  rapidly  on  Hevea 
pods,  or  Hevea  cortex,  previously  attacked  by  Phyto- 
phthora  Faberi,  and  it  similarly  follows  pod  disease  and 
canker  of  cocoa.  Observations  in  Ceylon  would  seem  to 
indicate  that,  in  general,  Botryodiplodia  follows  a  previous 
fungus  attack,  and  that  in  tKe  case  of  dieback  of  Hevea  it 
obtains  an  entrance  through  dead  green  shoots. 

The  green  shoots  of  Hevea  frequently  die,  and  this 
effect  may  be  produced  by  several  agencies.  Wind,  over- 
tapping,  shade,  or  excessive  rainfall  account  for  it  in 
some  cases,  while  it  may  be  brought  about  also  by  a 
definite  fungus  attack,  as  by  Gloeosporium  alborubrum, 
Phyllosticta  ramicola,  or  the  canker  fungus,  Phyto- 
phthora  Faberi,  following  an  attack  of  pod  disease.  So 
long  as  the  green  shoots  only  are  concerned  this  effect 
is  negligible,  but  it  may  be  followed  by  an  attack  of 
Botryodiplodia  theobromse,  which  kills  the  tree.  Observa- 
tions in  Ceylon  would  appear  to  show  that  when  the 
Botryodiplodia  attacks  the  tree  the  green  shoots  have 
been  previously  killed  by  Gloeosporium. 

The  abundant  development  of  Botryodiplodia  on  felled 
Hevea  stems  provides  a  reason  for  burning  all  Hevea 


6O2  RUBBER 

debris  when  thinning  out.  It  should,  however,  be  stated 
that,  though  the  disease  is  extremely  rapid  in  its  action 
when  it  does  occur,  it  has  not  proved  so  dangerous  as 
was  at  first  anticipated.  The  idea  that  an  exudation  of 
latex  from  the  upper  parts  of  the  stem  is  a  symptom  of 
this  disease  has  been  discarded. 

Bancroft  has  discovered,  on  material  attacked  by 
Botryodlplodia  theobromse,  an  ascigerous  fungus,  Thy- 
ridaria  tarda,  which  he  considers  is  the  higher  stage 
of  the  former.  The  disease  is,  therefore,  frequently 
referred  to  under  the  latter  name. 

The  most  serious  disease  of  Hevea  known  at  the 
present  time  is  canker,  not  only  because  it  may  kill  the 
tree,  but  because,  even  when  the  attack  is  slight  and  the 
tree  recovers,  the  result  of  the  treatment  may  be  such 
that  the  tree  cannot  be  tapped  again  for  several  years. 
As  in  the  case  of  cocoa,  the  term  "  canker  "  which  has 
been  applied  to  this  disease  is  misleading,  since  in  most 
cases  no  canker,  i.e.,  no  open  wound,  is  produced.  If  the 
tree  is  killed  outright  the  bark  remains  quite  smooth  and 
unbroken. 

This  disease  was  first  recorded  in  Ceylon  in  1903.  Since 
then  it  has  been  found  in  South  India,  Burma,  and  Java. 
As  it  is  identical  with  cocoa  canker,  it  will  no  doubt 
ultimately  be  found  to  occur  in  all  cocoa-growing  coun- 
tries. According  to  the  present  records  it  has  not  been 
detected  in  Malaya,  but  several  of  the  accounts  of  Hevea 
disease  in  that  country  suggest  that  it  occurs  there,  but 
has  not  been  recognized  as  such. 

The  fungus  which  causes  the  disease  (Phytophthora 
Faberi,  Maubl.)  has  been  found  to  attack  every  part  of 
the  tree  except  the  leaves.  It  is  responsible  fo<r  the  rot 
of  the  pods,  when,  in  a  wet  season,  the  fruits  turn  black 
and  do  not  dehisce,  but  remain  for  a  long  time  attached 
to  the  branches.  From  the  fruits  it  often  passes  to  the 
green  shoots  and  kills  them  back,  or  it  attacks  the  leaf- 
stalks and  causes  extensive  defoliation.  The  attack  on 
the  leaf-stalk  is  usually  indicated  by  the  appearance  of  a 
dark  brown  or  blackish  ring  on  the  stalk,  after  which 
the  leaf  disarticulates.  An  outbreak  of  pod  disease  is 
frequently  followed  by  general  recrudescence  of  stem 


RUBBER  603 

canker,  and  there  appears  to  be  no  doubt  that  reinfection 
of  the  stems  takes  place  largely  by  means  of  spores  from 
the  diseased  pods. 

The  external  signs  of  canker  on  the  stem  are  at  first 
very  slight;  the  bark  may  be  a  little  darker  over  the 
diseased  spot.  In  more  advanced  stages  a  red-brown 
liquid  may  exude,  which  dries  in  small  streaks  on  the 
bark.  But  the  disease  is  unmistakeable  as  soon  as  the 
bark  is  scraped.  Then,  instead  of  a  green  layer  under- 
lying the  corky  bark,  one  meets  with  a  black  layer,  and 
if  that  is  cut  away  the  cortex,  instead  of  being  white,  or 
yellowish,  or  cleared,  is  found  to  be  a  dirty  red,  which 
rapidly  darkens  to  claret  colour.  If  the  whole  of  the 
diseased  cortex  be  laid  bare  it  will  usually  be  found  to 
be  bordered  by  a  black  line.  There  is  an  earlier  stage 
than  this,  in  which  the  diseased  cortex  is  not  claret- 
coloured.  When  first  attacked  it  is  greyish-yellow,  and 
appears  sodden.  But  even  in  this  stage  it  is  bordered 
by  a  black  line,  and  the  layer  immediately  beneath  the 
outer  brown  bark  is  black. 

Cankered  bark  has  a  peculiar  smell  which  soon  attracts 
boring  beetles,  particularly  a  small  brown  beetle  about 
the  size  of  a  shot-hole  borer.  Numerous  specimens  of 
damage  to  Hevea  supposed  to  be  caused  by  borers  are 
sent  in  for  examination,  but  in  practically  all  cases  it 
turns  out  that  the  tree  has  been  first  attacked  by  either 
canker  o<r  pink  disease. 

The  disease  begins  in  the  outer  layer  of  the  cortex  and 
gradually  penetrates  to  the  cambium,  at  the  same  time 
extending  up  and  down  and  round  the  stem.  It  may 
penetrate  completely  through  the  cortex,  and  spread  so 
rapidly  that  the  tree  is  dead  in  a  few  weeks.  In  such  a 
case  the  bark  is  usually  smooth  and  unbroken,  and  does 
not  exhibit  any  of  the  phenomena  which  pass  under  the 
name  of  canker  in  other  trees.  There  is  generally  a 
copious  exudation  of  the  brown  liquid,  and  the  tree  is 
soon  riddled  by  borers. 

Canker  at  the  collar  of  the  tree  is  equally  disastrous. 
In  that  situation  the  disease  has  usually  obtained  a  good 
hold  before  it  is  discovered.  It  kills  the  cortex  all  round 
the  base  of  the  stem,  along  the  lateral  roots,  and  down 
the  tap  root. 


604  RUBBER 

At  the  present  time  in  Ceylon  the  general  course  of 
the  disease  is  less  serious  than  in  the  cases  just  referred 
to.  In  the  great  majority  of  cases  the  fungus  does  not 
penetrate  completely  through  the  cortex,  but  stops  after 
advancing  partly  through,  and  the  diseased  tissue  is  then 
cut  off  from  the  surrounding  healthy  cortex  by  a  layer 
of  cork  cells.  The  patch  of  diseased  tissue  dries  up,  and 
forms  a  scale  which  can  be  easily  detached.  Underlying 
this  scale  one  finds  healthy  laticiferous  cortex.  The 
scales  are  frequently  lenticular,  and  if  the  fungus  has 
penetrated  to  the  wood  in  the  middle  of  the  patch,  they 
leave  a  hole  extending  to  the  wood  when  they  are 
removed. 

This  difference  in  the  course  of  the  disease  is  probably 
to  be  attributed  only  to  climatic  conditions.  There  does 
not  appear  to  be  any  other  reason  why  the  disease  should 
cease  to  be  active.  In  a  very  wet  season  the  more  serious 
form  of  the  disease  would  probably  be  the  most  common. 

Formerly  it  was  advised  that  all  cankered  cortex  should 
be  cut  out.  Owing  to  the  damage  caused  by  that  treat- 
ment on  the  exploitable  part  of  the  tree  (canker  most 
often  occurs  within  4  ft.  of  the  ground),  it  has  now  been 
modified  in  imitation  of  what  so  frequently  occurs 
naturally.  The  diseased  part  is  scraped  or  cut  away  so 
as  to  remove  most  of  the  cankered  bark,  the  cutting 
being  continued  until  latex  begins  to  appear  in  minute 
drops.  This  is  a  sign  that  the  limit  of  the  diseased  part 
is  being  reached,  as  the  cankered  cortex  does  not  yield 
latex.  The  remainder  of  the  diseased  cortex  is  then  left 
to  dry  up  and  scale  out.  Of  course,  if  the  disease  has 
penetrated  to  the  wood  the  whole  of  the  cankered  cortex 
is  cut  out. 

Old  scales  of  canker,  where  the  disease  has  not  been 
discovered  prior  to  the  scaling  out,  should  be  removed. 
Canker  often  begins  anew  behind  these  scales. 

Spraying  with  Bordeaux  mixture  has  been  advised  as 
a  preventive  of  canker,  but  hitherto  the  disease  has  not 
been  thought  sufficiently  serious  to  warrant  its  adoption. 
Unfortunately,  as  is  well  known,  the  presence  of  copper 
or  copper  salts  in  rubber  tends  to  produce  tackiness,  and 
it  would  therefore  appear  that  Bordeaux  mixture  cannot 


RUBBER  605 

be  applied  to  trees  in  tapping.  It  has  been  recently 
stated  that  there  is  no  reason  why  Bordeaux  mixture 
should  be  recommended,  since  lime-sulphur  mixture  is 
free  from  that  objection  and  equally  serviceable. 

But  the  results  cf  all  experimental  work  available  prove 
that  lime-sulphur  mixture  is  not  toxic  to  Phytophthora, 
Whether  the  Phytophthora  Faberi  will  prove  an  excep- 
tion remains  to  be  demonstrated.  Experiments  in  spray- 
ing with  Bordeaux  mixture  were  carried  out  on  twenty- 
rive  trees  at  Peradeniya,  the  rubber  subsequently  collected 
being  made  up  in  biscuits.  The  amount  of  copper  in  the 
biscuits  made  immediately  after  the  spraying  was  very 
small,  and  none  of  the  biscuits  made  during  the  next  six 
months  turned  tacky.  It  is  intended  to  repeat  this  experi- 
ment, and  it  is  hoped  that  other  experiment  stations  will 
do  the  same. 

Almost  as  serious  as  canker  from  the  tapping  stand- 
point is  the  formation  of  nodules  or  burrs  on  the  stem. 
As  far  as  is  known  at  present,  these  are  not  attributable 
to  either  insect  or  fungus  agency.  They  occur  on  un- 
tapped as  well  as  on  tapped  trees,  and  are  most  numerous 
on  trees  which  have  been  tapped  with  a  pricker.  The 
lower  part  of  the  stem  may  become  thickly  covered 
with  large  excrescences,  so  that  any  regular  tapping  is 
impossible. 

The  commonest  form  of  nodule  in  Ceylon  begins  as  a 
small  sphere  or  cylinder  of  wood  in  the  middle  of  the 
cortex.  Its  nucleus  consists  of  a  small  group  of  brown 
cells.  A  cambium,  quite  distinct  from  the  main  cambium 
of  the  stem,  develops  round  this  group  of  cells,  and  then 
proceeds  to  build  wood  round  them.  As  the  nodule 
increases  in  size  it  develops  points  directed  inwards,  which 
ultimately  unite  with  the  main  wood  of  the  stem.  These 
nodules  are  easily  removed  when  they  are  small  before 
they  have  become  united  to  the  main  wood. 

If  several  of  these  nodules  arise  close  together  they 
may  fuse  and  form  a  plate.  But  the  formation  of  plates 
often  takes  place  in  a  different  manner.  Instead  of  a 
group,  more  or  less  spherical  or  cylindrical,  of  brown 
cells,  the  nucleus  of  a  plate  is  a  sheet  of  such.  These 
sheets  may  occasionally  be  met  with  in  the  middle  of 


606  RUBBER 

apparently  healthy  cortex;  they  are  pale  yellowish-brown, 
sometimes  continuous  for  several  inches,  but  often  inter- 
rupted here  and  there  to  form  a  netted  or  perforated 
plate.  If  a  cambium  is  developed  round  such  a  brown 
sheet  a  plate  of  wood  is  produced.  These  plates  are 
distinguished  from  those  introduced  from  small  nuclei  by 
their  enormous  extension  as  compared  with  their  thick- 
ness. They  may  be  2  or  3  ft.  in  length,  while  only  about 
J  in.  thick. 

The  cores  of  wood  which  form  the  bulk  of  the  nodule 
vary,  according  to  the  size  of  the  latter,  from  spheres  the 
size  of  a  pea  to  roughly  spherical  lumps  about  4  in.  in 
diameter,  or  plates  up  to  4  or  5  ft.  long  and  i  ft.  in 
breadth,  which  completely  cover  one  side  of  the  stem. 
The  cortex  which  overlies  large  nodules  usually  splits. 
On  badly  affected  trees  a  crop  of  small  nodules  is 
frequently  found  surrounding  the  old. 

Nodules  are  easily  removable  in  their  early  stages. 
They  are  then  embedded  in  the  cortex,  and  shell  out 
readily,  leaving  a  layer  of  laticiferous  tissue  overlying  the 
main  wood  of  the  stem.  The  removal  of  large  nodules 
usually  entails  the  destruction  of  this  underlying  lati- 
ciferous tissue  and  the  consequent  production  of  a  large 
open  wound. 

The  cause  of  these  nodules  has  not  yet  been  ascertained. 
They  have  been  attributed  to  dormant  buds,  injuries 
caused  by  carts,  etc.,  and  previous  attacks  of  canker, 
none  of  which  theories  can,  if  true,  have  any  but  a  very 
limited  application.  In  the  vast  majority  of  cases  there 
is  no  evidence  of  anything  of  the  kind.  Bateson  has 
recently  announced  that  the  brown  cells  include  latex 
tubes,  and  this  has  been  confirmed  by  Mr.  G.  Bryce,  who 
is  now  investigating  this  problem  in  Ceylon.  It  is  hoped 
that  the  investigations  now  in  progress  will  throw  further 
light  on  the  subject. 

Another  phenomenon  which  has  not  yet  been  traced 
to  fungus  agency  is  the  decay  of  the  tapped  cortex;  that 
is,  the  thin  layer  of  original  cortex  which  is  left  overlying 
the  cambium.  This  decay  occurs  in  wet  weather,  usually 
in  the  North-east  Monsoon,  October-November.  It  is 
especially  common  on  trees  which  are  tapped  for  the  first 


RUBBER  607 

time  during  those  months.  The  decaying  patches  usually 
run  vertically,  and  first  appear  on  the  exposed  cortex 
within  an  inch  of  the  tapping  cut.  Narrow  sunken 
vertical  lines  are  seen  above  the  tapping  cut,  and  if  the 
thin  layer  of  original  cortex  is  cut  away  a  narrow  black 
streak  is  found  extending  into  the  wood.  If  the  weather 
continues  wet  the  black  patches  extend  upwards  and 
downwards,  and  at  the  same  time  increase  in  width;  and 
if  a  number  of  them  have  arisen  close  together  they  may 
coalesce,  so  that  a  wide  horizontal  strip  of  renewing  bark 
is  destroyed.  More  usually,  however,  a  number  of 
parallel  vertical  wounds  are  formed.  When  dry  weather 
sets  in  this  decay  stops  and  the  wounds  begin  to  heal  up; 
but  the  renewal  is,  in  any  case,  rough,  and,  where  several 
wounds  have  coalesced,  so  much  cortex  is  destroyed  that 
renewal  cannot  be  completed  for  many  years. 

This  decay  of  the  tapped  surface  is  often  attributed 
to  bad  tapping.  It  is,  however,  distinguished  by  the  fact 
that  the  wounds  are  vertical,  whereas  tapping  wounds 
are  usually  horizontal.  Moreover,  tapping  wounds  extend 
to  the  wood,  while  in  the  case  now  discussed  a  thin  layer 
of  dead  cortex  is  left  overlying  the  wound,  and  may  be 
detected  on  close  examination  six  months  afterwards. 

Inoculations  with  various  organisms  found  in  these 
decaying  patches  in  Ceylon  have  failed  to  reproduce  this 
effect.  In  Java  it  is  attributed  to  canker  (Phytophthora 
Faberi),  but  we  have  not  been  able  to  obtain  any  evidence 
of  that. 

A  method  of  treatment  which  is  said  to  have  proved 
successful  in  Java  is  now  being  tried  in  Ceylon.  As  soon 
as  the  narrow  vertical  lines  are  observed  the  tree  is  put 
out  of  tapping.  The  affected  tapping  surface  is  then 
washed  every  four  or  five  days  with  a  50  per  cent,  solution 
of  carbolineum  plantarium.  According  to  the  reports 
from  Java,  the  tree  can  be  tapped  again  after  about  four 
weeks.  If  a  large  patch  has  decayed,  the  dead  cortex  is 
cut  out  before  treatment  with  carbolineum. 


ON    SOME   ANIMAL   PESTS    OP    THE    HEVEA  RUBBER 

TREE. 

By  E.  ERNEST  GREEN,  F.E.S.,  F.Z.S. 
Late   Government  Entomologist,   Ceylon. 

I  PROPOSE  in  this  paper  to  confine  my  remarks  to  the 
animal  pests  of  the  Hevea  rubber  tree,  but  of  these  I 
can  speak  (from  actual  experience)  of  such  only  as  occur 
in  Ceylon,  where,  during  a  residence  of  over  thirty  years, 
I  turned  my  attention  to  entomology  in  general  and 
economic  entomology  in  particular. 

The  plantation  rubber  industry  is  one  of  comparatively 
recent  development.  In  Ceylon  there  are  few  rubber 
plantations  of  over  ten  years'  standing,  and  I  think  that 
I  am  correct  in  stating  that  Ceylon  planters  were  among 
the  first — if  not  the  first — to  give  serious  attention  to  the 
systematic  cultivation  of  this  product. 

General  experience  teaches  us  that  an  introduced  plant, 
and  especially  one  that  may  be  described  as  a  forest  tree, 
usually  commences  its  career  free  from  pests  of  any  kind, 
unless  such  have  been  introduced  with  it.  But  gradually, 
as  time  goes  on,  it  acquires  a  fresh  series  of  enemies,  the 
number  of  which  is  likely  to  increase  year  by  year. 
Certain  insects  that  are  more  or  less  omnivorous  will  be 
the  first  to  attack  the  new  plant.  Others  that  have  been 
subsisting  upon  allied  plants  of  older  standing  in  the 
country  will  find  that  the  newcomer  will  serve  their 
requirements  equally  well,  and  possibly  better,  inasmuch 
as  they  will  tap  a  large  source  of  food  supply  with  few 
rivals  in  the  field.  A  species  that  may  have  been  of  no 
economic  importance  in  its  original  habitat  may,  under 
the  stimulus  of  new  and  favourable  conditions,  develop 
into  a  serious  pest.  It  is  this  possibility  that  makes  it 
dangerous  to  neglect  any  pest,  however  trivial  it  may 
appear  to  be  at  the  time. 

I    think    there    is    no    doubt   that    tlie    Hevea    tree    is 


RU15B1'  R  609 

to  a  large  extent  protected  from  insect  attack  by  the 
copious  flow  of  viscid  latex  that  exudes  from  the  slightest 
wound  to  the  cortex.  Small  insects  that  rashly  try  to 
penetrate  the  stem  are  either  engulfed  in  this  fluid  or 
repelled  from  further  attempts  in  that  direction.  Dr. 
Wurth,  experimenting  with  Xyleborus  coffea?  (one  of  the 
so-called  "  shot-hole  borers  ")  in  Java,  placed  some  of 
the  beetles  on  a  green  Hevea  twig,  and  has  described  the 
results  as  follows:  "Most  of  the  beetles  began  boring 
at  once,  but  the  hole  was  scarcely  half  a  millimetre  deep 
before  a  drop  of  latex  appeared,  which  coagulated,  and 
thereby  stuck  the  beetle  fast  and  killed  it.  In  a  short 
time  there  were  more  than  thirty  beetles  fast,  and 
looked  as  though  they  had  been  caught  on  a  limed  stick." 

Sucking  insects,  however,  drawing  their  nourishment 
from  the  sap  of  the  plant,  are  able  to  reach  their  objective 
without  interference  with  the  laticiferous  vessels.  Coccidse, 
for  instance,  possess  hair-like  haustella  which  they  are 
able  to  introduce  into  the  tissues  of  the  plant,  and  to 
guide  in  any  desired  direction  to  a  distance  considerably 
longer  than  their  own  bodies. 

This  comparative  immunity  does  not  extend  to  the 
foliage  of  the  plant  where  the  latex  is  greatly  reduced  in 
quantity.  Nor  is  it  proof  against  the  larger  animals. 
Indeed,  the  latex  itself  appears  to  be  the  principal  attrac- 
tion in  some  cases.  It  might  be  thought  that  a  fluid 
which,  when  coagulated,  is  transformed  into  solid  rubber 
would  seriously  inconvenience  the  internal  economy  of 
any  animal.  But  this  does  not  appear  to  be  the  case. 
Possibly  the  digestive  fluids  prevent  coagulation  or  alter 
the  substance  in  such  a  manner  as  to  render  it  digestible. 
I  have  been  credibly  informed,  though  I  am  not  in  a 
position  to  vouch  for  the  fact,  that  even  man  himself 
may  imbibe  considerable  quantities  of  rubber  latex  with 
impunity. 

By  far  the  greater  proportion  of  insects  that  are  known 
to  attack  the  Hevea  tree  are  really  secondary  pests,  i.e., 
pests  that  follow  upon  a  diseased  or  unhealthy  condition 
of  the  tree  resulting  in  a  diminution  or  complete  cessation 
of  the  protective  latex.  In  this  connection  I  speak  of 
the  latex  as  "  protective,"  not  that  I  wish  to  assert  that 


6lO  RUBBER 

this  is  its  sole  or  even  chief  function.  I  am  aware  that 
several  theories  have  been  propounded  to  explain  the 
function  of  the  laticiferous  system.  It  is  considered  by 
some  authorities  to  be  of  an  excretory  nature;  while 
others  believe  that  it  is  in  some  way  concerned  in  the 
storage  of  reserve  food  for  the  plant.  But  I  do  maintain 
that  it  has  a  distinct  protective  value. 

The  fact  that  many  of  the  recorded  enemies  of  Hevea 
are  secondary  pests  does  not  lessen  their  importance. 
They  may  complete  the  destruction  of  a  tree  that  would 
otherwise  have  recovered  from  the  original  disease. 

It  must  also  be  understood  that  some  of  the  various 
insects  recorded  as  pests  of  Hevea  are  probably  casuals. 
Every  insect  that  is  found  resting  on  the  stem  of  a  rubber 
tree,  or  even  lurking  in  the  neighbourhood,  is  looked 
upon  with  suspicion,  and  is  liable  to  be  condemned 
without  further  investigation.  Our  catalogue  of  rubber 
pests,  comparatively  small  as  it  is,  would  be  considerably 
reduced  were  the  names  of  all  such  casuals  eliminated. 

MAMMALS. 

Animal  pests  of  Hevea  are  to  be  found  amongst  both 
the  higher  and  lower  orders  of  the  animal  kingdom — 
\he  vertebrates  and  invertebrates.  Amongst  the  former 
must  be  reckoned  such  beasts  as  elephants,  cattle,  deer, 
£oats,  pigs,  hares,  porcupines,  and  rats. 

In  Ceylon,  stray  cattle  and  goats  owned  by  native 
neighbours  are  a  grievous  nuisance,  and  are  responsible 
for  much  damage  to  young  plantations.  These  animals, 
having  no  proper  grazing  ground,  are  turned  out  at  night 
to  forage  for  themselves.  They  browse  along  the  road- 
sides (to  the  inconvenience  and  danger  of  motorists)  and 
wander  into  the  neighbouring  clearings,  wrhere  they  will 
experiment  with  any  plant  that '  comes  in  their  way. 
Besides  injury  to  rubber  nurseries  by  trampling  over 
the  seedlings,  they  will  break  off,  or  even  pull  up,  the 
young  plants,  and  will  devour  the  foliage  of  well- 
established  trees. 

Wild  deer  from  the  jungles  will  invade  a  clearing  and 
behave  in  very  much  the  same  way  as  their  domestic 
relatives.  They  have  also  been  known  to  tear  off  strips 


RUBBER  6ll 

of  bark,  apparently  to  refresh  themselves  with  the  result- 
ing latex.  The  only  adequate  defence  against  these 
larger  nocturnal  marauders  lies  in  the  liberal  employment 
of  barbed  wire,  with  which  all  properly  conducted 
plantations  should  be  entirely  enclosed,  entrance  to  the 
fields  being  preferably  dependent  upon  rough  step- 
ladders.  Gates  are  too  apt  to  be  left  open  by  careless 
pedestrians. 

In  the  Belgian  Congo,  goats,  antelopes,  and  wild  pigs 
invade  the  plantations  and  strip  the  bark  from  Hevea 
trees. 

Barbed  wire  is  of  no  use  against  the  smaller  mammals, 
amongst  which  the  porcupine  may  be  reckoned  one  of 
the  most  troublesome  enemies  of  the  rubber  planter. 
This  animal  simply  revels  in  the  succulent  bark  of  the 
rubber  tree.  The  amount  of  damage  that  a  single 
.porcupine,  coming  night  after  night,  can  effect  is 
astonishing.  I  have  seen  the  bark  more  or  less  com- 
pletely stripped  from  the  stems  of  three-  and  four-year-old 
trees,  from  ground  level  up  to  a  height  of  about  2  ft. 
If,  as  is  often  the  case,  the  injury  extends  all  round  the 
stem  the  tree  naturally  dies,  the  circulation  of  sap  being 
completely  interrupted.  If  a  small  area  of  bark  on  one 
side  escapes  destruction  the  tree  may  continue  to  struggle 
along  in  a  half-starved  condition,  but  will  seldom  fully 
recover.  Such  invalid  trees  are  only  taking  nourishment 
that  might  be  more  usefully  employed  by  their  healthy 
neighbours,  and  are  best  out  of  the  way.  They  also  form 
a  nidus  for  wood-boring  insects  of  all  kinds. 

The  porcupine  is  one  of  the  wiliest  of  animals  and  most 
difficult  to  circumvent.  You  may  sit  up  with  a  gun  night 
after  night,  but  the  animal  keeps  out  of  your  way,  and 
chooses  some  other  spot  for  his  depredations.  He  laughs 
at  any  ordinary  trap,  and  has  a  keen  nose  to  detect 
poisoned  baits.  The  Cingalese  villager  has  more  success 
He  is  an  adept  at  setting  spring  guns,  his  inborn  know 
ledge  of  tracking  enabling  him  to  place  these  in  the  bes/ 
possible  positions.  A  porcupine  that  had  been  ravaging 
my  garden  for  weeks,  and  that  had  defied  all  attempts 
upon  its  life,  fell  a  victim  the  very  first  night  after  one 
of  these  native  sportsmen  had  been  called  in.  But  spring 


6l2  RUBBER 

guns   are   dangerous   weapons   to   play   with,    and   many 
regrettable  accidents  have  occurred  through  their  use. 

Hares  have  been  accused  of  biting  off  the  heads  of 
young  rubber  plants.  Damage  of  this  kind  is  usually 
confined  to  nurseries,  and  may  be  prevented  by  enclosing 
the  nursery  plots  with  wire  netting. 

The  bandicoot  also  is  a  troublesome  pest.  This  huge 
rat,  with  its  powerful  chisel-like  teeth,  will  gnaw  through 
a  rubber  stump  an  inch  or  more  in  diameter.  An  example 
of  its  work  that  came  under  my  observation  was  a  young 
Hevea  tree,  measuring  4^  in.  in  circumference,  which  had 
been  completely  severed  at  the  base,  the  exposed  parts 
of  the  wood  showing  the  characteristic  marks  of  the 
animal's  teeth  very  clearly.  The  correspondent  who  sent 
me  this  specimen  (which  was  apparently  one  of  many) 
gave  me  the  following  account  of  the  modus  operandi  of 
the  animal:  "The  bandicoot  always  scoops  out  a  hole- 
at  one  side  of  the  rubber  plant,  and  gnaws  away  the 
tender  root  as  deeply  as  possible — that  is,  as  far  down  the 
root  as  he  can  get — and  he  invariably  gnaws  the  woody 
part  of  the  root.  The  plant  then  falls  to  the  ground, 
when  the  animal  can  get  at  the  tender  bark  above." 
From  this  account  it  would  appear  that  the  animal 
deliberately  fells  the  tree  in  order  to  feed  upon  the  tender 
bark  that  would  otherwise  be  out  of  its  reach.  Danysz's 
virus  was  tried  without  any  visible  result. 

On  some  plantations,  where  porcupines  and  bandicoots 
are  prevalent,  it  has  been  found  necessary  to  protect  each 
individual  tree  by  wrapping  wire  netting  round  the  base 
of  the  stem — an  expensive  remedy.  With  rubber  prices 
at  their  present  low  level  it  is  necessary  to  cut  down 
expenditure  by  every  possible  means,  and  some  cheaper 
method  of  protecting  the  rubber  stems  would  be  wel- 
comed. Various  patent  mixtures  have  been  tried  without 
success  (some  of  them  with  positive  harm).  Possibly  the 
following  extract  from  "  The  Yearbook  of  the  United 
States  Department  of  Agriculture  "  (1909)  may  afford  a 
solution  of  the  difficulty:  "  During  the  last  year  the  lime- 
and-sulphur  wash,  which  for  a  number  of  years  has  been 
employed  to  prevent  damage  to  trees  by  the  San  Jose 
scale,  was  tried  with  great  success  in  several  localities 


RUBBER 


as  a  protection  for  orchard  trees  against  the  attacks  of 
rabbits.  The  remedy  is  cheap,  and,  as  a  rule,  a  single 
treatment  in  the  fall  appears  to  protect  trees  for  the  entire 
winter."  The  lime-and-sulphur  mixture  may  be  prepared 
by  boiling  together  3  Ib.  of  quicklime,  3  Ib.  of  flowers  of 
sulphur,  and  6  gallons  of  water  until  the  amount  of  the 
liquid  is  reduced  to  2  gallons.  For  spraying  the  foliage 
of  plants  this  mixture  is  diluted  with  100  parts  of  water, 
but,  as  a  protection  against  rats  and  porcupines,  it  should 
be  applied  as  a  paint  of  about  the  density  of  whitewash. 

Rats  and  mice  must  be  included  in  our  catalogue  of 
pests,  inasmuch  as  they  occasionally  dig  up  and  carry 
off  seed  in  newly  planted  nurseries  to  feed  upon  the  oily 
kernels.  They  may  also  be  troublesome  in  clearings 
planted  with  seed  at  stake.  Mr.  R.  Dupont,  writing  from 
Seychelles,  informs  me  that  rats  give  trouble  in  those 
islands  by  eating  the  bark  of  a  considerable  number  of 
seedling  plants. 

Wild  pig  have  been  known  to  raid  the  nursery  beds 
for  the  same  purpose.  Both  wild  pig  and  hares  are  said 
to  do  some  damage  by  destroying  seedlings  in  the  neigh- 
bourhood of  jungle  in  Java.  In  places  where  these 
animals  are  numerous  extra  attention  must  be  paid  to  the 
fencing.  Barbed  wire  must  be  reinforced  with  strong 
galvanized  wire  netting. 

I  am  indebted  to  Mr.  H.  C.  Pratt  for  some  valuable 
notes  on  pests  of  the  rubber  tree  in  the  Federated  Malay 
States.  In  addition  to  the  animals  already  mentioned, 
planters  in  Malaya  have  to  contend  with  wild  elephants 
and  monkeys.  Of  the  former  Mr.  Pratt  writes: 
;'  Elephants  have  caused  considerable  damage  in  Perak, 
moving  in  herds  and  doing  their  work  at  night.  As  a 
general  rule,  on  well-kept  plantations  they  do  not  enter 
the  estate  very  far,  keeping  along  that  portion  bordering 
the  jungle.  They  pull  up  young  trees  up  to  2  years  of 
age  and  eat  the  roots,  particularly  the  tap  root.  If  an 
estate  is  allowed  to  go  back  and  become  overgrown  with 
secondary  jungle  they  will  destroy  most  of  the  rubber. 
The  only  remedy  is  to  organize  a  proper  drive,  which  is 
now  being  carried  out  by  the  Government." 

The   same   observer  remarks   that  the   damage   caused 


614  RUBBER 

by  monkeys  is  purely  wanton.  "  They  enter  an  estate, 
and  break  off  the  young  shoots  and  small  branches  of 
younger  trees  and  then  clear  back  to  the  jungle.  No 
efficient  remedy  is  known." 

MOLLUSCS. 

Coming  down  in  the  scale  of  life,  I  must  record  the 
objectionable  habits  of  certain  Molluscs — species  of 
slugs.  These  creatures  were  first  brought  to  my  notice 
in  1905,  when  specimens  were  submitted  to  me  with  the 
complaint  that  they  frequented  recently  tapped  Hevea 
trees,  and  imbibed  the  latex  as  it  oozed  from  the  cuts. 
This  habit  resulted  in  an  appreciable  diminution  of  the 
scrap  rubber  that  could  be  collected  after  tapping.  It 
seemed  hardly  credible  at  that  time  that  any  animal  could 
digest  liquid  rubber.  But  some  of  the  living  slugs  were 
provided  with  a  saucer  of  rubber  milk,  and  quickly  proved 
the  truth  of  the  assertion  by  commencing  to  lap  it  up. 
One  of  them  drank  for  about  ten  minutes.  It  is  quite 
conceivable  that  many  pounds  of  rubber  may  be  lost  in 
this  manner.  The  fact  that  the  slugs  suffered  no  incon- 
venience from  this  diet  lends  colour  to  the  theory  that 
Hevea  latex  contains  no  rubber  as  such,  but  that  the 
caoutchouc  is  elaborated  only  at  a  later  stage — during 
the  process  of  coagulation.  The  digestive  juices  of  the 
animal  possibly  prevent  this  elaboration.  Little  more 
was  heard  of  this  slug  for  several  years,  when  it  re- 
appeared— in  a  different  role — as  a  serious  pest  of  young 
rubber  trees  by  systematically  eating  off  the  growing 
points.  When  the  terminal  bud  is  destroyed  the  plant 
sends  out  a  series  of  fresh  shoots  immediately  below  the 
point  of  injury.  These,  in  their  turn,  are  eaten  off,  and 
fresh  efforts  are  made  by  the  plant,  only  to  be  foiled 
every  time  by  the  slug.  The  result  is  that  growth  is 
completely  checked  so  long  as  the  slugs  are  about.  If 
the  damage  is  allowed  to  continue  a  permanently  stunted 
habit  may  be  induced. 

The  particular  slug  that  is  responsible  for  this 
damage  in  Ceylon  has  been  identified  as  Marisella 
Dussumieri.  Its  habits  are  nocturnal.  During  the  day- 


RUBBER  615 

time  it  secretes  itself  under  clods  of  earth,  dead  leaves, 
amongst  grass  and  weeds,  or*  wherever  it  can  secure  shade 
and  damp.  It  comes  out  at  night  and  wanders  in  search 
of  food.  The  same  slug  has  been  observed  to  feed  upon 
renewing  bark,  especially  in  sheltered  situations.  The 
animal  is  of  a  yellowish-brown  or  olivaceous  colour, 
usually  mottled  with  dark  blotches.  It  belongs  to  the 
group  that  has  a  thin  shell  concealed  beneath  the  so-called 
"mantle."  The  specimens  that  came  under  my  observa- 
tion measured  about  3  in.  in  length;  but  in  India,  where 
it  also  occurs,  the  species  is  said  to  attain  a  length  of 
8  in. 

An  undetermined  slug  of  somewhat  similar  habits  has 
been  observed  in  the  Straits  Settlements,  where  it  is 
accused  of  gnawing  off  the  skin  of  seedling  plants  and 
also  of  injuring  the  foliage  by  eating  the  green 
parenchyma  and  the  epidermis,  leaving  only  the  skeleton 
of  the  leaf.  It  attacks  also  older  plants,  nibbling  the 
bark  and  biting  away  the  buds  as  they  appear. 

Professor  Newstead  found  a  large  flat  slug  (Veronicella 
virgata)  injuring  the.  foliage  of  Hevea  plants  in  Jamaica. 

Mr.  Wamnierman,  Entomologist  to  the  Department  of 
Agriculture,  Buitenzorg,  Java,  reports  that  slugs  (Par- 
marion  sp.)  are  found  drinking"  the  latex  on  rainy  days, 
both  in  Java  and  Sumatra. 

Measures  against  injury  by  slugs  must  be  prin- 
cipally preventive;  but  the  collection  and  destruction 
of  the  animals  themselves  should  not  be  neglected. 
Traps,  consisting  of  damp  sacking,  plantain  leaves,  etc., 
can  be  laid  on  the  ground  beneath  the  trees  to  provide 
shelter  for  the  slugs  during  the  heat  of  the  day.  These 
traps  should  be  examined  systematically  early  each  after- 
noon, and  the  slugs  collected  and  dropped  into  a  can  of 
salt  water.  By  searching  the  stems  of  the  trees  with  a 
lantern  just  after  dark  the  ascending  slugs  may  be  inter- 
cepted and  destroyed.  Poultry,  especially  ducks,  geese, 
and  turkeys,  are  very  useful  assistants  in  the  work  of 
destruction.  They  feed  readily  upon  the  slugs,  and  will 
search  amongst  the  grass  and  rubbish,  and  capture  many 
individuals  that  would  otherwise  escape  observation. 
The  most  important  of  preventive  measures  will  be  to 


6l6  RUBBER 

keep  a  clear  area  of  bare  soil  (swept  clean  of  all  rubbish) 
around  each  tree.  There  are  various  substances  that  may 
be  spread  on  the  ground  to  act  as  a  deterrent  against  the 
passage  of  the  slugs,  such  as  lime  and  soot.  But  these 
soon  lose  their  efficacy  in  rainy  weather,  which  is  exactly 
the  time  when  the  slugs  are  most  active.  They  depend, 
for  their  efficient  action,  upon  their  caustic  and  desiccating 
properties  respectively,  both  of  which  are  lost  after 
exposure  to  rain.  Moreover,  these  slugs  have  the  power 
of  secreting  copious  quantities  of  mucus,  from  a  special 
slime  gland  at  the  extremity  of  the  body,  which  assists 
them  to  rid  themselves  of  the  obnoxious  substance. 
Cinders,  owing  to  their  prickly  surface,  are  a  more 
efficient  protection.  Although  the  slug  is  provided  with 
eyes,  these  organs  are  of  a  rather  rudimentary  character, 
and  can  be  of  little  or  no  assistance  to  the  animal  in  its 
search  for  food.  Scent  is  almost  certainly  the  guiding 
sense.  Consequently,  a  protective  barrier  of  some 
strongly  smelling  substance  is  more  likely  to  turn  them 
aside  from  their  objective.  A  very  effective  deterrent 
can  be  made  by  damping  sawdust  with  crude  carbolic  acid 
or  phenyl.  Either  of  these  substances  may  be  spread 
on  the  ground  round  the  base  of  the  tree  to  be  protected. 
Another  plan  is  to  tie  cylinders  of  freshly  tarred  paper 
round  the  stem  of  each  tree.  The  paper  should  be  tarred 
on  the  outside  only,  and  its  lower  edge  should  be  covered 
up  with  earth  to  prevent  the  slugs  from  creeping  beneath 
the  paper.  Professor  Newstead,  in  his  report  on  the 
West  Indian  slug  of  similar  habits,  recommends  girdling 
the  trees  with  cotton-wool.  This  may  be  effective  while 
the  wool  remains  fresh,  but  the  first  tropical  shower 
would  reduce  it  to  a  pulpy  mass  that  would  present  no 
difficulty  to  the  ascent  of  the  slugs.  A  more  effective 
girdle  may  be  contrived  with  rough  coconut  fibre  steeped 
in  coal  tar. 

INSECTS. 

We  now  come  to  the  class  Insecta,  which  furnishes  by 
far  the  greater  number  of  the  pests  with  which  we  have 
to  deal.  The  several  orders  will  be  taken  separately. 


RUBBER  017 

Orthoptera. 

Various  grasshoppers  are  accused  of  nipping  off  the 
young  seedlings  in  the  nursery  beds.  Specimens  sub- 
mitted for  examination  proved  to  be  immature  Acridians, 
too  young  for  identification.  •  . 

The  "spotted  locust"  (Aularches  militaris}  occasion- 
ally appears  in  'enormous  numbers  in  certain  parts  of 
Ceylon,  and  attracts  attention  by  defoliating  various  trees 
planted  as  shade  for  cocoa.  Fortunately,  it  does  not 
often  directly  attack  cultivated  products,  but  an  instance 
has  been  reported  of  partial  defoliation  of  young  rubber 
plants.  Aularches  militaris  is  a  gaudily  coloured  insect 
and  can  scarcely  escape  observation,  with  its  yellow- 
spotted  wings  and  brilliant  red-and-black  body.  This 
locust  has  the  habit  of  congregating  in  vast  numbers  at 
certain  spots  to  deposit  their  eggs.  In  one  such  patch, 
about  4  yds.  square,  I  found  the  insects  completely 
covering  the  ground  to  a  depth  of  3  or  4  in.  The  soil 
beneath  them  was  closely  pitted  with  holes,  each  about 
3  in.  deep  and  \  in.  in  diameter.  In  these  holes  were 
masses  of  eggs  enclosed  in  a  frothy  covering.  This 
habit  affords  a  convenient  opportunity  for  taking  action 
against  the  pest.  When  the  locusts  are  crowded  together 
on  these  breeding  grounds  they  may  be  collected  and 
destroyed  with  the  greatest  ease  (as  they  make  no  effort 
to  escape).  The  simplest  method  is  to  sweep  them  into 
sacks,  which  may  then  be  sunk  under  water  until  the 
insects  are  dead.  Bags  made  of  coir  matting  are  most 
suitable,  as  they  admit  the  water  more  readily.  A  trial 
bag  filled  at  one  of  these  places  of  assembly  was  found 
to  weigh  106  Ib.  As  a  single  insect  weighs,  on  an 
average,  just  J  oz.,  this  bag  must  have  contained 
about  12,800  individuals,  allowing  6  Ib.  for  the  weight 
of  the  bag.  From  this  one  spot  twenty  such  bags 
could  have  been  filled  without  difficulty.  After  repeatedly 
clearing  away  and  destroying  the  insects  until  they  cease 
to  assemble  there,  the  ground  on  the  immediate  spot  and 
for  a  short  distance  all  round  should  be  broken  up  to  a 
depth  of  6  in.  and  quicklime  turned  in.  This  will  ensure 
the  almost  complete  destruction  of  the  brood.  The  mere 


6l8  RUBBER 

breaking  up  of  the  earth  would  probably  of  itself  prevent 
the  greater  number  of  the  eggs  from  hatching  out  by 
exposing  the  egg  masses  to  the  drying  action  of  the  air 
and  to  the  attacks  of  birds  and  predatory  insects,  such  as 
ants  and  beetles,  which  would  readily  feed  upon  them. 
For  the  smaller  species,  poisoned  baits,  composed  of  bran 
mixed  with  syrup  and  arsenic,  may  be  laid  in  the  area  to 
be  protected. 

The  Economic  Biologist  in  British  Guiana  (Mr.  G.  E. 
Bodkin)  has  recorded  an  Acridiid  (Tropidacris  cristata)  as 
destructive  to  the  foliage  of  Hevea.  Zonocerus  elegans 
and  Z.  variegatus  are  said  to  play  the  same  part  in  the 
Belgian  Congo. 

From  the  Straits  Settlements  we  have  records  of  three 
crickets  that  are  said  to  injure  rubber  plants.  Brachy- 
trypes  achatinus  saws  seedlings  right  through,  leaving 
a  stump  i  to  3  in.  high,  and  carries  off  the  tender  shoots 
to  its  burrow.  The  same  species  is  reported  from  the 
Federated  Malay  States  and  Sumatra,  in  both  of  which 
countries  it  is  accused  of  attacking  Hevea.  Gymnogryllus 
elegans  is  said  to  behave  in  the  same  manner  as  Brachy- 
trypes,  and  a  species  of  Cyrtacanthacris  "  chews  off  the 
tips  of  Para  rubber  plants  at  Singapore."  The  insects 
can  be  brought  to  the  surface  and  destroyed  by  pouring 
dilute  phenyl  into  their  burrows. 

In  Java  a  locust  (Cleandrus  sp.)  sometimes  splits  the 
young  stems  of  Hevea  for  the  purpose  of  depositing  its 
eggs  in  the  crevice  so  formed. 

Isoptera. 

Injury  to  Hevea  in  Ceylon  by  termites  is  not  very 
serious.  Here  they  are  mostly  secondary  pests.  I  have 
examined,  at  various  times,  small  plants  of  Hevea,  the 
death  of  which  has  been  attributed  to  the  so-called 
"  white  ants."  These  insects  have  been  found  at  the  tap 
roots,  the  cortex  of  which  has  certainly  been  devoured. 
In  other  plants  the  collar  has  been  the  point  of  attack. 
Older  plants,  and  even  well-established  trees,  have  been 
found  riddled  by  termites,  the  insects  (sometimes  Termes 
obscuriceps,  at  others  T.  redemanni  and  T.  Horni)  being 
taken  apparently  "  in  flagrante  delicto."  But  I  have 


RUBBER 


always  had  grave  doubts  as  to  the  part  the  termites  have 
played  in  the  injury.  The  species  concerned  are  mainly 
fungus-feeders.  They  attack  dead  and  diseased  wood 
and  vegetable  tissues  directly  such  material  has  been 
invaded  by  the  mycelium  of  any  fungus.  In  my  experi- 
ence, sound  wood  or  healthy  plants  are  seldom  if  ever 
attacked  by  any  of  the  three  species  that  I  have  men- 
tioned. In  every  case  of  injury  to  rubber  plants  or  trees 
that  I  have  examined  there  has  been  indubitable  evidence 
of  previous  invasion  by  some  parasitic  or  saprophytic 
fungus. 

A  single  instance  of  a  colony  of  Eutermes  inanis 
inhabiting  the  hollow  stem  of  a  rubber  tree  has  come  to 
my  notice.  The  insects  were  devouring  the  wood  inside, 
but  left  the  living  exterior  parts  alone.  The  original 
stem  of  the  tree  had  been  broken  off  by  the  wind;  and 
several  secondary  stems  had  been  thrown  up  from  the 
stump.  The  termites  were  occupying  a  cavity  in  the  old 
stem  at  the  base  of  the  new  growth.  At  my  recom- 
mendation the  nest  was  scooped  out,  and  the  cavity  was 
flooded  with  naphthalin  dissolved  in  petrol.  This  treat- 
ment proved  successful,  and  the  termites  vacated  the  tree. 

The  common  mound-building  termites  (Termes  rede- 
manni  and  T.  obscuriceps)  sometimes  construct  galleries 
and  screens  of  earth  over  the  stems  of  living  rubber  trees, 
but  this  need  cause  no  alarm  if  the  tree  is  sound  and 
healthy.  They  merely  eat  off  the  functionless  dead  outer 
bark,  leaving  the  stem  smooth  and  clean.  As  soon  as 
they  have  cleared  away  the  dry  outer  bark  the  insects 
will  desert  the  tree  of  their  own  accord.  But  if  their 
presence  on  the  stem  is  considered  undesirable,  it  may 
be  prevented  by  sprinkling  the  soil  around  the  base  of 
each  tree  with  a  mixture  of  refuse  petroleum  and  water, 
about  i  part  of  oil  to  20  of  water. 

The  evidence  against  the  notorious  T.  gestroi  is 
of  a  different  nature.  This  species  does  not  occur  in 
Ceylon,  and  its  work  has  not  come  under  my  direct 
observation;  but  it  is  a  serious  pest  in  the  Federated 
Malay  States,  and  in  Borneo,  Sumatra,  and  Java.  Mr. 
H.  C.  Pratt,  Government  Entomologist,  F.M.S.,  and 
Mr.  Towgood,  of  Kuala  Selangor,  have  given  us  some 


62O  RUBBER 

valuable  memoirs  on  the  subject,  and  it  is  to  their  writings 
that  I  am  indebted  for  my  information. 

It  appears  that  T.  gestroi  is  chiefly  dependent  upon 
dead  and  decaying  timber  for  its  maintenance,  but 
that — from  these  centres — it  will  extend  its  ravages  to 
living  trees  of  certain  species,  of  which  Hevea  is,  unfor- 
tunately, one.  Even  in  such  cases  it  attacks  only  the 
inert  heart-wood,  hollowing  out  the  larger  roots  and  the 
base  of  the  stem,  but  leaving  the  functioning  outer  tissues 
intact.  Damage  to  the  tree  is  consequently  the  result 
of  a  weakening  of  its  natural  support,  leaving  it  powerless 
to  resist  any  external  strains.  Affected  trees  are  broken 
off  or  overturned  by  the  slightest  excess  of  wind  pressure. 
The  only  fact  that  lends  some  supposition  to  a  theory  of 
primary  infection  by  fungus  is  that  a  certain  selective 
action  appears  to  occur,  individual  trees  being  neglected 
in  the  midst  of  thickly  infested  areas.  But  against  this 
suggestion  is  the  statement  that  the  bark  and  functioning- 
tissues  of  the  tree  remain  healthy,  even  when  the  heart- 
wood  has  been  more  or  less  completely  destroyed.  The 
extent  of  the  damage  that  can  be  effected  by  this  pest 
is  shown  by  a  statement  of  Mr.  Pratt,  who  reports  that 
within  a  certain  area  of  fifty  acres  70  per  cent,  of  the 
trees  had  been  attacked  by  T.  gestroi.  In  another  case, 
from  fifteen  to  twenty  trees  in  the  immediate  vicinity  of 
a  nest  had  been  destroyed.  The  work  of  T.  gestroi  is 
most  insidious,  the  trees  being  usually  injured  beyond 
recovery  before  there  are  any  outward  indications  of  the 
presence  of  the  enemy.  Queens  of  this  species  are  very 
rare,  or  extremely  difficult  to  find.  The  main  centre  of 
the  colony  is  usually  at  a  considerable  distance  from  the 
point  of  attack,  but  Pratt  has  shown  that  it  may  be  dis- 
covered by  following  up  the  galleries  of  the  insect,  which 
almost  invariably  lead  to  a  nest  in  some  decayed  log  or 
buried  stump.  Should  the  gallery  become  obliterated  in 
the  course -of  excavation,  its  direction  may  be  picked  up 
by  cutting  a  trench  at  right  angles  to  the  line.  The 
termites  will  then  construct  covered  ways  connecting  the 
severed  ends  of  the  passages.  When  the  headquarters 
are  discovered  the  nest  should  be  destroyed  by  fire.  The 
employment  of  a  fumigator  is  strongly  recommended. 


RUBBER  621 

This  machine  pumps  the  fumes  of  arsenic  and  sulphur 
into  the  galleries  of  the  termites.  A  source  of  infection 
having  been  located  in  some  decaying  log,  a  deep  trench 
is  dug  round  the  spot.  This  will  expose  the  efferent 
galleries,  which  are  said  to  be  of  a  lenticular  section  of 
over  i  in.  in  diameter  and  £  in.  high.  They  usually 
run  from  i  to  2  ft.  below  the  surface  of  the  ground.  The 
infested  log  is  first  dealt  with.  If  it  is  impracticable  to 
burn  it,  a  hole  should  be  bored  into  the  hollow  portion 
of  the  wood  and  the  deadly  fumes  pumped  into  it.  Exits 
from  which  smoke  emerges  should  be  blocked  with  clay. 
Should  the  log  be  a  large  one,  a  series  of  holes  must  be 
successively  bored  and  fumigated,  care  being  taken  to 
plug  up  the  previous  hole  before  making  a  fresh  one. 
Attention  must  next  be  given  to  the  efferent  galleries 
disclosed  on  the  outer  walls  of  the  trench,  and  the  fumes 
injected  into  these  one  by  one.  Wherever  the  smoke  is 
seen  to  escape — which  may  be  many  yards  away  from 
the  point  of  injection — such  exits  must  be  stopped  with 
earth  or  clay.  Living  rubber  trees  that  have  been  partially 
hollowed  out  by  the  insects  may  be  treated  in  the  same 
way.  Where,  from  the  nature  of  the  soil,  it  is  impossible 
to  trace  the  galleries,  deep  hoeing  of  the  infested  area 
has  been  recommended.  Infected  areas  may  be  isolated 
by  surrounding  them  with  a  4  ft.  trench.  It  would  appear 
that  the  insects  are  dependent  upon  dead  wood  for  their 
continued  existence.  In  the  absence  of  such  material 
they  may  subsist  for  a  time  in  the  living  trees,  but  will 
not  thrive  under  such  conditions,  and  will  eventually  die 
out.  It  is  consequently  most  important  to  rid  the  planta- 
tion of  fallen  timber  and  decaying  stumps  of  trees.  This 
may  not  be  practicable  in  heavily  timbered  new  clearings, 
but  should  be  the  object  at  which  to  aim.  The  early 
destruction  of  all  logs  found  to  contain  the  termites  is 
essential. 

In  Brazil,   Coptotermes  marabitanos  is  said  to  attack 
the  areas  of  wood  exposed  by  tapping  the  rubber  trees. 

Neuroptera. 

This  Order  can  scarcely  be  said  to  be  represented  in 
our  catalogue  of  rubber  pests,  but  I  have  a  record  of  a 


622  RUBBER 

species  of  Psocus  which  was  found  to  be  swarming  on 
some  sheet  rubber  on  its  arrival  in  Colombo  from  the 
Federated  Malay  States.  The  rubber  had  evidently  been 
packed  before  it  was  quite  dry,  wjth  the  result  that  the 
surface  was  covered  with  mould,  upon  which  the  small 
insects  were  feeding.  They  were  not  doing  any  actual 
injury,  but  their  presence  in  such  large  numbers  would 
probably  affect  the  market  value  of  the  rubber. 

Hymenoptera. 

The  ends  of  stumped  plants  are  very  frequently 
tunnelled  by  various  small  bees  and  wasps,  which 
habitually  choose  such  situations  for  the  construction  of 
their  nests.  Various  species  of  Ceratina  fill  these  tunnels 
with  cells  containing  a  mixture  of  pollen  and  honey. 
But  the  wasps  store  their  cells  with  paralysed  insects 
destined  for  the  nourishment  of  their  young.  Trypoxylon 
intrudens  provides  small  spiders,  and  Stigmus  niger 
employs  Aphides  for  the  purpose. 

When  a  plant  is  stumped  the  cut  end  usually  dies  back 
to  the  next  node,  from  which  the  new  shoots  will  be 
produced.  It  is  the  dead  pith  in  this  dry  portion  that 
attracts  the  insects.  They  will  not  burrow  into  living 
sappy  stems,  nor  will  they  enter  by  any  but  a  cut  or 
broken  surface.  It  is  possible  that  the  excavation  in  the 
dead  part  may  lead  to  an  extension  of  the  decay;  but 
this  has  not  been  proved.  Any  possible  danger  from  this 
cause  may  be  obviated  by  stumping  the  plant  immediately 
above  the  node,  leaving,  say,  half  an  inch  to  prevent 
chance  of  injury  to  the  axillary  buds.  There  would  then 
be  little  or  no  dead  wood  to  attract  the  insects.  Where 
this  precaution  has  not  been  taken,  the  terminal  dead 
parts  should  be  cut  or  broken  off  as  soon  as  they  are 
thoroughly  dry. 

The  deserted  tunnels  of  these  wasps  and  bees  are 
sometimes  tenanted  by  a  species  of  Thrips,  which  has 
consequently  been  regarded  with  suspicion.  But  this 
particular  species  is  quite  harmless,  and  may  indeed  be 
a  friend  rather  than  an  enemy.  It  is  an  insinuating  little 
creature,  and  penetrates  into  the  galleries  of  the  "  shot- 


RUBBER  623 

hole-borer "   of  the   tea  plant,    where   it   is   believed   to 
attack  the  young  larvae  of  the  beetle. 

Coleoptera. 

This  Order  of  insects,  containing  as  it  does  the  whole 
tribe  of  beetles,  provides  the  largest  number  of  names  on 
our  list. 

The  grubs  of  various  Melolonthidae  (Cockchafers)  attack 
the  roots  of  young  Hevea  plants.  Of  these,  the  larvae 
of  Lepidiota  pinguis  is  the  most  troublesome  in  Ceylon, 
and  is  sometimes  responsible  for  a  large  number  of 
vacancies  in  a  new  clearing.  It  is  a  large  white  grub, 
measuring  about  3  in.  in  length.  The  beetle,  which 
attains  a  large  size,  flies  at  dusk,  and  lays  its  eggs  just 
below  the  surface  of  the  ground.  The  newly  hatched 
larvae  burrow  down  into  the  soil  and  attack  the  roots  of 
the  neighbouring  plants.  The  insect  by  no  means 
confines  its  attention  to  Hevea  plants.  It  is  probably 
more  or  less  omnivorous.  It  was  at  one  time  a  notorious 
coffee  pest,  and  is  now  a  serious  enemy  of  cinnamon  in 
the  low-country  of  Ceylon.  Its  appearance  in  large 
numbers  in  rubber  clearings  is  probably  due  to  the  facility 
with  which  the  beetle  is  enabled  to  deposit  its  eggs  in 
the  newly  turned  soil  immediately  surrounding  the  young 
plants.  The  clean  weeding  of  clearings  also  tends  to 
concentrate  the  grubs  at  the  roots  of  the  rubber  plants. 
If  there  is  an  insufficiency  of  food  at  one  spot,  the  grubs 
will  come  up  to  the  surface  and  wander  to  adjoining 
plants.  The  tap  root  of  the  rubber  plant  is  often  eaten 
clean  off  to  within  an  inch  of  the  surface  of  the  soil.  One 
of  my  correspondents  informed  me  that  he  had  lost  3,000 
plants  in  a  single  clearing,  and  had  extracted  five  or  six 
of  the  grubs  from  each  hole.  I  have  received  no  reports 
of  damage  to  older  trees. 

Nitrate  of  soda  has  a  well-marked  effect  in  ridding  the 
soil  of  insects,  besides  being  a  useful  fertilizer.  It  may 
be  applied  at  the  rate  of  i  to  2  oz.  for  each  plant.  A 
correspondent  to  whom  I  recommended  this  treatment 
reported  that  the  grubs  quickly  deserted  the  hole's  treated 
with  this  substance.  "  Vaporite,"  a  patent  insecticide, 
40 


624  RUBBER 

has  a  similar  result,  but  must  not  be  allowed  to  come 
into  direct  contact  with  the  tender  roots. 

A  small  Rutelid  beetle  (Cingala  tenella)  perforates  the 
foliage  of  young  plants,  but  does  no  serious  damage. 

A  species  of  Oryctes  is  accused  of  attacking  the  foliage 
of  Hevea  in  Penang.  Of  an  allied  beetle  (Xylotrupes  sp.) 
Mr.  Pratt,  referring  to  Hevea  pests  in  the  Federated 
Malay  States,  writes  as  follows:  "  This  beetle  has  caused 
more  damage  to  young  plantations  than  any  other  insect 
pest.  Its  habits  are  peculiar.  As  soon  as  any  young- 
shoots  appear  on  newly  planted  stumps  these  are  bitten 
off,  and  such  repeated  attacks  eventually  render  the 
stump  quite  valueless.  A  '  supply  '  suffers  the  same  fate. 
So  extensive  is  the  damage  so  caused  that  I  have  seen 
300  acres  eighteen  months  old  without  a  green  leaf.  On 
another  occasion  1,000  acres  suffered  in  the  same  way. 
The  original  difficulty  was  to  find  the  cause  of  the  trouble, 
as  the  attacks  were  much  like  those  of  Brachytrypes 
achatinus.  It  was  eventually  found  through  shooting  a 
crow  within  the  crop  of  which  portions  of  the  beetle  were 
found,  while  attached  to  these  pieces  were  scraps  of 
coagulated  latex.  This  led  to  the  discovery  of  the  culprit. 
It  is  curious  that  over  the  affected  areas  not  a  single  beetle 
was  to  be  found  during  the  daytime,  and  long'  searches 
all  through  the  night  led  to  no  result.  The  beetles  were 
afterwards  found  resting  during  the  day  in  older  rubber 
surrounding  the  newly  planted  area,  or  in  jungle.  The 
attacks  are  easily  prevented  by  means  of  a  cylinder  made  of 
ordinary  newspaper  the  size  of  a  full  sheet.  These  cylinders 
are  about  6  in.  in  diameter,  the  height  of  a  newspaper, 
and  are  fastened  by  three  pins.  The  cylinders  are  placed 
over  the  stumps,  thus  forming  a  guard,  and  by  means 
of  three  thin  stakes  on  the  inside  they  are  fixed  in 
position."  The  symptoms  of  attack  must  be  very  similar 
to  those  caused  by  the  "rubber  slug"  (Mari&lla)  in 
Ceylon,  where  the  author  of  the  injury  similarly  defied 
detection  for  a  considerable  time. 

A  large  Elaterid  beetle  (Alaus  speciosus)  is  frequently 
found  resting  upon  Hevea  stems,  and  has  been  regarded 
with  suspicion.  It  is  probably  merely  a  casual  visitor. 
Living  specimens  imprisoned  with  sections  of  rubber 


RUBBER  625 

stems  made  no  attempt  to  feed  upon  the  bark.  It  must 
be  remembered,  however,  that  the  larvae  of  many 
Elaterids,  under  the  popular  name  of  "  wire-worms,"  are 
recognized  as  agricultural  pests  of  some  importance. 

In  the  Cerambycidae — or  Longicorns — we  have  at  least 
one  serious  pest.  This  is  the  large  and  handsome 
Batocera  rubra,  the  larva  of  which  tunnels  into  the  tap 
root  and  stems  of  well-grown  Hevea  trees.  The  insect 
is  indigenous  in  Ceylon,  but  has  only  recently  attracted 
attention  as  a  rubber  pest.  Isolated  cases  of  injury  by 
some  large  borer  have  been  reported  at  intervals  for  the 
last  seven  or  eight  years,  but  all  attempts  to  determine 
the  adult  insect  proved  unsuccessful  until  1912,  when  the 
species  was  finally  identified.  The  injury  may  take  two 
forms,  either  central  or  peripheral.  In  the  former  case 
the  centre  of  the  tap  root  is  hollowed  out,  and  the  tunnel 
may  extend  well  up  into  the  base  of  the  stem,  increasing 
in  diameter  as  the  grub  grows  larger.  In  the  second 
case  the  attack  is  from  the  outside,  usually  at  or  just 
below  ground  level.  Occasionally  the  point  of  entry  may 
occur  higher  up  on  the  stem.  Irregular  cavities  are  eaten 
through  the  bark  and  into  the  wood  of  the  tree.  Some- 
times the  injury  is  confined  to  the  outer  parts;  at  other 
times  a  tunnel  is  driven  right  into  the  heart  of  the  tree. 
It  is  possible  that  these  two  forms  of  injury  may  be  due 
to  the  work  of  two  distinct  species  of  beetles,  but  I  have 
been  unable  to  detect  any  difference  in  the  larvae.  The 
symptoms  of  attack  are  usually  obscure.  There  may  be 
a  gradual  loss  of  foliage,  but  this  is  not  readily  distin- 
guishable from  the  natural  periodic  defoliation.  When 
the  injury  is  below  ground  level,  the  first  intimation  may 
be  the  collapse  of  the  tree,  which  frequently  breaks  off 
at  a  point  a  few  inches  below  the  collar.  Or,  in  sheltered 
situations,  the  tree  may  gradually  die  and  dry  up.  When 
the  'Stem  is  attacked  from  the  outside,  at  or  above  the 
collar,  the  wound  may  be  discovered  by  an  oozing  of 
diseased  sap.  There  is  no*  very  noticeable  extrusion  of 
excreta,  much  of  this  matter  being  retained  in  the  tunnel. 
The  method  of  entry,  in  cases  of  external  attack,  is  a 
comparatively  simple  matter.  The  eggs  are  deposited  in 
deep  cavities  of  the  bark  and  in  wounds,  especially  such 


•626  RUBBER 

as  have  been  induced  by  canker.  Where  entry  has  been 
effected  in  the  tap  root  at  some  distance  below  ground 
the  procedure  is  more  obscure.  These  beetles  are  not  in 
the  habit  of  burrowing  into  the  soil.  A  probable  explana- 
tion is  that  the  egg  in  such  cases  has  been  deposited  at 
the  collar  of  the  tree,  and  that  the  young  larva,  failing 
to  penetrate  the  healthy  bark,  works  its  way  downwards 
until  it  reaches  some  point  where  a  decayed  or  broken 
lateral  root  affords  it  an  opportunity  of  penetrating  to  the 
wood  without  running  the  gauntlet  of  thelaticiferous  cells. 
Although,  when  once  it  has  effected  its  entry,  the  grub 
is  capable  of  causing  fatal  injury  to  the  tree,  I  have  so 
constantly  found  indications  of  canker  and  other  fungal 
diseases  associated  with  the  presence  of  the  borer  that 
I  am  inclined  to  believe  that  its  normal  mode  of  entry 
is  through  a  diseased  area  of  the  bark.  Fortunately, 
instances  of  damage  by  this  borer  are  comparatively 
few.  But  in  consideration  of  the  fact  that  a  single  grub 
may  be  responsible  for  the  death  of  a  fine  rubber  tree, 
and  that  an  individual  beetle  may  infect  many  such  trees, 
it  will  be  prudent  to  give  the  matter  some  attention  before 
it  becomes  really  serious.  Remedial  measures  must  take 
the  form  of  the  collection  of  the  adult  insects.  The 
destruction  of  each  individual  beetle  of  this  species  may 
possibly  save  the  lives  of  a  dozen  rubber  trees.  It  is 
unlikely  that  they  occur  in  any  considerable  numbers,  and 
it  would  be  useless  to  employ  coolies  solely  to  collect  the 
insects.  But  a  small  reward  might  be  offered  for  each 
beetle  of  this  kind  that  may  be  brought  in  by  the  tappers 
or  scrap  collectors.  If,  as  I  believe,  the  eggs  are 
deposited  in  wounds  and  cankered  patches  of  bark,  it  will 
be  important  to  safeguard  these  possible  points  of  entry 
by  cutting  out  all  diseased  areas  and  tarring  the  exposed 
surfaces.  The  same  treatment  should  be  applied  to 
accidental  wounds.  Tapping  wounds,  especially  those 
made  by  the  paring  system,  are  so  constantly  disturbed 
that  there  is  little  chance  of  the  pest  being  able  to  establish 
itself  in  those  spots. 

An  undetermined  Cerambycid  larva  has  been  found  in 
stems  of  Hevea  in  Java.. 

Another  Longicorn  that  has  acquired  an  evil  repute  is 


RUBBER  627 

Mcechotypa  verrucicollis.  This  beetle  has  the  reputation 
of  damaging  the  stems  of  young  Hevea  trees  by  gnawing 
off  the  bark.  A  number  of  the  living  beetles  were  sub- 
mitted to  me,  together  with  an  example  of  their  work. 
The  injured  stems  showed  irregular  patches  of  the  (still 
green)  bark  destroyed,  in  some  cases  completely  ringing 
the  tree.  It  was  noticeable,  however,  that  no  latex  had 
exuded  from  the  wounds,  and  examination  of  the  roots  dis- 
closed the  presence  of  a  fungus  (Botryodiplodia  elastica). 
The  probability,  therefore,  was  that  the  injured  plants 
were  diseased  and  had  ceased  to  produce  latex  before  the 
advent  of  the  beetles.  To  put  the  matter  to  the  test,  I 
confined  'some  of  the  beetles  in  a  cage,  together  with  a 
healthy  young  Hevea  tree.  I  watched  one  individual 
climb  up  the  stem  and  fix  its  jaws  in  the  tender  bark. 
The  first  puncture  resulted  in  a  bead  of  latex  which 
adhered  to  the  mouth-parts  of  the  beetle,  and  evidently 
proved  very  distasteful  to  it.  The  insect  immediately 
abandoned  the  attack  and  moved  off,  doing  its  best  to 
remove  the  sticky  fluid.  Other  individuals  made  similar 
attempts  to  feed,  but  were  promptly  repelled  in  the  same 
way,  nor  could  they  be  induced  to  repeat  the  experiment. 
After  a  week's  confinement  without  other  food  they  still 
refus-ed  to  touch  the  living  bark;  but  when  supplied  with 
fresh  branches  of  Cassia,  they  speedily  stripped  them. 
My  successor,  Mr.  Rutherford,  on  the  other  hand,  in  a 
recently  issued  report,  expresses  himself  as  convinced  by 
experiment  that  these  beetles  are  able  to  consume  healthy 
Hevea  bark  with  impunity,  but  that  they  prefer  withered 
bark. 

A  smaller  beetle — Niphona  sp.  (near  parallels) — has 
been  accused  of  similar  injury. 

In  the  Federated  Malay  States  two  small  Longicorns — 
— Epepeotus  luscus  and  Clytanthus  annularis — have  been 
included  amongst  rubber  pests  on  somewhat  slender 
evidence.  The  former  is  reported  as  having  been  "  once 
found  in  the  trunk  of  a  Para  tree,"  while  the  latter  "  once 
oviposited  on  Para  seedlings."  Clytanthus  annularis  is  a 
well-known  borer  in  bamboos,  and  it  is  improbable  that 
a  bamboo  insect  would  attack  such  a  totally  different  plant 
as  Hevea. 


628  RUBBER 

Anthribiidae  figure  in  our  list,  on  the  strength  of  an 
undetermined  species  of  this  family  found  damaging  Para 
wood  in  the  Malay  States. 

The  Curculionidae  (weevils)  are  all  phytophagous,  many 
of  them  being  notorious  as  defoliators  of  various  trees, 
while  others  are  injurious  in  their  larval  stages  as  borers 
in  the  stems  of  plants.  I  have  no  records  of  Curculionid 
attack  on  rubber  in  Ceylon;  but  Astycus  chrysochloris 
—a  handsome  golden-green  weevil — and  Hypomeces 
squamosus — a  dull  black  species — are  credited  with  injury 
to  Hevea  in  Malaya.  The  same  Hypomeces,  in  company 
with  D erodes  curtus  and  a  species  of  Phytoscapha,  is 
accused  of  similar  haBits  in  Java;  while  in  the  Belgian 
Congo  these  species  are  replaced  by  Ischnotrachelus 
humeralis,  Blosyrus  seminitidus,  and  species  of  Isaniris 
and  Piezotrachelus.  Should  these  leaf-eating  beetles 
become  really  troublesome,  spraying  with  Paris  green  or 
lead  chromate  would  afford  relief. 

Bostrichidae  and  Scolytidae,  though  belonging  to  distinct 
families,  may  be  conveniently  discussed  together,  as  they 
are  of  very  similar  habits  and  appearance,  and  are  lumped 
together  under  the  popular  term  "  shot-hole  borers." 
The  following  species  have  been  recorded  as  associated 
with  Hevea  :  — • 

Xylopertha  mutilata:  Boring  in  dead  stems.  (Ceylon, 
F.M.S.) 

Xyleborus  affinis.     (Cameroons,  Hawaii,  Java.) 
,,  ambasius.     (Cameroons.) 

,,  camerunus.     (Cameroons.) 

„  cognatus,    in    seedlings.    (Ceylon,    Tonkin, 

Cameroons.) 

,,  confusus.     (Cameroons.) 

,,  discolor,   in   stems   of  young  plants  and  in 

dead  leaf-stalks.     (Ceylon.) 
,,  interjectus,  under  blisters  of  renewed  bark. 

(Ceylon.) 

,,          morigerus.     (Ceylon.) 
,,  obliquicauda.     (Ceylon.) 

,,          parvulus.     (F.M.S.) 

,,          perforans,    in    dead    and    diseased    stems. 
(Ceylon.) 


RUBBER  629 

Xyleborus  scmigranosus.     (Ceylon.) 

,,          semiopacus,  boring  in  dead  stems.    (Ceylon, 

F.M.S.) 

,,          submarginatus.     (Ceylon.) 
Cryphalus  plumierix,  in  dead  stems.     (Ceylon.) 
,,  congonus.     (Belgian  Congo.) 

,,  kevese.     (Belgian  Congo.) 

,,  tuberculosus.    (Belgian  Congo.) 

Platypus  s'olidus,  in  diseased  stems.    (Ceylon.) 
Eccoptopterus     sexspinosus,     in     dead     and     diseased 
branches.     (Ceylon.) 

Phlceotribus  puncticollis.  (South  America.) 
Coccotrypes  sp.,  in  dead  leaf-stalks.  (Ceylon.) 
It  is  not  surprising  that  the  list  is  a  long  one,  and  it 
could  probably  be  greatly  extended.  It  should  be  under- 
stood, however,  that,  though  all  these  boring  beetles 
were  found  in  Hevea  stems,  it  does  not  follow  that  they 
are  equally  concerned  in  injury  to  the  tree.  In  many 
cases  the  trees  had  been  dead  for  'some  considerable  time. 
In  the  tropics,  such  dead  trees  are  rapidly  infested 
by  boring  insects  of  various  kinds.  It  is,  indeed, 
doubtful  if  any  of  these  small  beetles  can  penetrate  the 
healthy  bark  of  a  rubber  tree  without  being  hopelessly 
involved  in  the  viscid  latex.  I  have  frequently  found 
dead  beetles  embalmed  in  a  clot  of  coagulated  latex — 
victims  of  rash  experiment.  But  should  anything  cause 
a  permanent  or  temporary  cessation  of  the  production  of 
latex,  such  insects  immediately  seize  their  opportunity. 
Both  Bostrichidae  and  Scolytidae  are  strongly  attracted 
by  bark  or  wood  that  has  been  infected  by  canker  and 
other  fungoid  diseases.  Hevea  trees  are  subject  to  several 
serious  fungoid  diseases,  including  a  canker  very  similar 
to  that  of  the  cocoa.  In  no  instance  have  I  found  borers 
in  sound,  healthy  bark.  A  healthy  rubber  tree  is  self- 
protected  from  boring  insects  by  its  own  laticiferous 
secretions.  In  the  incipient  stages  of  canker  only  the 
superficial  layers  of  bark  are  involved.  Borers  will  attack 
these  spots  and  will  attempt  to  gain  an  entrance;  but,  as 
soon  as  they  reach  the  deeper  and,  as  yet,  unaffected 
layers,  they  are  repelled  by  a  flow  of  latex.  In  later 
stages  of  the  disease,  when  the  whole  thickness  of  the 


630  RUBBER 

bark  is  involved,  latex  is  absent  from  the  diseased  tissues, 
and  there  is  no  hindrance  to  the  progress  of  the  insect, 
which  can  then  perforate  the  bark  with  impunity,  and  even 
extend  its  galleries  into  the  wood  itself. 

It  sometimes  happens  that  latex  is  found  to  be  exuding 
from  the  perforations  and  flowing  down  the  stem.  This 
is  accepted,  by  some  planters,  as  proof  positive  that  the 
beetle  has  attacked  healthy  laticiferous  bark.  But  the 
phenomenon  is  explicable  in  other  ways.  In  the  early 
stage  of  the  disease,  when  only  the  superficial  layers  of 
bark  are  affected,  latex  may  exude  from  the  deeper  tissues 
through  the  abandoned  galleries  of  insects  that  had 
attempted  to  push  their  work  beyond  the  danger  zone. 
Another  cause  of  "  bleeding "  may  result  from  the 
separation  of  dead  bark  from  the  wood,  leaving  a  cavity 
which  often  becomes  filled  with  latex  from  surrounding 
healthy  tissues.  If  the  dead  bark  is  imperforate,  the 
latex  coagulates  and  forms  a  pad;  but  if  it  has  been 
pierced  by  borers  the  latex  will  find  its  way  to  the 
surface.  It  is  possible  even  that  borers  might  attack 
otherwise  healthy  bark  during  a  temporary  cessation  of 
activity  in  the  laticiferous  vessels  resulting  from  excessive 
drought  or  over-tapping.  Should  this  happen  a  shower 
of  rain  might  induce  renewed  activity,  and  bleeding 
through  the  perforations  would  then  occur.  The 
exudation  of  latex  and  the  presence  of  boring  beetles 
may  be  regarded  as  a  valuable  indication  of  incipient 
disease,  thus  allowing  of  early  treatment  before  the 
disease  has  become  deep-seated.  Similar  conditions  have 
been  observed  in  other  countries.  Dr.  Aulmann,  in 
"  Die  Fauna  der  Deutschen  Kolonien,"  speaking  of 
Xyleborus  affinis  in  the  Cameroons,  remarks  that  only 
trees  depleted  of  sap  by  tapping  are  attacked,  as  the 
beetles  are  killed  by  the  flow  issuing  through  the  bore- 
holes made  on  full-sapped  trees;  and  adds  that  careless 
tapping  exposes  the  wood  and  favours  attack. 

Lepidoptera. 

No  very  serious  caterpillar  pests  of  Hevea  have  been 
recorded,  though  several  species  are  known  to  feed 
occasionally  on  the  foliage  of  the  plant.  Amongst  these 


RUBBER  631 

may  be  mentioned  the  large  Saturniids :  Attacus  atlas 
and  Anthersea  paphia;  ,a  Limacodid,  Thosea  sp.;  a 
Lymantrid,  Orgyia  postica;  a  Psychid,  Clania  variegata; 
a  Noctuid,  Agrotis  segetis,  which  cuts  through  the  stems 
of  young  seedlings;  and  the  Tineid  Comceritis  pieria,  the 
caterpillars  of  which  feed  on  the  outer  bark  of  living 
rubber  trees,  but  seldom  penetrate  deep  enough  to  cause 
any  flow  of  latex.  A  small  Cossid,  Arbela  quadrinotata, 
has  a  similar  habit,  but  works  on  a  larger  scale.  This 
caterpillar,  moreover,  tunnels  into  the  wood,  at  the 
angles  of  the  branches,  to  form  a  retreat  for  itself  during 
the  daytime.  It  feeds  at  night  only. 

Mr.  G.  E.  Bodkin,  in  his  "  Report  of  the  Economic 
Biologist,  1912-13,"  records  a  somewhat  severe  attack 
upon  Hevea  in  British  Guiana  by  the  caterpillars  of  a 
hawk-moth,  Dilophonota  ello,  which  was,  however, 
reduced  by  the  appearance  of  a  small  egg  parasite 
(Telenomus  dilophonotse). 

Should  artificial  remedies  be  necessary,  in  the  case  of 
a  plague  of  caterpillars,  arsenical  sprays  are  always 
available. 

Dipt  era. 

This  Order  is  represented  o<nly  by  the  larvae  of  an 
undetermined  Phorid,  which  were  observed  in  Ceylon 
feeding  on  decomposing  smoke-cured  rubber. 

Hemiptera. 

Two  bugs,  a  Pyrrhocorid,  Leptocorisa  acuta,  and  a 
Capsid,  Calicratides  rama,  have  been  credited  with  punc- 
turing young  Hevea  plants  in  Ceylon,  thereby  causing 
the  terminal  shoots  to  wilt  and  droop;  but  injury  from 
this  cause  is  rare.  A  Pentatomid,  Empicoris  variolosus, 
is  said  to  cause  exudation  of  latex  from  young  Hevea 
shoots  in  British  Guiana. 

The  following  Coccidae  have  been  noted  as  occurring 
upon  Hevea  :  — • 

Aspidiotus  destructor,  on  foliage.     (British  Guiana.) 
,,          transparens,  on  foliage.     (Java.) 
,,         ficus,  on  foliage.     (Java.) 
,,         personatus,  on  foliage.    (British  Guiana.) 


632  RUBBER 

Mytilaspis  rubro-vittatus,  on  foliage.    (Ceylon.) 

Parlatoria  proteus,  on  foliage.     (Java.) 

Chionaspis  dilatata,  on  foliage.     (Java.) 

Lecanium  nigrum,  on  young  stems  and  foliage. 
(Ceylon,  Java,  Seychelles,  British  Guiana,  Hawaii.) 

V'msonia  stellifera,  on  foliage.     (British  Guiana.) 

Asterolecanium  pustulans,  on  stems.  (British  Guiana.) 
,,  pustulans  seychellarum,  on  stems. 

(Seychelles.) 

Pseudococcus  virgatus,  on  foliage.    (Hawaii.) 

All  Coccidse  are  potential  pests.  Any  species,  though 
at  first  of  only  casual  occurrence,  may  suddenly  increase 
beyond  the  normal  and  become  formidable.  But  of  tho<se 
known  to  occur  upon  Hevea,  Asterolecanium  pustulans 
and  Lecanium  nlgrum  are  the  only  species  of  any  present 
importance.  The  former  is  responsible  for  an  unhealthy 
condition  of  the  stem.  The  insects  occupy  small  depres- 
sions on  the  bark.  When  they  occur  in  considerable 
numbers  the  bark  assumes  an  unhealthy  hidebound  and 
nodular  condition  that  must  greatly  interfere  with  the 
processes  of  tapping,  and  may  even  check  the  elaboration 
of  latex.  Lecanium  nigrum  sometimes  encrusts  the 
young  stems  and  branches  to  an  extent  that  seriously 
checks  the  growth  of  the  plant.  Mr.  Dupont  informs  me 
that,  in  Seychelles,  this  species  is  held  in  partial  check 
by  a  parasitic  fungus  (Hypocrella  sp.),  which  attacks  it 
wherever  it  occurs. 

With  such  a  large  area  of  plantation  rubber  now  in 
cultivation  it  may  be  considered  astonishing  that  the 
catalogue  of  pests  is  so  small.  The  increased  attention 
that  is  now  being  given  to  the  diseases  of  plants  renders 
it  more  difficult  for  any  pest  to  gain  a  foothold.  It  is 
quickly  observed,  and  measures  are  taken  to  check  it 
before  it  has  had  time  to  establish  itself  firmly. 

It  should  be  remembered,  however,  that  large  un- 
broken areas  of  a  single  cultivation  must  always  afford 
the  best  opportunity  for  the  increase  and  spread  of  any 
pest,  and  will  render  attempts  at  remedial  treatment  the 
more  difficult.  It  is  sound  policy  to  break  up  such  areas 
by  interposing  belts  of  other  trees,  which  will  tend  to 
confine  any  enemy  within  practicable  limits. 


RUBBER  633 

Catalogue  of  animal  pests  associated  with  the  Hevea 
rubber  tree  :  — • 

MAMMALIA  :  — 

Domestic  cattle.  _ 

,,          goats. 
Elephants. 
Deer  (various). 
Antelope. 
Wild  pig. 

Monkeys  (various). 
Porcupine. 
Bandicoot. 
Jungle  rat. 
Mice. 
Hares. 

MOLLUSCA  :  — 

Mariaclla  Dussumierl. 
Veronicella  virgata. 
Parmarion  sp. 

INSECTA : — 

Orthoptera. 
Gryllidae . 

Brachytrypes  achatinus. 
Gymnogryllus  elegans. 
Cyrtacanthacns  sp. 
Acridiidae. 

Aularches  militaris. 
Tropidacris  cristata. 
Zonocems  elegans. 

,,          vanegatus. 
Locustidse. 

Cleandrus  sp. 
Termitidae. 

Termes  redemanni. 
,,        obscunceps. 
,,        Horni. 
gestrol. 

Eutcrmes  inanis. 
Coptotermes  marabitanos. 


634  RUBBER 

INSECTA  (continued). 
Neuroptera. 

Psocus  sp. 
Hymenoptera. 

Trypoxylon  intruders. 
Stigmus  niger. 
Ceratina  spp. 
Coleoptera. 

Lamellicornia. 

Lepidiota  pinguis. 
Cingala  tenella. 
Oryctes  sp. 
Xylotrupes  :sp. 
Longicornia. 

Batocera  rubra. 
Mcechotypa  verrucicollis. 
Niphona  sp. 
Epepeotus  luscus. 
Clytanthus  annularis. 
Elateridae. 

Alaus  speciosus. 
Anthribiidae. 

Anthribia  sp. 
Curculionidae. 

Astycus  chry so  Moris. 
Hypomeces  squamosus. 
D  ere  odes  curtus. 
Phytoscapha  sp. 
Ischnotrachelus  humeralis, 
Blosyrus  seminitidus. 
Isanins  sp. 
Piezotrachelus  sp. 
Bostrichidas. 

Xylopertha  mutilata. 
Scolytidae. 

Xyleborus  semiopacus. 
,,         inter jectus. 
»         perforans. 
,,         discolor. 
,,          obliquicauda. 
,,         semigranosus. 


RUBBER  635 


INSECTA  (continued). 

Coleoptera  (continued). 
Scolytidse  (continued). 

Xyleborus  submarginatus. 
,,         morigerus. 

affinls. 

,,          cognatus. 
,,          confusus. 
,,          ambasius. 
,,          camerunus. 
,,         parvuluj. 
Platypus  solidus. 
Eccoptopterus  sexspinosus. 
Phlceotribus  puncticoll'is. 
Coccotrypes  sp. 
Cryphalus  plumienx. 
,,  congonus. 

,,          hevease. 
,,  tuberculos'us. 

Lepidoptera. 

Attacus  atlas. 
Anther&a  paphia. 
Dilophonota  ello. 
Thosea  sp. 
Arbela  quadrinotata. 
Orgyia  postica. 
Clania  variegata. 
A  gratis  segetis. 
Comceritis  pieria. 

Diptera. 

Phora  sp. 
Hemiptera. 

Pentatomidse. 

Empicoris  variolosus. 
Pyrrhocoridse. 

Leptocorisa  acuta., 
Capsidae. 

Calicratides  rama. 


636  RUBBER 

INSECTA  (continued). 

Hemiptera  (continued). 

Coccidse. 

Aspidiotus  destructor. 
,,  trans  par  ens. 

ficus. 

,,  personatus. 

Mytilaspis  rubro-vittatus. 
Parlatoria  proteus. 
Chionaspis  dilatata. 
Lecanium  nigrum. 
Vins  o  nia  stellifera. 
Asterolecanlum  pustulans. 

,,  ,,        seychellarum. 

Pseudococcus  virgatus. 


TERMES  GESTROI  AS  A  PEST  OF  THE  PARA  RUBBER 

TREE. 

By  H.  C.  PRATT. 
Government  Entomologist,  Federated  Malay  States. 

THE  plantation  rubber  industry  which  developed  with 
phenomenal  rapidity  in  the  Malay  Peninsula  has  not  been 
threatened  with  any  serious  insect  pests.  Before  any 
considerable  acreage  had  been  planted  it  was  generally 
considered  that  Termes  gestroi  would  prove  a  menace 
to  the  industry,  and  it  was  decided  to  offer  the  sum  of 
£5,000  for  an  adequate  remedy  against  its  attacks  upon 
the  Para  rubber  tree.  This  reward  induced  competitors 
to  forward  for  testing  purposes  a  large  number  of  so- 
called  remedies. 

There  is  no  doubt  that  at  that  time  there  was  a  good 
deal  of  justification  for  the  alarm  caused  by  this  insect. 
Many  plantations,  especially  those  on  the  low-lying 
lands,  were  losing  a  very  considerable  number  of  trees 
apparently  through  the  attacks  of  T.  gestroi.  The 
ordinary  "  Sumatras  "*•  which  from  time  to  time  pass 
over  this  country  blew  down  a  large  number  of  trees 
which  lay  directly  in  their  tracks.  One  estate  lost  on 
one  occasion  approximately  2,000  trees  of  4  and  6  years 
of  age  in  the  course  of  fifteen  minutes,  the  majority  of 
which  were  found  to  have  been  hollowed  by  T.  gestroi. 
Factors  such  as  these  led  to  the  offering  of  a  reward  for 
a  practical  remedy,  and  they  were  also  responsible  for 
the  nervous  apprehension  of  the  future  of  the  industry 
which  was  prevalent  at  the  time  among  most  planters. 

In  view  of  this  a  short  account  of  the  causes  which 
led  to  the  increase  of  the  insect  and  its  attack  upon  the 
Para  rubber  tree  will  be  interesting. 

It  was  apparent  at  the  time  that  on  lalang2  land,   or 

1  A  strong  wind,  often  very  local,  and  of  short  duration. 

2  A  tall  grass,  which  grows  very  thickly. 


638  RUBBER 

land  which  had  been  cleared  of  virgin  forest  for  a  number 
of  years  and  was  then  planted  with  Para  rubber,  very  few 
trees  were  lost.  It  was  equally  apparent  that  fewer  trees 
were  lost  on  the  undulating  country  than  on  the  low- 
lying  flat  country  which  is  prevalent  on  the  Malayan 
coast.  The  reason  was  pointed  out  by  Ridley  several 
years  ago,  viz.,  that  in  his  opinion  T.  gestroi  would  not 
attack  a  sound  and  healthy  tree,  and  he  attributed  the 
cause  to  root  disease,  although  advancing  no  definite 
proof.  Experience  has  shown  this  assumption  to  be  well 
founded,  although  it  did  not  meet  with  general  approval 
at  the  time,  and  is  often  refuted  now.  Trees  which  are 
attacked  by  T.  gestroi  often  show  no  signs  of  fungus 
attack,  as  the  mycelia  are  quickly  devoured  by  the  insect, 
and  the  wood  affected  by  the  fungus  is  the  first  point  of 
attack.  As  very  few  trees  show  signs  of  the  presence  of 
the  pest  until  thoroughly  hollowed  out,  indications  of  a 
fungus  attack  are  thus  usually  destroyed.  That  the 
original  trouble  is  due  in  nearly  every  instance  to  fungus 
or  to  bad  drainage  causing  root-rot  may  be  taken  as  an 
established  fact. 

That  the  flat  lands  suffered  more  than  hilly  country 
was  only  to  be  expected.  The  jungle  on  the  flats  is 
usually  heavier  and  the  burns  less  satisfactory,  resulting 
in  a  network  of  scorched  timber  lying  over  the  surface 
of  the  soil.  The  damp  soil  in  such  situations  and  the 
draining  difficulties  offer  additional  facilities  for  the 
spread  of  root  diseases  and  the  increase  of  T.  gestroi. 
In  such  situations  there  is  often  a  surface  layer  of  peat, 
which  forms  a  connected  network  of  fibrous  matter  and 
small  decayed  roots.  Such  a  combination  of  favourable 
factors  for  the  increase  of  root  disease  and  T.  gestroi  is 
absent  on  the  hilly  lands. 

At  the  commencement  of  the  industry  it  was  the  object 
of  those  concerned  to  plant  as  great  an  acreage  as 
possible  in  the  shortest  space  of  time.  No  attention  was 
paid  to  the  rotting  timber,  and  such  conditions  were 
admirably  suited  for  the  rapid  multiplication  of  the  insect. 
It  quickly  took  advantage  of  the  facilities  thus  offered, 
and  increased  at  an  immense  rate  for  several  years.  At 
the  time  it  was  pointed  out  that  a  gradual  diminution  in 
its  numbers  was  to  be  expected  as  soon  as  mo'St  of  the 


RUBBER  639 

timber  on  the  land  had  rotted.  T.  gestroi  as  a  pest  of 
the  Para  rubber  tree  is  dying  a  natural  death,  and  its  rise 
and  fall  is  directly  attributable  to  the  exceptional  facilities 
offered  when  immense  tracts  of  jungle  were  felled. 

Many  hundreds  of  nests  of  T.  gestroi,  both  in  rubber 
trees  and  in  dead  wood,  have  been  examined  care- 
fully for  queens,  and  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  the 
queen  is  extremely  rare.  The  majority  of  nests  are 
without  queens,  although  both  young  and  eggs  may  be 
present.  Haviland's  opinion  that  the  eggs  are  carried 
from  nest  to  nest  seems  the  only  feasible  explanation  of 
their  presence  in  so  many  nests  without  their  being  any 
indication  of  a  queen.  The  general  construction  of  the 
nest  is  always  the  same,  but  its  extent  varies  consider- 
ably. No  mounds  are  ever  made.  As  a  rule  the  nest  is 
formed  inside  dead  stumps,  buried  trees,  or  within  fallen 
trees  on  the  surface  of  the  ground.  The  main  nests,  of 
which  there  may  be  ten  or  more  in  a  single  colony,  are 
formed  of  thin  laminae  of  comminuted  woody  matter,  and 
are  as  fragile  as  the  honeycombs  formed  by  those  species 
which  cultivate  fungi.  The  nests  are  entire,  but  from 
them  proceed  burrows  which  often  connect  with  other 
nests  situated  considerable  distances  away.  On  the  coast 
lands  some  of  these  runs  have  been  traced  for  600  ft.  in 
one  direction,  the  separate  nests  of  the  colony  being 
anything  from  25  to  200  ft.  apart.  These  extensive 
underground  runs  which  link  together  the  various  nests 
are  flat  and  fairly  broad,  forming  a  passage  into  which 
a  microscope  slide  could  be  inserted.  Within  them 
workers  and  soldiers  are  usually  present,  although  a  nest 
may  be  100  ft.  away.  Such  extensive  nests  are  met  with 
only  on  flat  lands,  but  it  is  curious  that  even  with  such 
large  nests  no  queens  were  found.  Should  root  diseases 
be  at  all  prevalent  on  an  estate  where  there  are  large 
connected  underground  colonies  of  T.  gestroi,  it  is  to  be 
expected  that  many  trees  will  be  attacked  by  this  insect. 
On  the  other  hand,  it  is  remarkable  that  this  species  is 
the  only  termite  found  eating  the  living  portions  of  a 
rubber  tree,  although  T.  travians  possesses  many  habits 
in  common  with  it,  and  is  frequently  found  on  rubber 
estates. 


640  RUBBER 

During  the  rainy  season  T.  gestroi  will  frequently 
encase  the  trunk  of  a  rubber  tree  with  mud,  and  when 
this  happens  it  provides  the  only  definite  proof  that  a 
tree  is  affected  by  this  pest.  Such  trees  are  usually 
marked  in  some  conspicuous  way,  e.g.,  by  tying  a  red 
piece  of  cloth  round  them,  and  are  subsequently  treated. 

More  remedies  have  been  tried  in  connection  with  this 
insect's  attacks  upon  rubber  than  in  the  case  of  any 
other  pest  in  the  Malay  States.  It  may  safely  be  con- 
cluded from  present  experience  that  the  only  efficient 
remedy  is  to  apply  the  fumes  of  arsenic  and  sulphur  by 
means  of  the  "  Universal  White  Ant  Exterminator," 
which  has  been  used  extensively  in  South  Africa  and 
Ceylon,  although  not  for  T.  gestroi,  and  is  extensively 
used  in  the  Federated  Malay  States.  This  machine  was 
imported  here  in  1908,  when  several  trees  in  the  experi- 
mental gardens  were  treated  for  termite  attack.  There 
has  been  no  recurrence  of  attack  on  any  of  these  trees 
since  that  time,  now  six  years  ago.  The  fumes,  which 
are  pumped  either  into  the  tree  or  into  the  runs,  are 
formed  by  arsenic  and  sulphur  placed  on  red-hot  charcoal. 
The  charcoal  is  placed  within  the  cylinder  made  for  the 
purpose,  the  fumes  being  forced  through  a  flexible 
tubing,  fitted  with  a  nozzle,  by  means  of  an  attached 
pump,  which  also  keeps  the  charcoal  red  hot.  The  pro- 
portion of  arsenic  and  sulphur  is,  I  believe,  80  and 
20  per  cent,  respectively.  This  machine  is  of  especial 
value,  and  very  easy  to  work  in  destroying  those  colonies 
of  termites  which  form  mounds. 

Quite  a  fair  proportion  of  young  trees  which  are 
treated  in  this  way  for  T.  gestroi  die  within  a  few  weeks, 
although  there  may  be  no  return  of  this  pest.  Such 
cases  I  attribute  to  the  presence  of  fungus  previous  to 
termite  attack.  In  quite  a  number  of  instances  there  is 
evidence  for  the  assumption  that  the  insect  not  only 
checks  the  growth  of  root  fungi,  but  actually  destroys 
all  traces  of  it,  and  such  trees  when  treated  for  termite 
attack  will  recover,  and  continue  to  give  good  yields  for 
many  years. 


THE  PRINCIPLES  OF  HEVEA  TAPPING,  AS 
DETERMINED  BY  EXPERIMENT. 

By  T.  FETCH,  B.A.,   B.Sc. 
Government  Botanist  and  Mycologist,  Ceylon. 

IT  is  now  thirty-two  years  since  the  first  Hevea  tree  was 
tapped  in  the  Eastern  tropics.  The  Brazilian  methods, 
described  by  Cross,  were  adopted,  and  for  the  next  fifteen 
years  those  methods — what  would  now  be  termed  "in- 
cision "  methods — held  the  field.  A  great  advance  was 
made  when  Ridley  described  the  now  typical  Eastern 
method  of  reopening  the  cut,  a  method  which  more  than 
anything  else  made  plantation  rubber  a  commercial  possi- 
bility. But  in  the  early  days  of  this  "  excision  "  method 
the  cuts  were  not  reopened  for  more  than  about  fourteen 
tappings;  that  is,  only  until  about  I  in.  of  bark  had  been 
removed.  The  method  now  in  vogue  of  gradually  remov- 
ing the  whole  of  the  cortex  to  a  height  of  3  or  6  ft. 
dates  from  about  1904.  This  sequence  is  worthy  of 
remembrance,  since  it  explains  many  of  the  recommenda- 
tions of  the  pioneer  advocates  of  rubber  planting  which 
to-day  appear  so  obviously  wrong;  they  never  contem- 
plated such  treatment  as  the  tree  now  undergoes. 

Early  tappings,  even  in  botanic  gardens  and  experiment 
stations,  were  merely  "  tappings  for  yield,"  i.e.,  it  was 
simply  desired  to  ascertain  whether  the  trees  would  yield 
rubber,  and,  if  so,  how  much.  It  is  rather  to  be  feared 
that  this  phase,  necessary  twenty  years  ago,  has  persisted 
to  the  present  day,  though  scarcely  any  country  can  now 
remain  in  which  such  tapping  can  be  justified  as  work 
for  an  experiment  station.  According  to  current  ideas, 
tapping  experiments  should  be  carried  out  as  far  as  pos- 
sible on  virgin  trees,  and  it  is  a  waste  of  material  to 
sacrifice  such  trees  without  endeavouring  to  obtain  further 
evidence  on  some  definite  problem.  And  the  experi- 
menter should  not  permit  himself  to  be  deterred  by  the 


642  RUBBER 

criticism  that  his  tapping  problem  is  "  purely  academic. " 
Our  knowledge  of  rubber  tapping  would  have  been  in  a 
far  more  advanced  stage  to-day  had  experiment  stations 
and  botanic  gardens  restricted  their  tapping  experiments 
to  "  purely  academic  "  problems  during  the  last  ten  years. 

The  first  attempt  to  ascertain  the  fundamental  principles 
of  Hevea  tapping  was  made  by  Parkin  in  Ceylon  in  1898. 
He  dealt  with  single  incision  methods  only,  i.e.,  either 
single  oblique  cuts,  or  single  small  V's  arranged  more 
or  less  regularly  over  the  lowest  6  ft.  of  the  stem.  He 
was  followed  by  Arden,  who  carried  out  further  experi- 
ments in  the  Federated  Malay  States  in  1901-02.  Arden 
also  worked  chiefly  with  single  incision  methods,  but  in 
some  experiments  he  adopted  the  "excision"  method, 
limiting  the  reopenings  of  the  cut,  however,  to  fourteen. 

The  ideas  obtained  from  Parkin's  and  Arden's  experi- 
ments have  practically  governed  Hevea  tapping  until 
quite  recently,  though  it  is  clear  that  they  were  founded 
on  quite  a  different  style  of  tapping  from  that  in  vogue. 
Dr.  A.  W.  K.  de  Jong  has  recently  carried  out  more 
exact  experiments  in  Java  on  some  of  the  questions  dealt 
with  by  Parkin  and  Arden,  as  well  as  on  other  points, 
by  modern  methods  of  tapping,  and  his  Bulletin  (Hevea 
brasiliensis,  Wetenschappelijke  Proeven,  Buitenzorg, 
1913)  now  supplies  a  scientific  foundation.  His  experi- 
ments were  carried  on,  as  a  rule,  for  a  period  of  eight 
months.  Herein  lies  a  possible  source  of  error  in  some 
cases,  for,  at  the  risk  of  seeming  unduly  critical,  one 
must  at  present  insist  that  comparative  tapping  experi- 
ments should,  with  few  exceptions,  be  carried  on  until 
the  available  tapping  area  has  been  completely  tapped. 

Among  the  points  established  by  Dr.  de  Jong  are  the 
following :  — 

(1)  As  a   rule   a  cut  of   a   given  length   and  direction 
gives  the  same  yield,  if  made  at  the  same  height  on  the 
tree,  on  whatever  side  it  may  be  placed. 

(2)  Two  equal  cuts  yield  more  than  a  single  cut  equal 
to  their  combined  length,  the  slope  and  height  from  the 
ground  being  the  same. 

(3)  Cuts  to  the  left  yield  more  than  equal  and  equally 


RUBBER  643 

inclined  cuts  to  the  right  at  the  same  height,  whether 
on  the  same  or  opposite  sides  of  the  tree. 

(4)  A  yield  from  a  V  cut  is  greater  than  that  from  a 
single  cut  to  the  right  whose  length  is  equal  to  the  com- 
bined length  of  the  two  arms  of  the  V,  but  less  than  the 
yield  of  a  similar  single  cut  to  the  left. 

The  first  two  results,  though  some  exceptions  were  met 
with,  establish  the  general  rule  that  it  is  immaterial  on 
which  side  of  the  tree  a  tapping  experiment  is  instituted. 
The  third  and  fourth  are  of  great  importance  in  actual 
estate  tapping.  It  may  be  explained  that  the  phrase 
"  tapping  to  the  left  "  has  been  adopted  to  denote  the 
half  herring-bone  system  with  the  cuts  to  the  left  of  the 
vertical  channel. 

We  may  now  proceed  with  the  special  object  of  this 
paper,  which  is  to  discuss  the  results  arrived  at  in  various 
tapping  experiments  and  the  practices  generally  adopted, 
from  more  or  less  accurate  results,  on  estates.  It  will 
be  convenient  to  consider  them  under  the  different  factors 
which  are  now  known  to  influence  such  results. 

The  Area  of  the  Tapping  Surface. 

By  tapping  surface  is  meant  the  part  of  the  tree  which 
is  being  tapped  on  any  one  occasion.  Area  of  tapping 
surface  is  usually  stated,  as  far  as  its  breadth  is  con- 
cerned, in  terms  of  the  circumference.  The  tree  may 
be  tapped  all  round,  or  on  a  vertical  strip  whose  breadth 
is  one-half,  or  one-third,  or  one-quarter  of  the  circum- 
ference. 

Tapping  all  round  the  tree  at  the  same  time  has  been 
abandoned,  though  an  approach  to  it  still  exists  in  some 
"  change  over  "  systems.  Excision  systems  which  tapped 
all  round  the  tree  were  the  full  spiral,  and  the  full  or 
half  herring-bone  on  both  halves  of  the  tree,  tapped  on 
the  same  day.  An  experiment  carried  out  on  young  trees 
at  Peradeniya  showed  that,  in  alternate  day  tapping  for 
a  year,  the  full  spiral,  tapping  all  round  the  tree,  yielded 
less  than  either  the  full  or  the  half  herring-bone  on  half 
the  tree.  The  experiment  is  not  free  from  objection,  but 
the  difference  was  so  great  that  it  is  probably  correct. 


644  RUBBER 

Opinions  are  now  divided  between  tapping  on  one-half, 
one-third,  or  one-quarter  of  the  circumference.  As  a 
variant  of  the  half,  tapping  opposite  quarters  at  the  same 
time  is  practised.  In  some  Peradeniya  experiments, 
which  again  are  open  to  objection,  tapping  on  one-third 
gave  almost  the  same  as  tapping  on  opposite  quarters 
for  a  year,  though  the  yield  in  the  latter  case  fell  off  more 
rapidly  towards  the  end  of  the  period  than  in  the  former. 

There  is,  unfortunately,  no  straight  experiment  which 
compares  tapping  on  opposite  quarters  with  tapping  on 
half  the  circumference.  As  a  rule  the  difference  in  the 
area  has  been  combined  with  a  difference  in  the  method 
or  pattern  of  tapping,  such  as  a  full  herring-bone  on  half 
the  circumference  versus  half  herring-bone  on  opposite 
quarters. 

Tapping  on  one-third  the  circumference  has  been 
adopted  in  some  cases,  but  it  has  the  disadvantage  that 
it  is  difficult  to  change  subsequently  to  quarters  on  the 
same  area. 

The  view  is  now  generally  accepted  that  this  question 
must  be  decided  from  the  point  of  view  of  the  welfare 
of  the  tree  rather  than  that  of  yield.  Fitting's  results 
have  been  fully  appreciated  by  the  planting  community, 
though  it  has  been  overlooked  that  tapping  all  round  the 
tree  was  condemned  on  physiological  grounds  by  Parkin 
in  1899,  even  for  single  incision  tapping. 

The  Direction  of  the  Tapping  Cut. 

In  1906  Mr.  C.  O.  Macadam,  of  Culloden  Estate,  found 
that  tapping  to  the  left  yielded  more  rubber  than  tapping 
to  the  right  of  the  vertical  channel.  No  reason  was  dis- 
covered for  this  until  1909,  when  it  was  found  that  in 
Hevea  the  vessels  and  latex  tubes,  in  general,  sloped  up 
to  the  right,  and  consequently  a  cut  to  the  left  severed 
more  latex  tubes  than  an  equal  and  equally  sloped  cut 
to  the  right.  This  has  been  completely  confirmed  by 
Dr.  de  Jong,  who  finds  that  the  difference  in  yield  is 
almost  exactly  accounted  for  by  the  difference  in  the 
number  of  latex  tubes  severed. 

On  this  finding,  a  half  herring-bone  to  the  left  yields 
more  than  a  half  herring-bone  to  the  right,  while  the 


RUBBER  645 

yield  of  the  full  herring-bone,  on  the  same  area,  should 
be  intermediate  between  the  two.  In  searching  for  con- 
firmation of  this  in  the  published  experiments,  one  finds 
that  in  the  majority  of  cases  the  direction  of  the  cuts  of 
the  half  herring-bone' has  not  been  recorded,  and  hence 
no  valid  conclusions  can  be  drawn.  A  more  serious  defect 
is  that,  in  general,  experiments  on  the  problem  of  half 
versus  full  herring-bone  have  been  combined  with  experi- 
ments on  half  versus  quarter  circumference.  So  far  as 
I  am  aware  there  is  as  yet  no  definite  comparative  experi- 
ment, except  that  of  Dr.  de  Jong,  between  the  half  and 
the  full  herring-bone,  or  their  reduced  equivalents,  the 
single  and  the  V  cut.  In  an  experiment  carried  out  at 
Peradeniya  for  twelve  months  in  1910,  on  half  the  circum- 
ference in  each  case,  the  half  herring-bone  to  the  left 
yielded  more  than  the  half  herring-bone  to  the  right,  but 
the  full  herring-bone  yielded  more  than  either.  As, 
however,  the  number  of  cuts  was  varied  during  the  year 
this  result  is  inconclusive. 

An  experiment  on  this  point  is  decidedly  wanted :  I 
mean  an  experiment  carried  on  until  all  the  available 
tapping  surface  has  been  completed.  The  three  patterns 
of  tappings  should  be  compared  on  quarters,  and  also  on 
the  half  circumference.  It  would  seem  probable  that  the 
method  which  is  most  suitable  for  the  quarter  might  not 
be  most  suitable  for  the  half  circumference. 

In  this  connection  it  may  be  as  well  to  call  attention 
to  another  factor  which  vitiates  so  many  of  the  earlier 
experiments.  It  is  essential  that  all  tapping  in  a  com- 
parative experiment  should  be  done  at  the  same  angle. 
Not  only  does  the  yield  per  tapping  vary  with  the  angle, 
but  the  number  of  tappings  which  it  is  possible  to  make 
to  the  inch,  measured  along  the  channel,  varies  with  the 
angle  also.  Now,  the  yield  from  a  given  area  of  bark 
depends  to  a  great  extent  upon  the  number  of  tappings 
it  is  possible  to  make  on  that  area,  and  the  number  of 
tappings  depends  upon  the  angle.  The  greater  the  angle 
the  cut  makes  with  the  vertical  the  greater  the  number 
of  tappings  to  the  inch.  Therefore,  for  two  reasons,  the 
yield  from  a  given  area  depends  upon  the  angle  of  the 
cut. 


646  RUBBER 

The  Distance  between  the  Cuts. 

The  cuts  of  the  herring-bone  have  usually  been  made 
i  ft.  apart,  without  any  special  reason.  Probably  the 
most  generally  accepted  idea  in  tfce  earlier  days  of  tap- 
ping was  that  the  cuts  should  be  placed  so  far  apart  that 
the  bark  between  them  was  excised  completely  in  one 
year.  Experiments  with  different  distances  are  entirely 
wanting,  but  they  are  not  now  required.  In  a  Peradeniya 
experiment,  which  has  been  in  progress  for  eighteen 
months,  one  set  of  trees  is  tapped  with  four  cuts  i  ft. 
apart,  another  with  two  cuts  i  ft.  apart,  and  a  third  with 
two  cuts  2  ft.  apart,  in  all  cases  alternate  day  tapping 
on  one-third  circumference;  the  two  cuts  2  ft.  apart  have 
up  to  the  present  given  the  best  yield.  But  from  physio- 
logical investigations  now  in  progress  it  would  appear 
that  prolonged  continuous  tapping  on  the  same  area  is 
not  to  be  recommended.  In  that  respect  the  longer 
distance  between  the  cuts  is  a  disadvantage. 

It  may  be  noted  that  the  tapping  with  two  cuts  2  ft. 
apart,  the  lowest  being  2  ft.  from  the  base  of  the  tree, 
yielded  more  than  tapping  with  two  cuts  i  ft.  apart,  the 
lowest  in  the  latter  case  being  only  i  ft.  from  the  base. 
This  conflicts  with  the  prevalent  idea  that  the  lower  the 
cut  the  greater  the  yield.  That  is  true  for  a  single  tap- 
ping, but  in  prolonged  tapping  there  would  appear  to 
be  little  difference  in  the  yield  whatever  the  height  of 
the  cut,  provided  it  is  within  3  ft.  of  the  ground;  26  in. 
is  now  a  common  height  for  the  lowest  cut. 

The  Number  of  Cuts. 

In  1905  it  was  customary  to  tap  the  lowest  6  ft.  of 
the  stem  with  a  full  or  half  herring-bone  of  six  cuts 
i  ft.  apart.  It  was  soon  evident  that  the  yields  of  these 
cuts  were  unequal,  and  that  some  of  them  occasionally 
"  ran  dry."  But  it  was  a  long  time  before  observation 
influenced  practice.  The  only  record  on  this  point  is  one 
by  Lock,  who  found  that  when  the  bark  between  the  cuts 
was  nearly  exhausted  the  lowest  cut  yielded  as  much  latex 
as  all  the  other  five  put  together.  In  six  months'  tap- 
ping the  yield  of  the  latex  from  the  lowest  cut  was  two 


RUBBER  647 

and  a  half  times  that  from  the  second,   and  four  times 
that  from  the  highest. 

At  the  present  day  only  one  cut,  or  at  most  two,  is 
used.  Two  cuts  yield  about  40  per  cent,  more  than  one 
cut.  The  ultimate  advantage  of  the  one  or  the  two  cuts 
remains  to  be  proved.  It  is  not  decided  whether  the 
yield  from,  say,  the  lowest  3  ft.  is  less  by  tapping  with 
two  cuts  than  by  tapping  first  with  a  single  cut  and, 
after  the  lower  part  of  the  tree  has  been  finished  all  round, 
continuing  with  another  single  cut  at  3  ft.  The  time 
required  in  the  second  case  would  be  greater,  while  the 
difference  in  the  yield  is  doubtful.  But  these  are  subjects 
for  future  experiments. 

Tapping  Intervals. 

Probably  no  other  point  has  been  the  subject  of  so 
much  discussion  as  the  question  of  tapping  intervals.  A 
tapping  interval  is  the  time  which  elapses  between  succes- 
sive tappings.  That  would  appear  clear  enough,  but  the 
discussions  show  that  it  is  not,  and  it  is  necessary  to 
add  that  "a  tapping"  is  the  process  of  extraction  of 
latex  by  cutting,  whether  it  is  performed  on  the  same 
side  of  the  tree  as  the  last  or  on  the  opposite  side.  Each 
time  the  coolie  cuts  the  tree  is  a  tapping;  if  he  taps  one 
side  of  the  tree  on  Monday  and  the  other  side  on  Tuesday, 
and  so  on,  that  is  daily  tapping  on  alternate  sides. 

In  the  second  place,  an  experiment  which  sets  out  to 
show  the  difference  in  yield  with  different  tapping  in- 
tervals must  be  conducted  on  the  same  plan  throughout. 
It  is  useless  to  alter  the  number  of  cuts  as  well  as  the 
tapping  interval  and  then  make  deductions  as  to  the  effect 
of  the  latter.  Most  experiments  on  tapping  intervals 
are  vitiated  by  the  introduction  of  other  factors. 

Given  a  straight  experiment,  i.e.,  the  same  method  of 
tapping,  same  number  of  cuts,  same  angle,  and  same 
fraction  of  circumference  throughout,  one  clear  result 
emerges,  viz.,  that  the  longer  the  interval  the  greater 
the  yield  per  tapping,  up  to  an  interval  of  about  seven 
days.  This,  of  course,  refers  only  to  tappings  on  the 
same  side,  not  tappings  on  alternate  sides.  There  are, 


648  RUBBER 

as  yet,  no  experiments  on  tapping  one  side  continuously 
versus  tapping  two  opposite  sides  alternately. 

As  already  intimated,  the  yield  per  tapping  in  alternate 
day  (two  day)  tapping  is  greater  than  the  yield  per 
tapping  in  daily  tapping.  But  it  is  not  twice  as  great. 
Hence  the  yield  in  a  given  time  is  greatest  with  the 
shorter  interval.  Alternate  day  tapping  usually  yields 
from  20  to  30  per  cent,  more  per  tapping  than  daily 
tapping.  The  yield  at  the  end  of  a  year  in  alternate  day 
tapping  is  therefore  not  more  than  65  per  cent,  of  that 
obtained  by  daily  tapping,  but  the  amount  of  bark  con- 
sumed is  only  about  one-half.  Alternate  day  tapping 
gives  about  20  to  30  per  cent,  more  rubber  than  daily 
tapping  from  the  same  area  of  bark,  but  it  takes  twice 
the  tjme  to  do  it. 

Some  doubt  has  been  thrown  on  the  above  results  by 
the  experiments  which  have  been  in  progress  for  six 
years  on  the  old  trees  at  Henaratgoda.  In  these  experi- 
ments, in  which  the  interval  varies  from  one  to  seven 
days,  the  results  at  first  were  in  accordance  with  the 
statements  of  the  last  paragraph.  But  after  four  years' 
continuous  tapping  the  yield  of  the  trees  tapped  at  the 
longer  intervals  increased  to  such  an  extent  that  not 
only  was  the  yield  per  tapping  greater  than  with  the 
shorter  interval,  but  also  the  yield  in  a  given  time. 

This  result  has  been  attributed  to  the  fact  that  the 
trees  are  old  and  closely  planted,  and  that  consequently 
the  trees  tapped  daily  are  overtapped.  It  will  be  neces- 
sary, therefore,  to  repeat  the  experiment  with  younger 
trees  and  a  more  conservative  method  of  tapping.  One 
such  experiment  is  already  in  progress  at  Peradeniya. 

It  may  be  noted  that  tapping  every  three  days  has  been 
practised  in  Ceylon,  on  at  least  one  estate,  for  several 
years. 

Many  experiments  give  variants  of  interval  experi- 
ments, or  combinations  of  the  interval  factor  with  one 
other.  Probably  the  most  common  is  the  experiment 
which  combines  daily  versus  alternate  day  tapping  with 
the  condition  that  the  consumption  of  bark  is  to  be  the 
same  in  the  two  cases.  This,  of  course,  involves  the 
use  of  twice  as  many  cuts  in  the  alternate  day  tapping. 


RUBBER  649 

Experiments  by  Tromp  de  Haas  and  others  show  that 
under  such  conditions  the  yield  in  alternate  day  tapping 
for  a  given  period  is  less  than  that  in  daily  tapping  for 
the  same  period.  Doubling  the  number  of  cuts  does  not 
compensate  for  halving  the  number  of  tappings. 

Again,  experiments  by  Spring  and  others  show  that 
doubling  the  area  (horizontally)  does  not  compensate 
for  halving  the  number  of  tappings.  Trees  tapped  on 
one-quarter  daily  yielded  more  than  trees  tapped  in  the 
same  way  on  opposite  quarters  (together)  on  alternate 
days. 

Thus,  whether  the  amount  of  bark  removed  is  equalized 
by  doubling  the  number  of  cuts  or  by  doubling  the  area 
operated  upon,  alternate  day  tapping  yields  less  in  a  given 
time  than  daily  tapping. 

The  Pricker. 

The  use  of  the  pricker  has  now  been  definitely  aban- 
doned on,  practically  all  estates  in  Ceylon.  Experiments 
by  Simon  :in  Java  have  shown  that,  though  the  yield  with 
the  pricker  is  at  first  greater  than  that  with  the  knife, 
it  falls  off  more  rapidly,  and  the  yield  at  the  end  of  six 
months  or  a  year  is  less.  This  is  fully  confirmed  by  the 
results  obtained  at  Peradeniya  by  using  the  old  rotating 
pricker. 

Experiments  with  the  modern  versions  of  this  instrument 
lead  to  the  .same  conclusion. 

An  experiment  with  the  most  recent  Northway  pricker 
at  Peradeniya  gave  the  following  results :  In  two  years 
the  original  bark  had  been  completely  tapped  up  to  a 
height  of  5  ft.,  the  yield  being  1,178  grammes  per  tree.  In 
the  parallel  tappings  on  the  same  plot  by  four  different 
excision  methods,  the  consumption  of  bark  in  each  case 
was  only  three-eighths  of  the  above,  while  the  yield  varied 
from  1,690  to  2,180  grammes.  These  were  for  alternate 
day  tapping.  In  daily  tapping  by  the  Northway  system  the 
original  bark  was  completely  tapped  in  seven  and  a  half 
months,  the  yield  being  670  grammes  per  tree;  but  the 
cuts  did  not  heal  properly,  and  it  was  then  necessary  to 
rest  the  trees. 


650  RUBBER 

Future  Experiments. 

Some  indications  of  the  type  of  experiment  still  needed 
have  already  been  given,  but  one  or  two  further  remarks 
on  this  head  may  be  advisable. 

The  experimenter  should  always  adopt  the  most  con- 
servative system  possible.  Tapping  experiments,  to  be 
of  any  value,  must  be  carried  on  for  several  years,  and  it 
may  happen  that  the  system  adopted  will  be  out  of  date 
before  they  are  concluded.  An  experiment  was  begun 
in  1908  in  which  the  tapping  system  was  a  full  herring- 
bone with  three  cuts  on  half  the  circumference.  That 
was  a  conservative  system  then,  when  most  estates  were 
employing  six  cuts  on  half  the  circumference;  but  it  has 
since  been  derided  as  exceptionally  drastic. 

During  the  last  four  years  progress  in  tapping  methods 
has  been  so  rapid  that  moist  of  the  older  experiments  are 
of  doubtful  applicability  to  modern  tapping.  Experi- 
menters nowadays  must  confine  themselves  to  one  or  two 
cuts  on  not  more  than  one-quarter  of  the  circumference. 

Perhaps  the  greatest  scope  for  tapping  experiments  at 
present  lies  in  the  direction  of  what  may  be  termed 
"change  over"  systems.  It  is  recognized  that  in  pro- 
longed tapping  on  one  area  the  yield  gradually  diminishes 
as  tapping  proceeds,  though  in  estate  work  the  diminution 
may  be  masked  by  the  seasonal  increase.  It  is  also 
becoming  evident,  from  investigations  now  being  carried 
out  by  Mr.  L.  E.  Campbell  at  Peradeniya,  that  the  effect 
of  tapping  for  a  prolonged  period  on  one  side  is  bad  from 
a  physiological  standpoint.  These  considerations  favour 
the  adoption  of  systems  in  which  one  side  is  tapped  for 
two  or  three  months,  after  which  tapping  is  transferred 
to  the  other  side.  The  general  course  is  as  follows: 
The  first  side  is  tapped  for  about  two  months.  The 
second  side  is  then  opened,  and  both  sides  are  tapped 
together  for  about  a  fortnight,  until  a  full  flow  is  estab- 
lished on  the  second  side.  Then  tapping  is  stopped  on 
the  first  side,  but  continued  on  the  second  for  the  next  two 
months,  after  which  it  is  changed  to  the  first  side  again. 
Careful  experiments  dealing  with  the  relative  yields,  per- 
centage of  rubber  in  the  latex,  and  effect  on  the  tree  with 


RUBBER  651 

such  a  tapping  system  as  compared  with  the  old  method 
of  tapping  out  one  side  completely  are  urgently  required. 
They  should  deal  with  quarters,  not  halves. 

It  is  a  matter  for  regret  that  so  many  tapping  experi- 
ments are  published  with  insufficient  data.  It  is  essential 
to  know  the  number  of  trees,  average  girth,  method  or 
pattern  of  tapping,  fraction  of  circumference  operated 
upon,  number  of  cuts,  angle  of  cut,  tapping  interval, 
number  of  tappings,  as  well  as  the  total  yield.  If  experi- 
menters would  supply  accurate  diagrams  these  would 
furnish  much  of  the  information  required. 


THE  PREPARATION  OF  PLANTATION  PARA  RUBBER. 

By  B.  J.  EATON,  F.I.C.,  F.C.S. 

Government  Agricultural  Chemist,  Federated  Malay 
States. 

Two  of  the  principal  problems  in  connection  with  the 
plantation  rubber  industry  at  the  present  time  are  (a)  the 
investigation  of  the  most  suitable  method  of  preparation 
of  a  rubber  equal  or  superior  to  Fine  Hard  Para,  and 
(b)  soil  investigations  with  a  view  to  ascertaining  the 
requirements  of  the  rubber  tree,  in  order  to  increase  or 
maintain  good  yields  of  latex.  I  refer  here  particularly 
to  the  cultivation  of  Hevea  brasiliensis,  the  Para  rubber 
tree,  which  constitutes  nearly  100  per  cent,  of  the 
plantation  rubber  industry.  Both  problems  are  now 
receiving  considerable  attention  from  the  point  of 
view  of  scientific  investigation  in  the  East — Malaya, 
Ceylon,  and  Java.  It  is  unfortunate  that,  until  quite, 
recently,  very  few  investigations  of  any  value  have  been 
carried  'out  on  tropical  soils,  since  comparison  with  soils 
in  a  temperate  climate  may  lead  to  erroneous  conclusions, 
especially  when  we  consider  the  fertility  of  such  soils, 
which  in  a  temperate  climate  would  be  deemed  poor. 
Recent  investigations,  especially  on  soil  biology  and  soil 
physics,  will  probably  be  found  capable  of  explaining  in 
many  ways  the  apparent  fertility  of  many  tropical  soils. 
Both  problems  are  for  the  chemist  to  endeavour  to  solve. 
The  former  problem,  however,  is  more  or  less  new,  and 
one  which  could  not  have  been  completely  investigated 
during  the  few  years  since  the  plantation  rubber  industry 
became  a  commercial  success.  Perhaps  the  interest  which 
is  now  being  taken  in  the  subject,  particularly  in  so  far 
as  British  Colonies  and  Protectorates  are  concerned, 
and  the  application  of  scientific  methods  in  the  endeavour 
to  obtain  a  superior  product,  may  be  well  gauged  by  the 
increase  in  the  number  of  chemists  engaged  in  these 
investigations,  apart  from  other  scientific  officers. 


RUBBER  653 

During  the  last  three  years  the  number  of  chemists 
•engaged  in  research  work  in  connection  with  the  rubber 
industry  in  Malaya  has  increased  from  one  to  nine,  apart 
from  those  employed  for  special  work  in  England, 
working  more  or  less  in  conjunction  with  the  former. 
Similar  if  not  such  pronounced  increases  in  the  number 
of  research  chemists  have  taken  place  in  Ceylon. 

The  investigations  already  carried  out,  although  many 
of  them  are  of  a  preliminary  nature,  have  proved  very 
valuable  to  the  industry  and  to  particular  estates. 

The  problem  is  a  very  interesting  one,  and  somewhat 
different  from  the  usual  investigations,  in  which  chemical 
purity  of  the  product  prepared  is  the  most  essential  point. 
We  have  realized  for  some  time  that  percentage  of  pure 
caoutchouc  in  commercial  raw  rubber  is  not  by  any 
means  the  principal  object  at  which  to  aim.  Thus,  we 
may  have  two  samples  of  raw  rubber,  e.g.,  smoked  sheet 
and  pale  crepe,  in  which  the  actual  percentage  of  caout- 
chouc is  higher  in  the  latter  owing  to  the  larger  amount 
of  washing  and  maceration  it  has  undergone,  whereas 
the  quality  of  the  former  after  vulcanization  may,  and 
should,  be  considerably  superior  to  the  latter.  Investi- 
gation is  still  required  as  to  the  reason  of  this  superiority, 
and  this  is  probably  to  be  found  in  a  study  of  the  protein 
content  and  the  physical  nature  of  the  coagulum,  and  is 
known  to  be  dependent  on  the  method  of  coagulation  of 
the  latex  and  the  subsequent  treatment  of  the  raw  rubber. 
It  appears  also,  in  the  light  of  recent  experiments,  that 
the  rate  of  cure,  and  thus  the  "  coefficient  of  vulcaniza- 
tion "  (i.e.,  the  proportion  of  combined  sulphur  to  raw 
rubber  in  the  cured  material)  is  an  important  factor  in 
the  vulcanization  of  various  grades  of  plantation  rubbers 
and  in  rubber  from  different  species  of  trees,  and  that 
this  coefficient  of  vulcanization  or  percentage  of  com- 
bined sulphur  depends,  cazteris  paribus1,  on  the  nature  of 
the  raw  rubber.  The  variability  in  the  plantation  product 
necessitates  different  rates  of  cure  for  different  samples 
in  order  to  obtain  the  optimum  result.  If  plantation 
rubber  were  prepared  from  all  estates  in  one  or  two 
uniform  grades,  the  manufacturer  would  be  able  to 
purchase  various  shipments  which  would  always  behave 


654  RUBBER 

on  curing  in  a  similar  way,  whereas  it  is  now  necessary 
to  carry  out  preliminary  experiments  with  different 
batches,  which  the  smaller  manufacturers,  in  the  absence 
of  a  testing  laboratory  or  scientific  advice,  are  not  in  a 
position  to  do.  If  it  is  found  impossible  to  obtain 
absolute  uniformity,  as  well  as  superior  rubber,  from  all 
estates,  from  "  first  quality  "  latex,  samples  must  be 
tested,  graded,  and  shipped  with  guarantees  or  certificates 
of  quality,  showing  the  rate  of  cure  at  which  the  best 
result  is  obtained  in  subsequent  tests  for  elasticity, 
resiliency,  and  strength,  in  order  to  enable  the  manu- 
facturer or  his  agent  to  purchase  according  to  his  require- 
ments. In  the  absence  of  such  certificates,  uniformity  is 
relatively  of  more  importance  than  actual  quality,  owing 
to  the  absence  of  a  satisfactory  method  of  purchase. 

Until  the  various  testing  stations  which  have  recently 
been  inaugurated  at  the  Agricultural  Department  in  the 
Federated  Malay  States,  at  the  Imperial  Institute  in 
London  on  behalf  of  Ceylon,  and  the  slightly  older 
station  at  the  Technical  High  School,  Delft,  together 
with  the  Department  of  Rubber  Testing  at  the  Koniglich 
Materialprufungsamt  in  Gro'sse-Lichterfelde,  Berlin,  have 
been  at  work  for  some  time,  the  lines  along  which  work 
must  be  carried  out  in  the  country  of  origin  of  the  rubber 
will  be  the  standardization  of  rubber  on  different  estates, 
in  so  far  as  uniform  methods  of  coagulation,  machining, 
and  curing  may  be  adopted.  Thus  in  the  case,  e.g.,  of 
smoked  sheets,  it  would  be  well  if  all  estates  were  to 
coagulate  a  latex  of  a  standard  density  reduced  by  the 
addition  of  water  under  control  in  the  factory  where 
necessary,  so  that  equal  volumes  of  the  latex  would 
always  yield  the  same  weight  of  dry  rubber;  such  rubber 
should  be  uniform  in  character.  It  is  impossible  to 
produce  satisfactory  sheet  rubber  by  the  coagulation  of 
pure  concentrated  latex  with  acid  coagulants  of,  say, 
i  per  cent,  or  5  per  cent,  strength,  owing  to  various 
defects  produced  in  the  rubber  from  comparatively  thick 
latex,  so  that  in  the  case  of  pure  latex  it  has  to  be  diluted, 
or  what  amounts  to  the  same  thing,  a  large  quantity  of 
a  more  dilute  acid  coagulant  must  be  added. 

I  have  found  that  a  very  satisfactory  sheet  can  be  made 


RUBBER  655 

from  latex  containing'  15  per  cent.,  i.e.,  1*5  lb.,  of  dry 
rubber  per  gallon.  This  corresponds  to  a  latex  density 
of  0^9898  at  84°  F.,  and  I  have  found  recently,  by  means 
of  a  delicate  hydrometer,  that  sheets  from  a  gallon  of 
such  latex  can  be  made  very  even  in  weight,  the  difference 
being  about  J  oz.  of  rubber  per  sheet  weighing  1*5  lb. 
in  ordinary  factory  practice. 

If  the  latex  varies  from  day  to  day  it  is  impossible  to 
obtain  uniformity  in  the  rubber,  as  varying  dilution 
affects  the  quality  of  the  coagulum.  If  such  dilution  to  a 
standard  density,  although  it  enables  a  uniform  rubber 
to  be  made,  is  found  to  produce  a  somewhat  inferior 
product,  other  means  may  be  found  to  improve  the 
quality  of  such  rubber,  since  the  physical  properties  of 
the  coagulum  probably  depend  on  the  relative  concen- 
trations of  the  caoutchouc,  protein,  salts,  and  added 
coagulant,  or  of  any  one  or  more  of  these  constituents. 
This  point  requires  investigation,  as  it  may  be  found 
that  the  addition  of  a  salt  or  of  soluble  protein  material 
to  the  latex  before  coagulation  will  improve  the  coagulum 
and  the  rubber  after  vulcanization. 

As  far  as  the  primary  problem  is  concerned,  i.e.,  the 
preparation  of  the  raw  rubber,  I  propose  to  deal  with 
the  problem  in  a  general  way  in  the  light  of  our  present 
knowledge  of  the  subject,  and  for  this  purpose  shall 
divide  the  subject  into  different  sections,  treating  the 
various  processes  in  chronological  order  from  tapping  and 
collection  of  latex  to  packing,  i.e.,  from  the  beginning 
to  the  end  of  the  history  of  the  sample  in  its  country  of 
origin,  in  so  far  as  these  processes  affect  the  quality  of 
the  raw  rubber. 

Tapping  and  Collection  of  Latex. 

Experiments  have  shown  that  excessive  tapping  causes 
not  only  a  reduction  in  the  yield  of  latex,  but  a  reduction 
in  the  caoutchouc  content  and  probably  of  other  con- 
stituents of  latex — protein,  mineral  salts,  etc.  As  we 
know  also  that  dilution  of  latex  produces  a  weaker 
coagulum,  which  has  'been  shown  to  yield  an  inferior 
vulcanized  rubber,  it  follows  that  excessive  tapping  will 
42 


656  RUBBER 

produce  an  inferior  rubber  on  this  same  account.  The 
effect,  however,  may  not  be  very  marked,  as  small 
dilutions  of  latex  do  not  show  very  marked  effects. 
Secondly,  in  the  preparation  of  sheet  rubber  it  is  essential 
to  add  a  certain  amount  of  water  to  the  latex,  in  order 
to  avoid  certain  defects,  which,  although  of  no  real 
significance,  affect  the  market  price  of  the  commodity. 
If  it  is  shown  that  dilution,  even  to  the  extent  necessary 
in  the  preparation  of  sheet  of  good  even  appearance, 
affects  the  quality,  such  dilution  will  have  to  be  avoided, 
at  the  expense  of  appearance,  which  is  a  poor  criterion 
of  value. 

Only  a  few  remarks  need  be  made  on  the  subject  of 
latex  collection,  which  are  really  summed  up  in  the  word 
"  cleanliness." 

Cleanliness  in  collection  and  rapidity  of  collection 
means  more  rubber  from  "  first  quality  "  latex,  since  any 
extraneous  matter  or  residues  in  cups  may  set  up  fer- 
mentation very  rapidly  and  cause  partial  or  complete 
natural  coagulation  and  a  lower  percentage  of  No.  i 
rubber. 

I  would  point  out  here,  however,  that  this  naturally 
coagulated  rubber,  although  it  fetches  a  comparatively 
low  price  on  account  of  irregular  and  general  dark  colour 
due  to  surface  oxidation,  is  probably  of  very  high  quality 
owing  to  the  conditions  under  which  it  is  coagulated,  i.e., 
a  rich  concentrated  latex  containing  higher  proportions 
of  caoutchouc,  protein,  salts,  etc.  The  proportion  of 
first  quality  latex  rubber  to  naturally  coagulated  lump 
should  amount  to  between  70  and  80  per  cent. 

Coagulation. 

The  method  of  coagulation  is  a  very  important  factor 
from  the  point  of  view  of  the  ultimate  product,  and  much 
remains  to  be  investigated  in  connection  with  the  under- 
lying causes  fo>r  the  differences  obtained  under  different 
conditions  of  dilution  and  with  different  coagulants. 

I  propose  to  discuss  this  subject  entirely  from  the 
practical  point  of  view,  and  thus  to  deal  with  only  the 
principal  coagulants  which  have  been  or  are  at  present 
in  use. 


RUBBER  657 

Acetic  Acid. — Probably  on  over  99  per  cent,  of  estates 
acetic  acid  is  the  coagulant  employed  in  the  preparation 
of  Para  rubber;  its  use  may  be  described  as  a  logical 
outcome  of  the  Amazonian  smoking  process,  since  the 
fumes  from  the  dry  distillation  or  slow  combustion  of 
woody  material  are  comparatively  rich  in  this  acid. 

The  proportions  used,  however,  on  different  estates, 
especially  in  the  preparation  of  crepe  rubber,  are  very 
variable,  and  are  no  doubt  one  cause  of  the  variability  in 
the  rubber  obtained. 

The  writer  and  other  investigators  have  found  that 
the  minimum  quantity  of  pure  acetic  acid  necessary  to 
coagulate  an  average  latex  containing  about  30  per  cent, 
of  dry  rubber  is  0*1  c.c.  per  100  c.c.  of  latex,  or  I  part 
per  1,000  of  latex;  this  quantity  is  recommended  as  the 
most  suitable  to  use  for  coagulation.  In  the  case  of  a 
latex  containing  about  ij  Ib.  of  dry  rubber  per  gallon,  a 
5  per  cent,  solution  of  acetic  acid  in  the  proportion  of 
3  fluid  oz.  of  the  diluted  acid  per  gallon  of  latex  is 
recommended  for  coagulation  purposes,'  both  in  the 
preparation  of  crepe  and  sheet  rubber,  which  is  an  excess 
on  the  safe  side. 

Large  quantities  have  been  found  to  produce  a  rubber 
of  inferior  qualities,  although  a  considerable  excess  may 
be  used  compared  with  mineral  acids,  such  as  sulphuric 
and  hydrochloric  acid,  without  producing  such  deleterious 
effects.  The  abuse  and  not  the  proper  use  of  acetic  acid 
is  to  be  condemned. 

Mineral  Acids. — Of  the  mineral  acids,  sulphuric  and 
hydrochloric  acids  may  be  used,  and  are  more  powerful 
coagulants  than  acetic  acid.  Excessive  quantities  of 
mineral  acids  are  very  deleterious.  Nitric  acid  is  not  to 
be  recommended  on  account  of  its  oxidizing  action. 
Sulphurous  acid  in  the  form  of  liquid  sulphur  dioxide 
compressed  in  cylinders  may  also  be  used,  and,  as  would 
be  expected,  produces  a  fine  pale  rubber  due  to  the 
inhibition  or  destruction  of  the  oxidizing  enzymes 
normally  present  in  Hevea  latex. 

Sulphuric  acid  is  used  on  one  estate  in  the  Federated 
Malay  States  in  the  writer's  knowledge  for  the 
coagulation  of  latex,  the  rubber  from  which  is  subse- 


658  RUBBER 

quently  creped.  If  used  in  minimum  quantity,  the 
mineral  acids,  especially  sulphuric  acid,  produce  a 
rubber  not  inferior  to  that  coagulated  by  means  of  acetic 
acid.  The  chief  advantage  of  sulphuric  acid  is  its  cheap- 
ness, while  its  disadvantages  are  its  dangerous  and 
corrosive  action  and  the  liability  to  damage  the  rubber 
if  the  coagulation  is  not  properly  controlled. 

Other  Coagulants.  —  A  number  of  salts  have  been 
found  to  act  as  coagulants,  but  the  quantities  required 
are  comparatively  large,  the  rubber  does  not  appear  to 
be  superior,  and  the  cost  of  the  coagulant  is  greater. 

Hydrofluoric  acid  (also  sold  in  dilute  solution  under 
the  title  "  Purub  "  for  coagulation)  acts  as  a  coagulant, 
and  produces  a  pale  rubber  due  to  inhibition  of  natural 
oxidation.  This  acid  is,  however,  expensive  and  not 
convenient  to  handle,  and  the  pale  colour  desired  in  raw 
rubber  for  specific  purposes  may  now  be  obtained  by 
other  methods. 

Various  combinations  of  salts,  etc.,  have  been  patented 
as  coagulants  and  boomed  at  certain  periods,  but  these 
have  died  a  natural  death. 

Formic  acid  deserves  special  mention,  as,  provided 
the  present  method  of  coagulation  of  Hevea  latex  by 
means  of  acid  continues,  it  appears  ppobable  that  formic 
acid  may  replace  acetic  acid.  As  a  coagulant  it  is  more 
powerful,  i.e.,  smaller  quantities  per  unit  volume  of  latex 
may  be  used,  and  the  resultant  rubber  is  apparently  not 
inferior  to  that  prepared  by  means  of  acetic  acid.  It  has 
been  stated  that  formic  acid  can  now  be  prepared  at 
about  half  the  cost  of  acetic  acid,  owing  to  the  discovery 
of  new  methods  and  sources  of  manufacture.  At  the 
present  time,  in  the  Federated  Malay  States,  it  costs 
slightly  more  than  acetic  acid,  and  I  am  informed  by  the 
firm  which  first  imported  this  acid  that  the  freight  is 
high,  as  the  shipping  companies  consider  it  is  a  dangerous 
chemical,  hence  the  higher  price  charged  in  this  country. 
It  also  corrodes  the  corks  of  the  carboys  in  which  it  is 
contained,  and  thus  the  strength  of  the  acid  is  liable  to 
diminish  on  storage,  especially  in  the  tropics.  One 
estate  manager  in  the  Federated  Malay  States  prepares 
an  excellent  pale  crepe  by  using  formic  acid  as  a 
coagulant. 


RUBBER  659 

Sheet,  Crepe,  and  other  Forms  of  Rubber. 

In  the  Federated  Malay  States  almost  all  the  first 
quality  latex  is  converted  into  either  sheet  or  crepe,  the 
former  being  almost  invariably  smoked. 

The  method  of  coagulation  in  both  cases  is  essentially 
the  same,  since,  in  the  preparation  of  sheet,  if  care  be 
taken,  the  acetic  acid  coagulant  can  be  added  to  the  latex 
in  bulk,  i.e.,  in  quantities  of  40  to  50  gallons  of  latex, 
and  the  latter  can  then  be  poured  into  the  separate 
rectangular  pans  or  into  larger  rectangular  vessels 
divided  up  by  means  of  movable  partitions  before 
coagulation  commences.  This  saves  considerable  time, 
and  tends  to  produce  a  more  uniform  rubber  than 
the  method  of  adding  the  coagulant  to  each  separate 
pan.  In  preparing  sheet,  it  is  necessary  to  skim  the 
surface  of  the  latex  lightly  after  adding  the  coagulant 
and  before  coagulation  commences,  in  order  to  remove 
the.  froth  or  air  bubbles  which  are  invariably  produced 
by  agitating  or  stirring  an  emulsion;  if  this  is  not  done, 
when  the  coagulum  is  subsequently  machined,  the  surface 
side  of  the  rubber  will  be  covered  with  films  and  "  pock  " 
marks  due  to  the  bursting  of  these  bubbles.  The  scum 
thus  removed  may  be  added  to  the  cup  washings,  etc., 
which  are  converted  into  No.  2  crepe. 

In  coagulating  latex  for  the  preparation  of  crepe, 
quantities  of  40  to  50  gallons  may  be  treated  in  bulk  in 
a  similar  way,  and  the  lump  of  rubber  formed  subse- 
quently cut  up  with  a  knife  for  convenience  in  handling 
while  passing  through  the  macerating  machines.  Co- 
agulation is  complete  within  an  hour  or  two  when  the 
minimum  amount  of  coagulant  is  used. 

If  excess  of  coagulant  is  used,  as  is  often. done  in 
preparing  crepe  rubber,  coagulation  is  almost  immediate, 
but  the  rubber  is  likely  to  be  inferior.  In  the  preparation 
of  sheet  rubber  an  excess  of  acid  cannot  be  used,  other- 
wise it  is  impossible  to  obtain  sheets  free  from  defects. 

Machining  and  Machinery. 

The  next  treatment  undergone  by  the  coagulum  is  the 
machining.  In  small  factories  on  small  estates,  or  when 


660  RUBBER 

an  estate  is  only  just  coming  into  bearing,  the  rolling  is 
carried  out  on  hand  machines.  In  the  case  of  the  lower 
grades,  e.g.,  tree  scrap,  and  especially  bark  shavings, 
hand  machines  are  not  sufficiently  powerful,  as  such 
rubber  and  debris  'require  considerable  maceration  and 
washing.  When  possible  in  such  cases  low  grade 
material  is  treated  on  a  neighbouring  estate  till  mechanical 
power  is  available  in  the  factory  concerned. 

Before  machining  No.  i  sheet  or  crepe  rubber  from 
first  quality  latex,  the  coagulum  should  be  allowed  to 
stand  from  four  to  six  hours  after  the  coagulant  is  added 
to  the  latex.  As  a  general  rule  it  is  left  overnight  and 
machined  the  following  morning,  the  lower  grades  being 
treated  during  the  afternoon. 

On  some  estates,  especially  before  the  use  of  sodium 
bisulphite  became  general,  crepe  rubber  was  prepared 
from  the  freshly  coagulated  rubber  by  macerating  and 
washing  about  half  an  hour,  or  even  less,  after  coagula- 
tion, in  order  to  avoid  the  darkening  due  to  natufal 
oxidation  caused  by  oxidizing  enzymes  present  in  the 
latex,  which  proceeds  slowly  after  the  latex  is  collected. 

Sheet  Rubber. — In  the  preparation  of  sheet  rubber  only 
two  machines  are  necessary,  a  plain  even-speed  roller 
machine  in  which  most  of  the  moisture  is  pressed  from 
the  rubber,  and  a  diamond  or  a  spirally  grooved  crepeing 
machine  to  mark  the  plain  sheet.  Care  has  to  be  taken 
while  marking  the  sheets  that  the  rollers  of  the  crepeing 
machines  are  not  too  close  together,  otherwise  macera- 
tion of  the  rubber  takes  place.  To  those  who  may  not 
be  acquainted  with  the  principle  of  marking  sheet,  it  may 
be  stated  that  the  sole  idea  of  this  ribbing  of  sheets  is 
to  enable  the  sheets  to  be  more  easily  separated  from 
each  other  when  removed  from  the  packing  cases,  as 
they  are  not  so  liable  to  stick  together  as  in  the  case  of 
plain  sheet. 

Crepe  Rubber. — In  the  preparation  of  crepe  rubber 
one  machine  only  could  be  used,  namely,  a  machine  with 
spirally  or  diamond  cut  rollers  running  at  uneven  speeds; 
crepe,  however,  which  is  only  machined  between  'such 
rollers  is  very  uneven  in  thickness,  i.e.,  very  corrugated, 
and  dries  very  unevenly,  being  thus  more  subject  to  spot 
diseases  caused  by  bacteria  and  fungi.  For  this  reason 


RUBBER  66 1 

crepe  rubber  is  subsequently  passed  once  or  twice 
between  the  smooth  even-speed  rollers  of  a  sheeting 
machine.  In  a  large  factory,  however,  it  is  preferable 
to  have  a  battery  of  crepe  machines  so  that  the  gauge  of 
each  is  fixed;  the  fresh  coagulum  can  then  be  passed  a 
definite  number  of  times  through  each  machine,  so  that 
all  the  rubber  gets  uniform  treatment. 

Worm  Rubber. — This  kind  of  rubber  is  now  rarely 
shipped;  it  usually  consists  of  thick  crepe  cut  into  worms 
by  circular  knives  on  a  special  cutting  machine,  and 
subsequently  dried  in  hot-air  chambers,  such  as  the 
"  Chula  "  or  "  Colombo  "  driers,  or  in  vacuum  chambers. 

Block  Rubber. — Block  rubber  consists  of  crepe  rubber, 
previously  cut  into  worms,  artificially  dried  either  in 
vacuum  or  hot-air  driers,  and  then  blocked  under  high 
pressure,  say  three  or  four  tons  per  square  inch,  for  several 
minutes.  It  is  a  very  convenient  form  for  shipping,  and 
much  space  and  time  is  saved  in  its  preparation,  but  we 
have  yet  to  prove  that  the  rapid  method  of  drying  is  not 
deleterious.  In  any  case  block  rubber  is  not  likely  to 
be  superior  to  ordinary  crepe. 

Lower  Grades. — Till  comparatively  recently  all  the 
lower  grades  were  washed  and  macerated  in  an  ordinary 
crepeing  machine;  this  is  laborious,  and,  in  the  case  of 
bark  shavings  which  are  previously  soaked  for  a  day  or 
two  in  water  to  soften  the  wood,  much  of  the  fine 
particles  of  wood,  etc.,  is  actually  incorporated  with  the 
rubber.  During  the  last  two  years  machines  in  which 
the  rollers  revolve  under  water  have  been  introduced  for 
the  preliminary  treatment  of  this  material;  in  these 
machines  the  fine  particles  of  wood  float  on  the  water 
and  are  carried  off  through  wire  gauze,  and  the  heavier 
debris,  sand,  etc.,  escapes  below.  The  best  and  original 
type  of  machine  of  this  kind  is  the  Werner-Pfleiderer 
Universal  Washer,  of  which  there  are  now  several 
smaller  local  modifications.  The  chief  drawback  of  this 
machine  is  its  size  and  weight  and  the  large  amount  of 
power  required;  it  not  only  produces  a  much  cleaner 
rubber  from  bark  shavings,  but  is  more  rapid,  and 
requires  less  attention,  The  rubber  from  this  machine 
is  subsequently  creped  in  an  ordinary  crepeing"  machine. 

Defects  in  Machinery. — All  the  machines  on  estates  are 


662  RUBBER 

adaptations  of  the  washing  machines  used  in  the  large 
factories  in  Europe  for  washing  crude  rubbers,  but  are 
usually  smaller;  the  chief  defects  are  faulty  lubrication 
methods,  whereby  oil  may  come  into  contact  with  the 
rubber,  absence  of  movable  guides  on  rollers,  whereby 
crepe  of  any  desired  width  could  easily  be  made,  and  open 
worm  gearing  in  the  front  of  the  machines,  which  has  to 
be  oiled,  and  with  which  the  rubber  may  easily  come 
into  contact.  Machines  appear  to  have  been  constructed 
recently  with  overhead  gearing  to  adjust  the  back  rollers 
instead  of  the  front,  the  latter  being  fixed;  this  should 
be  a  considerable  improvement.  The  receiving  trays 
beneath  the  rollers  should  also  be  narrower  than  the 
rollers,  otherwise  oil  from  the  bearings  is  liable  to  drop 
into  them.  Copper  rollers  should  be  avoided,  since,  if 
soluble  copper  salts  are  formed,  by  allowing  them  to 
'corrode,  the  rubber  will  be  seriously  and  permanently 
spoilt. 

Drying  of  Rubber. 

Three  methods  of  drying  rubber,  apart  from  smoke- 
curing,  are  in  general  use  in  the  Federated  Malay  States : 
(i)  Normal  air  drying;  (2)  hot-air  drying;  (3)  vacuum 
drying. 

Methods  of  drying  which  involve  the  condensation  of 
the  moisture  present  in  the  atmosphere  of  a  drying  room 
by  refrigeration  processes  have  not  so  far  been  adopted. 

Normal  Air  Drying. — At  the  present  time  the  natural 
air  drying  of  rubber  in  the  case  of  thin  crepe  appears  to 
be  generally  quite  satisfactory,  and  only  occupies  from 
four  or  five  to  about  ten  days,  depending  on  the  thick- 
ness and  even  finish  of  the  rubber.  The  best  estate  drying 
rooms  consist  of  a  two-story  building  in  which  the  No.  I 
crepe  is  hung  on  racks  in  the  upper  story;  the  ceiling  of 
the  bottom  story,  which  constitutes  the  floor  of  the  top 
story,  is  constructed  of  open  broties  or  strips  of  wood, 
at  any  rate  under  the  racks  in  the  top  story,  leaving  only 
sufficient  passage  room  between  each  set  of  racks;  venti- 
lation is  improved  by  means  of  a  jack-roof  or  ventilating 
shafts.  The  drying  sheds  are  usually  built  of  corrugated 
iron,  and,  unless  they  have  a  high  roof,  the  latter  should 


RUBBER  663 

have  a  wooden  ceiling  beneath  the  iron.  Usually  the 
bottom  floor  is  used  as  a  packing  room,  and  frequently  the 
lower  grade  crepes  are  suspended  from  the  open  boards 
of  the  ceiling  of  this  bottom  story.  In  no  case  should  a 
drying  room  be  immediately  over  the  washing  factory,  and 
preferably  not  running  along  the  length  of  the  factory 
in  the  case  of  a  one-story  combined  factory  and  drying 
shed,  unless  the  floor  of  the  former  is  so  constructed 
that  no  water  can  possibly  drain  towards  the  drying 
room,  since  such  drying  rooms  would  be  continually 
damp,  and  spot  diseases  due  to  the  growth  of  fungi  and 
bacteria  would  be  prevalent.  A  drying  room  should  be 
preferably  quite  a  distinct  building;  no  sunlight  should 
be  allowed  to  come  into  direct  contact  with  the  rubber, 
otherwise  tackiness  occurs,  so  that  all  windows  should 
be  protected  with  red  or  yellow  cloth,  which  allows  the 
passage  of  air,  but  shuts  out  the  direct  rays  of  the  sun. 

In  my  opinion,  drying  rooms  and  smoke-rooms  should 
be  divided  into  compartments,  since  the  introduction  of 
wet  rubber  into  a  room  containing  partially  dried  rubber 
retards  the  drying  of  the  latter  considerably. 

Hot-air  Drying. — Three  systems  are  in  use  in  the 
Federated  Malay  States :  (a)  Chambers,  such  as  the 
Chula  and  Colombo  driers,  in  which  the  hot  fumes  of 
combustion  of  ordinary  wood  or  other  fuel  are  passed 
through  pipes  leading  through  the  chambers  in  which  the 
rubber  is  hung  or  spread  on  racks;  (b)  large  steam  pipes 
through  which  steam  at  ordinary  pressure  is  passed,  and 
over  which  the  air  passes  before  reaching  the  rubber; 
(c)  narrow  steam  coils  through  which  steam  under  pres- 
sure of  about  60  Ib.  per  square  inch  is  passed,  the  air 
entering  below  the  pipes  and  being  heated  by  them  before 
passing  through  the  rubber.  In  each  case  an  exhaust 
fan  or  a  forcing  fan  is  used  to  circulate  the  air  more 
rapidly.  The  two  latter  processes  are  at  present  in  use 
by  the  Department  of  Agriculture,  Federated  Malay 
States. 

Vacuum  Drying. — At  present  this  process  is  only  used 
on  one  or  two  estates  in  Malaya,  one  being  an  estate 
on  which  vacuum-dried  crepe  is  subsequently  blocked. 

The   chief  drawback  to  the  use  of  vacuum  driers   or 


664  RUBBER 

hot-air  driers  is  that  the  temperature  must  be  carefully 
regulated,  especially  towards  the  end  of  the  drying",  to 
avoid  tackiness.  With  vacuum-dried  crepe  it  is  usual  to 
pass  the  rubber  again  through  the  washing  rollers  after 
drying;  only  surface  moisture  is  then  taken  up  by  the 
rubber,  which  can  be  quickly  dried  in  an  ordinary  drying 
room.  The  chief  advantages  of  artificial  methods  of 
drying  are  rapidity  in  drying,  economy  in  space,  and 
absence  of  "  spot  "  diseases. 

No  satisfactory  vulcanizing  experiments  appear  to  have 
been  carried  out  so  far  to  test  the  value  or  otherwise  of 
any  of  these  processes,  but  experiments  will  be  carried 
out  shortly  at  the  Department  of  Agriculture,  Federated 
Malay  States. 

Before  passing  from  this  subject  another  process  offers 
interesting  possibilities,  namely,  drying  in  the  presence 
of  carbon  dioxide.  This  may  be  carried  out  in  an 
ordinary  two-story  building  similar  to  the  smoke-houses 
in  common  use,  charcoal  fires,  instead  of  the  usual 
fuel,  being  used  in  the  fire-boxes.  The  atmosphere  of 
carbonic  gas  inhibits  the  slow  natural  oxidation  which 
continues  during  the  drying  of  the  rubber  and  prevents 
the  growth  of  the  usual  chromogenic  organisms,  which 
are  aerobic. 

It  might  be  stated  here  that  these  statements  refer  to 
the  drying  of  crepe  rubber,  since  no  unsmoked  sheet  is 
now  made  on  the  larger  estates;  there  is,  however,  no 
difference  in  method,  the  only  difference  being  in  the 
distance  between  the  racks  which  hold  the  rubber. 

Smoke  Curing  of  Rubber. 

Smoke  curing  of  plantation  rubber  probably  had  its 
origin  as  an  imitation  of  the  Amazonian  smoke-curing 
process,  and  the  recent  vulcanizing  tests  carried  out  by 
Messrs.  Beadle  and  Stevens  on  behalf  of  the  Rubber 
Growers'  Association  appear  to  have  proved  definitely 
that  the  smoking  of  plantation  sheet  or  other  forms  of 
rubber  does  undoubtedly  in  some  way  improve  the 
physical  properties  of  the  rubber  to  a  marked  extent. 
Whether  the  results  obtained  depend  on  one  or  more  of 


RUBBER  665 

the  constituents  of  the  fumes  from  the  fuel,  to  the 
elevated  temperature  in  the  presence  of  an  atmosphere 
deficient  in  oxygen  or  rich  in  carbon  dioxide,  or  to  the 
preservative  action  of  the  fumes,  due  to  some  particular 
constituent  of  the  smoke,  on  the  protein  material  in  the 
rubber,  remains  to  be  investigated. 

The  form  of  rubber  smoked  now  is  almost  entirely 
sheet;  the  demand  for  smoked  crepe  has  ceased,  due 
possibly  to  the  fact  that  lower  grades  of  rubber  could, 
by  being  smoked,  be  made  to  resemble  closely  first-grade 
crepe,  the  various  defects  being  obscured  by  the  dark 
colour  of  the  smoked  product.  The  best  type  of  smoke- 
house is  the  two-story  building,  resembling  the  Kent  hop 
kiln  or  drier;  the  sheets  of  rubber  are  hung  on  racks  in 
the  top  story  and  the  fuel  burnt  in  a  hole  in  the  ground 
of  the  bottom  floor,  or  preferably  in  shallow  fire-boxes 
on  wheels.  A  wire-gauze  box  should  be  placed  over  these 
fire-boxes  to  retain  dust  and  sparks,  or  wire  gauze  may 
be  placed  in  the  openings  below  the  rubber  racks.  A 
maximum  and  minimum  thermometer  should  be  kept  in 
the  top  story  as  a  check  on  the  temperature;  if  the  tem- 
perature rises  above  120°  F.  during  the  day  smoking 
should  only  be  carried  out  between  4  p.m.  and  9  a.m. 

Sheet  of  average  thickness  (about  J  in.)  is  completely 
dried  in  from  ten  to  fourteen  days,  but  smoking  may  be 
carried  beyond  this  period  and,  according  to  tests 
carried  out  by  the  chemists  of  the  Rubber  Growers' 
Association,  appears  to  improve  the  quality  of  the  rubber. 
Fairly  dry  jungle  wood  or  wood  mixed  with  coconut 
husks  provides  a  suitable  fuel;  if  the  latter  alone  is  used 
the  rubber  has  the  appearance  often  attributed  to  "  over- 
smoking," as  the  fumes  are  rich  in  tarry  and  creosotic 
substances. 

Other  Processes  of  Preparation. 

I  propose  in  this  section  to  deal  briefly  with  four  of 
the  principal  processes  which  have  been  tried  on  a  more 
or  less  commercial  scale  and  which  appear  to  be  pro- 
mising in  several  ways.  These  processes  are  all  imita- 
tions of  the  Amazonian  smoke-curing  process  and  are 
as  follows:  (i)  Berry's  process;  (2)  Wickham's  process; 


666  RUBBER 

(3)  Byrne's  process;  (4)  coagulation  of  latex  in  shallow 
trays  in  a  smoke-house,  devised  by  the  writer  and  since 
by  others. 

The  Derry  Process. — This  process  was  originated  by 
Mr.  Derry,  late  Curator  in  the  Botanic  Gardens,  Singa- 
pore, and  was  first  worked  successfully  by  Mr.  Barrow- 
cliff,  First  Assistant  Agricultural  Chemist,  Department 
of  Agriculture,  Federated  Malay  States,  on  behalf  of  a 
Committee  appointed  by  the  Government  to  investigate 
the  process.  The  principle  of  the  process  depends  on  the 
coagulation  of  thin  films  of  latex  on  a  revolving  belt. 
The  present  apparatus  consists  of  two  belts,  each  40  ft. 
long,  which  are  worked  by  hand  and  made  to  revolve  in 
a  long  smoke  chamber.  The  smoke  is  generated  in  an 
outside  furnace  and  passes  into  a  large  pipe  on  the  floor 
of  the  building,  thence  into  a  smoke-box  and  through 
perforated  pipes  placed  immediately  under  the  belts  and 
extending  nearly  the  whole  length  of  the  belts.  The 
belts  are  passed  over  rollers  at  each  end,  with  gearing 
and  mechanism  to  tighten  and  raise  them,  and  are  slightly 
inclined  to  the  horizontal.  Latex  is  placed  in  shallow 
trays  on  tables  which  can  be  raised  and  lowered  by  means 
of  a  screw;  the  tables  are  raised  so  that  the  latex  in  the 
trays  just  touches  the  belts  by  capillary  action  and  a  very 
thin  film  is  thus  taken  up.  The  tables  are  placed  under 
the  rollers,  i.e.,  at  the  lowest  end  of  the  belt  just  outside 
the  smoke-room,  as  it  would  be  difficult  to  operate  inside 
the  room.  When  properly  working,  one  revolution  of 
the  belt  through  the  smoke  chamber  is  sufficient  for  each 
film  of  latex,  so  that  the  latex  can  be  continuously  taken 
up  by  the  belts.  Two  very  essential  factors,  on  which  the 
success  of  the  process  depends,  are  dry  fuel  and  con- 
centrated latex  containing  over  25  per  cent,  of  dry 
rubber;  with  the  present  apparatus  a  strong  breeze  is 
found  to  be  disadvantageous.  The  rubber  is  allowed  to 
remain  on  the  belt  overnight,  stripped  off  the  following 
morning  and  rolled  together;  if  necessary  it  can  be 
allowed  to  hang  for  a  further  period  in  the  smoke-house, 
but  it  is  not  known  whether  this  improves  the  quality 
further.  The  maximum  output  per  belt  is  about  15  Ib. 
for  a  period  of  six  hours.  The  process  can  probably  be 


RUBBER  667 

improved  in  several  respects,  and  experiments  will  be 
carried  out  shortly  to  test  the  increased  efficiency  by: 
(i)  Enclosing  the  greater  part  of  the  belts  in  long  boxes 
with  hinged  doors;  (2)  use  of  an  exhaust  or  forced 
draught  fan;  (3)  graduation  of  the  holes  in  the  perforated 
smoke-pipe,  since  with  large  holes  of  the  same  size  the 
smoke  escapes  through  the  first  few  and  only  acts  on  a 
short  portion  of  the  belt;  a  fan  would  also  improve  the 
apparatus  in  this  respect.  On  a  large  scale  some  forty 
or  fifty  belts  could  be  run  by  means  of  a  small  engine 
running  at  low  speed  and  geared  very  low. 

Wickham's  Process. — Wickham's  process,  advocated 
for  several  years  by  the  inventor  and  recently  taken  up 
by  a  company  for  working  on  a  commercial  scale,  is  very 
similar  to  Derry's  in  principle,  except  that  the  latex  is 
spread  over  the  interior  surface  of  a  hollow  drum  into 
which  smoke  from  a  furnace  is  passed. 

In  both  the  Derry  and  Wickham  processes,  unless  some 
means  is  adopted  to  prevent  natural  coagulation,  such 
as  the  addition  of  formalin  to  the  latex,  a  considerable 
amount  of  naturally  coagulated  lump  is  formed  unless  a 
sufficient  number  of  belts  is  available  to  treat  each  day's 
yield  of  latex  in  two  or  three  hours. 

The  Byrne  Process. — The  Byrne  process,  which  has 
been  boomed  considerably  during  the  last  year,  and  is 
being  adopted  recently  on  a  number  of  estates  in  Malaya, 
differs  from  the  preceding  two  in  that  it  is  not  a  process 
for  coagulating  latex  direct  (N.B. — It  could  be  adopted 
for  this  purpose,  vide  next  process),  but  a  more  rapid 
and  possibly  constant  method  of  smoking  rubber  coagu- 
lated by  acetic  acid  or  other  coagulants  in  the  ordinary 
way.  The  rubber  in  the  form  of  crepe  or  sheet  is  hung 
on  racks  in  a  single-story  smoke  chamber,  the  walls  and 
roof  of  which  are  covered  with  "  malthoid  "  or  similar 
material.  The  process  consists  in  dropping  at  equal  or 
any  desired  rates  two  fluids,  known  as  Amazonian  No.  I 
and  No.  2,  on  to  a  hot  plate,  which  forms  the  bottom 
of  an  oven  in  the  machine  constructed  and  sold  on  behalf 
of  the  inventor;  the  plate  is  heated  by  means  of  a  blast 
kerosene  oil  lamp,  charged  from  a  reservoir  attached  to 
the  machine.  The  two  liquids,  which  consist  essentially 


668  RUBBER 

of  crude  tarry  and  creosotic  substances  and  pyroligneous 
acid  respectively,  are  vapourized  by  dropping  on  the 
heated  plate,  and  the  vapours  produced  are  led  through 
a  pipe  into  the  smoke  chamber.  The  period  of  treatment 
is  only  two  to  four  hours,  after  which  the  rubber  may 
be  hung  for  twenty-four  hours  and  shipped  without 
further  drying,  or  it  may  be  hung  to  dry  in  an  ordinary 
drying  house  before  dispatch.  When  this  machine  was 
first  introduced  it  was  used  for  the  smoking  of  crepe 
rubber,  but  the  demand  for  this  having  ceased,  and  the 
fact  that  the  process  was  not  taken  up  to  any  extent, 
due  probably  to  the  royalty  charged  by  the  inventor  or 
the  syndicate  holding  the  patents,  has  caused  the  adoption 
of  different  ideas,  the  most  important  of  which  is  the 
smoking  of  "  slab  "  rubber.  Latex  is  coagulated  by  the 
ordinary  method  used  in  preparing  sheets  in  rectangular 
troughs  or  trays;  the  thick,  soft  slab  of  rubber  is  then 
lightly  hand-rolled  and  is  placed  immediately  in  the  curing 
shed,  lying  flat  on  the  shelves  or  racks,  smoked  for  two 
and  a  half  to  three  hours  by  means  of  the  fumes  from  the 
Byrne  machine,  turned  over  and  smoked  the  following 
day  for  a  similar  period,  and  then  allowed  to  dry  without 
further  treatment.  The  idea  is  a  step  in  the  right  direc- 
tion; but,  except  for  rapidity,  it  is  probable  that  slab 
similarly  treated  in  an  ordinary  smoke-house  would  pro- 
duce a  rubber  possessing  equally  good  physical  properties. 

A  Byrne  machine  has  been  lent  to  the  Department  of 
Agriculture,  Federated  Malay  States,  by  the  Syndicate, 
and  experiments  in  several  directions  will  be  carried  out 
shortly,  such  as  the  utilization  of  the  fumes  for  curing 
latex  on  belts  in  the  Derry  process,  and  the  coagulation 
and  curing  of  latex  in  shallow  trays  in  the  curing  shed. 
The  racks  in  the  curing  house  are  being  erected  on  wheels 
and  placed  on  rails  so  that  they  can  be  removed  easily 
from  the  curing  house  for  loading  and  unloading. 

Smoke  Coagulation  of  Latex  (Author's  Process). — 
Experiments  were  first  carried  out  in  1911  with  the  idea 
of  coagulating  latex  in  thin  layers  in  shallow  trays  in 
an  ordinary  smoke-house,  but  were  only  carried  to  a  very 
preliminary  stage  at  that  time,  as  it  was  considered  desir- 
able to  wait  till  samples  could  be  vulcanized  and  tested 


RUBBER  669 

by  the  Department.  Towards  the  end  of  last  year  and 
early  during  the  present  year  (1914)  the  experiments  were 
carried  a  step  further  and  a  number  of  shallow  trays 
utilized  for  the  purpose  in  a  "  Jackson  "  smoking  cabinet., 
which  is  essentially  a  small  smoke-house  with  walls  and 
roof  of  galvanized  iron,  with  a  small  furnace  below  in 
which  compressed  coconut  fibre,  especially  treated  by 
the  inventor,  is  burnt.  The  fumes  are  very  rich  in  creo- 
sotic  vapours  and  cause  a  very  rapid  smoked  appearance 
in  ordinary  sheet  and  crepe  rubber.  It  was  found  possible 
to  coagulate  layers  representing  a  pint  of  pure  latex  in 
trays  24  in.  by  9  in.  in  twenty-four  hours  or  less.  These 
trays  should  be  constructed  not  more  than  I  in.  deep  and 
placed  in  tiers  with  about  J  in.  space  between  each  tier 
and  J  to  i  in.  space  between  each  tray  in  any  one  tier, 
in  order  to  give  sufficient  space  for  the  smoke  to  pass. 
If  the  space  thus  left  is  insufficient  for  a  good  draught 
an  exhaust  fan  could  be  employed.  Pure  latex  containing 
25  to  30  per  cent,  of  dry  rubber,  or,  say,  2*5  to  3  Ib. 
per  gallon,  should  be  used,  as  there  is  less  water  to 
evaporate  and  coagulation  takes  place  more  readily.  The 
capacity  of  chamber  required  can  easily  be  calculated  for 
any  daily  yield  of  latex.  Thus  the  actual  cubic  content 
required  per  pint  of  latex  on  the  above  assumption  would 
be  480  cub.  in.  with  trays  I  in.  deep,  allowing  I  in. 
space  between  each  tier  of  trays  and  I  in.  between 
each  tray,  or,  say,  2.\  cub.  ft.  per  gallon  of  latex,  i.e., 
a  chamber  5  ft.  square  and  9  ft.  to  the  eaves  would  be 
sufficient  for  100  gals.,  or,  say,  300  Ib.  of  dry  rubber 
per  day.  A  number  of  small  cabinets  would  probably 
be  preferable  to  one  large  chamber.  It  may  be  found 
possible  to  coagulate  a  deeper  layer  of  latex  than  is 
represented  by  a  gallon  of  latex  spread  over  an<  area  of 
12  sq.  ft.,  in  which  case  a  large  volume  of  latex  could 
be  treated  at  the  same  time  in  a  chamber  of  the  above 
size. 

Each  layer  of  latex  in  a  tray  is  smoked  for  twenty-four 
hours  or  less,  and  the  following  day  a  similar  layer  is 
added,  the  addition  being  continued  till  the  trays  are  full, 
which  takes  from  one  to  two  weeks,  according  to  the 
depth  of  tray  used. 


670  RUBBER 

The  rubber  is  then  removed  from  the  trays  and  may 
be  pressed  into  blocks;  as  in  the  case  of  Fine  Hard  Para, 
it  contains  from  10  to  20  per  cent,  of  moisture,  and  the 
inner  layers  are   white  till  exposed  subsequently  to   the 
atmosphere.      The    exact  depth  of   tray  which   is   most 
convenient  has  still  to  be  ascertained;  the  shallower  the 
tray,   within  limits,  the  greater  is  the  quantity  of  latex 
which  can  be  treated  on  any  one  day,   since  more  trays 
can  be  used  in  a  smoke  chamber.     The  chief  drawback 
to  the  process  is  the  number  of  trays  required;  economy, 
however,  can   be   effected  by  using  comparatively   large 
trays.     The  advantages  of  the  process  are :   (a)  The  fact 
that   the  rubber  need  be   handled   only  once  in   a  week 
or  fortnight  when  removed  from  the  trays;  and  (b)  the 
rubber  will  probably  be  very  uniform  throughout,  since, 
unlike  rubber  made  from  the  latex  on  any  one  day,  which 
may  vary  from  day  to  day,  the  daily  variations  will  be 
corrected  in  a  slab  or  sheet  which  is  formed  from  latex 
obtained  daily  over  a  period  of,   say,   seven  to  fourteen 
days.     The  uniformity  appears  to  the  author  to  be  the 
most  important  point  in  connection  with  the  process,  and 
probably   explains  the  greater  uniformity  in  Fine   Hard 
Para,  each  ball  of  which  is  prepared  from  latex  collected 
over  a  prolonged  period. 

Since  these  experiments  were  commenced  by  the  author 
a  patent  has  been  applied  for  in  Malaya  by  another  experi- 
menter who  has  evidently  been  working  on  similar  lines. 
It  is  not  possible  at  present  to  say  definitely  whether  the 
process  will  work  satisfactorily  on  a  large  scale,  as,  in 
the  author's  experiments,  only  about  twelve  trays  were 
used  in  the  smoke  cabinet  employed.  Experiments  on  a 
larger  scale  will  be  conducted  shortly  and  the  samples 
vulcanized  and  tested. 

Defects  in  Raw  Rubber  and  their  Remedy. 

The  principal  defects  to  which  objection  is  taken  by 
buyers  are  the  following:  (i)  Tackiness;  (2)  spots  due 
to  fungi  and  bacteria;  (3)  oil  marks;  (4)  holes  in  crepe; 
(5)  yellow  patches  in  pale  crepe;  (6)  over-smoking; 
(7)  dark  colour  in  unsmoked  rubber;  (8)  rust  marks. 


RUBBER  671 

Tackiness. — As  far  as  our  present  knowledge  goes, 
tackiness  is  due  to  one  of  three  causes :  (a)  Action  of 
certain  salts,  e.g.,  salts  of  copper  and  iron;  (b)  sunlight, 
which  may  be  due  to  the  heat  effect,  or  to  the  light  effect 
due  to  the  actinic  rays;  (c)  direct  heat. 

Salts  of  copper  are  known  to  be  very  deleterious  in 
their  action  on  both  raw  and  vulcanized  rubber;  the 
action  is  an  oxidation  process,  and  the  rubber  increases 
in  weight,  softens,  and  eventually  becomes  brittle.  On 
this  account  copper  or  copper-covered  rollers,  such  as 
are  often  found  on  hand  machines,  should  be  avoided, 
as,  unless  kept  scrupulously  clean,  "  verdigris  "  forms 
and  may  be  incorporated  with  the  rubber.  Oil  containing 
brass  from  old  or  overheated  bearings  may  constitute 
a  similar  source  of  danger,  but  not  a  very  probable  one. 
Tropical  sunlight  causes  tackiness  in  rubber,  as  experi- 
ments by  the  author  have  proved,  but  whether  this  was 
due  to  the  actinic  rays  or  to  the  heating  effect  was  not 
definitely  proved :  this  point  will  be  tested  later,  also  the 
action  of  sunlight  and  heat  in  the  presence  of  inert  gases, 
such  as  carbon  dioxide  and  hydrogen.  That  tackiness 
may  be  caused  by  heat  alone  can  easily  be  shown,  and  it 
has  been  known  to  occur  in  rubber  hung  near  a  boiler 
in  an  estate  factory.  Vacuum-dried  rubber  and  rubber 
dried  in  hot-air  chambers  at  about  130°  F.  exhibit  tacky 
surfaces,  and  the  deleterious  effect  produced  by  these 
methods  of  drying  are  invariably  caused  by  the  excessive 
heat. 

Spot  Disease. — Spot  diseases  have  been  proved  by  a 
number  of  investigators  to  be  due  to  micro-organisms, 
fungoid  or  bacterial  in  nature,  and  are  of  sufficient  in- 
terest and  importance  to  merit  separate  treatment,  but 
in  a  paper  of  this  nature  they  can  only  be  discussed 
somewhat  briefly.  The  cause  of  such  spots  are  air- 
borne spores  of  the  micro-organisms  which  gain  entrance 
into  the  latex  in  the  cups  in  the  field,  or  may  be  deposited 
on  the  wet,  freshly  machined  rubber  in  the  factory  or 
drying  room.  Any  process  which  tends  to  retard  the 
drying  of  the  rubber  is  conducive  to  the  development  of 
the  spores,  several  of  which  are  chromogenic  fungi  and 
bacteria,  causing  yellow,  black  (blue  in  transmitted  light), 
43 


672  RUBBER 

orange,  or  red  spots.  The  use  of  sodium  bisulphite  in 
the  preparation  of  rubber,  which  by  chemical  action  is 
partly  converted  into  the  hygroscopic  magnesium  salt  in 
the  latex,  and  the  preparation  of  blanket  or  thick  crepe, 
which  dries  slowly,  almost  invariably  result  in  the 
development  of  these  spots,  and  were  probably  the  cause 
of  the  somewhat  widespread  epidemic  during  1911  in 
the  Federated  Malay  States.  Spot  diseases,  as  would  be 
expected,  are  very  prevalent  in  unsmoked  sheet  and  in 
rough  crepe  on  the  thick  ridges  made  by  the  diamond 
or  spirally  cut  rollers  of  the  crepeing  machines,  which 
do  not  dry  as  quickly  as  the  thinner  portions,  hence  the 
advantage  of  "  finishing  "  crepe  on  smooth,  even-speed 
rollers.  Under  ordinary  circumstances,  if  no  develop- 
ment of  the  "  spots  "  occurs  during1  the  first  day  or  two 
after  the  rubber  is  hung  in  the  drying  room,  the  rubber 
is  safe  from  further  attack.  The  spores,  however,  may 
still  be  present  and,  as  these  may  be  very  resistant  to 
desiccation,  further  development  can  take  place  if  the 
rubber  is  allowed  to  become  moist  again.  Three  very 
interesting  cases  in  which  such  subsequent  development 
has  occurred  have  come  to  the  author's  notice.  In  the 
first  two  instances  samples  of  rubber  which  had  been 
sent  to  Europe  from  estates  were  returned  to  the 
managers  and  sent  subsequently  to  the  Agricultural 
Department  for  report  in  connection  with  orange  spots 
on  the  specimens;  the  managers  of  the  estates  in  ques- 
tion stated  definitely  that  the  rubber,  when  packed  and 
shipped,  was  perfectly  dry  and  showed  no  trace  of  such 
spots.  On  microscopical  examination  the  spotted  por- 
tions of  the  rubber  were  found  to  contain  numerous 
spores  from  which  short  hyphae  had  developed,  further 
development  appearing  to  have  been  arrested.  It  could 
only  be  surmised  that  the  cases  of  rubber  had  subse- 
quently come  into  contact  with  water,  probably  accidental 
contact  with  sea  water.  This  idea  was  amply  confirmed 
in  connection  with  a  case  recently  examined  by  the 
author.  The  rubber  in  question  was  received  from  an 
estate  for  dispatch  to  the  London  Rubber  Exhibition 
and  examined  by  the  Director  of  Agriculture  and  myself 
among  other  cases  before  dispatch.  The  case  was 


RUBBER  673 

returned  shortly  afterwards  by  the  shipping  agents,  as 
it  had  fallen  from  the"'  lighter  "  at  the  Federated  Malay 
States  port  in  course  of  removal  from  the  jetty  to  the 
ship.  Although  the  sample  showed  no  trace  of  spot 
disease  when  first  inspected  and  was  perfectly  dry,  after 
reopening  it  was,  as  would  be  expected,  very  moist,  with 
the  characteristic  translucent  appearance  of  rubber  which 
had  never  been  properly  dried;  and,  secondly,  a  "  pink  " 
spot  disease  had  developed  to  a  marked  extent  throughout 
the  sample.  It  was  exceedingly  improbable  that  the 
spores  had  gained  entrance  subsequently,  since  the 
development  had  occurred  on  rubber  in  the  centre  of  the 
case  as  well  as  on  the  outer  pieces  of  rubber,  and  was 
evidently  due  to  the  subsequent  growth  of  resistant 
spores  originally  present  in  the  rubber  which  developed 
on  account  of  the  suitable  moisture  conditions  now  pre- 
sent; the  salts  in  the  sea  water  naturally  assisted  in 
keeping  the  sample  moist.  In  the  third  case,  to  which 
a  similar  accident  had  befallen,  the  rubber  was  becoming- 
very  heated  owing  to  fermentation  (N.B. — The  rubber 
consisted  of  lower  grades,  bark,  scrap,  etc.,  containing 
a  comparatively  large  percentage  of  extraneous  matter) 
set  up  probably  by  micro-organisms  or  their  enzymes, 
on  account  of  suitable  moisture  conditions.  As  would  be 
expected,  these  micro-organisms  develop  readily  in  freshly 
machined  rubber  which  is  rolled  together,  since  the 
moisture  escapes  more  slowly  then  when  the  rubber  is 
hung  or  placed  immediately  on  racks.  Mr.  Sharpies, 
Assistant  Mycologist  in  the  Department  of  Agriculture, 
Federated  Malay  States,  has  found  the  addition  of 
formalin  to  the  latex  to  be  of  great  value  in  reducing 
the  development  of  these  fungi  and  bacteria;  the  formalin 
is  retained  in  sufficient  quantity  in  the  machined  rubber, 
even  in  crepe  which  is  subjected  to  much  washing,  either 
by  adsorption  or  combination  possibly  with  the  protein 
constituents.  Drying  in  an  atmosphere  of  carbon  dioxide 
may  also  be  recommended,  and  may  be  carried  out,  as 
suggested  before,  by  burning  charcoal  fires  in  the  drying 
room,  since  most,  if  not  all,  of  these  organisms  are 
aerobic,  i.e.,  unable  to  live  in  an  atmosphere  deprived 
of,  or  deficient  in,  oxygen.  In  the  case  of  sheet,  smoking 


6/4  RUBBER 

has  the  desired  effect.  The  impression  is  held  by  some 
planters  and  others  that  micro-organisms  do  not  develop 
on  smoked  rubber  unless  the  latter  has  not  been  smoked 
sufficiently;  the  idea  is,  however,  quite  erroneous,  since 
common  mildews  readily  develop  on  smoked  sheet  if  the 
latter  is  kept  subsequently  in  a  damp  place  or  wrapped  in 
certain  paper,  i.e.,  newspaper  or  common  brown  paper. 

Darkening  due  to  Oxidation. — Numerous  experiments 
by  various  investigators  have  proved  beyond  doubt  that 
the  more  or  less  rapid  darkening  which  takes  place  in 
Hevea  latex,  and  more  markedly  in  other  latices,  such  as 
that  of  Castilloa,  on  standing  and  in  the  rubber  after 
coagulation,  both  before  and  after  washing,  is  due  to 
oxidation  caused  by  an  enzyme  which  may  be  classified 
as  an  oxidase,  and  which  is  a  normal  constituent  of  the 
latex.  The  darkening  occurs  to  a  marked  extent  on  the 
surface  of  the  latex  or  coagulum,  due  to  contact  with 
atmospheric  oxygen.  Some  coagula  after  standing  over- 
night in  the  serum  have  quite  a  mauve-grey  surface. 
The  oxidizable  substances  in  the  latex  on  which  the 
enzyme  acts  are  probably  phenolic  in  character  and  may 
be  in  combination  with  the  proteins.  I  have  shown,  by 
the  addition  of  certain  phenols,  such  as  ordinary  phenol 
(carbolic  acid)  and  hydroquinone,  to  the  fresh  latex  as  it 
exudes  from  the  cuts  on  the  tree,  that  excessive  darken- 
ing is  caused  by  an  increase  of  such  substances  in  the 
latex  or  in  the  sap  from  the  cut  tissues  with  which  the 
exuding  latex  comes  into  contact;  the  exact  cause  of  such 
increase  at  particular  periods  is  unknown. 

The  older  remedies  for  inhibiting  the  oxidation  in  the 
preparation  of  pale  crepe  were :  (a)  Immersion  of  the 
freshly  machined  and  washed  rubber  for  a  short  period 
in  nearly  boiling  water;  this  destroys  the  enzyme  and 
prevents  further  darkening  during  the  drying  stage; 
(b)  coagulation  of  the  latex  with  an  excess  of  acid,  pro- 
ducing rapid  coagulation,  and  immediate  maceration  and 
washing  of  the  coagulum;  (c)  steaming  the  latex;  (of)  in 
the  case  of  sheet,  covering  the  coagulum  in  the  coagu- 
lating pans,  shortly  after  coagulation  is  complete,  with 
boards  and  weights,  so  that  the  coagulum  is  forced 
beneath  the  surface  of  the  serum  or  residual  liquid. 


RUBBER  675 

Drying  in  an  atmosphere  of  carbon  dioxide  may  also  be 
adopted  to  arrest  the  further  oxidation  which  takes  place 
during  the  drying  of  the  rubber.  The  present  practically 
universal  method  adopted  in  Malaya  is  the  use  of  sodium 
bisulphite.  This  is  added  to  the  latex  and  thoroughly 
mixed  with  it  immediately  before  the  addition  of  the  acid 
coagulant.  The  use  of  sodium  bisulphite  powder  or  very 
strong  solutions  not  properly  mixed  with  the  latex  will 
cause  streakiness  or  yellow  and  white  patches. 

The  proportion  of  sodium  bisulphite  required  varies 
somewhat  with  the  latex,  since  some  latices,  especially 
from  older  trees,  oxidize  rather  rapidly  and  to  a  greater 
extent.  The  amount  usually  found  sufficient  is  TJo  oz.  per 
gallon  of  latex,  or,  say,  2  oz.  of  a  5  per  cent,  solution 
per  gallon.  The  chief  disadvantage  of  this  chemical  is 
that  it  retards  the  drying  of  the  rubber,  due  probably 
to  the  formation  of  the  hygroscopic  magnesium  salt 
formed  by  interaction  with  the  magnesium  salts  present 
normally  in  latex;  this  retardation  is  not  of  great  import- 
ance in  the  case  of  thin  crepe.  Sodium  bisulphite  in 
smaller  quantities  is  valuable  in  preventing  the  rough 
surface  on  sheet  due  to  oxidation  films  and  thus  improves 
the  appearance  of  smoked  sheet;  the  sheet  takes  longer 
to  darken,  and  thus  the  appearance  of  "over-smoking" 
is  also  avoided  by  using  small  quantifies  of  this  salt 
in  the  preparation  of  smoked  sheet.  According  to  vul- 
canizing experiments  and  tests  carried  out  by  the  chemists 
of  the  Rubber  Growers'  Association  there  is  no  dele- 
terious action  on  the  rubber  in  using  this  salt. 

Oil  Marks. — Oil  marks  are  not  an  uncommon  fault, 
especially  in  crepe  rubber,  the  oil  being  taken  up  from  the 
sides  of  the  rollers  or  from  the  trays  beneath;  this  may 
be  due  to  careless  lubrication  of  bearings  on  the  part  of 
the  operator,  or  excess  of  oil  on  the  bearings,  which 
drops  into  the  trays  beneath,  which  are  usually  made  too 
wide,  extending  not  only  the  width  of  the  rollers,  but 
also  partly  under  the  bearings.  An  excellent  method, 
by  which  only  the  central  portion  of  the  rollers  form  the 
working  part,  is  to  have  movable  guides  placed  over  the 
top,  which  fit  over  the  rollers,  such  as  are  found  on 


676  RUBBER 

calendering  machines  in  the  large  factories  in  Europe. 
Crepe  of  any  desired  width  can  then  be  made. 

Holes  in  Crepe. — The  presence  of  holes  in  crepe,  which 
apparently  reduces  its  market  value  solely  on  account  of 
the  fact  that  the  rubber  is  bought  on  appearance,  is  really 
due  to  not  finishing  the  rubber  on  smooth  rollers;  the 
rubber  should  be  folded  on  itself  so  that  the  holes  are 
closed  up  during  the  final  finishing  process. 

Yellow  Patches  in  Pale  Crepe. — In  the  pale  crepe  now 
made  by  the  addition  of  sodium  bisulphite,  the  mottled 
yellow  and  wjiite  appearance  is  usually  due  to  adding  the 
solid  substance  or  a  concentrated  solution  which  is  not 
properly  mixed  with  the  latex,  or  possibly  through  the 
addition  of  the  bisulphite  salt  after  the  coagulating  acid, 
so  that  proper  admixture  becomes  impossible. 

Over-smoking. — The  appearance  attributed  by  buyers  to 
"  over-smoking  "  may  be  caused  by  prolonged  smoking 
after  the  rubber  is  dry,  a  process  which  has  been  recom- 
mended by  the  chemists  of  the  Rubber  Growers'  Associa- 
tion as  improving  the  quality  of  the  rubber,  or  it  may  foe 
due  to  the  use  of  a  fuel,  the  fumes  from  which  are  rich 
in  tarry  products,  such  as  coconut  husks;  in  the  latter 
case  a  mixed  fuel  should  be  used. 

Packing  of  Rubber. 

Although  it  is  difficult  to  give  any  satisfactory  advice 
on  the  subject  of  packing,  it  is  undoubtedly  a  fact  that 
even  the  best  of  the  present  cases,  such  as  the  Venesta 
case,  is  unsatisfactory  for  the  higher  grade  plantation 
rubbers,  which  ought  not  to  require  rewashing  in  the 
home  factory.  The  unpacking  recently  of  a  large  number 
of  samples  of  rubber  contained  in  a  number  of  different 
cases,  received  from  estates  for  the  London  Rubber 
Exhibition,  has  demonstrated  the  fact  that  even  with  the 
greatest  care  a  considerable  amount  of  sawdust,  fine 
splinters,  and  debris  becomes  incorporated  with  the 
rubber,  which  must  in  many  instances  necessitate  the 
rewashing  and  maceration  of  rubber  which  had  been 
packed  in  a  perfectly  clean  condition  on  the  estate.  This 


RUBBER  677 

not  only  entails  more  expense,  but  is  likely  to  still  further 
deteriorate  the  rubber  on  account  of  the  extra  milling 
it  must  undergo. 

A  parchment  or  waterproof  paper,  which  will  not  adhere 
to  the  rubber  during  its  transport,  is  required  for  the 
purpose, 

Concluding  Remarks. 

Although  this  paper  has  touched  briefly  on  the  various 
methods  which  should  be  adopted  in  the  coagulation  of 
the  latex  and  the  preparation  of  the  rubber  from  the 
Para  rubber  tree,  it  does  not  pretend  in  any  way  to  be 
the  final  word  on  this  interesting  problem,  nor  has  it 
been  possible  to  discuss  in  it  any  theory  which  may  form 
the  basis  of  the  differences  between  the  "  ne  plus  ultra  " 
product  of  the  industry,  viz.,  Fine  Hard  Para,  and  the 
various  grades  of  plantation  Para  rubber.  Although  a 
considerable  amount  of  work  remains  to  be  done,  the 
next  few  years  should  enable  us  to  ascertain  the  cause 
of  any  inferiority  in  the  plantation  product,  and  to  remedy 
such  cause,  at  any  rate,  in  the  output  of  our  highest 
quality  material.  There  must,  and  always  will  be, 
different  grades  and  qualities,  but  the  object  of  the 
planter  and  his  advisers  must  be  to  see  that  each  grade 
is  purchased  on  its  real  merits  and  not  on  account  of 
some  fancy  on  the  part  of  the  buyer.  This  will  be  also 
to  the  real  advantage  of  the  manufacturer,  especially  the 
smaller  firms  which  may  be  unable  to  afford  the  upkeep 
of  a  research  laboratory  and  one  or  more  research 
chemists,  although  the  former  should  form  an  integral 
part  of  any  factory  dealing  with  a  complex  industry,  such 
as  the  vulcanization  of  raw  rubber,  and  would  be  certain, 
if  properly  conducted,  to  far  more  than  pay  for  its  initial 
cost  and  upkeep,  in  enabling  the  manufacturer  to  avoid 
the  losses  which  must  occur  through  the  spoiling  of  large 
batches  of  material  on  account  of  differences  in  the  raw 
material  which  necessitate  different  treatment  during  the 
processes  of  mixing  and  curing.  Unfortunately,  it  has 
been  impossible  to  include  in  this  paper  the  results  of  any 
vulcanization  tests  carried  out  at  the  Department  of 
Agriculture  in  the  Federated  Malay  States,  since  these 


678  RUBBER 

are  not  sufficiently  advanced.  No  satisfactory  tests  on 
raw  rubber  which  have  so  far  been  accepted  are  of  any 
use  in  enabling  authoritative  statements  to  be  made  as 
to  the  value  of  different  methods  of  coagulation  and 
curing;  nor  is  the  market  value,  which  at  one  period 
fancies  crepe  and  at  another  smoked  sheet,  any  criterion, 
since  these  values  depend  possibly  on  supply  and  demand 
for  different  grades  for  specific  purposes  and  the  fancy 
of  the  buver. 


SPOTTINGS  IN  PLANTATION  RUBBER  DUE   TO  FUNGI. 

By  A.  SHARPLES,  A.R.C.S.,  D.I.C. 

Assistant   Mycologist,    Department  of   Agriculture, 
Federated  Malay  States. 

SPOTTINGS  or  discolorations  in  plantation  rubber  have 
been  attributed  to  many  causes  since  the  beginning  of 
the  plantation  industry.  It  was  obvious  from  the  first 
that  micro-organisms  were  the  cause  of  certain  types  of 
spots,  and  various  suggestions  were  made  as  to  the 
causal  organisms.  Ridley  suggested  that  Protococcus 
mvalis,  an  alga  responsible  for  "red  snow"  in  Europe, 
might  be  the  cause  of  the  red  spots.  Brooks  later 
reported  from  Sarawak  that  he  obtained  Bacillus  pro- 
digiosus  from  crimson  spots  on  crepe  rubber.  The 
moulds,  which  develop  so  readily  on  the  surface  of  badly 
dried  rubber,  were  recognized  from  the  first,  but  were 
not  considered  responsible  for  any  of  the  internal 
growths. 

About  the  year  1910  the  spottings  became  epidemic  in 
character  in  Malaya.  Even  last  year  (1913)  spotted 
rubber  was  very  commonly  met  with.  The  epidemic 
character  of  the  outbreak  necessitated  closer  investigation, 
in  order  to  determine  the  true  cause  and  the  methods  of 
prevention. 

Bancroft  first  demonstrated  the  mycelium  of  fungi  in 
spots  taken  from  infected  samples.  Later  he  performed 
inoculation  experiments  in  two  cases,  proving  that  the 
spottings  could  be  reproduced  artificially  by  inoculating 
latex  with  spores  obtained  from  pure  cultures.  Further 
isolation  experiments  conducted  by  Bancroft  led  him  to 
suggest  three  other  fungi  as  causes  of  spottings,  but  no 
inoculation  experiments  were  performed  with  these  three 
fungi.  The  following  work  was  carried  out  in  order  to 
gain  fuller  information  regarding  the  cause  and  methods 
of  prevention. 


68O  RUBBER 

The  method  of  procedure  may  be  summarized  as 
follows : — • 

(1)  To  determine  the  presence  of  fungi  in  the  spotted 
rubber  by  means  of  a  microscopical  examination. 

(2)  To  isolate  the  fungi  from  the  rubber  under  micro- 
scopical control  and  to  obtain  pure  cultures. 

(3)  To  inoculate,  artificially,   known  amounts  of  latex 
with  spores  developed  in  pure  culture  in  order  to  repro- 
duce the  spots  artificially  in  the  laboratory. 

(4)  To  isolate  the  fungi  from  the  artificially  produced 
spots. 

The  following  investigation  shows  that  the  latex  is 
naturally  inoculated  in  the  field.  Therefore,  care  must 
be  taken  in  deducing  conclusions  from  artificial  inocula- 
tions, for  it  is  almost  impossible  conveniently  to  prepare 
a  sterile  latex.  In  this  connection  it  is  obvious  that 
supplementary  observations  will  be  most  valuable, 
especially  those  demonstrating  characteristic  features  of 
the  fungi  in  situ  in  the  rubber.  Too  much  reliance,  how- 
ever, cannot  be  placed  upon  the  characters  of  the  fungi 
in  pure  culture,  for  they  vary  to  a  large  extent  according 
to  cultural  conditions. 

The  defects  of  plantation  rubber  due  to  the  action  of 
fungi  may  be  distinguished  as  of  two  kinds  :  - 

(a)  Spottings,    where   the    discoloured   area   is   usually 
small. 

(b)  Flushes,  where  there  is  a  broad,  diffused  patch  of 
coloured  rubber. 

Spottings  are  best  observed  in  crepe  rubber,  whilst 
flushes  are  more  common  in  light-coloured  sheet  rubber. 

Four  specimens  were  selected  for  investigation;  in 
each  case  the  life-history  of  the  causal  fungus  was 
followed  in  pure  culture. 

(i)  Yellow  Flush  in  Sheet  Rubber. 

This  flush  appeared  in  sheet  rubber  which  had  been 
coagulated  with  sodium  bisulphite.  A  fungus,  Peni- 
cillium  maculans  (nov.  sp.),  was  isolated  from  the 
discoloured  rubber,  and  inoculation  experiments  carried 
out  with  spores  obtained  from  pure  cultures  proved  this 


RUBBER  68 1 

fungus  to  be  the  cause  of  the  discoloration.  Rubber 
samples  prepared  from  artificially  inoculated  latex 
coagulated  with  a  mixture  of  5  per  cent,  acetic  acid  and 
sodium  bisulphite  developed  the  typical  yellow  colour 
three  days  after  coagulation,  whilst  controls  prepared  at 
the  same  time  were  quite  clean. 

(2)   Violet  Flush  in  Sheet  Rubber. 

This  flush  was  present  in  the  sample  of  sheet  rubber 
showing  the  yellow  flush  described  above,  and  was 
investigated  because  Bancroft  suggested  Bacillus  vio- 
laceus  as  the  probable  cause.  A  preliminary  examination 
showed  hyphse  running  through  the  discoloured  area. 

This  flush  did  not  appear  to  be  a  common  one,  and 
even  when  present  was  never  prominent.  Isolation 
experiments  resulted  in  a  species  of  Fusarium  being 
obtained  in  pure  culture,  and  artificial  inoculations  proved 
this  fungus  to  be  the  cause  of  the  violet  discoloration. 

The  investigation  of  this  fungus  brought  forward  a 
point  of  some  importance.  During  one  series  of 
inoculation  experiments  with  this  fungus  the  artificially 
inoculated  latex  was  allowed  to  stand  overnight  in 
covered  dishes.  The  following  day,  on  examination, 
several  violet  patches  covered  with  a  dense  growth  of 
white  mycelium  had  developed  over  the  surface  of  the 
coagulum.  One  of  these  patches  was  cut  out  and 
examined,  when  the  violet  colour  was  found  to  be  due 
to  a  layer  of  typical  violet  Fusarium  spores  which  had 
developed  over  the  surface.  Thus  the  typical  violet 
spores  were  in  process  of  formation  eighteen  to  twenty- 
four  hours  after  inoculation,  when  undiluted  latex  was 
used  as  a  growing  medium. 

In  pure  culture,  however,  the  typical  violet  spores  do 
not  appear  till  a  considerable  time  has  elapsed.  In  damp 
chambers  kept  under  observation  for  three  weeks  this 
type  of  spore  was  never  formed,  and  in  slant  cultures  ten 
days  passed  before  the  violet  spores  appeared.  During 
this  intervening  period  the  spores  produced  were  ab- 
stricted  as  single  cells,  which  never  developed  into  the 
typical  Fusarium  spores.  Thus,  comparing  the  life-cycle 


682  RUBBER 

when  grown  in  latex  and  in  pure  culture,  there  is  a 
distinct  type  of  spore  interpolated  in  the  life-history  when 
the  fungus  is  grow^n  under  favourable  conditions.  When 
growing  in  latex  the  life-cycle  is  shortened  by  the  cutting 
out  of  the  first  stage  seen  in  pure  culture.  Any  shorten- 
ing of  the  life-cycle  may  be  taken  as  indicating  relatively 
poor  conditions  of  growth.  Therefore,  undiluted  latex 
must  be  considered  as  a  comparatively  unsuitable  medium 
for  the  growth  of  fungi. 

(3)  Black  Spots  in  Thin  Crepe  Rubber. 

A  yeast-like  form  of  fungus  was  isolated  from  the 
spots,  and  inoculation  experiments  proved  this  fungus  to 
be  the  cause.  The  fungus  was  named  Chromosporium 
crustaceum  (nov.  sp.). 

Comparisons  of  the  mycelium  seen  in  situ  and  in  pure 
culture  showed  the  two  to  be  identical,  this  observation, 
therefore,  supporting  the  inoculation  experiments. 

(4)  Blue-black  Spotting  in  Crepe. 

From  this  spot  a  green  mould-like  fungus,  Trichoderma 
koningi  (Oudem.),  Oudemans  et  Koning,  was  isolated. 
Inoculation  experiments  indicated  that  this  fungus  was 
the  cause  of  this  spotting,  but  later  observations  made 
this  conclusion  appear  doubtful.  The  spot  is  very 
common  in  this  laboratory,  and  in  later  experiments 
always  appeared  first  upon  samples  of  rubber  dried 
slowly,  prepared  from  latex  which  had  not  been 
inoculated  artificially.  Thus  the  spots  developing  in  the 
inoculated  samples  may  have  been  due  to  spores  already 
present  in  the  latex,  although  the  controls  in  these 
experiments  were  quite  clean. 

Further  observations  were  made  upon  opaque  spots 
developing  in  unsmoked  sheet  rubber  coagulated  with 
acetic  acid.  These  spots  appear  very  common  and 
suggest  bacterial  colonies  growing  in  the  rubber.  How- 
ever, hyphae  can  easily  be  demonstrated  in  the  spots. 
There  appeared  to  be  some  connection  between  these 
spots  and  Eurotium  candidum,  Speg.,  which  always 


RUBBER  683 

develops  on  badly  dried  rubber.  No  success  was 
obtained  by  artificial  inoculation  experiments. 

Isolation  experiments  were  conducted  in  connection 
with  several  other  spots,  usually  resulting  in  Penicillium  or 
Eurotium  spp.  being  obtained  in  pure  culture.  Though 
no  further  inoculation  experiments  were  performed  the 
writer  concluded  that  the  majority  of  species  of  fungi 
causing  spots  in  plantation  rubber  fall  in  these  two 
genera.  This  is  not  greatly  in  evidence  in  the  work 
described  above.  The  work  of  O.  T.  'Faulkner,  B.A., 
Mycologist  to  the  Rubber  Growers'  Association,  how- 
ever, proves  the  validity  of  the  above  conclusion.  During 
the  course  of  this  work  Faulkner  published  two  private 
and  confidential  reports,  entitled  "  Spot  Diseases  in  Pale 
Crepe."  To  that  author  I  am  indebted  for  the  following 
information:  "Five  species  of  fungi  were  used  success- 
fully in  artificial  inoculations;  three  were  species  of 
Penicillium;  of  the  remaining  two,  one  was  a  species  of 
Eurotium  and  the  other  Trichoderma  koningi  (Oudem.)." 

Bancroft  has  also  proved  by  artificial  inoculation  that 
Monascus  heterosporus,  Schrceter,  was  the  cause  of  a 
red  spot  in  rubber.  The  writer  has  seen  the  fruit  bodies 
of  this  fungus  in  situ  as  described  by  Bancroft,  so  con- 
firming the  original  observation.  Also,  Bancroft  proved 
that  Bacillus  prodigiosus  can  produce  a  discoloration  in 
rubber. 

Thus,  of  the  species  of  fungi  shown  to  be  concerned 
with  spottings,  the  large  majority  fall  in  the  two  genera 
Penicillium  and  Aspergillus  (Eurotium).  There  are  a 
large  number  of  species  included  in  these  two  genera 
which  form  a  large  proportion  of  those  important 
economically,  being  useful  in  the  arts  and  manufactures 
because  of  the  changes  which  are  brought  about  as  a 
result  of  the  specific  enzymes  they  are  capable  of  pro- 
ducing. The  yeast  family  is  also  well  known  in  this 
respect,  and  the  yeast-like  form  of  Chromosporium 
crustaceum  is  significant.  Therefore,  the  fact  that  specific 
enzymes  might  play  a  part  in  the  economy  of  this  problem 
may  be  anticipated,  and  although  time  would  not  allow 
any  work  to  be  performed  upon  this  point,  the  assump- 
tion of  the  presence  of  specific  enzymes  produced  by  these 


684  RUBBER 

fungi  aids  greatly  in  the  attempt  to  account  for  many  of 
the  points  elucidated  during  the  investigation. 

Preventive  Measures. 

The  fact  that  spottings  and  discolorations  can  be 
reproduced  artificially  by  adding  spores  to  the  latex 
indicates  that  inoculation  naturally  takes  place  during 
the  period  elapsing  between  the  tapping  of  the  tree  and 
the  coagulation  .of  the  latex.  Later  experiments  show 
the  difficulty  of  external  inoculation  after  preparation. 

Thus  the  direct  method  of  prevention  appears  to  lie  in 
the  sterilization  of  the  latex.  Formalin  in  the  proportion 
of  i  part  in  800  parts  of  latex  is  very  useful  in  preventing 
the  appearance  of  the  spots.  Experiments  carried  out 
on  estates,  however,  show  that  when  formalin  is  used  to 
sterilize  latex  there  is  nearly  always  a  very  small  pro- 
portion of  rubber  which  still  develops  spots.  Probably 
the  formalin  does  not  kill  the  spores,  but  merely  inhibits 
their  development,  so  that  the  rubber  is  almost  dry  before 
enough  mycelium  is  produced  to  show  visible  spots. 
With  thin  pale  crepe  rubber,  in  which  the  spottings  prove 
most  troublesome,  there  ought  to  be  no  difficulty  in 
drying  the  rubber  so  quickly  that,  with  the  addition  of 
the  small  amount  of  formalin  indicated  to  the  latex,  spots 
are  prevented  from  developing. 

Sodium  bisulphite  also  is  useful,  when  added  to  latex 
in  the  right  proportions,  in  preventing  spottings  in  thin 
pale  crepe  rubber.  Care  must  be  exercised,  for  if  larger 
quantities  than  necessary  are  added,  especially  when 
acetic  acid  is  used  in  coagulating  the  latex,  the  chances 
of  the  fungi  developing  are  considerably  improved,  owing 
to  the  slower  drying  of  the  rubber.  The  spotting  of 
thin  crepe  rubber  on  one  estate  was  completely  eradicated 
by  adding  to  50  gallons  of  latex  5  oz.  of  sodium  bisulphite 
in  5  pints  of  water.  The  rubber  at  the  same  time  was 
worked  as  thin  as  possible. 

External  Inoculation  in  relation  to  Spotting. 

The  question  as  to  whether  spottings  can  arise  through 
spores  germinating  on  the  surface  of  the  rubber  after 


RUBBER  685 

preparation  need  not  trouble  the  estate  manager  whose 
drying  shed  is  ordinarily  effective.  Under  extraordinary 
conditions  of  retardation  of  drying  it  is  possible  for  spores 
to  germinate  upon  the  surface,  the  mycelium  ultimately 
growing  into  the  rubber  and  causing  characteristic  spots. 
But  it  is  unnecessary  to  isolate  spotted  rubber  from 
factories  in  order  to  prevent  the  spots  spreading  from  the 
infected  to  the  clean  sheets.  However,  if  the  drying 
shed  becomes  congested  so  that  the  spotted  rubber  is 
in  contact  with  the  clean,  the  former  ought  to  be  removed 
to  facilitate  the  drying  of  the  remainder. 

Dilution  oj  Latex  in  relation  to  Spotting. 

Planters  assert  that  there  is  a  great  increase  of  spotted 
rubber  during  rainy  weather.  Experiments  were  con- 
ducted to  test  this  view.  Rubber  samples  prepared  from 
latex  diluted  with  varying  amounts  of  tap-water  and  dis- 
tilled water  always  showed  a  greater  tendency  to  produce 
spots  than  samples  prepared  from  undiluted  latex.  This 
is  not  surprising  when  the  facts  are  taken  into  considera- 
tion. 

Evidence  has  been  brought  forward  to  show  that 
undiluted  latex  is  an  unfavourable  growing  medium  for 
fungi.  If  latex  is  a  good  medium  the  tapping  of  the 
tree  provides  the  opportunity  required  by  many  fungi  to 
enter  the  tissues  and  to  cause  diseases.  If  such  is  the 
case  there  would  be  far  more  trouble  with  Diplodia 
cacaoicola,  the  common  "  die-back  "  on  Hevea  brasilien- 
sis,  than  there  is  at  present.  Not  only  this  fungus,  but 
many  other  "  wound  parasites  "  would  find  their  way 
into  the  tissues  of  the  tree.  Latex  diluted  with  water, 
however,  is  probably  a  much  better  growing  medium. 
Addition  of  water  to  latex  means :  (i)  Closer  approxima- 
tion to  a  neutral  solution;  (2)  changes  and  solution  of 
some  of  the  protein  materials;  (3)  quicker  development 
of  acidity  which  up  to  certain  limits  increases  the  chances 
of  germination  of  the  spores.  All  these  factors  favour 
the  development  of  the  spores  and  give  the  fungi  a  much 
better  chance  of  development. 


686  RUBBER 

Final  Considerations. 

Thus  there  is  no  room  for  doubt  as  to  the  causes 
of  spottings  and  discolorations  in  plantation  rubber. 
Common  saprophytic  fungi  are  the  -chief  causes;  how- 
ever, the  number  of  these  fungi  causing  spots  is  com- 
paratively small.  The  factor  limiting  the  number  of  such 
fungi  capable  of  growing  in  rubber  is  probably  the 
absence  of  a  specific  enzyme  which  is  capable  of  rendering 
the  food  materials  in  latex  more  readily  available.  The 
proteins  in  rubber  probably  form  the  food  material  upon 
which  the  fungi  live;  therefore,  in  view  of  the  fact  that 
rubber  appears  to  be  an  unfavourable  medium  for  the 
development  of  these  organisms,  the  possession  of  proteo- 
clastic  enzymes  would  be  of  the  greatest  service  in 
enabling  them  to  open  up  food  reserves  not  otherwise 
available.  The  fact  that  most  of  the  species  of  fungi 
causing  spots  belong  to  the  genera  Pemcillium  or  Asper- 
gillus  is  strong  evidence  for  this  view.  The  action  of 
sodium  bisulphite  as  a  preventive  is  probably  due  to  its 
powers  of  inhibiting  enzyme  action.  Thus  there  is  much 
support  for  the  view  that  the  production  of  enzymes  of 
a  specific  character  by  the  spot-causing  fungi  play  an 
important  role  in  this  problem. 

The  latest  work  of  Fol  and  Sohngen  is  interesting  in 
this  respect.  These  investigators,  working  in  Europe, 
cultivated  two  species  of  Actinomyces  capable  of  growing 
in  rubber  and  investigated  their  action  on  the  caoutchouc. 
Viscosity  tests  with  infected  rubber  showed  a  decrease 
when  compared  with  clean,  but  not  sufficient  to  make 
any  statement  as  to  the  inferiority  of  infected  rubber. 
Attempts  to  isolate  an  enzyme  failed,  though  it  was 
noticed  in  one  case  that  one  of  the  organisms  was  capable 
of  causing  a  solution  of  the  caoutchouc. 

This  work,  however,  has  little  bearing  upon  the  problem 
as  it  appears  in  the  tropics.  The  species  of  bacteria 
with  which  Fol  and  Sohngen  conducted  their  experiments 
were  cultivated  from  ditch  and  canal  water,  and  only  after 
several  days'  incubation  did  they  appear  on  the  caout- 
chouc. To  cause  spottings  under  normal  conditions  in 
the  rubber  factories  in  the  tropics  the  organisms  must 


RUBBER  687 

germinate  quickly  and  grow  vigorously,  for  thin  crepe 
rubber  is  usually  dried  in  twelve  days  at  the  outside,  and 
in  most  cases  much  quicker  than  this.  Quick  germina- 
tion and  vigorous  growth  are  the  two  essentials  in  a 
spot-producing  organism,  for  the  period  during  which 
moisture  can  be  obtained  for  growth  is  very  limited. 

As  regards  the  quality  of  spotted  rubber,  Morgan  says 
that  vulcanization  experiments  prove  that  it  is  not  inferior 
to  clean  rubber.  But  loss  of  money  and  much  worry  is 
the  lot  of  the  estate  manager  troubled  with  spotting,  for 
the  presence  of  spots  in  the  best  grades  decreases  the 
value  so  that  the  rubber  is  placed  in  a  lower  grade  and 
forward  contracts  can  only  be  met  with  difficulty. 

Attention  to  the  methods  of  prevention  indicated  here, 
and  to  general  cleanliness  in  preparation,  will  make  light 
the  difficulty  caused  by  spottings. 

LITERATURE    CONSULTED. 

BANCROFT,  C.  K. — "  The  Spotting  of  Plantation  Para  Rubber" 
(Preliminary  Account  of  Investigations  on  the  Cause  of  Spotting), 
Bulletin  No.  16,  De-pi,  of  Agric.,  F.M.S. 

BANCROFT,  C.  K. — "  Notes  on  Investigations  of  Plant  Diseases 
in  the  Federated  Malay  States  during  ign,"  Agricultural 
Bulletin,  Federated  Malay  States,  vol.  i,  No.  2,  pp.  30-34. 

BANCROFT,  C.  K. — "  Occurrence  and  Nature  of  Spots  on  Sheet 
and  Crepe,"  Agricultural  Bulletin  of  the  Straits  and  F.M.S., 
vol.  x,  October,  IQII,  p.  319. 

FOL,  J.  G.,  and  SOHNGEN,  N.  L. — "  Die  Zersetzung  des  Kauts- 
chuk  durch  Mikroben,"  Centralblatt  fur  Bacteriologie,  Parasiten- 
kunde  und  Infectionskrankheiten. 

MORGAN,  SIDNEY. — "  The  Preparation  of  Plantation  Para 
Rubber"  (London,  1913). 

SHARPLES,  A. — "  Spotting  of  Prepared  Plantation  Rubber," 
Bulletin  No.  19,  Deft,  of  Agric.,  F.M.S. 

WEHMER,  Dr.  Prof.  CARL.—"  The  Genus  Penicillinm,"  Lafar's 
"Technical  Mycology." 

WHITBY,  G.  S.— "  Ueber  einige  Vorlaufige  Beobachtungen 
beziiglich  der  Ursach'en  natiirlicher  Veranderungen  im  Latex 
von  Hevea  brasiliensis,"  Sonderabdruck  aus  der  Zeitschrift  fur 
Chemie  und  Industrie  der  Kolloide,  Heft  2,  Band  xii. 


44 


CEARA   RUBBER    CULTIVATION   AND    MANUFACTURE 
IN  SOUTHERN  INDIA. 

By  R.  D.  ANSTEAD,  M.A. 

Planting  Expert,  Agricultural  Department,  Madras,  and 
Scientific  Officer  to  the  United  Planters'  Association 
of  Southern  India. 

THE  Ceara  rubber  tree  (Manihot  Glaziovii)  grows  like 
a  weed  all  over  the  East,  but  until  recently  it  could  not 
be  made  to  give  a  large  enough  yield  to  be  much  taken 
up,  though  it  will  grow  at  higher  elevations  and  under 
drier  conditions  than  the  more  popular  Hevea  rubber. 
It  grows  well  from  800  to  5,000  ft.  altitude,  and  requires 
about  50  in.  of  rain,  and  it  delights  in  four  or  five  months 
of  dry,  hot  weather.  It  is  intolerant  of  heavy  wind,  but 
grows  very  rapidly,  making  shoots  of  18  ft.  or  more  from 
seed  in  a  single  year. 

In  Southern  India  this  variety  of  rubber  is  chiefly 
cultivated  in  Goorg,  the  Mysore  State,  and  the  Shevaroy 
Hills,  in  the  Madras  Presidency,  on  a  plantation  scale. 
It  was  first  introduced  into  Mysore  about  1880  as  a  shdde 
tree  for  coffee,  but  it  proved  unsuitable  for  this  purpose, 
and  was  soon  cut  out.  Since  then,  until  comparatively 
recent  years,  Ceara  has  been  regarded  with  a  good  deal 
of  undeserved  contempt  as  a  profitable  source  of  rubber, 
due  to  the  fact  that,  owing  to  wrong  methods  of  mani- 
pulation, large  numbers  of  the  trees  died  when  they  were 
subjected  to  tapping.  This  difficulty  has  now  been  over- 
come, and  since  1904  Ceara  rubber  has  been  extensively 
planted,  and  there  now  exist  some  12,000  acres  of  it  in 
Coorg,  3,000  acres  in  Mysore,  and  2,000  acres  in  the 
Shevaroy  Hills. 

Most  of  the  experimental  work  with  this  variety  of 
rubber  with  which  I  have  been  associated  during  the  last 
five  years  has  been  done  in  Coorg  on  the  estates  of 


RUBBER  689 

Messrs.  Matheson  and  Co.,  with  the  valuable  co-opera- 
tion of  the  managers. 

Though  it  grows  very  easily,  Ceara  rubber,  like  other 
crops,  responds  to  good  soil  and  good  cultivation.  When 
first  planted  in  1904  these  points  were  often  neglected, 
and  the  trees  were  often  put  into  the  poorest  of  soils  and 
then  left  to  take  care  of  themselves  and  struggle  with 
a  jungle  of  grass  and  weeds,  and  to  this  the  original 
failures  were  largely  due.  If  it  is  to  prove  a  commercial 
success  it  is  most  important  to  give  the  trees  a  thorough 
and  careful  cultivation  from  the  start,  and  either  to  keep 
the  clearings  clean  weeded,  or,  better  still,  under  a  care- 
fully controlled  system  of  leguminous  green  dressing 
cover  crops,  "so  as  to  ensure  80  or  90  per  cent,  of  the 
permanent  trees  reaching  a  tappable  size  at  the  same 
time. 

The  evenness  of  a  clearing  is  a  most  important  factor 
in  rubber  cultivation,  because  when  the  tapping  stage  is 
reached  the  majority  of  the  trees  in  an  even  clearing  can 
be  tapped,  making  the  tasks  more  easy  to  arrange  for 
the  tappers,  and  generally  facilitating  the  field  arrange- 
ments and  reducing  the  cost  of  production.  So  impor- 
tant is  this  factor  that  it  is,  in  my  opinion,  better  for  a 
clearing  to  be  a  year  behind  in  growth  but  even,  than 
for  it  to  make  a  rapid  but  uneven  growth;  and  it  would 
probably  prove  economical  to  examine  clearings  annually 
after  they  are  eighteen  months  old,  and  to  fork  round 
and  manure  all  backward  trees  with  the  idea  of  making 
them  catch  up  their  better-grown  neighbours,  and  thus 
produce  an  even  clearing  before  manuring  the  clearing 
as  a  whole. 

It  has  been  customary  in  Southern  India  to  plant  the 
trees  closely  at  first  and  afterwards  to  thin  them  out. 
This  reduces  the  cost  of  weeding,  and  tends  to  produce 
clean,  straight  stems  and  high  branching.  It  is  probably 
better,  however,  to  plant  the  trees  at  the  beginning  15  by 
15  ft.,  and  at  the  end  of  the  third  year  to  take  out  all 
those  which  have  been  retarded  or  overshaded  by  their 
neighbours. 

In  any  case  the  thinning  out  must  be  done  systematic- 
ally, and  the  plan  adopted  is,  at  the  end  of  the  third  year 


690  RUBBER 

to  remove  all  the  small,  badly  grown  trees  and  those 
which  have  been  broken  by  wind  or  damaged  by  animals 
or  disease.  In  the  following  years  the  smallest  trees  are 
again  removed,  and,  after  tapping  has  commenced,  all 
the  poor  latex  yielders,  until  the  requisite  number  of  trees 
per  acre  is  arrived  at,  usually  150  to  200.  All  the  trees 
removed  are  pulled  out  by  the  roots  with  a  jack  and 
burned.  This  method  of  thinning  finally  leaves  the 
permanent  trees  irregularly  spaced,  but  that  does  not 
matter.  If  a  regular  system  of  thinning  is  adopted  by 
removing  every  other  tree,  or  every  other  row,  it  is 
bound  to  happen  that  some  good  trees  are  removed  and 
poor  ones  left,  and  no  method  of  selection  can  be  used. 

Many  of  the  trees  can  be  tapped  when  they  are  3  to 
4  years  old,  but  we  have  come  to  the  conclusion  in  Coorg 
that  it  is  not  advisable  to  start  tapping  on  young  trees, 
and  we  wait  until  they  are  5  or  6  years  old  and  the  bark 
is  fairly  thick.  As  would  be  expected,  the  older  and 
more  mature  the  tree  the  better  the  yield,  and  the  higher 
the  quality  of  the  rubber  obtained.  Some  of  the  oldest 
trees  give  as  much  as  2  and  3  Ib.  of  rubber  per  annum. 

In  the  early  days  of  Ceara  rubber  great  difficulty  was 
experienced  with  the  extraction  of  latex  from  the  trees. 
When  tapped  in  the  same  way  as  Hevea  rubber  the  bark 
rotted,  and  so  many  of  the  trees  died  that  the  industry 
proved  unprofitable.  This  difficulty  was  overcome  by 
using  a  tapping  system  in  which  a  separate  cut  was  made 
at  each  tapping  occasion — a  system  introduced  with 
success  by  Mr.  Westland  in  Ceylon  in  1909.  This  system 
was  experimented  with  and  elaborated  on  estates  in 
Coorg  during  1910,  and  it  has  proved  there  the  best 
method  of  handling  young  trees. 

The  system  finally  adopted  after  numerous  experiments 
is  first  to  strip  the  outer  bark,  which  is  tough  and 
leathery,  off  that  section  of  the  tree  which  is  to  be  tapped, 
usually  one-third  of  the  circumference,  and  then  to  cut 
a  shallow  vertical  channel  down  the  centre  of  this  area 
to  act  as  a  conducting  channel  for  the  latex  to  the  collect- 
ing cup  at  the  base  of  the  tree.  Having  made  this 
channel,  a  number  of  sloping  cuts  are  made  with  either 
a  Pask  V  knife,  or  a  knife  like  that  of  a  farrier,  in  either 


RUBBER  691 

case  kept  very  sharp,  on  the  familiar  herring-bone  system, 
arranging  them  in  such  a  manner  that  they  enter  the 
vertical  channel  alternately  on  each  side.  It  is  important 
that  no  two  cuts  should  meet  the  central  channel  at  the 
same  point  so  as  to  form  a  V  with  the  apex  in  the  central 
perpendicular  channel.  As  a  rule  six  of  these  cuts  are 
made,  three  on  each  side  of  the  central  channel  and 
making  an  angle  of  about  22^°  with  it,  the  cuts  on  each 
side  being  a  foot  apart.  At  the  next  tapping  these  cuts 
are  left  alone,  and  in  young  trees  no  attempt  is  made 
to  widen  them,  but  six  new  cuts  are  made  half-way 
between  the  original  ones.  If  paring  is  attempted  it 
usually  meets  with  failure,  as  the  bark  in  young  trees 
is  so  soft  that  it  tears  and  strips  under  the  knife,  and  a 
bad  wound  is  made  which  refuses  to  heal,  and  the  death 
of  the  tree  may  result  owing  to  rot  and  boring  insects. 
On  each  occasion  of  tapping,  usually  in  Coorg  at  intervals 
of  two  to  four  days,  six  fresh  cuts  are  put  in  half-way 
between  the  old  ones,  and  the  spacing  can  be  easily 
arranged  so  that  it  takes  at  least  two  years  to  use  up  all 
the  bark  on  the  area  tapped.  When  this  is  done  another 
third  section  of  the  tree  is  stripped  of  its  outer  bark  and 
tapped  in  the  same  way,  so  that  a  four-year  bark  renewal 
is  obtained. 

It  is  of  the  .utmost  importance  that  the  tapping  cuts 
should  be  made  in  such  a  way  that  the  cambium  is  not 
wounded,  and  when  this  is  done  the  narrow  cuts  heal  up 
with  remarkable  rapidity  and  ease,  leaving  a  clean  fresh 
surface,  which  can  be  tapped  again.  It  is  of  special 
importance  to  avoid  wounding  the  cambium  in  the  case 
of  older  trees ;  it  is  our  experience  in  Southern  India  that 
in  young  trees  even  bad  wounds  and  cuts  made  right 
down  to  the  wood  heal  up  with  remarkable  rapidity, 
especially  if  treated  with  some  antiseptic  material,  such 
as  coal  tar,  Jodelite,  or  lime  and  sulphur,  but  that  such 
wounds  when  made  on  old  trees  do  not  heal  readily,  and 
the  soft  wood  inside  is  apt  to  decay  and  result  in  the 
death  of  the  trees  before  the  bark  can  heal  over  the 
wound. 

Another  tapping  system  which  has  been  used  a  great 
deal  in  Hawaii  has  been  experimented  with  in  Southern 


692  RUBBER 

India,  and  adopted  on  some  of  the  estates  in  Coorg  in 
preference  to  the  above.  This  is  the  vertical  system,  in 
which  all  the  cuts  are  made  vertically  down  the  tree  over 
the  tapped  area.  This  system  has  the  advantage  of 
giving  a  much  longer  cut,  and  in  some  cases  it  produces 
an  increased  yield.  The  cuts  heal  rapidly  and  well  if 
care  is  taken  not  to  wound  the  cambium.  No  figures  are 
available  for  a  strict  comparison  between  the  two 
methods,  to  which  no  objection  can  be  raised  owing  to 
the  variability  of  yield  of  individual  trees;  but  in  Coorg 
one  large  block  of  Ceara  has  been  tapped  on  the  vertical 
system,  and  another  near  by  has  been  tapped  over  the 
same  period  of  time  on  the  herring-bone  system,  and  the 
results  show  that  there  is  probably  little  to  choose 
between  the  two  methods,  and,  as  far  as  young  trees  are 
concerned,  it  would  appear  that  the  choice  between  the 
two  methods  depends  largely  upon  the  personal  taste  of 
the  manager  and  the  ease  with  which  the  particular  class 
of  labour  employed  can  be  taught  to  use  either  method. 

When  we  come  to  deal  with  old  trees — 8  years  or 
more — the  bark  has  become  sufficiently  thick  and  firm  to 
enable  paring  to  be  done,  and  they  can  be  tapped  in  a 
similar  way  to  that  adopted  for  Hevea,  the  half  herring- 
bone system  being  usually  used  with  three  or  four  cuts. 
Here  again  the  vertical  system  can  be,  and  is,  employed, 
the  vertical  cuts  being  easily  pared. 

By  the  adoption  of  these  methods,  and  taking  great 
care  not  to  wound  the  cambium  and  to  dress  at  once 
such  wounds  if  made  accidentally,  it  has  been  found  quite 
easy  to  tap  large  areas  of  Ceara  successfully  without  loss 
of  trees  and  to  make  this  industry  a  paying  one. 

A  few  "  pricking  "  methods  of  tapping  have  been  ex- 
perimented with,  but  they  were  not  attended  with  success 
under  our  conditions,  and  the  systems  described  above, 
or  slight  variations  of  them,  have  been  finally  adopted 
after  a  large  number  of  experiments,  as  most  suited  to 
our  conditions  of  labour  and  climate.  Some  tapping  on 
renewed  bark  has  been  done  with  excellent  results. 

Whatever  system  of  tapping  is  employed,  the  outer 
bark,  which  is  rough  and  leathery,  must  be  first  removed 
from  the  tapping  area,  and  it  should  be  removed  from 


RUBBER  693 

this  area  only,  and  not  from  the  whole  of  the  tree,  a  few 
days  before  tapping  is  begun  so  as  to  leave  the  inner  bark 
smooth  and  clean  and  firm. 

It  is  also  best  to  tap  in  the  evening  or  the  very  early 
morning.  As  the  sun  gets  on  to  the  trees  and  the  tem- 
perature rises  the  latex  quickly  coagulates  in  the  cuts, 
and  the  period  of  flow  and  consequent  yield  is  reduced. 
Again,  it  is  found  inadvisable  to  continue  tapping  when 
the  trees  begin  their  annual  leaf  fall  or  while  the  leaves 
are  down.  Not  only  is  the  flow  of  latex  very  much 
reduced  during  this  period,  but  harm  appears  to  be  done 
to  the  trees  if  the  latex  is  drawn  from  them  at  this  time. 
Trees  tapped  during  the  resting  period  have  a  tendency 
to  be  later  in  regaining  their  full  foliage,  and  the  foliage 
itself  is  smaller,  while  bark  renewal  is  decidedly  retarded. 

During  spells  of  dry,  hot  weather  the  flow  of  latex  is 
apt  to  become  much  restricted,  and  in  some  districts  drip 
tins  containing  i  per  cent,  ammonia  have  been  used  to 
prevent  the  rapid  coagulation  of  the  latex  in  the  cuts  and 
protract  the  time  of  flow.  This  has  met  with  a  certain 
amount  of  success,  but  the  length  of  the  tapping  season 
is  largely  controlled  by  the  climatic  conditions,  and  unless 
the  trees  can  be  tapped  for  at  least  four  months  in  the 
year  without  the  use  of  ammonia  or  similar  aids,  the 
cultivation  would  appear  to  be  doubtfully  profitable. 

As  compared  with  Hevea  rubber,  the  yield  even  under 
the  best  of  conditions  is  small,  but  more  trees  can  be 
grown  to  the  acre,  and  the  trees  can  be  brought  into 
bearing  sooner.  The  following  are  examples  of  the  kind 
of  yield  obtained  in  Mysore  from  a  few  trees  in  the 
experimental  stage  with  alternate  day  tapping  over  a 
period  of  three  months:  — 

Number  of 
trees 
tapped 

10 

5 
5 

2 
I 

When  we  come  to  results  obtained  on  an  estate  scale 
over  large  areas  we  get  rather  similar  figures.  For 


Yield  of  dry 

Average  girth 
at  3  ft. 

Total  yield 

Trees 

rubber  per  acre 
during  a  three 

Age  of 

from  the 

of  dry 

per 

months'  tapping 

trees, 

ground, 

rubber, 

acre 

season 

years 

inches 

Ib. 

Ib. 

3* 

...         13         •• 

•         4* 

200 

90 

5 

17 

5 

2OO 

200 

7 

...        26        .. 

9 

200 

...         360 

10 

...        32        .. 

•       4* 

2OO 

...      437 

15 

...      43       •• 

4 

200 

...       800 

^94  RUBBER 

instance,  in  the  Shevaroy  Hills  during  1912  an  average 
of  5,400  three-year-old  trees  tapped  five  times  at  weekly 
intervals  gave  a  total  yield  of  142  J  Ib.  of  dry  rubber,  and 
during  a  three  months'  tapping  season  an  average  of  5,000 
such  trees  gave  a  total  yield  of  3,280  Ib.  of  dry  rubber, 
or  a  yield  of  about  130  Ib.  per  acre. 

In  Coorg  19,260  six-year-old  trees,  tapped  on  an 
average  of  forty  times  each,  gave  7,486^  Ib.  of  dry 
rubber,  or  a  little  over  f  Ib.  per  tree.  This  represented 
170  acres  with  about  115  tappable  trees  per  acre,  but 
another  40  per  cent,  per  acre  have  yet  to  arrive  at  the 
tapping  stage. 

The  method  of  preparation  of  rubber  from  the  latex  is 
extremely  simple.  The  usual  coagulant  is  acetic  acid. 
As  a  result  of  experiments  conducted  in  Coorg,  however, 
it  would  appear  that  if  a  coagulant  is  used  at  all,  a  6  per 
cent,  solution  of  formic  acid  at  a  temperature  of  80°  F. 
gives  the  best  results,  producing  a  rubber  which  when 
dry  is  very  elastic  and  strong. 

The  system  adopted  now,  however,  is  not  to  use  any 
acid  or  chemical  coagulant  at  all,  but  to  simply  allow 
the  latex  to  coagulate  slowly  in  hot  water  in  a  dark 
room.  After  coagulation  it  is  rolled  and  thoroughly 
washed  to  remove  resins,  this  rolling  and  washing  being 
done  by  machinery.  It  is  then  dried  in  hot  air  in  a  dark 
room,  and  finally  made  into  sheet  or  crepe,  as  the  case 
may  be,  in  the  ordinary  way.  Some  smoked  sheet  has 
been  prepared  and  high  prices  obtained  for  it,  but 
methods  of  smoking  are  at  present  in  an  experimental 
stage. 

Ceara  rubber  contains  more  resin  than  Hevea,  and  it 
is  difficult  to  remove  all  of  this  by  washing  and  rolling 
without  detracting  from  the  physical  qualities  of  the 
rubber;  but  as  the  trees  get  older  this  defect  will  probably 
largely  disappear.  In  quality,  the  rubber  when  made  into 
biscuit  or  sheet  is  quite  equal  to  the  best  plantation  Para, 
and  it  commands  almost  as  good  a  price. 

There  is  much  diversity  in  the  yield  of  trees  produced 
under  similar  conditions  and  even  growing  side  by  side, 
and  with  the  object  of  eliminating  this  variable  factor  as 
far  as  possible,  and  at  the  same  time  increasing  the  yield 


RUBBER  695 

per  acre,  selection  methods  are  now  being  adopted  in 
new  clearings.  By  tapping  and  testing  individual  trees 
over  large  areas,  a  few  which  give  a  very  high  yield  of 
latex  and  rubber  are  selected,  and  these  are  broken  up 
into  cuttings  from  which  new  clearings  are  planted.  The 
tree  grows  readily  from  cuttings  if  care  is  taken  in  plant- 
ing them.  Several  clearings  have  now  been  established 
in  this  way,  and  it  is  intended  to  select  the  best  trees  in 
these  and  plant  further  areas  with  cuttings  from  them, 
and  it  is  hoped  that  in  this  way  the  yield  per  acre  may  be 
materially  increased  in  the  future.  At  the  same  time  the 
possibility  of  seed  selection  and  the  breeding  of  hybrids 
with  increased  latex  content  has  not  been  lost  sight  of. 

Manurial  experiments  are  in  their  infancy,  and  Ceara 
has  not  been  treated  seriously  over  a  long  enough  period 
as  yet  for  any  reliable  figures  to  have  been  obtained. 

In  1909  Mr.  Wilcox,  the  Special  Agent  in  charge  of 
the  Hawaii  Experiment  Station,  published  an  account  of 
some  experiments  he  had  conducted  which  showed  that 
nitrate  of  soda  had  a  decided  tendency  to  increase  the 
flow  of  latex.  We  repeated  his  experiments  on  a  small 
scale  with  nitrate  of  soda  in  1911,  and  on  a  larger  scale 
with  nitrate  of  soda  and  nitrate  of  potash  in  1912,  with 
the  result  that  Mr.  Wilcox' s  results  were  confirmed. 
Nitrate  of  soda  applied  just  before  tapping  begins  un- 
doubtedly does  increase  the  latex  flow  and  rubber  yield 
of  trees  which  do  not  normally  yield  well,  while  nitrate 
of  potash  apparently  still  further  increases  this  flow. 
Over  areas  which  normally  yield  well,  however,  no 
improvements  could  be  obtained  from  the  application  of 
these  salts.  The  experiment  is  still  being  continued,  and 
perhaps  it  is  too  early  as  yet  to  say  more  about  the 
results  obtained. 

The  diseases  of  Ceara  in  Southern  India  are  few  and 
comparatively  trivial.  The  most  important  is  a  root 
disease  due  probably  to  the  fungus  Hymvnochsete  noxia, 
which  also  attacks  Hevea  rubber,  coffee,  tea,  and  a 
number  of  other  plants  in  India.  This  disease  is  con- 
trolled by  removing  as  many  jungle  stumps  as  possible 
from  the  clearings  and  ridding  the  soil  of  decaying  wood 
on  which  the  fungus  can  live,  and  by  means  of  which  it 


696  RUBBER 

is  transmitted  through  the  soil  to  the  living  roots.  It  is 
for  this  reason  that  when  thinning'  operations  are  in 
progress  all  the  trees  removed  are  dug  out  with  as  many 
roots  as  possible.  Trees  attacked  by  the  disease  are  dug 
out  as  soon  as  they  are  noticed,  and  the  soil  round  them 
is  thoroughly  treated  writh  lime. 

As  a  result  of  the  work  done  on  this  product  during  the 
last  five  years  in  South  India,  the  following  tentative 
conclusions  have  been  arrived  at :  — 

(a)  That  Ceara  rubber  can  be  successfully  grown  and 
tapped  at  elevations  and  under  climatic  conditions  which 
render  the  cultivation  of  Hevea  rubber  unprofitable. 

(b)  That  the  best  planting  distance  is  originally  15  ft. 
by   15   ft.,   and   subsequent  thinning  should  be   done   by 
removing  all   weak  and   overshaded   trees   independently 
of  their  position  in  the  rows. 

(c)  That  it  is  advisable  to  wait  until  the  trees  are  5  to 
6  years  old  before  beginning  to  tap  them. 

(d)  That  the  best  method   of  coagulation  is  with  hot 
water  in  a  dark  room;  and 

(e)  That  given  care  and  good  cultivation  Ceara  rubber 
will  pay.     During*  the  last  twelve  months,  with  the  price 
of  rubber  phenomenally  low,  a  profit  of  lojd.  per  Ib.  was 
made. 

It  is  not  recommended  to  grow  Ceara  rubber  in  prefer- 
ence to  Hevea  in  districts  and  at  low  elevations  suited  to 
the  latter;  but  in  the  hill  districts,  at  elevations  of  800  to 
5,000  ft.,  with  a  rainfall  of  50  to  80  in.,  where  Hevea  will 
not  grow  at  a  profit,  there  is  every  reason  to  believe  that 
Ceara  will  prove  a  valuable  asset,  especially  in  conjunction 
with  another  crop,  such  as  coffee. 


THE  CULTIVATION  OF  MANIHOT  GLAZIOVII  IN 
UGANDA. 

By  SAMUEL  SIMPSON,  B.Sc. 
Director  of  Agriculture,  Uganda. 

FOR  more  than  a  dozen  years  Ceara  rubber  has  been 
cultivated  in  Uganda,  where  it  grows  exceedingly  well, 
and  was  being  generally  planted  up  to  a  short  time  ago. 
The  growth  is  rapid,  the  average  girth  being  from  19  to 
.20  in.,  and  the  trees  thus  ready  for  tapping,  when  3  years 
old. 

On  the  Government  Plantation,  Kampala,  experimental 
tapping  was  carried  out  last  year.  The  trees,  which  were 
3  years  old,  were  arranged  in  groups  containing  twenty 
each,  the  average  girth  of  the  trees  in  the  various  groups 
varying  between  15  and  20  in.  The  system  of  tapping 
was  the  half  herring-bone,  paring,  and  pricking. 

The  following  results  were  obtained :  — 

Number  of  trees  Number  of  times  Total  yield  of  dry 

in  group  tapped  rubber  in  ounces 

20  10  6 


20 
20 
20 

2O 


12 


13  ......  7* 

14  ...  10 
90            ...            ...  -        45 


These  figures  show  that  to  get  2j  oz.  of  dry  rubber 
per  tree  no  fewer  than  90  tappings  had  to  be  made,  and 
also  that  the  yield  obtained  from  the  trees  was  in  prac- 
tically direct  proportion  to  the  number  of  tappings. 

In  July,  1913,  eighty  trees  were  taken  and  tapped  on 
alternate  days — forty  each  day — and  the  latex  allowed  to 
coagulate  naturally.  The  trees  had  an  average  girth  of 
1978  in.,  and  the  average  yield  of  dry  rubber  per  tree 
was  o'43  oz.  after  nine  tappings. 

In  August,  1913,  forty-tree  trees,  having  an  average 
girth  of  19  in.,  gave  a  total  yield  of  19J  oz.  of  dry  rubber 
in  eleven  tappings,  or  0*45  oz.  per  tree. 


•698  RUBBER 

During  October,  November,  and  December,  1913,  forty- 
two  trees,  with  an  average  girth  of  21 J  in.,  were  tapped 
fifty-seven  times  and  gave  a  total  yield  of  85  oz.  of  dry 
rubber,  or  an  average  of  2  oz.  per  tree. 

The  above  results  compare  very  unfavourably  with 
some  already  published  obtained  in  the  Botanical  Gardens, 
Entebbe;  but  I  understand  the  Entebbe  trees  died  owing 
to  the  severe  handling.  The  Kampala  trees  are  in  a 
thriving  condition,  and  no  ill-effects  due  to  the  tapping  are 
evident. 

With  the  product  at  a  normal  price  Ceara  rubber  just 
pays  a  native  cultivator  at  these  low  yields,  but  for 
European  planters,  with  the  ever-increasing  cost  of  land 
and  labour,  there  is  nothing  left  after  payment  of  the 
essential  outgoings,  and  paying  results  cannot  be  looked 
for  unless  means  are  evolved  for  obtaining  more  rubber 
per  tree  with  much  less  labour. 

Ceara  rubber  is  being  looked  upon  on  many  estates 
as  an  excellent  training  ground  for  native  labour  to 
ensure  trained  rubber  tappers  when  the  Hevea  is  ready  to 
be  dealt  with. 

Native  cultivators  have  a  fair  acreage  under  Ceara 
because  it  is  very  easy  to  cultivate,  whilst  the  various 
missions  have  over  200  acres  under  this  rubber. 

European  planters  have  just  over  1,000  acres  under 
Ceara,  but  the  tendency  is  for  the  area  to  shrink  gradually 
and  more  profitable  crops  to  replace  it  entirely. 

Trials  have  been  made  with  the  allied  Manihots 
(M.  dichotoma,  M.  Piauhyensis,  and  M.  heptaphylla),  but 
these  are  less  satisfactory  as  regards  growth  than 
M.  Glaziowi.  The  trees  are  so  brittle  that  they  suffer 
severely  from  every  windstorm.  No  tapping  has  yet  been 
done,  but  I  see  no  reason  to  hope  for  any  better  results 
in  tapping  than  have  been  obtained  from  M .  Glasiovn. 


AUGMENTATION  DU  RENDEMENT  DU  FUNTUMIA 
ELASTICA  AU  CONGO  BELGE  PAR  LA  METHODS 
SPARANO. 

Par  A.   GISSELEIRE. 

Ancien  Inspecteur  forestier  au  Congo  beige;  Attache  au 
Ministere  des  Colonies  a  Bruxelles. 

LA  saignee  du  Funtumia  elastica,  comme  d'ailleurs  celle 
de  tous  les  arbres  a  caoutchouc,  a  donne  naissance  a  une 
grande  varietes  de  systemes,  dont  la  plupart  ont  ete 
abandonnes.  A  i'heure  actuelie,  il  est  cependant  encore 
difficile  de  dire  avec  certitude  quel  est  la  meilleure  maniere 
de  saigner  le  Funtumia. 

Les  indigenes  abataient  les  arbres  et  les  incisaient  sur 
toutes  les  parties  capables  de  donner  du  latex;  apres,  ce 
fut  le  tour  a  la  saignee  a  coups  de  machettes  sur  les 
arbres  conserves,  c'etait  deja  un  progres,  mais  le  resultat 
final  de  ces  deux  methodes  primitives  fut,  indubitable- 
ment,  la  disparition  d'une  enorme  quantite  des  plus  beaux 
arbres  de  la  foret. 

Des  etudes  suivies  ont  ete  entreprises  par  divers 
specialistes,  afin  de  determiner  si  le  Funtumia  pouvait 
etre  traite  de  la  meme  maniere  que  VHevea  brasiliensis. 

Les  resultats  furent  negatifs  parce  que  la  disposition 
des  vaisseaux  laticiferes  differe  essentiellement  dans  ces 
deux  especes.  Le  systeme  de  ravivage  pratique  sur  le 
Funtumia  conduit  inevitablement  a  la  mort  des  arbres. 

II  fallait  done  trouver  autre  chose  et  les  essais  furent 
diriges  dans  la  voie  des  incisions  pen  profondes.  L'ex- 
perience  a  demontre  que  dans  le  cas  ou  celles-ci  sont 
legeres,  la  cicatrisation  se  fait  rapidement.  On  saigne 
done  en  arete  de  poisson  (simple  ou  double)  en  V  ou,  en 
spirale,  enfin,  on  a  egalement  recommande  le  systeme 
de  saignee  par  incisions  verticales  paralleles  sur  la  plus 
grande  partie  du  tronc.  Ici  encore,  du  moment,  que  les. 


7OO  RUBBER 

incisions  sont  peu  profondes,  la  cicatrisation  se  fait  bien, 
mais  si  c'est  le  cas  contraire,  les  levres  des  plaies  ne  se 
referment  pas,  au  contraire,  elles  s'ecartent  1'une  de 
1'autre  et  finissent  par  former,  sur  le  tronc  de  veritables 
sillons,  qui  rendent  1'exploitation  ulterieure  fort  difficile. 
Ce  systeme  a  Tavantage  d'etre  d'une  execution  rapide  et 
facile,  mais  il  faut  un  n  ombre  considerable  de  godets  pour 
recueillir  le  latex.  II  en  est  d'ailleurs  de  meme  pour  la 
saignee  en  spirales. 

Le  systeme  preconise  par  M.  le  Dr.  Christy,  qui 
consiste  a  tracer  sur  le  tronc,  au  moyen  d'un  inciseur 
special,  des  incisions  tres  peu  profondes  destinees  unique- 
ment  a  conduire  le  latex  dans  les  godets.  Ceci  marque 
une  serieuse  avance  sur  tous  les  autres  systemes.  La 
coulee  du  latex  est  provoquee,  en  passant  au  fond  de  ces 
premieres  incisions,  avec  une  roulette  dentee.  Ces  petites 
blessures,  tout  en  occasionnant  peu  de  dommage  au 
cambium,  suffisent  amplement  pour  assurer  une  bonne 
saignee.  La  cicatrisation  de  ces  plaies  est  rapide. 

Tout  en  considerant  cette  methode  comme  presentant 
des  avantages  reels,  elle  peut  cependant  etre  amelioree, 
en  ce  sens,  que  la  saignee  qui  est  pratiquee  en  un  seul 
jour,  peut  etre  repartie  sur  une  semaine  et  que  par  suite, 
il  y  a  moins  de  risques  de  rompre  1'equilibre  dans  la 
croissance  de  1'arbre. 

Cette  experience  vient  d'etre  appliquee  au  Congo  par 
M.  Sparano,  un  des  agronomes  du  district  des  Bangala. 

C'est  le  systeme  en  arete  double  qui  a  ete  applique, 
sur  des  arbres  de  0*55  m.  de  circonference.  Les  grands 
arbres  ont  ete  saignes  sur  hauteur  de  5  metres.  L'arete 
n'embrasse  que  la  moitie  du  tronc.  L'autre  moitie  est 
reservee  pour  la  deuxieme  saignee,  qui  est  faite  apres  un 
repos  de  six  mois. 

L'arete  a  ete  faite  de  la  maniere  suivante :  les  incisions 
de  gauche  se  trouvent  a  6  centimetres  au  dessus  des 
incisions  correspondantes  de  droite  et  la  distance 
observee  entre  elles  est  de  0*24  cent.  La  saignee  est 
commencee  par  le  bas  de  1'arbre.  Le  premier  jour  on 
trace  2  incisions,  une  a  droite  et  une  a  gauche;  le  2e  jour 
repos;  le  3-6  il  est  pratique  3  incisions,  le  46  jour  repos, 
le  5e  4  nouvelles  incisions,  le  6e  jour  repos,  le  7e  5 


RUBBER  7OI 

incisions,  le  8e  repos  et  le  ge  jour  on  fait  de  6  a  8 
incisions. 

Les  resultats  obtenus  par  ce  systeme  sont  tres  encour- 
ageants  et  le  rendement  est  superieur  a  celui  obtenu  par 
<Tautres  methodes. 

Un  essai  effectue  a  Musa  au  district  des  Bangala,  sur 
des  arbres  de  8  a  9  ans  a  donne  6o'868  kilos  de  caoutchouc 
frais,  en  tenant  compte  des  scraps  et  en  faisant  deux 
saignees  par  an,  le  resultat  final  peut  etre  estime  a  environ 
200  grammes  par  arbre  et  par  an. 

Un  autre  essai  egalement  fait  a  Musa,  sur  1,696  arbres 
de  8  a  9  ans  a  donne  170*568  kilos  de  caoutchouc  frais. 
En  deux  saignees  le  resultat  serait  sensiblemem  le  meme 
que  celui  obtenu  dans  1'essai  precedent. 

Enfin,  un  troisieme  essai  execute  a  Kutu,  situe  pres 
de  Musa,  sur  1,368  arbres  de  8  a  9  ans  a  donne  157  kilos 
de  caoutchouc  frais.  Ce  resultat  est  un  peu  plus  eleve 
que  les  deux  precedents. 

Des  experiences  comparatives  entre  differentes 
methodes  de  saignees  ont  ete  effectuees  sur  des  Fun- 
tumia  elastica  au  Jardin  botanique  d'Eala  et  montrent 
nettement  Tavantage  de  la  methode  Christy  modifiee. 

Par  la  methode  Schultze  (incisions  verticales)  la  moyenne 

est  d'environ    ...  ...  ...  ...  ...     50  kilos 

Methode  Christy       ...  ...  ...  ...  ...   100     ,, 

Methode  Christy  modifiee       ...  ...  ...         1508,200     ,, 

Soit,  1508,  200,  loo,  50  kilos  caoutchouc  sec  par  hectare. 

La  coagulation  du  latex  de  Funtumia  elasiica,  en  le 
precipitant  dans  de  Teau  bouillante,  a  donne  jusqu'ici  le 
meilleur  resultat.  Des  que  le  latex  vient  en  contact  avec 
1'eau  en  ebullition  le  coagulum  se  forme  en  masses 
floconneuses  et  vient  flotter  a  la  surface.  II  suffit  de 
Tenlever  et  de  passer  la  masse  dans  une  presse.  Le 
caoutchouc  ainsi  obtenu  est  lave  a  grande  eau  et  secbe. 
II  est  de  tres  bonne  qualite,  nerveux  et  evalue  de  6  a 
6'io  fr.  le  kilo,  alors  que  le  caoutchouc  d'Hevea  de 
plantation  etait  cote  a  6^50  fr.  le  kilo. 


THE  METHODS  OP   TAPPING  CULTIVATED  CASTILLOA 
TREES,  AND  THE  YIELD  OF  RUBBER  THEREFROM. 

By  Professor  P.   CARMODY,   F.I.C.,  F.C.S. 
Director  of  Agriculture,  Trinidad. 

THE  method  most  in  favour  in  Trinidad  and  Tobago 
for  the  tapping  of  Castilloa  trees  requires  no  lengthy 
description.  The  implements  used  are  a  chisel  with  a 
specially  thin  cutting  edge  about  ij  in.  wide,  and  a 
wooden  mallet.  Every  other  method  has  been  tried, 
including  paring  and  puncturing. 

Cuts  are  made  along  the  trunk  about  12  in.  apart 
vertically.  Another  series  of  cuts  at  about  4  in.  to  the 
right  and  left  are  made,  and  these  are  continued  right 
round  or  half  round  the  tree  as  high  as  can  be  reached 
on  foot  or  on  ladders.  The  cuts  are  made  as  shown  in 
the  diagram. 

The  chisel  is  pointed  slightly  upwards,  so  that  the  bark 
on  the  upper  edge  of  the  cut  may  protrude  slightly  over 
the  lower  edge  and  prevent  the  entrance  of  rain.  Clean 
cuts  should  be  made,  and  each  cut  should  slope  slightly 
downwards  from  the  horizontal  to  facilitate  the  collection 
of  the  latex.  The  proper  depth  of  the  cut  is  easily 
ascertained  after  a  short  experience. 

It  depends  on  the  condition  of  the  trees,  and  the  length 
of  the  intervals  between  the  tappings,  whether  the  latex 
will  flow  from  or  coagulate  on  the  cuts.  If  it  coagulates 
on  the  cuts,  the  best  course  is  to  make  a  ball  of  the  rubber 
direct  from  the  tree,  stretching  the  rubber  as  much  as 
its  strength  will  allow.  This  stretching  appears  to 
improve  the  rubber. 

The  latex  when  plentiful  may  be  collected  in  cups  or 
in  any  other  convenient  receptacles,  and  the  rubber 
immediately  separated  from  it  in  a  centrifugal  machine, 
or  more  slowly  by  creaming  and  setting  in  shallow  trays 


RUBBER 


703 


with  porous  cloth  bottoms.  Coagulation  may  be  hastened 
by  the  addition  of  dilute  acetic  or  sulphuric  acid,  or  an 
aqueous  extract  of  the  "  moon  "  vine  (Ipomoea  bona- 
nox). 

In  Trinidad  and  Tobago  Castilloa  has  not  been  grown 
as  a  separate  cultivation.  It  was  recommended  some 
thirty  years  ago  as  a  shade  tree  for  cacao,  and  it  has  been 
tried  for  that  purpose  only  over  small  areas.  Under  these 

DIAGRAM  SHOWING  METHOD  OF  TAPPING  CASTILLOA  TREES. 


conditions  it  has  not  given,  and  could  not  be  expected  to 
give,  the  best  results;  and  the  yield  of  rubber  from  our 
trees  may  be  considerably  less  than  that  from  trees  grown 
under  different  conditions.  The  best  results  that  have 
been  obtained  in  Tobago  from  young  trees  tapped  for 
the  first  time  to  a  height  of  20  ft.  for  half  the  girth  of  the 
tree  are  for  an  average  of  10  trees  10*8  oz.,  and  for  288 
trees  a  little  over  5  oz.  for  a  single  tapping,  and  3*4  oz. 
for  a  second  tapping  four  months  later. 
45 


THE  METHODS  OF  TAPPING  CASTILLOA  RUBBER 
TREES  IN  MEXICO,  AND  THE  HELD  OF  RUBBER 
WHICH  THE  TREES  FURNISH. 

By  ASHMORE  RUSSAN. 

Director  of  the  Soconusco  Rubber  Plantations,  Ltd.; 
London  Director  of  the  La  Zacualpa  Plantation 
Company. 

IT  was  with  some  considerable  hesitation  that  I  accepted 
the  invitation  of  the  Honorary  Organizing  Secretaries  of 
this  Congress  to  prepare  a  paper  on  Castilloa  rubber,  the 
reason  being  that  I  felt  that  I  could  not  write  much  in 
favour  of  the  cultivation  of  the  Castilloa  rubber  tree,  and 
did  not  wish  in  any  way  to  disparage  it.  However,  if  I 
keep  to  the  terms  of  the  reference,  with  just  a  few  diver- 
gencies, and  also  keep  to  my  own  personal  experiences, 
I  may  be  able  to  be  just  to  the  Castilloa  and  also  some- 
what instructive. 

The  request  of  the  Honorary  Organizing  Secretaries 
was  that  I  should  deal  particularly  with  the  methods 
employed  in  tapping  plantation  Castilloa  rubber  trees  in 
Mexico  and  the  yields  of  rubber  obtained  on  the  com- 
mercial scale  from  trees  of  different  ages.  They  also 
stated  that  information  would  be  welcome  as  to  any 
experimental  work  which  has  been  carried  out  with  a 
view  to  devising  methods  of  tapping  to  increase  the  yield, 
and  also  as  to  the  differences  in  the  yield  of  rubber  from 
the  different  varieties  (or  species)  of  Castilloa  which  occur 
in  Mexico. 

That  is  the  reference,  and  I  propose  in  the  main  to 
confine  myself  to  it. 

By  way  of  preface  I  should  say  that  I  made  the 
acquaintance  of  the  Castilloa  rubber  tree  in  Mexico  in 
the  year  1900,  when  I  visited,  amongst  other  plantations, 
those  of  La  Zacualpa,  in  the  Soconusco  District  of  the 
State  of  Chiapas.  In  the  La  Zacualpa  plantations  I  have 
been  interested  ever  since  that  date,  and  with  regard  to 


RUBBER  705 

another  estate,   almost  adjoining,   I  have  for  some  four 
years  been  a  director  of  the  British  company  owning  it. 

The  La  Zacualpa  Estates,  now  comprising  over  12,500 
acres  of  cultivated  Castilloa  rubber,  are  owned  by  two 
American  companies,  with  headquarters  at  San  Fran- 
cisco. 

In  1900  the  cultivation  on  a  considerable  scale  of 
Castilloa  rubber  on  the  La  Zacualpa  Estates  had  just 
been  commenced.  I  should  remark,  however,  that  there 
were  at  that  time  a  few  thousands  of  cultivated  Castillca 
rubber  trees  reported  to  be  from  12  to  14  years  old.  The 
previous  Mexican  owner  of  the  property  had  been  a 
friend  of  Matias  Romero,  once  Ambassador  at  Washing- 
ton, and  the  father  of  rubber  cultivation  in  Mexico,  and 
there  is  little  doubt  that  Romero  suggested  the  planting' 
of  those  few  thousand  trees.  They  had  been  tapped  very 
frequently  before  1900,  and  they  have  been  tapped  twice 
a  year  (if  not  more  often)  ever  since.  They  are  now  from 
27  to  29  years  old;  their  exact  age  is  not  known.  They 
were  fairly  well  planted,  about  18  ft.  by  12  ft.,  so  far  as  I 
recollect.  A  few  of  them  have  died.  I  saw  the  survivors 
about  three  years  ago,  and  those  survivors,  which  have 
been  tapped  regularly  for  about  twenty  years,  constitute 
the  most  favourable  evidence  as  to  the  continuous  yield- 
ing of  the  Castilloa  rubber  tree  under  cultivation  in 
Mexico  with  which  I  am  acquainted.  I  will  deal  with  the 
amount  of  their  yield  presently. 

While  thus  diverging  from  the  strict  terms  of  the 
reference,  I  would  like  to  say  that  before  visiting  the 
estates  in  question  I  paid  a  visit  to  a  Castilloa  rubber 
plantation  in  the  Mexican  State  of  Oaxaca  which  had 
been  honoured  by  mention  in  a  British  Foreign  Office 
paper.  I  am  afraid  that  paper,  written  and  issued  in  all 
good  faith,  cost  British  and  other  investors  a  great  deal 
of  money;  it  certainly  is  a  striking  example  of  the  un- 
wisdom of  accepting  evidence  at  second  hand.  The 
plantation,  the  famous,  or  notorious,  Esmeralda,  one  of 
the  earliest  planted  in  Mexico,  owed  its  notoriety  to  that 
Foreign  Office  paper.  I  found  in  1900  some  40,000 
Castilloa  trees  8  to  10  years  old,  very  well  planted  in 
straight  rows,  at  a  fairly  good  distance  apart  for  that 


706  RUBBER 

time  (some  12  ft.  by  12  ft.),  and  some  50,000  younger 
trees.  The  older  trees  had  been  frequently  tapped,  but  I 
failed  to  find  any  record  of  rubber  sold,  and  there  were  no 
samples  at  the  Hacienda.  The  evidence  of  tapping  was 
in  plenty.  The  trees  had  been  heavily  scored  with 
machetes.  I  tried  perhaps  a  score  of  them.  There  was 
no  latex,  so  I  had  holes  dug  in  the  ground  in  the 
endeavour  to  find  out  what  was  the  matter.  At  from 

2  to    3    ft.    from    the    surface    I    found    a    sort    of    con- 
glomerate    of    limestone,     practically    a    concrete;    the 
manager    called    it    "  hard-pan."     It    had    resisted    the 
tap   roots,    which   were  curled   up   towards   the   surface. 
Those  trees,  which  had  a  fairly  thriving  appeararice,  have 
never  yielded  any  rubber  to  speak  of,  and  never  can.     I 
mention  them  as  an  example  of  the  sort  of  land  on  which 
not  to  plant  Castilloa  rubber. 

Methods   employed   in  Tapping  Plantation    Castilloa 
Rubber  Trees  in  Mexico. 

Previously  to  1903  the  only  tapping  tool  employed  was 
the  machete,  a  kind  of  sword  or  sabre,  with  a  blade  about 

3  ft.   long,   used  for  all  kinds   of  agricultural  purposes, 
such    as    chopping    down    trees,    clearing    undergrowth, 
making  hillocks  and  holes  for  planting  rubber  seeds  and 
seedlings,  and  for  purposes  of  offence,  as  killing  snakes, 
and,  incidentally,  men.     A  really  sharp  machete  was,  and 
is,    rather   a   rarity,    consequently   the   result   of   tapping 
Castilloa    rubber    trees    with   it    was    murderous.     Greai 
gashes  were  inflicted — anywhere,  at  all  angles,  anyhow. 
The  deeper  the  cut  the  more  latex — or   so  the   Indian 
tapper  appeared  to  think — and  in  consequence  there  are 
now  practically  no  wild  Castilloa  rubber  trees  of  tappable 
size  to  be  found  in  Mexico,  except  perhaps  in  some  dense 
and  almost  impenetrable  forest.    One  would  think  that  the 
murderous  machete  would  never  be  used  in  plantations, 
but  in  1900  and  later  it  was  the  only  tapping  tool  employed 
on  all  the  estates  I  have  mentioned,  and  on  two  or  more 
of  the  estates  the  older  trees  are  suffering  now  from  its 
use.     As  to  Esmeralda,  it  would  have  made  little  differ- 
ence if  the  trees  had  been  tapped  with  woodmen's  axes. 


RUBBER  707 

The  Castilloas  there,  if  any  are  still  alive,  merely  cumber 
the  ground. 

Some  ten  years  ago  a  tapping  knife  was  evolved,  I 
believe,  on  the  La  Zacualpa  Estate  which  is  still  in  use. 
There  are  varieties  and  perhaps  improvements,  but  all 
are  much  alike,  and  the  principle  of  all  is  the  same.  The 
depth  of  the  cut  can  be  regulated  from  about  J  in, 
upwards;  the  width  of  the  cut  is  about  J  in.  I  have 
personally  tried  almost  all  kinds  of  tapping  knives  on 
Castilloa  rubber  trees,  but  only  one,  in  addition  to  the 
knife  now  referred  to,  was  of  any  utility.  The  exception 
I  refer  to  was  an  exhibit  at  the  Rubber  Exhibition  held 
at  the  Agricultural  Hall.  The  name  of  the  inventor  or 
originator  has  escaped  me,  but  he  came  from  Mexico,  and 
I  tried  his  knife  on  some  Castilloa  rubber  trees  at  that 
Exhibition.  It  may  be  remembered  as  having  a  handle  like 
that  of  a  saw  and  as  running  on  wheels.  It  did  the  work, 
but  was  not  nearly  so  simple  and  effective  as  the  knife 
which  is  in  use  to-day  on  the  largest  estates  in  Mexico. 
The  latter  is  rather  a  murderous-looking  implement,  but 
it  must  be  remembered  that  the  delicate  tools  used  for 
tapping  Heveas  are  of  no  use  whatever  for  tapping 
Castilloas,  the  reason,  I  understand,  being  that  the  latex 
cells  of  the  Castilloa  are  long  and  vertical,  one  transverse 
sloping  cut  completely  draining  some  4  to  6  or  more 
inches  above  it,  while  the  Hevea  latex  cells  are  more  like 
a  honeycomb,  in  which  the  slightest  paring  of  the  bark 
should  open  up  fresh  cells.  All  Hevea  tapping  tools  that 
I  have  ever  seen  are  useless  for  Castilloa.  I  have  tried 
triangle-shaped  tools  which  would  cut  sufficiently  deep, 
but  the  waste  bark  choked  them  up  at  once.  Any 
Castilloa  tool  must  have  a  free  vent,  with  the  cutting 
edges  of  the  blade  nearly  i  in.  apart.  It  must  also  have 
an  extra  blade  for  opening  the  cuts.  Such  a  knife  makes- 
a  great  gash  in  the  tree  nearly  as  wide  as  one's  finger,, 
but  that  would  appear  to  be  necessary,  as  Castilloa  latex 
at  certain  times  of  the  year  will  not  flow  readily,  and  has 
to  be  wiped  out  of  the  cut  with  the  forefinger  of  the 
tapper.  The  depth  of  the  cut  can  be  regulated  according 
to  the  age  of  the  tree  and  consequent  thickness  of  the 
bark,  and  this  matter  should  be  carefully  attended  to  by 


708  RUBBER 

the  foreman  or  "  caporal  "  of  the  tappers  before  starting 
out;  but  the  Mexican  Indian  tapper  is  both  independent 
and  insubordinate,  and  no  doubt  often  cuts  a  young  thin- 
barked  tree  just  as  deeply  as  he  would  an  older  thicker- 
barked  one.  I  have  seen  prickers  and  hammer-chisels 
used  for  tapping  Castilloas,  but  they  were  not  effective, 
and,  so  far  as  I  know,  the  knife  described,  or  others  on 
the  same  principle,  has  not  been  improved  upon,  and  is 
not  likely  to  be. 

The  Yields  of  Rubber  obtained  on  the  Commercial  Scale 
from  Trees  of  Different  Ages. 

To  me  this  question  is  a  delicate  matter.  In  the 
London  India-Rub ber  Journal  (Quarter  Century  Number), 
issued  in  1909,  a  scale  of  yields  was  published  in  an  article 
under  my  name.  I  give  it  here,  with  apologies,  only 
pleading  that  my  experience  then  was  not  so-  thorough 
as  it  is  now;  it  also  related  to  Castilloas  in  the  Soconusco 
District  of  the  State  of  Chiapas,  and  was  as  follows:  — 

"  For  6-year-old  trees,  J  Ib.  per  annum;  for  7  years, 
f  Ib.;  for  8  years,  i  Ib.;  for  9  years,  ij  Ib.;  for  10  years, 
ij  Ib.;  for  ii  years,  if  Ib.;  for  12  years,  2  Ib." 

As  I  shall  show  presently  those  figures  were  unduly 
optimistic.  But  they  had  what  appeared  to  me  to  be  a 
sound  basis — the  published  yield  of  certain  wild  trees. 
In  April,  1898,  Sir  Daniel  Morris  delivered  a  Cantor 
Lecture,  in  which  he  dealt  very  ably  with  the  Castilloa 
rubber  tree  in  many  countries.  With  regard  to  the  yield 
in  British  Honduras  he  was  very  cautious.  I  quote  from 
the  published  lecture:  "  A  large  tree  of  Castilloa,  say 
2  ft.  in  diameter,  is  said  [is  said,  please  note  that]  to 
yield  8  gallons  of  milk  when  first  cut.  Each  gallon  of 
milk  in  the  proper  season  will  make  about  2  Ib.  of  rubber. 
Hence  a  tree  of  this  size  will  give  a  return  of  16  Ib.  of 
rubber." 

Now  as  to  those  16  Ib.  from  one  wild  tree,  I  have  to 
say  that  I  have  had  credible  information  as  to  wild 
Castilloa  rubber  trees  which  have  yielded  more  than 
twice  as  much.  I  have  heard,  credibly,  of  50  Ib.  from 
an  old  Castilloa  at  one  tapping,  which,  however,  probably 


RUBBER  7O9 

extended  over  a  week  and  ended  in  the  death  of  the  tree, 
which,  indeed,  might  have  been  felled  at  the  start  to 
facilitate  the  extraction  of  the  latex. 

But  all  such  trees  were  huge,  old  forest  trees  which 
had  never  before  been  tapped  and,  when  discovered, 
were  drained  utterly.  Such  trees  must  have  grown 
under  very  favourable  conditions.  The  nearest  Castilloa 
rubber  tree  of  size  might  have  been  100  yds.  or  a  mile 
distant.  There  are  few,  if  any,  of  such  large  wild  trees 
left  anywhere.  But  with  certain  and  confirmed  know- 
ledge of  such  yields,  it  must  appear  quite  reasonable  to 
estimate  (until  the  contrary  was  proved)  that  a  6-year- 
old  cultivated  tree  in  a  plantation  would  yield  \  Ib.  of 
rubber  per  annum,  and  a  12-year-old  tree  2  Ib. 

But  to  those  who  have  cultivated  Castilloas,  the  mere 
mention  of  such  yields  as  I  have  mentioned  from  wild 
trees,  however  bona  fide,  must  be  in  the  nature  of  an 
insult  to  their  intelligence,  so  I  will  get  back  to  the 
proved  yield  of  the  Castilloa  in  cultivation  in  the  most 
favourable  district  I  am  acquainted  with,  the  before- 
mentioned  District  of  Soconusco  in  the  State  of  Chiapas. 
On  one  estate  with  which  I  am  very  well  acquainted  the 
trees  range  from  about  2  years  old  to  about  14  years. 
No  trees  under  6  years  old  are  tapped,  unless 
they  are  being  cut  out.  The  trees  are  tapped  twice  a 
year,  and  the  average  yield  of  all  ages  per  tree  per  annum 
in  dry  rubber  is  a  fraction  under  4  oz. 

The  average  yield  of  trees  of  various  ages  may  be 
roughly  allocated  as  follows :  6-year-old  trees,  2  oz.  of 
dry  rubber;  8  years  old,  3  oz.;  10  years  old,  4  oz.;  over 
10  years  old  (if  not  under  shade  or  dwarfed  from  having 
been  under  shade,  or  from  too  close  planting),  6  to  10  oz. 
The  average  of  some  250,000  trees  (all  too  closely  planted 
and  some  still  under  shade)  which  are  now  being  tapped 
twice  a  year  is,  as  I  have  said,  a  little  under  4  oz.  per 
tree.  It  has  been  shown  by  some  two  years  of  experiments 
that  the  trees  yield  as  much  in  two  tappings  per  annum 
as  in  four  or  more.  The  saving  in  bark  waste  with  two 
tappings  only  per  annum  will  be  appreciated,  considering 
the  width  of  each  cut. 

From  trees  12  to  14  years  old  which  have  been  dwarfed 


7IO  RUBBER 

by  too  close  planting  or  from  failure  to  cut  out  the 
original  shade,  more  than  4  oz.  per  annum  can  scarcely 
be  expected.  It  must  be  remembered  that  on  all  South 
Mexican  estates  the  trees  were  originally  planted  400  to 
the  acre,  and  the  only  way  of  improving  the  yield  is  to 
thin  them  out.  Had  the  trees  been  planted  on  properly 
cleared  land  20  ft.  by  20  ft.,  or  109  to  the  acre,  their 
average  yield  would  no  doubt  have  been  much  greater. 

I  will  now  return  to  the  old  cultivated  Castilloas  on 
La  Zacualpa,  now  27  to  29  years  old.  They  have  for 
some  years  yielded  an  average  of  2  Ib.  of  dry  rubber  per 
annum,  and  are  expected  to  continue  doing  so.  But  they 
were  originally  planted  fairly  wide  apart,  and  now,  owing 
to  cutting  out  where  too  close,  and  to  a  few  deaths,  they 
stand  at  about  the  proper  distance  from  each  other. 

I  should  add  that  the  soil  of  the  estates  in  question  is 
excellent,  mostly  dark  alluvial,  frequently  20  ft.  in  depth, 
with  occasional  areas  of  light  sandy  soil.  The  rainfall 
is  about  100  in.,  seven  months  rainy  season  and  five 
months  dry.  February,  March,  April,  and  May  are  often 
very  dry.  In  the  same  locality  there  are  a  few  other 
Castilloa  plantations  with  fairly  good  prospects,  but  in 
the  other  States  of  Mexico  nearly  every  Castilloa  planta- 
tion-— and  there  are  many — has  been  abandoned,  or  the 
land  turned  to  other  uses.  I  would  not  like  to  suggest 
how  many  millions  of  dollars  have  been  lost  in  Mexico 
by  inexperienced  Americans  through  planting  Castilloas 
on  unsuitable  land,  but  they  have  been  many.  The 
Castilloa  is  so  deceptive.  Up  to  3  or  4  years  old  the 
trees  almost  invariably  look  splendid;  then  the  tap  root 
strikes  the  hard-pan,  or  the  rock,  or  something  else,  or  a 
Norther  strikes  the  trees,  and  they  die  off. 

The  yield  of  the  Castilloa  rubber  tree  compared  with 
that  of  Hevea  must  seem  ridiculous,  say  4  oz.  compared 
with  from  2  to  4  Ib.  Yet  the  Castilloa  has  its  points. 
The  actual  cost  of  tapping  the  trees  twice  a  year  is 
infinitesimal  compared  with  the  cost  of  tapping  Heveas 
from  100  to  200  times  a  year.  There  are  in  Mexico  two 
or  three  young  Hevea  plantations,  and  it  is  now  pretty 
certain  that  Para  rubber  trees  will  thrive  there  and  yield 
well.  But  will  labour  be  available  to  tap  them?  I  have 


RUBBER  711 

grave  doubts  whether  the  Mexican  Indian  is  capable  of 
the  delicate  work  required  for  tapping  Heveas,  or  if 
sufficient  men  can  be  obtained.  That  is  the  great  trouble 
with  Castilloa  cultivation  in  Mexico — insufficient  and 
very  inferior  labour.  If  the  women  and  girls  could  be 
employed  the  tapping-  of  Heveas  might  be  done ;  but  they 
will  not,  or  cannot,  tap  Castilloas,  which,  owing  to  the 
original  close  planting,  require  i6-lt.  ladders. 

Experimental  Work  carried  out  with  a  view  to  devising 
Methods  of  Tapping  to  increase  the  Yield. 

Scores  of  experiments  have  been  made  with  that  object 
in  view,  but  the  yield  could  only  be  increased  by  putting 
more  cuts  on  the  trees.  Ladders  were  lengthened  from 
12  to  1 6  ft.,  which  would  enable  the  tapper  to  reach 
up  to  some  20  ft.,  the  lowest  cut  being  close  to  the  roots. 
Trees  have  been  experimentally  tapped  monthly,  six 
times  a  year,  and  four  times  a  year,  but,  as  I  have  said, 
they  yielded  no  more  than  with  two  tappings  per  annum. 
I  am  now  satisfied  that  the  yield  can  only  be  increased 
by  fostering  the  growth  of  the  trees,  by  thinning  out  to 
increase  their  leaf  area,  by  forking,  manuring,  and 
mulching — that  is,  by  cultivation.  Spindly  trees  have 
been  pollarded,  the  result  being  fairly  satisfactory.  The 
growth  of  other  trees  in  measured  areas  is  watched  care- 
fully, monthly  measurements  being  taken  and  reported. 
The  result  of  forking  and  manuring  these  measured  trees 
has  been  most  satisfactory,  but  the  idea  of  increasing 
the  yield  by  new  methods  of  tapping  has  been  quite 
abandoned.  The  maximum  yield  I  look  for  is  that  of 
the  old  cultivated  trees  at  La  Zacnalpa,  2  Ib.  per  tree, 
and  this  can  only  be  attained  by  painstaking  cultivation. 

The  Yield  of  Rubber  from  the  different  Varieties  (or 
Species)  of  Castilloa  which  occur  in  Mexico. 

I  must  say  at  once  that  I  am  not  a  botanist,  and  I  have 
only  noted  two  different  species  of  Castilloa  in  Mexico. 
An  eminent  Washington  botanist  gave  the  Castilloas  of 
Soconusco  (the  district  with  which  I  am  dealing)  a  distinct 
name,  Castillo  (Castilloa)  lactlflua,  but  in  my  opinion  the 


712  RUBBER 

difference,  except  in  one  instance  which  I  will  mention, 
is  wholly  a  matter  of  environment.  Seeds  of  the  so-called 
C.  lactiflua  from  Soconusco  have  been  sown  on  the 
Isthmus  of  Tehuantepec;  the  resulting  trees  scarcely 
yielded  any  latex  at  all;  it  certainly  did  not  flow,  but  had 
to  be  brushed  out  of  the  cuts.  A  number  of  abandoned 
plantations  in  other  parts  of  Mexico  were  planted  with 
Soconusco  Castilloas — C.  lactiflua,  if  you  will.  Result: 
they  are  abandoned.  I  have  tapped  trees  atr  say,  2,000  ft. 
altitude  in  Soconusco,  not  more  than  five  miles  from  La 
Zacualpa.  They  ought  to  have  been  C.  lactiflua,  but 
there  was  scarcely  any  latex.  A  little  froth  oozed  into 
the  cuts,  but  it  was  not  fluid.  Managers  of  Castilloa 
estates  in  other  parts  of  Mexico,  where  the  cultivation 
had  been  a  dead  failure,  have  visited  Soconusco,  and  have 
examined  the  trees.  So  far  as  I  know  none  of  them  ever 
saw  any  difference  botanically  or  in  appearance,  so  I  can 
only  give  my  opinion  for  what  it  is  worth,  viz.,  that  with 
one  exception  the  only  difference  is  in  the  environment — 
soil,  rainfall,  climate,  freedom  from  Northers,  etc. 

There  are,  however,  some  trees  on  every  Castilloa 
plantation  which  the  tappers  pass  by.  They  call  them 
4  Hule  Macho."  Hule  is  the  Spanish  word  for  the 
Castilloa  rubber  tree.  Macho  is  a  he-mule.  My  atten- 
tion has  been  called  to  a  few  of  these  trees,  which  never, 
I  believe,  yield  latex.  They  are  easily  recognizable.  The 
bark  is  of  a  reddish-brown  colour  and  often  hairy,  but 
there  are  very  few  of  them.  They  may  be  a  different 
species,  perhaps  allied  to  the  "  Toonu  "  of  Nicaragua 
and  Costa  Rica,  but  by  "  Hule  Macho  "  the  Indian  tapper 
either  means  a  male  Castilloa  or  a  mule  Castilloa — a  cross. 
I  am  not  aware  that  they  flower  and  seed,  or  that  any 
botanist  has  studied  them.  Be  that  as  it  may,  the  "  Hule 
Macho  "  is  the  only  species  of  Castilloa  in  Mexico 
different  from  C.  elastica  that  I  am  acquainted  with. 


KAUTSCHUK-ANBAU   IN  DEN    DEUTSCHEN   KOLONIEN. 

Von  Dr.  FRITZ  FRANK. 
Kautschuk-Zentrastelle  filr  die  Kolonien,  Berlin. 

BEI  der  grossen  Ausdehnung  der  deutschen  Schutz- 
gebiete  ist  jede  Frage  des  Anbaues  von  technisch 
verwendbaren  Nutzpflanzen  von  grosser  Bedeutung.  Es 
ist  nun  leider  die  Lage  so,  dass  die  deutschen  Schutz- 
gebiete  denen  anderer  Nationen  gegeniiber  insofern 
ungiinstiger  stehen,  als  dort  sowohl  die  Bodenverhalt- 
nisse  wie  die  Witterungsverhaltnisse  und  nicht  zum 
mindesten  die  Verkehrsverhaltnisse  ungiinstig  oder  nur 
zum  Teil  giinstig  sind.  Man  hat  mit  grossen  Fleiss  und 
grosser  Energie  versucht,  dem  Boden  unter  den  ortlichen 
Verhaltnissen  das  abzuringen,  was  er  hergeben  kann. 
Ernes  der  Produkte,  welches  in  grosserem  Masstabe 
angebaut  wurde,  und  welches  zu  Anfang  auch  einen 
gewissen  guten  Gewinn  in  Aussicht  stellte,  ist  der 
Kautschukbaum.  Der  Erfolg  ware  selbst  unter  den 
heutigen  ausserordentlich  ungunstigen  Marktverhalt- 
nissen,  welche  naturgemass  durch  die  grossen  Ernten 
in  den  englischen  und  hollandischen  Plantagen  herbeige- 
fuhrt  werden  mussten,  noch  ertraglich  und  jedenfalls 
ertraglicher,  wie  er  es  heute  ist,  wenn  man  mehr  von 
alien  interessierten  Stellen  aus  den  Verhaltnissen 
Rechnung  getragen  hatte.  Die  Reichsstellen  hatten 
wohl  manches  ini  technischen  Interesse  der  Kautschuk- 
gewinnung  und  Aufbereitung  besser  und  entschiedener 
beeinflussen  konnen,  wenn  mehr  Mittel  zur  Verfiigung 
gewesen  waren  und  mehr  wirkliche  Xechniker  zur  Be- 
arbeitung  der  Frage  herangezogen  worden  waren,  und 
wenn  endlich  die  Arbeiterfrage  in  gung'stigerer  Weise 
sich  hatte  losen  lassen.  Ob  und  inwieweit  dieses  letztere 
moglich  ist,  kann  hier  nicht  entschieden  und  behandelt 
werden.  In  den  Anschauungen  hieriiber  stehen  sich  die 
Verwaltung  und  die  Pflanzer  direkt  widersprechend 


714  RUBBER 

gegeniiber.  Aber  auch  die  Pflanzer  selbst  haben  wohl, 
durch  die  scheinbare  Gunst  der  Verhaltnisse  verleitet, 
manchen  Fehler  gemacht,  der  hetite  schwer  wieder  gut 
zu  machen  ist.  Trotz  alledem  wird  aber  doch  die  mit 
nicht  zu  grossen  Verwaltungsspesen  belastete  Pflanzung 
auch  jetzt  noch  einen  gewissen  Gewinn  dem  energischen 
Bearbeiter  lassen,  zumal  viele  Fragen  der  Bearbeitung 
der  Produkte  selbst  inzwischen  einwandsfrei  aufgeklart 
wurden. 

Eine  der  allerwichtigsten  Fragen  zur  Sache  ist  neben 
den  erwahnten  der  Verwaltung  und  der  Arbeiter  die- 
jenige  des  Anbaues  der  geeigneten  Baume.  Man  hat 
sich  zuerst  von  dem  Gesichtspunkte  leiten  lassen,  dass 
Anpassungen  von  Baumen,  welche  unter  ganz  anderen 
Verhaltnissen  in  der  Wildnis  gedeihen,  nicht  erwartet 
werden  konnten.  Diese  Anschauung  ist,  wie  besonders 
die  Arbeiten,  die  in  dem  Kongostaat  durchgefuhrt  sind, 
beweisen,  nicht  vollig  zutreffend.  Es  gelingt  durchaus, 
Anpassung  in  weitgehendem  Masse  auch  unter  ganz 
anderen  Witterungsverhaltnissen  zu  erzielen.  In  den 
Versuchsgarten  des  Kongostaates  blieben  zunachst  die 
Heveen  ganzlich  zuriick  und  man  hatte  schon  ange- 
nomni'en,  dass  dieselben  nicht  entwickelungsfahig  waren. 
Ein  Teil  der  Anpflanzungen  wurde  daher  direkt  vernach- 
lassigt.  Als  1912  dann  diese  Pflanzungen  von  dem 
Direktor  des  Agrikultur  Departements  wieder  ausgesucht 
und  eingehend  untersucht  wurden,  hatte  es  sich  gezeigt, 
dass  auch  in  Gegenden,  welche  unter  2,000  mm.  Regen- 
fall  haben,  die  Heveen  sich  anpassen  konnten  und  sich 
zu  normalen  Milchgebern  entwikkelt  hatten.  Man  konnte 
von  8  bis  10  jahrigen  Baumen,  die  allerdings  im  Umfange 
den  Massen  nachstanden,  welche  man  bei  gleichaltrigen 
Baumen  in  Singapore  und  Malaya  erzielt,  doch  immerhin 
Milchertrage  bei  normaler  Zapfung  erhalten,  welche 
einem  Tahresertrage  von  360  bis  800  gr.  trockenem 
Kautschuk  gleichkamen.  Die  sorgfaltigen  Beobacht- 
ungen,  welche  an  der  Goldkiiste  von  Tudhop  ausgefiihrt 
wurden,  hatten  inzwischen  schon  die  gleich  giinstigen, 
ja  zum  Teil  noch  weit  uberragende  Resultate  ergeben, 
allerdings  unter  etwas  giinstigeren  Niederschlagsver- 
haltnissen. 


RUBBER  715 

Auch  in  Kamertm  hat  sich  inzwischen  die  Hevea 
ansiedeln  lassen  und  liefert  eine,  wenn  auch  nicht  iiber- 
massige,  so  doch  befriedigende  Jahresausbeute  an  gutem 
und  erstklassigem  Kautschuk.  In  Ostafrika  ist  man  mit 
dem  Heveen-Anbau  nur  sehr  langsam  vorangegangen. 
Der  Kautschuk,  der  von  einigen  Versuchsbaumen  gelie- 
fert  wird,  lasst  je  doch  erwarten,  dass  sich  auch  hier  die 
Heveen  an  einigen  Stellen  wenigstens  ansiedeln  lassen 
wiirden.  Leider  ist  ein  grosser  Anbauversuch  dadurcK 
in  seinen  Entwicklungen  ganzlich  behindert  worden,  weil 
die  Sumatra-Stumps  auf  dem  Transporte  in  Afrika  selbst 
unsachlich  behandelt  worden  sind.  , 

Nachdem  ich  iiber  die  Anpassungs-Moglichkeit  ge- 
sprochen  habe,  mag  es  noch  wichtig  erscheinen,  mit 
wenig  Worten  auf  die  Bodenverhaltnisse,  welche  die  An- 
passungsmoglichkeit  ergeben,  einzugehen.  Der  Boden, 
welch^r  ganz  allgemein  vom  Kautschuk  bevorzugt  und 
verlangt  wird,  ist  in  alien  Fallen  ein  tiefgriindiger  und 
lockerer.  Eine  gute  Feinheit  wird  verlangt,  dagegen 
wird  nicht  so  sehr  ein  besonderer  Humus-Reichtum 
beansprucht.  In  anderen  Kolonial-Landern  hat  man  mit 
der  Diingung  und  besonders  mit  der  kiinstlichen  Diingung 
auch  erst  spat  begonnen,  ausgehend  von  der  Anschaung, 
dass  bei  dem  grossen  Landereibesitz  eine  voile  Aus- 
nutzung  des  Bodens  nichts  schaden  wiirde.  Man  hat 
dabei  immer  die  giinstigen  Marktpreise  im  Auge  gehabt, 
welche  sehr  bald  eine  voile  Amortisation  der  Anlage  in 
Aussicht  stellten. 

Die  naturgemass  eingetretenen  Verhaltnisse  haben  nun 
aber  doch  gezeigt,  dass  man  sehr  viel  rationeller  arbeiten 
muss.  Es  ist  daher  doch  ernstlicher  an  die  bessere 
Bodenausnutzung  und  bessere  Pflanzenentwicklung  durch 
Diingungsversuche  gegangen.  Merkwiirdig  ist  es,  dass 
so  wenig  greifbare  Ergebnisse  iiber  die  Dungungen 
vorliegen.  Trotzdem  kann  man  aber  doch  schon  mit 
absoluter  Sicherheit  sagen,  dass  eine  rationelle  Kunst- 
diingung  Erfolg  gibt.  Der  Erfolg  ist  in  erster  Linie  in 
der  quantitativen  grosseren  Ausbeute  der  Baume  zu 
finden.  Nicht  dagegen  hat  es  sich  bisher  erweisen  lassen, 
dass  auch  die  Qualitat  durch  die  Diingung  beeinflusst 


RUBBER 


wird.  Dk  Kautschukzentralstelle  hat  gleichfalls  neben 
den  Versuchen,  die  die  Kolonial-Regierung  Deutschlands 
in  sehr  wichtigem  Masstabe  ausfuhrt,  selbst  Versuchs- 
diingungen  unter  Kontrolle  und  ist  dabei  vom  Kali 
Syndikat  in  liebenswiirdigem  Entgegenkommen  unter- 
stiitzt  worden.  Es  kann,  soweit  die  Ergebnisse  sich 
heute  iibersehen  lassen,  mit  guter  Sicherheit  auch  aus 
diesen  Versuchen  das  quantitativ  gimstige  Ergebnis 
bestatigt  werden.  Ueber  die  Ergebnisse  aus  den  Ver- 
suchsfeldern  ist  in  dem  letzten  Jahresbericht  der  Zentral- 
stelle  berichtet  worden. 

Angebaut  .worden  sind  in  Ostafrika  in  erster  Linie 
Manihotbaume  und  an  einzelnen  wenigen  Stellen  Lianen 
und  nur  ganz  vereinzelt,  wie  dies  bereits  oben  angedeutet 
wurde,  an  einzelnen  Stellen  einige  Heveabaume.  Ihre 
Zahl  ist  in  den  Statistiken  wegen  der  Geringfiigigkeit 
noch  nicht  verzeichnet.  Sie  finden  sich  in  dem  Bericht 
iiber  die  deutschen  Schutzgebiete  1912-13  unter  der 
Gruppe  "  Verschiedenes."  In  Westafrika  ist  im  geringen 
Umfange  Ficus,  in  der  Hauptsache  Kickxia,  im  geringen 
Masstabe  Manihot,  einiges  an  Lianen  und  immerhin 
bereits  uber  i  Million  an  Heveabaumen  angepflanzt 
worden.  Die  Anpflanzungen  in  Togo  beschranken  sich 
auf  ein  kleines  Landstiick  Hevea,  auf  etwas  m-ehr  an 
Manihot,  n  Hektar  Ficus  und  25  Hektar  Kickxia. 
Dasxunter  schoner  Bewirtschaftung  stehende  Neuguinea 
hat  einen  verhaltnismassig  guten  Bestand  an  fast  alien 
Kautschuk  liefernden  Baumen  mit  Ausnahme  von  Lianen. 
Man  hat  hier  sehr  viel  Zwischenkultur  und  zwar  sowohl 
Kakao  wie  Kokospalmen  angepflanzt  und  ist  in  einzelnen 
Bestanden  direkt  wegen  der  ungiinstigen  Lage  und  wohl 
zum  Teil  auch  mit  wegen  der  Schwierigkeit  der  Arbeit- 
erbeschaffung  an  das  Totzapfen  einiger  Bestande 
gegangen,  zum  mindesten  hat  man  sich  damit  beschaftigt, 
durch  Totzapfen  einen  Teil  der  Bestande  in  einem  erhe- 
blichen  Masse  auszulichten.  Samoa  hat,  wenn  auch  im 
kleinen  Umfange  guten  Bestand  an  den  verschiedenen 
Bauarten.  Im  Nachstehenden  soil  tabellarisch  eine 
Uebersicht  iiber  den  Bestand  nach  dem  letzten  statis- 
tischen  Nachweis  gegeben  werden  :  — 


RUBBER 


717 


DEUTSCH- 
OSTAFRIKA 

KAMBRUN 

Toco 

Bebaute  Flache 

Bebaute  Flache 

Baume 

Bebaute  Flache 

Baume 

insges. 

ertrags- 
fahi* 

insges. 

ertrags- 
fahig 

insges. 

insges. 

ertrags- 
fahig 

insges. 

ha 

ha 

ha 

ha 

Stiick 

ha 

ha 

Stiick 

Kautschi4k  :— 

Ficus 

— 

— 

43 

8 

17659 

II 

— 

— 

Kickxia  .  . 

— 

— 

3588  !    996 

46961,09 

25 

— 

— 

Manihot  .  . 

44903 

17044 

175 

29 

116721 

137 

20 

— 

Lianen     .  . 

— 

20350 

— 

— 

Hevea      .  . 

— 

— 

3.S89 

— 

1143803 

I 

— 

700 

Castilloa  .  . 

— 

— 

7 

i 

2584 

— 

— 

Verschiedenes 

414 

72 

_ 

Schutzgebiete  der  Sudvee. 


NEUGUINEA  MIT  INSKLGEBIKT 


SAMOA 


Bebaute  Flache 

Baume 

Bebaute  Flache 

Baume 

insges. 

ertrags- 

faliij; 

insges. 

ertrags- 
fahig 

insges. 

ertrags- 
lahig 

insges. 

ertrags- 
tahig 

ha 

ha 

Stiick 

Stiick 

ha 

ha 

Stiick 

Snu-Jk 

Kautschuk  :— 

Ficus  ... 

1597 

937 

297994 

170138 

20 

— 

8871 

— 

Kickxia 

12 

5399 

12 

5 

— 

7600 

— 

Manihot 

I 

— 

30  1 

— 

8185 

85 

Lianen 

— 



— 

— 

— 

— 

Hevea 

463 

20 

205310       7646 

1086-4 

205-3 

4'35" 

71785 

Castilloa 

266 

242 

7b8ll    ;       39960 

5o-5 

I0'5 

5<>j53 

3257 

Verschiedenes    .. 

— 

~ 

Der  Ertrag,  welcher  in  den  verschiedenen  Schutz- 
g-ebieten  aus  den  Kautschttkbaumen  gewonnen  wird,  ist 
verschieden.  Er  ist  aber  fur  die  einzelnen  Baumarten 
doch  ziemlich  normal.  Am  ungungstigsten  in  der 
Ertragsfahigkeit  ist  noch  immer  der  Manihotbaum  Ost- 
afrikas  und  es  ist  nicht  ganz  sicher,  ob  nicht  bei  der 
ersten  Saateinfuhr  eine  etwas  ungiinstige  Sorte  zufallig 
zum  Anbau  gekommen  ist,  da  in  anderen  kolonialen 
Landern  giinstigere  Ertrage  erzielt  werden.  Besonders 
wird  von  giinstigen  Ertragen  aus  hollandischen  Besitz- 
ungen,  aus  Ceylon  und  von  den  franzosischen  Anpflanz- 
ungen  in  Brasilien  berichtet. 

Ueber  die  Kautschukpreise  zu  sprechen,  erscheint  hier 
nicht  angangig.  Sie  sind  geniigend  bekannt  und 


718  RUBBER 

geniigend  deprimierend  fur  die  derzeitige  Lage.  Dass 
sie  aber  immerhin,  wenigstens  in  einer  Anzahl  von 
Fallen,  Nutzen  lassen,  ist  bereits  oben  gesagt. 

Eine  andere  Frage,  welche  aber  an  dieser  Stelle 
behandelt  werden  muss,  ist  die  der  Anbauart  und  es  muss 
mit  aller  Entschiedenheit  wieder  und  wieder  betont 
werden,  dass  ein  zu  enges  Pflanzen  nicht  nur  fur  die 
Baumentwicklung  ungiinstig  ist,  sondern  auch  eben  bei 
der  geringeren  Stammentwickelung  ungiinstigere  Ertrage 
naturgemass  geben  muss,  Die  Anschauungen,  als  ob 
eine  enge  Pflanzweite  bei  grosser  Baumzahl  reichere 
Ertrage  g'ibt,  ist  nur  fiir  die  allerersten  Jahre  vielleicht 
zutreffend,  fur  spater  ist  sie  in  jedem  Falls  ein  Trug- 
schluss.  Nur  der  gut  entwickelte  Stamm  mit  gutem 
Blattdach  gibt  dauernd  guten  und  relativ  reichen  Ertrag. 
Im  Kreuzverband  5  zu  5  m.  gepflanzt  sollte  eine  Pflanz- 
W'cise  sein,  die  nicht  unterschritten  werden  soil.  Es  ist 
in  vielen  Fallen  sogar  giinstiger,  noch  weiter  zu  pflanzen. 

Ein  unbedingtes  Erfordernis  ist  es  weiter,  die  Pflanzung 
gut  rein  zu  halten.  Eine  Zwischenkultur  ist  nur  mit 
Vorsicht  zu  geniessen,  und  hat  oftmals  nicht  viel  positiven 
Erfolg  ergeben. 

Hier  mag  nochmal  auf  den  Wert  der  Diingung 
deswegen  zuruckgegriffen  werden,  w-eil  zweifellos  solche 
Diingungen,  welche  den  Stickstoffgehalt  im  Latex  ver- 
mehren,  von  Bedeutung  fiir  das  endgiiltig  erhaltene 
Produkt  sein  mussen,  und,  wenn  nach  dieser  Richtung 
hin  Erfolge  noch  nicht  zuverlassig  vorliegen,  so  mag 
dies  zum  Teil  mit  darauf  zuruckzufuhren  sein,  weil  es 
bis  vor  kurzem  nicht  recht  gelingen  wollte,  die  Stick- 
stoffsubstanzen  aus  der  Milch  in  zuverlassiger  Form  mit 
abzuscheiden.  Neuerdings  scheint  es,  als  ob  nach  dieser 
Richtung  hin  sich  doch  ein  Wandel  schaffen  lasst.  Es 
gibt  schon  jetzt  Verfahren  zur  Kautschukabschiedung  aus 
der  Milch,  durch  welche  die  stickstoffhaltigen  Eiweiss- 
Substanzen  in  ziemlich  unzersetzlicher  Form  beim  Kaut- 
schuk  erhalten  bleiben ;  es  mag  nur  beilaufig  auf  das  nicht 
nur  teoretisch,  sondern  auch  technisch  zu  dieser  Frage 
wichtige  Colloseus-Verfahren  hingedeutet  werden. 

Nach  all  dem  vorher  Dargestellten  bleibt  nur  noch 
iibrig,  auf  die  Frage  der  bebauungsfahigen  Flache,  welche 


RUBBER  719 

in  den  Schutzgebieten  zur  Verfiigung  steht  und  auf  die 
Anzahl  der  arbeitsfahigen  Bevolkerung  hinzuweisen,  da 
ganz  besonders  die  Arbeiterfrage  von  ausschlaggebender 
Bedeutung  fur  die  Tropenwirtschaft  ist.  Die  Gesamt- 
flache-der  Schutzgebiete  umfasst  ca.  3  Millionen  Quad- 
ratkilometer,  die  Anzahl  der  in  den  Farmbetrieben 
insgesamt  beschaftigten  Arbeiter  betragt  run  111,000. 
Die  Lohnverhaltnisse  sind  nicht  nur  in  den  einzelnen 
Schutzgebieten  untereinander,  sondern  leider  auch,  be- 
sonders in  dem  ostafrikanischen  Schutzgebiet  schon  in 
benachbarten  Gebieten  sehr  verschieden.  Leider  ist  bei 
diesem  Referat  nicht  der  Raum,  .auf  all  diese  wichtigen 
Einzelheiten  einzugehen.  Es  mag  nur  noch  betont 
werden,  dass  noch  viel  Land  zur  Verfugung  steht,  und 
dass  es  nicht  angangig  ist,  fiir  ein  Kolonialamt,  sich  allzu 
stark  auf  eine  Kulturat  zu  werfen.  Hierfiir  ist  gerade 
der  Kautschuk-Plantagenbau  eines  der  markantesten 
Beispiele. 

Es  gibt  noch  manches  Andere,  was  sich  ausser  dem 
bisher  schon  bevorzugten  Kolonial-Produkten,  wie  Fett- 
produkten,  Kautschuk,  Kakao,  Baumwolle,  Faser- 
material,  Kaffee,  Tabak  und  Tee  anbauen  lasst  und  es 
wird  die  Arbeit  der  nachsten  Jahre  sein,  hier  fiir  die 
einzelnen  Landgebiete  die  richtige  Auswahl  zu  treffen 
und  die  richtige  Zusammensetzung  des  plantagen- 
massigen  Betriebes  fiir  die  einzelnen  Bezirke  fest- 
zustellen.  In  mancher  Beziehung  wiirde  sich  Deutsch- 
land  wohl  noch,  besonders  auch  durch  Futter  und  Nah- 
rungsmittel-Anbau  in  den  eigenen  Kolonien  von  den 
Erzeugnissen  fremder  Kolonien  unabhangig  machea 
konnen.  Wir  unsererseits  sind  gern  bereit,  in  all  diesen 
Fragen  weiter  mit  zu  arbeiten  und  hoffen,  dass  es  dem 
festen  Zusammenarbeiten  der  Kolonialregierung  und  der 
Pflanzer  und  Pflanzungs-Unternehmer  gemeinschaftlich 
mit  den  deutschen  Technikern  gelingt,  dieses  erstrebens- 
werte  Ziel  der  rationellen  Ausnutzung  der  Schutzgebiete 
nicht  nur  im  Interesse  der  bodenstandigen  Bevolkerung, 
sondern  auch  der  ganzen  deutschen  Wirtschaftslage  zu 
erreichen. 


POUR  I/INDUSTRIE  DU  CAOUTCHOUC  DE 
LA  DETERMINATION  PRECISE  AU  LABORATOIRE 
DE  LA  VALEUR  RESPECTIVE  DES  CAOUTCHOUCS. 

Par  M.   LAMY-TORRILHON. 

President   de    la    Chambrc   Syndicate    dcs   Fabricants    de 
Caoutchouc. 

DANS  la  pratique  courante  des  affaires  du  commerce  et 
de  1'industrie  du  caoutchouc,  voici  comment  les  choses 
se  passent  generalement,  pour  la  vente  par  1'intermediaire, 
et  1'achat  par  le  fabricant,  d'un  lot  quelconque  de  caout- 
chouc. Rarement  pour  cette  operation,  l'acheteur  est  en 
relation  directe  avec  le  producteur  de  matiere  premiere; 
1'intermediaire  est  une  necessite  qui  s'impose,  sa  presence 
est  toute  naturelle. 

Ou  bien  le  fabricant  cherche  directement  a  se  procurer 
la    gomme    brute    dont    il    prevoit    le    besoin    a    courte 
echeance,   chez   son   fournisseur  habituel,  ou  bien   il   est 
sollicite  par  des  courtiers  ou  par  des  intermediaires  qui 
viennent  le  trouver  avec  une  serie  d'echantillons  de  lots 
de  differentes  sortes   et  de   provenances   diverses.      Que 
1'affaire  se  traite  verbalement  ou  par  correspondance,  la 
situation  est  a  peu  pres  la  meme  pour  le  fabricant,  qui 
se  trouve  en  presence  d'un  echantillon  de  la  matiere  dont 
il  va  se  rendre  acquereur.     Un  gros  point  d'interrogation 
se  dresse  a  ce  moment  pour  lui :    va-t-il  faire  une  bonne 
ou  une  mauvaise  affaire?     La  question  est  la.     Plusieurs 
coefficients  entrent  en  jeu,  qui  vont  influer  sur  la  decision 
qu'il  va  prendre :   besoin  immediat  ou  a  terme,  cours  du 
jour,  qualite  de  marchandise,  etc.     Chaque  fabricant  a  sa 
maniere,  a  lui  propre,  d'acheter,  qui  est  la  meme  au  fond, 
puisqu'il  s'agit  d'apprecier  la  valeur  industrielle  du  caout- 
chouc qu'on  lui  propose,   et  de  voir  si  on  lui  en  donne 
suffisamment  pour  son  argent.     Ce  n'est  pas  une  petite 
affaire,   comme   on   le  voit,   que   d'acheter   cette   matiere 
premiere,  et  combien  il  est  difficile  d'exprimer  les  raisons 
qui  vont  influer  sur  la   decision  a  prendre.     L'acheteur 


RUBBER  721 

regarde,  palpe,  tourne  et  retourne  dans  ses  mains  1'echan- 
tillon,  souvent  tres  petit,  qu'on  lui  a  soumis;  il  le  sent, 
en  prend  un  petit  morceau  entre  ses  doigts,  lui  fait  subir 
des  essais  repetes  de  traction;  il  le  roule,  voit  s'il  est 
poisseux  on  en  passe  de  le  devenir;  il  essaie  de  se  faire 
un  jugement  rapide  par  tous  les  moyens  dont  il  dispose, 
moyens  qui  sont,  il  faut  bien  ravouer,  on  ne  peut  plus 
rudimentaires  et  limites.  Lorsqu'une  sorte  de  caout- 
chouc se  presente,  deja  connue  du  manufacturier  pour 
avoir  ete  employee  par  lui,  ses  hesitations  sont  evidem- 
ment  diminuees  dans  une  notable  proportion,  et,  1'ex- 
perience  aidant,  1'affaire  est  vite  traitee.  Car  il  faut,  la 
plupart  du  temps,  que  1'affaire  soit  enlevee,  1'option  n'etant 
accordee,  aussi  bien  pour  le  vendeur  que  pour  I'acheteur, 
que  pour  un  delai  tres  court;  c'est  done  une  question  de 
minutes,  la  reponse  doit  etre  donnee  immediatement  par 
telegramme  et  confirmee  de  meme,  sous  peine  de  voir 
1'affaire  manquee. 

L'achat  fait,  1'affaire  en  regie  de  part  et  d'autre,  le 
fabricant  se  demande  toujours  s'il  a, fait  une  bonne  ou 
une  mauvaise  affaire.  Quand  le  saura-t-il?  Quand  sera- 
t-il  definitivement  fixe  sur  ce  point?  C'est  bien  simple: 
il  saura  reellement  qu'il  a  fait  une  bonne  ou  une  mauvaise 
affaire  lorsqu'il  aura  employe  sa  marchandise,  qu'il  1'aura 
vulcanisee  et  livree  a  son  client,  transformee  en  articles 
les  plus  divers.  Et  s'il  n'a  pas  pris  la  precaution  de  con- 
server  un  echantillon  de  sa  fabrication,  il  rie  saura  a  quoi 
s'en  tenir  que  si  le  client  a  a  se  plaindre  de  la  fourniture 
faite,  ce  qui  peut  avoir  lieu  seulement  quelques  mois 
apres  la  livraison. 

II  faut  dire  que  le  producteur  du  caoutchouc  se  trouve, 
lui,  dans  une  situation  bien  plus  vague  et  imprecise,  au 
point  de  vue  de  la  qualite  de  son  produit,  que  celle  du 
fabricant  de  caoutchouc;  car  s'il  n'a  pas,  lui  producteur, 
a  sa  disposition,  une  usine  en  miniature,  un  laboratoire 
dans  lequel  il  puisse  essayer  sa  marchandise  a  la  vulcanisa- 
tion, il  ne  saura  jamais  rien,  il  ne  pourra  jamais  se  rendre 
compte  si  ses  precedes  de  coagulation  produisent  de  la 
bonne  ou  de  la  mauvaise  matiere  premiere.  II  ne  pourra 
que  continuer  ses  errements,  sans  savoir  s'ils  sont  bons 
ou  mauvais. 

46* 


722  RUBBER 

Ah!  si  le  producteur  et  1'acheteur  pouvaient  se  com- 
muniquer  directement  leurs  impressions,  un  grand  pas 
serait  fait  evidemment,  dans  le  sens  de  1'amelioration  des 
precedes  de  coagulation  et  de  la  qualite  du  produit. 
Malheureusement,  il  ne  pent  en  etre  ainsi,  a  cause  de  la 
distance  qui  les  separe,  et  aussi  pour  une  multitude  de 
raisons  qu'il  est  impossible  d'expliquer  ici. 

II  est  done  bien  prouve  par  ce  qui  precede  que,  pas  plus 
le  producteur  de  gomme  elastique,  que  1'acheteur  de  ce 
produit,  ne  connait  generalement,  d'une  fac,on  certaine, 
la  valeur  precise,  la  qualite  exacte  de  la  marchandise  sur 
laquelle  s'opere  la  transaction. 

Et  cependant  cette  situation,  intolerable  lorsqu'on  y 
reflechit  un  peu,  que  subissent  producteur  et  employeur, 
ne  peut  durer  indefiniment ;  il  faut  bien  qu'a  un  moment 
donne  tout  cela  cesse. 

Nous  avons  preconise  un  moyen  d'arriver  a  ce  resultat, 
qui  nous  semble  devoir  satisfaire  aux  deux  interets 
opposes,  et  connexes  cependant,  du  producteur  et  du 
fabricant  qui  desirent :  le  premier,  etre  renseigne  sur  la 
qualite  de  la  marchandise  qu'il  offre,  afin  de  pouvoir 
etablir  son  prix  de  vente  et  maintenir  le  cas  echeant  ses 
preventions;  le  second,  etre  fixe  sur  la  valeur  industrielle 
du  produit  qu'il  achete. 

Ce  mioyen,  suivant  nous,  consisterait  dans  I'etablisse- 
ment  d'une  marque  pour  chacune  des  sortes  et  prove- 
nances de  matieres  premieres,  marque  dont  1'authenticite 
pourrait  etre  appuyee  par  une  analyse  cm  bordereau 
d'essais,  provenant  d'un  laboratoire  autorise,  specialise 
dans  1'etude  du  caoutchouc,  qui  confirmerait  les  qualites 
et  la  valeur  de  la  marchandise  vendue  sous  la  marque  en 
question. 

II  parait  bien  qu'en  adoptant  cette  maniere  de  proceder, 
on  pourrait  determiner  les  qualites  d'un  produit  qui  pre- 
senterait,  pour  le  fabricant  qui  achete,  toutes  les  garanties 
requises  et  correspondant  au  prix  paye  par  lui.  Le 
producteur,  de  son  cote,  on  le  comprend  facilement,  en 
retirerait  le  plus  grand  profit,  sans  qu'il  soit  utile  d'insister 
davantage  sur  ce  sujet. 


CONTRIBUTION  A  LA  CONNAISSANCE  DU  MECANISME 
DE  LA  COAGULATION  DE  CERTAINS  LATEX 
CAOUTCHOUCIFERES. 

Par  MM.  F.  HEIM  et  R.  MARQUIS. 

IL  est  de  la  plus  grande  importance,  au  double  point 
de  vue  theorique  et  pratique,  de  connaitre  le  mecanisme 
de  la  coagulation  de  latex  caoutchouciferes. 

De  cette  connaissance  depend  ('amelioration  ration- 
nelle  des  precedes  de  coagulation,  partant  la  valeur 
commerciale  des  gommes. 

Nos  connaissances  sur  ce  sujet  restent  singulierement 
incompletes;  un  tres  petit  nombre  de  latex  ont  ete 
etudies  a  ce  point  de  vue,  et  les  theories  emises  pour 
1'explication  du  phenomene  manquent,  nous  aliens  le 
voir,  tout  au  moins  de  generalite. 

Nous  avons  mis  a  profit  1'envoi  de  latex  de  Landolphia 
owariensis  et  de  Funtumia  elastica,  pour  poursuivre 
1'etude  du  mecanisme  de  leur  coagulation. 

Le  latex  des  plantes  caoutchouciferes  est  tine 
emulsion  formee  de  fins  globules,  en  suspension  stable 
dans  un  liquide  aqueux,  serum;  ces  globules  contiennent 
la  substance  meme  du  caoutchouc. 

Sous  rinfluence  de  certains  agents  physiques  ou 
chimiques,  les  latex  caoutchouciferes  mettent  en  liberte 
le  caoutchouc  qu'ils  contiennent,  sous  forme  d'un  caillot 
elastique  qui,  en  sechant,  se  retracte  et  laisse  echapper 
le  serum  qu'il  retenait;  tel  est,  en  gros,  le  phenomene 
de  la  coagulation;  en  aucun  cas,  le  caillot  une  fois  forme 
ne  peut  etre  remis  en  suspension  dans  le  liquide  meme. 

II  importe  d'ailleurs,  et  c'est  ce  qu'ont  neglige  la  plupart 
des  experimentateurs,  de  ne  pas  confondre  ce  phenomene 
de  la  coagulation  proprement  dite  avec  le  phenomene 
tres  distinct  de  la  precipitation  du  latex  en  fins  granules 
isoles,  qui  se  deposent  facilement,  mais  peuvent  etre 
remis  en  suspension  par  agitation. 


RUBBER 


Ce  phenomene  physique,  commun  aux  diverses 
emulsions,  a  rec,u  divers  noms;  le  plus  generalement 
adopte  est  celui  de  floculation;  nous  1'adoptons. 

II  est  essentiel  de  distinguer  la  floculation  des  latex 
caoutchouciferes  et  leur  coagulation  proprement  dite. 

(i)  Floculation. 

La  floculation  d'un  latex  caoutchoucifere  consiste  en  ce 
fait  que  les  globules,  primitivement  en  suspension  dans 
le  serum,  se  rassemblent  et  se  precipitent,  sans  se  souder 
les  uns  aux  autres,  chaque  globule  conservant  son 
individuality  propre. 

La  floculation  est  tin  phenomene  reversible,  en  ce  sens 
que  la  cause  provocatrice  venant  a  disparaitre,  les 
globules  se  remeftent  en  emulsion  et  le  latex  reprend 
son  aspect  primitif. 

Pour  expliquer  le  phenomene  de  la  coagulation,  tel 
que  nous  1'avons  defini  plus  haul,  on  a,  dans  ces  dernieres 
annees  (V.  Henri),  envisage  le  latex  comme  une  emulsion 
de  signe  negatif,  c'est-a-dire  dont  les  globules  posse- 
deraient  une  charge  electrique  negative. 

L'introduction  dans  le  latex  qui  les  tient  en  suspension 
d'ions  positifs  provo^uerait  la  coagulation. 

L'addition  au  latex  d'un  acide  correspondant  a  1'intro- 
duction  d'ions  positifs,  ceux-ci  neutraliseraient  la  charge 
electrique  des  globules,  d'ou  coagulation;  au  contraire, 
1'introduction  d'alcali  dans  tin  latex  reviendrait  a  1'intro- 
duction  d'ions  negatifs  OH;  1'emulsion  deviendrait 
indefiniment  stable,  la  coagulation  impossible  tant  que 
persisterait  1'alcalinite.  Cette  theorie  electrique  de  la 
coagulation  a  ete  formulee  a  la  suite  d'experiences  stir 
le  latex  d'Hevea;  nous  n'avons  pu,  pour  nofre  part,  faute 
de  latex  d'Hevea,  faire  porter  nos  essais  stir  ce  latex; 
nous  nous  sommes  adresses  aux  latex  de  deux  especes 
d'apocynacees  :  Landolphia  owariensis  et  Funtumta 
elastlca. 

Pour  ces  deux  latex  —  et  nos  conclusions  ne  peuvent 
pour  1'instant  s'etendre  qu'a  eux  seuls  —  la  theorie 
electrique  s'applique  au  phenomene  de  la  floculation,  a 
ce  phenomene  seul,  et  non  au  phenomene  de  la  coagula- 


RUBBER  725 

tion  sensu  stricto;  c'est  ainsi  qu'on  peut  produire  la 
floculation  du  latex  en  determinant  la  formation  d'un 
precipite  mineral  au  sein  du  latex  par  Introduction 
d'electrolytes  (lesquels,  d'une  maniere  generale,  deter- 
minent  la  floculation  des  emulsions). 

Le  latex,  additionne  d'acide  mineraux,  c'est-a-dire 
d'ions  positifs,  en  proportions  diverses  et  a  concentrations 
variees,  flocule,  mais  ne  forme  pas  de  caillot,  ne  subit  done 
pas  la  coagulation;  1'acide  acetique  et  trichloracetique 
provoquent  floculation  d'abord,  coagulation  ensuite;  ce 
sont  les  deux  seuls  acides  qui  se  conduisent  ainsi.  Nous 
verrons  plus  loin  pourquoi  les  autres  acides  determinent 
la  floculation  seule. 

La  floculation  suit  les  lois  generales  applicables  a  toute 
emulsion  negative. 

La  coagulation  vraie  n'est  pas  necessairement  precedee 
de  floculation;  dans  certaines  conditions,  par  exemple 
par  addition  d'alcool,  la  coagulation  est  instantanee  par 
formation  brusque  du  caillot. 

La  theorie  electrique  de  la  coagulation  ne  permet  pas 
d'expliquer  que  ce  phenomene  se  produise  par  Faction 
de  substances,  telle  1'acetone,  qui  ne  sont  pas  des  electro- 
lytes. 

(2)  Coagulation. 

La  coagulation  proprement  dite  est  un  phenomene 
essentiellement  distinct  de  la  floculation.  II  consiste  en 
la  soudure  des  globules  en  un  caillot  unique,  elastique, 
de  caoutchouc.  Contrairement  a  la  floculation,  la  coagu- 
lation est  un  phenomene  essentiellement  irreversible. 

Pour  expliquer  le  phenomene  de  la  coagulation  propre- 
ment dite,  plusieurs  theories  ont  ete  emises :  — 

Celle  de  Weber  invoque,  comme  cause  determinante, 
la  precipitation  de  matieres  albuminoides  presentes  dans 
le  latex. 

Cette  theorie,  adoptee  par  nombre  d'auteurs,  est 
certainement  inexacte  en  ce  qui  concerne  les  latex 
d'apocynacees,  vises  dans  cette  note. 

Les  latex,  en  effet,  ne  coagulent  pas  par  addition  des 
substances  qui  precipitent  habituellement  les  albumines; 
telles  que  le  tannin  et  Taldehyde  formique;  Taddition 


726  RUBBER 

d'aldehyde  formique  ne  determine  que  la  floculation  et 
au  bout  d'un  temps  assez  long. 

Transforme-t-on,  en  solution  hyperalcaline,  les  albu- 
minoides  en  alcali-albumines,  precipite-t-on  celles-ci  par 
ralcool,  les  latex  ci-vises  fournissent  encore  un  coagulum 
de  caoutchouc;  la  coagulation  n'est  done  pas  sous  la 
dependance  de  la  precipitation  des  albumines. 

Les  substances  qui  coagulent  a  froid  ces  latex  sont  les 
alcools  methylique  et  ethylique,  1'acetone,  les  acides 
acetique  et  trichloracetique.  II  est  remarquable  que  ces 
substances  soient  toutes  des  dissolvants  des  resines. 

On  est  des  lors  conduit  a  se  demander  si  ce  n'est  pas 
a  cette  settle  propriete  que  ces  substances  doivent  leur 
pouvoir  coagulant. 

Notons  tout  d'abord  que  leur  action  n'est  pas  due  a  des 
proprietes  fonctionnelles,  pttisque  d'autres  alcools  tels  que 
le  glycol  et  la  glycerine  (polyvalents),  d'autres  acides  tels 
que  1'acide  lactique  (oxyacide),  1'acide  pyruvique  (acide 
cetoniqtte),  ne  coagulent  nullement  le  Fatex.  Mais  ces 
corps  ne  sont  pas  des  dissolvants  des  resines. 

Si  la  settle  dissolution  des  resines  est  la  cause  de  la 
formation  dtt  coagulum,  celtti-ci  doit  etre  evidemment 
provoque  pas  des  servants  qtti,  insolubles  dans  Teau,  ne 
pourront  en  attcune  fa^on  modifier  la  composition  du 
latex  et  dont  le  seul  role  sera  limite  a  la  dissolution  de  la 
resine.  C'est  ce  que  1'experience  confirme. 

Le  latex  de  Funtumia  elastica  est,  en  effet,  coagule 
instantanement  a  froid  par  agitation  avec  1'alcool 
'amyliqtte,  1'aniline  (corps,  il  est  vrai,  legerement  solubles 
dans  1'eatt;  mais  dont  la  solution  aqueuse  est  sans  action 
sttr  le  latex),  1'alcool  phenylethyliqtte,  1'acetophenone, 
1'aldehyde  benzo'iqtte,  la  qttinoleine.  Ces  corps,  et  on 
pourrait  sans  'doute  en  trouver  bien  d'autres,  appartien- 
nent  comme  on  le  voit  a  des  fonctions  chimiqttes  diverses, 
leurs  caracteres  commttns  sont :  d'etre  insolubles  dans 
1'eau,  de  ne  point  attaquer  le  caoutchouc  et  de  dissoudre 
les  resines.  II  est  d'ailleurs  facile  de  se  convaincre  que 
cette  dissolution  a  effectivement  eu  lieu;  il  suffit  de 
distiller  dans  le  vide  a  basse  temperature  1'alcool  amyliqtte 
ayant  agi  comme  coagulant,  pour  obtenir  un  residu  de 
resines.  On  pent  attssi,  si  on  a  employe  la  quinoleine, 


RUBBER  727 

dissoudre  celle-ci  dans  un  acide  dilue,  les  resines  restent 
insolubles;  c'est  meme  la  un  moyen  commode  de  do>ser 
la  resine  directement  dans  le  latex. 

Ainsi  done  I'enlevement  des  resines  provoque  la  forma- 
tion du  caillot.  Tout  se  passe,  en  somme,  comme  si  le 
caoutchouc  (ou  le  carbure  inconnu  qui  lui  donne  nais- 
sance,  soit  par  polymerisation  spontanee,  soit  par  un 
autre  mecanisme  inconnu)  etait  compose  de  petits 
globules  entoures  d'une  mince  pellicule  de  resine  (pellicule 
vtte  au  microscope  par  Weber  et  qu'il  avait  suppose  etre 
de  la  matiere  albuminoide).  Cette  pellicule  disparue,  les 
globules  de  caoutchouc  arrivent  au  contact,  se  soudent  et 
forment  le  caillot. 

On  comprend  alors  comment  agissent  1'alcool, 
Tacetone,  1'acide  acetique,  quand  on  les  ajoute  au  latex. 
On  remarquera  d'abord  que  ces  corps  n'agissent  qu'a 
tine  certaine  concentration.  Nous  avons  verifie,  en  intro- 
duisant  de  petites  quantites  de  latex  dans  des  volumes 
relativement  considerables  d'alcool,  a  des  degres  divers 
de  concentration,  que  la  coagulation  ne  commence  que 
lorsque  Talcool  est  a  45°  C.  Dans  ces  conditions,  et  par 
suite  de  1'attraction  bien  connue  exercee  par  le  corps 
soluble  stir  le  solvant,  la  pellicule  de  resine  dissout  une 
certaine  quantite  d'alcool  (ou  d'acetone  ou  d'acide 
acetique),  elle  devient  alors  permeable  a  1'eau  qui,  entrant 
par  osmose  dans  le  globule,  fait  eclater  la  pellicule  et 
libere  le  caoutchouc. 

II  semble  done  qu'on  puisse  adopter  a  titre  provisoire 
et  comme  guide  poitr  les  recherches  futures  la  theorie 
suivante . 

Les  globules  du  latex  sont  constitues  comme  suit : 

Une  masse  centrale  de  substance-mere  du  caoutchouc, 
entouree  d'une  pellicule  peripherique  extremement  mince 
de  resine. 

Cette  pellicule  de  resine  isole  les  unes  des  autres  les 
masses  centrales  des  diverses  globules  et  empeche  leur 
soudure.  Vient-elle  a  etre  detruite,  les  masses  se  re- 
unissent  et  se  soudent  en  un  caillot  de  caoutchouc. 

La  destruction  de  cette  pellicule  peut  avoir  lieu : 

i°  Par  action  de  la  chaleur,  qui  la  fait  fondre  ou  eclater 
par  dilatation  de  la  masse  centrale  (coagulation  par  la 
chaleur). 


728  RUBBER 

2°  Par  action  d'un  dissolvant,  qni  la  dissout  on  qui, 
1'impregnant,  permet  au  serum  de  la  penetrer  per  osmose, 
ce  qui  provoque  son  eclatement  (coagulation  par  1'alcool, 
Tacetone,  1'acide,  acetique,  etc.). 

3°  Par  une  action  mecanique  qui  la  brise  (coagulation 
par  barattage).  On  trouve  ici  1'explication  d'un  pheno- 
mene  que  Tun  de  nous  a  observe  anterieurement  avec  feu 
Henriet  que  les  globules  flocules  coagulent  au  bout  d'un 
certain  temps  (ce  qui  n'est  d'ailleurs  pas  un  cas  constant) 
ou  par  compression  de  la  masse  entre  les  doigts.  Dans 
ce  dernier  cas  la  pellicule  peripherique  se  trouve  brisee. 
Dans  le  cas  de  la  coagulation  spontanee  on  pent  penser 
que  la  pellicule  etant  probablement  sinon  liquide,  du  moins 
semi-fluide  ou  assez  molle,  la  pression  mutuelle  des 
globules  par  simple  action  de  la  pesanteur  suffit  au  bout 
d'un  certain  temps  pour  rompre  la  pellicule  et  provoquer 
la  coagulation. 

4°  Un  seul  cas  de  coagulation,  celui  par  enfumage  a 
la  mode  du  Para,  reste  en  dehors  de  cette  theorie,  a  moins 
que  la  chaleur  seule  n'entre  en  cause,  ce  qui  nous 
ramenerait  au  premier  cas.  L'etude  experimentale  de 
coagulation  par  enfumage  tranchera  la  question. 


JOHN  BALE,  SONS  &  DANIEI.SSON,  Ltd.    83-91,  Great  Titchfield  Street,  W,